A  Cyc/opcedia of Biblical Literature
VOLUME I.












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A
CYC I O P iE D IA
01"
BIBLICAL LITERATURE
ORIGINALLY EDITED
BY JOHN KITTO, D.D., F.S.A.
THIRD RDITION.
GREATLY ENLARGED AND IMPROVED
EDITED BY
WILLIAM LINDSAY ALEXANDER, D.D., F.S.A.S., ETC.
~i4
VOLUME I.
PHILADELPHIA: J. B. LIPPINCOTT AND CO.
MDCCCLXV.








LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS,
AND
KEY TO THEIR INITIALS.
INITIALS.                                    NAMES.
W. L. A. OR t....ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY, D.D., Professor of Theology to the Congregational Churches of Scotland, and Examiner in Philosophy to the University of
St. Andrews; Editor.
J. R. B.............BEARD, J. R., D.D., Member of the Historico-Theological Society of Leipzig.
G. M. B...........BELL, G. M.
C. H. F. B........ BIALLOBLOTZKY, CHRISTOPHER HEINRICH FRIEDRICH, Ph. D., G6ttingen.
J. B.................BROWN, JOHN, D.D., late Professor of Exegetical Theology to the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland.
H. B................BROWNE, HENRY, M.A., Vicar of Pevensey.
J. C.................CAIRNS, JOHN, D.D.
J..............CANDLISH, JAMES S., M.A.
W. J. C............ox, WILLIAM J.
K. A. C...........CREDNER, KARL AUGUST, D.D., late Professor of Theology at Giessen.
S. D............  DAVIDSON, SAMUEL, D.D., LL.D.
J. F. D.............DENHAM, JOSHUA FRED., M.A., F.R.S.
E. D................DEUTSCH, EMANUEL, of the University of Berlin, M. Ger. Or. Soc., etc., British
Museum.
J. W. D............DORAN, JOHN WILLIAM, LL.D., Rector of Beeston, St. Lawrence, Norfolk.
F. W. F.......... FARRAR, FREDERIC W., M.A., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge,; Hon.
Fellow of King's College, London.
A. G................ GEIKIE, ARCHIBAJD, F.R. S.E., F.G. S., of the Geological Survey.
C. D. G............GINSBURG, CHRISTIAN D.
W. H. G..........GOOLD, WILLIAM HENRY, D.D., Professor of Theology to the Reformed Presbyterian Church.
F. W. G.........GOTCH, F. W., D.D., President of the Baptist College, Bristol; Examiner in
Hebrew to the London University.
A. T. G.........GOWAN, ANTHONY T., D.D., Professor of Theology to the Congregational Churches
of Scotland.
H. A. C. H....... HAVERNICK, HEINRICH AUGUST CHRIST., late Professor of Theology at Konigsberg.
P. H..........HOLMES, PETER, D.D., F.R.A.S., of Magdalen Hall, Oxford; Domestic Chaplain
to the Right. Hon. the Countess of Rothes; late Head-Master of the Grammar
School, Plymouth.
a




vi                            LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.
INITIALS.                                   NAMES.
R. J...........JAMIESON, ROBERT, D.D., Minister of St. Paul's, Glasgow.
I. J..................JENNINGS, ISAAC.
J. K................KITTO, JOHN, D.D., F.A.S. Original Editor
S. L.............LEATHES, STANLEY, M.A.
W. P. L............LYON, WILLIAM P., B.A.
D. M'C.............M'CAUSLAND, DOMINICK, Q.C., LL.D.
F. W. M...........MADDEN, FREDERIC W., M.R.S.L., British Museum.
E. M...............MICHELSON, E., Ph.D. of the University of Heidelberg.
N. M.... MORREN, NATHANAEL, M.A.
F. W. N...........NEWMAN, FRANCIS W., late Fellow of Baliol College, Oxford; Professor of Latin
in the University of London.
S. N............. NEWTH, SAMUEL, M.A., Professor, New College, London.
J. N....... NICHOLSON, JOHN, B.A. Oxford; Ph.D. Tubingen.
W. A. N...........NICHOLSON, W. A., M.D.
R. S. P............. POOLE, REG. STUART, British Museum.
J. L. P.............PORTER, J. LESLIE, M.A., Professor of Sacred Literature, Assembly's College,
Belfast.
J. F. R.............ROYLE, J. F., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Member of the Royal Asiatic
Societies of Calcutta and London, etc.
J. E. R...........RYLAND, J. E.
C. H. S.............SMITH, C. HAMILTON, Lieut.-Colonel, K.H. and K.W., F.R.S., F.R.L.S., etc.
J. P. S.............SMITH, JOHN PYE, D.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
I. S................STEBBING, HENRY, D.D. of St. John's College, Cambridge.
A. T...............THOLUCK, AUGUST, D.D., Professor of Theology in the University of Halle.
H. W.............WACE, HENRY, M.A.
W. W.............WRIGHT, WILLIAM, M.A. and LL.D. of Trinity College, Dublin.




PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
THE present work was undertaken with the design of providing the. public with a more
complete view of the existing state of Biblical literature, both at home and abroad, than
it previously possessed. It was felt that former works of the kind, numerous as they
are, and useful as some of them may be considered, were built too exclusively upon
the'old learning' of Calmet and others; and that some recent attempts to give a
more modern character to such undertakings had been made too entirely from home
materials, and had too exclusive reference to such external facts and circumstances as
travellers and antiquarians offer, to meet the demands of the present time. The work,
therefore, owes its origin to the Editor's conviction of the existence of a great body of
untouched materials, applicable to such a purpose, which the activity of moder
research and the labours of modern criticism had accumulated, and which lay invitingly
ready for the use of those who might know how to avail themselves of such resources.
It was no task for one man to gather in this great harvest. And as the ground
seemed, for the most part, common to all Christian men, it appeared desirable that
assistance should be sought from a sufficient number of competent Biblical scholars
and others, without distinction of country or religious party, that the field might be the
more thoroughly swept, and the greater wealth of illustration obtained, from men of different lines of reading and various habits of thought. The prompt manner in which
the call of the Editor for co-operation has been met by the numerous eminent Biblical
scholars and naturalists, whose names appear in the List of Contributors, has been
among the highest gratifications arising to him out-of this undertaking; while the
ability, the laborious research, the care and the punctuality, with which they have discharged the various tasks confided to them, demand his warmest acknowledgments.
The only drawback likely to arise from co-operation so various and extensive, lay
in the probability that considerably different views might be manifested in the several
articles; and that, too, on subjects on which every reader is likely to have formed some
opinion of his own, and will be disposed to regard as erroneous or suspicious every
opinion which may not entirely coincide with that which he has been accustomed to
entertain. In this lay the sole danger and the greatest difficulty of such an undertaking. Here was to be a book which no one man, and not even a very few men,
could produce; and which the public would yet probably expect to exhibit as much
unity, not only of plan and execution, but of opinion and sentiment, as if it were the
produce of a single mind. The Editor, however, felt that he could not undertake to




viii                  PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
find forty independent thinkers among whom there could be no visible diversities of
sentiment. But he thought that much might be done in producing so near an approach
to uniformity on matters of real importance as would satisfy every reasonable reader;
especially when he should come to consider that the choice lay between taking the
work with such diversities as necessarily arose from the extent of the co-operation employed in its production, or of altogether dispensing with the immense amount of
Biblical information which it embodies. Entire uniformity, if attainable at all, could
only have been attained at the cost of providing a very different and greatly inferior
work; and a work thus different and inferior could not have established a distinction
sufficiently marked from all previous undertakings of the kind to justify its production.
It has not consisted with the Editor's idea of the functions he had undertaken, to
dictate to the Contributors the views they were to take of the subjects intrusted to them,
or to set up his own views as the standard of correct opinion. This he must have done,
had he made it his rule to insert only such statements as exactly coincided with his own
sentiments, or to exclude altogether whatever views of particular subjects might differ
from those with which his own mind is satisfied. The Contributors were expected to
abstain from introducing the opinions peculiar to their nation or to their religious communion; but they have been under slight restraint with respect to the conclusions
which they might form as independent thinkers and reasoners, competent by their
attainments and studies to form a judgment worthy of attention on the various matters
coming under their consideration. In conformity with no other principle could this
work have been produced; and such being the nature of its execution, it became
necessary that the initials of the several writers should be affixed to their contributions,
that the reader might know to whom to ascribe the responsibility of the particular
articles, and that no one contributor might be deemed responsible for any other
articles than those to which his signature is annexed. The Editor also, who has provided all those articles which bear no signature (except those adverted to at the end of
the List of Contributors), does not hold himself responsible for any statements or
opinions advanced in any other articles than these. Some of them exhibit opinions in
which he is not able to concur, but which have nevertheless been furnished by persons
whom he could not regard as less competent than himself to arrive at just conclusions.
Yet although some explanation is due to those who may possibly find in this
work, in a few articles, opinions in which they cannot agree, and views from which
their own differ, it is right that the persons engaged in producing it should claim fox
it a judgment founded not upon particular articles, but upon its general character,
which was intended to be, and is, in accordance with the known standards of orthodox
opinion in this country, as may be ascertained by reference to those leading articles
which may be regarded as stamping the character of any work in which they are found.
In fact, a Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature, as distinct from Theology properly so
called, offers less occasion than might at first sight appear for the obtrusion of those
matters of doctrine and discipline which Christian men regard with differences of
opinion which the Editor would fain believe to be less wide and less important than is
too generally supposed. In the dispensations of Divine Providencej he has been by




PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.                      ix
physical privations shut out from many of those external influences and associations
which tend to magnify such differences, and to deepen into impassable gulfs the space
which lies between them. He has not found this condition a disadvantage in conducting the work which he has now the happiness of having brought to a conclusion; nor
will he venture to regard that condition as an unmitigated evil, if, through the complete
isolation in which he has thereby been placed, he has been enabled, without any
compromise of the views he conscientiously entertains and which his own writings will
sufficiently indicate, to realize more extensive co-operation in this undertaking than
under pastoral or official connection with any religious denomination he could expect
to have attained. It is believed that the English language has no other book which
eminent foreign scholars have co-operated with our own in producing; and it is certain
that it possesses no other work which embodies the combined labours of writers who,
indeed, are of different communions here, and are known by different names among
men, but who have the same hope in this world, and but one name in heaven.
The nature of the present work, and the place which its conductors desire it
should occupy in the Biblical Literature of this country, will be best understood by a
sketch of the whole field in which that place is marked out. This will show not only
what is here attempted, but how much of this wide and fruitful field remains open to
the same process of cultivation. Such a sketch will be found in the Preliminary
Disse tation expressly prepared by Dr. Credner for this work, which is besides enriched
by several valuable contributions from his pen.
To particularise the works of the kind previously produced in our own country
might appear invidious. It may suffice to say that they have all in their day served
purposes of more or less usefulness, for which they are no longer available. All that
has been done till now has been in various degrees based upon Calmet's great work;
and the present is the only production which can be regarded as even professing to
draw its materials from original sources of information.
The Editor cannot but regard with peculiar satisfaction the ample references to
books which occur in almost every article, and which indicate to the reader the means
of more extensive inquiry into the various subjects which have been noticed with
indispensable brevity in this work. The numerous references to Scripture will greatly
assist its chief use and design-the illustration of the sacred volume. It is believed
that the articles in the departments of Biblical INTRODUCTION and CRITICISM embrace
a body of information respecting the books of Scripture, and sacred criticism, such as
no work of the kind in any language has hitherto contained. The NATURAL HISTORY
of Scripture has now for the first time been examined, and as far as possible settled,
not by mere scholars ignorant of natural history, but by naturalists of acknowledged
eminence. The SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY has, by the help of Dr. Robinson's invaluable
Biblical Researches in Palestine, and of other publications less known in this country,
assumed in the present work a greatly altered and much more distinct aspect. The
ARCHEOLOGICAL articles exhibit an extent of illustration and research which will tend
greatly to elucidate the obscurities which the subjects necessarily involve.  The
HIsTORY has been discussed under the influence of those broad principles which con




X                   PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
stitute its philosophy; and in this, as well as in the BIOGRAPHY, it has not been
forgotten that while actions are always to be judged by the immutable standard of right
and wrong which the word of God has established, the judgments which we pass upon
men must be qualified by considerations of age, country, situation, and other incidental
circumstances.
It is hoped that, with such claims to attention, and embodying, as it does, the
results of great labour and much anxious thought, the work now offered to the public
will receive indulgent consideration for the minute errors, defects, and perhaps discrepancies, from which the Editor dares not hope that it is wholly exempt, and which are
perhaps inevitable in a work executed by so many different hands, and involving so
large a body of references, titles, and proper names.
JOHN KITTO.
WOKING, Oct. I5h I845.




PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
THE late Dr. Kitto was engaged at the time of his death on a revision of this work for
a new edition. He had not proceeded far, however, in this revision, when he was laid
aside from all literary labour by the illness which ultimately cut him off. When the work
could no longer have the benefit of his superintendence, the proprietors did me the
honour of requesting me to undertake the task which death had prevented him from
completing; but other duties at the time obliged me to decline this undertaking, and it
was ultimately placed in the hands of the Rev. Dr. Burgess. By him many needful
corrections were made, and certain important improvements introduced; but, as it had
been resolved to retain the original stereotype plates, his alterations were necessarily
confined within very narrow limits, and no material addition could be made to the contents of the work. A third edition being required, the proprietors again asked me to
undertake the labour of revisal; but a careful examination of the work with this in
view, strengthened a conviction I had before entertained, that nothing satisfactory
could be done if the previous restrictions were continued, and I earnestly counselled
the cancelling of the existing stereotype plates and the re-setting of the whole work,
with such alterations as might be necessary to bring it up to the present state of
Biblical knowledge. To this the proprietors consented, and committed to me the
duty of preparing the work for publication according to this design.
In carrying out this purpose I have sought to keep in view the nature of this work
as being not so much a Dictionary of the Bible, as a Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature.
Whilst, therefore, seeking to'give as much space as possible to the treatment of all
questions of importance to the student of Biblical literature, I have not thought it
necessary to occupy space with minutiae, which, however proper in a work of the former
class, are somewhat out of place in one belonging to the latter. A Cyclopaedia of
Biblical Literature is not a Biblical Lexicon or a mere Onomasticon Sacrum; and therefore it is not to be expected that its pages are to be occupied with mere catalogues of
names, of which no more can be said than that this is the name of a man or that of a
place-a piece of information the reader usually possesses before he turns up the word.
Care, however, has been taken to omit no name under which real information of any
kind can be given.
A considerable portion of the original work has been retained in this edition. Into
some of the articles thus retained a few alterations have been introduced; but where these
have been more than mere verbal corrections they are indicated by being placed within




xii                   PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
brackets, that no injustice may be done to the original writers of the articles, by having
what had not been written by them imputed to them. Some alterations have also been
made in the placing of the articles, especially those belonging to the department of
natural history. The learned naturalist to whom the botanical department in the first
edition was entrusted, adopted the plan of following the nomenclature of the objects he
discussed as given in the original rather than that given in the authorised version;
thereby avoiding the anomaly of prefixing to his article a title which it was frequently
the design of the article to show to be erroneous. This plan has been extended in the
present edition to the other branches of natural history, except in a few instances
where no doubt exists as to the correctness of the rendering in the authorised version.
To facilitate reference, however, the names as given in this version will be found in
their proper place, with reference to the articles in which the object so designated is
described.
Much attention has been paid, in this edition, to a department which was very
defectively treated in the original- work, and which, indeed, has seldom had justice
done to it in this country,-the department of the religious; and literary archeology of
the Hebrews.  In most of the articles in this department, the subject will be found
discussed anew and from original sources. Special care has also been bestowed on
Biblical Geography and Topography, as well as on the Literary History of the different
books of Holy Scripture.
A new feature in this edition is the introduction of notices of the life and works
of Biblical scholars. To the student such notices are always interesting, and may
prove of much use by informing him of what has been done by those who have gone
before him in the department to which his studies are directed. The notices of
Jewish writers and works especially will supply to the reader information not easily
accessible by him elsewhere.
The Editor has received valuable aid in this undertaking from the distinguished
scholars whose names appear in the list of contributors. He has also to acknowledge
the important services of the Rev. W. Veitch in the necessary work of revising the
sheets, so as to secure accuracy. It can hardly be hoped, in a work of such magnitude, of such variety of subjects, and where so many minute details are given, that no
mistakes or omissions will be detected; but as no labour has been spared to ensure
exemption from such, it is confidently expected that none will be found but such as
the ingenuous reader will readily account for and excuse.
W. L. A.
EDINBURGH, 6th November 1862.




PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION
BY K. A. CREDNER, D.D.
PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GIESSEN.
A comprehensive arrangement of all that belongs to the region of human know
ledge has-not quite properly-been indicated by the term Encyclopadia, i e., bv xuxX
rcsel'a or isvxxXio, 9rccas8ia.  Another term, Wissenschafts-Kunde (knowledge of
science), has also been applied to that arrangement in Germany, when it includes
likewise an internal and scientific development of the systems and subjects under discussion. In the title, Cyclopcedia of Biblical Literature, borne by this work, it is
obvious that the word'Cyclopedia' is not to be taken in the more extended acceptation of the term, but merely so far as the Bible and Theology are concerned. As
the peculiar province of Biblical Encyclopadia can only be clearly understood and
defined in its connection with Theological Encyclopedia, it may be requisite to describe
at length the meaning of the latter and more comprehensive term.
But even the notion of Theological Encyclopaedia in general, is yet of too extended
range for our purpose, as it might be supposed to comprehend a systematic development of all that refers to the knowledge of God generally; while here cognizance can
be only taken of some particular branch of that knowledge, namely, of that belonging
to Christianity alone. Our notice must therefore be limited to the Encyclopedia of
Christian theology. But Christian theology forms only a special and limited part of
general theology.  The former, in endeavouring to comprehend scientifically the
Christian religion, deals altogether with a subject of experience. For the Christian
religion, or the Christian knowledge of God, is not innate and constitutional in man, or
something existing in his mind a priori, but is a religion connected with Jesus Christ as
its revealer. Christian theology is thus a positive or historical science, which can be
traced from its origin at a known point of time.
Now, nothing more intimately concerns the spirit of Christian theology than the
solution of the question, By what standard are we to determine the tenets of the
Christian religion, or from what source must they be deduced? It is in the solution of
this important question that the adherents of the Christian religion divide themselves
into two large bodies; the one considers the Scriptures, emanating from the Holy
Ghost, as the first and last source of knowledge for Christian truth,-a source, however,
not bounded by time and space, but continuing to flow, and pour forth new religious
truths within the range of the Church formed under the guidance of the Holy Spirit
This doctrine is usually expressed in the following terms: the Catholic Church
assumes a double outward source of the knowledge of religious truth, namely, the
Apostolic, both Scriptural and traditional. The other great religious party makes a very
marked distinction between the revealed doctrines laid down in the Scriptures and the
later views and development of the same by the Church; in other words, they distinguish between Scriptural and traditional revelation. Their leading principle is that
the Christian religion can be derived pure and unalloyed from the Bible alone; and




xiv                    PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.
they therefore reject, as unnecessary and unauthorised, all professed sources of religious
knowledge which are foreign to the Holy Scriptures. As Christians of the latter class,
we here take the Scriptures as the only external source of revelation for religious truth;
and from this point of view we also trace the outlines of theological science.
Thus considered, a little examination of the subject leads us to discover in it a
threefold principle: —. An eternal, ever-prevailing, and therefore immutable, Christian
principle; 2. Another, established upon this positive foundation; and 3. One that is
developing itself out of this. Our business is, therefore, not with a revealed doctrine
which has long since been completed, which had lived, lost its spirit, and died; but
with one which, like the human mind itself, is continually expanding in youthful
vigour-one which, when correctly comprehended, exhibits a mutual relationship and
equal degree of development with whatever stage of culture and civilization its adherents, the Christians, may have reached. Thus it has happened that in process of
time many truths which must ever be most essential to the Christian, have been
variously and differently understood and interpreted. Every thinking Christian must
strive to bring his religious opinions and actions into a possible, perfect, and continued
harmony with a correct view of the doctrines contained in the Bible.  Christian
Protestantism is the spiritual advancement of humanity at the side of the Bible; and
the task of Christian theology must thus be to show, not only how far that end has
been aimed at in past times and until now, but also in what manner man is to strive
after it in time to come, and to indicate the means by which the teachings of the
Scriptures are to be exhibited in their true unison with every advancement which mankind can make in knowledge and civilization.
It is thus evident that Christian theology stands in the closest relation to all the
departments of human knowledge, and more especially to philosophy, to which, when
duly applied, Christianity has ever been much indebted,-while it has caused her
great damage and injury whenever its natural and necessary boundaries have been
overpassed; and it is not less clear that the efforts of the theologian must, above all,
be directed towards a due comprehension and a progressively seasonable development
and advancement of the always living Christian spirit contained in the Scriptural
doctrines. This task pre-supposes a proper understanding of the Scriptures.' Christian
theology must, therefore, in the first instance, try to solve scientifically the questionsWhat is meant by Holy Writ   How have its doctrines been understood until now?
And by what laws are we to proceed so as to arrive at a right understanding of their
scope and spirit? The results of these inquiries, systematically obtained, form a complete science in themselves.  As Christianity, however, is not limited to abstract
speculations, but has for its chief aim the enkindling and diffusion of true piety, in
thought and in practice, Christian theology has further to display the means by which
this Christian conviction may be on the one hand called forth in the soul of man and
diffused abroad, and on the other quickened and defended. Christian theology is,
finally, required to set forth the course which Christianity has pursued in former ages,
and to describe its past vicissitudes and present condition.
The foundation of Christian theology must thus be sought in the Scriptures: and,
divesting ourselves of all prepossessions and hypotheses, it will, in the first instance, be
necessary for us to obtain a clear insight as to the circumstances and the times in
which the series of books which constitute the Scriptures came into existence. This
leads us to the first branch of theological science, namely, to BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY,
or BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. Biblical Archaeology, usually confined within too narrow
limits, is that part of theological science which tries to unravel the various circumstances and conditions which have exercised more or less influence upon the composition of the Scriptural books. Its object is, therefore, to treat of:



PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.                         XV
x. The nature of the country in which those books have originated; to this branch
of inquiry belong Physical Geography and Natural History. By the latter
we understand not only (a common mistake) a systematic survey of the
natural productions, but also and chiefly an enumeration of the peculiar
features of their origin, growth, continuance, cultivation, use, etc. It is,
for instance, quite immaterial what place the date-palms or balsam-shrubs
occupy in the system-such investigations being of no importance for the
understanding of the Bible, the writers of which have disregarded those
points; while, on the other hand, the peculiarities of the locality where the
palm-tree stands, its external appearance at the different seasons of the
year, its growth, fertility, use, etc.-in short, all that particularly strikes the
sense of the beholder, have frequently exercised considerable influence on
the inspired writers; and these sources of external impressions on the
senses and mind of man, are to be particularly considered and noticed by
Biblical Archaeology.
2. The inhabitants of those countries; their peculiar character, manners, customs,
way of living, and their intercourse with other nations.
3. The vicissitudes of their people-consequently, the history of the Hebrews and
Jews, down to that time when the last books of the Scriptures were written.
4. The politico-religious institutions, the civil and geographical order and division
of the land and the people; and
5. The mental development of the Hebrews and Jews, the regulations founded on
it, and the degree of progress which the arts and sciences had attained
among them.
Biblical Archaeology may be further divided into two classes-that of the Old
Testament and that of the New Testament: the former may again be sub-divided into
the Hebrew and the Jewish archaeology.
As soon as the foundation for Biblical researches is laid by the help of Biblical
Archaeology, the theologian then turns to the solution of the second main question in
theology:-What is meant by the Scriptures I How and when have they arisen? In
what form do they lie before us? The answer to all these questions is the object of
BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION, or, more correctly, of the History of Holy Writ. It is divided
into Introduction to the Old Testament and Introduction to the New Testament. It
must render an accounti. Of the origin of the individual books received into the sacred canon; not
omitting to notice at the same time the various views that have been
entertained on that point by critics of all ages, as well as those particular
opinions which are seemingly the ihore correct.
2. Of the origin of the collection of the books of Scripture as the repository of
Christian knowledge, or of religion; constituting the History of the Canon.
3. Of the spread of the Scriptures by transcriptions, translations, and printing.
4. Of the vicissitudes and fate of the original text; forming the History of the
Text; and5. Of the various motives which have led to various modes of understanding the
Bible; being the History of Interpretation.
We next come to that important part of Theological Encyclopaedia connected
with the question-What have been regarded as Christian doctrines from the introduction of Christianity to the present day?




xvi                     PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.
The answer to this important question is given by DOCTRINE-HISTORY,* which, in
a less limited sense than that in which the term is usually taken, points out the peculiar
doctrines which have from time to time been received as articles of Christian belief.
But as a variety of opinions with regard to the essentials of the Christian religion has
arisen, not only among the various and different sects as separate bodies, but likewise
at sundry times among the members of even one and the same sect or party, DoctrineHistory must necessarily include all the peculiar features of schismatic views, their
origin and history, the causes of their rise and gradual development, as well as their
connection with the Scriptures, from which they all claim to be derived, and by which
they must be tried.
A principle that is given out by a Christian sect as an essentially Christian
doctrine, becomes an article of creed, a dogma (UoyFa=  biBox-ra).
A Dogma is understood to be the doctrine of a particular party or sect, although
that party may agree with the other sects in respect of other doctrines of Christianity,
and must necessarily agree with them in regard to the spirit and central point of the
Christian religion. Such dogmas, or articles of creed, are the fruit of a certain way of
thinking peculiar to the age in which they arise, and obtain clerical importance when
received either into the system of Symbols or into the public liturgy. All symbols must
therefore only be considered as belonging to both a certain party and a certain time,
and are thus not to be ranked among the eternal and universal articles of faith. The
exhibition of a finished system of doctrines lies beyond the range of Symbolic; it sets
forth merely the most essential truths, the fundamental elements, leaving the farther
scientific or systematic details to the sphere of Dogmatic.  Dogmatic is therefore
immediately linked to the doctrines established by a certain party of Christians. An
universal Christian Dogmatic is not to be hoped for, so long as there are different
parties among Christians, We should therefore have to range Symbol, Dogma, and
Dogmatic together, under the comprehensive head of Doctrine-History. Such history
ought, however, not to be limited to actual dogmas alone, but ought likewise to
embrace many of the more loose and unembodied doctrinal views and speculations;
partly on account of the influence which they may have had upon the rise and reception
of some embodied dogmas, and partly because history shows that some doctrinal views
advanced but rejected in earlier times, have, perhaps after the lapse of some centuries,
been reproduced, received, and sanctioned. A comparative survey of the various dogmas
of the different sects or church parties is the object of Comparative Dogmatic; though
it has hitherto limited its views chiefly to the dogmas of the principal sects alone.
It is greatly to be desired that the scope of Comparative Dogmatic should be so
extended as to embrace the collection of those dogmas which have, from time to time,
prevailed within the church of one and the same party-as, e. g., of the Roman
Catholics, with special regard to the variety of opinions entertained by this church on
some doctrinal points, from her foundation in the second century, in comparison with
those held in the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries. This function of Doctrine-History
has been too much confined to the established doctrines within one church-party alone;
and this limitation is almost unavoidable with those sects which, like the Roman
Catholics, look at all other sects as infidels,-a judgment surely as erroneous as it is
partial and uncourteous.
CHRISTIAN MORALS is, properly speaking, only the practical part of Dogmatic, and
was, indeed, formerly always exhibited only in its connection therewith. Its province
is to show the influence which the Christian dogmas exercise upon the dispositions ot
* Dogmen-geschichte,'history of doctrines.' We have no corresponding term in the English language, and therefore propose that of Doctrine-History.




PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.                       xvii
the heart, or in what degree those dogmas may be brought into action upon the will of
man. What, in our recent times, has often been called-especially on the part of some
German Protestant theologians-dogmatics or doctrines of faith, without attaching to
them any particular meaning of a sect or church-party, partakes mostly of a middle
view between church dogmatic, Biblical theology, and religious philosophy, wavering
between all, and belonging to none.
PATRISTICS * and PATROLOGY t seem to lie beyond the circle by which we have
defined the limits of theological science. For the notion attached to the term'Fathers
of the Church' is not universally acknowledged by all Christian sects, and least so
among Protestants, who consider it a contradiction to the principle by which the
Scriptures are recognised as the only source of the knowledge of religious truth.
The immense mass of manifold and. various tenets which have prevailed as
Christian doctrines at different times and in different countries, ever since the introduction of Christianity, makes it evidently impossible to ascertain what is real Christian
doctrine, and what is not, if we do not take the SCRIPTURES as the only guide in this
labyrinth. The science, therefore, which discloses to us the tenets of Holy Writ we
call BIBLICAL EXEGESIS, or INTERPRETATION.  It involves the difficult task of discovering the true meaning attached to the words by the writer. To be able to do this,
a thorough knowledge of the language in which the author has written down his
thoughts is indispensable; consequently, a profound knowledge of Hebrew for the Old
Testament, and of Greek for the New Testament, is of the utmost necessity, and is one
of the first requisites, in an expounder of the Bible. But as the Sacred Writings have
greatly suffered from, and have been disfigured by the liberties of transcribers and
emendators, it is needful to try to discover or restore the real words of the original
text; and the science employed in this task is known by the name of BIBLICAL
CRITICISM. By means of criticism and philological research the sense of the Biblical
writings may be ascertained, grammatically or philologically. To this mode of exegesis
or interpretation is given the name of Grammatical Exposition. But although it is
most essential to correct interpretation of the Scriptures that the text should be grammatically considered, yet it is equally undeniable that philological exegesis is by itself
insufficient to develope completely the meaning of the sacred writers in the words
which they employ. To be able to do this completely and satisfactorily, it is necessary
that the interpreter should possess the means of transporting himself into the times and
into the spirit of the ages in which those writers lived; or, in other words, that he
should be well acquainted with the historical conditions of those ages, and with the
modes of thought which then prevailed; as well as with the circumstances affecting the
particular position of the individual writer of every sacred book, and of the people
whom he addressed. Biblical Archaeology and Biblical Introduction are the proper
instruments for the accomplishment of that object, which we call the Historical Interpretation of the Scriptures; the true and perfect Biblical Interpretation is thus comprised
in the category of GRAMMATICO-HISTORICAL EXEGESIS,-a term implying conditions
which are hardly ever found in an equal degree of profundity in one and the same
interpreter.
A more easy, partial, and objectionable species of interpretation is that called
DOGMATICAL EXEGESIS, which does not limit itself to an independent inquiry into the
meaning of the sacred writings, but attempts rather to determine the sense of the text
by arbitrary dogmas. Equally objectionable, and still more arbitrary, is the process of
the ALLEGORICAL mode of exposition, which tortures the Biblical sense into figurative
* PATRISTICS, the literary character and history of the Fathers.
t PATROLOGY, the doctrinal and ethical systems founded on their writings.




xviii                   PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.
meanings; and which rarely fails to evince the essential difference that exists between
the mode of thinking in the author and the interpreter, or between the ancient and
modem times.
HERMENEUTICS establishes the laws by which the interpreter is to proceed in his
labours. Its relation to Interpretation is that of theory to practice. The suggestions
which have led to the formation of Biblical Hermeneutics were given chiefly by
Dogmatical Exegesis.
The requisites of theology are, however, not confined to the mere endeavour to
discover by means of correct exegesis the true meaning of Holy Writ, or of particular
passages in the New Testament; but the object of theology as a science is also and
chiefly to collect the various religious views and doctrines dispersed in the Scriptures,
and to compare and unite them into an entire system; and this science, aided by exegesis, is called BIBLICAL THEOLOGY, which is the true corner-stone of Biblical Exegesis.
The inquiries involved in it are rendered difficult and intricate by the fact that the
Scriptures were composed by various authors, and at different, and often at very long
intervals. Biblical Theology must in the first instance be divided into two parts, that
of the Old Testament and that of the New Testament. But at the time of the rise of
Christianity and the writing of the New Testament, the Jews had already formed a
theology of their own, founded upon what may be called exegetical explanations of the
religious views set forth in the Old Testament, and which, although not essentially
wrong in its principles, was considerably at variance with historical truth. This system
of Jewish theology represents the religious opinions which prevailed in the time. of
Christ, in consequence of the peculiar views which the Jews entertained of the Old
Testament writings and of the revelations contained in them; and it therefore supplies an
intermediate link, which is often of more direct use to us for understanding the theology
of the New Testament, than the theology of the Old Testament viewed in its purer
and more simple results. Neither the Biblical theology of the Old Testament, nor the
Jewish theology in general, can be of binding force upon Christians, except in so far as
either may be borne out by the Biblical theology of the New Testament The former
bear about the same relation to the latter as Biblical archaeology. does to the exegesis
of the New Testament
If the essence of Christianity be made a foundation for farther philosophical
speculations, we arrive then at CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS-PHILOSOPHY, which embodies into
its system some, but by no means all, the doctrines of Scripture.
There have always been individuals, ever since Christianity has existed, who have
particularly employed themselves in diffusing, enlivening, animating, and defending the
Christian faith; and in most instances the Church, as an independent community, has
made the conservation of the Christian interests the particular obligation of some of
her members. Thus has arisen a science for itself, directed towards the care and preservation of Christianity, and usually called PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. The province of
this science is of a threefold character:I. A guidance to the right method of calling forth Christian conviction either in
those who had hitherto been attached to another religion,-PRoSELYTISM;
MISSIONARY-STUDIES; or in those who, although Christians, are still in want
of Christian instruction,-CATECHETICS.
2. The preservation and religious animation of the Church community by meanseither of public worship itself,-LITURGICS; or of edifying discourses during
the same,-HoMILETICS; or of that peculiar agency which has its sphere in
domestic and private life,-PASTORAL THEOLOGY.




PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.                           xix
3. Defence of the Christian Church, by diverting the attacks made either against
her rights,-CHURCH RIGHTS; or against her sublime truths,-APOLOGETICS.
Finally, Christianity having already existed for very many centuries as a religious
institution, it must be for every man, as a man, and more particularly for the thinking
Christian, of the highest importance to learn the origin of Christianity, its propagation
and vicissitudes until our present times, and the extent and nature of the influence
which it has exercised upon its votaries. The science which gives information on all
these points is called CHURCH HISTORY, describing all the known facts belonging to
the total process of development of Christianity. This science is of such an enormous
extent as to compel its division into several departments, which have also been variously
treated. Such are the History of the Spread of Christianity; History of Church Doctrine; History of the Moral Influence of Christianity; History of Religious Confusions
and Fanaticisms arising out of Christianity; History of Christian Civil Constitutions;
History of the Relations of the Church to the State; Ecclesiastical Antiquities or Archacology; History of some Christian Sects, such as, History of the Jewish Christians; History
of the Catholics; History of the Protestant Church, of the Presbyterians, Methodists, etc.;
Church History of some Countries and Nations; History of Christian Literature.  In
that part of Church History which describes the vicissitudes of the Church in times
long gone by, the question at last suggests itself, What is the present state of Christianity in the world? The science which-far from being as yet sufficiently cultivated
-solves this important question, goes by the name of CHURCH STATISTICS, and with it
we may regard the sphere of THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP2EDIA as completed.
It cannot lie within the province of the present work as a Cyclopcedia of Biblical
Literature to embrace in the form of a dictionary all the subjects thus described as
appertaining to Christian theology.  Passing by systematic theology (which is the
object of dogmatic history), practical theology, and church-history, the work comprises
those branches of positive knowledge which are indispensable for the understanding of
the Bible, and its historical interpretation, including, therefore, Biblical Archeology and
Biblical Introduction, but leaving the application itself, together with grammatical criticism, to the department of Biblical Interpretation. The treatment of these matters in
the form here adopted has certainly the disadvantage of somewhat obscuring the survey
and impeding the systematic development of the whole; but this disadvantage is
greatly counterbalanced by the benefits arising from the easy and convenient use which
in this form can be made of the abundant and various materials belonging to the subjects discussed: a dictionary of such a character has, moreover, this important advantage, that the subjects embraced in its plan can be handled with such fulness of criticism
as the present age requires.
Attempts were early made to exhibit information pertaining to the Bible under
the alphabetical arrangement of a dictionary. Of the many works of that kind deserving notice, are: Hierolexicon reale collectum, moderante Ad. Rechenbergio, Lipsiae et
Francf. 17I4, 2 vols.; Aug. Calmet, Dictionnaire Historique, Critique, Chronologique,
Geographique, et Littirale de la Bible, Paris, 1722, 2 vols., and (most complete) I730,
4 vols. fol.; Dictionnaire Universelle, Dogmatique, Canonique, Historique, et Chronologique
des Sciences Ecclksiastiques, et avec des Sermons abreges des plus cklebres O ateurs Chretiens,
par le P. R. Richard et autres Religieux Dominicains, etc., Paris, 1760-64, 5 vols.; W.,F. Hezel, Biblisches Real-Lexicon, iuber Biblische, und die Bibel erlaiiternde alte Geschichte,
Erdbeschreibung, Zeitrechnung, etc., Leipz. I783-85, 3 vols. 4to.; F. G. Leun, Bibl.
Encyclopaedie, oder exegetisches Real-wbrterbuch fiber die Sdmmtlichen Hilfswissenschaften
des Auslegers, nach den Bediirfnissen jetziger Zeit. Durch eine Gesellschaft von Gelehrten.
Gotha, 1793-98, 4 vols. 4to.




xx                     PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.
Although the work of Calmet was the most learned and practically useful of all,
the partial stand-point of the author rendered it unsuited to the enlarged demands
of the present age; which, with the superficiality and want of plan in later works, had
brought performances of this kind into some disrepute; and it was reserved for George
Benedict Winer, a theologian of Leipsic, to restore them to their former credit by his
Biblisches Real-wzorerbuch, Leip. I820, 2 vols. 8vo., of which a second and improved
edition was published in 1833-38. The sphere of that work is, however, too narrowly
drawn, the critical treatment in it is of a very unequal character, and many of the
subjects examined in its pages, especially in the department of natural'history, have in
reality no relation whatever to the Bible. Similar publications by various other writers
have been produced on the Continent, but they cannot be regarded as exhibiting any
claims to scientific criticism, or well-considered arrangement. [Since the above was
written the great work edited by Herzog, the Real-Encyklopedie fur Protestantische
Theologie und Kirche, has made its appearance in numbers, of which 155 have already
been issued.]




CYCLOPAEDIA
OF
BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
AALAR                                         AARON
A and 0, the first and last letters of the Greek  burning bush, while he kept Jethro's flock in
alphabet, used as a designation of Himself by the  Horeb. When Moses sought to evade the great
speaker in Rev. i. 8; xxi. 6; xxii. 13. In the last commission of delivering Israel, by pleading that
of these passages the speaker is undoubtedly our he lacked that persuasive readiness of speech which
Lord; in the second the speaker is described as appeared to him essential to such an undertaking,
6 KaO?/hevoos &ir r<p$ p6vq, which may be the desig- he was reminded that his brother Aaron possessed'
nation either of the Father or of the Son (Rev. this in a high degree, and could therefore speak in
xxii. I), but according to the usage of the book, is his name and on his behalf. During the forty
more properly that of the Father (see especially  years' absence of Moses in the land of Midian,
ch. vii. Io); in-the first, the speaker, if we adopt Aaron had married a woman of the tribe of Judah,
the received text (X\yeL 6 KpwLOS), is our Lord; if named Elisheba (or Elisabeth), who had borne to
we follow that of the critical editions (X. Ktptos 6 him four sons, Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithaeb6s), he is God the Father.  As respects the mar; and Eleazar had, before the return of Moses,
meaning of the appellation, it is made sufficiently  become the father of Phinehas (Exod. vi. 23-25).
certain by the exposition in ch. xxii. 13, compared  Pursuant to an intimation from God, Aaron went
with Is. xli. 4; xliii. o; xliv. 6, that it is equi- into the wilderness to meet his long exiled brother,
valent to "the Eternal One."  Most commentators and conduct him back to Egypt. After forty years
adduce the Rabbinical formula'from n  to  f' of separation, they met and embraced each other
as analogous to that used in the Apocalypse. But at the mount of Horeb.  When they arrived in
so far as the instances cited go (see Schittgen, Hor. Goshen, Aaron introduced his brother to the chiefs
Hebr. I. o186; L. Capellus, Spicilegium, p. 132), of Israel, and assisted him in opening and enforcing
the one usage does not appear to be the same as the great commission which had been confided to
the other; for in all the passages cited the formula him.  In the subsequent transactions, from  the
used by the Rabbins is used simply to denote en- first interview with Pharaoh till after the delivered
tireness or completeness (e. g.,' Adam transgressed  nation had passed the Red Sea, Aaron appears to
the law from K to I,' )alkut Rubini, p. 174), not have been almost always present with his more
eternal and immortal being.  The idea of the illustrious brother, assisting and supporting him;
Divine causality appears to be also included in the and no separate act of his own is recorded. This
apocalyptical formula as well as in the parallel co-operation was ever afterwards maintained.
passages in Isaiah (Piper in Herzog's Real-Enc.) Aaron and Hur were present on the hill from
In the symbolism 6f the early Church, the letters which Moses surveyed the battle which Joshua
A and a were combined with the cross, or with fought with the Amalekites; and these two long
the monogram of Christ (Mamachi, Origin. etAntiq. sustained the weary hands upon whose uplifting the
Chtist, iii. 75, Maitland Church in the Cata- fate of the battle was found to depend (Exod. xvii.
combs, p. p67).  The ascription of this to Jesus 10-12). Afterwards, when Moses ascended Mount
Christ has ever been held to imply the ascription  Sinai to receive the tables of the law, Aaron, with
to him of divine honours. (Smith, Script. Test. ii. his sons and seventy of the elders, accompanied
274. 4th edit.)-W. L. A.                      him part of the way up, and, as a token of the
AALAR ('AaXdp I Esdr. v. 36), supposed by   Divine favour, were permitted to behold afar off
some to be the same as Addon [ADDON], by others the outskirts of that radiant symbol of the Sacred
to be the name of a man.                      Presence, which Moses was allowed to view more
and signif n  nearly (Exod. xxiv. I, 2, 9-II).
AARON     (lh ~, etymology and signification  \The absence of Moses in the mountain was prouncertain; Sept.'Aapcbv), the eldest son of Am- longed for forty days, during which the people
ram and Jochebad, of the tribe of Levi, and   seem to have looked upon Aaron as their head,
brother of Moses. He was born B.. 5 574 (Hales, and an occasion arose which first brings the reB.C. 1730), three years before Moses, and one year spective characters of the brothers into real combefore Pharaoh's edict to destroy the male children  parison, and the result fully vindicates the Divine
of the Israelites (Exod. i. 22; ii. I, 2). His name preference of Moses by showing that, notwithfirst occurs in the nrysterious interview which Moses standing the seniority'and greater eloquence of
had with the Lord, who appeared to him in the  Aaron, he wanted the high qualities which were
VOL. I.                                                                         B




AARON                    2                     AB
essential in the leader of the Israelites, and which ways an odious thing among the Hebrews. For
were possessed by Moses in a very eminent degree. this, Miriam was struck with temporary leprosy,
The people grew impatient at the protracted stay which brought the high-priest to a sense of his
of their great leader in the mountain, and at length sinful conduct, and he sought and obtained forconcluded that he had perished in the devouring giveness (Num. xii.)
fire that gleamed upon its top. The result of this  Some twenty years after (B.C. 1471), when the
hasty conclusion gives us the first intimation of the camp was in the wilderness of Paran, a formidable
extent to which their minds were tainted with the conspiracy was organized against the sacerdotal
rank idolatries of Egypt. Recognising the autho- authority exercised by Aaron and his sons, and the
rity of their lost chief's brother, they gathered civil authority exercised by Moses.  This conaround him, and clamorously demanded that he spiracy was headed by chiefs of influence and
should provide them with a visible symbolic image station-Korah, of the tribe of Levi, and Dathan
of their God, that they might worship him as other and Abiram, of the tribe of Reuben [KORAH].
gods were worshipped. Either afraid to risk the But the Divine appointment was attested and conconsequences of a refusal, or imperfectly impressed firmed by the signal destruction of the conspirators,
with the full meaning of the recent and authorita- and by a fierce pestilence which broke out among
tive prohibition of all such attempts to represent them, and by which they fell by thousands on the
or symbolize the Divine Being, Aaron complied spot. When this was seen, Aaron, at the comwith their demand; and with the ornaments of mand of Moses, filled a censer with fire from the
gold which they freely offered, cast the figure of a altar; and, rushing forward to the point where life
calf [CALF].  He sought, however, to fix the had ended and death had not begun, he stood
meaning of this image as a symbol of the true there, and the plague was stayed where he stood.
God, by proclaiming a feast to Jehovah for the This was in fact another attestation of the Divine
ensuing day. Oi that day the people met to cele- appointment; and, for its further confirmation, as
brate the feast, with dancing, with shouting, and regarded Aaron and his family, the chiefs of the
with sports.                                several tribes were required to deposit their staves,
Meanwhile Moses had been dismissed from the and with them was placed that of Aaron for the
mountain, provided with the decalogue, written tribe of Levi. They were all laid up together over'by the finger of God,' on two tablets of stone. night in the tabernacle, and in the morning it was
His re-appearance confounded the multitude, who found that, while the other rods remained as they
quailed under his ster rebuke, and quietly sub- were, that of Aaron had budded, blossomed, and
mitted to see their new-made idol destroyed. For yielded the fruit of almonds. The rod was prethis sin the population was decimated by sword served in the tabernacle, as an authentic evidence
and plague. Aaron, when taxed by his brother of the Divine appointment of the Aaronic family
for his conduct in this matter, attempted to excuse to the priesthood-which, indeed, does not.appear
himself by casting the whole blame upon the to have been ever afterwards disputed.  (Num.
people, and pleading the necessity of circumstances xvii. I).
(Exod. xxxii.)                                Aaron was not allowed to enter the Promised
During his long absence in the mountain, Moses Land, on account of the distrust which he, as well
had received instructions regarding the ecclesiastical as his brother, manifested when the rock was
establishment, the tabernacle [TABERNACLE], and stricken at Meribah (Num. xx. 8-13). His death,
the priesthood [PRIESTS], which he soon afterwards indeed, occurred very soon after that event. For
proceeded to execute. Under the new institution when the host arrived at Mount Hor, in going
Aaron was to be high-priest, and his sons and down the Wady Arabah [ARABAH], in order to
descendants priests; and the whole tribe to which double the mountainous territory of Edom, the
he belonged, that of Levi, was set apart as the Divine mandate came that Aaron, accompanied by
sacerdotal or learned caste [LEVITES].  Accord- his brother Moses and by his son Eleazar, should
ingly, after the tabernacle had been completed, and ascend to the top of that mountain in the view of
every preparation made for the commencement of all the people; and that he should there transfer
actual service, Aaron and his sons were consecrated his pontifical robes to Eleazar, and then die. He
by Moses, who anointed them with the holy oil, was 123 years old when his career thus terminated;
and invested them  with the sacred garments. and his son and his brother buried him in a cavern
Aaron's elevation was soon followed by a most of Mount Hor. The Israelites mourned for him
afflictive event. His two eldest sons, Nadab and thirty days; and on the first day of the month Ab,
Abihu, were struck dead for daring, seemingly the Jews still hold a fast in commemoration of his
when in a state of partial inebriety, to conduct the death.-J. K.
service of God in an irregular ianner, by offering  AAONITES. This term occrs in the E. V.
incense with unlawful fire.' On this occasion it was
enjoined that the priests should manifest none of exactly corresponi i. I7; but the re  is noth
the ordinary signs of mourning for the loss of those exactly corresponding in the Hebrew. In both
who were so dear to them. To this heavy stroke passages the word is.tjN: for Aaron.-W. L. A.
Aaron bowed in silence (Lev. x. I-II).
AB (3iN, father) is found as the first member
Aaron would seem to have been liable to some  AB            is found as the first member
fits of jealousy at the superior influence and autho- of several compound Hebrew proper names, the
rity of his brother; for he joined in, or at least etymology and meaning of which may be explained
sanctioned the invidious conduct of his sister Miriam  by a few remarks on the laws of their construction.
[MIRIAM], who, after the wife of Moses had been This is the more necessary, as many indifferently
brought to the camp by Jethro, became apprehen- take the former or latter member of such comsive for her own position, and cast reflections upon pounds to be in the relation of genitive to the
Moses, much calculated to damage his influence, other, i. e., consider it equally legitimate to say,
on account of his marriage with a foreigner —al- Abner means father of light, or light of the father.




AB                      3                 ABADDON
Nevertheless, it may be laid down as an incontest- the fifth month,' in Zech. vii. 5; viii. I9, is supable canon-being founded not merely on an     posed to refer; yet the tract Pesachim, cited in
accessory law, but on one of the characteristic Reland's Antiq. Sacr. iv. Io, asserts that the latter
peculiarities of the Syro-Arabian languages (that is, was the only fast observed during the Captivity);
on the state construct)-that, in all cases in which a the destruction of the second Temple by Titus;
compound name consists of two nouns, one of which the devastation of the city Bettar (OnI); the
is to be considered in the relation of genitive to the slaughter of Ben Cozibah (Bar Cocab), and of
other, that one must invariably be the latter. Abner, several thousand Jews there; and the ploughing up
therefore, can only mean father of light, or father of the foundations of the Temple by Turnus Rufus
of Ner.                                       -the last two of which happened in the time of
This error appears to have arisen (besides the  Hadrian.
want of sure principles of construction) from the  With regard to the destruction of the first
inability to appreciate the metaphorical sense in Temple, although there is no doubt that the Jews
which the Hebrews use the terms father, son, etc. commemorate that event by a fast on the 9th of
The name Abigail, father ofjoy, appeared inex- Ab, yet the seventh is the date given for it in
plicable as the name of a woman; and therefore 2 Kings xxv. 8 (where, however, the Syriac and
those scholars thought it allowable to sacrifice the Arabic versions read the ninth), and the tenth that
construction to the necessities of the sense. And assigned in Jer. lii. I2. Josephus, however, in
yet it is not difficult to conceive the process by mentioning that the Herodian Temple was burnt
which the idea of a natural father became modified  on the tenth of Lous, expressly asserts that it was
into that of author, cause, source (as when it is said, on the same day of the month on which the first'hath the rain a father?' Job xxxviii. 28); nor Temple was destroyed (Bell. 7ud. vi. 4, 5). Buxthat, when once the language had sanctioned the torf, in his Synag. dud. ch. xxx., reconciles the
use of father as equivalent to source, the word  discrepancy between the 9th as the day of commight be sometimes treated as an abstract, in idea, memoration and the Ioth as the date of the event,
and be applied without gross incongruity to a by saying that the conflagration began on the
woman.                                        former day.   Compare also Wagenseil's Sota,
As the Ethiopic, and especially the Arabic lan- p. 942.
guages very frequently use father in the sense of  In a calendar ascribed to the celebrated astropossessor (as father of white, a name for milk), some nomer Rab Ada, who lived in the third century,
have been disposed to vindicate the same privilege which Bodenschatz has given in his Kirchliche
to Hebrew also. Thus Gesenius seems to have    Verfassung der yuden, ii. io6, the 15th is the day
entertained this view, when he rendered Abigail by appointed for the festival of the vUXofopla in'pater exultationis, i.e. hilaris,' in his Thesaurus.  which the wood for the burnt-offering was stored
Very much light yet remains to be thrown on up in the court of the Temple, to which Nehemiah
compound Hebrew proper names, by a study of alludes in x. 34, and xiii 31.  Some place this
those of the same class in Arabic. The innume- festival on another day, or even month; or assume,
rable compound prcanomina and cognomina which  on the authority of the treatise Taanith, that nine
the Arabs bestow not only on men, but on beasts particular families brought wood on nine separate
and inanimate objects, furnish parallels to almost days, four of which, however, occur in Ah (Otho,
every peculiarity observable in Hebrew; and al- Lexicon Rabbin., p. 380). The election of parthough no example may be found in which a ticular families accords with the statement in
woman is calledfather of joy, yet the principle of Nehemiah.  Nevertheless, Josephus, speaking of
the metaphorical use of terms of relationship, as this festival, says, dv y irantv C0os iXrv 7rpon,, pevc
the first element in a name, will receive ample (Bell. 3ud. ii. 17); and the date of the day sucillustration, and be brought within the reach of our ceeding it, which he mentions in the next section,
occidental conceptions. (See an instructive paper fixes its celebration, in his time, on the I4th of the
on the Praenomina of the Arabs, by Kosegarten, month. It is, however, extremely difficult to disin Ewald's Zeitschrift fi r die Kunde des Morgen- tinguish the original from the latter forms in any
landes, i. 297-317).-J. N.                    rite of a people so prone to multiply its ceremonial
observances as the Jews were.
AB   (flt;'Appd, Joseph. Antiq. iv. 4; the observances as theJews were.
AAB  6; sA, Joseph. Antde. ivnm; thea  Lastly, the Megillat Taanith states that the 18th
Macedonian Awos) is the Chaldee name of that is a fast in memory of the western lamp going out
month which is the fifth of the ecclesiastical and in the Temple in the time of Ahaz. It may be
eleventh of the civil year of the Jews. The name conjectured that this refers to the extinction of
was first introduced after the Babylonian captivity,'the lamps' which is mentioned in 2 Chron. xxix.
and does not occur in the Old Testament, in which  7, as a part of Ahaz's attempts to suppress the
this month is only mentioned by its numeral desig- Temple service.  For an inquiry into what is
nation as the fifth.  It commenced with the new  meant by the western or evening lamp, see the
moon of our August (the reasons for this statement article CANDLESTICK.-J. N.
will be given in the article MONTHS), and always  ABA     N            from  H. 
had thirty days. This month is pre-eminent in the ABADDON    ('AaoSv   from  Heb. in    de.
Jewish calendar as the period of the most signal struction, the place of the dead, Job xxvi. 6; Prov.
national calamities. The ist is memorable for the xv. i ), the name given in Rev. ix. I to'the
death of Aaron (Num. xxxiii. 38). The 9th is the angel of the abyss,' and explained by the writer as
date assigned by Moses Cotzensis (cited in Wagen- equivalent to the Greek &7roXXiwv, destroyer. The
seil's Sola, p. 736) to the following events: the term may be understood either as a personification
declaration that no one then adult, except Joshua of the idea of destruction, or as denoting the being
and Caleb, should enter into the Promised Land  supposed to preside over the regions of the dead,
(Num. xiv. 30); the destruction of the first Temple the angel of death. The Rabbins frequently use
by Nebuchadnezzar (to these first two'the fast of this term to denote the lowest regions of Sheol or




ABAGTHA                     4               ABATTICHIM
Hades (Erubin, fol. xix. I; Sohar Num., fol. 74; There is indeed a resemblance of name which
Sohar Chadash, fol. 22, Cf. Eisenmenger, Ent- would suggest the Barrada to be the Pharpar, and
decktes yud. ii. 324 ff.); and the addition,'angel then the question would be, which of the other
of the abyss,' seems to favour the supposition that streams is the Abana. But some contend that the
the president or king of this place is alluded to  Barrada is the Abana, and are only at a loss for
here. But it may be doubted whether the angel- the Pharpar.  Others find both in the two subsiology of the Rabbins finds any sanction from the diary streams, and neglect the Barrada. The most
N. T., and it accords better with the general cha- recent conjecture seeks the Abana in the small
racter of the passage to suppose a personification  river Fidgi or Fifth, which Dr. Richardson describes
here of the idea of destruction, so that the symbol as rising near a village of the same name, in a
may find many realizations in the history of the pleasant valley fifteen or twenty miles to the northChurch: as there are many Antichrists, so doubt- west of Damascus. It issues from the limestone
less are there many Apollyons. The identification rock, in a deep, rapid stream, about thirty feet
of Abaddon with the Asmodaeus of the Apocrypha wide. It is pure and cold as iced water; and,
and the Talmud rests upon no solid basis. -W. L.A. after coursing down a stony and rugged channel
ABAGTHA (n), one of the seven cham- for above a hundred yards, falls into the Barrada,
T: —:                      which comes from another valley, and at the point
berlains or eunuchs that served in the presence of of junction is only half as wide as the Fijih. Dr.
King Ahasuerus (Esth. i. Io). The name has been  Mansford (Scipt. Gaz. in ABANA), who adopts
derived by Von Bohlen, whom Gesenius follows, the notion that the Abana was one of the subsidiary
from a Sanscrit root baga fortune, whence bagadata streams, well remarks that' Naaman may be exa fortuna datus.  Others trace it to a Semitic cused his national prejudice in favour of his own
root, the Chaldee'~K1 husbandman; comp. Syr. rivers, which, by their constant and beautiful
h i c           * ps  o:   *i              supply, render the vicinity of Damascus, although
which passed over into the Pers.  bon the edge of a desert, one of the most beautiful
bagh, garden.  Fiirst identifies it with Bigtha, spots in the world.' See Wilson's Lands of the
Bigthan, and Bigthona (Esth. i. o; ii. 21; i. 2), Bible, ii. I9; Stanley's Sinai andPalestine, p. 489,
and derives it from Pers. beh, good, beautiful, and and papers by the Rev. J. L. Porter, M.A., in the
tan, apoc. ta, body=the handsome or fair one. Jyournal of Sacred Literature, 2d series, vol. iv. p.
This last seems preferable.  The LXX. give a 245 and vol. v. p. 45
different set of names in Esth. i. Io.-W. L. A.  ABARBANEL [ABRAVANEL].
ABANA, or AMANA (,3^ or nfla; the for-        ABARIM    (.~nl, [from t^y, the region bemer being the kethib or Hebrew text, and the latter yond; always with the article D'nnVy1  or
the kei or marginal reading; Sept.'A3avd), the'1n=the mountor mountains of the regions bename of one of the rivers which are mentioned by yond]; Sept.'ApaplA), a mountain, or rather
Naaman (2 Kings v. 12),'Abana and Pharpar,' chain of mountains, which form or belong to the
as'rivers of Damascus.' Amana signifies'peren- mountainous district east of the Dead Sea and the
nial,' and is probably the true name, the permuta- lower Jordan. It presents many distinct masses
tion of b and m being very common in the Oriental and elevations, commanding extensive views of the
dialects. It is easy to find'rivers of Damascus;' country west of the river (Irby and Mangles, p.
but there is a difficulty in appropriating the dis-459). From one of the highest of these, called
tinctive names which are here applied to them. Mount Nebo, Moses surveyed the Promised Land
The main stream   by which Damascus is now    before he died. From the manner in which the
irrigated is called Barmda.   This river, the names Abarim, Nebo, and Pisgah are connected
Chrysorrhoas, or'golden stream,' of the ancient (Deut. xxxii. 49,'Get thee up into this mountain
geographers, as soon as it issues from a cleft of the Abarim, unto Mount Nebo;' and xxxiv. I,'Unto
Anti-Lebanon mountains, is immediately divided the mountain of Nebo, to the top of Pisgah'), it
into three smaller courses. The central or prin- would seem that Nebo was a mountain of the
cipal stream runs straight towards the city, and  Abarim chain, and that Pisgah was the highest and
there supplies the different public cisterns, baths, most commanding peak of that mountain. The
and fountains; the other branches diverge to the loftiest mountain of the neighbourhood is Mount
right and left along the rising ground on either Attarous, about ten miles north of the Anon; and
hand, and having furnished the means of extensive travellers have been disposed to identify it with
irrigation, fall again into the main channel, after Mount Nebo.  It is represented as barren, its
diffusing their fertilizing influences, without which  summit being marked by a wild pistachio-tree
the whole would be an arid desert, like the vast overshadowing a heap of stones.  The precise
surrounding plains. In those plains the soil is in appropriation of the three names, however, remains
some parts even finer than here, but barren from  to be determined, the locality has not yet been
the want of water. The main stream and its sub- sufficiently explored; the researches of the most
sidiaries unite in greatly weakened force beyond  recent traveller, M. de Saulcy, have led to no
the town on the south-east; and the collected  satisfactory result.
waters, after flowing for two or three hours through  A; Sept. K. 
the eastern hills, are at length lost in a marsh or ABATTIHIM (; Sept.. This
lake, which is known as the Bahr el Merdj, or word occurs only in Numbers xi. 5, where the
Lake of the Meadow. Dr. Richardson (Travels, murmuring Israelites say,'We remember the fish
ii. 499) states that the'water of the Barrada, like which we did eat freely in Egypt, the cucumbers
the water of the Jordan, is -of a white sulphureous and the abattichim,' etc. The last word has always
hue, and an unpleasant taste.' At the present day been rendered'MELONS.' The probable correctit seems scarcely possible to appropriate with cer- ness of this translation may be inferred from melons
tainty the Scriptural names to these streams. having been known to the nations of antiquity; and




ABATTICHIM                     5               ABATTICHIM
it may be proved to be so, by comparing the      By the term Abattichim there is little doubt that
original term with the name of the melon in a melons are intended, as, when we remove the
cognate language such as the Arabic.          plural form im, we have a word very similar to the
The Cucurbitaceae, or gourd tribe, are remarkable Aab      Buh, which is h    name of the
for their power of adapting themselves to the dif-A
ferent situations where they can be grown. Thus melon in that language. This appears, however,
Mr. Elphinstone describes some of them as yielding  to be a generic term, inasmuch as they employ it
large and juicy fruit in the midst of the Indian  simply to indicate the common or musk melon,
desert, where water is 300 feet from the surface. while the water-melon is called Butikh-hindee, or
Extreme of moisture, however, is far from injurious Indian melon. The former is called in Persian
to them, as the great majority are successfully cul- khurpoozeh, and in Hindee khurbooja. It is protivated in the rainy season in India. Mr. Moorcroft bably a native of the Persian region, whence it has
describes an extensive cultivation of melons and  been carried south into India, and north into
cucumbers on the beds of weeds which float on the Europe, the Indian being a slight corruption of the
lakes of Cashmere. They are similarly cultivated  Persian name. As the Arabian authors append
in Persia and in China. In India'some of the fufash as the Greek name of butikh, which is conspecies may be seen in the most arid places, others sidered to be the melon, it is evident that fufash
in the densest jungles.  Planted at the foot of a must, in their estimation, be the same. From there
tree, they emulate the vine in ascending its branches; being no p in Arabic, and as the diacritical point
and near a hut, they soon cover its thatch with a noon might, by transcribers, have easily been miscoating of green. They form a principal portion  taken for that of shen, it is more than probable
of the culture of Indian gardens: the farmer even that this is intended for irwrwv, especially if we
rears them  in the neighbourhood of his wells' compare the description in Avicenna with that ill
(Royle, -inimalayan Botany, p. 218).          Dioscorides.  By Galen it was called Meopepoo,
These plants, though known to the Greeks, are from melo and pepo, the former from being roundish
not natives of Europe, but of Eastern countries, in form like the apple. The melon is supposed to
whence they must have been introduced into have been the rtIKvos of Theophrastus, and the
Greece. They probably may be traced to Syria or oalKvoS 7rirwv of Hippocrates.  It was known to
Egypt, whence other cultivated plants, as well as the Romans, and cultivated by Columella, with the
civilization, have travelled westwards. In Egypt assistance of some precaution at cold times of the
they formed a portion of the food of the people at year. It is said to have been introduced into this
the very early period when the Israelites were led  country about the year 1520, and was called muskby Moses from its rich cultivation into the midst of melon to distinguish it from the pumpkin, which
-was usually called melon.
The melon, being thus a native of warm climates,
is necessarily tender in those of Europe, but being
^  i  c  g  ^ ft H7  y//1' \\ an annual, it is successfully cultivated by gardeners
\    with the aid of glass and artificial heat of about
75~ to 80. The fruit of the melon may be seen
in great variety, whether with respect to the colour
of its rind or of its flesh, its taste or its odour, and
also its external form and size. The flesh is soft
<'  ~I  \' \ \\\   and succulent, of a white, yellowish, or reddish
hue, of a sweet and pleasant taste, of an agreeable,
sometimes musk-like odour, and forms one of the
most delicious of fruits, which, when taken in
moderation, is wholesome, but, like all other fi-uits
of a similar kind, is liable to cause indigestion and
diarrhoea when eaten in excess, especially by those
unaccustomed to its use.
I. Cucurbita citrullus.           All travellers in Eastern countries have borne
the desert. The melon, the water-melon, and testimony to the refreshment and delight they have
several others of the Cucurbitacexe, are mentioned  experienced from the fruit of the melon. But we
by Wilkinson (Thebes, p. 212; Ancient Egyptians, shall content ourselves with referring to Alpinus,
iv. 62) as still cultivated there, and are described  who, having paid particular attention to such subas being sown in the middle of December, and cut, jects, says of the Egyptians,'Fructibus, &c. se
the melons in ninety and the cucumbers in sixty replent, ut ex iis solis saepe ccenam, vel prandium
days.                                         perficiant, cujusmodi sunt precocia, cucurbite,
If we consider that the occurrences so graphi- pepones, melopepones; quorum  quidem  nomen
cally detailed in the Bible took place in the East, genericum est Batech' (Rerum Eggypt. Hist. I. 17).
we should expect, among the natural products He also describes in the same chapter the kind of
noticed, that those which appear from the earliest melon called Abdellavi, which, according to De
times to have been esteemed in these countries Sacy, receives its name from having been introwould be those mentioned. But as all are apt to  duced by Abdullah, a governor of Egypt under the
undervalue the good which they possess, and think  Khalif Al Mamoon. It may be a distinct species,
of it only when beyond their reach, so the Israelites as the fruit is oblong, tapering at both ends, but
in the desert longed for the delicious coolness of thick in the middle; a figure (tab. xli.) is given in
the melons of Egypt.  Among these we may sup- his work De Plantis JEgypti; but Forskal applies
pose both the melon and water-melon to have this name also to the Chate, which is separately
been included, and therefore both will be treated  described by Alpinus, and a figure given by him at
of in this article.                           tab. xl.




ABATTICHIM                     6              ABATTICHIM
The Cucumis Chate is a villous plant with trail- the water-melon is so distinguished among the
ing stems, leaves roundish, bluntly angled, and  edible species. The plant is hairy, with trailing
toothed; the fruit pilose, elliptic, and tapering to  cirrhiferous stems. The pulp abounds so much in
both ends.'Horum   usum  corporibus in cibo watery juice that it will run out by a hole-made
ipsis tum crudis, turn coctis vescentibus, salubrem  through the rind; and it is from this peculiarity
esse apud omnes eorum locorum incolas creditur' that it has obtained the names of water-melon,
(Alpin.. c. p. 54).  Hasselquist calls this the melon d'eau, wasser-melon. Hasselquist says that' Egyptian melon' and' queen of cucumbers,' and  it is cultivated on the banks of the Nile, in the rich
says that it grows only in the fertile soil round  clayey earth which subsides during the inundation,
Cairo; that the fruit is a little watery, and the flesh and serves'the Egyptians for meat, drink, and
almost of the same substance as that of the melon, physic. It is eaten in abundance, during'the season,
sweet and cool.' This the grandees and Europeans even by the richefrsort of people; but the common
in Egypt eat as the most pleasant fruit they find, people, on whom Providence hath bestowed noand that from which they have the least to appre- thing but poverty and patience, scarcely eat anything
hend. It is the most excellent fruit of this tribe of but these, and account this the best time of the
any yet known' (Hasselquist, Travels, p. 258). year, as they are obliged to put up with worse at
Forskal, uniting the Abdellavi and Chate into one other seasons of the year' (Travels, p. 256).species, says it is the commonest of all fruits in J. F. R.
Egypt, and is cultivated in all their fields, and that  [In concluding the first article in this work on
many prepare from it a very grateful drink (Flora the botany of the Bible, the author thinks it desirASgyptiaco-Arabica, p. I68).                  able to state the mode in which he has studied the
With the melon it is necessary to notice the subject, and the grounds upon which he has formed
Water-Melon, which is generally supposed to be his opinions, whether they agree with or differ from
specially indicated by the term Battich. But this those of previous writers. He has already related,
it would be difficult to determine in the affirmative in his'Essay on the Antiquity of HindooMedicine,'
in a family like the Cucurbitaceae, where there that his attention was first directed to the identifiare so many plants like each other, both in their cation of the natural products mentioned in ancient
herbage and fruit. In the first place, the term  authors, in consequence of being requested by the
Battich is rather generic than specific, and there- Medical Board of Bengal to investigate the medifore, ifAbattichim were similarly employed, it might cinal plants and drugs of India, for the purpose of
include the water-melon, but not to the exclusion ascertaining how far the public service might be
of the others. In the second place, it is doubtful supplied with medicines grown in India, instead of
whether the water-melon was introduced into Egypt importing them nearly all from foreign countries.
at a very early period, as we find no distinct men- In effecting this important object, his first endeation of it in Greek writers. It is now common in  vour was to make himself acquainted with the
all parts of Asia. It seems to have been first dis- different drugs which the natives of India are themtinctly mentioned by Serapion under the name of selves in the habit of employing as medicines. For
Dullaha, which in the Latin translation is inter- this purpose he had to examine the things thempreted,'id est melo magnus viridis;' and Sethio is selves, as well as to ascertain the names by which
quoted as the earliest author who applies the term  they were known. He therefore directed specimens'Ay'yo,6pov to the water-melon, as has subsequently  of every article in the bazars to be brought to him,
been frequently the case, though it is often dis- whether found wild in the country or the produce
tinguished as an Anguria indica. Serapion, how- of culture-whether the result of home manufacture
ever, quotes Rhases, Meseha, and Ishmahelita. In  or of foreign commerce-whether of the animal,
the Persian books referred to in a Note, the author vegetable, or mineral kingdom-whether useful as
finds Battich hindee given as the Arabic of turbooz, food or as medicine, or employed in any of the
which is the name assigned in India to the water- numerous arts which minister to the wants or cornmelon.  So Alpinus, speaking of the anguria in forts of man. In order to acquire a knowledge of
Egypt, says,'vulgo Batech el Maovi (water), et in their names, he caused the native works on Materia
Scriptoribus Medicis Batech-Indi vel Anguria in- Medica to be collated by competent hakeems and
dica dicitur.' One of the Persian names is stated  moonshees, and the several articles arranged under
to be hinduaneh. It may be indigenous to India, the three heads of the animal, vegetable, and
but it is difficult, in the case of this as of other mineral kingdoms.  The works collated were
long-cultivated plants, to ascertain its native chiefly the'Mukhzun-al-Udwieh,''Tohfat-alcountry with certainty.  For, even when we find  Moomeneen,''Ihtiarut Buddie,' and'Taleef Shesuch a plant apparently wild, we are not sure that reef,' all of them in Persian, but consisting princithe seed has not escaped from cultivation; and at pally of translations from Arabic authors. These
present we know that the water-melon is cultivated  were themselves indebted for much of their inforin all parts of Asia, in the north of Africa, and in  mation respecting drugs to Dioscorides; but to his
the south of Europe.                           descriptions the Persians have fortunately appended
The water-melon is clearly distinguished by the Asiatic synonymes, and references to some
Alpinus as cultivated in Egypt, and called by the Indian products not mentioned in the works of the
above names,' quse intus semina tantum, et aquam  Arabs. The author himself made a catalogue of
dulcissimam continent.' It is mentioned by For- the whole, in which, after the most usually received,
skal, and its properties described by Hasselquist. that is, the Arabic name, the several synonymes
Though resembling the other kinds very consider- in Persian, Hindee, &c., as well as in metamorably in its properties, it is very different from them  phosed Greek, were inserted.  He traced the
in its deeply-cut leaves, from which it is compared  articles as much as possible to the plants, animals,
to a very different plant of this tribe-that is, the and countries whence they were derived; and atcolocynth.' Citrullus folio colocynthidis secto tached to them their natural history names, whensemine nigro.' A few others have cut leaves, but ever he was successful in ascertaining them.




ABAUZIT                     7                   ABBA
Being without any suitable library for such in-' sonally acquainted with Bayle, Basnage, and
vestigations, and being only able to obtain a small Jurieu in Holland, and Sir I. Newton in this
copy of Dioscorides, he was in most cases obliged country.  William III. sought to detain him in
to depend upon himself for the identification of the England, but he preferred to return to Geneva,
several substances. The results of several of these where he spent the rest of his life as honorary
investigations are briefly recorded in his observa- librarian to the public library. He died in 1767.
tions on the history and uses of the different natural His contributions to biblical science, besides the
families of plants, in his'Illustrations of the Botany  share he had, which was considerable, in the
of the Himalayan Mountains.' The author also  French translation of the New Testament, which
made use of these materials in his'Essay on the appeared in 1726, consist in some exegetical essays
Antiquity of Hindoo medicine,' in tracing different of no great moment, and an Essai surl'Apocalypse,
Indian products from the works of the Arabs into in which he throws doubts on the claim of that
those of the Greeks, even up to the time of Hippo- book to be the work of the Apostle John, suggests
crates.  He inferred that tropical products could that it was written during the reign of Nero, and
only travel from  south to north, and that the advances the hypothesis, that it is to be viewed as
Hindoos must have ascertained their properties, an expansion of our Lord's prediction concerning
and used them as medicines, before they became the destruction of the Jewish state. This essay is
sufficiently famous to be observed and recorded by considered as forming a sort of epoch in the history
the Greeks. Having thus traced many of these of Apocalyptic interpretation (Stuart on the Apoc.,
Eastern products to the works of almost contem- p. 371: Edin. 1847). It was translated into Engporary authors, he was led to conclude that many lish, and was published in 1730 under the title of
of them must be the same as those mentioned in A Discourse, Historical and Critical, on the Revelathe Bible, especially as there is often considerable tion.  [TWELLS.]  A volume of treatises, part
resemblance between their Arabic and Hebrew   polemical and part exegetical, from his pen apnames (Essay, p. 138).                        peared also in English, translated by Dr. E. HarAlthough, like Hasselquist, Alpinus, Forskal, wood, under the title, Reflections on the Eucharist,
and others, the author studied these subjects in on Idolatry, etc., 8vo, 1770.'Its critical inforEastern countries, yet he differs from them all in mation is not very profound, and the opinions it
the circumstances under which he pursued his in- expresses on some theological subjects abundantly
quiries. His investigations were carried on while free' (Orme).  This was followed in 1774 by
he was resident in the remotest of the Eastern another volume, also translated by Dr. Harwood,
nations known in early times, who were probably  entitled Miscellanies on Historical, Theological, and
among the first civilized, and who are still not only  Critical Subjects.  Two volumes of his Oeuvres
acquainted with the various drugs and their names, Posthumes were published in London in I773.
but possess an ancient literature, in which many of Herzog (Real. Ency. s. v.) calls him a'geistreicher
these very substances are named and arranged. dilettant' in theology.-W. L. A.
Having obtained the drugs, heard their names
applied by the natives, read their descriptions, and  ABBA ('A/ /a  K)is the Iebrew  word,
traced them to their plants, he formed many of his father, under a form peculiar to the Chaldee idiom.
opinions from independent sources. It may, there- The Aramaic dialects do not possess the definite
fore, be considered a strong confirmation of the article in the form in which it is found in Hebrew.
correctness of his results when they agree with those They compensate for it by adding a syllable to the
of previous inquirers; when they differ, it must be end of the simple noun, and thereby produce a
ascribed to the peculiar process by which they have distinct form, called by grammarians the emphatic,
been obtained.-J. F. R.]                      or definitive, which is equivalent (but with much
less strictness in its use, especially in Syraic) to a
i_-vs - ^ Ad.  -<-  l         noun with the article in Hebrew. This emphatic
C -'3 — - - - A''  ^-    "     form is also commonly used to express the vocative
case of our language-the context alone determining...\ t\~'=^-   AZ S           when it is to be taken in that sense (just as the
\\! s / S/,noun with the article is sometimes similarly used' \   l  must/>>' "s'in Hebrew).               Hence this form is appropriately
employed in all the passages in which it occurs in
Xt' ^'^ ^. ^/ /the New Testament (Mark xiv. 36; Rom. viii. 15;.-~."~ ^^                        lv*~~  ~ Gal. iv. 6): in all of which it is an invocation.
Why Abba is, in all these passages, immediately
rendered by 6 7rar5p, instead of rdrep, may perhaps
be in part accounted for on the supposition that,.v  <  As xxJy   - ws n t     although the Hellenic (as well as the classical)
Y y/vg id^~ i\ 4 - tGreek allows the use of the nominative with the
i'(   f               )    ] ]?s     D \aion;Aarticle for the vocative (Winer, Gram. des Neutest.
7<;j/l',        A    -j        Sprach. O 29), the writers of the New Testament
t ~l f ^~., \ j. zpreferred the former, because the article more
adequately represented the force of the emphatic
form.
a. Cucumis melo.                 It is also to be observed that, in the usage of the
Targums, WIN, even when it is the subject of an
ABAUZIT, FIRMIN, was born at Usez, in ordinary proposition, may mean my father; and
Lower Languedoc, in the year I679.    Having  that it is for this reason the word is not used with
finished his studies, he devoted some time to the suffix of the first person singular. Lightfoot
travelling, in the course of which he became per- has endeavoured (Horn Hebr. ad Marc. xiv. 36) to




ABBOT                     8             ABBREVIATIONS
shew that there is an important difference between  the Rabbinical mode of abbreviation had been so
the Hebrew UK and the Chaldee KNK: that whereas long established and was carried to such an extent,
the former is used for all senses of father, both the infrequency and limitation of the licence, under
strict and metaphorical, the latter is confined to the such circumstances, might be considered to favour
sense of a natural or adoptive father. This state- the belief that it was not more freely employed in
ment, which is perhaps not entirely free from a earlier times.
doctrinal bias, is not strictly correct. At least, the  Nevertheless, some learned men have endeaTargums have rendered the Hebrew father by voured to prove that abbreviations must have been
K3K, in Gen. xlv. 8, and Job xxxviii. 28, where used in the MSS. of the sacred text which were
the use of the term is clearly metaphorical; and, in written before the Alexandrian version was made;
later times, the Talmudical writers (according to and they find the grounds of this opinion in the
Buxtorf, Lex. Talm.) certainly employ PKI to existence of several Masoretic various lections in
express rabbi, master-a usage to which he thinks the Hebrew text itself, as well as in the several
reference is made in Matt. xxiii. 9.-J. N.    discrepancies between it and the ancient versions,
ABOT, G, Arch p of Canterb, which may be plausibly accounted for on that asABBOT, GEORGE, Archbishop of Canterbury,sumption. This theory supposes that both the
was born at Guildford, 2th October I562. He sumption.    This theory supposes that both the
received his education at Guildford, whencte  e copyists who resolved the abbreviations (which it is
passeed h   to Baliol College, On a ford.  rise in the assumed existed in the ancient Hebrew MSS. prior
passed to Baliol College, Oxford. His ris in theto the LXX.) into the entire full text which we now
church was rapid. He became Dean of Winchester
chuch ws rpid. He becae  en of  indon inpossess, and the early translators who used such
i  599, nBishop of Lichfielad in t168, of London inabbreviated copies, were severally liable to error
1609, and in i6I he was elevated to the see of in their solutions. To illustrate the application of
Canterbury. He held                           this dignified po      st        ampplication of
Canterbury. He held this dignified post aidst this theory to the Masoretic readings, Eichhorn
varying fortunes till 1633, when hediedatCroydon  (Einleit. ins A. T. i. 323) cites, among other
on the 4th of August.'He was a person,' says passages, Jos. viii. 16, in which the Kethib is ~37,
Wood,'pious and grave, and exemplary in his life  e eri;and      Sam     ii    i  hich 
and conversation.  He was also a learned man,     the Ke; and 2 Sam. XXiii. 20, in which,
and had his erudition all of the old stamp' (Athen. is the Kethib, and Son the Keri. With regard to
Oxon.) He was one of those to whom the trans- the versions, Drusius suggests that the reason why
lation of the New Testament, from Matthew totheLXX      rendered the words (Jon. i. 9) 4=
Acts, was entrusted by King James. His works, by 50os KUov EdCI, was because they misare chiefly polemical; but he has left a commentary took the Resh for Daleth,.and believed the 7od to
on the Prophet Jonah, in the form of sermons, be an abbreviation of Jehovah, as if it had been
which is much prized for its rich spiritual thinking  originally written!]2 (Qucest. Ebraic. iii. 6). An
and doctrinal weight rather than for its exegetical example of the converse is cited from Jer. vi. I,
merits. The first edition appeared in 600o, in 4to. where our text has'lr1 nltn, which the LXX.
An edition, in two vols. 8vo, was published at has rendered OvFLbuv Atov, as if the original form had
Edinburgh in I845.-W. L. A.                   been  nn11, and they had considered the 7od to
ABBREVIATIONS. As there are satisfactory be a suffix, whereas the later Hebrew copyists took
grounds for believing that the word Selah, in the it for an abbreviation of the sacred name. KenniPsalms, is not an anagram, the earliest positive  cott's three Dissertations contain many similar con-evidence of the use of abbreviations by the Jews jectures; andStark's Davidis aliorumqueCarminum
occurs in some of the inscriptions on the coins of Lib i V. has a collection of examples out of the
Simon the Maccabee. Some of these, namely, ancient versions, in which he thinks he traces false
have W for  VW., and 111 for 1111n; and some solutions of abbreviations.
of those of the'first and second years have K and  In like manner some have endeavoured to ac3V; the former of which is considered to be a count for the discrepancies in statements of numbers
numeral letter, and the latter an abbreviation for in parallel passages and in the ancient versions, by
n n13w, anno IS. (Bayer, De NVumis Hebraeo- assuming that numbers were not expressed in the
Samaritanis, p. I71). It is to be observed, how- early MSS. by entire words (as they invariably are
ever, that both these latter abbreviations alternate in our present text), but by some kind of abbrevion other equally genuine coins, with the full ation. Ludolf, in his Commentar. adHist.eEthiop.
legends 11n  n3W  and nW1l n3lPw; and that the p. 85, has suggested that numeral letters may have
coins of the third and fourth years invariably ex- been mistaken for the initial letter, and, consepress both the year and the numeral in words at quently, for the abbreviation of a numeral word,
length.                                       giving as a pertinent example the case of the
The earliest incontestable evidence of the use of Roman V being mistaken for zVginti.  He also
abbreviations in the copies of the Old Testament thinks the converse to have been possible. Most
is found in some few extant MSS., in which    later scholars, however, are divided between the
common words, not liable to be mistaken, are alternative of letters or of arithmetical cyphers analocurtailed of one or more letters at the end. Thus gous to our figures. The last was the idea Capji/../te. L/e    n */ Lrs     L5,       pellus entertained (Critica Sacra, i. io), although
1W' is written for 7RIWe; and the phrase D7137 %. De Vignoles appears to have first worked out the'I1n, so frequently recurring in Ps. cxxxvi., is theory in detail in his Chronologie*de l'Histoire, / /                 Sainte: whereas Scaliger (cited in Walton's Proin some MSS. written 1n     3. Yet even this legomena, vii. 4) and almost all modern critics are
licence, which is rarely used, is always denoted by in favour of letters.  Kennicott has treated the
the sign of abbreviation, an oblique stroke on the subject at some length; but the best work on it is
last letter, and is generally confined to the end of that of J. M. Faber, entitled Literas olim pro vocibus
a line; and as all the MSS. extant (with hardly two in numerando a sciiptoribus V. T. esse adhibitas,
exceptions) are later than the tenth century, when  Onpldi, 1775, 4to.




ABBREVIATIONS                   9                    ABEL
It is undeniable that it is much easier to explain  of the New Testament, it may be observed that
the discordant statements which are found, for they have furnished little matter for critical ininstance, in the parallel numbers of the 2d chapter quiry. Those that exist are almost exclusively
of Ezra and the 7th of Nehemiah, by having re- confined to common and easily supplied words,
course to either of these suppositions, than it is to e. g., God, Lord, father, son, &c.; or to the termiconceive how such very dissimilar signs and sounds, nations of formation and inflexion, in which case
as the entire names of the Hebrew numerals are, they fall more properly under the province of
could be so repeatedly confounded as they appear general Greek Palaeography. They very rarely
to have been.  This adequacy of the theory to furnish any hint of the mode in which a various
account for the phenomena constitutes the internal reading has arisen, as has been suggested, for
argument for its admission. Gesenius has also, in instance, in the case of Katpq3 and Kupi, in Romans
his Geschichte der Hebrdischen Sprache, p. 173, xii. II. The use of letters for numerals, however,
adduced the following external grounds for its according to Eichhorn's Einleit. ins N. T. iv.
adoption: the fact that both letters and numeral 199, is not only found in some MSS. now extant,
notes are found in other languages of the Syro- but, in the instance of the number 666, in Rev.
Arabian family, so that neither is altogether alien xiii. I8, can be traced up to the time of the
to their genius; letters, namely, in Syriac, Arabic, apostles; partly on the testimony of Irenseus, and
and later Hebrew; numeral figures on the Phceni- partly because those MSS. which wrote the numcian coins and Palmyrene inscriptions (those em- ber out in words differ in the gender of the first
ployed by the Arabs and transmitted through them  word, some writing g/aK66Lot, some tgaK6tra, some
to us are, it is well known, of Indian origin). And ieaK6oaa. The early fathers have also unhesitatingly
although particular instances are more easily ex- availed themselves of the theory that numbers were
plained on the one supposition than on the other, originally denoted by letters, whenever they wished
yet he considers that analogy,' as well as the to explain a difficulty in numbers. Thus Severus
majority of examples, favours the belief that the of Antioch (cited by Theophylact) accounts for the
numerals were expressed, in the ancient copies, by difference of the hour of our Lord's crucifixion, as
letters; that they were then liable to frequent con- stated in Mark xv. 25, and John xix. I4, by the
fusion; and that they were finally written out at mistake of y (3) for s (6). Eichhorn has given a
length in words, as in our present text.      lithographed table of the most usual abbreviations
There is an easy transition from these abbrevia- in the MSS. of the New Testament.
tions to those of the later Hebrew, or Rabbinical  Lastly, the abbreviations by which Origen, in
writers, which are nothing more than a very ex- his'Hexapla,' cites the Septuagint and other
tended use and development of the same principles Greek versions, deserves some notice. The nature
of stenography.  Rabbinical abbreviations, as de- of this work rendered a compendious mode of
fined by Danz, in his valuable Rabbinismus Enu- reference necessary; and, accordingly, numeral
cleatus, ~ 65, are either perfect, when the initial letters and initials are the chief expedients emletters only of several words are written together, ployed. A large list of them  may be seen in
and a double mark is placed between such a group  Montfaucon's edition of the' Hexapla;' and Eichof letters, as in n1DK, the common abbreviation  horn (Einleit. ins A. T. i. 548-50) has given those
of the Hebrew names of the books of Job, Proverbs, which are most important.-J. N.
and Psalms (the last letters only of words are also AB            servile; S
written in Cabbalitical abbreviations); or imperfect, ABDON  (  -m., servile; Sept.'A/5.v), the
where more than one letter of a single word is son of Hillel, of the tribe of Ephraim, and tenth
written, and a single mark is placed at the end to judge of Israel.  He succeeded Elon and judged
denote the mutilation, as to'w for i5t.  The  Israel eight years. His administration appears to
perfect abbreviations are called by the Rabbinical have been peaceful; for nothing is recorded of him
writers n1:n Tw   gi1, i. e., capitals of words. When  but that he had forty sons and thirty nephews,
proper names, as frequently happens, are abbrevi- who rode on young asses- a mark of their conseated in this manner, it is usual to form the mass of quence (Judg. xii. I3-I5). Abdon died B.c. III2.
consonants into proper syllables by means of the [BEDAN.]
vowel patach, and to consider aod and Vau as     There were three other persons of this name,
representatives of I and U. Thus Dt/lDIl, Ram- which appears to have been rather common (i
barn, the abbreviation of' Rabbi Mosheh ben  Chron. viii. 23; ix. 36; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 20).-J.K.
Maimon,' and stin, Rashi, that of' Rabbi Shelo-  ABDON, a city of the tribe of Asher, given to
moh Jarchi,' are apposite illustrations of this method  the Levites of Gershom's family (Josh. xxi. 30; 
of contraction. Some acquaintance with the Rab- Chron. vi. 74). [20 Codd. read this for Hebron.
binical abbreviations is necessary to understand the f12, Josh. xi. 28. 
Masoretic notes in the margin of the ordinary
editions of the Hebrew text; and a considerable  ABEDNEGO (W".1:, servant of Nego, i.e.,
familiarity with them is essential to those who wish, Nebo; Sept.'Ap3e/vay6), the Chaldee name imwith ease and profit, to consult the Talmud and  posed by the king of Babylon's officer upon
Jewish commentators. The elder Buxtorf wrote a Azariah, one of the three companions of Daniel.
valuable treatise on these abbreviations, under the With his two friends, Shadrach and Meshach, he
title De Abbreviaturis Hlebraicis, which has often was miraculously delivered from the burning furbeen reprinted; but, from the inexhaustible nature nace, into which they were cast for refusing to
of the subject, 0. G. Tychsen added two valuable  worship the golden statue which Nebuchadnezzar
supplements, in 1768, and Selig incorporated them  had caused to be set up in the plain of Dura (Dan.
with his own researches in his Compendia vocum  iii.)-J. K.
Hebraico-Rabbinicarzm, Lips. I780, which is the  ABEL (        b, 
completest work of the'kind extant.                          breath, va     Se. Ae 
With regard to the abbreviations, in the MSS. perly HEBEL, the second son of Adam, slain by




ABEL                     10                  ABELE
Cain, his elder brother (Gen. iv. xr-6). [CAIN.] that the people VIMS I'lamented' or mourned.
To the name Abel a twofold interpretation has Where such uncertainty prevails, it is better to
been given.  Its primary signification is weak- leave the word untranslated.]
ness or vanity, as the word  1Vl, from which    ABEL, ABEL-BETH-MAACHAH, OrABEL-MAIM,
it is derived, indicates.  By another rendering a city in the north of Palestine, which seems to
it signifies grief or lamentation, both meanings have been of considerable strength from its history,
being justified by the Scripture narrative. CAIN  and of importance from its being called'a mother
(a possession) was so named to indicate both the in Israel' (2 Sam. xx. I9).  The identity of the
joy of his mother and his right to the inheritance city under these different names will be seen by a
of the first-born: Abel received a name indicative comparison of 2 Sam. xx. 14, 15, 8; I Kings xv.
of his weakness and poverty when compared with 20; 2 Chron. xvi. 4. The addition of'Maacah'
the supposed glory of his brother's destiny, and marks it as belonging to, or being near to, the
prophetically of the pain and sorrow which were region Maacah, which lay eastward of the Jordan
to be inflicted on him and his parents.       under Mount Lebanon. This is the town in which
Ancient writers abound in observations on the Sheba posted himself when he rebelled against
mystical character of Abel; and he is spoken of as David. Eighty years afterwards it was taken and
the representative of the pastoral tribes, while Cain sacked by Benhadad, king of Syria; and 200 years
is regarded as the author of the nomadic life and subsequently by Tiglath-pileser, who sent away the
character. St. Chrysostom calls him the Lamb of inhabitants captives into Assyria (2 Kings xv. 29).
Christ, since he suffered the most grievous injuries It is probably represented by the existing village of
solely on account of his innocency (Ad Stagir. ii. Abil el-Kamch, beautifully situated between the
5); and he directs particular attention to the mode Merj'Ayfln and Lake Huleh.
in which Scripture speaks of his offerings, consist-                          A     of vi
ing of the best of his flock,' and of the fat thereof,'  ABEL-KERAMIM (:, Ab  of 
while it seems to intimate that Cain presented the yard; Sept.'EPeXXapu/)), a village of the Amfruit which might be most easily procured (Hom. monites, about six miles from Philadelphia, or
in Gen. xviii. 5).  St. Augustine, speaking of Rabbath Ammon, according to Eusebius, in whose
regeneration, alludes to Abel as representing the time the place was still rich in vineyards (Judg.
new or spiritual man in contradistinction to the xi 33).
natural or corrupt man, and says,'Cain founded  ABE           Th          A
a city on earth, but Abel as a stranger and pilgrim
looked forward to the city of the saints which is in  ABEL-MEHOLAH, or ABEL-MEA (?2
heaven.' (De Civitate Dei, xv. i.) Abel, he says             dancing; Sept. A     eo  ) a
in another place, was the first-fruits of the Church, 
and was sacrificed in testimony of the future town supposed to have stood near the Jordan, and
Mediator. And on Ps. cxviii. (Serm. xxx. sec. 9) some miles (Eusebius says ten) to the south of
he says:'this city' (that is,'the city of God') Bethshan or Scythopolis (I Kings iv. 12). It is'has its beginning from Abel, as the wicked city remarkable in connection with Gideon's victory
from Cain.' Ireneus says that God, in the case over the Midianites (Judg. vii. 22), and as the
of Abel, subjected the just to the unjust, that the birth-place of Elisha (I Kings xix. i6).
righteousness of the former might be manifested by ABEL-MIZRAIM  (D1.K  [here ^   unwhat he suffered (Contra Hres. iii. 23).        A   L-M          (, 
Heretics existed in ancient times who represented  doubtedly means mourning, and if translated this
Cain and Abel as embodying two spiritual powers, name would denote mourning of the Egyptians];
of which the mightier was that of Cain, and to Sept. IIvOos AIYVnrov), a threshing floor so called
which they accordingly rendered divine homage.  from the mourning made there for Jacob (Gen. 1.
In the early Church Abel was considered the  II). Jerome places it at Bethagla [but-this is imfirst of the martyrs, and many persons were accus- probable. Mr. Thomson, whose opinion is entitled
tomed to pronounce his name with a particular to deference, places it at El-Haram, near Hebron
reverence. An obscure sect arose, under the title (The Land and the Book, ii. 385.)]
of Abelites, the professed object of which was to  ABEL-SHITTIM (0tWl Ln, Abl of the acinculcate certain fanatical notions respecting mar-.. _....
riage; but it was speedily lost amid a host of more arias; Sept. BeXva), a town in the plains of Moab,
popular parties. —H. S.                       on the east of the Jordan, between which and
popular L parties.Beth-Jesimoth was the last encampment of the
ABEL (?;     Sept.'A/X), a name of several Israelites on that side the river (Num. xxxiii. 49).
places in Israel, with additions in the case of the It is more frequently called Shittim merely (Num.
more important, to distinguish them from one an- xxv. i; Josh. ii. I; Mic. vi. 5). Eusebius says it
other. [The opinion that this word means meadow  was in the neighbourhood of Mount Peor; and in
or grassy plain (Gesen. Thes. in voc.) rests on no  the time of Josephus it was known as Abila, and
solid grounds.  Hengstenberg contends that it stood sixty stadia from the Jordan (Antiq. iv. 8, I;
means always mourning (Auth. des Pent. ii. 319). v. I I). The place is noted forthe punishment
In I Sam. vi. xI, the reading is doubtful, but pro- there inflicted on the Israelites when seduced into
bably  s s te fr   En, h       r, the worship of Baal-Peor, through intercourse with
bably I2 stands there for ptA. Even, however, the Moabites and Midianites.~J. K.
if the reading 5lK be retained there, it will not ABELA       LA
follow that it does not signify mourning; for the
place may have received this name from being the  ABELE, ABRAHAM, a Jewish Rabbi at Gumscene of some calamity; perhaps, as Lengerke binnen, in Kalisch, who flourished in the sevensuggests (Kenaan, 358), that mentioned in the next teenth century. He wrote a homiletical commentary
verse on account of which it is expressly stated  on part of the Pentateuch entitled flt' tInv (oil of




ABENDANA                     11               ABIATHAR
fiy), which was printed at the end of a larger work, the priestly raiment [PRIEST], repaired to the son
a commentary on the Jalkut Shimeoni, Dessau 1704 of Jesse, who was then in the cave of Adullam
fol., Ven. 1743 fol.-W. L A.                  (I Sam. xxii. 20-23; xxiii. 6).  He was well
ABENDAN A (K"K8I5K=son of Dana) JACOB, received by David, and became the priest of the
was born in Spain, circa x630; thence he emigrated party during its exile and wanderings.  As such
to Amsterdam, where he became Rabbi. He trans-    he sought an  d  for D      avid responses from
lated into Spanish the book of Cusari [JEHUDAH- God.  When David became king of Judah he
HA-LEvI], which was published in I663, as well as  appointed Abiathar high-priest. Manwle Zado
the Mishna with the commentaries of Maimonides had been appointed high-priest by Saul, and con
and Bartenora, which Surenhusius largely used and  tinued t at as su  ie   iat appointment of Zadok was
honourably acknowledged in his elaborate Latin priest in Judah. The appointment of Zadok was
translation of the same work, His more direct not only unexceptionable in itself, but was in accorservices to biblical exegesis consist in the valuable dance with the divine sentenceof deposition which
philological and critical notes which he added, had been passed, through Samuel, upon the house
under the title of' Spicilegium rerum prteritarum  of Eli ( Sam. i. 30-36). When, therefore, David
et intermissarum,' to the celebrated Michial ophui,  acquired the kingdom of Israel, he had no just
published in Amsterdam  in I685.   Abendana ground on which Zadok could be removed, and
shortly after came to London, where he was made Abiathar set in his, place; and the attempt to do
shortly after came to London, where he was made
the head of the Jewish community, and died in so would probably have been offensive to his new
I696. After his death, a translation of treatises subjects, who had been accustomed to the ministration of Zadok, and whose good feeling he was
selected from his works appeared under the title,  ion of Z adok, and wThe king  got over this'Discourses of the Ecclesiastical and Civil Polity anxioculty b alliv t  appointments to stand;
of the Jews,' i2mo. Lond. 1706, 2d ed. I79. difficulty by allowing both appointments to stand;
of the Jews,' lzmo.  Lond. I706,  2ded.  1709. and  until the end of Davids reign Zadok and'This work treats of the Jewish courts of judicature, and until the end  f Davids reign Zadok and
of their laws concerning tithes, of the institution of Abiathar were joint high-priests. How the details
the priesthood, of their liturgy, schools, feasts, of duty were settled, under this somewhat anomalfasts, coins, weights and measures. The discourses ous arrangement, we are not informed. As a
are on the whole sensible, and many of the remarks high-priest Abiathar must have been perfectly
on scripture are more judicious than are usually to aware of the divine intention that Solomon should
be found in Rabbinical wrtings' (Orme). -. D. G. be the successor of David; he was therefore the
befound  S      Rabbinical wtRi.gs A(Orme).-]C.D.G.least excusable, in some respects, of all those who
ABENESRA. I[~IBN ESRA.]          were parties in the attempt to frustrate that intenABEN JACHJA. [IBN JACHJA.]                  tion by raising Adonijah to the throne. So his
ABEN TIBBON. [IBN TABBON.]                  conduct seems to have been viewed by Solomon,
ABI, the mother of King Hezekiah (2 Kings who, in deposing him from the high-priesthood,
xviii. 2), called also Abijah (2 Chron. xxix. I). and directing him to withdraw into- private life,
Her father's name was Zachariah, perhaps the same plainly told him that only his sacerdotal character,
who was taken by Isaiah (viii 2) for a witness.  and his former services to David, preserved him
ABIA. [ABIJ^H, 3]                           from  capital punishment.  This deposition of
ASIANmA. ~ a^  3J ^Abiatharcompleted the doomlongbefore denounced
ABIAH. [ABIJAH,.]                          upon the house of Eli, who was of the line of
ABI-ALBON. [ABIEL, 2.]                      Ithamar, the youngest son of Aaron. Zadok, who
ABIASAPH     (lDRK'NS father of gatrcting), a remained the high-priest, was of the elder line of
ABIASAPH T T *' t,~r -:  o, X'),  aEleazer. Solomon was probably not sorry to have
Levite, one of the sons of Korah and head of one occasion to remove the anomaly of two high-priests
of the families of the Korhites (Exod. vi. 24). There of different lines, and to see the undivided pontificate
can be no doubt that he is the same person who in the senior house of Eleazar (I Kings i 7, I9;
is called Ebiasaph (!DbK, Eb'yasaph) I Chron. ii 26, 27).-J. K.
vi. 37; ix. 19); but we must suppose it is another  There are two difficulties connected with the
Ebiasaph who appears in I Chron. vi. 23, and who notices of this individual in Scripture, to which it
is there ranked as the great grandson of Korah, may be proper briefly to advert
unless we understand the Chronicler as stating that. Whilst usually it is'Abiathar the son of
Assir, Elkanah and Ebiasaph were collateral and  Ahimelech' who is mentioned along with Zadok
not successive descendants from  Korah.  This as high-priest, in three passages (2 Sam. viii. 17;
supposition seems to demand adoption, not only  Chron. xvii. 16; xxiv. 6),itisAhimelech the sonof
because it brings the Chronicler into harmony with  Abiathar, andintwo (I Chron. xxiv. 3,3) itissimply
the passage in Exodus, but because it harmonizes Ahimelech who is so named.  To relieve the
so far the two parts of his own account; comp. difficulty thus occasioned, it has been suggested
ver, 22, 25, with ver. 36, 37. The whole passage, that both father and son had both names, and that
however, is full of difficulty. Comp. Bertheau, sometimes the one and sometimes the other is
Kurzgef. Exeget. Handbuch in loc., and Lord used. But this is a supposition which rests on no
Arthur Hervey on The Genealogies of our Lord and authority, and which is not supported by Jewish
Saviour /esus Christ, p. 21O and 214. W. L. A.  usage in respect of naming, it being very unusual
ABIATHAR. of ab,  among them for father and son to bear the same
ABIATHAR      C(?l, father of abundance; name. Modern interpreters have recourse for the
Sept.'Aptdiap), the tenth high-priest of the Jews, most part to the supposition of an inadvertent
and fourth in descent from Eli. When his father, transposition of the two names by some transcriber,
the high-priest Ahimelech, was slain with the which was afterwards perpetuated (Thenius on
priests at Nob, for suspected partiality to the 2 Sam. viii. I7).  But though this might be
fugitive David, Abiathar escaped the massacre; allowed in the case of one passage, it is to a high
and bearing with him the most essential part of degree improbable that it should occur in foul,




ABIB                     12                 ABIHAIL
and that in a fifth the name Ahimelech by itself  ABIEL (tSK3, father of strength, i e., strong;
should occur when we should have expectedSept.         X).   The father of Kish and Ner, and
Abiathar (I Chron. xxiv. 3). In this latter case Sept.'A/,tX). I. The father of Kish and Ner, and
Abiathar (i Chron. xxiv. 3). In this latter case grandfather of Saul the son of Kish, and of Abner
transposition is wholly excluded. As the existing the son of Ner (I Sam. ix. I xiv. 5 ).
text stands, we seem shut up to the conclusion that  2. One of the thirty most distinguished men of
in the time of Ithamar the succession of high-priests  avid's army (I Chron. xi. 32).  He is called
wasAhimelech, Abiathar, Ahimelech; the grandson  al        i.                 H       ae
bearing the name of his grandfather, which was Abi-albon (flnY All) in 2 Sam. xxiii. 31; a name
usual.  We must also suppose that the second
usual.  We must also suppose that the second which has precisely the same signification (father
Ahimelech was priest along with Zadok during his ofstrength) as the other.-J. K.
father's lifetime.  How  this came to pass, or  ABIEZER   (Ctl.K, father of help-; Sept.
what became of this second Ahimelech we are not 
told. There is a great difficulty here, but it is'Apep, Josh. Xi. 2) a son of Gilead, the grandbetter to endure this than resort to the supposition  son of Manasseh (Num. xxvi. 30), and founder of
better to endure this than resor t h  ups     the family to which Gideon belonged, and which
of a series of blunders without parallel in the annals be his name as a patrloymic-Abiezrites (Judg..of copying.                               s bore his name as a patronymic-Abiezrites (Judg.
of copying.., ~.  vi. 34; viii. 2).  Gideon himself has a very
2. In Ma-rk ii. 26, our Lord says that' it was in  vi. 34; viii. 2).  Gideon himself has a very
2. In Mark ii. 26, our Lord says that'it was in  beautiful and delicate allusion to this patronymic
the days of Abiathar the high-priest,' that David  ba   an e    e          to this patronymit
partook of the shew-bread whilst in I Sam.. in his answer to the fierce and proud Ephraimites,
partook of the shew-bread, whilst in I Sam. xxi.                d   ted the Midianites with
3, it is intimated that this occurred during the 3 wh, fe he h   efee   the fa Miy Abiezer, came to
pontificate of his father Ahimelech. Here, again, it the p t, an  captured the two Mieianitish
has been supposed that there is a transposition of the pursuit,  and captured tThey sharply rethe two names; but is this likely? Is it likely  bued him fr havin engrossed aZ the glory of
that our Lord would confound the two men?     or if
He discriminated them, and said'            theimele   is   transaction by not calling them into action at
He discriminatMed them, and said  Ahimelech, is the first  But he soothed their pride by a remark
it likely that Mark would confound them, and  which insinuated that their exploit, in capturing
which insinuated that their exploit, in capturing
report Him as saying'Abiathar'?  Recourse has    princes, although late, surpassed his own in
the princes, although late, surpassed his own in
been had here also to the supposition of bot  defeating their army:-' What have I done now
father and son having had both names; and also   cmparisn with y?        Is not the (gr
to the supposition that the son was at the time the in comparion  wih yo?  I not the  (grape)
vicarius of the father. All this is gratuitous an  gleaning of Ephraim  better than the vintage of
vicarius of the father. All this is gratuitous and
improbable.  Not more felicitous is the attemptAbiezer?' (Judg. vi. -3).-J. K
to evade the difficulty by translating Iri,'in the  ABIGAIL (57fl.  or 54N., father of joy;
presence of,' or'concerning' (i.e., in the part of Sept.'Apyaia). i. The wife ofa prosperous sheepScripture concerning), for even admitting these master, called Nabal, who dwelt in the district of
translations, neither of them in the least alleviates Carmel, west of the Dead Sea. She is known
the discrepancy, since Abiathar's name is not once chiefly for the promptitude and discretion of her
mentioned in the narrative in Samuel. Middleton  conduct in taking measures to avert the wrath of
(Gr. Art. p. i88, I90) translates'in the days of David, which, as she justly apprehended, had
Abiathar, who was afterwards high-priest;' but been violently excited by the insulting treatment
though Abiathar might be called high-priest by which his messengers had received fromherhusband.
prolepsis, what writer, meaning to give a chrono- [NABAL.] She hastily prepared a liberal supply
logical determination, would express himself thus? of provisions, of which David's troop stood in much
(See Alford's note on the passage.) What is to  need-and went forth to meet him, to present the
forbid our supposing that our Lord here supplies a gift in person. When they met, he was marching
fact which the historian has not recorded, but to exterminate Nabal and all that belonged to him;
which Jewish tradition had preserved, viz., that it d not only was his rage mollified by her prudent
was to Abiathar David came as his friend, through  remonstrances and delicate management, but he
whose influence he hoped to succeed in his request became sensible that the vengeance which he had
to Ahimelech; just as David, Ps. cv. 8, Stephen, purposed was not warranted by the circumstances,
Acts vii. 2, 6, 23-36, and Paul, 2 Tim. iii. 8, and was thankful that he had been prevented from
supply parts omitted by the historian?  (Lange, shedding innocent blood. The beauty and prudence
Bibel-werk, on Mark ii. 26.) The subsequent of Abigail made such an impression upon David
intimacy of David and Abiathar may have derived  o this occasion, that when, not long after he heard
some of its strength from earlier relations betweenof Nabal's death, he sent for her, and she became
them.-W. L. A.                                his wife (I Sam. xxv. 14-42). By her it is usually
ABIB. [NISAN.]                              stated that he had two sons, Chileab and Daniel;
but it is more likely that the Chileab of 2 Sam.
ABICHT, IN. GE. Doctor and Professor of iii. 3 is the same as the Daniel of I Chron. iii. I.Theology, and General Superintendent at Witten- J. K.
berg, and formerly Professor of Hebrew at Leipzig,  2. A sister of David (I Chron. ii. x6; 2 Sam.
was born at Kinigsee, March o1, I672, and died  xvii. 25), wife of Jether an Ishmaelite, who, in
at Wittenberg, 5th January 1740.   He wrote, Samuel is called an Israelite, probably by a clerical
besides several dissertations on passages of Scrip- error.-W. L. A.
ture,'Accentus Hebreorum; acced. anonymi 
Judaei Porta accentum  (nln 1W)' Leipz.         ABIHAIL, father of ightorsplendour;
1715, 8vo;'Exercitatio de servorum  Heb., ac- Sept.'Apatat), the wife of Rehoboam, king of
quisitione et servitiis.' Leipz., I704, 4to. — W.L.A. Judah.  She is called the daughter of Eliab,
David's elder brother (2 Chron. xi. i8): but, as
ABIDAN (       ), captain of the tribe of Ben- David began to reign more than eighty years before
jamin at the Exodus (Num. i. I; il. 22, etc.)  her marriage, and was thirty years old when he




ABIHAIL                   13,                ABIJAH
became king, we are doubtless to understand that Jeroboam, king of Israel, and he reigned three
she was only a descendant of Eliab. This name, years. At the commencement of his reign, looking
as borne by a female, illustrates the remarks under on the well-founded separation of the ten tribes
AB.-J. K.                                   from the house of David as rebellion, Abijah made
ABIHAIL (M /  tK fa/therofmight, i.e, mighty; a vigorous attempt to bring them back to their.... ABI:AI  fhrfallegiance. In this he failed, although a signal
Sept.'ALXat'X). This name, although the same victory over Jeroboam, who had double his force
ias the preceding in the authorized version, is, in and much greater experience, enabled him to take
the original, different both in orthography and several cities which had been held by Israel. The
signification.  It should be written ABICHAIL. speech which Abijah addressed to the opposing
The name was borne by several persons: I. army before the battle has been much admired. It
ABICHAIL, the son of Huri, one of the family- was well suited to its object, and exhibits correct
chiefs of the tribe of Gad, who settled in Bashan notions of the theocratical institutions. His view
(I Chron. v. I4); 2. ABICHAIL, the father of of the political position of the ten tribes with respect
Zuriel, who was the father of the Levitical tribes to the house of David is, however, obviously erroof Merari (Num. iii. 35); 3. ABICHAIL, the father neous, although such as a king of Judah was likely
of queen Esther, and uncle of Mordecai (Esth. to take. The numbers reputed to have been preii I5).-J. K.                               sent in this action are 800,00o on the side of
Jeroboam, 400,000 on the side of Abijah, and
ABIHU (^, wose father H,500,000 left dead on the field. Hales and others
Sept.'A/toi)), the second of the sons of Aaron, regard these extraordinary numbers as corruptions,
who, with his brothers Nadab, Eleazar, and and propose to reduce them to 80,000, 40,000, and
Ithamar, was consecrated for the priesthood  50,000 respectively, as in the Latin Vulgate of
(Exod. xxviii. I). When, at the first establish- Sixtus Quintus, and many earlier editions, and in
ment of the ceremonial worship, the victims the old Latin translation of Josephus; and probably
offered on the great brazen altar were consumed also in his original Greek text, as is collected by
by fire from heaven, it was directed that this fire De Vignoles from Abarbanel's charge against the
should always be kept up; and that the daily historian of having, made Jeroboam's loss no more,
incense should be burnt in censers filled with than 50,000 men, contrary to the Hebrew text
it from the great altar. But one day, Nadab  (Kennicott's Dissertations, i. 533; ii. 20I, etc. 564).
and Abihu presumed to neglect this regulation, The book of Chronicles mentions nothing conand offered incense in censers filled with'strange' cerning Abijah adverse to the impressions which
or common fire.  For this they were instantly we receive from his conduct on this occasion; but
struck dead by lightning, and were taken away in Kings we are told that'he walked iri all the sins
and buried. in their clothes without the camp. of his father' (x Kings xv. 3). He had fourteen
[AARON.] There can be no doubt that this severe wives, by whom he had twenty-two sons and sixexample had the intended effect of enforcing be- teen daughters. Asa succeeded him.
coming attention to the most minute observances  There is a difficulty connected with the maternity
of the ritual service. As immediately after the of Abijah.  In I Kings xv. 2, we read,' His
record of this transaction, and in apparent refer- mother's name was Maachah, the daughter of
ence to it, comes a prohibition of wine or strong Abishalom;' but in 2 Chron. xiii. 2,'His mother's
drink to the priests, whose turn it might be to name was Michaiah, the daughter of Uriel of
enter the tabernacle, it is not unfairly surmised Gibeah.' Maachah and Michaiah are variations of
that, Nadab and Abihu were intoxicated when the same name; and Abishalom is in all likelihood
they committed this serious error in their ministra- Absalom, the son of David. The word (nl) rentions (Lev. x. I-I I).-J. K.                dered'daughter' is applied in the Bible not only
ABIJAH (R  V   Sept.'AO  2 Chron. to a man's child, but to his niece, grand-daughter,
TABI   -:n; Sept.'     Chro..  or great-grand-daughter. It is therefore probable
xiii. I.  Paler 7ehov&e, i. e., virdivinus, ut videtur, that Uriel of Gibeah married Tamar, the beautiful
i. q. D13lS  W,' Gesenius in Thesaur.; [7ehovah daughter of Absalom (2 Sam. xiv. 27), and by her
ist Versorger, Fiirst; whosefather is yehovah, Al.]; had Maachah, who was thus the\ daughter of Uriel
Sept.'A&id). I. One of the sons of Samuel,whose and grand-daughter of Absalom. [But, as it apmisconduct afforded the ostensible ground on which pears from I Kings xv. o1, that Abijah's wife was
the Israelites demanded that their government also Maachah, the daughter of Absalom, and as he
should be changed into a monarchy (i Sam. viii. could not marry his mother, and the supposition
1-5), A. V. Abiah.                          that this Maachah was the daughter of his mother
2. The son and successor of Rehoboam. He by a former husband (Brentano) is burdened with
is also called Abijam (0S4K; Sept.'A/Qo6, I Kings the difficulty, not only that in this case daughter
xv. I). Lightfoot (Harm. O. T. in loc.) thinks must mean great-grand-daughter, but that Abijah
that the writer in Chronicles, not describing his nmust have married his step-sister, some have
reign as wicked, admits the sacred JAH in his name; supposed there were two Maachahs, the one the:
whilst the book of Kings, charging him  with descendant of Absalom and the wife of Rehoboam,
following the evil ways of his father, changes the other the descendant of Uriel and the wife of
this into JAM.  This is not fanciful; for such Abijah. In this case there is in 2 Chron. a mistake
changes of name were not unusual [but it is pro- of the one Maachah for the other. See Bertheau,
bably unnecessary, as it is doubtful whether Abijam  Die Biichc d. Chronik, and Thenius, Die Bi;cher
be the. correct reading, and not a merely clerical d. Kadnige, on the places. Some, however, take
mistake, some MSS. (I2 of Kenn.) giving Abijah; mother in I Kings xv. Io to mean grandmother
and this being the reading followed by the LXX. [MAACHAH], but this is improbable.]
and Syr. versions]. Abijah began to reign B.C.  3, Son of Jeroboam I., king of Israel. His
958 (Hales, B.C. 973), in the eighteenth year of severe and threatening illness induced Jeroboam to




ABIJAM                    14               ABILENE
send his wife with a present,* suited to the disguise with the belief that the region of Damascus was the
in which she went, to consult the prophet Ahijah land of Eden. But the same has been said of other
respecting his recovery.  This prophet was the places bearing the name of Abel or Abila, and
same who had, in the days of Solomon, foretold to appears to have originated in the belief (created by
Jeroboam his elevation to the throne of Israel. the Septuagint and the versions which followed it)
Though blind with age, he knew the disguised wife that the words are identical, which they are not,
of Jeroboam, and was authorized, by the prophetic the one being Hebel ($:I), and the other Abel
impulse that came upon him, to reveal to her that,,
because there was found in Abijah only, of all the (1K)  However, under the belief that the place
house of Jeroboam,' some good thing towards the and district derived their name from Abel, a monuLord,' he only, of all that house, should come to ment upon the top of a high hill, near the source of'
his grave in peace, and be mourned in Israel. the river Barrada, which rises among the eastern
Accordingly, when the mother returned home, the roots of Anti-Libanus, and waters Damascus, has
youth died as she crossed the threshold of the door. long been pointed out as the tomb of Abel, and its'And they buried him, and all Israel mourned for length (thirty yards) has been alleged to correspond
him' (I Kings xiv. i-IS).with his stature!                   (Quaresmius, Elucid. Terra
4. One of the descendants of Eleazar, the son of Sancfi, vii 7, I; Maundrell, under May 4th).
Aaron, and chief of one of the twenty-four courses This spot is on the road from Heliopolis (Baalbec)
or orders into which the whole body of the priest- to Damascus, between which towns-thirty-twc
hood was divided by David (I Chron. xxiv. 10). Roman miles from the former, and eighteen from
Of these, the course of Abijah was the eighth. Only the latter-Abila is indeed placed in the Itinerary
four of the courses returned from the captivity, of of Antoninus. About the same distance north-west
which that of Abijah was not one (Ezra ii. 36-39; of Damascus is Suk Wady Barrada, where an inNeh. vii. 39-42; xii. ). But the four were divided scription was found by Mr. Banks, which, beyond
into the original number of twenty-four, with the doubt, identifies that place with the Abila of
original names; and it hence happens that Zecha- Lysanias (Quart. Rev. xxvi 388; Hogg's Damascus,
rias, the father of John the Baptist, is described as i. 30I). Souk means market, and is an appellation
belonging to the course of Abijah or'Abia' (Luke often added to villages where periodical markets
i 5).-J. K                                  are held. The name of Sfik (Wady) Barrada first
Other persons of this name are mentioned, I occurs in Burckhardt (Syria, p. 2); and he states
Chron. ii 24; I Chron. vii. 8; -2 Chron. xxix.  that there are here two villages built on the opposite
[ABI]; Neh. x. 7.                           sides of the Barrada. The lively and refreshing
~ABIJAM.~ [As~ijAH~             green of this neighbourhood is noticed by him and
ABIJAM. [ABIJAII. Jother travellers, and may be urged in support or
ABILA, capital of the Abilene of Lysanias the opinion that Abel means in Hebrew a grassy
(Luke iii. I); and distinguished from other places spot (Stanley, Syr. and Pal. p. 414).
of the same name as the Abila of Lysanias ('Al/3X7  ABILENE ('Aflr\VX, Luke iii. I), the district or
ou0 Avaavlov), and (by Josephus) as'the Abila of territory which took its name from the chief town,
Lebanon.' It is unnecessary to reason upon the Abila. Its situation is in some degree determined
meaning of this Greek name; for it is obviously a by that of the town; but its precise limits and exform of the Hebrew Abel, which was applied to tent remain unknown. Northward it must have
several places. This has been supposed to be the reached beyond the Upper Barrada, in order to
same as Abel-beth-Maacah, but without founda- include Abila; and it is probable that its southern
tion, for that was a city of Naphtali, which Abila border may have extended to Mount Hermon (Jebel
was not. An old tradition fixes this as the place es-Sheikh). It seems to have included the eastern
where Abel was slain by Cain, which is in unison declivities of Anti-Libanus, and the fine valleys
between its base and the hills which front the
[* "From time immemorial it has been the uni- eastern plains. This is a very beautiful and fertile
versal custom in the East to send presents to one region, well wooded and watered by numerous
another. No one waits upon an eastern prince, or springs from Anti-Libanus.  It also affords fine
any person of distinction, without a present. This pastures; and in most respects contrasts with the
is a token of respect which is never dispensed with; ster and barren western slopes of Anti-Libanus.
how mean and inconsiderable soever the gift, the in-  This territory had been governed as a tetrarchate
tention of the giver is accepted. Plutarch informs by Lysanias, son of Ptolemy and grandson of Menus that a peasant happening to fall in the way of naeus (Joseph. Antiq. xiv. 13, 3), but he was put
Artaxerxes, the Persian monarch, in one of his to death, B.C. 36, through the intrigues of Cleoexcursions, having nothing to present to his sove- patra, who then took possession of the province
reign according to theOriental custom, the country- (Antiq. xv. 4, I).  After her death it fell to
man immediately ran to an adjacent stream, filled Augustus, who rented it out to one Zenodorus; but
both his hands, and offered it to his prince. The as he did not keep it clear of robbers, it was taken
monarch, says the philosopher, smiled, and graci- from him, and given to Herod the Great (Antq.
ously received it, highly pleased with the good xv. o1, I; Bell. ud. i. 20, 4).  At his death, a
dispositions this action manifested. All the books part (the southern, doubtless) of the territory was
of modern travellers into the East abound with added toTrachonitis and Iturea, to form a tetrarchy
numberless examples of this universally prevalent for his son Philip; but by far the larger portion,
custom of waiting upon great men with presents; including the city of Abila, was then, or shortly
unaccompanied with which, should a stranger pre- afterwards, bestowed on another Lysanias, mensume to enter their houses, it would be deemed the tioned by Luke (iii. I), who is supposed to have
last outrage and violation of politeness and respect" been a descendant of the former Lysanias, but who
(Harwood, Introd. II. 287, quoted by Home, vol. is nowhere mentioned byJosephus. Indeed, nothing
iii. p. 433).                               is said by him or any other profane writer of this




ABIMELECH                    15               ABIMELECH
part of Abilene until about ten years after the time had some of the most odious principles of despotism
referred to by Luke, when the emperor Caligula taken root in the East. Nothing further is recorded
gave it to Agrippa I. as' the tetrarchy of Lysanias. of King Abimelech, except that a few years after,
(Joseph. Antiq. xviii. 6, Io), to whom it was after- he repaired to the camp of Abraham, who had rewards confirmed by Claudius.' At his death it was moved southward beyond his borders, accompanied
included in that part of his possessions which went by Phichol,' the chief captain of his host,' to invite
to his son Agrippa II. This explanation (which the patriarch to contract with him a league of peace
we owe to the acuteness and research of Winer), and friendship. Abraham consented; and this first
as to the division of Abilene between Lysanias and league on record [ALLIANCES] was confirmed by a
Philip, removes the apparent discrepancy in Luke, mutual oath, made at a well which had been dug
who calls Lysanias tetrarch of Abilene at the very by Abraham, but which the herdsmen of Abimelech
time that, according to Josephus, (a part of) Abilene had forcibly seized without his knowledge. It was
was in the possession of Philip (See. S. Literature, restored to the rightful owrer,,on which Abraham
July 1853). ['There is no evidence that a part of named it BEERSHEBA (the Well of the Oath), and
the territory of the older Lysanias had not remained consecrated the spot to the worship of Jehovah
in his family..... Now, since Abila is first (Gen. xxi. 22-34).
named as belonging to the tetrarchy of a later  2. Another king of Gerar, in the time of Isaac
Lysanias (Jos. Antiq. xix. 5, I), and since the king- (about B.C. 1804; Hales, I960), who is supposed
dom of the older Lysanias is nowhere called a to have been the son of the preceding. Isaac
tetrarchy, whilst the territory of the later Lysanias sought refuge in his territory during a famine; and
is so called, it must not be assumed that Josephus, having the same'fear respecting his fair Mesopowhen he mentions "A#iXav Tav v Avaavtou (Antiq. xix. tamian wife, Rebekah, as his father had entertained
5, I), and speaks of a tetrarchy of Lysanias (Anti. respecting Sarah, he reported her to be his sister.
xx. 7, I, comp. Bell. ud. ii. II, 5; ii. 2, I8), This brought upon him the rebuke of Abimelech,
denominates the district in question from that older when he accidentally discovered the truth. The
Lysanias, but that before 790, when Caligula was country appears to have become more cultivated
in power, there existed a tetrarchy of a later Ly- and populous than at the time of Abraham's visit,
sanias, to whom Abila without doubt belonged as nearly a century before; and the inhabitants were
a residence.  In this case it is of no moment more jealous of the presence of such powerful
whether this Lysanias was a descendant or relation  pastoral chieftains. In those times, as now, wells
of the former or not (See Krebs Obss. p. 12). of water were of so much importance for agricultuThus the notice of Luke is not proved an error by ral as well as pastoral purposes, that they gave a
Josephus, but is corroborated by him' (Meyer, proprietary right to the soil, not previously approHandbuch on the place. See also the full discus- priated, in which they were dug. Abraham had
sion of this whole question by Wieseler in his dug wells during his sojourn in the country; and,
ChronologischeSynopseDe eriervangelien, pp. 74- to bar the claim which resulted from them, the
I83). It may be added that Pococke found a Greek  Philistines had afterwards filled them up; but they
inscription at Nebi Abel, in which Lysanias is were now cleared out by Isaac, who proceeded to
called Tetrarch of Abilene; and this appears also cultivate the ground to which they gave him a
on a coin (Pococke, Travels, bk. ii ch. 7; Bockh, right. The virgin soil yielded him a hundred-fold;
Inscrp. 4521, 4523).                          and his other possessions, his flocks, and herds,
ABIMELECH                         kinT~nT-ppT- /-tywsi^  f^ ^ g, or ^also received such prodigious increase that the
ABIMELECH  (ter of te                  jealousy of the Philistines could not be suppressed;
perhaps royal father; Sept.'ABqgAXex), the name and Abimelech desired him to seek more distant
of several Philistine kings, and probably less a quarters, in language which gives a high notion of
proper name than a titular distinction of these the wealth of the patriarchal chiefs, and the extent
kings, like PHARAOH for the kings of Egypt, or of their establishments:-' Depart from us: for thou
AuGUSTUS for the emperors of Rome.            art more and mightier than we.' Isaac complied,
I. A king of Gerar in the days of Abraham. and went out into the open country, and dug wells
The latter (Gen. xx. i ff. B.c. I898; Hales, B.C. for his cattle; But the shepherds of the Philistines
2054) removed into his territory after the destruc- were not inclined to allow the claim to exclusive
tion of Sodom; and fearing that the extreme beauty pasturage in these districts to be thus established;
of Sarah might bring him into difficulties, he and their opposition induced the quiet patriarch to
declared her to be his sister.  The conduct of make successive removals, until he reached such a
Abimelech in taking Sarah into his harem shews distance that his operations were no longer disthat even in those early times kings claimed the puted. Afterwards, when he was at Beersheba,
right of taking to themselves the unmarried females he received a visit from  Abimelech, who was
not only of their natural subjects, but of those who attended by Ahuzzath, his friend, and Phichol, the
sojourned in their dominions.  Another contem- chief captain of his army. They were received
porary instance of this custom occurs in Gen. xii. 15; with some reserve by Isaac; but when Abimelech
and one of later date in Esth. ii. 3. But Abime- explained that it was his wish to renew, with one
lech, obedient to a divine warning, restored her to so manifestly blessed of God, the covenant of peace
her husband. As a mark of his respect he added  and goodwill which had been contracted between
valuable gifts, and offered the patriarch a settle- their fathers, they were more cheerfully entertained,
ment in any part of the country; but he nevertheless and the desired covenant was, with due ceremony,
did not forbear to rebuke the deception which had  contracted accordingly. (Gen. xxvi.) From the
been practised upon him (Gen. xx.) It appears to facts recorded respecting the connection of the two
have been admitted, on all hands, that he had an  Abimelechs with Abraham and Isaac, it is manifest
undoubted right to appropriate to his harem what- that the Philistines, even at this early time, had a
ever unmarried woman he pleased-the evil in this government more organized, and more in unison
case being that Sarah was already married: so early with that type which we now regard as Oriental,




ABIMELECH                    16                 ABISHAI
than appeared among the native Canaanites, oneestablish a monarchy in Israel. The chapter in
of whose nations had been expelled by these which these events are recorded (Judg. ix.) gives a
foreign settlers from the territory which they occu- more detailed and lively view of the military opepied. [PHILISTINES.]                         rations of that age than elsewhere occurs, and
3. A son of Gideon, by a concubine-wife, a claims the close attention of those who study that
native of Slechem, where her family had conside- branch of antiquities. Abimelech himself appears
rable influence. Through that influence Abimelech  to have been a bold and able commander, but
was proclaimed king after the death of his father, utterly uncontrolled by religion, principle, or
who had himself refused that honour, when humanity in his ambitious enterprises.  His fate
tendered to him, both for himself and his children resembled that of Pyrrhus II., king of Epirus
(Judges ix. I-6). In a short time, a considerable (Justin. xxv. 5; Pausan. i. 3; Plut. Vit.'Pyr.,
part of Israel seems to have recognised his rule. Strabo, p. 376. The dread of the ignominy of its
One of the first acts of his reign was to destroy his being said of a warrior that he died by a woman's
brothers, seventy in number, according to a system  hand was very general (Sophocl. Trach. o64;
of barbarous state policy of which there have been  Senec. Here. Oet. 176). Vainly did Abimelech
frequent instances in the East. They were slain seek to avoid this disgrace; for the fact of his'on one stone' at Ophrah, the native city of the death by the hand of a woman was long after
family. Only one, the youngest, named Jotham, associated with his memory (z Sam. xi. 2).escaped; and he had the boldness to make his J. K.
appearance on Mount Gerizim, where the She-     4 In Chron. xviii. 16, a priest named Abimelech
chemites were assembled for some public purpose is mentioned, but this is evidently an error for
(perhaps to inaugurate Abimelech), and rebuke Ahimelech. Comp. ch. xxiv. 3-6; 2 Sam. viii. I7'
them in his famous parable of the trees choosing a and in the inscription of Ps. xxxiv. we have
king  UOTHAM]. In the course of three years the Abimelech for Achish. [ACHISH.]
Shechemites repenting of what they had done,
revolted in Abimelech's absence, and caused an  ABINADAB (!s        fatherofnobless; Sept.
ambuscade to be laid in the mountains, with the'Atwcvadc8).  There are several persons of this
design of destroying him  on his return.  But name, all of whom are also called AMINADABZebul, his governor in Shechem, contrived to the letters b and m being very frequently interapprise him of these circumstances, so that he was changed in Hebrew.
enabled to, avoid the snare laid for him; and,  I. One of the eight sons of Jesse, and one of
having hastily assembled some troops, appeared  the three who followed Saul to the war with the
unexpectedly before Shechem. The people of that Philistines (I Sam. xvi. 8; xvii. 13).
place had meanwhile secured the assistance of one  2. One of Saul's sons, who was slain at the
Gaal and his followers [GAAL], who marched out battle of Gilboa (i Sam. xxxi. 2).
to give Abimelech battle.  He was defeated, and  3. The Levite of Kirjath-jearim, in whose house,
returned into the town; and his inefficiency and which was on a hill, the Ark of the Covenant was
misconduct in the action had been so manifest, deposited, after being brought back from the land
that the people were induced by Zebul to expel of the Philistines. It was committed to the special
him and his followers [Comp. Joseph. Antiq. v. charge of his son Eleazar; and remained there
7, 4]. Although without his protection, the people seventy years, until it was removed by David (I
still went out to the labours of the field. This Sam. vii. I, 2; I Chron. xiii. 7). [ARK.]-T. K.
being told Abimelech, who was at Arumah, lie
laid an ambuscade of four troops in the neigh-  ABIRAM (tn._:, father of altitude, i. e., high;
bourhood; and when the men came forth in the  Sept.'Apeipbv). i. One of the family-chiefs of the
morning, two of the ambushed parties rose against tribe of Reuben, who, with Dathan and On of the
them, while the other two seized the city gates to same tribe, joined Korah, of the tribe of Levi, in
prevent their return. Afterwards the whole force a conspiracy against Aaron and Moses (Num, xvi.)
united against the city, which, being now deprived [AARON.]
of its most efficient inhabitants, was easily taken.  2. The eldest son of Hiel the Bethelite (I Kings
It was completely destroyed by the exasperated xvi. 34). [HIEL; JERICHO.]-J. K.
victor, and the ground strewn with salt, symbolical                    r      e     
of the desolation to which it was doomed. The   ABISHAG     (IlWtg;, father of error; Sept.
fortress, however, still remained; butthe occupants,'A[nccy), a beautiful young woman of Shunam,
deeming it untenable, withdrew to the temple of in the tribe of Issachar, who was chosen by the
Baal-Berith, which stood in a more commanding servants of David to be introduced into the royal
situation. Abimelech employed his men in col- harem, for the special purpose of ministering to
lecting and piling wood against this building, which him, and cherishing him in his old age. She bewas then set on fire and destroyed, with the came his wife; but the marriage was never conthousand men who were in it. Afterwards Abime- summated. Some time after the death of David,
lech went to reduce Thebez, which had also re- Adonijah, his eldest son, persuaded Bathsheba,
volted. The town was taken with little difficulty, the mother of Solomon, to entreat the king that
and the people withdrew into the citadel. Here Abishag might be given to him in marriage. But
Abimelech resorted to his favourite operation, and as rights and privileges peculiarly regal were assowhile heading a party to burn down the gate, he ciated with the control and possession of the
was struck on the head by a large stone cast down harem of the deceased kings, Solomon detected in
by a woman from the wall above. Perceiving that this application a fresh aspiration to the throne,
he had received a death-blow, he directed his which he visited with death (I Kings i. 1-4; ii. 13armour-bearer to thrust him through with his 25). [ADONIJAH.]J. K.
sword, lest it should be said that he fell by a
woman's hand. Thus ended the first attempt to   ABISHAI (wie3n, father of a gift; Sept.




ABISHALOM                    17                ABIYONAH'A3e~o-d and'A/tadt), a nephew of David by his  ABIYONAH (,:ij9~; Sept. Kctdrraps). This
half-sister Zeruiah, and brother of Joab and Asahel. word occurs only once in the Bible, Eccles. xii. 5:
The three brothers devoted themselves zealously'When the almond-tree shall flourish, and the
to the interests of their uncle during his wanderings. grasshopper shall be a burden, and desire shall
Though David had more reliance upon the talents fail; because man goeth to his long home.' The
of Joab, he appears to have given more of his
private confidence to Abishai, who seems to have  >
attached himself in a peculiar manner to his person,
as we ever find him near, and ready for council or
action, on critical occasions. Abishai was one of          i 
the two persons whom David asked to accompany        (
him to the camp of Saul; and he alone accepted
the perilous distinction (I Sam. xxvi. 5-9). The 
desire he then expressed to smite the sleeping king,
identifies him as the man who afterwards burned
to rush upon Shimei and slay him for his abuse of
David (2 Sam. xvi. 9). For when the king fled
beyond the Jordan from Absalom, Abishai was                                 "
again by his side: and he was entrusted with the 
command of one of the three divisions of the army 
which crushed that rebellion (2 Sam. xviii. 2).
Afterwards, in a war with the Philistines, Davidl 
was in imminent peril of his life from a giant named\                            Y
Ishbi-benob; but was rescued by Abishai, who
slew the giant (2 Sam. xxi. 15-17). He was also 
the chief of the three' mighties,' who, probably in 
the same war, performed the chivalrous exploit of
breaking through the host of the Philistines to
procure David a draught of water from the well
of his native Bethlehem  (2 Sam. xxiii. 14-17).
Among the exploits of this hero it is mentioned
that he withstood 300 men and slew them with his
spear: but the occasion of this adventure, and the
time and manner of his death, are equally unknown.
In 2 Sam. viii 13, the victory over the Edomites               Capparis spinosa.
in the Valley of Salt is ascribed to David, but in
I Chron. xviii 12, to Abishai. It is hence probable word translated desire is ABIYONAH, which by
that the victory was actually gained by Abishai, others has been considered to signify the CAPERbut is ascribed to David as king and commander- PLANT.  The reasons assigned for the latter
in-chief.-J.K.                                opinion are: that the Rabbins apply the term
ABISHALOM (Di,S'hil     caAja czu the father abionoth to the small fruit of trees and berries, as
well as to that of the caper-bush; that the caperof Maachah, who was the wife of Rehoboam, and bush is common in Syria and Arabia; that its fruit
the mother of Abijam his successor on the throne was in early times eaten as a condiment, being
of Judah (I Kings xiv. 31; xv. 2, o1). That this stimulating in its nature, and therefore calculated
name is only a fuller form of Absalom (I~UZiRK) is to excite desire; that as the caper-bush grows on
evident from  the latter being assigned by the tombs, it will be liable to be destroyed when these
Chronicler to the father of Maachah (2 Chron. xi. are opened; and, finally, that as Solomon speaks
20, 2I).  The party referred to was doubtless here in symbols and allegories, we must suppose
Absalom the son of David. To 2 Sam. xiv. 27, him to deviate from the course he had apparently
there is a clause added by the LXX to the effect prescribed to himself, if he were to express in plain
that Thamar the daughter of Absalom was the wife words that' desire shall fail,' instead of intimating
of Rehoboam and the mother of Abijah. This is the same thing, by the failure of that which is
obviously wrong, but the statement may be com- supposed to have been used to excite desire.
pared with that of Josephus, that Maacah was the  Celsius (Hierobotanicon, i. 210) argues, on the
daughter of Thamar (Antiq. viii. io, i). According contrary,that Solomon in other places, when treatto this, Maacah was thegrand-daughter of Absalom. ing of the pleasures of youth, never speaks of capers,
[ABIJAH; MAACHAH. ]-W. L.A.                   but of wine and perfumes; that, had he wished to
_ABISHUA    (JetW, father of welfare; Sep7t. adduce anything of the kind, he would have seABISHUA _   ~,  father of welfare; Sept. lected something more remarkable; that capers,'Atco-o6), the son of Phinehas, and fourth high- moreover, instead of being pleasantly stimulant,
priest of the Jews (I Chron. vi. 50). The com- are rather acrid and hurtful, and though occasionmencement and duration of his pontificate are ally employed by the ancients as condiments, were
uncertain, but the latter is inferred from circum- little esteemed by them; and, finally, that the word
stances, confirmed by the Chronicon of Alexandria, abionoth of the Rabbins is distinct from the abiyonah
to have included the period in which Ehud was of this passage, as is admitted even by Ursinus:
judge, and probably the preceding period of'Nam quod vocabulum     me'Pans Abionoth, quod
servitude to Eglon of Moab.  Blair places him  Rabbinis usitatum, alia quaedam puncta habeat,
from B.C. 1352 to I302-equivalent to Hales, B.c. non puto tanti esse momenti' (Arboret. Biblicum,
1513 to 1463. This high-priest is called Abiezer xxviii. I). To this Celsius replies:'Immo, nisi
by Josephus (Antiq. v. II, 5).-J. K           vocales et puncta genuina in Ebraicis observentur,
VOI,..C




ABIYONAH                    18                ABLUTION
Babelica fiet confusio, et ccelo terra miscebitur. been supposed to refer to the whitening of the hair,
Incertum pariter pro certo assumunt, qui cappares so the drooping of the ripe fruit of a plant like the
volunt proprie abionoth dici Rabbinis' (/. c. p. caper, which is conspicuous on the walls of build2I3).                                        ings, and on tombs, may be supposed to typify the
But as the Septuagint, the Vulgate, and some hanging down of the head before'man goeth to
other translations, have understood the caper-bush his long home.'-J.F. R.
to be meant, it is desirable to give some account of
it, especially as, from its ornamental nature, it  ABLUTION, the ceremonialwashing, whereby,
could not but attract attention. There are, more- as a symbol of purification from uncleanness, a perover, some points in its natural history which have son was considered-I. to be cleansed from the
been overlooked, but which may serve to shew thattait of an inferior and less pure condition, and
in the passage under review it might without impro- initiated into a higher and purer state 2. to be
priety have been employed in carrying out the figu- cleansed from the soil of common life, and fitted
rative language with which the verse commences.  for special acts of religious service; 3. to be cleansed
The caper-plant belongs to a tribe of plants, the from defilements contracted by particular acts or
Capparideae, of which the species are found in con- circumstances, and restored to the privileges of
siderable numbers in tropical countries, such as ordinary life; 4. as absolving or purifying himself,
India, whence they extend northwards into Arabia, or declaring himself absolved and purified, from the
the north of Africa, Syria, and the south of Europe. guilt ofa particular act. We do not meet with any
The common caper-bush-Capparis spinosa, Linn. such ablutions in patriarchal times: but under the
(the C. sativa of Persoon) —is common in theMosaical dispensation they all occur.
countries immediately surrounding the Mediter-  A marked example of the first kind of ablution
ranean. Dioscorides describes it as spreading in a occurs when Aaron and his sons, on their being set
circular manner on the ground, in poor soils and apart for the priesthood, were washed with water
rugged situations; and Pliny,'as being set and before they were invested with the priestly robes
sown in stony places especially.'  Theophrastus and anointed with the holy oil (Lev. viii. 6). To
states that it refuses to grow in cultivated ground. this head we are inclined to- refer the ablution of
Dioscorides describes it as having thorns like a persons and raiment which was commanded to the
bramble, leaves like the quince, and fruit like the whole of the Israelites, as a preparation to their
olive; characters almost sufficient to identify it. receiving the law from Sinai (Exod. xix. 10-I5).
The caper is well known to the Arabs, being their We also find examples of this kind of purification
~..a-  d. desinae  ao b      in connection with initiation into a higher state.;x kibbur; and designated also by the name Thus those admitted into the lesser or introductory
athuf or azu. The bark ofthe root, which - mysteries of Eleusis were previously purified on the
\ ahufor azuf      The bark of the root, which banks of the Ilissus, by water being poured upon
is still used in the East, as it formerly was in them by the Hydranos.
Europe, no doubt possesses some irritant property,  The second kind of ablution was that which
as it was one of the five aperient roots. The un- required the priests, on pain of death, to wash their
expanded flower-buds, preserved in vinegar, are hands and their feet before they approached the
well known at our tables as a condiment by the altar of God (Exod. xxx. 17-21). For this purpose
name of capers. Parts of the plant seem to have a large basin of water was provided both at the
been similarly used by the ancients.         tabernacle and at the temple. To this the Psalmist
The caper-plant is showy and ornamental, grow- alludes when he says-' I will wash my hands in
ing in barren places in the midst of the rubbish of innocency, and so will I compass thine altar' (Ps.
ruins, or on the walls of buildings. It was observed xxvi. 6). Hence it became the custom in the early
by Ray on the Temple of Peace at Rome, and in Christian church for the ministers, in the view of
other similar situations. It forms a much-branched, the congregation, to wash their hands in a basin
diffuse shrub, which annually loses its leaves. of water brought by the deacon, at the commenceThe branches are long and trailing; smooth, but ment of the communion (Bingham, Antiq.bk.xv. c.3,
armed with double curved stipulary spines. The { 4); and this practice, or something like it, is still releaves are alternate, roundish or oblong-oval, a tained in the easternchurches, as well as in the church
little fleshy, smooth, of a green colour, but some- of Rome, when mass is celebrated. -Similar ablutimes a little reddish. The flowers are large and tions by the priests before proceeding to perform
showy, produced singly in the axils of the leaves, the more sacred ceremonies were usual among the
on stalks which are larger than the leaves. The heathen. The Egyptian priests indeed carried the
calyx is four-leaved, coriaceous; the petals are also practice to a burdensome extent, from which the
four in number, white, and of an oval roundish Jewish priests were, perhaps designedly, exonerated;
form. The stamens are very numerous and long; and in their less torrid climate, it was for purposes of
and their filaments being tinged with purple, and real cleanliness, less needful. Reservoirs of water
terminated by the yellow anthers, give the flowers were attached to the Egyptian temples; and Heroa very agreeable appearance. The ovary is borne dotus (ii. 37) informs us that the priests shaved the
upon a straight stalk, which is a little longer than whole of their bodies every third day, that no insect
the stamens, and which, as it ripens, droops and or other filth might be upon them when they served
forms an oval or pear-shaped berry, enclosing within the gods, and that they washed themselves in cold
its pulp numerous small seeds.               water twice every day and twice every night:
Many of the caper tribe, being remarkable for Porphyry says thrice a day, with a nocturnal
the long stalks by which their fruit is supported, ablution occasionally. This kind of ablution, as
conspicuously display, what also takes place in other preparatory to a religious act, answers to the simple
plants, namely, the drooping and hanging down of Wdd2i of the Moslems, which they are required to
the fruit as it ripens. As, then, the flowering of go through five times daily before their stated
the almond-tree, in the first part of the verse, has prayers.  This makes the ceremonies of ablution




ABLUTION                    19                 ABLUTION
much more conspicuous to a traveller in the Moslem  deduce that meaning from it. It would indeed
East at the present day than they would appear prove too much if so understood, as Judith bathed in
among the ancient Jews, seeing that the law    the water, which is more than even the Moslems
imposed this obligation on the priests only, not on  do before their prayers. Moreover, this authority,
the people. Connected as these Moslem ablutions if clear, would not be conclusive.
are with various forms and imitative ceremonies,  But after the rise of the sect of the Pharisees, the
and recurring so frequently as they do, the avowedly practice of ablution was carried to such excess,
heavy yoke of even the Mosaic law seems light in from the affectation of excessive purity, that it is
the comparison.                               repeatedly brought under our notice in the New
In the third class of ablutions washing is re- Testament through the severe animadversions of our
garded as a purification from positive defilements. Saviour on the consummate hypocrisy involved in
The Mosaical law recognises eleven species of un- this fastidious attention to the external types of
cleanness of this nature (Lev. xii.-xv.), the purifi- moral purity, while the heart was left unclean.
cation for which ceased at the end of a certain  All the practices there exposed come under the
period, provided the unclean person then washed liead of purification from uncleanness;-the acts
his body and his clothes; but in a few cases, such as involving which were made so numerous that persons
leprosy and the defilements contracted by touching a of the stricter sect could scarcely move without
dead body, he remained unclean seven days after the contracting some involuntary pollution. For this
physical cause of pollution had ceased. This was reason they never entered their houses without
all that the law required: but in later times, when  ablution, _from the strong probability that they
the Jews began to refine upon it, these cases were had unknowingly contracted some defilement in
considered generic instead of specific-as repre- the streets; and these were peculiarly liable to
senting classes instead of individual cases of be defiled; and as washing the hands (Mark vii.
defilement-and the causes of pollution requiring  I-5), because theywere peculiary liable to be defiled;
purification by water thus came to be greatly in- and as unclean hands were held to communicreased.  This kind of ablution for substantial cate uncleanness to all food (excepting fruit) which
uncleanness answers to the Moslem  S  gnash, in they touched, it was deemed that there was no
security against eating unclean food but by always
which the causes of defilement greatly exceed those washing the hands ceremonially before touching
of the Mosaical law, while they are perhaps equalled  any meat.  We say'ceremonially,' because this
in number and minuteness by those which the later article refers only to ceremonial washing.  The
Jews devised. The uncleanness in this class arises Israelites, who, like other Orientals, fed with their
chiefly from the natural secretions of human beings fingers, washed their hands before meals, for the
and of beasts used for food; and, from the ordure sake of cleanliness. But these customary washings
of animals not used for food; and as among the  were distinct from the ceremonial ablutions, as they
Jews, the defilement may be communicated not are now among the Moslems. There were, indeed,
only to persons, but to clothes; utensils, and dwell- distinct names for them. The former was called
ings —in all which cases the purification must be.  ly  A  or 
made by water, or bysome representative a9t where smng                      which water was
water cannot be applied.                      poured upon the hands; the latter was called gllt-,
Of the last class of ablutions, by which persons plunging, because the hands were plunged in water
declared themselves free from the guilt of a parti-(Lightfoot on Mark vii. 4).  It was this last,
cular action, the most remarkable instance is that namely, the ceremonial ablution, which the Phariwhich occurs in the expiation for an unknown   sees judged to be so necessary. When therefore
murder, when the elders of the nearest village some of that sect remarked that our Lord's disciples
washed their hands over the expiatory heifer, be- ate with'unwashen hands' (Mark vii. 2), it is not
headed in the valley, saying'Our hands have not to be understood literally that they did not at all
shed this blood, neither have our eyes seen it' (Deut. wash their hands, but that they did not plunge them
xxi. I-9). It has been thought by some that the ceremonially according to their own practice. And
signal act of Pilate, when he washed his hands in this was expected from them only as the disciples of
water and declared himself innocent of the blood of a religious teacher; for these refinements were not
Jesus (Matt. xxvii. 24), was a designed adoption of practised by the class of people from which the
the Jewish custom: but this supposition does not disciples were chiefly drawn. Their wonder was,
appear necessary, as the custom was also common  that Jesus had not inculcated this observance on
among the Greeks and Romans.                   his followers, and not, as some have fancied, that
We have confined this notice to the usages of he had enjoined them to neglect what had been
ablution as a sign of purification sanctioned or their previous practice.
demanded by the law itself. Other practices not  In at least an equal degree the Pharisees multhere indicated appear to have existed at a very tiplied the ceremonial pollutions which required
early period, or to have grown up in the course of the ablution of inanimate objects-' cups and pots,
time. From I Sam. xvi. 5, compared with Exod. brazen vessels and tables;' the rules given in the
xix. 10-14, we learn that it was usual for those who law (Lev. vi. 28; xi. 32-36; xv. 23) being extended
presented or provided a sacrifice to purify them- to these multiplied contaminations.  Articles of
selves by ablution: and as this was everywhere a earthenware which were of little value were to be
general practice, it may be supposed to have existed broken; and those of metal and wood were to be
in patriarchal times, and, being an established and scoured and rinsed with water. All these matters
approved custom, not to have required to be men- are fully described by Buxtorf, Lightfoot, Gill, and
tioned in the law. There is a passage in the other writers of the same class, who present many
apocryphal book of Judith (xii. 7-9) which has striking illustrations of the passages of Scripture
been thought to intimate that the Jews performed which refer to them. The Mohammedan usages
ablutions before prayer.  But we cannot fairly of ablution, which offer many striking analogies,




ABNAIM                    20                 ABNER
are fully detailed in the third book of the Mirchat monarch was slain in the battle of Gilboa, David
ul Masdbih, and also in D'Ohsson's Tableau, liv. was made king over his own tribe of Judah, and
i. chap. i.-J. K.                            reigned in Hebron. In the other tribes an influence
ABNAIM    (    K).  This word is the dual adverse to Judah existed, and was controlled chiefly
*- t:                         by the tribe of Ephraim. Abner, with great decision
of p1, a stone, and in this form only occurs twice, availed himself of his state of feeling, and turned it
Exod. i. i6, and Jer. xviii. 3. In the latter passage to the advantage of the house to which he belonged,
it undeniably means a potter's wheel; but what it of which he was now the most important surviving
denotes in the former, or how to reconcile with the member. He did not, however, venture to propose
use of the word in the latter text any interpretation himself as king; but took Ishbosheth, a surviving
which can be assigned to it in the former, is a son of Saul, whose known imbecility had excused
question which (see Rosenmiiller in loc.) has mightily his absence from the fatal fight in which his father
exercised the ingenuity and patience of critics and and brothers perished, and made him king over the
philologers. The meaning appears to have been tribes, and ruled in his name. Ishbosheth reigned
doubtful even of old, and the ancient versions are in Mahanaim, beyond Jordan, and David in Hebron.
much at variance. The LXX. evades the difficulty A sort of desultory warfare arose between them, in
by the general expression 6rav &AIL irpbs rT TIKTCre, which the advantage appears to have been always'when they are about to be delivered,' and is on the side of David. The only one of the engagefollowed by the Vulgate,' et partus tempus ad- ments of which we have a particular account is that
veneit;' but our version is more definite, and has which ensued when Joab, David's general, and'and see them upon the stools.' This goes upon Abner, met and fought at Gibeon.  Abner was
the notion that the word denotes a particular kind beaten and fled for his life; but was pursued by
of open stool or chair constructed for the purpose Asahel, the brother of Joab and Abishai, who was
of delivering pregnant women. The usages of the'swift of foot as a wild roe.'  Abner, dreading a
East do not, however, acquaint us with any such blood-feud with Joab, for whom he seems to have
utensil, the employment of which, indeed, is not in entertained a sincere respect,.entreated Asahel to
accordance with the simple manners of ancient times. desist from the pursuit; but finding that he was
Others, therefore, suppose the word to denote stone still followed, and that his life was in danger, he at
or other bathing troughs, in which it was usual to length ran his pursuer through the body by a back
lave new-born infants. This conjecture is so far thrust with the pointed heel of his spear (2 Sam. ii
probable, that the midwife, if inclined to obey the 8-32). This put a strife of blood between the two
royal mandate, could then destroy the child without foremost men in all Israel (after David); for the law
check or observation. Accordingly, this interpreta- of honour which had from times before the law pretion is preferred by Gesenius (Thesaur. s. v. Jpt), vailed among the Hebrews, and which still prevails
quoting in illustration Thevenot (Itin. ii. 98), who in Arabia, rendered it the conventional duty of Joab
states' that the kings of Persia are so afraid of being to avenge the blood of his brother upon the person
deprived of that power which they abuse, and are by whom he had been slain [BLOOD-REVENGE.]
so apprehensive of being dethroned, that they cause  As time went on, Abner had occasion to feel
the male children of their female relations to be more strongly that he was himself not only the
destroyed in the stone bathing-troughs in which chief, but the only remaining prop of the house of
newly-born children are laved.' The question, how- Saul: and this conviction, acting upon a proud and
ever, is not as to the existence of the custom, but arrogant spirit, led him to more presumptuous conits application to the case in view. Professor Lee duct than even the mildness of the feeble Ishbosheth
(s. v.) who decides nearly in accordance with the could suffer to pass without question. He took to
LXX. and other ancient versions, none of which, his o~n harem a woman who had been a concubineas he remarks, say anything about wash-pots, stools, wife of Saul. This act, fromw the ideas connected
etc., gives reasons for understanding the command with the harem of a deceased king, was not only a
of Pharaoh thus:-' Observe, look carefully on the great impropriety, but was open to the suspicion of
two occasions (i. e., in which either a male or female a political design, which Abner may very possibly
child is born). If it be a son, then,' etc. [This have entertained. A mild rebuke from the nominal
word probably denotes here the pudenda muliebria, king, however, enraged him greatly; and he plainly
from an analogy between them and the generative declared that he would henceforth abandon his
power of the potter's wheel-' When ye look upon cause and devote himself to the interests of David.
the abnaim of the Hebrew women,' i. e. at the To excuse this desertion to his own mind, he then
moment of parturition. See Knobel in loc., and and on other occasions avowed his knowledge that
as a conversely analogous case, compare the modern the son of Jesse had been appointed by the Lord to
usage of the word matrix. Comp. the rendering reign over all Israel; but he appears to have been
of the LXX.]-J. K.                           unconscious that this avowal exposed his previous
ABNER (t   or in  ather of ght S conduct to more censure than it offered excuse for
ABNER (.K     or'.     father of lizght; Sept. his present. He, however, kept his word with'Apevv^p), the cousin of Saul (being the son of his Ishbosheth. After a tour, during which he exuncle Ner), and the commander-in-chief of his army. plained his present views to the elders of the tribes
He does not come much before us until after the which still adhered to the house of Saul, he repaired
death of Saul, B.C. Io56. Then, the experience to Hebron with authority to make certain overtures
which he had acquired, and the character for ability to David on their behalf. He was received with
and decision which he had established in Israel, great attention and respect; and David even thought
enabled him to uphold the falling house of Saul for it prudent to promise that he should still have the
seven years; and he might probably have done so chief command of the armies, when the desired
longer if it had suited his views. It was generally union of the two kingdoms took place. The politiknown that David had been divinely nominated to cal expediency of this engagement is very clear, and
succeed Saul on the throne: when, therefore, that to that expediency the interests and claims of Joab




ABNER                     21              ABOMINATION
were sacrificed.  That distinguished personage with the formalities of the law to meet an authorhappened to be absent from Hebron on service at ized penalty, was treacherously stabbed by the
the time, but he returned just as Abner had left hands of an assassin.-J. N.
the city. He speedily understood what had passed; ABNET (         Meier   eb. Wu        B
and his dread of the superior influence which such...
a man as Abner might establish with David, quick- p. 697) derives this word =  3-1K from t3o, allied
ened his remembrance of the vengeance which   to Arabic.^\ he bound; Gesenius finds its anahis brother's blood required. His purpose was
promptly formed.  Unknown to the king, but logues in the Persic Jj.  a band, belt (Thes. p. 22)
apparently in his name, he sent a message after and the Sanscrit bandha. There is no necessity for
Abner to call him back; and as he returned, Joab  supposing, with the late Professor Lee, that it is
met him at the gate, and, leading him aside, as if an Egyptian word.] It means a band, a bandage,
to confer peaceably and privately with him, suddenly and from the places in which it occurs, it appears
thrust his sword into his body (B. c. 1048).  The to have been made of fine linen variously wrought,
lamentations of David, the public mourning which  and used to bind as a girdle about the body of
he ordered, and the funeral honours which were persons in authority, especially the Jewish priests
paid to the remains of Abner, the king himself (Exod. xxix. 9; xxviii. 39; xxxix. 29; Lev. viii. 13;
following the bier as chief mourner, exonerated him  Isa. xxii 21). These girdles may be considered as
in public opinion from having been privy to this fairly represented by those which we observe on
assassination. As for Joab, his privilege as a blood- such persons in the Egyptian paintings.
avenger must to a great extent have justified his
treacherous act in the opinion of the people; and 
that, together with his influence with the army,
screened him from punishment (2 Sam. iii. 6-39).,,I
For the following interesting elucidation of
David's lament over Abner, we are indebted to a                             r
learned and highly valued contributor.-J. K.
David's short but emphatic lament over Abneri
(2 Sam. iii 33) may be rendered, with stricter 
adherence to the form  of the original, as follows:-'Should Abner die as a villain dies? —
Thy hands-not bound,                                       //        \ 
Thy feet-not brought into fetters:
As one falls before the sons of wickedness,        1
fellest thou!'                                         /         \\ 
As to the syntactical structure of these lines, it is
important to observe that the second and third lines
are two ppositions of state belonging to the last,
which describe the condition in which he was when I-                                 j
he was slain. This kind of proposition is marked
by the subject being placed first, and by the verb
generally becoming a participle.  On the right
knowledge of this structure the beauty and sense of
many passages altogether depend; and the common
ignorance of it is to be ascribed to the circumstance,
that the study of Hebrew so very seldom reaches
beyond the vocabulary into the deeper-seated peculiarities of its construction.  (See Ewald's Hebr. 
Gram.? 556). As to the sense of the words J. D.
Michaelis (in his Uebersetzung des Alten Test. mit                 4.
Anmerkungen fir Ungelehrte) saw that the point  ABOAB, ISAAC, a Jewish rabbi, born at San
of this indignant, more than sorrowful, lament, Jan de Luz, in Portugal, Feb. 1609; died 1693.
lies in the mode in which Abner was slain. Joab  He wrote a copious Spanish commentary on the
professed to kill him'for the blood of Asahel his Pentateuch, Parafrasis commentado sobre al Penbrother,' 2 Sam. iii. 27. But if a man claimed his tateuco, Amst. x68i, fol., and several works of a
brother's blood at the hand of his murderer, the didactic character.
latter (even if he fled to the altar for refuge, Exod.  ABM ATION 
xxi. 14) would have been delivered up (bound,   ABOMINATION       (Hint.  and TOW; Sept
hand and foot, it is assumed) to the avenger of and New Test.-e. g., Matt. xxiv. I5 —P&tXy/ca,
blood, who would then possess a legal right to for both). These words describe generally any
slay him. Now Joab not only had no title to object of detestation or disgust (Lev. xviii. 22;
claim the right of the Goel, as Asahel was killed  Deut. vii 25); and are applied to an impure or deunder justifying circumstances (2 Sam. ii. I9); but, testable action (Ezek. xxii II; xxxiii. 26; Mal. ii.
while pretending to exercise the avenger's right, he  II, etc.); to anything causing a ceremonial pollutook a lawless and private mode of satisfaction, tion (Gen. xliii. 32; xlvi. 34; Deut. xiv. 3); but
and committed a murder. Hence David charged more especially to idols (Lev. xviii. 22; xx. 13;
him in allusion to this conduct,'with shedding the Deut. vii. 26; I Kings xi. 5, 7; 2 Kings xxiii. 13);
blood of war in peace' (I Kings ii. 5); and hence and also to food offered to idols (Zech. ix. 7); and
he expresses himself in this lament, as if indignant to filth of every kind (Nahum iii. 6). There are
that the noble Abner, instead of being surrendered  two or three of the texts in which the word occurs,




ABOMINATION                   22               ABOMINATION
to which, on account of their peculiar interest or remained for many years subject to, a tribe of
difficulty, especial attention has been drawn. The nomade shepherds, who had only of late been exfirst is Gen. xliii. 32:'The Egyptians might not eat pelled, and a native dynasty restored-the grievous
bread with the Hebrews; for that is an abomination  oppression of the Egyptians by these pastoral
('l]WI1) unto the Egyptians.' This is best ex- invaders, and the insult with which their religion
plained by the fact that the Egyptians considered had been treated. The other reason, not necesthemselves ceremonially defiled if they ate with any  sarily superseding the former, but rather strengthstrangers. The primary reason appears to have ening it, is, that the Egyptians, as a settled and
been that the cow was the most sacred animal civilized people, detested the lawless and predatory
among the Egyptians, and the eating of it was habits of the wandering shepherd tribes, which
abhorrent to them; whereas it was both eaten and  then, as now, bounded the valley of the Nile, and
sacrificed by the Jews and most other nations, who  occupied the Arabias. Their constantly aggressive
on that account were abominable in their eyes. It operations upon the frontiers, and upon all the
was for this, as we learn from Herodotus (ii. 4), great lines of communication, must, with respect to
that no Egyptian man or woman would kiss a them, have given intensity to the odium with which
Greek on the mouth, or would use the cleaver of a all strangers were regarded.  If any proof of this
Greek, or his spit, or his dish, or would taste the were wanting, it is found in the fact (attested by
flesh of even clean beef (that is, of oxen) that had  the Rev. R. M. Macbriar and others) that, sunk
been cut with a Grecian carving-knife. It is true as Moder Egypt is, there is still such a marked
that Sir J. G. Wilkinson (Anc. Egyptians, iii. 358) and irreconcilable difference of ideas and habits
ascribes this to the repugnance of the fastidiously  between the inhabitants and the Bedouins, whose
clean Egyptians to the comparatively foul habits of camps are often in the near neighbourhood of their
their Asiatic and other neighbours: but it seems towns and villages, that the latter are regarded with
scarcely fair to take thefacts of the father of history, dislike and fear, and no friendly intercourse exists
and ascribe to them any other than the very satis- between them. We know that the same state of
factory reason which he assigns. We collect then  feeling prevails between thesettled inhabitants and
that it was as foreigners, not pointedly as Hebrews, the Bedouins along the Tigris and Euphrates.
that it was an abomination for the Egyptians to eat  The third marked use of this word again occurs
with the brethren of Joseph. The Jews themselves in Egypt. The king tells the Israelites to offer to
subsequently exemplified the same practice; for in their god the sacrifices which they desired, without
later times they held it unlawful to eat or drink  going to the desert for that purpose. To which
with foreigners in their houses, or even to enter Moses objects, that they should have to sacrifice to
their houses, (John xviii. 28; Acts x. 28; xi. 3); for the Lord'the abomination of the Egyptians,' who
not only were the houses of Gentiles unclean (Mishn. would thereby be highly exasperated against
Oholoth, I8, i 7), but they themselves rendered un- them (Exod. viii 25, 26).  A reference back to
clean those in whose houses they lodged (Maimon. the first explanation shews that this'abomination'
Mishcab a Morheb, c. 12, ~ 12); which was carry- was the cow, the only animal which all the Egyping the matter a step further than the Egyptians tians agreed in holding sacred; whereas, in the great
(see also Mitzvoth Tora, pr. 148). We do not sacrifice which the Hebrews proposed to hold, not
however trace these examples before the Captivity. only would heifers be offered, but the people would
The second passage is Gen. xlvi. 34. Joseph is feast upon their flesh.
telling his brethren how to conduct themselves   THE ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION. In Dan.
when introduced to the king of Egypt; and he ix. 27, lWD    rpS'; literally,'the abomination of
instructs them' that when asked concerning their the desolater, which, without doubt, means the idol
occupation they should answer:'Thy servants' or idolatrous apparatus which the desolater of
trade hath been about cattle from our youth even Jerusalem should establish in the holy place. This
until now, both we and also our fathers.' This last appears to have been a prediction of the pollution
clause has emphasis, as shewing that they were of the temple by Antiochus Epiphanes, who caused
hereditary nomade pastors; and the reason is added: an idolatrous altar to be built on the altar of burnt'That ye may dwell in the land of Goshen,-for offerings, whereon unclean things were offered to
every shepherd is an abomination unto the Egyp- Jupiter Olympius, to whom the temple itself was
tians.' In the former instance they were'an   dedicated. Josephus distinctly refers to this as the
abomination' as strangers, with whom the Egyp- accomplishment of Daniel's prophecy; as does the
tians could not eat; here they are a further abomin- author of the first book of Maccabees, in declaring
tion as nomade shepherds, whom it was certain that that'they set up the abomination of desolation
the Egyptians, for that reason, would locate in the upon the altar'-c   Ko56/loar Trb PT Xuytua rijs ipI7,border land of Goshen, and not in the heart of the aoews irl Tb OvvciaTartpov (i Macc. i. 54; vi. 7; 2
country.  That it was nomade shepherds, or Macc. vi. 2-5; Joseph. Antiq. xii. 5, 4; 7,6). The
Bedouins, and not simply shepherds, who were phrase is quoted by Jesus, in the form of rb /3iXvoua
abominable to the Egyptians, is evinced by the rTs Jplxcjubaews (Matt. xxiv. 15), and is applied by him
fact that the Egyptians themselves paid great atten-to what was to take place at the advance of the
tion to the rearing of cattle. This'is shewn by  Romans against Jerusalem. They who saw'the
their sculptures and paintings, as well as by the abomination of desolation standing in the holy place'
offer of this very king of Egypt to make such of were enjoined to'flee to the mountains.'  And
Jacob's sons as were men of activity'overseers of this may with probability be referred to the advance
his cattle' (xlvii. 6). For this aversion to nomade of the Roman army against the city with their imagepastors two reasons are given; and it is not neces- crowned standards, to which idolatrous honours were
sary that we should choose between them, for both  paid, and which the Jews regarded as idols. The
of them were, it is most likely, concurrently true. unexpected retreat and discomfiture of the Roman
One is, that the inhabitants of Lower and Middle forces afforded such as were mindful of our Saviour's
Egypt had previously been invaded by, and had  prophecy an opportunity of obeying the injunction




ABOMINATION                   23              ABOMINATION
which it contained.  That the Jews themselves Ez. v. 3; Zech. viii. 23; Hag. ii. 12; then seconregarded the Roman standards as abominations is darily of places, regions of the earth, hence nit3z
shewn by the fact that in deference to their known  JInK, the ends, limits, uttermost parts of the
aversion, the Roman soldiers quartered in Jerusalem  earth, Job xxxvii. 3; xxxviii. 13; Is. xi. 12; Ez.
forbore to introduce their standard into the city: vii. 2. (LXX. 7rrTpUyes rT1s Y7, the extremity of
and on one occasion, when Pilate gave orders the earth)..... According to this 9lg would
that they should be carried in by night, so much denote here extremitas regionis, the utmost point or
stir was made in the matter by the principal in- part of a district or of a place, and D W lnhabitants, that for the sake of peace the governor on the utmost height of abomination, ie., on the
was eventually induced to give up the point (Joseph.  hest  ehee abomination 
Anti. xviii. 3, I). Those, however, who suppose highest place where abomination could be comAntzq~. xvi. 3, I). Those, however, who suppose mitted. But the highest point in Jerusalem was
that'the holy place' of the text must be the   itted. But the highest point in Jerusalem was
temple itself, may find the accomplishment of the the Temple, and it must be it which is thus desigtemple itself, may find the accomplishment of the nated here. We admit that this meaning would
prediction in the fact that, when the city had been be obscure before the ufilment of the prediction
taken by the Romans, and the holy house destroyed, but this we hold to be only a characteristic feature
the soldiers brought their standards in due form to o such  e d to be only a charactstic feur
the temple, set them up over the eastern gate, and   most interpreters take it as nomen pa tirioffered sacnfice to them (Joseph. Bell. Aud. vi. 6, I);  ie for'destruction  but this is against the usage
for (as Havercamp judiciously notes from Tertul-  for destruction;'  t is i agai nt the a
lian, cApo. c. XVi. 62)'almost the entire religion of the form elsewhere in Daniel (xi. 31), and the
an, Apo  c. xvi. 62)'almost the entire religion meaning is brought out much more vividly and
of the Roman camp consisted in worshipping the poetically byour construction.'On the summit
ensigns, swearing by the ensigns, and in preferring  of abomination is a destroyer  probably collecthe ensigns before all the other gods.  p  g  of abomination is a destroyer,' probably collecthe ensis b e al te  g.      tively for'destroyers' in general.... According
a-^.r~ -.^~          \~to this explanation there can be no doubt that the
QY^^C|~) G: -~ liX~~LXX. have already rightly given the meaning of
the passage when they translate Kal irl rb lepbv p38-!            Xtt T    4f2 o Xutqy/a rcY v c pT(lcbs6Cv orat, and so the Syr. Ambros.
)   Somewhat different from this is Theodotion, Kal
-~")         Ctc7/ r Efl^S 3 5e     1 h1 ~70Urle rovrots (these two words are wanting in the Vatis1pNR p1  Q  m  T^         can Codex) drl rb epbv poGXvyAua 7r spr/sbo-ews (Cod.
Vat. rpv epfrlLtSEWv), and so Jacob of Edessa (Ap.
^ A J  (~)  I Bugati, p. I5I), only that he seems to have read
& H o ( )  (1)  f  K     l I iW^So-it. The Peshito gives tomi  gM 0
O                  1/ y 1'               on the wings of abhorrence,' and this
Ephraem refers to the Romish eagles. The Vulg.,
[^ O )))  l^, 11m < if        Et erit in templo abominatio desolationis; Ven.,
_Go#-/ ~^  ^   ^ lKd&Trl 7rTipiryos 8e3&X-yLara prluoOPv.' Commentar
(( I  I    ll Sjib. Dan          in loc. Some codices read nT'il'i' |  p'. (see Kennicott, Bib. Heb. in loc.; De Rossi
_   rr -i- 11   Var. Lectt. P. iii.) This agrees with the reading
of the LXX. and St. Jerome, as also of the MemphX))^"^\~~  //^itic and Sahidic versions, and with the citation of
O(())        (<))               the Evangelists.  It may be a mere correction;
but there is a curious fact urged by Michaelis which
seems to give it some weight. Josephus in recording the destruction of the Arx Antonia says, that
the Jews thus made the temple building a square,
not considering that it was written in the prophecies
that the city and temple should be taken when the
5.                      temple was made four square (De Bell. Yud. vi. 5,
Nor was this the last appearance of'the abomi- 4). To what prediction the historian here refers
nation of desolation, in the holy place:' for, not has always appeared obscure, and his whole stateonly did Hadrian, with studied insult to the Jews, ment has been perplexing. But Michaelis argues
ment has been perplexing. But Michaelis argues
only did Hadrian, with studied insult to the Jews, that if the reading of Dan. ix. 27 was in his day
set up the figure of a boar over the Bethlehem gate tht if the r   of Dan. ix. 2 was i his da
of the city (lElia Capitolina) which rose upon the that given above, the difficulty is solved; for we
have only to suppose he read the last word Shgjakotz
site and ruins of Jerusalem (Euseb. Chron. 1. i. p.to           he read the last word 
45, ed. 1658), but he erected a temple to Jupiter (Yip:) m which case the maning would be and
upon the site of the Jewish temple (Dion Cass. in the temple shall he who cuts off (from Ulp) be
lxix. 12), and caused an image of himself to a desolator.' (Olient. u. Exeget.  Bibliothek ii.
be set up in the part which answered to the most p. 194).  If we may take Josephus as a repreholy place (Nicephorus Callist., iii. 24). This was sentative of the common opinions of his countrya consummation of all the abominations which the men, they must have regarded these predictions
iniquities of the Jews brought upon their holy place. as finding their fulfilment not merely in the acts of
J. K.                                         Antiochus Epiphanes, but also in the destruction'We believe,' says Havernick,' that of all of Jerusalem by the Romans (Antiq. x. 7).  As
the meanings of A1i that are sufficiently supported, against the opinion that rlpY' is to be understood
none so commends itself as that of border, properly of idolatrous objects carried by heathens into the
of a garment, e. g., I Sam. xv. 27; Num. xv. 36; Temple, it has been objected that this word desig.




ABRAHAM                    24                 ABRAHAM
nates idols only as adopted by the Jews. But this to a land (yrv) which I will shew thee. Then
is wholly unfounded, as I Kings xi. 5, 2 Kings departing from the land of the Chaldees, he dwelt
xxiii. 13, and other passages abundantly shew. in Charran.' This first call is not recorded, but
Indeed the word is always used objectively to only implied in Gen. xii.: and it is distinguished
designate that which is an abomination not in, by several pointed circumstances from the second,
but to the parties spoken of.-W. L. A.       which alone is there mentioned.  Accordingly,
ABRAHAM {(D1-1irNfatherofa multitud~e; Sept. Abraham departed, and his family, including his
T T: -                       aged father, removed with him. They proceeded'Ap9pad4), the founder of the Hebrew nation. Up not at once to the land of Canaan, which indeed
to Gen. xvii. 4, 5, he is uniformly called ABRAM  had not been yet indicated to Abraham as his
(tfnaK, father of elevation, or high father; Sept. destination; but they came to Charran, and tarried
"Afpact), and this was his original name; but the at that convenient station for fifteen years, until
extended form, which it always afterwards bears, Terah died, at the age of 205 years. Being free
was given to it to make it significant of the promise from his filial duties, Abraham, now 75 years of
of a numerous posterity which was at the same time age, received a second and more pointed call to
made to him.                                 pursue his destination:'Depart from thy land, and
Abraham was a native of Chaldea, and descended, from thy kindred, and from thyfather's house, unto
through Heber, in the ninth generation, from Shem  the land (hftl,,  V y^qv), which I will shew thee'
the son of Noah. His father was Terah, who had  (Gen. xii. i). A condition was annexed to this
two other sons, Nahor and Haran. Haran died pre- call, that he should separate from his father's house,
maturely'before his father,' leaving a son Lot and and leave his brother Nahor's family behind him
two daughters, Milcah and Iscah. Lot attached in Charran.  He however took with him his
himself to his uncle Abraham; Milcah became the nephew Lot, whom, having no children of his own,
wife of her uncle Nahor; and Iscah, who was also he apf ears to have regarded as his heir, and then
called Sarai, became the wife of Abraham (Gen. went forth'not knowing whither he went' (Heb.
xi. 26-29: comp. Joseph. Antiq., i 6, 5). [SARAH.] xi. 8), but trusting implicitly to the Divine guidance.
Abraham was born A.M. 2008, B.C. I996 (Hales,  No particulars of the journey are given. AbraA.M. 3258, B.C. 2153), in'Ur of the Chaldees' ham arrived in the land of Canaan, which he found'Gen. xi 28). The concise history in Genesis states occupied by the Canaanites in a large number of
nothing concerning the portion of his life prior to small independent communities, which cultivated
the age of 60; and respecting a person living in the districts around their several towns.  The
times so remote no authentic information can be country was however but thinly peopled; and, as
derived from any other source. There are indeed in the more recent times of its depopulation, it
traditions, but they are too manifestly built up on afforded ample pasture-grounds for the wandering
the foundation of a few obscure intimations in pastors. One of that class Abraham must have
Scripture to be entitled to any credit.*     appeared in their eyes.  In Mesopotamia the
Although Abraham   is, by way of eminence, family had been pastoral, but dwelling in towns
named first, it appears probable that he was the and houses, and sending out the flocks and herds
youngest of Terah's sons, and born by a second under the care of shepherds. But the migratory
wife, when his father was 130 years old. Terah life to which Abraham had now been called, comwas seventy years old when the eldest son was pelled him to take to the tent-dwelling as well as
born (Gen. xi. 32; xii. 4; xx. 12: comp. Hales, ii. the pastoral life: and the usages which his subse107); and that eldest son appears to have been quent history indicates are therefore found to preHaran, from the fact that his brothers married his sent acondition of manners and habits analogous
daughters, and that. his daughter Sarai was only to that which still exists among the nomade pastoten years younger than his brother Abraham (Gen. ral, or Bedouin tribes of south-western Asia.
xvii. I7). It is shewn by Hales (ii. 107), that [Abraham entered the promised land by way of
Abraham was 60 years old when the family quitted the valley in which Sychem (the present Nablous
their native city of Ur, and went and abode in as is believed) afterwards stood.  All travellers
Charran. The reason for this movement does not concur in celebrating the richness and beauty of
appear in the Old Testament, but the real cause this district.'All at once,' says Robinson,'the
transpires in Acts vii. 2-4:'The God of glory ground sinks down to a valley running towards the
appeared to our father Abraham while he was (at west, with a soil of rich black vegetable mould.
Ur of the Chaldees) in Mesopotamia, before he There a scene of luxuriant and almost unparalleled
dwelt in Charran, and said unto him, Depart from  verdure burst upon our view. The whole valley
thy land, and from thy kindred, and come hither was filled with gardens of vegetables, and orchards
of all kinds of fruits, watered by several fountains,
* [The rabbinical traditions concerning Abraham  which burst forth in various parts and flow westare summarily given by Otho, Lex. Rab. s. v. p. ward in refreshing streams.  It came upon us
42. Josephus notices a few of these, but without suddenly like a scene of fairy enchantment. We
seeming to lay much stress on them (Antiq. i. 7 ff). saw nothing to compare with it in all Palestine.'
In a passage preserved by him (Antiq. i. 8 [7], 2) Bibl. Res. ii. 275: Comp. Stanley Syr. and Pat.,
Nicolas ofDamascus mentions Abraham as reigning p. 234.  Wilson, Lands of the Bible, ii. 45, 71;
at Damascus, and says his name was still honoured  Nugent, Lands Classical and Sacred, ii. 115,
there, even in his day (Nic. Damasc. Hist. Frag- Knight's edition, 1846, etc.].
menta, ed. Orellius, p. II4). Comp. Justin, Hist.  The rich pastures in that part of the country
Phil. xxxvi. 2. Euseb. Praep. Ev. ix. 16-20. For tempted Abraham to form his first encampment in
oriental traditions concerning him, see Herbelot, the vale of Moreh, which lies between the mounBibl. Orient, s. v.; Hottinger, Hist. Orient. p. 49, tains of Ebal and Gerizim. Here the strong faith
50, Mill, Dissertationes Select, p. 15, 18, etc., Col. which had brought the childless man thus far from
Chesney, Euphrates Expedilion, ii. 68].      his home was rewarded by the grand promise: —' I




ABRAHAM                    25               ABRAHAM
will make of thee a great nation, and I will bless pleasant valley of Mamre, in the neighbourhood of
thee and make thy name great, and thou shalt be Hebron (then called Arba), and pitched his tent
a blessing; and I will bless them that bless thee, under a terebinth tree (Gen. xiii.)
and curse them that curse thee: and in thee shall  It appears that fourteen years before this time
all the families of the earth be blessed' (Gen. xii. the south and east of Palestine had been invaded
2, 3). It was further promised that to his posterity by a king called Chedorlaomer, from beyond the
should be given the rich heritage of that beautiful Euphrates, who brought several of the small discountry into which he had come (v. 7). It will be united states of those quarters under tribute.
seen that this important promise consisted of two Among them were the five cities of the Plain of
parts, the one temporal, the other spiritual. The Sodom, to which Lot had withdrawn. This burden
temporal was the promise of posterity, that he was borne impatiently by these states, and they at
should be blessed himself, and be the founder of a length withheld their tribute. This brought upon
great nation; the spiritual, that he should be the them a ravaging visitation from Chedorlaomer and
chosen ancestor of the Redeemer, who had been three other (perhaps tributary) kings, who scoured
of old obscurely predicted (Gen. iii 15), and there- the whole country east of the Jordan, and ended by
by become the means of blessing all the families of defeating the kings of the plain, plundering their
the earth. The implied condition on his part was, towns, and carrying the people away as slaves.
that he should publicly profess the worship of the Lot was among the sufferers. When this came to
true God in this more tolerant land; and accord- the ears of Abraham, he immediately armed such
ingly'he built there an altar unto the Lord, who of his slaves as were fit for war, in number 3I8,
appeared unto him.' He soon after removed to and being joined by the friendly Amoritish chiefs,
the district between Bethel and Ai, where he also Aner, Eschol, and MIamre, pursued the retiring inbuilt an altar to that'JEHOVAH' whom the world vaders. They were overtaken near the springs of
was then hastening to forget. His farther removals the Jordan; and their camp being attacked on
tended southward, until at length a famine in opposite sides by night, they were thrown into disPalestine compelled him to withdraw into Egypt, order, and fled. Abraham and his men pursued
where corn abounded.  Here his apprehension them as far as the neighbourhood of Damascus,
that the beauty of his wife Sarai might bring him  and then returned with all the men and goods that
into danger with the dusky Egyptians, overcame had been taken away. Although Abraham had no
his faith and rectitude, and he gave out that she doubt been chiefly induced to undertake this exploit
was his sister. As he had feared, the beauty of by his regard for Lot, it involved so large a benefit,
the fair stranger excited the admiration of the that, as the act of a sojourner, it must have tended
Egyptians, and at length reached the ears of the greatly to enhance the character and power of the
king, who forthwith exercised his regal right of patriarch in the view of the inhabitants at large.
calling her to his harem, and to this Abraham, In fact, we afterwards find him treated by them
appearing as only her brother, was obliged to sub- with high respect and consideration. When they
mit. As, however, the king had no intention to had arrived as far as Salem, on their return, the
act harshly in the exercise of his privilege, he king of that place, Melchizedek, who was one of
loaded Abraham with valuable gifts, suited to his the few native princes, if not the only one, who
condition, being chiefly in slaves and cattle. These retained the knowledge and worship of'the Most
presents could not have been refused by him with- High God,' whom Abraham served, came forth to
out an insult which, under all the circumstances, meet them with refreshments, in acknowledgment
the king did not deserve. A grievous disease for which, and in recognition of his character, Abrainflicted on Pharaoh, and his household relieved ham presented him with a tenth of the spoils. By
Sarai from her danger, by revealing to the king strict right, founded on the war usuages which still
that she was a married woman; on which he sent subsist in Arabia (Burckhardt's Notes, p. 97), the
for Abraham, and, after rebuking him for his con- recovered goods became the property of Abraham,
duct, restored his wife to him, and recommended and not of those to whom they originally belonged.
him to withdraw from the country. He accordingly This was acknowledged by the king of Sodom,
returned to the land of Canaan, much richer than who met the victors in the valley near Salem. He
when he left it'in cattle, in silver, and in gold' said,'Give me the persons, and keep the goods to
(Gen. xii. 8; xiii. 2).                     thyself.' But with becoming pride, and with a
Lot also had much increased his possessions: and disinterestedness which in that country would now
soon after their return to their previous station near be most unusual in similar circumstances, he
Bethel, the disputes between their respective shep- answered,'I have lifted up mine hand [i. e., I have
herds aboutfwater and pasturage soon taught them  sworn] unto Jehovah, the most high God, that I
that they had better separate. The recent promise will not take from a thread even to a sandal-thong,
of posterity to Abraham himself, although his wife and that I will not take anything that is thine,
had been accounted barren, probably tended also lest thou shouldst say I have made Abram rich.'
in some degree to weaken the tie by which the (Gen. xiv.)
uncle and nephew had hitherto been united. The  Soon after his return to Mamire the faith of
subject was broached by Abraham, who generously Abraham was rewarded and encouraged, not only
conceded to Lot the choice of pasture-grounds. by a more distinct and detailed repetition of the
Lot chose the well-watered plain m which Sodom  promises formerly made to him, but by the conand other towns were situated, and removed firmation of a solemn covenant contracted, as
thither. [LOT.] Immediately afterwards the patri- nearly as might be,'after the manner of men,'
arch was cheered and encouraged by a more distinct [COVENANT] between him and God. It was now
and formal reiteration of the promises which had that he first understood that his promised posterity
been previously made to him, of the occupation of were to grow up into a nation under foreign bondage,
the land in which he lived by a posterity numerous and that, in 400 years after (or, strictly, 405 years,
as the dust. Not long after, he removed to the counting from the birth of Isaac to the Exode), they




ABRAHAM                    26               ABRAHAM
should come forth from that bondage as a nation, the whole city should be saved for their sake.
to take possession of the land in which he sojourned Early the next morning Abraham arose to ascertain
(Gen. xv.)                                  the result of this concession: and when he looked
After ten years' residence in Canaan (B.c. I913), towards Sodom, the smoke of its destruction, rising
Sarai, being then 75 years old, and having long'like the smoke of a furnace,' made known to him
been accounted barren, chose to put her own in- its terrible overthrow. [SODOM.] He probably
terpretation upon the promised blessing of a pro- soon heard of Lot's escape: but the consternation
geny to Abraham, and persuaded him to take her which this event inspired in the neighbourhood
woman-slave Hagar, an Egyptian, as a secondary induced him, almost immediately after, to remove
or concubine-wife, with the view that whatever farther off into the territories of Abimelech, king
child might proceed from this union should be of Gerar.  By a most extraordinary infatuation
accounted her own. [HAGAR.] The son who was and lapse of faith, Abraham allowed himself to
born to Abraham by Hagar, and who received the stoop to the same mean and foolish prevarication
name of Ishmael [ISHMAEL], was accordingly in denying his wife, which, twenty-three years bebrought up as the heir of his father and of the fore, had occasioned him so much trouble in Egypt.
promises (Gen. xvi.) Thirteen years after (B.c. The result was also similar [ABIMELECH], except
I900), when Abraham was 99 years old, he was that Abraham answered to the rebuke of the Phifavoured with still more explicit declarations of listine by stating the fears by which he had been
the Divine purposes. He was reminded that the actuated-adding,'And yet indeed she is my sister;
promise to him was that he should be the father of she is the daughter of my father, but not the daughter
many nations; and to indicate this intention his of my mother; and she became my wife.' This
name was now changed (as before described) from  mends the matter very little, since in calling her his
Abram  to Abraham.   The Divine Being then sister he designed to be understood as saying she
solemnly renewed the covenant to be a God to him  was not his wife. As he elsewhere calls Lot his
and to the race that should spring from him; and'brother,' this statement that Sarah was his'sister'
in token of that covenant directed that he and his does not interfere with the probability that she was
should receive in their flesh the sign of circum- his niece.
cision. [CIRCUMCISION.] Abundantblessings were  The same year* Sarah gave birth to the longpromised to Ishmael; but it was then first an- promised son, and, according to previous direction,
nounced, in distinct terms, that the heir of the the name of Isaac was given to him. [ISAAC.] This
special promises was not yet born, and that the greatly altered the position of Ishmael, and appears
barren Sarai, then go years old, should twelve to have created much ill-feeling both on his part
months thence be his mother.  Then also her and that of his mother towards the child; which
name was changed from Sarai to Sarah (the prin- was in some wagymanifested so pointedly on occasion
cess); and to commemorate the laughter with of the festivities which attended the weaning, that
which the prostrate patriarch received such strange the wrath of Sarah was awakened, and she insisted
tidings, it was directed that the name of Isaac that both Hagar and her son should be sent away.
(laughter) should be given to the future child. The This was a very hard matter to a loving father;
very same day, in obedience to the Divine ordi- and Abraham would probably have refused comnance, Abraham himself, his son Ishmael, and his pliance with Sarah's wish, had he not been apprised
house-born and purchased slaves were all circum- in a dream that it was in accordance with the
cised (Gen. xvii.)                          Divine intentions respecting both Ishmael and
Three months after this, as Abraham sat in his Isaac.  With his habitual uncompromising obeditent door during the heat of the day, he saw three ence, he then hastened them away early in the
travellers approaching, and hastened to meet them, morning, with provision for the journey. [HAGAR.]
and hospitably pressed upon them refreshment and  When Isaac was about 25 years old (B.c. I872)
rest.  They assented, and under the shade of a it pleased God to subject the faith of Abraham to
terebinth tree partook of the abundant fare which a severer trial than it had yet sustained, or that has
the patriarch and his wife provided, while Abraham  ever fallen to the lot of any other mortal man. He
himself stood by in respectful attendance. From  was commanded to go into the mountainous country
the manner in which one of the strangers spoke, of Moriah (probably where the temple afterwards
Abraham soon gathered that his visitants were no stood), and there offer up in sacrifice the son of his
other than the Lord himself and two attendant affection, and the heir of so many hopes and
angels in human form. The promise of a son by promises, which his death-must nullify. But AbraSarah was renewed; and when Sarah herself, who ham's'faith shrunk not, assured that what God had
overheard this within the tent, laughed inwardly at promised he would certainly perform, and that he
the tidings, which, on account of her great age, was able to restore Isaac to him even from the dead'
she at first disbelieved; she incurred the striking  (Heb. xi. 17-I9), and he rendered a ready, however
rebuke,'Is anything too hard for Jehovah?' painful obedience. Assisted by two of his servants,
The strangers then addressed themselves to their he prepared wood suitable for the purpose, and
journey, and Abraham walked some way with without delay set out upon his melancholy journey.
them. The two angels went forward in the direc- On the third day he descried the appointed place:
tion of Sodom, while the Lord made known to him  and informing his attendants that he and his son
that, for their enormous iniquities, Sodom and
the other' cities of the plain' were about to be * It is, however, supposed by some biblical
made signal monuments of his wrath and of his critics that the preceding adventure with Abimelech
moral government.  Moved by compassion and is related out of its order, and took place at an
by remembrance of Lot, the patriarch ventured, earlier date. Their chief reason is that Sarah was
reverently but perseveringly, to intercede for the now ninety years of age. But the very few years
doomed Sodom; and at length obtained a promise by which such a supposition might reduce this age,
that, if but ten righteous men were found therein, seem scarcely worth the discussion [SARAH].




ABRAHAM                     27          ABRAHAM'S BOSOM
would go some distance farther to worship, and then he had purchased of the Hittites (Gen. xxv. I-Io).
return, he proceeded to the spot. To the touch- -J. K.
ing question of his son respecting the victim to be  It has been supposed by some that Keturah, who
offered, the patriarch replied by expressing his faith is called a concubine (I Chron. i. 32, comp. Gen.xxv.
that God himself would provide the sacrifice; and  6), was taken by Abraham before Sarah's death,
probably he availed himself of this opportunity of and lived with him, along with her, as a secondacquainting him with the Divine command.  At ary wife. This seems more probable than that
least, that the communication was made either then  at the advanced age of nearly I40 years he should
or just after is unquestionable; for no one can sup- marry and beget children, especially as Paul speaks
pose that a young man of twenty-five could, against of him as being as good as dead for such acts when
his will, have been bound with cords and laid out he was forty years younger (Rom. iv. 9; Heb.
as a victim  on the wood of the altar.  Isaac xi. I2). The sons of Abraham by Keturah became
would most certainly have been slain by his father's the heads of Arab tribes, the D*1p =3 or'children
uplifted hand, had not the angel of Jehovah inter- of the East' (Judg. vi. 3).  His name was thus
posed at the critical moment to arrest the fatal widely spread, and to this day it continues to be
stroke.  A ram which had become entangled in a reverenced alike by Jew, Mohammedan, and Christhicket was seized and offered; and a name was given  tian.'Innumerable,' says Kurz,'are his deto the place (b'aP gm1,, Jehovah-7ireh-' the Lord  scendants. Peoples have risen and passed away,
will provide'-in allusion to the believing answer but the posterity of Abraham pass through the
which Abraham had given to his son's inquiry  centuries unmingled and unchanged. Nor is their
respecting the victim. The promises before made history yet ended; they still retain the blessing
to Abraham-of numerous descendants, superior in  given to Abraham's seed, unhurt by the pressure
power to their enemies, and of the blessings which  of peoples and times. But it is not his human and
his spiritual progeny, and especially the Messiah, national character that constitutes the most rewere toextend toall mankind-wereagain confirmed  markable distinction of Abraham; it is his spiritual
in the most solemn manner; for Jehovah swore by  character. Wherever this is reproduced in any of
himself (comp. Heb. vi. 13, I7), that such should  his posterity, or through their instrumentality in
be the rewards of his uncompromising obedience. any belonging to the other nations of the world,
The father and son then rejoined their servants, these are the true children of Abraham (Gal. iii. 7,
and returned rejoicing to Beersheba (Gen xxii. 29; Rom. ix. 6-8).  Abraham's place and signi19).                                         ficancy consequently in the history of the world and
Twelve years after (B.C. I860), Sarah died at of redemption, is rightly apprehended only as he is
the age of 127 years, being then at or near recognised as the Father of the Faithful.  And
Hebron.   This loss first taught Abraham  the numberless as the stars of heaven, shining as they,
necessity of acquiring possession of a family sepul- is his spiritual seed, are the children of his faith.
chre in the land of his sojourning. His choice fell Abraham's faith, which was reckoned to him for
on the cave of Machpelah [MACHPELAH], and after righteousness, is the prototype of the Christian
a striking negotiation with the owner in the gate of faith. Anticipating a development of two thousand
Hebron, he purchased it, and had it legally secured  years, there may be found in his life a clear repreto him, with the field in which it stood and the sentation of what is the kernel and star of Christrees that grew thereon. This was the only posses- tianity (Rom. iv.) The apostle James gives him
sion he ever had in the Land of Promise (Gen. the honourable title of'Friend of God;' and by
xxiii.) The next care of Abraham was to provide the Mohammedans of the East this is still his
a suitable wife for his son Isaac.  It has always ordinary name (Khalll Allah, or simply el-Khalil).
been the practice among pastoral tribes to keep  Herzog's Real-Encycl. s. v.-W. L. A.
up the family ties by intermarriages of blood-relations (Burckhardt, Notes, p. 154): and now Abra-  ABRAHAM'S BOSOM. There was no name
ham had a further inducement in the desire to which conveyed to the Jews the same associations
maintain the purity of the separated race from  as that of Abraham. As undoubtedly he was in
foreign and idolatrous connections. He therefore the highest state of felicity of which departed
sent his aged and confidential steward Eliezer, spirits are capable,'to be with Abraham' implied
under the bond of a solemn oath, to discharge his the enjoyment of the same felicity; and'to be in
mission faithfully, to renew the intercourse between  Abraham's bosom' meant to be in repose and happihis family and that of his brother Nahor, whom he ness with him.  The latter phrase is obviously
had left behind in Charran. He prospered in his derived from the custom of sitting or reclining at
important mission [ISAAC], and in due time returned, table which prevailed among the Jews in and before
bringing with him Rebekah, the daughter of Nahor's the time of Christ. [ACCUBATION. ] Bythis arrangeson Bethuel, who became the wife of Isaac, and ment, the head of one person was necessarily brought
was installed as chief lady of the camp, in the sepa- almost into the bosom of the one who sat above him,
rate tent which Sarah had occupied (Gen. xxiv.) or at the top of the triclinium; and the guests were
Some time after Abraham   himself took a wife so arranged that the most favoured were placed so
named Keturah, by whom he had several children. as to bring them into that situation with respect to
These, together with Ishmael, seem to have been  the host (comp. John xiii. 23; xxi. 20). These
portioned off by their father in his lifetime, and Jewish images and modes of thought are amply
sent into the east and south-east, that there might illustrated by Lightfoot, Schoettgen, and Wetstein,
be no danger of their interference with Isaac, the who illustrate Scripture from rabbinical sources.
divinely appointed heir. There was time for this: It was quite usual to describe a just person as being
for Abraham lived to the age of 175 years, Ioo of with Abraham, or lying on Abraham's bosom; and
which he had spent in the land of Canaan. He as such images were unobjectionable, Jesus accomdied in B.C. 1822 (Hales, I978), and was buried by modated his speech to them, to render himself the
his two eldest sons in the family sepulchre which more intelligible by familiar notions, when, in the




ABRAM                     28                ABRESCH
beautiful parable of the rich man and Lazarus, he court of the king of Naples in I493. 4. Commendescribes the condition of the latter after death taries on Isaiah and Daniel, written in Corfu in
under these conditions (Luke xvi 22, 23). —J.  I497-98. 5. Three treatises, called nJsJU   hJD
ABRAM. [ABRAHAM.]                          comprising a.rH1n'NWi, a philosophical disABRAM, NICHOLAS, was born at Xaronval, in. I   - \
the department of the Vosges, in the year 1589. serttion on Maimonides' View of the Creation;
He was received into the Society of the Jesuits in b,fli nt.Dl, a dissertation on all the Messianic
I623; and being skilled as a linguist, he was em- passages in the Old Testament, a polemical work
ployed as a teacher in several of their seminaries. against Christianity; and c insft  nrliy', a disHe died at Pont-a-Mousson on the 7th of Septem-                                 according
ber 1655.  Besides many treatises on subjects    t o  the Talmud and Midroshim.  6. Teh  fundin
connected with classical literature, and an edition
of Nonnus's Paraphrase on John (Paris, I623), he mental Doctrines of Religion (Dl2  tiLK:), and a
wrote several tracts on biblical questions, which are  Treatise upon the Creation (trji' nij'm)  7
2Treatise uPon the Creation (0fi~R 14YSt.)- 7.
collected in his' Pharus Veteris Testamenti, sive.:
Sacrarum Quaestionum libri 5,' etc. He published Commentaries on 7eremiah, Ezekiel, and the minor
also'Dissertatio de Tempore Habitationis filiorum  Prophets, which he wrote at Venice, and on Genesis,
Israel in Egypto,' reprinted by De Tournemine in Exodus, Levitcus,, and Numbers, written most prohis supplement to Menochius.-W. L. A.        bably at the same place. The chief importance of
his commentaries to the student of the Bible conABRAVANEL (also called Abarbanel, Ravan- sists in their polemical character, and in the fact
ella, and Barbanella), RABBI DON ISAAC BEN   that they anticipate much of what has been adJEHUDAH, a celebrated Jewish statesman, philoso- vanced as new by moder theologians. Abravanel
pher, theologian, and commentator, and a very never skips over any difficulty in the text, but alvoluminous writer, was born in Lisbon in 1437, ways tries to explain it. No student can consult
of an ancient family which traced its descent from  his commentaries without profit  The best edition
the royal house of David, and which emigrated of the commentary on the Pentateuch is by Prointo Spain after the destruction of Jerusalem. His fessor Bashuysen, Hanau, I7Io, fol.; of that on
parents gave him an education becoming their re- the earlier Prophets by Professor Pfeiffer and F. A.
nowned lineage; and Abravanel, possessing great Christiani, Leipzig, i686, fol.; on the later and
natural talent, soon distinguished himself in such a minor Prophets, Amsterdam, 1641, fol.; and
manner as to attract the notice of Alfonso V., who on Daniel, Venice, 1652, 4to. Comp. Cormoly, in
intrusted him with the management of affairs of  leint I1K, ii. p. 47, etc.; Jost, Geschichte des
state. This high position of honour and trust he Judenthums, etc. iii. p. o04, etc.; First, Bibliooccupied till the end of 1481, when his august theca Judaica, i p. Ir, etc. —C. D. G.
patron died, and John II. succeeded to the throne.
The ill-treatment which Abravanel, in common   ABRECH (th        _). This word occurs only in
with many of the favouritesof the departed monarch, Gen. l, where t is used in proclaiming the
had to endure from the new sovereign, made him thoriy of J  h        S eing  lar h  ee
ohis ancestors, in.authority of Joseph. Something similar happened
flee to Spain, the residence of his ancestors in the case of Mordecai; but then several words
1483, where his brilliant powers speedily secured w  employed (Esth v  II).  If the word be
for him the friendship of Ferdinand, and elevationHebre, it is probably an imperative of'  in
to a post of honour as a minister of state. This he  ipil, ad wo   then mean, as in our version,
Hiphil, and would then mean, as in our version,
faithfully filled for eight years, from 1484 to 1492,'bow the knee  We are indeed assured by
when, at the instigation of the cruel Dominican  Wilkinson (Afc. Egyptians, iL 24) that the word
Torquemada, the Queen's confessor and Inquisitor- abre is used to the present day by the Arabs, when
General, the infamous edict for the expulsion of 
requiring a camel to kneel and receive its load.
the Jews was signed on the 30th of March, and he,[TheTargumofJonathanand theJerusalemTargu
he, [The Targum of Jonathan and the Jerusalem Targum
with 300,000 of his unhappy brethren, had to quit explain it as a compound of K father, and 11,
the country. He arrived at Naples in the beginning     suppose it refers to Josephs wisdom
mg tender, and suppose it refers to Joseph's wisdom
of I493, and immediately obtained the favour offather, while his years were those
Ferdinand., _ hich. owever, was.f.hort dur being that of a father, while his years were those
Ferdinand I., which, however, was of short dura- of a youth. With this Jerome accords, and Origen
tion, as the king died the same year; and as his  mentions it  The latter approves the renderalso mentions it. The latter approves the rendersuccessor, Alfonso II., accompanied by Abravanel,        Aquila and followed in the A. V.
had to retire to Mazzara, where he died within mgow the knee.  Onkelos, some of the Tamudists,
Abravanel then went to i.' bow the knee.' Onkelos, some of the Talmudists,
twelve months. Abravanel then went to Corfu n Tawus the Persian translator, Luther and others,
1495, thence to Monopoli, and afterwards to Venice, regard the word asacompound of N:  and,
where he was again made a minister of state, and  ingdo. Onk. as a  m    Tn; Luth.,Der ist
diedn5o8,.hilstengagkingdom. Onk. N~>D> K  tin; Luth., Der /rt
diedin 58, whilstengaged intheimportantnegotia- des Landes Vater. The prevailing opinion among
tions between the Republic and Portugal. Hisw is that it is of Egyptian orig.
scholars now is that it is of Egyptian origin.
remains were conveyed with great pomp to be Pfeiffer identifies it with the Copt. arrek, reverence;
deposited in Padua. His principal exegetical and
deposited in Padua. His principal exegeticalandJablonski with oube-reck, bend down; and Knobel
theological works, in their chronological order, are,   Delitzsch, with ak, throw thyself down. See
i. A..vee treatise upon Eo. Xi., 20, and Delitzsch, with abork, throw thyself down. See
7-I. A juvenile treatise upon Exod xxm. 20, Cartwright, Electa Targum. Rabbin. in loc.; Pfeiffer,'Behold I send an angel before thee,' wherein he            Jablonk. i. 4;    e
01p. Om. p. 95; Jablonski, Opusc. i. 4; Knobel,
discussed, in twenty-five sections, the most im- Genesis in  c; Delitzsch, Genausgel. in loc.; De
portant articles of faith.  2. A commentary on  ossi, Em. E  t.p.    Lee,He. Lex. on the
Deuteronomy, which he began in Lisbon, and                   t. on 
finished in 1472.  3. Commentaries on Joshua,.
Judges, and Samuel, written in Castilian in 1483-  ABRESCH, FR. LUD., was born at Hesse84; and on Kings, which he wrote whilst at the Homburg, Dec. 29th, I699. He filled the post first




ABRESCH                   29                 ABSALOM
of conrector, and then of rector of the Gymnasium  dear to the heart of his father. His beauty, his spirit,
at Middelburg, in Seeland, from 1723 till 1741, his royal birth, may be supposed to have drawn to
when he was removed to the same office at Zwoll. him those fond paternal feelings which he knew not
He died there in 1782.  His works are chiefly how to appreciate. At all events, David mourned
devoted to the elucidation of the classics. In two every day after the banished fratricide, whom a
of them, however, he directs some attention to the regard for public opinion and a just horror of his
N. T.'Animadversionum   ad AEschylum Libri crime forbade him to recall. His secret wishes to
Tres.; accedunt annotationes ad qusedam  loca have home his beloved though guilty son were howN. T,' 2 tom.; Zwollae 1763.'Dilucidationes ever discerned by Joab, who employed a clever
Thucydideae quibus et passim N. T. loca illus- woman of Tekoah to lay a supposed case before
trantur,' Traj. I753, 55. These works are not of him for judgment; and she applied the anticipated
much value. —W. L. A.                       decision so adroitly to the case of Absalom, that
ABRESCH, PER Pfor of Th   y     the king discovered the object and detected the
ABRESCH, PwETER Professor of Theology at'P s interposition of Joab. Regarding this as in some
Grningen, where he dHeedbri' Pt2. Parapasis, degree expressing the sanction of public opinion,
786et Anott. ad Hebraeos,' ch. i. eyden  David gladly commissioned Joab to'call home his
1786 II. c1787, 8vo, embracing ch. i.-iv.  He banished.' Absalom returned; but David, still
published also'Specimen Philol. in Obadi ver. mindful of his duties as a king and father, coni-8.  Utr. 1757, 4to.-W. L. A.              trolled the impulse of his feelings, and declined to
ABSALOM     (Q^i^S<, father of peac; Sept. admit him to his presence. After two years, how~'Aer   VuIg. Asalon), the third son of 7ever, Absalom, impatient of his disgrace, found
~A^(cr~aX(^,~;  Vulg. Absalon), the third son of means to compel the attention of Joab to his case;
David, and his only son by Maachah, daughter ofan through his means complete attention of Joab to his case;
Talmai, king of Geshur (2 Sam. iii. 3). He was and through his means a complete reconciliation
deemed the handsomest man in the kingdom; and  ims effee   and the father once more indulged
was particularly noted for the profusion of his 
beautiful hair, which appears to have been regarded  By the death of Amno and that of Chileab, his
with great admiration; but of which we can knowtwo elde thers, Absalom was nowt according
nothing with certainty, except that it was very two elder brothers, Absalom was now, according
nothing with certaintym except that it was veryto the law of primogeniture, the heir of the crown,
fine andvery ample   We are told that when its a claim which his royal descent by the mother's
inconvenient weight compelled him at times (D  side would probably have conferred on him, even
1W?~ DN' does not necessarily mean'every year', had they lived. But under the peculiar theocratical
as in the A.V.) to cut it off, it was found to weigh institutions of the Hebrews, the Divine king re-'200 shekels after the king's weight;' but as this served and exercised a power of dispensation, over
has been interpreted as high as 112 ounces (Geddes) which the human king, or viceroy, had no control;
and as low as 7i ounces (A. Clarke), we may be and although the law of primogeniture was allowed
content to understand that it means a quantity un- to take in general its due course, the Divine king
usually large. David's other child by Maachah had exercised his power in the family of David by
was a daughter named Tamar, who was also very the preference of Solomon, who was at this time a
beautiful. She became the object of lustful regard child, as the successor of his father. David had
to her half-brother Amnon, David's eldest son; and known many years before that his dynasty was to
was violated by him. In all cases where polygamy be established in a son not yet born (2 Sam. vii
is allowed, we find that the honour of a sister is in 12); and when Solomon was born, he could not be
the guardianship of her full brother, more even ignorant, even if not specially instructed, that he
than in that of her father, whose interest in her is was the destined heir. This fact must have been
considered less peculiar and intimate. We trace known to many others as the child grew up, and
this notion even in the time of Jacob (Gen. xxxiv. probably the mass of the nation was cognizant of
6, 13, 25, sqq.)  So in this case the wrong of it. In this we find a motive for the rebellion of
Tamar was taken up by Absalom, who kept her Absalom; he wished to secure the throne which he
secluded in his own house, and said nothing for the deemed to be his in right by the laws of primopresent, but brooded silently over the wrong he geniture, during the lifetime of his father; lest
had sustained, and the vengeance which devolved delay, while awaiting the natural term of his days,
upon him.   It was not until two years had should so strengthen the cause of Solomon with
passed, and when this wound seemed to have been his years, as to place his succession beyond all
healed, that Absalom found opportunity for the contest.
bloody revenge he had meditated. He then held  The fine person of Absalom, his superior birth,
a great sheep-shearing feast at Baal-hazor near and his natural claims predisposed the people to
Ephraim, to which he invited all the king's sons; regard his pretensions with favour; and this preand, to lull suspicion, he also solicited the presence disposition was strengthened by the measures
of his father. As he expected, David declined for which he took to win their regard. By the state
himself, but allowed Amnon and the other princes and attendance with which he appeared in public,
to attend. They feasted together; and when they he enhanced the show of condescending sympathy
were warm with wine, Amnon was set upon and with which he accosted the suitors who repaired
slain by the servants of Absalom, according to the for justice or favour to the royal audience, he inprevious directions of their master. The other quired into their various cases, and hinted at
princes took to their mules and fled to Jerusalem, what might be expected if he were on the throne,
filling the king with grief and horror by the tidings and had the power of accomplishing his own
which they brought. As for Absalom, he hastened large and generous purposes.  By these influto Geshur, and remained there three years with his ences'he stole the hearts of the men of Israel;'
grandfather, king Talmai.                    and when at length, four years after his return from
Now Absalom, with all his faults, was eminently Geshur, he repaired to Hebron, and there pro



ABSALOM                     30            ABSALOM'S TOMB
claimed himself king, the great body of the people by all that had passed; and as he sat, awaiting
declared for him. So strong ran the tide of opinion tidings of the battle, at the gate of Mahanaim, he
in his favour, that David found it expedient to quit was probably more anxious to learn that his son
Jerusalem and retire to Mahanaim, beyond the lived, than that the battle was gained; and no
Jordan..                                      sooner did he hear that Absalom was dead, than he
When Absalom heard of this, he proceeded to retired to the chamber above the gate, to give vent
Jerusalem and took possession of the throne with- to his paternal anguish. The victors as they reout opposition. Among those who had joined him  turned, slunk into the town like criminals, when
was Ahithophel, who had been David's counsellor, they heard the bitter wailings of the king:-' 0 my
and whose profound sagacity caused his counsels son Absalom! my son, my son Absalom! would
to be regarded like oracles in Israel. This defec- God I had died for thee, 0 Absalom, my son, my
tion alarmed David more than any other single son!' The consequences of this weakness-not in
circumstance in the affair, and he persuaded his his feeling, but in the inability to control it-might
friend Hushai to go and join Absalom, in the hope have been most dangerous, had not Joab gone up
that he might be made instrumental in turning the to him, and after sharply rebuking him for thus
sagacious counsels of Ahithophel to foolishness. discouraging those who had risked their lives in
The first piece of advice which Ahithophel gave his cause, induced him to go down and cheer the
Absalom was that he should publicly take posses- returning warriors by his presence (2 Sam. xiii.sion of that portion of his father's harem which had xix. 8).-J. K.
been left behind in Jerusalem. This was not only  ABSALO   S           A r
a mode by which the succession to the throne      BSALOMS TOMB. A remarkable monumight be confirmed [ABISHAG: comp. Herodotus, ment bearing this name makes a conspicuous figure
iii. 68], but in the present case, as suggested by the in the Valley of Jehoshaphat, outside Jerusalem;
wily counsellor, this villanous measure would dis-an  t  has been noticed and descrbed by almost
pose the people to throw themselves the more unpose the people to throw themselves the more un-all t ravellers.  It is close by the lower bridge over
reservedly into his cause, from the assurance that the Kedron, and is a square isolated block hewn
no possibility of reconcilement between him and outfrom the rocky ledge so as to leave an area or
niche around it. The body of this monument is
his father remained. Hushai had not then arrived. che around  The       of ths monument is
Soon after he came, when a council of war was
held, to consider the course of operations to be
taken against David, Ahithophel counselled that
the king should be pursued that very night, and
smitten, while he was'weary ard weak handed,
and before he had time to recover strength.'
Hushai, however, whose object was to gain time
for David, speciously urged, from the known valour
of the king, the possibility and fatal consequences 
of a defeat, and advised that all Israel should be
assembled against him in such force as it would                  -
be impossible for him to withstand. Fatally for 
Absalom, the counsel of Hushai was preferred to 
that of Ahithophel; and time was thus given to'.,  s                         -
enable the king, by the help of his influential 
followers, to collect his resources, as well as to                             \ 
give the people time to reflect upon the under- 
taking in which so many of them had embarked.
The king soon raised a large force, which he      -_ _                   l' 
properly organized and separated into three di-                   \ 
visions, commanded severally by Joab, Abishai,                -      \     ^'
and Ittai of Gath. The king himself intended to
take the chief command; but the people refused to
allow him to risk his valued life, and the command                          _
then devolved upon Joab. The battle took place                     -
in the borders of the forest of Ephraim; and the                   6
tactics of Joab, in drawing the enemy into the about 24 feet square, and is ornamented on each
wood, and there hemming them in, so that they side with two columns and two half columns of the
were destroyed with ease, eventually, under the Ionic order, with pillasters at the corers. The
providence of God, decided the action against architrave exhibits triglyphs and Doric ornaments.
Absalom. Twenty thousand of his troops were The elevation is about I8 or 20 feet to the top of
slain, and the rest fled to their homes. Absalom  the architrave, and thus far it is wholly cut from the
himself fled on a swift mule; but as he went, the rock. But the adjacent rock is here not near so high
boughs of a terebinth tree caught the long hair in as in the adjoining tomb of Zecharias (so called),
which he gloried, and he was left suspended there. and therefore the upper part of the tomb has been
The charge which David had given to the troops carried up with mason-work of large stones. This
to respect the life of Absalom prevented any one consists, first of two square layers, of which the
from  slaying him: but when Joab heard of it, upper one is smaller than the lower; and then a
he hastened to the spot, and pierced him through  small dome or cupola runs up into a low spire,
with three darts. His body was then taken down which appears to have spread out a little at the top,
and cast into a pit there in the forest, and a heap  like an opening flame. This mason-work is perof stones was raised upon it.                 haps 20 feet high, giving to the whole an elevation
David's fondness for Absalom was unextinguished  of about forty feet. There is a small excavated




ABSINTHIUM                    31               ABSTINENCE
chamber in the body of the tomb, into which a medicine, and are reputed to be tonic, stomachic,
hole had been broken through one of the sides and anthelmintic.  2. Artemisia Romana, which
several centuries ago.                         was found by Hasselquist on Mount Tabor (p.
The old travellers who refer to this tomb, as 28I). This species is herbaceous, erect, with stem
well as Calmet after them, are satisfied that they  one or two feet high (higher when cultivated in
find the history of it in 2 Sam. xviii. IS, which  gardens), and nearly upright branches. The plant
states that Absalom, having no son, built a monu- has a pleasantly aromatic scent; and the bitterness
ment to keep his name in remembrance, and that of its taste is so tempered by the aromatic flavour
this monument was called'Absalom's Hand'-     as scarcely to be disagreeable.  3. Artemisia
that is, index, memorial, or monument. [HAND.] abrotanum, found in the south of Europe, as well
With our later knowledge, a glance at this and  as in Syria and Palestine, and eastward even to
the other monolithic tomb bearing the name of China. This a hoary plant, becoming a shrub in
Zecharias, is quite enough to shew that they had  warm' countries; and its branches bear loose
no connection with the times of the persons whose  panicles of nodding yellow flower-heads.  It is
names have been given to them.'The style of bitter and aromatic, with a very strong scent. It
architecture and embellishment,' writes Dr. Robin- is not much used in medicine; but the branches
son,' shews that they are of a later period   are employed in imparting a yellow dye to wool.
than most of the other countless sepulchres round
about the city, which, with few exceptions, are,,
destitute of architectural ornament.  Yet, the. 
foreign ecclesiastics, who crowded to Jerusalem in,
the fourth century, found these monuments here;                           < 
and of course it became an object to refer them to
persons mentioned in the Scriptures. Yet, from                         i 
that day to this, tradition seems never to have become fully settled as to the individuals whose 
names they should bear.  The Itin. Hieros. in
A. D. 333, speaks of the two monolithic monuments            7 Artemisia Judaica.
as the tombs of Isaiah and Hezekiah. Adamnus,    ABSTINENCE is a refraining from the use of
about A.D. 697, mentions only one of these, and  certain articles of food usually eaten; or from all
calls it the tomb of Jehoshaphat......  The food during a certain time for some particular object.
historians of the Crusades appear not to have  It is distinguished from TEMPERANCE, which is
noticed these tombs. The first mention of a tomb  moderation in ordinary food; and from FASTING,
of Absalom is by Benjamin of Tudela, who gives which is abstinence from a religious motive. The
to the other the name of King Uzziah; and from  first example of abstinence which occurs in Scripthat time to the present day the accounts of travel- ture is that in which the use of blood is forbidden
lers have been varying and inconsistent' (Biblical to Noah (Gen. ix. 4). [BLooD.] The next is that
Researches, i. 519, 520).-J. K                 mentioned in Gen. xxxii. 32:'The children
of Israel eat not of the sinew which shrank,
ABSINTHIUM      ('ApI6votov in New Test., by  which is upon the hollow of the thigh, unto this
which also Aquila renders the Heb. N13b; A. V.  day, because he (the angel) touched the hollow
wormwood). This proverbially bitter plant is used  of Jacob's thigh in the sinew that shrank.' This
in the Hebrew, as in most other languages, meta- practice of commemorative abstinence is here menphorically, to denote the moral bitterness of distress tioned as having been kept up from the time of
and trouble (Deut. xxix. I8; Prov. v. 4; Jer. ix. Jacob to that of the writer, as the phrase'unto this
I5; xxiii. I5; Lam. iii. 15, Ig; Amos v. 7; vi. day' intimates. No actual instance of the practice
12).  [Hence the Sept. render it by VYvyKV-, occurs in the Scripture itself, but the usage has
7rLKpta, 68bv7, once by Vios.] Artemisia is the bo- always been kept up; and to the present day the
tanical name of the genus of plants in which the Jews generally abstain from the whole hind-quarter
different species of wormwoods- are found. The  on account of the trouble and expense of extracting
plants of this genus are easily recognised by the the particular sinew (Allen's Modern Yudaism, p.
multitude of fine divisions into which the leaves 421).  By the law, abstinence from blood was
are usually separated, and the numerous clusters of confirmed, and the use of flesh of even lawful
small, round, drooping, greenish-yellow, or brown- animals was forbidden, if the manner of their death
ish flower-heads with which the branches are laden. rendered it impossible that they should be, or unIt must be understood that our common worm- certain that they were duly exsanguinated (Exod.
wood (Artemisia absinthium) does not appear to  xxii. 31; Duet. xiv. 21).  A broad rule was also
exist in Palestine, and cannot therefore be that laid down by the law, defining whole classes of
specially denoted by the Scriptural term. Indeed  animals that might not be eaten (Lev. xi.) [ANIMAL;
it is more than probable that the word is intended  FooD.] Certain parts of lawful animals, as being
to apply to all the plants of this class that grew in sacred to the altar, were also interdicted. These
Palestine, rather than to any one of them in par- were the large lobe of the liver, the kidneys and
ticular.  The examples of this genus that have the fat upon them, as well as the tail of the'fatbeen found in.that country are:-I. Artemisia tailed' sheep (Lev. iii. 9-II). Everything conseyudaica, which, if a particular species be intended, crated to idols was also forbidden (Exod. xxxiv. 15).
is probably the Absinthium of Scripture. Rau- In conformity with these rules the Israelites abwolff found it about Bethlehem, and Shaw in stained generally from food which was more or less
Arabia and the deserts of Numidia plentifully. in use among other people.  Instances of abstiThis plant is erect and shrubby, with stem about nence from allowed food are not frequent, except
eighteen inches high.  Its taste is very bitter; and  in commemorative or afflictive fasts. The forty
both the leaves and seeds are much used in Eastern  days' abstinence of Moses, Elijah, and Jesus are




ABYSS                    32                 ABYSSINIA
peculiar cases requiring to be separately considered. door, and secured by a lock (Alford, Stuart,
[FASTING.] The priests were commanded to ab- Ewald, De Wette, Diisterdieck). In ver. II menstain from wine previous to their actual ministrations tion is made of' the angel of the abyss,' by whom
(Lev. x. 9), and the same abstinence was enjoined some suppose is intended Satan or one of his angels.
to the Nazarites during the whole period of their [ABADDON.]-W. L. A.
separation (Num. vi. 3). A constant abstinence of  ABYSSINIA.    There is no part f Africa,
ABYSSINIA.'There is no part of Africa,
this kind was, at a later period, voluntarily under-   being excepted, the history of which is
takenbythen Rehabitesncer. xxxv. I-I).  Among Egypt being excepted, the history of which is
taken by tohe Rechabites Uer. xxxv. -9). Among  connected with so many objects of interest as
the early Christian converts there were some who  yssinia.  reio  of Alpin       in   ever
deemed themselves bound to adhere to the Mosaical A    byssinia. A region of Alpine mountains, ever
difficult of access by its nature and peculiar situlimitations regarding food, and they accordingly ation  concealin  in its bsm te lnsut
abstained from flesh sacrificed to idols, as well as  o el       its bosom  the long-sou
from animals which the law accounted unclean * sources of the Nile, and the still more mysterious
while others contemned this as a weakness, and  origin of its singular people, Abyssinia has alone
exulted in the liberty wherewith Christ has made preserved, in the heart of Africa, its peculiar litehis followers free. This question was repeatedly rature and its ancient Christian church. What is
Schtue but ~ o isstill more remarkable, it has preserved existing
referred to St. Paul, who laid down some admir-e          remarkable, it has preserved existing
able rules on the subject, the purport of which was remains of a previously existing and wide-spread
that every one was at liberty to act in this matter Judaism, and with a language approaching more
according to the dictates of his own conscience; but than any living tongue to the Hebrew, a state of
that the strong-minded had better abstain from manners, and a peculiar character of its people,
the exercise of the freedom they possessed, when- which represent in these latter days the habits and
snweeithe bexerciseo td                       customs of the ancient Israelites ino the timese ofe
ever it might prove an occasion of stumbling to a customs  of he ancient Israelites in the times of
weak brother (Rom. xiv. 1-3; I Cor. viii.) In an- Gideon and of Joshua. So striking is the resemother place the same apostle reproves certain sectaries who should arise, forbidding marriage and
enjoining abstinence from meats which God had 
created to be received with thanksgiving (I Tim.
iv. 3, 4). The counsel of the apostles at Jerusalem
decided that no other abstinence regarding food
should be imposed upon the converts than'from 
meats offered to idols, from blood, and from things  1l                       te/   wtth
strangled' (Acts xv. x9).
The Essenes, a sect among the Jews which is
not mentioned by name in the Scriptures, led a
more abstinent life than any recorded in the sacred               a
books. [ESSENES.]
That abstinence from ordinary food was practised by the Jews medicinally is not shewn in
Scripture, but is more than probable, not only as                                     p 
a dictate of nature, but as a common practice of 
their Egyptian neighbours, who, we are informed
by Diodorus (i 824,'being persuaded that the majority of diseases proceed from indigestion and ex-  -...
cess of eating, had frequent recourse to abstinenct,                                  ha
emetics, slight doses of medicine, and other simple
means of relieving the system, which some per-  Female.         Priests.       Warrior.
sons were in the habit of repeating every two or three             8.
days.'
ABYSS ('Agv3ooa-ot= &jvOo  without bottom). blance between the modem Abyssinians and the
The LXX. use this word to represent three     Hebrews of old, that we can hardly look upon
different Hebrew words:-.  a de   them but as branches of one nation; and if we
da h or had not convincing evidence to the contrary, and
deep place, Job xli 23; or tllYt, the deep, the sea, Is. knew not for certain that the Abrahamidae origixliv. 27; 2. ill' breadth, a broad place, Job xxxvi. nated in Chaldea, and to the northward and eastx6; 3. 13nn, a mass of waters, the sea, Gen. viii. ward of Palestine, we might frame a very probable
2; etc.; the chaotic mass of waters, Gen. i. 2; Ps. hypothesis, which should bring them down as a
civ. 6; the subterraneous waters,'the deep that band of wandering shepherds from the mountains
lieth under,' Gen. xlix. 25;' the deep that coucheth  of Habesh (Abyssinia), and identify them with the
beneath,' Deut. xxxiii. 13.  In the N. T. it is pastor kings, who, according to Manetho, multiused always with the article, to designate the abode plied their bands of the Pharaohs, and being, after
of the dead, Hades, especially that part of it which  some centuries expelled thence by the will of the
is also the abode of devils and the place of woe gods, sought refuge in Judea, and built the walls
(Rom. x. 7; Luke viii. 31; Rev. ix. I, 2, II; xi. of Jerusalem. Such an hypothesis would explain
7; xvii. 8; xx. I, 3). In the Revelation the word the existence of an almost Israelitish people, and
is always translated in the A. V.'bottomless pit,' the preservation of a language so nearly approachby Luther'abgrund.' In ch. ix. I mention is ing to the Hebrew, in intertropical Africa.  It is
made of'the key of the bottomless pit' (t KXelds T0  certainly untrue, and we find no other easy explaOpdacros rTOs jB. the key of the pit of the abyss), nation of the facts which the history of Abyssinia
where Hades is represented as a boundless depth, presents, and particularly the early extension of
which is entered by means of a shaft covered by a the Jewish religion and customs through that




ABYSSINIA                    33                ABYSSINIA
country' (Prichard's Physical History of Man, pp. vinces, some of which appear at one time to have
279, 280).                                     had vernacular languages of their own.  3. The
The above paragraph will suggest the grounds Agows, which name is borne by two tribes, who
which appear to entitle Abyssinia to a place in a speak different languages and inhabit different parts
Biblical Cyclopaedia. But as the country has no of Abyssinia.  These are the Agows of Damot,
physical connection with Palestine-which is, geo- one of the most extensive of the southern provinces,
graphically, our central object-a particular descrip- where they are settled about the sources and on the
tion of it is not necessary, and it will suffice to banks of the Nile; and the Agows of Lasta, who
notice the points of inquiry suggested by the quota- according to Bruce, are Troglodytes, living in
tion.  A brief outline is all that seems requisite.  caverns and paying the same adoration to the river' ABYSSINIA' is an European improvement upon Takazze which those of the Damot pay to the Nile.
the native name of' HABESH.' That this country These last are called by Salt the Agows of Takazze;
lies to the south of Nubia, which separates it from  and although they scarcely differ from the other
Egypt, and to the west of the Gulf of Bab-el-Mandah  Abyssinians in physical character, their language
and the southern part of the Arabian sea, will shews them to be a distinct race from the Persian as
sufficiently indicate its position.  Abyssinia is well as from the Amhara. 4. The Falasha, a people
a high country, which has been compared by whose present condition suggests many curious
Humboldt to the lofty Plain of Quito. By one of inquiries, and the investigation of whose history
those beautiful synthetical operations of which his may hereafter throw light upon that of the Abyssins,
writings offer so many examples, the greatest living  and of their literature and ecclesiastical antiquities.
geographer, Carl Ritter of Berlin, has established, They all profess the Jewish religion, and probably
from the writings of various travellers, that the high  did so before the era of the conversion of the
country of Habesh consists of three terraces, or Abyssinsto Christianity. Theythemselves professto
distinct table-lands, rising one above another, and  derive their origin from Palestine; but their language,
of which the several grades of ascent offer them- which is said to have no affinity with the Hebrew,
selves in succession to the traveller as he advances seems sufficiently to refute this pretension (Vater,
from the shores of the Red Sea (Erdkunde, th. i. Mithridates, t. iii.) According to Bruce the Falasha
s. I68). The first of these levels is the plain of were very powerful at the time of the conversion ot
Baharnegash: the second level is the plain and  the Abyssins to Christianity.  They were formerly a
kingdom of Tigre, which formerly contained the caste of potters and tile-makers in the low country
kingdom of Axum: the third level is High Abys- of Dembea, but, owing to religious animosities, and
sinia, or the kingdom of Amhara. This name of being weakened by long wars, they were driven out
Amhara is now given to the whole kingdom, of thence, and took refuge among rugged and almost
which Gondar is the capital, and where the Amharic inaccessible rocks, in the high ridge called the
language is spoken eastward of the Takazze. mountains of Samen, where they live under princes
Amhara Proper is, however, a mountainous province of their own, bearing Hebrew names, and paying
to the south-east, in the centre of which was Tegulat, tribute to the Negush. It is conjectured that the
the ancient capital of the empire, and at one period  Falasha and the Agows were at one time the princithe centre of the civilization of Abyssinia. This pal inhabitants of the south-eastern parts of Abysprovince is now in the possession of the Gallas, a sinia. 5. The Gafats, a pagan tribe, with a distinct
barbarous people who have overcome all the language, living on the southern banks of the Nile,
southern parts of Habesh. The present kingdom  near Damot. 6. The Gongas and Enareans. The
of Amhara is the heart of Abyssinia, and the abode former inhabit the province of Gonga, and have
of the emperor, or Negush. It contains the upper a language distinct from all the preceding, but the
course of the Nile, the valley of Dembea, and the same which is spoken by the people of Narea, or
lake Tzana, near which is the royal city of Gondar, Enarea, to the southward of Habesh.  7. To these
and likewise the high region of Gojam, which Bruce we should perhaps now add the Gallas, a race of
states to be at least two miles above the level of wandering herdsmen, extensively spread in eastern
the sea.                                      intertropical Africa, who have becohme, during the
Abyssinia is inhabited by several distinct races, last century, very formidable by their numbers, and
who are commonly included under the name of threaten to overwhelm the Abyssinian empire.
Habesh or Abyssins.   They are clearly distin-  The Abyssinians are to be regarded as belonging
guished from each other by their languages, but to the black races of men, but this is to be received
have more or less resemblance in manners and  with some explanation.  Without entering into
physical character. These races are-I. The Ti- particulars, it may be observed, after Riippell
grani, or Abyssins of the kingdom of Tigre, which  (Reise in Abyssinien), that there are two physical
nearly coincides in extent with the old king- types prevalent among the Abyssinians.    The
dom of Axum.     They speak a language called greater number are a finely-formed people of the
by Tellez and Ludolph lingua Tigrania.  It is a European type, having a countenance and features
corruption or modern dialect of the Gheez or old precisely resembling those of the Bedouins of
Ethiopic, Which was the ancient vernacular tongue Arabia. To this class belong most of the inhaof the province; but is now a dead language conse- bitants of the high mountains of Samen, and of
crated to literature and religious uses [ETHIOPIC the plains around Lake Tzana, as well as the
LANGUAGE], and the modern language of Tigre Falasha, or Jews, the heathen Gafats, and the
has been for more than five centuries merely an oral Agows, notwithstanding the variety of their diadialect. 2. The Amharas, who have been for ages lects. The other and very large division of the
the dominant people in Abyssinia; the genuine Abyssinian people is identified, as far as physical
Amhara being considered as a higher and nobler traits are concerned, with the race which has been
caste, as the military and royal tribe. Their lan- distinguished by the name of Ethiopian.  This
guage-the Amharic-now extends over all the race is indicated by a somewhat flattened nose,
eastern parts of Abyssinia, including various pro- thick lips, long and rather dull eyes, and by very
VOL. J.                                                                          D




ABYSSINIA                    34                  ACCAD
strongly crisped and almost woolly hair, which identify as Semitic the manners and usages which
stands very thickly upon the head.  They are have been described as Hebrew, we would beg to
therefore one of the connecting links between the call attention to that passage, in the commencing
Arabian and the Negro races, being separated  extract, which, with an unintended significance,
from the former by a somewhat broader line than  intimates that these customs are those of the early
from the latter. In their essential characteristics times of Gideon and Joshua, when the Hebrews
they agree with the Nubians, Berberines, and  had not been long subject to the peculiar modinative Egyptians (Prichard's Nat. Hist. of Man, fying influences of the Mosaical institutions. This
p. 285).                                      is very much the same as to say that the customs
Abyssinia has for ages been united under one and usages in view are in accordance with the
governor, who during the earliest periods resided general type of Semitic manners, rather than with
at Axum, the ancient capital of Tigre; but who  the particular type which the Mosaical institutions
for some centuries past has resided at Gondar, a produced; or, in other words, that they resemble
more central part of the kingdom. For ages also the manners of the Hebrews most when those
the Abyssins have been Christians, but with a manners had least departed from    the general
strange mixture of the Judaism which appears to standard of usages which prevailed among the
have been previously professed, and with the Semitic family of nations. They are, therefore,
exceptions which have been already indicated. less Hebrew manners than Semitic manners, and
Tigre, in which was the ancient capital of the as such, are accounted for by the presence of
empire, was the country in which Judaism appears Semitic races in the country. In point of fact,
to have been in former times the most prevalent, travellers who derive their first notions of the East
It was also the country which possessed, in the from the Bible, when they come among a strange
Gheez or ancient Ethiopic, a Semitic language. people, are too ready to set down as specfically
It was, moreover, the seat of civilization, which, it Hebrew some of the more striking usages which
is important to observe, appears to( have been  attract their notice; whereas, in fact, they are
derived from the opposite coast of Arabia, and  generically Oriental, or at least Semitic, and are
to have had nothing Egyptian or Nubian in its Hebrew also merely because the Hebrews were an
character.                                     Oriental people, and had Oriental features, habits,
These observations have brought us back again  and usages.  Our conclusion, then, is, that the
to the difficulty stated at the commencement of former prevalence of the Jewish religion in Abysthis article, in the words of Dr. Prichard, which  sinia accounts for the existence of the Jewish
has hitherto been considered insuperable. There ritual usages; and that the presence of one (peris no doubt, however, that this difficulty has chiefly haps more than one) paramount Semitic colony
arisen from  attempting to explain all the phe- accounts for the existence, in this quarter, of a
nomena on a single principle; whereas two causes Semitic language, and Semitic (and therefore
at least contributed to produce them, as the fol- Hebrew) manners and usages.  We entertain a
lowing remarks will clearly shew:-             very strong conviction that this conclusion will be
The former profession of Judaism in the country  corroborated by all the research into Abyssinian
is sufficient to account for the class of observances history and antiquities which may hereafter be
and notions derivable from  the Jewish ritual, made.
which are very numerous, and appear singular,    Having thus considered the question which
mixed up as they are with a professedly Christian  alone authorized the introduction of this article,
faith. This, however, does not account for Jewish  we reserve for other articles [CANDACE; ETHIOPIA;
manners and customs, or for the existence of a SHEBA, QUEEN OF] some questions connected
language so much resembling the Hebrew, and so with other points in the history of Abyssinia,
truly a Semitic dialect as the Gheez, or old Ethio- especially the introduction of Judaism into that
plan. For nations may adopt a foreign religion, country. Of the numerous books which have been
and maintain the usages arising from it, without written respecting Abyssinia, the Histories of Tellez
any marked change of their customs or language. and Ludolph, and the Travels of Kramp, Bruce,
But all which this leaves unsolved may, to our Salt, and Riippell, are the most important; and an
apprehension, be very satisfactorily accounted for admirable digest of existing information may be
by the now generally admitted fact, that at least found in Ritter's Erdkunde, th. i., and (as far as
the people of Tigre, who possessed a Semitic regards ethnography and languages) in Prichard's
language so nearly resembling the Hebrew, are a Researches, vol. ii. ch. vi., and his Natural Histoly
Semitic colony, who imported into Abyssinia not of Man, sec. 26.-J. K.
only a Semitic language, but Semitic manners,    ACAD;, one of                f
usages, and modes of thought.   Whether this     ACCAD; Sept.      ), one of the four
may or may not be true of the Amhara also, cities in'the land of Shinar' or Babylonia, which
depends in a great degree upon the conclusion that are said to have been built by Nimrod, or rather to
may be reached respecting the Amharic language, have been'the beginning of his kingdom' (Gen. x.
which, through the large admixture of Ethiopic  so).  Their situation has been much disputed.
and Arabic words, has a Semitic' appearance, but ]Elian (De Animal. xvi. 42) mentions that in the
may, notwithstanding, prove to be fundamentally  district of Sittacene was a river called'Apydrts,
African. At all events, the extent to which the which is so near the name'ApXdc which the LXX.
Gheez language has operated upon it would afford give to this city, that Bochart was induced to fix
a proof of the influence of the Semitic colony  Accad upon that river (Phaleg. iv. 17). It seems
upon the native population: which is all that can  that several of the ancient translators found in
reasonably be desired to account for the pheno- their Hebrew MSS. Achar ('"K) instead of Accad
mena which have excited so much inquiry and    ('"N) (Ephraem Syrus, Pseudo-Jonathan, Targum
attention.                                     Hieros., Jerome, Abulfaragi, etc.); and the ease
If it should be objected that it is not sufficient to with which the similar letters' and' might be




ACCAD                     35                 ACCENT
interchanged in copying, leaves it doubtful which I varying from 12 to 20 feet in height, and are sepawas the real name. Achar was the ancient name rated by layers of reeds, as is usual in the more
of Nisibis; and hence the Targumists give Nisibis ancient remains of this primitive region. Travellers
or Nisibin (tJo!%) for Accad, and they continued  have been perplexed to make out the use of this
to be identified by the Jewish literati in the times remarkable monument, and various strange conof Jerome. But the Jewish literati have always jectures have been hazarded. The embankments
been deplorable geographers, and their unsup- of canals and reservoirs, and the remnants of
ported conclusions are worth very little. Nisibis is brick-work and pottery occupying the place all
unquestionably too remote northward to be associ- around, evince that the Tel stood in an important
ated with Babel, Erech, and Calneh,'in the land of city; and, as its construction announces it to be' a
Shinar.' These towns could not have been very Babylonian relic, the greater probability is that it
distant from each other; and when to the analogy was one of those pyramidal structures erected upon
of names we can add that of situation and of high places, which were consecrated to the heavenly
tradition, a strong claim to identity is established. bodies, and served at once as the temples and the
These circumstances unite at a place in the ancient observatories of those remote times. Such buildSittacene, to which Bochart had been led by other ings were common to all Babylonian towns; and
analogies. The probability that the original name those which remain appear to have been constructed
was Achar having been established, the attention is more or less on the model of that in the metronaturally drawn to the remarkable pile of ancient politan city of Babylon. —J. K.
buildings called Akker-koof, in Sittacene, and  ACCARON. [EKRON.
which the Turks know as Akker-i-Nimrood and
Akkeri-Babil.  The late Col. Taylor, formerly   ACCENT. This term is often used with a very
British resident at Baghdad, who gave much atten- wide meaning; as when we say that a person has
tion to the subject, was the first to make out this'a Scotch accent,' in which case it denotes all
identification, and to collect evidence in support of that distinguishes the Scotch from the English
it; and to his unpublished communications the pronunciation. We here confine the word, in the
writer and other recent travellers are indebted for first place, to mean those peculiarities of sound for
their statements on the subject. The Babylonian which grammarians have invented the marks called
Talmud might be expected to mention the site; accents; and we naturally must have a principal
and it occurs accordingly under the name of Aggada. reference to the Hebrew and the Greek languages.
It occurs also in Maimonides (yud. Chaz. Tract. Secondly, we exclude the consideration of such a
Madee, fol. 25, as quoted by Hyde), who says, use of accentual marks (so called) as prevails in the'Abraham  xl. annos natus cognovit creatorem  French language; in which they merely denote a
suum;' and immediately adds,'Extat Aggada tres certain change in the quality of a sound attributed
annos natus.'                                 to a vowel or diphthong. It is evident that had a
Akker-koof is about nine miles west of the Tigris, sufficient number of alphabetical vowels been inat the spot where that river makes its nearest vented, the accents (in such a sense) would have
approach to the Euphrates. The heap of ruins to  been superseded. While the Hebrew and Greek
which the name of Nimrod's Hill- Tell-i-Nimrood, languages are here our chief end, yet in order to
pass from the known to the unknown, we shall
throughout refer to our own tongue as the best
source of illustration.  In this respect, we undoubtedly overstep the proper limits of a Biblical
J\ll /jfi~-^Cyclopaedia; but we are in a manner constrained
~4/ /{\ Gary l        so to do, since the whole subject is misrepresented
-J          d Ior very defectively explained in most English grammars: and if we abstained from this full exposition,
many readers would most probably, after all, misunderstand our meaning.
w~~~-\ o^'^^ ^Even after the word accent has been thus limited,
there is an ambiguity in' the term; it has still a
\ /^y   - -double sense, according to which we name it either
oratorical or vocabular. By the latter, we mean the
(Y'. "/-  ^ - l ^^      -* ^ ~ - accent which a word in isolation receives; for in-.~::i:_-:: ~*-:.... stance, if we read in a vocabulary: while by oratorical accent we understand that which words actually
have when read aloud or spoken as parts of a
9                        sentence.
is more especially appropriated, consists of a mound  The Greek men of letters, who, after the Masurmounted by a mass of brick-work, which looks cedonian kingdoms had taken their final form, inlike either a tower or an irregular pyramid, accord- vented accentual marks to assist foreigners in learning to the point from which it is viewed. It is ing their language, have (with a single uniform
about 400 feet in circumference at the bottom, and  exception) been satisfied to indicate the vocabular
rises to the height of 125 feet above the sloping  accent: but the Hebrew grammarians aimed, when
elevation on which it stands. The mound, which  the pronunciation of the old tongue was in danger
seems to form the foundation of the pile, is a mass of being forgotten, at indicating by marks the traof rubbish accumulated by the decay of the super- ditional inflections of the voice with which the
structure. In the ruin itself, the layers of sun- Scriptures were to be read aloud in the synagogues.
dried bricks, of which it is composed, can be In consequence, they have introduced a very corntraced very distinctly. They are cemented together plicated system of accentuation to direct the reader.
by lime or bitumen, and are divided into courses Some of their accents (so called) are in fact, stops,




ACCENT                     36                 ACCENT
others syntactical notes, which served also as guides irapa&oX\' (parable), his voice will rise on the I and
to the voice in chanting.                      i in a manner never heard from an Englishman. In
In intelligent reading or speaking, the vocal ancient Greek, however, yet greater nicety existed;
organs execute numerous intonations which we for the voice had three kinds of accent, or slides,
have no method of representing on paper; espe- which the grammarians called flat, sharp, and
cially such as are called inflections or slides by  circumflex; as in nis, ris; TOV. It is at the same
teachers of elocution: but on these a book might time to be remarked, that this flat accent was solely
be written; and we can here only say, that the oratorical; for when a word was read in a vocabuMasoretic accentuation of the Hebrew appears to lary, or named in isolation, or indeed at the end
have struggled to depict the rhythm of sentences; of a sentence, it never took the flat accent, even
and the more progress has been made towards a on the last syllable; except, it would seem, the
living perception of the language, the higher is the word r1s, a certain one. In the middle of a sentence,
testimony borne by the learned to the success which however, the simple accent (for we are not speaking
this rather cumbrous system has attained.  The of the circumflex) on a penultima or antepenultima
rhythm, indeed, was probably a sort of chant; was always sharp, and on a last syllable was flat.
since to this day the Scriptures are so recited by Possibly a stricter attention to the speech of the best
the Jews, as also the Koran by the Arabs or Turks: educated moder Greeks, or, on the contrary, to
nay, in Turkish, the same verb (oqumaq) signifies that of their peasants in isolated districts, might
to sing and to read. But this chant by no means detect a similar peculiarity: but it is generally
attains the sharp discontinuity of European singing; believed that it has been lost, and some uncertainty
on the contrary the voice slides from note to note. therefore naturally rests on the true pronunciation.
Monotonous as the whole sounds, a deeper study  On the whole, it is most probable that the flat acof the expression intended might probably lead to cent was a stress of the voice uttered in a lower
a fuller understanding of the Masoretic accents.  note, much as-the second accent in grdndfdther;
Wherein the accent consists. —In ordinary Euro- that the sharp accent was that which prevails in
pean words, one syllable is pronounced with a modem Greek, and has been above described; and
peculiar stress of the voice; and is then said to be that the circumflex combined an upward and a
accented.  In our own language, the most obvious downward slide on the same vowel. The last was
accompaniment of this stress on the syllable is a naturally incapable of being executed, unless the
greater clearness of sound in the vowel; insomuch vowel was long; but the other two accents could
that a very short vowel cannot take the primary  exist equally well on a short vowel.
accent in English. Nevertheless, it is very far from  In English elocution various slides are to be
the truth, that accented vowels and syllables are heard, more complicated than the Greek circumflex;
necessarily long, or longer than the unaccented in  but with us they are wholly, oratorical, never
the same word; of which we shall speak afterwards. vocabular. Moreover, theyare peculiar to vehement
In illustration, however, of the loss of clearness in  or vivacious oratory; being abundant in familiar
a vowel, occasioned by a loss of accent, we may  or comic speech, and admissible also in high pathetic
compare a cdntest with to contest; equal with  or indignant declamation: but they are almost
equality; in which the syllables con, qual, are entirely excluded from tranquil and serious uttersounded with a very obscure vowel when unac- ance.
cented.                                          Secondary Accent.-On the same word, when
Let us observe, in passing, that when a vowel it consists of many syllables, a double accent is
sound changes through transposition of the ac- frequently heard, certainly in English, and probably
cent, the Hebrew grammarians-instead of trust- in most languages; but in our own tongue one of
ing that the voice will of itself modify the vowel the two is generally feebler than the other, and may
when the accent is shifted-generally think it be called secondary. If we agree to denote this by
necessary to depict the vowel differently: which  the flat accent (') of the Greeks, we may indicate as
is one principal cause of the complicated changes follows our double accent:
of the vowel points.                             consideration, disobedience, unpretending;
A second concomitant of the accent is less marked  secondary, accessory, peremptorily.
in English than in Italian or Greek; namely-a  We have purposely selected as the three last exmusical elevation of the voice. On a piano or violin amples cases in which the secondary accent falls on
we of course separate entirely the stress given to a a very short or obscure vowel, such as can never
note (which is called forte and staccato) from its sustain the primary accent.
elevation (which may be A, or c, or F); yet in speech  In some cases two syllables intervene between
it is natural to execute in a higher tone, or as we the accents, and it may then be difficult to say which
improperly term it, in a higher key, a syllable on accent is the principal. In dristocrat, iqualnze, antiwhich we desire to lay stress: possibly because dbte, the first syllable has a stronger accent than the
sharp sounds are more distinctly heard than flat last; but in dristocrdtic, equalizdtion, dntediluvian,
ones.  Practically, therefore, accent embraces a they seem to be as equal as possible, though the
slide of the voice into a higher note, as well as an latter catches the ear more. In aristdcracy, the
emphasis on the vowel; and in Greek and Latin it former is beyond a doubt secondary; but here the
would appear that this slide upwards was the most two are separated by only one syllable. Pr'detrmarked peculiarity of accent, and was that which  mindtion has three accents, of which the middlegained it the names Irpoaoolea, accentus.  Even at most is secondary.
the present day, if we listen to the speech of a  In the Greek language a double accent is someGreek or Italian, we shall observe a marked ele- times found on one word; but only when the latter
vation in the slides of the voice, giving the appear- is superinduced by some short and subordinate
ance of great vivacity, even where no peculiar word which hangs upon the other.  Such short
sentiment is intended.  Thus, if a Greek be words are called enclitics, and form a class by themrequested to pronounce the words aovta (wisdom), selves in the language, as they cannot be known by




ACCENT                     37                  ACCENT
their meaning or form. By way of example we very same noun, shifted in the following curious
may give, Trpawb6s rS (a certain usurper), ot8d ae (I fashion: N. avOppworos, G. dvOpcb7rov, D. divOpr1bry,
know thee). In these cases, we observe that the Ac. dtvOpcorov; and in Latin, rather differently, yet
two accents, if both are sharp, are found on alter- with an equal change, N. Sermo, G. Sermdnis, etc.
nate syllables, as in English; but whether one of It is beyond all question that the above rule in
them was secondary we do not know. If the former Greek is genuine and correct (though it does not
is a circumflex, the latter is on the following syl- apply to oxytons, that is, to words accented on the
lable. Occasionally, two or more enclitics follow  last syllable, and has other exceptions which the
each other in succession, and produce a curious Greek grammars will tell); but there is a natural
combination; as, etirds -ro6 rTi 1L. These accents, difficulty among Englishmen to believe it, since we
however, are not vocabular, but oratorical.    have been taught to pronounce Greek with the
The Hebrews have in many cases, secondary accentuation of Latin; a curious and hurtful coraccents, called aforetone, because with them it always ruption, to which the influence of Erasmus is said
precedes the principal accent (or' tone'), as, nn  to have principally contributed. It deserves to be
u:  noted that the modem  Greeks, in pronouncing
kdtebd; the intermediate and unaccented voweltheir ancient words, retain, with much accuracy on
being in such cases exceedingly short and obscure, the whole, the ancient rules of accent; but in words
so that some grammarians refuse to count it at all. of recent invention or introduction they follow the
This foretone is described as a stress of the voice rule, which seems natural to an Englishman, of
uttered in a lower note, and therefore may seem  keeping the accent on the same syllable through all
identical in sound with the flat accent of the Greeks. cases of a  noun.  Thus, although they sound as of
It differs, however, in being always accompanied   old, N. &vpwros, G. dvTptov, yet in the word
with the sharp accent on the same word, and in  KOK, N   p a  adp, which is quite recent, we find
being vocabular, not merely oratorical.       (plural), N. a KOKbveS, G. rqv KOKVevw, etc. SimiOn the Place of the Accent.-A great difference larly, 6 KcrTTdvoS, the captain, G. roi Kalrtrdvov,
exists between different languages as to the place of etc. This is only one out of many marks that the
the accent. In Hebrew it is found solely on the modem Greek has lost the nice appreciation of the
last syllable and last but one, and is assumed syste- quantity or time of vowel sounds, which characmatically by many grammatical terminations, as in terized the ancient.
Melek (for Mdlk) a king, pl. fMel'kim. This is   In all Latin or Greek words which we import
so entirely opposed to the analogies of English, into English, so long as we feel them to be foreign,
that it has.been alleged (Latham  On the English  we adhere to the Latin rules of accentuation as
Language) that PrincAss is the only word in which  well as we know how: thus, in democrat, demdour accent falls on a final inflection. The radical cracy, democrdttcal philosophy, ph2losophcal; astrocontrast of all this to our own idiom leads to a nomy, dstrondmical; domestic, domesticity, domstiperverse pronunciation of most Hebrew names: cdtion; possible, possibility; bdrbarous, barbdrity.
thus we say Isaiah, Nehemiah, Canaani, I'srael-  But the moment we treat any of these words as
although with their true accent they are Isaiah, natives, we follow our own rule of keeping the
Nehemyah, Cana-an, Isra-el; to say nothing of accent on the radical syllable; as in bdrbarousness,
other peculiarities of the native sound. In Greek, where the Saxon ending, ness, is attached to the
the accent is found on any of the three last syl- foreign word. With the growth of the language,
lables of a word; the circumflex only on the two we become more and more accustomed to hear a
last. In the Latin language, it,is very remarkable long train of syllables following the accent. Thus,
that (except in the case of monosyllables) the accent we have cdmfort, cdmfortdble, c6mfortableness; pdrnever fell on the last syllable, but was strictly con- liament, pdrliamentary, which used to be pdrliafined to the penultima and antepenultima. This mentary.
peculiarity struck the Greek ear, it is said, more  In many provinces of England, and in particular
than anything else in the sound of Latin, as it families, the older and better pronunciations, congave to it a pompous air. It is the more difficult to trdry, industry, keep their place instead of the
believe that any thoughtful Greek seriously im- modem  contrary, Industry.  The new tendency
puted it to Roman pride, since we are told that has innovated in Latin words so far, that many
the AEolic dialect of Greek itself agreed in this persons say inimical, c6ntemplate, inculcate, decorrespect with the Latin (See Foster On Accent and ous, sonorous, and even concordance, for inimical,
Quantity, ch. iv.)  The Latin accentuation is contemplate, etc.'Alexanderhas supplanted'Alexremarkable for having the place of the accent dnder.   In the cases of concordance, cldmorous,
dictated solely by euphony, without reference to and various others, it is probable that the words
the formation or meaning of the word; in which  have been made to follow the pronunciation of
respect the Greek only partly agrees with it, chiefly cdncord, cldmor, as in native English derivatives.
when the accent falls on the penultima or ante- The principle of change, t6 which we have been
penultima. The Latin accent, however, is guided pointing, is probably deep-seated in human speech;
by the quantity of the penultimate syllable; the for the later Attics are stated to have made a
Greek accent by the quantity of the ultimate vowel. similar innovation in various words; for example,
The rules are these: —                          Eschylus and Thucydides said /oZosI, rpo7rasov, but
I. Greek:' When the last vowel is long, the Plato and Aristotle, 6oosoP, Tp6bratov.
accent is on the penultima; when the last vowel is  If the principal accent is very distant from one
short, the accent is on the antepenultima.' Oxytons end of a long word, a great obscurity in the distant
are herein excepted. 2. Latin:'When the pen- vowel-sounds results, which renders a word highly
ultimate syllable is long, the accent is upon it; when unmusical, and quite unmanageable to poetry.
short, the accent is on the antepenultima.  Every This will be seen in such pronunciations as pdrliadissyllable is accented on the penultima.' Accord- mentary, peremptorily.
ingly, the Greek accent, even on the cases of the  In Hebrew the same phenomenon is exhibited




ACCENT                     38                  ACCENT
in a contrary way, the early vowels of a word being  them in (what are called) nouns in regimen. Being
apt to become extremely short, in consequence of without a genitive case, or any particle devoted to
the accent being delayed to the end. Thus, Li,, the same purpose as the English preposition of
dhe'l, a tent, pl. nln, oh hajm;    p.tP, ateld, in combination. The former word loses its accent,
they killed; tit'p, fdtalilhu, they killed him. and thereby often incurs a shortening and obscura-,I -:                           tion of its vowels; the voice hurrying on to the
Oratorical reasons occasionally induce a sacrifice of latter. This may be illustrated by the English
the legitimate vocabular accent. In English this pronunciation of ship of war, man of wr, man at
happens chiefly in cases of antithesis; as when the drms, phrases which, by repetition, have in spirit
verbs, which would ordinarily be sounded increase become single words, the first accent being lost.
and decredse, reverse their accent in order to bring  Many such exist in our language, though unregisout more clearly the contrasted syllables:'He  tered by grammarians-in fact, even in longer
must increase, but I must decrease.'           phrases the phenomenon is observable.  Thus,
This change is intended, not for mere euphony, Secretary at Wdr, Court of Queen'sBench, have very
but to assist the meaning. Variety and energy audibly but one predominating accent, on the-last
seem to be aimed at in the following Hebrew ex- syllable. So, in Hebrew, from ion, Xizzdyo'n, a
ample, which Ewald has noticed, and which seems                       ezyn-l      vision of the
to indicate that more of the same sort must remain  son, comes                   v    o 
to be discovered: yudgesv. 12, Ur,'uri, Debord: night (Job xx. 8). That every such case is fairly'uri,''ri, dabbiri shir; which, after Ewald, we may  to be regarded as a compound noun was remarked
imitate by translating thus,'Up then, up then, by Dr. Campbell of Aberdeen, who urged that
Deborah: tp then, up then, utter a song.' The otherwise, in Isaiah ii. 20, we ought to render the
Greek and Hebrew languages, moreover, in the words'the idols of his silver;' whereas, in fact, the
)aause of a sentence, modified the accent without exact representation of the-Hebrew in Greek is not
reference to the meaning of the words. Thus the e&wXa dpyy6pov-a6roO, but, so to say, dpyvpeti6Xa
verb ordinarily sounded  8 ga, de'1, with a very  aroO. In Greek compounds the position of the
IT                   accent is sometimes a very critical matter in disshort penultimate vowel, becomes at the end of the tinguishing active and passive meanings of epithets.
sentence &ss, gadelu, with a long and accented  Thus, wlp6pKTovos means mother-slain, or slain by
|,..,"T-7~~  ~one's mother; while /LlTrpoKTbOVO is mother-slaying,
penultima (See Ewald's Hebrew Gram. ~ 3I1, I33). or slaying one's mother. Such distinctions, howThe Greek language also at the end of a sentence ever, seem to have been confined to a very small
changes a flat accent into a sharp one; for instance, class of compounds.
the word rcad (honour) before a pause becomes rt/l;  Sense of a simple word modified by the Accent.but no elongation of vowels ever accompanies this It is familiarly remarked in our English grammars,
phenomenon.                                   that (in words of Latin origin, generally imported
Accent in Compound Words.-It is principally from French) we often distinguish a verb from a
by the accent that the syllables of a word are noun by putting the accent on the penultimate
joined into a single whole; and on this account a syllable of the noun and the ultimate of the verb.
language with well-defined accentuation is (coeteris Thus, we say, an insult, to insult; a cdntest, to
paribus) so much the easier to be understood when  contest; etc. etc. The distinction is so useful, that
heard, as well as so much the more musical. This in doubtful cases it appears desirable to abide by
function of the accent is distinctly perceived by us the rule, and to say (as many persons do say) a
in such words of our language as have no other!prfume, to perfume; dStails, to detail; the contents
organized union of their parts. To the eye of a of a book, to content; etc. It is certainly curious
foreigner reading an English book, steam-boat ap- that the very same law of accent pervades the
pears like two words; especially as our printers Hebrew language, as discriminating the simplest
have an extreme dislike of hyphens, and omit them  triliteral noun and verb.  Thus, we have'A
whenever the corrector of the press will allow it.'i
In Greek or Persian two such words would be mtlek, king; 1     m3, mdlak, he ruled. In the Greek
united into one by a vowel of union, which is cer- language the number of nouns is very considerable
tainly highly conducive to euphony, and the com- in which the throwing of the accent on the last
pound would appear in the form steamiboat or syllable seriously alters the sense; as, rp6iros, a
steamobatos.  As we are quite destitute of such  manner; rpo'rbs, the leather of an oar: Ovpus, anger
apparatus (in spite of a few such exceptions as or mind; IOOAos, garlic: Kptvwv, judging; Kpwvav, a
handicraft, mountebank), the accent is eminently lily-bed: J/uos, a shoulder; d b6s, cruel. A very
important; by which it is heard at once that stedm- extensive vocabulary of such cases is appended to
boat is a single word. " In fact, we thus distinguish  Scapula's Greek Lexicon.
between a st6nebox and a stone bdx; the former   Relation of Accent to Rhythm  and Metre. -
meaning a box for holding stones, the latter a box  Every sentence is necessarily both easier to the
made of stone.   Mr. Latham (Engl. Language, voice and pleasanter to the ear when the whole is
{ 234) has ingeniously remarked that we may broken up into symmetrical parts, with convenient
read the following line from Ben Jonson in two  pauses between them. The measure of the parts
ways:                                          is marked out by the number of principal beats of'An'd thy silvershning quiver'-        the voice (or oratorical accents) which each clause
or,'An'd thy silver shining quiver'-     contains; and when these are so regulated as to
with a slight difference of sense.             attain a certain musical uniformity without betrayThe Hebrew language is generally regarded as ing art, the sentence has the pleasing rhythm of
quite destitute of compound words. It possesses, good prose. When art is not avowed, and yet is
nevertheless, something at least closely akin to  manifest, this is unpleasing, as seeming to proceed




ACCENT                    39                  ACCENT
from affectation and insincerity. When, however, declamatory to be what we call poetry. Neverthethe art is avowed, we call it no longer rhythm, but less, in the Psalms and lyrical passages, increasing
metre; and with the cultivation of poetry, more and investigation appears to prove that considerable
more melody has been exacted of versifiers.   artifice of composition has often been used (See
To the English ear, three and four beats of the Ewald's Poetical Books of the Old Test. vol. i.)
voice give undoubtedly the most convenient length  In our own language, it is obvious to every
of clauses. Hence, in what is called poeticalprose, considerate reader of poetry that the metres called
it will be found that any particularly melodious anapaestic depend far more on the oratorical accent
passage, if broken up into lines or verses, yields than on the vocabular (which is, indeed, their
generally either three or four beats in every verse. essential defect); and on this account numerous
For example:                                  accents, which the voice really utters, are passed'Where is the maid of Ar'van?               by as counting for nothing in the metre.  We
G6ne, as a vision of the night.offer as a single example, the two following lines
Whre shall her lover lo6k for her?         of Campbell, in which we have denoted by the flat
The hall, which 6nce she gladdened, is desolate.'accent those syllables the stress upon which is
subordinate and extra metrum:
But no poetical prose, not even translations of'S     rsh'd the        exultingly forth
poetry which aim at a half-metrical air, will be  r   hs h,   the d rk-rolling clods of
found to retain constantly the threefold and fou- rom the n6rth
fold accent. To produce abruptness, half lines,     the north?
fold accent. To produce abruptness, a    lines, Such considerations, drawn entirely out of oratory,
containing but two accents, are thrown in; and in 
smoother feeling clauses of five accents' whicahh appear to be the only ones on which it is any longer
smoother feeling clauses of five accents, whic  useful to pursue an inquiry concerning Hebrew
oftentenethe true English buseful to pursue an inquiry concerning Hebrew
often tend to become the true English blank verse. metres.
All longer clauses are composite, and can be re- Cofusio  of Accet       Qua   y.-It is a
solved into three and three, four and three, four sonfon of A     t w th Quantit    t is a
illustrate this, let us take a striking fact that Foster, the author of a learned
and four, etc    To illustrate this, let us take  and rather celebrated book intended to clear up
tpassage of nh Od  Testament in the cm   English this confusion, succeeded in establishing the truth
translation. H k.                    concerning Greek and Latin, by help of ancient
O'h, Lord                             grammarians, but himself fell into the popular
I have heard thy speech; and was afraid.    errors whenever he tried to deal with the English
O'h Lord!                             language. Not only does he allege that'the voice
Revive thy work in the midst of the years!  dwells longer' on the first syllable of honestly,
In the midst of the years make kn6wn!      character, etc., than on the two last (and improperly
In wrath remember mercy!                    writes them honestly, chardcter), but he makes a
God came from Teman,                        general statement that accent and quantity, though
And the H61y One from Mount Paran.          separated in Greek and Latin, are inseparable in
His glory covered the heavens,              English.  The truth is so far otherwise, that
And the earth was full of his praise.       probably in three words out of four we separate
His brightness was as the light,           them.   As single instances, consider the words
He had horns coming oAt of his hand,        honestly, chdracter, just adduced. The accent is
And there was the hiding of his power.' etc. etc. clearly on the first syllable; but that syllable in
The accent which we have been here describing  each is very short. On the other hand, the second
as the source of rhythm is strictly the oratorical ac- syllable of both, though unaccented, yet by reason
cent. As this falls only on the more emphatic of the consonants s t 1, c t, is long, though less so
words of the sentence, it is decidedly strong, and, than if its vowel likewise had been long.  The
*in comparison with it, all the feebler and secondary words are thus, like the Greek KivXwpoS, a cy'linder,
accents are unheard, or at least uncounted. Nor accented on the first syllable, yet as to quantity an
is any care taken that the successive accents should amphibrach (c -  ). Until an Englishman clearly
be at equable distances. Occasionally they occur on feels and knows these facts of his own tongue, he
successive syllables; much oftener at the distance will be unable to avoid the most perplexing errors
of two, three, or four syllables. Nevertheless, this on this whole subject.
poetical rhythm, as soon as it becomes avowedly  Invention of Accents. -We have already said
cultivated, is embryo-metre; and possibly this is that the accentual marks of the Greeks were inthe real state of the Hebrew versification. Great vented not long after the Macedonian conquests.
pains have been taken, from Gomarus in I630 to To Aristophanes of Byzantium, master of the celeBellermann and Saalschiitz in recent times, to define brated Aristarchus, is ascribed the credit of fixing
the laws of Hebrew metre. A concise history of both the punctuation -and the accentuation of
these attempts will be found in the Introduction to  Greek.  He was bor  near the middle of the
De Wette's Commentary on the Psalms. But al- second century B.C.; and there seems to be no
though the occasional use of rhyme ot assonance in doubt that we actually have before our eyes a
Hebrew seems to be more than accidental, the pronunciation which cannot have greatly differed
failure of so many efforts to detect any real metre from that of Plato. As for the Hebrew accentuin the old Hebrew is decisive enough to warn  ation generally called fMasoretic, the learned are
future inquirers against losing their labour. (See agreed that it was a system only gradually built up
the article Parallelismus in Ersch and Gruber's by successive additions; the word Masora itself
Encyclopedie.)  The moder Jews, indeed, have meaning tradition. The work is ascribed to the
borrowed accentual metre from the Arabs: but, schools of Tiberias and Babylon, which arose after
although there is nothing in the genius of the tongue the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans; but it
to resist it, perhaps the,fervid, practical genius of cannot be very accurately stated in how many centhe Hebrew prophets rejected any such trammel. turies the system of vowel-points and accentuation
Repetition and amplification mark their style as too attained the fully-developed state in which we have




ACCABISH                    40                  ACCHO
received it. There is, however, no question among point of which is formed by the promontory of
the ablest scholars that these marks represent the Mount Carmel. The city lies on the plain to
utterance of a genuine Hebrew period; the pro- which it gives its name. Its western side is washed
nunciation, it may be said with little exaggeration, by the waves of the Mediterranean, and on the
of Ezra and Nehemiah.-F. W. N.                south lies the bay, beyond which may be seen the
ACCABISH (i342).      This word occurs Job  town of Caipha, on the site of the ancient Calamos,
*... - 14 ads ibtwand, rising high above both, the shrubby heights of
vii. 14 and Is. lix. 5, in both which places it is Carmel. The mountains belonging to the chain
translated spider in the A. V. That this is the cor- of Anti-Libanus are seen at the distance of about
rect rendering cannot be doubted; all the ancient four leagues to the north, while to the east the view
versions support it, and the context in both places is bounded by the fruitful hills of the Lower Galilee.
fully accords with it. Gesenius supposes the word The bay, from the town of Acre to the promontory
to be a compound of =13, Arab.     _    agile, of Mount Carmel, is three leagues wide and two in
swift, and U      to weave (as a spider), q. d. depth. The port, on account of its shallowness,
can only be entered by vessels of small burden;
sift weaver. Bochart proposes to derive it, by but there is excellent anchorage on the other side
reversing the radicals, from the verb'I:D or']3W  of the bay, before Caipha, which is in fact the
to interweave (Hieroz. ii. p. 603).-W. L. A.  roadstead of Acre (Turner, ii. III; G. Robinson,
ACCHO m  i ZV  (Sept. "AKXw), a town and haven i. I98). In the time of Strabo Accho was a great
ACH  X (Sp.',                 city (HlTroX~/ats o-rt eydX- 7r6X\is V Av Acv6ba'ov
within the nominal territory of the tribe of Asher, irp6repov, xvi. p. 877), and it has continued to be a
which however never acquired possession of it place of importance down to the present time.
(Judg. i. 3I). The Greek and Roman writers call But after the Turks gained possession of it, Acre so
it 2AKc, ACE (Strab. xvi. 877; Diod. Sic. xix. rapidly declined, that the travellers of the sixteenth
93; C. Nep. xiv. 5); but it was eventually better and seventeenth centuries concur in describing it
known as PTOLEMAIS (Plin. Hist. Nat. v. I9), which as much fallen from its former glory, of which,
name it received from the first Ptolemy, king of however, traces still remained. The missionary
Egypt, by whom it was much improved. By this Eugene Roger (La Terre Saincte, 1645, pp. 44-46),
name it is mentioned in the Apocrypha (i Mace. x. remarks that the whole place had such a sacked
56; xi. 22, 24; xii. 45, 48; 2 Mace. xiii. 24),'in and desolated appearance, that little remained
the New Testament (Acts xxi. 7), and by Josephus worthy of note except the palace of the grand(Antiq. xiii. 12, 2, seq.) Itwas also called Colonia master of the Knights Hospitallers, and the
Claudii Ccesaris, in consequence of its receiving the church of St. Andrew; all the rest was a sad and
privileges of a Roman city from  the emperor deplorable ruin, pervaded by a pestiferous air,
Claudius (Plin. v. 17; xxxvi. 65). But the names which soon threw strangers into dangerous maladies.
thus imposed or altered by foreigners never took  This account is confirmed by other travellers, who
with the natives, and the place is still known in the add little or nothing to it (Doubdan, Cotovicus,
country by the name of 1. AKKA. It continued  Zuallart, Morison, Nau, D'Arvieux, and others).
Morison, however, dwells more on the ancient
to be called Ptolemais by the Greeks of the Lower Morison, however, dwells more on the ancient
empire, as well as by Latin authors, while the remains, which consisted of portions of old walls of
empire, as well as by Latin authors whiletheextraordinary height and thickness, and of fragOrientals adhered to the original designation. This extraordinay height and thickness, which still
has  oasioned some spe.  V,     ments of buildings, sacred and secular, which still
has occasioned some speculation. Vitriacus, who    ed manifest tokens of the original magnifi
was bishop of the Place, produces the opnho  afforded manifest tokens of the original magnifiwas bishop of the Place, produces the opinioncence of the place. He (ii. 8) affirms that the
(Hist. Orient. c. 25) that the town was founded       the place. He (ii. 5) affirms that the
(isht. Orient. c. 25) that the town was founded metropolitan church of St. Andrew was equal to
by twin-brothers Ptolemaeus and Acon. Vinisauf metropolitan church of St. Andrew was equal to
imaby in-brotthers  old twn retained A he name ouf the finest of those he had seen in France and Italy,
imagines                     that the old   town retained  the name of
Accho, while that of Ptolemais was confined to the perfect beauty as might be seen by the pillars and
perfect beauty, as might be seen by the pillars and
more modern additions northward, towards the      ed roof, half of which still remained. An
hill of Turon (G. Vinisauf, i. 2, p. 248), but the excellent and satisfactory account of the place is
truth undoubtedly is that the natives never adopted eeen by Nau (liv. v. ch. a9), who takes particular
the foreign names of this or any other town. The given by Nau (liv. v. ch. i9), who takes particular
the foreign names of this or any other town. The      the old and strong vaults on which the
notice of the old and strong vaults on which the
word Accho, or Akka [which is traced by Gesenius houses are built; and the present writer, having
to the root 1:.p], is, Sir W. Drummond alleges observed the same practice in Baghdad, has no
(Orginzxes, b.v.c.3), clearly of Arabian origin, and doubt that Nau is right in the conjecture that they
derived from L.Cz ak, which signifies sultry. The were designed to afford cool underground retreats
neighbourhood was famous for the sands which the to the inhabitants during the heat of the day in
Sidonians employed in making glass (Plin. Hist. summer, when the climate of the plain is intensely
Nat. v. 19; Strabo, xvi. 877); and the Arabians hot. This provision might not be necessary in the
denote a sandy shore heated by the sun by the word interior and cooler parts of the country. Maundrell
/  akek, or ii.Z aket, for (with the nunnation) gives no further information, save that he mentions
akeh, or:    aket, for (with the nunnation) that the town appears to have been encompassed
aketon. During the Crusades the place was usually on the land side by a double wall, defended with
known to Europeans by the name of ACON: after- towers at small distances; and that without the
wards, from  the occupation of the knights of walls were ditches, ramparts, and a kind of bastions
St. John of Jerusalem, as St. JEAN D'ACRE or faced with hewn stones (rourney, p. 72). Pococke
simply ACRE.                                  speaks chiefly of the ruins. After the impulse
This famous city and haven is situated in N. lat. given to the prosperity of the place by the measures
32~ 55', and E. long. 35~ 5', and occupies the of Sheikh Daher, and afterwards of Djezzar Pasha,
north-western point of a commodious bay, called the descriptions differ. Much of the old ruins had
the Bay of Acre, the opposite or south-western  disappeared from the natural progress of decay, and












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ACCOMMODATION                    41            ACCOMMODATION
from their materials having been taken for new  in order that he might disarm their opposition, and
works. It is, however, mentioned by Buckingham, secure a favourable reception for the gospel of
that, in sinking the ditch in front of the then (I816) salvation which he preached. This species of acnew outer wall, the foundations of small buildings commodation is what the Christian Fathers usually
were exposed, twenty feet below the present level have in view under the terms ravycard/acOLs, or
of the soil, which must have belonged to the condescensio, and OiKovoita, or dispensatio. They
earliest ages, and probably formed part of the apply these terms also to the incarnation and state
original Accho.  He also thought that traces of of humiliation of Christ, which they regarded as an
Ptolemais might be detected in the shafts of grey  accommodation to the necessities of man's case for
and red granite and marble pillars, which lie his redemption.  See Suicer, Thesaurus Eccl. on
about or have been converted into thresholds for av-yKard/3a-ts and otKovoJtla and Chapman's Miscellarge doorways, of the Saracenic period; some  laneous Tracts relating to Antiquity. Lond. I742.
partial remains might be traced in the inner walls; To this head may be referred many of the symboliand he is disposed to refer to that time the now old  cal actions of the prophets.
khan, which, as stated above, was really built by  2. Verbal Accommodation. This takes place
the Emir Fakred-din.   All the Christian ruins when a passage or expression used by one writer is
mentioned by the travellers already quoted had dis- cited by another, and applied with some modificaappeared.  In actual importance, however, the tion of the meaning to something different from
town had much increased.    The population in that to which it was originally applied.  Such
I8I9, was computed at Io,ooo, of whom   3000   accommodations are common in all languages.
were Turks, the rest Christians of various denomi- Writers and speakers lay hold of the utterances of
nations (Connor, in Jowett, i. 423). Approached  others for the sake of giving to their own ideas a
from Tyre the city presented a beautiful appearance, more graceful and a more forcible clothing than
from the trees in the inside, which rise above the  they feel themselves able to give them, or for the
wall, and from the ground immediately around it purpose of procuring for them acceptance, by utteron the outside being planted with orange, lemon, ing them in words which some great writer has
and palm trees. Inside, the streets had the usual already made familiar and precious to the general
narrowness and filth of Turkish towns; the houses mind.  Sometimes this is done almost unconsolidly built with stone, with flat roofs; the bazaars sciously.'Wherever,' says Michaelis,'a book is
mean, but tolerably well supplied (Turner, ii. 113). the object of our daily reading and study, it cannot
The principal objects were the mosque, the pasha's be otherwise than that passages of it should freseraglio, the granary, and the arsenal (Irby and  quently flow into our pen in writing; sometimes
Mangles, p. 195). Of the mosque, which was accompanied with a conscious recollection of the
built by Djezzar Pasha, there is a description by place where we have read them; at other times
Pliny Fisk (Lfe, p. 337; also G. Robinson, i. 200). without our possessing any such consciousness.
The trade was not considerable; the exports con- Thus the lawyer speaks with the corpus juris and
sisted chiefly of grain and cotton, the produce of the laws, the scholar with the Latin authors, and
the neighbouring plain; and the imports chiefly of the preacher with the Bible' (Einleit. I. 223).
rice, coffee, and sugar from Damietta (Turner, ii. Our own literature is full of exemplifications of
112). As thus described, the city was all but this, as is too well known to need illustrative proof.
demolished in I832 by the hands of Ibrahim Pasha; In the writings of Paul we find him making use in
and although considerable pains were taken to this way of passages from the classics (Acts xvii. I9;
restore it, yet, as lately as I837, it still exhibited a  I Cor. xv. 34; Tit. i. 12), all of which are of
most wretched appearance, with ruined houses and  course applied by him to Christian subjects only
broken arches in every direction (Lord Lindsay, by accommodation.  We need not be surprised,
Letters, ii. 8I).-J. K.                        then, to find the later biblical writers quoting in
this way from the earlier, especially the N. T.
ACCOMMODATION.          The general idea ex- writers, from the great classic of their nation, the
pressed by this term is that some object is presented, lep& ypdlqzara of the former dispensation. As innot in its absolute reality, not as it is in itself, but stances may be adduced, Rom. x. IS from  Ps.
under some modification, or under some relative xix. 4, and Rom. xii. 20 from Prov. xxv. 21, 22.
aspect, so as the better to secure some end at which  See also Matt. ii. 15, 18, with Calvin's notes
the writer or speaker aims.  Of this general con- thereon.'They have done this,' says Michaelis,
cept there are several modifications, which are' in many places where it is not perceived by the
known among biblical scholars under the general generality of readers of the N. T., because they
heads offormal and material accommodation. We are too little acquainted with the Septuagint.'
shall attempt a somewhat fuller analysis.        3. Rhetorical Accommodation. This takes place
I. Real Accommodation. This takes place when  when truth is presented not in a direct and literal
a person is set forth as being, or as acting, under form, but through the medium of symbol, figure, or
some modified character, accommodated to the apologue.   Thus, in the prophetical writings of
capacity for conceiving him, or the inclination to  Scripture, we have language used which cannot be
receive him, of those to whom the representation is interpreted literally, but which, taken symbolically,
addressed. Thus, God is frequently in Scripture  conveys a just statement of important truth; comp.
described anthropomorphically or anthropopathi- e. gr. Is. iv. 5; xxvii. I; xxxiv. 4; Joel ii. 28-31;
cally; i. e., not as He is in Himself, but relatively  Zech. iv. 2, IO, etc. Many instances occur in
to human modes of thought and capacities of Scripture where truth is presented in the form of
apprehending Him. [ANTHROMORPHISM.] Soalso     parable, and where the truth taught is to be
the Apostle describes himself as becoming all things obtained only by extracting from  the story the
to all men, that by all means he might save some; spiritual, or moral, or practical lesson it is designed
i. e., he accommodated himself to men's habits, to enforce. And in all the sacred books there are
usages, and modes of thought, and even prejudices, instances constantly occurring of words and state



ACCOMMODATION                    42            ACCOMMODATION
ments which are designed to convey, under the stance, maintain that there is in it an actual fulfilvehicle of figure, a truth analogous to, but not ment of an ancient prediction, it would be prereally what they literally express. (See Knobel, posterous from them to foreclose the question, and
Prophetismus der Hebrder, ~ 30-33; Smith, Sum- maintain that in no case is the N. T. passage to be
mary View and Explanation of the Writings of the understood as affirming the fulfilment in fact of an
Prophets, PreL Obss. pp. 1-22; Glassius, Phil. Sac. ancient prediction recorded in the Old. Because
Lib. v. p. 669 ff. ed. 1711; Lowth, De Sac. Poesi some accommodations of the kind specified are
Heb., pl. locc.; Davidson, Sacred Herneneutics, admitted, it would be folly to conclude that noch. ix.                                        thing but accommodation characterises such quota4. LogicalAccommodation. In arguing with an  tions. If this position were laid down, it would
opponent it is sometimes advantageous to take him  not be easy to defend the N. T. writers, nay our
on his own ground, or to argue from principles Lord himself, from the charge of insincerity and
which he admits, for the purpose of shutting him  duplicity.
up to a conclusion which he cannot refuse, if he  Still more emphatically does this last observation
would retain the premises.  It does not follow  apply in respect of the notion that our Lord and
from this that his ground is admitted to be the his apostles accommodated their teaching to the
right one, or that assent is given to his principles; current notions and prejudices of the Jews of their
the argument is simply one ad hominem, and may  own times. It might seem almost incredible that
or may not be also ad veritatem.  When it is not, any one should venture to impute to them so unthat is, when its purpose is merely to shut the worthy and so improbable a course, were it not
mouth of an opponent by a logical inference from  that we find the imputation broadly made, and the
his own principles, there is a case of logical ac- making of it defended by some very eminent men
commodation.                                   of the anti- supernaturalist school, especially in
5. Doctrinal Accommodation. This takes place Germany. By them it has been asserted that our
when opinions are advanced or statements made Lord and his disciples publicly taught many things
merely to gratify the prejudices or gain the favour which privately they repudiated, and an attempt
of those to whom they are addressed, without re- has been made to save them from the charge of
gard to their inherent soundness or truthfulness. downright dishonesty which this would involve by
If, for instance, the N. T. writers were found intro- an appeal to the usage of many ancient teachers
ducing some passage of the 0. T. as a prediction  who had an exoteric doctrine for the multitude,
which had found its fulfilment in some fact in the and an esoteric for their disciples.  (Semler, Prohistory of Jesus Christ or his church, merely for the gtamm. Acad. Sel. Hal. I779; Corrodi, Beytrdge
purpose of overcoming Jewish prejudices, and zur befirderung des verniinftigen Denkens in d.
leading those who venerated the 0. T. to receive Religion, I5th part, p. I-25; P. Van Hemert,
more readily the message of Christianity; or if UeberAccom. in N. T   Leipz. I797, etc.) The
they were found hot only clothing their ideas in  prompt and thorough repudiation of such views
language borrowed from the Mosaic ceremonial, even by such men as Wegscheider and Bretbut asserting a correspondence of meaning between  schneider renders it unnecessary to enlarge on the
that ceremonial and the fact or doctrines they an- formal refutation of them.'Cujus rei,' says the
nounced when no such really existed, thereby   former, -'certa vestigia in libris sacris frustra qusewarping truth for the sake of subduing prejudice; runtur.' (Instt. Theologica p. 105, 6th ed.; see
they would furnish specimens of this species of also Bretschneider, Handbuch derDogmatish, I.26oaccommodation.                                 265, 2d ed.)   These writers, however, contend
In both respects, a charge to this effect has been  that though our Lord and his apostles did not make
brought against them.  It has been alleged that use of a positive accommodation of their doctrine
when they say of any event they record, that in it to the prejudices or ignorance of the Jews, they
was fulfilled such and such a statement of the 0. T., did not refrain from a negative accommodation; by
or that the event occurred that such and such a state- which they intend the use of reserve in the comment might be fulfilled, they did so merely in ac- munication of truth or refutation of error, and the
commodation to Jewish feeling and prejudices. A  allowing of men to retain opinions not authorised
fitter place will be found elsewhere for considering  by truth without express or formal correction ot
the import of the formulae'va 7rX\pwOc, rbre 7rX\l- them. They adduce as instances, John xvi. 12 
p40B and the like. [QUOTATIONS.] At present it vi. 15; Luke xxiv. 21; Acts, i. 6; I Cor. iii.
may suffice to observe, that it may be admitted  I, 2; viii. 9, etc. By these passages, however,
that these formulae are occasionally used where nothing more is proved than that in teaching men
there can have been no intention on the part of truth our Lord and his apostles did not tell them
the writer to intimate that in the event to which everything at once, but led them on from truth to
they relate there was the fulfilment of a prediction; truth as they were able to receive it or bear it. In
as, for instance, where some gnome or moral maxim  this there is no accommodation of the material of
contained in the 0. T. is said to be fulfilled by doctrine; it is simply an accommodation of method
something recorded in the N. T., or some general to the capacity of the learner. In the same way
statement is justified by a particular instance (comp. Paul's assertion, which they have also cited, that
Matt. xiii. 35; John xv. 25; Rom. i. 17; Jam. ii. he became all things to all men, that he might by
23; 2 Pet. ii. 22, etc.) It may be admitted also, all means save some (I Cor. ix. 22), is to be rethat there are cases where a passage in the 0. T. garded as relating merely to the mode and order
is said to be fulfilled in some event recorded in the of his presenting Christian truth to man, not to his
N. when all that is intended is that a similarity  modifying in any respect the substance of what he
or parallelism exists between the two, as is the case, taught.  When he spoke to Jews, he opened and
according to the opinion of most, at least, in Matt. alleged out of their own Scriptures that Jesus was
ii. 17, I8.  But whilst these admissions throw the  the Christ (Acts xvii. 2, 3). When he spoke to the
onus probandi on those who, in any special in- Athenians on Mar's Hill, he started from  the




ACCUBATION                    43              ACCUBATION
ground of natural religion, and addressed the had'no particular fancy in the matter, and we know
reason and common sense of his audience; but in that at our Lord's last supper thirteen persons were
either case it was the same Jesus that he preached, present. As each guest leaned, during the greater
and the same gospel that he published. Had he part of the entertainment, on his left elbow, so'as
done otherwise, he would have been found a false to leave the right arm at liberty, and as two or
witness for God.                              more lay on the same couch, the head of one man
This Accommodation theory is often spoken of was near the breast of the man who lay behind him,
as identical with the historical principle of inter- and he was, therefore, said'to lie in the bosom' of
preting Scripture. It is so, however, only as the the other. This phrase was in use among the Jews
historical principle of interpretation means the (Lukexvi. 22, 23; Johni. I8; xiii. 23), and occurs
treating of the statements of our Lord and his in such a manner as to shew that to lie next below,
apostles as merely expressing the private opinions or'in the bosom' of the master of the feast, was
of the individual, or as historically traceable to the considered the most favoured place; and is shewn
prevailing opinions of their day. This is not to be by the citations of Kypke and Wetstein (on John
confounded with that true and sound principle of xiii. 23) to have been usually assigned to near and
historical interpretation, which allows due weight dear connections. So it was'the disciple whom
to historical evidence in determining the meaning Jesus loved' who'reclined upon his breast' at the
of words, and to the circumstances in which state- last supper. Lightfoot and others suppose that as,
ments were made as determining their primary appli- on that occasion, John lay next below Christ, so
cation and significancy.  (Tittmann, Meletemata Peter, who was also highly favoured, lay next
Sacra in yoannem, Pref. (translated in the Biblical above him. This conclusion is founded chiefly on
Cabinet); Storr, De Sensu Historico Scripture  the fact of Peter beckoning to John that he should
Sacrce, in his Opusc. Acad. vol. I.; Abhandl. ueb. ask Jesus who was the traitor. But this seems
d. Zwech des Todes 7esu,  Io1; Lehrb. d. Chr. rather to prove the contrary-that Peter was not
Dogmatik 6 13 (Eng. tr. by Schmucker, p. 67, himself near enough to speak to Jesus. If he had
Lond. 1836); Haupt's Bemerkungen ilber die Leh- been there, Christ must have lain near his bosom,
rart _'esu; Heringa, Verhandeling, ten betooge, dat and he would have been in the best position for
yesus end zyn Apostelen zich doorgaans niet ges- whispering to his master, and in the worst for
chikt hebben naar de Verkeerde denkbeelden van  beckoning to John. The circumstance that Christ
hunne tydgeenooten; Planck's Introduction to Theo- was able to reach the sop to Judas when he had
logicalSciences, in Biblical Cabinet, vol. vii.; Less's dipped it, seems to us rather to intimate that he
Letters on the Principle of Accommodation; David- was the one who filled that place. Any person
son, Hermeneutics, p. 199 ff.; Smith, J. P. First who tries the posture may see that it is not easy to
Lines of Christian Theology, p. 518; Seiler's Her- deliver anything but to the person next above or
meneulics by Wright, ~ 264-276, pp. 4I8-438; next below. And this is not in contradiction to,
Alexander, Connection and Harmony of the Old but in agreement with, the circumstances. The
and New Testaments, pp. 45-48; I48-I57, 416, morsel of favour was likely to be given to one in a
2d. ed.).-W. L. A.                            favoured place; and Judas being so trusted and
ACCUBATION, the posture of reclining on honoured as to be the treasurer and almoner of the:ouches at table, which prevailed among the Jews whole party, might, as much as any other of the
in and before the time of Christ. We see no reason apostles, be expeced to fill that place  This also
to think that, as commonly alleged, they borrowed gives more point to the narrative, as it aggravates
this custom from the Romans after Judea had been by contrast the turpitude and baseness of his
subjugated by Pompey. But it is best known to  conduct.
us as a Roman custom, and as such must be, The frame of the dinner-bed was laid with matdescribed. The dinner-bed, or triclinim, stood  tresses variously stuffed, and, latterly, was furnished
in the middle of the dining-room, clear of the walls, wth rich coverings and hangings. Each person
and formed three sides of a square which enclosed was usually proided with a cushion or bolster on
the table. The open end of the square, with the which to support the upper part of hs erson in a
central hollow, allowed the servants to attend and somewhat raised position; as the left arm alone
serve the table. In all the existing representations could not long without weariness sustain the weight.
of the dinner-bed it is shewn to have been higher The lower part of the body being extended diagonthan the enclosed table. Among the Romans the ally on the bed, with the feet outward, it is at once
perceived how easy it was for'the woman that was
~_.  I, 0                        a sinner' to come behind between the dinner-bed
ir —T-d>/^^  eand the wall, and anoint the feet of Jesus (Luke vii.
('~g^~~1XS~'a?           37, 38; John xii. 3).
jlt, ^ /^^^ -3? — ^^i^The dinner-beds were so various at different
-^-c^I't. \ \ ^times, in different places, and under different
/(r U- ~' g =^^\;8     2        circumstances, that no one description can apply
/   to them all. Even among the Romans they were
at first (after the Punic war) of rude form and
KiWh               o'    d=>,l l Hf X H   gematerials, and covered with mattresses stuffed with
usalnumb u e i of g uL on       rushes or straw; mattresses of hair and wool were
introduced at a later period. At first the wooden
Io.                      frames were small, low, and round; and it was not
usual number of guests on each couch was three, until the time of Augustus that square and ornamaking nine for the three couches, equal to the mented couches came into fashion. In the time of
number of the Muses; but sometimes there were Tiberius the most splendid sort were veneered with
four to each couch. The Greeks went beyond this costly woods or tortoiseshell and were covered with
number (Cic. In Pis. 27); the Jews appear to have valuable embroideries, the richest of which came




ACCURSED                   44               ACELDAMA
from  Babylon, and cost large sums (U.K.S. called the field of blood (&ypbo atparos); whereas
Pompeii, ii. 88). The Jews perhaps had all these Peter, as reported by Luke, seems to intimate that
varieties, though it is not likely that the usage was Judas bought the field himself with the reward of
ever carried to such a pitch of luxury as among the his iniquity, and that it was called the field of
Romans; and it is probable that the mass of the blood (Xcoplov acarTos), from the tragical manner of
people fed in the ancient manner-seated on stools his own death. It is possible, however, that Peter,
or on the ground. It appears that couches were speaking rhetorically, may attribute to Judas himoften so low, that the feet rested on the ground; self a purchase, which was really made by others,
and that cushions or bolsters were in general use. with the money he had received as the reward ot
It would also seem, from the mention of two and his iniquity; and as respects the naming of the
of three couches, that the arrangement was more locality, Peter's statement may be understood to
usually square than semicircular or round (Light- mean that from the notoriety the whole affair, infoot, Hor. Heb. in John xiii. 23).          cluding both the purchase with the price of blood
and Judas's own bloody death, had acquired, it was
called the field of blood. See the notes of Bloomfield (N. T.) and Lechler (in Lange's Bibelwerk)
on the passage in Acts, and the notes of Meyer
/t  d  AL?'    and Lange himself on that in Matthew.]  The
field now shewn as Aceldama lies on the slope
of the Hills beyond the valley of Hinnom, south
o/^(^ ^'^^^ ^^ ^rtr ^of Mount Zion. This is obviously the spot which
Jerome points out (Onomast. s. v.'Acheldamach'),
/i~7/,,     ^E-vrJ l KJX-Wmi I I and which has since been mentioned by almost
every one who has described Jerusalem. Sandys
thus writes of it:'On the south side of this valley,
neere where it meeteth with the valley of Jehoshaphat,
mounted a good height on the side of the mountain,
is Aceldama, or the field of blood, purchased with
the restored reward of treason, for a buriall place
for strangers. In the midst whereof a large square
II.                     roome was made by the mother of Constantine;
It is utterly improbable that the Jews derived the south side, walled with the naturall rocke; flat
this custom from the Romans, as is constantly at the top, and equall with the vpper level; out of
alleged. They certainly knew it as existing among which ariseth certaine little cupoloes, open in the
the Persians long before it had been adopted by the midst to let doune the dead bodies. Thorow these
Romans themselves (Esth. i. 6; vii. 8); and the we might see the bottome, all couered with bones,
presumption is that they adopted it while subject and certaine corses but newly let doune, it being
to that people. The Greeks also had the usage now the sepulchre of the Armenians. A greedy
(from the Persians) before the Romans; and with graue, and great enough to deuoure the dead of a
the Greeks of Syria the Jews had very much inter- whole nation. For they say (and I believe it), that
course. Besides, the Romans adopted the custom  the earth thereof within the space of eight and
from the Carthaginians (Val. Max. xii. I, 2; Liv. forty houres will consume the flesh that is laid
xxviii. 28); and, that they had it, implies that it thereon' (Relation of a Journey, p. 187). He then
previously existed in Phcenicia, in the neighbour- relates the common story, that the empress referred
hood of the Jews. Thus, that in the time of Christ to caused 270 ship-loads of this flesh-consuming
the custom had been lately adopted from the mould to be taken to Rome, to form the soil of
Romans, is the last of various probabilities. It is the Campo Sancto, to which the same virtue is
also unlikely that in so short a time it should have ascribed.
become usual and even (as the Talmud asserts)  The plot of ground originally bought'to bury
obligatory to eat the Passover in that posture of strangers in,' seems to have been early set apart by
indulgent repose, and in no other. All the sacred the Latins, as well as by the Crusaders, as a place
and profane literature of this subject has been most of burial for pilgrims (Jac. de Vitriaco, p. 64).
industriously brought together by Stuckius (Anti. The charnel-house is mentioned by Sir John
Convivalium, ii. 34); and the works on Pompeii Mandeville, in the fourteenth century, as belonging
and Herculaneum supply the more recent informa- to the Knights Hospitallers. Sandys shews that,
tion. [BANQUETS. ]-J. K.                     early in the seventeenth century, it was in the possesACCURSED. [ANATHEMA.]                     sion of the Armenians. Eugene Roger (La Terre
Saincte, p. 16i) states that they bought it for the
ACCUSER. [JUDICATURE.]                     burial of their own pilgrims, and ascribes the
ACELDAMA       ('AKceX8atd, from  the Syro- erection of the charnel-house to them. They still
Chaldaic,  E lPn, jield of blood), the field possessed it in the time of the Maundrell, or rather
Chald  fd of b, te        rented it, at a sequin a day, from the Turks.
purchased with the money for which Judas be- Corpses were still deposited there; and the traveller
trayed Christ, and which was appropriated as a observes that they were in various stages of decay,
place of burial for strangers (Matth. xxvii. 8; from which he conjectures that the grave did not
Acts i. I9).  [There is an apparent discrepancy make that quick despatch with the bodies committed
between the statement of Matthew and that of to it which had been reported.'The earth herePeter in the Acts. According to the former, what abouts,' he observes,' is of a chalky substance; the
had been called the potter's field was purchased by plot of ground was not above thirty yards long by
the chief priests with the money which Judas had fifteen wide; and a moiety of it was occupied by
cast down in the temple, and from this came to be the charnel-house which was twelve yards high'




ACHAIA                    45           ACHASHDARPENIM
(Journey, p. 136). Richardson (Travels, p. 567) the valley (afterwards called) of Achor, north of
affirms that bodies were thrown in as late as 18I8; Jericho, where they stoned him, and all that
but Dr. Robinson alleges that it has the appearance belonged to him; after which the whole was conof having been for a much longer time abandoned: sumed with fire, and a cairn of stones raised over' The field is not now marked by any boundary to the ashes. The severity of this act, as regards the
distinguish it from the rest of the hillside; and the family of Achan, has provoked some remark.
former charnel-house, now a ruin, is all that remains Instead of vindicating it, as is generally done, by
to point out the site....The bottom was empty and the allegation that the members of Achan's family
dry excepting a few bones much decayed' (Biblical were probably accessories to his crime after the
Researches, i. 524, Narrative of a voyage along the fact, we prefer the supposition that they were
shores of the Mediterranean, by Dr. Wilde, 1844). included in the doom by one of those sudden im-J. K.                                      pulses of indiscriminate popular vengeance to which
ACHAIA ('Anata), a region of Greece, which the Jewish people were exceedingly prone, and
in the restricted sense occupied the north-western whch, in ths case, it would not have ben in the
portion of the Peloponnesus, including Corinth power of Joshua to control by any authority which
and its isthmus (Strabo, viii. p. 438, sq.) By thehe could under such circumstances exercise. It
poets it was often put for the whole of Greece  is admitted that this is no more than a conjecture:
whence'AXatol, the Greeks. Under the Romans,
whence'dXaol, thle Greeks. Under the Romans, but as such it is at least worth as much, and assumes'Greece was divided into two provinces, Macedonia considerably less, than the conjectures which have
and Achaia, the former of which included Mace- been offered by others (Josh. vi.)-J. K.
donia proper, with Illyricum, Epirus, and Thessaly;  ACHAR. [ACHAN.]
and the latter, all that lay southward of the former ACHASHDARPENIM  (Q_           Sept
(Cellar. i. p. 1170, 1022). It is in this latter accepta-.                     Sept.
tion that the name of Achaia is always employed aarp&drat and frparyol; Vulg. Satrapae; A. V.
in the New Testament (Acts xviii. 12, 27; xix. 21;'rulers of provinces.' It occurs in Ez. viii. 36; Esth.
Rom. xv. 26; xvi. 5;  Cor. xvi 15; 2 Cor. i.;iii. 12; viii. 9; ix. 3; and with the Chaldee terix. 2; xi. o1; I Thess. i. 7, 8). Achaia was at mination in, in Dan. iii. 2, 3, 27; vi. 2, 3): The
first a senatorial province, and as such, was governed word is undoubtedly merely another form of writing
by proconsuls (Dion Cass. liii. p. 704). Tiberius the Persian word satrap, the origin of which has
changed the two into one imperial province under been much disputed, and does not claim to be here
procurators (Tacit. Annal. i 76); but Claudius considered.* These satraps are known in ancient
restored them to the senate and to the proconsular history as the governors or viceroys of the provinces
form of government (Suet. Claud. 25). Hencethe into which the Persian empire was divided.
exact and minute propriety with which St. Luke Strictly speaking, they had an extended civil
expresses himself in giving the title of proconsul jurisdiction over several smaller provinces, each of
(d&vtracros, A. V.'deputy') to Gallio, who was which had its own PHi'  or governor. Thus Zerubappointed to the province in the time of Claudius babel and Nehemiah were'governors' of Judea,
(Acts xviii. 12).-J.K.                      under the Persian satraps of Syria (Ezra, iv. 3, 6;
A C   A.. o   o  Neh. ii. 9). The power and functions of the
ACHAICUS ('AXcfc6s), a follower of the apostle Persian satraps were not materially different from
Paul. He, with Fortunatus, was probablyamember those of the moder Persian governors and Turkish
of the family of Stephanas, along with whom they pashas; and, indeed, the idea of provincial governare mentioned in I Cor. xvi. 17. Grotius thinks ment by means of viceroys, entrusted with almost
they belonged to the household of Cloe; but Cloe regal powers in their several jurisdictions, and
was probably an Ephesian (Meyer on I Cor i. responsible only to the king, by whom they are
II).-W.. A.                                appointed, has always been prevalent in the East.
ACHAN (pV; Sept.'Aav, orAxap, Josh. vii. The important peculiarity and distinction in the
ancient Persian government, as admirably shewn
I; in I Chron. ii. 7 spelt 1l.?, troubler), the name of by Heeren (Researches, i. 489, sq.), was that the
a man who when Jericho was taken and devoted to__
destruction fell under the temptation of secreting
an ingot of gold, a quantity of silver, and a costly [* Gesenius has collected the different explanaBabylonish garment, which he buried in his tent, tions of this word, which have been proposed, in his
deeming that his sin was hid. For this which, as Thesaurus, s. v. He himself adopts that of Benfey
a violation of a vow made by the nation as one and Lassen, who trace it to the Indian ksatrapa,
body, had involved the whole nation in his guilt, i. e.'warrior of the host;' to which corresponds
the Israelites were defeated with serious loss, in the Gr. 4arpd7rris,  aiOapd7rqs (Boeckh, Corp.
their first attack upon Ai; and as Joshua was well Inscr. 2691 c.) Hitzig thinks the word should be
assured that this humiliation was designed as the rendered'Protector of the Province,' like the
punishment of a crime which had inculpated the zend sh6ithrapaiti (Das B. Daniel erkldrt, p. 46).
whole people, he took immediate measures to Hengstenberg and Haverick, following De Sacy,
discover the criminal.  As in other cases the regard it as a compound of kshetr province, and
matter was referred to the Lord by the lot, and Bau guardian, and render it'Ruler of a province'
the lot ultimately indicated the actual criminal. (De Sacy Memoires de I'Institut, Classe de Phistoire
The conscience-stricken offender then confessed et de litterat. ancienne, t. ii. p. 229 ff. Hengstenhis crime to Joshua; and his confession being berg, Beitrdge I. 347. Haverick Comment. ueb.
verified by the production of his ill-gotten treasure, Dan. p. 97). The word occurs twice on col. iii. of
the people, actuated by the strong impulse with the great inscription at Behistun, where it is spelt
which men tear up, root and branch, a polluted khshatrapa.  Sir H. Rawlinson derives it from
thing, hurried away not only Achan, but his tent, khshatam, crown or empire, and pa keeper, prehis goods, his spoil, his cattle, his children, to server. Rawlinson's Herodotus ii. 481.]




ACHBAR                    43               ACHLAMAH
civil and military powers were carefully separated: destroyers, which was then unknown to Western
the satrap being a very powerful civil and political Europe; whereas, they being of species or appearchief, but having no immediate control over the ance common to the Latin nations, no particulars
troops and garrisons, the commanders of which were required. But in Leviticus and Isaiah, where
were responsible only to the king. The satraps in the mouse is declared an unclean animal, the species
their several provinces, employed themselves in the most accessible and likely to invite the appetite of
maintenance of order and the regulation of affairs; nations who, like the Arabs, were apt to covet all
and they also collected and remitted to the court kinds of animals, even when expressly forbidden,
the stipulated tribute, clear of all charges for local were, no doubt, the hamster and the dormouse;
government and for the maintenance of the troops and both are still eaten in common with the jerboa,
(Xenoph. Cyrop. viii. 6, ~ I-3). In later times this by the Bedouins, who are but too often driven to
prudent separation of powers became neglected, in extremity by actual want of food. [Bochart, Hieroz
favour of royal princes and other great persons 1. iii. c. 34.] —C. H. S.
(Xenoph. Anab. i. I, ~ 2), who were entrusted
with the military as well as civil power in their  ACHBOR (j3. i. q. 1  _3?, a mouse orweasel;
governments; to which cause may be attributed'AxogPdp) I. An Idumean prince, father of Baalthe revolt of the younger Cyrus, and the other hanan (Gen. xxxvi. 38, 39; I Chr. i. 49). 2.
rebellions and civil wars, which, by weakening the A courtier of Josiah (2 Kings xxii. I2, 14), called
empire, facilitated its ultimate subjugation by  Abdon, probably by a clerical error in 2 Chr.
Alexander.                                   xxxiv. 20; and doubtless the same as the person
ACHBAR ('l.2     achbar; perhaps generically mentioned, Jer. xxvi. 22; xxxvi. 12.
including aliarbai orjerboa, or ji9j  parah of the  ACHIM  ('Axell, probably the Heb. pj3., for
Arabs, Sept. juvs).  The word occurs where, it which the LXX. give'Axelv, Gen. xlvi. Io, and
seems, the nomenclature in moder zoology would'AXIa I Chr. xxv. 17), the son of Sadoc in the
point out two distinct genera or species (Lev. xi  genealogy of our Lord, and the fifth in succession
29; I Sam. vi. 4, 5, ii, I8; Is. lxvi. I7). The  from Joseph (Matt. i. I4).
radical meaning of the name, according to Bochart,  ACHISH     signification uncertain; Sept.
designates a field ravager, one that devours the
produce of agriculture, and therefore is applicable'AyXoOs, also'Apxls,'Axls, called Abimelech in the
to several genera of Rodentia, etc., notwithstanding  title of Ps. xxxiv.), the Philistine king of Gath, with
that the learned etymologist would confine it to whom David twice sought refuge when he fled
the jerboa or jumping-mouse of Syria and Egypt, from Saul (i Sam. xxi. 10-I5; xxvii. I-3). The
although that animal is not abundant in the first- first time David was in imminent danger; for he
mentioned region, andeven in the second is restricted was recognized and spoken of by the officers of the
almost exclusively to the desert, as it can live with- court as one whose glory had been won at the
out water. Bochart, it is true, cites examples of cost of the Philistines. This talk filled David with
the ravages committed by murine animals in divers such alarm that he feigned himself mad when introlocalities; but among them several are pointed out duced to the notice of Achish, who, seeing him
where the jerboa is rare, or not found at all; con-'scrabbling upon the doors of the gate, and letting
sequently they apply not to that species, but to his spittle fall down upon his beard,' rebuked his
some other Rodent. It is likely that the Hebrews people sharply for bringing him to his presence,
extended the acceptation of the word achbar, in the asking,'Have I need of madmen, that ye have
same manner as was the familiar custom of the brought this fellow to play the madman in my
Greeks, and still more of the Romans, who in- presence? Shall this fellow come into my house?'
cluded within their term mus, insectivora of the After this David lost no time in quitting the terrigenus sorex, that is'shrews;' carnivora, among tories of Gath. Winer illustrates David's conduct
which was the Mustela erminea,' stoat' or'ermine,' by reference to the similar proceeding of some other
their Mus ponticus; and in the systematic order great men, who feigned themselves mad in difficult
Rodentia, the muride contain Myoxus glis or fat circumstances-as Ulysses (Cic. Off iii. 26; Hygin.
dormouse; Dipus jaculus or Egyptian jerboa; f. 95, Schol. ad Lycophr. 818), the astronomer
Mus, rats and mice properly so called, constituting  Meton (lElian, Hist. xiii. 12), L. Junius Brutus (Liv.
several moder genera; and cricetus or hamster, i. 56; Dion. Hal. iv. 68), and the Arabian king
which includes the marmot or Roman MusAlpinus. Bacha (Schultens, Anth. Vet. Hamasa, p. 535).
This was a natural result of the imperfect state of About four years after, when the character and
zoological science, where a somewhat similar ex- position of David became better known, and when
ternal appearance was often held sufficient for he was at the head of not less than 600 resolute
bestowing a general name which, when more re- adherents, he again repaired with his troop to King
markable particulars required further distinction, Achish, who received him in a truly royal spirit,
received some trivial addition of quality or native and treated him with a generous confidence, of
country, or a second local designation, as in the which David took rather more advantage than was
present case; for, according to some biblical critics, creditable to him. [DAVID.]-J. K.
the jerboa may have been known also by the name  ACHLAMAH                    O    *  
of t)i, shaphan. In the above texts, all in - Sam. ACHLAMAH (; nS; Sept.'AtiOviros; Vulg.
vi. apparently refer to the short-tailed field-mouseAmethystus), a precious stone, mentioned in Scripwhich is still the most destructive animal to the ture as the ninth in the breastplate of the high-priest
harvests of Syria, and is most likely the species (Exod. xxviii. I9; xxxix. I2); and the twelfth in
noticed in antiquity and during the crusades; for, the foundations of the New Jerusalem (Rev. xxi.
had they been jerboas in shape and resembled 20). The concurrence of various circumstances
miniature kangaroos, we would expect William of leave little doubt that the stone anciently known as
Tyre to have mentioned the peculiar form of the the amethyst is really denoted by the Hebrew word;




ACHMETHA                     47                ACHMETHA
and as the stone so called by the ancients was accordingly made in the record-office ('house of the
certainly that which still continues to bear- the rolls'), where the treasures were kept at Babylon
same name, their identity may be considered as (vi. I): but it appears not to have been found there,
established.                                   as it was eventually discovered'at Achmetha, in
The transparent gems to which this name is the palace of the province of the Medes' (vi. 2).
applied are of a colour which seems composed of a It is here worthy of remark, that the LXX. restrong blue and deep red; and according as either garded'Achmetha,' in which they could hardly
of these prevails, exhibit different tinges of purple, avoid recognizing the familiar title of Ecbatana, as
sometimes approaching to violet, and sometimes the generic name for a city, and, accordingly,
declining even to a rose colour.  From  these rendered it by 7r6Xts; and that Josephus, as well
differences of colour the ancients distinguished five as all the Christian Greeks, while retaining the
species of the amethyst; modern collections afford proper name of Ecbatana, yet agree with the Greek
at least as many varieties, but they are all compre- Scriptures, in employing the word idpLs to express
hended under two species, the Oriental Amethyst the Hebrew WP3T, Birtha ('the palace'), which is
and the Occidental Amethyst. These names, how- used as the distinctive epithet of the city.
ever, are given to stones of essentially different  In Judith i. 2-4, there is a brief account of
natures; which were,- no doubt, anciently con- Ecbatana, in which we are told that it was built by
founded in the same manner.     The Oriental Arphaxad, king of the Medes, who made it his
amethyst is very scarce, and of great hardness, capital. It was built of hewn stones, and surrounded
lustre, and beauty. It is in fact a rare variety of by a high and thick wall, furnished with wide gates
the adamantine spar, or corundum. Next to the and strong and lofty towers. Herodotus ascribes
diamond, it is the hardest substance known. It its foundation to Dejoces, in obedience to whose
contains about 90 per cent of alumine, a little iron, commands the Medes erected'that great and
and a little silica. Of this species, emery, used in strong city, now known under the name of Agbacutting and polishing glass, etc., is a granular tana, where the walls are built circle within circle,
variety. To this species also belongs the sapphire, and are so constructed that each inner circle overthe most valuable of gems next to the diamond; tops its outer neighbour by the height of the battleand of which the Oriental amethyst is merely a ments alone. This was effected partly by the nature
violet variety.  Like other sapphires, it loses its of the ground, a conical hill, and partly by the
colour in the fire, and comes out with so much of building itself. The number of the circles was
the lustre and colour of the diamond, that the most seven, and within the innermost was the palace of
experienced jeweller may be deceived by it.   the treasury. The battlements of the first circle
The more common, or Occidental amethyst, is a were white, of the second black, of the third scarlet,
variety of quartz, or rock crystal, and is found in  of the fourth blue, of the fifth orange; all these
various forms in many parts of the world, as India, were brilliantly coloured with different pigments;
Siberia, Sweden, Germany, Spain; and even in but the battlements of the sixth circle were overlaid
England very beautiful specimens of tolerable hard- with silver, and of the seventh with gold.  Such
ness have been discovered. This also loses its were the palace and the surrounding fortification
colour in the fire.                            that Dejoces constructed for himself: but he
Amethysts were much used by the ancients for ordered the mass of the Median nation to construct
rings and cameos; and the reason given by Pliny  their houses in a circle around the outer wall'
-because they were easily cut-' Sculpturis faciles' (Herodot. i. 98). It is contended by Sir H.
(tfist. Nat. xxxvii. 9), shews that the Occidental Rawlinson (Geogr. Journal, x. 127) that this story
species is to be understood. The ancients believed  of the seven walls is a fable of Sabsean origin, the
that the amethyst possessed the power of dispelling  seven colours mentioned being precisely those
drunkenness in those who wore or touched it, and  employed by the Orientals to denote the seven
hence its Greek name ('ab a privativo et pe06w  great heavenly bodies, or the seven climates in
ebrius sum'-Martini, Excurs. p. I58). In like which they revolve.  He adds (p. I28),'I cannot
manner, the Rabbins derive its Jewish name from  believe that at Agbatana the walls were really
its supposed power of procuring dreams to the painted of these colours: indeed, battlements with
wearer,  1nn signifying'to dream' (Bruckmann, gold and silver are manifestly fabulous; nor do I
Abhandlung von der Edelsteine; Hill's Theo- think that there ever could have been even seven
phrastus, notes; Braun, de Vest. Sac. Heb. ii. I6; concentric circles; but in that early age, where it is
Hillier, Tract de xii. Gemmis in Pector. Pontifdoubtful whether mithraicism, or fire-worship, had
Hebraorum; Winer, Biblisches Realwoirtrebuch; originated in this part of Asia, it is not at all improRosenmuller, Mineralogy, etc., of the Bible).- bable that, according to the Sabaean superstitions,
J. K.                  X                       the city should have been dedicated to the seven
JACHMETHA (/KlV-I Ezravi. 2;-'EKIBcTci Q   heavenly bodies, and perhaps a particular part
-ACHMETHA (t, Ezra i. 2;'Eassigned to the protection of each, with some
2 Macc. ix. 3; Judith i. I, 2; Tob. iii. 7; Joseph. coloured device emblematic of the tutelar divinity.'*
Antiq. x. 11, 7; xi. 4, 6; also, in Greek authors,  This Ecbatana has been usually identified with'E^ydirava and'A~y/drava), a city in Media. The the present Hamadan [which is confirmed by the
derivation of the name is doubtful; but Sir H. -spelling Hagmatan in the cuneiform inscriptions].
Rawlinson (Journal of Geogr. Soc. x. I34) has left Sir H. Rawlinson, however, while admitting that
little question that the title was applied exclusively  Hamadan occupies the site of the Median Ecbatana,
to cities having a fortress for the protection of the has a learned and most elaborate paper in the
royal treasures.  In Ezra we learn that in the reign  Geographical o7urnal (x. 65-158; On the Site of the
of Darius Hystaspes the Jews petitioned that
search might be made in the king's treasure-house  [* The Rev. G. Rawlinson thinks the account of
at Babylon for the decree which Cyrus had made Herodotus not improbable.  Tr. of Herodotus, i.
in favour of the Jews (Ezra v. 17). Search was p. 242, 243.]




ACHMETHA                     48               ACHSHAPH
Atropatenian Ecbatana), in which he endeavours or wings on three sides. Within are two apartto shew that the present Takht-i-Suleiman was the ments-a small porch formed by one of the wings,
site of another, the Atropatenian Ecbatana; and  and beyond it the tomb-chamber, which is a plain
that to it, rather than to the proper Median  room paved with glazed tiles. In the midst, over
Ecbatana, the statement in Herodotus and most of the spots where the dead are supposed to lie, are
the other ancient accounts are to be understood to two large wooden frames or chests, shaped like
refer. Our only business is with the Achmetha of sarcophagi, with inscriptions in Hebrew and flowers
Ezra; and that does not require us to enter into carved upon them. There is another inscription on
this question. Sir Henry, indeed, seems inclined to the wall, in bas-relief, which, as translated by Sir
consider the Ecbatana of the apocryphal books as Gore Ouseley, describes the present tomb as having
his Atropatenian Ecbatana; but is rather more been built over the graves of Mordecai and Esther
doubtful in claiming it as the Achmetha of Ezra. by two devout Jews of Cashan, in A.M. 4474.
But without undertaking to determine what amount The original structure is said to have been destroyed
of ancient history should be referred to the one or when Hamadan was sacked by Timour.  As
to the other, we feel bound to conclude that Ecbatana was then the summer residence of the
Hamadan was the site of the Achmetha of Ezra, Persian court, it is probable enough that Mordecai
and the Ecbatana of the Apocrypha: I. Because and Esther died and were buried there; and tradiit is admitted that the Median Ecbatana was tional testimony taken in connection with this fact,
a more ancient and more anciently great city and with such a monument in a place where Jews
than the Atropatenian metropolis. 2. Because the have been permanently resident, is better evidence
name'Achmetha' may easily, through the Syrian  than is usually obtained for the allocation of anAhmethan, and the Armenian Ahmetan, be traced  cient sepulchres. The tomb is in charge of the
in the Persian Hamadan. 3. And because all the Jews, and is one of their places of pilgrimage.
traditions of the Jews refer to Hamadan as the Kinneir, Ker Porter, Morier, Frazer, and Southsite of the Achmetha and Ecbatana of their gate furnish the best accounts of modern HamaScriptures.                                   dan.-J. K.
Hamadan is still an important town, and the   ACHSept., a valley between
seat of one of the governments into which the                   S     A, a 
Persian kingdom is divided. It is situated in north Jericho and Ai, which received this name (signifying
lat. 34~ 53', east long. 40o, at the extremity of a trouble) from the trouble brought upon the Israelites
rich and fertile plain, on a gradual ascent, at the by the sin of Achan (Josh. vii. 24). [ACHAN.] [It
base of the Elwund Mountains, whose higher lay on the northern boundary of Judah (Josh. xv.
summits are covered with perpetual snow. Some 7), and therefore cannot have been, as Jerome makes
remnants of ruined walls of great thickness, and it, to the north of Jericho.]
also of towers of sun-dried bricks, present the only ACHSAH      an anket Sept. A   d), the
positive evidence of a more ancient city than theH:     
present on the same spot. Heaps of comparatively daughter of Caleb, whose hand her father offered
recent ruins, and a wall fallen to decay, attest that in marriage to him who should lead the attack on
Hamadan has declined from    even its modern the city of Debir, and take it. The prize was won
importance. The population is said by Southgate by his nephew Othniel; and as the bride was conto be about 30,000, which, from what the present ducted with the usual ceremony to her future home,
writer has seen of the place, he should judge to she alighted from her ass, and sued her father for
exceed the truth very considerably. It is little dis- an addition of springs of water to her dower in
tinguished, inside, from other Persian towns of the lands. It. is probable that custom  rendered it
same rank, save by its excellent and well-supplied unusual or at least ungracious, for a request tendered
bazaars, and the unusually large number of khans under such circumstances by adaughterto berefused;
of rather a superior description. This is the result and Caleb, in accordance with her wish, bestowed
of the extensive transit trade of which it is the seat, upon her the upper and the nether springs' (Josh.
it being the great centre where the routes of traffic xv. I6-I9; Judg. i. 9-I5).-J. K.
between Persia, Mesopotamia, and Persia converge  ACHSELRAD, BENEDET, a Jewish rabbi at
and meet. Its own manufactures are chiefly in  Ostroh, called also Ben Joseph Ha-Levi, born at
leather. Many Jews reside here, claiming to be Lemberg. His works are n13Jt-  (Son of Knowdescended from those of the Captivity who remained  ledge), a series of 150 expository lectures on the
in Media. Benjamin ofTudela says that in his time Psalms, printed with the text of the Psalms, and a
the number was 50,000. Modern travellers assign  commentary entitled p1Il 3p by another rabbi, at
them 500 houses; but the Rabbi David de Beth                  4; M2, iV.
Hillel (Travels, pp. 85-87, Madras, I832), who  Hanau in I616, 4to; mmann  1ntwP H    w'i.
was not likely to understate the fact, and had the Homilies on the ten commandments, Hanan 166,
best means of information, gives them but 200 4to: n1'n n111t, intended as a commentary on the
families. He says they are mostly in good circum- Pentateuch, but reaching only to the end of Genesis,
stances, having fine houses and gardens, and are Cracow I639, fol.-W. L. A.
chiefly traders and goldsmiths. They speak the
broken Turkish of the country, and have two     ACHSHAPH        (flI; Sept.'AI,'A-Xdq5, and
synagogues.  They derive the name of the town'AXLc), a royal city of the Canaanites (Josh. xi. I),
from'Haman' and'Mede,' and say that it was given has been supposed by many to be the same as
to that foe of Mordecai by King Ahasuerus. In  ACHZIB, both being in the tribe of Asher. But a
the midst of the city is a tomb which is in their careful consideration of Josh. xix. 25 and 29, will
charge, and which is said to be that of Mordecai make it probable that the places were different.
and Esther. It is a plain structure of brick, con- There is more reason mn the conjecture (Hamelsveld,
sisting of a small cylindrical tower and a dome (the iii. 237) that Achshaph was another name for Accho
whole about 20 feet high), with small projections or Acre, seeing that Accho otherwise does not




ACHSHUB                     49                   ACHU
occur in the list of towns in the lot of Asher, very watery, others very coarse in texture, and
although it is certain, from Judg. i. 3I, that Accho  some possessed of acrid and even poisonous prowas in the portion of that tribe.-J. K.        perties.  None, therefore, of the Alge can be
ACHSHUB (i  Sept.  ).  Ths wd    intended, nor any species of Butomus.    The
~ACHSHUB (, XSept. d-wls). This word  different kinds of 7uncus, or rush, though aboundoccurs only Ps. cxl. 3, where it is rendered in the ing in such situations, are not suited for pasturage,
A. V. by'adder.' It designates some species of and in fact are avoided by cattle.  So are the
venomous serpent. Bochart contends that it is majority of the Cyperaceer or sedge tribe; and also
the viper (Hiercz. ii. 379), and in this he is followed  the numerous species of Carex, which grow in moist
by most.  Colonel Hamilton Smith (in the former situations, yet yield a very coarse grass, which is
edition of this work) identified it with the poff- scarcely if ever touched by cattle. A few species
adder,'a reptile,' says he,'about three feet in  of Cyperus serve as pasturage, and the roots of some
length, and about six inches in circumference at of them are esculent and aromatic; but these must
the middle of the body; the head is larger than  be dug up before cattle can feed on them.  Some
is usual in serpents; the eyes are large, and very species of scirpus, or club-rush, however, serve as
brilliant; the back beautifully marked in half food for cattle: S. cespitosus, for instance, is the
circles, and the colours black, bright yellow, and  principal food of cattle and sheep in the highlands
dark brown; the belly yellow; the appearance at of Scotland, from the beginning of March till the
all times, but chiefly when excited, extremely bril- end of May. Varieties of S. maritimus, found in
liant; the upper jaw greatly protruding, somewhat different countries, and a few of the numerous kinds
like what occurs in the shark, places the mouth  of Cypeiraceae common in Indian pastures, as
back towards the throat, and this structure is said  Cyperus dubius and hexastachyus, are also eaten by
to be connected with the practice of the animal, cattle. Therefore if any specific plant is intended,
when intending to bite, to swell its skin till it sud- as seems implied in what goes before, it is perhaps
denly rises up, and strikes backwards as if it fell one of the edible species of scirpus or cyperus, perover. It is this faculty which appears to be indi- haps C. esculentus, which, however, has distinct
cated by the Hebrew name achshub, and therefore  Arabic names: or it may be a true grass; some
we believe it to refer to that species, or to one species of panicum, forinstance, which form excellent
nearly allied to it. The Dutch name (poff-adder, pasture in warm countries, and several of which
or spooch-adder) shews that, in the act of swelling, grow luxuriantly in the neighbourhood of water.
remarkable eructations and spittings take place, all
which no doubt are so many warnings, the biteI
being fatal. The poff-adder usually resides among 
brushwood in stony places and rocks, is fond of 
basking in the sun, rather slow in moving, and is
by nature timid.'
ACHU (.nS). This word occurs inJob viii. 11,             /
where it is said,'Can the rush grow up without         I 
mire? can the FLAG grow without water?' Here          01i 
flag stands for achu; which would seem to indicate 
some specific plant, as gome, or rush, in the first
clause of the sentence, may denote the papyrus.
Achu occurs also twice in Gen. xli. 2, IS,'And,
behold there came up out of the river seven wellfavoured kine and fat-fleshed, and they fed in a          i.
meadow:' here it is rendered meadow, and must, 
therefore, have been considered by our translators, as
a general, and not a specific term. In this difficulty
it is desirable to ascertain the interpretation put         I2. Cyperus esculentus.
upon the word by the earlier translators.  Dr.
Harris has already remarked that'the word is    But it is well known to all acquainted with warm
retained in the Septuagint, in Gen. {v ry &Xet; and  countries, subject to excessive drought, that the only
is used by the son of Sirach, Ecclesiastic. xl. 6, pasturage to which cattle can resort is a green strip
dtXi or d1eX, for the copies vary.' Jerome, in his of different grasses, with some sedges, which runs
Hebrew questions or traditions on Genesis, writes along the banks of rivers or of pieces of water,'Achi neque Graecus sermo est, nec Latinus, sed varying more or less in breadth according to the
et Hebrseus ipse corruptus est.' The Hebrew vau height of the bank, that is, the distance of water
1 and iod N being like oneanother, differing only in from the surface.  Cattle emerging from rivers,
length, the LXX., he observes, wrote n  a, achi, which they may often be seen doing in hot countries,
for lrns, achu, and according to their usual custom  as has been well remarked by the editor of the
put the Greek X for the double aspirate n (Nat.'Pictorial Bible' on Gen. xli. 2, would naturally go
Hist. of the Bible, in' Flag' ).             to such green herbage as intimated in this passage of
From the context of the few passages in which  Genesis, and which, as indicated in Jobviii. I, could
achu occurs, it is evident that it indicates a plant not grow without water in a warm dry country and
or plants which grew in or in the neighbourhood  climate. As no similar name is known to be applied
of water, and also that it or they were suitable as to any plant or plants in Hebrew, endeavours have
pasturage for cattle.  Now it is generally well been made to find a similar one so applied in the
known that most of the plants which grow in water, cognate languages; and, as quoted by Dr. Harris,
as well as many of those which grow in its vicinity, the learned Chappelow says,'we have no radix for
are not well suited as food for cattle; some being  rln unless we derive it, as Schultens does, from
VO,. T.                                                                           E




ACHZIB                    50        ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
the Arabic achi, to bind or join together.' Hence contra eum sensum exposuisse quem tenet et tenuit
it has been inferred that it might be some one of sancta mater ecclesia cujus judicio hoc opus per
the grasses or sedges employed in former times, as omnia lubens subjicio' (SeeWiseman's Recollections
some still are, for making ropes.  But there is of the Four Last Popes, p. 374, 5).-W. L. A.
probably some other Arabic root which has not yet
been ascertained, or which may have become ob-  ACRA (AKpa), a Greek word signifying a citadel,
solete; for there are numerous words in the Arabic in which sense  i  also occurs in the Syriac and
language having reference to greenness, all of which Chaldaic. Hence the name of Acra was acquired
e, al    by the eminence north of the Temple, on which a
have akh as a common element. Thus wuy      1 citadel was built by Antiochus Epiphanes, to comakhyas, thickets, dark groves, places full of reeds or mand the holy place. It thus became in fact, the
flags, in which animals take shelters; Ly' I Acropolis of Jerusalem.  Josephus describes this
f,    eminence as semicircular; and reports that when
akhevas, putting forth leaves; so akhzirar, greenness, Simon Maccabaeus had succeeded in expelling the
verdure; akhchishab, abounding in grass.  These Syrian garrison, he not only demolished the citadel,
may be connected with kah, a common term for but caused the hill itself to be levelled, that no
grass in Northern India, derived from the Persian, neighbouring site might henceforth be higher than
whence amber is called kah-robehy, grass-attracter. or so high as that on which the temple stood. The
So Jerome, with reference to achu, says,' Cum  people had suffered so much from the garrison, that
ab eruditis qusererem, quid hic sermo significa- they willingly laboured day and night, for three
ret audivi ab AEgyptiis hoc nomine lingua eorum  years, in this great work (Antiq. xiii. 6, 7; Bell.
omne quod in palude virens nascitur appellari.'-  7ud. v. 4, I).  At a later period the palace of
J. F. R.                                      Helena, queen of Adiabene, stood on the site,
ACHZIB (24tlb). There were two places of which still retained the name of Acra, as did also,.;:~~~  -     -   ~    probably, the council-house, and the repository of
this name, not usually distinguished.         the archives (Bell, ud. vi. 6, 3; see also Descript.
I. ACHZIB (Sept.'Ao^Xal,'EXo6P), in the tribe  Urbis lerosolymae, per J. Heydenum, lib. iii. cap.
of Asher nominally, but almost always in the 2).-J. K
possession of the Phoenicians; being, indeed, one of
the places from which the Israelites were unable to  ACRABATTINE. I. A     district or toparchy of
expel the former inhabitants (Judg. i. 31). In the  Judaea, extendnig between Shechem (now Nabulus)
Talmud it is called CHEZIB. The Greeks calledand Jercho inclining east. It was about twelve
it ECDIPPA, from  the Aramaean pronunciation  miles in length; it is not mentioned in Scripture,
2tNK (Ptol. v. I5); and it still survives under the but it occurs in Josephus (Bell. 7ud. ii. 12, 4; iii.
name of ZIB. It is upon the Mediterranean coast, 3, 4, 5). It took its name from a town called
about ten miles north of Acre. It stands on an  Acrabi in the Onomasticon, s. v.'AKpaRoev, where
ascent close by the sea-side, and is described as a it i described as a large village, nine Roman miles
small place, with a few palm-trees rising above east of Neapolis, on the road to Jericho. In this
the dwellings (Pococke, ii. 115; Richter, p. 70; quarter Dr. Robinson (Bib. Researches, iii. Io3)
Maundrell, p. 71; Irby and Mangles, p. I96; found a village still existing under the name of
Buckingham, ch. iii.)                         Akrabeh.
2. ACHZIB (Sept. Ke//p,'AXL'e), in the tribe of  2. Another district in that portion of Judaea,
Judah (Josh. xv. 44; Mic. I. 14), of which there which lies towards the south end of the Dead Sea,
is no historical mention, but, from its place in the occupied by the Edomites during the Captivity,
catalogue, it appears to have been in the middle and afterwards known as Idumaea. It is menpart of the western border-land of the tribe, towards tioned in I Mace. v. 3; los. Antiq. xii. 8, I.
the Philistines.  This is very possibly the Chezib It is assumed to have taken its name from the
(3T:) of Gen. xxxviii. 5.-J. K.               Maaleh Akrabbim (D2) plf,$D), or Steep of the
Scorpions, mentioned in Num. xxxiv. 4, and Josh.
ACKERMANN, PETER FOURER, D.D., ordi- xv. 3, as the southern extremity of the tribe of Judah.
nary professor of Old Testament language, litera- [AKRABBIM.]-J. K.
ture, and theology at Vienna, and choirmaster
of the monastery or cathedral of Klosterneuburg, ACRE. [ACCHO.]
was born 17th Nov. 177I at Vienna, and died gth  ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. (IIpdetrs rwv
Sept. 183i. He was the author of Introductio in'AroaoT6bXov). This title has been borne by the
Libb. sacc. V. T. usibus academicis accommodata, fifth historical book of the N. T. from a very early
Vien. 1825; Archceologia biblica breviler exposita, period [(Canon Muratori, Clem. Alex. Strom. v.
Vien. I826; ProphetS Minores peret. annot. illus- 12 p. 696, ed. Potter, Tertullian Cont. Marc. v. 2,
trati, Vien. i830. The first two of these works De Yejun Io, De bapt. Io.) Perhaps the earliest
are mere redactions of works under the same titles title was simply 7rpdcers d&roo-T6Xwv, as the subject
by Jahn, expurgated so as to rescue them from the of the book is not the doings of the apostles as a
Index Expurgatorius, into which they had been put body, but of only a few of the more eminent,
by Pius VII. Mr. Hore pronounces his com- especially Peter and Paul. Commencing with a
mentary on the minor prophets'valuable' (Introd. reference to an account given in a former work of
ii. 2 p. 294), but this judgment can hardly be sus- the sayings and doings of Jesus Christ before his
tained. Any value it has is derived exclusively ascension, its author proceeds to conduct us to an
from the extracts it gives from Rosenmiiller and acquaintance with the circumstances attending that
the older writers of the Romish Church.  The event, the conduct of the disciples on their return
author himself has added nothing of any worth. from witnessing it, the outpouring on them of the
The whole work is pervaded by a slavish deference Holy Spirit according to Christ's promise to them
to the authority of the Romish Church:-' puto,' before his crucifixion, and the amazing success
says the author in his preface,'me ne unquam  which, as a consequence of this, attended the first




ACTS OF THE APOSTLES                51         ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
announcement by them of the doctrine concerning  (Hom. i. in Act. sub init), an assertion in which,
Jesus as the promised Messiah and the Saviour of however, there is perhaps some rhetorical exaggethe World. After following the fates of the mother- ration. The resemblance of style in this book to
church at Jerusalem up to the period when the that of the third gospel, also favours the opinion
violent persecution of its members by the rulers of that Luke was its author.
the Jews had broken up their society and scattered  Attempts have been made to shew that the
them, with the exception of the apostles, through- book is not the work of one writer throughout.
out the whole of the surrounding region; and after But these have only had the effect of bringing out
introducing to the notice of the reader the case of more clearly and fully the evidences of the opinion
the remarkable conversion of one of the most zeal- they are designed to overthrow.  The linguistic
ous persecutors of the church, who afterwards peculiarities of the book, its pervading style, the
became one of its most devoted and successful references from one part to another, the unity of
advocates, the narrative takes a wider scope and  the leading ideas, and the connection of the whole,
opens to our view the gradual expansion of the conspire to support the position that it is the prochurch by the free admission within its pale of duction of one author (Gersdorf, Beitrdge zur
persons directly converted from heathenism and  Sprach - Charakteristik d. Schrftsteller d. N. T,
who had not passed through the preliminary stage p.  60o; Credner, EinZ. i. p. 132; Lekebusch,
of Judaism. The first step towards this more   Composition und Enstehungd. Apostelgesch, p. 37;
liberal and cosmopolitan order of things having De Wette, Einl. ~ 115; Meyer,'Kr. Exeget.
been effected by Peter, to whom the honour of Comment. iib. d. N. T. iii. 3; Davidson, Introlaying the foundation of the Christian church, both  duction ii. p. 4). Attempts have also been made
within-and without the confines of Judaism, seems, to ascribe the authorship of the book, in whole or
in accordance with our Lord's declaration concern- in part, to others than Luke, especially to Timothy
ing him (Matt. xvi. I8), to have been reserved, (Schleiermacher, Einleit. ins N. T.; Bleek, Stud.
Paul, the recent convert and the destined apostle of und Krit. 1836, p. 1025; tUlrich Ibid. 1837, p.
the Gentiles, is brought forward as the main actor 367, I840 p. I003; De Wette, Einl. p.  I4;
on the scene.  On his course of missionary activity, Mayerhoff, Einl. in d. Petrin. Schnfien p. 6), and
his successes and his sufferings, the chief interest of to Silas (Schwanbeck, Ueb. die Quellen d. Schriften
the narrative is thenceforward concentrated, until, d. Lukas; Conder, Literary History of the N. T);
having followed him to Rome, whither he had been but the gratuitousness and utter untenability of these
sent as a prisoner to abide his trial, on his own hypotheses have been fully exposed by several writers
appeal, at the bar of the emperor himself, the book  (Davidson, Introd. p. 9 ff.; Schneckenburger ueb.
abruptly closes, leaving us to gather further infor- d. Zweck d. Asostelgeschichte;. Zeller, in his rahrmation concerning him and the fortunes of the buch for 1849, Pt. x.; Alford, Greek Test., vol.
church from other sources.                    ii.; Meyer, Comment. ueb. N. T. vol. iii.; Lange
Respecting the authorship of this book there can Apostol. Zeitalter i. I, p. 90).
be no ground for doubt or hesitation. It is, un-  Many critics are inclined to regard the Gospel
questionably, the production of the same writer by by Luke and the Acts of the Apostles as having
whom the third of the four Gospels was composed, formed originally only one work, consisting of two
as is evident from  the introductory sentences of parts. For this opinion, however, there does not
both (comp. Luke i. 1-4, with Acts i. I). That appear to be any satisfactory authority; and it is
this writer was Luke may be very satisfactorily hardly accordant with Luke's own description of
proved in both cases. With regard to the book  the relation of these two writings to each other;
now under notice, tradition is firm and constant being called byhim, the one the former and the
in ascribing it to Luke (Irenseus, Adv. Hcer. lib. other the latter treatise (X6yos), a term which would
iii. c. 14, ~ I; c. I5, ~ I; Clem. Alex. Strom. not be appropriate h&d he intended to designate by
v. 12, p. 696; Tertullian Adv. Marcion. v. 2; it the first and second parts of the same treatise.
De rejun. c. 10; Origen, apud Euseb. Hist. Eccles. It would be difficult, also, on this hypothesis to
vi. 23, etc.  Eusebius himself ranks this book  account for the two, invariably and from  the
among the 6ouoXooyozeva, H. E. iii. 25). From  earliest times, appearing with distinct titles.
the book itself, also, it appears that the author  That the author of the Acts was a companion
accompanied Paul to Rome when he went to that of Paul in the travels which this book records, and
city as a prisoner (xxviii.) Now, we know from  that consequently he was a witness of most of the
two epistles written by Paul at that time, that Luke events-he records, is a position which modern
was with him at Rome (Col. iv. 14; Phil. 24), criticism has set itself earnestly to disprove, but
which favours the supposition that he was the without effect.  It has been alleged that there
writer of the narrative of the apostle's journey to are passages in the Acts which are contradicted
that city. The only parties in primitive times by by the Pauline epistles, that some of the accounts
whom this book was rejected were certain heretics, are unsatisfactory, that things are omitted which
such as the Ebionites, the Marcionites, the Seve- a companion of Paul would have detailed, that
rians, and the Manicheans, whose objections were the early part of the book has an unhistoric
entirely of a dogmatical, not of a historical nature; character, and that it is full of what is un-Pauline
indeed, they can hardly be said to have questioned  (De Wette Einl.; Schwegler Nach-apostolisch.
the authenticity of the book; they rather cast it Zeitalter; Zeller, 7ahrbuch, etc.) To this it may
aside because it did not favour their peculiar views. suffice here to reply, on the one hand, that we can
At the same time, whilst this book was acknow- never know so certainly what is Pauline and what
ledged as genuine where it was known, it does not un-Pauline, as to be able to say that any statement
appear to have been at first so extensively circu- is so absolutely the latter, that it could not have prolated as the other historical books of the New  ceeded from one who had been the companion of
Testament; for we find Chrysostom asserting that Paul; and on the other hand, that even were it
by many in his day it was not so much as known  made out that some things in the Acts are not




ACTS OF THE APOSTLES               52        ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
wholly in accordance with some things in Paul's all the sacred writers, he enjoyed the superintendepistles, and that from the latter source some things ing and inspiring influence of the Divine Spirit,
are to be supplied which the former omits, there is no whose office it was to preserve him from all error
proof in this that a companion of Paul did not and to guide him into all truth.
write the Acts. Such cavilling objections are of  A more important inquiry respects the design
no avail to set aside the constant tradition of the of the evangelist in writing this book. A prevalent
church as to the authorship of this book, especially popular opinion on this head is, that Luke, having
as the use of the first person i/ues by the writer in his Gospel given a history of the life of Christ,
falls in with this and the numerous undesigned intended to follow that up by giving in the Acts a
coincidences between this book and Paul's epistles, narrative of the establishment and early progress
so happily elucidated by Paley in his Horc Paul- of his religion in the world.  That this, howinzc, confirm it.                            ever, could not have been his design is obvious
The writer begins to narrate in the first person at from the very partial and limited view which his
ch. xvi. I i, where he is for the first time introduced narrative gives of the state of things in the church
into the narrative, and where he speaks of accom- generally during the period through which it expanying Paul to Philippi.  He then disappears tends. As little can we regard this book as defrom the narrative until Paul's return to Philippi, signed to record the official history of the apostles
more than two years afterwards, when it is stated  Peter and Paul, for we find many particulars conthat they left that place in company (xx. 6); from  cerning both these apostles mentioned incidentally
which it may be justly inferred that Luke spent the elsewhere, of which Luke takes no notice (comp.
interval in that town. From this time to the close 2 Cor. xi.; Gal. i. 7; ii. I; I Pet. v. 13. See
of the period embraced by his narrative he appears also Michaelis, Introduction, vol. iii. p. 328.
as the companion of the apostle. For the materials, Haenlein's Einleitung, th. iii. s. I50). Heinrichs,
therefore, of all he has recorded from ch. xvi. II, Kuinoel, and others are of opinion that no particuto xxviii. 31, he may be regarded as having drawn lar design should be ascribed to the evangelist in
upon his own recollection or on that of the apostle. composing this book beyond that of furnishing his
To the latter source, also, may be confidently friend Theophilus with a pleasing and instructive
traced all he has recorded concerning the earlier narrative of such events as had come under his own
events of the apostle's career; and as respects the personal notice, either immediately through the
circumstances recorded in the first twelve chapters testimony of his senses or through the medium of
of the Acts, and which relate chiefly to the church  the reports of others; but such a view savours too
at Jerusalem and the labours of the apostle Peter, much of the lax opinions which these writers unwe may readily suppose that they were so much happily entertained regarding the sacred writers, to
matter of general notoriety among the Christians be adopted by those who regard all the sacred
with whom Luke associated, that he needed no books as designed for the permanent instruction
assistance from any other merely human source in and benefit of the church universal. Much more
recording them. Some of the German critics have deserving of notice is the opinion of Haenlein, with
laboured hard to shew that he must have had which that of Michaelis substantially accords, that
recourse to written documents, in order to com-'the general design of the author of this book was,
pose those parts of his history which record what by means of his narratives, to set forth the co-opedid not pass under his own observation, and they ration of God in the diffusion of Christianity, and
have gone the length of supposing the existence of along with that, to prove, by remarkable facts, the
a work in the language of Palestine, under the dignity of the apostles and the perfectly equal right
title of Ebb:l 121o or K1ntFK, of which the of the Gentiles with the Jews to a participation in
Apocryphal books, lIpdeOs HIIpov and Khpvy/ua the blessings of that religion' (Einleitung, th. iii.
IIrpov, mentioned by Clement of Alexandria and s. I56.  Comp. Michaelisi Introduction, vol. iii.
Origen, were interpolated editions (Heinrichs, p. 330). Perhaps we should come still closer
Prolegg. in Acta App. p. 21; Kuinoel, Prolegg. p. to the truth if we were to say that the design of
14). All this, however, is mere ungrounded sup- Luke in writing the Acts was to supply, by select
position (Heinrichs 1. c. p. 21). Nor have the and suitable instances, an illustration of the power
attempts which have been made to shew from the and working of that religion which Jesus had died
book itself that the author used written documents, to establish. In his gospel he had presented to
proved very successful. We may admit, indeed, his readers an exhibition of Christianity as embodied
that the letters cited, xv. 23-29, and xviii. 26-30, in the person, character, and works of its great
which are avowedly copies of written documents, founder; and having followed him in his narration
were given from such sources; but beyond this, until he was taken up out of the sight of his
we see no adequate evidence of the truth of the disciples into heaven, this second work was written
assertion. We cannot trace the alleged difference to shew how his religion operated when committed
in point of style between the earlier and later to the hands of those by whom it was to be anportions of the book; and as for the speeches of nounced'to all nations, beginning at Jerusalem'
Peter and Paul resembling, in style and sentiment, (Luke xxiv. 47). In this point of view the recitals
the writings of those apostles, this is only a matter in this book present a theme that is practically inteof course if they are faithfully reported, whatever resting to Christians in all ages of the church and
was the source of Luke's acquaintance with them. all places of the world; for they exhibit to us what
There is not the shadow of evidence that any influences guided the actions of those who laid the
written documents were extant from which Luke foundations of the church, and to whose authority
could have drawn his materials, and with regard to all its members must defer-what courses they
the alleged impossibility of his learning from tra- adopted for the extension of the church-what
ditionary report the minute particulars he has re- ordinances they appointed to be observed by those
corded (which is what these critics chiefly insist Christians who, under their auspices, associated
on), it is to be remembered that, in common with together for mutual edification-and what diffi



ACTS OF THE APOSTLES                53        ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
culties, privations, and trials were to be expected  words, the appearance of Hebraisms in them is as
by those who should zealously exert themselves for easily accounted for as if the addresses had been
the triumph of Christianity. We are thus taught reported in full. His mode of narrating events is
not by dogmatical statement, but by instructive clear, dignified, and lively; and, as Michaelis
narrative, under what sanctions Christianity appears observes, he'has well supported the character of
in our world, what blessings she offers to men, and  each person whom he has introduced as delivering
by what means her influence is most extensively to a public harangue, and has very faithfully and
be promoted and the blessings she offers to be happily preserved the manner of speaking which
most widely and most fully enjoyed.           was peculiar to each of his orators' (Introduction,
Respecting the time when this book was com- vol. iii. p. 332).
posed it is impossible to speak with certainty. As  Whilst, as Lardner and others have very satisthe history is continued up to the close of the second factorily shewn (Lardner's Credibility, Works, vol.
year of Paul's imprisonment at Rome, it could not i.; Biscoe, On the Acts; Paley's Horce Paulina;
have been completed before A.D. 63; it was pro- Benson'sHistoryoftheFirstPlantingof Christianity,
bably, however, finished very soon after, so that vol. ii. etc.), the credibility of the events recorded
we shall not err far if we assign the interval between by Luke is fully authenticated both by internal and
the year 63 and the year 65 as the period of its external evidence, very great obscurity attaches to
completion. Still greater uncertainty hangs over the chronology of these events. Of the many conthe place where Luke composed it, but as he flicting systems which have been published for
accompanied Paul to Rome, perhaps it was at that the purpose of settling the questions that have
city and under the auspices of the apostle that it arisen on this head, it is impossible within such
was prepared.                                 limits as those to which this article is necessarily
The style of Luke in the Acts is, like his style confined, to give any minute account. As little
in his Gospel, much purer than that of most other do we feel ourselves at liberty to attempt an
books of the New Testament.   The Hebraisms original investigation of the subject, even did such
which occasionally occur are almost exclusively to promise to be productive of any very satisfactory
be found in the speeches of others which he has result.  The only course that appears open to us
reported. These speeches are indeed, for the most is to present, in a tabular form, the dates affixed
part, to be regarded rather as summaries than as to the leading events by those writers whose
full reports of what the speaker uttered; but as authority is most deserving of consideration in
these summaries are given in the speakers' own  such an inquiry.
_  _  _                          M._ 
The Ascension of Christ.....  33  33  3  333 3
The Ascension of Christ.......             33    33     33    31     33    30     31
Stoning of Stephen........                34    34     -     -      36    37     37
Conversion of Paul.....35            35    37?    35   36-38   37     38
Paul's first journey to Jerusalem (Acts ix. 26)  38  38  -     38     39    41     41
James's Martyrdom, etc.....44                    44     44    44     44     43    43
Paul's second journey to Jerusalem (Acts xi. 30)  44  44  44   44     44    43     44
Paul's first missionary tour.....      45-46 44-47    -     44     -     44     44
Paul's third journey to Jerusalem (Acts xv.). 53  49    -     52    49?   48     48
Paul arrives at Corinth.......            54    52    54?    53     54    50     52
Paul's fourth journey to Jerusalem (Acts xviii.
22)..........6                              54     -     55     54    52     54
Paul's abode at Ephesus....   56-59 54-57         56-58        53-55 55-59
Paul's fifth journey to Jerusalem (Acts xxi. 17)  59  58  60   59     60    56     58
Paul arrives in Rome.....63                   6i     63    62     63    59     6i
The majority of these dates can only be regarded  (2 Cor. xi. 32. See also Neander's remarks on
as approximations to the truth, and the diversity these in Geschichte der Pflanzung und Leitung der
which the above table presents shews the uncertainty  Christlichen Klirche, Bd. i. s. 80). Perhaps the
of the whole matter. The results at which Mr. following is the true order of the events of the
Greswell and Dr. Anger have arrived are, in many apostle's early career as a Christian.  In Gal. ii. i,
cases, identical, and upon the whole the earlier he speaks himself of going up to Jerusalem fourteen
date which they assign to the ascension of Christ
seems worthy of adoption. We cannot help think-' Annales.  Folio. Bremae, I686, p. 641.
ing, however, that the interval assigned by these 2 Annales Paulini.  3pp.  Posthuma.  4to.
writers to the events which transpired between the Lond. I688.
ascension of Christ and the stoning of Stephen is  8 Introduction to the New Testament, vol. iii.
much too great. The date which they assign to p. 336.
Paul's first visit to Jerusalem is also plainly too  4 Einleitung, 3te Auflage, Bd. ii. s. 307.
late, for Paul himself tells us that his flight from  b Einleitung, 2te Aufl. Bd. iii. s. I57.
Damascus occurred whilst that town was under the  6 Dissertations, etc. 5 vols. 8vo. Oxf. 1837.
authority of Aretas, whose tenure of it cannot be  7 De Temporum in Actis App. Ratione.  8vo.
extended beyond the year 38 of the common sera Lips. 1833.




ACTS, SPURIOUS                 54             ACTS, SPURIOUS
years, or about fourteen years, after his conversion  of our Lord. This term is so applied by M.
(for so we understand his words). Now this visit Gaussen of Geneva, in his Theopneustia (English
could not have been that recorded in Acts xv., translation, Bagster, 1842). The learned Heinsius
because we cannot conceive that after the events is of opinion that the passage is taken from some
detailed in that chapter Peter would have acted as lost apocryphal book, such as that entitled, in the
Paul describes in Gal. ii. I. We conclude, there- Recognitions of Clement,'the Book of the Sayings
fore, that the visit here referred to was one earlier of Christ,' or the pretended Constitutions of the
than that mentioned in Acts xv. It must, therefore, Apostles.  Others, however, conceive that the
have been that mentioned in Acts xi. 30. Now, apostle, in Acts xx. 35, does not refer to any one
this being at the time of the famine, its date is saying of our Saviour's in particular, but that he
pretty well fixed to the year 45, or thereabouts. deduced Christ's sentiments onthis head from several
Subtract I4 from this, then, and we get 31 as the of his sayings and parables (see Matt. xix. 21; xxv.;
date of Paul's conversion, and adding to this the and Luke xvi. 9). But the probability is that St.
three years that elapsed between his conversion  Paul received this passage by tradition from the
and his first visit to Jerusalem (Gal. i. 18), we get other apostles.
the year 34 as the date of this latter event. If this  There is also a saying ascribed to Christ to be
arrangement be not adopted, the visit to Jerusalem  found in the Epistle of Barnabas, a work at least of
mentioned in Gal. ii. I, must, for the reason just the second century:' Let us resist all iniquity, and
mentioned, be intercalated between the commence- hate it;' and again,' So they who would see me,
ment of Paul's first missionary tour and his visit to and lay hold on my kingdom, must receive me
Jerusalem at the time of the holding of the so-called through much suffering and tribulation:' but it is
council; so that the number of Paul's visits to that not improbable that these passages contain merely
city would be six, instead offive. Schrader adopts an illusion to some of our Lord's discourses.
somewhat of a similar view, only he places this  Clemens Romanus, the third bishop of Rome
additional visit between the fourth and fifth of those after St. Peter (or the writer who passes under the
mentioned in the Acts (Der Apostel Pauus, 4 Th. name of Clement), in his Second Epistle to the
Leipz. 1830-1838).                            Corinthians, ascribes the following saying to Christ:
Coznmmentaries. -De  Veil Explicatio  Ziteralis -'Though ye should be united to me in my bosom,
Actor. Apost. Lond. 1684, translated into Eng. and yet do not keep my commandments, I will
1685;* Limborch, Comnmentarium in scta Aposto- reject you, and say, Depart from me, I know not
oumrn, etc. fol., Roterod. 1711; J. E. M. Walch, whence ye are, ye workers of iniquity.' This pasDissertt. in Acta App. 3 tom. 4to, Jena, 1756 6I  sage seems evidently to be taken from St. Luke's
Sam. F. N. Morus, Versio et Explicatio Act. App   ospe   25 2  27
ed. Dindorf, 2 tom. 8vo, Lips. I794;   Richard  There are many similar passages, which several
Bisoe's IDistory of to e Acts, onJirmed, etc. 8vo. eminent writers, such as Grabe, Mill, and FabriOxf. 1829; Kuinoel, Commzent. ins Acta App, which  cius, have considered as derived from apocryphal
forms the fourth vol. of his Comment. in Libros gospels, but which seem with greater probability
Hist. N. T: Lips. II88; Heinrichs, Acta App. to be nothing more than loose quotations from the
perpet. Annott. illustrata, being the third vol. of the Scriptures, which were very common among the
Nov. Test Roppianumz;  Baumgarten, Acts of the apstolicalFathers.
App. 3 vols. 8vo, Ed. 1854; Humphrey, Com. on   There is a saying of Christ's, cited by Clement
Acts. Lond. I847 Alexander, oJ. A., Comment. on in the same epistle, which is found in the apocrythe Acts, 2 vols. Lond. I860. The works of Benson  phal gospel of the Egyptians:-' The Lord, being
on the Pwartingsof tshe C stilan Cenrctes, 3 vols. asked when his kingdom should come, replied,
on the Planting of the Christian Churches, 3 vs.  When two shall be one, and that which is without
4*henz  two shall be one, and that which is without
4to;  of Neander, Geschichte  der Leitung und
a   o der Christ ichien  irche duh dieu postel as that which is within, and the male with the
PjTanlzung der Christlichen  irche dutch die Aoste
aznfemale neither male nor female.' [GOSPELS, APo(recently translated into English); and of Lange, CRYPHAL. 
Das Apost. Zeitalter, 2 vols. 1853, may be also  We may here mention that the genuineness of
viewed in the         l       ight            o   f Commentaries on the Acts.
viewede       light of Commentaries on the Acts. the Second Epistle of Clement is itself disputed,
and is rejected by Eusebius, Jerome, and others;
ACTS, SPURIOUS. [APocRYPHA.] This term      at least Eusebius says of it,'We know not that
has been applied to several ancient writingspretended  this is as highly approved of as the former, or that
to have been composed by, or to supply historical it has been in use with the ancients' (Hist. Eccles.
facts respectingour Blessed Saviour and his disciples, iii. 38, Cruse's translation, 1842).
or other individuals whose actions are recorded in  Eusebius, in the last chapter of the same book,
the holy Scriptures.  Of these spurious or pseudepi- states that Papias, a companion of the apostles,
graphal writings several are still extant; others are' gives another history of a woman who had been
only known to have existed by the accounts of them  accused of many sins before the Lord, which is
which are to be met with in ancient authors.  also contained in the Gospel according to the
ACTS OF CHRIST, SPURIOUS.    Several sayings Nazarenes.' As this latter work is lost, it is doubtattributed to our Lord, and alleged to be handed  ful to what woman the history refers. Some supdown by tradition, may be included under this pose it alludes to the history of the woman taken
head, as they are supposed by some learned men to in adultery; others, to the woman of Samaria.
have been derived from histories which are no  There are two discourses ascribed to Christ by
longer in existence. As explanatory of our mean- Papias, preserved in Irenaeus (Adversus Hceres. v.
ing it will suffice to refer to the beautiful sentiment 33), relating to the doctrine of the Millennium, of
cited by St. Paul (Acts xx. 35), MaKcdpt6v ert which Papias appears to have been the first propa/CiaXXov &56bvac Xalpc8dvew, to which the term apo- gator. Dr. Grabe has defended the truth of these
cryphal has been sometimes applied, inasmuch as traditions, but the discourses themselves are unit is not contained in any of the written biographies worthy of our blessed Lord.




ACTS, SPURIOUS                  55             ACTS, SPURIOUS
There is a saying ascribed to Christ by Justin  existed in his time in the Syriac language, from
Martyr, in his Dialogue with Trypho, which has which he translated them into Greek.
been supposed by Dr. Cave to have been taken from  TKhese letters are also mentioned by Ephraem
the Gospel of the Nazarenes. Mr. Jones conceives Syrus, deacon of Edessa, at the close of the fourth
it to have been an allusion to a passage in the century. Jerome refers to them in his comment on
prophet Ezekiel.  The same Father furnishes us Matt. x., and they are mentioned by Pope Gelasius,
with an apocryphal history of Christ's baptism, in who rejects them as spurious and apocryphal. They
which it is asserted that'a fire was kindled in are, however, referred to as genuine by Evagrius
Jordan.' He also acquaints us that Christ worked, and later historians. Among moder writers the
when he was on earth, at the trade of a carpenter, genuineness of these letters has been maintained by
making ploughs and yokes for oxen;             Dr. Parker, in the preface to his Demonstration of
There are some apocryphal sayings of Christ the Law of Nature, and the Christian Religion, part
preserved by Irenaeus, but his most remarkable ii. ~ I6, p. 235; by Dr. Cave, in his Historia
observation is that Christ'lived and taught beyond Literaria, vol. i. p. 23; and by Grabe, in his
his fortieth or even fiftieth year.' This he founds Spicilegium Patrum, particularly p. 319. On the
partlyon absurd inferences drawn from the character other hand, most writers, including the great
of his mission, partly on John viii. 57, and also majority of Roman Catholic divines, reject them as
on what he alleges to have been John's own testi- spurious.  Mr. Jones, in his valuable work on the
mony, delivered to the presbyters of Asia.  It is Canonical Authority of the New  Testament, alscarcely necessary to refute this absurd idea, which  though he does not venture to deny that the Acts
is in contradiction with all the statements in the were contained in the public registers of the city of
genuine gospels. There is also an absurd saying  Edessa, yet gives it, as a probable conjecture, in
attributed to Christ by Athenagoras, Legat. pro favour of which he adduces some strong reasons,
Christianis, cap. 28.                         drawn from   internal evidence, that this whole
There are various sayings ascribed to our Lord  chapter (viz. the I3th of the first book) in the
by Clemens Alexandrinus and several of the Fathers. Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius is itself an interOne of the most remarkable is,'Be ye skilful polation. [EPISTLES, SPURIOUS.]
money-changers.' This is supposed to have been   The other apocryphal history related. by Evacontained in the Gospel of the Nazarenes.  Others grius, out of Procopius, states that Agbarus sent a
think it to have been an early interpolation into limner to draw the picture of our Saviour, but that
the text of Scripture.  Origen and Jerome cite it not being able to do it by reason of the brightness
as a saying of Christ's.                       of Christ's countenance, our' Saviour took a cloth,
In Origen, Contra Celsum, lib. i. is an apocry- and laying it upon his divine and life-giving face,
phal history of our Saviour and his parents, in he impressed his likeness on it.' This story of
which it is reproached to Christ that he was born  Christ's picture is related by several, in the Second
in a mean village, of a poor woman who gained  Council of Nice, and by other ancient writers, one
her livelihood by spinning, and was turned off by of whom (Leo) asserts that he went to Edessa, and
her husband, a carpenter.  Celsus adds that Jesus saw' the image of Christ, not made with hands,
was obliged by poverty to work as a servant in worshipped by the people.' This is the first of the
Egypt, where he learned many powerful arts, and  four likenesses of Christ mentioned by ancient
thought that on this account he oughtto beesteemed  writers. The second is that said to have been
as a god. There was a similar account contained  stamped on a handkerchief by Christ, and given to
in some apocryphal books extant in the time of St. Veronica, who had followed him to his crucifixion.
Augustine.  It was probably a Jewish forgery. The third is the statue of Christ, stated by EuseAugustine, Epiphanius, and others of the Fathers bius to have been erected by the woman whom he
equally cite sayings and acts of Christ, which  had cured of an issue of blood, and which the
they probably met with in the early apocryphal learned historian acquaints us he saw at Coesarea
gospels.                                       Philippi (Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. vii. 18). Sozomen
There is a spurious hymn of Christ's extant, and Cassiodorus assert that the emperor Julian
ascribed to the Priscillianists by St. Augustine. took down this statue and erected his own in its
There are also many such acts and sayings to be place. It is, however, stated by Asterius, a writer
found in the Koran of Mahomet, and others in the of the fourth century, that it was taken away by
writings of the Mohammedan doctors (see Toland's Maximinus, the predecessor of Constantine. The
Nazerenus).                                    fourth picture is one which Nicodemus presented to
There is a prayer ascribed to our Saviour by the Gamaliel, which was preserved at Berytus, and
same persons, which is printed in Latin and Arabic which having been crucified and pierced with a
in the learned Selden's Commentary on Eutychius's spear by the Jews, there issued out from the side
Annals of Alexandria, published at Oxford, in i65o, blood and water.  This is stated in a spurious
by Dr. Pococke.  It contains a petition for pardon  treatise concerning the passion and image of Christ,
of sin, which is sufficient to stamp it as a forgery.  falsely ascribed to Athanasius.  Eusebius the hisWe must not omit to mention here the two curious torian asserts (loc. cit.) that he had here seen the
acts of Christ recorded, the one by Eusebius, and  pictures of Peter, Paul, and of Christ himself, in
the other by Evagrius. The first of these included his time (See also Sozomen, Hist. Eccles. v. 21).
a letter said to have been written to our Saviour by  ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, SPURIOUS.
Agbarus (or Abgarus), king of Edessa, requesting  Of these several are extant, others are lost, or
him to come and heal a disease under which he only fragments of them are come down to us.
laboured. The letter, together with the supposed  Of the following we know little more than that
reply of Christ, are preserved by Eusebius. This they once existed. They are here arranged chrolearned historian asserts that he obtained the nologically:-The Preaching of Peter, referred to
documents, together with the history, from the by Origen in his Commentary on St. John's Gospel,
public registers of the city of Edessa, where they lib. xiv., also referred to by Clemens Alexandrinus;




ACTS, SPURIOUS                 56                   ADAM
The Acts of Peter, supposed by Dr. Cave to be to Seneca. Together with some others, for which
cited by Serapion; The Acts of Paul and Thecla, see Cotelerius's Ecclesice Grceca Monumenta, Paris,
mentioned by Tertullian, Lib. de Baptismo, cap. I677-92; Fabricius, Codex Apocryphus, N.:.;
xvii.-this is, however, supposed by some-to be the Du Pin, History of the Canon of the New Testa.
same which is found in a Greek MS. in the Bod- ment, London, 1699; Grabe's Spicilegium Patrum,
leian Library, and has been published by Dr. Oxford, 1714; Lardner's Credibility, etc.; Jones's
Grabe, in his Spicil. Patrum Secul. I.; The Doc- New and Just Method of Settling the Canonical
trine of Peter, cited by Origen,'Procem.' in Lib. de Authority of the New Testament; Birch's AuctaPnincip.; The Acts of Paul, ib. de Princip. i. 2; rium, Hafniae, 1804; Thilo's Acta St. Thomae,
The Preaching of Paul, referred to by St. Cyprian, Lips. 1823, and Codex Apocryphus, N. T., Lips.
Tract. de non iterando Baptismo; The Preaching of  832; Tischendorf, Acta App. Apocrypha, Lips.
Paul and Peter at Rome, cited by Lactantius, De I857.-W. W.
vera Sap. iv. 21; The Acts of Peter, thrice men-                        e c   f dy o 
tioned by Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. iii. 3-' as to that Syis,  the s   according to Macrobius, whose
work, however, which is ascribed to him, called S, te, ccdi           c  ius     se
"The Acts" and the "Gospel according to Peter," words are (Saturnal, i. 23):'Accipe quid Assyrii
de Solis potentia opinentur; deo enim, quem suriwe know nothing of their being handed down as        potenti opinentur; deo enim, quem suCatholic writings, since neither among the ancient mum maximumque venerantur, Adad nomen deder.
nor the ecclesiastical writers of our own day has unt. Eusnominis interpretatiosignificat unus. 
there been one that has appealed to testimony    Simulacrum, Adad insigne cernitur radiis ine
taken from them;' The Acts of Paul, ib.; The clinatis, quibus monstratur vim cceli in radiis esse
taken from them;' The Acts Of Paul ib.; ThegSolis, qui demittuntur in terram.'   Moreover,
Revelation of Peter, ib.; The Acts of Andrew and                    i  ta'       Moreoer
jjohn, ib. cap. 25.'Thus,' he says,'we have it Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxvii. II, 71), speaking of rein our power to know.,. those books that are markable stones named after parts of the body,
in     T our power to know.... those books that arementions some called' Adadunephros, ejusdem
adduced by the heretics, under the name of the mentions some called'Adadunephros, ejusdem
apostles, such, viz., as compose the gospels of Peter, oculus ac digitus dei;' and adds,'et hic coitur a
Thomas, and Matthew.... and such as contain   Syris.' He i also called A8-as Evan. i. E ),s
the Acts of the Apostles by Andrew and John, and by Philo Byblius in Eusebii Prlpar. o  an. i. to),
others of which no one of those writers in the where the occurrence of the long o for a is to be
ecclesiastical succession has condescended to make ascribed to the characteristic pronunciation of the
ecclesiastical succession has condescended to ma Western Aramean dialect. The passage of HesyWestern Aramaean dialect. The passage of Hesyany mention in his works; and, indeed, the cha- chius which Harduin adduces in his note to Pliny,
racter of the style itself is very different from that                 s        te   Piny
of the apostles, and the sentiments and the purport concerning the worship of this god by the Phrygians,
of those things that are advanced in them, devionly contains the name A8wos by an emendation
ating as far as possible from sound orthodoxy, of Salmasius, which Jablonski declares to be in
evidently proves they are the fictions of heretical is   (e Lng  Lyaona, p. 64
men; whence they are to be ranked not only      This Syrian deity claims some notice here, beamong the spurious writings, but are to be rejected  cause his name is most probably an element in the
as altogether absurd and impious.' —The Acts of names of the Syrian kings Benhadad and HadPeter, Yohn, and Thomas, Athanasius, Synops. ~ 76; adezer. Moreover, several of the older commentae  Writings of Bartholomaw the Apostle, men- tors have endeavoured to find this deity in Isaiah
The Writings of Bartholomew the Apostle, mentioned byWthenpseudo-Dionysius  TheActs, Preach- lxvi I 7; either by altering the text there to suit
tioned by the pseudo-Dionysius; The Acts, Preach- th  a  g      Macrobius; or by adapting the
ing, and Revelation of Peter, cited by Jerome, in the name given by Macrobius; or by adapting the
his Catal. Script. Eccles.; The Acts of the Apost esname he gives to his interpretation and to the read-is Calal. Scrzpt Eccles; The  *ing of th e Hebrew, so as to make that extract bear
by Seleucus, ib. Epist. ad Chrom., etc.; The Acts of ingof the Hebrew, so as to make hat extract bear
Paul and Thecla, ib. Catalog. Script. Eccles.; The at some lent a  g o   d Ahad.  Michaelis has argued 
Acts of the Apostles, used by the Ebionites, cited by at some length against both these views: and the
Epiphanius, Adversus Hsres. ~ I6; The Acts of modern commentators, such as Gesenius, Hitzig,
Epiphaius,  Advers, or  res. ~ nici, c d he Acts of Bttcher (in Proben Alttest. Schrifterklar.), and
Leucius, Lentius,' or Lenticius, called the Acts ofEwald, do not admit the name of any deity in that
the Apostles, Augustin. Lib. de Fid. c. 38; The, do not admit the name of any deity in that
Acts of the Apostles, used by the Manichees; The pasage.J. N.
Revelations of Thomas, Paul, Stephen, etc., Gela- ADAD-RIMMON, properly HADAD-RIMMOM
sius, de Lib. Apoc. apud Gratian. Distinct. 15, c. 3. (j.qVV.nl; Sept. )ocbv, a garden of pomegranates),
To these may be added the genuine Acts of Pilate, 
a city in the valley of Jezreel, where was fought
appealed to by Tertullian and Justin Martyr, in the famous battle between King Josiah and Pharaohtheir Apologies, as being then extant. Tertullian  Necho(2 Kings xxiii. 29; Zech. xii.-I). Adaddescribes them as'the records which were trans-rimmon was afterwards called Maximianopolis, in
mitted from  Jerusalem  to Tiberius concerning honour of the emperor Maximian (Jerome, ConChrist.' Ie refers to the same for the proof of met. in Zach. xii.) It was seventeen Roman
our Saviour's miracles.                       miles from Cesarea, and ten miles from Jezreel
The following is a catalogue of the principal (Iin.  eros). -  K
spurious Acts still extant: —The Creed of the
Apostles; The Epistles of Barnabas, Clement, Ig-  ADAH   (mq1, adornment, comeliness; Sept.
natius, andPolycarp; TheRecognitions of Clement,'Ad): i. One of the wives of Lamech (Gen. iv.
or the Tnavels of Peter; The Shepherd of Hermas;19). 2. One of the wives of Esau, daughter of
The Acts of Pilate (spurious), or the Gospel of Nico- Elon the Hittite (Gen. xxxvi. 2). She is called
demus; The Acts of Paul, or the Martyrdom of Bashemath in Gen. xxvi. 34.
Thecla; Abdias's History of the Twelve Apostles:
The Constitutions of the Apostles; The Canons of  ADAM  (DNt), the word by which the Bible
the Apostles; The Liturgies of the Apostles; St. designates the first human being.  This word
PauPs Epistle to the Laodiceans; St. Paul's Letters occurs for the first time, Gen. i. 26.'Let us




ADAM                      57                   ADAM
make man [Adam] in our image;' (i. 27),'And   fairness, admit that the questions are identical. It
God created the man [the Adam] in his own image.' is hypothetically conceivable that the Adorable God
The next instance (ii. 7) expresses the source of might give existence to any number of creatures,
derivation, a character or property, namely, the which should all possess the properties which chamaterial of which the human body was formed: racterize identity of species, even without such differ-' And the Lord God [Jehovah Elohim] formed the ences as constitute varieties, or with any degree of
man [the Adam] dust from the ground [the ada- those differences. A learned German divine, Dr.
mah].' The meaning of the primary word is, de Schrank, thinks it right to maintain that, of all
most probably, any kind of reddish tint, as a organized beings besides man, the Creator gave
beautiful human complexion (Lam. iv. 7); but its existence to innumerable individuals, of course in
various derivatives are applied to different objects their proper pairs (Comm. in Gen. p. 69, Sulzbach,
of a red or brown hue, or approaching to such. I835). His reason probably is, that otherwise
The word Adam, therefore, is an appellative noun  there would not be a provision of food: but whether
made into a proper one. It is further remarkable the conjecture be admitted or not, it is plain that it
that, in all the other instances in the second and involves no contradiction, and that therefore disthird chapters of Genesis, which are nineteen, it is tinct races of men might have been created, differput with the article, the man, or the Adam. It is ing within certain limits, yet all possessing that
also to be observed that, though it occurs very fre- which physiologists lay down as the only proper
quently in the Old Testament, and though there is and constant character, the perpetuity of propagano grammatical difficulty in the way of its being  tion.
declined by the dual and plural terminations and  But the admission of the possibility is not a conthe pro-nominal suffixes (as its derivative D3~, dam, cession of the reality. So great is the evidence in
blood, is), yet it never undergoes those changes; favour of the derivation of the entire mass of human
it is used abundantly to denote man in the general beings from one pair of ancestors, that it has oband collective sense-mankind, the human race, tained the suffrage of the men most competent
but it is never found in the plural number. When  to judge upon a question of comparative anatomy
the sacred writers design to express men distribu- and physiology. The late illustrious Cuvier and
tively, they use either the compound term, sons of Blumenbach, and our countryman Mr. Lawrence,
men (t')%N.1, benei adam), or the plural of ft   are examples of the highest order. But no writer
enosh, or At ish.                              has a claim to deference upon this subject superior
That men and other animals have existed from  to that of the late Dr. J. C. Prichard.  He has
eternity, by each individual being born of parents devoted a large work to this subject and others
and dying at the close of his period, that is, by an  allied to it-Researches into the Physical History of
infinite succession of finite beings, has been asserted Mankind, 3d Edition, I841-1847, and one more
by some: whether they really believed their own  at least to come, 1836-I841; also another work,
assertion may well be doubted. Others have main- just completed, The Natural History of Man, of
tained that the first man and his female mate, or a which a third edition appeared in 1848. In the
number of such, came into existence by some Introductory Observations contained in the latter
spontaneous action of the earth or the elements, a work, we find a passage which we cite as an exchance-combination of matter and properties, with- ample of that noble impartiality and disregard of
out an intellectual designing cause. We hold these even sacred prepossessions with which the author
notions to be unworthy of a serious refutation. An  has pursued his laborious investigation:'I shall
upright mind, upon a little serious reflection, must not pretend that in my own mind I regard the
perceive their absurdity, self-contradiction, and im- question now to be discussed as one of which the
possibility. To those who may desire to see ample decision is indifferent either to religion or to hudemonstration of what we here assert, we recom- manity. But the strict rule of scientific scrutiny
mend Dr. Samuel Clarke On the Being and Attri- exacts, according to modem philosophers, in matters
butes of God; Mr. Samuel Drew's Essays; or an  of inductive reasoning, an exclusive homage.  It
admirable work not known in a manner corre- requires that we should close our eyes against all
sponding to its'worth, Discourses on Atheism, by presumptive and extrinsic evidence, and abstract
the Rev. Thomas Allin, 1828.                   our minds from all considerations not derived from
It is among the clearest deductions of reason, the matters of fact which bear immediately on the
that men and all dependent beings have been created, question. The maxim we have to follow in such
that is, produced or brought into their first exist- controversies is, fiat justitia, ruat celum. In fact,
ence by an intelligent and adequately powerful what is actually true, it is always most desirable to
being. A question, however, arises, of great in- know, whatever consequences may arise from its
terest and importance. Did the Almighty Creator admission.'
produce only one man and one woman, from         The animals which render eminent services to
whom all other human beings have descended?-  man, and peculiarly depend upon his protection,
or did he create several parental pairs, from whom  are widely diffused-the horse, the dog, the hog,
distinct stocks of men have been derived. The the domestic fowl. Now of these the varieties in
affirmative of the latter position has been main- each species are numerous and different, to a degree
tained by some, and, it must be confessed, not so great, that an observer ignorant of physiologiwithout apparent reason. The manifest and great cal history would scarcely believe them to be of the
differences in complexion and figure, which dis- same species. But man is the most widely diffused
tinguish several races of mankind, are supposed to of any animal. In the progress of ages and generabe such as entirely to forbid the conclusion that tions, he has naturalized himself to every climate,
they have all descended from one father and one and to modes of life which would prove fatal to an
mother. The question is usually regarded as equiva- individual man suddenly transferred from a remote
lent to this: whether there is only one species of point of the field. The alterations produced affect
men, or there are several. But we cannot, in strict every part of the body, internal and external, with



ADAM                     58                  ADAM
out extinguishing the marks of the specific identity. the field before it should be in the earth, and every
A further and striking evidence is, that when per- herb of the field before it should bud.' The reader
sons of different varieties are conjugally united, the sees that we have translated the verbs (which stand
offspring, especially in two or three generations, in the Hebrew future form) by our potential mood,
becomes more prolific, and acquires a higher per- as the nearest in correspondence with the idiom
fection in physical and mental qualities than was called by Dr. Nordheimer the'Dependent Use of
found in either of the parental races. From the the Future' (Critical Grammar of the 1eb. Lang.,
deepest African black to the finest Caucasian white, vol. ii., p. I86; New York, I84I).  The two
the change runs through imperceptible gradations; terms, shrubs and herbage, are put, by the comand, if a middle hue be assumed, suppose some tint mon synecdoche, to designate the whole vegetable
of brown, all the varieties of complexion may be kingdom. The reason of the case comprehends
explained upon the principle of divergence influ- the other division of organized nature; and this is
enced by outward circumstances. The conclusion applied to man and all other animals, in the words,
may be falrly drawn, in the words of the able'Out of the ground-dust out of the groundtranslators and illustrators of Baron Cuvier's great Jehovah God formed them.'
work:-' We are fully warranted in concluding,  It is to be observed that there are two narratives
both from the comparison of man with inferior at the beginning of the Mosaic records, different in
animals, so far as the inferiority will allow of such style and manner, distinct and independent; at first
comparison, and, beyond that, by comparing him  sight somewhat discrepant, but when strictly exwith himself, that the great family of mankind amined, perfectly compatible, and each one illusloudly proclaim a descent, at some period or other, trating and completing the other. The first is
from  one common origin.' (Animal Kingdom, contained in Gen. i. I, to ii. 3; and the other, ii. 4,
with the Supplements of Mr. E. Griffith, Col. to iv. 26. As is the case with the Scripture hisHamilton Smith, and Mr. Pidgeon, vol. i p. p79.) tory generally, they consist of a few principal facts,
Thus, by an investigation totally independent detached anecdotes, leaving much of necessary
of historical authority, we are brought to the con- implication which the good sense of the reader is
elusion of the inspired writings, that the Creator called upon to supply; and passing over large' hath made of one blood all nations of men, for spaces of the history of life, upon which all conto dwell on all the face of the earth.' (Acts jecture would be fruitless.
xvii. 26.)                                     In the second of these narratives we read,'And
We shall now follow the course of those sacred Jehovah God formed the man [Heb. the Adam],
documents in tracing the history of the first man, dust from the ground [1tRN;l, haadamah], and
persuaded that their right interpretation is a sure blew into his nostrils the breath of life; and the
basis of truth. At the same time we shall not re- man became a living animal' (Gen. ii. 7). Here
ject illustrations from natural history and the reason are two objects of attention, the organic mechanism
of particular facts.                         of the human body, and the vitality with which it
It is evident upon a little reflection, and the was endowed.
closest investigation confirms the conclusion, that  The mechanical material, formed (moulded, or
the first human pair must have been created in a arranged, as an artificer models clay or wax) into
state equivalent to that which all subsequent human the human and all other animal bodies, is called
beings have had to reach by slow degrees, in'dust from the ground.' This would be a natural
growth, experience, observation, imitation, and the and easy expression to men in the early ages, beinstruction of others: that is, a state of prime matu- fore chemistry was known or minute philosophical
rity, and with an infusion, concreation, or whatever distinctions were thought of, to convey, in a general
we may call it, of knowledge and habits, both phy- form, the idea of earthy matter, the constituent
sical and intellectual. suitable to the place which substance of the ground on which we tread. To
man had to occupy in the system of creation, and say, that of this the human and every other animal
adequate to his necessities in that place. Had it body was formed, is a position which would be at
been otherwise, the new beings could not have pre- once the most easily apprehensible to an uncultiserved their animal existence, nor have held rational vated mind, and which yet is the most exactly true
converse with each other, nor have paid to their upon the highest philosophical grounds. We now
Creator the homage of knowledge and love, adora- know, from chemical analysis, that the animal body
tion and obedience; and reason clearly tells us that is composed, in the inscrutable manner called
the last was the noblest end of existence. Those organization, of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrowhom unhappy prejudices lead to reject revelation gen, lime, iron, sulphur, and phosphorus. Now
must either admit this, or must resort to suppositions all these are mineral substances, which in their
of palpable absurdity and impossibility. If they will various combinations form a very large part of the
not admit a direct action of Divine power in crea- solid ground.
tion and adaptation to the designed mode of exist-  Some of our readers may be surprised at our
ence, they must admit something far beyond the having translated nsl'l eEJ nephesh hhaya by living
miraculous, an infinite succession of finite beings, animal. There are good interpreters and preachers
or a spontaneous production of order, organization, who, confiding in the common translation, living
and systematic action, from some unintelligent ori- soul, have maintained that here is intimated the
gin. The Bible coincides with this dictate of honest distinctive pre-eminence of man above the inferior
reason, expressing these facts in simple and artless animals, as possessed of an immaterial and imlanguage, suited to the circumstances of the men to mortal spirit. But, however true that doctrine is,
whom revelation was first granted. That this pro- and supported by abundant argument from both
duction in a mature state was the fact with regard philosophy and the Scriptures, we should be acting
to the vegetable part of the creation, is declared in unfaithfully if we were to affirm its being contained
Gen. ii. 4, 5:' In the day of Jehovah God's mak- or implied in this passage. The two words are
ing the earth and the heavens, and every shrub of frequently conjoined in the Hebrew, and the mean



ADAM                     59                   ADAM
ing of the compound phrase will be apparent to the after [Kaa&, according to] GOD, is created in righteEnglish reader, when he knows that our version ousness and true holiness' (Col. iii. Io; Eph. iv.
renders it, in Gen. i. 20,' creature that hath life;' 24).
in verse 24,'living creature,' and so in ch. ii. I9;  In this perfection of faculties, and with these
ix. 12, 15, I6; and in ch. i. 30,'wherein there is high prerogatives of moral existence, did human
life.'                                        nature, in its first subject, rise up from the creating
This expression therefore sets before us the OR- hand. The whole Scripture-narrative implies that
GANIC LIFE of the animal frame, that mysterious this STATE of existence was one of correspondent
something which man cannot create nor restore, activity and enjoyment. It plainly represents the
which baffles the most acute philosophers to search  DEITY himself as condescending to assume a human
out its nature, and which reason combines with form and to employ human speech, in order to
Scripture to refer to the immediate agency of the instruct and exercise the happy creatures whom
Almighty-' in him we live, and move, and have  (to borrow the just and beautiful language of the
our being.'                                   Apocryphal' Wisdom')'God created for incorrupThe other narrative is contained in these words, tibility, and made him an image of his own nature.'*'God created man in his own image: in the image The only plausible objection to this is, that the
of God created he him; male and female created  condescension is too great, an objection which can
he them' (Gen. i 27).  The image (l tselem, re- be no other than a presumptuous limiting of the
semblance, such as a shadow bears to the object Divine goodness. It was the voice of reason which
which casts it) of God is an expression which breathes burst through the trammels of an infidel philosophy,
at once archaic simplicity and the most recondite when the celebrated German, Fichte, wrote, Who,
wisdom: for what term could the most cultivated then  educated the -first human pair?  A spirit
and copious language bring forth more suitable to bestowed its care upon them, as is laid down in an
the purpose? It presents to us man as made in a ancient and venerable original record, which, taken
the purpose? It presents to us man as made in a altogether, contains the profoundest and the loftiest
resemblance to the author of his being, a true re-alt t   contains the profoundest and the lofties
semblance, but faint and shadowy; an outline, wisdom, and presents those results to which all
faithful according to its capacity, yet infinitely philosophy must at last return' (cited in the German
remote from the reality: a distant form of the in- Bible of Brentano, Dereser, and Scholz, vol i., p.
telligence, wisdom, powuer, rectitude, goodness, and  i6, Frankfort, 1820-i833).
The noble and sublime idea that man thus had
dominion of the Adorable Supreme. To the in-and sublime idea that man thus had
in  his Maker for his teacher and guide, precludes a
ferior sentient beings with which he is connected  h i s Maker for    his teacher and guide, precludes a
man stands in the place of God. We have every directand ffectual method by which the newly
direct, and effectual method by which the newly
reason to think that none of them are capable of formed creature would have communicated to him
conceiving a being higher than man. All, in their al the itelletual kowlede and al the  act
different ways, look up to him as their superior; athe n ntellectu   knowledge, and all the practical
the ferocious generally flee before him, afraid to arts and manipulations, which were needful and
encounter his power, and the gentle court his pro- the'garden in Eden eastward' (Gen. ii. 5), the
tection and shew their highest joy to consist in the garden in Eden eastward' (Gen. it. 8), the
tection -and shew their highest joy to consist in treatment of the soil, the use of water, the various
serving and pleasing him. Even in our degenerate training of the plants and trees, the operations for
state it is manifest that if we treat the domesticated  insuring of the pla  and the esoperations for
animals with wisdom and kindness, their attach- insuring future produ  the;-l essay m ements
ment is most ardent and faithful              and the way of using them; -all these must have
ment is most ardent and faithful  dn..    been included in the words'to dress it and to keep
Thus had man the shadow of the divine domi-      r.  )    To have gained these attainments
nion and authority over the inferior creation. The it (ver. 5).  To have gained these attainments
nattrbute of  ty over the inferior creation. Theis and habits without any instruction previous or conattribute of power was also given to him, in hiscomitant, would have required the experience of
being made able to convert the inanimate objects comitn society and co-operation for many years,
and those possessing only the vegetable life, into with innumerable anxious experiments, and often
the instruments and the materials for supplyingthe keenest disappointment.  If we suppose that
his wants, and continually enlarging his sphere of the firstman and woman continued in their primitive
command.                                      state but even a few weeks, they must have required
In such a state of things knowledge and wisdom  some tools for' dressing and keeping the garden:'
are implied: the one quality, an acquaintance with but if not, the condition of their children, when
those substances and their changeful actions which severe labour for subsistence became necessary,
were necessary for a creature like man to understand, presented an obvious and undeniable need. They
in order to his safety and comfort; the other, such could not do well without iron instruments. Iron,
sagacity as would direct him in selecting the best the most useful and the most widely diffused of all
objects of desire and pursuit, and the right means the metals, cannot be brought into a serviceable
for attaining them.                           state without processes and instruments which it
Above all, moral excellence must have been seems impossible to imagine could have been first
comprised in this'image of God;' and not only possessed except in the way of supernatural comforming a part of it, but being its crown of beauty munication. It would, in all reasonable estimation,
and glory. The Christian inspiration, than which have required the difficulties and the experience of
no more perfect disclosure of God is to take place some centuries, for men to have discovered the
on this side eternity, casts its light upon this
subject: for the apostle Paul, in urging the obliga- * Wisd. Sol. ii. 23. Ir' d0wapoal, incorruptitions of Christians to perfect holiness, evidently bility, often denoting  immortality.  We have
alludes to the endowments of the first man in two translated lt&6r7S, nature, not being able to find
parallel and mutually illustrative epistles;'- the a better word, The exact meaning of the Greek
new man, renewed in knowledge after the image is, the whole combination of characteristic pecuof HIM that created him; the new man which, liarities.




ADAM                      60                   ADAM
means of raising a sufficient heat, and the use of communication of the practical faculty and its
fluxes: and, had that step been gained, the fused accompanying intelligence; and he guided the
iron would not have answered the purposes wanted. man, as yet the solitary one of his species, to this
To render it malleable and ductile, it must be among the first applications of speech, the designatbeaten, at a white heat, by long continued strokes ing of the animals with which he was connected,
of prodigious hammers. To make iron (as is the by appellative words which would both be the help
technical term) requires previous iron.  If it be of his memory and assist his mental operations,
said that the first iron used by man was native and thus would be introductory and facilitating to
metallic iron, of which masses have been found, more enlarged applications of thought and language.
the obvious reply is, not only the rarity of its We are further warranted, by the recognised fact
occurrence, but that, when obtained, it also requires of the anecdotal and fragmentary structure of the
previous iron instruments to bring it into any form  Scripture history, to regard this as the selected
for use.  Tubal-cain most probably lived before instance for exhibiting a whole kind or class of
the death of Adam; and he acquired fame as'a operations or processes; implying that, in the same
hammerer, a universal workman in brass and iron' or similar manner, the first man was led to under(Gen. iv. 22). This is the most literal translation  stand something of the qualities and relations of
of this grammatically difficult clause. In this brief vegetables, earthy matters, the visible heavens,
description it is evident that much is implied beyond  and the other external objects to which he had a
our power of ascertaining.  The necessity and relation.
importance of the greatest hammers seem to be    The next important article in this primeval hisincluded.  Considering these instances as repre- tory is the creation of the human female. It has
sentatives of many similar, we are confirmed in our been maintained that the Creator formed Adam to
belief that God not only gave to the earliest human  be a sole creature, in some mode of androgynous
families such knowledge as was requisite, but the constitution capable of multiplying from his own
materials and the instruments without which know- organization without a conjugate partner. This
ledge would have been in vain.                 notion was advanced by Jacob (or James) Boehmen,
Religious knowledge and its appropriate habits the Silesian'Theosophist,' and one very similar to
also required an immediate infusion: and these it has been recently promulgated by Baron Giraud
are pre-eminently comprehended in the'image of (Philosophie Catholique de l'Histoire, Paris, I84I),
God.' On the one hand, it is not to be supposed  who supposes that the'deep sleep' (Gen. ii. 21)
that the newly created man and his female com- was a moralfainting (' defaillance'), the first step
panion were inspired with a very ample share of in departing from God, the beginning of sin, and
the doctrinal knowledge which was communicated  that Eve was its personified product by some sort
to their posterity. by the successive and accumulating  of divine concurrence or operation. To mention
revolutions of more than four thousand years: nor, these vagaries is sufficient for their refutation.
on the other, can we believe that they were left in  Their absurd and unscriptural character is stamped
ignorance upon the existence and excellencies of on their front. The narrative is given in the more
the Being who had made them, their obligations summary manner in the former of the two docuto him, and the way in which they might continue ments:-' Male and female created he them' (Gen.
to receive the greatest blessings from him. It is i 27). It stands a little more at length in a third
self-evident that, to have attained such a kind and  document, which begins the fifth chapter, and has
degree of knowledge, by spontaneous effort, under the characteristic heading or title by which the
even the favourable circumstances of a state of Hebrews designated a separate work.'This, the
negative innocence, would have been a long and  book of the generations of Adam. In the day
arduous work. But the sacred narrative leaves no  God created Adam; he made him in the likeness
room for doubt upon this head. In the primitive [1ltIt demuth, a different word from that already
style it tells of God as speaking to them, command- treated upon, and which merely signifies reseming, instructing, assigning their work, pointing out blance] of God, male and female he created them;
their danger, and shewing how to-avoid it. All and he blessed them, and he called their name
this, reduced to the dry simplicity of detail, is Adam, in the day of their being created' (ver. I, 2).
equivalent to saying that the Creator, infinitely  The reader will observe that, in this passage, we
kind and condescending, by the use of forms and  have translated the word for man as the proper
modes adapted to their capacity, fed their minds name, because it is so taken up in the next follow.
with truth, gave them a ready understanding of it, ing sentence.
and that delight in it which constituted holiness,  The second of the narratives is more circumtaught them to hold-intercourse with himself by stantial:'And Jehovah God said, it is not good
direct addresses in both praise and prayer, and  the man's being alone: I will make for him a help
gave some disclosures of a future state of blessed- suitable for him.' Then follows the passage conness when they should have fulfilled the conditions cerning the review and the naming of the inferior
of their probation.                            animals; and it continues-'but for Adam he
An especial instance of this instruction and in- found not a help suitable for him. And Jehovah
fusion of practical habits is given to us in the nar- God caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man
rative:' Out of the ground Jehovah God formed  [the Adam], and he slept: and he took one out
every beast of the field and every fowl of the air of his ribs, and closed up the flesh in its place:
[Hebr. of the heavens]; and brought them unto  and Jehovah God built up the rib which he had
the man [Hebr. the Adam], to see what he would taken from the man into a woman, and he brought
call them' (Gen. ii. I9). This, taken out of the her to the man: and the man said, this is the hit;
style of condescending anthropomorphism, amounts bone out of my bones, and flesh out of my flesh;
to such a statement as the following: the Creator this shall be called woman [ishah], for this was
had not only formed man with organs of speech, taken from out of man [ish]' (Gen. ii. 18-23).
but he taught him the use of them, by an immediate  Two remarkable words in this passage demand




ADAM                     61                   ADAM
attention.'Suitable for him' (VI'B   chenegdo), pursued the more it will appear just, that this sup.
literally, according to his front-presence, than which position is inconsistent with what we have estabno words could better express a perfect adaptation  lished on solid grounds, the supernatural infusion
or correspondence. That we render 3gVn hap- into the minds of our first parents and into their
paam, the hit, seems strange and even vulgar; nervous and muscular faculties, of the knowledge
but it appears necessary to the preservation of and practical habits which their descendants have
rigorous fidelity. The word, indeed, might have had to acquire by the long process of instruction
acquired a secondary adverbial meaning, like our and example. We have seen the necessity that
English now, when very emphatical and partaking there must have been communicated to them,
of the nature of an interjection; but there is only directly by their Creator, no inconsiderable meaone passage in which that signification may be sure of natural knowledge and the methods of
pleaded, and it is there repeated-'now m the applying it, or their lives could not have been
open place, now in the streets' (Prov. vii. 12). It secured; and of moral and spiritual'knowledge,
properly means a smart, bold, successful stroke, righteousness, and true holiness,' such a measure
and is used to signify hitting the precise time of any as would belong to the sinless state, and would
action or requirement. In this first and primitive enable them to render an intelligent and perfect
instance it is equivalent to saying, this is the very worship to the Glorious Deity. It seems imposthing, this hits the mark, this reaches to what was sible for that state of mind and habits to exist
desired.                                      without a correct sensibility to proprieties and
This peculiar manner of the creation of the decencies which infant children cannot understand
woman has, by some, been treated as merely a or feel; and the capacities and duties of their conchildish fable; by others, as an allegorical fiction jugal state are implied in the narrative. Further,
intended to represent the close relation of the it cannot be overlooked that, though we are enfemale sex to the male, and the tender claims titled to ascribe to the locality of Eden the most
which women have to sympathy and love. That bland atmosphere and delightful soil, yet the action
such was the intention we do not doubt; but why of the sun's rays upon the naked skin, the range
should that intention be founded upon a mythic of temperature through the day and the night, the
allegory? Is it not taught much better, and im- alternations of dryness and moisture, the various
pressed much more forcibly, by its standing not labour among trees and bushes, and exposure to
on a fiction, but on a fact? We have seen that, insects, would render some protective clothing quite
under the simple archaic phrase that man was made indispensable.
of the'dust of the ground,' is fairly to be understood  From  these considerations we feel ourselves
the truth, which is verified by the analysis of modem  obliged to understand the word D137a (arom) in
chemistry; and, in the case of the woman, it is the that which is its most usual signification in the
same combination of materials, the same carbon, Hebrew language, as importing not an absolute,
and hydrogen, and lime, and the rest; only that, but a partial or comparative nudity. It is one of
in the first instance, those primordial substances a remarkable family of words which appear to have
are taken immediately, but in the second, mediately, branched off in different ways from the same root,
having been brought into a state of organization. originally'I~ (ar or er), but assuming several early
Let an unprejudiced mind reflect, and we think  forms, and producing five or six divergent partithat he must see in this part of the will and work- cipials: but they all, and especially this arom, are
ing of the Almighty, at once, a simplicity gentle employed to denote a stripping off of the upper
and tender, adapted to affect, in the strongest garment, or of some other usual article of dress,
manner, the hearts of primitive men; and yet, a when all the habiliments were not laid aside'; and
sublimity of meaning worthy of'Jehovah of hosts,' this is a more frequent signification than that of enat whose command stand all atoms and organisms, tire destitution. If it be asked, Whence did Adam
and'who is wonderful in counsel and excellent in and Eve derive this clothing? we reply, that, as
working.'                                     a part of the divine instruction which we have
The form of direct speech which appears here established, they were taught to take off the inner
and in every part of these most. ancient writings, bark of some trees, which would answer extremely
and is a characteristic of the Hebrew and other well for this purpose. If an objection be drawn
ancient writings, should make no difficulty. It is from Gen. iii. 7, Io, II, we reply, that, in consethe natural language of lively description; and it quence of the transgression, the clothing was disis equal to saying, such was the wise and bene- gracefully injured.
volent will of God, and such were the feelings and  Another inquiry presents itself. How long did
thoughts of Adam. The 24th verse is a comment the state of paradisiac innocence and happiness
or doctrinal application of the inspired writer; continue? Some have regarded the period as very
pointing out the great law of marriage as founded  brief, not more even than a single day; but this
in the original constitution of human nature.  manifestly falls very short of the time which a
The next particular into which the sacred history reasonable probability requires.  The first man
leads us, is one which we cannot approach without was brought into existence in the region called
a painful sense of its difficulty and delicacy. It Eden; then he was introduced into a particular
stands thus in the authorized version:'And they part of it, the garden, replenished with the richest
were both naked, the man and his wife; and were productions of the Creator's bounty for the delight
not ashamed' (ii. 25). The common interpreta- of the eye and the other senses: the most agreetion is, that, in this respect, the two human beings, able labour was required'to dress and to keep it,'
the first and only existing ones, were precisely in implying some arts of culture, preservation from
the condition of the youngest infants, incapable of injury, training flowers and fruits, and knowing
perceiving any incongruity in the total destitution  the various uses and enjoyments of the produce;
of artificial clothing. But a little reflection will making observation upon the works of God, of
tell us, and the more carefully that reflection is which an investigation and designating of animals




ADAM                      62                  ADAM
is expressly specified; nor can we suppose that this'tree of the life' possessed any intrinsic prothere was no contemplation of the magnificent sky perty of communicating immortality. In the latter
and the heavenly bodies: above all, the wondrous view, it was a sign and seal of the divine promise.
communion with the condescending Deity, and But, with regard to the former intention, we see
probably with created spirits of superior orders, nothing to forbid the idea that it had most efficaby which the mind would be excited, its capacity cious medicinal properties in its fruit, leaves, and
enlarged, and its holy felicity continually increased. other parts. Such were called trees of life by the
It is also to be remarked, that the narrative (Gen. Hebrews (Prov. iii. I8; xi. 30; xiii. 12; xv. 4).
ii. I9, 2o) conveys the implication that some time  The'tree of the knowledge of good and evil'
was allowed to elapse, that Adam might discover might be any tree whatever; it might be of any
and feel his want of a companion of his own species, even yet remaining, though, if it were so,
species,'a help correspondent to him.'       we could not determine its species, for the plain
These considerations impress us with a sense of reason, that no name, description, or information
probability, amounting to a conviction, that a whatever is given that could possibly lead to the
period not very short was requisite for the exercise ascertainment. One cannot but lament the vulgar
of man's faculties, the disclosures of his happiness, practice of painters representing it as an appleand the service of adoration which he could pay to tree; and thus giving occasion to profane and silly
his Creator.  But all these considerations are witticisms.
strengthened by the recollection that they attach  Yet we cannot but think the more reasonable
to man's solitary state; and that they all require probability to be, that it was a tree having poisonnew and enlarged application when the addition of ous properties, stimulating, and intoxicating, such
conjugal life is brought into the account. The con- as are found in some existing species, especially in
clusion appears irresistible that a duration of many hot climates. On this ground, the prohibition to
days, or rather weeks or months, would be requisite eat or even touch the tree was a beneficent profor so many and important purposes.           vision against the danger of pain and death.
Thus divinely honoured and happy were the pro- Should any cavil at the placing of so perilous a
genitors of mankind in the state of their creation.  plant in the garden of delights, the abode of sinless
The next scene which the sacred history brings creatures, we reply, that virulent poisons, mineral,
before us is a dark reverse. Another agent comes vegetable, and animal, though hurtful or fatal to
into the field and successfully employs his arts for those who use them improperly, perform important
seducing Eve, and by her means Adam, from their and beneficial parts in the general economy of
original state of rectitude, dignity, and happiness.  nature.
Among the provisions of divine wisdom and good-  But the revealed object of this'tree of the
ness were two vegetable productions of wondrous knowledge of good and evil' was that which would
qualities and mysterious significancy;' the tree of require no particular properties beyond some degree
life in the midst of the garden, and the tree of of external beauty and fruit of an immediately
knowledge of good and evil' (Gen. ii. 9).  It pleasant taste. That object was to be a test of
would add to the precision of the terms, and per- obedience. For such a purpose, it is evident that to
haps aid our understanding of them, if we were to select an indifferent act, to be the object proadhere strictly to the Hebrew by retaining the hibited, was necessary; as the obligation to refrain
definite prefix: and then we have' the tree of the should be only that which arises simply, so far as
life' and'the tree of the knowledge.' Thus would the subject of the law can know, from the sacred
be indicated THE particular life of which the one will of the lawgiver.  This does not, however,
was a' symbol and instrument, and THE fatal know- nullify what we have said upon the possibility, or
ledge springing from the abuse of the other. At even probability, that the tree in question had
the same time, we do not maintain that these noxious qualities: for upon either the affirmative or
appellations were given to them at the beginning. the negative of the supposition, the subjects of this
We rather suppose that they were applied after- positive law, having upon all antecedent grounds
wards, suggested by the events and connection, the fullest conviction of the perfect rectitude and
and so became the historical names.           benevolence of their Creator, would see in it the
We see no sufficient reason to understand, as simple character of a test, a means of proof,
some do,'the tree of the life,' collectively, as im- whether they would or would not implicitly confide
plying a species, and that there were many trees of in him. For so doing they had every possible
that species. The figurative use of the expression reason; and against any thought or mental feeling'in Rev. xxii. 2, where a plurality is plainly intended, tending to the violation of the precept, they were
involves no evidence of such a design in this literal in possession of the most powerful motives. There
narrative. The phraseology of the text best agrees was no difficulty in the observance. They were
with the idea of a single tree, designed for a special surrounded with a paradise of delights, and they
purpose, and not intended to perpetuate its kind. had no reason to imagine that any good whatever
Though in the state of innocence, Adam and Eve would accrue to them from their seizing upon anymight be liable to some corporal suffering from the thing prohibited.  If perplexity or doubt arose,
changes of the seasons and the weather, or acci- they had ready access to their divine benefactor for
dental circumstances; in any case of which occur- obtaining information and direction.  But they
ring, this tree had been endowed by the bountiful allowed the thought of disobedience to form itself
Creator with a medicinal and restorative property, into a disposition and then a purpose.
probably in the way of instantaneous miracle. We  Thus was the seal broken, the integrity of the
think also that it was designed for a sacramental or heart was gone, the sin was generated, and the
symbolical purpose, a representation and pledge of outward act was the consummation of the dire pro-'the life,' emphatically so called, heavenly immor- cess.  Eve, less informed, less cautious, less
tality when the term of probation should be happily endowed with strength of mind, became the more
completed. Yet we by no means suppose that ready victim.'The woman, being deceived, was




ADAM                      63                   ADAM
in the transgression;' but'Adam was not de- Satan, who deceiveth the whole world (Rev. xii.
ceived' (I Tim. ii. 14). He rushed knowingly and  9; xx. 2). The language of Jesus is a very definite
deliberately to ruin.  The offence had grievous allusion to the guilty transaction of Eden:'Ye
aggravations.  It was the preference of a trifling  are of your father the devil. And the desires of
gratification to the approbation of the Supreme your father ye are determined (OdXere) to do. He
Lord of the universe; it implied a denial of the was a man-murderer (&vOpw7roKr6vos) from the bewisdom, holiness, goodness, veracity, and power ginning; and in the truth he stood not, for truth is
of God; it was marked with extreme ingratitude; not in him. When he speaketh falsehood, out of
and it involved a contemptuous disregard of con- his own (stores) he speaketh, for a liar is he, and
sequences, awfully impious as it referred to their the father of it (i. e. of falsehood)' (John viii. 44).
immediate connection with the moral government The summary of these passages presents almost a
of God, and cruelly selfish as it respected their history of the Fall-the tempter, his manifold arts,
posterity.                                    his serpentine disguises, his falsehood, his restless
The instrument of the temptation was a serpent; activity, his bloodthirsty cruelty, and his early
whether any one of the existing kinds it is evidently success in that career of deception and destruction.
impossible for us to know. Of that numerous The younger Rosenmiiller says upon this passage,
order many species are of brilliant coloursand play-'That it was not a natural serpent that seduced
ful in their attitudes and manners; so that one may Eve, but a wicked spirit which had assumed the
well conceive of such an object attracting and  form of a serpent; and although Moses does not
fascinating the first woman. Whether it spoke in expressly say so, from the fear of affording a handle
an articulate voice, like the human, or expressed  to superstition, yet it is probable that he designed
the sentiments attributed to it by a succession of to intimate as much, from the very fact of his inremarkable and significant actions, may be a sub- troducing the serpent as a rational being, and
ject of reasonable question. The latter is possible, speaking; also, that this opinion was universal
and it seems the preferable hypothesis, as, without among the nations of Central and Upper Asia,
a miraculous intervention, the mouth and throat of from the remotest antiquity, appears from  this,
no serpent could form a vocal utterance of words; that, in the system of Zoroaster, it is related that
and we cannot attribute to any wicked spirit the Ahriman, the chief of wicked spirits, seduced the
power of working miracles.                    first human beings to sin by putting on the form of
This part of the narrative begins with the words a serpent' (Schol. in Gen. iii. I; and he refers to'And the serpent was crafty above every animal of Kleuker's German version of the Zendavesta, and
the field' (Gen. iii. I). It is to be observed that his own Alle u. neue Morgenland).
this is not said of the order of serpents, as if it  The condescending Deity, who had held grawere a general property of them, but of that par- cious and instructive communion with the parents
ticular serpent.  Had the noun been intended   of mankind, assuming a human form and adapting
generically, as is often the case, it would have all his proceedings to their capacity, visibly stood
required to be without the substantive verb; for before them; by a searching interrogatory drew
such is the usual Hebrew method of expressing  from them the confession of their guilt, which yet
universal propositions: of this the Hebrew scholar they aggravated by evasions and insinuations against
may see constant examples in the Book of Pro- God himself; and pronounced on them and their
verbs.                                        seducer the sentence due. On the woman he inIndeed, this C cunning craftiness, lying in wait to flicted the pains of child-bearing, and a deeper and
deceive' (Eph. iv. I4), is the very character of that more humiliating dependence upon her husband.
malignant creature of whose wily stratagems the  He doomed the man to hard and often fruitless toil,
reptile was a mere instrument. The existence of instead of easy and pleasant labour.  On both, or
spirits, superior to man, and of whom some have rather on human nature universally, he pronounced
become depraved, and are labouring to spread  the awful sentence of death. The denunciation
wickedness and misery to the utmost of their of the serpent partakes more of a symbolical chapower, has been found to be the belief of all racter, and so seems to carry a strong implication
nations, ancient and modem, of whom we possess of the nature and the wickedness of the concealed
information. It has also been the general doctrine agent. The human sufferings threatened are all,
of both Jews and Christians, that one of those excepting the last, which will require a separate
fallen spirits was the real agent in this first and  consideration, of a remedial and corrective kind.
successful temptation. Of this doctrine, the decla- The pains and subjection of the female sex, when
rations of our'Lord and his apostles contain strong  they come into connection with the benignant
confirmation. In the same epistle in which St. spirit of the gospel, acquire many alleviations, and
Paul expresses his apprehension of some of the become means of much good in relative life,which
Corinthian Christians being seduced into error and reacts with a delightful accumulation of benefit
sin, he adverts to the temptation of Eve as a upon the Christian wife, mother, daughter, sister,
monitory example:'Lest Satan should get an    friend. So also human labour, in the cultivation
advantage over us, for we are not ignorant of his of the various soils, in all geognostic operations, in
devices. I fear, lest by any means, as the serpent all fabrics and machinery, in means of transit by
beguiled Eve through his subtlety, so your minds land, and in the wonders of navigation over the
should be corrupted from the simplicity that is in  ocean, which for many ages was regarded as the
Christ.  Such are false apostles, deceitful workers, barrier sternly forbidding intercourse;-while these
transforming themselves into apostles of Christ; have been the occasion of much suffering, they
and no marvel; for even Satan himself is trans- have been always towering over the suffering,
formed into an angel of light' (2 Cor. ii. II; xi. 3, counteracting and remedying it, diminishing the
I4). In the book of the Revelation the great evil, and increasing the sum of good. Further,
tempter is- mentioned as'that old (dpxaLos, he of under the influence of true Christianity, these and
antiquity) serpent, who is called the devil and the all the other mechanical and liberal arts are conse



ADAM                     64                   ADAM
crated to the universal improvement of mankind; p. 1690). This notion may have obtained credence
they afford means of spreading the gospel, multi- from the fact that some of the numerous serpent
plying every kind of good agency and increasing species, when excited, raise the neck pretty high;
its force. Thus,' in all labour there is profit,' and but the posture is to strike, and they cannot main-'labour itself becomes a pleasure.'          tain it in creeping except for a very short distance.
Of a quite different character are the penal de-  Neither do they'eat dust.' All serpents are
nunciations upon the serpent. If they be under- carnivorous; their food, according to the size and
stood literally, and of course applied to the whole power of the species, is taken from the tribes of
order of Ophidia (as, we believe, is the common  insects, worms, frogs, and toads, and newts, birds,
interpretation), theywill be found to be so flagrantly mice, and other small quadrupeds, till the scale
at variance with the most demonstrated facts in ascends to the pythons and bogs, which can master
their physiology and economy, as to lead to infer- and swallow very large animals.  The excellent
ences unfavourable to belief in revelation. Let us writer just cited, in his anxiety to do honour, as he
examine the particulars:                     deemed it, to the accuracy of Scripture allusions,'Because thou hast done this, cursed art thou has said of the serpent,'Now that he creeps with
above all cattle;' very properly so rendered, for we his very mouth upon the earth, he must necessarily
have not an English singular noun to answer to take his food out of the dust, and so lick in some;12D1, so as to effect a literal translation of'above of the dust with it.' But this is not the fact. Serevery behemah.'  But the serpent tribe cannot be pents habitually obtain their food among herbage
classed with that of the behemoth. The word is of or in water; they seize their prey with the mouth,
very frequent occurrence in the Old Testament; often elevate the head, and are no more exposed
and though, in a few instances, it seems to be put to the necessity of swallowing adherent earth than
for brevity so as to be inclusive of the flocks as well are carnivorous birds or quadrupeds. At the same
as the herds, and in poetical diction it sometimes time, it may be understood figuratively.'Eating
stands metonymically for animals generally (as Job  the dust is but another term for grovelling in the
xviii. 3; Ps. lxxiii. 22; Eccles. iii. 18, i9, 21); yet dust; and this is equivalent to being reduced to a
its proper and universal application is to the large condition of meanness, shame, and contempt.-See
animals (pachyderms and ruminants), such as the Micah vii. 17' (Bush on Genesis, vol. i. p. 84.
elephant, camel, deer, horse, ox, rhinoceros, hip- New York, 1840).
popotamus, etc. [BEHEMOTH. ]                    But these and other inconsistencies and difficulties
As little will the declaration,'cursed -,' agree (insuperable they do indeed appear to us) are swept
with natural truth. It may, indeed, be supposed away when we consider the fact before stated, that
to be verified in the shuddering which persons the Hebrew is flgl  nl'inI hannachash haiah, THE
generally feel at the aspect of any one of the order serpent was, etc., and that it refers specifically and
of serpents; but this takes place also in many other personally to a rational and accountable being, the
cases.  It springs from fear of the formidable spirit of lying and cruelty, the devil, the Satan, the
weapons with which some species are armed, as old serpent. That God, the infinitely holy, good,
few persons know beforehand which are venomous and wise, should have permitted any one or more
and which are harmless; and, after all, this is celestial spirits to apostatize from purity, and to be
rather an advantage than a curse to the animal. It the successful seducers of mankind, is indeed an
is an effectual defence without effort. Indeed, we awful and overwhelming mystery. But it is not
may say that no tribe of animals is so secure from  more so than the permitted existence of many
danger, or is so able to obtain its sustenance and among mankind, whose rare talents and extraall the enjoyments which its capacity and habits ordinary command of power and opportunity,
require, as the whole order of serpents. If, then, combined with extreme depravity, have rendered
we decline to urge the objection from the word them the plague and curse of the earth; and the
behemah, it is difficult to conceive that serpents whole merges into the awful and insolvable problem,
have more causes of suffering than any other great Why has the All-perfect Deity permitted evil at
division of animals, or even so much.         all? We are firmly assured that He will bring
Further,'going upon the belly' is to none of forth, at last,.the most triumphant evidence that
them a punishment.   With some differences of'He is righteous in all his ways, and holy in all
mode, their progression is produced by the pushing his works.' In the mean time, our happiness lies
of scales, shields, or rings against the ground, by in the implicit confidence which we cannot but feel
muscular contractions and dilatations, by elastic to be due to the Being of Infinite Perfection.
springings, by vertical undulations, or by hori-  The remaining part of the denunciation upon the
zontal wrigglings; but, in every variety, the entire false and cruel seducer sent a beam of light into
organization - skeleton, muscles, nerves, integu- the agonized hearts of our guilty first parents:
ments-is adapted to the mode of progression be-'And enmity will I put between thee and the
longing to each species.  That mode, in every woman, and between thy seed and her seed: he
variety of it, is sufficiently easy and rapid (often will attack thee [on] the head, and thou wilt attack
very rapid) for all the purposes of the animal's life him [at] the heel.' The verb here used twice,
and the amplitude of its enjoyments. To imagine occurs in only two other places of the 0. T.: Job
this mode of motion to be, in any sense, a change ix. 17,'Who breaketh upon me with a tempestufrom a prior attitude and habit of the erect kind, or ous horror;' and Ps. cxxxix. I,'And if I say,
being furnished with wings, indicates a perfect Surely darkness will burst upon me,' i. e., as a
ignorance of the anatomy of serpents. Yet it has sudden and impervious covering. The meaning is
been said by learned and eminent theological inter- established by Gesenius after Umbreit as the idea
preters, that, before this crime was committed, the of a violentand eagerassault. Christian interpreters
serpent probably did'not go upon his belly, but generally regard this as the Protevangelium, the
moved upon the hinder part of his body, with his first gospel-promise, and we think with good reason.
head, breast, and belly upright' (Clarke's Bible, It was a manifestation of mercy: it revealed a




ADAM                    65                   ADAR
Deliverer, who'should be a human being, in a portance, must have occurred; but the wise provipeculiar sense the offspring of the female, who dence of God has not seen fit to preserve to us any
should also, in some way not yet made known, memorial of tlem, and scarcely any vestiges or
counteract and remedy the injury inflicted, and hints are afforded of the occupations and mode of
who, though partially suffering from the malignant life of men through the antediluvian period. [ANpower, should, in the end, completely conquer it TEDILUVIANS.]-J. P. S.
and convert its very success into its own punishment'
ADAM (1~),    a city mentioned, Josh. iii I6,
(J. Pye Smith, Scripture testimony to the Messiah,ty me                      J. 
vol. i. p. 226).                             as near to Zarethan. The A. V. follows the K'ri
The awful threatening to man was,' In the day here, which reads 1LNKD from Adam, whereas the
that thou eatest of it, thou wilt die the death.' textual reading is'FlNK  in or at Adam. The
Beyom, literally in the day, was also used as a latter seems the preferable reading. The stategeneral adverb of time, denoting.when, without a ment of the historian is not that the waters'stood
strict limitation to a natural day.  The verbal and rose up upon an heap very far from Adam,'
repetition is a Hebrew idiom to represent not only but that they'rose into one mass, very far away
the certainty of the action, but its intensity and (i.e., from the Israelites), at Adam.' (See Maurer,
efficacy: we therefore think that the phrase, die the Com. Crit. in loc.) Zarethan, as we learn from
death, would more exactly convey the sense of the  I Kings iv. 12, was situated not far from Succoth,
original than what some have proposed, dying thou which was on the east bank of Jordan (Gen. xxxiii.
shalt die. The infliction is Death in the most 17; Josh. xiii 27; Judg. viii. 5); so that Adam
comprehensive sense, that which stands opposite to was on the same side of the river as that on which
Life, the life of not only animal enjoyment, but the Israelites were, at the time referred to. As the
holy happiness, the life which comported with the ground around Zarethan was'clay ground' (I Kings
image of God. This was lost by the fall; and the vii. 46), i.e., rich loamy soil (;ID'II,1ty), it is
sentence of physical death was pronounced, to be probable that Adam received its name from this.executed in due time. Divine mercy gave a long  W. L. A.
respite.                                      ADAM, THOMAS, Rector of Wintringham, LinThe same mercy was displayed in still more colnshire, was born at Leeds 25th Feb. 170, and
tempering the terrors of justice. The garden ofdied 3Ist March I784  His biblical works are, A
delights was not to be the abode of rebellious crea- Paraphrase andAnnotations on thefirst eleven chaptures. But before they were turned out into a ters of St. Pauls Epistle to theRomans, 177I, 8yo;
bleak and dreary wilderness, God was pleased to and An Exposition of the Four Gospels (including
direct them to make clothing suitable to their new  Lectures on Matthew, which had been published
and degraded condition, of the skins of animals. before separately), 2 vols. 8vo, Lond. I837, edited
That those animals had been offered in sacrifice is from the author's MSS. by the Rev. A. Westbody,
a conjecture supported by so much probable evi- M.A. These works will not much aid the student
dence, that we may regard it as a well-estab- in ascertaining the meaning of the parts of the N.
lished truth. Any attempt to force back the way, T. to which they are devoted; they are homiletical
or gain anew the tree of life, and take violent or rather than exegetical; but they are full of original
fraudulent possession, would have been equally and fresh thinking, and are imbued with a spirit of
impious and nugatory. The sacrifice (which all the richest piety.-W. L. A.
approximative argument obliges us to admit), united
with the promise of a deliverer, and the provision ADAMAH. [ADMAH.]
of substantial clothing, contained much hope of  ADAMANT. [SHAMIR.]
pardon and grace. The terrible debarring by light- AMI (      Ap     one of the border twns
ning flashes and their consequent thunder, and by                   o t       rr t
visible supernatural agency (Gen. iii. 22-24), from  of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 33).
a return to the bowers of bliss, are expressed in the  ADAMS, RICHARD, an English nonconforming
characteristic patriarchal style of anthropopathy; minister, was born 630, and died Feb. I698. He
but the meaning evidently is, that the fallen crea- was one of the'judicious and learned divines'
ture is unable by any efforts of his own to reinstate who continued Poole's Annotations after his death.
himself in the favour of God, and that whatever The portion allotted to Mr. Adams comprised
hope of restoration he may be allowed to cherish the Epistles to the Philippians and Colossians.must spring solely from free benevolence. Thus, W  L. A.
in laying the first stone of the temple which shall
be an immortal habitation of the Divine glory, it  ADAR (properly Addar,'N,'EdpaSa), a place
was manifested that' Salvation is of the Lord,' on the southern border of Judah (Josh. xv. 3), an
and that'grace reigneth through righteousness abbreviation of HazarAddar (Num. xxxiv. 4).
unto eternal life.'
From this time we have little recorded of the ADAR (VT,'Adp, Esth. iii 7; the Macelives of Adam and Eve. Their three sons are donian Aa-rpos) is the sixth month of the civil and
mentioned with important circumstances in con- the twelfth of the ecclesiastical year of the Jews.
nection with each of them. See the articles CAIN, The name was first introduced after the Captivity.
ABEL, and SETH. Cain was probably born in The following are the chief days in it which are set
the year after the fall; Abel, possibly some years apart for commemoration:-The 7th is a fast for
later; Seth, certainly one hundred and thirty years the death of Moses (Deut. xxxiv. 5, 6). There is
from the creation of his parents. After that, Adam  some difference, however, in the date assigned to
lived eight hundred years, and had sons and his death by some ancient authorities. Josephus
daughters, doubtless by Eve, and then he died, (Antiq. iv. 8) states that he died on the first of this
nine hundred and thirty years old. In that prodi- month; which also agrees with Midrash Megillath
gious period many events, and those of great im- Esther, cited by Reland (Antiq. Hebr. iv. o1):
VOI. I.                                                                       F




ADARCONIM                    66              ADARGAZ'RIN
whereas the Talmudical tracts Kiddushim and Sota coined by him was probably a medal (Herod. iv.
give the seventh as the day. It is at least certain  I66) of the finest gold. When the darics became
that the latter was the day on which the fast was current, especially after the mercenary troops were
observed.  On the 9th there was a fast in memory paid in them, their numbers must have been greatly
of the contention or open rupture of the celebrated  augmented: yet Strabo assures us (1. xv. p. io68)
schools of Hillel and Shammai, which happened  that the coin was by no means abundant among the
but a few years before the birth of Christ. The Persians, and that gold was employed by them
cause of the dispute is obscure (Wolf's Biblioth. rather in decoration than as a circulating medium.'
Hebr. ii. 826). The 13th is the so-called'Fast of This, however, is of little real consequence; for it
Esther.' Iken observes (Antiq. Hebr. p. 150) that proceeds on the erroneous supposition that the coin
this was not an actual fast, but merely a com- derived its name from the first Darius, and could
memoration of Esther's fast of three days (Esth. not have previously existed. In the later day of
iv. I6), and a preparation for the ensuing festival. Strabo the coin may have become scarce, although
Nevertheless, as Esther appears, from the date of once plentiful. Be this as it may, the daric is of
Haman's edict, and from the course of the narra- interest, not only as the most ancient gold coin of
tive, to have fasted in Nisan, Buxtorf adduces from  which any specimens have been preserved to the
the Rabbins the following account of the name of present day, but as the earliest coined money which,
this fast, and of the foundation of its observance we can be sure, was known to and used by the
in Adar (Synag. 7ud. p. 554): that the Jews as- Jews. The distinguishing mark of the coin was a
sembled together on the x3th, in the time of Esther, crowned archer, who appears with some slight
and that, after the example of Moses, who fasted  variations on different specimens. His garb is the
when the Israelites were about to engage in battle
with the Amalekites, they devoted that day to fasting and prayer, in preparation for the perilous trial
which awaited them on the morrow. In this sense, 
this fast would stand in the most direct relation to
the feast of Purim. The 13th was also,'by a
common decree,' appointed as a festival in memory
of the death of Nicanor (2 Mace. xv. 36). The/ -
14th and 15th were devoted to the feast of Purim
(Esth. ix. 21). In case the yearwas an intercalary
one, when the month of Adar occurred twice, this
feast was first moderately observed in the intercalary 
Adar, and then celebrated with full splendour in same which is seen in the sculptures at Persepolis,
the ensuing Adar. The former of these two cele- and the figure on the coin is called, in numismatics,
brations was then called the lesser, and the latter Sagittarius. The specimens weighed by Dr. Berthe greatPurim. These designations do not apply, nard were fifteen grains heavier than an English
as Home has erroneously stated (Introduction, iii. guinea, and their intrinsic value may, therefore, be
177) to the two days of the festival in an ordinary reckoned at twenty-five shillings (Eckhel, Doctrina
year, but to its double celebration in an intercalary NVumorum  Veterum; Bernard, De Mensuris et
year.-J. N.                                    Ponderibus).-J. K.
ADARCONIM       (Drii'l    i.. 2  D'  T;     ADARGAZ'RIN (Jo''ot).       This is a Chaldee
Sept. ppayXu  and XpuooOv; Vulg. drachma and word which occurs in Dan. iii. 2, 3, where the
aureus).  Gesenius and most others are of opinion  titles of the Babylonian officers are enumerated.
that these words, which occur in I Chron. xxix. 7; It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to determine the
Ezra viii. 27; ii. 69; Neh. vii. 70-72, denote the particular office which the word describes; and
Persian Daric, a gold coin, which must have been  opinions and versions have differed greatly. The
in circulation among the Jews during their sub- Sept., which is followed by'the Vulgate, has Trjection to the Persians. The K is prosthetic; and pavvot. Our version has'treasurers;' and although
P:3n occurs in the Rabbins. Dr. Lee disputes thewe do not know the reason on which they proetymology of the word with Gesenius: but it is ceeded, we may find one in the fact that gaza
sufficient to observe that the Daric, which is radi- (ydta), which seems the principal element of the
cally included in these words, is not, as might be word, means a treasury, and was avowedly adopted
fancied, derived from the name of any particular by the Greeks from the Persians. Jacchiades, who
king, but from the Persian \ \  dara, a king. The identifies all these officers with those of the Turkish court and government, compares the present to
last of these words seems to identify itself with the the defterdars, who have the charge of the receipts
Greek Spaxuf; and, observing that in some of and disbursements of the public treasury. Gesethe texts it is manifestly connected with words de- nius and others conceive that the word means
noting weight, and in none with names of coins, chief-judges (from E, magnzfcent, and  t, dehe expresses some doubt of its being the i apetKbo ciders); but Dr. Lee, while admitting the uncer(daric) of the Greeks.  He is rather inclined to tainty of the whole matter, seems to prefer seeking
suppose, with Salmasius, that the Arabic dirhem  i     i
j(3 or AJrA  presents us with the same word. its meaning in the Persian     ire, and J
passing; and hence concludes that the Adargazerin
The opinion of Heeren (Researches, i. 410) would, were probably officers of state who presided over
indirectly, go to discountenance the notion that the the ordeals by fire, and other matters connected
daric is to be here understood.  He affirms that with the government of Babylon. This last ex-' before the time of Darius Hystaspes the Persians planation is not, however, new, being the one rehad no coinage of their own, and that the daricus jected by Gesenius.-J. K.




ADASA                    67                  ADDAR
ADASA, or ADARSA ('Accad), called also by standing near him in wicker baskets.' The lentiles
Josephus ADAZER, ADACO, and ACODACO, a city of Palestine have been little noticed by travellers.
in the tribe of Ephraim, said to have been four Nau (Voyage Nouveau, p. I3) mentions lentiles
miles from Beth-horon, and not far from Gophna along with corn and pease, as a principal article
(Joseph. Antiq. xii. 10, 5; Euseb. Onomast. in of traffic at Tortoura; D'Arvieux (Me1moires, ii.'Acaad).  It was the scene of some important 237) speaks of a mosque, originally a Christian
transactions in the history of the Maccabees (I church, over the patriarchal tomb at Hebron, conMac. vii. 40, 45; Joseph. Antiq. xii. 10, 5; Bell. nected with which was a large kitchen, where
7.ud. i. I, 6).-J. K.
ADASHIM (b.i&g1; Sept. faK6s; Vulg. lens).'LENTILES' is the interpretation given by our own
and most other versions, and there is no reason to 
question its accuracy. In Syria lentiles are still
called in Arabic (2,, addas (Russell, N. H. of 
Aleppo, i 74). Lentiles appear to have been chiefly.
used for making a kind of pottage. The red pottage for which Esau bartered his birthright was bf lentile pottage was prepared every day, and dislentiles (Gen. xxv. 29-34). The term red was, as tributed freely to strangers and poor people, in
with us, extended to yellowish brown, which must memory of the transaction between Esau and
have been the true colour of the pottage, if derived Jacob, which they (erroneously) believe to have
from lentiles. The Greeks and Romans also called taken place at this spot.
lentiles red (see authorities in Celsius, i. 105). Len-  The lentile (Ervum lens) is an annual plant, and
tiles were among the provisions brought to David the smallest of all the leguminosse which are cultiwhen he fled from Absalom (2 Sam. xvii. 28), and vated. It rises with a weak stalk about eighteen
a field of lentiles was the scene of an exploit of one inches high, having pinnate leaves at each joint
of David's heroes (2 Sam. xxiii. I ). From Ezek. composed of several pairs of narrow leaflets, and
iv. 9, it would appear that lentiles were sometimes terminating in a tendril, which supports it by fasused as bread. This was, doubtless, in times of tening about some other plant. The small flowers,
scarcity, or by the poor. Sonnini (Travels, p. 603,
English translation) assures us that in southernmost 
Egypt, where corn is comparatively scarce, lentiles
mixed with a little barley form almost the only
bread in use among the poorer classes. It is called 
bettan, is of a golden yellow character, and is not
bad, although rather heavy. In that country, indeed, probably even more than in Palestine, lentiles anciently, as now, formed a chief article of
food among the labouring classes. This is repeatedly noticed by ancient authors; and so much
attention was paid to the culture of this useful
pulse, that certain varieties became remarkable for 
their excellence. The lentiles of Pelusium, in the 
part of Egypt nearest to Palestine, were esteemed
both in Egypt and foreign countries (Virg. Georg.
i. 228); and this is probably the valued Egyptian
variety which is mentioned in the Mishna (tit. Kilvim, xviii. 8) as neither large nor small. Large
quantities of lentiles were exported from Alex- 
andria (Augustin. Comm. in Ps. xlvi.) Pliny, in
mentioning two Egyptian varieties, incidentally lets      15. (Lentiles Cicer lens.)
us know that one of them was red, by remarking
that they like a red soil, and by speculating whether which come out of the sides of the branches on
the pulse may not have thence derived the reddish  short peduncles, three or four together, are purple,
colour which it imparted to the pottage made with  and are succeeded by the short and flat legumes,
it (Hist. Nat. xviii. 12). This illustrates Jacob's which contain two or three flat round seeds slightly
red pottage. Dr. Shaw (i. 257) also states that curved in the middle. The flower appears in May,
these lentiles easily dissolve in boiling, and form a and the seeds ripen in July. When ripe, the plants
red or chocolate coloured pottage, much esteemed  are rooted up, if they have been sown along with
in North Africa and Western Asia. Putting these other plants, as is sometimes done; but they are
facts together, it is likely that the reddish lentile, cut down when grown by themselves. They are
which is now so common in Egypt (Descript. de threshed, winnowed, and cleared like corn.-J. K.
PEgypte, xix. 65), is the sort to which all these  ADBEEL  (KtlN, miracle of God; Sept.
statements refer.: -
The tomb-paintings actually exhibit the opera- NaSeX), one of the e twelve sons of Ishmael, and
tion of preparing pottage of lentiles, or, as Wil- founder of an Arabian tribe (Gen. xxv. 13, 6).
kinson (Anc. Egyptians, ii 387) describes it,'a  ADDAN (K_,'Hcldv). [ADDON.]
man engaged in cooking lentiles for a soup or por-  ADAR (            sn o B     ( Cr
ridge; his companion brings a bundle of faggots ADDAR (.,'Ap), a son of Bela (I Chron.
for the fire, and the lentiles themselves are seen  viii. 3); ARD (Gen. xlvi. 2, Num. xxvi. 40.)




ADDER                     68               ADONIBEZEK
ADDER. [ACHSHUB; PETHEN; SHEPHIPHON; charges brought against him, now felt himself
TSIPHONI.]                                    bound to answer the question put to him. The
ADDI ('A886, probably ='A~a5cd i'), son of abstract moral right of any man to impose so, T'T —:   serious an obligation upon another without his
Cosam in our Lord's genealogy (Luke iii. 28).  consent, may very much be doubted,-not, indeed,
ADDON (tjli), one of several places mentioned  as compelling a true answer, which a just man will
give under all circumstances, but as extorting a
in Neh. vii. 6I, being towns in the land of cap-     der al cicumtances but asons or withtivity, from which those who returned to Palestine       he might have just reasons for with
were unable to' shew their father's house, or their holding.. K
seed, whether they were of Israel.' This, pro-  ADLER, JAC. G. CHR., a learned orientalist,
bably, means that they were unable to furnish such  was born in December I755 at Arnis, in Schleswig.
undeniable legal proof as was required in such  He passed his youth at Rome, in the study of the
cases. And this is in some degree explained by oriental languages, and on his return to his native
the subsequent (v. 63) mention of priests who were country, in 1783, was appointed professor of Syriac,
expelled the priesthood because their descent was and subsequently of Theology at the University of
not found to be genealogically registered.  [In  Copenhagen in 1788.  He died in 1805.  His
Ezra ii. 59, the word is spelt Addan].-J. K.  writings include Codicis sacri recte scribendi leges,
ADIABENE ('Ad~A~aqiv\h), the principal of the ad recte destinandos codices manuscriptos antiquos,
ADIABENE ('ASlttrvO), the principal of theDscripth codicum             quorumdam cufi.
six provinces into which Assyria was divided. Pliny  etc., I799; Descr egiao coHacum quorumdam cufim
(ist. a. v. 2) and Ammianus (xxiii. 6, ~ 20) corum in bibliotheca regia Hafniensi servaforum,
(Hist. Nat. v. I2) and Ammianus (xxiii. 6, ~ 20) 178o; Musaum   cuficum   Borg)ianum, I782-92 
comprehend the whole of Assyria under this    I780; Museum    cuficum Borgianum, I782-92;
comprehend the whole of Assyria under this Bibliotheca  biblica  Wurtemiburgici ducis, olim Lorname, which, however, properly denoted only the Banotheca b787; Novi Testamezrgi versiones Syriacprovince which was watered by the rivers Diab,  i787; Nov Testamens versiones Syriace,
and Adiab, or the great and little Zab (Dhab), Simpex, Poxen. et Hiersoymztana deno exawhich flow into the Tigris below Nineveh (Mosul), mikatce, novis obss. etc. illustrate, 4to, Hafn. 1798.
fromwhi ow into the Tigris below Nneveh (Mosu. 24  This last is his most valuable contribution to bibfrom  the north-east.  (Joseph. Antiq. xx. 2-4;  i  lrn
Bell. yud. ii. I6, 19; v. 4, 6, II).-J. K.    lcallearnig.
A A'A   A   r     ADMAH, one of the cities in the vale of SidADIDA ('Atiwc; Vulg. Addus), a fortified town  dim (Gen. x. I9), which had a king of its own
in the tribe of Judah. In I Mace. xii. 38, we read   (Gen. xiv. 2). It was destroyed along with Sodom
that Simon Maccabseus set up'Adida in the Sephelaand Gomorrah (Gen. xix, 24; Hos. xi. 8).
and Gomorrah (Gen. xix, 24; Hos. xi. 8).
('A&o& av Tr ZeTiSeXt), and made it strong with
bolts and bars.  Eusebius says that the Sephela was  ADONAI (WiJrK; Sept. K6pIto, lord, master),
the name given in his time to the open country about the old plural form of the noun tK  adon, similar
Eleutheropol        this Adida in the Sephela to that with the suffix of the first person; used as
is probably the same which is mentioned in the the pluralis excellent, by way of dignity, for the
next chapter (xiii. 13) as'Adida over against the name of JEHOVAH.  The similar form with the
plain,' where Simon Maccabaeus encamped to dis-s,     is also used of men, as of Joseph's master
pute the entrance into Judaea of Tryphon, who had  (Gen. xxxix. 2, 3, sq.) of Joseph himself (Gen
treacherously seized on Jonathan at Ptolemais. In  xlii. 30, 33; so also Isaiah xix. 4). The Jews, out
the parallel passage Josephus (Antiq. xiii. 6, 5)of superstitious reverence for the name JEHOVAH
adds that this Adida was upon a hill, before which always, in reading, pronounce Adonai where  -
lay the plains of Judaea. Lightfoot, however, con- hovah is written; and hence the letters;11; are
trives to multiply the single place mentioned in the usually written with the points belonging to Adonai
Maccabees and Josephus into four or five different [JEHOVAH]. [Gesenius, who at first thought this
towns (see Chorog. Decad. ~ 3). One of the places an old form  of the plural (Gram. ~ Io6, 2, b)
which Josephus calls Adida (Bell. Jud. iv. 9, I) came latterly, with Ewald (Ausf. Lehrb. d. Heb.
appears to have been near the Jordan, and was Sprache, ~ 177, a), to regard it as a plural folprobably the Hadid of Ezra ii. 33 [and the Adi- lowed by the suffix  my Lord, in which the force
thaim of Josh. xv. 36].-J. K.                 of the suffix came gradually to be lost, as in Fr.
ADJURATION.       This is a solemn act or monsieur (Thes. s. v. t1").]  This seems just,
appeal, whereby one man, usually a person vested though rather disapproved by Professor Lee (Lex.
with natural or official authority, imposes upon in lK). The latter adds that'Our English bibles
another the obligation of speaking or acting as if generally translate i11', by LORD, in capitals;
under the solemnity of an oath. We find the word when preceded by tnl1, they translate it GOD;
yltt;l used in this sense in Cant. ii. 7; iii. 5, etc. when n*1Vy tzebaoth follows, by LORD; as in
In the New Testament the act of adjuration is Isaiah iii.,'The Lord, the LORD of Hosts." The
performed with more marked effect; as when the copies now in use are not, however, consistent
high-priest thus calls upon Christ,'I adjure thee in this respect.-J. K.
by the living God, tell us,' etc. —'EfopKc1^w oe Kar&
roO OeoO rTO ii^vTOs, etc. (Matt. xxvi. 63). The ADONIBEZEK (pt' #T, lordofBezek; Sept.
word used here is that by which the LXX. render'AoWv'qe6tK), king or lord of Bezek, a town which
the Hebrew (see also Mark v. 7; Acts xix. 13; Eusebius (in Be'K) places 17 miles east of Neapolis
I Thess. v. 27). An oath, although thus imposed or Shechem. The small extent of the kingdoms
upon one without his consent, was not only bind- in and around Palestine at the time of its invasion
ing, but solemn in the highest degree; and when by the Hebrews is shewn by the fact that this
connected with a question, an answer was compul- petty melek had subdued no less than seventy of
sory, which answer being as upon oath, any false- them. We find him at head of the confederated
hood in it would-be perjury. Thus our Saviour, Canaanites and Perizzites, against whom the tribes
who had previously disdained to reply to the of Judah and Simeon marched after the death of




ADONIJAH                   69             ADONI-ZEDEK
Joshua. His army was routed and himself taken  ADONIRAM (nns5R, lord of height, i. q. high
prisoner. The victors cut off his thumbs and great; S Av       Iings iv. 6). This name
toes, thereby inflicting on him the punishment is exhibited in the contracted form of ADORAM
which he had himself inflicted on others.  His            a. x. 2;     K   s x.; and
conscience was thus awakened to the enormity of  Hadoram ((u) in 2 Chron. x. I8;
his conduct, and in his own treatment he recog- of H orm (     in 2    on..      i8.
nised a severe but just application of the ex taionis A  of ths name s mentioned as receiverAdonibezek was taken to Jerusalem, where he died, general of the imposts in the reigns of David,
B.C. I449. (Jud. is 4). J- K                Solomon, and Rehoboam.    Commentators have
been at a loss to determine whether the office was
ADONIJAH (n?."l, my Lord Yehovah; Sept. held by one person for so long a period, or by two'A&^wvas), I. The fourth son of David, by Haggith.or three persons of the same name. It appears
He was born after his father became king, but very unlikely that even two persons of the same
when he reigned over Judah only (2 Sam. iii. 4). name should successively bear the same office, in
According to the Oriental notion developed in thean age when no example occurs of the father's
article ABSALOM, Adonijah might have considered name being given to his son. We find also that
his claim superior to that of his eldest brother not more than forty-seven years elapse between the
Amnon who was born while his father was in a first and last mention of the Adoniram who was
private station; but not to that of Absalom, who'over the tribute;' and as this, although a long
was not only his elder brother, and born while his term of service, is not too long for one life, and as
father was a king, but was of royal descent on the the person who held the office in the beginning of
side of his mother. When, however, Amnon and  Rehoboam's reign had served in it long enough to
Absalom were both dead, he became, in order of make himself odious to the people, it appears on
birth, the heir-apparent to the throne. But this the whole most probable that one and the same
order had been set aside in favour of Solomon, who person is intended throughout When the ten
was born while his father was king of all Israel. tribes seceded from the house of David, and made
Absalom perished in attempting to assert his claim  Jeroboam king, Rehoboam sent Adoniram among
of primogeniture, in opposition to this arrangement. them for the purpose, we ma presume, of collect
Unawed by this example, Adonijah took the same ing the usual imposts but the people rose upon
means of showing that he was not disposed to re- hm and stoned him till hedied.  Rehoboam, who
linquish the claim of primogeniture which now  was not far off, took warning by his fate, and,
devolved upon him. He assumed the state of an  ounting hischarot, returned with all speed to
heir-apparent, who, from the advanced age of Jerusalem (i Kings xi. I8).-J. K.
David, must soon be king. But it does not appear  ADONI-     K             S. 
to have been his wish to trouble his father as Ab- ADONI-ZEDEK  (pyt:gR; Sept.'Aovmsalom had done; for he waited till David appeared  edKc, confounding him with Adonibezek). The
at the point of death, when he called around him  name denotes lord of justice, i. e. just lord, but
a number of influential men, whom he had previ- some would rather have it to mean king of Zedek.
ously gained over, and caused himself to be pro- He was the king of Jerusalem when the Israelites
claimed king. This was a formidable attempt to invaded Palestine; and the similarity of the name
subvert the appointment made by the Divine king to that of a more ancient king of (as is supposed)
of Israel; for Adonijah was supported by such the same place, Melchi-zedek (king of justice, or
men as Joab, the general-in-chief, and Abiathar, king of Zedek), has suggested that Zedek was one
the high-priest; both of whom had followed David of the ancient names of Jerusalem. Be that as it
in all his fortunes. In all likelihood, if Absalom  may, this Adonizedek was the first of the native
had waited till David was' on his death-bed, Joab princes that attempted to make head against the
and Abiathar would have given him their support; invaders. After Jericho and Ai were taken, and
but his premature and unnatural attempt to de- the Gibeonites had succeeded in forming a treaty
throne his father, disgusted these friends of David, with the Israelites, Adonizedek was the first to
who might not otherwise have been adverse to his rouse himself from the stupor which had fallen on
claims. This danger was avoided by Adonijah; the Canaanites (Josh. x. I, 3); and he induced
but his plot was, notwithstanding, defeated by the four other Amoritish kings, those of Hebron, Jarprompt measures taken by David, who directed muth, Lachish, and Eglon, to join him in a conSolomon to be at once proclaimed and crowned, federacy against the enemy. They did not, howand admitted to the real exercise of the sovereign ever, march directly against the invaders, but went
power. Adonijah then saw that all was lost, and and besieged the Gibeonites, to punish them for
fled to the altar, which he refused to leave without the discouraging example which their secession
a promise of pardon from King Solomon. This he from the common cause had afforded. Joshua no
received, but was warned that any further attempt sooner heard of this than he marched all night
of the same kind would be fatal to him. Accord- from Gilgal to the relief of his allies; and falling
ingly, when, some time after the death of David, unexpectedly upon the besiegers, soon put them to
Adonijah covertly endeavoured to reproduce his utter rout [JOSHUA]. Adonizedek and his conclaim through a marriage with Abishag, the virgin federates having been taken, the Hebrew chiefs set
widow of his father [ABISHAG], his design was at their feet upon the necks of the prostrate monarchs
once penetrated by the king, by whose order he -an ancient mark of triumph, of which the monuwas instantly put to death (i Kings i.-ii. 13-25). ments of Assyria and Egypt still afford illustrations.
-J. K                                       They were then slain, and their bodies hung on
2. A Levite, who was one of those appointed trees until the evening, when, as the law forbade a
by Jehoshaphat to teach the people the law (2 longer exposure of the dead (Deut. xxi. 23), they
Chron. xvii. 8). 3. A chief of the people in the were taken down, and cast into the cave, the
time of Ezra (Neh. x. I6).-W. L A.          mouth of which was filled up with large stones,




ADOPTION                    70                 ADOPTION
which remained long after (Josh. x. 1-27). The progeny must be her property also; a fact indicated
severe treatment of these kings by Joshua has been by the statement that, at the time of birth, the handcensured and defended with equal disregard of the maid brought forth her child'upon the knees' of
real circumstances, which are, that the war was her mistress (Gen. xxx. 3). Strange as this custom
avowedly one of extermination, no quarter being may seem, it is in accordance with the notions of
given or expected on either side; and that the war- representation which we find very prevalent in
usages of the Jews were neither worse nor better analogous states of society. In this case the vicarithan those of the people with whom they fought, ous bearing of the handmaid for the mistress was
who would most certainly have treated Joshua and as complete as possible; and the sons were regarded
the other Hebrew chiefs in the same manner, had  as fully equal in right of heritage with those by the
they fallen into their hands.-J. K.           legitimate wife. This privilege could not, however,.  T   O   T   d   n  be conferred by the adoption of the wife, but by
ADOPTION. The Old Testament does notthe natural relation of such sons to the husband.
contain any word equivalent to this; and it may A curious fact is elicited by the peculiar circumbe doubted whether the act occurs in any formstances in Sarah's case, which were almost the only
answering to the word. The New Testament has stances in Sarah's case, which were almost the only
answering to the word. The Newf Testament has2 circumstances that could have arisen to try the
the word  oela often (Rom. viii., 23; i 4; question whether a mistress retained her power,
Gal. iv. 5; Eph. i. 5); but no example of the act as such, over a female slave whom she had thus
a s such, over a female slave whom she had thus
occurs. The term itself is well defined, and the vicariously employed, and over the progeny of that
act described, in the itezal signification of the Greek  slave, even though by her own husband.  The
word. It is theplacing as a son of one who     nswer is not a   igiven, rather startlingly, in the affirmative
so by birth..in the words of Sarah, who, when the birth of
The practice of adoption had its origin in the Isaac had wholly changed her feelings and position,
desire for male offspring among those who have, and when she was exasperated by the offensive
in the ordinary course, been denied that blessing, conduct of Hagar and her son, addressed her
or have been deprived of it by circumstances. husband thus,'Cast forth this bondwoman and her
This feeling is common to our nature; but its son; for the son of this bondwoman shall not be
operation is less marked in those countries where heir with my son, even with Isaac' (Gen. xxi. io).
the equalizing influences of high civilization lessen  The case of Abraham's regarding one of his
the peculiar privileges of the paternal character, servants as his heir has also been adduced as an
and where the security and the well-observed laws instance of adoption; and this may possibly have
bywhich estates descend and propertyis transmitted, been the case, though the mere fact that one born
withdraw one of the principal inducements to the in his house was his heir by no means proves that
practice. If found at all, then, in the Bible we may he was his adopted son. The practice of slave
look for instances in the patriarchal period. The adoption existed, however, among the Romans;
law of Moses, by settling the relations of families and, as such, is more than once referred to by St.
and the rules of descent, and by formallyestablishing  Paul (Rom. viii. 15; Gal. iv. 5, 6), the transition
the Levirate law, which in some sort secured a re- from the condition of a slave to that of a son, and
presentative posterity even to a man who died with- the privilege of applying the tender name of' Father'
out children, would necessarily put a check upon to the former'Master,' affording a beautiful illusthis custom. The allusions in the New Testament tration of the change which takes place from the
are mostly to practices of adoption which then bondage of the law to the freedom and privileges
existed among the Greeks and Romans, and rather of the Christian state.
to the latter than to the former; for among the  The act of Jacob in placing his grandsons by
more highly civilized Greeks adoption was less Joseph on an equality with his sons, as if they had
frequent than among the Romans. In the East been his own children, is a nearer approach to a
the practice has always been common, especially case of adoption; though still the difference is
among the Semitic races, in whom the love of great between this and the act to which the term
offspring has at all times been strongly manifested. adoption is usually applied.
And here it may be observed that the additional  The adoption of Moses by Pharaoh's daughter
and peculiar stimulus which the Hebrews derived  (Exod. ii. I-Io) is an incident rather than a practice;
from the hope of giving birth to the Messiah, was and besides it cannot be held as any evidence of
inoperative with respect to adoption, through which patriarchal usage in this matter.
that privilege could not be realized.           The right of a man who married an heiress to
It is scarcely necessary to say that adoption was represent her in the family genealogy, was not a
confined to sons. The whole Bible history affords case of adoption proper, but a right secured by the
no example of or allusion to the adoption of a law of property.
female; for the Jews certainly were not behind any  The following are among the foreign customs
Oriental nation in the feeling expressed in the connected with adoption which are supposed to be
Chinese proverb-' He is happiest in daughters alluded to in the New Testament. In John viii
who has only sons' (Mem. sur les Chinois, t. x. 36,' If the Son shall make you free, ye shall be
149).                                         free indeed,' is supposed by Grotius and other comAs instances of adoption amongst the patriarchs, mentators to refer to a custom in some of the cities
the act of Sarah in giving Hagar to Abraham, and  of Greece, and elsewhere, called d&eXooOeoaa,
of Rachel and Leah giving their maids to Jacob, so whereby the son and heir was permitted to adopt
as to raise up children to themselves, have been brothers, and admit them to the same rights which
adduced; but clearly these were not in any proper he himself enjoyed. But it seems more likely that
sense acts of adoption, though in this way the great- the reference was to the more familiar Roman
est possible approximation to a natural relation was custom, by which the son, after his father's death,
produced. The child was the son of the husband, often made free such as were born slaves in his house
and, the mother being the property of the wife, the  (Theophil. Antecensor, Institut. Imp. 7ustinian. i.




ADORAIM                    71              ADRAMYTTIUM
6, 5). In Rom. viii. 23, vloOealav d&recK8&x6,evo, Miscell. ii I I3), that the former member is Assyrian,' anxiously waiting for the adoption,' the former and that the word means the king of fire. It is to
word appears to be used in a sense different from  be observed that, although it has been disputed
that which it bears in ver. 15, and to signify the to what family of languages the Assyrian belongs,
consummation of the act there mentioned; in which  some modern scholars incline to consider it as
point of view it is conceived to apply to the two- Medo - Persian  (Gesenius, Geschichte der Hebr.
fold ceremony among the Romans. The one was Sprache, p. 62), and that, in this case, the position
the private act between the parties; and if the of that member of the compound which would be
person to be adopted was not already the slave of dependent on the other as the genitive, is exactly
the adopter, this private transaction involved the the converse of that which is necessary in Hebrew
purchase of him from his parents, when practicable. and the other Syro-Arabian languages. As to the
In this manner Caius and Lucius were purchased figure under which this idol was worshipped, the
from their father Agrippa before their adoption by  Babylonian Talmud (cited at length in Carpzov's
Augustus. The other was the public acknowledg- Apparatus, p. 516) asserts that he was adored
ment of that act on the part of the adoptor, when under that of a mule; whereas Kimchi says it was
the adopted person was solemnly avowed and under that of a peacock; statements upon which
declared to be his son. The peculiar force and little reliance can be placed.  There is greater
propriety of such an allusion in an epistle to the unanimity in the opinion that the power adored
Romans must be very evident.                  under this name was one of the heavenly bodies, in
In Gal. iv. 5, 6, there is a very clear allusion general accordance with the astrological character
to the privilege of adopted slaves to address their of the Assyrian idolatry (Gesenius, Yesaia, iii. 327,
former master by the endearing title of Abba, or seq.)  Selden (De Diis Syris, i 6) and others
Father.  Selden has shewn that slaves were not have identified him with Moloch, chiefly on the
allowed to use this word in addressing the master ground that the sacrifice of children by fire, and
of the family to which they belonged, nor the the general signification of the name, are the same
corresponding title of Mama, mother, when speak- in both. Authorities of nearly equal weight may
ing to the mistress of it (De Succ. in Bona Defunct. be adduced for the opinion that Adrammelech
secund. Hebr. c. iv.)                         represents the planet Saturn, or the Sun: the
A more minute investigation than would here kind of sacrifice being in favour of the former:
be in place, might discover other allusions to the the etymology of the name in favour of the latter.
custom of adoption.  The ideas and usages con- [MOLOCI.]
nected with the adoption of an official successor  Selden has also maintained (De Dtis Syris, ii. 9)
are considered elsewhere. [INVESTITURE.]     that Adrammelech and Anammelech are only
ADORAIM     (Dtl)N-jj; Sept.'AMwpatk), a town  names of one and the same idol. The contrary,
ADOR -A -(;,;- Showever, is asserted by most ancient and modern
in the south of Judah, enumerated along with  authorities. No argument for their identity can be
Hebron and Mareshah as one of the cities fortified drawn from the kethib in 2 Kings xvii. 31, because
by Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 9). Underthe name 
by Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 9).   Under-the name the singular D[~ is not found in prose prior to the
of Adora it is mentioned in the Apocrypha (I Macc.the singular  is not found i prose prior to the
xiii. 20), and also often by Josephus Antiq. viii I, Captivt   eeit  w(ere, it would be defectively
i; xiii 6, 4; 15, 4; Betll Jd. i. 2, 6; 8, 4), who written here, of which there is only one instance in
usually connects Adora with Maressa, as cities of our present text, unless when it has a prefix or
the later Idumaea. It was captured by Hyrcanus suffix). Besides, upwards of seventy MSS. and
at the same time with Maressa, and rebuilt by several early editions read the plural V1~[  in the
Gabinius (Joseph. Antiq. xiii. 9, I; xiv. 5, 3). texthere (De Rossi, Var Lect. ad loc.); and it is
This town does not occur in any writer after also the keri of our printed copies.-J. N.
Josephus, until the recent researches of Dr. Robin-  2. One of the sons and murderers of Sennacherib,
son, who discovered it under the name of Dura, king of Assyria (2 Kings xix. 37; Isaiah xxxvii. 38).
the first feeble letter having been dropped. It is This name, as borne by two Assyrian kings antesituated five miles W. by S. from Hebron, and is rior to Sennacherib, has been deciphered in the
a large village, seated on the eastern slope of a Nineveh inscriptions (Layard, Nin. and Bab. p.
cultivated hill, with olive-groves and fields of grain  623; Rawlinson, Outlines of Assyrian History;
all around.-J. K.                             see also Rev. G. Rawlinson, Bampton Lect. p. 143).
ADORAM. [ADONIRAM.]                         -W. L. A.
ADORATION. [ATTITUDES.]                       ADRAMYTTIUM        ('A8pai6xrrtov), a sea-port
ADRAMMELECII (1nT / —kA'A8pa4XeX) is town in the province of Mysia in Asia Minor, opADRAMMELECII:.  Ax x) is posite the isle of Lesbos, and an Athenian colony
mentioned, together with Anammelech, in 2 Kings (Strabo, xiii. p. 606; Herod. vii. 42). It. is menxvii. 31, as one of the idols whose worship the tioned in Scripture only (Acts xxvii. 2) from the
inhabitants of Sepharvaim established in Samaria, fact that the ship in which Paul embarked at
when they were transferred thither by the king of Caesarea as a prisoner on his way to Italy, belonged
Assyria, and whom they worshipped by the sacrifice to Adramyttium. It was rare to find a vessel going
of their children by fire. This constitutes the whole direct from Palestine to Italy. The usual course,
of our certain knowledge of this idol. With regard therefore, was to embark in some ship bound to
to the etymology of the name, the two most probable one of the ports of Asia Minor, and there go on
modes of interpretation are those which assume, board a vessel sailing for Italy. This was the course
either that, as the latter half of the word is evidently taken by the centurion who had charge of Paul.
Semitic, the former is so too, and that it means The ship of Adramyttium took them to Myra in
the magnificence of the king (and this is the view  Lycia, and here they embarked in an Alexandrian
which Gesenius now favours); or, according to a vessel bound for Italy. Some commentators (Hamsuggestion first made by Reland (in his Dissertat. mond, Grotius, Witsius, etc.) strangely suppose




ADRIA                    72                ADULLAM
that Adrametum in Africa (Plin. v. 3; Ptol. iv. 3) Eleutheropolis; but they follow the Sept. in conwas the port to which the ship belonged. Adra- founding it with Eglon (p1Iy), whereas it is certain
myttium is still called'Adramyt.' It is built on a that these were different places, and had distinct
hill, contains about I500 houses, and is still a place kings in the time of Joshua (xii. 12, I5). It is
of some commerce (Turner, Tour, iii. 265).-J. K. evident that Adullam was one of the cities of'the
ADRIA, ADRIAS ('A8pla, Acts xxvii. 27). The valley' or plain between the hill country of Judah
modem Adriatic is the gulf lying between Italy on and the sea; and from its place in the lists of
one side, and the coasts of Dalmatia and Albania names (especially 2 Chron. xi. 7), it appears not to
on the other. But in St. Paul's time, Adrias meant have been far from the Philistine city of Gath. This
all that part of the Mediterranean between Crete circumstance would suggest that the'cave of Aduland Sicily. Thus Ptolemy (iii. I6) says that Sicily lam' (I Sam. xxii. I), to which David withdrew
was bounded on the east by the Adriatic, and that immediately from Gath, was near the city of that
Crete was bounded by the Adriatic on the west; name. But there is no passage of Scripture which
and Strabo (ii. p. I85; vii. p. 488) says that the connects the city and the cave, and it is certainly
Ionian gulf was a part of what was in his time not in a plain that one would look for a cave
called the Adriatic Sea. The fact is of importance, capable of affording a secure retreat to 400 men;
as relieving us from the necessity of finding the nor has any such cave been found in that quarter.
island of Melita, on which Paul was shipwrecked,It i therefre far from improbable that the cave
in the present Adriatic gulf; and consequently re- of Adullam was in the mountainous wilderness in
moving the chief difficulty in the way of the iden- the east of Judah towards the Dead Sea, where
tification of that island with the present Malta. To such caves occur, and where the western names (as
this use it has been skilfully applied by Dr. Falconer Carmel) are sometimes repeated. This conjecture
in his tractate On the Voyage of St. Paul.-J. K.  is favoured by the fact that the usual haunts of
David were in this quarter; whence he moved into
ADRICHOMIUS, CHRISTIAN, a Dutch Roman the land of Moab, which was quite contiguous,
Catholic priest, was born at Delft in 1533, and died whereas he must have crossed the whole breadth of
at Cologne, whither he had retired, on the 20th of the land, if the cave of Adullam had been near the
June 1585.   His most celebrated work is the city of that name.  Other reasons occur which
Theatrum Terra Sanctz, with geographical maps, would take too much room to state; but the result
Colon. 1590, I593, 600o, 1613, 1628, 1682, infolio. is, that there appearat length good grounds for the
It contains very minute descriptions of places men- local tradition which fixes the cave on the borders
tioned in Scripture, drawn chiefly from the writings of the Dead Sea, although there is no certainty with
of the Fathers and the classics.             regard to the particular cave usually pointed out.
ADRIEL t(hn^, the flock of God; Sept. The cave so designated is at a point to which David'     the-                     was far more likely to summon his parents, whom'As8pOX), the person to whom Saul gave in mar- he intended to take from Bethlehem into Moab,
riage his daughter Merab, who had been originally than to any place in the western plains. It is about
promised to David (I Sam. xviii. I9). Five sons six miles south-west of Bethlehem, in the side of a
sprang from this union, who were taken to make deep ravine (Wady Khureitun) which passes below
up the number of Saul's descendants, whose lives, the'Frank mountain' [so called] on the south. It
on the principle of blood-revenge, were required by is an immense natural cavern, the mouth of which
the Gibeonites to avenge the cruelties which Saul can be approached only on foot along the side of
had exercised towards their race. In 2 Sam. xxi. 8, the cliff. Irby and Mangles, who visited it without
the name of Michal occurs as the mother of these being aware that it was the reputed cave of Adulsons of Adriel; but as it is known that Merab, and lam, state that it' runs in by a long winding, narnot Michal, was the wife of Adriel, and that Michal row passage, with small chambers or cavities on
had never any children (2 Sam. vi. 23), there only either side. We soon came to a large chamber
remains the alternative of supposing either that with natural arches of great height; from this last
Michal's name has been substituted for Merab's by there were numerous passages, leading in all direcsome ancient copyist, or that the word which pro- tions, occasionally joined by others at right angles,
perly means bare ('which Michal bare unto Adriel'), and forming a perfect labyrinth, which our guides
should be rendered brought up or educated ('which assured us had never been perfectly explored, the
Michal brought up for Adriel'). The last is the people being afraid of losing themselves.  The
choice of our public version, and also of the Tar- passages are generally four feet high by three feet
gum. The Jewish writers conclude that Merab wide, and were all on a level with each other.
died early, and that Michal adopted her sister's There were a few petrifactions where we were:
children, and brought them up for Adriel (T. Bab. nevertheless the grotto was perfectly clean, and the
Sanhed. fol. 19, 2). But, as the word;1+   can- air pure and good' (Travels, pp. 340, 341; see also
not take any other sense than'she bare,' the change Thomson, The Land and the Book, ch. 39, vol. ii.
of names seems the only explanation.  [Codd. p. 424). It seems probable that David, as a native
Kenn. 198, 250, read 1D..]-J. K.             of Bethlehem, must have been well acquainted with
ADULLAM  (I   Sept.  od, an old this remarkable spot, and had probably often
ADULLAM  (       Sept         ), an old availed himself of its shelter when out with his
city (Gen. xxxviii. I, 12, 20) in the plain country of father's flocks. It would, therefore, naturally occur
the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv. 35), and one of the to him as a place of refuge when he fled from Gath:
royal cities of the Canaanites (Josh. xii. I5). It and his purpose of forming a band of followers was
was one of the towns which Rehoboam fortified much more likely to be realized here, in the neigh(2 Chron. xi. 7; Micah i. 15), and is mentioned bourhood of his native place, than in the westward
after the Captivity (Neh. xi. 30; 2 Macc. I2, 38). plain, where the city of Adullam lay. These cirEusebius and Jerome state that it existed in their cumstances have considerable weight when taken
time as a large village, ten miles to the east of in connection with what has already been adduced;




ADULTERY                    73                ADULTERY
but the question is one which there is no means of were imposed upon its operation which necessarily
deciding with certainty.-J..                 arise when the calm inquiry of public justice is subADULTERY. In te c n a      n of stituted for the impulsive action of excited hands.
ADULTERY. In the common acceptation of Thus, death would be less frequently inflicted; and
the word adultery denotes the sexual interchursen  that this effect followed seems to be implied in the
a         married woman with any other fact that the whole biblical history offers no
husband, or of a married man with any other example of capital punishment for the crime. Inwoman than his wife. But the crime is not under-deed, Lightfoot goes further, and remarks,'I do
stood in this extent among Eastern nations, nor not remember that I have anywhere, in the Jewish
was it so understood by the Jews. With them, Pandect, met with an example of a wife punished
adultery was the act whereby any married man was for adultery with death. There is mention (T.
exposed to the risk of having a spurious offspring  ro. aed. 242) of the daughter of a certain
imposed upon him. An adulterer was, therefore, priest burned for committing fornication in her
any man who had illicit intercourse with a married fathers house; but she was not married' (Hor.
or betrothed woman; and an adulteress was a be- Hebr. ad Matt. xix. 8).  Eventually, divorce
trothed or married woman who had intercoursesuperseded all other punishment. There are inwith any other man than  h    er husband. An inter-                         tunahl  divorce
with any other man than her husband. An inter-deed some grounds for thinking that this had hapcourse between a married man and an unmarried  pened before the time of Christ, and we throw it
woman was not, as with us, deemed adultery, but out as a matter of inquiry, whether the Scribes and
fornication-a great sin, but not, like adultery, in- Pharisees, in attempting to entrap Christ in the
volving the contingency of polluting a descent, of matter of the woman taken in adultery, did not
turning aside an inheritance, or of imposing upon intend to put him in the dilemma of either dea man a charge which did not belong to him.    aring for the revival of a practice which had
Adultery was thus considered a great social wrong, already become obsolete, but which the law was
against which society protected itself by much  supposed to command; or, of giving his sanction
severer penalties thanattended an unchaste act not to the apparent infraction of the law which the
involving the same contingencies.             substitution of divorce involved (John viii. -I I).
It will be seen that this Oriental limitation of In Matt. v. 32, Christ seems to assume that the
adultery is intimately connected with the existence practice of divorce for adultery already existed. In
of polygamy. If adultery be defined as a breach later times it certainly did; and Jews who were
of the marriage covenant, then, where the contract averse to part with their adulterous wives, were
is between one man and one woman, as in Chris- compelled to put them away (Maimon. in Gerushin,
tian countries, the man as much as the woman in- c. 2). In the passage just referred to, our Lord
fringes the covenant, or commits adultery, byevery  does not appear to render divorce compulsory,
act of intercourse with any other woman: but even in case of adultery; he only permits it in that
where polygamy is allowed-where the husband   case alone, by forbidding it in every other.
may marry other wives, and take to himself concu-  In the law which assigns the punishment of death
bines and slaves, the marriage contract cannot and to adultery (Lev. xx. IO), the mode in which that
does not convey to the woman a legal title that the punishment should be inflicted is not specified,
man should belong to her alone. If, therefore, a because it was known from custom. It was not,
Jew associated with a woman who was not his wife, however, strangulation, as the Talmudists contend,
his concubine, or his slave, he was guilty of un- but stoning, as we may learn from various passages
chastity, but committed no offence which gave a of Scripture (e. g. Ezek. xvi. 38, 40; John viii. 5);
wife reason to complain that her legal rights had and as, in fact, Moses himself testifies, if we combeen infringed.  If, however, the woman with pare Exod. xxxi. 14; xxxv. 2; with Num. xv. 35,
whom he associated was the wife of another, he 36. If the adulteress was a bondmaid, the guilty
was guilty of adultery-not by infringing his own parties were both scourged with a leathern whip
marriage covenant, but by causing a breach of that ('p31), the number of blows not exceeding forty.
which existed between that woman and her hus- In this instance the adulterer, in addition to the
band (Michaelis, jMo'aaishes Recht. art. 259; Jahn's scourging, was subject to the further penalty of
Archaologie, th. i b. 2, ~ I83). By thus excluding bringing a trespass offering (a ram) to the door of
from the name and punishment of adultery, the the tabernacle, to be offered in his behalf by the
offence which did not involve the enormous wrong priest (Lev. xix. 20-22). Those who wish to enter
of imposing upon a man a supposititious offspring, into the reasons of this distinction in favour of the
in a nation where the succession to landed property bondmaid, may consult Michaelis (Mosaisches Recht.
went entirely by birth, so that a father could not art. 264). We only observe that the Moslem law,
by his testament alienate it from any one who was derived from the old Arabian usage, only inflicts
regarded as his son-the law was enabled, with upon a slave, for this and other crimes, half.the
less severity than if the inferior offence had been punishment incurred by a free person.
included, to punish the crime with death. It is  It seems that the Roman law made the same
still so punished wherever the practice of polygamy important distinction with the Hebrew, between
has similarly operated in limiting the crime-not, the infidelity of the husband and of the wife.
perhaps, that the law expressly assigns that punish-'Adultery' was defined by the civilians to be the
ment, but it recognises the right of the injured violation of another man's bed (violatio tori alieni);
party to inflict it, and, in fact, leaves it, in a great so that the infidelity of the husband could not
degree, in his hands. Now, death was the punish- constitute the offence. The more ancient laws of
ment of adultery before the time of Moses; and if Rome, which were very severe against the offence
he had assigned a less punishment, his law would of the wife, were silent as to that of the husband.
have been inoperative, for private vengeance, The offence was not capital until made so by
sanctioned by usage, would still have inflicted death. Constantine, in imitation of the Jewish law; but
But by adopting it into the law, those restrictions under Leo and Marcian the penalty was abated to




ADULTERY, TRIAL OF                 74          ADULTERY, TRIAL OF
perpetual imprisonment, or cutting off the nose; the priests (so to call them), who have the manageand, under Justinian, the further mitigation was ment of the matter, are influenced by private congranted to the woman, that she was only to be siderations, or by reference to the probabilities of
scourged, to lose her dower, and to be shut up in the case, to prepare the draught with a view to
a convent.                                     acquittal. The imprecations upon the accused if
The punishment of cutting off the nose brings to he be guilty, are repeated in an awful manner by
mind the passage in which the prophet Ezekiel the priests, and the effect is watched very keenly.
(xxiii. 25), after, in the name of the Lord, reprov- If the party seems affected by the draught, like
ing Israel and Judah for their adulteries (i. e. one intoxicated, and begins to foam at the mouth,
idolatries) with the Assyrians and Chaldeans, he is considered undoubtedly guilty, and is slain
threatens the punishment-' they shall take away on the spot; or else he is left to the operation of
thy nose and thy ears,' which Jerome states was the poisonous draught, which causes the belly to
actually the punishment of adultery in those swell and burst, and occasions death (Bahot,
nations.  One or both of these mutilations, mostp. 126; Bosman, p. 148; Artus, in De Bry, vi.
generally that of the nose, were also inflicted by  62; Villault, p. 191; Corry's Windward Coast, p.
other nations, as the Persians and Egyptians, and  7I; Church Missionary Paper, No. 17; Davis's
even the Romans; but we suspect that among the Journal, p. 24).
former, as with the latter, it was less a judicial  The resemblances and the differences between
punishment than a summary infliction by the this and the trial by bitter water, as described in
aggrieved party. It is more than once alluded to  Num. v. II-3I, will be apparent on comparison.
as such by the Roman poets: thus Martial asks,  The object, namely, to discover a crime incapable'Quis tibi persuasit nares abscindere mcecho?' of being proved by evidence, is the same; the oath
and in Virgil (.En. vi. 496) we read-          and a draught as its sanction, are essentially the'Ora, manusque ambas, populataque tempora same; and similar also are the effects upon the
raptis                                guilty, but as the draught prescribed by Moses was
Auribus, et truncas inhonesto vulnere nares.'  composed of perfectly harmless ingredients, whereIt would also seem that these mutilations were as that used in Africa is poisonous, these effects
more usually inflicted on the male than the female were in the former case entirely judicial, whereas
adulterer.  In Egypt, however, cutting off the nose in the latter they are natural from the action of the
was the female punishment, and the man was poison. Similar practices may be produced from
beaten terribly with rods (Diod. Sic. i. 89, 90). other quarters.  Hesiod [Theog. 775-95] reports
The respect with which the conjugal union was that when a falsehood had been told by any of the
treated in that country in the earliest times is mani-gods, Jupiter was wont to send Iris to bring some
fested in the history of Abraham (Gen. xii. 19). water out of the river Styx in a golden vessel; upon
this an oath was taken, and if the god swore
ADULTERY, TRIAL OF.     It would be unjust falsely, he remained for a whole year without life
to the spirit of the Mosaical legislation to sup- or motion. There was an ancient temple in Sicily,
pose that the trial of the suspected wife by the in which were two very deep basins, called Delli,
bitter water, called the Water of 7ealousy, was by  always full of hot and sulphurous water, but never
it first produced.  It is to be regarded as an  running over. Here the more solemn oaths were
attempt to mitigate the evils of, and to bring under taken; and perjuries were immediately punished
legal control, an old custom which could not be most severely (Diod. Sic. xi. 67).  This is also
entirely abrogated. The original usage, which it mentioned by Aristotle, Silius Italicus, Virgil, and
was designed to mitigate, was probably of the kind  Macrobius; and from the first it would seem that
which we still find in Western Africa, where in the oath was written upon a ticket and cast into
cases of murder, adultery, or witchcraft, the accused the water. The ticket floated if the oath was true,
is required to drink for purgation from the charge and sank if it was false. In the latter case the
of a mixture called the red water. The differences, punishment which followed was considered as an
however, between this and the usage sanctioned by act of Divine vengeance.
Moses are marked, and, in fact, all-important.   The result at which we arrive is, that the trial
According to the usage in Africa, if a party is for suspected adultery by the bitter water amounted
accused and denies the crime, he is required to to this-that a woman suspected of adultery by her
drink the red water, and, on refusing, is deemed husband was allowed to repel the charge by a
guilty of the offence. The trial is so much dreaded  public oath of purgation, which oath was designedly
that innocent persons often confess themselves made so solemn in itself, and was attended by such
guilty, in order to avoid it. And, yet, the im- awful circumstances, that it was in the highest
mediate effect is supposed to result less from the degree unlikely that it would be dared by any
water itself than from the terrible oath with which  woman not supported by the consciousness of
it is drunk; for there are instances which shew  innocence. And the fact that no instance of the
that the draught is the seal and sanction of the actual application of the ordeal occurs in Scripture,
most solemn oath which barbarous imaginations affords some countenance to the assertion of the
have been able to devise. The person who drinks Jewish writers-that the trial was so much dreaded
the red water invokes the Fetish to destroy him if by the women, that those who were really guilty
he is really guilty of the offence with which he is generally avoided it by confession; and that thus
charged. The drink is made by an infusion in the trial itself early fell into disuse.  And if, as
water of pieces of a certain tree, or of herbs. It is we have supposed, this mode of trial was only
highly poisonous in itself; and, if rightly prepared, tolerated by Moses, the ultimate neglect of it must
the only chance of escape is the rejection of it by have been desired and intended by him. In later
the stomach, in which case the party is deemed  times, indeed, it was disputed in the Jewish schools,
innocent; as he also is if, being retained, it has no  whether the husband was bound to prosecute his
sensible effect, which can only be the case when  wife to this extremity, or whether it was not law.




ADUMMIM                     75         ADVENT, THE SECOND
ful for him to connive at and pardon her act, if he (Voyage Nouveau de la Terre Sainte, p. 349) perwere so inclined. There were some who held that ceived that this castle belonged to the time of the
he was bound by his duty to prosecute, while Crusades. Near this spot was a khan, called the
others maintained that it was left to his pleasure'Samaritan's khan' (le Khdn du Samaritain), in
(T Hieros. tit. Sotah, fol. I6, 2).          the belief that it was the'inn' to which the SamaFrom the same source we learn that this form  ritan brought the wounded traveller. The travelof trial was finally abrogated about forty years lers of the present century mention the spot and
before the destruction of Jerusalem. The reason neighbourhood nearly in the same terms as those
assigned is, that the men themselves were at that of older date; and describe the ruins as those of
time generally adulterous; and that God would'a convent and a khan' (Hardy, 193). They all
not fulfil the imprecations of the ordeal oath upon represent the road as still infested by robbers,
the wife while the husband was guilty of the same from whom some of them (as Sir F. Henniker)
crime (John viii. -8).                        have not escaped without danger. The place thus
ADULTERY, in the symbolical language of the indicated is about eight miles from Jerusalem, and
Old Testament, means idolatry and apostacy from  four from Jericho.-J. K..
the worship of the true God (Jer. iii. 8, 9; Ezek. 
xvi. 32; xxiii. 37; also Rev. ii. 22). Hence an  ADVENTTHE SECOND (7r apovrtaZ v vloe rOU
Adulteress meant an apostate church or city, par- dvphsov Matt. xxiv. 27, roe Ktuplov I Thes. iii 13)
ticularly'the daughter of Jerusalem,' or the Jewish  a  phrase usedin reference to the revelation of Chris
church and people (Is. i. 2; Jer. iii. 6, 8, 9;  from heaven, predicted in the NewTestament; his
Ezek. xvi. 22; xxiii. 7). This figure resulted from  appearing, the second time, without sin, unto salthe primary one, which describes the connection vation.' This stupendous event was often foretold
between God and his separated people as a mar- by Christ himself, and s promenty exhibited
riage between him and them. By an application  throughout the Apostolic writings.'The Son of
of the same figure,'An adulterous generation' Man (said Jesus) shall come in the glory of his
(Matt. xii. 39; xvi. 4; Mark viii. 38) means a Father with his angels' (Matt. xvi. 27). After his
faithless and impious generation.-J. K        ascension, the announcement was made to his disfaithless a        Septo.J               ciples:'This same Jesus... shall so come in
ADUMMIM (to'I; Sept. A/aqtqtv; various like manner as ye have seen him go into heaven'
readings are'A580,o/Al,'A85od, and'Ew1d/A), a (Acts i. I ).'Behold, he cometh with clouds
place which is only twice named in Scripture. (says John), and every eye shall see him' (Rev. i. 7).
The first instance is Josh. xv. 7, where, from the'When he shall appear, we shall be like him' (i
context, itseems to indicatetheborderbetweenJudah John iii. 2).  St. Paul represents Christians as
and Benjamin, and that it was an ascending road' looking,' and'waiting for the coming of the Lord
(3''mUK  r&1fl) between Gilgal (and also Jericho) Jesus Christ' (I Cor. i. 7). As to the time of his
and Jertusalem. The second notice (Josh. xviii. coming, we find him saying to his disciples:'There
s further information, but repeats'the be some standing here who shall not taste of death,
17) adds no further information, but repeats Ithe till they see the Son of Man coming in his kingascent to Adummim.'   Most commentators take dom' (Matt. i. 28)     Ye shall not have gone
the name to mean the place of blood (from the Heb.e sl n                         h 
), and foow Jerome who finds the place  over the cities of Israel, until the Son of Man be
the dand follow Jerome, whp6 finds  the place in come' (Matt. x. 23).' They shall see the Son of
the dangerous or mountainous part of the road               t 
between Jerusalem and Jericho, and supposes that Man coming in the clouds of heaven with power
it was so called from  the frequent effusion of and great glory.   This generation shall not
blood by the robbers, by whom it was much in0  pass away till all these things be fulfilled' (Matt.
blood by the robbers, by whom it was much              infested.  In his time it was called Maledomim  xxiV. 30-34).'The coming of the Lord draweth
in Greek, &vctd3tpacrir 7r6 tv';* in Latin Ascensus nigh' (James v. 8). As to the purpose of his comin Greek, dvd~ao-ts r6A~wp; in Latin Ascensu  ing, we read-:' Then shall he reward every man
ruforum sive rubentium.* These are curious in-  ng, we read:-' Then shall he reward every man
terpretations of the original word, which is most according to his works' (Matt. xvi. 27).'The
likely from, and merely denotes the redness Lord himself shall descend from heaven with a
likely from 13-IN, and merely denotes the redness shout... and the dead in Christ shall rise first'
of the soil or rock, though this must be regarded  ( Thes. i. i6).  He shall judge the  uick and
only as a probable conjecture. [Stanley (Sin. and the dead at his appearing and his kingdo  (2 Tim.
Pal. p. 424) suggests that the name is derived from     ehod     ome   ik    and m
some tribe of red men, the early occupants of the iv. I).  Behold, I come quickly, and my reward
district. This is more probable, as the rocks there is with me, to ge every man according as his
are of white limestone.] In all ages probably it wk shall be' (Rev. xxii. 2).
was the resort of robbers; indeed, the character  Various opinions have prevailed as to the meanof the road was so notorious, that Christ lays the ing of these and similar declarations, and as to the
scene of the parable of the good Samaritan (Luke timeand manner of their accomplishment. In some
x.) upon it; and Jerome informs us that Adummim  of the Apostolic churches, as, for instance, at Thesor Adommim was believed to be the place where salonica, there were some who regarded the advent
the traveller (taken as a real person)'fell among as imminent. At any hour Christ might come!
thieves.' He adds that a fort and garrison was That this, however, was not the apostolic belief, is
maintained here for the safeguard of travellers (in evident from 2 Thes. ii. 3, 4, where St. Paul affirms
Loc. Heb. ADDOMIM, et in Epit. Paul).  In the that'that day shall not come, except there come a
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the ruins of a falling away first, and that man of sin be revealed
castle, supposed to be the same as that mentioned  the son of perdition.' Events were thus to occur,
by Jerome, remained (Zualart. iv. 30; but Nau prior to the advent, which rendered its being so
near as they supposed impossible.
* ["Qui locus usque hodie vocatur Maledomim;  Among the early post-apostolic Christians, we
et Greece dicitur dpdpaaLrs ir6Awov, Latine autem  find the expectation of the advent becoming blended
appellari potest Ascensus ruforum." De Loc. Heb.] with that of the millennium, or thousand years of




ADVENT, THE SECOND                76         ADVENT, THE SECOND
rest and blessedness anticipated for the Church on  But, how (they ask) can the Church maintain
the earth. Persecuted by the Pagan oppressor, it this attitude of expectation, if she believes that a
was a delightful solace to believers, in those dark thousand years are to elapse before the advent?
and evil days, to regard Christ as being about to The advent, therefore, must be pre-millennial.
come in person to terminate the sufferings of his Christ will soon appear visibly, to establish his
faithful people, and receive them to be partakers kingdom, and introduce his universal reign. The
of his glory. Then, at his appearing, his enemies Church, with her present agencies and instrumenshould be overthrown, his departed saints raised talities, is inadequate to the conversion of the world.
from their graves to meet him, and his entire Church  Her present work, therefore, is, by the preaching
exalted to a position of security and triumph, in of the gospel to make up the number of the elect.
which they should reign with him over the earth, These, at his coming, shall constitute'the Bride,
and thus enjoy a rich prelibation of the everlasting the Lamb's wife;' that'glorious Church' which
blessedness of heaven.  These expectations, as Christ'shall then present to himself, having neither
cherished by some, were doubtless characterised spot, nor wrinkle, nor any such thing.' Then all
by scriptural sobriety and judiciousness; but, in his enemies shall be put under his feet. The earth
the minds of others, they were tinctured with much shall be purified by fire, and wickedness consumed
that was fanciful and extravagant, and that was evi- out of it. Along with the fulness of the Gentiles,
dently derived rather from the Jewish synagogue, the Jews shall be brought into the Church, and rethan from the school of the apostles.*       stored to their own land. Then, either in the
After the triumph of Christianity over Paganism, earthly Jerusalem below, or, as some imagine, in
at the opening of the fourth century, these views the heavenly Jerusalem visibly manifested above it,
began to decline. Basking in the sunshine of im- Christ will reign with his risen and glorified saints.
perial favour, and giving law from the throne of Then'all nations whom he has made shall come
the Cxesars, the Church seemed to herself to have and worship before him,' and'all the ends of the
already entered on the millennial rest. The ad- earth see the salvation of God.'
vent, therefore, came to be regarded as an event  There are others to whom these anticipations,
which should follow, not precede, the millennium. fascinating as they are to many, seem based on
It was thus projected into the far distant future, erroneous interpretations of scripture.  Christ's
and was to be the prelude to the consummation of kingdom (they argue) is not a kingdom of the future
all things.                                  merely; it has already come. It began when he
Some of the early reformers, among whom was ascended, and sat down as'Lord of all' (Acts x.
Luther, entertained a view similar, in some re- 36) at the right hand of the Father. Then he was
spects, to this. To them, at that advanced period' made head over all things to the Church' (Eph.
of the world's history, it seemed that the mil- i. 22). Christ, therefore, reigns now, and'must
lennium must have already run its course, and as if, reign, till he hath put all enemies under his feet'
therefore, the coming of Christ and the end of the (I Cor. xv. 25).' All power in heaven and on
world were nigh. Others, however, recognizing in earth' having been' given' to him, he already posPapal Rome the mystic Babylon of the Apocalypse, sesses all that is requisite for the fulfilment of his
and finding themselves engaged in the very heat of purposes, and the extension of his reign, visibly and
conflict with it, and unable, moreover, to discern, manifestly, throughout the world. His kingdom,
in the dark ages that had preceded, anything like which began to be manifested when, on the day of
the blessed rest they anticipated for the Church, Pentecost, through the outpouring of the Spirit,
were led'to the adoption of views more in accord- multitudes were brought to the obedience of the
ance with those generally entertained at the present faith, will come with growing power and fulness
day. These may be epitomized as follows:-    till it has come universally, and the Father's'will
There are many earnest and devout Christians is done on earth, even as it is done in heaven.'
who maintain it to be the duty of the Church to  As to its being the duty of the Church to be lookanticipate the advent as nigh, and to live in daily ing and waiting for the coming of her Lord, they
expectation of the coming of her Lord. Her atti- maintain that several, at least, of the passages from
tude (say they) should be that expressed in the which this is inferred have been misunderstood,
words of the apostle:'Looking for the blessed and have reference, not to that real and personal
hope, and the glorious appearing of the great God coming which is yet future, but to that spiritual
and our Saviour Jesus Christ, who gave himself for coming, in the exercise of judgment on the Jewish
us' (Titus ii. I3). The command of Christ to his church and nation, which is now past.  They
disciples is obligatory on his people now-Be ye affirm, moreover, that even those who maintain' like unto men that wait for their Lord' (Luke this to be the duty of the Church, are themselves
xii. 36).' Watch, therefore, for ye know not unable to fulfil it, inasmuch as, expecting, as they
what hour your Lord doth come' (Matt. xxiv. 42). do, certain events to precede the advent, they must
necessarily be looking out rather for those events
* Among the orthodox fathers who embraced than for the advent which is to follow them. For
Chiliastic notions may be mentioned Papius (Euseb. example, from certain Old Testament prophecies,
H. E. iii. 39), Justin Martyr (Apol. i. 11; Dial. it is generally maintained by them that, prior to
cum Trytph. ~ 80, 81), Tertullian (Adv. Haer., v. the advent, the Jews, while yet unbelieving, will be
33). These views were keenly opposed by Origen restored to their own land; that after dwelling
(Prol. in Canticum Cant., Opp. T. iv., p. 28 D.; there for a season in peace, and attaining to conDe Princ. ii. II, 2, etc.) Augustine, who at first siderable prosperity, a confederacy of nations will
seemed inclined to Chiliastic notions, though in a be formed against them; that they will be assailed
spiritual sense, ultimately repudiated them (comp. by the armies of Gog; and that, just in this crisis
Sermo 159, Opp. T. v., p. I060, with De Civit. of their fate, Christ will appear visibly for their deDei, Bk. 20, c. 7 ff.) See Neander, Ch. list., liverance. Then, converted to the faith of the
i 428; Gieseler, Eccl. Hist., i. 166, 242, 362.  gospel, they will say-' Blessed is he that cometh




ADVENT, THE SECOND                 77                ADVOCATE
in the name of the Lord!' How then, can pre- perhaps, in connection with it, to the overthrow of
millennarians, entertaining such expectations, be Pagan Rome.
looking daily for the coming of the Lord? They   According to this hypothesis, Christ has already
must necessarily be looking rather for those events come. He is already seated' on the throne of his
which they believe shall precede it. But this is glory, and before him even now are gathered all
precisely the position of post-millennarians, though  nations.' The judgment is now going on; the
the events anticipated by them, including, as they wicked are passing away'into everlasting punishdo, the millennium, must occupy a much more ment, and the righteous into life eternal.' Men
lengthened interval of time. The advent, however become consciously the subjects of this judgment,
(say they), is an event of such surpassing interest as they pass from the sphere of the visible among
and importance, that, however far distant in the unseen and everlasting things.
future it may be, to the eye of faith it should ever  It will be perceived that this hypothesis leads to
appear as nigh. They insist, moreover, on this, as the following conclusions:-That scripture nowhere
inconsistent with a pre-millennial advent,that there foretells the destruction of our world; that the huis not, in the New Testament, any passage, having man race may be propagated on this earth for
undeniable reference to the advent, in which Christ ever; that if the advent be past already, so also is
is said to come for the purpose of reigning on the the resurrection which was to precede it, and
earth. He is represented as coming to raise the which must, therefore, have been a resurrection of
dead, to judge the world, and distribute to men  souls from Hades, and not of bodies from  the
their final awards; but never as coming to estab- grave; or, if a resurrection of bodies, then not a
lish his kingdom, or begin his reign. Why not? visible resurrection; and finally, that the resurrecBecause (say they) his kingdom is already estab- tion now takes place at death, in the emerging from
lished, and his reign already begun. The advent, the mortal frame of a body, which, invisible to
therefore, cannot be pre-millennial.  It must be a human eye, is spiritual, incorruptible, and glorious.
post-millennial event.                           Many grave and, apparently, insuperable objecResembling this view, though, in one important tions to this hypothesis will at once suggest themrespect, differing from it, is that held by a third  selves to the mind of the thoughtful reader, but it
class of Christians. Believing that Christ's coming is not necessary that these should be stated here.
is to follow the millennium, not precede it, they Bickersteth, Practical Guide to the Prophecies;
maintain that the character of this era has been  Birks, Outlines of Unfulfilled Prophecy  Urwick,
altogether misunderstood; that, instead of being a  The Second Advent of Christ the Blessed Hope of the
period of rest and triumph for the Church, it is Church, Dublin, I839; Brown On the Second Adto be a period of trial and conflict; and that, if vent; Lyon, Millennial Studies; Waldegrave's
not already past, it is rapidly hastening to a close. Bampton Lectures; Desprez, The Apocalypse FulAccording to this view, the coming of Christ, with illed; Maurice, Lectures on the Apocalypse, etc.
the end of all things, is drawing nigh.       etc.-W. P. L.
This article would be incomplete, were we not
to notice another view which has recently been put  ADVOCATE   (HapdicKX os), one who pleads
forth with considerable power, and is now finding the cause of another; also one who exhorts, deacceptance with many. According to this hypo-fends, comforts, prays for another. It is an appelthesis, the second advent is past already.ation given to the Holy Spirit by Christ (John
himself foretold its nearness.  He was to' come in xiv. I6; xv. 26; xvi. 7), and to Christ himself by
his kingdom' before some of his disciples'tasted  an apostle (I John ii. I; see also Rom. viii. 34;
death;' before they had'gone over the cities of Heb. vii. 25).
Israel;' before that generation had'passed away.'  In the forensic sense, advocates or pleaders were
Christ's own declarations regarding his advent (say not known to the Jews until they came under the
they) thus invariably either affirmed or implied that dominion of the Romans, and were obliged to
it was near. They were fulfilled, partly, in his transact their law affairs after the Roman manner.
coming, by the outpouring of his Spirit on the day Being then little conversant with the Roman laws,
of Pentecost, to establish his reign among men; and and with the forms of the jurists, it was necessary
partly in the judgments which, in that generation, for them, in pleading a cause before the Roman
fell on the Jewish community, by which the Mosaic magistrates, to obtain the assistance of a Roman
economy was abolished, and the age (allv) or lawyer or advocate, who was well versed in the'world' that then was, brought to a final end. Greek and Latin languages (Otti Spicil. Crim.
The references to the advent in the' Acts of the p. 325). In all the Roman provinces such men
Apostles,' and in the Epistles (they maintain), are were found, who devoted their time and labour to
but reproductions, somewhat varied, of Christ's the pleading of causes and the transacting of other
own declarations; while, in nearly all of them, it legal business in the provincial courts (Lamprid.
is evident, either from the language employed, or Vit. Alex. Sev. c. 44). It also appears (Cic. pro
the connection in which it stands, that the writers  Celi, of 30) that many Roman youths who had
were looking for the advent before the passing  devoted themselves to forensic business used to
away of the then existing generation. Along with repair to the provinces with the consuls and piaeDr. Owen (see his Sermons on 2 Pet. iii. Ii), they tors, in order, by managing the causes of the proimagine the prediction of St. Peter-' the earth  vincials, to fit themselves for more important ones
and the works that are therein shall be burned up' at Rome.  Such an advocate was Tertullus, whom
-to foretell, not the destruction of the world, but the Jews employed to accuse Paul before Felix
the destruction of Judaism, and the passing away  (Acts xxiv. I); for although'PT7rp, the term
of the heavens and earth of the levitical dispensa- applied to him, signifies primarily an orator or
tion.  Believing the Apocalypse to have been speaker, yet it also denotes a pleader or advocate
written prior to the destruction of Jerusalem, they  (Kuinoel, Comment. and Bloomfield, Recens. Synopt.
think it has reference mainly to that event, and ad Act. xxiv. 2). [JUDICAtURE.]




ADYTUM                     78              AFFIRMATIVES
ADYTUM, that which is inaccessible or im- -I. a mother and her daughter for wives at the
penetrable; and hence considered as descriptive of same time; 2. or two sisters for wives at the same
the holy of holies in the temple of Jerusalem, and time. These prohibitions have been imported into
of the innermost chambers, or penetralia, of other our canon law. [The passage, Lev. xviii. I8, in
edifices accounted sacred, and of the secret places which the last of these prohibitions is contained, has
to which the priests only were admitted.  It is been the subject of much discussion in modem
used metaphorically by ecclesiastical writers; and  times, very different views having been taken of its
employed to signify the heart and conscience of a meaning and intention. By the Canonists it is reman, and sometimes the deep, spiritual meaning of garded as forbidding the marrying of two sisters
the Divine word.-H. S.                        successively, the one after the death of the other;
IEGYPT. [EGYPT.]                           in accordance with their fundamental principle
aTI A CAPITOINA. A      [JTERUSALEM. t      *'quoto gradu aliquis junctus est marito, eodem
adfinitatis gradu erit junctus ejus uxori, et contra.'
IENON    (AlvoSv, from t.,, fountain; Buxt. By others it is looked on as designed merely to
Lex. Ch. Rab. Talm. 1601, [but regarded as an  prohibit the marrying of two sisters at the same
intensive of r by Rosen., De Wette, as a comp. time; whilst it implicitly allows the marrying of a
of ils and sy37, dove-fount, by Syr. Vers., Meyer, wife's sister after her decease. Others, again, reand of f11 and tV, fish-fount, by Ar. Vers., Casau- gard the injunction as prohibiting polygamy altobon.]), a place near Salim, where John baptized  gether, translating the verse thus,'Thou shalt not
(John iii. 23). On the situation of AEnon nothing  take one wife to another to vex her,' etc., according
certain has been determined, although Eusebius to a well-known Hebrew idiom by which one thing
places it eight Roman miles south of Scythopolis to another of the same kind is denoted by calling
(Bethshan), and fifty-three north-east of Jerusalem. it'a man to his brother,' or'a woman to her
[Robinson found a Salim to the east of Nabulus,  ister,' comp. Exod. xvi. 15; xxvi. 3, etc. Thus
at which there were two copious springs, and near the law, which some regard as expressly forbidding
to this he supposes /Enon to have been. Res. ii. polygamy, is held by others as implicitly sanctioning
279; iii. 298; comp. Stanley, Sin.        and. p.  a the law which some regard as prohibiting
250, 311]                                     the marrying of a deceased wife's sister is held by
-ERA. [CHRONOLOGY.                          others as implicitly permitting it. This is a strange.OETHI  OPIA. [ETHIOPIA.                uncertainty to belong to a law, the first condition
-ETHIOPIA.     [ETHIOPIA.]                  of which should be clearness and precision; but the
AFFENDOPULO, CALEB, called also Abe fault rests very much with those who refuse to take
(KKR), i. e. Affendopulo ben Elijah, a Jewish rabbi, the passage in its obvious meaning. Most comwho flourished at Belgrade and Constantinople in the mentators are agreed in giving it the second of the
present century. The name Affendopulo is a corn- meanings above stated; indeed, not one of any
pound of the Turkish effendi and the Greek rov- note, Jewish or Christian, has assigned to it any
Xos, son.  He wrote n'i'nD.t:D, a con- other meaning.] The sense given by the Canonists
mentary on the Song of Solomon and Psalm 19, has been extracted, by connecting the words'vex
with introductions and epilogues to each section her' with the words'in her lifetime,' instead of
having reference to the divergence of the Caraites reading'take her sister to her, in her lifetime.'
from the Rabbins, Vien. I830, 4to, besides other Under this view it is explained, that the married
works of a polemical character.-W. L. A.      sister should not be'vexed' in her lifetime by the
prospect that her sister might succeed her.  It
AFFINITY     is relationship by marriage, as may be safely said that such an idea would never
distinguished from consanguinity, which is relation- have occurred in the East, where unmarried sisters
ship by blood.  Marriages between persons thus are far more rarely than in Europe brought into
related, in various degrees, which previous usage, such acquaintance with the husband of the married
in different conditions of society, had allowed, sister as to give occasion for such'vexation' or
were forbidden by the Law of Moses.    These'rivalry' as this. It may be remarked, that in
degrees are enumerated in Lev. xviii. 7, sq. The those codes of law which most resemble that of
examples before the law are those of Cain and  Moses on the general subject, no prohibition of the
Abel, who, as the case required, married their marriage of two sisters in succession can be found.
sisters. Abraham married Sarah, the daughter or (Dwight, The Hebrew Wife, Glas. 1837; Robinson,
grand-daughter of his father by another wife; and Bib. Sac. p. 283; Edin. Rev. 97, 3I5.)-J. K.
Jacob married the two sisters Leah and Rachel.  AFFIRMATIVES. Among the Jews the for
In the first instance, and even in the second, there                 on
was an obvious consanguinity, and only the last mula of assent or affirmation was, 
offered a previous relationship of affinity merely. thou hast said, or, thou hast rightly said.  It is
So also, in the prohibition of the law, a consan- stated by Aryda and others that this is the prevailguinity can be traced in what are usually set down ing mode in which a person expresses his assent,
as degrees of affinity merely. The degrees of real at this day, in Lebanon, especially when he does
affinity interdicted are, that a man shall not (nor a not wish to assert anything in express terms. This
woman in the corresponding relations) marry-I. explains the answer of our Saviour to the highhis father's widow (not his own mother); 2. the priest Caiaphas (Matt. xxvi. 64), when he was
daughter of his father's wife by another hus- asked whether he was the Christ, the son of God,
band; 3. the widow of his paternal uncle; 4. nor and' replied or6 etras (see also Matt. xxvi. 25).
his brother's widow if he has left children by her; Instances occur in the Talmud: thus,'A certain
but, if not, he was bound to marry her to raise up man was asked,'Is Rabbi N. dead?'  He
children to his deceased brother[MARRIAGE]. The answered,'Ye have said:' on which they rent
other restrictions are connected with the condition  their clothes'-taking it for granted from  this
of polygamy, and they prohibit a man from having answer that it was so (T. Hieros. Kilaim, xxxii. 2).




AFRICA                    79                   AGAPE
All readers, even of translations, are familiar with a  I7-I9). Hence, when Samuel arrived in the camp
frequent elegancy of the Scriptures, or rather of of Saul, he ordered Agag to be brought forth, and
the Hebrew language, in using an affirmative and  to be cut in pieces; and the expression which he
negative together, by which the sense is rendered  employed-'As thy sword hath made women childmore emphatic: sometimes the negative first, as less, so shall thy mother be childless among women'
Ps. cxviii. I7,'I shall not die, but live,' etc.; -indicates that, apart from the obligations of the
sometimes the affirmative first, as Is. xxxviii. I, vow, some such example of retributive justice was'Thou shalt die, and not live.' In John i. 20, intended, as had been exercised in the case of
there is a remarkable instance of emphasis produced  Adonibezek; or, in other words, that Agag had
by a negative being placed between two affirmatives made himself infamous by the same treatment of
-Kal d/FLoX63y7fe, Kal OK htpvrpaaTo, Kal &tSoX\6y7aoev some prisoners of distinction (probably Israelites)
-'And he confessed, and denied not, but confessed, as he now received from Samuel.  The unusual
I am not the Christ.'-J. K                    mode in which his death was inflicted strongly
AFRICA. This'quarter of the world' is not supports this conclusion.-J. K.
mentioned as such by any general name in Scrip-  AGAGITE, used as a Gentile name for Amature, although some of its regions are indicated. lekiteinEst. iii. I,; viii. 3, 5. [AMALEKITES.]
It is thought by some, however, that Africa, or, as  A, A       (iyr,      r), te 
much of it as was then known, is denoted by'the  AGAPE, AGA,, the Greek
land of Ham' in several of the Psalms. But weterm for le, used by ecclesiastical writers (most
are inclined to think that the context rather restricts frequently in the plural) to signify the social meal
this designation to Egypt. Whether Africa wasof the primitive Christians, which generally accomreally'the land of Ham,' that is, was peopled by panied the Eucharist. Much learned research has
the descendants of Ham, is quite another question. been spent in tracing the origin of this custom;
[HAM.] KT.                                    but though considerable obscurity may rest on the
details, the general historical connection is tolerably
AGABUS (!A-yapos; either from the Hebrew    obvious.  It is true that the Cpavot and &raplat,,nl, a locust, or:1_, to love), the name of'a and other similar institutions of Greece and Rome,
prophet,' supposed to have been one of the seventy presented some points of resemblance which facilidisciples of Christ. He, with others, came from  tated both the adoption and the abuse of the Agapae
udaea to Antioch, while Paul and Barnabas (A. D. by the Gentile converts of Christianity; but we
43) were there, and predicted an approaching  cannot consider them as the direct models of the
famine, which actually occurred the following year. latter. If we reflect on the profound impression
Some writers suppose that the famine was general; which the transactions of'the night on which the
but most moder   commentators unite in under- Lord was betrayed' (I Cor. xi 23) must have
standing that the large terms of the original, "OXkv made on the minds of the apostles, nothing can be
top OiKOvU^/vv, apply not to the whole world, nor conceived more natural, or in closer accordance
even to the whole Roman empire, but, as in Luke with the genius of the new dispensation, than a
ii. i, to Judsea only. Statements respecting four wish to perpetuate the commemoration of his death
famines, which occurred in the reign of Claudius, in connection with their social meal (Neander,
are produced by the commentators who support Leben 7esu, p. 643; or Eng. Transl.  The life of
this view; and as all the countries put together Jesus Christ, translated from the fourth German
would not make up a tenth part of even the Roman edition; Bohn I85, p. 43I. Geschichte der Pflanempire, they think it plain that the words must be zung und Leitung, etc., 4th ed., vol. i. p. 36;
understood to apply to that famine which, in the  Eng. Transl. History of thePlantingand Training
fourth year of Claudius, overspread Palestine. The of the Christian Church, etc., vol. i. p. 23). The
poor Jews, in general, were then relieved by the celebration of the Eucharist impressed a sacredness
Queen of Adiabene, who sent to purchase corn in  on the previous repast (comp. eoBvt6vrcv avrTv,
Egypt for them (Joseph. Antiq. xx. 2, 6); and for Matt. xxvi. 26; Mark xiv. 22, with jter& rb
the relief of the Christians in that country contribu- &to7rpo-at, Luke xxii. 20; I Cor. xi. 25); and
tions were raised by the brethren at Antioch, and when to this consideration we add the ardent faith
conveyed to Jerusalem by Paul and Barnabas (Acts and love of the new converts on the one hand, and
xi. 27-30). Many years after, this same Agabus the disruption of old connections and attachments
met Paul at Cesarea, and warned him of the on the other, which must have heightened the
sufferings which awaited him if he prosecuted his feeling of brotherhood, we need not look further
journey to Jerusalem  (Acts xxi. o1, II).  [See to account for the institution of the Agapse, at
Baumgarten, Apostolic History, vol. i. 300, vol. ii. once a symbol of Christian love and a striking
396, E. T.]-J. K.                             exemplification of its benevolent energy.  How0AGAG (,; Sept.'Aydy), the name of two ever soon its purity was soiled, at first it was not
AGAG C(lU; Sept.'Ayiy?), the name of two undeserving of the eulogy pronounced by the great
kings of the Amalekites, and perhaps a common  orator of the church-  8os Kd\XXL\rov Kal Xpraname of all their kings, like Pharaoh in Egypt /Jubrarov' Kal yip i dydirrs inrb6Oeats Jv, Kal irevas
(comp. Num. xxiv. 7; I Sam. xv. 8, 9, 20, 32). -rapauv.Oa, Katl rXof6rov  POq5povputi6s, Kal rawreuvoThe first of these passages would imply that the  ppooar67s &8aroKaXica.'A custom most beautiful
king of the Amalekites was, then at least, a greater and most beneficial; for it was a supporter of love,
monarch, and his people a greater people, than is a solace of poverty, a moderator of wealth, and a
commonly imagined. [AMALEKITES.] The latter discipline of humility!'
references are to that king of the Amalekites who  Thus the common meal and the Eucharist formed
was spared by Saul, contrary to the solemn vow of together one whole, and were conjointly denomidevotement to destruction, whereby the nation, as nated 8ervov roe KvpIOV, e87rvov KvpLaK6v, and
such, had of old precluded itself from giving any &ycdir/.  They were also signified (according to
quarter to that people (Exod. xvii. I4; Deut. xxv. Mosheim, Neander, and other eminent critics) by




AGAPE                     80                   AGAPE
the phrases KX\GVes &prov (Acts ii. 46), KXdois rod Lord's language in John vi. 53,'Except ye eat the
dpTov (Acts ii. 42), KXda-ac &ProV (Acts xx. 7). We flesh of the Son of man, and drink his blood,' etc.),
find the term dyd7rac thus applied once, at least, in nor of herbs prepared with incantations and magical
the New Testament (Jude 12),'These are spots in rites. Lucian, also, in his account of the philosoyour feasts of charity' (dv Tras dyd7ras bigv). The  pher Peregrinus, tells us that when imprisoned on
reading in 2 Pet. ii. 13 is of doubtful authority: the charge of being a Christian, he was visited by'Spots and blemishes, living luxuriously in their his brethren in the faith, who brought with them
Agapae' (vrpv0ZVTsre iv ras &ydrracs abTrwv); the  ei7rva 7roLKiXa, which is generally understood to
common reading is {v arcs dtrdrats azrrav,'in their mean the provisions which were reserved for the
own deceivings.' The phrase d&yd7r-v 7rotetv was absent members of the church at the celebraearly employed in the sense of celebrating the tion of the Lord's Supper, Gesner remarks, on
Eucharist; thus in the epistle of Ignatius to the this expression,'Agapas offerente unoquoque alichurch at Smyrna, ~ viii. ObK e6v  rlv r  Opl rod fquid, quod una consumerent; hinc 7roKlXa, non e
e7rtaKo67rov, oire paCrTiLetv, orTe dydTrqv 7roLev. In  luxu.'
~ vii. &-ya7rt^ appears to refer more especially to  From the passages in the Epistles of Jude and
the Agapae.                                    Peter, already quoted, and more particularly from
By ecclesiastical writers several synonymes are the language of Paul in I Cor. xi., it appears that
used for the Agapae, such as av/ur6abca (Balsamon, at a very early period the Agapae were perverted
ad Can. xxvii. Concil. Laodicen.); Kotval rpdyreact, from  their original design: the rich frequently
evuwXa,KoLvalc artLcdets, KOItv&~vups6a(Chrysostom); practised a selfish indulgence, to the neglect of
erva Kotvcd CEcumenius); avOaOTla Kal avejrb6ra their poorer brethren:  CKao-TO? rb t8iov eiTrvov
(Zonaras).                                     rpoXaAcSdvet (I Cor. xi. 21); i.e. the rich feasted on
The Agapae are not alluded to in Justin Martyr's the provisions they brought, without waiting for
description of the Eucharist (Apol. i ~ 65, 67); the poorer members, or granting them a portion of
Tertullian, on the contrary, in his account of the their abundance. They appear to have imitated
Agapae, makes no distinct mention of the Eucharist. the Grecian mode of entertainment called  e7irvov'The nature of our Cena,' he says,'may be     dbrb a7rvpi0os (see Xenophon's Memorabilia, iii. 14;
gathered from its name, which is the Greek term  Neander Geschichte derPfanzung, etc., vol. i. 407;
for love (dilectio).  However much it may cost us, History of the Planting of the Christian Church,
it is real gain to incur such expense in the cause of vol. i. (English transl.), p. 249).
piety: for we aid the poor by this refreshment; we  On account of these and similar irregularities,
do not sit down to it till we have first tasted of and probably in part to elude the notice of their
prayer to God (non prius discumbitur, quam oratio  persecutors, the Christians, about the middle of the
ad Deum preegustetur); we eat to satisfy our second century, frequently celebrated the Eucharist
hunger; we drink no more than befits the tem- by itself and before daybreak (antelucanis cfetibus)
perate; we feast as those who recollect that they  (Tertullian, De Cor. Militis, ~ 3). From Pliny's
are to spend the night in devotion; we converse as Epistle it also appears that the Agapae were susthose who know that the Lord is an ear-witness. pected by the Roman authorities of belonging to
After water for washing hands, and lights have the class of Hetaeriae (eratplat), unions or secret
been brought in, every one is required to sing  societies, which were often employed for political
something to the praise of God, either from the purposes, and as such denounced by the imperial
Scriptures or from his own thoughts; by this means, edicts; for he says (referring to the'cibum proif any one has indulged in excess, he is detected. miscuum,' etc.),'quod ipsum facere desiisse post
The feast is closed with prayer.' Contributions or edictum meum, quo secundum mandata tua Hetacrias
oblations of provisions and money were made on  esse vetueram' (Plin. Ep. 96, al. 97; Lardner,
these occasions, and the surplus was placed in the  Works, vii. 311-314, London, 1788).
hands of the presiding elder (6 7rpoeo-rbs-compare  At a still later period the Agapae were subI Tim. v. 17, ol rpoerTwTres rpefp6repol), by whom  jected to strict regulation by various councils.
it was applied to the relief of orphans and widows, Thus by the 28th canon of the Council of Laodicea
the sick and destitute, prisoners and strangers it was forbidden to hold them in churches:'rt ob
(Tertull. Apol. ~ 39; Justin. Apol. i. 67). In the  &e? ev tros KvplaKoiLS 1  v ras KKX\lqass.r&s
first age of the Church, the Eucharist was celebrated  XEyouivas dydcras irotev, Kal ev T 3 otKwC ro0 Oeov
after the Agapae, but in Chrysostom's time the JrOietv Kal dKoS6tra aorpovv6etv. At the Council of
order was frequently reversed. (Homill. xxii. xxvii. Carthage (A. D. 397) it was ordered (Can. 29) that
in I Cor. xi.                                  none should partake of the Eucharist unless they
Allusions to the KuplaKbv  S eirov are to be met had previously abstained from food:' Ut sacrawith in heathen writers. Thus Pliny, in his cele- menta altaris nonnisi 2   jejunis hominibus celebrenbrated epistle to the emperor Trajan, after de- tur excepto uno die anniversario, quo ccona domini
scribing the meeting of the Christians for worship, celebratur.' The same prohibition was repeated at
represents them as assembling again at a later the Council of Orleans (Can. 12), A.D. 533; in the
hour,'ad capiendum cibum, promiscuum tamen et Trullanian Council at Constantinople, A. D. 692;
innoxium.' By the phrase'cibum promiscuum' and in the council held at Aix-la-Chapelle, A.D.
(Augusti remarks) we are not to understand merely  816. Yet these regulations were not intended to
food partaken in common with others, but common  set aside the Agapae altogether.  In the Council of
food, such as is usually eaten; the term innoxium  Gangra in Paphlagonia (about A. D. 360) a curse
also intimates that it was perfectly wholesome and  was denounced (dvdOe/a Co-Tw) on whoever despised
lawful, not consisting, for example, of human  the partakers of the Agapae or refused to join in
flesh (for, among other odious imputations, that of them. When Christianity was introduced among
cannibalism had been cast upon the Christians; the Anglo-Saxons by Austin (A.D. 596), Gregory
which, to prejudiced minds, might derive some the Great advised the celebration of the Agapae, in
apparent, support from a misinterpretation of our booths formed of the branches of trees, at the con



AGATE                      81                 AGE, OLD
secration of churches. Neander, Gen. Hist. iii. the republican circumstances of the Israelites.' He
461; V. 20.                                    adds,' In a monarchy or aristocracy, it is birth and
Besides the Eucharistic Agapoe, three other kinds office alone which give rank. The more pure a
are mentioned by ecclesiastical writers: I. Agapce democracy is, the more are all on an equal footing;
natalitic, held in commemoration of the martyrs and those invested with authority are obliged to
(Theodoret, Evang. Verit. viii. pp. 923-924, edit. bear that equality in mind.  Here great actions
Schulz); 2. Agapce connubiales, or marriage-feasts confer respect and honour; and the right discharge
(Greg. Naz. Epist. i. 14); 3. Agape funerales,of official duties, or the arrival of old age, are the
funeral feasts (Greg. Naz. Carm. X.), probably  only sources of rank. For how else can rank be
similar to the repli8etrvov or veKp6etirvov of the established among those who have no official situaGreeks.                                       tion, and are by birth perfectly equal' (Mos. Recht.,
In modern times social meetings bearing a re- art. cxl.) This is ingenious, and partly true. It
semblance to the Agapie, and, in allusion to them, would perhaps be wholly so, if, instead of connecttermed Love-feasts, have been regularly held by ing it with'republican circumstances,' the respect
the Church of the United Brethren, or Moravians, for age were rather regarded in connection with a
and the Wesleyan Methodists; also in Scotland, certain state of society, short of high civilization,
by the followers of Mr. Robert Sandeman.      in which the sources of distinction, from whatever
(Bingham's Works, vol. v. p. 289; Hallet's Notes causes, are so limited, that room is left for the
(Bghams     orks vol.. p. 289;             natural condition of age itself to be made a source
and Discorses, vol iii. disc. 6A, I736; Augustl, of distinction.  Of all marks of respect that to age
Handbuch der Chr     hen Archdologe Band l.is most willingly paid; because every one who does
Abth. I, 2. Leipz. 1836-1837; Gieseler, Lehrbuch homage to age, may himself eventually become an
der Kirhengeschichte, Bonn, 1844-1853; Neander, object of such homage. We almost invariably obAllgemeine Geschichte, etc., Hamburg, 1825-1840; serve that where civilization advances, and where,
Eng. Tr. i. 451, Ed. 1850; Drescher, De Veterum  in consequence, the claims to  re multiplied,
Christianorum    Agapis, Giessae, i824; Bruns, the respect for old age in itself diminishes; and,
Canones Apostolorum  et Conc i, Berol, I839; like other conditions, it is estimated by the positive
Suicer, Thesaurus, s. vv. ayct7i^, iKXdeos.)-J. E. R. qualities which it exhibits. In the East, at preAGATE. [SHEBO, KADKOD.]                      sent, this respect is manifested under every form of
AGE. [CHRONOLOGY; GENERATION; LONGE- government. In the United States the aged are
VITY * ETERNITY.]                              certainly not treated with more consideration than
I                                         under the monarchical and aristocratical governAGE, OLD. The strong desire of a protracted  ments of Europe. Professor C. Stowe (in Am.
life, and the marked respect with which aged per- Bib. Repos.), who had unusual means of comsons were treated among the Jews, are very often  parison, says they are there treated with less; and
indicated in the Scriptures. The most striking in- this seems to prove satisfactorily, that it is rather
stance which Job can give of the respect in which  the condition of civilization than the condition of
he was once held, is that even old men stood up as government, which produces the greater or less
he passed them in the streets (Job xxix. 8), the respect for age.
force of which is illustrated by the injunction in the  Attention to age was very general in ancient
law,'Before the hoary head thou shalt stand up, times; and is still observed in all such conditions
and shalt reverence the aged' (Lev, xix, 32). of society as those through which the Israelites
Similar injunctions are repeated in the Apocrypha, passed. Among the Egyptians, the young men
so as to shew the deportment expected from young  rose before the aged, and always yielded to them
men towards their seniors in company. Thus, in the first place (Herod. ii. 80). The youth of
describing a feast, the author of Ecclesiasticus Sparta did the same, and were silent-or, as the
(xxxii. 3, 7) says, Speak thou that art the elder, Hebrews would say, laid their hand upon their
for it becometh thee. Speak, young man, if there  mouth-whenever their elders spoke. Al Athens,
be need of thee, and yet scarcely, when thou art and in other Greek states, old men were treated
twice asked.'                                  with corresponding respect. In China deference
The attainment of old age is constantly promised  for the aged, and the honours and distinctions
or described as a blessing (Gen. xv. I5;Jobv. 26), awarded to them, form  a capital point in the
and communities are represented as highly favoured  government (Mem. sur les Chinois, vol. i. p. 450);
in which old people abound (Is. lxv. 20; Zech. viii. and among the Moslems of Western Asia, whose
4), while premature death is denounced as the  usages offer so many analogies to those of the
greatest of calamities to individuals, and to the  Hebrews, the same regard for seniority is strongly
families to which they belong (I Sam. ii. 32); the shewn. Among the Arabs, it is very seldom that
aged are constantly supposed to excel in under- a youth can be permitted to eat with men (Lane,
standing and judgment (Job xii. 20; xv. 10; xxxii. Arabian Nights, c. xi. note 26). With the Turks,
9; I Kings xii. 6, 8), and the mercilessness of the age, even between brothers, is the object of marked
Chaldeans is expressed by their having'no com- deference (Urquhart, Spirit of the East, ii. 471).
passion' upon the' old man, or him who stooped   In all such instances, which might be accumufor age' (2 Chron. xxxvi. 17).                lated without number, we see the respect for age
The strong desire to attain old age was neces- providentially implanted the most strongly in those
sarily in some degree connected with or resembled  states of social existence in which some such sentithe respect paid to aged persons; for people would  ment is necessary to secure for men of decayed
scarcely desire to be old, were the aged neglected  physical powers, that safety and exemption from
or regarded with mere sufferance.              neglect, which are ensured to them in higher conMichaelis, carrying out a hint of Montesquieu, ditions of civilization by the general rather than the
fancies that veneration for old age is'peculiarly  particular and exemptive operation of law and
suitable to a democracy,' and, consequently,'to  softened manners.
VOL. 1.                                                                           G




AGMON                     82              AGRICULTURE
AGMON (ti)K) occurs in Job xli. 2; xli. 20; quired, as affording shelter for the behemoth or
Isaiah ix. x4; xix. I5; lviii. 5; in the first of which hippopotamus, being convertible into ropes, form.
passages it is translated in our authorized version ing a contrast with their hollow  stems to the
by hook; in the second by caiLcdron; * in the two  solidity and strength of the branches of trees, and
next by rush; and in the last by buZrush.  As no when dry easily set on fire: and when in flower
plant is known under this name in the Hebrew or their light and feathery inflorescence may be bent
cognate languages, its nature has been sought for down by the slightest wind that blows.-J. F. R.
by tracing the word to its root, and by judging of  AGONY ('Aycovla), a word generally denoting
its nature from the context. Thus DIN agom is contest, and especially the contests by wrestling,
said to mean a lake or pool of water, also a reed; etc. in the public games; whence it is applied
and in Arabic  5^\ pronounced ijam, is trans- metaphorically to a severe struggle or conflict with,                              pain and suffering. Agony is the actual struggle
lated reed-bed, cane-bed. Agom is also considered with present evil, and is thus distinguished from
to be derived from the same root as o] goma, the anguish, which arises from the reflection on evil
papyrus.  Some have even concluded that both that is past. In the New Testament the word is
names indicate the same thing, and have translated  only used by Luke (xxii. 44), and is employed by
them byjuncus, or rush.                       him with terrible significance to describe the fearful
Celsius is of opinion that in all the above passages struggle which our Lord sustained in the garden of
agmon should be translated by arundo, or reed. Gethsemane. [JESUS CHRIST.]
Dr. Harris (art.'Reed') has suggested that in  AGORA ('Ayopd), a word of frequent occurrence
Job xli. 2, instead of'Canst thou put an hook into in the New Testament: it denotes generally any
his nose,' we should read'Canst thou tie up his place of public resort in towns and cities where the
mouth with a rush rope,' as had previously been people came together; and hence more specially it
suggested by others (Celsius, Hiero-Bot. vol. i  signifies, I. A public place, a broad street, etc., as
467); and that in ver. 20 we should read'out of in Matt. xi. I6; xx. 3; xxiii. 7; Mark vi. 56; xii.
his nostrils goeth smoke, and the rushes are kindled 38; Luke vii 32; xi. 43; xx. 46.  2. A forum
before it,' instead of'as out of a seething pot or or market-place, where goods were exposed for
caldron,' as in the authorized version.       sale, assemblies or public trials held (Acts xvi. 9;
Lobo, in his Voyage d'Abyssinie, speaking of thexvii. 7), and where the idle were accustomed to
Red Sea, says,'Nous ne l'avons pas jamais vue lounge (Matt. xx. 3; Acts xvii. 5).  In Mark vii.
rouge, que dans les lieux ou il y a beaucoup4, it is doubtful whether dyopa denotes the market
de Gouemon.''Il y a beaucoup de cette herbe itself, or is put for that which is brought from the
dans la Mer rouge.'   What this herb is doesmarket; but the known customs of the Jews
not elsewhere appear. Forskal applies the name suggest a preference of the former signification.
of ghobeibe to a species of arundo, which he [Kiihnol, Paulus, and some others, take our Lord
considered closely allied to A. phragmites, the as saying that the Jews eat not anything brought
plant which Celsius conceived to be the agmon of from the market unless they first wash it. But this
Scripture. M. Bove, in his Voyage Botanique en is to construe  3a7rrliawvra in a way which is
Egypte, observed, especially on the borders of the hardly allowable; and, besides, such an act would
Nile, quantities of Saccharum agyptiacum and of afford no evidence of rigid scrupulosity on the part
Arundo a-gyptiaca, which is, perhaps, only a variety of the Jews such as our Lord wishes to adduce.
of A. donax, the cultivated Spanish or Cyprus What he means to say is, that coming from the
reed, or, as it is usually called in the south of market-place, where they had to mingle with and
Europe, Canna and Cana. In the neighbourhood be touched by common men, they hastened to
of Cairo he found Poa cynosuroides (the koosha, or purify themselves by the bath before they satisfied
cusa, or sacred grass of the Hindoos), which, he even the cravings of hunger.]
says, serves'aux habitans pour faire des cordes,  AGR    N.  [PR
chauffer leurs fours, et cuire des briques et poteries. AGRARIAN LAW. [PROPERTY.
Le Saccharum cylindricum est employe aux memes  AGRICULTURE. The antiquity of agriculture
usages.' The Egyptian species of arundo is pro- is indicated in the brief history of Cain and Abel,
bably the A. isiaca of Delile, which is closely allied when it tells us that the former was a'tiller of the
to A. phragmites, and its uses may be supposed to ground,' and brought some of the fruits of his
be very similar to those of the latter. This species labour as an offering to God (Gen. iv. 2, 3), and
is often raised to the rank of a genus under the that part of the ultimate curse upon him was:
name of phragmites, so named from being em-'when thou tillest the ground, it shall not henceployed for making partitions, etc. It is about six forth yield to thee her strength' (iv. I2). Of the
feet high, with annual stems, and is abundant actual state of agriculture before the deluge we
about the banks of pools and rivers, and in marshes. know nothing. It must have been modified conThe panicle of flowers is very large, much sub- siderably by the conditions of soil and climate,
divided, a little drooping and waving in the wind. which are supposed by many to have undergone
The plant is used for thatching, making screens, some material alterations at the flood. Whatever
garden fences, etc.; when split it is made into knowledge was possessed by the old world was
string, mats, and matches.  It is the gemeine rohr doubtless transmitted to the new by Noah and his
of the Germans, and the-Canna or Cana palustre sons; and that this knowledge was considerable is
of the Italians and Spaniards.               implied in the fact that one of the operations of
Any of the species of reed here enumerated will Noah, when he' began to be a husbandman,' was
suit the different passages in which the word agmon to plant a vineyard, and to make wine with the
occurs; but several species of saccharum, growing fruit (Gen. ix. 20). There are few agricultural
to a great size in moist situations, and reed-like in notices belonging to the patriarchal period, but
appearance, will also fulfil all the conditions re- they suffice to show that the land of Canaan was.




AGRICULTURE                   83              AGRICULTURE
in a state of cultivation, and that the inhabitants considerably, both in its appearance and character,
possessed what were at a later date the principal in different parts of the land; but wherever soil
products of the soil in the same country. It is of any kind exists, even to a very slight depth, it
reasonable, therefore, to conclude that the modes is found to be highly fertile. As parts of Palestine
of operation were then similar to those which we are hilly, and as hills have seldom much depth of
afterwards find among the Jews in the same country, soil, the mode of cultivating them in terraces was
and concerning which our information is more anciently, and is now, much employed. A series
exact.                                        of low stone walls, one above another, across the
In giving to the Israelites possession of a country face of the hill, arrest the soil brought down by
already under cultivation, it was the Divine inten- the rains, and afford a series of levels for the
tion that they should keep up that cultivation, operations of the husbandmen.  This mode of
and become themselves an agricultural people; cultivation is usual in Lebanon, and is not unfreand in doing this they doubtless adopted the prac- quent in Palestine, where the remains of terraces
tices.of agriculture which they found already  across the hills, in various parts of the country,
established in the country. This may have been  attest the extent to which it was anciently carried.
the more necessary, as agriculture is a practical art; This terrace cultivation has necessarily increased
and those of the Hebrews who were acquainted  or declined with the population.  If the people
with the practices of Egyptian husbandry had  were so few that the valleys afforded sufficient food
died in the wilderness; and even had they lived, for them, the more difficult culture of the hills
the processes proper to a hot climate and alluvial was neglected; but when the population was too
soil, watered by river inundation, like that of large for the valleys to satisfy with bread, then the
Egypt, although the same in essential forms, could hills were laid under cultivation.
not have been altogether applicable to so different  In such a climate as that of Palestine, water is
a country as Palestine.                       the great fertilizing agent. The rains of autumn
As the nature of the climate and of the seasons and winter, and the dews of spring, suffice for the
affects all agricultural operations, it should be ordinary objects of agriculture; but the ancient
noticed that the variations of sunshine and rain, inhabitants were able, in some parts, to avert even
which with us extend throughout the year, are in the aridity which the summer droughts occasioned,
Palestine confined chiefly to the latter part of and to keep up a garden-like verdure, by means of
autumn and the winter. During all the rest of the aqueducts communicating with the brooks and
year the sky is almost uninterruptedly cloudless, rivers (Ps. i. 3; lxv. Io; Prov. xxi. I; Is. xxx.
and rain very rarely falls.  The autumnal rains 25; xxxii. 2. 20; Hos. xii. II). Hence springs,
usually commence at the end of October, or at the fountains, and rivulets were as much esteemed by
beginning of November, not suddenly, but by husbandmen as by shepherds (Josh. xv. 19; Judg.
degrees, which gives opportunity to the husbandman i. 15). The soil was also cleared of stones, and
to sow his wheat and barley. The rains continue carefully cultivated; and its fertility was induring November and December, but afterwards creased by the ashes to which the dry stubble and
they occur at longer intervals; and rain is rare herbage were occasionally reduced by being burned
after March, and almost never occurs as late as over the surface of the ground (Prov. xxiv. 31; Is.
May. The cold of winter is not severe; and as vii. 23; xxxii. 13). Dung, and, in the neighbourthe ground is never frozen, the labours of the hood of Jerusalem, the blood of animals, were also
husbandman are not entirely interrupted.  Snow  used to enrich the soil (2 Kings ix. 37; Ps. lxxxiii.
falls in different parts of the country, but never lies I1; Is. xxv. I; Jer. ix. 22; Luke xiv. 34, 35).
long on the ground.  In the plains and valleys  That the soil might not be exhausted, it was
the heat of summer is oppressive, but not in the ordered that every seventh year should be a sabbath
more elevated tracts. In these high grounds the of rest to the land: there was then to be no sowing
nights are cool, often with heavy dew. The total no reaping, no pruning of vines or olives, no vintage
absence of rain in summer soon destroys the verdure or gathering of fruits; and whatever grew of itself
of the fields, and gives to the general landscape, was to be left to the poor, the stranger, and the
even in the high country, an aspect of drought and beasts of the field (Lev. xxv. 1-7; Deut. xv. I-io).
barrenness.  No green thing remains but the But such an observance required more faith than
foliage of the scattered fruit-trees, and occasional the Israelites were prepared to exercise. It was for
vineyards and fields of millet.  In autumn the a long time utterly neglected (Lev. xxvi. 34, 35;
whole land becomes dry and parched; the cisterns 2 Chron. xxxvi. 2I), but after the Captivity it was
are nearly empty; and all nature, animate and more observed.   By this remarkable institution
inanimate, looks forward with longing for the return the Hebrews were also trained to habits of economy
of the rainy season. In the hill country the time and foresight, and invited to exercise a large degree
of harvest is later than in the plains of the Jordan  of trust in the bountiful providence of their Divine
and of the sea-coast  The barley harvest is about King.
a fortnight earlier than that of wheat. In the plain  FIELDS.-Under the term 1p^ dagan, which we
of the Jordan the wheat harvest is early in May; translate'grain' and'corn, the Hebrews comin the plains of the coast and of Esdraelon, it is prehended almost every object of field culture.
towards the latter end of that month; and in the Syria, including Palestine, was regarded by the
hills, not until June.  The general vintage is in ancients as one of the first countries for corn
September, but the first grapes ripen in July; and  (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xviii. 7). Wheat was abundant
from that time the towns are well supplied with  and excellent; and there is still one bearded sort,
this fruit (Robinson, Biblical Researches, ii. 96-Ioo). the ear of which is three times as heavy, and conSOIL, etc.-The geological characters of the soil tains twice as many grains, as our common Englishl
in Palestine have never been satisfactorily stated; wheat (Irby and Mangles, p. 472). Barley was
but the different epithets of description which  also much cultivated, not only for bread, but
travellers employ, enable us to know that it differs because it was the only kind of corn which was




AGRICULTURE                  84              AGRICULTURE
given to beasts; for oats and rye do not grow  it was little more than a stout branch of a tree,
in warm climates.  Hay was not in use; and from which projected another limb, shortened and
therefore the barley was mixed with chopped straw  pointed.  This, being turned into the ground,
to form the food of cattle (Gen. xxiv. 25, 32; made the furrow; while at the farther end of the
Judg. xix. 19, etc.)  Other kinds of field culture larger branch was fastened a transverse yoke, to
were millet, spelt, various species of beans and which the oxen were harnessed.  Afterwards a
peas, pepperwort, cummin, cucumbers, melons, handle to guide the plough was added.  Thus
flax, and, perhaps, cotton. Many other articles the plough consisted of-I. the pole; 2. the point
might be mentioned as being now cultivated in or share; 3. the handle; 4. the yoke. The Syrian
Palestine; but, as their names do not occur in plough is, and doubtless was, light enough for a
Scripture, it is difficult to know whether they were man to carry in his hand (Russell's Arat. Hist. of
grown there in ancient times, or not.        Aleppo, i. 73). We annex a figure of the ancient
Anciently, as now, in Palestine and the East Egyptian plough, which had the most resemblance
the arable lands were not divided into fields by
hedges, as in this country. The ripening products
therefore presented an expanse of culture unbroken,
although perhaps variegated, in a large view, by
the difference of the products grown. The boundaries of lands were therefore marked by stones as        \ 
landmarks, which, even in patriarchal times, it was
deemed a heinous wrong to remove (Job xxiv. 2);
and the law pronounced a curse upon those who,
without authority, removed them (Deut. xix. 14;        f 
xxvii. 17).  The walls and hedges which are
occasionally mentioned in Scripture belonged to                  x8.
orchards, gardens, and vineyards.
orchards, gardens,.and vineyards,  to the one now used (as figured in No. i6), and the
comparison between them will probably suggest a
fair idea of the plough which was in use among the
Hebrews. The following cut (from Mr. Fellowes'
work on Asia Minor) shews the parts of a still
i6.
AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS.-Of late years
much light has been thrown upon the agricultural                                 6
operations and implements of ancient times, by the
discovery of various representations on the sculptured
monuments and painted tombs of Egypt. As theseI9
agree surprisingly with the notices in the Bible,  1. The plough.  2. The pole.  3. Shares (various).
and, indeed, differ little from what we find em-  4. Handle.  5. Yokes.  6. Ox-goad.
ployed in Syria and Egypt, it is very safe to receive
them as guides on the present subject (See Gosse's lighter plough used in Asia Minor and Syria, with
Assyria, p. 560).                            but a single handle, and with different shares
Ploughing.-This has always been a light and according to the work it has to execute.
superficial operation in the East.  At first, the  The plough was drawn by oxen, which were
ground was opened with pointed sticks; then, a sometimes urged by a scourge (Is. x. 26; Nahum
kind of hoe was employed; and this, in many parts iii. 2); but oftener by a long staff, furnished at one
of the world, is still used as a substitute for the end with a flat piece of metal for clearing the
plough, and at the other with a spike for goading
the oxen. This ox-goad might be easily used as a
spear (Judg. iii. 31; I Sam. xiii. 21). Sometimes
men followed the plough with hoes to break the
clods (Is. xxviii. 24); but in later times a kind of
harrow was employed, which appears to have been
then, as now, merely a thick block of wood
11/  1  1  //l11,pressed down by a weight, or by a man sitting on
it and drawn over the ploughed field.
Sowing. —The ground, having been ploughed
17-.as soon as the autumnal rains had mollified the
soil, was fit, by the end of October, to receive the
plough.  But the plough was known in Egypt seed; and the sowing of wheat continued, in difand Syria before the Hebrews became cultivators ferent situations, through November into Decem(Job. i. I4). In the East, however, it has always ber. Barley was not generally sown till January
been a light and inartificial implement. At first, and February.  The seed appears to have been




AGRICULTURE                   85             AGRICULTURE
sown and harrowed at the same time; although  hoe (fotr breaking the clods) the sower followed tlhe
sometimes it was ploughed in by a cross furrow.  plough, holding in the left hand a basket of seed,
^r.-fwwsy^, ~which he scattered with the right hand, while
another person filled a fresh basket. We also see
^f  /~>  ^^?^?that the mode of sowing was what we call'broadcast,' in which the seed is thrown loosely over the
field (Mat. xiii. 3-8). In Egypt, when the levels.>".jwere low, and the water had continued long upon
the land, they often dispensed with the plough
altogether; and probably, like the present inhabitVl.\..,  ants, broke up the ground with hoes, or simply
^ —--— S-% V    dragged the moist mud with bushes after the seed
had been thrown upon the surface.   To this
cultivation without ploughing Moses probably
alludes (Deut. xi. io), when he tells the Hebrews
that the land to which they were going was not
like the land of Egypt, where they'sowed their
seed and watered it with their foot as a garden of
SI *_herbs.' It seems, however, that even in Syria, in
sandy soils, they sow without ploughing, and then
20.                      plough down the seed (Russell's N. H. of Aleppo,
Ploughing in the Seed.-The Egyptian paintings i. 73, etc.) It does not appear that any instruillustrate the Scriptures by shewing that in those ment resembling our harrow was known; the word
soils which needed no previous preparation by the rendered to harrow, in Job xxxix. o10, means literally
7r5i
ii~~~~~~~~~i
21.
to break the clods, and is so rendered in Is. xxviii. choice between these modes of operation was pro24; Hos. x. 11; and for this purpose the means bably determined, in Palestine, by the consideration
used have been already indicated. The passage inpointed out by Russell (N. H. of Aleppo, i. 74),
Job, however, is important. It shews that this who states that' wheat, as well as barley in general,
breaking of the clods was not always by the hand, does not grow half as high as in Britain; and is
but that some kind of instrument was drawn by an therefore, like other grain, not reaped with the
animal over the ploughed field, most probably the sickle, but plucked up by the roots with the hand.
rough log which is still in use.             In other parts of the country, where the corn grows
Harvest. —It has been already mentioned that ranker, the sickle is used.' When the sickle was
the time of the wheat harvest in Palestine varies, used, the wheat was either cropped off under the
in different situations, from early in May to late in ear or cut close to the ground. In the former case,
June; and that the barley harvest is about a fort- the straw was afterwards plucked up for use; in
night earlier than that of wheat.  Among the
Israelites, as with all other people, the harvest was
a season of joy, and as such is more than once
alluded to in Scripture (Ps. cxxvi. 5; Is. ix. 3).
Reaping.-Different modes of reaping are indi-      -     9
cated in Scripture, and illustrated by the Egyptian 
monuments. In the most ancient times, the corn 
was plucked up by the roots, which continued to 
23.
the latter, the stubble was left and burnt on the
ground for manure. As the Egyptians needed not
II/_1[~~~~ || If.such manure, and were economical of straw, they
generally followed the former method; while the
\\M\\\\''nt^l ~Israelites, whose lands derived benefit from the
burnt stubble, used the latter; although the practice of cutting off the ears was also known to them
22.                      (Job xxiv. 24).  Cropping the ears short, the
be the practice with particular kinds of grain after Egyptians did not generally bind them into sheaves,
the sickle was known. In Egypt, at this day, but removed them in baskets. Sometimes, howbarley and dourra are pulled up by the roots. The I ever, they bound them into double sheaves; and




AGRICULTURE                   86              AGRICULTURE
such as they plucked up were bound into single reapers drinking, and gleaners applying to share:
long sheaves. The Israelites appear generally to the draught. Among the Israelites, gleaning was
26.
one of the stated provisions for the poor: and for
their benefit the corners of the field were left un24-                      reaped, and the reapers might not return for a forhave made up their corn into sheaves (CEen. xxxvii. gotten sheaf. The gleaners, however, were to
7; Lev. xxiii. 10-I5; Ruth ii. 7, 15; Job xxiv. obtain in the first place the express permission of
IO; Jer. ix. 22; Mich. iv. I2), which were col- the proprietor or his steward (Lev. xix. 9, 1o;
lected into a heap, or removed in a cart (Amos ii. Deut. xxiv. I9; Ruth ii. 2, 7).
I3) to the threshing-floor. The carts were probably similar to those which are still employed for
the same purpose. The sheaves were never tnade 
up into shocks, as with us, although the word
occurs in our translation of Judg. xv. 5; Job v. 26                 \ 
for the original term signifies neither a shock coitnposed of a few sheaves standing temporarily in the                 i          /    W I'
field, nor a stack of many sheaves in the home-                   A \ -'
yard, properly thatched, to stand for a length of',
time; but a heap of sheaves laid loosely together,  ^'>-o -~
in order to be trodden out as quickly as possible,                  7
in the same way as is done in the East at the pre- 
sent day (Brown, Antiq. of the Jews, ii. 59).   Threshing.-hee ancient mode of threshing, as
With regard to sickles, there appear to have described in Scripture and figured on the Egyptian
been two kinds, indicated by the different names monuments, is still preserved in Palestine. Forch-ei.rinesh / ^\ and me2g /3  i  jn  a  merly the sheaves were conveyed from the field to
chermesh ( l)  and meggol ( ); and as thethe threshing-floor in carts; but now they are
former occurs only in the Pentateuch (Deut. xvi. 9; borne, generally, on the backs of camels and asses.
xxiii. 25), and the latter only in the Prophets (Jer. The threshingfloor is a level plot of ground, of a
1. I6; Joel iii. I3), it would seem that the one circular shape, generally about fifty feet in diawas the earlier and the other the later instrument.meter, prepared for use by beating down the earth
-ut as we observe two very different kinds of till a hard floor is formed (Gen. 1.; Judg. vi.
sickles in use among the Egyptians, not only at the 37* 2 Sam. xxit. 06, 24). Sometimes several of
same time, but in the same eld (see cut, No. 25), these floors are contiguous to each other. The
it may have been so with the Jews also. Te    sheaves are spread out upon them; and the grain
figures of these Egyptian sickles probably mark is trodden out by oxen, cows, and young cattle,
the difference between them.   One was veryarranged five abreast, and driven in a circle, or
much like our common reaping-hook, while the rather in all directions, over the floor. This was
other had more resemblance in its shape to a the common mode in the Bible times; and Moses
scythe, and in the Egyptian examples appears to forbade that the oxen thus employed should be
have been toothed.   This last is probably the  muzzled to prevent them from tasting the corn
same as the Hebrew meggol, which is indeed ren-(Deut. xxv. 4  I. xxviii. 28). Flails, or sticks,
dered by scythe in the margin of Jer. 1. i6. The were only used in threshing small quantities, or
reapers were the owners and their children, men- for the lighter kinds of grain (Ruth. ii. 7; Is.
xxviii. 27). There were, however, some kinds of
threshing-machines, which are still used in Palestine and Egypt. One of them, represented in the
annexed figure, is very much used in Palestine. It
is composed of two thick planks, fastened together
servants and women-servants, and day-labourers 
(Ruth ii. 4, 6, 2I, 23; John iv. 36; James v. 4)., _
Refreshments were provided for them, especially
drink, of which the gleaners were allowed to partake (Ruth ii. 9). So in the Egyptian harvest-28
scenes, we perceive a provision of water in skins, side by side, and bent upwards in front. Sharp
hung against trees, or in jars upon stands, with the fragments of stone are fixed into holes bored in the




AGRICULTURE                   87                AGRIELAIA
bottom. This machine is drawn over the corn by 24; Jahn, Biblisches Archdologie, b. i. ch. i. kap.
oxen-a man or boy sometimes sitting on it to in- 4; Winer, Biblisches Realwiirterbuch, s. v.'Accrease the weight. It not only separates the grain, kerbau;' Paulsen, Ackerbau d. Morgenldnder;
but cuts the straw and makes it fit for fodder (2 Surenhusius, Mischna, part i.; Ugolini, De Re
Kings xiii. 7). This is, most probably, the Char- Rustica Vett. Hebrcorum, in Thesaurus, t. xxix.;
utz Mrmn, or'corn-drag,' which is mentioned in Norberg, De Agricult. Orientali, in Opuscc. Acad.
Scripture (Is. xxviii. 27; xli. I5; Amos i. 3, iii.; Reynier, De lEconomie Publique et Rurale
rendered'threshing instrument'), and would seem  des Arabes et des 7uifs; Brown, Antiquities of the
to have been sometimes furnished with iron points yews; Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palestine;
instead of stones.  The bible also notices a Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians; Description de
machine called a Moreg, fl1D (2 Sam. xxiv. ~Egypte, Antiquits, and Etat Moderne; Rosel22; I Chron. xxi. 23; Is. xli. 15), which is un- lini, Monumenti dell Egitto.  Layard's AVineveh,
questionably the same which bears in Arabic the etc., 1849; Layard's Nineveh and Babylon, i853;
name of      *I Norej    This is explained by  Grosse's Assyria, 1852. Kitto's Pictorial History
rE'vy^'       "'s~ of Palestine, Physical History,'History of the
Freytag (from the Kamoos Lex.) by-' tribulum, Months'). —J. K.
instrumentum, quo fruges in area teruntur (in
Syria), siveferreum, sive ligneum.' This machine  AGRIELAIA (Aoh eoe-eea; New  Test. by S.is not now often seen in Palestine; but is more Paul i) The wRld olive-tree 17  mentioned by St.
used in some parts of Syria, and is common inPaulinRomansXi. 17,24. Heredifferentopinions
Egypt. It is a sort of frame of wood, in which are have been entertained, not only with respect to the
inserted three wooden rollers, armed with iron plant, but also with respect to the explanation of
teeth, etc. It bears a sort of seat or chair, in the metaphor. One greatdifficultyhas arisen from
which the driver sits to give the benefit of his the same name having been applied to different
weight. It is generally drawn over the corn by plants. Thus by Dioscorides (De Mater. Med. i.
two oxen, and separates the grain, and breaks up  I37) it is stated that the'AypteXaia, or wild olivethe straw even more effectually than the drag. In tee, is by some called Cotinus, and by others, the
all these processes the corn is occasionally turned Ethiopic olive. So in the notes to Theoph. ed
by a fork; and, when sufficiently threshed, is Boda Stapel, p. 224^ we read,'Sed hic K6Tvos
thrown up by the same fork against the wind to lego cum Athenao, id est oleaster. Est vero alius
separate the grain, which is then gathered up and  cotinus, frutex, de quo Plinius, xvi. i8. Est et in
winnowed.                                     Apennino frutex qui vocatur Cotinus, ad lineamenta
modo conchylii colore insignis.' Hence the wild, —                 —.olive-tree has been confounded with rhus cotinus,
I-' g'.... v-or Venetian sumach, with which it has no point of
/..,\       Enx 4'w;\c  ^resemblance. Further confusion has arisen from
^,,v       the present EIceagnus angustifolia of botanists hav-'(, "     ) \t, (                        ing been at one time called Otea sylvestris. Hence. I: /,;,''. _    _, 7                 it has been inferred that the'ApptcXata is this very
i' HBB^^; =: l^ C ^%,           EElaeagnus, E. angustifolia, or the narrow-leafed
Oleaster-tree of Paradise of the Portuguese. In
a_,_- _many points it certainly somewhat resembles the
5~..            _._-5-=  -,5  true olive-tree-that is, in the form and appearance
- -'   -- -ss_^ —-^ —of the leaves, in the oblong-shaped fruit (edible
in some of the species), also in an oil being ex29.                      pressed from the kernels; but it will not explain
Winnowing.-This was generally accomplished  the present passage, as no process of grafting will
by repeating the process of tossing up the grain enable the Eleagnus to bear olives of any kind.
against the wind with a fork (Jer. iv. II, 12), by'If we examine a little further the account given
which the broken straw and chaff were dispersed by Dioscorides of the'AypteXaaa, we find in i. 141,
while the grain fell to the ground. The grain IIepl 6aKp6ov Xalas Al1&ortKf)S, that our olives and
wild olives exude tears-that is, a gum or resin, like
-:S~i^  /the Ethiopic olive. Here it is important to remark
that the wild olive of the Grecians is distinguished
from the wild olive of Ethiopia. What plant the
(j^/;$ -', *^^latter may be, it is not perhaps easy to determine
with certainty; but Arabian authors translate the
name by zait-al-Soudqn, or the olive of Ethiopia.
E,t.1  j A|Other synonymes for it are louz-al-bur, or wild
almond; and badam kohee, i. e., mountain almond.
Under the last name the writer has obtained the
kernels of the apricot in Northern India, and it is
~t^,:.'.:; — -1 ^:r-  *..given in Persian works as one of the synonymes of
v..:  g\;l  t gt^t'the burkookh, or apricot, which was originally
called apricock and prsecocia, no doubt from the
30-Arabic burkookh. The apricot is extensively cultiafterwards passed through a sieve to separate the vated in the Himalayas, chiefly on account of the
bits of earth and other impurities. After this, it un- clear beautiful oil yielded by its kernels, on which
derwent a still further purification, by being tossed account it might well be compared with the oliveup with wooden scoops or short-handed shovels, tree; But it does not serve better than the Elaesuch as we see in Egyptian paintings (Is. xxx. agnus to explain'the passage of St. Paul.




AGRIPPA                    88                   AHAB
From the account of Dioscorides, however, it is tress or grief, and its migratory habits are frequently
clear that the Ethiopic was distinguished from the dwelt upon by ancient writers (see the passages
wild, and this from the cultivated olive; and as the collected on both points by Bochart). This view
plant was well known both to the Greeks and has been followed by Rosenmiller, Maurer, and
Romans, there was no danger of mistaking it for Henderson, in their comments on Isaiah, and by
any other plant except itself in a wild state, that is, Winer (R. W. B. on Schwalbe). Gesenius, though
the true'AypteXala, Oleaster, or Olea europcaa, in seeming to favour this view in his commentary on
a wild state. That this is the very plant alluded to Isaiah, repudiates it in his Thesaurus, where he
by the apostle seems to be proved from its having treats'Agur as a verbal adjective signifying chatterbeen the practice of the ancients to graft the wild ing or twittering, and regards it as an epithet cf
upon the cultivated olive tree. Thus Pliny (Hist. the swallow in the passage in Isaiah, and as a
Nat. xvii. 18) says,' Africae peculiare quidem in designation of the swallow in that in Jeremiah.
oleastro est inserere. Quadam aeternitate consenes- This is followed by Knobel (D. Pr. les. verklart).
cunt proxima adoptioni virga emissa, atque ita alia It is in favour of this, that in the former the copuarbore ex eadem juvenescente: iterumque et quoties lative is wanting between the two words; but this
opus sit, ut aevis eadem oliveta constent. Inseritur may be explained as a case of asyndeton (as in
autem oleaster calamo, et inoculatione.' In the Hos. vi. 3; Hab. iii. ii, etc.); whereas the inser-' Pictorial Bible' this practice has already been tion of the I in the other passage seems clearly to
adduced as explaining the text; and Theophrastus prove that'Agur and Sus denote different birds.
and Columella (De Re Rust. v. 9) also refer to it. Hitzig, indeed, proposes to strike out this copula,
The apostle, therefore, in comparing the Romans but without sufficient reason.  Maurer derives
to the wild olive tree grafted on a cultivated stock, nl  from Arab. n  hrbavil aquam  so as to
made use of language which was most intelligible,                  r, 
and referred to a practice with which they must designate an aquatic bird; Knobel would trace it to
have been perfectly familiar.-J. F. R.            to mournpiteously.-W. L. A.
AGRIPPA. [HERODIAN FAMILY.] Although                   brother) or rather A
of the two Herods, father and son, who also bore  AH (nd, brdner) or rather Ad H, is freqently
the name of Agrippa, the latter is best known by  ound, according to the inadequate representation
his Roman name, it seems proper to include him of the guttural which  fllowed i our version,
with the other members of the Herodian dynasty, as the first syllable of compound Hebrew proper
under the name which he bore among his own names. The observations already offered in the
peonple.                                      article AB may be referred to for some illustration
of the metaphorical use of the term brother in
AGUR (:iK), the author of the sayings con- such combinations, as well as for the law of their
tained in Prov. xxx., which the inscription describes construction, whenever the two members are nouns
as composed of the precepts delivered by'Agur, of which one is dependent as a genitive on the
the son of Jakeh,' to his friends'Ithiel and Ucal.' other.-J. N.
Beyond this everything that has been stated of   AHAB (bng, faters brother; Sept.'AXad),
him, and of the time in which he lived, is pure con-     -            b
jecture. Some writers have regarded the name as I. The son of Omri, and the seventh king of Israel,
an appellative, but differ as to its signification. who reigned twenty-two years, from B.c. 918 to
The Vulgate has'Verba Congregantis filii Vom- 897. Ahab was, upon the whole, the weakest of
entis.' Most of the fathers think that Solomon  all the Israelitish monarchs; and although there
himself is designated under this name; and if the are occasional traits of character which shew that
word is to be understood as an appellative, it he was not without good feelings and dispositions,
may be as well to look for its meaning in the the history of his reign proves that weakness of
Syriac, where, according to Bar Bahlul in Castell. character in a king may sometimes be as injurious
means-p, qui sa \~lra.in its effects as wickedness. Many of the evils of:Ml means qui safientia studils se applicat. his reign may be ascribed to the close connection
The Septuagint omits the chapter ascribed to Agur, which he formed with the Phoenicians. There had
as well as the first nine verses of the following long been a beneficial commercial intercourse bechapter.                                     tween that people and the Jews; and the relations'AGR TT  \  Th*is wdcv... rarising thence were very close in the times of
JAGUR1 (C18).  This word occurs Is. xxxv`l. pDavid and Solomon. After the separation of the
14 and Jer. viii. 7; in both cases in connection withkingdoms, the connection appears to have been
DI3, but in the latter the two words are connected  continued by the nearer kingdom of Israel, but to
by the copulative 1, while in the former this is have been nearly, if not quite, abandoned by that
wanting.  In the A. V. it is translated swallow in of Judah. The wife of Ahab was Jezebel, the
both places, while DID is translated crane. Bo- daughter of Ethbaal, or Ithobaal, king of Tyre.
chart, however, reverses this, and maintains that She was a woman of a decided and energetic cha-'Agur is the proper Hebrew designation of the racter, and, as such, soon established that influcrane. He compares the word with the Chald. ence over her husband which such women always
Kf1Il kurkeya, the Arab.   (c kIurki, the Gr. acquire over weak, and not unfrequently also over
%.. >-,        strong, men. Ahab, being entirely under the conytpavoS, the Welsh garan, and the Germ. kran, trol of Jezebel, sanctioned the introduction, and
all of which are like it onomatopoetic. In Is. eventually established the worship of the Phoenician
xxxviii. 14 the'Agur is a bird that utters a twitter- idols, and especially of the sun-god Baal. Hitherto
ing or querulous sound (}noe), and in Jer. viii. 7 the golden calves in Dan and Bethel had been the
it is ranked with migratory birds.  Both these only objects of idolatrous worship in Israel, and
characteristics meet in the crane;.its cry is often they were intended as symbols of JEHOVAH. But
compared by the poets with that of a person in dis- all reserve and limitation were now abandoned.




AHALIM                     89                 AHALIM
The king built a temple at Samaria, and erected  Aspalatus, Crocus, etc., mention is also made of
an image, and consecrated a grove to Baal. A  Agallochum, which is described as a wood brought
multitude of the priests and prophets of Baal were frem India and Arabia. In this list, which we
maintained.  Idolatry became the predominant shall afterwards have frequent occasion to refer to,
religion; and Jehovah, with the golden calves as we find Agallochum associated with most of the
symbolical representations of him, were viewed same substances which are mentioned along with
with no more reverence than Baal and his image. it in the above passages of Scripture, whereas the
So strong was the tide of cprruption, that it ap- author describes the true aloe in a very different
peared as if the knowledge of the true God was part of his work.  Subsequently to the time of
soon to be for ever lost among the Israelites. At Dioscorides, we find Agallochum mentioned by
length the judgment of God on Ahab and his Orobasius, lEtius, and P. IEgineta; but they add
house was pronounced by Elijah, who announced nothing to the first description. The Arabs, howthat, during the reign of his son, his whole race ever, as Rhases, Serapion, and Avicenna, were
should be exterminated. Ahab died of the wounds well acquainted with this substance, of which they
which he received in a battle with the Syrians, describe several varieties, mostly named from the
according to a prediction of Micaiah, which the places where they were produced, and give other
king disbelieved, but yet endeavoured to avert by particulars respecting it, besides quoting Diosdisguising himself in the action (i Kings xvi. 29; corides and previous authors of their own country.
xxii. 40).                                    In the Latin translation of Avicenna these descrip2. A false prophet, who, in conjunction with tions appear under Agallochum, Xilaloe, and LigZedekiah, deceived the Israelites at Babylon. For num aloes; but in the Arabic edition of the same
this they were threatened by Jeremiah, who fore- author, under        Aghlajoon, 
told that they should be put to death by the king
of Babylon in the presence of those whom they Aghalookhi, but most fully under L'Aod, prohad beguiled; and that in following times it should
become a common malediction to say,'The Lord nounced ood.   This is one instance, and many
make thee like Ahab and Zedekiah whom the king others might be adduced, of the Arabs describing
of Babylon roasted in the fire' (Jer. xxix. 21, 22). the same thing under two names, when they found
-J. K.                                        a substance described by the Greeks-that is,
rAHAIM   V. T and AHALOTI- r Kr  Galen and Dioscorides, under one name, and were
AHALIM     (tt   and AHALOTH /li K), themselves acquainted with it under another. In
usually translated ALOES, occur in several pas- the Persian works on Materia Medica (vide ABATsages of the Old Testament, as in Ps. xlv. 8,' All TICHIM) we are informed that agallokhee is the
thy garments smell of myrrh, and ahaloth, and  Greek name of this substance, and that the Hindee
cassia;' Prov. vii. I7,'I have perfumed my bed name of one kind, by them called aod-i-hindee is
with myrrh, with cinnamon and ahalim;' Canticles aggur.  Having thus traced a substance which
iv. 14,' Spikenard and saffron, calamus and cin- was said to come from India to the name by which
namon, with all trees of frankincense, myrrh, and it is known in that country, the next process would
ahaloth, with all the chief spices.'  From  the perhaps naturally have been to procure the subarticles which are associated with ahaloth and stance, and trace it to the plant which yielded it.
ahalim (both names indicating the same thing), We, however, followed the reverse method; having
it is evident that it was some odoriferous substance, first obtained the substance called Aggur, we traced
probably well known in ancient times. Why these it, through its Asiatic synonymes, to the Agallowords have been translated'aloes,' not only in chum of Dioscorides, and, as related in the Illustr.
the English, but in most of the older versions, it of Himalayan Botany, p. 171, obtained in the
may not be easy to ascertain; but there is little bazaars of Northern India three varieties of this
doubt that the odoriferous ahaloth of the above far-famed and fragrant wood-I. aod-i-hindee; 2.
passages ought not to be confounded with the a kind procured by commerce from Surat, which,
bitter and nauseous aloes famed only as a medicine, however, does not appear to differ essentially from
The latter, no doubt, has some agreeable odour, the third, aod-i-kimaree, which was said to come
when of the best quality from the island of Socotra, from China, and is, no doubt, the alcamericum of
and when freshly-imported pieces are first broken  Avicenna.
some not unpleasant odour may also be perceived  In the north-western provinces of India aggur
when small pieces are burnt. But common aloes is said to be brought from Surat and Calcutta.
is usually disagreeable in odour and nauseous in  Garcias ab Horto (Clusius, Exotic. Hist.), writing
taste, and could never have been employed as a on this subject near the former place, says that it
perfume. Its usual name in Arabic, sibbar, has no is called'in Malacca garro, selectissimum autem
resemblance to its European name. The earliest Calambac.' Dr. Roxburgh, writing in Calcutta,
notice of aloes seems to be that of Dioscorides, states that ugooroo is the Sanscrit name of the
iii. 25; the next that of Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxvii. 5). incense or aloe-wood, which in Hindee is called
Both describe it as being brought from  India, ugoor, and in Persian aod-hindee; and that there
whence also probably came its name, which is is little or no doubt that the real calambac or
elwa in Hindee.                               agallochum of the ancients is yielded by an imThe oldest and most complete account with mense tree, a native of the mountainous tracts east
which we are acquainted of the fragrant and aro- and south-east from Silhet, in about 24~ of N. latimatic substances known to the ancients is that tude. This plant, he says, cannot be distinguished
given in the first twenty-eight chapters of the first from thriving plants exactly of the same age of the
book of Dioscorides.  There, along with Iris, Garo de Malacca received from that place, and
Acorum, Cyperum, Cardamomum, several Nards, then in the Botanic Garden of Calcutta.    He
Asarum, Phu, Malabathrum, Cassia, Cinnamon, further states that small quantities of agallochum
Costus, Schenus, Calamus aromaticus, Balsamum, are sometimes imported into Calcutta by sea from




AHALIM                     90                 AHALIM
the eastward; but that such is always deemed in- caria; the specific one of agallochum he applied,
ferior to that of Silhet (Flora Ind. ii. 423).  because its wood is similar to and often substituted
The Garo de Malacca was first described by for agallochum;'Lignum hoc tantam habet cum
Lamarck from a specimen presented to him by agallocho similitudinem.'  And he states that it
Sonnerat as that of the tree which yielded the was sometimes exported as such to Europe, and
bois d'aigle of commerce. Lamarck named this even to China. This tree, the Excaecaria agallotree Aquilaria Malaccensis, which Cavanilles after- chum, of the Linnsean class and order Dioecia
wards changed unnecessarily to A. ovata. As Dr. triandria, and the natural family of Euphorbiaceae,
Roxburgh found that his plant belonged to the is also very common in the delta of the Ganges,
same genus, he named it Aquilaria Agallochum, where it is called Geria;'but the wood-cutters of
but it is printed Agallocha in his Flora Indica, the Sunderbunds,' Dr. Roxburgh says,'who are
probably by an oversight. He is of opinion that the people best acquainted with the nature of this
the Agallochum secundarium of Rumphius (Amb. tree, report the pale, white, milky juice thereof to
ii. 34, t. 10), which that author received under the be highly acrid and very dangerous.' The only
name of Agallochum malaccense, also belongs to  use made of the tree, as far as Dr. Roxburgh could
the same genus, as well as the Sinfoo of Kaempfer learn, was for charcoal and firewood. Agallochum
(Aman. ESxot. p. 903), and the Ophisipermum   of any sort is, he believed, never found in this
sinense of Loureiro.                          tree, which is often the only one quoted as that
~A^~ -.~.~           ^yielding agila-wood; but, notwithstanding the nega^^'~..x'~-,..//,~-,7 ^tive testimony of Dr. Roxburgh, it may, in parV"~' c,,..: H'.      ticular situations, as stated by Rumphius, yield a
substitute for that fragrant and long-famed wood.
~'- ~' ~' c^x.        Having thus traced the agallochum of commerce
to the trees which yield it, it is extremely interestW —\'   r   a   ing to find that the Malay name of the substance,
which is agila, is so little different from the Hebrew;
not more, indeed, than may be observed in many
) Itv     well-known words, where the hardgof one language
is turned into the aspirate in another. It is there~ s  / Xfore probable that it was by the name agila (aghil,
in Rosenmiiller, Bibl. Bot. p. 234) that this wood
^^^^ l'\:l~.j> Vwas first known in commerce, being conveyed
across the Bay of Bengal to the island of Ceylon or
the peninsula of India, which the Arab or Phoenician traders visited at very remote periods, and
where they obtained the early-known spices and
precious stones of India. It is not a little curious
that Captain Hamilton (Account of E. Indies, i. 68). Aquilaria Ag.       mentions it by the name of agala, an odoriferous
Aquilaria Agallochum.wood at Muscat. We know that the Portuguese,
These plants belong to the Linnsean class and when they reached the eastern coast from the
order Decandria monogynia, and the natural family peninsula, obtained it under this name, whence
of Aquilarinece; at all events, we have two trees they called it pao d'aguila, or eagle-wood; which
ascertained as yielding this fragrant wood-one, is the origin of the generic name Aquilaria.
Aquilaria Agallochum, a native of Silhet; and the he term aga, which in Hebrew we suppose
I The term agila, which in Hebrew we suppose
other, A. ovata or ma^laccenri, a native. of Malacca. to have been converted into ahel, and from which
The missionary Loureiro, in his description of the were formed ahalim and ahaoth, appears to have
flora of Cochin-China, describes a third plant, been the source of its confusion with aloes. Sprenwhich he names Aloexylum,'idem est ac lignum  gel has observed that the primitive name seems to
aloe,' and the species A. Agallochum, represented 
as a large tree growing in the lofty mountains of be preserved in the Arabic appellations  Jhl and
Champava belonging to Cochin-China, about the         hich may be            (    a     
13th degree of N. latitude, near the great river    w             read a     (or alloet) and'Lavum:''Omnes veri aloes ligni species ex hacallieh. These come extremely near \   aelwa,
arbore procedunt, etiam  pretiosissima, quae dici1
solet Calambac.' This tree, belonging to the class pronounced ewa-the Hindoo name of the mediand order Decandria monogynia of Linnaeus, and  cal aloe. Hence the two names became confounded,
the natural family of Leguminosae, has always been  and one of them applied to two very different subadmitted as one of the trees yielding Agallochum. stances. But it was soon found necessary to disBut as Loureiro himself confesses that he had only tinguish the agallochum by the term  ~vXaX6bv,
once seen a mutilated branch of the tree in flower, which has been translated into lign-aloe. That
which, by long carriage, had the petals, anthers, the name aloe was considered to be synonymous
and stigma much bruised and torn, it is not impos- with ahalim, at an early period, is evident, as'the
sible that this may also belong to the genus Aqui- Chaldee translation of the Psalms and Canticles,
laria, especially as his tree agrees in so many the old Latin version of the Proverbs and Canticles,
points with that described by Dr. Roxburgh, as and the Syriac translation, have all rendered the
already observed by the latter in his Hist. Flor. Hebrew word by aloes' (Rosenmiiller, L. c. p. 234).
Ind. 1. c. Rumphius has described and figured a There can be little or no doubt that the same odorthird plant, which he named arbor excaecans; from  iferous agila is intended in the passage of John xix.'Blindhout,' in consequence of its acrid juice de- 39. When the body of our Saviour was taken
stroying sight-whence the generic name of Excae- down from the cross, Nicodemus, we are told,




AHALIM                     91               AHASUERUS
brought myrrh and aloes for the purpose of wind- wood until they observe dark-coloured veins yielding it in linen clothes with these spices. But the ing the perfume; these guide them to the place
quantity (IOO lbs.) used has been objected to by containing the aggur, which generally extends but
some writers, and therefore Dr. Harris has sug- a short way through the centre of the trunk or
gested, that,'instead of Kacr6v, it might originally branch.  An essence, or attur, is obtained by
have been &eKar6v, xo lbs. weight.' It is well bruising the wood in a mortar, and then infusing it
known, however, that very large quantities of in boiling water, when the attur floats on the surspices were occasionally used at the funerals of face. Early decay does not seem incident to all
Jews. But before objecting to the quantity of this kinds of agallochum, for we possess specimens of
expensive wood, disputants should have ascertained the wood gorged with fragrant resin (Illustr. Him.
the proportions in which it was mixed with the Bot. p. 173) which shew no symptoms of it; but
myrrh, an article sufficiently abundant and of mo- still it is stated that the wood is sometimes buried
derate price, because easily obtained by the Arabi. in the earth. This may be for the purpose of inans from the opposite coast of Africa. Dr. Harris creasing its specific gravity. A large specimen in
has, moreover, objected, that'the Indian lign-aloes the museum of the East India House displays a
is so odoriferous and so agreeable, that it stands in cancellated structure, in which the resinous parts
no need of any composition to increase or moderate remain, the rest of the wood having been removed,
its perfume.' But this very excellence makes it apparently by decay.-J. F. R.
better suited for mixing with less fragrant substances,  AHASUE S         r  HA
and, however large the quantity of these substances, AHASUERUS (Pitil7), or ACHASHVEROSH,
like the broken vase,'the scent of the roses will is the name, or rather the title, of four Median and
hang round it still.'                         Persian monarchs mentioned in the Bible. The
The only passage where there is any difficulty earlier attempts of Simonis and others to derive
is that in which there is the earliest mention of thethis name from the Persian dcash are unworthy of
ahaloth (Num. xxiv. 6). Here Balaam, referring notlce  Hyde (proposed toRe.  et Pers. p. 43) more
to the flourishing condition of the Israelites, says,boldly roposed to disregard th Masoretic punctua-'as the trees of ahalim, which the Lord hath' as the trees of ahaimn, which the Loread hathtion, and t   o rdthe consonants, Acsuares, so as
planted, and as cedar trees beside the waters.'to corespond with'Ovdpr^  a Persian royal title.
Whether the expression is here to be understood Among those who assume the identity of the names
literally, or merely as a poetical form, is doubtful,Achashverosh and Xerxes, Grotefend believes he
especially as authorities differ as to the true read-has discovered the true orthography of Xerxes in
ing; some versions, as the Septuagint, Vulgate, the arrowhead inscriptions of Persepos.  He
Syriac, and Arabic, having' tents' instead of'lign- hasdeciphered signs representative of the sounds
aloes,' from which it would seem that, in place khshhrsh#, and considers the first part of the word
o    ahi,.e'. fon  ith rcoisto be the Zend form of the later shah,'king'
of br;K, ahalim, they had found in their copies (Heeren's Ideen, i. 2, 350). Gesenius also (in his
Dis~, ohalim (Rosenmiiller p. 235).         Thesaurus) assents to this, except that (as Reland
T T:                                        had done before) he takes the first part of the word
In Arabian authors numerous varieties of agallo- to be the original form of shir, a lion, and the
chum are mentioned. These are enumerated by latter to be that of shah. The Hebrew Achashvarious writers (Cels. Hierobot. p. I43). Persian verosh might thus be a modification of khshhershe:
authors mention only three - I. Aod-i-hindee, the prosthetic aleph being prefixed (as even Scalithat is, the Indian; 2. Aod-i-chinee, or Chinese ger suggested), and a new vowel being inserted bekind (probably that from Cochin-China); while the tween the first two sounds, merely to obviate the
third, or Sumunduree, a term generally applied to  difficulty which, as is well known, all Syro-Arabians
things brought from sea, may have reference to the find in pronouncing two consonants before a vowel.
inferior variety from the Indian islands. In old  One of the highest authorities in such questions,
works, such as those of Bauhin and Ray, three however, A. F. Pott (Etymol. Forschungen, i. p.
kinds are also mentioned:-I. Agallochum pre- lxv.), considers Xerxes to be a compound of the
stantissimum, also called Calambac; 2. A. Officin- Zend csathra, king (with loss of the i), and csahya,
arum, or Palo de Aguilla of Linschoten; 3. A. also meaning king, the original form  of shah;
sylvestre, or Aguilla brava.  But besides these and suggests that Achashverosh-its identity with
varieties, obtained from different localities, perhaps Xerxes, as he thinks, not being established-may
from different plants, there are also distinct varieties, be the Pelvi huzvaresh,'hero' (from hu,'good,'
obtainable from the same plant. Thus in a MS. and sour,' strength'), corresponding to dphios,
account by Dr. Roxburgh, to which we have had which Herodotus (vi. 98) says is the true sense of
access, and where, in a letter, dated 8th Dec. 808, Xerxes. Jahn, indeed, first proposed the derivafrom R. K. Dick, Esq., judge and magistrate at tion from zvaresh (in his Archdi. ii. 2, 244); but
Silhet, it is stated that four different qualities may then he still thought that the first part of the name
be obtained from the same tree -1st, Ghurkee, was dchash-a modem Persian word, which only
which sinks in water, and sells from I2 to i6 seems to denote price, value. Lastly, it deserves
rupees per seer of 2 lbs.; 2d, Doim, 6 to 8 rupees notice that the kethib, in Esther x. I, has rfin,
per seer; 3d, Siniula, which floats in water, 3 to 4 pointed Achashresh; and that the Syriac version
rupees; and 4th, Choorum, which is in small always (and sometimes the Arabic also, as in Dan.
pieces, and also floats in water, from I to II rupee ix. i) writes the name Achshiresh. Ilgen adopts
per seer (the three last names mean only 2d, 3d, the kethib as the authentic consonants of the name;
and 4th kinds); and that sometimes 80 lbs. of these but changes the vowels to Achshdresh, and modifies
four kinds may be obtained from one tree. All his etymology accordingly.
these tugur-trees, as they are called, do not pro-  The first Ahasuerus (Sept.'Aago61pos, Theododuce the Aggur, nor does every part of even the tion, Z-p~ns) is incidentally mentioned, in Dan. ix.,:
most productive tree.  The natives cut into the as the father of Darius the Mede. It is generally




AHASUERUS                    92               AHASUERUS
agreed that the person here referred to is the now in hand, we think it meet not to neglect such
Astyages of profane history.  See the article a matter.' Josephus also (Antiq. xi. 2, i), conDARIUS.                                       formably to his general adherence, in this part, to
The second Ahasuerus (Sept.'Ao-o-oipos) occurs the apocryphal Esdras, both uses, in his letter, the
in Ezra iv. 6, where it is said that in the beginning same terms about the reconstruction of the temple
of his reign the enemies of the Jews wrote an accusa- being then commenced, and even tells the whole
tion against them, the result of which is not men- story as referring to Cambyses, which makes it
tioned. The whole question, as to the Persian  clear that he understood the passage of the immeking here meant, depends on the light in which  diate successor of Cyrus. Thirdly, it is even prothe passage of this chapter, from ver. 6 to 24, is bable,  priori, that the rebuilding of the temple
regarded. The view which Mr. Howes seems to   and of the city itself would, to a certain extent,
have first proposed, and which Dr. Hales adopted  necessarily go on together. The Jews must have
in his Analysis of Chronology, proceeds on the had sufficient time and need, in the fifteen years
theory that the writer of this chapter, after men- between the accession of Cyrus and that of Darius
tioning the interruption to the building of the  Hystaspis, to erect some buildings for the sustetemple from the time of Cyrus down to that of nance and defence of the colony, as well as for
Darius, king of Persia (ver. 1-5), is led, by the carrying on the structure of the temple itself. As
association of the subject, to enter into a detail of we read of'ceiled houses' in Haggai i. 4, they
the hindrances thrown in the way of building and may have built defences sufficient to give a colour
fortifying the city (after the temple had been com- to the statements of the letter; and enough to free
pleted), under the successors of Darius Hystaspis a critic from the necessity of transferring the pas(ver. 6-23); and that, after this digressive anticipa- sage in Ezra to the time of Artaxerxes Longimanus,
tion of events posterior to the reign of Darius, he solely because it speaks of the erection of the walls.
returns (in ver. 24) to the history of the building of Moreover, as Ezra (ix. 9) speaks of God having
the temple under that prince. This view necessarily enabled the Jews to repair the temple, and of his
makes the Achashverosh and Artachshashta of ver. having' given them a wall in Jerusalem,' we find
6 and 7 to be the successors of Darius Hystaspis, that, when the temple was finished (and no evidence
i. e., to be Xerxes and Artaxerxes Longimanus. shews how long before that), they actually had
The main argument on which this theory rests, built a wall. Josephus also (Antiq. xi. 4, 4) menseems to be the circumstance that, in the whole tions even'strong walls with which they had surpassage, there is no mention whatever of the rounded the city' before the temple was completed.
temple; but, on the contrary, that the setting up  (It is worth while to remark that Dr. Hales, speak.
the walls of the rebellious city forms the sole ing of this wall of Ezra, endeavours, consistently
ground of complaint: so that the passage must re- with his theory, to make it'most probably mean
fer to what occurred after the temple was finished thefence of a shepherd'sfold, here figuratively taken
(see the extract from Howes in the Pictorial Bible, for their establishment in their own land.' But
ad loc.)                                      any lexicon will shew that'1T  means a fence, a
There are, however, some objections against the wall, generally; and that it is only limited by the
conclusiveness of this reasoning; for, first, even  context to mean the wall of a garden, thefence of
assuming the object of the enemies of the Jews, in a fold).  Again, it is assumed that Nehemiah
this accusation, to have been to hinder the build- shews that the walls of the city were not built
ing of the temple, it is yet easy to conceive how the until his time.  Not such, nor the same, as he
omission of all mention of the temple might be com- erected, granted.  But-to borrow a remark of
patible with their end, and dependent on the means J. D. Michaelis-when we read in Neh. i. 3, of
they were obliged to employ. They could only the Jews who returned to Persia, and who answered
obtain their object through the Persian king; they Nehemiah's inquiry after the fate of the colony,
therefore used arguments likely to weigh with him. by informing him that'the wall of Jerusalem is
They appealed to motives of state policy. Accord- broken down and the gates thereof burned with
ingly, they sought to alarm his jealousy lest the fire,' is it possible that they can refer to the derebellious city should become strong enough to struction of the walls by Nebuchadnezzar, 144
resist tribute, and refuse to allow the transit of his years before? Was such news so long in reaching
armies; they drew attention to the rebuilding of Nehemiah? Is it not much easier to believe that
the defences, as the main point of the argument; the Jews, soon after their return, erected some
and said nothing about the temple, because that defences against the hostile and predatory clans
would be a matter of secondary importance in the around them; and that, in the many years which
only point of view in which the subject would ap- intervene between the books of Nehemiah and
pear to the Persian king. But, secondly, it has Ezra (of which we have no record), there was time
been shewn by a minute inquiry by Trendelenburg  enough for those tribes to have burnt the gates
(in Eichhorn's Einleit. in die Apocryph. Schrift. p. and thrown down the walls of their imperfect forti35I), that the first book of the apocryphal Esdras fications?  Lastly, the view of Mr. Howes seems
is principally a free, but in parts continuous, transla- to require peculiar philological arguments, to retion of the canonical Ezra. It is, therefore, remark- concile the construction of the digression with the
able that the author of Esdras, who has taken this ordinary style of Hebrew narrative, and to point
very account of the accusation from Ezra, was so out the particles, or other signs disjunctive, by
far from discerning the omission of the temnple, and  which we may know that ver. 24 is to be severed
the conclusion that Mr. Howes has drawn from it, from the preceding. Nor is it altogether a trivial
that his letter (ii. I6-30) states, that' The Jews, objection to his theory, that no scholar appears to
being come into Jerusalem, that rebellious city, do have entertained it before himself. The nearest
build the market-place, and repair the walls of it, approach to it has been made by Vitringa, who, in
and do lay thefoundation of the temple... And his Hypotyposi Temporum  (cited in Michaelis's
forasmuch as the things pertaining to the temle re are dnott. Uberior.), suggests, indeed, that ver. 6




AHASUERUS                   93               AHASUERUS
refers to Xerxes, but explains all the rest of the these three circumstances concur, according to the
passage as applying to Cambyses.             testimony of profane history, to exclude all the
If the arguments here adduced are satisfactory, predecessors of Darius Hystaspis.  For Darius
the Ahasuerus of our passage is the immediate was the first Persian king who subdued India,
successor of Cyrus-the frantic tyrant Cambyses, which thenceforth formed the twentieth province
who came to the throne B.C. 529, and died after a of his empire; and, as for Ethiopia, Cambyses,
reign of seven years and five months; and the dis- who first invaded it, only obtained a partial concrepancy between Ezra and the apocryphal Esdras quest there (Herod. iv. 44; iii. 25, 94). Darius
and Josephus-both of whom leave out ver. 6, was also the first who imposed a stated tribute on
and mention only the king of whom the detailed  the different provinces of the empire, as, from the
story of the letter is related, whom the one calls times of Cyrus, the revenue depended on the volunAriaxerxes, and the other Cambyses-may be re- tary gifts of the people (Herod. iii. 89). Lastly,
conciled, by supposing that they each make the the seven princes, and their privilege of seeing the
reigns of Cambyses and of the impostor Smerdis king's face, are traced to the events attending the
into one.                                    elevation of Darius to the throne: when the seven
The third Ahasuerus (Sept. Apractpt7s) is the conspirators who slew the usurper Smerdis stipuPersian king of the book of Esther. The chief lated, before ever it was decided which of their
facts recorded of him there, and the dates of their number should obtain the crown, that all the seven
occurrence, which are important in the subsequent should enjoy special privileges, and, among others,
inquiry, are these: In the third year of his reign this very one of seeing the king at any time withhe made a sumptuous banquet for all his nobility, out announcement (Herod. iii. 84). This is conand prolonged the feast for i80 days. Being on firmed by the fact, that although the Persian counone occasion merry with wine, he ordered his queen  sellors of the time anterior to Darius are often
Vashti to be brought out, to shew the people her mentioned (as when Cambyses laid before them
beauty. On her refusal to violate the decorum of a question parallel to that about Vashti, Herod.
her sex, he not only indignantly divorced her, but iii. 31), yet the definite number seven does not
published an edict concerning her disobedience, in occur; whereas, after Darius, we find the seven
order to insure to every husband in his dominions counsellors both in Estherand again in the reign
the rule in his own house. In the seventh year of of Artaxerxes Longimanus (Ezra vii. 14). (It is
his reign he married Esther, a Jewess, who how- an oversight to appeal to this account of the seven
ever concealed her parentage. In the twelfth year conspirators in order to find the precise number
of his reign, his minister Haman, who had received of seven princes. For the narrative in Herodotus
some slights from Mordecai the Jew, offered him  shews that, as Darius was chosen king from among
Io,ooo talents of silver for the privilege of ordering the seven, there could only be six persons to claim
a massacre of the Jews in all parts of the empire the privilege of seeing the king's face; not to insist
on an appointed day.   The king refused this that Otanes, who made a separate demand for
immense sum, but acceded to his request; and himself, and who withdrew from the party before
couriers were despatched to the most distant pro- those stipulations were made, may possibly have
vinces to enjoin the execution of this decree. Be- reduced the number of privileged counsellors to
fore it was accomplished, however, Mordecai and five.)
Esther obtained such an influence over him, that  But neither can it be Darius Hystaspis himself,
he so far annulled his recent enactment as to although he possesses all these marks of agreement
despatch other couriers to empower the Jews to with the person intended in the book of Esther.
defend themselves manfully against their enemies For, first, not only can none of the names of the
on that day; the result of which was, that they seven conspirators, as given either by Herodotus
slew 800 of his native subjects in Shushan, and or by Ctesias, be brought to accord with the names
75,000 of them in the provinces.             of the seven princes in Esther; but, what is of
Although almost every Medo-Persian king, from  greater importance, it is even more difficult to find
Cyaxares I. down to Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), has the name of Darius himself in Achashverosh.
in his turn found some champion to assert his For, notwithstanding the- diverse corruptions to
title to be the Ahasuerus of Esther, yet the present which proper names are exposed when transmitted
inquiry may reasonably be confined within much through different foreign languages, there is yet
narrower limits than would be requisite for a dis- such an agreement between the Zend name found
cussion of all the rival claims which have been pre- by Grotefend in the cuneiform inscriptions, and the
ferred. A succinct statement, principally derived Darius of the Greeks, and Darjdvesh (the name by
from Justi's ingenious Versuch iiber den K'nig which Darius Hystaspis is undoubtedly designated
Ahasverus (in Eichhorn's Reper.torium, xv. 1-38), elsewhere in the Old Testament), that the genuinewill suffice to shew that Darius Hystaspis is the ness of this title is open to less suspicion than that
earliest Persian king in whom the plainest marks of almost any other Persian king. It would, thereof identity are not evidently wanting; that Darius fore, be inexplicable that the author of the book of
Hystaspis himself is, nevertheless, excluded on less Esther above all others should not only not call
obvious, but still adequate grounds; and that the him by the authentic name of sacred as well as
whole-question lies, and with what preponderance profane history, but should apply to him a name
of probability, between Xerxes and his successor which has been shewn to be given, in almost all
Artaxerxes Longimanus.                       contemporary books of the Old Testament, to
As Ahasuerus reigned from India to Ethiopia other Persian kings. Secondly, the moral evidence
(Esth. i. I), and imposed a tribute (not necessarily is against him.  The mild and just character
for thefirst time) on the land and isles of the sea ascribed to Darius renders it highly improbable
(x. I); and laid the disobedience of Vashti before that, after favouring the Jews from the second to
the seven princes which see the king's face, and the sixth year of his reign, he should become a
sit first in the kingdom (i. 14); it is argued that senseless tool in the hands of Haman, and consent




AHASUERUS                    94               AHASUERUS
to their extirpation. Lastly, we read of his marry- expect the author of the book of Esther to agree
ing two daughters and a granddaughter of Cyrus, with them in the name of the king whom they all
and a daughter of Otanes-and these only; would had had such occasion to know. Nor is it, perDarius have repudiated one of these for such a haps, unimportant to add, that Norberg asserts,
trifle, when his peculiar position, as the first king on the authority of native Persian historians, that
of his race, must have rendered such alliances in- the mother of Bahman, i. e., Artaxerxes Longidispensable?                                  manus, was a Jewess (Opuscula Acad. iii. 218).
It only remains now to weigh the evidence This statement would agree excellently with the
against Artaxerxes, in order to lead more cogently theory that Xerxes was Ahasuerus.  Lastly, the
to the only alternative left-that it is Xerxes. As joint testimony borne to his clemency and magnaArtaxerxes allowed Ezra to go to Jerusalem with a nimity by the acts recorded of him in Ezra and
colony of exiles in the seventh year of his reign Nehemiah, and by the accordant voice of profane
(Ezra vii. I-7); and as he issued a decree in terms writers (Plutarch, Artaxerxes; Diodor. Sic. xi. 71;
so exceedingly favourable to the religious as well as Ammian. Marcell. xxx. 8), prevents us from recogcivil interests of the Jews (giving them liberal grants nising Artaxerxes in the debauched, imbecile, and
and immunities, speaking of their law as the law of cruel tyrant of the book of Esther.
the God of heaven, and threatening punishment to  On the ground of moral resemblance to that
whoever would not do the law of God and of the tyrant, however, every trait leads us to Xerxes.
king, Ezra vii. II-26): how could Haman, five The king who scourged and fettered the sea; who
vears afterwards, venture to describe the Jews to beheaded his engineers because the elements dehim as a people whom, on the very account of stroyed their bridge over the Hellespont; who so
their law, it was not for the king's profit to suffer? ruthlessly slew the eldest son of Pythius because
And how could Haman so directly propose their his father besought him to leave him one sole supextermination, in the face of a decree so signally in port of his declining years; who dishonoured the
their favour, and so recently issued by the same remains of the valiant Leonidas; and who beking? especially as the laws of the Medes and guiled the shame of his defeat by such a course of
Persians might not be altered! Again, as Artaxerxes sensuality, that he publicly offered a reward for
(assuming always that he is the Artachshast of the inventor of a new pleasure-is just the despot
Ezra vii. I, and not Xerxes, as is nevertheless to divorce his queen because she would not exmaintained by J. D. Michaelis, Jahn, and De pose herself to the gaze of drunken revellers; is
Wette) was capable of such liberality to the Jews just the despot to devote a whole people, his subin the seventh year of his reign, let us not forget jects, to an indiscriminate massacre; and by way
that, if he is the Ahasuerus of the book of Esther, of preventing that evil, to restore them the right
it was in that same year that he married the Jewess. of self-defence (which it is hard to conceie how
Now, if-by taking the first and tenth months in the first edict ever could have taken away), and
the seventh year of the king (the dates of the de- thus to sanction their slaughtering thousands of his
parture of Ezra, and of the marriage of Esther) to  other subjects.
be the first and tenth months of the Hebrew year  There are also remarkable coincidences of date
(as is the usual mode of notation; see Hitzig, Die betwee  history of Xerxes and that of Ahaxii Kleinen Propheten, note to Haggai i. i), and suerus. n the historyear of Xerxes and that of Ahater
not the first and tenth from the period of his acces-  e   rn  e  to hi y er of hs eich lasted 8
sion-we assume that the departure of Ezra took gave a grand feast to his nobles, which lasted I 80
sion-we assume that the departure of Ezra took. i. 3; the former, in is third year,
place ar his maiage with her, his clemency days (Esth. i. 3); the former, in his third year,
place tafhes marriagh  e hwith her,e his clemency also assembled his chief officers to deliberate on
might be the effect of her influence on his mind  the invasion of Greece (Herod. vi  8).  Nor
Then we have to explain how he could be induced should we wonder to find no nearer agreement in
to consent to the extirpation of the Jews in the the two accounts than is expressed in the mere
twelfth year of his reign, notwithstanding that her fact of the nobles being assembled. The two reinfluence still continued-for we find it evidently lations are quite compatible; each writer only
at work in the twelfth year. But if, on the other mentioning that aspect of the event which had
hand, his indulgence to Ezra was before his mar- interest for him.  Again, Ahasuerus married
riage, then we have even a greater difficulty to  Esther at Shushan, in the seventh year of his
encounter. For then Artaxerxes must have acted     t                      rein,   ere re
from his own unbiassed lenity, and his purposed  rn  n to Susa with the mortification of his deturned to Susa with the mortification of his decruelty in the twelfth year would place him in an feat, and sought to forget himself in pleasure;incongruous opposition with himself  As we, not an unlikely occasion for that qeest for fair
moreover, find Artaxerxes again propitious to their  as o the  oa   Est    that -st    a
interests, in the twentieth year of hs reign - when virgins for the harem (Esth. ii. 2). Lastly, the
he allowed Nehemiah to return to Jerusalem-it is tribute imposed on the land and isles of the sea
also accords with the state of his revenue, exmuch easier to believe that he was also favourably  hausted by his insane attempt against Greece.
disposed to them in the twelfth. At any rate, it
disposeuld beto them allowing Esthe twelfth. At any rate, it In fine, these arguments, negative and affirmative,
an influence on his disposition, if his clemency in  Ahaser  s of the book of sthe  that  to demans t
the twentieth year was due to her, and not to his Ahasuerus of the book of Esther, that to demand
own inclination.  Besides, the fact that neither more conclusive evidence, would be to mistake the
Ezra nor Nehemiah gives the least hint that the very nature of the question.
liberal policy of Artaxerxes towards them  was  The fourth Ahasuerus ('Aaoioipos) is mentioned
owing to the influence of their countrywoman, is in Tobit xiv. 15, in connection with the destrucan important negative point in the scale of proba- tion of Nineveh. That circumstance points out
bilities. In this case also there is a serious diffi- Cyaxares I. as the person intended (Herod. i.
culty in the name. As Artaxerxes is called Artach- Io6, Rawlinson, Bampton Lecture, p. I85).shast in Ezra and Nehemiah, we certainly might J. N.




AHAVA                      95                 AHAZIAH
AHAVA (KIVnf; Sept.'Aoul, Ezra viii. 21, 31,release from his troublesome protectors. He died
and Eked, verse I5), the river by which the at the age of thirty-six (2 Kings xvi.; 2 Chron.
Jewish exiles assembled their second caravan  xxvl; Is.; Jahn, Bibisches Archdologk,
under Ezra, when returning to Jerusalem.  It i I85; m. 145; Hales, Analysis, i. 4I7-4I9).
would seem from ch. vii. i, that it was desig- [From  2 Kings xviii. 2, it appears that Hezekiah,
nated from a town of the same name:'I assembled haz's son, succeeded him when he was twentythem at the river that flows towards Ahava.' In five years old  But if Ahaz was only thirty-six
that case, it could not have been of much impor- when he died, he must have been a father at eleven
tance in itself; and possibly it was no other than to have had ason twenty-ive years of age at that
one of the numerous canals with which Babylonia tme. As this s incedible, we must suppose an
then abounded. This is probably the true reason  error i the statement that Ahaz was only twenty
that Biblical geographers have failed to identify it.whehe cameto the throne. Te L and the
Some have sought the Ahava in the Lycus or Peshito (2 Chron. xxviii. I) make him twentyLittle Sab, finding that this river was anciently five.]-J. K.
called Adiaba or Diaba. But these names would,  AHAZIAH    (rltn    and iTntN, holder of
in Hebrew characters, have no resemblance to:   a n::T  -   -'      f
KINK; and it is exceedingly unlikely that the Jehovah; Sept.'Oxo as), I. The son and successor
rendezvous for a Palestine caravan should haveof Ahab, and eighth king of Israel. He reigned
been north-east of the Tigris in Assyria, with the two years, B. c. 897-896.  It seems that Jezebel
two great rivers, Tigris and Euphrates, between  exercised over her son the same influence which
them and the plains they were to traverse. It is had guided her husband; and Ahaziah pursued the
not so clear, however, that Rosenmiiller is right in evil courses of his father. The most signal public
supposing that it probably lay to the south-west of event of his reign was the revolt of the Moabites,
Babylonia, because that was in the direction of who took the opportunity of the defeat and death
Palestine. It is too much forgotten by him and of Ahab to discontinue the tribute which they had
other writers, that caravan routes seldom run in paid to the Israelites. Ahaziah became a party in
straight lines between two places. In this case, a the attempt of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, to
straight line would have taken the caravan through revive the maritime traffic by the Red Sea; in conthe whole breadth of a desert seldom traversed but sequence of which the enterprise was blasted, and
by the Arabs; and to avoid this, the usual route for came to nothing (2 Chron. xx. 35-37). Soon after,
large caravans lay, and still lies, north-west through  Ahaziah, having been much injured by a fall from
Mesopotamia, much above Babylonia; and then, the roof-gallery of his palace, had the infatuation
the Euphrates being crossed, the direction is to send to consult the oracle of Baal-zebub, the
south-west to Palesin  he                   gd    f Ekron, respectine. The greater probabiy.  But the
therefore, is, that the Ahava was one of the messengers were met and sent back by Elijah, who
streams or canals of Mesopotamia communicating announced to the king that he should rise no more
with the Euphrates somewhere in the nor-west fom th-west e bed on which he lay ( Kings xxii 51,
of Babylonia.-J. K                          to 2 Kings i. i8).
2. Son of Jehoram  by Athaliah, daughter of
AHAZ (TIn, possessor; Sept. "AXa; Joseph. Ahab and Jezebel, and sixth king of Judah, called
AA (R,  oeXT T   " Jp             also Azariah, 2 Chron. xxii. 6, and Jehoahaz, 2
AXdc's), son of Jotham, and eleventh king of Chron. xxi. 17.  He reigned but one year (B.C.
Judah, who reigned sixteen years, from B.C. 74  885), and that ill, suffering himself in all things to
to 726. Ahaz was the most'corrupt monarch that be guided by the wicked counsels of his idolatrous
had hitherto appeared in Judah. He respected mother, Athaliah. He cultivated the connections
neither Jehovah, the law, nor the prophets; he which had unhappily grown up between the two
broke through all the restraints which law and dynasties, and which had now been cemented by
custom had imposed upon the Hebrew kings, and marriage. Hence he joined his uncle Jehoram of
had regard only to his own depraved inclinations. Israel in an expedition against Hazael, king of
He introduced the religion of the Syrians into Damascene-Syria, for the recovery of RamothJerusalem, erected altars to the Syrian gods, Gilead; and afterwards paid him a visit while he
altered the temple in many respects after the Syrian lay wounded in his summer palace of Jezreel. The
model, and at length ventured to shut it up alto- two kings rode out in their several chariots to meet
gether. Such a man could not exercise that faith Jehu; and when Jehoram was shot through the
in Jehovah, as the political head of the nation, heart, Ahaziah attempted to escape, but was
which ought to animate the courage of a Hebrew  pursued, and being mortally wounded, had only
king. Hence, after he had sustained a few repulses strength to reach Megiddo, where he died. His
from Pekah and Rezin, his allied foes, when the body was conveyed by his servants in a chariot to
Edomites had revolted from him, and the Philistines Jerusalem for interment (2 Kings ix. 28). In. 2
were making incursions into his country, notwith- Chron. xxii. 7-9, the circumstances are somewhat
standing a sure promise of divine deliverance, he differently stated; but the variation is not subcalled Pul, the king of Assyria, to his aid [AssY- stantial, and requires no particular notice.  It
RIA]. He even became tributary to that monarch, appears from that passage, however, that Jehu
on condition of his obliging Syria and Israel to was right in considering Ahaziah as included in
abandon their design of destroying the kingdom  his commission to root out the house of Ahab.
of Judah. The Assyrians, as might be expected, [In 2 Kings viii 26, Ahaziah is said to have been
acted only with a view to their own interests, and twenty-two years old when he began to reign; but
afforded Ahaz no real assistance; on the contrary, in 2 Chron. xxii. 2, his age then is stated as fortythey drove him to such extremities that he was two. The former is undoubtedly correct, as the
scarcely able, with all the riches of the temple, of latter makes him older than his father. Compare
the nobility, and of the royal treasury, to purchase 2 Chron. xxi. 5, 20.]-J. K.




AHHASHTERANIM                   96               AHIMELECH
AHHASHTERANIM          (3 nJr1).     This the revolt of Absalom. David having refused to
word occurs Esth. viii., and         allow the ark of God to be taken from Jerusalem
word occurs Esth. v~. Io, and wis translated in the when      high-priests, Zadok and
A. V. camels. That this is an error is now uni- wh   e fled thence, the high-priests, Zadok and
versally conceded.  Bochart contends that the Abiathar, necessarily remained in attendance upon
word designates mules, and regards the words that it; but their sons, Ahimaaz and Jonathan, confollow Dgna1 e, sons of mares, as in apposition  cealed themselves outside the city, to be in readiness
with it, and as descriptive of a class of mules re-to bear off to David any important information
markable for their swiftness. That in this respect respecting the movements and designs of Absalom
the hybrid between the ass and the mare is much whch they might receive from within. Accordsuperior to the hybrid between the horse and the ingly, Hushai having communicated to the priests
ass is abundantly attested (Aristot. Rhetor. iii. 2 the result of the council of war, in which his
Plin. Hist. Nat. viii. 44, etc.); which is in favourown advice was preferred to that of Ahithophel
of Bochart's hypothesis.  He derives the word [ABSALOM], they instantly sent a girl (probably to
ofypthesis.  Heavoid suspicion) to direct Ahimaaz and Jonathan
from the Persianj  I asthar or ester, a mule; and to speed away with the intelligence. The transacin this Gesenius concurs, comparing the Sanscrit tion, however, was witnessed and betrayed by a
agwatara.  In this scholars may be regarded as lad, and the messengers were so hotly pursued that
concurring.-W. L. A.                          they took refuge in a dry well, over which the
woman of the house placed a covering, and spread
AHIAH (nI, brother, (i. e. friend) ofehovah; thereon parched corn. She told the pursuers that
Sept.'Axid, i Sam. xiv. 3), I. Son of Ahitub, and the messengers had passed on in haste; and when
high-priest in the reign of Saul, and brother and all was safe, she released them, on which they
predecessor of the Abimelech whom Saul slew for made their way to David (2 Sam. xv. 24-37; xvii.
assisting David. Seeing that Abimelech, a son of 15-2I). As may be inferred from his being chosen
Ahitub, was also high-priest in the same reign for this service, Ahimaaz was swift of foot. Of
(I Sam. xxii. I ), some have thought that both this we have a notable example soon after, when,
names belonged to the same person; but this on the defeat and death of Absalom, he prevailed
seems less likely than the explanation which has on Joab to allow him to carry the tidings to David.
just been given.                              Another messenger, Cushi, had previously been
2. One of the two secretaries of Solomon (I despatched, but Ahimaaz outstripped him, and
Kings iv. 3). Another person of this name occurs first came in with the news. He was known afar
in I Chron. viii. 7 —J. K                     off by the manner of his running, and the king
said,'He is a good man, and cometh with good
AHIAM, one of David's thirty heroes (2 Sam. said'He is a good man, and cometh with good
xxiiHIM, one of David's thirty heroes ( Sam. tidings;' and this favourable character is justified
*xx. 33)..by the delicacy with which he waived that part
AHIEZER, the hereditary chief or prince of of his intelligence concerning the death of Absalom,
the tribe of Dan at the time that the Israelites which he knew would greatly distress so fond a
quitted Egypt (Num. i. 12).                   father as David (2 Sam. xviii. I9-33).-J. K.
AHIHUD, I. a prince of the tribe of Asher,    3. A son-in-law of Solomon, and one of the
who, with the other chiefs of tribes, acted with twelve officers whose duty it was to provide victuals
who, with the other chiefs of tribes, acted with for the
Joshua and Eleazer in dividing the Promised Land h forking and his household (l Kings ivt 7, oi ),
~(Num. ~~xxx*. 27)-~ ~each for a month. Rosenmiiller calls these officers
2Num. xxxiv.f o a b       o 27)s o t      t  head collectors of taxes (Alt. u. N. Morgenland iii.
[2. The chief of a body of archers of the tribe i66) and Ewald thinks they were stewards of the
i66), and Ewald thinks they were stewards of the
of Benjamin in the time of David, I Chron. xn. 3.1 royal domains; but Thenius (Exeg. Rb. in loc.)
AHIJAH    (same name as AHIAH), a prophet holds that they were officers of higher rank, of
residing in Shiloh in the times of Solomon and whose duties the supply of the royal table formed
Jeroboam.   He appears to have put on record only a part. Josephus calls them  7eprbves (Ant.
some of the transactions of the former reign (2 Yud. viii. 2, 4). The province of Ahimaaz was in
Chron. ix. 29). It devolved on him to announce Naphtali.  By some this Ahimaaz is, identified
and sanction the separation of the ten tribes from  with No. 2, but this is improbable.-W. L. A.
the house of David, as well as the foundation (I  AHIAN     n       r 
Kings xi. 29-39), and, after many years, the sub-    MAN   one ofthree famous gants of the
version of the dynasty of Jeroboam (I Kings xiv. race of Anake who  the land. when the
7-II). [JEROBOAM.] [Four other persons of thisHebrew
name are mentioned, i Kings xv. 27, 33; I Chron.  AHIMELECH     (Cn^rn    brther of the king,
ii. 25; Xi. 36; xxvi. 20.] —J. K.
i. e., the king's friend; Sept.'Aj/geXeX; Cod.
AHIKAM, one of the four persons of distinction  Alex.'AXtueXeX), son of Ahitub, and brother of
whom Josiah sent to consult Huldah, the prophetess Ahiah, who was most probably his predecessor in
(2 Kings xxii. 12-14). Ahikam and his family are the high-priesthood. [AHIAH]. When David fled
honourably distinguished for their protection of the from Saul, he went to Nob, a city of the priests
prophet Jeremiah (Jer. xxvi. 24; xxxix. 14).  in Benjamin, where the tabernacle then was; and
AHIMAAZ (       brother of anger, i. e., by representing himself as on pressing business.AHIMAAZ        J brother of  Xw from the king, he obtained from Ahimelech, who
irascible; Sept.'Axt/das), I. Father of Ahinoam, had no other, some of the sacred bread which had
Saul's wife (I Sam. xiv. 50). 2. Son and successor been removed from the presence-table.  He was
of Zadok, who was joint high-priest in the reign  also furnished with the sword which he had himself
of David, and sole high-priest in that of Solomon. taken from Goliath, and which had been laid up
His history chiefly belongs to the time of David, as a trophy in the tabernacle (I Sam. xxi. I-9).
to whom he rendered an important service during These circumstances were witnessed by Doeg, an




AHINADAB                    97                AHOLIAB
Edomite in the service of Saul, and were so reported the sage counsel of Ahithophel' to foolishness'
by him to the jealous king as to appear acts of (probably alluding to his name); and being immediconnivance at, and support to, David's imagined ately after joined by his old friend Hushai, he
disloyal designs. Saul immediately sent for Ahime- induced him to go over to Absalom with the
lech and the other priests then at Nob, and laid express view that he might be instrumental in
this treasonable offence to their charge; but they defeating the counsels of this dangerous person
declared their ignorance of any hostile designs on (xv. 31-37). Psalm Iv. is supposed to contain (12the part of David towards Saul or his- kingdom. 14) a further expression of David's feelings at this
This, however, availed them not; for the king treachery of one whom he had so completely
commanded his guard to slay them. Their refusal trusted, and whom he calls'My companion, my
to fall upon persons invested with so sacred a guide, and my familiar friend.' The detestable
character might have brought even Saul to reason; advice which Ahithophel gave Absalom to approbut he repeated the order to Doeg himself, and priate his father's harem, committed him absolutely
was too readily obeyed by that malignant person, to the cause of the young prince, since after that
who, with the men under his orders, not only slew  he could hope for no reconcilement with David (2
the priests then present, eighty-six in number, but Sam. xvi. 20-23). His proposal as to the conduct
marched to Nob, and put to the sword every living of the war undoubtedly indicated the best course
creature it contained. The only priest that escaped that could have been taken under the circumstances;
was Abiathar, Ahimelech's son, who fled to David, and so it seemed to the council, until Hushai
and afterwards became high priest (i Sam. xxii.) interposed with his plausible advice, the object of
[ABIATHAR].-J. K.                            which was to gain tmue to enable David to collect
AHINADAB, one of the twelve officers who his resources. [ABSALOM]. WhenAhithophelsaw
raised supplies of provisions in monthly rotation that his counsel was rejected for that of Hushai,
for the royal household. Ahinadab's district was the far-seeing man gave up the cause of Absalom
the southern half of the region beyond the Jordan for lost; and he forthwith saddled his ass, returned
(I Kings iv. x4).-J. K.                      to his home at Giloh, deliberately settled his affairs,
and then hanged himself, and was buried in the
AHINOAM     (DyOVllPt, brother of grace; Sept. sepulchre of his fathers, B. C. 1023 (ch. xvii).'AXtPAc), I. Saul's wife (x Sam. xiv. 50); 2. A  This is the only case of suicide which the Old
woman of Jezreel, one of the wives of David, and Testament records, by any one not engaged in
mother of Amnon. She was taken captive by the actual warfare.-J. K.
Amalekites when they plundered Ziklag, but was  AHITUB eaWnI, brother of goodness or berecovered by David (I Sam. xxv. 43; xxvii. 3;.Sep.'. Son o
xxx. 5; 2 Sam. ii. 2; iii. 2).ignity                 e.     in; Sept'AXt,8,. Son of
xxx., 5;2.. 2; ii 2         Phinehas, and grandson of the high-priest Eli.
AHIO (jrN_, brotherly; Sept., as an appellative, His father Phinehas having been slain when the
his [Uzzah's] brothers-ot 48cieol ca6o0), one of ark of God was taken by the Philistines, he sucthe sons of Abinadab, who, with his brother Laah, ceeded his grandfather Eli, B.C. I141, and was
drove the new cart on which the ark was placed himself succeeded by his son Ahiah about B.C.
when David first attempted to remove it to Jeru- 1093.
salem.  Ahio went before to guide the oxen,    2. The father of Zadok, who was made highwhile Uzzah walked by the cart (2 Sam. vi. 3, 4. priest by Saul after the death of Ahimelech (2 Sam.
[UZZAH.]                                     viii. 7; i Chron. vi 8). There isnot the slightest
AHIRA, chief of the -tribe of Naphtali when ground for the notion that this Ahitub was ever, c f, fthe ri       ta Egp..~ / Thigh-priest himself-indeed, it is historically imthe Israelites quitted Egypt (Num. i. 5)     possible. -J. K.
AHIRAM, a son of Benjamin (Num. xxvi. 38),    AHOLAH      and AHOLIBAH      (;flt   and
called Ehi in Gen. xlvi. 21..                                                   TT:T
called Ehi in Gen xlvi.  I.,I:   K), two fictitious or symbolical names
AHISHAR, the officer who was'over the        *:T 
household' of King Solomon (i Kings iv. 6). This adopted by Ezekiel (xxiii. 4) to denote the two
has always been a place of high importance and kingdoms of Samaria (Israel) and Judah. There
great influence in the East.                 is a significant force in these names which must be
AHITHOPHEL ($DnVl, brother offoolishness noted. AHOLAH, fL%, [pr. Oholqh], usually ren- -  * *."*fi  Sp'B, -:tg   l dered'a tent,' is properly, tentorium suum (habet
i.e., foolish; Sept.'AXrT60eX), the very singular illa),'she has her own tent or temple,' signifying
name of a man who, in the time of David, was that she has a   tent or tabernacle of her own or of
renowned throughout all Israel for his worldly. 
wisdom. He is, in fact, the only man mentionedhuman invention. AHOLIBAH,,IHfK [holih]
in the Scriptures as having acquired a reputation  ea'my tent is in her,' that is to say-I, Jeho.
for political sagacity among the Jews; and they  ah, have given her a temple and religious service.
regarded his counsels as oracles (2 Sam. xvi. 23).They are both symbolically described as lewd
He was of the council of David; but was at Giloh, women adulteresses, prostituting themselves to the
his native place, at the time of the revolt of Egyptians and the Assyrians, in imitating their
Absalom, by whom he was summoned toJerusalem; abominations and idolatries; wherefore Jehovah
and it shews the strength of Absalom's cause in abandoned the  to those very people for whom
Israel that a man so capable of foreseeing results, they shewed such inordinate and impure affection.
and estimating the probabilities of success, tookThe alegory is an epitome of the history of the
his side in so daring an attempt (2 Sam. xv. 12). Jewish church.-J. K.
The news of his defection appears to have occasioned  AHOLIAB, of the tribe of Dan, a skilful artiDavid more alarm than any other single incident ficer appointed along with Bezaleel to construct the
in the rebellion. He earnestly prayed God to turn Tabernacle (Exod. xxxv. 34).
VOL I.                                                                         H




AHOLIBAMAH                    98                 AJALAH
AHOLIBAMAH (;Hn2,;nK,'O1fteiAd), one of generic appellation of all animals with twisted or
the wives of Esau, supposed to be the same who isrolled up horns; and hence the various species of
called Judith, Gen. xxvi. 34. All Esau's wives antelopes are called intensively rft, large or wild
except one appear to have had a double name         [AJAL; SEH; TSON.]-W. L.A.
(comp. Gen. xxvi. 34; xxviii. 9; xxxvi. 2, 3), un-. 
less we suppose him to have had five wives. Also,  AJAL (. K; Sept. XAagos; hat, in Deut. xii
the seat and name of an Edomitish tribe (Gen. x5; Ps. xlii.; Is. xxxv. 6), the feminine of which is
xxxvi. 40, 4).-W. L. A.AJA;                                                             in
AJALAH     (naR; Sept. o-trXeXos;  kind, in
AHUZZATH (nTnJl, a ossession), the'        friend'  - 
Y, ~-:                    Gen. xlix. 21; 2 Sam. xxii. 34; Job xxxix. I;
of Abimelech II., king of Gerar, who attended him  Ps. xviii. 33; Prov. v. I9; Cant. ii 7; Jer. xiv. 5;
on his visit to Isaac (Gen. xxvi. 26). In him occurs Habak. iii 19).
the first instance of that unofficial but important
personage in ancient Oriental courts, called'the
king's friend,' or favourite. Several interpreters, 
following the Chaldee and Jerome, take Ahuzzath 
to be an appellative, denoting a company offriends, 
who attended Abimelech. The Sept. has'Oxo'&O
6 vviayciryoys a6roO.-J. K.
AI [bn, Gen. xi 8; xiii. 3; Josh. vii. 2. The;l here is the article without which this form is
never used.  The forms N1_ AIJA (Neh. xi. 31),.? AIATH (Is. x 28) also occur], (Sept.'A-yyait,'Ayyat and Pat; Vulg. Nai), a royal city of the 
Canaanites, which lay east of Bethel. It existed in
the time of Abraham, who pitched his tent between
it and Bethel (Gen. xii. 8; xiii. 3); but it is chiefly
noted for its capture and destruction by Joshua                                 ~ s'(vii. 2-5; viii. 1-29). [AMBUSCADE.] At a later, 
period Ai was rebuilt, and is mentioned by Isaiah
(x. 28), and also after the captivity. The site was          - -&-./-. —known, and some scanty ruins still existed in the
time of Eusebius and Jerome (Onomastt in Aga),2. Cers brbrs.
but Dr. Robinson was unable to discover any cer- The hart and hind of out versions and of the older
tain traces of either. He remarks (Bib. Researches, comments; but this interpretation is generally reii. 313), however, that its situation with regard to jected by recent writers, who either suppose differBethel may be well determined by the facts recorded ent species of antelope to be meant, or, with Dr.
in Scripture. That Ai lay to the east of Bethel is Shaw, consider the term to be generical for several
distinctly stated; and the two cities were not so far species of deer taken together. Sir J. G. Wilkinson
distant from each other, but that the men of Bethel believes Ajal to be the Ethiopian oryx, with nearly
mingled in the pursuit of the Israelites when they straight horns. In the article ANTELOPE it will be
feigned to flee before the king of Ai, and thus both shewn under what terms the Oryges appear to be
cities were left defenceless (Josh. viii. I7); yet they noticed in the Bible, and at present we only observe
were not so near but that Joshua could place an that an Ethiopian species could not well be meant
ambush on the west (or south-west) of Ai, without where the clean animals fit for the food of Hebrews
its being observed by the men of Bethel, while he are indicated, nor where allusion is made to sufferhimself remained behind in a valley to the north of ing from thirst, and to high and rocky places as the
Ai (Josh. viii. 4, I -I3). A little to the south of a refuge of females, or of both, since all the species
village called Deir Diwan, and one hour's journey of oryx inhabit the open plains, and are not refrom Bethel, the site of an ancient place is indicated markable for their desire of drinking; nor can
by reservoirs hewn in the rock, excavated tombs, either of these propensities be properly ascribed to
and foundations of hewn stone. This, Dr. Robin- the true antelopes, or gazellse, of Arabia and Syria,
son inclines to think, may mark the site of Ai, as it all being residents of the plain and the desert; like
agrees with all the intimations as to its position. the oryges, often seen at immense distances from
Near it, on the north, is the deep Wady el-Mutyih, water, and unwilling to venture into forests, where
and towards the south-west other smaller wadys, in their velocity of flight and delicacy of structure
which the ambuscade of the Israelites might easily impede and destroy them. Taking the older interhave been concealed.-J. K.                    pretation, and reviewing all the texts where hart
AIATH. [A.]                                 and hind are mentioned, we find none where these
AIJA. [AL]                                  objections truly apply. Animals of the stag kind
JAIL,(S~K)~ La'J.         prefer the security of forests, are always most
AIL (?), a ram. So the word is used, Gen. robust in rocky mountain covers, and seek water
xv. 9; xxii. 13; Ps. cxiv. 4; Is. lx. 7; Dan. viii with considerable anxiety; for of all the light4, 6; Sept. Kpt6s.  Bochart derives this namefooted ruminants, they alone protrude the tongue
from  K sr; but       us, with greater po  when hard pressed in the chase. Now, comparing
from, strength; but Gesemlus, with greater pro-'these qualities with several texts, we find them
bability we think, derives it from he, to roll, to perfectly appropriate to the species of these genera
twist, in allusion to the twisted or crooked horns alone. Ajal appears to be a mutation of a comof the ram. The term ail may be viewed as the mon name with Xhaoos; and although no great




AIJALON                    99           AINSWORTH, HENRY
stress should be laid on names which, more par- En-gannim (Josh. xv. 34),'fountain of the garticularly in early times, were used without much  dens;''K'11t, En-dor,'house-fountain' (fons
attention to specific identity, yet we find the habitationis, Gesenius) [EN-DOR]; Ennny, EnChaldee Ajal and Saramatic Jelen strictly applied haddah (Josh. xix. 2I),'sharp,' i. e.'swift founto stag. Hence the difficulty lay in the modem  tain;' Zt3?3.j7, En-mishpat (Gen. xiv. 7),'foundenial that ruminants with branched deciduous tain of judgment;' there also called tY'p, but prohorns existed in the south-west of Asia and Egypt; leptically, as that name appears to have originated
and Cuvier for some time doubted, notwithstanding  at a later period (Num. xx. 14), [KADESH];
Virgil's notice, whether they were found in any DIph'1s, En-eglaim,'fountain of two calves'
part of Africa; nevertheless, though not abundant (Ezek. xlvii. 0o) [EN-EGLAIM]; gWEf, En-shewhere water is rare, their existence from Morocco                 t        th   s
to the Nile and beyond it cannot be denied; and  mesh (Jo sh. x7,   oti o  te s;' 1''?t,1
it is likely that an Asiatic species still appears En-ogel (2 Sam. xvii, etc.), literally'fountain
of th  e foot,' whi     ch i s construed  i n th e Targum
sometimes in Syria, and, no doubt, was formerly of the foot, which is construed in the Targum
b.Sicommon there.         Idimlat rbeton           ol'fuller's fountain,' because the fullers there trod
The first species here referred to is now known  the cloths with their feet; others,'fountain of the
The first species here referred to is now known SPY' [EN-ROGEL. There are other names with
spy' [EN-ROGEL]   There are other names with
by the name of Cervus Barbarus, or Barbary stag, in which r3 is thus used in composition; but these
size between our red and fallow deer, distinguished  r the most important. In one case n  occurs
by the want of a bisantler, or second branch on the are the     ant.     one case i t  occurs
with the article as the name of a place in the north.
horns, reck6ning from  below, and by a spotted  east of         um. xxxiv. ii), where it is
livery, which is effaced only in the third or fourth  Ptin 
named to point out more clearly the position of
year. This species is figured on Egyptian monu- Riblah, one of the northern border cities. [The
ments, is still occasionally seen about the Natron  rerence h ere is probaby to some spring b  its
lakes west of the Nile, and, it seems, was observed  refation to which Riblah is pointed out:Ribla
by a reverend friend in the desert east of the Dead reaon t  aso w hih  Ribah is pointed oThere wa  ho
Sea on his route  from Cairo th owards Damascus. on the east side of the spring. There was, howSea, on his route from Cairo towards Damascus. wr   city called Ai  on pits o           o
ever, a city  called Ain on the ut termost border of
We take this to be the Igial or Ajal of the Arabs, the uev, a to  the souuttermost border o
Judah to the south (Josh. xv. 32), which was after-.same which they accuse of eating fish —that is, the wards assigned to Simeon (Josh. xix 7; s Chr. iv.
ceps, lizards, and snakes, a propensity common to  lards assigd toin thepral n John iii. 23, as
other species, and similarl ascribed to the Virginian  non or fountain
and Mexican deer.
The other is the Persian stag, or Maral of the  AINSWORTH, HENRY, an English divine of
Tahtar nations, and Gewazen of Armenia, larger the Brownist party. Of the time and place of his
than the stag of Europe, clothed with a heavy birth, and of his early life, nothing is known. He
mane, and likewise destitute of bisantlers.  We is first mentioned by Bishop Hall as connected
believe this species to be the Soegur of Asiatic with the church of the exiled Brownists at AmsterTurkey, and Mara of the Arabs, and therefore dam in 1592-93. He was for some time pastor of
residing on the borders of the mountain forests of that church, and died abroad in 1622. His attainSyria and Palestine. One or both of these species ments as a Hebraist were eminent, and though he
were dedicated to the local bona dea on Mount lived in extreme poverty, and his mind was much
Libanus-a presumptive proof that deer were found  distracted with controversyon points of ecclesiastical
in the vicinity.                              polity, he found leisure to devote himself extensively
Of the hind it is unnecessary to say more than to biblical studies. The fruit of these appears in his
that she is the female of the stag, or hart, and that Annotations on the Pentateuch, the Psalms, and
in the manners of these animals the males always Solomon's Song, published at first separately, beare the last to hurry into cover.*-C. H. S.  tween 1612 and 1623; afterwards collectively, in one
AIJALON. [AJALON.]                          vol. folio, in 627; again in i639, and recently in
2 vols. 8vo, Glasg. I843. They are for the most
AIJALETH-SHAHAR. [PsALMs.]                  part incorporated by Poole in his Synopsis, who
AIN (rs   usually En in the English version),say of them,' tanto acumine et judicio, tanta fide
et peritia exarata, ut digna ausim p onuntiare quxe
the Hebrew word for a fountain. tg[as distin- in exteras linguas transfundantur.'  A  Dutch
guished from Beer, an artificial tank or well], which  translation of them by Sibrandus Vomelius was
signification it also bears in Arabic, Syriac, and  published at Leeuwarden in I69o. The work has
Ethiopic. It chiefly attracts notice as combined always commanded higher respect on the continent
with the proper names of various places; and in than it found in this country, perhaps from the
all such cases it points to some remarkable or im- authors ecclesiasticalrelations. Vomelius declares
portant fountain near or at the Npot. Thus, rIT'Y,  that'in its own sphere it shines as the moon among
En-gedi,' fountain of kids' [EN-GEDI]; tl37 4,  the stars' and the editors of the Acta Ernditorum
LiPsiensium (Anno 1691, pp. 340-342) introduce it
* In Gen. xlix. 2I, Bochart's version appears to to their readers in terms of hardly feebler encomium.
be preferable to our present translation —' Naphtali
is a hind let loose; he giveth goodly words;' this,  [* A mistake in the division of verses has led
by a slight alteration of the punctuation in the some to find a puzzle in the places enumerated in
Hebrew, he renders' Naphtali is a spreading tree, this passage being called both villages t:I'n, and
shooting forth beautiful branches.' In Ps. xxix. 9, cities Dti3. But the former of these belongs to the
instead of'The voice of the Lord maketh the hind  preceding verse:-' These were their cities unto
to calve, and discovereth the forests,' Bishop  the reign of David and their villages, Etam and
Lowth gives,'The voice of the Lord striketh the Ail Rimmon and Tochen, and Ashan, five cities,
oak, and discovereth the forests,' which is also an and all their villages that were round about the same
improvement.                                  cities, etc.' See Bertheau Exeg. Hdb. in loc.]




AIR                     100                  AKKO
It must be confessed that the work does not come Bochart contends that it should be restricted to
up to the expectations which such praises are cal- the Falco asalon, the merlin.  He identifies it
culated to excite. The notes are for the most part h the Arabic     j      and derives 
judicious, and illustrate the text by copious cita-                   J 
tions of parallel passages and from the writings of name from the peculiar cry of the bird. But in
the Rabbins; but they do not exhibit much exe- either case it is from this that the bird is named,
getical ability, and cannot be said to add much to for those who think it means vulture derive the
our means of understanding scripture. The trans- name from Mni  to cry, or OK a cry. On the whole,
lation which accompanies them is often obscurely the evidence seems in favour of the opinion that
literal, though  occasionally felicitous readings by this term is described the vulture tribe or falcon
occur.-W. L. A.                               tribe generally. Onkelos renders it by KnA11l,
AIR (&rp), the atmosphere, as opposed to theand Jonathan by Knb    K^. —W. L A.
ether (alO'p), or higher and purer region of the sky  AJALON (QCK: Sept. Ala\Xv), a town and
(Acts xxii. 23; I Thess. iv. 17; Rev. ix. 2; xvi.valley in the tribe of Dan (Josh. xix 42), which
I7). The phrase eds dipa XaXe~s-to speak into the was given to the Levites (Josh. xxi 24;  Chron.
air (I Cor. xiv. 9), is a proverbial expression to de-  69). It was not far from Bethshemesh (2 Chron.
note speaking in vain, like ventis verba profundere xxviii. 18), and was one of the places which Rehoin Latin (Lucret. iv. 929), and a similar one in our boam fortified (2 Chron. xi. o), and among the
own language; and eis dipa UCpetv, to beat into strongholds which the Philistines took from Ahaz
the air (I Cor. ix. 26), denotes acting in vain, and  (2 Chron. xxviii. i8). But the town, or rather the
is a proverbial allusion to an abortive stroke into  valley to which the town gave name, derives its
the air in pugilistic contests. The later Jews, in  chief renown from the circumstance that when
common with the Gentiles, especially the Pytha- Joshua, in pursuit of the five kings, arrived at
goreans, believed the air to be peopled with spirits, some point near Upper Beth-horon, looking back
under the government of a chief, who there heldupon Gibeon and down upon the noble valley
his seat of empire (Philo, [De Confus. Lingp. 346; before him, he uttered the celebrated command:
DeSomn. p. 586, ed. Hoeschel. 179I;] Diog. Laert.'Sun, stand thou still on Gibeon, and thou moon,
vii. 32). These spirits were supposed to be power- in the valley of Ajalon' (Josh x. 12). From the
ful, but malignant, and to incite men to evil. indications of Jerome, who places Ajalon two
That the Jews held this opinion is plain from the Roman miles from Nicopolis, on the way to JeruRabbinical citations of Lightfoot, Wetstein, etc. salem, joined to the preservation of the ancient
Thus in Pirke Aboth 83, 2, they are described as name in the form of Yalo, Dr. Robertson (Bib.
filling the whole air, arranged in troops, in regular Researchs, iii. 63) appears to have identified the
subordination. The early Christian fathers enter-  eand the site of the town  From a housetained the same belief (Ignal. Ad. Ephes. ~ 13), top in Beit Ur (Beth-horon) he looked down upon
which has indeed come down to our own times. a broad and beautiful valley, which lay at its feet,
It is to this notion that St. Paul is supposed to towards Ramleh. This valley runs out west by
allude in Eph. ii 2, where Satan is called dpXwv north through a tract of hills, and then bends off
trhs ovsas rov dpos,'prince of the power (i. e., of south-west through the great western plain. It is
those who exercise the power) of the air.' Some, called Merj Ibn'Omeir. Upon the side of the
however, explain d.p here by darkness, a sense long hill which skirts the valley on the gouth, a
which it bears also in profane writers (See Lightfoot, small village was perceived, called  lo, which
Whitby, Koppe, Wetstein, Bloomfield, Eadie, Al- cannot well be any other than the ancient Ajalon;
ford, in lc.)-J. K.                           and there can be little question that the broad
AIRAY, HENRY, D.D., provost of Queen's Col- wady to the north of it is the valley of the same
lege, Oxford, was born in Westmoreland in I559. name.-J. K.
He received his education under the auspices of  AKERSLOOT, THEODORE, a Dutch theologian
the famous Bernard Gilpin, and was by him sent of the seventeenth century. He wrote De Sendbrief
to St. Edmund's Hall in I579. He was subse- van Paullus an de Galaten, Leyd. 1695, 4to; and
quently chosen fellow of Queen's; soon after which  Uitlegginge over den Zendbrief van Paullus aan
he entered into holy orders, and in due time be- de Ebreen, Haag. I697, 4to.  Both these works
came provost of his college. He died in I6I6. have been translated into German; the former by
Besides some polemical works, he wrote Lectues Konrad Brussken, Brem. I669, and the latter by
upon the whole Epistle of St. Paul to the Philip-  Ulrich Plesken, Brem. r7I4, both in 4to.pians, Lond. I618, 4to, which affords a favourable W. L. A.
specimen of the ordinary style of'Puritan com-  AKILAS.    [AQUILA.
mentary. —W.  L. A.
~mentary. -W. L. A.~~ AKKO [(iJr for iprt), a clean beast, mentioned
AJAH or AYAH (nR_), the name of an unclean
-.^~~. T- XDeut. xiv. 5. In the A. V. this word is translated
bird, Lev. xi. 14; Deut. xiv. 13; Job xxviii. 7.wild goat; the Sept., which the Vulg. follows,
In the first of these passages the LXX render by    p      o, the Targums       as also the
fKrvos, and in the second and third by y6I. -The ves
Vulg. renders it by vultur. In the A. V. it is Syriac version. That some species of goat is inrendered in the first two passages by kite, in the lasttended cannot be doubted  Gesenus concludes in
by vulture. First thinks it was a general name favour of the roebuck; while others prefer the
for birds of the vulture tribe, and this is favoured to am   and others the gazelle. Geseus derives
some extent by the addition of 1ylr$, after its  t from Arab.   anak, whilst First says it is
kind, in the first two passages. The extraordinary to be traced to a'radix nominalis,' common to
powers of sight possessed by the vulture accord both the Sanscrit and Semitic tongues]. Schulwell also with the tenor of the passage in Job. tens (Origines Hebraice) conjectures that the name




AKRAB                     101              ALABASTER
arose'ob fugacitatem,' from  its shyness and eastern frontier of Judah would be laid down so
consequent readiness to flee; and Dr. Harris points far to the south in the time of Moses and Joshua.
out what he takes to be a confirmation of this con- If so, the identification is fair enough; but if not,
jecture in Shaw's travels; who, from the transla- it is of no weight or value in itself. The apparent
tions of the Sept. and Vulgate, makes it a goat- analogy of names can be little else than accidental,
deer, or Tragelaphus, such as the Lerwee or when the signification in the two languages is
Fishtall, by mistake referred to Carpm Mambrica altogether different.-J. K
of Linnseus; whereas that naturalist (System. Nat.  AKROTHINION   ('AKpoOtbvov).  This Greek
13th ed. by Gmelin) places Lerwee among the word, which occurs in Heb. vii. 4, means the best
synonyms of Ant. Cervicapra, which does not of the spoils. The Greeks, after a battle, were
suit Shaw's notice, and is not known in Western  accustomed to collect the spoils into a heap, from
Asia. The Fishtall is, however, a ruminant of the which an offering was first made to the gods: this
Africandesert, possiblyone of the larger Antilopidae, was the dKpoOlviov (Xenoph. Cyrop. vii. 5, 35;
with long mane, but not as yet scientifically de- Herodot. viii. I2I, 122; Pind. Nem. 7, 58). In
scribed. Akko, therefore, if it be not a second the first-cited case, Cyrus, after the taking of
name of the Zamor, which we refer to the Kebsch, Babylon, first calls the magi, and commands them
or wild sheep (Chamois), as the species must be to choose the dKpoOivLa of certain portions of the
sought among ruminants that were accessible for ground for sacred purposes.-J. K.
food to the Hebrews, we should be inclined to view ALABASTER ('AXd3arrpov). This word occurs
as the name of one of the Gazelles, probably h   the New Testament only in the notice of the
Ahu (Ant. Subgutturosa), unless the Abyssinian'alabaster box,' or rather vessel, of'ointment of
Ibex (Capra Wazle) had formerly extended intospikear, er     reo, w            omn    o
Arabia, and it could be shewn that it is a distinct  i nard  v ery preciou' wic a nointed te  ea
and with its valuable contents anointed the head
species. We may here also remark upon the re- of Jesus, as he sat at supper in Bethany in the
searches of Riippell and of Hemprich and Ehren- house of Simon the leper (Matt. xxvi. 7; Mark
berg, that they naturally sought in vain for the  3       Alabastron, i Egypt there was a
Abyssinian Ibex as it is figured in Griffith's Cuvier,  3 factory of small ots and vessels for holding
because, by some mistake of the letter engraver, he e rfumes, wich wre mad  from an esses found in
has affixed that name to the reresentation of Ovis perfumes, which were made from a stone found in
Tragelaphus or Kebsch.-C. r.   S.      ovsthe neighbouring mountains. The Greeks gave to
AKRAB (~ipy, Sept. oKoprios), the scorpion;.
so Syr. I. n ".    Bochart regards the word as
equivalent to  j1 rp, a great sting, uaKp6Kcevrpov
= the large-stinged animal; but this is fanciful.                 / 
[SCORPION.] —W. L. A.
AKRABBIM (O.i.p.;1g, Scorpion height;
Sept.'A^vdtpaas'AKpap/v), an ascent, hill, or chain
of hills, which, from the name, would appear to
have been much infested by scorpions and serpents,
as some districts in that quarter certainly were
(Deut. viii. 15; comp. Volney, ii. 256). It was
one of the points which are only mentioned in
describing the frontier-line of the Promised Land
southward (Judg. i. 36). Shaw conjectures that 
Akrabbim may probably be the same with the 
mountains of Akabah, by which he understands
the easternmost range of the puava H6pe,'black
mountains' of Ptolemy, extending from Paran to
Judaea. This range has lately become well known
as the mountains of Edom, being those which                        33
bound the great valley of Arabah on the east these vessels the name of the city from which they
(Travels, ii. I20). More specifically, he seems to came, calling them alabastrons. This name was
refer Akrabbim to the southernmost portion of eventually extended to the stone of which they
this range, near the fortress of Akabah, and the were formed: and at length the term alabastra
extremity of the eastern gulf of the Red Sea; was applied without distinction to all perfume veswhere, as he observes,'from the badness of the sels, of whatever materials they consisted. Theoroads, and many rocky passes that are to be critus speaks of golden alabastra, Zvptw ubpw
surmounted, the Mohammedan pilgrims lose a Xpoa~e' &Xd8iaarpa (Idyl. xv. II4); and perfume
number of camels, and are no less fatigued than vessels of different kinds of stone, of glass, ivory,
the Israelites were formerly in getting over them.' bone, and shells, have been found in the Egyptian
Burckhardt (Syria, p. 509) reaches nearly the same tombs (Wilkinson, iii. 379). It does not, thereconclusion, except that he rather refers'the ascent fore, by any means follow that the alabastron
of Akrabbim,' to the acclivity of the western moun- which the woman used at Bethany was really of
tains from the plain of Akabah. This ascent is alabaster; but a probability that it was such arises
very steep,'and has probably given to the place from the fact that vessels made of this stone were
its name of Akabah, which means a cliff, or steep  deemed peculiarly suitable for the most costly and
declivity.'  The probability of this identification powerful perfumes (Plin. Hist. Nat. xiii. 2; xxxvi.
depends upon the question, whether the south- 8, 24). The woman is said to have'broken' the




ALAH                     102                  ALAH
vessel; which is explained by supposing that it been confirmed by Forskal and Ehrenberg; and
was one of those shaped somewhat like a Florence the third is attested by a host of travellers, who
oil-flask, with a long and narrow neck; and the speak of it under both names. Celsius exhibits
mouth being curiously and firmly sealed up, the the testimonies which existed in his time: to which
usual and easiest way of getting at the contents those of Forskal, Hasselquist, and Dr. Robinson
was to break off the upper part of the neck.  may now be added.*   The last-named traveller
The alabastra were not usually made of that gives the best account of the tree as it is found in
white and soft gypsum to which the name of ala- Palestine.  At the point where the roads from
baster is now for the most part confined. Dr. John Gaza to Jerusalem, and from Hebron to Ramleh
Hill, in his useful notes on Theophrastus, sets this cross each other, and about midway between the
matter in a clear light:-' The alabastrum and ala- two last-named towns, this traveller observed an
bastrites of naturalists, although by some esteemed immense but'm-tree, the largest he saw anywhere
synonymous terms, and by others confounded with
one another, are different substances. The ala- 
bastrum is properly the soft stone [the common.     E,''alabaster'] of a gypseous substance, burning     c'!l -
easily into a kind of plaster; and the alabastra,   A'...
the hard, bearing a good polish, and approaching^ 
the texture of marble. This stone was by the',    i      l'        -
Greeks called also sometimes onyx, and by the;    t:'~
Latins marmor onychiles, from its use in making
boxes to preserve precious ointments; which boxes., _,
were commonly called' onyxes' and'alabas-    - *.i,''A
ters.' Thus Dioscorides, dXcpacrpitnjs 6 KaXo —         fi.h
uevos 6$vv~. And hence have arisen a thousand 
mistakes in the later authors, of less reading, who'i^
have misunderstood Pliny, and confounded the                                  t
onyx marble, as the alabaster was frequently called,';.
with the precious stone of that name. _,,,, ^.
This is now better understood. It is appre-'       ",'         --
hended that, from certain appearances common to                     ^' 
both, the same name was given not only to the     _.-..    i.    -.'/
common alabaster, called by mineralogists gypsum,  -'- 
and by chemists sulphate of lime; but also to the        _   S      i
carbonate of lime, or that harder stone from which    -
the alabastra were usually made. In the ruins of    -L!
Nineveh Mr. Layard found fragments of alabaster          34. [Pistacia Terebinthus].
vases, and one perfect specimen. The latter is in
the British Museum.-J. K                     in Palestine.' This species (Pistacia Terebinthus)
is, without doubt,' he adds,'the terebinth of the
ALAH (YAK), the name of a tree, which, both  Old Testament; and under the shade of such a..,T",    -           r   *T     tree Abraham may well have pitched his tent at
in its singular and plural form, occurs often in the Mamre. The but'm is not an evergreen, as is often
Scriptures. It is variously rendered in ancient and rrepresented; but its small feathered lancet-shaped
modern versions-as oak, terebinth, teil (linden) leaves fall in the autumn, and are renewed in the
tree, elm, and even a plain. This has occasioned spring. The flowers ae small, and followed by
more of apparent perplexity than now really belongs small oval berries, hanging in clusters from two to
to the subject. In the masculine singular (7NK) it five inches in length, resembling much the clusters
occurs only in Gen xiv. 6, in connection with of the vine when the grapes are just set. From inParan, or as El-Paran. This the Sept. renders by cisions in the trunk there is said to flow a sort of
terebinth (repepifov TrS Papdv); Aquila, Sym- transparent balsam, constituting a very pure and
machus, and Theodotion by'oak,' quercus; and fine species of turpentine, with an agreeable odour,
the Samaritan, Onkelos, Kimchi, Jerome, etc., by like citron or jessamine, and a mild taste, and'plain,' which is also adopted in the margin of hardening gradually into a transparent gum. In
our Bibles. The primary import of the word is Palestine nothing seems to be now known 6f this
strength, power; whence some hold that it denotes product of the but'm. The tree is found also in
any mighty tree, especially the terebinth and the Asia Minor (many of them near Smyrna), Greece,
oak. But the oak is not a mighty tree in Pales- Italy, the south of France, Spain, and in the north
tine; and as it possesses its own distinct name of Africa; and is described as not usually rising to
[ALLON], which is shewn, by the apposition of the the height of more than twenty feet. It often exnames in Is. vi. 13, and Hos. iv. I3, to denote a ceeded that size as we saw it in the mountains; but
different tree from alah, one can have little hesita- here in the plains it was very much larger.'
tion in restricting the latter to the terebinth. In-  In Palestine and the neighbouring countries the
deed, this conclusion has not been much questioned terebinth seems to be regarded with much the same
since it was shewn by Celsius (Hierobotan. ii 34-58) distinction as the oak is in our northern latitudes.
that the terebinth was most probably denoted by The tree is long-lived; and it is certain that there
the Hebrew alah; that the terebinth is the butm  were in the country ancient terebinths, renowned
<4 of the Arabs; and that the Arabian bt'm is for their real or supposed connection with scriptural
frequent in Palestine.  The first position is of  * [But see, on the other side, Thomson, Land
course incapable of absolute proof; the second has and Book, i 373.]




ALAMOTH                     103                  ALES
infidents. Thus, about the time of Christ, there Divine revelation. The profoundest reverence to
was at Mamre, near Hebron, a venerable terebinth, the opinions of the Fathers of the Christian Church,
which a tradition, old in the time of Josephus, and to the doctrinal decisions and decrees of the
alleged to be that (rendered'plain' in our version  Romish Church, pervades this exposition.' (Introof Gen. xiii. 8) under which Abraham pitched his duction, ii. 2, p. 252). Dr. Alber also published
tent; and which, indeed, was believed to be as old  Institutiones Hermeneuticac Scriptura Sac. N. T.,
as the creation of the world (Joseph. Bell. Mud. iv. 3 vols. 8vo, Pest. I818, and Institt. Herm. Script.
9, 7). The later tradition was content to relate Sac. V. T., 3 vols. 8vo, Pest. 1827. These works
that it sprang from the staff of one of the angels who embrace Biblical Introduction and Archaeology, as
appeared there to Abraham (Gen. xviii. 2). Hav- well as Hermeneutics. They do not seem to be of
ing, from respect to the memory of the patriarch, much value.'Their utility is vastly disproporand as one of the spots consecrated by the presence tionate to their extent' (Davidson, Sac. Hermeof'commissioned angels,' become a place of great neutics, p. 7o5).-W. L. A.
resort and pilgrimage both of Jews and Christians,
the Phoenicians, Syrians, and Arabianswereattracted  ALBERTI, JOANNES, a Dutch philosopher and
to it with commercial objects; and it thus became divine, was born at Assen in I698, and died in
a great fair. At this fair thousands of captive Jews I762. He studied at Franecker under the celewere sold for slaves by order of Hadrian in A.D. brated Lambert Bos, and was appointed pastor at
135 (Jerome, Comm. in Zech. xi 4, De Locis Heb. Haarlem, and subsequently professor of theology
87; Euseb. De. Ev. v. 9, Onomast in'Apfib; at the university of Leyden. He published ObserSozom. Hist. Eccles. ii 4, 5; Niceph. viii. 30; vationesphiologice in sacros Novi Foederis libros in
Reland, Palaest. p. 714). Being a place of such  1725, in which he collected all the parallel passages
heterogeneous assemblage, great abominations and from profane authors in justification of the Greek
scandals, religious and moral, arose, to which a style of the evangelists and the apostles; Periculum
stop was at length put by Eusebius of Ciesarea and criticum, etc. 1727; Glossarium Grecum in sacros
the other bishops of Palestine, who, by order of Novi Fceders libros, 1735. Alberti likewise preConstantine, cast down all the pagan altars, and pared the first volume of the Lexicon to Hesychius,
built a church by or under the tree. It is said that of which the second volume was completed, and
the tree dried up in the reign of Theodosius the both published by Ruhnkenius in I766.
Younger; but that the still vital trunk threw off A
shoots and branches, and produced a new tree,   ALCIMUS, or JACIMUS ('A\KXCS o Kal'IdKecfrom which Brocard (vii. 64), Salignac (x. 5), and  o, Joseph. Antiq. xii. 9, 7, Grsecised forms of
other old travellers declare that they brought slips Eliakim and Joachim-names often interchanged
of the new and old wood to their own country. i Hebrew), an usurping highpriest of the Jews
Zuallart, who alleges that some of its wood was in the time of Judas Maccabeus. [MACCABEES;
given to him by the monks at Jerusalem, candidly PRIESTS.
admits the difficulty of believing the stories which ALCUIN (called also FLAccUS ALBINUS) was
were told of its long duration: but he satisfies him- born in or near York about the year 735. Educated
self with the authority of the authors we have men- under the care of Egbert, archbishop of York, he
tioned, and concludes that God may have specially at the death of that prelate succeeded him in the
interfered to preserve it ( Voyage de eralkm, iv. I). work of instruction, and inherited his library. Being
The tree was accidentally destroyed by fire in 1646 sent on a mission to Rome, he on his return beA.D. (Mariti, p. 520). See Dr. Kitto's Daily Bible came known to Charlemagne, which led to his
Illustrations, voL i p. 262.-J. K.            settling in France. He died at Tours on the I9th
ALAMOTH. [PSALMS.]                          of May 804. His writings are numerous. They
AL.BELDA, Mos (called also Ben Jacob), a \  are principally of a practical character; a few are
ALB'ELDA,     Moss (called also Ben Jacob), a polemical, and the following are exegetical:-ZrnJewish rabbi in Saloniki, the ancient Thessalonica, terrogationes et Responsiones in Genesim; Expositio
in the beginning of the sixteenth century. He  in                                   psiio
wrote nlo  ti'l~, an homiletical ommentary on thyin Psalmos panitentiales et Ps. II8, et in Cantwa
Graduum; Commentaria in Ecclesiasten; Corn.
Pentateuch, to which are added several occasional In Evang. /ohatnns; Coa. in Epsas  Ca.a
in Igv~arg. ro~anntis;  Corn. in 1Frl. Pauli ad
homilies, Ven. 1603 fol.;  l1Tn nlr, Essays on  Titum, ad Philemonum et ad Hebraeos. Some of
the Pentateuch, partly exegetical and partly philo- these were published separately; they all appear in
sophical, Ven. 1526, I6oi, fol., besides other works his collected works, edited by And. Quercetanus
of a dogmatical or polemical character.-W. L A. (Duchesne), Par. I617 fol., and by Frcbenius, 2
ATL   JOH N   a R   an C ath     vols. fol. Ratisbon 1777. They donot contain
ALBER, JOHN NEPOMUK, a Roman Catholic much original matter; that on Genesis is compiled
divine, professor of Oriental languages and biblical frommcoina ate thtnG    esis   mpl
literature at Pesth. He wrote Intrpretati Sac from Jerome's questions and the Moralia of Gre.
Scripture peri   omnes Vet. et Novi Test. Libros, I6gory; on Ecclesiastes he also follows Jerome; his
commentaries on John are taken from Augustine,
vols. 8vo, Pesth, 1801-4. Mr. Horne, who has Ambrose, Gregory, and Bede; on Timothy, Titus,
described this work somewhat fully, says —'Dr. and Philemon, Jerome is again his guide; and on
and Philemon, Jerome is again
Alber professes to have consulted the various exe- Hebrews he follows Chrysostom. His commengetical labours both of Protestants and of Roman- taries are properly catenaremarkable as the proists; and that he has endeavoured to state the ducts of the age in which they appeared, but not
various points of difference between them without offering much advantage to the modern student
asperity, and with Christian candour. In this en- (Lorentz, Alcuin's Leben, Halle 1829; Wright,
deavour the author has succeeded. Whenever anBira     a Bt Lter          f        L 
Biografia Brit. Liter. p. 349 ff)~W. L. A.
occasion presents itself, he fails not to impugn and
refute the opinions of the anti-supernaturalist  ALES or ALESIUS, ALEXANDER, a'Scotdivines of Germany, as well as of the enemies of tish divine, whose proper name was probably




ALESSANDRO                   104        ALEXANDER THE GREAT
Hales.*  He was born at Edinburgh, April 23, sophy and literature. It is not our part, therefore,
1500; was educated at the University of St. to detail even the outlines of his history, but to
Andrews; and ultimately became one of the point out the causes and nature of this great revolucanons of the priory or cathedral church in that tion, and the influence which, formerly through
city. Having imbibed the doctrines of the reforma- Alexander, Greece has exerted over the religious
tion, he was obliged to flee to the continent in I53I, history of the West.
though to what part is not certainly known. In
1533 we find him in Cologne; some years later
(probably in 1535) he went to Cambridge by order 
of Henry VIII.'to read a lecture of Scripture
there,' but finding the feeling strong against him 
he relinquished his appointment, and set himself to
study medicine under one Dr. Nicolas.  Whilst
thus engaged, hewas met one day on the street by 
Cromwell, who carried him with him to the meet- 
ing of convocation in r536, and presented him to
the assembled bishops as'the King's Scholar.'
In the dispute upon the sacraments he, at Cromwell's request, took part, and advocated the Protestant view of the sacraments, supporting his
opinions with much ability and learning. He gave
so much offence by his boldness, and his views
were so much in advance of those of the king an'd
his adherents, that it was needful for him to leave3
England and again return to the continent. This  The conquest of Western Asia by Greeks was
time he settled at Wittenberg, and shortly after he so thoroughly provided for by predisposing causes,
was appointed Professor of Divinity at Frankfort as to be no mere accident ascribable to Alexander
on the Oder. In 1537 he was called to a chair in as an individual. The wars which were carried on
Leipsic, and there he remained and laboured till between Greece and Persia in the reigns of Darius,
his death, which took place on the 17th March  Xerxes, and Artaxerxes-from  B.c. 490 to B.C.
I565.  Ales deserves a place in a work devoted 449-sufficiently shewed the decisive superiority in
to Biblical literature, partly on account of his arms which the Greeks possessed, though no
noble defence of vernacular translations of the Greek as yet aspired to the conquest of Persia.
Holy Scriptures, in his letters addressed to James Brave freemen, attached to their own soil, would
V. of Scotland, partly on' account of his exegetical not risk abandoning it for ever for the satisfaction
comments on parts of Scripture. He wrote Dis. of chasing their foe out of his home. But after the
putatio in utrumqf Ep. ad Timotheum et ad Titum convulsions of the Peloponnesian War (B.c. 43ILeip. 1550, 8vo; Commentarius in Evang. Joan- 404) had filled Greece with exiles, whose sole trade
nis, Basle 1553, 8vo; Disputationes in Ep. ad was that of soldiers, a devoted standing army could
Romanos,Wittenberg 1553, 8vo. Hewas the author be had for money. By the help of such mercenaries,
also of a commentary on a portion of the book of Cyrus, younger brother of Artaxerxes II., attempted
Psalms. (Bayle, Dictionnaire, s. v., M'Crie's Lfe to seize the crown of Persia (B.C. 401); and
of Knox, Note I.    Anderson, Annals of the although he was himself slain, this, in its results
English Bible, i. 498, ii. 427 ff.)-W. L. A.  (which cannot be here properly detailed), did but
ALESSANDRO, BENJAMIN, a Jewish rabbi in shew more signally that Greeks might force their
Reggio. He was a native of Alexandria in Pied- wa to the very palace of the great king, just as
mont, and flourished in the latter half of the seven-they afterwards triumphantly retreated through the
teenth century and the beginning of the eighteenth heart of his empire. Soon after this, Agesilaus,
gcetr a h g nking of Sparta, appears to have had serious designs
His biblical works are nrflj  5K, a commentary  of founding a Spartan province in Asia Minor,
on the Lamentations; printed with the text at where he met with easy success; but he was recalled
by troubles at home (B.C. 394). About the year
Venice 71I3, 4to; and nr5g?..w?.^Do  B, a con.C. 374, Jason, the chief man of Phere, in
mentary on the Psalms of Degrees, Ven. 1713, 4to. Thessaly, and virtually monarch of the whole
-W. L. A.                                     province, having secured the alliance of Macedon,
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. This might             seriously meditated the conquest of the Persian
king is named in the opening of the first boo of empire; and he (or his son) might probably have
Maccabees, and is alluded to in the prophe ies of effected it, had he not been assassinated, B. C. 370.
M      accabees, and is alluded to in            the prop    hecies of
Daniel.  These, B however, are not the principal The generation who heard of that event witnessed
reasons for giving his name a place in h      th e rise of Macedon to supremacy under the great
he is chiefly entitled to notice here because his Philip, whose reign reached from. c. 359 to B. C.
military career permanently affected the political 338. He too had proposed to himself the invasion
state of the Jewish people, as well as their philo- and conquest of Persia as the end of all his camprobablys a rpaigns and the reward of all his labours; and he
too was suddenly taken off by the assassin's dagger.
* On the title page of a translation of one of his He was succeeded by his greater son, for whom it
works, his tract De Authoritate Verbi Dei, in reply was reserved to accomplish that of which Grecian
to Stokesley, Bishop of London, he is called Alane; generals had now for seventy years dreamed. It
but as the translator's name was Allen, there is seems therefore clear that Greece was destined to
probably a blunder here arising out of some con- overflow into Asia, even without Alexander; for
fusion of the two.                            Persia was not likely to have such a series of able




ALEXANDER THE GREAT                105       ALEXANDER THE GREAT
monarchs, and such an exemption from civil wars, who were accustomed to tolerate and protect
as alone could have hindered the event.  The Egyptian superstition, were naturally very indulpersonal genius of the Macedonian hero, however, gent to Jewish peculiarities. Alexandria, therefore,
determined the form and the suddenness of the became a favourite resort of the Jews, who here
conquest; and, in spite of his premature death, lived under their own laws, administered by a-gothe policy which he pursued seems to have left vernor (Ov'dpx0s) of their own nation; but they
some permanent effects. It is indeed possible that, learned the Greek tongue, and were initiated more
in regard to the toleration of Oriental customs and or less into Greek philosophy.  Their numbers
religions, no other policy than his could have held were so great as to make them a large fraction of
the empire together. Since the Romans in Asia the whole city; and out of their necessities arose
and the British in India have followed the same the translation of the Old Testament into Greek.
procedure, any other Greek conquerors of Persia The close connection which this Egyptian colony
might have done the same had Alexander never maintained with their brethren in Palestine proexisted. Be this as it may, it is certain that his duced various important mental and spiritual effects
conciliatory policy was copied by his successors on the latter. [ESSENES.] The most accessible
for at least a century and a half.          specimen of rhetorical morality produced by the
His respectful behaviour to the Jewish high- Hebrew culture of Greek learning is to be seen in
priest has been much dwelt on by Josephus (An- the book called the Wisdom of Solomon: the most
tiq. xi. 8, 4-6), a writer whose trustworthiness has elaborate development of Hebrew Platonism is
been greatly overrated. Special reasons for ques- contained in the works of Philo. In the writing
tioning the story may be found in Thirlwall (Hist. called the Third Book of the Maccabees is a
of Greece, vi 206); but in fact, as it evidently rests sufficiently unfavourable specimen of an attempt at
on mere tradition, even a knowledge of human rhetorical history by a mind educated in the same
nature, and of the particular author, justifies large school. How deep an impress has been left on the
deductions from the picturesque tale.  Some of Christian Church by the combination of Greek and
the results, however, can hardly be erroneous, such  Hebrew learning which characterized Alexandria,
as, that Alexander guaranteed to the Jews, not in it needs many pages for the ecclesiastical historian
Judaea only, but in Babylonia and Media, the free to discuss. The Grecian cities afterwards built in
observance of their hereditary laws, and on this northern Palestine [DECAPOLIS] seem  to have
ground exempted them from tribute every seventh exerted little spiritual influence on the south; for
(or Sabbatical) year. From the Romans in later a strong repulsion existed in the strictly Jewish
times they gained the same indulgence, and it must mind against both Samaria and Galilee.
no doubt have been enjoyed under the Persian king  The tolerant policy of Alexander was closely
also, to whom they paid tribute at the time of followed by his great successor Seleucus, who adAlexander's invasion. It is far from improbable mitted the Jews to equal rights with Macedonians
then that the politic invader affected to have seen in all his new cities, even in his capital of Antioch
and heard the high-priest in a dream (as Josephus (Joseph. Antiq. xii. 3, I); and similar or greater
relates), and shewed him great reverence, as to one liberality was exercised by the succeeding kings of
who had declared'that he would go before him  that line, down to Antiochus Epiphanes. [ANTIOand give the empire of Persia into his hand.' The CHUS.] It can scarcely be doubted that on this
profound silence observed concerning Judaea by all to a great extent depended the remarkable westthe historians of Alexander, at any rate proves ward migration of the Jews from Media and Babylon
that the Jews passed over without a struggle from  into Asia Minor, which went on silently and steadily
the Persian to the Macedonian rule.         until all the chief cities of those parts had in them
Immediately after, he invaded and conquered the representatives of the twelve tribes.  This
Egypt, and shewed to its gods the same respect as again greatly influenced the planting of Christianity,
to those of Greece. Almost without a pause he the most favourable soil for which, during the time
founded the celebrated city of Alexandria (B.c. of its greatest purity, was in a Greek population
332), an event which, perhaps more than any other which had previously received a Jewish culture. In
cause, permanently altered the state of the East, passing we may remark, that we are unable to find
and brought about a direct interchange of mind be- the shadow of a reason for the popular assumption
tween Greece, Egypt, and Judea. Sidon had been that the modern European Jews are'desceindants of
utterly ruined by Artaxerxes Ochus (B.c. 351), and the two more than of the other ten or eleven:tribes
Tyre, this very year, by Alexander: the rise of a  The great founder of Alexandria died in his
new commercial metropolis on the Mediterranean thirty-second year, B.c. 323. The empire which
was thus facilitated; and when the sagacious he then left to be quarrelled for by his generals
Ptolemy became master of Egypt (B.c. 323), that comprised the whole dominions of Persia, with the
country presently rose to a prosperity which it homage and obedience of Greece superadded. But
never could have had under its distant and intoler- on the final settlement which took place after the
ant Persian lords. The Indian trade was diverted battle of Ipsus (B.C. 30I), Seleucus, the Greek refrom its former course up the Euphrates into the presentative of Persian majesty, reigned over a less
channel of the Red Sea; and the new Egyptian extended district than the last Darius. Not only
capital soon became a centre of attraction for Jews were Egypt and Cyprus severed from the eastern
as well as Greeks. Under the dynasty of the empire, but Palestine and Coelesyria also fell to
Ptolemies the Hellenic race enjoyed such a prac- their ruler,.plicing Jerusalem for nearly a century
tical ascendancy (though on the whole to the beneath an Egyptian monarch. On this subject,
benefit of the native Egyptians) that the influx of see further under ANTIOCHUS.
Greeks was of course immense. At the same time,  The word Alexander means the helper or rescuer
owing to the proximity of the Egyptian religion, of men, denoting military prowess. It is Homer's
both the religion and the philosophy of the Greeks ordinary name for Paris, son of Priam, and was
assun ed here a modified form; and the monarchs, borne by two kings of Macedon before the great




ALEXANDER                    106              ALEXANDRIA
Alexander. The history of this conqueror isknown  of Antiochus Theos (I Macc. xi. I3-18; Joseph.
to us by the works of Arrian and Quintus Curtius Ant4q. xiii. 5).-J. K.
especially, besides the general sources for all Greek  ALEXANDER JANNEUS, the first prince of
history. Neither of these authors wrote within the Maccabaen dynasty who assumed the title of
the Maccabaean dynasty who assumed the title of
four centuries of the death of Alexander; but they  king.  MACCABEES 
had access to copious contemporary narratives since
lost. —F. W. N.                                 ALEXANDER, son of Herod the Great and
ALEXANDER BALAS [perhaps from K5II          Mariamne.   HERODIAN FAMILY.]
lord], a personage who figures in the history of the  ALEXANDER in the N. T.-I. Son of Simon,
Maccabees and in Josephus.   His extraction is a Cyrenian, whom they compelled to bear the cross
doubtful; but he professed to be the natural son of for Christ (Mark xv. 21).
2. One of the kindred of the high-priest Annas
(Acts iv. 6), supposed by some to be identical with
the Alexander mentioned by Josephus (Antiq. xviii
8, I; xix. 5, I).
3. A Jew of Ephesus, known only from the part
which he took in the uproar about Diana, which
3\\i^^ ^  t)  i)  _ ywas raised there by the preaching of Paul. As the
inhabitants confounded the Jews and Jewish Chris/ JT  T  /tians, the former put forward Alexander to speak
on their behalf, but he was unable in the tumult to
obtain a hearing (Acts xix. 33). Some suppose
that this person is the same with'Alexander the
36.                      coppersmith,' of 2 Tim. iv. I4, but this is by no
means probable: the name of Alexander was in
Antiochus Epiphanes, and in that capacity, out of those times very common among the Jews.
opposition to Demetrius Soter, he was recognised    A coppersmith or brazier (mentioned in I
as king of Syria by the king of Egypt, by the Tim. i. 20; 2 Tim. iv. 14), who with Hymeneus
Romans, and eventually by Jonathan Maccabeus and others broached certain heresies touching the
on the part of the Jews. The degree of strength resurrection, for which they were excommunicated
either party in the contest for the throne. As he forsaken, appear to hare aligned the aith they had
was obliged to take a side, and had reason to distrust the sincerity of Demetrius, Jonathan yielded  ALEXANDER, Jos. ADDISON, D.D., an
to the solicitations of Alexander, who, on arriving  American divine, recently deceased.  He was
at Ptolemais, sent him a purple robe and a crown born at Philadelphia in I8o9; graduated at Princeof gold, to induce him to espouse his cause (I ton in 1826; and filled successively the chairs of
Macc. x. x8). Demetrius was not long after slain ancient languages and literature, of biblical criticism
in battle, and Balas obtained possession of the and ecclesiastical history, and of biblical and
kingdom.   He then sought to strengthen himself ecclesiastical history in Princeton. His works on
by a marriage with the king of Egypt's daughter. the Bible are: The Earlier Prophecies of Isaiah,
This marriage was celebrated at Ptolemais, and  8vo, New York and London I846; The Late?
was attended by Jonathan, who received marks of Prophecies of saiah, 8vo, ibid, 1847; both reprinted
high consideration from  the Egyptian (Ptolemy in one voL 8vo, with an Introduction by Prof.
Philometor) and Syrian kings (x Macc. x. 51-58; Eadie, Glasgow I848; The Psalms translated ana
Joseph. Antq. xiii. 4). Prosperity ruined Alex- explained, 3 vols. i2mo, New York 1850; The
ander; he soon abandoned himself to voluptuous- Gospel according to Mark explained, I2mo, 1858;
ness and debauchery, leaving the government in  The Acts of the Apostles explained, 2 vols. I2mo;
the hands of ministers whose misrule rendered his  The Gospel according to Matthew, I2mo I861;
reign odious. This encouraged Demetrius Nicator, Notes on New Testament Literature and Ecclesiastithe eldest son of the late Demetrius Soter, to cal Hirtory, I2mo I86I. The last two are posthuappear in arms, and claim his father's crown. mous publications. Dr. Alexander's merits as a
Alexander took the field against him; and in the commentator stand high.  [COMMENTARY.] His
brief war that followed, although his father-in-law  work on Isaiah is the most copious and satisfactory
Ptolemy (who had his own designs upon Syria) on that book in our language.  In preparing it
abandoned his cause, Jonathan remained faithful to use has been made of the best commentaries and
him, and rendered him very important services, translations, British and Continental. His other
which the king rewarded by bestowing on him a works hardly come up to the promise given by this
golden chain, such as princes only wore, and by his first work in this department. They are, howgiving him possession of Ekron ('AKiapibv). The ever, well deserving of being consulted; though the
defection of the Egyptian king, however, was fatal author has been accused of occasionally allowing a
to the cause of Balas; he was defeated in a pitched dogmatical bias to warp his exegesis. -W. L. A.
battle, and fled with 500 cavalry to Abae in Arabia,  ALEXANDRE, or SAOME, wife of Alexand sought refuge with the emir ZabdieL  Theand           s     AC
Arabian murdered his confiding guest in the fifth   J        [MACAEE.
year of his reign over Syria, and sent his head to  ALEXANDRIA ('AXetdvopeta, 3 Mace. iii. I),
Ptolemy, who himself died the same year, B.c. the chief maritime city, and long the metropolis
I45   Balas left a young son, who was eventually of Ldwer Egypt. As this city owed its foundation
made king of Syria by Tryphon, under the name to Alexander the Great, the Old Testament canon




ALEXANDRIA                   107              ALEXANDRIA
had closed before it existed; nor is it often men- Alexander, who perceived that the usual channels
tioned in the Apocrypha, or in the New Testament. of commerce might be advantageously altered; and
But it was in many ways most importantly con- that a city occupying this site could not fail to
nected with the later history of the Jews-as well become the common emporium for the traffic of
from the relations which subsisted between them  the eastern and western worlds, by means of the
and the Ptolemies, who reigned in that city, as river Nile, and the two adjacent seas, the Red Sea
from the vast numbers of Jews who were settled and the Mediterranean: and the high prosperity
there, with whom a constant intercourse was main- which, as such, Alexandria very rapidly attained,
tained by the Jews of Palestine. It is perhaps safe proved the soundness of his judgment, and exceeded
to say that, from the foundation of Alexandria to any expectations which even he could have enterthe destruction of Jerusalem, and even after, the tained.  For a long period Alexandria was the
former was of all foreign places that to which the the greatest of known cities; for Nineveh and
attention of the Jews was most directed. And this Babylon had fallen, and Rome had not yet risen to
appears to have been true even at the time when pre-eminence: and even when Rome became the
Antioch first, and afterwards Rome, became the mistress of the world, and Alexandria only the
seat of the power to which the nation was subject. metropolis of a province, the latter was second only
Alexandria is situated on the Mediterranean, to the former in wealth, extent, and importance;
twelve miles west of the Canopic mouth of the and was honoured with the magnificent titles of the
Nile,,in 3I~ 13' N. lat. and 25~ 53' E. long. It second metropolis of the world, the city of cities,
owes its origin to the comprehensive policy of the queen of the East, a second Rome (Diod. Sic.
37. Alexandria.
xvii.; Strab. xvii.; Ammian Marcell. xxii.; Joseph. which it was intersected, the city was about four
Bell. _ud. iv. I1, 5).                       miles long by one and a half wide: and in the time
The city was founded in B.C. 332, and was built of Diodorus it contained a free population of
under the superintendence of the same architect 300,000 persons, and altogether probably 6oo,ooo,
(Dinocrates) who had rebuilt the Temple of Diana if we double the former number, as Mannert sugat Ephesus. As a foreign city, not mentioned at gests, in order to include the slaves. The port of
all in the Old Testament, and only accidentally in  Alexandria is described by Josephus (Bell. Yud. iv.
the New (Acts vi. 9; xviii. 24; xxvii. 6), it is intro- 10, 5); and his description is in perfect conformity
duced into this work only on account of its con- with the best modem accounts. It was secure,
nection with the history and condition of the Jewish but difficult of access; in consequence of which, a
people.  To the facts resulting from or bearing magnificent pharos, or lighthouse, was erected upon
on that connection, our notice must therefore be an islet at the entrance, which was, connected with
limited, without entering into those descriptions of the mainland by a dyke. This pharos was accounted
the ancient or of the modem city which are given  one of     the'seven' wonders of the world. It was
in general and geographical cyclopaedias. It may begun by Ptolemy Soter, and completed under
suffice to mention that the ancient city appears to Ptolemy Philadelphus, by Sostratus of Cnidus, B.C.
have been of seven times the extent of the modem. 283. It was a square structure of white marble, on
If we may judge from the length of the two main the top of which fires were kept constantly burning
streets (crossing each other at right angles) by for the direction of mariners. It was erected at a
the acien or o themoder cit whic  aregive  one f th' seen' onder of he wold.  t wa




ALEXANDRIA                   108              ALEXANDRIA
cost of 800 talents, which, if Attic, would amount institutions were fitted to produce.  It will be
to ~I65,ooo, if Alexandrian, to twice that sum. remembered that the celebrated translation of the
It was a wonder in those times, when such erec- Hebrew Scriptures into Greek [SEPTUAGINT] was
tions were almost unknown; but, in itself, the made, under every encouragement from Ptolemy
Eddystone lighthouse is, in all probability, ten  Philadelphus, principally for the use of the Jews in
times more wonderful.                        Alexandria, who knew only the Greek language;
The business of working out the great design of but partly, no doubt, that the great library might
Alexander could not have devolved on a more possess a version of a book so remarkable, and, in
fitting person than Ptolemy Soter. From his first some points, so closely connected with the ancient
arrival in Egypt, he made Alexandria his residence; history of Egypt. The work of Josephus against
and no sooner had he some respite from war, than Apion affords ample evidence of the attention which
he bent all the resources of his mind to draw to his the Jewish Scriptures excited.
kingdom the whole trade of the East, which the  At its foundation Alexandria was peopled less by
Tyrians had, up to his time, carried on by sea to Egyptians than by colonies of Greeks, Jews, and
Elath, and from thence, by the way of Rhinocorura, other foreigners. The Jews, however much their
to Tyre. He built a city on the west side of the religion was disliked, were valued as citizens; and
Red Sea, whence he sent out fleets to all those every encouragement was held out by Alexander
countries to which the Phoenicians traded from  himself and by his successors in Egypt, to induce
Elath. But, observing that the Red Sea, by reason them to settle in the new city. The same priviof rocks and shoals, was very dangerous towards leges as those of the first class of inhabitants (the
its northern extremity, he transferred the trade to Greeks) were accorded to them, as well as the free
another city, which he founded at the greatest exercise of their religion and peculiar usages: and
practicable distance southward. This port, which this, with the protection and security which a
was almost on the borders of Ethiopia, he called, powerful state afforded against the perpetual confrom his mother, Berenice;- but the harbour being flicts and troubles of Palestine, and with the inclinafound inconvenient, the neighbouring city of Myos tion to traffic, which had been acquired during the
Hormos was preferred. Thither the products of Captivity, gradually drew such immense numbers
the east and south were conveyed by sea; and of Jews to Alexandria, that they eventually formed
were from thence taken on camels to Coptus, on a very large portion of its vast population, and at
the Nile, where they were again shipped for Alex- the same time constituted a most thriving and imandria, and from that city were dispersed into all portant section of the Jewish nation. The Jewish
the nations of the west, in exchange for merchan- inhabitants of Alexandria are therefore often mendise which was afterwards exported to the East tioned in the later history of the nation; and their
(Strabo, xxii. p. 805; Plin. Hist. Nat. vi. 23). importance as a section of that nation would doubtBy these means, the whole trade was fixed at less have been more frequently indicated, had not
Alexandria, which thus became the chief mart of the Jews of Egypt thrown off their ecclesiastical
all the-traffic between the East and West, and dependence upon Jerusalem and its temple, and
which continued to be the greatest emporium in formed a separate establishment of their own, at
the world for above seventeen centuries, until the On or Heliopolis. They were thus left with less
discovery of the passage by the Capeof Good inducement or occasion than they would otherwise
Hope opened another channel for the commerce have had to mix themselves up with the affairs of
of the East.                                 the parent country: but they were not wanting in
Alexandria became not only the seat of com- becoming patriotism; and they were on more than
merce, but of learning and the liberal sciences. one occasion involved in measures directed against
This distinction also it owed to Ptolemy Soter, the Jews as a nation, and occasionally experienced
himself a man of education, who founded an aca- some effects of that anger in the ruling powers, or
demy, or society of learned men, who devoted of exasperation in the populace, of which the Jews
themselves to the study of philosophy, literature, in Palestine were the primary objects, or which
and science. For their use he made a collection of resulted from the course which they had taken.
choice books, which, by degrees, increased under  The inhabitants of Alexandria were divided into
his successors until it became the finest library in three classes: I. The Macedonians, the original
the world, and numbered 700,000 volumes (Strab. founders of the city; 2. the mercenaries who had
xvii. p. 791; Euseb. Chron.) It sustained repeated served under Aletander; 3. the native Egyptians.
losses, by fire and otherwise, but these losses were Through the favour of Alexander and Ptolemy
as repeatedly repaired; and it continued to be of Soter, the Jews were admitted into the first of these
great fame and use in those parts, until it was at classes, and this privilege was so important that it
length burnt by the Saracens when they made had great effect in drawing them to the new city
themselves masters of Alexandria in A.D. 642. (Hecateus, in Joseph. Contra Apion. ii. 4; Bell.
Undoubtedly the Jews at Alexandria shared in JAd. ii. i8. 7; Q. Curt. iv. 8). These privileges
the benefit of these institutions, as the Christians they enjoyed undisturbed until the time of Ptolemy
did afterwards; for the city was not only a seat of Philopator, who, being exasperated at the resistance
heathen, but of Jewish, and subsequently of Chris- he had met with in attempting to enter the temple
tian learning. The Jews never had a more pro- at Jerusalem, wreaked his wrath upon the Jews of
foundly learned man than Philo, nor the Christians Alexandria, on his return to Egypt. He reduced
men more erudite than Origen and Clement; and to the third or lowest class all but such as would
if we may judge from these celebrated natives of consent to offer sacrifices to the gods he worshipped;
Alexandria, who were remarkably intimate with but of the whole body only 300 were found willing
the heathen philosophy and literature-the learn- to abandon their principles in order to preserve
ing acquired in the Jewish and Christian schools their civil advantages. The act of the general
of that city must have been of that broad and com- body in excluding the 300 apostates from their
prehensive character which its large and liberal congregations was so represented to the king as to




ALEXANDRIA                   109             ALEXANDRIA
move his anger to the utmost, and he madly deter- warehouses, were plundered of all their effects.
mined to exterminate all the Jews in Egypt. Ac- Impoverished, and pent up in a narrow corner of
cordingly, as many as could be found were brought the city, where the greater part were obliged to lie
together, and shut up in the spacious hippodrome in the open air, and where the- supplies of food
of the city, with the intention of letting loose 500 were cut off, many of them died of hardship anad
elephants upon them; but the animals refused their hunger; and whoever was found beyond the bounhorrid'task, and, turning wildly upon the spectators dary, whether he had escaped from the assigned
and the soldiers, destroyed large numbers of them. limits, or had come in from the country, was seized
This, even to the king, who was present, seemed and put to death with horrid tortures. So likeso manifest an interposition of Providence in favour wise, when a vessel belonging to the Jews arrived
of the Jews, that he not only restored their privi; in port, it was boarded by the mob, pillaged, and
leges, but loaded them with new favours. This then burnt, together with the owners.
story, as it is omitted byJosephus and other writers,  At length king Herod Agrippa, who stayed long
and only found in the third book of Maccabees enough in Alexandria to see the beginning of these
(ii.-v.), is considered doubtful,            atrocities, transmitted to the emperor such a reThe dreadful persecution which the Jews of port of the real state of affairs as induced him to
Alexandria underwent in A.D. 39, shews that, not- send a centurion to arrest Flaccus, and bring him
withstanding their long establishment there, no a prisoner to Rome. This put the rioters in a false
friendly relations had arisen between them and the position, and brought some relief to the Jews; but
other inhabitants, by whom in fact they were in- the tumult still continued, and as the magistrates
tensely hated. This feeling was so well known, refused to acknowledge the citizenship of the Jews,
that at the date indicated, the Roman governor it was at length agreed that both parties should
Avillius Flaccus, who was anxious to ingratiate send delegates, five on each side, to Rome, and
himself with the citizens, was persuaded that the refer the decision of the controversy to the emperor.
surest way of winning their affections was to with- At the head of the Jewish delegation was the celedraw his protection from the Jews, against whom  brated Philo, to whom we owe the account of these
the emperor was already exasperated by their re- transactions; and at the head of the Alexandrians
fusal to acknowledge his right to divine honours, was the noted Apion. The latter chiefly rested
which he insanely claimed, or to admit his images their case upon the fact that the Jews were the only
into their synagogues.  The Alexandrians soon people who refused to consecrate images to the
found out that they would not be called to account emperor, or to swear by his name. But on this
for any proceedings they might have recourse to point the Jewish delegates defended themselves so
against the Jews. The insult and bitter mockery well, that Caligula himself said,'These men are
with which they treated Herod Agrippa when he not so wicked as ignorant and unhappy, in not
came to Alexandria, before proceeding to take pos- believing me to be a god' The ultimate result
session of the kingdom he had received from Cali- of this appeal is not known, but the Jews of Alexgula, gave the first intimation of their dispositions. andria continued to be harassed during the reFinding that the governor connived at their con- mainder of Caligula's reign; and their alabarch,
duct, -they proceeded to insist that the emperor's Alexander Lysimachus (brother'of Philo), was
images should be introduced into the Jewish syna- thrown into prison, where he remained till he was
gogues; and on resistance being offered, they de- discharged by Claudius, upon whose accession to
stroyed most of them, and polluted the others by the empire the Alexandrian Jews betook themintroducing the imperial images by force.  The selves to arms. This occasioned such disturbances
example thds set by the Alexandrians was followed that they attracted the attention of the emperor,
in other cities of Egypt, which contained at this who, at the joint entreaty of Herod and Agrippa,
time about a million of Jews; and a vast number issued an edict conferring on the Jews of Egypt
of oratories-of which the largest and most beauti- all their ancient privileges (Philo, In Flace. Op.
ful were called synagogues-were all either levelled p. IOI9-1043; Joseph. Antiq. xviii. Io (9); xix. 5).
with the ground, consumed by fire, or profaned by The state of feeling in Alexandria which these facts
the emperor's statues (Philo, In Flacc. p. 968- indicate, was very far from being allayed when the
1oo9, ed. 1640; DeLeg. ix.; Euseb. Chron. 27, 28). revolt of the Jews in Palestine caused even those
Flaccus soon after declared himself openly, by of the nation who dwelt in foreign parts to be republishing an edict depriving the Jews of the rights garded as enemies, both by the populace and the
of citizenship, which they had so long enjoyed, government. In Alexandria, on a public occasion,
and declaring them aliens. The Jews then occu- they were attacked, and those who could not save
pied two out of the five quarters (which took their themselves by flight were put to the sword. Only
names from the five first letters of the alphabet) three were taken alive, and they were dragged
into which the city was divided; and as they were through the city to be consigned to the flames.
in those times, before centuries of oppression had At this spectacle the indignation of the Jews rose
broken their spirit, by no means remarkable for beyond all bounds. They first assailed the Greek
their submission to wrongous treatment, it is likely citizens with stones, and then rushed with lighted
that they made some efforts towards the mainte- torches to the amphitheatre, to set it on fire and
nance of their rights, which Philo neglects to re- bur all the people who were there assembled.
cord, but which gave some kind of pretence for The Roman prefect Tiberius Alexander, finding
the excesses which followed. At all events, the that milder measures were of no avail, sent against
Alexandrians, regarding them as abandoned by the them a body of 17,000 soldiers, who slew about
authorities to their mercy, openly proceeded to the 5,0ooo of them, and plundered and burned their
most violent extremities. The Jews were forcibly dwellings (Joseph. Bell..ud. ii. I8, 7; comp.
driven out of all the other parts of the city, and con- Matt. xxiv. 6).
fined to one quarter; and the houses from which  After the close of the war in Palestine, new disthey had been driven, as well as their shops and turbances were excited in Egypt by the Sicarii,




ALEXANDRIUM                   110                  ALGUM
many of whom had fled thither.   They endea- of the principal cities of northernmost Judaea
voured to persuade the Jews to acknowledge no towards Samaria. The princes of the founder's
king but God, and to throw off the Roman yoke. family were mostly buried here; and hither Herod
Such persons as opposed their designs and ten- carried the remains of his sons Alexander and
dered wiser counsels to their brethren, they secretly Aristobulus (who were maternally of that family),
assassinated, according to their custom. But the after they had been put to death at Sebaste
principal Jews in Alexandria having in a general (Joseph. Antiq. xiv. 6, IO, 27; xvi. 17, B. 7 i. 17).
assembly earnestly warned the people against these [The situation of Corese, which determines that of
fanatics, who had been the authors of all the the castle, is not known; but Dr. Robinson (Bib.
troubles in Palestine, about 600 of them were Researches, iii. 83) conjectures that he may have
delivered up to the Romans.  Several fled into found it in the moder Kuriyzet, which is about
the Thebaid, but were apprehended and brought eight miles S. by E. from Shechem.   But this
back. The most cruel tortures which could be place seems too far north to have been within even
devised had no effect in compelling them to ac- the northernmost limits of Judea]
knowledge the emperor for their sovereign; and
even their children seemed endowed with souls   ALGUM    (      ),or ALMUG TREES (    5).
fearless of death, and bodies incapable of pain. These are, no doubt, two forms of the same word,
Vespasian, when informed of these transactions, as they occur in passages referring to the same
sent orders that the Jewish temple in Egypt should events, and differ only in the transposition of
be destroyed. Lupus the prefect, however, only letters.  In I Kings x. 11, it is said,'And the
shut it up, after having taken out the consecrated navy also of Hiram, that brought gold from Ophir,
gifts: but his successor Paulinus stripped it com- brought in from Ophir great plenty of almug-trees
pletely, and excluded the Jews entirely from it. and precious stones. And the king made of the
This was in A. D. 75, being the 343d year from its almug trees pillars for the house of the Lord, and
erection by Onias.                           for the king's house, harps also and psalteries for
St. Mark is said to have introduced the Chris- singers.' In the parallel passages of 2 Chron. ix.
tian religion into Alexandria, which early became,'II, the word algum is substituted for almug,
one of the strongholds of the true faith.  The and it is added,'There were none such seen before
Jews continued to form a principal portion of the in the land of Judah.' As no similar name has
inhabitants, and remained in the enjoyment of yet been discovered which is applicable to any kind
their civil rights till A.D. 45, when they incurred of wood from the countries whence the almug-trees
the hatred of Cyril the patriarch, at whose in- are supposed to have been brought, various constance they were expelled, to the number of 40,000,jectures have been formed respecting them. It is
and their synagogues destroyed. However, when necessary first to settle whence these trees were
Amrou, in A.D. 40, took the place for the caliph  brought. To us there appears no doubt that Ophir
was to the  southward of the  Red Sea, and was
Omar, he wrote to his master in                                   of the  Red Sea, and was'I have taken the great city of the west, which most probably in some part of India (Pictorial
contains 4000 palaces, 4000 baths, 400 theatres, Bible,. 349-366). The products brought from
I2,o00  shops for the sale of vegetable food, and thence, such as gold, precious stones, ivory, apes,
40,000 tributary.7ews.' From that time the pros- and peacocks, were all procurable only from that
perity of Alexandria very rapidly declined; and country. Even tin, obtained at a later period from
when, in 969, the Fatemite caliphs seized on Egypt Tartessus, was probably first procured from an
and built New Cairo, it sunk to the rank of a earlier Tarshish, as it is abundant in Tennaserim,
secondary Egyptian city.  The discovery of the the Malayan peninsula, the island of'Banca, etc.
passage to the east by the Cape, in 1497, almost Its uses were well known to the Indians, who reannihilated its remaining commercial importance. ceived it also in exchange when brought to them by
The commercial and maritime enterprises of Me- the Red Sea, as it no doubt was, at the time when
hemet Ali have again raised Alexandria to somethe Periplus of the Erythrean Sea was written.
distinction, and it is now an important station in  Various trees have been attempted to be identhe overland route to India, and a railway is now  tified with the almug. These it is unnecessary to
(1854) being constructed between it and Cairo. enumerate at length, as only a few of them seem
When Benjamin of Tudela visited the place (in  deevi. ng of attention. The Greek translator of
i. 158, ed. Asher), the number of Jews was not the book of kings explains the Hebrew word by
more than 3000, and does not now exceed 500 ZXa &reXrta,'unhewn wood;' but in both the
(J. A. St John, Egypt, ii. 384). The entire popu-places in Chrocles it is rendered  Xa e6Iva,
lation is about 600ooo (Wilkinson's Modern Egypt;' pine.wood.' This is also the interpretation of the
Hogg's Visit to Alexandria).  [For details re-old Latin version in 2 Chron. ii. 8  but in the two
garding  Alexandian learning and philosophy, other passages that Version gives it the acceptation
Jewish and Christian, see Dahne, Geschichtliche of'thyie-wood' (Ligna thyina).  The thyieDarstellng d. uiidisch-Alexandrinischen Religio wood which is mentioned in Rev. xviii. 12, is no
undphilosophie, Halle, I834; Jost, Gesch. d.'uden-  out the Lignum  thyinum, which was also called
thums, Leipz. 857; Dorner, Entwickelungsgesch  tcitrinum, citron-wood.  It was highly valued by
der Lehre von d. Person Cristi, i. 21 ff., E. T. the Romans, and employed by them for the doors
i  6  Grossmann, Qstones  Pione,  Lips.  f their temples and the images of their gods.
i. i8; Geander, Ch. Qst i. 67-93Phii. 26o 1 s.  This wood was obtained from the north of Africa,
1824; Neander, Ch. Hist. i. 67-93 K ii. 26it.
Gieseler, Eccl. Hist. i. 45, 229; Kurz, Ch. Hist.where the tree producing it has recently been reP. 55, 137, 172, and art. PHILOSOPHY in this discovered. If algum-wood was brought from the
Pwork.] 5 1717,a     a.PIOOH          intinorth coast of Africa, there certainly does not
appear any tree more worthy to be considered as
ALEXANDRIUM, a castle built by Alexander such than Thuya articulata, or Callitris quadrivalvis.
Jannaeus on a mountain near Coreae (Kopia), one [THYINE WOOD.]'From the passage of 2 Chron.




ALGUM                    111                ALGUM
ii. 8:-' Send me also cedar-trees, fir-trees, and are the produce of different trees, both of which,
algum-trees out of Lebanon,' it has been inferred however, belong to the same genus, Santalum.
that this might be one of the pine tribe procurable M. Gaudichaud has described the species, which
in that mountain: but in the parallel passage in he has named S. Freycinetianum, as that yielding
I Kings v. 8, only timber of cedar and timber of the yellow sandal-wood so much valued by the
fir are mentioned. On this Rosenmiller observes, Chinese, and obtained by them from the Feejee,'that the addition of'almug' in the book of Marquesas, and Molucca Islands.
Chronicles appears to have been the interpolation  But the most common sandal-wood is that
of a transcriber' (Bibl. Bot. p. 245). If the almug which is best known and most highly esteemed in
had been a tree of Lebanon, we should have a India. It is produced by the Santalum alb&m, a
difficulty in understanding how, after the time of
Solomon,'there came no such almug-trees nor 
were such seen unto this day' (I Kings x. 12). 
We feel satisfied, however, that almug-trees were
brought from southern regions by the Red Sea;
and it could not have been more difficult to convey 
them from thence to the Mediterranean than it
must have been to transport timber from Joppa to
Jerusalem. If we consider the great deficiency of 
timber on the coasts both of Arabia and of Egypt
-a deficiency which, from the general dryness of
the soil and climate, must have been experienced
in remote ages, as well as at the present time-we
should expect that, where we have notices of so
much shipping, there must early have been estab-  ^
lished a trade in timber.  Forskal particularly                                -
mentions the importation of timber-woods from
India into Arabia. Of the kinds enumerated, it 
has been shewn that saj, abnoos, and shishum are
teak, ebony, and sissoo (Elsary on Hindoo Mediciane,
p. 128). Forskal also mentions the teak as imported into Egypt:'Carina navis fundatur Ligno 
saj  L ex India allato,' p. Ivi                           38. Santalum album.
Having been brought from so great a distance, native of the mountainous parts of the coast of
and thought sufficiently remarkable to be worthy Malabar, where large quantities are cut for export
of special record, it is reasonable to suppose that to China, to different parts of India, and to the
almug-trees possessed properties not common in Persian and Arabian gulfs. The outer parts of this
the timber usually met with in Palestine, whether tree are white and without odour; the parts near
in appearance, in colour, or in odour. Several the root are most fragrant, especially of such trees
Indian trees have been enumerated as likely to as grow in hilly'situations and stony ground. The
have been the almug.  Of these, bukkum, or trees vary in diameter from 9 inches to a foot, and
sapan wood (Ca.salpinia sapaan), much used in are about 25 or 30 feet in height, but the stems
dyeing, belongs to the same genus as Brazil wood soon begin to branch. This wood is white, fineof South America, but its nearest locality is the grained, and agreeably fragrant, and is much
eastern side of the Bay of Bengal. The teak, employed for making rosaries, fans, elegant boxes
highly valued from its indestructible nature, great and cabinets. The Chinese use it also as incense
size, and strength, might be more reasonably both in their temples and private houses, and burn
adduced, because more easily procurable, from the long slender candles formed by covering the ends
greater accessibility of the Malabar coast; but of sticks with its sawdust mixed with rice-paste.
being a coarse-grained wood, it might not be so  As sandal-wood has been famed in the East from
well suited for musical instruments.  If one of very early times, it is more likely than any other to
the pine tribe be required, none is more deserving have attracted the notice of, and been desired by,
of selection than the deodar (deo, god; dar, wood: more northern nations. We do not, however,
Pinus deodara), as it grows to a large size, yields trace it by its present or any similar name at a
excellent timber, which is close-grained and very early period in the writings of Greek authors;
fragrant; but the tree is found only in very in- it may, however, have been confounded with agilaaccessible situations.                      wood, or agallochum, which like it is a fragrant
Others have been in favour of sandal-wood, but wood and used as incense. Sandal-wood is menhave confounded with the true and far-famed kind tioned in early Sanscrit works, and also in those of
what is called red sandal-wood, the product of the Arabs. Actuarius is the earliest Greek author
Pterocarpus santalinus, as well as of Adenanthera that expressly notices it, but he does so as if it had
pavonina. But there are two kinds of fragrant been familiarly known. In the Periplus of Arrian
sandal-wood, the yellow and the white, both men- it is mentioned as one of the articles of commerce
tioned in old works on Materia Medica. Both obtainable at Omana, in Gedrosia, by the name
these are thought by some to be the produce of the  g6Xa ZaydXwva, which Dr. Vincent remarks may
same tree, the younger and outer layers of wood easily have been corrupted from XavSdXa&,o  As it
forming the white, while the centre layers become was produced on the Malabar coast, it could easily
coloured, and form the yellow.              be obtained by the merchants who conveyed the
Recent investigations confirm the opinion of cinnamon of Ceylon and other Indian products to
Garcias, that the yellow and white sandal-woods the Mediterranean. That sandal-wood has often




ALISGEMA                    112               ALLEGORY
been employed in buildings is evident from J. Barb, 1552, 4to;.In n3D, a commentary on Esther, to'Viaggio alla Persia:''La porta della camera ora which are added some homilies. Ven. 1583, 4tQ;'
de sandali entarsiata con file d' oro,' etc.  The
Hindoo Temple of Somnat, in Guzerat, which''1 r., a commentary on Ruth, Constant. 561,
was plundered and destroyed by Mahomed of 4to, Lublin, 1597, 4to.-W. L. A.
Ghizni, had gates made of sandal-wood. These
were carried off by the conqueror, and afterwards  ALLEGORY ('AXXVyopla). This word is found
formed the gates of his tomb, whence, after 800oo in the Authorized Version of Gal. iv. 24, but it
years, they were taken by the British conquerors does not actually exist as a noun in the Greek
of Ghizni, and brought back to India in 1842.  Testament, nor even in the Septuagint. In the
That sandal-wood, therefore, might have attained passage in question Saint Paul cites the history of
celebrity, even in very early ages, is not at all un- the free-born Isaac and the slave-born Ishmael,
likely; that it should have attracted the notice of and in proceeding to apply it spiritually says, ~ravd
Phoenician merchants visiting the west coast of iarwp XXnryopol~eva, which does not mean, as in
India is highly probable; and also that they the A. V.,'which things are an allegory,' but
should have thought it worthy of being taken as a'which things are allegorized.' This is of some
part of their cargo on their return from Ophir. importance; for in the one case the Apostle is
That it is well calculated for musical instruments, made to declare a portion of Old Testament histhe author is happy to adduce the opinion of tory an allegory, whereas in truth he only speaks
Professor Wheatstone, who says,'I know no of it as allegorically applied.  Allegoies themreason why sandal-wood should not have been selves are, however, of frequent occurrence in
employed in ancient days for constructing musical Scripture although that name is not there applied
instruments. It is not so employed at present, to them.
because there are many much cheaper woods which  An ALLEGORY has been sometimes considered
present a far handsomer appearance.  Musical as only a lengthened metaphor; at other times, as
instruments would appear very unfinished to modern  a continuation of metaphors.  But the nature of
taste unless'varnished or French-polished, and it allegory itself, and the character of allegorical
would be worse than useless to treat fragrant woods interpretation,'will be best understood by attending
in this way. Formerly perhaps it might have been to the origin of the term which denotes it. Now
more the fashion to delight the senses of smell and the term'Allegory,' according to its original and
hearing simultaneously than it is with us, in which  proper meaning, denotes a representation of one
case odoriferous woods would be preferred for thing which is intended to excite the representation
things so much handled as musical instruments of another thing. Every allegory must therefore
are.'-J. F. R.                                be subjected to a twofold examination: we must
ALISGEMA ('AX1ot/, a H enic     first examine the immediate representation, and then
ALwhich occurs in Acts x. 20 (com. ver. 29 and  consider what other representation it is intended to
which occurs in Acts xv. 20 (comp. ver. 29 and excite. In most allegories the immediate repreI Cor. viii.), with reference to meat sacrificed to  entation is made inthe form of a narrative; and,
idols, and there means defilement, pollution. The  ce t is the o t of the allegory itself to convey
Apostle in these passages alludes to the customs of, nt an historic truth, the narrative itself st
the Gentiles, among whom, after a sacrifice had a moral, not an historic truth, the narrative itself is
the Gentiles, among whom, after a sacrifice hadcommonlyfictitious. Theimedatrepresentation
been concluded and a portion of the victim had commonly fictitious. The immediate representation
been assigoned to  a the priests, it ws u l to haod is of no further value than as it leads to the ultimate
been assigned to the priests, it was usual to hold          It is the application or the moral
a sacrificial feast in honour of the god, on which representation. I i  th e a ication orth
occasion they ate the residue of the flesh. This, the,   allegory comprehends two distinct
feast might take place either in the temple, or in are entations, the nterpretaton o
private house. But there were many who, from  r  t comprehend two distinct operations. The
need or avarice, salted and laid up the remnants must ohm relate to dthe immediat representafor future use (Theoph. Char. c. x.), or even gave fit ond the second to the ultimate representation.
them to the butchers to sell in the shambles tcThe immediate representation is understood from
(Schoettg. Hor. Heb. on Acts xv. 20 I Cor. viii.) the words of the allegory; the ultimate represenThis flesh, having been offered to idols, was held taon deeds  o the immediate representation
in abomination by the Jews; and they considered tation depeds po         In the interpreta
not only those who had been present at these feasts, applied to the  roper en  I  the inerpreta
but also those who ate the flesh which had been ti  therefore t of th orme  word   in te ner.
offered up, when afterwards exposed for sale in the wit the inteeatter, we are concerned with the
shambles, as infected by the contagion of idolatry. atioof the latter, we are concerned with the
things sign*&ie   by the words.  Now, whenever
The council at Jerusalem, therefore, at the sugges-  n sgn f aleorical ierpreio, we nhve
tion of St. James, directed that converts should always in vew the ultimate represtation, and,
refuse all invitations to such feasts, and abstan always in view the ultimate representation, and,
refuse all invitations to such feasts, and obstain consequentl, are then concerned with the interfrom  the use of all such meat, that no offence etation of things.  The interpretation of the
might be given to those Christians who had been  r      etation o thins  he interretation o  the
Jews.  See Kuinoel on Acts xv. 20.   [Meyer   words, which attaches only to the immediate
Lechler etc., take &XnoelonuActrs  referring to all representation, or the plain narrative itself, is comtLchle e tvils specified X byas refeng to alJs]  monly called the grammatical or the literal interpretation; although we should speak more correctly
ALKABAS, SALOMON (called also Ha-Levi ben in calling it the verbal interpretation, since "even in
MosS), a native of Saloniki, who flourished in for- the plainest narratives, even in narratives not
mer half of the sixteenth century.  He wrote designed for moral application, the use of words
UDrank nitN a commentay.ont heSongofSoomon, is never restricted to their mere literal senses.
*._, a ommentary on theSon  Solomon,  Custom, however, having sanctioned the use of
written in the year I536, published at Venice in the term'literal,' instead of the term'verbal' in



ALLEGORY                    113              ALLIANCES
terpretation, to mark the opposition to allegorical but conveoted into allegory. That this mode of
interpretation, we must understand it accordingly. interpretation cannot claim the sanction of St.
But whatever be the term, whether verbal or literal, Paul, from his treatment of the history of Isaac and
which we employ to express the interpretation of Ishmael, has already been shewn: the considerathe words, it must always be borne in mind that tion, however, of the allegorical modes of dealing
the allegorical interpretation is the interpretation of with the real histories of Scripture is a different
things-of the things signified by the words, not of subject from that of allegories and their interpretathe words themselves.                        tion, and belongs to another place (Lowth, De Sac.
Bishop Marsh, from the fifth of whose Lectures Poes. Heb. Pr. Io; Davidson, Sacred Hermen. p.
on the Criticism and Interpretation of the Biblethese 305). [INTERPRETATION, BIBLICAL ]-J. K.
principles are derived, proceeds, in that Lecture,  ALLELUIA. [HALLELUJAH.]
to apply them to a few of the Scriptural examples.
Every parable is a kind of allegory; and therefore  ALLIANCES. From a dread lest the example
the parable of the sower (Luke viii. 5-15), being of foreign nations should draw the Israelites into
especially clear and correct, is taken as the first the worship of idols, they were made a peculiar
example. In this we have a plain narrative, a and separate people, and intercourse and alliance
statement of a few simple and intelligible facts, with such nations were strongly interdicted (Lev.
such, probably, as had fallen within the observa- xviii. 3, 4; xx. 22, 23). The tendency to idolatry
tion of the persons to whom our Saviour addressed was in those times so strong, that the safety of the
himself. When he had finished the narrative, or Israelites lay in the most complete isolation that
the immediate representation of the allegory, he could be realized; and it was to assist this object
then gave the explanation or ultimate representa- that a country more than usually separated from
tion of it; that is, he gave the allegorical interpre- others by its natural boundaries was assigned to
tation of it. And that the interpretation was an them. It was shut in by the sea on the west, by
interpretation, not of the words, but of the things deserts on the south and east, and by mountains
signified by the words, is evident from the expla- and forests on the north. Among a people so
nation itself:'The seed is the word of God; those situated we should not expect to hear much of
by the wayside are they that hear,' etc. (v. xI, etc.) alliances with other nations.
The impressive and pathetic allegory addressed by  By far the most remarkable alliance in the politiNathan to David affords a similar instance of an cal history of the Hebrews is that between Solomon
allegorical narrative accompanied with its explana- and Hiram king of Tyre. It is in a great degree
tion (2 Sam. xii. 1-I4). Allegories thus accom- connected with considerations which belong to
panied, constitute a kind of simile, in both parts of another head. [COMMERCE.] But it may primarily
which the words themselves are construed either be referred to a partial change of feeling which
literally or figuratively, according to the respective originated in the time of David, and which conuse of them; and then we institute the comparison tinued to operate among his descendants. During
between the things signified in the former part, his wanderings he was brought into contact with
and the things signified in the latter part.  several of the neighbouring princes, from some of
But allegorical narratives are frequently left to whom he received sympathy and support, which,
explain themselves, especially when the resemblance after he ascended the throne, he gratefully remembetween the immediate and ultimate representation bered (2 Sam. x. 2). There was probably more of
is sufficiently apparent to make an explanation un- this friendly intercourse than the Scripture has had
necessary, Of this kind we cannot have a more occasion to record. Such timely aid, combined
striking example than that beautiful one contained with the respect which his subsequently victorious
in the both Psalm:' Thou broughtest a vine out of career drew from foreign nations, must have gone
Egypt,' etc.                                 far to modify in him and those about him that
The use of allegorical interpretation is not, how- aversion to strangers which the Hebrews generally
ever, confined to mere allegory, or fictitious narra- had been led to entertain. He married the daughter
tives, but is extended also to history, or real of a heathen king, and had by her.his favourite
narratives.  And in this case the grammatical son (2 Sam. iii. 3); the king of Moab protected
meaning of a passage is called its historical mean- his family (I Sam. xxii. 3, 4); the-king of Ammon
ing, in contradistinction to its allegorical meaning. shewed kindness to him (2 Sam. x. 2); the king of
There are two different modes in which Scripture Gath showered favours upon him (I Sam. xxvi.;
history has been thus allegorized. According to xxviii. I, 2); the king of Hamath sent his own son
one mode, facts and circumstances, especially those to congratulate him on his victories (2 Sam. viii.
recorded in the Old Testament, have been applied  Io): in short, the rare power which David posto other facts and circumstances, of which they sessed of attaching to himself the good opinion and
have been described as representative. According to favour of other men, extended even to the neighthe other mode, these facts and circumstances have bouring nations, and it would have been difficult
been described as mere emblems. The former mode for a person of his disposition to repel the advances
is warranted by the practice of the sacred writers of kindness and consideration which they made.
themselves; for when facts and circumstances are Among those who made such advances was Hiram,
so applied, they are applied as types of those things king of Tyre; for it eventually transpires that
to which the application is made. But the latter'Hiram was ever a lover of David' (I Kings v. I);
mode of allegorical interpretation has no such and it is probable that other intercourse had preauthority in its favour, though attempts have been ceded that relating to the palace which Hiram's
made to procure such authority., For the same artificers built for David (2 Sam. v. II).  The
things are there described not as types or as real king of Tyre was not disposed to neglect the
facts, but as mere ideal representations, like the cultivation of the friendly intercourse with the
immediate representations in allegory.  By this Hebrew nation which had thus been opened. He
mode, therefore, historyis not treated as allegory, sent an embassy to condole with Solomon on the
VOL. I.                                                                         I




ALLIANCES                   114               ALLIANCES
death of his father, and to congratulate him on his banks of the Tiber to propose a treaty of alliance
accession (I Kings v. I). The plans of the young and amity. By the terms of this treaty the Romans
king rendered the friendship of Hiram a matter of ostensibly threw over the Jews the broad shield of
importance, and accordingly' a league' was formed their dangerous protection, promising to assist them
(I Kings v. I2) between them: and that this league in their wars, and forbidding any one who were at
had a reference not merely to the special matter peace with themselves to be at war with the Jews,
then in view, but was a general league of amity, is or to assist directly or indirectly those who were so.
evinced by the fact that more than 250 years after, The Jews, on their part, engaged to assist the
a prophet denounces the Lord's vengeance upon Romans to the utmost of their power in any wars
Tyre, because she'remembered not the brotherly they might wage in those parts. The obligations
covenant' (Amos i. 9). Under this league large of this treaty might be enlarged or diminished by
bodies of Jews and Phoenicians were associated, the mutual consent of the contracting parties. This
first in preparing the materials for the temple (I memorable treaty, having been concluded at Rome,
Kings v. 6-I8), and afterwards in navigating the'was graven upon brass and deposited in the CapiRed Sea and the Indian Ocean (I Kings ix. 26- tol (I Macc. viii. 22-28; Josephus, Antiq. xii.
28); and this increasing intercourse with the heathen  Io, 6: other treaties with the Romans are given in
appears to have considerably weakened the senti- lib. xiii.)
ment of separation, which, in the case of the  Anterior to the Mosaical institutions, such
Hebrews, it was of the utmost importance to main- alliances with foreigners were permitted, or at least
tain. The disastrous consequences of even the tolerated.  Abraham was in alliance with some
seemingly least objectionable alliances may be seen of the Canaanitish princes (Gen. xiv. I3); he also
in the long train of evils, both to the kingdom of entered into a regular treaty of alliance, being the
Israel and of Judah, which ensued from the mar- first on record, with the Philistine king Abimelech
riage of Ahab with Jezebel, the king bf Tyre's (ch. xxi. 22, sq.), which was renewed by their
daughter. [AHAB; JEZEBEL.] Theseconsequences sons (ch. xxvi. 26-30). This primitive treaty is a
had been manifested even in the time of Solomon; model of its kind: instead of minute stipulations,
for he formed matrimonial alliances with most of it leaves all details to the honest interpretation of
the neighbouring kingdoms, and to the influence of the contracting parties. Abimelech says:' Swear
his idolatrous wives are ascribed the abominations unto me here by God that thou wilt not deal falsely
which darkened the latter days of the wise king with me, nor with my son, nor with my son's son;
(I Kings xi. I-8).                           but according to the kindness that I have done
The prophets, who were alive to these conse- unto thee, thou shalt do unto me, and unto the
quences, often raised their voices against such land wherein thou hast sojourned.' Even after the
dangerous connections (I Kings xi. II; 2 Chron. law, it appears, from some of the instances already
xvi. 7; xix. 2; xxv. 7, etc.; Is. vii. 17); but it adduced, that such alliances with distant nations
was found a difficult matter to induce even the best as could not be supposed to have any dangerous
kings to place such absolute faith in Jehovah, the effect upon the religion or morals of the people,
Head of their state, as to neglect altogether those were not deemed to be interdicted.  The treaty
human resources and alliances by which other with the Gibeonites is a remarkable proof of this.
nations strengthened themselves against their ene- Believing that the ambassadors came from a great
mies. The Jewish history, after Solomon, affords distance, Joshua and the elders readily entered
examples of several treaties with different kings of into an alliance with them; and are condemned
Syria, and with the kings of Assyria and Babylon. for it only on the ground that the Gibeonites were
Asa, one of the most pious monarchs that ever sat in fact their near neighbours (Josh. ix. 3-27).
on the throne of Judah, finding his kingdom    From the time of the patriarchs, a covenant of
menaced and his frontier invaded, sent to Ben- alliance was sealed by the blood of some victim.
hadad, who reigned in Damascus, the most costly [COVENANT.]  The perpetuity of covenants of
presents, reminding him of the league which had alliance thus contracted is expressed by calling
long subsisted between them and their fathers, and them'covenants of salt' (Num. xviii. I9; 2 Chron.
conjuring him not to succour the enemies of Judah, xiii. 5), salt being the symbol of incorruption. The
nor renounce the obligations of their old alliance case of the Gibeonites affords an exemplary instance,
(I Kings xv. I6-20). Attacked by another king scarcely equalled in the annals of any nation, of
of Israel, whom another king of Damascus pro- scrupulous adherence to such engagements. The
tected, Ahaz implored the king of Assyria for aid, Israelites had been absolutely cheated into the
and with the treasures of the temple and the palace alliance; but, having been confirmed by oaths,
purchased a defensive alliance (2 Kings xvi. 5, etc.; it was deemed to be inviolable (Josh. ix. 19).
2 Chron. xxviii. I6, etc.)  In later times, the Long afterwards, the treaty having been violated
Maccabees appear to have considered themselves by Saul, the whole nation was punished for the
unrestrained by any but the ordinary prudential crime by a dreadful famine in the time of David
considerations in contracting alliances; but they  (2 Sam. xxi. I, sqq.) The prophet Ezekiel (xvii.
confined their alliances to distant states, which  12-21) pours terrible denunciations upon king
were by no means likely ever to exercise that influ- Zedekiah for acting contrary to his sworn covenant
ence upon the religion of the people which was the with the king of Babylon. In this respect the
chief object of dread. The most remarkable alli- Jews were certainly most favourably distinguished
ances of this kind in the whole Hebrew history are among the ancient nations; and, from numerous
those which were contracted with the Romans, who intimations in Josephus, it appears that their
were then beginning to take a part in the affairs of character for fidelity to their engagements was so
Western Asia. Judas claimed their friendly inter- generally recognised after the Captivity, as often to
vention in a negotiation then pending between the procure for them highly favourable consideration
Jews and Antiochus Eupator (2 Macc. xi. 34, sq.); from the rulers of Western Asia and of Egypt.
and two years after he sent ambassadors to the -J. K.




ALLIOLI                   115                  ALLON
ALLIOLI, JOSEPH FRANZ VON, a German of larger growth than elsewhere. This is the case
theologian, was born at Sulzbach in, I793, and  even at the present day. In the hilly regions of
studied theology at Munich, Amberg, and Land- Bashan and Gilead, Burckhardt repeatedly mentions
shut. He was made professor of biblical literature forests of thick oaks-thicker than any forests he
at Landshut in 1824, and professor of Oriental had seen in Syria. He speaks gratefully of the shade
languages and biblical archaeology, at Munich, in thus afforded; and doubtless it was the presence
1826. He obtained the rectorate of this college of oaks which imparted to the scenery that European
in x830. From I838 he held the post of grand- character which he notices (Syria, 265, 348). On
vicar of Augsburg. He wrote Die Heil. Schrift that side of the river a thick oak-forest occurs as
des A. und AN. T. aus der Vulgata mit Bezug auf far south as the vicinity of Amman, the capital of
d. Grundtext neu iibersetz; u. mit kurzen Anmer- the Ammonites (p. 356). Oaks of low stature are
kungen erldutert, 6 vols. 8vo, Nrnb. i830-32, frequent in the hills and plains near the sources of
3d ed. Landshut 1838; also, Handbuch der bibli. the Jordan (pp. 45, 312, 315): and some of large
schen Alterthumskunde in I84i.-W. L. A.      dimensions are found in different parts of the
ALLIX, PETER, a learned French divine of the country, beside the natural reservoirs of water fed
Reformed church, was born at Alengon in I641, by springs (pp. 93, 315). On the lower slopes
and died in London in March 1717. He was originally pastor of a French church; but after the            I/ \N
revocation of the Edict of Nantes, he came to Eng-               i
land, and opened a church in London for the 
French refugees. In 1690 he was made canon of                            I 
Salisbury by Bishop Burnet, and his learning
gained for him the degree of D.D. from both
Oxford and Cambridge.    His writings are in
French, Latin, and English, and are very nume-             X 
rous. His biblical works are not so numerous as
his polemical and doctrinal. Among them may be
reckoned the following: Reflections on the Books of
Holy Scripture, 2 vols. 8vo, Lond. I688, I vol.
8vo, Oxf. 1822 (published in Bishop Watson's
Theological Tracts, and translated into French and
German); Judgment of the Ancient Church against
the Unitarians, 8vo, Lond. 1699, Oxf. 1822;
Book of Psalms, with an abridgment of each Psalm, 
etc., 8vo, 1701; De Messie Duplici adventu Dis- 
sertt. Duce, I2mo, Lond. 170I; Diatribe de y.
Christi D. N. anno et mense natali, 8vo, Lond.
1707, 1710. In these works, though bearing evidences of abundant reading and some acuteness39                   Querusgilos
there is not much to reward the biblical student. fen   on o oak   s         e e        e
The author was too much of a polemic to be al- of Lebanon low oak-trees are numerous, and the
The author was too much of a volerie to be al: inhabitants employ their branches in the construcways trustworthy, either in his citations or his  nh nt e       er rances in te
reasongs.  His'' ae of value as tion of the flat roofs of their dwellings (pp. 4, 7,
reasonings.  His'Reflections' are of value as 
bearing on the evidences of Christianity. -W.L. A. I  19, 32, etc.)  Next to Burckhardt, Lord
Lindsay is the traveller who makes the most
ALLON (lit; Sept. BdXavos; Vulg. Quercus; frequent mention of oaks in Palestine. He conA-th.preers  OA) Tehe oek,  wore ths ofinrms their existing abundance in the countries of
Auth. Vers. Ord ).  The   Hebre w'word,                     thus
Auth. Vers. OAK).   Thmr e pHebrew  wordo th.us x Bashan and Gilead. He calls them'noble prickly
pointed, as it occurs in Gen. xxxv. 8; Josh. xxiv.' and'evergreen oaks,' and notices a variety
frequenIly meni. one Vin th       oaks,' and evergreen oaks,' and notices a variety
26; Is. ii. i3; vi. 13; xliv. 14; Hos. iv. I3; of the latter with a broader leaf than usual (Travels,
Amos ii. 9; Zech. xi 2, was understood by the I 122      a 1o4, 127).
ancient translators, and has been supposed by most  t oa-t   ae   n     ans           the
interpreters, to denote the oak, and there is  But oak-trees are by no means wanting on the
interpreters, to denote the oak, a rnd there i no  west of the Jordan, in the proper Land of Canaan.
reason to disturb this conclusion. In our version Lord Lindsay describes the hills of southern Judaea
other words are also rendered by' oak,'                             pa         rticularlye o  the
other words are also rendered by'oak,' partiularly about Hebron as covered to the top with low
Alah u(4K), which more probably denotes the shrubs of the prickly oak.  Fine park scenery,
terebinth-tree. [ALAN.] The oak is, in fact, less composed chiefly of prickly and evergreen oaks,
frequently mentioned in the original than in the occurs between Samaria and Mount Carmel. The
A. V., where it occurs so often as to suggest that same trees abound on the southern prolongations
the oak is as conspicuous and as common in of that mountain, and on the banks of the Kishon.
Palestine as in this country. But in Syria oaks are The thick woods which cover Mount Tabor are
by no means common, except in hilly regions, where composed chiefly of oaks and pistachio-trees; and
the elevation gives the effect of a more northern  oaks are found in the valleys which trend from
climate; and even in such circumstances they do that mountain (Lindsay, ii. 51, 77, 85). Hasselnot attain the size in which they often appear in quist found groves of the Kermes oak (Q. Cocciferm)
our latitudes. Indeed, Syria has not the species in the valleys beyond the plain of Acre, on the
(Quercus robur) which forms the glory of our own road to Nazareth (Travels, p. 153).
forests. The'oaks of Bashan' are in Scripture  From the above and other notices we collect
mentioned with peculiar distinction (Is. ii. I3; that the species of oak found in Palestine, and
Ezek. xxvii. 6; Zech. xi. 2), as if in the hills beyond probably all comprehended under the word ALthe Jordan the oaks had been more abundant and  LON, are-I. The Evergreen Oak (Quercus ilex),




ALLON                      116                  ALMS
which is met with not only in Western Asia, but in  ALLON, the name of a place mentioned as
Northern Africa and Southern Europe. This is a belonging to Naphtali (Josh. xix. 32). Many cotall but not wide-spreading tree; and the timber,dices read  for  K here and this is probably
being very hard, is much used for purposes in                      -
which compactness and durability are required  to be preferred; comp. Jud. iv. I. Some trans2. The Holly-leaved Montpelier Oak (Q. g- late the word'Oak in Zaanannim.'
muntia), another evergreen, which may be inserted  ALLON-BACHUTH (nfTrK, oak of weepon the authority of Pococke. This tree also, as         )         in Be, whee 
its name imports, is a native of Southern Europe, nurse w eas bra place in Bethel, where I ebekahxs
and is markedly distinguished from the former by mention is buried (Gen. xxxv. 8). In Idered in
its numerous straggling branches and the thick
underdown of its leaves. 3. The Hairy-cupped   the E. V.'plain of Tabor,' which, as it lay near
Oak (Q. crinata), so called from the bristly ap-Bethel, has been supposed to be the same as that
pearance of the calyx.  It grows to a considerable        on        
size, and furnishes an excellent timber, much used  tional argument in favour of this has been attempted
by the Turks in the Lbuilding of ships and houses. to be suppied by the hypothesis that Tabor is a
But although this species exists in Syria, it is much  popular mistake for Deborah (Thenius on Sam.
more common in Asia Minor.      4. The Great x. 3; Ewald, Gesch. iii. 29); but this is mere
Prickly-cupped Oak  (Q.   EgilZops  or iZalonia), trifling. This oak has also been identified with
which takes its name rom  its large prickly calyx. the tree mentioned Jud. iv. 5, but for this there is
which takes its name from its lare prickly calyx. no  ound.-W. L. A.
This species is common in the Levant, where it is no ground.. L. A.
a handsome tree, which it is not in our ungenial ALLUPH. [ELEPH.]
climate, though it has long been cultivated. The  ALMESNINO, SAL, a Jewish rabbi in Salowood of this species is of little worth; but its niki. Hewrotea Commentary on the TwelveMinor
acorns form the valonia of commerce, of which
150,000 cwt. are yearly imported into this country  Prophets, under the title of IDV'n? D1y t.,
for the use of tanners.  5. The Kermes Oak (Q. which is printed in the Commentary on the Bible
coccifera) takes its name from an insect (kermes, of of Moses of Frankfort, Amst. I724-27 fol. He
the genus coccus) which adheres to the branches of wrote also a Commentary on Rashi's Commentary
this bushy evergreen shrub, in the form of small on the Pentateuch, printed along with other works
reddish balls about the size of a pea. This affords of the same kind at Constantinople, without date,
a crimson dye, formerly celebrated, but now super- but towards the beginning of the sixteenth century.
seded by cochineal.  This dye was used by the    W. L. A.
ancient Hebrews; for the word nlIl, which de-    ALMODAD (T'1     t), one of the sons of
notes a worm, and particularly the kermes worm,      ('
denotes also the dye prepared from it (Is. i. I8  Joktan (Gen. x. 26), and head of an Arab tribe.
eam. iv. 5), and is accordingly rendeered m K6KK^o  The Arab writers mention a tribe, the Kahtanites,,     i  those passages   acwhere it occursended  whose original seat was in Yemen, and from whom
was derived the sept of the Djormites, which emi-,e'                  grated from  Yemen to Hedjaz.     Among the!~~~~ ~='        latter, the name Modad, or with the article, Al
ix. ~:IModad, occurs frequently as the name of their
chief; and from this it is concluded that they re< ^a-* US' r     -,/        present the descendants of Almodad, the son of
<a-\ All ^;'c.4=&Sf;             Joktan or Kohtan. Bochart -(Phaleg ii. 16) suggests that the'AXovuattTrat mentioned by Ptolemy
6 4Vi;~^B     (vi. 7) derived their name from Almodad. As these
id~'"'- r^^^Sfl^^ I~         ahad their site near the Gerrhaeans, and as Gerrha
n.ci,;^~~'',.c k  lay somewhere in the district bordering on the
~-/;.:!'c~_south-east of the Arabian gulf, where the descend-.ct ^S5nL^' _o <          ants of Almodad are usually placed, there is con*?'^ 1_' %^_ HWB:,TO,          siderable probability in this.-W. L. A.,^^ ^^P ^^^ 1,.ALMON (D?3y; Sept.'AX&cv, Alex.; rdu5?;i b:  aXa, Vat.), one of the four cities which belonged
r~];-'r;~=i15^,"^j"~i^C)$3 BB^^^~    to the priests in the tribe of Benjamin (Josh.. I^._~ A^ Bxxi. 18). It is supposed to be the same as the
Alemeth of i Chron. vi. 60. Jarchi and Kimchi,........identify it with Bahurim, which name the Targum.........._(2 Sam. iii. i6) renders by Almeth-both words,5 SHOW If), ar=^, i:;.signifying'youth.' The site is unknown.
1.  Z -i, T-,:Ze e:-xA-     oALMON-DIBLATHAIM, one of the stations
J. -^-[^-^^^^ -.^ ^ ^  ^of the Israelites on their way from Mount Hor to
_ — ~-5:j__fJT B^  ^^~":-,the plains of Moab, round by Mount Seir (Num............ xxxiii. 46).
40. Quercus JEgilops or Valonia.       ALMOND-TREE. [LUZ, SHAKED.]
From the hints of travellers there appear to be  ALMS, what is given spontaneously to the poor
some other species of oaks in Palestine, but their for their relief. This word is a contraction from
information is not sufficiently distinct to enable us the Saxon aelmesse, which is generally believed to
to identify them.-J. K.                       be the Greek dXerfJoa-6vr derived to the Teutonic




ALMS                    117                  ALMS
dialects through the Latin eleemosyna.  In the tainly very different from the stringent enactments
English Bible, the word alms invariably represents of a poor law; still they placed the poor on a
this word in the original, Matt. vi. I being no footing very different from that under which the
exception, as the reading here of the text from  duty of almsgiving contemplates such, and this
which the A. V. was made, was &Xeaoo-iqv ^and may be one reason at least why the Hebrews had
not &KaLoor6vqrv  The word does not occur in the no word for alms. The Hebrews were thus habi0. T., nor had the Hebrews any word for alms. tuated to regard the helping of the poor rather as
The Syriac synonyme in t           what their poverty entitled them to in equity than
L?l )1, as an act of generosity. Hence the latter usage of
and this is allied to the up'sI of the Hebrew, and  np'1 among the Rabbins. The same idea appears
frequently in the Koran (ahn, Bib. Archcea.
the npTr of the Chaldee. It is doubtful, how- frequently in the Koran (Jahn, Bib. Arch l.
athe gp'l~ ofh  the:  d al d ee. T  is dobf,,  ho  Th. i. Bd. 2, p. 34I). The earliest mention of
ever, whether these words are ever used in the beggary in Scripture is in Ps. xxxvii. 25, but there
sense of alms, or even of benefit, though the LXX. the writer speaks of it as something already well
translates the former occasionally (comp. Deut. known. So in Ps. cix. IO this is imprecated as a
vi. 25; xxiv. I8; Is. i. 27), and the latter, in the curse, the nature of which was well known, on the
only place where it occurs (Dan. iv. 24), by wicked man who is the object of the writer's indigiXe1toiTv. The passages which have been ad- nation. Doubtless, as society advanced, the same
duced to prove this are of no weight for this pur- causes which operate to produce beggary elsewhere,
pose.  Gesenius indicates two, Prov. x. 2 and would be familiar to the Hebrews in their own
Mic. vi. 5, in addition to Dan. iv. 24; but in all land. In the days of our Lord there were many
these passages the word is best taken in its proper beggars in Judaea who seem to have subsisted
meaning of righteousness. It may be doubted even  chiefly by alms; this they solicited sitting in the
whether the word ever occurs in the sense of kind- streets, or round the entrances to the houses of the
ness, generosity, though the lexicons confidently wealthy, or at the gate of the Temple, and perhaps
affirm this. Certainly such passages as Ps. xxiv. also at the doors of the synagogues (Mark x. 46;
5, cxlv. 6, Prov. xi. 4, those commonly adduced, Luke xvi. 20; Acts iii. 2). The alms given was
do not prove it; on the contrary, they rather either money or food (Matt. xxvi. 9; Mark x. 46;
oppose it, for much of the force of the passage is Luke xvi. 2).
lost by taking "l~t in any but its proper sense.  The duty of almsgiving is one which natural
Wherever a legal provision is made for the poor, ethics recognizes, and which the Scripture clearly
the sphere of almsgiving is necessarily contracted, enforces. Job, in referring to the blessedness of
and that in proportion to the completeness of the his former estate, says, " When the ear heard me,
provision made by the law. It can hardly be said then it blessed me; and when the eye saw me, it
that by the Mosaic code such provision was made gave witness to me; because I delivered the poor
for the poor among the Hebrews, at least in the that cried, and the fatherless, and him that had
sense which modemrusage would attach to such a none to help him;" and he takes to himself, as a
statement. At the same time, the law recognized proud title that then belonged to him, the title of
the possibility of poverty existing even in the  "father of the poor" (xxix. 11, 12, I6). The
favoured land, and made such provision to meet it benevolent aspect of the Jewish law towards the
that such a thing as destitution and beggary was poor has been already noticed.  In the ethical
probably unknown during the earlier ages of the parts of the 0. T., the duty of considering, and
Hebrew commonwealth. The provisions for the helping, and protecting the poor, is forcibly urged;
poor made by the law were these:-I. Every third and God is continually represented as on the side
year the second tithe, or a third tithe [TITHES], of te poor, ready to avenge their cause against
was to be distributed between the Levites and the those who oppress them, and to reward those who
stranger, the fatherless, and the widow which were shew them kindness (Ps. xii. 5; xli. I; cvii. 41;
within the gates (Deut. xiv. 28, 29; xxvi. 12); cix. I6; Prov. xiv. 21, 3I; xix. 17; xxii. 16; xxix.
hence these were called "the poor's tithes."  2. 7; Is. iii. 14, 15; Am. ii. 6, 7; Zech. vii. Io, etc.)
Whatever grew spontaneously in field or vineyard In the predictions concerning the Messiah, a proon the sabbatic year was to be left unreaped and minent feature of his reign, on which the prophets
ungathered, so as that all might have free use of it dwell, is his regard for the poor (Ps. lxxii 4, 13;
(Lev. xxv. 5). 3. In ordinary years, in reaping Is. xi. 4, etc.); and in the spirit of these our Lord,
the harvest, the fields and vineyards were not so to as the Christ, constantly acted when He came on
be cleared of their produce as to leave nothing for the earth. He inculcated the duty of giving alms
the gleaner, nor were the corners of their fields (Luke xi. 41; xii. 33); lie taught that "it is more
to be reaped; these were for the poor and the blessed.to give than to receive;" and though Himstranger (Lev. xix. 9, o1; xxii. 22); it was even self often dependent on the benevolence of others,
forbidden, should a sheaf be left in the field by there can be no doubt that when He had the
mistake, to return for it; this also was to be the means, He exemplified in practice his own maxim
property of the poor (Deut. xxiv. I9). 4. Any  (John xiii. 29). By his apostles, the duty of almsperson was allowed to pluck and eat grapes in a giving is not only strongly commended to Chrisvineyard, or to pluck and eat ripe grain in a field tians, but is elevated to a superior place among the
belonging to another, provided he did not carry duties incumbent upon them as Christians (Acts
any away with him (Deut. xxiii. 24, 25). 5. On ix. 36; x. 4; Rom. xv. 26; 2 Cor. viii. I-7; ix.
certain festive occasions the poor were to be in- I-6; Gal. ii. 20; vi. 0o; Jam. ii. 15, I6, etc.)
vited that they might share in the entertainment  Among the Jews of post-biblical times, alms(Deut. xvi Io, ii). Besides these special enact- giving has been regarded with a feeling which is
ments, the law inculcated, in the general, a bene- excessive. The poor are proclaimed to be the
volent regard to the poor, and those who were in people of God (Tanch. fol. 29, col. 4); the rich
straits (Deut. xv. 7-I ). Such provisions are cer- man who gives to the poor is as if he kept all the




ALMUG                     118                ALPHABET
commandments (Ibid. fol. 29, col. 4). Alms satisfy also long devoted a more exclusive attention to
for sins (Berechot, p. I83); him who gives alms God  Phcenician remains, has recently given accurate
will keep from all harm (Hiers. Peah, fol. 15, 2); copies of the completest collection of them ever
whoever shall give a halfpenny to a poor man in  published, and has illustrated the characters and
alms shall be a partaker of the beatific vision (Baba the language of the monuments themselves, and
Bathra, fol. Io, I, Midrash Tillin in Ps. xvii. 15), the general subject of palaeography, with great
etc.  (Otho, Lex. Rab. on Eleemosynae and Pau- learning and acumen: Scripturce Linguaque Phaeperes).-W. L. A.                               nicik Monumenta, P. III., Lips. 1837-to which
[ALMUG, see ALGUM.]                         this article has many obligations.
ALOE. [AHALIM.                                 Seventy-seven inscriptions and numerous coins
ALEPH.    AHALIM.                            -found chiefly at Tyre and Sidon, in Malta and
ALPHA [A].                                   Cyprus, in Sicily, the north of Africa, and on the
ALPHABET.       The origin   of alphabetical coast of Spain-have preserved to us the earliest
writing belongs to a period long antecedent to the form of that alphabet from which all others have
date of any historical testimonies, or ancient monu- been derived. These remains themselves belong
ments, which have come down to us. This want generally to the period between Alexander the
of documentary evidence, however, has left a wider Great and the reign of Augustus; yet one is supfield for conjecture; and a mistaken and sometimes posed to belong to the year B. c. 394, and the
disingenuous zeal for the honour of the Scriptures latest to be of the year A. D. 203. They are thus
has not only led many learned men to ascribe the much later than the oldest Greek inscriptions;
invention of letters to Adam, Seth, Enoch, and but that, nevertheless, does not affect their claim
Noah, but to produce copies of the very alphabets of preserving the most ancient known form of the
they employed.  Several such alphabets, derived  primitive alphabet.
chiefly from Bonaventura, Hepburn, Roccha, and   The characters of this alphabet, as seen on these
Athanasius Kircher, may be seen in Bangii Celum  monuments, are remarkable for their very angular
Orientis (or, according to the new title which was and comparatively complex shape.  This is an
subsequently prefixed to it, Exercitationes de Ortu  evidence of their antiquity; as this is just that
et Progressu Literarum), Hafniae, 1657, p. 99, fq. feature which the tachygraphy and softer writingOur own time also has produced an attempt to   materials of later times would naturally tend to
prove, from  the astrological character of the  obliterate.  They also approach nearer to rude
Hebrew alphabet-i. e., from its representing the  resemblances of the physical objects after which
relations of the zodiac and seven planets-that it they are named, than those in any other Syrowas discovered probably by Noah, on the 7th    Arabian alphabet, and, as another confirmation,
Sept. B.C. 3446 (Seyffart's. Unser Alaphabet ein  resemble most their nearest descendant, the oldest
Abbild des Thierkreises, Leipz. 1834).         Greek letters. This alphabet may be said to conThe earliest and surest data, however, on which  sist solely of consonants; as in it'I \  do not,
any sound speculation on this subject can be based, except under the very narrowest limitations, possess
are found in the genuine palaeographical monuments the power of denoting the place and quality of a
of the Phoenicians; in the manifest derivation of vowel, as they do in Hebrew. The mode of writing
all other Syro-Arabian and almost all European  is, to use a technical term, in every respect much
characters from that type; and in the testimony  more defective than in Hebrew, especially in the
which history bears to the use and transmission of middle of a word. There are no vestiges of vowelalphabetical writing,                          points nor of final letters.  Words are chiefly
The true principles of comparative Syro-Arabian  written continuously, yet sometimes with intervals,
palaeography are a discovery of almost modern  and with a rudimental interpunction. The use of
date. Bochart, Bernard, and others, in their early  diacritical marks seems to have been known; and
attempts, did not even possess the Phoenician  that of abbreviations is very frequent. The course
alphabet at all, but only the Samaritan of printed  of the writing is from right to left, and there are
books or of the Hasmonsean coins; for Rhenferd  no traces of the alternate or oVrrTrpof586bv order.
was the first that produced the genuine alphabet, This alphabet was evidently invented, or first used,
in 1705. Besides, there was a very general pre- by a people speaking a Syro-Arabian language; as
judice that our present square Hebrew character an alphabet consisting so exclusively of consonants
was the primitive type (a list of some of the is possible only in that family of language in which
champions of which opinion is given in Carpzov's the vowels express merely the accidental part, the
Crit. Sacr. p. 227); and the want of documents modifications and relations of the idea, and not its
long concurred with that notion in hindering any  essence. It is, moreover, fully adequate tb denote
important effort in the right direction.  It was all the sounds of their speech; for it distinguishes
reserved for Kopp to make (in his Bilder und   that remarkable series of gutturals which is peculiar
Schriften der Vorzeit, Mannheim, 1819) the first to the Syro-Arabians; and is able to express every
systematic representation of the genealogy of ancient sound without compound letters, to which other
Syro-Arabian alphabets. The latter portion of his nations, who adapted Phoenician characters to their
second volume contains elaborate tabular views of own native sounds, have been obliged to have
the characters of a wide ethnographical circle, recourse. The names of the twenty-two characters,
arranged according to their proximity to the parent and the order of their arrangement, can only be
type; and, by the breadth of his comparison, as gathered (but then with considerable certainty)
well as by his deductions from the laws affecting  from  the Hebrew  and Greek alphabets.  The
the art of writing, he first succeeded in establishing  names are evidently Syro-Arabian; and, as they
a number of new and unexpected truths, which   appear in Hebrew, belong, as to their form, to a
have had a permanent influence on all subsequent period anterior to the development of that language
inquiries. Lastly, Gesenius, who possesses infinite as we find it in the earliest books of the Old
philological advantages over Kopp, and who has Testament: and, as they appear in the Greek,








ALPHABE T S.
uAj l t t  t  <      L6J   Z  <
-- I. ^ 7 1I ) 5  7
m~ O     lI'~  rX:  EE  ( )
Alepi      NA(hN    k          1
BetkH9 f         63
Gimel  7 ^ 11 1: ---  ^   ^
Ile  A  ^        X T           dl
aw 7        ) 1 
Sajiin [-Z  -rX   I  t         1 |
Chet h ^         J E  h   P 
TaBe th  L    \ 2 |            <6  e
~az-~rL z
Mem^ T  tl  2  ^  t! tf?   */: Final  Frinal t o
iuni' el   7  J  5, Final  Final1 
Aiin4 u   0  1  v  1  Y  I t 
A6jiUO UO  V V   Y 
TPhe    1 i  >  1  5  1  S  Final  Final.q 
ade r      r'   X -,inal  Final T 
Zooph Op   CV pY7   P |  |p
Resch   9   A  |  9V I  1  1 
Sin -.
SCein.  W Wtl V  V  ti 
Taw     h be.  h!            2 " 
LdinLL  L  ht r t, hi  A^..Bk.




ALPHABETS.
A R ABI  ETH I OPI C ARMENIAN  C O PT I C
Elif    Hoi U  ha    t Aip     A  Alpha
UBe  y  lavi I|  lF X  Pjen  B  Vida 
Be  u            I   f 
HauLt  ha 1          r 1  Gamma
Te'            l'I  Ta
Mai  c   m.', m l  b Jetsch'A  -  Da]lda
The' Saut UJ sa?     Za   G e   Ei
jim  C   Re s 4 ra j 4 E.     Zida
Hha C    Sat l  sa     JethI  H   H
Kha |   *Schaat i'i  scha*l  - P   Tho  Thida
IDal  0  Kaf       1    Ini  |    Jauda
Dsal  >  Beth n ba   L Ln     K    Kabba
Re
Tj awiT  a ga  Dsa U'     Mi
Ze      Harm  cha11 t  G  jen  N  Ni
Sin |e  Nahas fi   Ia  _  HExi
Schin    c Gmaas& gna   Tsa 
Sad     - Alph A  a,  ^ Dshea  n   Pi
Kaf   la Isa Dshe   ll    Pi
Ddad     Chaf I nia I  | Mel  J  ph p  Ro
Ta    Taie D   t)   t, No     r  Da
Tza     A i U  aC      Sha          a
Ain     | Zai H      " Wo |        Hu
Cr~~hain  ~ ~Jai  ja!2  L  Tsha  Phi
F.e Ghampa         9 at  e         C ^  hi
RTe              I.  lDshe )P  Ebsi
Dent.   a t  1a f Rra  uJ  o
Kaf                nJ M            0
Djewint  ai ja,  J  Sa
Kef       it ta         i   n  Ni Fel
Lam     Tait &I ta  S   mn     2i Giangia
Mim  ('Tschaitt  tsca  s  Re  (  Scima
i^n 0  P  A  a     Tzo ^Uz    Sce
N~un i~ Pait   pa              ITLiuI  e&  Hone
He      Tzadai  tza    Ppiur       e
Zappa U  za. LfR  a Khe
Wan1.J
KAf    fa  ()  o  Aipi   DeiLiga'Je    H Psa  T  pra||  $37   Fe  F'  So
ffithintfh. Blhlh..ef hy A..$. (.Jinb c.








ALPHABET                    119                ALPHABET
they have undergone modifications which (although  genealogical table of alphabets, which is taken from
some have considered them to betray signs of the Gesenius. To give it entire is, nevertheless, the
Aramaic statusemphaticus) areexplained byGesenius shortest way of laying before the student the
to be chiefly the effect of an influence which is seen  results of a tedious inquiry; and will, at the same
in other words (    C, ^dpXa; t1, tdX)OOa) which  time, secure the opportunity ofsubsequent reference,
the Greeks derived from the Phoenicians.       by which the treatment of the several Syro-Arabian
In tracing the derivation of all other alphabets languages, under their respective heads, may be
from this type, the records of the intercourse of materially facilitated.
nations with each other and of their gradual acqui-  The lines which run between the different names
sition of the arts of civilization furnish indeed an  are intended to mark the channel, and sometimes
important evidence; but the eye, especially when  the distinct yet convergent channels through which
trained in the school of such observation, is alone any given character has been derived. Thus, to
qualified to test the truth of even historical de- give an illustration, the square Hebrew of our
ductions on such a subject. It is, therefore, only  printed books is shewn to descend from the old
the attentive view of accurate plates which will Aramaean of Egypt, but to be modified by the inenable the reader fully to understand the following  fluence of the Palmyrene.
The earliest Phoenician.
Ancient Greek.     Ancient Persian.  Ancient Hebrew    Aramsean,       Later  Himjarite.
on Hason. coins  on nEgypt. non.  Phenician,
\or
Numidian.
Etruscan.  Roman.         \\          Samaritan in     Palmnyrene.             Ethiopic.
the Pentateuch. 
Umbrian.
Oscan.\                                             /         \   Square Hebrew.
Samnite.                                 Vulgar
S maritan.
\ Sassanide.
Celtiberian.                                           Tsabian.    Estrangelo and
Nestorian.
Zend.                       /      \
Kufic.   Peshito.  Uigur.
Nischi.
This primitive alphabet underwent various the Phoenician mode of writing. A more imporchanges in its transmission to cognate and alien  tant change was produced by the nature of the lannations.  The former class will be incidentally  guage. The Greeks found the numerous gutturals
noticed when treating of the Syro-Arabian lan- superfluous, and at the same time felt the indisguages separately. Among the latter, those modi- pensable necessity of characters to denote their
fications which were necessary to adapt it to the vowels. Accordingly, they converted Aleph, He,
Greek language are the most remarkable. The    _od, and Ain into A, E, I, 0. This last transancient Greek alphabet is an immediate descen- mutation (which is the only surprising one) is
dant of the Phoenician; and its letters correspond, accounted for by Gesenius, on the ground that the
in name, figure, and order, to those of its proto- Phoenician Ain leaned so much to the 0 sound,
type. Even the course of the writing, from right that it was written in Phoenician inscriptions to
to left, was at first observed in short inscriptions; express that vowel (in cases when it arose from
and then half retained in the f3ovaurpofr86Sv. But the fusion of the sounds A and I), and that
as the characters were reversed in the alternate the Greeks, when writing a Phoenician word in
lines of the f3ovarpofsf86v, and the order from left their own way, represented it by 0, as BwcXacOs
to right became at length the standard one, the = FtI$:. Moreover, the LXX. appear to have felt
systematic reversal of the characters became the  the same influence, as MoXd for i:31~, Gen. xxii.
law. This of itself was a striking departure from  24 ( Vide Gesenii Mlonumenta, p. 43 ). Cheth also




ALPHABET                    120               ALPHABET
became the rough breathing, and subsequently was ment; for, in the only practical question of palaeoappropriated to the long E.                   graphy, the Phoenician alphabet still continues to
The two alphabets correspond as follows:    be, to us at least, the primitive one. He also
K  A         t   e        y  o            objects that it is, in itself, improbable that the al-:   B        l   I           II           phabet was invented by the Aramaeans, on the
z  r        n   K        5ground that, in their dialect, as far as it is known
A rX6K X          -    to us, t 1 y K are very weak and indistinct; where7  A        l   A        p   K6irirra    as the existence of such letters in the primitive,  E         D   M'   P           alphabet at all, is an evidence that they were well
F BaDO       N         W     U dv      marked consonants, at least to the people who felt
Z n       r  2D i/     n, T           the necessity of denoting them by separate signs.
*l        -    i7H     n                Nearly an equal number of ancient authorities
In  H                                     might be cited as testimonies that the discovery of
There is evidence that the Greeks received all letters was ascribed to the Phoeniicians and to the
these letters (except Tsade), because they continued  Egyptians (see Walton's Prolegomena, ii. 2). And,
to employ them as numerals after they had ceased indeed, there is a view, suggested by Gesenius
to use them as letters. The loss of Tsade, however, (Paleographie, I. c.), by which their rival claims
affected the numerical value of all letters below its might, to a certain extent, be reconciled:.that is,
place in the series. They subsequently rejected by the supposition that the hieroglyphical was, inthree letters in writing; laU, the Roman F; K67rra, deed, the earliest kind of all writing; but that the
the Roman Q; and one of the sibilants. Gesenius Phoenicians, whose commerce led them to Egypt,
explains the last case thus: The ancient alphabet may have borrowed the first germ of alphabetical
had adopted Zeta for Zain, Sigma properly for writing from the phonetic hieroglyphs. There is at
Samech, and San for Shin. As the sound sh was least a remarkable coincidence between the Syrodisagreeable to the ear of the Greeks, it was Arabian alphabet and the phonetic hieroglyphs, in
dropped.  Having thus no need of two characters that in both the figure of a material object was
to express their single S, the two letters gradually made the sign of that sound with which the name
coalesced, and were indiscriminately called Sigma of the object began. To follow this further would
and San. But the S retained the position of the lead beyond the object of this article. But, if this
Shin, and not. of the Samech; and when Xi was theory were true, it would still leave the Phoeniintroduced, it usurped the place of the Samech. cians the possibility of having actually developed
He also thinks that, in the statement of Pliny (Hist. the first alphabetical writing; and that, together
IVa. vii. 56), about sixteen or eighteen Cadmean with the fact that the earliest monuments of the
letters, the first number is decidedly too small; but Syro-Arabians have preserved their characters, and
finds some ground for the eighteen of Aristotle, in the unanimous consent with which ancient writers
the facts that the Greeks rejected three, and so ascribe to them the transmission of the alphabet to
rarely used Z, that the actual number of current the Greeks (Herod v. 58; Diod. Sic. v. 74), may
letters was reduced to that amount.           make the probabilities preponderate in their favour.
The historical testimonies respecting the use and [WRITING. ]-J. N.
transmission of letters disagree much as to the  ALPHABETICAL SOUNDS.   In connection with
nation to which the discovery is to be ascribed. the subject of the Hebrew and Greek alphabets,
There are, however, only three nations which we may be allowed to enter on some considerations
can compete for the honour-the Babylonians, the which are seldom duly developed in the grammars
Phoenicians, and the Egyptians. Many eminent of either language; and which will besides throw
men, among whom are Kopp and Hoffmann, sup- some light on the Greek spelling of Hebrew names.
port the Babylonian claim to the priority of use.  Let us first request the reader to bestow a little
The chief arguments, as stated by them (Bilder study on the following table of consonants.
end Schriften, ii. 147; Gram. Syr. p. 6I), are  The names annexed to the left-hand of the rows
based on the very early civilization of Babylon; are not perfectly satisfactory. To'Labial' no
on numerous passages which attribute the dis- objection can be made. Neither'Dental' nor
covery to the 2i5poL, Syri, and XaX8a?oc (quoted in' Palatal' fitly describes the second row, in which
Hoffmann,. c.); and especially on the existence the sounds are produced by contact (more or less
of a Babylonian brick containing an inscription in slight and momentary) of the tongue with the teeth,
characters resembling the Phoenician. To these gums, or palate; while the third row, on the conarguments Gesenius has replied most at length in trary, does not need contact. The term' Guttural'
the article Palceographie, in Ersch and Gruber's is apt, improperly, to give the idea of a roughness
Algemeine Encyclopddie.  He especially endea- which does not exist in k and g. The soft palatal
vours to invalidate the evidence drawn from the sounds of X, y, ch, cannot be named absolutely
brick (of which Kopp possessed an inaccurate' Palatals,' without confounding them with those of
transcript, and was only able to give an unsatis- the row above. The word'Aspirate' (or breathfactoryinterpretation), and asserts thatthecharacters ing) has in English been generally appropriated to
are Phoenician, but by no means those of the most a' rough' breathing; and it is against our usage to
antique shape. He considers the language of'the conceive of the liquid y as a breathing at all.
inscription to be Aramaic; and maintains that the  Those consonants are called explosive on which
only conclusion which can fairly be drawn from the the voice cannot dwell when they terminate a
existence of such an inscription there, is, that during word; as ap, ak, ad. At their end A rebound of
the time of the Persian kings the Babylonians the organs takes place, giving the sound of an obpossessed a common alphabet almost entirely scure vowel; as app for ap: for if this final sound
agreeing with the Phoenician. And, indeed, as be withheld, but half ofthe consonant is enunciated.
this inscription only contains seven letters, its The Latins, following the Greeks, called these
claim to originality is not a matter of much mo-'Mutes.' On the contrary, we name those con



ALPHABET                   121               ALPHABET
tinuous the sound of which can be indefinitely pro- of X, it is only requisite to consider that the following
longed, as afff..., assss.                 proportion strictly holds:-g (hard): k:: y: X.
For the names thin and full, others say sharp  At the same time, y and x have a double pronunand flat; or hard and soft; or surd and sonant; or ciation, rougher and smoother, as ch in German
whispering and vocal. It would appear that in has. When their roughness is much exaggerated,
whispering the two are merged in one; for instance, they give the Arabic sounds  (kha) and
p cannot be distinguished from 6, nor z from s. 
Yet the'Aspirates' (or fourth row) will not strictly (ghain), which last is the consonant gh heard in
bear this test.                              gargling. As for the softer sounds, when their
By the Greek letters 0, 8, X,, we understand  softness is exaggerated, the X passes through the
the sounds given to them by the modern Greeks; softest German ch into a merey; while the y is
in which 0 = English th in thin; 8 = English th gradually merged in the soft imperfect r of lispers,
in that; X  German or Irish ch; y = Dutch g. and finally in w.
To conceive of the last sound, when we know that  But the fourth row, or the'Aspirates,' yet more
EXPLOSIVE.                   CONTINUOUS.
Thin.   Full.   Thin.       Full.      Liquid.   Nasal.
Labial..       P      b        f           v          w         m       (I)
Dental or Palatal.     t      d        0           8                    n       (2)
X X7                 Softest
Guttural or Palatal             g                            German       ng      (3)
ng n~   (3)
p                 C                   chorg
Aspirate..     K.. I                  n?  h hh      y      French     (4)
Sibilant or Vibratory.                 sh       Frenchj       r(5)
I;, ^        ~I     i  ~                 (5)
Urgently need explanation to an Englishman. The p and b are intermediate to the English p and b,
explosive aspirates come under the general head of so as to be difficult to our ears to distinguish,
what is called the Soft Breathing in Greek grammar and the Armenians have two different p's.  So
(although y in the Arab mouth is far enough from  the English h is intermediate in strictness to, and
soft), while the continuous aspirates are Rough  l, if at least we assume that these Hebrew letters
Breathings. Moreover,? is a fuller and stronger had the sound of the Arabic  and  Now this
K, just as n is a fuller and stronger n; and although _
the relation does not' seem to be precisely that of is a general phenomenon, in comparing the Indob:p, or d:, it is close enough to justify our tabular European with the Syro-Arabian sounds. Our k
arrangement. As for;1, it is rather softer than  is between the two Hebrew or Arab k's; our t is
our English h: and n, or hh, is the Irish h, a between their two t's; and so on.  To explain
wheezing sound. The consonant N is the hiatus this, observe that we may execute a t in various
heard between the vowels in the Greek word Ite, ways; first, by slapping the tongue flat against the
and y is the same sound exaggerated by a compres- teeth, as an Irishman or a man of Cumberland
sion of the throat. The last is, in short, a jerking  does when he says water; secondly (what is rather
hiatus, such as a stuttering man often prefixes to a less broad), by slightly touching the root of the
vowel-sound, when with effort he at length utters teeth, as a Frenchman or Italian does; thirdly, by
it. That K, y, are explosive, and i, n, continuous, touching only the gums, which is the English
is evident on trial. It is also clear that the hiatus method; fourthly, by touching the palate, or by
K readily softens itself into the liquid y. Just so, pressing on the gums with a muscular jerk. One
for the name (Kalht (Mah'lall) the Sept. reads or other of the last is the Hebrew to, the Arab;
MaXeXeX, where the e before 4X is in fact meant hence some call it a palatal, others a strong t. In
for an English y. On this ground we have put y  touching the palate, the throat is involuntarily
into the fourth row.                         opened, and a guttural sound is imparted to the
It is important to observe how the consonants of letter and to the following vowel; for which reason
different nations differ. For instance, the German  it has been also called a guttural t.  The other




ALPHABET                    122               ALPHABET
method, of pressing the tongue firmly, but not on th, and a k, very mincing and forward in the
the palate, is an Armenian t, but perhaps not the' mouth, easily melts into ky, as in the Turkish
true Syro-Arabian.                            language, and thence intb soft X. In this way, 0
What we have here to insist on is, that differ- and X having been adopted for fI and 3, i and K
ences which with us are provincialisms, with them  were left as the general representatives of 0 and p.
constitute differences of elementary sounds.  To  It is well known that the Ephraimites at an early
a Hebrew, n differs from D, or 3 from p, as period said s, at least in some words, for sh, as in
decidedly as with us p from b. On the other hand, the celebrated tale of Shibboleth; but this corrup/ and th (thin), as d and th (full), which with us tion went on increasing after the orthography had
have an elementary distinction, are but euphonic been fixed, so that it became requisite to denote by
variations in Hebrew.                         a dot many a r2 sh, the sound of which had degeAfter this, we have to explain that Z was ori- nerated into D s. It is rather perplexing to find D
ginally sounded forwarder on the palate than  occupy the same place in the Hebrew alphabet as
English k, as p was far backwarder, at the root of X in the Greek, a fact which perhaps still needs
the tongue.  So D was probably forwarder, and y  elucidation.
certainly backwarder than our s, each of them   But we must turn to an important subject-the
being nevertheless, a kind of s. That X was not tendency of aspirates to degenerate into vowels. The
is is seen by ni1,  D lilY t,  etc. etc., which are muscular language of barbarians seems to love
written 2eXXd, tc  MSv, Meopatv, etc. etc. in the aspirates; in fact, a vowel energetically sounded is
Sept., as well as from the analogy of the Arabic itself an aspirate, as an aspirate softened is a vowel.
e  p ciaio is a l  in io  a   Let it be noticed in passing that an over-vocalised
The ts pronunciation is a late invention, aslanguage is by no means soft.  Such a word as
is the ng sound, which has been arbitrarily assigned IIrte has of necessity strong hiatuses between the
to y. Nevertheless, out of'ltl the Greeks made vowels, which hiatuses, although not written in
TIpos, which is contrary to the analogy of 2s5dv Western languages, are virtually consonantal aspifor Sl'p: yet the adjective Sarranus, instead of rates; in which respect an English representation of
Tyrius, used by Virgil, may prove that Sarr or some barbarous languages is very misleading. The
Sour was in ancient, as in modem days, the right Hebrew spelling of Greek names often illustrates
pronunciation of Tyre. In English we have the this; for example, Antiochus is D~DiSt''[, where
double sound s and sh, which is illustrative of n  the central X indicates the hiatus between i and o.
and to,: and p, etc., to which modification it is That the letters n (final), i, 1, from the earliest
closely analogous. For sh is only a modified s, times were used for the long vowels A, I, U, seems
being formed with the broad or central part of the to be beyond doubt. At a later period, perhaps,
tongue, instead of the tip. In this action the fore- K was used for another A: the Greeks adopted y
part of the tongue forms itself into a sort of cup, for 0, and finally n for a long E. It is probable
the whole rim of which comes near to the palate that a corruption in the Hebrew pronunciation of
while the breath rushes between. On the contrary, n and n had already come in when the Sept.
in sounding X, only a single transverse section of adopted the spelling of proper names which we
the tongue approaches the palate; but this section find. As for l, it is the more remarkable that the
is far back, and the lips are protruded and smacked, Greek aspirate should not have been used for it;
so as to constitute a mouthing s. Farther, the for both in Greece and in Italy the h sound must
alliance of r to s, so strongly marked in the Greek  have been very soft, and ultimately has been lost.
and Latin languages, justifies our arranging them  So we find in the Sept.'A/IX for- ^1l Hebel,
in one row. The r is formed by a vibration along'>i, for Vf)il HJshe'a; and even the rougher
the tongue, which bears some analogy to the rush and stronger aspirate n often vanishes.  Thus
of the breath along its surface, on which the s and
sh depend. The Armenians have a twofold r, of'Evbxfor'm Hhenok;'Pow3i50 for ti1hi Rehhowhich one, if we mistake not, is related to the bot etc. Sometimes, however, the n becomes X,
other, as our sh to s.                        as in X&c/ for D13, XaX&X for nl; which may
The Hebrews were commonly stated to have possibly indicate that n, at least in proper names,
given two sounds to each of the letters D A n'I 1 occasionally retained the two sounds of Arabic
so as to produce the twelve sounds, p f bv, t,                       The   was of necessity
d 8, k X, g y; but it is now generally admitted that 
it was not so originally.  The Greeks (at least omitted in Greek, since, at least when it was beprovincially), even in early days, pronounced Bira, tween two vowels, no nearer representation could
Veta, as they now also say Ghamma, Dhelta; and be made than by leaving a hiatus. Where it has
the Italians for Latin b sometimes have v, some- been denoted by Greek y, as in rb6uoAla, ras&d8,
times b. The Hebrew corruption was however so 2ryyp, there is no doubt that it had the force of
early as constantly to shew itself in the Sept.;he Arabic  (ghain), whether or not this sound
indeed, as a general rule, we must regard the thin         (ghain, whether or not this sound
consonants B n  as having assumed the continu- ever occurred in Hebrew except in proper names.
ous, instead of the explosive, pronunciation; i. e. Respecting the vowes, we may add that it is
they were become f, 0, X. Thus p   s4,  t:1, 3  now historically established, alike in the Syroare written  lao-v, eog\X, Xavadv, in spite of the Arabian and in the Indo-European languages, that
dagesh lene by which the later Masorites directed  the sounds e and o (pronounced as in maid and
the initial letters to be sounded P, T, K. Yet boat) are later in time than those of a, t, a, and are
there is no immovable rule. Thus the nln-3 is in in fact corruptions of the diphthongs ai, au.
the same book variously rendered Xerreetpe and  Hence, originally, three long vowels, d, F, u, with
KcriToW   (I Macc. i. i, and viii. 5). It will be three vowel-points for the same when short, apobserved that a decidedly dental t is very near to peared to suffice. On the four very short vowels




ALPHAEUS                   123                 ALTAR
of Hebrew a needless obscurity is left in our gram- Prophets, including the twelve minor Prophets,
marsby its not being observed that we have the called  p i       Furth    5.-C. D G.
same number in the English language, really dis-*                    -.. 
tinct; as in sudden (or castle), contrary, nobody,  ALTAR (rIt from nrt, to slay (a victim),
a word ends in r, preceded by a long accented  b a legen,     t w   ary ord from the revowel or diphthong. In this case, a very short a mains of one built by Adam on his expulsion from
heard in true English speech, but used a lso forn the altar of incensex Seto feneis eard in true English speech, but not  Irish,Paradise and afterwards used by Cain and Abel,
Englsh a. We h  ave  e ven the fu    r (w ctiv              e thelo
before the r, as in bee, shoafltar (whenc   e tre of t he identical spot where Abraham prepared to
orthographyfowr, bower, etc.), which corresponds offer uohar,       Gen. fol. 51, 3, 4; Tarto theHebrew  nn,  ^   The Arabs have it also gum of Jonathan, Gen. viii. 20). Mention is made
when the final letter i s p.-F. W. N.of altars erected by Abraham (Gen. xii. 7; xiii.
ALPH~,EUS(AX5c   Th   faherof4; xxii. 9); by Isaac (xxvi. 25); by Jacob (xxxiii.
ALPHEUS      ('AXaos). i. The father of 20; xxxv. I, 3); by Moses (Exod. xvii. 15). After
James the Less (Matt. x. 3; Luke vi. 15); andthe giving of the law, the Israelites were conn -
husband of that Mary who with others stood by manded to make an altar of earth (st p re);
the cross of Christ (John xix. 25), if Alpheus be they were also permitted to employ stones, but no
the same with Cleophas-a supposition which has iron tool was to be applied to them. This has
been educed by the comparison of John xix 25, been generally understood as an interdiction of
with Luke xxiv. io, and Matt. x. 3. On that sup-sculpture, in order to guard against a violation of
position, Alphaeus is conceived to have been his the second commandment. Altars were frequently
Greek, and Cleophas (more correctly Clopas) his built on high places (;1n, M, p3wzol); the word
Hebrew or Syriac name, according to the custom  being used not only for the elevated spots, but for
of the provinces or of the time, when men had the sacrificial structures upon them. Thus Solomon
often two names, by one of which they were known built an high place for Chemosh (I Kings xi. 7),
to their friends and countrymen, and by the other and Josiah brake down and burnt the high place,
to the Romans or strangers. Possibly, however, and stamped it small to powder (2 Kings xxiii. I5);
the double name in Greek might arise, in this in- in which passage lD32 is distinguished from nr3Ts.
stance, from a diversity in pronouncing the n in his This practice, however, was forbidden by the
Aramaean name, Cr6n, a diversity which is com- Mosaic law (Deut. xii. I3; xvi. 5), except in parmon also in the Septuagint (See Kuinoel in Joan. ticular instances, such as those of Gideon (Judg.
xix. 25). [NAMES.                            vi. 26) and David (2 Sam. xxiv. I8). It is said of
Solomon' that he loved fhe Lord, walking in the
2. The father of the evangelist Levi or Matthew  statutes of David, his father, only he sacrificed and
(Mark ii. I4). Many identify this with the former; burnt incense in the high places' (I Kings iii. 3).
but in that case we should expect to find Matthew  Altars were sometimes built on the roofs of houses -
classed with James the Less in these lists of the in 2 Kings xxiii. I2, we read of the altars that were
Apostles, which he is not (Matt. x. 3; Mark iii.on the top of the upper chamber ofAhaz. In the
I8; Luke vi. 15; Acts i. 13).  mren was not so tabernacle, and afterwards in the temple, two altars
rare a name but that two men connected with were erected, one for sacrifices, the other for inJames might have borne it.                   cense: the table for the shew-bread is also sometimes called an altar.
ALSHEICH, also called ALSHECH, MOSES, son       The aar of burLg 
of R. Chayim, was born in Safet, Upper Galilee,  I. The altar of burnt-o g  ( 
about 1520.  He was othe pupil of the famous x. That belonging to the tabernacle was a hollow
Joseph Coro, and became one of  the most distin-square, five cubits in length and breadth, and three
Joseph Coro, and became     on  e of the most distin- cut in  ignit was made of Shitim -
guished commentators and popular Jewish preachers cubits in height; it was made of Shittim-wood
of the sixteenth century. He was chosen chief [SH!TTIM], and overlaid with plates of brass. In
of the sixteenth century. He was chosen chief -the middle there was a ledge or projection, 1l71M,
rabbi in his native place, where he died about I 595 the middle ther e  was a ledge or projection, 
His merits' as an exponent of Scripture consist   ulacrum, on which the priest stood while
chiefly in his having simplified the exegetical labours officiating; immediately below this, a brass grating
the recondite and allegorical sense; so that his passed, when the altar was removed. Some critics
commentaries may be regarded as a useful synopsis have supposed that this grating was placed perof the various Midrashic and Cabbalistic views of pendicularly, and fastened to the outward edge of
Scripture. He wrote a commentary on the Penta- the,  thus making the lower part of the altar
zteuch, called ~t~in n~i3,  Amsterdam 1777; com-  larger than the upper. Others have imagined that
vob, called rin  p, - Verm 177; comm- it extended horizontally beyond the ZI:, in order
mentanes on the Song of Songs, Offenbach 1721; to intercept the coals or portions of the sacrifice
a commentary on the Psalms, called $K n,     which might accidentally fall off the altar. Thus
-    the Targumist Jonathan says,'Quod si cadat frusAmsterdam  i695; a commentary on Proverbs, tum aut pruna ignis ex altari, cadat super craticucalled tb4~  2b, Venice I6oi; a commentary on lam nec pertingat ad terrain; turn capient illud
7ob, called pp:irn3 nfnl, Venice I603; commen- sacerdotes ex craticula et reponent in altari.' But
for such a purpose (as Dr. Bihr remarks) a grating....    seems very unsuitable. As the priests were forbidden
N j*.r, Offenbach 1719; commentaries on the later to go up by steps to the altar (Exod. xx. 26), a




ALTAR                     124                  ALTARS
slope of earth was probably made rising to a level sage up to it was by a gentle acclivity from the
with the 13'1. According to the Jewish tradition  south.  It was formed without any iron tool, nor
this was on the south side, which is not improbable; did any iron tool so much as touch it at any time.'
for on the east was'the place of the ashes' (D13p  The dimensions of this altar are differently stated
t";l), Lev. i. I6, and the laver of brass was pro- in the Mishna. It is there described as a square
bably near the western side, so that only the north  32 cubits at the base; at the height of a cubit it is
and south sides were left. Those critics who sup- reduced I cubit each way, making it 30 cubits
pose the grating to have been perpendicular or on  square; at 5 cubits higher it is similarly contracted,
the outside, consider the injunction in Exod. xx. becoming 28 cubits square, and at the base of the
24, as applicable to this altar, and that the inside horns, 26 cubits; and allowing a cubit each way
was filled with earth; so that the boards of Shittim- for the deambulacrum, a square of 24 cubits is left
wood formed merely a case for the real altar. Thus for the fire on the altar.  Other Jewish writers
Jarchi, on Exod. xxvii. 5, says,' Altare terreum  place the deambulacrum 2 feet below the surface of
est hoc ipsum aeneum altare, cujus concavum terra the altar, which would certainly be a more suitable
implebatur cum castra metarentur.'             construction. The Mishna states, in accordance
In Exod. xxvii. 3, the following utensils are men- with Josephus, that the stones of the altar were untioned as belonging to the altar, all of which were hewn, agreeably to the command in Exod. xx. 25;
to be made of brass.  (I) nlVo  siroth, pans or and that they were whitewashed every year at the
dishes to receive the ashes that fell through the Passover and the feast of tabernacles.  On the
grating.  (2) by yaim, shovels (forcipes, Vulg.) south side was an inclined plane, 32 cubits long
for cleaning the altar. (3) Tp^nn mizrakoth (ba- and I6 cubits broad, made likewise of unhewn
sons, Auth. Vers.; citdXa, Sept.; patera sacrifica, stones. A pipe was connected with the south-west
Gesenius), vessels for receiving the blood and sprink- horn through which the blood of the victims was
/li~        -.discharged by a subterraneous passage into the
ling it on the altar. (4) n/lItD mizIagoth ('flesh- brook Kedron. Under the altar was a cavity to
hooks,' Auth. Vers.; Kpedypac, Sept.; fuscinule, receive the drink-offerings,'which was covered with
Vulg.), large forks to turn the pieces of flesh or to a marble slab, and cleansed from time to time. On
take them off the fire (see I Sam. ii. 13). (5) the north side of the altar several iron rings were
inrno   machthoth ('fire-pans,' Auth. Vers.; rb fixed to fasten the victims. Lastly, a scarlet thread
urvpelov, Sept.): the same word is elsewhere tran- was drawn round the middle of the altar to disslated censers, Num. xvi. I7; but in Exod. xxv. tinguish between the blood that was to be sprinkled
38,'snuff-dishes;' iroOiara, Sept.            above or below it.
2. The altar of burnt-offering in Solomon's   II. The second altar belonging to the Jewish
temple was of much larger dimensions,'twenty  Cultus was the altar of incense,'13tpl 1 nlt'   or
cubits in length and breadth, and ten in height' n11t01 l? DT; Ourvarpaa-rpov OvutdtarTos, Sept.;
(2 Chron. iv. i), and was made entirely of brass. Ovrlar5ptov, Josephus; called also the golden altar
It is said of Asa that he renewed (tWI), that is, (Num. iv. I ):nTnf n3t*D. It was placed between
either repaired (in which sense the word is evi- the table of shew-bread and the golden candlestick,
dently used in 2 Chron. xxiv. 4) or reconsecrated in the most holy place.
(vecKalIvre, Sept.) the altar of the Lord that was  I. This altar in the tabernacle was made of
before the porch of the Lord (2 Chron. xv. 8). Shittim-wood overlaid with gold plates, one cubit
This altar was removed by king Ahaz (2 Kings in length and breadth, and two cubits in height.
xvi. 14; it was' cleansed' ('nlt, 4yvlco) by Heze- It had horns (Lev. iv. 7) of the same materials;
kiah; and in the latter part of Manasseh's reign  and round the flat surface was a border (it, crown
was repaired or rebuilt (pll ketib; ptoI keri).  Auth. Vers.; arpe7rrTv areqfdvlv Xpvorjv, Sept.)
3. Of the altar of burnt-offering in the second  of gold, underneath which were the rings to receive
temple, the canonical scriptures give us no infor-'the staves (l'T, TKvrdXal) made of Shittim-wood,
mation excepting that it was erected before the overlaid with gold to bear it withal' (Exod. xxx.
foundations of the temple were laid (Ezra iii. 3, 6) 1-5; Joseph. Antiq. iii. 6, 8).
on the same place where it had formerly been     2. The altar in Solomon's Temple was similar,
built,.' o0 Kal lrpbrepov vP dvYcKO0o0LA^-vov T6rov but made of cedar (i Kings vi. 20; vii. 48; I
(Joseph. Antiq. xi. 4, i). From the Apocrypha, Chron. xxviii. 18) overlaid with gold.
however, we may infer that it was made, not of   3. The altar in the second temple was taken
brass, but of unhewn stone, for in the account of away by Antiochus Epiphanes (i Macc. i. 21),
the restoration of the temple service by Judas Mac- and restored by Judas Maccabaeus (i Macc. iv.
cabeus, it is said,'They took whole stones (XOovs 49). On the arch of Titus there appears no altar
6XoKXhpovs), according to the law, and built a new  of incense; it is not mentioned in Heb. ix., nor by
altar according to the former (I Macc. iv. 47). Joseph. Antiq. xiv. 4, 4 (vide Tholuck On the
When Antiochus Epiphanes pillaged Jerusalem, Hebrews, vol. ii. p. 8; Biblical Cabinet, vol.
Josephus informs us that he left the temple bare, xxxix.) (Winer's Realworterbuch, articles'Altar,'
and took away the golden candlesticks and the'Brandopfer altar,''Raucheraltar;' Bahr's Symgolden altar [of incense] and table [of shew-bread], bolik des Mosaischen Cultus, bd. i. Heidelberg,
and the altar of burnt-offering, r7  OvaUaa-rpta I837).-J. E. R.
{Antiq. xii. 5, 4).                              ALTARS, FORMS OF.     The direction to the
4. The altar of burnt-offering erected by Herod is Israelites, at the time of their leaving Egypt, to
thus described by Josephus (De Bell. 7ud. v. 5, 6): construct their altars of unhewn stones or of earth,'Before this temple stood the altar, fifteen cubits is doubtless to be understood as an injunction to
high, and equal both in length and breadth, each of follow the usage of their patriarchal ancestors; and
which dimensions was fifty cubits. The figure it not to adopt the customs, full of idolatrous associawas built in was a square, and it had comers like tions, which they had seen in Egypt, or might see
horis (KepaToet&Eis rpoavIXwOv ywvzas), and the pas- in the land of Canaan. As they were also strictly




ALTARS                    125                  ALTARS
enjoined to destroy the altars of the Canaanites, it ancient altars. These are shewn in the view now
is more than probable that the direction was given (from the Pictorial Bible), which, although
levelled against such usages as those into which  substantially the same, is, in this and other
that people had fallen. The conclusion deducible respects, a considerable improvement upon that
from  this, that the patriarchal altars were of of Calmet.
unhewn stones or of earth, is confirmed by the
circumstances under which they were erected, and,
by the fact that they are always described as being/'built.' The provision that they might be made                   /       /
of earth, applies doubtless to situations in which                 l " W,.
stones could not be easily obtained, as in the open
plains and wildernesses. Familiar analogies lead to
the inference that the largest stones that could be
found in the neighbourhood would be employed to   I 
form the altar; but where no large stones could                      l - 
be had, that heaps of smaller ones might be made
to serve.                                             I 
[An attempt has been made to shew that in the.i D v.
cromlech we have a specimen of these primitive 
altars (Kitto, Pictorial Hist. of Palestine, Supp. s
Notes to b. iii. chs. I, 3, 4). But this opinion is              l.___
now universally renounced by well-informed anti —- --- 
quaries, by whom the cromlech is regarded as a
sepulchral and not a sacrificial monument (see                     42.
the decisive paper of Mr. F. L. Lukis in the
Archrological Journal, vol. i. p. 142, 222.)]   By the time of Solomon it appears to have been
The injunction that there should be no ascent by understood that the interdiction of steps of ascent
steps to the altar appears to have been imperfectly  did not imply that the altar was to be low, but
understood. There are no accounts or figures of rather that it was to be high, and that only a paraltars so elevated in their fabric as to require such  ticular mode of ascent was forbidden. The altar
steps for the officiating priests; but when altars of the temple was not less than ten cubits high,
are found on rocks or hills, the ascent to them is and some means of ascent must have been prosometimes facilitated by steps cut in the rock. vided.  The usual representations of Solomon's
This, therefore, may have been an indirect way of altar are formed chiefly from the descriptions of
preventing that erection of altars in high places that in Herod's temple given by Josephus and the
which the Scriptures so often reprobate.      Rabbins; and although this last was almost oneIt is usually supposed, however, that the effect third higher and larger than the other, it was
of this prohibition was, that the tabernacle altar, doubtless upon the same model. The altar of the
like most ancient altars, was so low as to need no fit temple had been seen, and could be described
ascent; or else that some other kind of ascent by many of those who were present when that of
was provided. The former is Calmet's view, the the second temple was erected; and the latter was
latter Lamy's.  Lamy gives a sloping ascent, known to those by whom Herod's altar was built.
while Calmet merely provides a low standing- Very different figures, however, have been formed
board for the officiating priest.  The latter is from these descriptions.
probably right, for the altar was but three cubits
high, and was designed to be portable.  There
is one error in these and other figures of the Jewish   A'? 
altars composed from the descriptions; namely,
with regard to the'horns,' which were placed                    -   A 
at the comers, called'the horns of the altar'' _
(Exod. xxvii. 2; xxix. I2; I Kings ii. 28), and
to which the victims were tied at the time of 
sacrifice. The word horn (rp keren) was applied
by the Jews as an epithet descriptive of any point                         \ 
43.
The first figure is taken from Calmet's original
work, and exhibits the form which, with slight
variation, is also preferred by Bernard Lamy, and
41.                      by Prideaux (Connection, i. 200). It is excellently
projecting in any direction after the manner of a conceived; but is open to the objection that the
horn (not necessarily like a horn in shape); and  slope, so far from being'insensible,' as Josephus
there is no reason to doubt that the horns of the describes it, is steep and inconvenient; and yet,
successive altars of burnt-offerings resembled those on the other hand, a less steep ascent to an object
corners projecting upwards which are seen in many  so elevated must have been inconveniently extended.




ALTARS                    126                  ALTARS
Calmet gives the above only as in accordance been then known that steps actually existed in
with the Rabbinical descriptions. His own view  Solomon's altar, or in that of the second temple,, ^~-.._~~ ~this would have been regarded as a serious departure
(r  A ^ >                        from the strict letter of the law, not to be repeated
in the new altar. In a similar way the student of
J~~~_ E^ n  -the Bible may account for some other discrepancies
between the temples of Solomon and Ezekiel, and
that of Herod,
44-,,
of the matter is conveyed in the annexed figure.
This is certainly a very handsome altar in itself,
but it would be scarcely possible to devise one
more unsuitable for the actual, and occasionally
extensive, services of the Jewish altar. None of
these objections apply to the next figure, derived
from Surenhusius (Mishna, tom. ii. p. 261), which,
46.
THE ALTAR OF INCENSE, being very simple in
its parts and uses, has been represented with so
little difference, except in some ornamental details,
that one of the figures designed from the descriptions may suffice. It is the same as-the one inserted
in the Pictorial Bible (Exod. xxx.); and, as to the
corers ('horns'), etc., is doubtless more accurate
than those given by Calmet and others.
It is not our object to describe the altars of other
nations, but, to supply materials for comparison
45.                      and illustration, a group of the altars of the prinfor use and effect, far exceeds any other representa- 
tion that has hitherto been attempted. An ascent 
by an inclined plane to an altar so high as that    _.9
of Solomon must either have been inconveniently 
steep, or have had an unseemly extension — 
objections obviated by the provision of three
ascents, of four steps each, conducting to successive
platforms. In the description of Ezekiel's temple,!                                 6'steps' (1n3.Vt) are placed on the east side of the  -r 
altar (Ezek. xliii. 17); and as it is generally sup- 
posed that the details of that description agree with
those of Solomon's temple, it is on that authority 
the steps are introduced. If they actually existed, 
it may be asked how this was consistent with the 2.   \ A
law, which forbade steps altogether. The obvious                           \ 
answer is, that, as public decency was the ostensible 
ground of the prohibition (Exod. xx. 26), it might
be supposed that it was not imperative if steps'
could be so disposed that decency should not be
violated; and that, if a law may be interpreted by
the reason of its enactment, this law could only be
meant to forbid a continuous flight of steps, and
not a broken ascent. If it is still urged against
this view that, according to Josephus, the ascent  I, 2 3. Greek. 4. Egyptian. 5 Babylonian.
*....s.  ip rTT~~ s  s  *1  s *s s6. Roman. 7, 8. Persian.
in the temple of Herod was by an insensible slope,
an answer is found in the fact, that, at the time of cipal nations of Oriental and classical antiquity is
its erection, a mode of interpreting the law accord- here introduced.  One obvious remark occurs,
ing to the dead letter, rather than the spirit, had  namely, that all the Oriental altars are square or
arisen; and we have no doubt that even had it oblong, whereas those of Greece and Rome are




ALTARS                     127                 ALTARS
more usually round; and that, upon the whole, the 3). It has also been supposed that the allusion
Hebrew altars were in accordance with the general may be to certain anonymous altars, which were
Oriental type. In all of them we observe bases erected by the philosopher Epimenides, in the
with corresponding projections at the top; and in time of a terrible pestilence, as a solemn expiation
some we find the true model of the'horns,' or for the country (Diog. Laert. Vit. Epimen. i. 29).
prominent and pointed angles.                  Dr. Doddridge, among others, dwells much on
The altars of the Assyrians appear, from the this. But it is a strong objection to the view which
recent discoveries, to have been much like those of he has taken, that the sacrifices on these altars
the Persians.  See Nineveh and its Remains, ii. were to be offered not dVbrTCy Oea, but T( irpoa468, 469; Nineveh and Babylon, pp. 35I-9. For I^Covw eei, i.e., to the God to whom this affair
the uses of the altar see [CENSER; INCENSE; appertains, or the God who can avert the pestilence,
SACRIFICE; ASYLUM].-J. K.                     whoever he may be; and such, no doubt, would
ALTAPRS OF BRICK (f3^+) are mentioned Is. have been the inscription, if there had been any.
~ T                    But these altars are expressly said to have been
lxv. 3. By some these are supposed to have been  Bw/sol dbvvfvot, i. e., anonymous altars, evidently
connected with some superstitious rites, and to  not in the sense of altars inscribed to the unknown
have been formed of the baked bricks used by the  God, but altars without the name of any God on
Babylonians in offering incense; specimens of which  them.
are still extant, covered with figures and cuneiform  Now, since the ancient writers tell us that there
inscriptions (Rosenmiiller, Gesenius, Maurer, etc.) were at Athens many altars inscribed to the unOthers think the reference is to altars hastily and known gods, Erasmus, Le Clerc, Brodaeus, and
rudely formed, and covered with a tile, such as many others, have maintained that St. Paul changed
Ovid refers fo Fast. ii. 537 (Knobel, Alexander). the plural number into the singular in accommodaOthers prefer understanding an allusion here to tion to his purpose. Of this opinion was Jerome
idolatrous offerings on the roofs of the houses (Comment. in Tit. i. 12), who testifies that this
(comp. 2 Kings xxiii. 12; Jer. xix. 13, etc.), and  inscription (which, he says, had been read by him)
translate the word roofing tiles (Bochart, Hender- was, eoQIs'Acias Kal Ebipcnrvs Kca At3i6sv, Oeozs
son, Ewald).-W. L. A.                          dcyPo-rots Kal r&vots,'To the gods of Asia, Europe,
ALTAR AT ATHENS. St. Paul, in his address and Africa; to the unknown and strange gods.'
before the judges of the Areopagus at Athens, de- Bretschneider, relying op this authority, supposes
dares that he perceived that the Athenians were in (Lex. N. T., s. v. dyvwo-ros) the inscription to
all things too superstitious,* for that, as he was have been dyva$Trots Oeois, i.e., to the gods of
passing by and beholding their devotions, he found  foreign nations, unknown to the Athenians; indian altar, inscribed,'To THE UNKNOWN GOD;' cating that either foreigners might sacrifice upon
and adds,'Him whom ye worship without know- that altar to their own gods, or that Athenians,
ing (6v o!v &yvooOvres eio7efere), I set forth unto  who were about to travel abroad, might first by
you' (Acts xvii. 22, 23). The questions suggested  sacrifice propitiate the favour of the gods of the
by the mention of an altar at Athens, thus in- countries they were about to visit. He quotes the
scribed'to the unknown God,' have engaged much  sentiment of Tertullian:'I find, indeed, altars
attention; and different opinions have been, and  prostituted to unknown gods, but idolatry is an
probably will continue to be, entertained on the Attic tenet; also to uncertain gods, but superstition
subject.                                      is a tenet of Rome.' To the view that such was
The principal difficulty arises from this, that the the inscription which Paul noticed, and that he
Greek writers, especially such as illustrate the thus accommodated it to his immediate purpose, it
Athenian antiquities, make mention of many altars has been very justly objected that, if this interprededicated dyvoLb-Tros eeoLs, to the unknown gods, but tation be admitted, the whole strength and weight
not of any one dedicated d&yvrarTy eEp, to the un- of the apostle's argument are taken away; and that
known god. The passage in Lucian (Philopatr. ~ his assertion might have been convicted of falsity
9), which has often been appealed to as evidence by his opponents. Therefore, while admitting the
that-there existed at Athens an altar dedicated, in authorities for the fact, that there were altars inthe singular, to the unknown God dy^(bc-rop  ep, scribed to the unknown gods, they contend that
is of little worth for the purpose.  For it has been  St. Paul is at least equally good authority, for the
shewn by Eichhorn, and Niemeyer (nterp. Orat. fact that one of these altars, if not more, was
Paul. Ath. in Areop. hab.), that this witty and inscribed in the singular, to the unknown God.
profane writer only repeats the expression of St. Chrysostom (In Acta App.), who objects strongly
Paul, with the view of casting ridicule upon it, as to the preceding hypothesis, offers the conjecture
he does on other occasions. The other passages that the Athenians, who were a people exceedingly
from Greek writers only enable us to conclude that superstitious, being apprehensive that they might
there were altars at Athens dedicated to many un- have overlooked some divinity and omitted to worknown gods (Pausan. i. i; Philostrat. Vit. Ap. vi. ship him, erected altars in some part of their city
inscribed to the unknown God; whence St. Paul
* AetcataLoveardpovs-a word that only occurs took occasion to preach to the Areopagites Jehere, and is of ambiguous signification, being hovah as a God, with respect to them truly uncapable of a good, bad, or indifferent sense. Most known; but whom they yet, in some sort, adored
modern, and some ancient, expositors hold that it without knowing him. Similar to this in essential
is here to be taken in a good sense (very religious), import is the conjecture of Eichhorn (Allgem.
as it was not the object of the apostle to give need- Biblioth. iii. 414) to which Niemeyer subscribes,
less offence.  This explanation also agrees best that there were standing at Athens several very
with the context, and with the circumstances of ancient altars, which had originally no inscription,
the case. A man may be'very religious,' though  and which were afterwards not destroyed, for fear
his religion itself may be false.              of provoking the anger of the gods to whom they




ALTER                     128                 ALUKAH
had been dedicated, although it was no longer the various readings are arranged according to the
known who these gods were. He supposes, there- lines of the MS. collated, so that one has to search
fore, that the inscription d^yvbcrp Oee, to an [some] what word each refers to. The whole edition is
unknown God, was placed upon them; and that most inconveniently arranged, so that any value it
one of these altars was seen by the apostle, who, possesses for critical purposes is thereby greatly
not knowing that there were others, spoke accord- diminished. Griesbach, in his second edition, made
ingly. To this we may add the notion of Kuinoil use of what additions Alter's diligence had made
(Comm. in Act. xvii. 23), who considers it proved to the critical apparatus of the N.T., and reduced
that there were several altars at Athens on which  to order and utility what the original collator had
the inscription was written in the plural number; left a'rudis indigestaque moles.'-W. L. A.
and believes that there was also one altar with the ALTING, JAMES, a German divine, was bo
inscription in the singular, although the fact has S    2, i 8, at Heidelberg, where his father
been recorded by no other writer. For no argu-  s an eminent professor of systematic theology.
ment can be drawn from this silence, to the dis, was an eminent professor of systematic theology.
ment can be drawn from this silence, to the dis- After completing his education at Groningen, he
credit of a writer, like St. Paul, of unimpeached visited England in 1640, and was ordained by
integrity. The altar in question, he thinks, hadp  Prideaux  In 1643 he returned to the contiprobably been dedicratend dy<qb Oeson accountn   S nBp. Prideaux. In I643 he returned to the contiprobably been dedicated ryvc   ee, on0 account nent, and became professor of Hebrew at Groof some remarkable benefit received, which seemed ngen. Though involved in a series of vexing
attributable to some God, although it was uncertain  iputes with one of his colleagues, he found time
to wahom.disputes with one of his colleagues, he found time
~to z~wh~om.~,g~ jand leisure to write several works bearing'on the
Some have held that the Athenians, under the philology and exegesis of Scripture. He wrote a
appellation of the unknown God, really worshipped treatise on the Hebrew points, and a Synopsis of
the true one, having received some dim notion of Chaldee and Syriac Grammar, Groning. I654-5;
Him from the Jews (Wolf, Curs in loc.) Others a Commentary on Jeremiah, Amst. i688; a Conhave sought to connect this inscription with that mentary on the Epistle to the Romans, etc. His
on the temple of Isis at Sais,'E^yb ell IIAN rb works have been collected, and published in 5 vols.
7yeyov6, Kal O, Ka.l 6/Lmevov Kal robv 4ubv 7r'rXov fol., Amst. I687. His style is prolix, but his writings
oVoeis Tr O0v7rbs &TreKdXvuev-' I am ALL that has are full of learning, and his views in general
been, and is, and shall be; and my veil no mortal accordant with Scripture.  He died 20th Aug.
hath yet uncovered,' and to refer both to that  679.-W. L. A.
remote'unknowable' WISDOM, far beyond all      ATMANN           N 
known causes, whom the heathen dimly guessed    ALTMANN      JOHN GEORGE, a Swiss divine,
at under obscure metaphors and recondite phrases;was born at Zoffingn in  697.  From I734 he
but whom the Hebrews knew under the name of was professor of Grek and moral philosophy at
Jehovah (Olearius, cited by Wolf; Hales' Chrono- Berne, and in  57 he was pastor at ns, where he
logy, ii. 519-531); but these are mere conjectures died Igth March I758. In conjunction with Brei
without any true support.  The conclusion to tinger he published the Tempe Helvetica, 6 vols.
which the soundest inquirers have come is that 8vo,Zur. I735-43. He published also Meletmata
expressed by Robinson (Add. in Am. Edit. of Philologico-Critica quibus dficilioribus N. T. locis
Calmet):'So much at least is certain, that altars ex antuitate lux afunditur, 3 vols. 4t, Utr.
to an unknown god or gods existed at Athens. I753 —W    L. A.
But the attempt to ascertain definitely whom the  ALTSCHUL, NAPHTALI, called also BEN
Athenians worshipped under this appellation must ASHER, a Jewish printer, who lived at Prague in
ever remain fruitless for want of sufficient data. the middle of the seventeenth century. He wrote
The inscription afforded to Paul a happy occasion              i  e and Grammatical Co
of proclaiming the Gospel; and those who em-                  S    e and Grammatical Co
braced it found indeed that the being whom they mentary on the whole of Scripture, collected from
had thus'ignorantly worshipped,' was the one the best Commentaries, fol. Kracow  1552-1595.
only living and true God.'-J. K.              A new edition appeared in 6 vols. 8vo, Amst.
AL-TASHCHITH. [PSALMS.]                     I777-78. Both editions contain the text.-W. L. A.
ALTER, FRANZ CARL, a learned Jesuit, keeper   ALUKAH (; Sept. B8XXa; Vulg. Sanof the imperial library at Vienna, and professor guisuga; A. V.'Horse-leech') occurs only.in Prov.
of Greek in the Gymnasium   of St. Anna, was xxx. 15 (genus, vermes; order, intestinata, Linn.
born at Engelsberg in Silesia, 27th January I749, Viviparous, brings forth only one offspring at a
and died at Vienna,, 24th March   80o4.  His time; many species).'The horse-leech' is properly
principal work is his Novum  Testamentum, ad a species of leech discarded for medical purposes on
codicem  Vindobonensem Grace expressum, 2 vols. account of the coarseness of its bite. There is no
8vo. Vien. 1786-1787.  In this critical edition ground for the distinction of species made in the
of the N. T., Professor Alter has followed in the English Bible.
text a manuscript in the royal library of Vienna  Although the Hebrew word is translated leech
(Cod. Lamb. I, Nessel. 23), but not strictly, for in all the versions, there has been much dispute
he has introduced, from the text of Stephen's ed. whether that is its proper meaning. Against the
of I546, alterations where he thought the codex received translation, it has been urged that, upon
incorrect. With this text he has collated twenty- an examination of the context in which it occurs,
four MSS., in which larger or smaller portions of the introduction of the leech seems strange; that it
the N. T. are contained, and the Sclavonic and is impossible to understand what is meant by its
Coptic versions of some parts of the N. T.; the'two daughters,' or three, as the Septuagint, Syriac,
result of which is placed at the end of the volume and Arabic versions assign to it; and that, instead
in separate portions, as each codex or version was of the incessant craving apparently attributed to it,
examined by the editor. In the second volume the leech drops off when filled. In order to evade




ALUKAH                    129              AMALEKITES
these difficulties it has been attempted, but in vain, their proverbs, which is nowhere more vividly exto connect the passage either with the preceding emplified than in this whole chapter, the leech is
or subsequent verse. It has also been attempted introduced as an illustration of the covetousness of
to give a different sense to the Hebrew word. But such persons, and of the two distinguishing vices of
as it occurs nowhere besides, in Scripture, and as which it is the parent, avarice and cruelty. May
the root from which it would seem to be derived is not also the'two daughters of the leech, crying,
never used as a verb, no assistance can be obtained  Give, give,' be a figurative description of the two
from the Scriptures themselves in this investigation. lips of the creature (for these it has, and perfectly
Recourse is therefore had to the Arabic. The formed), which are a part of its very complicated
following is the line of criticism pursued by the' mouth? It certainly is agreeable to the Hebrew
learned Bochart (Hierozoicon, a Rosenmiller, iii. style to call the offspring of inanimate things
785, etc.) The Arabic word for leech is alakah, daughters, for so branches are called daughters of
which is derived from a verb signifying to hang or trees (Gen. xlix. 22-margin). A similar use of
to adhere to. But the Hebrew word, alukah the word is found in Eccles. xii. 4,'All the
he would derive from another Arabic root, aluk, daughters of music shall be brought low,' meaning
which means'fate, heavy misfortune, or impending the lips, front teeth, and other parts of the mouth.
calamity'; and hence he infers that alukah pro- It is well remarked by Professor Paxton, that'this
perly means destiny, and particularly the necessity figurative application of the entire genus is suffiof dying which attaches to every man by the de- cient to justify the interpretation. The leech, as a
cree of God. He urges that it is not strange that symbol, in use among writers of every class and in
offsring should be ascribed to this divine appoint- all ages, for avarice, rapine, plunder, rapacity, and
ment, since, in Prov. xxvii. I, offspring is attri- even assiduity, is too well known to need illustrabuted to time, a day-'Thou knowest not what a tion' (Plau. Epidic. art. 2; Cicero, ad Attic.; Horace,
day may bring forth.' And the Hebrews call Ars Poet. 476; Theocritus, Pharmaceut. 56, 57;
events the children of time. We also speak of the etc. etc.)-J. F. D.
womb of time. Thus, then, Bochart considers    AL                             o      o 
that destiny, or the divine decree concerning death, ALUSH  (; Sept. AIXo6s), one of the
is here personified and represented as having'two  places at which the Hebrews rested on their way
daughters crying, give, give;' namely, N1KV, to Mount Sinai (Num. xxxiii. 13). It was between
Hades, or the state of departed souls, and the Dophkah and Rephidim. The Jewish Chronology
grave. He cites Prov. xxvii. 20, as a parallel (Seder Olam Rabba, c. 5, p. 27) makes it twelve
passage:'Hell (sheol and the grave are never full,' miles from the former and eight from the latter
which the Vulgate renders'infernus et perditio.' station. The Targum of Jonathan calls it'a strong
Hence he supposes that sheol and the grave are the fort;' and it is alleged (upon an interpretation of
two daughters of Alukah or Destiny; each cries Exod. xvi. 30) that it was in Alush that the observ-'give' at the same moment-the former asks for ance of the Sabbath-day was enforced upon the
the soul, and the latter for the body of man in emancipated Israelites.-J. K.
death; both are insatiable, for both involve all man- AMALEK     a son o Elipha (the firstkind in one common ruin. He further thinks that                  a s  o E        (      -
both these are called daughters, because each of born of Esau) by his concubine Timna: he was the
the words is of the feminine, or, at most, of the chieftain, or Emir ('1a, Sept. ye^ycv, Auth. V.
common gender; and in the x6th verse, the grave Duke), of an Idumaean tribe (Gen. xxxvi. I2, i6).
(sheol) is specified as one of the'things that are -j. K
never satisfied.' In further confirmation of this 
view, Bochart cites rabbinical writers, who state that  AMALEKITES, the name of a nation inhabitby the word alukah, which occurs in the Chaldee ing the country to the south of Palestine between
paraphrase on the Psalms, they understand destinyIdumaa and Egypt, and to the east of the Dead
to be signified; and also remark that it has two  ea andMount Seir.'The Amalekites dwell i
daughters-EdenandGehenna, Paradiseand Hell-  the land of the south' (in1 n'1K, Num. xiii.
the former of whom never has enough of the souls of 29).'Saul smote the Amalekites from Havilah
the righteous, the latter of the souls of the wicked. until thou comest to Shur, that is over against
In behalf of the received translation, it is urged Egypt' (I Sam. xv. 7).'David went up and inthat it is scarcely credible that all the ancientvadedtheGeshurtes, and Gezrtes, and theAmaletranslators should have confounded alukah with kites, for those nations were of old the inhabitants
alakah; that it is peculiarly unlikely that this of the land as thou goest to Shur, even unto the
should have been the case with the Septuagint land of Egypt' ( Sam. xxvii. 8). In I Chron. iv.
translator of the book of Proverbs, because it is 42, it is said that the sons of Simeon went to
believed that'this ranks next to the translation of Mount Seir and smote the rest of the Amalekites
the Pentateuch for ability and fidelity of execution;' that were escaped. According to Josephus (Antiq.
and that the author of it must have been well iii. 2, ~ I) the Amalekites inhabited Gobolitis (5:1,
skilled in the two languages (Horne's Introduction, Ps. lxxxiii. 7; rI* aXa, rdcaXa, Stephanus Byz.;
ii 43, ed. i828).  It is further pleaded that the reg^aX^v, raSaXv, Euseb.) and Petra, and were
application of Arabic analogies to Hebrew words the most warlike of the nations in those parts; ol
is not decisive; and finally, that the theory pro- Te rTv rOpoX\Ttv Kal rTv IlTppav KatroKo0vres, ot
posed by Bochart is not essential to the elucidation  KaXoOvratL uLv'A/AcaXrxTrat, paXalrcTarToL  TrGv
of the passage. In the preceding verse the writer &eK~Ce 8Ovgv ir^pXov. Ip another passage he says,
(not Solomon-see verse I) speaks of'a generation,'Aliphaz had five legitimate sons, Theman, Omer,
whose teeth are as swords, and their jaw-teeth as Saphus, Gotham, and Kanaz; for Amalek was
knives to devour thepoor from off the earth, and the not legitimate, but by a concubine, whose name
needy from among men;' and then after the abrupt was Thamna. These dwelt in that part of Idumeea
and picturesque style of the East, especially in called Gobolitis, and that called Amalekitis, from
VOL. T.                                                                        K




AMALEKITES                   130              AMALEKITES
Amalek' (Antii7. ii. ); and elsewhere he speaks 40,500 men able to bear arms, and Manasseh
of them as' reaching from Pelusium of Egypt to 32,200; and admitting in the case of the Israelites
the Red Sea' (Antiq. vi 7). We find, also, that an extraordinary rate of increase (Exod. i. I2 20),
they had a settlement in that part of Palestine still, if we consider the prostrating influence of
which was allotted to the tribe of Ephraim. slavery on the national character, and the absence
Abdon, one of the judges of Israel, was buried in of warlike habits, it is easy to conceive that a comPirathon, in the land of Ephraim, in the mount of paratively small band of marauders would be a
the Amalekites,,%^i;l.,3.     In Deborah's very formidable foe to an undisciplined multitude,
triumphal ode it is said p  bl3m D tn tSa ftcircumstanced as the Israelites were, in a locality so'out of Ephraim was there a root of them against adapted to irregular warfare. It appears, too, that
Amalek' (Auth. Vers.), which Ewald (Die Poe- the attack was made on the most defenceless portischen Bucher des Alten Bundes, etc., Gttingen,tion ofthehost.  Remember (sad Moses) what
1839, Band, i. 129) translates' Von Efraim di, Amalek did unto thee by the way when ye were
deren Wurzel ist in Anmaleq,''of Ephraim those come forth out of Egypt; how he met thee by the
whose root is in Amalek,' i.., the Ephraimites way and smote the hindmost of thee, even all that
who dwelt in the mount of the Amalekites. On were feeble behind thee (Q%5rwn,; Sept. KOtcomparing this text and Joshua xvi. o1,' they drave, Vulg. ass), when thou wast faint and weary'
not out the Canaanites that dwelt in Gezer ('t1), (Deut. xxv. 17-I8). In Balaam's prophecy (Num.
but the Canaanites dwelt among the Ephraimites xxiv.) Amalek is denominated'the first of the
unto this day'-with I Sam. xxvii. 8,'David in- nations' D1 nsJ1   The Targumists and sevaded the Geshurites, and Gezrites, and the Amale- veral expositors, both Jewish and Christian, have
taken this to mean'the first of the nations that
kites,' etc.,-it seems probable that the Gezritestaken this to mean  the first of the nations that
(kite)  were the inhabitants of Gezer tht ) ( z   warred against Israel' (Marg. reading, Auth. Vers.)
Gesenius); but in that case David must have But it appears more agreeable to the antithetical
marched northward instead of southward, and the character of Oriental poet  to interpret it of the
southern position of the Amalekites is expressly rank held by the Amalekites among the surroundstated.  The first mention of the Amalekites in ing nations, their pre-eminence as a warlike tribe,
the Bible is Gen. xiv. 7; Chedorlaomer and his here contrasted with their future downfall and exthe Bible is Gen. xiv. 7; Chedorlaomer and his tinction. Or, if we understand the term nINNII
confederates returned and came to En-mishpat, tiction.  Or, if we understand the term niK,
which is Kadesh, and smote all the country of the of priority in time, of the antiquity of the nation,
Amalekites, and also the Amorites that dwelt in ths would become a   striking contrast with'his
Hazezon-tamar.' From this passage it has been  latter end' (olnl).  In the Pentateuch, the
inferred that the Amalekites existed as an inde- Amalekites are frequentlymentioned in connection
pendent nation at that time, and were; therefore, withthe Canaanites (Num. xiv. 25,43,45) and,
totally distinct from the descendants of the son of in the book of Judges, with the Moabites and
Eliphaz. On the other hand, it has been remarked  Ammonites (Judg. iii. 3); with theMidianites,
that while several other nations are specified ('the  (TudA kits, 3; and all  The  idinite  nd he
Rephaims, the Zuzims, the Emims,' v. 5,' the Amalekites, and all the children of the East lay
Horites,' v. 6, and'the Amorites,' v. 7), the along in the valley like grasshoppers for multitude;.    and their camels were without number, as the sand
phrase'all the country of the Amalekites' (fil'   by the sea-side for multitude'); with the Kenites,
pht) may have been used by the sacred his- I Sam. xv. 6. By divine command, as a retributorian to denote the locality not then, but long tion for their hostility to the Israelites on leaving
afterwards, occupied by the posterity of Amalek  Egypt (l Sam. xv. 2), Saul invaded their country
(Hengstenberg's Die Authentie des Pentateuches, with an army of 2,000 men, and'utterly destroyed
Band ii. 305). The LXX. appear to have read          strangely taken for a proper name in the
Sept.: irdvra rbv Xa6v K al'IeplJL &drKTrevcv) all the''5-3, aall the princes, instead of mnrn73, all the people with the edge of the sword;' but he precountry, iKarKoKav c7rdvras rob1 s dpXoYras'A/aXtK; served their king Agag alive, and the best of the
a reading which, if correct, would be in favour of cattle, and by this act of disobedience forfeited the
the former supposition. Origen says (In Numer. regal authority over Israel. Josephus states the
Homil. xix.), interfecerunt omnes principes Amalek, number of Saul's army to be 400,000 men of Israel,
Rufinus's Latin version. After starting the ques- and 30,ooo00 of Judah. He also represents Saul as
tion, whether this name belonged to two nations, besieging and taking the cities of the Amalekites,
without attempting to settle it, he turns off to its'some by warlike machines, some by mines dug
allegorical interpretation (Opera, x. 230, Berol. underground, and by building walls on the outside;
1840). The Amalekites were the first assailants some by famine and thirst, and some by other
of the Israelites after their passage through the methods' (Antiq. vi. 7, 3 2). About twenty years
Red Sea (Exod. xvii.) In v. 13 it is said Joshua later they were attacked by David during his residiscomfited Amalek and his people with the edge of dence among the Philistines (I Sam. xxvii.) It is
the sword.' Amalek may here be empldyed as the said'that he smote the land, and left neither man
name of the chief of the tribe, as Pharaoh was the nor woman alive;' this language must be taken
name of the successive kings of Egypt, and in this with some limitation, for shortly after the Amalecase the words must mean the prince and his army. kites were sufficiently recovered from their defeat
But if' Amalek' stand for the nation,'his people' to make reprisals, and burnt Ziklag with fire (I
must mean their confederates. It has been thought Sam. xxx.) David, on his return from the camp
improbable that in so short a period the descend- of Achish, surprised them while celebrating their
ants of Esau's grandson could have been sufficiently success, * eating, and drinking, and dancing,' and
numerous and powerful to attack the host of Israel;  smote them from twilight even unto the evening of
but within nearly the same period the tribe of the next day, and there escaped not a man of them
Ephraim had increased so that it could muster save 400 young men which rode upon camels, and




AMAM                      131                 AMASA
fled' (i Sam. xxx. 17). At a later period, we find  (Bybelsche Conference, Amst., 1623), and a Hebrew
that David dedicated to the Lord the silver and  Grammar, Amst. 1625; and edited some posthugold of Amalek and other conquered nations (2 mous works of Drusius.-W. L. A.
am. viii. 12). The last notice of the Amalekites
AMANA (,~bl),      a mountain mentioned in
as a nation is in I Chron. iv. 43, from which we              -:
learn that in the days of Hezekiah, king of Judah, Cant. iv. 8. Some have supposed it to be Mount
500 men of the sons of Simeon'went to Mount Amanus in Cilicia, to which the dominion of
Seir, and smote the rest of the Amalekites that Solomon is alleged to have extended northward.
were escaped.'                                But the context, with other circumstances, leaves
In the book of Esther, Haman is called the little doubt that this Mount Amana was rather the
Agagite, and was probably a descendant of the southern part or summit of Anti-Libanus, and was
royal line (Num. xxiv. 7; I Sam. xv. 8). Josephus so called perhaps from containing the sources of the
says that he was by birth an Amalekite (Antiq. xi. river Amana or Abana. [ABANA. ]-J. K.
6,   } 5).                                      AMARIAH (fl"1~, or w1uM0       [whom 7ehovah
The editor of Calmet supposes that there were                         T - - 
no less than three distinct tribes of Amalekites.-  aid, i. e., promised comp.  604paTTos, Ges.; Yehovah's allotment, Ftirst]; Sept.'Alzapia,'A/zaplas).
I. Amalek the ancient, referred to in Gen. xiv. 7;  oas allotment, First];Sept.'A7ap,'Avapias).
2. A tribe in the region east of Egypt, between        mentioned in I Chron. vi. 7; Ezr. vii. 3,
Egypt and Canaan (Exod. xvii. 8; I Sam. xv., etc.; in the lst of the descendants of aron by his eldest
3. Amalek, the descendants of Eliphaz. No such  son Eleazer. He was the son or Meraioth and
distinction, however, appears to be made in the the father of Ahitub, who was (not the grandson
Biblical narrative; the national character is every- and successor of Eli of the same name, but) the
where the same, and the different localities in which  father of that Zadok in whose person Saul restored
we find the Amalekites may be easily explained by  the high-priesthood to the line of Eleazer. The
their habits, which evidently were such as belong  years during which the younger line of Ithamar ento a warlike nomade peopfe. Le Clerc was one of joyed the pontificate in the persons of Eli, Ahitub,
the first critics who advocated the existence of more and Ahimelech (who was slain by King Saul at
than one Amalek. Hengstenberg infers from I Nob) doubtless more than cover the time of Amariah
Chron. iv. 42, 43, that in a wider sense Amale- and his son Ahitub; and it is therefore sufficiently
kites might be considered as belonging to Idumaea, certain that they never were high-priests in fact,
and urges, in behalf of the descent of the Amale- although their naes are given to carry on the
kites from the son of Eliphaz, the improbability  direct line of succession to Zadok.
that a people who acted so conspicuous a part in  2.The high-pest at a later period the son of
the Israelitish history should have their origin con- Azaah, and also father of a second Ahitub (I
cealed, and be, as he terms it,'d yeveaXyiTro,   Chron. vi. I). In like manner, in the same list
contrary to the whole plan of the Pentateuch' there are three high-priests bearing the name of
(v. Die Authentie,. etc., ii. 303). Arabian writers Azariah.
|i~ n ~..,'  ~~ *3. The great-grandfather of the prophet Zephamention U       iiL,  t --..J J,, Amalika, niah (Zeph. i. I). —J. K.
Amalik, Imlik, as an aboriginal tribe of their  [Other persons of this name are mentioned, i
country, descended from Ham (Abulfeda says Chron. xxiii. I9, and xxiv. 23; 2 Chron. xxxi. I5;
from Shem), and more ancient than the Ishmaelites.Neh. x. 3; xii 2, 13; Ezr. x. 42; Neh. xi. 4.]
They also give the same name to the Philistines and  AMASA  (gty,  a burden; Sept.'Aeaaat),
other Canaanites, and assert that the Amalekites
who were conquered byJoshua passed overto North  son of Abigail, a sister of king David. As his
Africa. Philo (ita Moysi, i. 39) calls the Amale- name does not occur prior to Absalom's rebellion
kites who fought with the Israelites on leaving  (2 Sam. xvii. 25), he must have been neglected by
Egypt, Phoenicians (oyVLKes).  The same writer David in comparison with Joab and Abishai, the
interprets the name Amalek as meaning' a people sons of his other sister Zeruiah, who had before
that licks up or exhausts-: 6'Aua\lr, ^8 puve- then been raised to great power and influence.
aerat c s \   X   ew  (Legis Allegor. iii. 66, Lib. de This apparent estrangement may perhaps be conMigr. Abr. 26, Cong. erud. grat. I). -J. E.R  nected with the fact that Abigail had married an
Ishmaelite called Jether, who was the father of
AMAM     (Dt4t; Sept. gvr, var. read.'Aon1yt, Amasa. This is the more likely, as the fact is'Atau), a city in the southern part of the tribe of pointedly mentioned (I Chron. ii. I7), or covertly
Judah (Josh. xv. 26).                         indicated (2 Sam. xvii. 25) whenever the name of
Abigail occurs, whereas we are quite ignorant who
AMAMA, SIXTIN, a Protestant theologian, and was the husband of the other sister, Zeruiah, and
professor of Hebrew at Franecker, was born theie father of her distinguished sons. We may thus
Oct. 15, I593, and died Nov. 9, 1639. He visited form a conjecture of the grounds on which Amasa
England in 1613, and resided for some time at joined Absalom, and obtained the command of the
Exeter College, Oxford. He wrote Censura Vul- rebelarmy. He was defeatedbyhis cousin Joab, who
gatec LatinaC Editionis Pentateuchi, I620, which was commanded the army of David, but that monarch
attacked by Mersenne. To him Amama replied in eventually offered him not only pardon, but the comhis Antibarbarus Biblicus, 4to, Franc., 1628, in mand of the army in the room of Joab (2 Sam. xix.
which also he continued his stricture on the Vul- I3), whose overbearing conduct had become intolergate through the Historical books, the Psalms, and  able to him, and to whom he could not entirely forthe writings of Solomon. After his death a new  give the death of Absalom. On the breaking out of
edition appeared, containing, in addition, his stric- Sheba's rebellion, Amasa was so tardy in his
tures on-Isaiah and Jeremiah. He published also a movements (probably from the reluctance of the
collation of the Dutch version with the originals troops to follow him), that David despatched




AMASAI                    132              AMBASSADOR
Abishai with the household troops in pursuit of sent the men home, although by doing so he not
Sheba, and Joab joined his brother as a volunteer. only lost their services, but the Ioo,0oo talents,
When they reached'the great stone of Gibeon,' which had been already paid, and incurred the
they were overtaken by Amasa with the force he resentment of the Israelites, who were naturally
had been able to collect. Joab thinking this a fa- exasperated at the indignity shewn to them. This
vourable opportunity of getting rid of so dangerous exasperation they indicated by plundering the
a rival, saluted Amasa, asked him of his health, towns and destroying the people on their homeward
and took his beard in his right hand to kiss him, march.
while with the unheeded left hand he smote him  The obedience of Amaziah was rewarded by a
dead with his sword. Joab then put himself at the great victory over the Edomites, ten thousand of
head of the troops, and continued the pursuit of whom were slain in battle and ten thousand more
Sheba; and such was his popularity with the army, savagely destroyed by being hurled down from the
that David was unable to remove him from the high cliffs of their native mountains.  But the
command, or call him to account for this bloody Edomites afterwards were avenged; for among the
deed: B.C. 1022. [ABNER; ABSALOM; JOAB.]      goods which fell to the conqueror were some of... A chief of Ephraim, who, with others, vehe- their idols, which, although impotent to deliver
mently resisted the retention as prisoners of the their own worshippers, Amaziah betook himself
persons whom Pekah, king of Israel, had taken to worship. This proved his ruin. Puffed up by
captive in a successful campaign against Ahaz, his late victories, he thought also of reducing the
king of Judah (2 Chron. xxviii. 12).-J. K.    ten tribes under his dominion. In this attempt he
AMASAI (')) A  ~  the principal leader of a was defeated by king Joash of Israel, who carried
AMA, te p l l r      him a prisoner to Jerusalem. Joash broke down
considerable body of men from the tribes of Judah great part of the city wall, plundered the city, and
and Benjamin, who joined David at Ziklag. The even laid his hands upon the sacred things of the
words with which David received them indicate temple. He, however, left Amaziah on the throne,
some apprehension, which was instantly dissipated but not without taking hostages for his good
by a fervent declaration of attachment from Amasai behaviour. The disasters which Amaziah's infatua(I Chron. xii. i6-I8). [By many this person is tion had brought upon Judah probably occasioned
identified with Amasa (Berthean, Biuc. d. Chron. the conspiracy in which he lost his life.  On
in loc.), but this is not quite certain].     receiving intelligence of this conspiracy he hastened
AMATH. [HAMATH.]                           to throw himself into the fortress of Lachish; but
he was pursued and slain by the conspirators, who
AMATHITIS, the district in Syria of which brought back his body'upon horses' to Jerusalem
Amath or Hamath on the Orontes was the capital for interment in the royal sepulchre (2 Kings xiv.;
(I Macc. xii. 25). [HAMATH.]                  2 Chron. xxv.)
AMATHUS ('AAua0ov), a fortified town beyond   2. The priest of the golden calves at Bethel, in
the Jordan, which the Onomast. (s. v. AEmeth) the time of Jeroboam II.  He complained to the
places 2i Roman miles south of Pella. (Joseph. king of Amos's prophecies of coming evil, and
Bell. ud. i. 4, 2; Antiq. xiii. 13, 5) (Antiq. xiv. urged the prophet himself to withdraw into the
5, 4; Bell. 3ud. i. 8, 5) (Antiq. xvii. 1, 6.)  kingdom of Judah and prophesy there (Amos vii.
AMAZIAH      (;1tS, strength of Jehovah;     O-I7)  J. K,
Sept.'A/realas; Vulg.)'Agaolas, Amasias), son of  AMBASSADOR. The relations of the Hebrews
Joash, and eighth king of Judah.  He was 25 with foreign nations were too limited to afford
years old when he began to reign, and he reigned much occasion for the services of ambassadors.
29 years-from B.C. 838 to B.C. 809. He com- Still, the long course of their history affords some
menced his sovereignty by punishing the murderers examples of the employment of such functionaries,
of his father; and it is mentioned that he respected which enable us to discover the position which they
the law of Moses, by not including the children in were considered to occupy. Of ambassadors resithe doom of their parents, which seems to shew that dent at a foreign court they had, of course, no
a contrary practice had previously existed. In the notion; all the embassies of which we read being
twelfth year of his reign Amaziah attempted to'extraordinary,' or for special services and occareimpose upon the Edomites the yoke of Judah, sions, such as to congratulate a king on his accession
which they had cast off in the time of Jehoram. or victories, or to condole with him in his troubles
The strength of Edom is evinced by the fact that (2 Sam. viii. 10; x. 2; I Kings v. I), to remonAmaziah considered the unaided strength of his strate in the case of wrong (Judg. xi. 12), to
own kingdom unequal to this undertaking, and solicit favours (Num. xx. 14), or to contract
therefore hired an auxiliary force of IO10,00 men alliances (Josh. ix. 3, sqq.; I Macc. viii. I7).
from the king of Israel for 160,000 talents of silver.  The notion that the ambassador represented the
This is the first example of a mercenary army that person of the sovereign who sent him, or the digoccurs in the history of the Jews.  It did not, nity of the state from which he came, did not exist
however, render any other service than that of in ancient times in the same sense as now. He
giving Amaziah an opportunity of manifesting that was a highly distinguished and privileged messenger,
he knew his true place in the Hebrew constitution, and the inviolability of his person (2 Sam. x. I-5)
as the viceroy and vassal of the King JEHOVAH. was rather that of our heralds than of our ambas[KING.] A prophet commanded him, in the name sadors. It may have been owing, in some degree,
of the Lord, to send back the auxiliaries, on the to the proximity of all the nations with which the
ground that the state of alienation from God in Israelites had intercourse, that their ambassadors
which the kingdom of Israel lay, rendered such were intrusted with few if any discretionary powers,
assistance not only useless' but dangerous. The and could not go beyond the letter of their instrucking obeyed this seemingly hard command, and tions. In general their duty was limited to the




AMBER                       133              AMBUSCADE
delivering of a message and the receiving of an  (In Hexaemteron Libri Sex, first ed. printed by
answer; and if this answer was such as required a John Schubler, August. I472) may also be ranked
rejoinder, they returned for fresh instructions, un- among his exegetical labours. He belongs to the
less they had been authorized how to act or speak  allegorical and mystical school of interpreters.
in case such an answer should be given.       Proceeding on the principle that there are more
The largest act performed by ambassadors ap- senses than one in each passage, he seeks to find
pears to have been the treaty of alliance contracted mysteries in the plainest historical narrative, and
with the Gibeonites (Josh. ix.), who were supposed spiritual truths in the most simple statement of
to have come from'a far country;' and the treaty facts. In this he goes beyond even Origen; and
which they contracted was in agreement with the fully deserves the censure which Jerome utters of
instructions with which they professed to be fur- him,'in verbis ludens,' though one does not exactly
nished. In allowing for the effect of proximity, it see the propriety of what follows,'in sententiis
must be remembered that the ancient ambassadors dormitans,' for Ambrose is anything but a sleepy
of other nations, even to countries distant from  writer, unless it means merely that he was careless
their own, generally adhered to the letter of their as to ascertaining the true meaning of the passage.
instructions, and were reluctant to act on their own -W. L. A.
discretion. Generals of armies must not, however, AMBROSIASTER or PSEUDAMBROSIUS, the
be confounded with ambassadors in this respect. -  n    to the unknown author of the Comm
J K.                                          name given to the unknown author of the Commen~~~~~J.-'~~~K.                    taria in xii. epistolas Pauli, in the second volume
AMBER. [CHASMIL]                            of the Benedictine edition of the works of Ambrose,
AMBIDEXTER, one who can use the left hand   Bishop of Milan.   Of his person and history
as well as the right, or, more literally, one whose nothing is known. From his saying of the Church
hands are both right hands. It was long supposed at Rome'cujus rector hodie est Damasus' (on I
that both hands are naturally equal, and that the Tim. iii. I5), it is concluded that he must have
preference of the right hand, and comparative in- written some time between 366-384, which was
capacity of the left, are the result of education and the period of Damasus's episcopate, Augustine
habit. But it is now known that the difference is (Cont. duas ePp. Pelagii), quotes a brief passage
really physical (see Bell's Bridgewater Treatise on which is found in this commentary, and says it is
the Hand), and that the ambidexterous condition  from Hilary, which has led some to conclude that
of the hands is not a natural development.    the author was the deacon of this name under
The capacity of equal action with both hands Damasus; but the passage is one which might
was highly prized in ancient times, especially in occur in any commentary, and as Augustine calls
war. Among the Hebrews this quality seems to the Hilary from whom he quotes'sanctus,' it is
have been most common in the tribe of Benjamin, not probable that he refers to the Hilary who was
as all the persons noticed as being endued with it deacon under Damasus because he passed over to
were of that tribe. By comparing Judg. ii. 5, the heresy of the Luciferians. The work is so
xx. i6, with I Chron. xii. 2, we may gather that much of a compilation that nothing certain can be
the persons mentioned in the two former texts as argued from the style of it, except the strong pro-'left-handed,' were really ambidexters.  In the bability that it is not the production of Ambrose.
latter text we learn that the Benjamites who joined  In all the higher qualities of a commentary it is
David at Ziklag were'mighty men, helpers of the superior to what we have from him.-W. L. A.
war.'They were armed with bows, and could use  AMBUSCADE       and AMBUSH, in military
both the right hand and the left in hurling [sling- phraseology, are terms used promiscuously, though
ing] and shooting arrows out of a bow.' There it is understood that the first more properly applies
were thirty of them; and as they appear to have to the act, and the second to the locality, of a
been all of one family, it might almost seem as if stratagem which consists mainly in the concealthe greater commonness of this power among the ment of an army, or of a detachment, where the
Benjamites arose from its being a hereditary pecu- enemy, if he ventures, in ignorance of the measure,
liarity of certain families in that tribe. It may also within the sphere of its action, is suddenly taken
partly have been the result of cultivation; for at a disadvantage, and liable to be totally defeated.
although the left hand is not naturally an equally The principles which must guide the contrivers of
strong and ready instrument as the right hand, it an ambuscade have been nearly the same in all
may doubtless be often rendered such by early and ages; embracing concealment from the observation
suitable training.                            of an enemy so as to create no suspicion; a position
AMBROSE (AMBROSIUS), Bishop of Milan, of advantage in case of being attacked by superior
was born about the year 340, as is commonly be- forces, and having the means of retreating, as well
lieved, at Treves, where his father held the office of as of issuing forth to attack, without impediment,' Priefectus pretorio Galliarum.' He was trained for when the proper moment is arrived. The example
what we should now call a diplomatic career, but of Joshua at the capture of Ai shews the art to
whilst engaged in this he was suddenly called by the have been practised among the Jews on the best
unanimous and vehement voice of the people of possible principles. The failure of a first attempt
Milan to be their bishop. He occupied that see for was sure to produce increased confidence in the
twenty-three years, and died A. D. 397, on the 4th of assailed, who, being the armed, but not disciplined,
April. His writings are numerous, and several col- inhabitants of a strong place, were likely not to be
lections of them have been printed. The best is that under the control of much caution. Joshua, enof the Benedictines, Par. I686-90, 2 vols. fol. His camping within sight, but with a valley intervening,
exegetical works embrace an exposition of the when he came up to make a false attack, necessarily
Gospel according to St. Luke (August. 1476 fol.), appeared to disadvantage, the enemy being above
and commentaries on portions of the Psalms. His him, and his retreat towards his own camp rendered
homiletical work on the history pf the Creation  difficult by its being likewise above him on the




AMEN                     134                  AMIR
other side, and both sides no doubt very steep, as Naasson, and of Elisheba, who became the wife
they are in general in the hills of these parts. His of Aaron (Exod. vi. 23).
men therefore fled, as directed, not towards the  [2. A person summoned by David to aid in
north, where the camp was, but eastward, towards bringing the ark to its place (I Chron. xv. 1I-12).
the plain and desert; while in the hills, not behind, He was the chief of the sons of Uzziel of the family
but on the west side, lay the ambuscade, in sufficient of the Kohathites (ver. Io).
force alone to vanquish the enemy. This body of  3. In I Chron. vi. 22 (7), the son of Kohath is
Israelites had not therefore the objectionable route called Amminadab, whilst elsewhere he is called
to take from behind the city, a movement that Izhar.  These may have been two names of the
must have been seen from the walls, and would same man, but more probably, as Amminadab (I)
have given time to close the gates, if not to warn was the father-in-law of Aaron, the grandson of
the citizens back; but, rising from the woody hills, Kohath, and the nephew of Izhar, the transcriber,
it had the shortest distance to pass over to come in casting his eye over the lists may have condown directly to the gate; and, if an accident had founded the two.]
caused failure in the army of Toshua, the detach-  4. In Cant. vi. I2. The chariots of this Ammiment could not itself be intercepted before reaching nadab are mentioned as proverbial for their swiftthe camp of the main body; while the citizens of ness. Of himself we know nothing more than
Ai, pursuing down hill, had little chance of what is here glanced at, from which he appears to
returning up to the gates in time, or of being in a have been, like Jehu, one of the most celebrated
condition to make an effectual onset. This example, charioteers of his day. In many MSS. the Hebrew
as a military operation, may be cited as perfect in term is divided into two words'W1: CUS, Ammi
all its details. In the attempt to surprise Shechem  nadib; in which case, instead of the name of a
(Judg. ix. 30, sqq.) the operation, so far as it was person, it means' of my willing' or' loyal people.'
a military manceuvre, was unskilfully laid, although This division has been followed in the Syriac, by
ultimately successful in consequence of the party the Jews in the-Spanish version, and by many
spirit within, and the intelligence which Abimelech  modern translators; but, taken in this way, it is
maintained in the fortress.-C. H. S.          difficult to assign any satisfactory meaning to the
passage. See Good's Song of Songs, note on vi.
AMEN (Rl$; New Test.'A/zlv). This word     I2. [Heiligstedt (ap. Maurer, Comment. Crit. in
is strictly an adjective, signifying'firm,' and meta- loc.) renders thus:'Nescivi, anima mea posuit
phorically,'faithful.' Thus in Rev. iii. I4, our me inter currus populi mei nobilis:' and thus exLord is called'the amen, the faithful and true plains it,'inopinato translatam me sensi inter currus
witness.' In Is. lxv. I6, the Heb. has'the God popularium meorum nobilium.']
of amen,' which our version renders'the God of
truth,' i. e., of fidelity. In its adverbial sense amen A IR.3  i Sep.                 I.
means certainly, truly, surely. It is used in the xvii. 6, and oL'A/azoAlaoo  in ver. 9; Vulg. summibeginning of a sentence by way of emphasis-rarely tate rami; Auth. Vers.'uppermost bough'). The
in the Old Test. (Jer. xxviii. 6), but often by our word occurs oily in Is. xvii. 6, 9. It has been
Saviour in the New, where it is commonly translated usual to deri  it from te Arabic, and to'verily.' In John's gospel alone it is often used     J.
by him in this way, double, i.e.,'verily, verily.' take its sigrification from,  which means a
In the end of a sentence it often occurs singly orgeneral, or Emir, and hence, in the present text
repeated, especially at the end of hymns or prayers,the higher or upper branches of a tree. Gesenius
as'amen and amen' (Ps. xli. 14; lxxii. i9; lxxxix. adnits th  th   inerpretation is unsatisfactory;
53). The proper signification of it in this position  htion is unsa
is to confirm the words which have preceded, and
invoke the fulfilment of them:'so be it,' fiat;
Sept. yvo&Tro.  Hence in oaths, after the priest,
has repeated the words of the covenant or imprecation, all those who pronounce the amen bind
themselves by the oath (Num. v. 22; Deut. xxvii.
I5, 17; Neh. v. 13; viii. 6; I Chron. xvi. 36;                     48.
comp. Ps. cvi. 48).-J. K.
and Lee, who regards it as very fanciful, endeaAM ENDE, JOHANN GOTHFRIED, D.D., super- yours (Lex. in voce) to establish that it denotes the
intendent at Neustadt, on the Orla, was born at caul or sheath in which the fruit of the date-palm
Voight~berg in 1752, and died I7th February I82f. is enveloped. According to this view he translates
He published Pauti Ep. ad Phizipzp. Gr. ex recen < the verse thus:' 7Two or three berries in the head (or
^sione Griesbachiana, nova versione Lat., et annota- upper part) of the caul (or pod, properly sheath),
tione perpetua illustrata. Wittemb. I798, 8vo.-four orfive in itsissures.' On this he remarks:
W. L. A.'"pVY  signifies any fissure, and is also applied to
those of rocks. If therefore, the word'1tDR sigAMI.(NDN     Sept.'-Hpe), one of the servants of
*M1i(~D~; S e pt.'Ht), one of T  servants ofnifies this caul or pod, the word TJ/D, in the folSolomon (Ezr. ii. 57).  In Neh. vii. 59 he is lowing context, applies well to its opening, but is
called Amon, of which Gesenius says Ami seems quite unintelligible in any other sense.' This is at
to be a corrupted form.-W. L. A.              least ingenious; and if it be admitted as a sound
AMINADAB      [more correctly AMMINADAB] interpretation of a passage confessedly difficult,
a  S.  this text is to be regarded as affording the only, fa         l  rincis; Sept.'Afzlvy/gp).'  scriptural allusion to the fact that tie fruit of the
One of the ancestors of David and of Christ (Matt. date-palm is, during its growth, contained in a
i. 4). He was the son of Aram, and the father of sheath, which rends as the fruit ripens, and at




AMITTAI                   135               AMMONITES.
first partially, and afterwards more fully, exposes between the rivers Arnon and Jabbok, which, in
its precious contents. [TAMAR.]               Joshua xiii. 25, is called'half the land of the chilAMITTAI (sin4      true; Sept.'AbaOl), the dren of Ammon,' but was in the possession of the
- tr, -:, Arnh      Amorites when the Israelites invaded it; and this
father of the prophet Jonah (2 Kings xiv. 25; fact was urged by Jephthah, in order to prove that
Jon. i I). This is the same name as the N. T. the charge was ill-founded. Jephthah'smote them
Maria)os or Matthe; Syr.C _  -    W. L. A.   from Aroer to Minnith, even twenty cities, with a
or athe yr  - W.L. very great slaughter' (Judg. xi. 33; Joseph. Antiq.
AMMAH (r{t?1, Sept.'At/y.vd), the name of a v. 7).  The Ammonites were again signally dehill in front of Giach, at which night overtook  feated by Saul (B.C. o5) (I Sam. xi. 11), and,
Joab in his pursuit of Abner (2 Sam. ii. 24). The according to Josephus, their king Nahash was
Vulg. renders it aqua ducti s, with which Aquila slain (Antiq. vi. 5). His successor, who bore the
same name, was a friend of David, and died some
and Theodotion agree.  The Syriac has Kl,     years after his accession to the throne. In consethe sea. This would seem to indicate that these quence of the gross insult offered to David's amtranslators had some different reading in the MSS. bassadors by his son Hanun (2 Sam. x. 4; Joseph.
they used (perhaps 1ff), and that by them Ammah  Anti. vii. 6), a war ensued, in which the Am
was understood of the watercourse of which n  monites were defeated, and their allies the Syrians
was understood of the watercourse of which Ma
was probably the fountain. Robinson found an were so daunted'that they feared to help the chil-'excavated fountain' nearGibeon; but this, though dren of Amnon any more' ( Sam  x.  ).  n
it may account for the term Giach (which means the following year David took their metropolis,
the breaking forth as of a fountain), in no wise helps Rabbah, and great abundance of spoil, which is
to account for the rendering given of Ammah by probably mentioned by anticipation in 2 Sam. viii.
the translators above mentioned.-W. L. A.     12 (2 Sam. x. I4;   ii. 26-3I; Joseph. Antiq.
vii. 7). In the reign of Jehoshaphat (B. c. 896)
AMMAN. [RABBAH.]                            the Ammonites joined with the Moabites and other
AMMIEL (~St63?,, servant of God; Sept.'AgiX), tribes belonging to Mount Seir,* to invade Judah;
but, by the divine intervention, were led to destroy
the father of Bathsheba (I Chron. iii. 5), called one anothe   Jehos tervent d hi e oe led to destroy
one another. Jehoshaphat and his people were
also (2 Sam. ii 3) D rs, Eliam, by the transposi- three days in gathering the spoil (2 Chron. xx. 25).
tion of the first and last syllables.         The Ammonites'gave gifts' to Uzziah (2 Chron.
AMMON. - [AMON; THEBES.]                    xxvi. 8), and paid a tribute to his son Jotham for
AMMONITES (fit p3, 43      33; Sept. viol three successive years, consisting of Ioo talents of
-?,^  -., ~     p. X  ~,  silver, Io,ooo measures of wheat, and as many of'A,_t/cSv,'A/ucav0rat), the descendants of the younger barley (2 Chron. xxvii. 5). When the two and a
son of Lot (Gen. xix. 38). They originally occu- half tribes were carried away captive, the Ampied a tract of country east of the Amorites, and monites took possession of the towns belonging to
Separated from the Moabites by the river Amon. the tribe of Gad (Jerem. xlix. i).'Bands of the
It was previously in the possession of a gigantic children of Ammon' and of other nations came up
race called Zamrnimmins (Deut. ii. 20),'but the with Nebuchadnezzar against Jerusalem (B.C. 607),
Lord destroyed them before the Ammonites, and and joined in exulting over its fall (Ezek. xxv.
they succeeded them and dwelt in their stead.' 3, 6), Yet they allowed some of the fugitive Jews
The Israelites, on reaching the borders of the Pro. to take refuge among them, and even to intermised Land, were commanded not to molest the marry (Jer. xl. 11; Neh. xiii. 23). On the return
children of Ammon, for the sake of their pro- of the Jews from Babylon the Ammonites manigenitor Lot. But, though thus preserved from the fested their ancient hostility by deriding and opposannoyance which the passage of such an immense ing the rebuilding of Jerusalem (Neh. iv. 3, 7, 8).
host through their country might have occasioned, Both Ezra and Nehemiah expressed vehement inthey shewed them no hospitality or kindness; they
were therefore prohibited from'entering the con-  * In 2 Chron. xx. I, it is said,'It came to pass
gregation of the Lord' (i. e., from being admitted after this also, that the children of Moab and the
into the civil community of the Israelites)'to the children of Ammon, and with them [other] beside
tenth generation for ever' (Deut. xxiii. 3).  This the Ammonites, came against Jehoshaphat to battle.'
is evidently intended to be a perpetual prohibition, Auth. Vers. 4D.rVllD would be correctly translated
and was so understood by Nehemiah (Neh. xiii. i).'part (or some) of the Ammonites,' as in Exod. xvii.
The first mention of their active hostility against 5, ID )M,'some of theelders;' 2 Sam. xi. 17; Gen.
Israel occurs in Judges iii. 13:'The king of Moab xxxiii. 15, =t1"l'3,'some of the people.' But as
gathered unto him the children of Ammon and the children of Ammon had already been menAmalek, and went and smote Israel.' About I40 tioned, a doubt arises as to the correctness of the
years later we are informed that the children of present reading.  As the inhabitants of Mount
Israel forsook Jehovah and served the gods of Seir are joined with the Moabites and Ammonites,
various nations, including those of the children of in verses 10, 22, 23, possibly the word DI'l1nD,
Ammon,'and the anger of Jehovah was hot'some of the Edomites,' stood in the original text,
against them, and he sold them into the hands of or, by a slight transposition of two letters, we may
the Philistines and of the children of Ammon' read CDI.OlD,'some of the Mehunims;' Sept.
(Judg. x. 7). The Ammonites crossed over the  IK Tro' Mtvalwv, a tribe mentioned in 2 Chron.
Jordan, and fought with Judah, Benjamin, and xxvi. 7, ir! roibs Mivalovs. In the 8th verse, for
Ephraim, so that'Israel was sore distressed.' In'the Ammonites gave gifts,' the Sept. reads &UwKav
answer to Jephthah's messengers (Judg. xi. 12), the ol Mivaiol OWpa; v. Maurer, Comment. Grammat.
king of Ammon charged the Israelites with having  Crit. in Vet. Test., Lips. 1835, i 240. [Bertheau
taken away that part of his territories which lay on Chronicles, Edin. I857.]




AMNON.                    136                   AMON
dignation against those Jews who had intermarried  religious reason for that ceremony is assigned by
with the heathen, and thus transgressed the divine Herodotus (ii. 42); but Diodorus (iii. 72) ascribes
command (Deut. vii. 3; Ezra x.; Neh. xiii. 25). his wearing horns to a more trivial cause. There
Judas Maccabaeus (B.c. 164) fought many battles appears to be no account of the manner in which
with the Ammonites, and took Jazer with the his oracular responses were given; but as a sculpture
towns belonging to it: (I Mac. v. 6-I8). Justin  at Qarnaq, which Creuzer has copied from the DeMartyr affirms that in his time the Ammonites scription d'Egypte, represents his portable taberwere numerous:'AcLavtrwv a-rt viv 7roX\ T\rX8os nacle mounted on a boat and borne on the shoulders
(Dial. cum Tryph. ~ I 9). Origen speaks of their
country under the general denomination of Arabia.
Josephus says that the Moabites and Ammonites
were inhabitants of Ccele-Syria (Antiq. i. II, ~ 5).
Their national idol was Moloch or Milcom
[MOLOCH], whose worship was introduced among
the Israelites by the Ammonitish wives of Solomon
(I Kings xi. 5, 7); and the high places built by that
sovereign for this'abomination' were not destroyed
till the reign of Josiah (B.C. 622) (2 Kings xxiii. 13).
Besides Nahash and Hanun, an Ammonitish
king Baalis (D[43; Sept. BeXeto'd and BeXtrd) is
mentioned by Jeremiah (xl. I4).  Sixteen manuscripts read DVb21, Baalim; and Josephus BadXe/./ 
(Antiq. x. 9, ~ 3).
In the writings of the prophets terrible denuncia-       - 
tions are uttered against the Ammonites on account 
of their rancorous hostility to the people of Israel;' Nl I      I o lll i    E I ]u
and the destruction of their metropolis, Rabbah, is                49
distinctly foretold (Zeph. ii. 8; Jer. xlix. I-6; Ezek.
xxv. I-5, Io; Amos i I3-I5). [RABBAH.]-J. E. R. of forty priests, it may be conjectured, from the reAMNON     (tiRd, faithful), the eldest son of semblance between several features of that reAhna  oJe:- zre  H  wa bontpresentation and the description of the oracle of
David, by Ahinoam of Jezreel. He was bor at Jupiter Ammon in Diodorus, xvii. 50, that his
Hebron about B.c. Io56. He is only known for responses were communicated by some indication
his atrocious conduct towards his half-sister Tamar, during the solemn transportation of his tabernacle.
which her full-brother Absalom revenged two years  As for the power which was worshipped under
after, by causing him to be assassinated while a the form of Amon, Macrobius asserts (Saturnal.
guest at his table, in B.C. 1032 (2 Sam. xiii.) i. 2I) that the Libyans adored the setting sun
[ABSALOM.]   [Another Amnon, son of Shimon, under that of their Ammon; but he points to the
is mentioned I Chron. iv. 20.]                connection between the ram's horns of the god and
AMOMUM      (dA.w/lov). This word occurs only Aries in the Zodiac.  Jablonski, however, has
in Rev. xviii. 13, where it is omitted in the receivedendeavoured to shew that Amon represented the
text, and consequently does not appear in the A. sun at the vernal equinox (Pantheon, i. 165, sqq.)
V. The ancients seem to have applied the term  This again has been questioned by Jomard (in the
&/utojWov to every odour which was pure and sweet Descnrpt. d'Egypte), who maintains that the ancient
(Salmasius ad Solin. p. 284); but the term was vernal equinox was in Taurus, and considers Amon
also specifically applied to an unguent which was to denote the overflow of the Nile at the autumnal
pressed from the berry of a shrub of the same equinox. The precise ground of this objection is
name (Plin. Hist. Nat. xii. I3; Theophrast. Hist. not apparent; for the Egyptian year was movable,
Plant. ix. 7; Dioscor. i. I4). This ointment was and in every II9 years the vernal equinox must
used for the hair (Ovid. Heroid. xxi. I66; Sil. Ital. have fallen in a different sign of the Zodiac (Ideler,
xi. 402; Martial, Epig. vii. 77, etc.).-W. L. A.  Handbuch der Chronologie, i. 94).  But Creuzer
AMON (QiN, Jer. xlvi. 25) is the name of an  (Symbolik, ii. 205) still adheres to Jablonski's
AMON (,    Jer. xlvi. 25) is the name of an opinion; and the fact that Amon bears some relaEgyptian god, in whom the classical writers unani- tion to the sun seems placed beyond doubt by enmously recognise their own Zeus and Jupiter. chorial inscriptions, in which Anon Ra is found, Ra
The primitive seat of his worship appears to have meaning sun (Kosegarten, De prisca Egyptiorum
been at Merci, from which it descended to Thebes, Literatura, p. 3I). F. S. de Schnmidt also, in his
and thence, according to Herodotus (ii. 54), was essay De Zodiaci Origine Egyptia, p. 33, sqq.
transmitted to the Oasis of Siwah and to Dodona; (inserted in his Opuscula quibus Res Egyptiacce
in all which places there were celebrated oracles of illustrantur, Carolsruhqe, I765), endeavours by
this god. His chief temple and oracle in Egypt, other arguments to prove the connection between
however, were at Thebes, a city peculiarly conse- Amon and Aries. Il doing this he points out the
crated to him, and which is probably meant by the coincidence of the festival of Amon, and of the
No and No Amon of the prophets. He is generally sacrifice of the ran, with the period and with the
represented on Egyptian monuments by the seated kind of offering of the Jewish Passover, as if the
figure of a man with a ram's head, or by that of appointment of the Paschal lamb was in part
an entire ram, and of a blue colour. In honour of intended to separate the Jews more entirely from
him, the inhabitants of the Thebaid abstained from  the Egyptians. For this he not only cites the pasthe flesh of sheep, but they annually sacrificed a sage of Tacitus, ccaso ariete velut in contumeliani
ram to him and dressed his image in the hide. A  Hammonis (Hist. v. 4), but adduces an extract to




AMON                     137                AMORITES
the same effect from Rabbi Abrah. Seba; Bihr, nations whose country would be given to his poshowever (in his Symbolik des Mosaischen Cultus, ii. terity. But at that time three confederates of the
641), when objecting to Baur's attempt to draw a patriarch belonged to this tribe; Mamre, Aner, and
similar parallel between the festival of Amon and  Eschol (Gen. xiv. 13, 24). When the Israelites
the Passover, justly remarks that the Hebrew text, were about to enter the promised land, the Amorbesides allowing the Paschal offering to be a kid, ites occupied a tract on both sides of the Jordan.
always distinguishes between a male lamb and a That part of their territories which lay to the east
ram, and that the latter is not the sacrifice of the of the Jordan was allotted to the tribes of Reuben,
Passover (Ibid. p. 296).                      Gad, and half the tribe of Manasseh. They were
The etymology of the name is obscure.  Eus- under two kings-Sihon, king of Heshbon (fretathius says that, according to some, the word quently called king of the Amorites), and Og, king
means shepherd. Jablonski proposed an etymology of Bashan, who' dwelt at Ashtaroth [and] in [at]
by which it would signify producing light; and  Edrei,''3y'1Ks  n'ti'1.a (Deut. i. 4, compared
Champollion, in his latest interpretation, assigned it with Josh. xii. 4; xiii. 12). Before hostilities cornthe sense of hidden. There is little doubt that the menced messengers were sent to Sihon, requesting
pointed Hebrew text correctly represents the Egyp- permission to pass through his land; but Sihon retian name of the god, and, besides what may be fused, and came to Jahaz and fought with Israel;
gathered from the forms of the name in the classical and Israel smote him with the edge of the sword,
writers, Kosegarten argues that the enchorial Amn and possessed his land from Arnon (Modjeb) unto
was pronounced Amon, because names in which it Jabbok (Zerka) (Num. xxi. 24).  Og also gave
forms a part are so written in Greek, as'Auovpa- battle to the Israelites at Edrei, and was totally
ab6vOp. Moreover,'Auiv and Auopvv are found in  defeated. After the capture of Ai, five kings of
Iamblicus and Plutarch; and the latter expressly the Amorites, whose dominions lay within the allotsays that the Greeks changed the native name ment of the tribe of Judah, leagued together to
into'At&/wv.                                 wreak vengeance on the Gibeonites for having
There is no reason to doubt that the name of made a separate peace with the invaders. Joshua,
this god really occurs in the passage,'Behold, I on being apprised of their design, marched to
will visit Amon of No,' in Jer. xlvi. 25. The Gibeon and defeated them with great slaughter
context and all internal grounds are in favour of (Josh. x. Io). Another confederacy was shortly
this view. The Sept. has rendered it by'AuAubv, after formed on a still larger scale; the associated
as it has also called No, in Ezek. xxx. 14, AL6oiroXs. forces are described as' much people, even as the
The Peshito likewise takes it as a proper name, as sand upon the sea-shore in multitude, with horses
PlDK does not exist in Syriac in the signification and chariots very many' (Josh. xi. 4). Josephus
which it bears as a pure Hebrew word. The Tar- says that they consisted of 300,000 armed footgum of Jonathan and the Vulgate, however, have soldiers, o,000o cavalry, and 20,000 chariots (Anrendered the passage'themultitude of Alexandria;' tiq. v. I, i8). Joshua came suddenly upon them
taking PDK to mean'multitude,' perhaps because, by the waters of Merom (the lake Samachonitis of
in Ezek. xxx. 15, we read POl, which does bear Josephus, Antiq. v. I, I7, and the moder Bahratthat sense.  Nevertheless, modem  scholars are al-Huleh), and Israel smote them until they left
more disposed to emend the latter reading by the none remaining (Josh. xi. 8, 7). Still, after their
former, and to find Amon, the Egyptian god, in severe defeats, the Amorites, by means of their
both places.-J. N. [Wilkinson, Anc. Egyptians, war-chariots and cavalry, confined the Danites to
2d ser. i 243.]                              the hills, and would not suffer them to settle in the
plains: they even succeeded in retaining possession
AMON     (li~t, artificer; Sept.'A/ubs and  of some of the mountainous parts.'The Amorites'AtcYix). I. The son of Manasseh, and fourteenth  would (SK   obstinaverunt se, J. H. Michaelis) dwell
king of Judah, who began to reign B.C. 644, and in Mount Heres in Aijalon, and in Shaalbim, yet
reigned two years. He appears to have derived the hand of the house of Joseph prevailed, so that
little benefit from the instructive example which  they became tributaries.  And the coast of the
the sin, punishment, and repentance of his father Amorites was from the going up to Akrabbim,
offered; for he restored idolatry, and again set up 
the images which Manasseh had cast down. He D'pY       7   (thc stee of Scorpions) from the rock
was assassinated in a court conspiracy; but the and upwards' (Judg. i. 34-36). It is mentioned as
people put the regicides to death, and raised to thean extraordinary circumstance that i the days of
throne his son Josiah, then but eight years old  Samuel there was peace between Israel and the
(2 Kings xxi. 19-26; 2 Chron. xxxiii. 21-25). Amorites (I Sam. vii. I4). In Solomon's reign a
[2. The governor of Jerusalem in the time of Ahab  tribute of bond.service was levied on the remnant
Kings xxii. 26; 2 Chron. xvii 25). 3. AMI.]  of the Amorites and other Canaanitish nations (i
(1,~ Kings ~~Kings ix. 21; 2 Chron. viii. 8).
AMORITES (IbDn; Sept.'AuotKAAaot, the      A discrepancy has been supposed tp exist be-.oo t sn of Caaa *...     tween Deut. i. 44, and Num. xiv. 45, since in the
descendants of one of the sons of Canaan: *'Dt; former the Amorites are said to have attacked the
Sept. rbv'AjoAPacZov; Auth. Vers. the Emorite), Israelites, and in the latter the Amalekites; the
the most powerful and distinguished of the Canaan- obvious explanation is, that in the first passage the
itish nations. We find them first noticed in Gen. Amalekites are not mentioned, and the Amorites
xiv. 7-' the Amorites that dwelt in Hazezon- stand for the Canaanites in the second passage.
tamar,' I1tn lWI, the cutting of the palm-tree, From the language of Amos (ii. 9) it has been inafterwards called Engedi,'Iirpy, fountain of the ferred that the Amorites in general were of extrakid, a city in the wilderness of Judaea not far from  ordinary stature, but perhaps the allusion is to an
the Dead Sea. In the promise to Abraham (Gen. individual, Og, king of Bashan, who is described
xv. 21), the Amorites are specified as one of the by Moses as being the last'of the remnant of the




AMOS                     138                   AMOS
r:ants' (Deut. iii. 11). The Gibeonites in Josh. ing kingdoms, touches Judah in its progress,,and
ix. 7, are called Hivites, yet in 2 Sam. xxi. 2, are at length settles upon Israel. Chap. i.; ii..5,
said to be' of the remnant of the Amoriles,' pro- form a solemn prelude to the main subject; nation
bably because they were descended from a common  after nation is summoned to judgment, in each
stock, and were subject to an Amoritish prince. instance with the striking idiomatical expression
(See Journal of Sacred Literature, April 1852, and  (similar to that in Proverbs xxx. 15, I8, 21, and to
January 1853).-J. E R.                         the -rpl Kial repdKtS, the terque quaterque of the.AMOS'A ), Gcd, or a b;    reek and Roman poets), " For three transgresI. AMOS (DiD,'Als)~, carried, or a burden;  sions-and for four-I will not turn away the
one of the twelve minor prophets, and a contem- punishment thereof.' Israel is then addressed in
porary of Isaiah and Hosea.  Gesenius conjectures the same style, and in chap. iii. (after a brief rebuke
that the name may be of Egyptian origin, and the of the twelve tribes collectively) its degenerate state
same as Amasis or Amosis, which means son of the is strikingly portrayed, and the denunciations of
moon (v. Gesenii Thesaur. s. v. Dpny and  t3;). divine justice are intermingled, like repeated thunHe was a native of Tekoah, about six miles S. of der-claps, to the end of chap. vi. The seventh and
Bethlehem, inhabited chiefly by shepherds, to which eighth chapters contain various symbolical visions
class he belonged, being also a dresser of sycamore- with a brief historical episode (vii. 10-17). In the
trees. Though some critics have supposed that he ninth chapter the majesty of Jehovah and the terrors
was a native of the kingdom of Israel, and took  of his justice are set forth with a sublimity of dicrefuge in Tekoah when persecuted by Amaziah; tion which rivals and partly copies that of the royal
yet a comparison of the passages Amos i. I; vii. Psalmist (comp. vers. 2, 3, with Ps. cxxxix., and
14, with Amaziah's language vii. I2, leads us to ver. 6 with Ps. civ.) Towards the close the scene
believe that he was born and brought up in that brightens, and from the eleventh verse to the end
place. The period during which he filled the pro- the promises of the divine mercy and returning
phetic office was of short duration, unless we sup- favour to the chosen race are exhibited in imagery
pose that he uttered other predictions which are of great beauty taken from rural life.
not recorded.  It is stated expressly that he pro-  The allusions in the writings of this prophet are
phesied in the days of Uzziah, king of Judah, and numerous and varied; they refer to natural objects,
in the days of Jeroboam, the son of Joash, king of as in iii. 4, 8; iv. 7, 9; v. 8; vi. 12; ix. 3; to
Israel, two years before the earthquake (Amos i. I). historical events, i. 9, II, 13; ii. I; iv. II; v. 26;
As Jeroboam died in the fifteenth year of Uzziah's to agricultural or pastoral employments and occurreign, this earthquake, to which there is an allusion rences, i 3; ii 13; iii. 5, 12; iv. 2, 9; v. 9; vii.
in Zechariah (xiv. 5), could not have happened  I; ix. 9, 13, 15; and to national institutions and
later than the seventeenth year of Uzziah. Jose- customs, ii. 8; iii. 15; iv. 4; v. 2; vi. 4-6, IO;
phus indeed (Antiq. ix. IO; 4) and some other viii. 5, 10, 14.
Jewish writers represent the earthquake as a mark  Some peculiar expressions occur; such as' cleanof the divine displeasure against Uzziah (in addition ness of teeth,' a parallelism to' want of bread,' iv.
to his leprosy) for usurping the priest's office. This, 6.'Excellency of Jacob,' vi. 8; viii 7; also
however, would not agree with the sacred narrative, Psalm xlvii. 5; Nali. ii. 3.' The high places of
which informs us that Jotham, his son, acted as Isaac,' vii. 9; the house of Isaac,' vii. I6.'He
regent during the remainder of his reign, was that createth the wind,' iv. 13. In the orthography
twenty-five years old when he became his successor, there are a few peculiarities, as 3Am, for Bnrd,
and consequentlywas notborn till thetwenty-seventh vi. 8; rPDDp  for PDDD:, v. i; phbf for pn1T
year of his father's reign. As Uzziah and Jeroboam  (found also in Ps. cv., and Jerem. xxxiii.)
were contemporaries for about fourteen years, from  The evidence afforded by the writings of this
B.C. 798 to 784, the latter of these dates will mark  prophet that the existing religious institutions both
the period when Amos prophesied.               of Judah and Israel (with the exception of the corIn several of the early Christian writers, Amos ruptions introduced by Jeroboam) were framed
the prophet is confounded with Amoz (rtlK), the according to the rules prescribed in the Pentateuch,
father of Isaiah. Thus Clement of Alexandria and the argument hence arising for the genuineness
(Strom. i. 21, { 118), 7rpo7Trebovu~- o Utr' abroD of the Mosaic records, are exhibited very lucidly by'AAbis Kral'Heatas 6 vlbs avro; this mistake arose Dr. Hengstenberg in the second part of his Beitrdge
from  their ignorance of Hebrew, and from the zur Einleitung ins Alte Testament (Contributions
name'A/*4d being applied to both in the Septuagint. to an Introduction to the Old Testament)-Die
In our Authorized Version the names are, as above, Authentie des Pentateuches (The Authenticity of the
correctly distinguished, though, strange to say, Pentateuch), i p. 83-125.
some commentators have asserted that the two     The canonicity of the book of Amos is amply
individuals are named alike.                  supported both by Jewish and Christian authorities.
When Amos received his commission, the king- Philo, Josephus, and the Talmud include it among
dom of Israel, which had been'cut short' by the minor prophets.  It is also in the catalogues of
Hazael (2 Kings x. 32) towards the close of Jehu's Melito, Jerome, and the 6oth canon of the Council
reign, was restored to its ancient limits and splen- of Laodicea. Justin Martyr in his Dialogue with
dour by Jeroboam the Second (2 Kings xiv. 25).  Trypho (. 22), quotes a considerable part of the
But the restoration of national prosperity was fol- 5th and 6th chapters, which he introduces by saying,
lowed by the prevalence of luxury, licentiousness, dKo0iareTE rws 7rept ro6rw0 v Xyet 8l'AAbcs ivbs rw7
and oppression, to an extent that again provoked &8eKca-' Hear how he speaks concerning these by
the divine displeasure, and Amos was called from  Amos, one of the twelve.' There are two quotathe sheep-folds to be the harbinger of the coming  tions from it in the New Testament: the first (v.
judgments.  Not that his commission was limited  25, 26) by the proto-martyr Stephen, Acts vii. 42;
entirely to Israel. The thunder-storm (as Riickert the second (ix. II) by the apostle James, Acts xv.
poetically expresses it) rolls over all the surround- I6.-J. E. R.




AMOS                     139                 AMULET
2. AMOS, son of Nahum and father of Matta- obviated, although in later times, when the tenthias, known only from being named in our Lord's dency to idolatry had passed away, such written
genealogy as given by Luke, iii. 25.          scrolls degenerated into instruments of superstition.
AMOSIS, an Egyptian monarch, the founder of
the eighteenth dynasty, who ascended the throne
in B.C. 1575. The period of his accession, and the
change which then took place in the reigning
family, strongly confirm the opinion of his being
the'new king who knew not Joseph' Exod. i. 8).^ 
{EGYPT.] 
AMOZ (        sitr, strong the father of the prophet  2,
Isaiah. (2 Kings xix. 2, 20; xx. I; 2 Chron.      /'3                           I
xxvi. 22; xxxii. 20, 32; Is, i I; ii. I; xiii. I 
xx. 2.)                                                        -&jS
AMPHIPOLIS ('A/4xroXts), a city of Greece, 
through which Paul and Silas passed on their way
from Philippi to Thessalonica (Acts xvii. i). It
was situated on the left bank of the river Strymon, 
just below its egress from the lake Kerkine (now
Takino), and about three miles above its influx                             l
into the sea. This situation upon the banks of a
navigable river, a short distance from the sea, with
the vicinity of the woods of Kerkine, and the goldmines of Mount Pangaeus, rendered Amphipolis a  50. Modern Oental. 2, 3, 4, 5. Ancient Egyptian.
place of much importance, and an object of con-  The       of I.   20 (Sept.; Vug.
test between the Thracians, Athenians, Lacedae. inaure;  uth. Vers. earri.ng), it is now allowed
monians, and Macedonians, to whom it successively  denote amults, althouh  rved also the pur
belonged. It has long been in ruins; and a vil-                    hey    er         pre
lage of about one hundred houses, called  pose of ornament. They were probably precious'_'age       of about one hundred h ouses, Called ere\i-keni,
stones, or small plates of gold or silver, with sen.
or New Tmon, now occupies part of its site. The stones, or small plates of gold or silver, with sen
Romans made it a free city, and the capital of the themand rn of the lw or m, or susened b   cin
first of the four districts into which they divided  ro,nd  rn in the earrs' is o pernded   a chai
Macedonia.-i. K.                              round the neck.' Earrings' is not perhaps a bad
Macedonia. —J. K.
AMRAM, son of Kohath, of the tribe of Levi.
He married his father's sister Joehebed, by whom 
he had Aaron, Miriam, and Moses. He died in          a   J t ) 
Egypt, at the age of 137 years (Exod. vi. I8, 20).                - 
AMRAPHEL, king of Shinar, one of the four 
kings who invaded Palestine in the time of Abraham (Gen. xiv. I, 2, sq.) [ABRAHAM; CHEDORLAOMER. ]
a pendant; Is. iii. 20,  M'iS; Talm. lfNlp ).
From the earliest ages the Orientals have believed
in the influences of the stars, in spells, witchcraft,
and the malign power of the evil eye; and to protect themselves against the maladies and other evils
which such influences were supposed to occasion,
almost all the ancient nations wore amulets (Plin.
Hiist. Mat. xxx. I5). These amulets consisted, and
still consist, chiefly of tickets inscribed with sacred
sentences (Shaw, i. 365; Lane's Mod. Egypt. ii.
365), and of certain stones (comp. Plin. Hist. Nat.
xxxvii. 12, 34) or pieces of metal (Richardson,
Dissertation; D'Arvieux, iii. 208; Chardin, i.
243, sqq.; iii. 205, sqq.; Niebuhr, i. 65; ii. 162).
Not only were persons thus protected, but even
houses were, as they still are, guarded from supposed malign influences by certain holy inscriptions  s1. Egyptian Ring and Earring Amulets.
upon the doors.
The previous existence of these customs is im- translation. It is certain that earrings were some.plied in the attempt of Moses to turn them to times used in this way as instruments of superr
becoming uses, by directing that certain passages stition, and that at a very early period, as in Gen.
extracted from the law should be employed (Exod. xxxv. 4, where Jacob takes away the earrings of
xiii. 9, I6; Deut. vi. 8; xi. I8).  The door- his people along with their false gods. Earrings
schedules being noticed elsewhere [MEZUZOTH], with strange figures and characters, are still used
we here limit our attention to personal amulets. as charms in the East (Chardin, in Harmer, iii.
By. this religious appropriation the then all-per- 314). Augustin speaks strongly against earrings
vading tendency to idolatry were in this matter that was worn as amulets in his time Epist. 75.




AMULET                    140                 ANAKAtI
ad Pos.)  Schroeder, however, deduces from the macher, Observatt. Phiol. ii. I43, sqo).  The
Arabic that these amulets were in the form of reputation of the Jews was so well established in
serpents, and similar probably to those golden  this respect, that even in Arabia, before the time
amulets of the same form which the women of the of Mohammed, men applied to them when they
pagan Arabs wore suspended between their breasts, needed charms of peculiar virtue (Mischat-ulthe use of which was interdicted by Mohammed Masabih, ii. 377).-J. K.
(Schroeder, De Vestitu Mulierum, cap. xi. pp. I72, AMYRAUT or AMYRALDUS, MoiSE, a Protes173; Grotefend, art. Amulete, in Ersch and Gu- tant theologian of great versatility both with tongue
ber's Encyclop.; Rosenmiiller, ad Isa. i.  and pen, was born at Bourgueil, in Anjou, in SepGesenius, ad eund.; and in his Thesaurus, art.  ember 1596, and died 8th January 1664. Having
tnP).                                         studied at Saumur, under Cameron, he published,
That these lechashim were charms inscribed on together with Louis Cappel and Josue de la Place,
silver and gold was the opinion of Aben Ezra. the Theses Salmurienses.  His writings are chiefly
The Arabic has boxes of amulets, manifestly con- theological and polemical, but some of an exegeticluding that they were similar to those ornamental cal character also proceeded from his ready pen.
little cases for written charms which are still used The most important of these is his Paraphr. in
by Arab women. This is represented in the first Psalmos Davidis una cum annott. et arguments,
figure of cut I. Amulets of this kind are called  Salmur, 662, 4to, cum praef. Jac. Cremer, Utr.
hhegab, and are specially adapted to protect and  1769, 4to (best edition). He wrote also Parapreserve those written charms, on which the Mos- phrases on John, the Acts, and most of the Epistles
lems, as did the Jews, chiefly rely. The writing in French. He was a man of genius and much
is covered with waxed cloth, and enclosed in a learning, but it is chiefly as a theologian that he
case of- thin embossed gold or silver, which is commands notice.
attached to a silk string, or a chain, and generally  ANAB (:3), one of the cities in the mountains
hung on the right side, above the girdle, the string     T
or chain being passed over the left shoulder. In of Judah, from which Joshua expelled the Anakim
the specimen here figured there are three of these (Josh. xi. 2I;. 5o). From  Main (the Maon of
hhegabs attached to one string. The square one Scripture) Dr. Robinson (Researches, ii. 95) obin the middle is almost an inch thick, and con- served a place ofthis name, distinguished by a
tains a folded paper; the others contain scrolls.small tower.-J. K.
Amulets of this shape, or of a triangular form, are  ANAH (nY:?; Sept.'Avd), son of Zibeon the
worn by women and children; and those of the  Hivite, and father of Esau's wife Aholibamah
latter shape are often attached, to children's head- (Gen. xxxvi. 24). While feeding asses in the
dress (Lane's Mfodern Egyptians, ii. 365)(Gen. xxxVi. 24).       While feeding asses in the
dress (Lane's Modern Egyptians, ii 365).      desert he discovered'warm sprngs {aqu caide),
The superstitions connected with amulets grew  ds he original s   is rendered by Jerome, who
to a great height in the later periods of the Jewish  states that the word had still this sigification in
history.'There was hardly any people in the th  Pic language. Gesenius and most modern
whole world,' says Lightfoot (Hor. Hebr. ad Mattthe Punc language. Gesenus and most modem
whole world,' says Lightfoot (Hor. Hebr. ad Mamt.  critics think this interpretation correct, supported
xxiv. 24),' that more used or were more fond of amu- as it is by the fact that warm springs are still found
lets, charms, mutterings, exorcisms, and all kinds inhe region east ofthe Dead Sea. The Syriac has
of enchantments..   The amulets were either simply'waters,' which Dr. Lee seems to prefer.
little roots hung about the neck of sick persons, or, Most of the Greek translators retain the original as
what was more common, bits of paper (and parch- a proper name'Iaue, probably not venturing to
ment), with words written on them, whereby it translate.  The Samaritan text, followed by the
was supposed that diseases were either driven away Targums has'Emims,' giants.  Our version of
or cured. They wore such amulets all the week,'mules' is now generally abandoned, but is supbut were forbidden to go abroad with them on the ported by the Arabic and Veneto-Greek versions.Sabbath, unless they were'approved amulets,'  t    K
that is, were prescribed by a person who knew that
at least three persons had been cured by the same  ANAK (p3, pi:;, Josh. xxi. ii). The son of
means. In these amulets mysterious names and    rba and progenito of a race of Canaanites recharacters were occasionally employed, in lieu of markabl   e for their ogigantic stature. [ANAKIM.
extracts from the law. One of the most usual of markable for their gigantic stature. [ANAKIM.
extracts from Gthe law. One oesenius identifies the word with p] to adorn with
a collar, qu. long-necked. But these were strong
men, and a long neck is not a source of strength.
If the word is the same as p1y it is more likely to
mean thick-neck than long-neck.  So Fiirst:' is
cujus cervix est valida, ampla.'-W. L. A.
ANAKAH (pK, Sept. /Jv-ydX\; Vulg, Mus
araneus). In the A. V. this is translated ferret
(Lev. xi. 30); an error into which the translators
were betrayed by the Vulgate and the LXX. The
word is derived from piK, to shriek or utter a sharp
shrill cry; and is referred by Bochart to a species
52.                      of lizard (Hieroz. Bk. iv. c. 2).' There is no
reason for admitting the verb piK anak, to groan,
these was the cabalistic hexagonal figure known as to cry out, as radical for the name of the ferret, an'the shield of David' and'the seal of Solomon' animal totally unconnected with the preceding and
(Bartolocc. Bibliotheca Rabbinmca, i. 576; Lake- succeeding species in Lev. xi. 29, 30, and originally




ANAKIM                    141                 ANANIAS
found, so far as we know, only in Western Africa, that can be said of Hyde's theory is, that it is not
and thence conveyed to Spain, prowling noiselessly, incompatible with the astrology of the Assyrians.
and beaten to death without a groan, though   Gesenius, in the etymology he proposes, considers
capable of a feeble, short scream when at play, or the first part of the name to be the Arabic ganam
when suddenly wounded. Taking the interpreta-'image,' with a change of r into y, which is not
tion'to cry out,' so little applicable to ferrets, in unusual in Aramaic (see Ewald's Hebr. Grammar,
conjunction with the whole verse, we find the ~. io6). The latest etymology proposed is that by
gecko, like all the species of this group of lizards, Benfey (Monatsnamen einiger alter Vilker, p. I88),
remarkable for the loud grating noise which it is who suggests that the first part of the word may be
apt to utter in the roofs and walls of houses all the an abbreviation of the name of the Persian goddess
night through: one, indeed, is sufficient to dispel Anahit, or of that of the Ized Aniran. The same
the sleep of a whole family. The particular species obscurity prevails as to the form under which the
most probably meant is the lacerta gecko of Hassel- god was worshipped.  The Babylonian Talmud
quist, the gecko loatus of Geoffroy, distinguished by states that his image had the figure of a horse;
having the soles of the feet dilated and striated like but Kimchi says that of a pheasant, or quail
open fans, from whence a poisonous ichor is said (Carpzov's Apparatus, p. 516).-J. N.
to exude, inflaming the human skin, and infecting  ANANIAS ('Avaivas; Heb.    or nr.
food that may have been trod upon by the animal. ANANIAS (Aa; Heb.       or. I.
Hence the Arabic name of abu-burs, or'father Son of Nebedaeus, was made high-priest in the
leprosy,' at Cairo. The species extends northwards time of the procurator Tiberius Alexander, about
in Syria; but it may be doubted whether the gecko AD. 47, by Herod, king of Chalcis, who for this
fascicularis, or tarentola, of South-Eastern Europe purpose removed Joseph, son of Camydus, from
be not also an inhabitant of Palestine.'-C. H. S.  the high-priesthood (Joseph. Antiq. xx. 5, 2), He
ANAKIM (34pJ), or BENEI-ANAK (p3          ) held the office also under the procurator Cumanus,
A'NA T-:T v            T-:    r:  who succeeded Tiberius Alexander. Being impliand BENEI-ANAKIM    (D3ti:?3),  a wandering  cated in the quarrels of the Jews and Samaritans,
nation of southern Canaan, descended from Anak, Ananias was, at the instance of the latter (who,
whose name it bore (Josh. xi. 21). It was com- being dissatisfied with the conduct of Cumanus,
posed of three tribes, descended from and named appealed to Ummidius Quadratus, president of
after the three sons of Anak-Ahiman, Sesai, and  Syria), sent in bonds to Rome, to answer for his
Talmai. When the Israelites invaded Canaan, the conduct before Claudius Caesar.  The emperor
Anakim were in possession of Hebron, Debir, decided in favour of the accused party. Ananias
Anab, and other towns in the country of the south. appears to have returned with credit, and to have
Their formidable stature and appearance alarmed remained in his priesthood until Agrippa gave his
the Hebrew spies; but they were eventually over- office to Ismael, the son of Fabi (Antiq. xx. 7, 8),
come and expelled by Caleb, when the remnant of who succeeded a short time before the departure
the race took refuge among the Philistines (Num. of the procurator Felix, and occupied the station also
xiii. 33; Deut. ix. 2; Josh. xi. 21; xiv. 12; Judg. under his successor Festus. Ananias, after retiring
i. 20). This favours the opinion of those who con- from his high-priesthood,'increased in glory every
elude that the Anakim were a tribe of Cushite day' (Antiq. xx. 9, 2), and obtained favour with the
wanderers from Babel, and of the same race as the citizens, and with Albinus, the Roman procurator,
Philistines, the Phoenicians, the Philitim, and the by a lavish use of the great wealth he had hoarded.
Egyptian shepherd-kings. —J. K                His prosperity met with a dark and painful terminaANAMME'LECH (-           2 Kings xvii 31) is tion.  The assassins (sicarii), who played so fearful
~ANAMM E'LEC H E(: $, 2v Kings xviL 31) is a part in the Jewish war, set fire to his house in the
mentioned, together with Adrammelech, as a god commencement of it, and compelled him to seek
of the people of Sepharvaim, who colonized refuge by concealment; but being discovered in an
Samaria. He was also worshipped by the sacrifice aqueduct, he was captured and slain (Antiq. xx.
of children by fire. No satisfactory etymology of the 9, 2; Bell. Yud. ii. I7, 6, 69).
name has been discovered. Hyde (Rel. Vet. Persar.  It was this Ananias before whom  Paul was
p. I28) considers the first part of the word to be the brought, in the procuratorship of Felix (Acts xxiii.)
Aramaean KM? or W. sheep, and the latter to be king The noble declaration of the apostle,'I have lived
(although, from his rendering the compound Pecus in all good conscience before God until this day,'
Rex, it is not at all clear in whatrelationhe considered so displeased him, that he commanded the attenthe two elements to stand to each other). He takes dant to smite him on the face. Indignant at so
the whole to refer to the constellation Cepheus, or unprovoked an insult, the apostle replied,'God
to that part of it in which are the stars called by shall smite thee, thou whited wall:' a threat which
the Arabs the shepherd and the sheep (ar Rd'i wal the previous details serve to prove wants not
Ganam), which Ulug Beg terms the stars of the evidence of having taken effect. Paul, however,
flock (KawdkibulFirq). This theoryiserroneously immediately restrained his anger, and allowed that
stated both by Gesenius and Winer (by the former he owed respect to the office which Ananias bore.
in his Thesaurus, and by the latter in his Real- After this hearing Paul was sent to Caesarea,
worterbuch), who make out that the constellation whither Ananias repaired, in order to lay a formal
Cepheus itself is called by the Arabs the shepherd charge against him before Felix, who postponed
and his sheep. Hyde certainly does not say so; the matter, detaining the apostle meanwhile, and
and al Qazwint (in Ideler's Untersuchungen uber placing him under the supervision of a Roman
die Sternnamen, p. 42) expressly assigns the name centurion (Acts xxiv.)
of' the shepherd' to the star in the left foot of  2. A Christian belonging to the infant church at
Cepheus; that of' the sheep' (alAgndm, as he calls Jerusalem, who, conspiring with his wife Sapphira
it) to those between his feet; and that of'the  to deceive and defraud the brethren, was overtaken
flock' to the one on his right shoulder. The most by sudden death, and immediately buried.




ANANIAS                    142                 ANAPHA
The members of the Jerusalem    church had    That the death of these evil-doers was miraculous
agreed to hold their property in common, for the seems to be implied in the record of the transaction,
furtherance of the holy work in which they were and has been the general opinion of the church.
engaged, and hence if any one of them withheld a An attempt, however (Amrion. Krit. 7oun. d.
part, and offered the remainder as the whole, he  Theol. Lit. i. 249), has been made to explain the
committed two offences-he defrauded the church, fact by the supposition of apoplexy, caused by the
and was guilty of falsehood. This Ananias did, shame and disgrace with which the guilty pail
and as his act related not to secular but to religious were suddenly overwhelmed at the detection oi
affairs, and had an injurious bearing, both as an their baseness. If sudh an hypothesis might account
example and as a positive transgression against for the death of Ananias, it could scarcely suffice to
the Gospel while it was yet struggling into existence, explain that of his wife also; for that two persons
he lied not unto man, but unto God, and was should be thus taken off by the same physical
guilty of a sin of the deepest dye. Had he chosen cause is, in the circumstances, in the highest degree
to keep his property for his own worldly purposes, improbable.  A mathematical calculation of the
he was at liberty, as Peter intimates, so to do; but doctrine of chances in the case would furnish the
he had in fact alienated it to pious purposes, and best exposure of this anti-supernatural explanation.
it was therefore no longer his own. Yet he wished  The view now given may serve also to shew how
to deal with it in part as if it were so, shewing at erroneous is the interpretation of those who, like
the same time that he was conscious of his misdeed, Tertullian, have maintained that the words of
by presenting the residue to the common treasury  Peter were a species of excommunication which
as if it had been his entire property. He wished the chief of the apostles fulminated.against Ananias
to satisfy his selfish cravings, and at the same time and his wife.
to enjoy the reputation of being purely disinterested,  3. A Christian of Damascus (Acts ix. IO; xxii.
like the rest of the church. He attempted to serve 12), held in high repute, to whom the Lord ap-'God and Mammon. The original, hvoauiacaro, is peared in a vision, and bade him proceed to'the
much more expressive of the nature of his misdeed street which is called Straight, and inquire in the
than our common version,'kept back' (part of house of Judas for one called Saul of Tarsus: for,
the price).  The Vulgate renders it'fraudavit' behold he prayeth.'  Ananias had difficulty in
and both Wiclif and the Rheims version employ giving credence to the message, remembering how
a corresponding term,'defraudid,''defrauded.' much evil Paul had done to the saints at JeruIn the only other text of the New Testament where salem, and knowing that he had, come to Damascus
the word is found (Tit. ii. I),. it is translated with authority to lay waste the church,of Christ'purloining.'  It is, indeed, properly applied to there. Receiving, however, an assurance that the
the conduct of persons who appropriate to their persecutor had been converted, and called to the
own purposes money destined for public uses.*  work of preaching the Gospel to the Gentiles,
It is the more important to place the crime of Ananias went to Paul, and, putting his hands on
Ananias and his wife in its true light, because him,, bade him receive his sight, when immediately
unjust reflections have been cast upon the apostle there fell from his eyes as it had been scales; and,
Peter (Wolfenb. Fragm. Zweck 7esu, p. 256) for recovering the sight which he had lost when the
his conduct in the case. Whatever that conduct Lord appeared to him on his way to Damascus,
may have been, the misdeed was of no trivial kind, Paul, the new convert,, arose, and was baptized,
either in itself or in its possible consequences. and preached Jesus Christ.
If, then, Peter reproves it with warmth, he does  Tradition represents Ananias as the first that
no more than nature and duty alike required; nor published the Gospel in Damascus, over which
does there appear in his language on the occasion place he was subsequently made bishop; but,
any undue or uncalled for severity. He sets forth  having roused, by his zeal, the hatred of the Jews,
the crime in its naked heinousness, and leaves he was seized by them, scourged,, and finally stoned
judgment in the hands of Him. tot whom judgment to death in his own church.-J. R. B.
belongs.                                         ANAPA            Sept. Xpapt6s;   ulg. caraWith strange inconsistency on the part of those  ANAPA     (TI; Sept   apap; Vulg caawho deny miracles altogether, unbelievers have dryon and caradrium;. Eng. Vers. heron, Lev. xi.
accused Peter of cruelly smiting Ananias and his I9, and Deut. xiv. 18), an unclean bird, but the
wife with instant death. The sacred narrative, particular bird denoted by the Hebrew word has
however, ascribes to Peter nothing more than a been much disputed. The kite, woodcock, curspirited exposure of their aggravated offence. Their lew, peacock, parrot, crane, lapwing, and several
death, the reader is left to infer, was by the hand  others have been suggested.  Since the word
of God; nor is any ground afforded in the narrative occurs, but twice, and in both instances is isolated,
(Acts v. -I-I) for holding that Peter was in any no aid can be derived from a comparison of pasway employed as an immediate instrument of the sages.
miracle.                                         Recourse has consequently been had to etymology.  The root anaph signifies to breathe, to
* [The crime for which Ananias suffered lay in snort, especially from anger, and thence, figurahis offering to the apostles as the whole, what was tively, to be angry.  Parkhurst observes that'as
only a part of the price he had received for his the heron is remarkable for its angry disposition,
lands. He thus lied to the Holy Ghost, inasmuch  especially when hurt or wounded, this bird seems
as he lied to those whom the Holy Ghost had    to be most probably intended.' But this equally
inspired, thereby treating the claims of the apostles applies to a great number of different species of
to supernatural knowledge as false. It was needful birds. Bochart supposes it may mean the mounthat so daring an impeachment of claims on which tain falcon, called &vorraa by Homer (Odys. i.
the whole church rested should be instantly and  320), because of the similarity of the Greek word
condignly punished. ]                          to the Hebrew. But if it meant any kind of eagle




ANAPHA                     143               ANATHEMA
or hawk, it would probably have been reckoned  which of course places them among the class of
with one or other of those species mentioned in  birds ceremonially unclean.
the preceding verses. Perhaps, under all the cir-  On the whole, the.preponderance of evidence
cumstances, the traditional meaning is most likely  derived from an unbroken chain of well-ascertained
to be correct, which it will now be attempted to facts, seems in favour of the conclusion that the
trace.                                         Hebrew word anapha designates the numerous
The Septuagint renders the Hebrew word by species of theplover (may not this be the genus ot
Xapaspt6s.  Jerome, who, though professing to birds alluded to as the fowls of the mountain, Ps. I.
translate from the Hebrew, was no doubt well I I; Isa. xviii. 6?). Various species of the genus
acquainted with the Septuagint, adhered to the are known in Syria and Palestine, as the C. pluvialis
same word in a Latin form, caradryon and caradrium. The Greek and Roman writers, from the
earliest antiquity, refer to a bird which they call
charadrius. It is particularly described by Aristotle (Hist. An. vii 7), and by /Elian (Hist. An. 
xv. 26).  The latter naturalist derives its name
from xapdppa, a hollow or chasm, especially one
which contains water, because, he says, the bird
frequents such places. It is, moreover, certain,
that by the Romans the charadrius was also called
icterus, which signifies the jaundice, from a notion
that patients affected with that disease were cured
by looking at this bird, which was of a yellow'
colour (Pliny, xxxiv; CoeL Aurel. iii. 5), and by',. -.   --
the Greeks, XXwplwv; and in allusion to the same'...    t
fabulous notion, WKrepos (Aristotle, Hist. An. ix.'"..1
13, 15, and 22; AlElian, Hist. An. iv. 47). These    53. Charadrius pluvialis-winter plumage.
writers concur in describing a bird, sometimes of a
yellow colour, remarkable for its voracity (from  (golden plover, of which a figure is here given),
which circumstance arose the phrase XapalpoO C. aedicnemus (stone-curlew), and C. spinosus (laptlos, applied to a glutton), migratory, inhabiting  wing). (Kitto's Physical Hist. of Palestine, p. Io6.)
watery places, and especially mountain torrents And, in connection with some of the preceding reand valleys.                                   marks, it is important to observe that in these species
Now, it is certain that the name charadrius has a yellow colour is more or less marked.-J. F. D.
been applied by ornithologists to the same species  ANATHEMA (&vdOaelta), literally anything laid
of birds from ancient times down to the present up or suspended (from dLvarlOrlutt, to lay up), and
age.   Linnaeus, under Order Iv. (consisting of hence anything laid up in a temple, set apart as
waders or shore birds), places the genus Chara- sacred. In this general sense the form employed is
drius; in which he includes all the numerous   dmrua, a word of not unfrequent occurrence in
species: of plovers. The ancient accounts may be Greek classic authors, and found once in the N. T.,
advantageously compared with the following de- Luke xxi. 5.  The form &vdOeuLa, as well as its
scription of the genus from Mr. Selby's British  meaning, appears to be peculiar to the Hellenistic
Ornithology, ii. 230:' The members of this genus dialect (Valckenaer, Schol. tom. i. p. 593). The
are numerous, and possess a wide geographical distinction has probably arisen from the special
distribution: species being found in every quarter use made of the word by the Greek Jews. In the
of the globe. They visit the east about April. Septuagint, dcvdOe~a is the ordinary rendering of
Some of them, during the greater part of the year, the Hebrew word 1;nI, cherem (although in some
are the inhabitants of open districts and wide instances it varies between the two forms, as in Lev.
wastes, frequenting both dry and moist situations, xxvii. 28, 29), and in order to ascertain its meaning
and only retire toward the coasts during the seve- it will be necessary to inquire into the signification
rity of winter.  Others are continually resident of this word.
upon the banks and about the mouths of rivers    We find that the 3'ln was a person or thing con(particularly where the shore consists of small secrated or devoted irrevocably to God, and that
gravel or shingle). They live on worms, insects, it differed from anything merely vowed or sanctified
and their larva. The flesh of many that live on  to the Lord in this respect, that the latter could be
the coasts is unpalatable.'                   redeemed (Lev. xxvii. 1-27), whilst the former was
The same writer describes one'species, chara- irreclaimable (Lev. xxvii. 2, 28): hence, in reference
drius pluvialis, called the golden plover from its to living creatures, the devoted thing, whether man
colour,' and mentions the well-known fact that or beast, must be put to death (Lev. xxvii. 29).
this species, in the course of moulting, turns com- The prominent idea, therefore, which the word
pletely black.  Analogous: facts respecting the conveyed was that of a person or thing devoted to
charadrius have beenestablished by observations in  destruction, or accursed.  Thus the cities of the
every part of the globe, viz., that they are grega- Canaanites were anathematized (Num. xxi. 2, 3),
rious and migratory. The habits of the majority  and after their complete destruction the name of
are littoral  They obtain their food along the the place was called Hormah (o'?Yln; Sept. dvdbanks of rivers and the shores of lakes;'like the OQea). Thus, again the city of Jericho was made an
gulls, they beat the moist soil with their pattering  anathema to the Lord (Josh. vi. 17), that is, every
feet, to terrify the incumbent worms, yet are often living thing in it (except Rahab and her family) was
found in deserts, in green and sedgy meadows, or devoted to death; that which could be destroyed;
on upiland moors.' Their food consists chiefly of by fire was burnt, and all that could not be thus
mice, worms, caterpillars, insects, toads, and frogs; consumed (as gold and silver) was for ever alienated




ANATHtEMA                    144               ANATHEMA
from man and devoted to the use of the sanctuary 2 (comp. ix. 22; xii. 42), as referring to a lighter
(Josh. vi. 24). The prominence thus given to the censure than is intended by one or more of the
idea of a thing accursed led naturally to the use of three terms used in Luke vi. 22, where perhaps
the word in cases where there was no reference different grades are intimated. The phrase rapa&whatever to consecration to the service of God, as  6ivat r- aTara-v{ (I Cor. v. 5; I Tim. i. 20) has
in Deut. vii. 26, where an idol is called Dn1n, or been by many commentators understood to refer to
dvdfex.a, and the Israelites are warned against the most severe kind of excommunication. Even
idolatry lest they should be anathema like it. In admitting the allusion, however, there is a very
these instances the term denotes the object of the important difference between the Jewish censure
curse, but it is sometimes used to designate the and the formula employed by the apostle. In the
curse itself (e. g., Deut. xx. 17, Sept.; comp. Acts Jewish sense it would signify the delivering over of
xxiii. I4), and it is in this latter sense that the the transgressor to final perdition, whilst the
English word is generally employed.            apostle expressly limits his sentence to the destrucIn this sense, also, the Jews of later times use tion of the flesh' (i.e., the depraved nature), and
the Hebrew term, though with a somewhat different resorts to it in order' that the spirit may be saved
meaning as to the curse intended. The r'I of the in the day of the Lord Jesus.'
Rabbins signifies excommunication or exclusion   But whatever diversity of opinion there may be
from the Jewish church. The more recent Rab- as to the degrees of excommunication, it is on all
binical writers reckon three kinds or degrees of hands admitted that the term non, with which we
excommunication, all of which are occasionally are more particularly concerned as the equivalent
designated by the generic term  inl (Elias Levita, of the Greek &ddOvela, properly denotes, in its Rab.
in Sepher Tisbi). The first of these,''1U, is merely binical use, an excommunication accompanied with
a temporary separation or suspension from ecclesi- the most severe curses and denunciations of evil.
astical privileges, involving, however, various civil We are therefore prepared to find that the ana.
inconveniences, particularly seclusion from society thema of the N. T. always implies execration; but
to the distance of four cubits. The person thus it yet remains to be ascertained whether it is ever
excommunicated was not debarred entering the used to designate a judicial act of excommunicatemple, but instead of going in on the right hand, tion. That there is frequently no such reference
as was customary, he was obliged to enter on the is very clear: in some instances the individual deleft, the usual way of departure: if he died whilst nounces the anathema on himself, unless certain
in this condition there was no mourning for him, conditions are fulfilled. The noun and its correbut a stone was thrown on his coffin to indicate sponding verb are thus used in Acts xxiii. 12, 14,
that he was separated from the people and had  21, and the verb occurs with a similar meaning in
deserved stoning. Buxtorf (Lex. Chald. Talm. et Matt. xxvi. 74; Mark xiv. 71. The phrase'to
Rabbin., col. 1304) enumerates twenty-four causes call Jesus anathema' (i Cor. xii. 3) refers not to a
of this kind of excommunication: it lasted thirty judicial sentence pronounced by the Jewish authodays and was pronounced without a curse. If the rities, but to the act of any private individual who
individual did not repent at the expiration of the execrated him and pronounced him accursed. That
term (which, however, according to Buxtorf, was this was a common practice among the Jews apextended in such cases to sixty or ninety days), pears from the Rabbinical writings.  The term,
the second kind of excommunication was resorted  as it is used in reference to any who should preach
to.  This was called simply and more properly  another gospel' Let him be anathema',(Gal. i 8,
VnI. It could only be pronounced by an assembly 9), has the same meaning as, let him be accounted
of at least ten persons, and was always accompanied  execrable and accursed. In none of these instances
with curses. The formula employed is given at do we find any reason to think that the word was
length by Buxtorf (Lex. col. 828). A person thus employed to designate specifically and technically
excommunicated was cut off from all religious and  excommunication either from the Jewish or the
social privileges: it was unlawful either to eat or Christian church. There remain only two passages
drink with him (compare I Cor. v. i ).   The in which the word occurs in the N. T., both precurse could be dissolved, however, by three con- senting considerable difficulty to the interpreter.
mon persons, or by one person of dignity. If the With regard to the first of these (Rom. ix. 3)
excommunicated person still continued impenitent, Grotius and others understand the phrase dvd'eet4a
a yet more severe sentence was, according to the elvac d&rb6 ro XptaroO to signify excommunication
later Rabbins, pronounced against him, which was from  the Christian church, whilst most of the
termed KnO    (Elias Levita, in Tisbi).  It is fathers, together with Tholuck, Riickert, and a
described as a complete excision from the church great number of modem interpreters, explain the
and the giving up of the individual to the judgment term as referring to the Jewish practice of excommuof God and to final perdition. There is, however, nication. On the other hand, Deyling, Olshausen,
reason to believe that these three grades are of De Wette, and many more, adopt the more general
recent origin. The Talmudists frequently use the meaning of accursed. The great difficulty is to
terms by which the first and last are designated  ascertain the extent of the evil which Paul expresses
interchangeably, and  some Rabbinical writers his willingness to undergo; Chrysostom, Calvin,
(whom Lightfoot has followed in his Horce Hebr. and many others understand it to include final
ct Talm., ad I Cor. v. 5) consider the last to be a separation, not indeed from the love, but from the
lower grade than the second; yet it is probable presence of Christ; others limit it to a violent
that the classification rests on the fact that the death; and others, again, explain it as meaning
sentence was more or less severe according to the the same kind of curse as that under which the
circumstances of the case; and though we cannot Jews then were, from which they might be deliexpect to find the three grades distinctly marked in  vered by repentance and the reception of the
the writings of the N. T., we may not improbably  Gospel (Deyling, Observat. Sacre, P. II. p. 495
consider the phrase drocrvvdoycov 7roeThv, John xvi. and sqq.)  It would occupy too much space to




ANATHOTH                    145                ANDREAS
refer to other interpretations of the passage, or to as the birthplace and usual residence of the prophet
pursue the investigation of it further. There seems, Jeremiah (Jer. i. I; xi. 21-23; xxix. 27). Jerome,
however, little reason to suppose that a judicial who refers to it more than once (De loc. Hebr. s.
act of the Christian church is intended, and we v.; in Herem. Praefat.; Comment. in Hier. i. x)
may remark that much of the difficulty which com- places Anathoth three Roman miles north of
mentators have felt seems to have arisen from their Jerusalem, which correspond with the twenty stadia
not keeping in mind that the Apostle does not assigned by Josephus (Antiq. x. 7, 3). Robinson
speak of his wish as a possible thing, and their appears to have discovered this place in the present
consequently pursuing to all its results what should village of Anata, at the distance of an hour and a
be regarded simply as an expression of the most quarter from Jerusalem. It is seated on a broad
intense desire.*                              rdge of hills, and commands an extensive view of
The phrase &vdOecta,Aapwpv d0A& (I Cor. xvi. 22) the eastern slope of the mountainous tract of Benhas been considered by many to be equivalent to jamin; including also the valley of the Jordan, and
the KftlWt of the Rabbins, the most severe form  the northern part of the Dead Sea. It seems to
of excommunication. This opinion is derived from  have been once a walled town and a place of
the supposed etymological identity of the Syriac strength. Portions of the wall still remain, built
phrase Kl    rlt,'the Lord cometh,' with the of large hewn stones, and apparently ancient, as
Hebrew word which is considered by these com- are also the foundations of some of the houses. It
mentators to be derived from KnFK DW,'the Name is now a small and very poor village. From the
(i. e., Jehovah) cometh.' This explanation, how- vicinity a favourite kind of building-stone is carried
ever, can rank no higher than a plausible conjec- to Jerusalem. Troops of donkeys are met with
ture, since it is supported by no historical evidence. employed in this service, a hewn stone being slung
The Hebrew term is never found thus divided, nor on each side; the larger stones are transported on
is it ever thus explained by Jewish writers, who, camels (Robinson, Researches, ii. IO9; Raumer's
on the contrary, give etymologies different from  Palstina, p. 69; Thomson, Land and Book, ii.
this (Buxtorf, Lex. col. 2466).  It is moreover 548).-J. K.
very uncertain whether this third kind of excom- ANCHOR.     SHIP.]
munication was in use in the time of Paul; and 
the phrase which he employs is not found in any  ANDERSON, CHRISTOPHER, a Baptist minister
Rabbinicalwriter (Lightfoot, Hora Hebr. et Talm., at Edinburgh, was born Ith Feb. 1782 and
on I Cor. xvi. 22+). The literal meaning of the died  8th Feb. I852. He wrote Annals of the
words is clear, but it is not easy to understand why English Bible, 2 vols. 8vo, Lond. 1845, the fullest
the Syriac phrase is here employed, or what is and most exact account we possess of the authorized
its meaning in connection with anathema. Light- version and of those by which it was preceded in
foot supposes that the Apostle uses it to signify this country.-W. L. A.
that he pronounced this anathema against the    ANDERSON, ROBERT, a clergyman of the
Jews. However this may be, the supposition that Church of England at Brighton, was born in I793
the anathema, whatever be its precise object, is and died 22d March 1853. He was the author of
intended to designate excommunication from the A Practical Exposition of St. Paul's Epistle to the
Christian church, as Grotius and Augustine under- Romans, I2mo, Lond. 1833, and Discourses on the
stand it, appears to rest on very slight grounds: Lord's Prayer. These works are good specimens
it seems preferable to regard it, with Lightfoot, of homiletical exposition, but they possess no
Olshausen, and most other commentators, as simply critical or exegetical importance. -W. L. A.
an expression of detestation. Though, however,
we find little or no evidence of the use of the word  ANDREAS, Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia,
anathema in the N. T. as the technical term for author of a work on the Revelation.  Of this
excommunication, it is certain that it obtained this writer little is known. Only two ancient authors
meaning in the early ages of the church; for it is mention him by name, Arethas one of his successors
thus employed in the apostolic canons, in the at Caesarea, and John Patriarch of Antioch; but
canons of various councils, by Chrysostom, Theo- of the former of these himself the date is uncertain,
doret, and other Greek fathers (Suicer,  hesaurus and the latter cannot be placed higher than the
Eccl. sub vocc. dvdOe.ca &4opuap6~s). —F. W.G.  year xo10. As Andreas speaks of'the times of the
ANArians' (ros Kcapois rwv'Apewywv) as past and
ANATHOTH (ljlUg~.; Sept.'vaaSOO), one of matter of history when he wrote, he cannot have
the towns belonging to the priests in the tribe of written before the middle of the fifth century; and
Benjamin, and as such a city of refuge (Josh. xxi. there are several reasons for believing that he did
I8; Jer. i. I). It occurs also in 2 Sam. xxiii. 27; not write later than A.D. 500, of which the most
Ezra ii. 23; Neh. vii. 27; but is chiefly memorable conclusive is, that though he eagerly seeks in the
persons and events surrounding him fulfilments of
* [' 6vxbv, optabam, verbum imperfecti tem- the Apocalyptic predictions, he does not allude to
poris vim potentialem vel conditionalem, si Christus a single person or event later than the end of the
annuerit, involvens,' Bengel. Meyer prefers as the fifth century. As the succession of bishops in Capsuppressed condition,'if the content of the wish padocia can be traced down to the year 460, it is
could accrue to the benefit of the Israelites.' Comp. between this and 500 that Andreas must be placed.
Alford in loc.]                               His work on the Revelation is a catena from
t Augusti (Handbuch der Christl. Archaol. vol. Gregory and Cyrill, with additions from Papias,
iii. p. 11) has fallen into a strange mistake in Irenieus, Methodius and Hippolytus. His exposiappealing to Buxtorf and Lightfoot in support of tions are of an allegorical and mystical cast; but
this interpretation: the former speaks very doubt- though his work is of no great worth exegetically
fully on the subject, and the express object of the it is of some importance as bearing on the canonicity
latter is to controvert it.                   of the Apocalypse. It is printed in the edition of
VOL. I.                                                                         L




ANDREW                     146                ANETHON
Chrysostom's works by Fronto Ducaeus, Frankf.   ANEM (tlp), a city of Issachar (I Chron. vi.
1723, vol. ii. p. 574-719; and separately, edited by  58 (7)  It is called En Gannim Josh xix. 21;
Sylburgius and with a Latin translation by Theo-  i. 29.
dorus Peltanus, from the Commeline press 1596. —
W. L. A.                                        ANER    (-g; Sept. Aivdv). I. A Canaanitish
ANDREW      ('Apvpeas), one of the twelve chief in the neighbourhood of Hebron, who, toapostles. His name is of Greek origin, but was in gether with Eshcol and Mamre, joined his forces
use amongst the Jews, as appears from a passage with those of Abraham in pursuit of Chedorlaomer
quoted from the Jerusalem Talmud by Lightfoot and his allies, who had pillaged Sodom and carried
(Harmony, Luke v. xo). He was a native of the Lot away captive (Gen. xiv. 24).  These chiefs
city of Bethsaida in Galilee, and brother of Simon did not, however, imitate the disinterested conduct
Peter. He was at first a disciple of John the of the patriarch, but retained their portion of the
Baptist, and was led to receive Jesus as the Messiah spoil. [ABRAHAM. ]
in consequence of John's expressly pointing him  2. A city of Manasseh, given to the Levites of
out as'the Lamb of God' (John i. 36). His first Kohat's family (I Chron. vi. 70).
care, after he had satisfied himself as to the validity  ANETHON (&v)Oov) occurs in Matt. xxiii. 23,
of the claims of Jesus, was to bring to him his where it is rendered anise,'Woe unto you-for ye
brother Simon.  Neither of them, however, be- pay tithe of mint and anise and cummin.' By the
came at that time a stated attendant on our Lord; Greek and Roman writers it was employed to
for we find that they were still pursuing their occu- designate a plant used'both medicinally and as
pation of fishermen on the sea of Galilee when an article of diet. The Arabian translators of
Jesus, after John's imprisonment, called them to the Greek medical authors give as its synonyme
follow him (Mark i. I4, I8). Very little is related
of Andrew by any of the evangelists: the principal    shabt the name applied   easte  counincidents in which his name occurs during the life tries to an umbelliferous plant with fattened fruit
of Christ are, the feeding of the five thousand commonly called'seed,' which is surrounded with
(John vi. 8); his introducing to our Lord certain a dilated margin. In Europe the word has always
Greeks who desired to see him (John xii. 22); and been used to denote a similar plant, which is
his asking, along with his brother Simon and the familiarly known by the name of Dill.  Hence
two sons of Zebedee, for a further explanation of there is no doubt that in the above passage, instead
what our Lord had said in reference to the destruc- of'anise,' &vpqOov should have been translated
tion of the temple (Mark xiii. 3). Of his subse-'dill;' and it is said to be rendered by a synonyquent history and labours we have no authentic mous word in every version except our own.
record. Tradition assigns Scythia (Euseb. iii. I),  The common dill, or anethum graveolens, is an
Greece (Theodoret, i. 1425), and Thrace (Niceph. annual plant, growing wild among the corn in
ii. 39) as the scenes of his ministry: he is said to  Spain and Portugal; and on the coast of Italy, in
have suffered crucifixion at Patrae in Achaia, on a Egypt, and about Astracan. It resembles fennel,
cross of the form called Crux decussata (X), and but is smaller, has more glaucous leaves, and a
commonly known as' St. Andrew's cross' (Winer's less pleasant smell; the fruit or seeds, which are
Bibl. Realwdrterbuch, sub voce). His relics, it is finely divided by capillary segments, are elliptical,
said, were afterwards removed from Patrae to Con- broader, flatter, and surrounded with a membranestantinople.  An apocryphal book, bearing the ous disk. They have a warm and aromatic taste,
title of' The Acts of Andrew,' is mentioned by owing to the presence of a pale yellow volatile oil,
Eusebius, Epiphanius, and others.  It is now  which itself has a hot taste and a peculiar penecompletely lost, and seems never to have been trating odour.
received except by some heretical sects, as the  The error in translation here pointed out is not
Encratites, Origenians, etc.  This book, as well of very great consequence, as both the anise and
as a' Gospel of St. Andrew,' was declared apocry- the dill are umbelliferous plants, which are found
phal by the decree of Pope Gelasius (Jones, On
the Canon, vol. i. p. 179 and sqq).   [ACTS,           \t   -
SPURIOUS; GOSPELS, SPURIOUS.]-F. W. G.           w 
ANDREW, JAMES, LL. D., was born at Aber-...
deen in 1773; and was the first head master of the 
East India College at Addiscombe. He died at
Edinburgh in I833. He wrote a Hebrew Diction- 
ary and Grammarwithoutpoints, 8vo Lond. 1823,
and A Key to Scripture Chronology, 8vo, Lond.
I 822.
ANDRONICUS ('AvOpoviKos). I. The regentgovernor of Antioch in the absence of Antiochus
Epiphanes, who, at the instigation of Menelaus,
put to death the deposed high priest Onias; for
which deed he was himself ignominiously slain on
the return of Antiochus (2 Mace. iv.) B.C. x69.
[ONIAS. ]                                                  54. Anethum graveolens.
2. The Governor left by Antiochus in Garizim cultivated in the south of Europe. The seeds of
(2 Mace. v. 23).                              both are employed as condiments and carminatives,
3. A Jewish Christian, the kinsman and fellow- and have been so from very early times; but the
prisoner of Paul (Rom. xvi. 7).               anethon is more especially a genus of eastern




ANGELS                     147                 ANGELS
cultivation, since either the dill or another species to another place. [ELOHIM.] It may suffice here
is reared in all the countries from Syria to India, to observe that both in Ps. viii. 5, and xcvii 7,
and known by the name shubit; while the anise, the word is rendered by angels in the Sept. and
though known, appears to be so only by its Greek  other ancient versions, and both these texts are so
name &vwLov.  Rosenmiiller, moreover, says,'In  cited in Heb. i. 6; ii 7; and that they are called
the tract Massroth (of Tithes), cap. iv. ~ 5, we Benei-Elohim, D1'l  ll, Sons of God.  In the
read,.'The seed, the leaves, and the stem of dill Scriptures we have frequent notices of spiritual
(nlw  shaboth) are, according to Rabbi Eliezer, intelligences, existing in another state of being,
subject to tithe," which indicates that the herb  and constituting a celestial family, or hierarchy,
was eaten, as is indeed the case with the eastern  over which Jehovah presides.  The Bible does
species in the present day; and, therefore, to those not, however, treat of this matter professedly and
acquainted with the cultivated plants of eastern  as a doctrine of religion, but merely adverts to it
countries, the dill will appear more appropriate incidentally as a fact, without furnishing any details
than anise in the above passage. -J. KC       to gratify curiosity.  It speaks of no obligations
ANGELS ("AyyeXot, used in the Sept. and New  from us to these spirits, and of no duties to be
Test. for the Hebrew OtN%; sing. JtA ), a performed towards them. A belief in the existence
Tes for the He w:   of such beings is not, therefore, an essential article
word signifying both in Hebrew and Greek mes- of religion, any more than a belief that there are
sengers, and therefore used to denote whatever God  other worlds besides our own: but such a belief
employs to execute his purposes, or to manifest his serves to enlarge our ideas of the works of God,
presence or his power. In some passages it occurs and to illustrate the greatness of his power and
in the sense of an ordinary messenger (Job. i. 14; wisdom (Mayer, Am. Bib. Repos. xii. 360). The
I Sam xi. 3; Luke vii 24; ix. 52): in others it is practice of the Jews, of referring to the agency of
applied to prophets (Is. xlii. I9; Hag. i. 13; angels every manifestation of the greatness and
Mal. iii.): to priests (Eccl. v. 6; Mal. ii. 7): to power of God, has led some to contend that angels
ministers of the New Testament (Rev. i. 20). It have no real existence, but are mere personifications
is also applied to impersonal agents; as to the of unknown powers of nature: and we are reminded
pillar of cloud (Exod. xiv. I9): to the pestilence that, in like manner, among the Gentiles, whatever
(2 Sam. xxiv. 16, 17; 2 Kings xix. 35): to the was wonderful, or strange, or unaccountable, was
winds ('who maketh the winds his angels,' Ps. civ. referred by them to the agency of some one of their
4): so likewise, plagues generally, are called' evil gods.  Among the numerous passages in which
angels' (Ps. lxxviii. 49), and Paul calls his thorn in  angels are mentioned, there are, however, a few
the flesh an'angel of Satan' (2 Cor. xii. 7).  which cannot, without stronger violence, be reconBut this name ismore eminently and distinctively ciled with this hypothesis. It may be admitted
applied to certain spiritual beings. or heavenly that the passages in which angels are described
intelligences, employed by God as the ministers of as speaking and delivering messages, might be
His will, and usually distinguished as angels of God interpreted of forcible or apparently supernatural
or angels of Jehovah. In this case the name has suggestions to the mind: but they are sometimes
respect to their official capacity as'messengers,' represented as performing acts which are wholly
and not to their nature or condition.  The term  inconsistent with this notion (Gen. xvi. 7-12; Judg.'spirit,' on the other hand (in Greek mrvevOca, in xiii. I-21; Matt. xxviii. 2-4); and if Matt. xxii. 30,
Hebrew nTl), has reference to the nature of angels, stood alone in its testimony, it ought to settle the
and characterizes them as incorporeal and invisible question.  Christ there says, that'in the resurrecessences.  But neither the Hebrew nYI nor the tion they neither marry nor are given in marriage,
Greek rvevOua nor even the Latin spiritus, cor- but are as the angels of God.' The force of this
responds exactly to the English spirit, which is passage cannot be eluded by the hypothesis
opposed to matter, and designates what is imma- [ACCoMMODATION] that Christ mingled with his
terial;, whereas the other terms are not opposed instructions the erroneous notions of those to whom
to matter, but to body, and signify not what is they were addressed, seeing that he spoke to
immaterial, but what is incorporeal. The modern  Sadducees, who did not believe in the existence of
idea of spirit was unknown to the ancients. They angels (Acts xxiii. 8). So likewise, the passage in
conceived spirits to be incorporeal and invisible, which the high dignity of Christ is established, by
but not immaterial, and supposed their essence to arguing that he is superior to the angels (Heb. i.
be a pure air or a subtile fire. The proper meaning  4, sqq.), would be without force or meaning if
of irveOvta (from irvzo, I blow, I breathe) is air in angels had no real existence.
motion, wind, breath. The Hebrew rn1 is of the   That these superior beings are very numerous is
same import; as is also the Latin spiritus, from  evident from the following expressions, Dan. vii. Io,
spiro, I blow, I breathe. When, therefore, the'thousands of thousands,' and'ten thousand times
ancient Jews called angels spirits, they did not ten thousand;' Matt. xxvi. 53,'more than twelve
mean to deny that they were endued with bodies. legions of angels;' Luke ii. 13,'multitude of the
When they affirmed that angels were incorporeal, heavenly host;' Heb. xii. 22, 23,'myriads of
they used the term in the sense in which it was angels.' It is probable, from the nature of the
understood by the ancients;-that is, as free from  case, that among so great a multitude there may be
the impurities of gross matter.  The distinction  different grades and classes, and even naturesbetween'a natural body' and'a spiritual body' ascending from man towards God, and forming a
is indicated by St. Paul (I Cor. xv. 44); and we chain of being to fill up the vast space between the
may, with sufficient safety, assume that angels are Creator and man-the lowest of his intellectual
spiritual bodies, rather than pure spirits in the creatures. This may be inferred from the analomodern acceptation of the word.                gies which pervade the chain of being on the earth
It is disputed whether the term Elohinm  t DW 9whereon we live, which is as much the divine creais ever applied to angels, but the inquiry belongs tion as the world of spirits. Accordingly the Scrip



ANGELS                   148                 ANGELS
ture describes angels as existing in a society com- and the sense in which they understood such pas.
posed of members of unequal dignity, power, and sages, appear from the apocryphal book of Tobit
excellence, and as having chiefs and rulers. It is (xii. I9), where the angel is made to say:' It
admitted that this idea is not clearly expressed in seems to you, indeed, as though I did eat and
the books composed before the Babylonish cap- drink with you; but I use invisible food which no
tivity; but it is developed in those written during man can see.' This intimates that they were sup.
the exile and afterwards, especially in the writings posed to simulate when they appeared to partake
of Daniel and Zechariah. In Zech. i. I, an angel of man's food; but that yet they had food of theii
of the highest order, one who stands before God, own, proper to their natures. Milton, who was
appears in contrast with angels of an inferior class, deeply read in the'angelical' literature, derides
whom he employs as his messengers and agents these questions:(comp. iii. 7).  In Dan. x. 3, the appellation'So down they sat
fltK'l A'd, and in xii. I,'I]~'t are given to  And to their viands fell: nor seemingly
Michael. The Grecian Jews rendered this appel-  The angel, nor in mist (the common gloss
lation by the term dpxdyeXos, Archangel, which  Of theologians), but with keen dispatch
occurs in the New Testament (Jude 9; I Thess.  Of real hunger, and concoctive heat
iv. I6), where we are taught that Christ will ap-  To transubstantiate: what redounds
pear to judge the world iv ocvo dpXaryy4Xov. This  Transpires through spirits with ease.'
word denotes, as the very analogy of the language                  Par. Lost, v. 433-439,
teaches, a chief of the angels, one superior to The same angel had previously satisfied the curiothe other angels, like &pXLepe6s, dpxtLarpdtrryo, sity of Adam on the subject, by stating that
dpXtavvdoywryos. The opinion, therefore, that there' Whatever was created, needs
were various orders of angels, was not peculiar to  To be sustained and fed.'
the Jews; but was held by Christians in the time  If this dictum were capable of proof, except
of the apostles, and is mentioned by the apostles from the analogy of known natures, it would settle
themselves. The distinct divisions of the angels, the question.  But if angels do not need it; if
according to their rank in the heavenly hierarchy, their spiritual bodies are inherently incapable of
which we find in the writings of the later Jews, waste or death, it seems not likely that they gratuiwere either almost or wholly unknown in the apos- tously perform an act designed, in all its known
tolical period. The appellations dpxai, ioovlat, relations, to promote growth, to repair waste, and
Bvvdftsei, Opbvot, KvpL6rTnres, are, indeed, applied in to sustain existence.
Eph. i. 21, Col. i.  6, and elsewhere, to the  The passage already referred to in Matt. xxii.
angels; not, however, to them exclusively, or with 30, teaches by implication that there is no distincthe intention of denoting their particular classes; tion of sex among the angels.  The Scripture
but to them in common with all beings possessed never makes mention of female angels. The Genof might and power, visible as well as invisible, on tiles had their male and female divinities, who were
earth as well as in heaven.                  the parents of other gods. But in the Scriptures
In the Scriptures angels appear with bodies, and the angels are all males: and they appear to be
in the human form; and no intimation is anywhere so represented, not to mark any distinction of sex,
given that these bodies are not real, or that they are but because the masculine is the more honourable
only assumed for the time and then laid aside. It gender. Angels are never described with marks
was manifest indeed to the ancients that the matter of age, but sometimes with those of youth (Mark
of these bodies was not like that of their own, xvi. 5). The constant absence of the features of
inasmuch as angels could make themselves visible age indicates the continual vigour and freshness of
and vanish again from their sight. But this ex- immortality. The angels never die (Luke xx. 36).
perience would suggest no doubt of the reality of But no being besides God himself has essential
their bodies: it would only intimate that they were immortality (i Tim. vi. 16): every other being
not composed of gross matter. After his resurrec- therefore is mortal in itself, and can be immortal
tion, Jesus often appeared to his disciples, and only by the will of God. Angels, consequently,
vanished again before them; yet they never doubted are not eternal, but had a beginning. As Moses
that they saw the same body which had been cruci- gives no account of the creation of angels in his
fled, although they must have perceived that it description of the origin of the world, although the
had undergone an important change.  The fact circumstance would have been too important for
that angels always appeared in the human form, omission had it then taken place, there is no doubt
does not, indeed, prove that they really have this that they were called into being before, probably
form; but that the ancient Jews believed so. That very long before the acts of creation which it was
which is not pure spirit must have some form or the object of Moses to relate.
other: and angels may have the human form;     The preceding considerations apply chiefly to the
but other forms are possible. The question as to existence and nature of angels. Some of their
the food of angels has been very much discussed. attributes may be collected from other passages of
If they do eat, we can know nothing of their actual Scripture.  That they are of superhuman intellifood; for the manna is manifestly called'angels' gence is implied in Mark xiii. 32:'But of that day
food' (Ps. lxxviii. 25; Wisd. xvi. 20), merely by and hour knoweth no man, not even the angels in
way of expressing its excellence. The only real heaven.' That theirpower is great, maybe gathered
question, therefore, is whether they feed at all or from such expression as'mighty angels' (2 Thess. i.
not. We sometimes find angels, in their terrene 7);'angels, powerful in strength' (Ps. ciii. 20) 
manifestations, eating and drinking (Gen. xviii. 8;'angels who are greater in power and might' (2 Pet.
xix. 3); but in Judg. xiii. 15, I6, the angel who ii. II). The moral perfection of angels isshewn
appeared to Manoah declined, in a very pointed by such phrases as'holy angels' (Luke ix. 26);.
manner, to accept his hospitality. The manner in'the elect angels' (i Tim. v. 2I). Their felicity is
which the Jews obviated the apparent discrepancy, beyond question in itself, but is evinced by the




ANGEL OF JEHOVAH                 149        ANGLO-SAXON VERSIONS
passage (Luke xx. 36) in which the blessed in the  ANGLO-SAXON VERSIONS.       No translafuture world are said to be ladyyeXo0, Kal viol to  tion of the entire Bible was made into the language
Oeo0,'like unto the angels, and sons of God.'  of the Anglo-Saxons. At an early period, howThe ministry of angels, or that they are employed  ever, glosses, or interlineary translations of the
by God as the instruments of His will, is very clearly  Vulgate into the vernacular tongue of our ancestors,
taught in the Scriptures.  The very name, as began to be made by the monks. Some of these
already explained, shews that God employs their are still extant.  The oldest is the celebrated
agency in the dispensati6ns of His Providence. Durham Book, preserved among the Cotton MSS.
And it is further evident from certain actions which in the British Museum.  The Latin text of this
are ascribed wholly to them (Matt. xiii 41, 49; xxiv. MS. was written by Eadfrith, bishop of the Church
31; Luke xvi. 22); and from the Scriptural narra- of Holy Isle, some time before the year 688; it
tives of other events, in the accomplishment of received many decorations from the combined skill
which they acted a visible part (Luke i. II, 26; ii. of Bishop Ethilwold and Billfrith the anchorite,
9, sq.; Acts v. 19, 20; x. 3, 19; xii. 7; xxvii 23), and it was finally glossed over into English (of
that their agency is employed principally in the gloesade on Englisc) by Aldred, who describes himguidance of the destinies of man. In those cases self as' Presbyter indignus et miserrimus,' and asalso in which the agency is concealed from our view, cribes his success to' Godes fultume & SEi Cuthwe may admit the probability of its existence: berhtes.' The work existed first in four separate
because we are told that God sends them forth'to volumes, but these were at an early period collected
minister to those who shall be heirs of salvation' into one. The date of Aldred's gloss is supposed
(Heb. i. 4; also Ps. xxxiv. 7; xci. 11; Matt. to be before A.D. 900. The next of these versions
xviii. Io). But the angels, when employed for our is the Rushworth Gloss of the Gospels, preserved in
welfare, do not act independently, but as the the Bodleian library at Oxford; it closely resembles
instruments of God, and by His command (Ps. ciii. the Durham book in form, arrangement, and style
20; civ. 4; Heb. i. 13, 14); not unto them, there- of execution, and is regarded as of almost equal
fore, are our confidence and adoration due, but only antiquity with it. Its authors were Farmen and
unto Him (Rev. xix. o1; xxii. 9) whom the angels Owen, priests at Harewood, and the Latin text was
themselves reverently worship.                written by one Macregol. * Another Anglo-Saxon
Guardian Angels.-It was a favourite opinion  translation of the gospels is extant, the author of
of the Christian fathers that every individual is which is unknown; it is believed to have been
under the care of a particular angel, who is as. executed near the time of the Norman conquest,
signed to him as a guardian. They spoke also of and bears traces of having been made from one of
two angels, the one good, the other evil, whom  the ante-hieronymian Latin versions.  A translathey conceived to be attendant on each individual: tion of the Heptateuch, or first seven books of the
the good angel prompting to all good, and averting  Bible, was made by Aelfric, archbishop of Canterill; and the evil angel prompting to all ill, and bury, who died in Ioo6; and there is in the Cotaverting good (Hermas, ii. 6). The Jews (except- tonian Collection a MS. of a translation of the
ing the Sadducees) entertained this belief, as do the book of Job, also ascribed to him. Of the same
Moslems. The heathen held it in a modified form  date is a gloss on the Proverbs by an unknown
-the Greeks having their tutelary demon [Hesiod  author, also among the Cotton MSS. Of the
Op. et Dies 20-I25; Plutarch De Def. Orac. Io; Psalter an interlineary translation was made at a
Comp. Minter De Rel. Babylon. p. 13], and the very early period (about 706) by Adhelm, bishop
Romans their genius. There is, however, nothing of Sherborn, but of this no MS. remains. It is reto support this notion in the Bible. The passages ported that King Alfred was also engaged at the
(Ps. xxxiv. 7; Matt. xviii. Io) usually referred to in time of his death on a translation of the Psalms.
support of it, have assuredly no such meaning. (William of Malmsbury, De Gest. Reg. Angl. p.
The former, divested of its poetical shape, simply 44, E. T. p. 121, Bohn), and other parts of the
denotes that God employs the ministry of angels to  Bible are said also to have been translated by him.
deliver his people from affliction and danger; and There are other versions of the Psalms in Anglothe celebrated passage in Matthew cannot well Saxon extant in MS.   An edition of the Four
mean anything more than that the infant children  Gospels was printed at London in I57I, in 4to, with
of believers, or, if preferable, the least among the an English translation; it was edited by Archbishop
disciples of Christ, whom the ministers of the Parker, with a preface by John Fox, the martyrchurch might be disposed to neglect from their ologist. This edition was reprinted by Dr. Marapparent insignificance, are in such estimation else- shall, with improvements from the collation of
where, that the angels do not think it below their several MSS. by Fr. Junius jun., at Dort, 1665, and
dignity to minister to them [SATAN] (Storr and reissued with a new title-page, Amst. 1684. The
Flatt's Lehrbuch der Ch. Dogmatik, ~ xlviii. E. T. best edition of the Gospels is that of Mr. Thorpe,
p. I37; Dr. L. Mayer, Scriptural Idea of Angels, Lond. 1842. Aelfric's Heptateuch and Job were
inAm. Bib. Repository, xii. 356-388; Moses Stuart's published by Thwaites, Oxf. I699, 8vo.  Two
Sketches of Angelology in Robinson's Bibliotheca  editions of the Anglo-Saxon Psalter have been
Sacra, No. I.; Twesten in the Amer. Bib. Sac. i. issued; the former by Spelman, Lond. 1640, 4to;
p. 768; Merheim, Hist. Angelor. Spec.; Schulthess, the latter by Thorpe, Oxf. 1835, 4to. Mill made
Engelwelt, etc.)                              use of the Anglo-Saxon versions for critical purANGEL OF JEHOVAH. UEHOVAH.]                 poses, in his edition of the Greek Testament.
ANGLING. The word JAn        which the Auth. Critics are divided as to their value in this- respect.
-ANG.  T, w h      Tischendorf has, however, made use of them
Vers. renders'angle,' in Is. xix. 8; Hab. i. 15,
is the same that is rendered'hook,' in Job xli.
a, $. In fact,'angling' is described as'fishing with  * The occurrence of Celtic names in connection
a hook.' [FISHING.]                           with this document is somewhat remarkable.




ANIM                     150               ANOINTING
in his edition (see hisProlegomena, p. 255, ed. I859). among the several sorts which the dancing girls
-W. L. A.                                      employ. It is right to add that the anklets which
ANIM (DyW), a town in the mountain range of the present writer has himself seen in use among
*NIM (W ~ a. tnn e otthe Arab women in the country of the Tigris and
the tribe of Judah, Josh. xv. 50. Eusebius calls it Euphrates are not usually solid, but hollow, so
&dvala, and places-it about nine miles south of that, in striking against each other, they emit a
Hebron. [Prob. El-Ghuwein; Robinson, ii. 625.] much more sharp and sonorous sound than solid
ANISE. {ANETHON.]                            ones.-J. K.
ANKLETS.      This word does not occur in      ANNA (Awa, samename as HANNAH). I. The
Scripture, but the ornament which it denotes is     f Tobit, whose history is contained in the
wife of Tobit, whose history is contained in the
clearly indicated by'the tinkling (or jngng) apocryphal book named after him (Tob. i. 9, etc.)
ornaments about the feet,' mentioned in the curious
description of female attire which we find in Is. iii.  2. An aged widow, daughter of Phanuel, of the
Even in the absence of special notice, we might tribe of Asher. She had married early, but after
very safely conclude that an ornament to which  seven years her husband died, and during her long
Oriental women have always been so partial was widowhood she daily attended the morning and
not unknown to the Jewish ladies.   In Egypt evening services of the Temple. Anna was eightyanklets of gold have been found, which are gene- four years old when the infant Jesus was brought
rally in the shape of simple rings, often however in to the Temple by his mother, and entering as
that of snakes, and sometimes inlaid with enamel Simeon pronounced his thanksgiving, she also
or even precious stones. The sculptures shew that broke forth in praise to God for the fulfilment of
they were worn by men as well as women (Wilkin- his ancient promises (Luke ii. 36-38).-J. K.
son's Anc. Egyptians, iii. 375). Their present use  ANNUNCIATION.     This word, like many
among the women of Arabia and Egypt sufficiently               h        as obained a  arilar siniiaion in
illustrates the Scriptural allusion.  The Koranothers, has obtained a particular signification in
(xxiv. 31) forbids'women to make a noise with theological writings. As a general term, it extheir feet, which, says Mr. Lane (Mod. Egyptians, presses the communication of important intelligence. 221).'alludes to the practice of knocking to- by chosen messengers of Heaven; but it became,
gether the anklets, which the Arab women in the at an early period of Christianity, restricted to the
time of the prophet used to wear, and which are announcement of the blessed Virgin's miraculous
still worn by many women in Egypt.' Elsewhere conception. The first formal mention that we
ii. 364) the same writer states'Anklets of solid  meet with of its being commemorated among the
ii 34) the same writer states, Ais in the decrees of soltheid
gold and silver, and of the form here sketched (likefestvals of  church, is in the decrees of 
fig. 3), are worn by some ladies, but are more un-Council of Trullo, convened at the close of the
seventh century.
II~\    \~/,        ANNAS ("Avvas, Avavos "of Josephus), Luke iii.
\                             a1           2 3 L; John xviii. I3. After having held the office,\~: r^5A  J-1     of High Priest for 15 years, he was deposed by
Mix V       y 4           ji:, Valerius Gratus, the Procurator of Judaea, A.D. 23;
t  ^^ (r  \ I y^~ /          and in quick succession his place was filled by
4 ^'"^'>^i^  /   \  ^'".Ishmael, by Eleazar the son of Annas, by Simon
1_ j -     _.jn       9     1.... ^and by Joseph Caiaphas, son-in-law of Annas,
61^  I ^  5 |  / IA.D. 26. The reason why Annas and Caiaphas
paLjB                       I [ L  ^=  S  are mentioned together as High Priests, and not
All j ) Y id  \)5 1   ^n        Ishmael or Eleazar or Simon is, probably, that!'_ -. <  \ /\f ~    (        A lAnnas for his long service was regarded by the
Jews as High Priest, jure divino, while Caiaphas
was the pontiff recognized by the government.
~-^'ff  j^                       Hence when Jesus was apprehended, John xviii.
— L^~t'^3, the Jews led him to Annas first, but as he had
55.                      no official authority, it was necessary for Caiaphas
x,2, 5, 6, 7. Ancient Oriental. 3, 4, 8. Modern Oriental.  to bring the case before the Roman court. The
t   frmrl wre  T     ar    intervening High Priests appointed by Rome do
common than the  formerly were  Thenot appear to have had any authority with the
course very heavy, and, knocking together as the          t     ey
course very heavy, and, knocking together as the Jewish rulers or people; hence in a matter related
woman walks, make a ringing noise.' He thinks
woman walks, m.A He         cts iv. 6, concerning spiritual affairs, Annas is
that in the text referred to (Is. iii. 16) the prophet called igh Priest by St. Luke though Caiaphas
alludes to this kind of anklet, but admits thalltd    High Priest  by St. Luke, though Caiaphas
alludes to this kind of anklet but admitsthat the was still the officer of the Roman government.
description may apply to another kind, of which herCAIAPHAS.]-J. K
thus speaks further on (ii. 368):' Anklets of solid 
silver are worn by the wives of some of the richer  ANOINTING. The practice of anointing with
peasants, and of the sheykhs of villages.  Small perfumed oils or ointments appears to have been
ones of iron are worn by many children. It was very common among the Hebrews, as it was among
also a common custom among the Arabs for girls the ancient Egyptians.  The practice, as to its
or young women to wear a string of bells on their essential meaning, still remains in the East; but
feet. I have seen many little girls in Cairo with  perfumed waters are now far more commonly emsmall round bells attached to their anklets. Per- ployed than oils or ointments.
haps it is to the sound of ornaments of this kind,  In the Scriptures three kinds of anointing are
rather than of the more common anklet, that distinguishable:-I. For consecration and inauguIsaiah alludes' (see also Chardin, tom. i. I33, 148, ration; 2. For guests and strangers; 3. For health
194). These belled anklets occur also in India and cleanliness. Of these in order.




ANOINTING                   151               ANOINTING
I. Consecration and Inauguration.-The act of sculptures introduce a priest pouring oil over the
anointing appears to have been viewed as emble- monarch.' (Wilkinson's Anc. Egyptians, iv. 280).
matical of a particular sanctification; of a designation to the service of God; or to a holy and
sacred use. Hence the anointing of the high-priests 
(Exod. xxix. 29; Lev. iv. 3), and even of the             /                 \
sacred vessels of the tabernacle (Exod. xxx. 26,
etc.); and hence also, probably, the anointing of
the king, who, as'the Lord's anointed,' and, under
the Hebrew constitution, the viceroy of Jehovah,
was undoubtedly invested with a sacred character.
This was the case also among the Egyptians,
among whom the king was, ex officio, the highpriest, and as such, doubtless, rather than in his
secular capacity, was solemnly anointed at his
inauguration.
The first instance of anointing which the Scriptures record is that of Aaron, when he was solemnly
set apart to the high-priesthood. Being first in- 
vested with the rich robes of his high office, the
sacred oil was poured in much profusion upon his
head. It is from this that the high-priest, as well
as the king, is called'the Anointed' Lev. iv. 3, 5,  ~2. The anointing of our Saviour's feet by'the
i6; vi. 20; Ps. cxxxiii. 2). In fact, anointing woman who was a sinner' (Luke vii. 38), led to
being the principal ceremony of regal inauguration the remark that the host himself had neglected to
among the Jews, as crowning is with us,'anointed,' anoint his head (vii.-46); whence we learn that
as applied to a king, has much the same significa- this was a mark of attention which those who gave
tion as'crowned.' It does not, however, appear entertainments paid to their guests. As this is the
that this anointing was repeated at every succes- only direct mention of the custom, the Jews are
sion, the anointing of the founder of the dynasty supposed by some to have borrowed it from the
being considered efficient for its purpose as long as Romans at a late period, and Wetstein and others
the regular line of descent was undisturbed: hence have brought a large quantity of Latin erudition to
we find no instance of unction as a sign of investi- bear on the subject. But the careful reader of the
ture in the royal authority, except in the case of Old Testament knows that the custom was an old
Saul, the first king of the Jews, and of David, the one, to which there are various indirect allusions.
first of his line; and, subsequently, in those of The circumstances connected with feasts and enterSolomon and Joash, who both ascended the throne tainments are indeed rarely intimated; nor would
under circumstances in which there was danger the present direct reference to this custom have
that their right might be forcibly disputed (i Sam. transpired but for the remarks which the act of the
x. I; 2 Sam. ii. 4; v. 1-3; I Chron. xi. 1-3; woman in anointing the feet of Jesus called forth.
2 Kings xi. 12; 2 Chron. xxiii. i ). Those who  Such passages, however," as Ps. xxiii. 5; Prov.
were inducted into the royal office in the kingdom  xxi. 17; xxvii. 9; Wisd. ii. 7; as well as others
of Israel appear to have been inaugurated with in which the enjoyments.of oil and wine are coupled
some peculiar ceremonies (2 Kings ix. 13). But it together, may be regarded as containing a similar
is not clear that they were anointed at all; and the allusion. It is, therefore, safer to refer the origin
omission (if real) is ascribed by the Jewish writers
to the want of the holy anointing oil which could
alone be used on such occasions, and which was in
the keeping of the priests of the Temple in Jeru-           b
salenm.  The private anointing which was per- 
formed by the prophets (2 Kings ix. 3; comp.
I Sam. x. I) was not understood to convey any
abstract right to the crown; but was merely a
symbolical intimation that the person thus anointed
should eventually ascend the throne.
As the custom of inaugural anointing first occurs
among the Israelites immediately after they left 
Egypt, and no example of the same kind is met
with previously, it is fair to conclude that the practice and the notions connected with it were acquired
in that country.'With the Egyptians, as with the
Jews,' the investiture to any sacred office, as that
of king or priest, was confirmed by this external/ 
sign; and' as the Jewish lawgiver mentions the
ceremony of pouring oil upon the head of the
high-priest after he had put on his entire dress,57
with the mitre and crown, the Egyptians repre- of this custom among the Hebrews to their nearer
sent the anointing of their priests and kings after and more ancient neighbours the Egyptians, than
they were attired in their full robes, with the cap to the Romans or the Greeks, who themselves had
and crown upon their heads (cut 56). Some of the probably derived it from the same people. Among




ANOINTING                    152            ANTEDILUVIANS
the Egyptians the antiquity of the custom is evinced Niebuhr assures us that at Sana (and doubtless in
by their monuments, which offer in this respect other parts of Arabia) the Jews, as well as many of
analogies more exact than classical antiquity, or mo- the Moslems, have their bodies anointed whenever
dern usage, can produce. With them'the custom  they feel themselves indisposed.
of anointing was not confined to the appointment  5 Anointing theDead —The practice of anointing
of kings and priests to the sacred offices they held. the bodies of the dead is intimated in Mark xiv. 8,
It was the ordinary token of welcome to guests in  Luke xxiii. 56. This ceremony was performed
every party at the house of a friend; and in Egypt, after the body was washed, and was designed to
no less than in Judcea, the metaphorical expression ceck the progress of corruption  Although, from
anointed with the oil of gladness' was fully under-  he mode of application, it is called anointing, the
the mode of application, it is called anointing the
stood, and applied to the ordinary occurrences of substance emplyed appears to have been a soution
life. It was customary for a servant to attendof odoriferous drugs. This together withthelayevery guest as he seated himself (cut 57), and to i  of the body in spices) was the only kind of
anoint his head' (Wilkinson's Anc.  gyptians, iv. embalment in use among the Jews. [BURIAL.]
279; ii 213).
3. It is probable, however, that the Egyptians,  6. [Anointing is used in Scripture figuratively to
as well as the Greeks and Jews, anointed them- denote-i. The communicating of joy and elevation
selves at home, before going abroad, although they of soul (Ps. xlv. 7; (Heb. i 9); xcii. o). 2. The
expected the observance of this etiquette on the bestowal of the influences of the Holy Spirit on
part of their entertainer. That the Jews thus men (2 Cor. i. 2I, 22; I John ii. 20, 27; Rev.
anointed themselves, not only when paying a visit, iii. 8). Of these influences oil seems to have been
but on ordinary occasions, is shewn by many pas- the established physical emblem (Bahr, Mos. Cultus,
sages, especially those which describe the omission ii. I7); and the actual enjoyment of these came to
of it as a sign of mourning (Deut. xxviii 40; Ruth  be appropriately symbolized by the application to
iii 3; 2 Sam. xiv. 2; Dan. x. 3; Amos vi 6; Mic. the person of oi]
vi. 15; Esth. ii. 12; Ps. civ. 5I; Is. lxi. 3; Eccles.  The composition of the Jewish ointments and
ix. 8; Cant. i 3; iv. o1; alsoudith x. 3; Sus. I7; perfumes is noticed elsewhere.  [PERFUMES.]Ecclus. xxxix. 26; Wisd. ii. 7).  One of these J. K.
passages (Ps. civ. 15,'oil that maketh the face to
shine') shews very clearly that not only the hair  ANSCHEL, ASCHER, a Jewish rabbi of the sixbut the skin was anointed. In our northern cli- teenth century, born at Posen, and who taught in
mates this usage may not strike us as a pleasant Cracow and Prague. He was the author of a
one, but as the peculiar customs of most nations valuable Hebrew lexicon, entitled fl-il:Vi l  1:,
are found, on strict examination, to be in accord- published at Cracow in 1534, 4to; and again in
ance with the peculiarities of their climate and  1552, foL; and a third time in 1584, 4to. The
condition, we may be assured that this Oriental words are arranged in alphabetical order, the
predilection for external unction must have arisen various forms of each word are given as well as
from a belief that it contributed materially to health the stem-word, and the meanings are given in the
and cleanliness. Niebuhr states that'in Yemen Jewish-German dialect. There is also a concordthe anointing of the body is believed to strengthen  ance of passages appended to it.-W. L. A.
and protect it from the heat of the sun, by which  AN  M   O  C             s   all   frm
ANSELM OF CANTERBURY, so called from
the inhabitants of this province, as they wear but  is ai  eld  a see, as a  aie 
little clothing, are very liable to suffer. Oil by hs havng held that see, was a natve of Aosta n
closing up the pores of the skin, is suppos   Pied mont, where he was bo  in  33. He was
revent that too copious t anspirtion, is     successively prior and abbot of the monastery of
prevent that too copious transpiration which en-    N    a     w
feebles the frame; perihaps, oo, tese Arabians  ec in Norandy, where he had been first a monk;
think a glistening skin a beauty. When the intense and in Io93 he succeeded Lanfranc as Archbishop
heat comes in, they always anoint their bodies of Caterbury.  He died April 21, IIo9.  The
with ois l.    ty'                   edi    efirst of the schoolmen, his name stands high in
4t Anoi nting teSzck.-The Orientalsare strongly  philosophy and theology; but his Glossa Interline4. gth ic.-TeOretasaresrnl         is entitles him to a place also among biblical
persuaded of the sanative properties of oil; and it  enes hm to a plae              biblical
was under this impression that the Jews anointed  sch. L. 
the sick, and applied oil to wounds (Ps. cix. x8;  ANT. [NEMALA.]
Is. i. 6; Mark vi. I3; Luke x. 34; James v. 14).  ANTEDILUVIANS, the name given collectAnointing was used in sundry disorders, as well as ively to the people who lived before the Deluge.
to promote the general health of the body. It was The interva fror the Creation to that event is not
hence, as a salutary and approved medicament, less, even according to the Hebrew text, than I657
that the seventy disciples were directed to'anoint years, being not more than 691 years shorter than
the sick' (Mark vi. I3); and hence also the sick  that between the Deluge and the birth of Christ,
man is directed by St. James to send for the elders and  inly I87 years less than from the birth of
of the church, who were'to pray for him, anoint- Christ to the present time [I844], and equal to
ing him with oil in the name of the Lord.' The about two-sevenths of the whole period from' the
Talmudical citations of Lightfoot on Matt. vi. x6, Creation. By the Samaritan and Septuagint texts
shew that the later Jews connected charms and  (as adjusted by Hales) a much greater duration is
superstitious mutterings with such anointings, and assigned to the antediluvian period-namely, 2256
he is therefore probably right in understanding St. years, which nearly equals the Hebrew interval
James to mean-' It is customary for the unbeliev- from the Deluge to the birth of Christ, and much
ing Jews to use anointing of the sick joined with a exceeds the interval from the birth of Christ to the
magical and enchanting muttering; but how in- present time.
finitely better is it to join the pious prayers of the  All our authentic information respecting this long
elders. of the church to the anointing of the sick.' and interesting period is contained in 49 verses of




ANTEDILUVIANS                  153            ANTEDILUVIANS
Genesis (iv. 16, to vi. 8), more than half of which of human existence is a theme containing many
are occupied with a list of names, and ages, in- problems. It may be here referred to for the
valuable for chronology, but conveying no particu- purpose of indicating the advantages which must
lars regarding the primeval state of man. The necessarilyvhave therefrom accrued to the mechanical
information thus afforded, although so limited in arts. In pottery, mining, metallurgy, cloth-making,
extent, is, however, eminently suggestive, and large the applications of heat and mixtures, etc., it is
treatises might be, and have been, written upon its universally known that there is a tact of manipulaintimations. Some additional information, though  tion which no instruction can teach, which the
less direct, may be safely deduced from the history possessor cannot even describe, yet which renders
of Noah and the first men after the Deluge; for it him powerful and unfailing within his narrow range,
is very evident that society did not begin afresh to a degree almost incredible; and when he has
after that event; but that, through Noah and his reached his limit of life he is confident that, had
sons, the new families of men were in a condition he another sixty or seventy years to draw upon, he
to inherit, and did inherit, such sciences and arts as could carry his art to a perfection hitherto unknown.
existed before the Flood. This enables us to under- Something like this must have been acquired by the
stand how settled and civilized communities were antediluvians; and the paucity of objects within
established, and large and magnificent works under- their grasp would increase the precision and success
taken, within a few centuries after the Deluge.  within the range.'
In the article' ADAM' it has been shewn that  By reason of their length of life, the antediluvians
the father of men was something more than' the had also more encouragement in protracted undernoble savage,' or rather the grown-up infant, which takings, and stronger inducements to the erection
some have represented him. He was an instructed of superior, more costly, more durable, and more
man; and the immediate descendants of a man so capacious edifices and monuments, public and
instructed could not be an ignorant or uncultivated  private, than exist at present. They might reasonpeople. It is not necessary indeed to suppose that ably calculate on reaping the benefit of their labour
they possessed at first more cultivation than they and expenditure. The earth itself was probably
required; and for a good while they did not stand more equally fertile, and its climate more uniformly
in need of that which results from or is connected healthful, and more auspicious to longevity, and
with, the settlement of men in organized communi- consequently fo every kind of mental and corporeal
ties. They probably had this before the Deluge, exertion and enterprise, than has been the case
and at first were possessed of whatever knowledge since the great convulsion which took place at the
or civilization their agricultural and pastoral pur- Deluge.
suits required. Such were their pursuits from the  But probably the greatest advantage enjoyed by
first; for it is remarkable that of the strictly savage the antediluvians, and which must have been in the
or hunting condition of life there is not the slightest highest degree favourable to their advancement in
trace before the Deliuge. After that event, Nim- the arts of life, was the uniformity of language.
rod, although a hunter (Gen. x. 9) was not a Nothing could have tended more powerfully to
savage, and did not belong to hunting tribes of maintain, equalize, and promote whatever admen. In fact, savageism is not discoverable before vantages were enjoyed, and to prevent any portion
the Confusion of Tongues, and was in all likelihood of the human race from degenerating into savage
a degeneracy from a state of cultivation, eventually life.
produced in particular communities by that great  Of the actual state of society and of the arts
social convulsion. At least that a degree of culti- before the Deluge some notice has occurred in a
vation was the primitive condition of man, from  previous article [ADAM], and other particulars will
which savageism in particular quarters was a de- be found in the articles relating to these subjects.
generacy, and that he has not, as too generally has  The opinion that the old world was acquainted
been supposed, worked himself up from an original with astronomy, is chiefly founded on the ages of
savage state to his present position, has been power- Seth and his descendants being particularly set
fully argued by Dr. Philip Lindsley (Am. Bib. down (Gen. v. 6, sqq.), and the precise year,
Repos., iv. 277-298; vi. 1-27), and is strongly month, and day being stated in which Noah and
corroborated by the conclusions of modem ethno. his family, etc., entered the ark, and made their
graphical research; from which we learn that, egress from it (Gen. vii. II; viii. 13). The diswhile it is easy for men to degenerate into savages, tinctions of day and night, and the lunar month,
no example has been found of savages rising into were of course observed; and the thirteenth rocivilization but by an impulse from without, admin- tation of the moon, compared with the sun's return
istered by a more civilized people; and that, even to his primary position in the heavens, and the
with such impulse, the vis inertia of established effects produced cn the earth by his return, would
habits is with difficulty overcome. The aboriginal point out the year. The variation between the
traditions of all civilized nations describe them as rotations of the moon and sun easily became disreceiving their civilization from without-generally coverable from the difference which in a very few
through the instrumentality of foreign colonists; years would be exhibited in the seasons; and hence
and history affords no example of a case parallel to it may be supposed that, although the calculations
that which must have occurred if the primitive races of time might be by lunar months or revolutions,
of men, being originally savage, had civilized them. yet the return of vegetation would dictate the solar
selves.                                      year. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs,
All that was peculiar in the circumstances of and the simplicity of their employments, favour
the antediluvian period was eminently favourable to this conjecture, which receives additional strength
civilization. The respected contributor [J. P. S.], from the fact that the Hebrew for year,,tim, implies
to whose article [ADAM] we have already referred, an iteration, a return to the same point, a repetition;
remarks, in a further communication, that' The and it is also remarkable that the Indians, Chinese,
longevity of the earlier seventeen or twenty centuries Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, and other nations,




ANTEDILUVIANS                  154            ANTEDILUVIANS
all deduce their origin from personages said to be that it must have been through the great patriversed in astronomy.                         archs who lived in the old world that so much
The knowledge of zoology, which Adam possessed, knowledge was obtained as to lead to the attempt
was doubtless imparted to his children; and we of erecting a fabric whose summit was intended to
find that Noah was so minutely informed on the reach the clouds. It is not likely that the builders
subject as to distinguish between clean and unclean would, by their own intuitive genius, be equal to a
beasts, and that his instructions extended to birds task which they certainly were not inspired by
of every kind (Gen. vii. 2-4).  A knowledge of Heaven to execute.
some essential principles in botany is shewn by the  The metallurgy of the antediluvians has been
fact that Adam knew how to distinguish'seed- noticed in'ADAM;' and to what is there said of
bearing herb,''tree in which is a seed-bearing agriculture we shall only add a reference to the
fruit,' and'every green herb' (Gen. i. 29, 30)~ case of Noah, who, immediately after the Flood,
The trees of life and of knowledge are the only became a husbandman, and planted a vineyard.
ones mentioned before the Fall; but in the history  He also knew the method of fermenting the juice
of Noah the vine, the olive, and the wood of which of the grape; for it is said he drank of the wine,
the ark was made (Gen. vi. 14; viii. II; ix. 20), which produced inebriation (Gen ix. 20, 21). This
are spoken of in such a manner as clearly to intimate knowledge he probably obtained from his progenia knowledge of their qualities. With mineralogy tors anterior to the destruction of the old world, if
the antediluvians were at least so far acquainted as he was not the inventor.
to distinguish metals; and in the description of  Pasturage appears to have been coeval with husthe garden of Eden gold and precious stones are bandry. Abel was a keeper of sheep, while his
noticed (Gen. ii. 12).                       brother was a tiller of the ground (Gen. iv. 2);
That the antediluvians were acquainted with but there is no necessity for supposing that Cain's
music is certain; for it is expressly said that Jubal husbandry excluded the care of cattle. The class
(while Adam was still alive) became' the father of of tent-dwelling pastors-that is, of those who live
those who handle the N'l3 kinnur and the 31I  in tents that they may move with their flocks and'ugab.'  The kinnur was evidently a stringed herds from one pasture-ground to another-did
instrument resembling a lyre; and the'ugab was not originate till comparatively late after the Fall;
without doubt the pandaean pipe, composed of for Jabal, the seventh from Adam in the line of
reeds of different lengths joined together. This Cain, is said to have been the'father' or founder
clearly intimates considerable progress in -the of that mode of life (Gen. iv. 20). It is doubtful
science; for it is not probable that the art of play- whether the manufacture of cloth is involved in the
ing on wind and on stringed instruments was mention of tents, seeing that excellent tent-coverdiscovered at the same time; we may rather suppose ings are even at this day made of skins; and we
that the principles of harmony, having been dis- know that skins were the first articles of clothing
covered in the one, were by analogy transferred to used by fallen man (Gen. iii. 2I). The same doubt
the other; and that Jubal, by repeated efforts, applies to the garment wath which the sons of
became the first performer on the harp and the Noah covered their inebriated father (Gen. ix. 23).
pipe. [MusIc.]                               But, upon the whole, there can be little doubt that,
Our materials are too scanty to allow us to affirm  in the course of so long a period, the art of manuthat the antediluvians possessed the means of com- facturing cloths of hair and wool, if not of linen or
municating their ideas by writing or by hierogly- cotton, had been acquired.
phics, although tradition, and a hint or two in the  It is impossible to speak with any decision reScriptures, might support the assertion.  With specting the form or forms of government which
respect. to poetry, the story of Lamech and his prevailed before the Deluge. The slight intimawives (Gen. iv. I9-24) is evidently in verse, and tions to be found on the subject seem to favour the
is most probably the oldest specimen of Hebrew  notion that the particular governments were patripoetry extant; but whether it was written before archal, subject to a general theocratical controlor after the Flood is uncertain, although the pro- God himself manifestly interfering to uphold the
bability is that it is one of those previously exist- good and check the wicked. The right of proing documents which Moses transcribed into his perty was recognized, for Abel and Jabal possessed
writings.                                   flocks, and Cain built a city. As ordinances of
With regard to architecture, it is a singular and religion, sacrifices certainly existed (Gen. iv. 4), and
important fact that Cain, when he was driven from  some think that the Sabbath was observed; while
his first abode, built a city in the land to which he some interpret the words,'Then men began to call
went, and called it Enoch, after his son. This upon the name of the Lord' (Gen. iv. 26) to signify
shews that the descendants of Adam lived in houses that public worship then began to be practised.
and towns from the first, and consequently affords From  Noah's familiarity with the distinction of
another confirmation of the argument for the ori- clean and unclean beasts (Gen. vii 2), it would
ginal cultivation of the human family. -What this seem that the Levitical rules on this subject were'city' was is not mentioned, except in the term  by no means new when laid down in the code of
itself; and as that term is in the early Scriptures Moses.
applied to almost every collection of human habi-  Marriage, and all the relations springing from it,
tations, we need not attach any very exalted ideas existed from the beginning (Gen. ii. 23-25); and
to it in this instance. But if we take into view  although polygamy was known among the antedithe requisites necessary to enable Noah to erect so luvians (Gen. iv. I9), it was most probably unlawstupendous a fabric as the ark must have been ful; for it must have been obvious that, if more
[ARK, NOAH'S], it will not be difficult to conceive than one wife had been necessary for a man, the
that the art of building had reached considerable Lord would not have confined the first man to one
advancement before the Deluge; nor can one re- woman. The marriage of the sons of Seth with
flect on the building of Babel without a conviction the daughters of Cain appears to have been pro-.




ANTELOPE                    155              ANTELOPE
hibited, since the consequence of it was that uni- or blooming eyes; although the fact, if established,
versal depravity in the family of Seth so forcibly would prove that the Grecian residents in Asia
expressed in this short passage,' All flesh had cor- viewed the greater antilopidae of our systems as berupted its way upon the earth' (Gen vi. 12). This longing typically to the gazelle family, as we do
sin, described Orientally as an intermarriage of' the now. Certain it is, however, that in the Greek and
sons of God' with'the daughters of men' (Gen. Latin writers of the middle and later ages, we find
vi. 2), appears to have been in its results one of the the same name, but so variously inflected that we
grand causes of the Deluge; for if the family of are justified in concluding that it was drawn from
Seth had remained pure and obedient to God, he some other source than the bishop's Hexaemeron;
would doubtless have spared the world for their for it is written antalopos, analopos, aptalos: in
sake; as he would have spared Sodom and Go- Albertus Magnus, calopus and panthalops, which,
morrah had ten righteous men been found there, though evidently Alexandrian Greek, Bochart would
and as he would have spared his own people the make the Coptic name for unicorn. Towards the
Jews, had they not corrupted themselves by inter- close of the fourteenth century English heralds
marriages with the heathen.                  introduced the name, and'tricked out' their anteA contributor J. P. S.] suggests that even the lope as a supporter of the armorial bearings and
longevity of the antediluvians may have contributed  cognizance of a younger branch of the Plantagenet
to this ruinous result:-' There was also, probably, family; and although the figures are monstrous,
a great waste of time. Vastly more time was upon they bear clear indications of being derived at first
their hands than was needful for clearing woodlands,  rom the saw-homed, and soon after from a real
draining swamps, and other laborious and tedious oryx
processes, in addition to their ordinary agriculture  In order to explain somewhat more fully the
and care of cattle; so that the temptations to idle- station of antelopes among the families of ruminess were likely to be very strong; and the next nants, and point out more strictly the species we
step would be to licentious habits and selfish vio- have to notice, as well as the general characters of
lence. The ample leisure possessed by the children the order, it may be desirable to give a short definiof Adam   might have been employed for many tion of ruminants, and thereby obviate the necessity
excellent purposes of social life and religious obe- of again recurring to them when other species of
dience, and undoubtedly it was so employed by this section come under consideration. Ruminatmany; but to the larger part it became a snare and ing animals are possessed of the singular faculty of.the occasion of temptations, so that'the wicked- chewing their food a second time, by means of the
ness of man became great, the earth was corrupt peculiar structure of their stomachs-a structure
before God, and was filled with violence."   which enables-them to force it back again into the
It will be seen that many of the topics only mouth after a first deglutition. For this purpose,
slightly touched upon in this article will fall to be all ruminants have four stomachs, whereof the three
considered more largely under other heads (Critica first are so disposed that the aliments can enter at
Biblica, iv. 14-20; P. Lindsley, D.D., On the will into any one of them, the cesophagus being
Primitive State of Mankind, in Am. Bib. Reos., placed at the point of their communication. The
iv. 277-298; vi. I-27: see also Ant. Univ. Hist. i  first and largest is the paunch, externally appearing
I42-20I).-. K.                            as twofold, but internally divided into four slight
~42-~2o~ ).- — J. K.~  ~partitions. In this is received the fodder simply
ANTELOPE.      Although this word does not broken by a first mastication, in which state it is
occur in our version of the Scriptures, yet there can transmitted into the second stomach, bonnet, or
be no doubt that in the Hebrew text several rumi-honeycomb bag, the walls of which are internally
nants to which it is applicable are indicated under shaped like the cells of a honeycomb. Here the
different denominations. In scientific nomenclature, herbage is imbibed, and compressed, by its globular
the term antelope, at first applied to a single species, form, into small masses or balls, which are thus
has gradually become generical, and is now the prepared to be forced upwardsagainintothe mouth
designation of a tribe, or even of a family of genera, for a second trituration-a process always going on
containing a great many species.  According to when cattle lie down, and are seen grinding their
present usage it embraces some species that are of cheek teeth. After this it descends into the third
considerable size, so as to be invariably regarded stomach (manyplies), which is the smallest, and is
by the natives as having some affinity to cattle, and longitudinally furnished with folds, somewhat reothers delicate and rather small, that may be corm- sembling the leaves of a book: from thence it passes
pared with young deer, to which, in truth, they into the fourth (the red), next in size to the paunch,
bear a general resemblance. The origin of the and pear-shaped, the stomach properly so called
word is involved in great obscurity. In the Hexae  where the process of digestion is accomplished.meron of Eustathius, bishop of Antioch, who wrote All ruminants, moreover, are distinguished by
in the reign of Constantine, we first find the name cloven feet, by the want of incisor teeth in the'Ave6Xoq applied to an animal, which he describes upper jaw, and by all the grinders being furrowed
as'very swift, and hunted with difficulty. It had like ridges on millstones.
long horns in the shape of saws, with which it  This abstract of the characters of ruminating anisawed trees of considerable size. When thirsty, it mals is here given because the faculty of chewing
approached the Euphrates, and gamboled along its the cud, or rumination, cannot exist without the
banks among brambles, wherein it was sometimes foregoing apparatus; because that apparatus is
entangled, and then could be caught and slain.'  found, without exception to belong to all the
It may be doubted whether the word antholops species having bisulcate feet and the modified dentiwas, in the beginning of the fourth century of our tion before noticed, and belongs to no other class
era, a local Asiatic Greek paraphrase of the Arabic or genus of mammalia. The numerous species of
i     gaza, purporting a similar allusion to fine the order are distributed into three grand divisions,
J gazat, purporting a similar allusion to fine,the order are distributed into three grand divisions,




ANTHROPOMORPHISM                  156         ANTHROPOMORPHISM
viz. -Ist, those without horns, like the camel* and when his decrees and their execution are described
the musk; 2d, those with deciduous horns, or such in human methods, or in the form of dialogues ai d
as are shed yearly, and replaced by a new growth, conversations, as in the phrase (Gen. i. 2)'Let
like the stag; and 3d, those which have persistent there be light, and there was light.''This,' says
horns, consisting of a bony core, upon which a Maimonides,' is to be understood of the will, not
horny sheath is fixed, which grows by annual addi- the speech;' and in like manner, St. Augustine,
tions of the substance at the base, such as antelopes,' This was performed by the intellectual and eternal,
goats, sheep, and oxen or neat cattle.        not by the audible and temporal word' (City of
The antelopes, considered as a family, may be God, ch. vii.)
distinguished from all others by their uniting the  Anthropomorphitic phrases, generally considered,
light and graceful forms of deer with the permanent are such as ascribe to the Deity mixed perfections
horns of goats, excepting that in general their horns and human imperfections. These phrases may be
are round, annulated, and marked with'striae, slen- divided into three classes, according to which we
der, and variously inflected, according to the sub- ascribe to God:-I. Human actions. 2. Human
division or group they belong to. They have usually affections, passions, and sufferings (anthropopathy).
large, soft, and beautiful eyes, tear-pits beneath  3, Human form, human organs, human members
them, and round tails. They are often provided  (anthropomorphism).
with tufts of hair, or brushes, to protect the fore-  A  rational being, who receives impressions
knees from injury; they have inguinal pores; and through the senses, can form conceptions of the
are distinguished by very great powers of speed. Deity only by a consideration of his own powers
Among the first of the subordinate groups is the and properties.  Anthropomorphitic modes of
subgenus oryx, already named, consisting of five or thought are therefore unavoidable in the religion of
six species. [DIsHON; JACHMUR; THEO; TSEBI.] mankind; and although they can furnish no other
These will be noticed in their proper place, so far than corporeal or sensible represeritations of the
as they are mentioned in Scripture.-C. H. S.  Deity, they are nevertheless true and just when we
guard against transferring to God qualities pertainANTHROPOMORPHISM, a term in theology ing to the human senses. It is, for instance, a
used to denote that figure whereby words derived  ing to the human senset i     s, for instance, a
from human objectsare employed to express some- proper expression to assert that God knows all
thing which relates aoe emoyed to exress some- things; it is improper, that is, tropical or anthrothing which relates to the D~eity.As a finite pomorphitic, to say that He sees all things.
being can have no intuitive knowledge of an in- pomorphitic, to say that He sees all things.
being can have no intuitive knowledge of an in- Anthropomorphism is thus a species of accommodafinite, so no language of rational creatures can fully  Anthropomorphism is thus a species of accozmodation,rationa creatures can fu   inasmuch as by these representations the
express the nature of God and render it comp         it were lowers himself to the comprehension
ens A ll urter nowedg of God mus be Deity as it were lowers himself to the comprehension
hensible. All further knowledge of God must be  ofmen. AccomMODATION.
communicated by words used to express ourselves'Divine affections,' says Tertullian,'are ascribed
intelligibly concerning human and other terrestrial to the Deity by means of figures borrowed from
objects.  Such words and phrases have their foun- the human form, not as if he were endued with
dation in a resemblance, which, according to our
dation in a resemblance, which, according to our corporeal qualities: when eyes are ascribed to him,
conceptions, exists between the Deity and man- it is denoted that he sees [viz. knowsc all things
kind. This resemblance, when essential, is such when ears, that he hears all things: the speech
as regards the pure perfections of our minds, that is, denotes the will; nostrils, the perception of prayer;
such as are unaccompanied with any imperfection, hands creation; arms, power; feet, immensity;
as reason, liberty, power, life, wisdom, and good- fr hehas no members, and performs no office for
ness.  Those expressions *afford an analogical which they are required, but executes all things
knowledge, from whence arise analogical phrases, by the sole act of his will  How can he require
which are absolutely necessary whenever we speak  eyes, who is light itself? or feet, who is omniof God, and would acquire or communicate some
of God, and would acquire or communicate some present? How can he require hands, who is the
knowledge of his perfections. Such analogical ex- silent creator of all things or a tongue, to whom
pressions must, however, be understood properly, to think is to command.  Those members are
although they give no immediate and intuitive, but   necessary   to  men, b  not to God  nsm h as
only a symbolical knowledge of the Deity. In necessary to men, but not to God, inasmuch as
only a symbolical knowledge of the Deity.  In the counsel of men would be inefficacious unless
this sense it is that in Gen. ii. I6; iii. 9; vi. I3  his thoughts put his members in motion;-but not
xii.  I * v XV. *  X *ii. * xvii.  E d  iii.  i,  5  speech  his  thoughts  put  his  m em bers  in  m otion;- but  not
xii. I; xv.; xvii.; xviii.; Exod. iii. 4, 5 -speeh  to God, whose operations follow his will without
is immediately ascribed to the Deity while addressing effort.'
Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Moses. The Deity       In the same manner human affections, as grief,
is also in this sense said to speak mediately to man, repentance, aner, revenge, jealousy, etc., are
viz. by his messengers. But although the speech ascribed to the Dei. The   se affections are not,
here ascribed to the Deity is to be understood in a properly speaking, in the mind of God, who is
properly speaking, in the mind of God, who is
different manner from the language of men, it is infinitely happy and immutable, but are ascribed
not to be understood in such instances figuratively, to him anthropopathically by way of similitude.
or in the anthropomorphitic sense, but realy and to him anthropopathically by way of similitude.
^h^ mrhtc ele ^ nFor in the anthropomorphitic sense, but realy and Fo instance, when God forgives the penitent what
properly.'Either,' says St. Augustine,'immutable  F or instance, when God forgives the penitent what
truth speaks to man ineffably of itself to the minds   he had denounced against the wicked who cntinue
of rational creatures, or speakin sin, he is said to act as men do in similar cases.
of rational creatures, or speaks by a mutable Thus St. Augustine observes,'By repentance is
creature, either by spiritual images to our minds, Tsignified a c g e obsevents. For as a  ance wh
or by corporeal voices to the bodily senses.' But sgnfied a change of evens c   or as a  man when
God speaks not properly but anthropopahicsal u  he repents bewails the crime which he had comGod speaks not propery but antropoa y  mitted, so, when God alters anything unexpectedly,
__* The _~ ~that is, beyond man's expectation, he, figuratively,
The camel, although it has cloven feet partially is said to have repented of the punishment when
united by a common sole, and is armed with several man repents of the sin' (Ps. cx.)  Thus also,
false molars, is still a true ruminant.       when ignorance is ascribed to the Deity (Gen. iv.




ANTICHRIST                   157               ANTICHRIST
9), the same Father remarks,'He inquires, not as who was to appear at some future time, immediif really ignorant, but as a judge interrogates a ately before the second advent of Christ. With
prisoner;' and Luther, in reference to the passage these views the language of John seems incompa(Ps. ii. 4) where laughter is ascribed to the Deity, tible, not only because he says there'are many
thus observes,'Not that God laughed as men do, antichrists,' but because he declares that antichrist
but to point out the absurdity of men's undertaking  had already come. To obviate this, it has been
impossibilities.' (Works, ii. Ep. ps. 37).    suggested that when he says,' now there are many
Anthropomorphitic phrases are found throughout antichrists,' he intends to intimate that already
the whole Scriptures of the Old and New Testa. were the heralds and forerunners of the antichrist
ments. In the infancy of mankind conceptions apparent, and that in this he finds an evidence that
derived from the human senses were universal, and  he himself, in whom their wickedness would culthe Deity is constantly spoken of in anthropomor- minate, would soon appear, and that it was the
phitic phrases. We find these ideas more pure last time. Those who take this view, for the most
after the times of Moses, who forbade the making  part, identify the antichrist of John with the dvof any representation ofthe Deity (see DECALOGUE). Opw7ro rijs &,aprias of Paul (2 Thess. ii. 3). So
The conceptions of men became still less sensuous De Wette, Liicke, Diisterdieck, etc. The objecin the times of the Prophets, who propounded still tion to this is, that it is founded on an artificial
clearer notions of the sublime perfections of the construction of John's words, in which nothing is
Deity. But even under the Christian dispensation  found as to the antichrists being the precursors of
anthropomorphitic modes of expression were un- the Antichrist, or as to the latter being the conavoidable; for although Christianity imparts purer centration and essence, as it were, of the former.
and more spiritual sentiments than the former reve- John's words would rather lead to the conclusion
lations, the inspired teachers could not express that in his view the Antichrist and the antichrists
themselves without the aid of images derived from  were one; the former being merely a collective
human objects, if they would make their communi- term for the whole to whom this character belonged.
cations in regard to divine things intelligible to This appears in I Ep. ii. I8; but it is especially
their hearers, who were habituated to the anthro-manifest in 2 Ep. 7, where the ir\ol X rXdvo at the
pomorphitic expressions of the Old Testament. beginning of the verse became 6 irXdvos Kal 6
Such a mode of teaching was therefore indispensable drrtxparos at the close. This has led many to
in itself, and tended to promote the instruction and  adopt the opinion of Bengel, who says that John,
enlightenment of mankind;'the attention was'sub singulari numero omnes mendaces et veritatis
more easily kept up among the sensuous hearers inimicos innuit.' According to this view, the
and readers of the sayings and writings of Jesus meaning of the apostle is, that the prediction of the
and his apostles; the truths, figuratively presented, coming of Antichrist was already in course of fulfilmade a deeper impression on the mind; it intro- ment, as the many antichrists shewed (Huther,
duced variety into the discourse; the affections in loc.)
were moved, and religious instruction the more   3. It still remains to inquire, What object or class
readily communicated' (see Seiler's Biblical Her- of charactes this term is meant to describe? Those
meneutics, part i. sect. 2, ~ 54-62, London, 1835, who suppose that some individual is intended by
and Glassius, Philologia Sacra, Bk. v. Tr. I. c. 7)  the term Antichrist, either seek to identify him
-W. W.                                    -   with some person whom they regard as especially
>..   the enemy of Christ, in which sense the Pope of
ANTICHRIST ('A1riXp1sros). This term occurs Rome is frequently fixed upon as Antichrist; or they
only in the first and second epistles of John (I Ep. suppose that the evil which is as yet seen only parii. 8, 22; iv. 3; 2 Ep. 7). In one instance the tially and diffusively in the many antichrists will
plural is used, dVIIXpJTOL (I Ep. ii. 18). We have ultimately be condensed in one monster of iniquity,
to inquire —                                   who shall appear immediately before the second
1. Into the meaning of the term. The preposi- coming of Christ.  On the other hand, many adopt
tion dvrl in composition denotes either substitution  the opinion of Bengel, who says that' Antichristus
or opposition. Of the former we have instances in  pro antichristianismo sive doctrina et multitudine
such words as d&rt#aatX\e6, a viceroy, &v0b6raros, hominum  Christo contraria.'  Neither of these
praconsul, etc.; and of- the latter in  r&5rA60bopos, views seems correct. The former is without any
a philosopher of an opposite school, vrwawvwtrTs, a authority from Scripture, is purely conjectural; the
rival, etc.'AvrlXpoaros may, therefore, mean  latter affixes to the apostle's language a wider
either one who puts himself in the place of Christ, meaning than he himself allows, for he expressly
a pseudo-Christ, or one who opposes Christ; either says (I Ep. ii. 22),'He is antichrist that denieth
one'tentans semet ipsum  Christum  ostendere' the Father and the Son.' This must be accepted
(Irenaeus, Adv. Haer. v. 25), or one who is'ad- as the apostle's own description of the object he
versarius, contrarius Christo' (Augustine in Ep. designates by this term; so that we must seek for
7oan. Tr. 3), vdvrtos (Theophylact.) The latter the Antichrist in the mass of those who deny the
is the more common force of the advr when so   Father and the Son. These, according to the
compounded; and most agree in giving it this force apostle's preceding statement in verse 22, are they
in the word before us. Antichrist, then, means who deny that Jesus is the Christ.  Such deny both
ane who is opposed to Christ.                 the Father and the Son, for'he who denies the
2. Is Antichrist a term of collective import, or is identity of Jesus as the Christ, denies the Son, for
it the designation of an individual? The ancient the Son is none other than'I^ao-os 6 Xpi-r6s (not an
Fathers, for the most part, regarded the Antichrist Aeon of the name of Christ, who never became
as a man, the instrument of Satan, who should  man; nor Jesus who is not the Christ, or is not the
pretend to be the Christ, and some went the length  Logos, according to John i. 14); but he that
of supposing that he would be Satan himself incar- denies the son denies the Father also, not only benate; they all agreed in regarding him as a being  cause Son and Father are logical correlatives, but




ANTILEGOMENA                   158                ANTIOCH
because the Father and the Son are so essentially  ANTI-LIBANUS. [LIBANUS.]
united that the Father throughout without the Son ANTIOCH   ('           Two places of this
is not the true God, but a mere empty abstraction. name are mentioned in the New Testament  I. A
The essence of the Father is love; but the love is city on the banks of the Orontes, 300 miles north
only realised in the Son; and he that denies the of Jerusalem, and about 30 from the Mediterranean.
latter denies the Father, or God in the truth of his   was situated in the province of Seleucis, called
essence. What such a m Ierar0  calls God is not the Tetrapolis (Terpdwroxs), from containing the four
living God, but a mere idea, an d&wXov' (Huthercities, Antioch, Seleucia, Apamea, and Laodicea:
in Meyer's Commentar ueb. d. N.. in loc.)-  of which the first was named after Antiochus, the
AT^PTT~~W. L.  r~r\~A.  Afather of the founder; the second after himself;
ANTILEGOMENA (&vnr-i     y6ge T a, contradicted the third after his wife Apamea, and the fourth in
or disputed), an epithet applied by the early honour of hs   iother.  The same appellation
Christian writers to denote those books of the (Tetrapolis) was given also to Antioch, because it
New Testament which, although known to all theconsisted of four townships or quarters, each
ecclesiastical writers, and sometimes publicly read surrounded by a separate wall, andall four by a
in the churches, were not for a considerable time common wall. The first was built in the year 300
admitted to be genuine, or received into the canon B. c. by Seleucus Nicator, who peopled it with inof Scripture. These books are so denominated in habitants from Antigonia; the second by the settlers
contradistinction to the Homologoumena, or uni- belonging to the first quarter; the third by Seleucus
versally acknowledged writings. The following is
a catalogue of the Antilegomena:-The Second
Epistle of St. Peter.-The Epistle of St. James...
The Epistle of St. J7ude. -The Second and Third
Epistles of St. 7ohn.-The Apocalypse, or Revela-   -   ~ 
lation of St. John. —The Epistle to the Hebrews.              s 
The earliest notice which we have of this distinc-.
tion is that contained in the Ecclesiastical History 
of Eusebius, the learned bishop of Cesarea, whol                                     I
flourished A. D. 270-340. He seems to have formed       - 
a triple, or, as it appears to some, a quadruple di -. i,.,-." 
vision of the books of the New Testament, terming a i -                      _-.
them —I, the homologoumena (received); 2, the      -
antilegomena (controverted); 3, the notha (spurious); and, 4, those which he calls the utterly 
spurious, as being not only spurious in the same
sense as the former, but also absurd or impious.
Among the spurious he reckons the Acts of Paul, >.
the Shepherd of Hermas, the Revelation of Peter,                               -    sg'
the Epistle of Barnabas, and the Instructions of                   58
the Apostles.  He speaks doubtfully as to the class8
to which the Apocalypse belongs, for he himself Callinicus; and the fourth by Antiochus Epiphanes
includes it among the spurious: he then observes (Strabo, xvi. 2; iii. 354). It was the metropolis of
that some reject it, while others reckon it among the Syria (Antiochiam, Syrice caput. Tac. Hist. ii 79),
acknowledged writings (homologoumena). Among the residence of the Syrian kings (the Seleucidae)
the spurious writings he also enumerates the (I Mace. iii. 37; vii. 2), and afterwards became
Gospel according to the Hebrews. He adds, at the capital of the Roman provinces in Asia. It
the same time, that all these may be classed among ranked third, after Rome and Alexandria, among
the antilegomena.  His account is consequently the cities of the empire (Joseph. De Bell. _ud. iii.
confused, not to say contradictory. Among the 2, 4), and was little inferior in size and splendour
utterly spurious he reckons such books as the to the latter, or to Seleucia (Strabo, xvi. 2; vol.
heretics brought forward under pretence of their iii. p. 355, ed. Tauch.) Its suburb Daphne was
being genuine productions of the apostles, such as celebrated for its grove and fountains (Strabo, xvi.
the so-called  Gospels of Peter, Thomas, and 2; vol. iii. p. 356, ed. Tauch.), its asylum (&avXov
Matthias, and the Acts of Andrew, 7ohn, and the  67rov, 2 Mace. iv. 33) and temple dedicated to
other apostles. These he distinguishes from the Apollo and Diana.'The temple and the village
antilegomena, as being works which not one of the were deeply bosomed in a thick grove of laurels
ancient ecclesiastical writers thought -worthy of and cypresses which reached as far as a circumbeing cited. Their style he considers so remote ference of ten miles, and formed in the most sultry
from that of the apostles, and their contents so summers a cool and impenetrable shade.  A
much at variance with the genuine doctrines of thousand streams of the purest water, issuing from
Scripture, as to shew them to have been the inven- every hill, preserved the verdure of the earth and
tions of heretics, and not worthy of a place even the temperature of the air' (Gibbon, ch. xxiii.)
among the spurious writings. These latter he has Hence Antioch was called Epidaphnes ('AvnodXElt
consequently been supposed to have considered as 7^ irl A&d5pv1, Joseph. Antiq. xvii. 2, I; Epidaphnes
the compositions of orthodox men, written with cognominata, Plin. Hist. Nat. v. I8). It was very
good intentions, but calculated by their titles to populous; within 150 years after its erection the
mislead the ignorant, who might be disposed to Jews slew 00o,ooo persons in it in one day (I Mace.
account them as apostolical productions, to which  xi. 47). In the time of Chrysostom the population
honour they had not even a dubious claim. (See was computed at 200,00o, of whom one-half, or even
Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. iii. 5, 25.) [CANON and the a greater proportion, were professors of Christianity
articles on the books above enumerated. ]-W. W.  (rb 7rXgov TrJs 7r6Xeow XpToTLav6v, Chrysos. Adv. Jud.




ANTIOCH                    159                ANTIOCH
Oral. t. i p. 588; Hom. in S. Ignat. t. ii. p. 597; of time, at Constantinople and Jerusalem, where
In Matt. Hom. 85, t. vii. p. 810).  Chrysostom  the term Exarch was applied to the resident bishop,
also states that the church at Antioch maintained but shortly exchanged forthat of Patriarch (Neander,
3000 poor, besides occasionally relieving many more A41g. Gesch. ii. I, p. 346-5i). At the present time
(In Maltt.  om. t. vii. p. 658). Cicero speaks of there are three prelates in Syria who claim the title
the city as distinguished by men of learning and of patriarchs of Antioch, namely: (i) the patriarch
the cultivation of the arts (Pro Archia, 3). A  of the Greek church; (2) of the Syrian Monophymultitude of Jews resided in it. Seleucus Nicator sites; (3) of the Maronites (Murdock's Mosheim,
granted them the rights of citizenship, and placed  edited by Reid, pp. 128, 628).
them on a perfect equality with the other inhabi-  Few cities have undergone and survived greater
tants (Joseph. Antiq. xii. 3, ~ I). These privileges vicissitudes and disasters than Antioch. In A.D.
were continued to them by Vespasian and Titus-  260 Sapor, the Persian king, surprised and pillaged
an instance (Josephus remarks) of the equity and it, and -multitudes of the inhabitants were slain or
generosity of the Romans, who, in opposition to sold as slaves. It has been frequently brought to
the wishes of the Alexandrians and Antiocheans, the verge of utter ruin by earthquakes (A.D. 340,
protected the Jews, notwithstanding the provoca- 394, 396, 458, 526, 528); by that of A.D. 526 no
tions they had received from them in their wars. less than 250,000 persons were destroyed, the popuThey were also allowed to have an Archon or lation being swelled by an influx of strangers to the
Ethnarch of their own (Joseph. De Betll, ud. vii. festival of the Ascension.  The emperor Justinian
3. 3). Antioch is called libera by Pliny (Hist. gave forty-five centenaries of gold (80,o,ooo) to
Nat. v. 18), having obtained from Pompey the restore the city.  Scarcely had it resumed its
privilege of being governed by its own laws. This ancient splendour (A. D. 540) when it was again
fact is commemorated on a coin bearing the inscrip- taken and delivered to the flames of Chosroes. In
tion, ANTIOXEDN. MHTPOIIOA. ATTONOMOT. A.D. 658 it was captured by the Saracens. Its
The Christian faith was introduced at an early'safety was ransomed with 300,000 pieces of gold,
period into Antioch, and with great success (Acts but the throne of the successors of Alexander, the
xi. 19, 21, 24). The name' Christians' was here seat of the Roman government in the East, which
first applied to its professors (Acts xi. 26). [CHRIS- had been decorated by Caesar with the titles of free
TIAN.] Antioch soon became a central point for and holy and inviolate, was degraded under the
the diffusion of Christianity among the Gentiles, and yoke of the caliphs to the secondary rank of a
maintained for several centuries a high rank in the provincial town' (Gibbon, ch. 51). In A.D. 975
Christian world. The attempt of certain Julaizers it was retaken by Nicephorus Phocas.  In A.D.
from Jerusalem to enforce the rite of circumcision on  o080 the son of the governor Philaretus betrayed it
the Gentile converts at Antioch was the occasion of into the hands of Soliman. Seventeen years after
the first apostolic council or convention (Acts xv.) the Duke of Normandy entered it at the head of
Antioch was the scene of the early labours of the 300,000 Crusaders; but as the citadel still held
apostle Paul, and the place whence he set forth on out, the victors were in their turn besieged by a
his first missionary labours (Acts xi. 26; xiii. 2). fresh host under Kerboga and twenty-eight emirs,
Ignatius was the second bishop or overseer of the which at last gave way to their desperate valour
church, for about forty years, till his martyrdom  (Gibbon, ch. 58).  In A.D. 1268 Antioch was
in A. D- 107. In the third century three councils occupied and ruined by Boadocbar or Bibars,
(the last in A.D. 269) were held at Antioch relative sultan of Egypt and Syria; this first seat of the
to Paul of Samosata, who was bishop there about Christian name being dispeopled by the slaughter
A.D. 260 (Neander's Allgemeine Geschichte, etc. i. of 17,000 persons, and the captivity of Ioo,ooo.
3, p. 1013; Gieseler's Lehrbuch, i. 242; Moshemii About the middle of the fifteenth century the three
Commentarii, p. 702). In the course of the fourth patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem
century a new theological school was formed at convoked a synod, and renounced all connection
Antioch, which aimed at a middle course in Biblical within the Latin church.
Hermeneutics, between a rigorously literal and an  Antioch at present belongs to the Pashalic of
allegorical method of interpretation. Two of its Haleb (Aleppo), and bears the name of Antakia.
most distinguished teachers were the presbyters The inhabitants are said to have amounted to
Dorotheus and Lucian, the latter of whom suffered twenty thousand before the. earthquake of 1822,
martyrdom in the Dioclesian persecution, A.D. 312 which destroyed four or five thousand. On the,(Neander's Allgemeine Geschichte, i. 3, p. I237, ii. south-west side of the town is a precipitous moun498 transl. (Bohn's ed.); Gieseler's Lehrbuch, i. tain-ridge, on which a considerable portion of the
272; Lardner's Credibility, pt. ii. ch. 55, 58). old Roman wall of Antioch is still standing, from
Libanius (born A.D. 314), the rhetorician, the 30 to 50 feet high and 15 feet in thickness. At
friend and panegyrist of the emperor Julian, was short intervals 400 high square towers are built up
a native of Antioch (Lardner's Testimonies of in it, containing a staircase and two or three
Ancient Heathens, ch. 49; Gibbon's Decline and chambers, probably for the use of the soldiers on
Fall, etc. ch. 24). It had likewise the honour of duty. At the east end of the western hill are the
being the birthplace of his illustrious pupil, John remains of a fortress, with its turrets, vaults, and
Chrysostom  (born A.D. 347; died A.D. 407) cisterns. Toward the mountain south-south-west
(Lardner's Credibility, pt. ii. ch. 118; Neander's of the city some fragments of the aqueducts remain.
Allgemeine Geschichte, ii. 3, pp. I440-56).  After heavy rains antique marble pavements are
As the ecclesiastical system became gradually visible in many parts of the town; and gems,
assimilated to the political, the churches in those carnelians, and rings are frequently found. The
cities which held the highest civil rank assumed present town stands on scarcely one-third of the
a corresponding superiority in relation to other area enclosed by the ancient wall, of which the
Christian communities.  Such was the case at line may be easily traced; the entrance to the
Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch, and, in the course town from Aleppo-is by one of the old gates, called




ANTIOCH                    160               ANTIOCHUS
Bab Bablous, or Paul's gate, not far from which and Howson's Life and Letters of St. Paul, vol. I.
the members of the Greek church assemble for p. 204-207, 2d ed. I858.-J. E. R.
their devotions in a cavern dedicated to St. John ANTIOCHUS. Of the many kings who bore
(Madox's Excursions, ii. 74; Monro's Summer     ANTIOCHUS. Of the ma     ny kings who bore
Ramble, ii. 140-143; Dr. Kitto's Daily Bible       ame, Antiochus, called Epiphanes, has the
Illustrations, vol. viii. p. 220; Conybeare and  chief claim on our attention in a Biblical CycloHowson's Life and Epistles of St. Pau4, vol. i. paedia, since in the Books of Maccabees and in the
I49-155, 2d ed. I858).                        prophecies of Daniel his person is so prominent.
24.    ANTIOCH in (or near) Pisidia ('Av6Xa  Nevertheless, it will be our business to set forth,
not that which readers of the Bible can gather for
IIwnftas), being a border city, was considered at not that which readers of the Bible can gater for
different times as belonging to different provinces. themselves, but such preliminary and collateral inPtolemy places it in Pamphylia, and Strabo in formation as will tend to throw light on the position
Phrygia. It was founded by Seleucus Nicanor, of the Jews towards the Syrian monarchy.
and its first inhabitants were from Magnesia on the  The name Antiochus may be interpreted he who
Meander. After the defeat of Antiochus (III.) withstands, or lasts out; and denotes military
the Great by the Romans, it came into the possession prowess, as do many other of the Greek names. It
of Eumenes, king of Pergamos, and was afterwards was borne by one of the generals of Philip, whose
transferred to Amyntas. On his death the Romans son, Seleucus, by the help of the first Ptolemy,
made it the seat of a proconsular government, and established himself (B.c. 312) as ruler of Babylon.
invested it with the privileges of a Colonia furis The year 312 is in consequence the era from which,
Italici, which included a freedom from taxes and a under that monarchy, time was computed, as, for
municipal constitution similar to that of the Italian instance, in the Books of Maccabees. For eleven
towns (Ulpianus, lib. 50: In Pisidia juris Italici years more the contest in Asia continued, while
est Colonia Antiochensium). When Paul and Bar- Antigonus (the'one-eyed') was grasping at universal
nabas visited this city (Acts xiii. 4), they found supremacy. At length, in 301, he was defeated
a Jewish synagogue and a considerable number and slain in the decisive battle of Ipsus, in Phrygia.
of proselytes (ol 4oiogevoi rbv oe6v, v.  6; Ptolemy, son of Lagus, had meanwhile become
rCv eio!UvoWv ~rwpocX7WtXv, v. 43; 7r& ae[Sop.dvas master of southern Syria; and Seleucus was too
yvvawKas, v. 50), and met with great success among much indebted to him to be disposed to eject him
the Gentiles (v. 48), but, through the violent by force from this possession. In fact, the three
opposition of the Jews, were obliged to leave the first Ptolemies (B.c. 323-222) looked on their extraplace, which they did in strict accordance with  Egyptian possessions as their sole guarantee for the
their Lord's injunction (v. 51, compared with Matt. safety of Egypt itself against their formidable neighx. 14  Luke ix. 5).                           bour, and succeeded in keeping the mastery, not
Till within a very recent period Antioch was only of Palestine and Coele-Syria, and of many
supposed to have been situated where the town of towns on that coast, but of Cyrene and other parts
Ak-Shehr now stands; but the researches of the of Libya, of Cyprus, and other islands, with numeRev. F. Arundell, British chaplain at Smyrna in rous maritime posts all round Asia Minor. A perI833, confirmed by the still later investigations of manent fleet was probably kept up at Samos
Mr. Hamilton, secretary of the Geographical (Polyb. v. 35, I ), so that their arms reached to
Society, have determined its site to be adjoining the Hellespont (v. 34, 7); and for some time they
the town of Yalobatch; and consequently that Ak- ruled over Thrace (xviii. 34, 5). Thus Syria was
Shehr is the ancient Philomelion described by divided between two great powers, the northern
Strabo (xii. 8; vol. iii. p. 72, ed. Tauch.)'In  half falling to Seleucus and his successors, the
Phrygia Paroreia is a mountainous ridge stretching southern to the Ptolemies; and this explains the
from east to west; and under this on either side titles'king of the north' and'king of the south,'
lies a great plain, and cities near it; to the north in the I ith chapter of Daniel. The line dividing
Philomelion, and on the other side Antioch, called them was drawn somewhat to the north of DamasAntioch near Pisidia: the one is situated altogether cus, the capital of Coele-Syria.
on the plain; the other on an eminence, and has  The first Seleucus built a prodigious number of
a colony of Romans.' According to Pliny, Antioch  cities with Greek institutions, not, like Alexander,
was also called Caesarea (Insident verticem Pisida, from military or commercial policy, but to gratify
quondam Solymi appellati, quorum colonia Cesarea, ostentation, or his love for Greece. This love,
eadem Antiochia, v. 24). Mr. Arundell observed indeed, led him to fix his capital, not at Babylon,
the remains of several temples and churches, besides where Alexander would have placed it, but in the
a theatre and a magnificent aqueduct; of the latter north of Syria (see ANTIOCH); and in extreme old
twenty-one arches still remained in a perfect state. age his life fell a sacrifice to his romantic passion
Mr. Hamilton copied several inscriptions, all, with for revisiting his native Macedonia. To people his
one exception, in Latin. Of one the only words new cities was often a difficult matter; and this led
not entirely effaced were ANTIOCHEAE CAESARI.  to the bestowal of premiums on those who were
Antioch was noted in early times for the worship willing to become citizens. Hence we may account
of Men Arcseus, or Lunus. Numerous slaves and for the extraordinary privileges which the Jews enextensive estates were annexed to the service of the joyed in them all, having equal rights with Macetemple; but it was abolished after the death of donians. At the same time (whether from  the
Amyntas (Strabo, xii. 8; iii. 72).  Arundell's example which Alexander had set or from the force
Discoveries in Asia Minor, Lond. 1834, i. 268-312; of circumstances) that age displayed remarkable
Hamilton's Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus, and tendencies to religious fusion everywhere; insomuch
Armenia, Lond. 1842, i. 472-474; ii. 437-439; that-if, with Josephus, we may trust to the letter'Laborde's work on Syria andAsia Minor contains in the 1st Book of Maccabees (xii. 21)-even
a good view of the aqueduct;' Dr. Kitto's Daily the Lacedaemonians put in their claim to be reBible Illustrations, vol. viii. p. 278; Conybeare garded as children of Abraham.  But there




ANTIOCHUS                    161               ANTIOCHUS
was still another cause which recommended the  Ccele-Syria against the Ptolemies.  Besides this,
Jews to the Syrian kings. A nation thus diffused he was seven years engaged in successful camthrough their ill-compacted empire, formed a band  paigns against the Parthians and the king of
most useful to gird its parts together. To win the Bactriana; and, finally, met unexpected and
hearts of the Jews, was to win the allegiance of a staggering reverses in war with the Romans, so
brave brotherhood, who would be devoted to their that his last days were inglorious and his resources
protector, and who could never make common     thoroughly broken. Respecting the reign of his
cause with any spirit of local independence. For son, Seleucus Philopator (B.C. 187-176), we know
this reason Antiochus the Great, and doubtless his little, except that he left his kingdom tributary to
predecessors also, put peculiar trust in Jewish  the Romans (Livy, xlii. 6) [see also SELEUCUS
garrisons. In a letter quoted by Josephus (Antiq. PHILOPATOR].  In Daniel, xi. 20, he is named
xii. 3, 4) he orders the removal of 2000 families of a raiser of taxes, which shews what was the
Jews of Mesopotamia and Babylonia, with all their chief direction of policy in his reign. De Wette
goods, into Lydia and Phrygia, for garrison service: renders the words rather differently ('der einen
and although the authenticity of the letter may be eintreiberdie Krone des Reiches[Judaa]durchziehen
suspicious, it at any rate proves the traditionary lasst'), yet perhaps with the same general meaning.
belief that the earlier kings of the house of Seleucus Seleucus having been assassinated by one of his
had transported troops of Jewish families west- courtiers, his brother Antiochus Epiphanes hastened
ward for military purposes.                   to occupy the vacant throne, although the natural
heir, Demetrius, son of Seleucus, was alive, but
a hostage at Rome. In Daniel, xi. 21, it is indicated that he gained the kingdom by flatteries;
and there can be no doubt that a most lavish
bribery was his chief instrument.  According to
pOI~~~~~~ 0, HAthe description in Livy (xli. 20), the magnificence
of his largesses had almost the appearance of
insanity.
A prince of such a temper and in such a position,
whose nominal empire was still extensive, though
its real strength and wealth were departing, may
naturally have conceived, the first moment that he
59. Antiochus the Great.         felt pecuniary need, the design of plundering the
Jewish temple. At such a crisis, the advantage of
Again: through the great revolution of Asia, the the deed might seem to overbalance the odium
Hebrews of Palestine were now placed nearly on  incurred; yet, as he would convert every Jew in
the frontier of two mighty monarchies; and it his empire into a deadly enemy, a second step
would seem that the rival powers bid against one would become necessary-to crush the power of
another for their good will-so great were the
benefits showered upon them   by the second
Ptolemy.  Even when a war broke out for the                 /
possession of Code-Syria, under Antiochus the              /
Great and the fourth Ptolemy (B.C. 218, 217),
though the people of Judaea, as part of the battle- 
field and contested possession, were exposed to
severe suffering, it was not the worse for their ultimate prospects.  Antiochus at least, when at a
later period (B. C. 198) left master of southern
Syria, did but take occasion to heap on the Jews
and Jerusalem  new   honours and   exemptions              6o Antiochus Epiphanes.
Joseph. Ant. xii. 3, 3). In short, in days in
which no nation of those parts could hope for the Jews, and destroy their national organization.
political independence, there was none which  The design, therefore, of prohibiting circumcision
seemed so likely as the Hebrew nation to enjoy an  and their whole ceremonial, would naturally ally
honourable social and religious liberty,      itself to the plan of spoliation, without supposing
The Syrian empire, as left by Antiochus the any previous enmity against the nation on his part.
Great to his son, was greatly weaker than that Just then, however, a candidate for the high-priestwhich the first Seleucus founded.  Scarcely, in- hood gave an impetus to this course of events, by
deed, had the second of the line begun to reign setting the example of assuming Greek manners in
(B. C. 280) when four sovereigns in Asia Minor the hope of gaining the king's favour; as is narrated
established their completeindependence:-the kings in the 1st book of Maccabees. We have written
of Pontus, Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Pergamus. enough to shew how surprising to the Jews must
In the next reign- that of Antiochus Theos- the have been the sudden and almost incredible change
revolt of the Parthians under Arsaces (B. C. 250) of policy on the part of the rulers of Syria; and how
was followed speedily by that of the distant pro- peculiarly aggravated enmity Antiochus Epiphanes
vince of Bactriana. For thirty years together the must in any case have drawn on himself. Instead
Parthians continued to grow at the expense of the of crushing his apparently puny foes, he raised up
Syrian monarchy. The great Antiochus passed a heroes against himself [MACCABEES], who, helped
life of war (B.C. 223-187). In his youth he had to  by the civil wars of his successors, at length
contend against his revolted satrap of Media, and  achieved the deliverance of their people; so that in
afterwards against his kinsman Achaeus, in Asia the 17oth year of the Seleucidae (B.C. 143) their
Minor. We have already noticed his struggles in independence was formally acknowledged, and
VOL.. T.                                                                         M




ANTIOCHUS                   162               ANTIPATRIS
they began to date from this period (i Maec. xiii. the year B.C. 134 he besieged Jerusalem, and hav42) as a new birth of their nation.  Whether ing taken it next year, after a severe siege, he pulled
Antiochus Epiphanes committed all the atrocities down the-walls, and reduced the nation once more
alleged in the second book of Maccabees may be to subjection, after only ten years' independence.
doubted; but having started amiss, with no    His moderation and regard for their religious feelprinciple to guide or restrain him, it is certain ings are contrasted by Josephus with the impiety of
that he was capable of adding cruelty to iniquity, Epiphanes (Antiq. xiii. 8, 2, 3). It is remarkable
to whatever amount the necessity of the moment that, though the beginning of his quarrel with the
might prompt. The intensity of Tacitus's hatred Jewish high-priest is narrated in the first book of
of the Jews is lamentably displayed in his remarks Maccabees, the story is cut short abruptly.
on this king, Hist. v. 8:'Rex Antiochus, demere  The most compact and unbroken account of the
superstitionem et mores Grsecorum dare adnixus, kings of this dynasty is to be found in Appian's
quominus eteerrimam gentem in melius mutaret, book (De Rebus Syriacis), at the end. The dates
Parthorum bello prohibitus est.'              of the following table are taken from Clinton's
The change of policy, from conciliation to cruel Fasti Hellenici, vol. iii., Appendix, ch. iii.persecution, which makes the reign of Epiphanes  I. Seleucus Nicator, B.C. 312-280.
an era in the relation of the Jews to the Syrian  2. Antiochus Soter, his son, 280-261.
monarchy, has perhaps had great permanent moral  3. Antiochus Theos, his son, 261-247.
results. It is not impossible that perseverance in  4. Seleucus Callinicus, his son, 247-226.
the conciliating plan might have sapped the energy  5. (Alexander, or) Seleucus Ceraunus, his son,
of Jewish national faith; while it is certain that    226-223.
persecution kindled their zeal and cemented their  6. Antiochus the Great, his brother, 223-I87.
unity. Jerusalem, by its sufferings, became only  7. Seleucus Philopator, his son, I87-176.the more sacred in the eyes of its absent citizens;  8. Antiochus Epiphanes, his brother, I76-164.
who vied in replacing the wealth which the sacri-  9. Antiochus Eupator, his son (a minor), 164legious Epiphanes had ravished.  According to         I62.
I Mace. vi. I-I6, this king died shortly after an  Io. Demetrius Soter, son of Seleucus Philopator,
attempt to plunder a temple at Elymais; and           I62-150.
Josephus follows that account. Appian (Syr. 66)  I. Alexander Balas, a usurper, who pretends
adds that he actually plundered it. Strabo, how-      to be son of Antiochus Epiphanes, and is
ever (xvi. i), and Justin (xxxii. 2) tell the story of  acknowledged by the Romans, 152-146.
Antiochus the Great, and represent him as losing  [12. Antiochus Theos, or Alexander (a minor),
his life in the attempt. Polybius and Diodorus        son of the preceding. He is murdered by
decide nothing, as the fragments which notice the     the usurper Trypho, who contests the
deed ascribe it merely to'the king Antiochus.'       kingdom till 140.]
Nevertheless, Josephus appeals to Polybius as   12. Demetrius Nicator, son of Demetrius Soter,
agreeing with him; and the editors of Polybius so     reigns I46 —4I, when he was captured
understand the matter. On the whole, it would         by the Parthians.
appear that this attempt is rightly assigned to  13. Antiochus Sidetes, his brother, I41-28.*
Epiphanes: it is not likely to have been two                                  F. W. N.
events, though the stories do not agree as to the  ANTIPAS ('Avras). I. A person named as
name of the deity of the temple. We ought, how-  a faithful witness,' or martyr in Rev. ii. 3.
ever, to add, that Winer (Real- koirterbuch) is dis- 
posed to believe that father and son both ended  2. HEROD-ANTIPAS. [HERODIAN FAMILY.]
their lives with the same act; and this view of the  ANTIPATER. [HERODIAN FAMILY.]
case is also taken in Dr. W. Smith's Dictionary of ANTIPATRIS ('Avrarpl), a city built by
Greek and Roman Biography.                    Herod the Great, on the site of a former place
An outline of the deeds of the kings of Syria in  ed Caphar-saba (Xaa3hsoa or Kaapla,
war and peace, down to Antiochus Epiphanes, is called Caphar-saba (Xaa, ).  e spot was well
presented in the IIth chapter of Daniel; in which J    n      iii            sot w      w
watered, and fertile; a stream flowed round the
Epiphanes and his father are the two principal watered, and fertile; a stream flowed round the
Epiphanes and his father are the two principal city, and in its neighbourhood were groves of large
figures. Nothing but ignorance or a heated ima- trees (     xvi 5, 2).  Caphar-saba was 120
gination can account for some modern expositors  tadia from Joppa; and between the two places
referring that chapter to the events of the eighteenth stadia rom Joppa; and between the two places
century after Christ. The wars and treaties of the Alexander Balas drew a trench, with a wall and
wooden towers, as a defence against the approach
kings of Syria and Egypt from B.c. 280 to B.c. 165 of Antiochus Antiq. xiii. 15, i; De Bell. Jd.i.
are described so minutely and so truly, in vv. 6-36,  Antiochs (Antq. ao  ly between  esa. rud. 
as to force all reasonable and well-informed men toatris also lay between Caesarea and
choose between the alternatives,-either that it is a Lydia, its distance from  the former place being
most signal and luminous prediction, or that it was twenty-six Roman miles (Itin. Hieros., p. 6oo).
swritten after the event.  prediction, or that it wasThese circumstances indicate that Antipatris was in
written after the event.
Besides Antiochus Epiphanes, the book of Mac- the midst of a plain, and not at Arsuf, where the
Crusaders supposed they had found it (Will. Tyr.
cabees mentions his son, called Antiochus Eupator, Crusaders supposed they had found it (WilB. Tyr.
and another young Antiochus, son of Alexander ix..; Vracu   c. 2, c. O
Balas, the usurper; both of whom were murdered  cmp  Reland, Pa  t., pp. 569, 570)
at a tender age. [ALEXANDER BALAS.] In the road from Ramlah to Nazareth, north of Ras-el
two last chapters of the book a fourth Antiochus Ain, Prokesch (Reise ins Heizge Land. Wien, I831)
appears,-called by the Greeks Sidetes, from the
-town of Side, in Pamphylia. This is the last king  * Kings of the same family reigned in Antioch
of that house, whose reputation and power were until Pompey reduced Syria to the form of a Roman
not unworthy of the great name of Seleucus. In  province, B.C. 63.




ANTIQUITIES                  163               APOCRYPHA
came to a place called Kaffr Saba; and the posi- Jezreel, where the Philistines twice encamped
tion which Brighaus assigns to this town in his map  before battles with the Israelites (I Sam. iv. I;
is almost in exact agreement with the position  xxix. I; comp xxviii. 4). Either this or the first
assigned to Antipatris in the Itin. Hieros. Per- Aphek, but most probably this, was the Aphek
ceiving this, Professor Raumer (Palistina, pp. 44, mentioned in Josh. xii. 18, as a royal city of the
462) happily conjectured that this Kaffr Saba was Canaanites. —J. K.
no other than the reproduced name of Caphar-saba, APHEKAH (npe), a town in the mountains
which, as in many other instances, has again sup-....
planted the foreign, arbitrary, and later name of of Judah (Josh. xv. 53). [Supposed by some to be
Antipatris. This conjecture has been confirmed the same as Aphek, mentioned Josh. xii. 18.]
by Robinson, who gives Kefr Saba as the name of  APHEREMA      ('Aqatpecta); one of the three
the village in question (Researches, iii. 46-48). St. toparchies added to Judaea by the kings of Syria
Paul was brought from Jerusalem to Antipatris by (I Macc. xi. 34). This is perhaps the Ephraem
night, on his route to Caesarea (Acts. xxiii. 31). —or Ephrain mentioned in 2 Chron. xiii. 9.
J.K.
ANTIQUITIES. [ARCHEO.              APHSES, head of the eighteenth sacerdotal
ANTI S. [ACH LOGY.family of the twenty-four into which the priests
ANTONIA. [JERUSALEM.]                       were divided by David for the service of the
APE. [KOPH.]                                temple (I Chron. xxiv. 5I).
APELLES ('AirXX s), a Christian at Rome,      APOCALYPSE. [REVELATION, BOOK OF.]
whom Paul salutes in his Epistle to the Church  APOCRYPHA (ar6Kpvfa, sc. f3Xtia, hidden,
there (Rom. xvi. io), and calls bV6 86KiUOv l lsecreted, mysterious), a term in theology, applied in
XpTo-r'approved in Christ,' i. e., an approved various senses to denote certain books claiming a
Christian.  Origen doubts whether he may not sacred character. The word occurs Markiv. 22:
have been the same person with Apollos; but this'There is nothing hid, which shall not be manifested,
is far from likely [APOLLOS]. According to the neither was anything kept secret (dr6KpV0ov), but
old church traditions Apelles was one of the that it should come abroad;' also Luke viii. I7;
seventy disciples, and bishop either of Smyrna or and Col. ii. 3:'In whom are hid (dr6Kpv5ot) all
Heracleia (Epiph. Cdnt. Hares. p. 20; Fabricii the treasures of wisdom and knowledge.' It is
Lux Evangeli, pp. r15, ir6, etc.) The name first found, as denoting a certain class of books,
itself is notable from  Horace's'Credat Judaeusin Clemens Alexandrinus, Stromata, 3, c. 4, K
Apella, non ego' (Sat. i. 5, loo), by which he less 7tb daoKp0pov.
probably means a circumcised Jew in general, as. Meaning and use of the term. In the early
many think, than a particular Jew of that name,
many think, than a particular Jew of that name  ages of the Christian Church this term was frequently
well known at Rome. -J. K.                    used to denote books of an uncertain or anonymous
APHARSACHITES        or APHARSATHCHITES author, or of one who had written under an assumed
(?I~D   Nb:   or KYnD'It; Sept'A0apaXaLaot), name.  Its application, however, in this sense is
the name of the nation to which belonged one far from being distinct, as, strictly speaking, it
portion of the colonists whom the Assyrian king wold include canonical books whose authors were
planted in Samaria (Ezra iv. 9; v. 6). Schulthess unknown or uncertain, or even pseudep ahal.
(Parad. p. 362) identifies the'Apharsachites' with'Let us omit,' says St. Augustine, those fabulous
the Persian, or rather Median'Paraetaceni' of thebooks of Scripture, which are called  ocryphal
Greek geographers (Strabo xi. 522; xv. 732; Plin. because their secret origin was unknown to the
vi. 26). This conclusion is strengthened by the fathers. We do not deny that Enoch, the seventh
fact that the A is often prosthetic in Strabo; as in from Adam, wrote something, as Jude asserts in
xv. 727, where the names Mardi and Amardi are his canonical Epistle that he did; but it is not
interchanged.-J. K.                           without a purpose that they are not found in the
Jewish canon preserved in the Temple.    The
APHEK (p.B.; Sept.'A0dK); the name sig- books, therefore, which are published in his name
nifies strength; hence a citadel or fortified town. are rightly judged by prudent men not to be his,
There were at least three places so called, viz.-  as more recent works were given out as written by
I. A city in the tribe of Asher (Josh. xiii. 4; apostles, which, however, have been separated,
xix 30), called p1E.B  in Judg. I. 31, where we also upon diligent investigation, from  the canon of
learn that the tribe was unable to gain possession  Scripture, under the name of apocryphal.' And
of it. This must be the same place with the   again:'From such expressions as'The Book of
"AaKa which Eusebius (Constant. iii. 55) and the Wars of the Lord' men have taken occasion
Sozomen (pp. 2, 5) place in Lebanon, on the to forge books called apocryphal.'  Andin his
river Adonis, where there was a famous temple of book against Faustus, he says:'Apocryphal books
Venus.. A village called Afka is still found in are not such as are of authority, and are kept
Lebanon, situated at the bottom of a valley, and secret; but they are books whose original is
may possibly mark the site of this Aphek (Burck- obscure, and which are destitute of proper testihardt, i. 70; Richter, p. 107; Rob; iii. 606).  monials, their authors being unknown, and their
2. A town near which Benhadad was defeated  characters either heretical or suspected.' Origen,
by the Israelites (I Kings xx. 26, sq.), which seems also, on Matt. xxii. had applied the term apocryphal
to correspond to the Apheca of Eusebius (Onomast. in a similar way:'This passage is to be found
in "Afeioa), situated to the east of the Sea of in no canonical book' (reglari, for we have
Galilee, and which is mentioned by Burckhardt, Origen's work only in the Latin translation by
Seetzen, and others, under the name of Feik or Rufinus),'but in the apocryphal book of Elias'
Fik.                                          (secretis Elie).  And,'This is plain, that many
3. A city in the tribe of Issachar, not far from  examples have been adduced by the apostles and




APOCRYPHA                    164               APOCRYPHA
evangelists, and inserted in the New Testament, be taken for inspired books, but are not so in
which we do not read in the canonical Scriptures reality. It has also been applied, by Jerome, to
which we possess, but which are found in the certain books not found in the Hebrew canon, but
Apocaypha' (Origen, Prof. in Cantic.)  So also yet publicly read from time immemorial in the
Jerome, referring to -the words (Eph. v. 14) Christian church for edification, although not'Awake, thou that sleepest, and arise from the considered of authority in controversies of faith.
dead,' observes that'the apostle cited this from  These were also termed Ecclesiastical books, and
hidden (reconditis) prophets, and such as seem to  consisted of the books of Tobit, Wisdom, Ecclesibe apocryphal, as he has done in several other asticus, Baruch, the two first books of Maccabees,
instances.' Epiphanius thought that this term was the seven last chapters (according to Cardinal
applied to such books as were not placed in the  Hugo's division) of the book of Esther, and those
Ark of the Covenant, but put away in some other (so called) parts of the book of Daniel which are
place (see Suicer's Thesaurus for the true reading not found in Hebrew, viz. the Song of the Children,
of the passage in this Father).  Under the term  the Speech of Azariah, the History of Susannah,
apocryphal have been included books of a religious and the Fable (as Jerome calls it) of Bel and the
character, which were in circulation among private  Dragon.. These have been denominated, for disChristians, but were not allowed to be read in the tinction's sake, the deutero-canonical books, in as
public assemblies; such as 3 and 4 Esdras, and  much as they were not hi the original or Hebrew
3 and 4 Maccabees.                             canon.  In this sense they are called by some the
In regard to the New Testament, the term has Antilegomena of the Old Testament.'The unbeen usually applied to books invented by heretics canonical books,' says Athanasius, or the author of
to favour their views, or by Catholics under ficti- the Synopsis,'are divided into antilegomena and
tious signatures.  Of this description were many apocrypha.'
spurious or apocryphal gospels (which see). It is  2. Apocryphal Books received by some into the
probably in reference to such that Basil, Cyril of Canon, called also Ecclesiastical and Deutero-canoJerusalem, and Jerome, gave cautions against the nical. -It is acknowledged by all that these books
reading of apocryphal books; although it is possible, never had a place in the Jewish canon. The
from the context, that the last-named Father alludes Roman Catholic Professor Alber, of Pesth (who
to the books which were also called Ecclesiastical, considers them as of equal authority with the reand afterwards Deutero-canonical. The following  ceived books of the Hebrew canon), observes:
passage from his Epistle to Laeta, on the education'The Deutero-canonical books are those which the
of her daughter, will serve to illustrate this part of Jews had not in their canon, but are notwithour subject:-' All apocryphal books should be standing received by the Christian Church, conavoided; but if she ever wishes to read them, not ceming which, on this very account of their not
to establish the truth of doctrines, but with a re- having been in the Jewish canon, there has existed
verential feeling for the truths they signify, she some doubt even in the Church' (Institut. Hermeshould be told that they are not the works of the neut. vol. i. ch. viii. ix.) Josephus, a contempoauthors by whose names they are distinguished, rary of the apostles, after describing the Jewish
that they contain much that is faulty, and that it is canon (Contr. Ap. i 8), which he says consists of
a task requiring great prudence to find gold in the 22 books, remarks:'but from the reign of Armidst of clay.' And to the same effect Philastrius: taxerxes to within our memory there have been' Among whom      are the Manichees, Gnostics several things committed to writing, which, how[etc.], who, having some apocryphal books under ever, have not acquired the same degree of credit
the apostles' names (i. e., some separate Acts), are and authority as the former books, inasmuch as
accustomed to despise the canonical Scriptures; the tradition and succession of the prophets were
but the secret Scriptures, that is, apocryphal, though  less certain' It has been shewn by Hornemann
they ought to be read by the perfect for their (Observatt. ad illust. doctr. de Canon. V. T. ex
morals, ought not to be read by all, as ignorant Philone) that, although Philo was acquainted with
heretics have added and taken away what they   the books in question, he has not cited any one of
wished.' He then proceeds to say that the books them, at least with the view of establishing any
to which he refers are the Acts ofAndrew, written  proposition.
by'the disciples who were his followers,' etc.:  Among the early Christian writers, Jerome, in
Quos conscripserunt discipuli tunc sequentes aposto- his Prefaces, gives us the most complete informalum (Hcares. 40).                             tion that we possess regarding the authority of
In the Biblioth4que Sacree, by the Rev. Domi- these books in his time. After enumerating the
nican Fathers Richard and Giraud (Paris, I822), 22 books of the Hebrew Canon, consisting of the
the term is defined to signify-(i) anonymous or Law, the Prophets, and the Hagiographa, he
pseudepigraphal books; (2) those which are not adds:'This prologue I write as a preface to the
publicly read, although they may be read with books to be translated by us from the Hebrew
edification in private; (3) those which do not pass into Latin, that we may know that all the books
for authentic and of divine authority, although they which are not of this number are apocryphal;
pass for being composed by a sacred author or an therefore Wisdom, which is commonly ascribed to
apostle, as the Epistle ofBarnabas; and (4) danger- Solomon as its author, and the book of Jesus the
ous books composed by ancient heretics to favour son of Sirach, Judith, Tobit, and the Shepherd,
their opinions. They also apply the name'to   are not in the canon.' Again, in the preface to
books which, after having been contested, are put his translation of the books of Solomon from the
into the canon by consent of the churches, as Tobit, Hebrew, he observes:-' These three books (Proetc.' And Jahn applies it in its most strict sense, verbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles) only are Soloand that which it has borne since the fourth   mon's. There is also the Book of esus the son of
century, to books which, from their inscription, Sirach, and another pseudepigraphal book, called
or the author's name, or the subject, might easily the Wisdom of Solomon; the former of which I




APOCRYPHA                    165              APOCRYPHA
have seen in Hebrew, called not Ecclesiasticus, as  It is maintained by Professor Alber that, when
among the Latins, but the Parables; with which Jerome and Rufinus said the Ecclesiastical books
likewise have been joined Ecclesiastes and the were read for edification, but not for confirming
Song of Songs, that the collection might the better articles of faith, they only meant that they were not
resemble the books of Solomon both in matter to be employed in controversies with the Jews, who
and design. The second is not to be found at all did not acknowledge their authority.  These
among the Hebrews, and the style plainly evinces Fathers, however, certainly put them into the same
its Greek original: some ancient writers say it is a rank with the Shepherd of Hermas.
work of Philo the Jew. As, therefore, the church  The first catalogue of the Holy Scriptures, drawn
reads Judith and Tobit, and the books of Macca- up by any public body in the Christian church,
bees, but does not receive them among the Cano- which has come down to us, is that of the Council
nical Scriptures; so likewise it may read these two of Laodicea, in Phrygia, supposed to be held about
books for the edification of the people, but not as the year 365. In the two last canons of this
of authority for proving any doctrines of religion Council, as we now have them, there is an enume(ad cedificationem plebis, non ad authoritatem eccle- ration of the books of Scripture nearly conformsiasticorum dqgmatum confinnandam).' Of Baruch  able, in the Old Testament, to the Jewish canon.
he says, that he does'not translate it, because it The canons are in these words,was not in Hebrew, nor received by the Jews.''That private Psalms ought not to be said in the
He never translated Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, or church, nor any books not canonical, but only the
either of the books of Maccabees, and observes, canonical books of the Old and New Testament.
that'such books as are not of the twenty-four *  he books of the Old Testament which ought to
letters are to be utterly rejected' (Pref to Ezra). b  rd  these:-I. Genesis;.  xodus; 3.
In his Preface to  dith he says, in like manner, Leviticus; 4  Numbers;. Deuteronomy; 6.'Among the Hebrews this book is read among the Js    son    Nun; 7. Juge, wth Rut; 6.
hagiograpa (or, according to some manuscriptsJoshua, son of Nun; 7. Judges, with Ruth; 8.
hagiographa (or, according to some manuscripts, Esther; 9.  and 2 Kingdoms; 10. 3 and 4 Kingapocrypha), whose authority is not judged sufficient doms; i. I and 2 Remains; 12. I and 2 Esdras
to support disputed matters.' He adds, at the                     Psalms;    Proverbs; 
same time, that'the Council of Nice is said to Ecclesiastes; b 16   Canticles; 17. Job; I8. the
have included it in the catalogue of the Holy Scrip- Twelve Prophets;. Isaiah; 20. Jeremiah and
tures.' We have, however, no authority for sup- Baruc, the Lamentations and the Epistles; 21.
posing that the Council of Nice ever formed such  Ezekiel 22. DanieL' We have already given the
a catalogue. There is no account of the matter in s of the New Testament as enumerated by this
books of the New Testament as enumerated by this
any of its acts which have reached us.Council (see ANTILEGOMENA).
Jerome's remarks respecting the additions to
Jerome's remarks respecting the additions to  This catalogue is not, however, universally acthe book of Daniel will be noticed elsewhere. knowledged to be genuine.    Possibly learned
[DANIEL, Apocryphal Additions to.] In reference mn, s     Lardner,  according to the different
to these, Jerome's contemporary, Rufinus, once his noons  the party they have been engaged in,
familiar friend, but now his bitter enemy, violently have been led to disregard the last canon; some
attacked him in his second invective against him. bae  f it omitting the Apocryphal books of
The invectives of Rufinus, however, have no refe- the Old Testament, and others because it has not
rence to any other writings than the history of the book of Revelation.' Basnage, in his History
Susanna and the Song of: the Three Children. In of the Church, observes that  Protestants and.f the Church,  observes that' Protestants and
fact, Rufinus himself made the same distinction in  Catholicshave equally disparaged this synod.'  It
regard to the books of Scripture that Jerome did. i,' remarks Lardner, that the canons of this
After enumerating the books of the  ld and New  Council were received and adopted by some General
Testament exactly according to the Jewish canon, Councils in after times; nevertheless, perhaps, it
saying,'These are the volumes which the Fathers would b  ff t to shew  th those General
have included in the canon, and out of which they  Councils received the last canon, and exactly
would have us proved the doctrines of our faith                                     exactl
he adds'however, it ought to be observed, that approved the catalogue of said books therein
he adds-' however, it ought to be observed, that contained, without any addition or diminution,
there are also other books which are not canonica o l, as we n  have it' (see Mansi Concimia, ii.
as we now have it' (see Mansi Concilia, ii.
but have been called by our forefathers ecclesiastical; as the Wisdom of Solomon, and another
called the Wisdom   of the Son of Sirach, which  These books, it will be observed, though avowamong the Latins is called by the general name of edly not  the Hebrew canon were publicly read
Ecclesiasticus, by which title is denoted not the in the primitive church, and treated with a high
author of the book, but the quality of the writing. degree of respect, although not considered by the
Of the same order is the book of Tobit, Judith, Hebrews, from whom they were derived (see the
and the books of the Maccabees. In the New passage above cited from Josephus) as of equal
Testament is the book of the Shepherd of Hermas, authority with the former. These books seem to
which is called the' Two Ways, or the Judgment have been included in the copies of the Septuagint,
of Peter;' all which they would have to be read in which was generally made use of by the sacred
the churches, but not alleged by way of authority  writers of the New Testament. It does not appear
for proving articles of faith. Other Scriptures they whether the Apostles gave any cautions against the
call apocrypha, which they would not have to be reading of these books; and it has been even supread in churches' (In Symnb. Apost.)          posed that they have referred to them. Others,
however, have maintained that the principal passages to which they have referred (for it is not
* The variations in the numerical divisions of pretended that they have cited them) are from the
these books, many of which are extremely fanciful, canonical books. The following are the passages
do not affect the identity of the canon itself.  here alluded to:



APOCRYPHA                   166               APOCRYPHA
Rom. xi. 24..   compared with Wisdom ix. 13... see Isaiah xl. 13.
Heb. i. 13...,,,,    vii. 56..,, xi. 5...,,,,    iv. IO... see Gen. v. 24.
Rom. xiii....,,,,    vi. 3... see Prov. viii. 15, I6.,,  ii.  II
Gal. ii. 6.
Eph. vi. 9   ( * *         "         "    vi. 7... see Deut. x. 17.
Col. iii. 23
I Peter i. 24      }
James i. I      * *                Ecclus. xiv. 17... see Isaiah xl. 6.
I Cor. x. o..,,     Judith viii. 25... (Lat.) Num. xiv. 15.
James ii. 23...,,,, v. 22..
Luke x. 4..,,      Tobit iv. 7 
I Thes. iv. 3...,,,, iv   7. 
Matt. vii. 12...,,,, iv. 5.
I Cor. x. 20...,,     Baruch, iv. 7. 
John x. 22..,,      I Mac. iv. 59 
Heb. xi. 35..,,     2 Mace. vi. 7... Ecclus. xiv. 15.
Matt. ix. I3..,,     Prayer of Manasses 
2 Cor. xiii, 6...,,     3 Esdras iii. I2
Some of the uncanonical books, however, had   The third Council of Carthage, generally benot been extant more than a hundred and thirty lieved to have been held in 397, at which Aurelius,
years at most at the Christian era, and could only Bishop of Carthage, presided, and at which Augushave obtained a place in the Greek Scriptures "  tine was present, consisting in all of forty-four
short time before this period; but the only copies bishops, adopted the same catalogue, which was
of the Scriptures in existence for the first three confirmed at the fourth Council of Carthage, held
hundred years after Christ, either among the Jews in the year 4I9. The reference said to have been
or Christians of Greece, Italy, or Africa, contained made from the third Council of Carthage, held in
these books without any mark of distinction that 397, to Pope Boniface, is a manifest anachronism
we know of. The Hebrew Bible and language in the copies of the acts of this council (see
were quite unknown to them during this period, L'Abbe's Concilia), as the pontificate of Boniface
and the most learned were, probably, but ill- did not commence before 417. It has been, thereinformed on the subject, at least before Jerome's fore conjectured that this reference belongs to the
translation of the Scriptures from  the original fourth council.
Hebrew. The Latin versions before his time were  As St. Augustine had great influence at these
all made from the Septuagint. We do not, indeed, Councils, it must be of importance to ascertain his
find any catalogue of these writings before the private sentiments on this subject. He writes as
Council of Hippo, but only individual notices of follows in the year 397 -'The entire Canon of
separate books.  Thus Clement of Alexandria Scripture is comprised in these books. There are
(Stromata, A. D. 21), cites the wisdom of Solomon  5 of Moses, viz. Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus,
and Ecclesiasticus, and Origen refers to several of Numbers, Deuteronomy; I of Joshua, I of Judges,
these books, treating them with' a high degree of I small book called Ruth, which seems rather to
veneration.'There is,' says Eusebius,'an epistle belong to the beginning of the Kingdoms, the 4
of Africanus, addressed to Origen, in which he in- books of the Kingdoms, and 2 of the Remains,
timates his doubt on the history of Susanna in not following one another, but parallel to each
Daniel, as if it were a spurious and fictitious con- other. These are historical books which contain a
position; to which Origen wrote a very full answer.' succession of times in the order of events. There
These epistles are both extant. Origen at great are others which do not observe the order of time,
length, vindicates these parts of the Greek version and are unconnected together, as Job, Tobit,
-for he acknowledges that they were not in the Esther, and Judith, the 2 books of Maccabees, and
Hebrew-from the objections of Africanus, as- the 2 books of Ezra; which last do more observe the
serting that they were true and genuine, and made order of a regular succession of events, after that
use of in Greek among all the churches of the contained in the Kingdoms and Remains. Next
Gentiles, and that we should not attend to the are the Prophets, among which is I book of the
fraudulent comments of the Jews, but take that Psalms of David, and 3 of Solomon, viz. Proverbs,
only for true in the holy Scriptures which the  Canticles, and Ecclesiastes; for these 2 books,
Seventy had translated, for that this only was con- Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus, are called Solomon's
firmed by Apostolic authority. In the same letter for no other reason than because they have a rehe cites the book of Tobit, and in his second book  semblance to his writings: for it is a very general
De Princiziis, he even speaks of the Shepherd of opinion that they were written by Jesus the son of
Hermas as divinely inspired.  Origen, however, Sirach, which books, however, since they are
uses very different language in regard to the book  admitted into authority, are to be reckoned among
of Enoch, the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, prophetical books. The rest are the books of those
and the Assumption of Moses.                  who are properly called prophets, as the several
The local Council of Hippo, held in the year of books of the 12 Prophets, which being found
Christ 393, at which the celebrated Augustine, together, and never separated, are reckoned one
afterwards Bishop of Hippo, was present, formed  book. The names of which prophets are these:
a catalogue of the sacred books of the Old and  Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah,
New Testament, in wh'ch the ecclesiastical books Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah,
were all included.                            Malachi. After these the four Prophets of large




APOCRYPHA                   167              APOCRYPHA
volumes, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, Ezekiel. In  were to be held as useful for the edification of the
these 44 books is comprised all the authority of people, but not to be applied to the confirmation
the Old Testament' (De Doctr. Christ.) [For the of doctrines of faith.' Such appears at least to
New, those he names are the same with those now  have been the sentiment of many eminent divines
received.]                                   between this period and the sixteenth century.
It has been, indeed, maintained that Augustine  Bishop Cosin, in his excellent Scholastic History
altered his opinion on the subject of the deutero- of the Canon, furnishes to this effect a host of
canonical books in his Retractations (see Hender- quotations from writers of the middle ages, includson On Inspiration, p. 495); but the only passage ing Ven. Bede, John of Damascus, Alcuin, Peter
in this work bearing on the subject, which we can  Mauritius, Hugh de St. Victor, Cardinal Hugo de
discover, is that wherein he confesses his mistake in St. Cher, the author of the ordinary Gloss, and
terming Ecclesiasticus a prophetical book.   Nicholas Lyranus. Of these some call the DeuteroAugustine has been also supposed to have testi- canonical books'excellent and useful, but not in
fled to the inferior authority of these books, from  the canon;' others speak of them as apocryphal,
his saying that one of them was read from the that is, doubtful Scriptures,' as not having been
reader's place.' The sentiment of the book of'written in the time of the prophets, but in that of
Wisdom is not to be rejected, which has deserved the priests, under Ptolemy,' etc., as not'equalling
to be recited for such a long course of years from  the sublime dignity of the other books, yet deservthe step of the readers of the church of Christ, and ing reception for their laudable instruction,' classing
to be heard with the veneration of divine authority them with the writings of Jerome, Augustine, Amfrom the bishop to the humblest of the laics, faith- brose, and Bede, and making a marked distinction
ful, penitents, and catechumens.' [MACCABEES.]  not only between the Jewish and Christian Canons,
What the result of the reference from Africa to but even between parts of the Deutero-canonical
the'churches beyond the seas' may have been, we writings. Mr. Archibald Alexander also (Canon
can only judge from the letter which is said to have of the Old and New Testaments ascertained) cites
been written on the subject by Innocent I., bishop several of the same authorities: he has, however,
of Rome, to St. Exupere, bishop of Toulouse, in in one instance, evidently mistaken Peter Lombard
the year 405. In.this letter, which, although dis- for Peter Comestor, the author of the Scholastic
puted, is most probably genuine, Innocent gives History.  At the dawn of the Reformation, we
the same catalogue of the books of the Old and find James Faber of Etaples and Cardinal Cajetan
New Testaments as those of the councils of Hippo  expressing themselves to the same effect, and the
and Carthage, omitting only the book of Esther.  learned Sanctes Pagnini, in his translation of the
The next catalogue is that of the Roman Coun- Bible from the original languages, published at
cil, drawn up by Pope Gelasius and seventy bishops. Lyons in 1528 (the first Bible that contained the
The genuineness of the acts of this council has been division into verses with the present figures), dediquestioned by Pearson, Cave, and the two Basnages, cated to Pope Clement VII., distinguished the
but vindicated by Pagi and Jeremiah Jones. The ecclesiastical books, which he says were not in the
catalogue is identical with the-preceding, except in canon, by the term Hagiographa.  For a descripthe order of the books.                      tion of this rare work, see Christian Remembrancer,
Some of the most important manuscripts of the vol. iv. p. 419, in a treatise,' On the division of
Holy Scriptures which have descended to us were verses in the Bible,' by the author of the present
written soon after this period. The very ancient article.
Alexandrian MS. now in the British Museum con-  We are now arrived at the period of the Refortains the following books in the order which we mation, when the question of the Canon of Scriphere give them, together with the annexed cata- ture was warmly discussed.  Long before this
logue:-                                      period (viz., in 1380), Wicliff had published his'Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deutero- translation of the Bible, in which he substituted
nomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth; 8 books. -King- another prologue for Jerome's; wherein, after enudoms, 4; Remains, 2; 6 books.-I6 Prophets, merating the'twenty-five' books of the Hebrew
viz., Hosea, I; Amos, 2; Micah, 3; Joel, 4; Canon, he adds-' Whatever book is in the Old
Obadiah, 5; Jonah, 6; Nahum, 7; Ambacum, 8; Testament, besides these twenty-five, shall be set
Zephaniah, 9; Haggai, IO; Zechariah, I; Malachi, among the Apocrypha, that is, without authority of
12; Isaiah, 13; Jeremiah, I4; Ezekiel, I5; Daniel, belief.' He also, in order to distinguish the Hebrew
I6; Esther; Tobit; Judith; Ezra, 2; Maccabees, text from the Greek interpolations, inserted Jerome's
4; Psalter and Hymns; Job; Proverbs; Ecclesi- notes, rubricated, into the body of the text.
astes; Canticles; Wisdom   Wisdom   of Jesus   Although Martin Luther commenced the publiSirach; 4 Gospels; Acts, I; 7 Catholic Epistles; cation of his translation of the Bible in 1523, yet,
14 Epistles of Paul; Revelation; 2 Epistles of Cle- as it was published in parts, he had not yet made
ment; together * * * * books; Psalms of Solo. any distinction between the two classes of books,
mon.' These books are equally incorporated in when Lonicer published his edition of the Greek
all the manuscripts of the Latin Vulgate (which Septuagint at Strasburg in 1526, in which he sepawas originally translated from the Septuagint). rated the Deutero-canonical, or Apocryphal, books,
Those which Jerome did not translate from the from those of the Jewish Canon; for which he was
Hebrew or Greek, as Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus, severely castigated by Morinus (see Masch's edition
were adopted from the older Latin version.   of Le Long's Bibliotheca Biblica, vol. ii. p. 268).
Although the Canon of Scripture seemed now to- Arias Montanus went still further, and rejected
be so far settled by the decrees of these Councils, them altogether. In 1534 the complete edition
all did not conceive themselves bound by them; of Luther's Bible appeared, wherein those books
and it is observed by Jahn (Introd.) that they were which Jerome had placed inter apocrypha were
not otherwise to be understood than'that the separated, and placed by themselves between the
ecclesiastical books enumerated in this catalogue Old and New Testament, under the title' Apocry



APOCRYPHA                   168               APOCRYPHA
pha; that is, Books which are not to be considered Christianity, not only in the Latin version of the
as equal to holy Scripture, and yet are useful and Old Testament, but even in the ancient Greek vergood to read.'                               sion, which is known by the name of the SeptuaA few years after, the divines of the Council of gint... In the manuscripts of the Septuagint,
Trent assembled; and among the earliest subjects there is the same intermixture of canonical and
of their deliberation was the Canon of Scripture. apocryphal books, as in the manuscripts of the'The Canon of Augustine,' says bishop Marsh, Latin version' [although there are in different' continued to be the Canon of the ruling party. manuscripts variations in the particular arrangeBut as there were not wanting persons, especially ment of single books]. The Hebrew was inaccesamong the learned, who from time to time recom- sible to the Latin translators in Europe and Africa
mended the Canon of Jerome, it was necessary for during the three first centuries.
the Council of Trent to decide between the con-  The ecclesiastical books were generally written
tending parties' (Comparative View, p. 97). The within a period which could not have extended to
Tridentine Fathers had consequently a nice and more than two centuries before the birth of Christ.
difficult question to determine.             In the choice of the places which were assigned
On the 8th April 1546, all who were present at them by the Greek Jews resident in Alexandria
the fourth session of the Council'of Trent adopted and other parts of Egypt, who probably added
the canon of Augustine, declaring,' He is also to these books to the Septuagint version according as
be anathema who does not receive these entire they became gradually approved of, they were
books, with all their parts, as they have been directed'partly by the subjects, partly by their reaccustomed to be read in the Catholic Church, and lation to other writings, and partly by the periods
are found in the ancient editions of the Latin Vul- in which the recorded transactions are supposed to
gate, as sacred and canonical, and who knowingly have happened.' Their insertion shews how highly
and wilfully despises the aforesaid traditions...' they were esteemed by the Greek Jews of Egypt;
We are informed by Jahn (Introduction), that but whether even the Egyptian Jews ascribed to
this decree did not affect the distinction which the them canonical and divine authority, it would not
learned had always made between the canonical be easy to prove (Marsh's Comparative View).
and deutero-canonical books, in proof of which he  The following were the proceedings of the Anglirefers to the various opinions which still prevail in can Church in reference to this subject:
his church on the subject, Bernard Lamy (Appara-  In Coverdale's English translation of the Bible,
tus Biblicus, ii. 5) denying, and Du Pin (Prolego- printed in 1535, the deutero-canonical books were
mena) asserting, that the books of the second Canon divided from the others and printed separately,
are of equal authority with those of the first. Those with the exception of the book of Baruch, which
who desire further information will find it in the was not separated from the others in this version
two accounts of the controversies which took place until the edition of 1550. They had, however, been
at the council on this subject; one from the pen separated in Matthew's Bible in I537, prefaced with
of Cardinal Pallavicini, the other by Father Paul the words,'the volume of the book called HagioSarpi, the two eminent historians of the Council. grapha.' This Bible contained Olivetan's preface,
Professor Alber, to whom we have already referred, in which these books were spoken of in somewhat
having denied that any such distinction as that disparaging terms. In Cranmer's Bible, published
maintained by his brother Professor, Jahn, can law- in 1539, the same words and preface were confully exist among Roman Catholic divines, insists tinued; but, in the edition of I549, the word
that both canons possess one and the same autho- Hagiographa was changed into Apocrypha, which
rity. The words of Bernard Lamy, however, cited passed through the succeeding editions into King
by Jahn, are-'The books of the second Canon, James' Bible. Olivetan's preface was omitted in
although united with the first, are not, however, of the Bishops' Bible in i568, after the framing of the
the same authority' (Apparat. Bibl. ii 5, p. 333). canon in the Thirty-nine Articles in 1562.
Alber endeavours to explain this as meaning only  In the Geneva Bible, which was the popular
that these books had not the same authority before English translation before the present authorized
the Canon of the Council of Trent, and cites a pas- version, and which was published in I559, these
sage from Pallavicini to prove that the anathema books are printed separately with a preface, in
was'directed against those Catholics who adopted which, although not considered of themselves as
the views of Cardinal Cajetan' (vol. ii. p. 105). sufficient to prove any point of Christian doctrine,
But, however this may be, among other opinions of they are yet treated with a high degree of veneration.
Luther condemned by the Council was the follow- In the parallel passages in the margin of this transing:-That no books should be admitted into the lation, references are made to the deutero-canonical
Canon of the Old Testament but those received by books.
the Jews; and that from the new should be ex-  In the first edition of the Articles of the Church
cluded-the Epistle to the Hebrews, those of of England, 1552, no catalogue of the'Holy
James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude and the Apo- Scripture' had yet appeared, but in the Articles of
calypse.'                                    1562, the canon of St. Jerome was finally adopted
The whole of the books in debate, with the ex- in the following order: 5 books of Moses, Joshua,
ception of 3d and 4th Esdras, and the Prayer of Judges, Ruth, I and 2 Samuel; I and 2 Kings, I
Manasses, are considered as canonical by the Coun- and 2 Chronicles, I and 2 Esdras, Esther, Job,
cil of Trent. But it must be recollected, that the Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Cantica, four Prodecision of the Council of Trent is one by no means phets the Greater, twelve Prophets the Less. In
peculiar to this council.  The third Council of the 6th article it is declared that,'In the name of
Carthage had considered the same books canonical. the Holy Scripture we do understand those canoni-' The Council of Trent,' says bishop Marsh,'de- cal books of the Old and New Testament, of
dared no other books to be sacred and canonical whose authority was never any doubt in the Church,'
than such as had existed from the earliest ages of and that'the other books (as Jerome saith) the




APOCRYPHA                   169               APOCRYPHA
church doth read for example of life and instruc- are no part of the Canon of Scripture, and theretion of manners, but yet it doth not apply them to fore are of no authority in the Church of God; nor
establish any doctrine.'  The books which the to be any otherwise approved, or made use of, than
article then enumerates are I and 2 [3 and 4] other human writings.' And again,'The authority
Esdras, Tobias, Judith, the rest of the book of of Holy Scripture, for which it ought to be believed
Esther, Wisdom, Jesus the son of Sirach, Baruch and obeyed, depends not on the testimony of any
the Prophet, the Song of the Children, the Story of man or church, but wholly upon God, the author
Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, the Prayer of thereof; and therefore it is to be received, because
Manasses, and I and 2 Maccabees. It is not, how- it is the word of God. We may be moved and inever, altogether correct, in point of fact, in includ- duced by the Church to a high and reverent esteem
ing in the number of books thus referred to by of the Holy Scriptures; and the heavenliness of the
Jerome, as read by the church for edification, the matter, the efficacy of the doctrine, the majesty of
third and fourth books of Esdras. These books the style, etc. etc., are arguments whereby it doth
were equally rejected by the Church of Rome and abundantly evidence itself to be the word of God:
by Luther, who did not translate them.  The yet, notwithstanding, our full persuasion and assurChurch of England further declares, that'all the ance of the infallible truth and Divine authority
books of the New Testament, as they are commonly thereof is from the inward work of the Holy
received, we do receive and account them canonical.' Spirit, bearing witness by and with the word in
The Church of England has herein followed the our hearts.'
Councils of Hippo and Carthage. The phrase'of  The Confession of Augsburg, dated in I53I, conwhose authority was never any doubt in the tains no article whatever on the Canon of Scripture;
church,' refers therefore more strictly to the books nor do the Lutherans appear to have any other
of the Old Testament than the New, for it cannot canon than Luther's Bible. For the sentiments of
be denied that doubts did exist respecting the the GREEK CHURCH, see ESDRAS; ESTHER;
Antilegomena of the New Testament.    In the MACCABEES.
first book of Homilies, published in 1547, and the  3. Of Spurious Apocryphal Books, as distinct
second in I560, both confirmed by the Thirty-fifth from Antilegomena or Ecclesiastical.-Among this
Article of 1562, the deutero-canonical books are class are doubtless to be considered the 3d and
cited as'Scripture,' and treated with the same 4th books of Esdras; and it is no doubt in referreverence as the other books in the Bible; and in ence to these that, in his letter to Vigilantius,
the preface to the book of Common Prayer, they Jerome speaks of a work of Esdras which he says
are alluded to as being'agreeable to' the Holy that he had never even read. Playing upon the
Scriptures.                                  name of Vigilantius, he adds,'You sleep vigilantly
The Helvetic Confession, dated ist March 1566, (tu vigilans dormis), and write in your sleep; prohas the following expression respecting the apocry- posing to me an apocryphal book, which is read by
phal books:-' We do not deny that certain books you and others like you, under the name of Esdras,
of the Old Testament were named by the ancients wherein it is written that no one should be prayed
apocryphal, by others ecclesiastical, as being read for after his death (See 4 Esdras, viii. 36-44)..
in the churches, but not adduced for authority in  Why take in hand what the church does not
matters of belief: as Augustine, in the 18th book of receive? Read, if you like, all the feigned revelathe City of God, ch. 38, relates, that the names tions of all the patriarchs and prophets, and when
and books of certain prophets were adduced in the you have learned them, sing them in the women's
books of Kings, but adds that these were not in the weaving-shops, and propose them to be read in
canon, and that those we have were sufficient for your taverns, that you may the more readily by
piety.' The Confession of the Dutch Churches, them allure the unlettered rabble to drink.'
(dated the same year) is more full. After recount-  Of the same character are also the Book of
Ing the canonical books,'respecting which no con- Enoch, the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs,
troversy existed,' it adds,'We make a distinction the Assumption of Moses, etc.; which, as well as
between those and such as are called Apocryphal, 3 and 4 Esdras, being by many considered as the
which may indeed be read in the church, and fictions of Christians of the second and third
proofs adduced from them, so far as they agree centuries, it is doubtful whether they ought to be
with the canonical books; but their authority and classed in the Apocrypha of the Old or of the
force are by no means such that any article of faith  New Testament. Origen, however, believed the
may be certainly declared from their testimony New Testament to have contained citations from
alone, still less that they can impugn or detract books of this kind written before the times of the
from the authority of the others.' They add, as apostles; and, in reference to such, observes, in
their reason for receiving the canonical books, that his preface to the Canticles,'This, however, is'it is not so much because the Church receives manifest, that many passages are cited either by
them, as that the Holy Spirit testifies to our con- the apostles or the evangelists, and inserted in the
sciences that they have come from God; and chiefly New Testament, which we do not read in those
on this account, because they of themselves bear Scriptures of the Jews which we call canonical,
testimony to their own authority and sanctity, so but which are nevertheless found in apocryphal
that even the blind may see the fulfilment of all books, or are taken from them. But this will give
things predicted in them, as it were with the no authority to apocryphal writings, for the bounds
senses.'                                     which our fathers have fixed are not to be removed;
The Westminster Confession proceeded on the and possibly the apostles and evangelists, full ox
same principle, but treated the books of the second the Holy Ghost, might know what should be taken
Canon with less ceremony. After enumerating out of those Scriptures and what not. But we,
the canonical books (ascribing thirteen epistles only who have not such a measure of the Spirit, cannot,
to Paul), they proceed to say, that'the books without great danger, presume to act in that
called Apocrypha, not being of Divine inspiration, manner.'  Then, in his Letter to Apianus, he




APOCRYPHA                   170               APOCRYPHA
observes, that there were many things kept from  ance of probability, assigned to Leucius Clarinus,
the knowledge of the public, but which were pre- supposed to be the same with Leontius and
served in the hidden or apocryphal books, to which  Seleucus, who was notorious for similar forgeries
he refers the passage (Heb. xi. 37),'Theywere at the end of the third century. The authorship
sawn asunder.' Origen probaby alludes here to of the Epistle of Ba; nabas is' still a matter of
that description of books which the Jews called dispute; and there appears but too much reason
iDtU., a word of the same signification with to believe that there existed grounds for the charge
apocrypha, and applied to books laid aside, or not made by Celsus against the early Christians, that
permitted to be publicly read, or considered, even they had interpolated or forged the ancient Sibylline
when divinely inspired, not fit for indiscriminate Oracles.
circulation: among the latter were the first chapter  In the letter of Pope Innocent I. to St. Exupere,
of Genesis, the Song of Solomon, and our last bishop of Toulouse, written about the year 405,
eight chapters of the prophet Ezekiel.       after giving a catalogue of the books forming the
The books which we have here enumerated, such  canon of Scripture (which includes five books of
as the Book of Enoch, etc., which were all known  Solomon, Tobit, and two books of Maccabees), he
to the ancient Fathers, have descended to our observes: —'But the others, which are written
times; and, although incontestably spurious, are under the name of Matthias, or of James the Less,
of considerable value from  their antiquity, as or those which were written by one Leucius under
throwing light upon the religious and theological the name of Peter and John, or those under the
opinions of the first centuries. The most curious name of Andrew by Xenocheris and Leonidas the
are the 3d and 4th books of Esdras, and the Book philosopher, or under the name of Thomas; or if
of Enoch, which has been but recently discovered, there be any others, you must know that they are
and has acquired peculiar interest from its con- not only to be rejected, but condemned.' These
taining the passage cited by the apostle Jude. sentiments were afterwards confirmed by the Roman
[ENOCH.] Nor are the apocryphal books of the Council. of seventy bishops, held under Pope
New Testament destitute of interest. Although  Gelasius, in 494, in the acts of which there is a
the spurious Acts extant have no longer any long list of apocryphal Gospels and Acts, the
defenders of their genuineness, they are not with- greater part of which are supposed to have perished.
out their value to the Biblical student, and have The acts of this council, however, are not generally
been applied with success to illustrate the style and considered to be genuine.
language of the genuine books, to which they bear  The following are the principal spurious apocrya close analogy.  The American translator of phal books of the Old Testament, which have
Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History terms them'harm- descended to our times. The greater number of
less and ingenious fictions, intended either to them can scarcely be considered as properly begratify the fancy or to silence the enemies of longing to the Apocrypha of the Old Testament,
Christianity.'                               as they have been most probably written since the
Some of the apocryphal books have not been Christian era, and not before the second century:without their defenders in modem  times.  The Third and fourth Esdras, the Book of Enoch, the
Apostolical Canons and Constitutions, and the apocryphal book of Elias the Prophet, the third,
various Liturgies ascribed to St. Peter, St. Mark, fourth, and fifth books of Maccabees (received by
etc., and published by Fabricius, in his Codex the Greek Church), the Ascension of Isaiah, the
Apocryphus'Novi Testamenti, were considered by Assumption of Moses, with a few others.
the learned and eccentric William Whiston, and  The best accounts of the apocryphal books will
the no less learned Grabe, to be of equal authority be found in Fabricii Codex Pseudepigraphus V. T.
with any of the confessedly genuine apostolic com- Hamburgh and Leipzig, I713 and 1741, and Codex
positions (see Whiston's Primitive Christianity and Apocryphus N. T., Hamburg, I713-I722; AuctaGrabe's Spicilegium).                        rium Codicts Apocryphi N. T. Fabriciani, edidit
They are, however, regarded by most as originally And. Birch, Copenhagen, I804. A New and Full
not of an earlier date than the second century, and Method of Settling the Canon of the N. T., by the
as containing interpolations which betray the fourth  Rev. Jeremiah Jones, Oxford, I726-last edition,
or fifth: they can, therefore, only be considered as Oxford, I827. Du Pin, Prolegomena, Amst. I70I,
evidence of the practice of the Church at the period and Canon of the Old and New Testaments, Lonwhen they were written.  They have generally don, I700; and especially Codex Apocryphus N. T.,
been appealed to by the learned as having preserved e libris ineditis maxim? Gallicanis, Germanicis, et
the traditions of the age immediately succeeding Italicis, collectus, recensitus, notisque etprolegomenis
the apostolic; and, from the remarkable coincidence illustratus, opera et studio T. C. Thilo, tom. i.
which is observable in the most essential parts of Lips. 1832, 8vo; the remaining two volumes are
the so-called Apostolic Liturgies, it is by no means not yet published.  Vol. i. contains: I. The
improbable that, notwithstanding their interpola- history of Joseph the Carpenter, Arab. and Lat.
tions, they contain the leading portions of the most 2. The Gospel of the Infancy. 3. The Proteancient Christian forms of worship.          vangelion of James, and the Gospel of Thomas the
Most of the apocryphal Gospels and Acts Israelite, Greek and Lat. 4. The Gospel of the
noticed by the fathers, and condemned in the Nativity of Mary, and the History of the Nativity
catalogue of Gelasius, which are generally thought of Mary and the Saviour, Lat. 5. The Gospel of
to have been the fictions of heretics in the second  Marcion, collected by Dr. Hahn, from ancient
century, have long since fallen into oblivion. Of Greek MSS. 6. The Gospel of Nicodemus, Gr.
those which remain, although some have been and Lat. 7. Apprehension and Death of Pilate,
considered by learned men as genuine works of Gr. 8.-.The mutilated and altered Gospel of St.
the apostolic age, yet the greater part are universally John, preserved in the archives of the Templars of
rejected as spurious, and as written in the second St. John of Jerusalem in Paris, with Griesbach's
and third centuries. A few are, with great appear- text. 9. An Apoeryphal Book of the Apostle




APOLLONIA                   171                 APOSTLE
John, Lat. See also Wilson, The Books of the am of Apollos;' others,'I am of Cephas' (I Cor.
Apocrypha with critical andHistorical Observations, iii. 4-7, 22).  There must, probably, have been
etc., Edinb. I80o; Eichhorn, Einleitung in die some difference in their mode of teaching to occaApok. Schriften. des A. T., Leipz. 1795; H. Ed. sion this; and from the First Epistle to the CoApel, Libri Vet. Test. Apoc. Grace, Lips. 1837; rinthians, it would appear that Apollos was not preFritzsche und Grimm, Kurzgef. Exeget. Handbuch pared to go so far as Paul in abandoning the figzu d. Apokiyphen d. A. T.; Tischendorf-r. De ments of Judaism, and insisted less on the (to the
Evangeliorum Apocryphorum origineetusu, Hague, Jews) obnoxious position that the Gospel was open
I851. 2. Acta Apocrypha ex xxx. antiquis Codd. to the Gentiles. [See Billroth, Commentary on the
Gracis vel nunc primum eruit vel secundum atque Corinthians, E. T. vol. i. p. 5; Neander, History
emendatius edidit. Lips. 1852. 3. Evangeia Apo- of the Planting and Training of the Church, vol. i.
crypha adhibitis codd. Graecis et Latnis nunc p. 229 ff. E. T. Bohn's ed.] There was nothing,
primum   consultis, edit. Lips. I853.  [ACTS, however, to prevent these two eminent men from
GOSPELS, EPISTLES, and REVELATIONS, Spurious; being perfectly united in the bonds of Christian
CANON.]-W. W.                                 affection and brotherhood. When Apollos heard
APOLLONIA ('AiroXXvcova), a city of Mace- that Paul was again at Ephesus, he went thither to
donia, in the province of Mygdonia (Plin. iv. 7), see him; and as he was there when the First
situated between Amphipolis and Thessalonica, Epistle to the Corinthians was written (A.D. 59),
thirty Roman miles from the former, and thirty-six there can be no doubt that the apostle received from
from  the latter (Itiner. Anton.)  St. Paul passed him his information concerning the divisions in that
through Amphipolis and Apollonia in his way to church, which he so forcibly reproves. It strongly
Thessalonica (Acts xvii. I).                  illustrates the character of Apollos and Paul, that
the former, doubtless in disgust at those divisions
APOLLONIUS.      Five persons of this name with which his name had been associated, declined
occur in the history of the Maccabees.-I. A   to return to Corinth; while the latter, with genegeneral whom   Antiochus Epiphanes sent intorous confidence, urged him to do so (I Cor. xvi.
Judea, and who took Jerusalem, but who was I2). Paul again mentions Apollos kindly in Tit.
eventually defeated and slain by Judas Maccabseus,  3,and recommends him and Zenas the lawyer
B.C. i66 (I Macc. iii. IO, II).-2. A governor of to the attention of Titus, knowing that they deCcele-Syria, and general of Demetrius Nicanor, signed to visit Crete, where Titus then was. Jerome
who was defeated by Jonathan on behalf of Alex- is of opinion (Comment. in loc.) that he remained
ander Balas, B.C. 148 (I Mace. x. 69-83; Joseph. at Crete until he heard that the divisions at Corinth
Antzi. iii. 4, 3).-3. The son of Gennaeus, one of had been healed by means of St. Paul's letter; and
the governors left by Lysias in Judaea, after the that he then returned to that city, of which he aftertreaty between the Jews and Antiochus Eupator wards became bishop. This has an air of proba(2 Mace. xii. 2).-4. Son of Thraseas, a governor bility; and the authority on which it rests is better
of Ccelo-Syria and Phenice, an enemy of the Jews, than any we have for the different statements which
who confederated with Simon to urge the king to make him bishop of Duras, of Colophon, of Icoplunder the temple (2 Mace. iii. 5 if.; iv. 4.5. nium (in Phrygia), or of Cesarea.-J. K.
The son of Manestheus, sent by Antiochus Epiphanius to be present at the enthroning of Ptolemy  APOSTLE (Gr.'Ar6oroXos, from daroo-rAXX,
Philometor (2 Macc. iv. 2).                  to send forth). In Attic Greek the term is used to
APOLLOS ('A7roXXs), a Jew of Alexandria, is \denote afleet, or naval armament. It occurs only
APOLLOS ('A~-oXXc^s), a Jew of Alexandria, is
described as a learned, or, as some understand it, once in the Sept. (I Kings xiv. 6), and there, as
an eloquent man (dv-p X&ytos), well versed in the uniformly in the New Testament, it signifies a
Scriptures and the Jewish religion (Acts xviii. 24)  person set by aoter, amessenger  It has been
About A.D. 56 he came to Ephesus, where, in the asserted that theJews were accustomed to term the
synagogues, I he spake boldly the things of the collector of the half-shekel, which every Israelite
synagogues, (he spake boldly the things of the
Lord, knowing only the baptism of John' (ver. 25), paid annually to the Temple, an apostle; and we
oby wich we are probably to understand tJo t he have better authority for asserting that they used
bnew and taught the p   doctrine of  a Messiahd whoe the word to denote one who carried about encyclical
knew and taught the doctrine of a Messiah, whose letters from their rulers. (Ecumenius states that
coming John had announced, but knew not that lletters from their rulers. (Ecumenius states that
coming John had announced, but knew not that 6.7roo-T6Xov  61 rl   Kal VOV 009 eo-TYv'Im6alous?esus was the Christ.  His fervour, however, at-                                   I
tracted the notice of Aquila and Priscilla, whom  dvo4acL eLV robs &YK6KXLa ypciluuara Trap 7 Twv apX6vPaul had leftat Ephesus; and they instructed him  rwv al7i-v dvCKoUodvous,' It is even yet a custom
in this higher doctrine, which he thenceforth taught among the Jews to call those who carry about ciroen  ith  reat  ea and  oe ver    cular letters from  their rulers by the name of
openly, with great zeal and power (ver.' 26.)  -
Having heard from his new friends, who were much  apostles.' To this use of the ter  Paul has  en
attached to Paul, of that apostle's proceedings in supposed to refer (Gal. i. I) when he asserts that
he was'an apostle, not of men, neither by men' —
Achaia, and especially at Corinth, he resolved toan apostle, not of men, neither by men'go thither, and was encouraged in this design by an apostle, not like those known among the Jews
go thithermand was encouraged in this design by  that name, who derived  their authori ty and rethe brethren at Ephesus, who furnished him with  by that name, who derived their authority and reletters of introduction. On his arrival there he was ceived their mission from the chief priests or prinvery useful in watering the seed which Paul had  cipal men of their nation. The import of the word
sown, and was instrumental in gaining many new  is strongly brought out in John xiii. 6, where it
converts from Judaism. There was, perhaps, no  occurs along with its correlate,'The servant is not
apostle or apostolical man who so much resembled greater than his Lord, neither he who is sent
Paul in attainments and character as Apollos. His (d7r6o-ToXos) greater than he who sent him.'
immediate disciples became so much attached to  The term is generally employed in the New
him, as well nigh to have produced a schism in the Testament as the descriptive appellation of a comChurch, some saying,' I am of Paul;' others,'I paratively small class of men, to whom Jesus Christ




APOSTLE                    172                  APOSTLE
entrusted the organization of his church and the  I4,,5).  2. They must have been immediately
dissemination of his religion among mankind.  At called and chosen to that office by Christ himself.
an early period of his ministry' he ordained twelve' This was the case with every one of them (Luke
of his disciples'that they should be with him.' vi. I3; Gal. i. I), Matthias not excepted; for, as'These he named apostles.'   Some time after- he had been a chosen disciple of Christ before, so
wards'he gave to them   power against unclean  the Lord, by determining the lot, declared his
spirits to cast them out, and to heal all manner of choice, and immediately called him to the office of
disease;'' and he sent them to preach the kingdom  an apostle (Acts i. 24-26). 3. Infallible inspiraof God' (Mark iii. 14; Matt. x. I-5;-Mark vi. 7; tion was also essentially necessary to that office
Luke vi. I3; ix. I). Tothemhe gave'the keys (John xvi. I3; I Cor. ii. Io; Gal. i. II, 12).
of the kingdom  of God,' and constituted them  They had not only to explain the true sense and
princes over the spiritual Israel, that' people whom  spirit of the Old Testament (Luke xxiv. 27; Acts
God was to take from among the Gentiles, for his xxvi. 22, 23; xxviii. 23), which were hid from the
name' (Matt. xvi. 19; xviii 18; xix. 28; Luke Jewish doctors, but also to give forth the New
xxii. 30). Previously to his death he promised to  Testament revelation to the world, which was to
them the Holy Spirit, to fit them to be the founders be the unalterable standard of faith and practice in
and governors of the Christian church (John xiv. all succeeding generations (I Pet. i. 25; I John iv.
i6, 17, 26; xv. 26, 27; xvi. 7-I5). After his re- 6). It was therefore absolutely necessary that they
surrection he solemnly confirmed their call, saying, should be secured against all error and mistake, by
KaObs &7r&draXK, ue6 o Iarhp, Kybu T7Tri &  as-  the unerring dictates of the Spirit of truth. Accord-'As the Father hath sent me, so send I you;' and  ingly Christ promised and actually bestowed on
gave them a commission to'preach the Gospel to them  the Spirit to'teach them  all things,' to
every creature' (John xx.-2I-23; Matt. xviii. 18-'bring all things to their remembrance whatsoever
20). After his ascension he, on the day of Pente- he had said to them' (John xiv. 26), to'guide
cost, communicated to them   those supernatural them into all truth,' and to'shew them things to
gifts which were necessary to the performance of come' (John xvi. 13). Their word therefore must
the high functions he had commissioned them to  be received,'not as the word of men, but as it is
exercise; and in the exercise of these gifts, they, in in truth, the word of God' (I Thes. ii. I3), and as
the Gospel history and in their epistles, with the  that whereby we are to distinguish'the spirit of
Apocalypse, gave a complete view of the will of truth from  the spirit of error' (I John iv. 6).
their Master in reference to that new order of 4. Another apostolic qualification was the power
things of which he was the author. They'had the of working miracles (Mark xvi. 20; Acts ii. 43),
mind of Christ.' They spoke'the wisdom of God  such as speaking with divers tongues, curing the
in a mystery.' That mystery'God revealed to lame, healing the sick, raising the dead, discerning
them by his Spirit,' and they spoke it'not in words of spirits, conferring these gifts upon others, etc.
which man's wisdom teacheth, but which the Holy  (i Cor. xii 8-II). These were the credentials of
Ghost teacheth.'  They were'ambassadors for their divine mission.'Truly,' says Paul,'the
Christ,' and besought men,'in Christ's stead, to  signs of an apostle were wrought among you in all
be reconciled to God.' They authoritatively taught patience, in signs and wonders and mighty deeds'
the doctrine and the law of their Lord; they or- (2 Cor. xii. 12). Miracles were necessary to conganized churches, and required them to'keep the firm their doctrine at its first publication, and to
traditions,' i. e.,'the doctrines and ordinances de- gain credit to it in the world as a revelation from
livered to them' (Acts ii.; I Cor. ii. 16; ii. 7, I0, 13; God, and by these' God bare them witness' (Heb.
2 Cor. v. 20; I Cor. xi. 2). Of the twelve origi- ii. 4). 5. To these characteristics may be added
nally ordained to the apostleship, one, Judas the universality of their mission. Their charge
Iscariot,'fell from it by transgression,' and Mat- was not confined to any particular visible church,
thias,'who  had companied' with the other like that of ordinary pastors, but, being the oracles
Apostles'all the time that the Lord Jesus went of God to men, they had'the care of all the
out and in among them,' was by lot substituted in  churches' (2 Cor. xi. 28). They had a power to
his place (Acts i. 17-26).  Saul of Tarsus, after- settle their faith and order as a model to future
wards termed Paul, was also miraculously added to  ages, to determine all controversies (Acts xvi. 4),
the number of these permanent rulers of the Chris- and to exercise the rod of discipline upon all
tian society (Acts ix.; xxii.; xxvi. I5-I8; I Tim. offenders, whether pastors or flock (i Cor. v. 3-6;
i. I2; ii. 7; 2 Tim. i. I ).                  2 Cor. x. 8; xiii. io).
The characteristic features of this highest office  It must be obvious, from this scriptural account
in the Christian church have been very accurately  of the apostolical office, that the Apostles had, in
delineated by M'Lean, in his Apostolic Commission. the strict sense of the term, no successors. Their'It was essential to their office —I. That they  qualifications were supernatural, and their work,
should have seen the Lord, and been eye and ear once performed, remains in the infallible record of
witnesses of what they testified to the world (John  the New  Testament, for the advantage of the
xv. 27). This is laid down as an essential requisite  Church and the world in all future ages. They
in the choice of one to succeed Judas (Acts i. 21, are the only authoritative teachers of Christian
22). Paul is no exception here; for, speaking of doctrine and law. All official men in Christian
those who saw Christ after his resurrection, he churches can legitimately claim no higher place
adds,'and last of all he was seen of me' (I Cor. than expounders of the doctrines and administrators
xv. 8). And this he elsewhere mentions as one of of the laws found in their writings.  Few things
his apostolic qualifications:'Am I not an apostle? have been more injurious to the cause of Chrishave I not seen the Lord?' (I Cor. ix. I).  So  tianity than the assumption on the part of ordinary
that his'seeing that Just One and hearing the  office-bearers in the church of the peculiar preroword of his mouth' was necessary to his being'a  gatives of'the holy apostles of our Lord Jesus.'
witness of what he thus saw and heard' (Acts xxii. Much that is said of the latter is not at all




APOSTLE                    173            APOSTOLIC AGE
applicable to the former; and much that admits of missioned superintendent, whom  WE Christians
being applied, can be so, in accordance with truth, acknowledge in contradistinction to the divinelyonly in a very secondary and extenuated sense.  appointed superintendent Moses, whom the Jews
It is the opinion of the learned Suicer (Thesaurus,acknowledged.
s. v.'Ar6aoroXos) that the appellation'apostle' is  In 2 Cor. viii. 23, we meet with the phrase
in the New Testament employed as a general name  de7r6roXoI 4KKX\7OWP, rendered in our version'the
for Christian ministers or pastors, who are'sent messengers of the churches.' Who these apostles
by God,' in a qualified use of that phrase, to preach were, and why they received this name, is obvious
the word of God. But this opinion does not seem  from  the preceding context.  The churches of
to rest on any solid foundation. It is true indeed  Macedonia had made a liberal contribution for the
that the word is used in this loose sense by the relief of the impoverished and persecuted saints of
Fathers.  Thus we find Archippus, Philemon, Judaea, and had not merely requested the Apostle
Apphia, the seventy disciples (Luke x. I-I7),'to receive the gift, and take on him the fellowship
termed apostles; and even Mary Magdalene is of ministering to the saints,' but at his suggestion
said yevarOat Troi &drotr6XoLs d7r6broXos, to become had appointed some individuals to accompany him
an apostle to the Apostles. No satisfactory evi- to Jerusalem with their alms. These'apostles or
dence, however, can be brought forward of the messengers of the churches' were those'who were
term  being thus used in the New Testament. chosen of the churches to travel with the Apostle
Andronicus and Junia (Rom. xvi. 7) are indeed with his grace [gift], which was administered by
said to be 7rTLLOL o  TO Le d7TroOTr6XOlS,'of note him,' to the glory of their common Lord (2 Cor.
among the Apostles;' but these words by no means viii. 1-4, 19). Theophylact explains the phrase
necessarily imply that these persons were apostles; thus: ol inrb Trwv JKKX7ltwv 7re i Ovres Kal Xetporovithey may, and probably do, signify merely that  4-rres,' those sent and chosen by the churches.'
they were persons well known and much esteemed  With much the same meaning and reference
by the Apostles. The vvwepyot, the fellow-workers Epaphroditus (Phil. ii. 25) is termed d7r6aroXosof the Apostles, are by Chrysostom denominated a messenger of the Philippian Church-having
2vvaTr6aTroXo.                                been employed by them to carry pecuniary assistance
The argument founded on I Cor. iv. 9, com- to the Apostle (Phil. iv. 14-I8). Theophylact's
pared with ver. 6, to prove that Apollos is termed exposition is as follows:-'A7r6rroXov tLoWv-rbv
an apostle, cannot bear a close examination. The Tap' i6wv d7ro-raXevra 7rp6s /E- o' aurov'y&p caav
only instance in which it seems probable that the OTei\avTes arW r& Trpbs xpeiav.
word, as expressive of an office in the Christian  It is scarcely worth while to remark that the
church, is applied to an individual whose call to Creed, commonly called The Apostles', though
that office is not made the subject of special narra- very ancient, has no claim to the name, except as
tion, is to be found in Acts xiv. 4, 14, where it contains apostolical doctrine. A full and satisBarnabas, as well as Paul, is termed an apostle. factory account of it will be found in Lord King's
At the same time it is by no means absolutely History of the Apostles' Creed, with Critical Observacertain that the term apostles, or messengers, does tions on itsseveralArticles. The Canons and Connot in this place refer rather to the mission of stitutions, called apostolical, are generally admitted
Paul and Barnabas by the prophets and teachers to be forgeries, probably of the fifth century.
at Antioch, under the impulse of the Holy Ghost  In the early ecclesiastical writers we find the
(Acts xiii. 1-4), than to that direct call to the term  6 d7r6'oroXos,'the Apostle,' used as the
Christian apostleship which wme know Paul received. designation of a portion of the canonical books,
Had Barnabas received the same call, we can consisting chiefly of the Pauline Epistles.'The
scarcely persuade ourselves that no trace of so Psalter' and'the Apostle' are often mentioned toimportant an event should have been found in the gether. It is also not uncommon with these writers
sacred history, but a passing hint, which admits, to call Paul'The Apostle,' Kca' i/oxjv.-J. B.
to say the least, of being plausibly accounted for APOSTOLIC  AGE.    The existence of the
in another way. We know that on the occasion  Christian church is to be dated from the day of
referred to,'the prophets and teachers, when they Christian church is to be dated from the day of
rehad fasterred toandthe prophayedts and laid teacheir hands on Pentecost. Our Lord, during his personal minishad fasted and prayed, and laid their hands on
Barna~bas and Saul (XdcrrXvucu), sent them away I' try, spoke of the church as an institution about to
be formed (o01oKo81ha0o AtoV r7i, &KX'Jlav,  Matt.
so that, in the sense in which we shall immediately xvi. 8for d (olKon oe occasion re d to, Matt. 
find the words occurring, they were 6ar&rro0xv- i. 18), and on one occasion referred to it profind the words occurring, they were ~,r6~roXol —
of the prophets and teachers.                 spectively in reference to a supposed case of disciof the prophets and teachers.                 pi   (       x    1      b te term <K<aa,
The word'apostle' occurs once in the New   pline (Matt. xviii. 15.20); but the term eKKX'Oc,
The word'apostle' occurs once in the New   Ecclesia, as applied to an actual organization,
Testament (Heb. iii. i) as a descriptive designation  ccues afipt in Acts  a 47.
of Jesus Christ:'The apostle of our profession,' he    stic                ii
The apostolic age may be divided into two. e., the apostle whom we profess or acknowledge. periods; the first reaching to the destruction of
The Jews were in the habit of applying the term  Jerusalem, A.D. 70, the second terminating with
rPt;, from n'1, to send, to the person who pre- the death of the apostle John about A.D. 100.
sided over the synagogue, and directed all its Schaffmakes a tripartite division-(I.) The foundofficers and affairs. The Church is represented as ing of the church among the Yews, in which the'the house or family of God,' over which he had labours of St. Peter are conspicuous. (2.) The
placed, during the Jewish economy, Moses, as founding of the Gentile church, chiefly by the
the superintendent, — over which he has placed, instrumentality of St. Paul, A.D. 44-64. (3.) The
under the Christian economy, Christ Jesus. The organic union of the Jewish and Gentile churches,
import of the term apostle, is-divinely-commis- the work mainly of St. John.
sioned superintendent; and of the whole phrase,  The Saviour, just before his ascension, charged'the apostle of our profession,' the divinely-con- his apostles to'preach repentance and remission




APOSTOLIC AGE                  174             APOSTOLIC AGE
of sins in his name among all nations, beginning at in reference to the distribution of the common
Jerusalem' (Luke xxiv. 47), or as it is expressed  fund, led to the appointment of' the Seven,' who,
more fully in the Acts (i. 8),' Ye shall be my wit- though not called deacons, have been regarded as
nesses both in Jerusalem and in all Judea, and in the model and type of the later diaconate. The
Samaria, and unto the uttermost part of the choice was left with the body of the disciples, and
earth.' The meaning of this commission, however ratified on the part of the apostles by prayer and
plain and explicit it may appear to us, was only the imposition of hands (Acts vi. x-6). They were
made clear by degrees to the minds of the apostles. appointed to meet a special emergency (drl Tr7j
The promise of their Lord that the Spirit of Truth  Xpelac raTCr-s), yet their spiritual qualifications (7rXjshould guide (6ory/?crt, John xvi. 13) them, evi- pets 7rve6iaros aoylov KaI aotLas) fitted them  for
dently indicates progressive illumination, rather being more than almoners, and two of their numthan a revelation at once complete and final; and  ber, Philip (the evangelist) and Stephen, were
with this, the facts of their history agree. The conspicuous as preachers of the gospel.* They
extraordinary effects produced by the effusion of are not mentioned again, except in Acts xxi. 8.
the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost, the The money collected at Antioch was delivered, not
energy and elevation of character imparted to the to'the Seven,' but to the presbyters; but probably,
apostles, to Peter especially, who then made good  the latter were the treasurers, under whose direchis title to the appellation of the Rock, are familiar tion the deacons acted. The early admission of
to every reader of the New Testament. But it re- Hellenists into the church was highly favourable
quired a peculiar succession and combination of for the spread of Christianity, for while the Palesevents, including the miraculous conversion and tinian believers, on being dispersed by the persecucall of the great apostle of the Gentiles, and the tion that followed on the death of Stephen,
twofold vision at Caesarea and Joppa, to imbue the' preached to none but the Jews only,' the Hellenfirst heralds of the gospel with its free and compre- ists (and such, no doubt, were' the men of
hensive spirit. Instead of going forth to the utter- Cyprus and Cyrene')'spake unto the Grecians'
most. part of the earth, the Twelve, for a long  ("EXXivas, the reading approved by Bengel, Dodtime, made Jerusalem their permanent abode. If dridge, Griesbach, De Wette, Neander, Winer,
for some special purpose they visited other places Lachmann, Tischendorf, Lechler, Alford, and
(and those not very distant), they speedily returned  Lange; though Wordsworth argues strongly in
(Acts viii. 14, compared with 25; ix. 32, compared favour of'EXX-vio-rTs, in his notes on Acts xi. 20);
with xi. 2). The first Christian church was com- and the scene of their labours was Antioch, the
posed entirely of Jews. On professing faith in renowned capital of Syria, which speedily became
Jesus as the Messiah, as'him of whom Moses in the parent church of the Gentile world, and the
the law and the prophets wrote' John i. 45), they centre of missionary operations. Two other redid not separate themselves from Judaism, but markable events, the baptism of Cornelius and the
continued strictly to observe the Mosaic ritual. conversion of Paul, powerfully tended to the same
Both before and after the day of Pentecost, the issue-to break down the middle wall of partition
disciples were'continually in the temple' (Luke between Jew and Gentile, and to'make in Christ
xxiv. 53; Acts ii. 46); thither Peter and John  of twain one new man, so making peace' (Eph. ii
resorted at the appointed hour of prayer (Acts I5). The term' Christian,' first used at Antioch,
iii. I), and when all the apostles were miraculously indicates the proportion of Gentiles to have been
released from prison, they had an express divine so great in the church there that they could no
command to go to the temple, and there proclaim  longer be regarded as a Jewish sect, but formed a'all the words of this life' (Acts v. 20). By their genus tertium  (Neander, De Wette, Lechler).
unbelieving countrymen they were spoken of as Though to the apostle Peter was granted the dis-' the sect (at'peats) of the Nazarenes,' which though  tinction of opening the door of faith to the Gentiles
uttered reproachfully, implied that they were still, by the baptism of Cornelius, yet his labours till
in a certain sense, within the pale of the Jewish  A.D. 50 were for the most part confined to his
church (Acts xxiv. 5; xxviii. 22: the same term  brethren in Judaea (Acts ix. 32). It was reserved
(alpao-is) is applied to the Pharisees, xv. 5; xxvi. 5: for St. Paul to be, in a special sense, the apostle of
and to the Sadducees, v. I7). In their associate the Gentiles, to proclaim'the gospel of the uncircapacity as fellow-christians, Luke describes them  cumcision' (r6 eCa'yy&\,ov 7rS dKpovulrTlas, Gal. ii.
as'continuing steadfastly in the apostles' doctrine,' 7), and from the day when he, with- Barnabas,
that is, not simply adhering to what they had'being sent forth by the Holy Ghost, departed into
already been taught, but diligently attending to Seleucia' (Acts xiii. 4), to the morning when he
further instructions;' and fellowship,' communion, was consigned to the lower dungeon of the Mamersympathy, and interchange of kind offices;'and  tine prison (if we accept an ancient tradition), the
in breaking of bread,' a phrase that includes the progress of Christianity for twenty of its earliest
ordinary meal or agape [AGAPE]; and the Lord's years is chiefly to be traced in the story of his unSupper [SUPPFR OF THE LORD];'and in prayers.' paralleled labours. [PAUL.]
The spirit of brotherly love and self-sacrifice was  Of the erroneous tendencies that appeared in'the
also shewn in a community of goods. To what Apostolic Age, the earliest was that of theJudaizers,
extent this was carried, or how long it lasted, we an extreme party. in the church at Jerusalem, who,
do not know. It was a spontaneous act, not en- though they professed faith in Jesus as the Messiah,
forced by apostolic authority, as is shewn by Peter's differed little in other respects from those who readdress to Ananias (Acts v. 4). After a few years jected him. They not only adhered, like the rest
it had been abandoned, or was found insufficient, of their brethren, to the Mosaic ritual, but strove
since relief from the more opulent Gentile church
at Antioch was requested and promptly granted    *'The office of'the Seven' was one of much
(Acts xi. 29; Gal. ii. Io). The dissension that higher importance than that held by the subsequent
arose between the Hellenist and Palestinian Jews deacons.'-Conybeare and Howson, vol. i. p. 512.




APOSTOLIC AGE                   175            APOSTOLIC AGE
to impose it on the Gentile converts, and asserted  tradition in the same year as that of Peter, and acabove all the indispensable obligation of circum- cording to some witnesses, on the same day. Not
cision. These were the' false brethren' (V/ev8d- long after this event, those hostilities began which
e&Xfoi, Gal. ii. 4; 2 Cor. xi. 26), to whom Paul ended in the destruction of Jerusalem and of the
would'not give place, no, not for an hour' (Stan- Jewish polity. Judaism, as a political and religious
ley, I89-239; Schaff. ii. 358).  The decision power, received its death-blow. The effect on the
adopted by the Apostles and church at Jerusalem  Palestinian Christians must have been great. It
(Acts xv.) gave them  only a temporary check. is well known that the members of the church at
They followed in the apostle's track, intent on un- Jerusalem, shortly before the final catastrophe, took
dermining his authority, and counteracting his refuge in Pella, where they would come in contact
enlarged views of the Christian economy, in Corinth, with Gentile Christians, and were no longer under
among the churches of Galatia, and in Philippi. the jurisdiction of the Sanhedrim, which had reThe erroneous teachers alluded to in the Pastoral moved its seat to Jamna, on the shores of the
Epistles, and in the Epistle to the Colossians, indi- Mediterranean. The ties were broken that concate a transition from the Judaizing to the Gnostic nected the Jewish Christians with the ancient
tendency, though in a rudimentary state, so that theocracy. On the first promulgation of Chriswe cannot identify their errors with the complete tianity, the synagogue was a most favourable
Gnostic systems of the second century. It might medium  for communicating not only with the
be anticipated that a religion designed to make native Jews, but through the proselytes who atman' every whit whole' should be confronted in its tended its service with the Gentiles; and we find
progress not by one form of error only, but by many that St. Paul in his missionary labours always
forms scarcely less at variance with one another, availed himself of its aid., But, gradually, the
than with' the truth as it is in Jesus.' Accordingly, antagonism of the old and the new, of the spiritual
we meet in the apostolic writings with allusions and the formal, of the transitory and' that which remore or less explicit to the false schemes of philo- maineth' (2 Cor. iii. I I), became more intense, and
sophy, which were then becoming rife (Col. ii. 8), towards the close of the first century, the synagogue
to ascetic practices (I Tim. iv. 3; Col. ii. 23); and the church displayed the bitterest animosity
to antinomian sensuality (Gal. vi. 8; I Tim. iv. 3); to each other (Ewald, p. 380; Lechler, p. 290).
and to a spiritualism which denied the great facts  The materials for the history of the second period
on which the Christian system rests (2 Tim. ii. I8; of the Apostolic Age are very scanty, as there is
2 Peter iii. 4; I John iv. 3; Schaff. ii. 352-380).  almost an entire absence of contemporary docuIn the primitive church nothing is so striking as ments.  Besides the Talmudical writings which
the abundance and variety of spiritual gifts (several may illustrate the state of the Jews and the Jewish
of which have ceased with the exigencies that ren- Christians, we have only those of St. John (his
dered them  desirable) [CHARISMATA], and the Epistles and Revelation), the Epistle of Jude, and
liberty of individual action. A greater contrast can the second Epistle of Peter, which furnish rather
hardly be imagined than the cumbrous ecclesiastical hints than direct historical information.  The
machinery of later ages..'Every church was go- Epistle of Barnabas and the first Epistle to the
verned by a union of elders or overseers chosen  Corinthians of Clement, belong in spirit to the
from among themselves, and we find among them  post-apostolic period  (Lechler, p. 442).  The
no individual distinguished above the rest who pre- principal person who stands before us with historic
sided as a primus inter pares, though probably in clearness is the Apostle John.  We know not how
the age immediately succeeding the apostolic, of early he took up his permanent abode at Ephesus,
which we have unfortunately so few   authentic probably not till after the death of St. Paul,
memorials, the practice was introduced of applying certainly not before that Apostle's Epistle to the
to such an one the name of e7ri-Koros, by way of Ephesians was written (about A. D. 62). Eusebius,
distinction' (Neander).                        on the authority of tradition, states that he was
After narrating the proceedings of the Council at banished to Patmos in the fourteenth year of DomiJerusalem, the writer of the Acts confines himself tian's reign, and returned to Ephesus in the reign of
entirelyto the missionary labours of St. Paul and Nerva (Euseb. iii. 23; Clem. Alex. Quis dives
his associates. Of St. Peter we catch a glimpse at salvus ~ 42). The Apocalyptic Epistles, and the
Antioch, when the apostle of the Gentiles'with- fact that the apocalypse, as a whole, was addressed
stood him to the face, because he was to be blamed' to the seven churches, prove that the apostle's sphere
(Gal. ii. Ii). But from that time to his martyrdom  of labour extended over a number of the Asiatic
under the Neronian persecution at Rome, nothing  Churches, and the traditional notices of him
is known with certainty (Ewald, p. 6I6; Schaff. ii. shew that he was engaged in frequent and severe
17, 29). Of the other apostles a few traditionary  conflicts with false teachers, those'grievous wolves'
notices remain, which will be found under their re- of whom St. Paul warned the Ephesian elders;
spective names.  Most of them   seem  to have his language in his first epistle respecting the
laboured in the East, though one of their number,'many antichrists' attests the same fact. AccordSimon Zelotes, is said to have travelled westward ing to Irenaeus, Eusebius, Jerome, and others, John
as far as Britain, where he ended his days by cruci- died a natural death at Ephesus at the advanced
fixion (Schaff. ii. 45). James, the brother of the age of ninety or upwards, in the reign of the
Lord, alone remained at Jerusalem, and was re- Emperor Trajan. With him the apostolic age of
garded as the head of the church there, if not with the church closes.'The church was henceforth
the official dignity of bishop (though that is claimed left to itself without any human guidance but under
for him by Epiphanius and some other writers), yet the invisible protection of the Lord, to form itself
commanding the universal reverence of his country- to spiritual maturity, and after a full development
men by the superior sanctity of his character of opposing influences, to attain the higher and
(Lechler, p. 296; Ewald, p. 200; Stanley, 291- conscious unity which distinguished the spirit of
335). The martyrdom of St. Paul is placed bythe Apostle John' (Neander).




APPEAL                    178                 APPEAL
Schaff. History of the Apostolic Church, 2 vols. appeal, appears from the use Absalom made of the
8vo., Edin. 1854; Neander's History ofthePlanting delay of justice, which arose from the great numand Training of the Christian Church, etc., trans- ber of cases that came before the king his father
lated by J. E. Ryland, 2 vols. I851 (Bohn's (2 Sam. xv. 2-4). These were doubtless appeal
edition); Dr. J. P. Lange, Das Apostolische Zeit- cases, according to the above direction; and M.
alter,.1853; Lechler, Das Apostolische und das Salvador (Institutions de Moise, ii. 53) is scarcely
Nachapostolische Zeitalter, etc., 2d ed. Stuttgart warranted in deducing from this instance that the
I857 (The first part of this work (p. I-270) clients had the power of bringing their cases directly
presents a very luminous and discriminating view  to the supreme tribunal.
of the different types of the apostolic doctrine);  Of the later practice, before and after the time
Stanley, Sermons and Essays on the Apostolic Age, of Christ, we have some clearer knowledge from
Oxford 1847; Davidson, The Ecclesiastical Polity Josephus and the Talmudists. It seems that a man
of the New Testament unfolded, 2d ed. Lond. 1854; could carry his case by appeal through all the
Stoughton, Ages of Christendom, London I857; inferior courts to the Grand Sanhedrim at Jerusalem,
Conybeare and Howson, Life and Epistles of St. whose decision was in the highest degree absolute
Paul, 2 vols. 2d ed., London I858 (especially ch. and finaL  The Jews themselves trace the origin
xiii. vol. I); Herzog, Real-Encyclopadie, i 439, of these later usages up to the time of Moses: they
Art. Apostolisches Zeitalter; Ewald, Geschichte des were at all events based on early principles, and
Apostolischen Zeitalters is zur Zerstorung  eru- therefore reflect back some light upon the intimasalem's Gottingen I858.-J. E. R.             tions respecting the right of appeal which we find
APPEAL. The rt of a          l to *        in the sacred books (Mishna, de Synedr. ch. x.;
APPEAL The right of appeal to superiorosch xvi                    Tam   Bab   h ii and
tribunals has generally been considered an essential  aim Heros. ch. xi.; Tam. Bab. ch. iii. and
concomitant of inferior judicatories. When, from  b. iii..  d; Lewis, Orgines Hebr  b. i.Sc. 6;
the paucity of the population or any other cause, Pastoret, c   Lewision des H ebreux, ch..; Salvathe subjects of litigation are few, justice is usually Paor,  de  nstituions de Moire, iv..;  2).
administered by the first authority in the state, dhe most remarkable case of appeal in the New
from whose award no appeal can lie. But when   The most remarkable case of appeal in the New
from whose award no appeal can  e. But whenTestament belongs to another class. It is the celethe multiplication of causes precludes the continu- rated appeal of St. Paul from the tribunal of the
ance of this practice, and one or more inferiorRoman rocurator Paul from th t   of the
courts take cognizance of the less important matters,  consequence of which he was sent as a prisoner
the right of appeal to the superior tribunal is i n consequence of which he was sent as a prisoner
the right of appeal to the superior tribunal is
superior tribunal isto Rome (Acts xxv. Io, ii).   Such an appeal
allowed, with increasing restrictions as, in the having been once lodged, the governor had nothin
course of time, subjects of litigation multiply, and more to do with the case: he culd not even
as the people become weaned from thee notion that  ismiss it, although he might be satisfied that the
the administration of justice is the proper  tion matter was frivolous, and not worth forwarding to
of the chief civil magistrate..    Rome. Accordingly, when Paul was again heard
In the patriarchal times, as among the Bedouins, by Festus and king Agrippa (merely to obtain
the patriarch or head of the tribe, that is to say, materials for a report to the emperor),- it was
the Sheikh, administered justice; and as there was admitted that the apostle might have been liberated
no superior power, there could be no appeal from  if he had not appealed to Caesar (Acts xxvi 32).
his decisions. The only case of procedure against Paul might therefore seem to have taken a false
a criminal which occurs during the patriarchal step in the matter, did we not consider the imporperiod is that in which Judah commanded the sup- tant consequences which resulted from his visit to
posed adulterous Tamar to be brought forth and Rome.
burnt (Gen. xxxviii. 24). But here the woman   It may easily be seen that a right of appeal
was his daughter-in-law, and the power which which, like this, involved a long and expensive
Judah exercised was that which a man possessed journey, was by no means frequently resorted to.
over the females of his own immediate family. In lodging his appeal Paul exercised one of the
If the case had been between man and man, high privileges of Roman citizenship which beJudah could have given no decision, and the matter longed to him by birth (Acts xxii. 28). How the
would, without doubt, have been referred to Jacob. rights of Roman citizenship might be acquired by a
In the desert Moses at first judged all causes Jewish native of Cilicia will be explained elsewhere
himself; and when, finding his time and strength [CITIZENSHIP]. The right of appeal connected
unequal to this duty, he, at the suggestion of with that privilege originated in the Valerian,
Jethro, established a series of judicatories in a Porcian, and Sempronian laws, by which it was
numerically ascending scale (Exod. xviii. 13-26), enacted that if any magistrate should order flagellahe arranged that cases of difficulty should be tion or death to be inflicted'upon a Roman citizen,
referred from the inferior to the superior tribunals, the accused person might appeal to the judgment of
and in the last instance to himself. Although not the people, and that meanwhile he should suffer
distinctly stated, it appears from various circum- nothing at the hands of the magistrate until the
stances that the clients had a right of appeal, people had judged his cause.  But what was
similar to that which the courts had of reference. originally the prerogative of the people had in
When the prospective distribution into towns, of Paul's time become that of the emperor, and appeal
the population which had hitherto remained in one therefore was made to him. Hence Pliny (Ep. x.
compact body, made other arrangementsnecessary, 97) mentions that he had sent to Rome some
it was directed that there should be a similar Christians, who were Roman citizens, and had
reference of difficult cases to the metropolitan court appealed unto Caesar. This privilege could not be
or chief magistrate ('the judge that shall be in those disallowed by any magistrate to any person whom
days') for the time being (Deut. xvi. I8; xvii. the law entitled to it. Indeed, very heavy penalties
8-12).  That there was a concurrent right of were attached to any refusal to grant it, or to




APPHIA                   177                 AQUILA
furnish the party with facilities for going to Rome. appear to have been zealous promoters of the
-J. K.                                       Christian cause. Paul styles them his'helpers in
APPHIA    ('Air+Ia), the name of a Christian Christ Jesus,' and intimates that they had exposed
woman (Philemon 2) who is supposed by Chrysos- themselves to imminent danger on his account
tom and Theodoret to have been the wife of ('who have for my life laid down their own necks,'
Philemon.                                    Rom. xvi. 3, 4), though of the time and place of
this transaction we have no information. When
APPII-FORUM     ('ArTrlov 06pov), a market Paul wrote his epistle to the Romans they were at
town in Italy, 43 Roman miles from Rome (Itiner. Rome; but some years after they returned to
Anton. p. 107), on the great road (via Appia) Ephesus, for Paul sends salutations to them in his
from Rome to Brundusium, constructedby Appius Second Epistle to Timothy (2 Tim. iv. 19;
Claudius. The remains of an ancient town, sup- Lardner's Credibility, part ii. ch. I ). Their occuposed to be Appii-forum, are still observed at a pation as tent-makers probably rendered it necesplace called Casarillo di Santa Maria, on the sary for them to keep a number of workmen conborder of the Pontine marshes. Its vicinity to the stantly resident in their family, and to these (to,marshes accounts for the badness of the water, as such of them  at least as had embraced the
mentioned by Horace (Sat. L 5, 7). When St. Christian faith) may refer the remarkable expresPaul was taken to Italy, some of the Christians of sion,'the Church that is in their house,' r^v KaT'
Rome, being apprised of his approach, journeyed otKov abIrwv KKX^piavp (see Biscoe, quoted in
to meet him as far as'Appii-Forum  and the Lardner's Credibility, part ii. ch. l). Origen's
Three Taverns' (&Xpts'Airriou b6pou Kal Tptv  explanation of these words is very similar:'Magna
Ta#epvwv, Acts xxviii. 5). The'Three Taverns' enim gratia in hospitalitatis officio non solum apud
were eight or ten miles nearer to Rome than Appii- Deum, sed et apud homines invenitur.  Que
Forum.   The probability is that some of the tamen res quoniam non salum in voluntate et proChristians remained at the'Three Taverns,' where posito dominorum, sed et grato ac fideli constitit
it was known the advancing party would rest, ministerio famulorum, idcirco amnes qui ministerium
while some others went on as far as Appii-Forum  istud cum ipsis fideliter adimplebant, domesticam
to meet Paul on the road. The'Three Taverns' eorum nominavit Ecclesian' (Zn bEp adRom. Comwas certainly a place for rest and refreshment (Cic. ment. lib. x.; Opera, t. vi. p. 431, ed. Berol.
adAttic. ii. I, I3), perhaps on account of the bad  I837)
water at Appii-Forum. It must be understood     he Greeks call Aquila bishop and apostle, and
that Tres Tabernae was, in fact, the name of a town;honour him on July 12. The festival of Aquila
for in the time of Constantine, Felix, bishop of and Priscilla is placed in the Roman Calendar,
Tres Tabernae, was one of the nineteen bishops where he is denoted Bishop of Heraclea, on July
who were appointed to decide the controversy be- 8 (Conybeare and Howson, Life and Epistles ofSt
tween Donatus and Cecilianus (Optatus, de Schism. Pa, vol. i. p. 455-457; Dr. Kitto, Daily Bible
Donat.,. i. p. 26). As to the tabernae themselves jZustratMI s  viii 374) —J E. R.
from which the place took its name, it is probable
that they were shops for the sale of all kinds of AQUILA (D5'py,'AKtXas), the author of a
refreshments, rather than inns or places of enter. Greek translation of the 0. T. He was a native
tainment for travellers. The ruins of this place of Sinope in Pontus, and became a proselyte from
still exist under the same name.-J. K        heathenism to Judaism. According to some witAPPLE, APPLE-TREE. [TAPPUACH.]             nesses (Epiphan. De Pond. et Mens.. 4) he was
APPLES OF SODOM. [SoOM, APPLES OF.] ra Christian before he became.a Jew, whilst others
APPLES OF SODOM. [SoDoM, APPLES OF.] make him first a Jew, then a Christian, and then an
AQUILA ('AKiXas), a Jew with whom Paul apostate; but this last is evidently a blunder, and
became acquainted on his first visit to Corinth; a the former is probably unfounded. All agree that
native of Pontus, and by occupation a tent.maker. he lived in the reign of the emperor Hadrian, and
He and his wife Priscilla had been obliged to some assert that he was connected with him by
leave Rome in consequence of an edict issued by marriage, and was appointed by him to preside
the Emperor Claudius, by which all Jews were over his attempted rebuilding of Jerusalem (Epiph.
banished from Rome (Judwaos, impulsore Chresto, ubi sup.)  In the Jerusalem Talmud mention is
assidue tumultuantes Roma expulit; Sueton. Claud. made of an Akilas, a proselyte, who' interpreted
c. 25; Neander's Historyof thePlanting of the Chris- the law before Eleazar and R. Jehoshua, and they
tian Church, (Bohn) voL i p. 198; Lardner's Testi- praised him and said,'Thou hast become most exmonies ofthe HeathenAuthors, ch. viii.) This decree cellent among the children of men.''  What is
was made not by the senate, but by the emperor, here and in other Rabbinical writings ascribed to
and lasted only during his life, if even so long. Aquila, is elsewhere in the Talmudical and RabWhether Aquila and Priscilla were at that time con- binical books ascribed to Onkelos, which has led
verts to the Christian faith cannot be positively deter- some to identify Aquila, the Greek translator, with
mined; Luke's language, rpoaijXOev abroli, Kal t& Onkelos, the author of the Chaldee Targum. It
Tb bT6reXvov etvat, bgeve,rap' abrot?, Acts xviii. 2, is probable that the Akilas of the Talmud is the
rather implies that Paul sought their society, because same as Aquila the translator; but there is no
they had a common trade, than for the purpose of ground for identifying either withOnkelos. Aquila's
persuading them to embrace Christianity. At all version is first mentioned by Irenaeus (Adv. Har.
events, they were Christians before Paul left iii 24), and it is supposed that Justin Martyr had
Corinth; for we are informed that they accom- it in his eye when he censures the Jews for giving
panied him to Ephesus, and meeting there with veavis in Is. vii. 14, instead of irdpOevos, the renApollos, who'knew only the baptism of John,' dering of the LXX. (Dial. c. Trypho. p. 310, c.)
they'instructed him in the way of God more per- The translation was probably made in the second
fectly' (Acts xviii. 25, 26). From that time they decennium of the second century (Hody, De Bibl.
VOL. I.                                                                       N




AQUINAS                    178                 ARABIA
Text. Orig. p. 573 ff.; Anger, De Onkelo.. et pied by the Jordan and its lakes, and is prolonged
quid ei rationis intercedal cumn Akila, etc. part i.; from the Dead Sea to the Elanitic Gulf. The
De Akila, Lips. 1845; Hhvernick, Introduction, name has come down to the present day in the
E. T. p. 307, ed. 1852).-W. L A.              same form in Arabic, el-Arabah (a.j\); but it is
AQUINAS, or D'AQUINO, THOMAS, called'the Angelic Doctor,' was born sometime between  now restricted to the part between the lake and
1224 and I227. He died 7th March I274, underthe gulf. Themore extended application of the
fifty years of age, exhausted by constant study and name by the Hebrews is successfully traced by
by labour as a lecturer on theology. His works fill, Professor Robinson from Gesenius:'In connection
in one edition (Ven. I529), 18 vols. folio, and in with the Red Sea and Elath (Deut. i.  ii. 8).
another (Par. I636-41), 23 vols. folio. A consider-' As extending to the lake of Tiberias' (Josh. xii.
able portion of these is occupied in expository 3; 2 Sam. ii. 29; 2 Kings xxv 4).'Sea of the
treatises on Scripture.  These consist chiefly of Arabah, the Salt Sea' (Josh. iii. 6; xii. 3; Deut.
extracts from the Fathers, especially Augustine, of iv. 49).'The arboth (plains) ofJericho' (Josh. v. IO;
whom Thomas was a sincere admirer. He care-2 Kings xxv. 5).'Plains (rboth) of Moab,' i e.,
fully arranges their opinions, but mixes them up withopposite Jecho, probablypasturedbythe Moabites,
much of his own scholasticism. His aurea catenathogh not wthin their proper territory (Deut.
on the four Gospels is the most valuable of his xxxiv. I, 8; Num. xxii. I) ARABIA; PALESTINE.]
expository works; it has been translated into [The term Arabah, which means according to
English, and issued as part of the library of the Gesenius, an ard tract or sterile region, from 13l,
Fathers. He wrote also an exposition of St. Paul's to be sterile, and is used in the poetical works of
epistles. It contains less of value than might have the Bible, along with Midbar, to denote a desert,
been expected from the exercise of so great a mind is employed as a proper name in three distinct ap
on such writings.-W. L A.                     plications — I. It is used with the article to desigate the whole of that remarkable depression which
AR (3y; Sept.'Hp), the capital city of the reaches from the Sea of Tiberias to the Gulf of
Moabites (Num. xxi. 28; Deut. ii. 9, x8, 29), near Akabah (Josh. xii. 3; Deut. i. 7; iii. I7, etc.)
the river Arnon (Deut. ii. 8, 24; Num. xxi. 13- This was called AiXBv by the Greeks, and is de15). It appears to have been burnt by King Sihon scribed by Eusebius (Onomast. in loc.) as stretching
(Num. xxi. 28), and Isaiah, in describing the future from Lebanon to the desert of Paran. It is termed
calamities of the Moabites, says,'In the night Ar by Abulfeda..i  El-Ghor, and he says it stretches
of Moab is laid waste and brought to silence' (Is.
xv. I). In his comment on this passage, Jerome from  the Lake of Tiberias to Ailah or Akabah.
states that in his youth there was a great earth- 2. It is used with the article to denote the southern
quake, by which Ar was destroyed in the night- part of this from the Dead Sea to Akabah (Deut. i.
time. This he evidently regards as a fulfilment of I; ii. 8). To this part the term is still applied by
the prediction, which, however, had probably some the Arabs, who call it Wady El-Arabah; as they
less remote reference. Latterly the name of the call the northern part El-Ghor. 3. In the plural
city was Grsecised into Areopolis.            it is used to describe more particularly certain parts
This city was also called Rabbah or Rabbath, of the valley, always without the article, and with
and, to distinguish it from Rabbath of Ammon, a limiting and qualifying noun added, as f1i3I
Rabbath-Moab.    Ptolemy calls it Rabmathon: I'F, the plains of Jericho, Josh. v. 10; 2 Kings
Steph. Byzantinus, Rabathmoma; and Abulfeda xxv. 5; 01t l//., the plains of Moab, Num. xxii.
(Tab. Syr., p. go), Rabbath, and also Mab. The  I; xxvi. 3, etc.]
site still bears the name of Rabbah. The spot has
been visited and described by Seetzen, Burckhardt,  ARABIA, an extensive region occupying the
Legh, Macmichael, and Irby and Mangles. It is  outh-western extremity of Asia, between 12 45'
about I7 miles east of the Dead Sea, io milesand 344 N. lat., and 3240 and 60~ E. long. from
south of the Arnon (Modjeb), and about the same Greenwich; having on the W. the Isthmus of
distance north of Kerek. The ruins of Rabbah  Suez and the Red Sea (called from it the Arabian
are situated on a low hill, which commands the Gulf), which separate it from Africa; on the S.
whole plain.  They present nothing of interest the Indian Ocean; and  on the E. the Persian
except two old Roman temples and some tanks.Gulf and the Euphrates. The boundary to the
Irby and Mangles Letters, p. 457), remark, with  north has never been well defined, for in that
surprise, that the whole circuit of the town does diction it spreads out into interminable deserts
not seem to have exceeded a mile.  Burckhardt which meet those of Palestine and Syria on the
says,'half an hour in circuit,' and that no trace of west, and those of Zrak-Arabi (i. e., Babylonia)
walls could be found: but it is obvious from the and Mesopotamia on the east; and hence some
descriptions that the city whose ruins they saw was geographers include that entire wilderness in Arabia.
a comparatively modern town.-J. K.            The form of the peninsula is that of a trapezoid,
whose superficial area is estimated at four times the
ARAB    (21_) a town in the tribe of Judah  extent of France. It is one of the few countries of
(Josh. xv. 52).                              the south where the descendants of the aboriginal
inhabitants have neither been extirpated nor expelled
ARABAH (il:; Sept.'Apapa), a Hebrew  by northern invaders. They have not only retained
word, signifying in general a desert plain, or steppe. possession of their ancestral homes, but have sent
In the Authorized Version it is translated'the forth colonies to all the adjacent regions, and even
plain, but in the original it appears to be supplied to more distant lands, both in Africa and Asia.
with the article on purpose, as the proper name'There is no people,' says Ritter (Erdkunde, th. ii
({ln3l'1 ha-Arabah, /he Arabah), of the great plain p. I72),'who are less circumscribed to the territory
or valley in its whole extent, which is partly occu- usually assigned to them than the Arabs; their




ARABIA                    179                 ARABIA
range outstrips geographical boundaries in all do seem to point to tracts which lay indeed to the
directions.'                                 south and south-west -of that country, but to the
east and south-east of Egypt.  Hence Joseph
Mede (who is followed by Bellermann, Handbuch
d. Bib. Literat. th. iii. p. 220) is of opinion that
the phraseology took its rise at the period when
the Israelites were in Egypt, and was retained by
them as a mode of speech after they were settled
in Canaan.  That conjecture would, doubtless,
considerably extend the meaning of the term; yet
even then it could scarcely embrace the extreme
south of Arabia, a queen in which (on the supposi'
f It ff~~lGM  \ttion of Yemen being identical with Sheba) is, in
the New Testament, styled not'a queen of the
East,' but BaalXraaa N6Tro,'a queen of the
l~L  l<   i  E't^' South.' Accordingly we find that whenever the
expression kedem  has obviously a reference to
ill  l I l llArabia, it invariably points to its northern division
only. Thus in Gen. xxv. 6, Abraham is said to
have sent away the sons of Hagar and Keturah to, t I I  i!  \ l    the Eretz-Kedem-Kedemah, i. e., the East country,
Jl'l  n I  U Ieastward; and none of them, so far as we know,
were located in peninsular Arabia; for the story
which represents Ishmael as settling at Mecca is an
-?1;b ll Ul —E r                          \ (  1 1-  unsupported native tradition. The patriarch Job
is described (Job i. 3) as'the greatest of all the
a) ~it_~~ W \imen of the east,' and though opinions differ as to
- -.. ~i-  the precise locality of the land of Uz, all are agreed
~.-.^^Ks- o..... —----  ~... -'  that it was in some part of Arabia, but certainly
not in Arabia Felix. In the Book of Judges (vi..3; vii. 12; viii.  ) among the allies of the
~6IXr~.            Midianites and Amalekites (tribes of the north)
With the history of no country save that of are mentioned the'Beni-Kedem;' which Josephus
Palestine are there connected so many hallowed translates by'Apa83as, the Arabs. In Is. xi. 14,
and impressive associations as with that of Arabia. the parallelism requires that by' sons of the east'
Here lived and suffered the holy patriarch Job; we understand the Nomades of Desert Arabia, as
here Moses, when'a stranger and a shepherd,' corresponding to the Philistines'on the west;' and
saw the burning, unconsuming bush; here Elijah with these are conjoined the Edomites, Moabites,
found shelter from the rage of persecution; here and Ammonites, who were all northern Arabians.
was the scene of all the marvellous displays of The command was given (Jer. xlix. 28) to the
divine power and mercy that followed the deliver- Babylonians'to smite the Beni-Kedem,' who are
ance of Israel from the Egyptian yoke, and accom- there classed with the Kedarenes, descendants of
panied their journeyings to the Promised Land; Ishmael (comp. I Kings iv. 30). In more modern
and here Jehovah manifested himself in visible times a name of similar import was applied to
glory to his people. From the influence of these the Arabs generally; they were called Sarace s
associations, combined with its proximity to Pales- (Sharakiyun, i. e., Orientals) from the word shar,
tine, and the close affinity in blood, manners, and'the east,' whence also is derived the term sirocco,
customs between the northern portion of its inhabi- the east wind. The name of Saracens came into
tants and the Jews, Arabia is a region of peculiar use in the west in a vague and undefined sense
interest to the student of the Bible; and it is chiefly after the Roman conquest of Palestine, but does
in its relation to subjects of Bible study that we not seem to have been adopted as a general desigare now to consider it. It was well remarked by nation till about the eighth century. It is to be
Burckhardt (who knew Arab life and character remarked here that though in Scripture Kedem
better than any other European traveller that has most commonly denotes Northern Arabia, it is
yet appeared) that'the sacred historian of the also used of countries farther east, e.g., of the
children of Israel will never be thoroughly under- native country of Abraham  (Is. xli. 2; comp.
stood, so long as we are not minutely acquainted Gen. xxix. x), of Balaam (Num. xxiii. 7), and
with everything relating to the Arab Bedouins and even of Cyrus (Is. xlvi. 11); and, therefore,
the countries in which they move and pasture.'  though the Magi who came to Jerusalem (Matt.
In early times the Hebrews included a part of ii. I) were erb dvaroXwOv,'from the east,' it does
what we call Arabia among the countries they not thence follow that they were natives of Arabia.
vaguely designated as 131P Kedem,'the East,'
the inhabitants being numbered among the  1     We find the name t     (.) Arab, first
D13p Beni-Kedem,'Sons of the East,' i.e., Orientals. beginning to occur about the time of Solomon. It
But there is no evidence to shew (as is asserted by designated a portion of the country, an inhabitant
Winer, Rosenmuller, and other Bible-geographers) being called Arabi, an Arabian (Is. xiii. 20), or in
that these phrases are ever applied to the whole of later Hebrew, Arbi (Neh. ii. I9), the plural of
the country known to us as Arabia. They appear which was Arbim (2 Chron. xxi. 16), or Arbiim
to have been commonly used in speaking of those (Arabians) (2 Chron. xvii. II). In some places
parts which lay due east of Palestine, or on the these names seem to be given to the Nomadic tribes
north-east and south-east; though occasionally they generally (Is. xiii. 20; Jer. iii. 2), and their country




ARABIA                     180                  ARABIA
(Is. xxi. I3).  The kings of Arabia from whom  for looking to Arabia as a whole, it may fitly be
Solomon (2 Chron. ix. 14) and Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. described as one vast desert of arid and barren
xvii. II) received gifts were, probably, Bedouin  plains, intersected by chains of rocky mountains,
chiefs; though in the place parallel to the former where the oases, or'spots of living green' (protext (I Kings x. 15), instead of Arab we find Ereb, bably a corruption of the Arabic word wady, a
rendered in Jer. xxv. 20, 24,'mingled people,' but valley or watercourse), exist but in a very small
which Vesenius, following theChaldee, understands proportion to the sterility and desolation which
to mean'foreign allies.' It is to be remarked, reign around. [ARABAH.]
however, that in all the passages where the word  The modern name, 7eshirat-el-Arab, i. e.,'the
Arab occurs it designates only a small portion of peninsula of the Arabs,' applies to the southern
the territory known to us as Arabia. Thus in the part of the region only. Another native appellaaccount given by Ezekiel (xxvii. 21) of the Arabian  tion is Beled-e-Arab, i. e.,'the land of the Arabs:'
tribes that traded with Tyre, mention is specially the Persians and Turks call it Arabistdn.  Mr.
made of Arab (comp. Jer. xxv. 24). In 2 Chron. Lane informs us that in Egypt the term Arab is
xxi. I6; xxiiL I; xxvi. 7; Neh. iv. 7, we find now generally limited to the Bedawees, or people
the Arabians classed with the Philistines, the of the desert; but formerly it was used to desigEthiopians (i. e., the Asiatic Cushites, of whom  nate the townspeople and villagers of Arabian
they are said to have been neighbours), the Me- origin, while those of the desert were called Arab
hunims, the Ammonites, and Ashdodites.    At or Arabees: the former now call themselves Owwhat period this name Arab was extended to the lad-el-Arab, or sons of the Arabs.
whole region it is impossible to ascertain.  From it  The early Greek geographers, such as Eratothe Greeks formed the word'Apacla, which occurs sthenes and Strabo, mention only two divisions of
twice in the New Testament; in Gal. i. I7, in re- this vast region, Happy and Desert Arabia. But
ference probably to the tract adjacent to Damascene after the city of Petra, in Idumea, had become
Syria, and in Gal. iv. 25, in reference to the penin  celebrated as the metropolis of a commercial people,
utaofMountSinai. Amongthestrangersassembled    the Nabathaeans, it gave name to a third division,
at Jerusalem at the Pentecost there were"Apapes, viz., Arabia Petraa (improperly translated Stony
Arabs (Acts ii. II), the singular being "ApaV.  Arabia); and this threefold division, which first
As to the etymology of the name Arab various occurs in the geographer Ptolemy, who flourished
opinions have been expressed. Hezel (Bib. Real in the second century, has obtained throughout
Lex.) and Bellermann (Handbuch d. Bib. Liter. th. Europe ever since. It is unknown, however, to
iii. p. 219) absurdly derive it from a transposition  native or other Eastern geographers, who reckon
of letters in the name of Eber, the father of Joktan; Arabia Deserta as chiefly belonging to Syria, and
Pococke follows the native writers in thinking the to Irak-Arabi, or Babylonia, while they include a
name was taken from Araba, a district of Yemen, great part of what we call Arabia Petraea in Egypt.
so called from Yarab, Joktan's son; some suppose  1. ARABIA FELIX (in Gr.'ApaBla J Eolalcwv,
that as this country was called by the Israelites the Arabia Eudamon of Pliny), i. e., Happy
Kedern,'the east,' so by the Shemetic tribes who Arabia.  The name has commonly been supposed
dwelt beyond the Euphrates it was termed Arab in to owe its origin to the variety and richness of the
the sense of' the west;' while others derive it from  natural productions of this portion of the country,
the same word in the sense of'mixed people,' or compared with those of the other two divisions.'merchants.' But dismissing these conjectures as Some, however, regard the epithet'happy' as a
groundless and unsatisfactory, the most obvious,      
etymology of the name is from MYl)r Arabah atranslation of its Arabic name.         Yemen,
stppe, i. e., a desert plain or wilderness. That was, which, though primarily denoting the land of the
in point of fact, the name given by the ancient  ight hand, or south,* also bears the secondary
Hebrews to the tract of country extending north- sense of' happy, prosperous.' This part of Arabia
ward from Elath, on the Arabian Gulf, to the lies between the Red Sea on the west and the PerDead Sea (Deut. i. I; ii. 8), and even as far as the sian Gulf on the east, the boundary to the north
Lake of Tiberias (Josh. xii. 3). It was called Ha- being an imaginary line drawn between their reArabah, commonly rendered in our version by'the spective northern extremities, Akaba and Basra or
plain' (hence the Dead Sea was styled the'sea of Bussora. It thus embraces by far the greater porthe Arabah,' Josh. iii. x6); and it included the tion of the country known to is as Arabia, which,
plains (Arboth) of Jericho and Moab (osh. v. xo; however, is very much a terra incognita; for the
Deut. xxxiv. I, 8). In the list of the cities of Judah  accessible districts have been but imperfectly excontained in the book of Joshua we find (xv. 61), plored, and but little of the interior has been as yet'in the wilderness, Beth-Arabah,' in the Hebrew  visited by any European traveller.,n3Y 1n f3:, i. e.,'the house of the plain.' It had  Arabia maybe described generally as an elevated
been mentioned at v. 6, as on the northern borders; table-land, the mountain ranges of which are by
and hence at xviii. 22, it appears also as a city of some regarded as a continuation of those of Syria,
Benjamin, one of whose boundaries it is said at v. but Ritter (Erdkunde, th. i. p. I72) views them as
8,' passed over against [the] Arabah northward, forming a distinct and independentplateau, peculiar
and went down into [the] Arabah.'   Now it is to the country. In Arabia Felix the ridges, which
a remarkable circumstance that the southern part
of this great valley is still known by the name of  * This phraseology may have originated in the
Wady-el-'Arabah, and there is no improbability worship of the rising sun at the Kaaba, or ancient
in the conjecture that this designation, which  temple of Mecca, when the worshipper had the
was applied at so early a period as the days of east before him, the west behind him, the south on
Moses to one particular district, was gradually  his right, and the north on his left; hence Syria is
extended to the entire region. No designation, called Esh-Sham, the left. Yet the Hebrews had
indeed, could be more comprehensive or correct; the same idiom.




ARABIA                    181                  ARABIA
are very high in the interior, slope gently on the dued in 18I8 by Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt),
east towards the Persian Gulf, and on the north- their chief town being Dereyeh.
east towards the vast plains of the desert. On the  The geological structure and mineralogical prowest the declivities are steeper, and on the north- ductions of this part of Arabia are in a great
west the chains are connected with those of Arabia measure unknown. In the mountains about Mecca
Petrsea. Commencing our survey at the north end and Medina the predominant rocks are of gray and
of the Red Sea, the first province which lies along  red granite, porphyry, and limestone. This is also
its shore is the Hedjaz, which Niebuhr and others the case in the great chain that runs southward
reckon as belonging to Arabia Petraea, but which towards Maskat; only that in the ridge that rises
the editor of Burckhardt's Travels in Arabia has behind the Tehama there is found schistus and
shewn to belong properly to Arabia Felix. This basalt instead of granite. Traces of volcanic action
was the cradle of Mohammedan superstition, con- may be perceived around Medina, as also at Aden
taining both Mecca, where the prophet was born, and in many other parts of the peninsula. Hotand Medina, where he was buried; and hence it springs are of frequent occurrence on the Hadjee
became the Holy Land of the Moslem, whither or pilgrim road to Mecca. The ancients believed
they resort in pilgrimage from all parts of the East. that Arabia yielded both gold and precious stones,
It is on the whole a barren tract, consisting chiefly but Niebuhr doubts if this ever was the case. The
of rugged mountains and sandy plains. Still more most valuable ore found now is the lead of Oman:
unproductive, however, is the long, flat, dreary what is called the Mocha stone is a species of agate
belt, of varying width, called Tehdma, which runs that comes from India. The native iron is coarse
along the coast to the south of Hedjaz, and was and brittle; at Loheia and elsewhere there are hills
at no distant period covered by the sea. But next of fossil salt. The botany of Yemen was investo this comes Yemen (the name of a particular pro- tigated by Forskal, one of the fellow-travellers of
vince, as well as of the whole country), the true Niebuhr. Arabia Felix has always been famous
Arabia Felix of the ancients,'Araby the Blest' of for frankincense  myrrh, aloes, balsam, gums,
moder poets, and doubtless the finest portion of cassia, etc.; burit is doubtful whether the lastthe peninsula. Yet if it be distingushed for fer- mentioned and other articles supposed to be inditility and beauty, it is chiefly in the way of contrast, genous were not imported from India. Here are
for it is far from coming up to the expectations found all the fruits of temperate and warm climates,
which travellers had formed of it. Here is Sanaa among which the date, the fruit of the palm-tree, is
(supposed to be the tUal of Scripture), the seat of the most common, and is, along with the species of
an imaum; Mareb, which some identify with Sheba; grain called dhourra, the staple article of food.
Mocha, the chief mart for coffee; and Aden, a But the most valuable vegetable production is
place rapidly increasing in importance since taken coffee (Arab. kahweh, an old term for wine, the
possession of by Britain, with a view to secure her fruit being called bunn); for Yemen, if not its
navigation of the Red Sea. Turning from the west native country, is the habitat where it has reached
to the south coast of the peninsula, we next come the greatest state of perfection. Cultivation here is
to the extensive province of Hhadramaut (the not confined to the plains, but is carried up the
Hazarmaveth of the Bible), a region not unlike sides of the mountains, which are laid out in terYemen in its general features, with the exception races, and supplied with water by means of artiof the tracts called Mahhrah and Sahar, which are ficial reservoirs.  In the animal kingdom Arabia
dreary deserts.  The south-east corner of the possesses, in common with the adjacent regions,
peninsula, between Hhadramaut and the Persian  the camel (the'living ship of the desert'), panthers,
Gulf, is occupied by the important district of lynxes, hyaenas, jackals, gazelles, asses (wild and
Oman, which has recently become better known to tame), monkeys, etc. But the glory of Arabia is
us than most other parts of Arabia Felix by the its horse. As in no other country is that animal
travels and researches of Lieut. Wellsted (Trwels so much esteemed, so in no other are its noble
in Arabia, London, t838, 2 vols. 8vo). Oman has qualities of swiftness, endurance, temper, attachbeen in all ages famous for its trade; and the pre- ment to man, so finely developed. Of the insect
sent imaum of Muscat, a politic and enterprising  tribes, the locust, both from its numbers and its
prince, has greatly extended it, and thereby in- destructiveness, is the most formidable scourge to
creased and consolidated his own power by forming vegetation.  The Arabian seas swarm with fish,
commercial alliances with Great Britain, the Urited sea-fowl, and shells; coral abounds in the Red Sea,
States, and other foreign nations. Along the Per- and pearls in the Persian Gulf.
sian Gulf northward stretches the province of Lahsa,  2. ARABIA DESERTA, called by the Greeks
or rather El Hassa, to which belong the Bahrein I Kr7vtS'Apa3ia, or  "Epqugos'Apapla, and by the
Islands, famous for their pearls. The districts we 
have enumerated all lie along the coasts, but be- Arabs. 1      El-Badiah, i e., the Desert This
yond them in the south stretches the vast desert of takes in that portion of the country which lies
Akhaf, or Roba-el-Khali, i. e.,'the empty abode,' north of Arabia Felix, and is boundedon the
a desolate and dreary unexplored waste of sand. north-east by the Euphrates, on thenorth-west by
To the north of this extends the great central pro- Syria, and on the west by Palestine and Arabia
vince of Aedsched or Nejd.  Ritter regards it as Petraea. The Arabs divide this'great wilderness'
forming nearly a half of the entire peninsula. It into three parts, so called from their proximity to,may be described as having been the great officina the respective countries, viz., Badiah esh Sham
gentium of the south, as were Scandinavia and  (Syria), Badiah el Jeshirah (the peninsula, i.e.,
Tartary of the north; for it is the region whence Arabia), and Badiahd Iradk (Babylonia).  From
there issued at different periods, those countless this word Badiah comes the name of the nomadic
hordes of Arabs which overran a great part of tribes by whom   it is traversed, viz., Bedawees
Asia and Africa. Here, too, was the origin and  (better known to us by the French corruption of
the seat of the Wahabees (so formidable until sub- Bedouins), who are not, however, confined to this




ARABIA                    182                 ARABIA
portion of Arabia, but range throughout the entire everywhere furrowed and torn with the beds of
region. So far as it has yet been explored, Desert torrents. A more frightful desert it had hardly
Arabia appears to be one continuous, elevated, been our lot to behold. The mountains beyond
interminable sleppe, occasionally intersected by presented a most uninviting and hideous aspect;
ranges of hills. Sand and salt are the chief ele-precipices and naked conical peaks of chalky and
ments of the soil, which in many places is entirely gravelly formation rising one above another without
bare, but elsewhere yields stinted and thorny a sign of life or vegetation. It was once believed
shrubs or thinly-scattered saline plants. That part that through this great valley the Jordan anciently
of the wilderness called El Hhammad lies on the flowed, before the catastrophe of the cities of'the
Syrian frontier, extending from the Hauran to the plain (Arabah);' but from the depressed level of
Euphrates, and is one immense dead and dreary the Dead Sea (recently found by Lieut. Symonds
level, very scantily supplied with water, except near to be no less than 1337 feet below that of the
the banks of the river, where the fields are irrigated Mediterranean), from the great elevation of the
by wheels and other artificial contrivances.  Arabah, the long descent northward, and the run
The sky in these deserts is generally cloudless, of the watercourses in the same direction, the
but the burning heat of the sun is moderated by hypothesis is found to be no longer tenable.* The
cooling winds, which, however, raise fearful tempests structure of the mountains of Edom on the east of
of sand and dust. Here, too, as in other regions the Arabah is thus described by Robinson (vo ii.
of the East, occasionally prevails the burning, p. 551):'At the base low hills of limestone or
suffocating south-east wind, called by the Arabs El argillaceous rocks; then the lofty masses of porHharfir (the Hot), but more commonly Samrnm, phyry, constituting the body of the mountain;
and by the Turks Samyeli (both words meaning above these sandstone broken up into irregular'the Poisonous'), the effects of which, however, ridges and grotesque groups of cliffs; and again,
have by some travellers been greatly exaggerated. farther back and higher than all, long elevated
This is probably'the east wind' a nd the'wind ridges of limestone without precipices. East of all
from the desert' spoken of in Scripture. Another these stretches off indefinitely the high plateau of
phenomenon, which is not peculiar, indeed, to the great eastern desert. The character of these
Desert Arabia, but is seen there in greatest frequency mountains is quite different from those on the west
and perfection, is what the French call the mirage, of the Arabah. The latter, which seemed to be
the delusive appearance of an expanse of water, not more than two-thirds as high, are wholly desert
created by the tremulous, undulatory movement and sterile; while these on the east appear to enjoy
of the vapours raised by the excessive heat of a a sufficiency of rain, and are covered with tufts of
meridian sun. It is called in Arabic serab, and is herbs and occasional trees.' This mountainous
no doubt the Hebrew sarab of Is. xxxv. 7, which region is divided into two districts: that to the
our translators have rendered'the parched ground.' north is called yebl (i. e., mountains, the Gebal of
3. ARABIA PETREA (Gr. THerpaca) appears to  Ps. lxxxiii. 7); that to the south Esh-Sherah,
have derived its name from its chief town Petra which has erroneously been supposed to be allied
(i. e., a rock), in Heb. Selah; although (as is to the Hebrew'Seir;' whereas the latter (written
remarked by Burckhardt) the epithet is also appro- with a )) means'hairy,' the former denotes'a
priate on account of the rocky mountains and stony tract or region.' To the district of Esh-Sherah
plains which compose its surface. It embraces all belongs Mount Hor, the burial-place of Aaron,
the north-western portion of the country; being towering above the Wady Mousa (valley of Moses),
bounded on the east by Desert and Happy Arabia where are the celebrated ruins of Petra (the ancient
(for we have included the Hedjaz in the latter), on capital of the Nabathaeo-Idumaans), brought to
the north by Palestine and the Mediterranean, on light by Seetzen and Burckhardt, and now familiar
the west by Egypt, and on the south by the Red to English readers by the illustrations of Irby and
Sea. This division of Arabia has been of late Mangles, Laborde, etc. As for the mountainous
years visited by a great many travellers from  tract immediately west of the Arabah, Dr. Robinson
Europe, and is consequently much better known describes it as a desert limestone region, full of
than the other portions of the country. Confining precipitous ridges, through which no travelled road
ourselves at present to a general outline, we refer has ever passed.
for details to the articles SINAI, EXODUS, EDOM,  To the west of Idumaea extends the'great and
MOAB, etc.  Beginning at the northern frontier, terrible wilderness' of Et-Tth, i. e.,'the Wanderthere meets us the elevated plain of Belka, to the ing,' so called from being the scene of the wandereast of the Dead Sea, the district of Kerak (Kir), ings of the children of Israel. It consists of vast
the ancient territory of the Moabites, their kinsmen interminable plains, a hard gravelly soil, and
of Ammon having settled to the north of this, in irregular ridges of limestone hills. The researches
Arabia Deserta. The north border of Moab was of Robinson and Smith furnish new and important
the brook Arnon, now the Wady-el-M6jib; to the information respecting the geography of this part
south of Moab, separated from it by the Wady-el- of Arabia and the adjacent peninsula of Sinai. It
Ahsy, lay Mount Seir, the dominion of the Edom- appears that the middle of this desert is occupied
ites, or Idumcea, reaching as far as to Elath on by a. long central basin, extending from Jebel-etthe Red Sea. The great valley which runs from  Tth (i. e., the mountain of the wandering, a chain
the Dead Sea to that point consists, first, of El- pretty far south) to the shores of the Mediterranean.
Ghor, which is comparatively low, but gradually
rises by a succession of limestone cliffs into the  * Yet Mr. Beke, in a paper read to the Geomore elevated plain of El-Arabah, formerly men- graphical Society (May 9, 1842), thinks the protioned.'We were now,' says Professor Robinson gress of the Jordan to the Red Sea was arrested by
(Biblical Researches, vol. ii. p. 502),'upon the volcanic eruptions, which, while they formed the
plain, or rather the rolling desert, of the Arabah; chasm now filled by the Dead Sea, upraised the
the surface was in general loose gravel and stones, ridge called El Sate.




ARABIA                     183                 ARABIA
This basin descends towards the north with a rapid Mousa, i. e., the Fountains of Moses, where Robinslope, and is drained through all its length by son recently found seven wells, some of which,
Wady-el-Arish, which enters the sea near the place however, were mere excavations in the sand.
of the same name, on the borders of Egypt. About 15I hours (33 geographical miles) southl' West of this basin other wadys run by themselves east of that is the Well of Hawarah, the Marah
down to the sea. On the east of the same central of Scripture, whose bitter water is pronounced by
basin is another similar and parallel one between it the Arabs to be. the worst in these regions. Two
and the Arabah (the two being separated by the or three hours south of Hawarah the traveller
chain El-Ojmeh and its continuation), drained comes to the Wady Ghuruindel, supposed to be
throughout by the Wady-el-Jerifeh, which, having the  limn of Moses. From the plain of El-Kaa,
its head in or near the Tlh, falls into the Arabah which Robinson takes to be the desert of Sin (not
not far from El-MukrA. North of this last basin to be confounded with that of Zin, which belonged
the tract between the Arabah and the basin of the to the great desert of Kadesh), they would enter
Arish is filled up by ranges or clusters of moun- the Sinaitic range probably along the upper part of
tains, from which, on the east, short wadys run to Wady Feiran and through the Wady-esh-Sheikh,
the Arabah, and on the west longer ones to Wady- one of the principal valleys of the peninsula. The
el-Arish, until, farther north, these latter continue Arabs call this whole cluster of mountains rebel-etby themselves to the sea nearer Gaza.'        Ti2r; the Christians generally designate it as
This description of the formation of the northern'Sinai,' and give the name of Horeb to a particular
desert will enable us to form a more distinct con- mountain, whereas in Scripture the names are used
ception of the general features of the peninsula of interchangeably.  To which of the lofty peaks
Sinai, which lies south of it, being formed by the Moses ascended that he might receive the Law
two arms of the Red Sea, the Gulfs of Akaba and and thence publish it to the people, can only be
Suez. If the parallel of the north coast of Egypt matter of conjecture. Tradition fixed on the Jebel
be extended eastward to the great Wady-el-Arabah, Mousa, i. e.,'the mountain of Moses,' at the foot
it appears that the desert, south of this parallel, of which is the convent of Mount Sinai, and
rises gradually towards the south, until on the opposite to it stands Mount St. Catharine, which
summit of the ridge Et-Tih, between the two gulfs, is a thousand feet higher, and has on that account
it attains, according to Russegger, the elevation of by some been taken for the true Sinai. Professor
4322 feet. The waters of all this great tract flow off Robinson is inclined to identify the venerated spot
northward either to the Mediterranean or the Dead with the Rds Es-Sufsdfeh, the highest peak on the
Sea. The Tth forms a sort of offset, and along its northern brow of Horeb, which'raises its bold
southern base the surface sinks at once to the and awful front in frowning majesty' above the
height of only about 3000 feet, forming the sandy extensive plain of Er-Rahah, where there was
plain which extends nearly across the peninsula. ample room for the encampment of the'many
After this the mountains of the peninsula proper thousands of Israel.' Others have thought of the
commence, and rise rapidly through the formations 7ebel Serbl, a magnificent mountain, nine or ten
of sandstone, griinstein, porphyry, and granite, houts north-west of the convent, and supposed by
into the lofty masses of St. Catherine and Um  Burckhapdt to be the highest of all the peaks,
Shaumer, the former of which, according to but since ascertained by Rippell to be 1700 feet
Russegger, has an elevation of 8x68 Paris feet, or lower than St. Catharine.
nearly double that of the Tth. Here the waters
all run eastward or westward to the Gulfs of Akaba  Having now taken a rapid survey of this extenand Suez.                                    sive region in its three divisions, let us advert to the
The soil of the Sinaitic peninsula is in general people by whom it was at first settled, and by
very unproductive, yielding only palm-trees, aca- whose descendants it is still inhabited. There is a
cias, tamarisks (from which exudes the gum called prevalent notion that the Arabs, both of the south
manna), coloquintida, and dwarfish, thorny shrubs. and north, are descended from Ishmael; and the
Among the animals may be mentioned the moun-passage in Gen. xvi. I2,' he (Ishmael) shall dwell
tain goat (the bden of the Arabs)j gazelles, leopards, in the presence of all his brethren,' is often cited as
a kind of marmot called woberj the sheeb, supposed if it were a prediction of that national independence
by Col. Hamilton Smith to be a species of wild which, upon the whole, the Arabs have maintained
wolf-dog, etc.: of birds there are eagles, partridges, more than any other people. But this supposition
pigeons, the katta, a species of quail, etc. There (in so far as the true meaning of the text quoted is
are serpents; as in ancient times (Num. xxi. 4, 6), concerned) is founded on a misconception of the
and travellers speak of a large lizard called dhob, original Hebrew, which runs literally,' he shall
common in the desert, but of unusually frequent dwell before the faces of all his brethren,' i. e.,
occurrence here.  The peninsula is inhabited by  (according to the idiom above explained, in which.
Bedouin Arabs, and.its entire population was'before the face' denotes the east), the habitation
estimated by Burckhardt at not more than 4000 of his posterity shall be to the east' of the settlesouls.                                       ments of Abraham's other descendants. This
Though this part of Arabia must ever be me- seems also to be the import of Gen. xxv. I8, where,
morable as the scene of the journeying of the in reference to Ishmael, it is said in our version,
Israelites from Egypt to the Promised Land, yet'he died in the presence of all his brethren;' but
very few of the spots mentioned in Scripture can the true sense is'the lot of his inheritance fell to
now be identified; nor after the lapse of so many him before the faces (i. e., to the east) of all his
centuries ought that to be occasion of surprise. brethren.' These prophecies found their accomAccording to Niebuhr, Robinson, etc., they crossed plishment in the fact of the sons of Ishmael being
the Red Sea near Suez, but the tradition of the located, generally speaking, to the east of the other
country fixes the point of transit eight or ten miles descendants of Abraham, whether by Sarah or by
south of Suez, opposite the place called Ayoun Keturah.




ARABIA                   184                 ARABIA
But the idea of the southern Arabs being of the Petraea), Kedar (the Kedarenes, sometimes also
posterity of Ishmael is entirely without foundation, used as a designation of the Bedouins generally,
and seems to have originated in the tradition in- and hence the Jewish rabbins called the Arabic
vented by Arab vanity, that they, as well as the language'the Kedarene'), Adbeel, Mibsam, MishJews, are of the seed of Abraham-a vanity which, ma, Dumah, Massa, Hadad or Hadar, Thema,
besides disfiguring and falsifying the whole history Jetur, Naphish (the Itureans and Naphishaeans
of the patriarch and his son Ishmael, has trans- near the tribe of Gad: I Chron. v. 19, 20), and
ferred the scene of it from Palestine to Mecca. If Kedmah. They appear to have been for the most
we go to the most authentic source of ancient part located near to Palestine on the east and southethnography, the book of Genesis, we there find east.
that the vast tracts of country known to us under  (f) Ketumhites, i. e., the descendants of Abraham
the name of Arabia gradually became peopled by a and his concubine Keturah, by whom he had six
variety of tribes of different lineage, though it is sons (Gen. xxv. 2); Zimram, Jokshan (who, like
now impossible to determine the precise limits Raamah, son of Cush, was also the father of two
within which they fixed their permanent or nomadic sons, Sheba and Dedan), Medan, Midian, Jishbak,
abode. We shall here exhibit a tabular view of and Shuah. Among these, the posterity of Midian
these races in chronological order, i. e., according became the best known.  Their principal seat
to the successive sras of their respective progeni- appears to have been in the neighbourhood of the
tors:-                                      Moabites, but a branch of them must have settled
I. HAMITES, i. e., the posterity of Cush, Ham's in the peninsula of Sinai, for Jethro, the father-ineldest son, whose descendants appear to have law of Moses, was a priest of Midian (Exod. iii. i;
settled in the south of Arabia, and to have sent xviii. I; Num. x. 29). To the posterity of Shuah
colonies across the Red Sea to the opposite coast belonged Bildad, one of the friends of Job.
of Africa; and hence Cush became a general name  (y) Edomites, i. e., the descendants of Esau, who
for'the south,' and specially for Arabian and possessed Mount Seir and the adjacent region,
African Ethiopia. The sons of Cush (Gen. x 7) called from them Idumaea. They and the Nabawere Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, Raamah or Ragma theans formed in later times a flourishing commer(his sons, Sheba and Dedan), and Sabtheca.   cial state, the capital of which was the remarkable
II. SHEMITES, including the following:-   city called Petra.
A. 7oktanites, i. e., the descendants of Joktan  C. Nahorites, the descendants of Nahor, Abra(called by the Arabs Kachtan), the second son of ham's brother, who seem to have peopled the land
Eber, Shem's great-grandson (Gen. x. 25, 26). of Us, the country of Job, and of Buz, the country
According to Arab tradition Kachtan (whom they of his friend Elihu the Buzite, these being the
also regard as a son of Eber), after the confusion of names of Nahor's sons (Gen. xxii. 21).
tongues and dispersion at Babel, settled in Yemen,  D. Lotites, vi:
where he reigned as king. Ptolemy speaks of an  (a) Moabites, who occupied the northern portion
Arab tribe called Katanites, who may have derived of Arabia Petraea, as above described; and their
their name from him; and the richest Bedouins of kinsmen, thethe southern plains are the Kahtan tribe on the  () Ammonites, who lived north of them, in
frontiers of Yemen. Joktan had thirteen sons, Arabia Deserta.
some of whose names may be obscurely traced in  Besides these, the Bible mentions various other
the designations of certain districts in Arabia Felix. tribes who resided within the bounds of Arabia,
Their names were Almodad, Shaleph, Hhazarma- but whose descent is unknown, e. g., the Amaleveth (preserved in the name of the province of kites, the Kenites, the Horites, the inhabitants of
Hhadramaut, the Hebrew and Arabic letters being  Maon, Hazor, Vedan, and Javan-Meusal (Ezek.
the same), Jarach, Hadoram, Uzal (believed by xxvii. 19), where the English version has,'Dan
the Arabs to have been the founder of Sanaa in also and Javan going to and fro.'
Yemen), Dikla, Obal, Abimael, Sheba (father of  In process of time some of these tribes were perthe Sabseans, whose chief town was Mariaba or haps wholly extirpated (as seems to have been the
Mareb; their queen Balkis supposed to be the case with the Amalekites), but the rest were more.
queen who visited Solomon*), Ophir (who gave or less mingled together by intermarriages, by
name to the district that became so famous for its military conquests, political revolutions, and other
gold), Havilah, and Jobab.                   causes of which history has preserved no record;
B. Abrahamites, divided into-              and thus amalgamated, they became known to the
(a) Hagarenes or Hagarites, so called from Hagar rest of the world as the' ARABS,' a people whose
the mother; otherwise termed Ishmaelites from her physical and mental characteristics are very strongly
son; and yet in course of time these names appear and distinctly marked. In both respects they rank
to have been applied to different tribes, for in very high among the nations; so much so, that
Psalm lxxxiii. 6, the Hagarenes are expressly dis- some have regarded them as furnishing the prototype
tinguished from the Ishmaelites (comp. I Chron. -the primitive model form-the standard figure of
v. 10, 19, 20, and the apocryphal books of Bar. the human species. This was the opinion of the
iii. 23; Jud. ii. 23). The twelve sons of Ishmael famous Baron de Larrey, surgeon-general of
(Gen. xxv. 13-15), who gave names to separate Napoleon's army in Egypt, who, in speaking of
tribes, were Nebaioth (the Nabathaeans in Arabia the Arabs on the east side of the Red Sea, says
(in a fMemoir for the Use of the Scientific Commis* The honour of being the country of the queen sion to Algiers, Paris, I838),' They have a physiogof Sheba is also claimed by Abyssinia; but if (as nomy and character which are quite peculiar, and
Bruce informs us) there was also a Saba in African which distinguish them generally from all those
Ethiopia, and if these opposite coasts of the Red which appear in other regions of the globe.' In
Sea formed at times but one kingdom, the two his dissections he found'their physical structure in
opinions are not irreconcilable.            all respects more perfect than that of Europeans;




ARABIA                    185                 ARABIA
their organs of sense exquisitely acute; their size their horses in carrying them into the' depths of the
above the average of men in general; their figure wilderness,' beyond the reach of their pursuers,
robust and elegant (the colour brown); their in- seems what is referred to in Is. Ixiii. I3, 14. Their
telligence proportionate to that physical perfection, warlike incursions into more settled districts are
and, without doubt, superior, other things being often noticed (e. g., Job i. I5; 2 Chron. xxi. 16;
equal, to that of other nations.'             xxvi. 7). The acuteness of their bodily senses is
The inhabitants of Arabia have, from remote very remarkable, and is exemplified in their astonishantiquity, been divided into two great classes, viz., ing sagacity in tracing and distinguishing the foottownsmen (including villagers), and the men of the steps of men and cattle, a faculty which is known
desert, such being, as we remarked, the meaning of by the name of athr. The law of thar, or bloodthe word'Bedawees' or Bedouins, the designation  revenge, sows the seeds of perpetual feuds; and
given to the'dwellers in the wilderness.' From  what was predicted (Gen. xvi. I2) of the posterity
the nature of their country, the latter are necessi- of Ishmael, the'wild-ass man' (a term most
tated to lead the life of nomades, or wandering graphically descriptive of a Bedawee), holds true
shepherds; and since the days of the patriarchs of the whole people. Yet the very dread of the
(who were themselves of that occupation) the consequences of shedding blood prevents their
extensive steppes, which form so large a portion of frequent conflicts from being very sanguinary: they
Arabia, have been traversed by a pastoral but war- shew bravery in repelling a public enemy, but when
like people, who, in their mode of life, their food, they fight for plunder they behave like cowards.
their dress, their dwellings, their manners, customs, Their bodily frame is spare, but athletic and active,
and government, have always continued, and still inured to fatigue and capable of undergoing great
continue, almost unalterably the same. They con- privations: their minds are acute and inquisitive;
sist of a great many separate tribes, who are col  and though their manners are somewhat grave and
lected into different encampments dispersed through  formal, they are of a lively and social disposition.
the territory which they claim as their own; and  Of their moral virtues it is necessary to speak with
they move from one spot to another (commonly in caution. They were long held up as models of
the neighbourhood of pools or wells) as soon as the good faith, incorruptible integrity, and the most
stinted pasture is exhausted by their cattle. It is generous hospitality to strangers; but many recent
only here and there that the ground is susceptible travellers deny them the possession of these qualities;
of cultivation, and the tillage of it is commonly left and it is certain that whatever they may have been
to peasants, who are often the vassals of the once, the Bedawees, like all the unsophisticated
Bedawees, and whom (as well as all'townsmen')'children of nature,' have been much corrupted by
they regard with contempt as an inferior race. the influx of foreigners, and the national character
Having constantly to shift their residence, they live is in ever) point of view lowest where they are
in movable tents (comp. Is. xiii. 20; Jer. xlix. most exposed to the continual passage of strangers.
29), from which circumstance they received from  It is, however, no part of our present design to
the Greeks the name of ZKivTac, i. e., dwellers in enter on a more minute account of this singular
tents (Strabo, xvi. p. 747; Diod. Sic. p. 254; and interesting people; information regarding many
Ammian. Marcell. xxiii 6). The tents are of an of their peculiarities which throw light on Scripture
oblong figure, not more than six or eight feet high, will be found under other heads. Let every one who
twenty to thirty long, and ten broad; they are wishes to study Arab life in the desert consult the
made of goat's or camel's hair, and are of a brown  romance of Antar, translated by Hamilton, and
or black colour (such were the tents of Kedar, Burckhardt's Notes on the Bedouins; and with
Cant. i. 5), differing in this respect from those of the respect to the manners and customs of the more
Turcomans, which are white. Each tent is divided settled inhabitants, many curious details will be
by a curtain or carpet into two apartments, one of found in Lane's Modern Egyptians, and in the
-which is appropriated to the women, who are not, notes to his new Translation of the Thousand and
however, subject to so much restraint and seclusion  Qne Nights; for since the downfal of the Arab
as among other Mohammedans.    The tents are empire of Bagdad, Cairo has been the chief of
arranged in an irregular circle, the space within Arabian cities, and there Arab manners exist in
serving as a fold to the cattle at night. The their most refined form. The population of the
heads of tribes are called sheikhs, a word of entire peninsula of Arabia has been estimated at from
various import, but used in this case as a title of eleven to twelve millions, but the data are precarious.
honour; the government is hereditary in the     The principal source of the wealth of ancient
family of each sheikh, but elective as to the Arabia was its commerce.  So early as the days
particular individual appointed.  Their allegi- of Jacob (Gen. xxxvii. 28) we read of a mixed
ance, however, consists more in following his caravan of Arab merchants (Ishmaelites and
example as a leader than in obeying his cor- Midianites) who were engaged in the conveyance of
mands; and, if dissatisfied with his government, various foreign articles to Egypt, and made no
they will depose or abandon him. As the inde- scruple to add Joseph,'a slave,' to their other
pendent lords of their own deserts, the Bedawees purchases. The Arabs were, doubtless, the first
have from time immemorial demanded tribute or navigators of their own seas, and the great carriers
presents from all travellers or caravans (Is. xxi. of the produce of India, Abyssinia, and other
13) passing through their country; the transition remote countries to Western Asia and Egypt.
from which to robbery is so natural, that they  Various Indian productions thus obtained were
attach to the latter no disgrace, plundering without common among the Hebrews at an early period of
mercy all who are unable to resist them, or who  their history (Exod. xxx. 23, 25). The traffic of
have not secured the protection of their tribe. the Red Sea was to Solomon a source of great
Their watching for travellers'in the ways,' i. e., profit; and the extensive commerce of Sabaea
the frequented routes through the desert, is alluded  (Sheba, now Yemen) is mentioned by profane
to Jer. iii. 2; Ezra viii. 3I; and the fleetness of writers as well as alluded to in Scripture (i Kings




ARABIA                   186           ARABIC LANGUAGE
x. 10-I5). In the description of the foreign trade Anna. Moslem. lat. vert. Reiske, 1778; Caussen,
of Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 19-24) various Arab tribes Essai sur'histoire des Arabes avant Islamisme,
are introduced (comp. Is. Ix. 6; Jer. vi. 20; 2 Paris I847-48; Muir, Life of Mohammed, vol. i.
Chron. ix. I4).  The Nabathaeo-Idumaeans be- introduction chaps. 2 and 3, Lond. I858; Mill D.,
came a great trading people, their capital being Diss. De Mohammedismo ante Mohammed in DisPetra. The transit-trade from India continued to sertt. Select., Lugd. Bat. 1743; Hottinger, Histor.
enrich Arabia until the discovery of the passage to  Orientalis, cap. vii., Tigur. I66o; Tychsen, De
India by the Cape of Good Hope; but the inven- Peseos Arabum origine et indole in the Commentt.
tion of steam-navigation has now restored the Soc. Reg. Gott. recentt. T. iii. p. 250; Jones,
ancient route for travellers by the Red Sea.  Poeseos Asiat. Commentt. 1774; Niebuhr's, DeThe settlers in Arabia are by native writers scrition de l'Arabie, 3 vols. 4to, 1776-80; Robindivided into two classes: the old tribes (who son's Biblical Researches; Stanley's Sinai ana
belonged to the fabulous period of history, and are Palestine, 3d ed. 1856].
long since extinct); and the present inhabitants. 
The latter are classed either among the'pure or ARABIC LANGUAGE. Thatimportantfamily
genuine,' or the Mostarabi, the mixed or naturalized of languages, of which the Arabic is the most culArabs. A'pure' Arab boasts of being descended tivated and most widely-extended branch, has long
from Kachtan (the Joktan of Scripture, Gen. x. 29), wanted an appropriate common name  The term
and calls himself al Arab al Araba,'an Arab of Orienal languages,, which was exclusively applied
the Arabs,' a phrase of similar emphasis with St. to it from the time of Jerome down to the end of
Paul's'Hebrew of the Hebrews' (Phil. iii. 5).the last century, and which is even now not entirely
The mixed Arabs are supposed to be descended abandoned, must always have-been an unscientific
from Ishmael by a daughter of Modad, king of one, inasmuch as the countries in which these aHedjaz, the district where the Ishmaelites chiefly guages prevailed are only the east in respect to
settled.  The Kachtanites, on the other hand, Europe; and when Sanscrit, Chinese, and other
occupied the southern part of the peninsula, foridiomsof the remoter Ea erebroughtwithin the
Kachtan's great-grandson Saba give name to a reach of our research, it became palpably incorrect.
kingdom, one of whose queens (called by the Under a sense of this impropriety, Eichhom was
Arabians Balkis) visited Solomon (I Kings x.  the first, as he says himself (Allg. Bibl. Bibioth
A son of Saba was Himyar, who gave name to the vi. 772), to introduce the name Semitic languages,
famous dynasty of the Hinmyarites (improperly which was soon generally adopted, and which is
written Homerites), that seem to have reigned forthe most usuaone  he present day. Ne
many centuries over Sabaea and part of Hhadramaut. less Stange (in bis Theoog.  ymikta) justly obmess, Stange (in his The.lg~,ymmi&4) justly obIn the latter province Lieut Wellsted recently dis- to   name as violating the statements of
covered ruins called Nakab-el-Hajar ('the excava-the very Mosaic account (Gen. x.) on which the
tion in the rock'), consisting of a massive wall, propriety of its use professed to be based. For,
thirty to forty feet high, flanked with square towers  according to that genealogical table, some nations
Within the entrance on the face of the building he which in all probability did not speak a language
found an inscription in characters eight inches long, belonging to this family, are descended from Shem
which Gesenius supposes to be the ancient Himy- and othes, which did speak such a language, are
n Himy- derived from Ham. Thus'Elam and Asshur are
aritic writing. Arabia, in ancient times, generally derived from Ham. Thus Elam and Asshur are
preserved its independence, unaffected by thosededuced fro  Shem (ver. 22); and the descendants
great events which changed the destiny of the of Cush in Arabia and Ethiopia, as well as all the
surrounding nations; and in the sixth century of Caaanites, from  Ham (ver. 7, seq.) In modern
our aera, the decline of the Roman empire and the times, however, the very appropriate designation
corruptions and distractions of the Eastern church Syro-Arabia languages has been proposed by Dr.
favoured the impulse given by a wild and warlike Prichard, in his Physial History ofMan. This
fanaticism.  Mahomet arose, and succeeded in term, besides being exempt from all the abovegathering around his standard the nomadic tribes mentioned objections on the score either of latitude
of central Arabia; and in less than fifty years that or inadequacy, has the advantage of forming an
standard waved triumphant'from  the straits of exact counterpart to the name by which the only
Gibraltar to the hitherto unconquered regions other great family of languages with which we are
beyond the Oxus.' The khalifs transferred the likely to bring the Syro-Arabian into relations of
beyond the Oxus.' The khalifs transferred the
seat of government successively to Damascus, contrast or accordance, is now universally known
Kufa, and Bagdad; but amid the distractions of -the Indo-Germanic. Like it, by taking up only
their foreign wars, the chiefs of the interior of the two extreme members of a whole sisterhood
Arabia gradually shook off their feeble allegiance,according to their geographical position when in
and resumed their ancient habits of independ- their native seats, it embraces all the intermediate
ence, which, notwithstanding the revolutions that branches under a common band; and, like it, it
have since occurred, they for the most part retain. constitutes a name which is not only at once intelAt  present, indeed, the authority of Mehemet ligible, but one which in itself conveys a notion of
Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, is acknowledged over a that affinity between the sister dialects, which it is
great portion of northern Arabia, while in the one of the objects of comparative philology to desouth the Imam of Maskat exercises dominion overmonstrate and to apply. [SHEMITIC LANGUAGES.]
a much greater extent of country than did any of  Of this family, then, the Arabic forms, together
his predecessors.-N. M.                      with the Ethiopic, the southern branch. In it we
[Rosenmiiller, Biblical Geography of Asia Minor, find the full and adult development of the genius of
Phoenicia and Arabia, translated by Morren, Bib. the Syro-Arabian languages. In the abundance of
Cab. vol. 34, Edin. 1841; Pococke, Hist. Compend. its roots, in the manifold variety of its formations,
Dynast. Arab. Ox. 663; Eichhorn, Monumenta in the syntactical delicacies of its construction, it
Antiquiss. Hist. Arabum, Goth. 1775; Abulfeda, stands pre-eminent as a language among all its




ARABIC LANGUAGE                  187           ARABIC LANGUAGE
sisters. Every class of composition also: the wild Then, Abraham sent away his sons by Keturah,
and yet noble lyrics of the son of the desert, who and they also became the founders of Arabic tribes.
had'nothing to glory in but his sword, his guest, Lastly, the circumstance of Esau's settling in
and his fervid tongue;' the impassioned and often  Mount Seir, where the Idumneans descended from
sublime appeals of the Quran; the sentimental his loins, may be considered as a still later medium
poetry of a Mutanabbi; the artless simplicity of by which the idioms of Palestine and Arabia pretheir usual narrative style, and the philosophic dis- served their harmony.  Secondly, Olaus Celsius
quisition of an Ibn Chaldfin; the subtleties of the (in his Hist. Ling. et Erudit. Arab.) cites the fact
grammarian and scholiast; medicine, natural his- of the sons of Jacob conversing with the Ishmaelite
tory, and the metaphysical speculations of the caravan (Gen. xxxvii. 28), and that of Moses with
Aristotelian school-all have found the Arabic lan- his father-in-law the Midianite (Exod. iv. I8). To
guage a fitting exponent of their feeling and thought. these, however, Schelling (in his Abhandl. v. d.
And, although confined within the bounds of the  Gebrauch der Arab. Sprache, p. I4) objects that
Peninsula by circumstances to which we owe the they are not conclusive, as the Ishmaelites, being
preservation of its pure antique form, yet Islam  merchants, might have acquired the idiom of the
made it the written and spoken language of the nations they traded with, and as Moses might owe
whole of Western Asia, of Eastern and Northern  an acquaintance with Arabic to his residence in
Africa, of Spain, and of some of the islands of the Egypt. Nevertheless, one of Celsius's inferences
Mediterranean; and the ecclesiastical language of derives considerable probability from  the only
Persia, Turkey, and all other lands which receive instance of mutual intelligibility which J. D.
the Mohammedan faith; in all which places it has Michaelis has adduced (in his Beurtheilung der
left sensible traces of its former occupancy, and in  Mittel die ausgestorbene Hebr. Spfrache zu verstehen,
many of which it is still the living or the learned p. I56), namely, that Gideon and his servant went
idiom. Such is the Arabic language; so important down by night to the camp of'Midian, Amalek,
its relations to the literary and civil history of a and all the Bene Quedem,' to overhear their conlarge portion of the human race; the more im- versation with each other, and understood what
portant also to us as bridging over that wide they heard (Judg. vii. 9-I4). Lastly, Schultens
chasm which intervenes between the extinction of (Orati de Reg. Sabaor., in his Opp. Minora)
classical literature and the revival of that spirit to labours to skew that the visit of the queen of Sheba
which the literature of all moder languages owes to Solomon is a strong proof of the degree of proxits origin. Into these general views of the Arabic imity in which the two dialects then stood to each
language, however, it is not the province of this other. These late traces of resemblance, morework to enter: an able article in the Penny Cyclo- over, are rendered more striking by the notice of
pedia, by the late Dr. Rosen, will satisfy those the early diversity between Hebrew and Aramawc
who desire information.  Our object here is to (Gen. xxxi. 47). The instance of the Ethiopian
shew the mode and the importance of its bearings chamberlain in Acts viii. 28, may not be conon Biblical philology. [See also Hiverick Gen. sidered an evidence, if Heinrichs, in his note ad
Zntr. pp. 06-124.]                             loc. in Nov. Test. edit. Ko5pp., is right in asserting
The close affinity, and consequently the incal- that he was reading the Septuagint version, and
culable philological use, of the Arabic with regard that Philip the deacon was a Hellenist.
to the Hebrew language and its other sisters, may  Thus springing from the same root as the Hebrew,
be considered partly as a question of theory, and and possessing such traces of affinity to so late a
partly as one of fact. The former would regard period as the time of Solomon, this dialect was
the concurrent records which the Old Testament further enabled, by several circumstances in the
and their own traditions have preserved of the social state of the nation, to retain its native reseveral links by which the Arabs were connected  semblance of type until the date of the earliest
with different generations of the Hebrew line, and  extant written documents.  These circumstances
the evidences which Scripture offers of persons were, the almost insular position of the country,
speaking Arabic being intelligible to the Hebrews; which prevented conquest or commerce from dethe latter would observe the demonstrable identity basing the language of its inhabitants; the fact that
between them in the main features of a language, so large a portion of the nation adhered to a mode
and the more subtle, but no less convincing traces of life in which every impression'was, as it were,
of resemblance even in the points in which their stereotyped, and knew no variation for ages (a
diversity is most apparent.                    cause to which we may also in part ascribe the
The following are the theoretical grounds:-  comparatively unimportant changes which the
first, the Arabs of Jemen are derived from Qahtan, language has undergone during the I400 years in
the Joktan of Gen. x. 25, whom the Arabs make which we can follow its history); and the great and
the son of'Eber (Pococke's Specimen Hist. Arab. just pride which they felt in the purity of their
p. 39, seq.) These form the pure Arabs. Then   language, which, according to a valuable testimony
Ishmael intermarried with a descendant of the line of Burckhardt, a competent judge of the learned
of Qaht.n, and became the progenitor of the as well as the living idiom, is still a characteristic
tribes of Hig'Az. These are the insititious Arabs, of the Bedouins (Notes on the Bedouins, p. 21I).
These two roots of the nation correspond with the These causes preserved the language from foreign
two great dialects into which the language was once influences at a time when, as the Quran and a
divided; that of Jemen, under the name of the national literature had not yet given it its full
Himjarite, of which all that has come down to us stature, such influences would have been most able
(except what may have been preserved in the to destroy its integrity.  During this interval,
Ethiopic) is a few inscriptions; and that of Hig'az, nevertheless, the language received a peculiarly
under that of the dialect of Mudhar, or, descend- ample development in a certain direction. The
ing a few generations in the same line, of Quraish limited incidents of a desert life still allowed valour
-the dialect of the Quran and of all their literature. love, generosity, and satire to occupy the keen




ARABIC LANGUAGE                  188          ARABIC LANGUAGE
sensibilities of the chivalrous Bedouin.  These nations analogous to three of our cases; and a
feelings found their vent in ready verse and eloquent perfectly defined system of metre. The most improse; and thus, when Islam first called the Arabs portant of these differences consists in that final
into the more varied activity and more perilous vowel after the last radical, by which some of the
collision with foreign nations, which resulted from  forms of the imperfect and the several cases in the
the union of their tribes under a common interest noun are indicated; and it is a matter of some
to hold the same faith and to propagate it by the moment to determine whether they are to be
sword, the language had already received all the ascribed to the genuine natural expansion of the
development which it could derive from the pre- language, or are only an attempt of the grammarians
eminently creative and refining impulses of poetry to introduce Greek inflexions into Arabic. The
and eloquence.                                latter opinion has been seriously propounded by
However great may be the amount of resem- Hasse, in a paper in his Magazin fgr Biblischblance between Arabic and Hebrew which a due  Orientalische Litteratur, i. 230; and even Gesenius
estimate of all the theoretical grounds for the has expressed himself to the same effect (Gesch. d.
affinity, and for the diversity, between them would Hebr. Spr. p. 95).  Nevertheless, the notion
entitle us to assume, it is certain that a comparison springs from a forgetfulness of the fact that the
of the actual state of both in their purest form  date of the early poems, the Hamasa and the
evinces a degree of proximity which exceeds ex- Mu'allaqat, is much anterior to the period when
pectation. Not only may two-thirds of the Hebrew  any such foreign influence as Hasse alludes to
roots (to take the assertion of Aurivillius, in his could have had effect; and from an ignorance of
Dissertationes, p.  I, ed, J. D. Michaelis) be found the absolute necessity of all those flexional vowels
in Arabic under the same letters, and either in the to preserve the metre of the poetry. If any prosame or a very kindred sense, provided we know  ductions of Arabic genius are old-if any are
that the last radical of 15 roots in Hebrew is Waw  national in the highest sense, both as to substance
or?a in Arabic; and that those whose first radical and form, it is those poems. And so essential a
is 7od in Hebrew is Waw in Arabic; and that the part of their form is the metre according to which
letters y t Y' n fn correspond to  Ja, and they were conceived, that it is incontestible that
~ _ -  ^**^their metrical disposition and their existence are
that either when the latter have a diacritical point coeval. When Hasse, then,' candidly admits that
or not; but, if we allow for the changes of   these terminations of case were in use as early as
into f,1into X and        into a    into*   D  the second century of the Hig'ra,' he merely admits
into ^  ito  and ^  io  his ignorance of the fact that the earliest remains
d  it  n..      of Arabic literature, those which are older by
and I into L'      yinto ]; and W into U   and centuries than the Quran, are composed in a form
wov   we shall be able to discover iearly nine- which is unintelligible unless read according to the
we shall be able to discover nearly ne-nicest distinctions of this vocalization of the final
tenths of the Hebrew roots in Arabic. To this syllables. This error is, moreover, akin to a not
great fundamental agreement in the vocabulary uncommon statement, that Al Chaltl, who lived in
(the wonder of which is somewhat diminished by a the second century of the Hig'ra (Freytag's Darright estimate of the immense disproportion between stellung d. Arab. Verskunst, p. 18), invented the
the two languages as to the number of roots) are art of Prosody; which is as true as that Aristotle
to be added those resemblances which relate to the invented the art of Poetry, merely because he
mode of inflexion and construction. Thus, in the abstracted the laws of composition from the masterverb, its two wide tenses, the mode by which the piece of Greek genius.
persons are denoted at the end in the Perfect,  The Arabic alphabet also presents some reand at the beginning (with the accessory distinctions markable differences.  As a representation of
at the end) in the Imperfect, its capability of ex- sounds, it contains all the Hebrew letters; but in
pressing the gender in the second and third persons, consequence of the greater extent of the nation as
and the system  on which the conjugations are a source of dialectual varieties of pronunciation,
formed; and in the noun, the correspondence in and also in consequence of the more developed
formations, in the use of the two genders, and in and refined state of the language,'the value of
all the essential characteristics of construction; the some of them is not exactly the same, and the
possession of the definite article; the independent characters that correspond to? to V  1 n n are used
and affixed pronouns; and the same system of in a double capacity, and represent both halves
separable and attached particles-all these form so of those sounds which exist unseparated in the
broad a basis of community and harmony between  Hebrew. The present order of the letters also
the two dialects, as could hardly be anticipated, is different, although there are evidences in their
when we consider the many centuries which sepa- numerical value, when so used, and in the memorial
rate the earliest written extant documents of each.  words given in Ewald's Grammatica Critica Ling.
The diversities between them, which consist Arab. ~ 67, that the arrangement was once the
almost entirely of fuller developments on the side same in both. In a palseographical point of view,
of the Arabic, may be summed up under the fol- the characters have undergone many changes.
lowing heads:-A much more extensive system of The earliest form was that in the Himjarite alphabet.
conjugations in the verb, the dual in both tenses, The first specimens of this character (which Arabic
and four forms of the Imperfect (three of which, writers call al Musnad, i. e., stilted, columnar) were
however, exist potentially in the ordinary imperfect, given by Seetzen in the Fundgruben des Orients.
the jussive, and the cohortative of the Hebrew: see Since then Professor Rodiger has produced others,
Ewald's Hebr. Gramm. ~ 290, 293); the full series and illustrated them in a valuable paper in the
of infinitives; the use of auxiliary verbs; in the Zeitschrift fir die Kunde des Morgenlandes, i. 332.
noun, the formations of the plural called broken or The letters of this alphabet have a striking reinternal plurals, and the flexion by means of termi- semblance to those of the Ethiopic, which were




ARABIC LANGUAGE                 189           ARABIC VERSIONS
derived from them. In Northern Arabia, on the my mouth,' and'he smote him his life' (Ewald's
other hand, and not very long before the time of Hebr. Gram. ~ 482), is easily intelligible to one
Muhammad, the Syrian character called Estrangeo whom Arabic has familiarized with the perpetual
became the model on which the Arabic alphabet use of the so-called accusative to denote the accescalled the Kufic was formed. This heavy, angular sory descriptions of state. Another important adKufic character was the one in which the early vantage to be derived from the study of Arabic is
copies of the Quran were written; and it is also the opportunity of seeing the grammar of a Syrofound in the ancient Muhammadan coinage as late Arabian language explained by native scholars.
as the seventh century of the Hig'ra. From this, Hebrew grammar has suffered much injury from
at length, was derived the light, neat character the mistaken notions of men, who, understanding
called Nischt, the one in which the Arabs con- the sense of the written documents by the aid of the
tinue to write at the present day, and which we versions, have been exempted from obtaining any
have endeavoured to represent in our printed independent and inward feeling of the genius of the
nooks.  The introduction of this character is language, and have therefore not hesitated to acascribed to Ibn Muqla, who died in the year 327 commodate it to the grammar of our Indo-Germanic
of the Hig'ra. (See the table given in the article idioms. In Arabic, however, we have a language,
ALPHABET.) Lastly, it is worthy of notice that every branch of the philosophical study of which
all the letters of the Arabic alphabet are only has been successfully cultivated by the Arabs themconsonants; that, in an unpointed text, the long selves. Their own lexicographers, grammarians,,owels are denoted by the use of Alif, Waw, and and scholiasts (to whom the Jews also are indebted
Ja, as matres lectionis; and that the short vowels for teaching them the grammatical treatment of
are not denoted-at all, but are left to be supplied Hebrew) have placed the language before us with
according to the sense in which the reader takes such elaborate explanation of its entire character,
the words; whereas, in a pointed text, three points that Arabic is not only by far the most accessible
only suffice to represent the whole vocalization; of the Syro-Arabian dialects, but may challenge
the equivalents to which, according to the way in comparison, as to the possession of these advanwhich they are expressed in this work, are a, i, u, tages, with the Greek itself.-J. N.
pronounced as in Italian.                      [Celsius, Histor. linguac Arab., Upsal, I694;
The manifold uses of the Arabic language in Walton, Prolegg. p. 93, vol. i., ed. Dathe, Bib.
Biblical philology (exclusive of the advantages it Polyg. p. 633; Schnurrer, Biblioth. Arab., Halle,
affords for comparing the Arabic versions) may in x8II; Havernick, General Introd. to the 0. T, p.
part be gathered from the degree of its affinity to Io6 ff. E. T. I852.-Erpenius, Rudimenta Ling.
the Hebrew; and, indeed, chiefly to the Hebrew  Arab. ed. Schultens, Lug. Bat. I733; De Sacy
before the exile, after which period the Aramaic  GrammaireArabe, Par. I8Io; Richardson, Arabic
is the most fruitful means of illustration (Mahn, Grammar, 1776; Ewald, Gram. Crit. Ling. Arab.,
Darstellung der Lexicographie, p. 391). But there 2 vols I831-33; Caspari, Gram. Arab., acceditlrez,.
are some peculiarities in the relative position of the Chrest. Arab. 1848; Wright, Arabic Grammar,
two dialects which considerably enhance the value I86o.-Freytag, Lexicon Arab. lat., 4 vols. 1830of the aid to be derived from the Arabic.  The 37, of which a compendium by the author was pubHebrew language of the Old Testament has pre- lished in one vol. I837.]
served to us but a small fragment of a literature.
In the limited number of its roots (some of which  ARABIC VERSIONS. AsChristianity never
even do not occur in the primary sense), in the attained  any extensive or permanent influence
rarity of some formations, and in the antique rudi-among the Arabs as a nation, no entire nor pubmentary mode in which some of its constructions licly sanctioned Arabic version of the Bible has
are denoted, are contained those difficulties whichbeen discovered. But, as politicalevents at length
cannot receive any other illustration than that made the Arabic language the common vehicle of
which the sister dialects, and most especially the instrction in the East, and that to Jews, SamaArabic, afford. For this purpose, the resemblancesitans, and Christians, independent versions of
between them are as useful as the diversities. The  ingle books were often undertaken, according to
former enable us to feel certain on points which the zeal of private persons, or the interests of small
were liable to doubt: they confirm and establish communities. The following is  classified list of
an intelligent conviction that the larger portion ofnly the most important among them 
our knowledge of the meaning of words, and of  I. Arabic versions formed immediately on the
the force of constructions in Hebrew, is on a sure original texts.
foundation; because we recognise the same inaadjah Haggan a native of Fam,
a kindred form, and in a literature so volumin- an  rector of the academy at Sora, who died A.D.
ous as to afford us frequent opportunities of and rector of the academy at Sora, who died A.D.
ous as to afford us frequent opportunities of 942, is the author of a version of some portions of
testing our notions by every variety of experience. 9te OldTestamenth Erpenius and Pocock, indeed,
The diversities, on the other hand (according to a affim hat he translated the whole (Walton's Pro
mode of observation very frequent in comparative am tht he translated the whole (Walton's Pr
anatomy), shew us what exists potentially in the legomena, ed. Wranghai, ii 546); but subsequent
rudimentary state, by enabling us to see how a inquirers have not hitherto been able, with any
rudimentary state, by enabling us to see how a certainty, to assign to him more than a version of
language of the same genius has, in the further pro- certainty, to assign to him more than a version of
language of the same genius has in the furher prof- the Pentateuch, of Isaiah, of Job, and of a portion
gress of its development, felt the necessity of de- of Hosea
noting externally those relations of formation and
construction which were only dimly perceived in  That of the Pentateuch first appeared, in Hebrew
its antique and uncultivated form. Thus, to adduce characters, in the folio Tetraglott Pentateuch of
a single illustration from the Arabic cases in the Constantinople, in the year 1546. The exact title
noun:-The precise relation of the words mouth of this exceedingly rare book is not given by Wolf,
and life, in the common Hebrew phrases,'I call I by Masch, nor by De Rossi (it is said to be found




ARABIC VERSIONS                 190           ARABIC VERSIONS
in Adler's Biblisch-kritische Reise, p. 221); but, ac- the Hebrew text is a characteristic of the Samaritan
cording to the title of it which O. G. Tychsen cites versions.
from Rabbi Shabtai (in Eichhorn's Repertorium, x.  A version of Isaiah, which in the original MS.
96), Saadjah's name is expressly mentioned there as is ascribed to Saadjah, with several extrinsic evithe author of that Arabic version. Nearly a century dences of truth, and without the opposition of a
later an Arabic version of the Pentateuch was single critic, appeared under the title, R. Saadia
printed in the Polyglott of Paris, from a MS. be- Phijumensis Versio yesaia Arabica e MS. Bodley.
longing to F. Savary de Breves; and the text thus edidit atque Glossar. instruxit, H. E. G. Paulus,
obtained was then reprinted in the London Poly- fasc. ii., Gena, I791, 8vo. The text was copied
glott, with a collection of the various readings of from a MS. written in Hebrew characters, and the
the Constantinopolitan text, and of another MS. in difficulty of always discovering the equivalent
the appendix. For it was admitted that Saadjah  Arabic letters into which it was to be tiansposed,
was the author of the Constantinopolitan version; has been one source of the inaccuracies observable
and the identity of that text with that of the Paris in the work. Gesenius (in his 7esaias, i. 88, sq.)
Polyglott was maintained by Pocock (who never- has given a summary view of the characteristics of
theless acknowledged frequent interpolations in the this version, and has shewn the great general agrees
latter), and had been confirmed even by the colla- ment between them and those of the version of the
tion which J. H. Hottinger had instituted to estab- Pentateuch, in a manner altogether confirmatory ol
lish their diversity. The identity of all these texts the belief in the identity of the authors of both.
was thus considered a settled point, and long   His version of Job exists in MS. at Oxford,
remained so, until J. D. Michaelis published (in where Gesenius took a copy of it (yesaias, p. x.)
his Orient. Bib., ix. I55, sq.) a copy of a Latin  That of Hosea is only known from the citation
note which Jos. Ascari had prefixed to the very of ch. vi. 9, by Kimchi. See Pococke's Theolog.
MS. of De Breves, from which the Paris Polyglott Works, ii. 280.
had derived its Arabic version. That note ascribed  B. The version of Joshua which is printed in the
the version to' Saidus Fajumensis, Monachus Cop- Paris and London Polyglotts, the author and date
tites;' and thus Saadjah's claim to be considered of which are unknown.
the author of the version in the Polyglotts was  C. The version of the whole passage from i
again liable to question.  At length, however, Kings xii. to 2 Kings xii. I6, inclusive, which is
Schnurrer (in his Dissertat. de Pentat. Arab. Polygl. also found in the same Polyglott. Professor Rodiin his Dissert. Philologico-criticie) printed the Arabic ger has collected the critical evidences which prove
preface of that MS., proved that there was no that this whole interval is translated from the
foundation for the'Monachus Coptites,' and en- Hebrew; and ascribes the version to an unknown
deavoured to shew that Sa'td was the Arabic equi- Damascene Jew of the eleventh century. Like.
valent to the Hebrew Sa'adjah, and to re-establish wise, the passage in Nehemiah, from i. toi ix. 27,
the ancient opinion of the identity of the two texts. inclusive, as it exists in both Polyglotts, which he
The results which he obtained appear (with the asserts to be the translation of a Jew (resembling
exception of a feeble attempt of O. G. Tychsen to that of Joshua in style), but with subsequent interascribe the version to Abu Sa'~d, in the Repertorium) polations by a Syrian Christian. (See his work De
to have convinced most modern critics; and indeed  Origine Arabicee Libror. V. T. Historic. Interpretathey have received much confirmation by the ap- tionis, Halle, 4to.)
pearance of the version of Isaiah. This version of  D. The very close and almost slavish version of
the Pentateuch, which is an honourable monument the Pentateuch, by some Mauritanian Jew of the
of the Rabbinical Biblical philology of the tenth thirteenth century, which Erpenius published at
century, possesses, in the independence of its tone, Leyden in I622-the so-called Arabs Erpenii.
and in some peculiarities of interpretation, the  E. The Samaritan Arabic version of Abu Sa'id.
marks of having been formed on the original text. According to the author's preface affixed to the
It leans, of course, to Jewish exegetical authorities Paris MS. of this version (No. 4), the original of
generally; but often follows the Sept., and as often which is given in Eichhorn's Bibl. Biblioth. iii. 6,
appears to express views peculiar to its author. Abu Sa'td was induced to undertake it, partly by
Carpzov has given numerous examples of its mode seeing the corrupt state to which ignorant copyists
of interpretation in his Crit. Sacr. p. 646, sq. It had reduced the version then used by the Samais also marked by a certain loose and paraphrastic ritans, and partly by discovering that the version
style of rendering, which makes it more useful in which they used, under the belief that it was that
an exegetical than in a critical point of view. It is of Abu'l Hasan of Tyre was in reality none other
difficult, however, to determine how much of this than that of Saadjah Hagga6n.  His national
diffuseness is due to Saadjah himself. For, not prejudice being thus excited against an accursed
only is the printed text of his version more faulty, Jew, and the' manifest impiety' of some of his inin this respect, than a Florentine MS., some of the terpretations, he applied himself to this translareadings of which Adler has given in Eichhorn's tion, and accompanied it with notes in order to
Einleit. ins A. T. ii. 245; but it has suffered a justify his renderings, to explain difficulties, and to
systematic interpolation.  A comparison of the dispute with the Jews. His version is characterized
Constantinopolitan text with that of the Polyglotts by extreme fidelity to the Samaritan text (i. e., in
shews that where the former retains those terms of otherwords, to the Hebrew text with the differences
the Hebrew in which action or passion is ascribed  which distinguish the Samaritan recension of it),
to God-the so-called. av6pcowro7rdOetat-the latter retaining even the order of the words, and often
has the'Angel of God,' or some other mode of sacrificing the proprieties of the Arabic idiom to
evading direct expressions. These interpolations the preservation of the very terms of the original
are ascribed by Eichhorn to a Samaritan source; It is certainly not formed on the Samaritan version,
for Morinus and Hottinger assert that the custom  although it sometimes agrees with it; and it has
of omitting or evading the anthropomorphisms of such a resemblance to the version of Saadjah as




ARABIC VERSIONS                191                  ARAM
implies familiarity with it, or a designed use of its is expressly said in the inscription in the Paris MS. to
assistance; and it exceeds both these in the constant have been made from the Greek by an Alexandrian
avoidance of all anthropomorphic expressions. Its priest. Its date is probably later than the tenth
date is unknown, but it must have been executed century.
between the tenth and thirteenth centuries, because  B. That of the Psalms (according to the Syrian
it was necessarily posterior to Saadjah's version, recension) which is printed in Justiniani's Psalt.
and because the Barberini copy of it was written  Octaplum. Genoa, 15i6, and in Liber Psalmor. a
A.D. 1227. It is to be regretted that this version, Gabr. Sionita et Vict. Scialac. Rome, 1614.
although it would be chiefly available in determin-  C. That version of the Psalms which is in use
ing the readings of the Samaritan Pentateuch, is still by the Malkites, or Orthodox Oriental Christians,
unpublished. It exists in MS. at Oxford (one of made by'Abdallah ben al Fadhl, before the twelfth
the copies there being the one cited by Castell in  century. It has been printed at Aleppo in I706, in
the Appendix to the London Polyglott), at Paris, London in I725, and elsewhere.
Leyden, and at Rome, in the celebrated Barberini  D. The version of the Psalms (according to the
Triglott (the best description of which is in De Egyptian recension) which is found in both the
Rossi's Specimen Var. Lect. et Chald. Estheris Polyglotts.
Additamenta, Tiibingen, I783).  Portions only  III. Arabic versions formed on the Peshito.
have been printed: the earliest by J. H. Hottinger, he Polyglott version of Job, of Chronicles,
i    A. The Polyglott version of Job, of Chronicles,
in his Promtuarium, p. 98; and the two longest by and (according to Rbdiger, who ascribes them to
De Sacy, with an interesting dissertation, in Eich- Christian translators in the thirteenth and fourteenth
horn's Bibl. Biblioth. x., and by Van Vloten, in centuries) that of Judges, Ruth, Samuel, I Kings i.
his Specim. Philolog. continens descrip. cod. MS.  and 2 Kings x  17, to xxv.
Bibliolh. Zugd.-Bat. Partemque Vers. Sam. Arab. to xi. and 2 Kings xii. 17, to xxv.
Bibtioth. Lugd.-Bat. Partemque Vers. Sam. Arab. - B. The version of the Psalms printed at Qashaia,
Pentat., Leida, 1803.                        near Mount Lebanon, ini 6 io. (The Einleitungen
F. A version of the Gospels, which was first of Eichhorn, Bertholdt, and De Wette contain
printed at Rome in 1590, then in the Arabic New  ample researches, or references, for the further
Testament of Erpenius in i6i6, and afterwards in
Testament of Erpeus  1616, and afterwards  investigation of this extensive subject.)-J. N.
the Paris Polyglott (the text of which last is the one 
copied in that of London). The first two of these  ARAD, an ancient city on the southernmost
editions are derived from MSS., and the variations borders of Palestine, whose inhabitants drove back
which distinguish the text of Paris from that of the Israelites as they attempted to penetrate from
Rome are also supposed to have been obtained  Kadesh into Canaan (Num. xxi. I, where the Auth.
from a MS. The agreement and the diversity of Vers. has' King Arad,' instead of'King of Arad')
all these texts are equally remarkable. The agree- but were eventually subdued by Joshua along with
ment is so great as to prove that they all represent the other southern Canaanites (Josh. xii. 14, comp.
only one and the same version, and that one based x. 41; also Judg. i. 16).  Eusebius and Jerome
immediately on the Greek. The diversities (exclu- place Arad twenty Roman miles from Hebron,
sive of errors of copyists) consist in the irregular which would be equal to about eight hours with
changes which have been made in every one of camels. This accords well with the situation of a
these MSS., separately, to adapt it indiscriminately  hill called Tell'Arad, which Dr. Robinson observed
to the Peshito or Coptic versions. This surprising on the road from Petra to Hebron. He describes
amalgamation is thus accounted for by Hug: When it as' a barren-looking eminence rising above the
the prevalence of the Arabic language had rendered country around.' He did not examine the spot,
the Syriac and Coptic obsolete, the Syrians and but the Arabs said there were no ruins upon or
Copts were obliged to use an Arabic version. They near it, but only a cavern. The name alone is,
therefore took some translation in that language, however, too decisive to admit a doubt that the hill
but first adapted it to the Peshito and Memphitic marks the site of the ancient Arad.-J. K
versions respectively. As the Peshito and Coptic  ARADUS. [ARVAD.]
versions still continued to be read first in their
churches, and the Arabic translation immediately  ARAM  ( -d probably from' hgh, q. d.
afterwards, as a kind of Targum, it became usual'the Highlands') was the name given by the
to write their national versions and this amended  Hebrews to the tract of country lying between
Arabic version in parallel columns. This mere Phoenicia on the west, Palestine on the south,
juxtaposition led to a further adulteration in each Arabia Deserta and the river Tigris on the east,
case. Afterwards, two of these MSS. which had and the mountain-range of Taurus on the north.
thus suffered different adaptations, were brought Many parts of this extensive territory have a much
together by some means, and mutually corrupted lower level than Palestine, but it might receive the
each other-by which a third text, the hybrid one designation of'highlands,' because it does rise to a
of our Arabic version, was produced. The age of greater elevation than that country at most points
the original Arabic text is uncertain; but the circum- of immediate contact, and especially on the side of
stance of its adoption by the Syrians and Copts Lebanon.  Aram, or Aramsea, seems to have
places it near the seventh century (Bertholdt's Ein- corresponded generally to the Syria and Mesoleit. i. 692, sq.).                         potamia of the Greeks and Romans (see those
G. The version of the Acts, of the Epistles of articles). We find the following divisions expressly
Paul, of the Catholic Epistles, and of the Apo- noticed in Scripture:-i. ARAM-DAMMESEK, D11
calypse, which is found in both the Polyglotts. pjD'T, the'Syria of Damascus' conquered by David,
The author is unknown, but he is supposed to 2 Sam. viii. 5, 6, where it denotes only the territory
have been a native of Cyrene, and the date to be around Damascus; but elsewhere'Aram,' in conthe eighth or ninth century (Bertholdt, ibid.)  nection with its capital'Damascus,' appears to be
II. Arabic versions founded on the LXX.    used in a wider sense for Syria Proper (Isa. vii.
A. The Polyglott version of the Prophets, which  I, 8; xyii. 3; Amos. i, 5).  At a later period




ARAM                     192                 ARAM
Damascus gave name to a district, the Syria is the territory of Damascus. The rivers which
Damascena of Pliny (v. 13).  To this part of enclose Mesopotamia are the Euphrates on the
Aram the'land of Hadrach' seems to have be- west and the Tigris on the east; but it is doubtful
longed (Zech. ix. I). 2. ARAM-MAACHAH, 1KN   whether the Aram-Naharaim of Scripture embraces;f3O (I Chron. xix. 6), or simply Maachah (2 Sam. the whole of that tract or only the northern portion
x. 6, 8), which, if formed from  ]=3, to'press of it (comp. Gen. xxiv. 1o; Deut. xxiii. 4; Judg.
together,' would describe a country enclosed and iii. 8). A part of this region of Aram is also
hemmed in by mountains, in contradistinction to called Padan-Aram, DSK rli, the plain of Aram
the next division,'Aram-beth-Rechob,' i.e., Syria (Gen. xxv. 20; xxviii. 2, 6, 7; xxxi. I8; xxxiii. 8),
the wide or broad, nP3 being used in Syriac for a and once simply Padan (Gen. xlviii. 7), also Sedeh-'district of country.' Aram-Maachah was not far Aram, D3'K T'lW, the field of Aram (Hos. xii. 12),
from the northern border of the Israelites on the whence the' Campi Mesopotamie' of Quintus
east of the Jordan (comp. Deut. iii. I4, with Josh. Curtius (iii 2, 3; iii. 8, I; iv. 9, 6). But that the
xiii. II, 13). In 2 Sam. x. 6, the text has'king whole of Aram-Naharaim did not belong to the
Maachah,' but it is to be corrected from  the flat country of Mesopotamia appears from the cirparallel passage in I Chron. xix 7,'king of cumstance that Balaam, who (Deut. xxiii. 4) is
Maachah.'  3. ARAM-BETH-RECHOB, n'n. 1'N     called a native of Aram-Naharaim, says (Num.
31'ln, the meaning of which may be that given xxiii. 7) that he was brought'from Aram, out of
above, but the precise locality cannot with certainty the mountains of the east.' The Septuagint, in
be determined. Some connect it with the Beth- some of these places, has Mero0rora.fca Mvplas, and
rehob of Judg. xviii. 28, which Rosenmiiller in others Zvpta Hora/uwp, which the Latins rendered
identifies with the Rehob of Num. xiii. 21, situated by Syria Interamna.' as men come to Hamath,' and supposes the dis-  But though the districts now enumerated be the
trict to be that now known as the Ardh-el-hule only ones expressly named in the Bible as belonging
at the foot of Anti-Libanus, near the scources of to Aram, there isno doubt that manymore territories
the Jordan. A place called Rehob is also men- were included in that extensive region; e.g., Geshur,
tioned in Josh. xix. 28, 30; xxi. 31; Judg. i. 31; Hul, Arpad, Riblah, Tadmor, Hauran, Abilene,
but it is doubtful if it be the same. Michaelis etc., though some of them may have formed part
thinks of the Rechoboth-ha-Nahar (lit. streets, i. e., of the divisions already specified.  A native of
the village or town on the river Euphrates) of Gen. Aram was called D'N1K Arami, an Aramaean, used
xxxvi. 37; but still more improbable is the idea of of a Syrian (2 Kings v. 20), and of a Mesopotamian
Bellermann and Jahn that Aram-beth-Rechob was (Gen. xxv. 20). The feminine was Aramiah, an
beyond the Tigris in Assyria. 4. ARAM-ZOBAH, Aramitess (I Chron. vii. 14), and the plural Aramin'n1   - DNK, or, in the Syriac form, btI   Zoba (2 (2 Kings viii. 29). It appears from the ethnographic
Sam. x. 6). Jewish tradition has placed Zobah at table in the tenth chapter of Genesis (vers. 22, 23)
Aleppo (see the Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela), that Aram was a son of Shem, and that his own
whereas Syrian tradition identifies it with Nisibis, a sons were Uz, Hul, Gether, and Mash. If these
city in the north-east of Mesopotamia. Though gave names to districts, Uz was in the north of
the latter opinion long obtained currency under the Arabia Deserta, unless its name was derived rather
authority of Michaelis (in his Dissert. de Syria from Huz, son of Nahor, Abraham's brother (Gen.
Sobaea, to be found in the Comment. Soc. Gotting. xxii. 21). Hul was probably Ccele-Syria; Mash,
1769), yet the former seems a much nearer approxi- the Mons Masius north of Nisibis in Mesopotamian
mation to the truth. We may gather from 2 Sam. Gether is unknown. Another Aram is mentioned
viii. 3, x. i6, that the eastern boundary of Aram- (Gen. xxii. 21) as the grandson of Nahor and son
Zobah was the Euphrates, but Nisibis was far of Kemuel, but he is not to be thought of here.
beyond that river; besides that in the title of the The descent of the Aramaeans from a son of Shem
sixtieth Psalm (supposing it genuine) Aram-Zobah is confirmed by their language, which was one of
is clearly distinguished from Aram-Naharaim, or the branches of the Semitic family, and nearly
Mesopotamia. It is true, indeed, that in 2 Sam. allied to the Hebrew. Many writers, who have
x. i6, it is said that Hadarezer, king of Zobah, copied without acknowledgment the words of
brought against David'Aramites from beyond Calmet, maintain that the Aramaeans came fromn
the river;' but these were auxiliaries, and not his Kir, appealing to Amos ix. 7; but while that
own subjects. The people of Zobah are uniformly passage is not free from obscurity, it seems evispoken of as near neighbours of the Israelites, the dently to point, not to the aboriginal abode of the
Damascenes, and other Syrians; and in one place people, but to the country whence God would
(2 Chron. viii. 3) Hamath is called Hamath-Zobah, recover them when banished.  The prophet had
as pertaining to that district.  We therefore said (Amos i 5) that the people of Aram should
conclude that Aram-Zobah extended from  the go into captivity to Kir (probably the country
Euphrates westward, perhaps as far north as to on the river Kur or Cyrus), a prediction of which
Allepo. It was long the most powerful of the we read the accomplishment in 2 Kings xvi 9;
petty kingdoms of Aramaea, its princes commonly and the allusion here is to their future restoration.
bearing the name of Hadadezer or Hadarezer. 5. Hartmann thinks Armenia obtained its name
ARAM-NAHARAIM Q'n"l] Dl3K, i. e., Amm of the from Aram. Traces of the name of the Aramaeans
Two Rivers, called in Syriac'Beth-Nahrin,' i. e., are to be found in the'AptsAot and'Apacyaiot'the land of the rivers,' following the analogy by of the Greeks (Strabo, xiii. 4, 6; xvi. 4, 27;
which the Greeks formed the name Meaorora/.la, camp. Homer's Iliad, ii. 783). They were so'the country between the rivers.' For that Meso- noted for idolatry that, in the language of the
potamia is here designated is admitted universally, later Jews, NC31ni'3K   was used as synonymous
with the exception only of Mr. Tilston Beke, who, with heathenism (see the Mishna of Surenhusius,
in his Origines Biblice,. among many other para- ii. 401; Onkelos on Levit. xxv. 47). Castell, in his
doxical notions, maintains that'Aram-Naharaim' Lexic. Heptaglott. col. 229, says the same form of




ARAMA                     193         ARAMAIC LANGUAGE
speech prevails in Syriac and Ethiopic.  The    ARAMAIC LANGUAGE (1nslK, 2 Kings
Hebrew  letters 6 resh and' daleth are so alike                                -:
Hebrew  ltes rsan dlt rxviii. 26; Dan. ii. 4). The Aramaic languagethat they were often mistaken by transcribers; and  that whole, of which the Chaldee and Syriac
hence in the Old Testament IKN Aram. is some- dialects form  parts —constitutes the northern
times found instead of D'I Edom, and vice versd. and least developed branch of the Syro-Arabian
Thus in 2 Kings xvi. 6, according to the text, the faily  cradle was probably on the banks of
eAramaens are spoken of as possessming Elath on  the Cyrus, according to the best interpretation of
the Red Sea; but the Masoretic marginal reading  Amos ix. 7  but Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and
has'the Edomites,' which is also found in many  Syria form what may be considered its home and
manuscripts, in the Septuagint and Vulgate, and it proper domain. Political events, however, subseis obviously the correct reading.-N. M.       proper domain. Political events, however, subseis obviously the correct readg.-. M.uently caused it to supplant Hebrew in Palestine;
and then it became the prevailing form of speech
ARAMA, ISAAC, also called BAAL-AKEDAH, a    from the Tigris to the shore of the Mediterranean,
celebrated Jewish philosopher and commentator, and, in a contrary direction, from Armenia down
was born in Zamora about 146o, and was one of to the confines of Arabia.  After obtaining such a
the 300,000 Jews who were expelled from Spain in  wide dominion, it was forced, from  the ninth
I492: he took shelter in Naples, where he died in  century onwards, to give waybefore the encroaching
1494. The work which immortalized his name is ascendency of Arabic; and it now only survives, as
called Akedath Isaac (pn  npP), a philosophicala living tongue, among the Syrian Christians in the
commentary on the Pentateuch and the five Megil- neighbourhood of Mosul.
loth, viz., the Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations,  According to historical records which trace the
Coheleth (Ecclesiastes), and Esther, consisting of migrations of the Syro.Arabians from the East to
150 sections, and containing some of the severest the South-west, and also according to the compastrictures on the views of Aristotle, as well as some ratively ruder form of the Aramaic language itself,
of the most beautiful moral sayings. Referring to  we might suppose that it represents, even in the
the well-known motto of the Jewish sages, 7   state in which we have it, some image of that abL- iL ~L~ i L *L..         original type which the Hebrews and Arabians,
Ktcr  7PW   pin ti7 V' 5tKI, which is quoted  under more favourable social and climatical inand applied by St. Paul in a higher sense,'all fluences, subsequently developed into fulness of
Israel shall be saved' (Rom. xi. 26), Arama re- sound and structure. But it is difficult for us now
marks, it would be injustice to our fellow-creatures to discern the particular vestiges of this archaic
to understand this as if the Israelites alone are to form; for, not only did the Aramaic not work out
be the heirs of everlasting life, simply because they  its own development of the original elements
are Israelites. Israel means the righteous, and  common to the whole Syro-Arabian sisterhood of
every pious man is an Israelite; hence'a son of languages, but it was pre-eminently exposed, both
Israel became synonymous with a son of eternal by neighbourhood and by conquest, to harsh collife (Shaar, 60). It is from this work that Arama lision with languages of an utterly different family.
received the name Baal-Akedah.    Arama also  Moreover, it is the only one of the three great
wrote a separate commentary upon the Book of Syro-Arabian branches which has no fruits of a
Esther, which was published in Constantinople in  purely national literature to boast of. We possess
15 8, and an exposition of the book of Proverbs, no monument whatever of its own genius; not
called ~IW:K', the handof Absalom.-C. D. G. any work which may be considered the product of
the political and religious culture of the nation, and
ARAMA, MEIR, also called, by way of d            cteristic of it —as is so emphatically the case
tinction, "  1 mnT, the Rabbi Meieri, son of the both with the Hebrews and the Arabs. The first
time we see the language, it is used by Jews as the
celebrated Isaac Arama, was born in Saragossa, tie we seethe languaget i    d by    s s he
accompanied his father to Naples in 1492, after the veh ie ewi t         d    a   tho   en
general expulsion of the Jews from Spain, and after we ext meett it is employed by native authors
the death of his father (I494) emigrated to Salonica, yet they wrte under the litrary impulses of
where he died in 1556. He wrote valuable anno  Christianity and under the Greek influence on
tations on Isaiah, 7eremiah, rob, the Psalms, thethought and language which necessariy accomSong ofSongs, and the Book of Esther, which are panied that religion.  These two modifications,
distinguished for their brevity and for logically h  onstute and define the so-calledChaldee
evolving the sense of the inspired writers. His and Syriac dialects, are the only forms in which
style is very laconic, and being a thorough master the normal and standard Aramaic has been preof the Hebrew language, he generally gives the trueserved to us.
sense of the Scriptures in a very few words without  It is evident, from these circumstances, that, up
taking the student through the process of verbal to a certain period, the Aramaic language has no
criticism as Ibn Ezra does.  His commentary on other history than that of its relations to Hebrew.
Isaiah and Jeremiah, called OnsiFl 1341, light The earliest notice we have of its separate existence..':         is in Gen. xxxi. 47, where Laban, in giving his
and perfection, and his exposition of The Song of own name to the memorial heap, employs words
Songs are printed in Frankfurter's great Rabbnical which are genuine Aramaic both in form and use.
Bible, 4 vols. fol. Amsterdam I724-1727; the com- The next instance is in 2 Kings xviii. 26, where it
mentary on Job, called fjr.K'.t4, which he wrote appears that the educated Jews understood Aramaic,
in 1506, was published in Venice 1517-1567; the but that the common people did not. A striking
commentary on the Psalms, cniI       n    r, om- haillustration of its prevalence is found in the circumpcommentary on the Psalms, dTrfl1J 1'V 4, ~ com -stance that it is employed, as the language of official
posed in 1512, was published in Venice I590.-  communication, in the edict addressed by the
C. D. G.                                      Persian court to its subjects in Palestine (Ezra iv.
VOL..0




ARAMAIC LANGUAGE                  194          ARAMAIC LANGUAGE
17). * The later relations of Aramaic to Hebrew con- genitive is most frequently expressed by the prefix',
sist entirely of gradual encroachments on the part and that of the object by the preposition.
of the former. The Hebrew language was indeed   All these peculiarities are common to the dialects
always exposed, particularly in the north of Palestine, of Aramaic, and may therefore be considered to
to Aramaic influences whence the Aramaisms of
to Aramaic influences; whence the Aramaisms of constitute the fundamental character of the language.
the book of Judges and of some others are derived.  -T N
It also had always a closer conjunction, both by  [Amira, Gram. Syriaca sive Chaldaica, Rom.
origin and by intercourse, with Aramaic than with  1596  Buxtorf, Gram. Chald. et Syr. Libri iii.,
Arabic. But in later times great political events Basil  65, ed. 2. 1650; De Dieu, Gram. Ling.
secured to Aramaic the complete ascendency; for, Orient.  eb  C d  Syr. inter se collatarum,
on the one hand, after the deportation of the ten  rancof.  683; Erpenius, Gram. Cha. et Syr.,
tribes, the repeopling their country with colonists Amst.  628; Hottinger, Gram. Chald. Syr. a
chiefly of Syrian origin generated a mixed Aramaic Rabbi. Turic. 652; Walton, d. adectionem
and Hebrew dialect (the Samaritan) in central ingg.    rien. I6eb. Caltd. Syr. Samaritan. et.,
Palestine; and on the other, the exile of the re- Lond. 1655  Schaaf, Opus Am m       etens
maining two tribes exposed them to a considerable, Gra. Cad Syr. etc, Lug. Bat. r 68em  ectens
Gram. cChald. Syr., etc., Lug. Bat. i686; Jahn,
although generally overrated, Aramaic influence in  ramsche Srac  re, W. 1795, translated
Babylon, and their restoration, by placing them in into Latin by Oberleitner, ahnii Elementa Aracontact with the Samaritans, tended still further to  maic ing., Vien. 1820; First, Lehrgeb. de.
dispossess them of their vernacular Hebrew. The ramdisch.    83;    ste, Le
subsequent dominion of the Seleucidae, under which  Hepaglotton Heb. Cl. Syr,; etc., Lend. x669]
the Jews formed a portion of a Syrian kingdom,
the Jews formed a portion of a Syrin k,   In addition to the above general account of the
appears to have completed the series of events byAramaic language, some more special notice of the
which the Aramaic supplanted the Hebrew lan- different dialects may be given.
guage entirely.                                 I. THE EAST ARAMAIC or CHALDEE.-This is
The chief characteristics in form and flexion not to be confounded with'the language of the
which distinguish the Aramaic from the Hebrew  Chaldees' (Dan. i. 4), which was probably a Medolanguage are the following:-As to the consonants, Persic dialect; but is what is denominated Aramaic
the great diversity between the forms of the same (n'ltK) in Dan. ii. 4. This was properly the
root as it exists in both languages, arises principally language of Babylonia, and was acquired by the
from the Aramaic having a tendency to avoid the Jews during the exile, and carried back with them
sibilants. Thus, where t, W, and X are found in  on their return to their own land.
Hebrew, Aramaic often uses I, 1, and tD; and even  The existence of this language, as distinct from
y for S.   Letters of the same organ are also the Western Aramaic or Syriac, has been denied
frequently interchanged, and generally so that the by many scholars of eminence (Michaelis, Abhandl.
Aramaic, consistently with its characteristic rough- von der Syr. Spr. ~ 2; Jahn, Aramaeische Sprachness, prefers the harder sounds. The number of  ehre ~ I; Hupfeld, 7heol. Stud. und Kit. 1830,
vowel-sounds generally is much smaller: the verb is p 290 ff.; De Wette, Einl. ~ 32; First, Lehrgeb.
reduced to a monosyllable, as are also the segolate derAram. Idiome, p. 5); who think that in what
forms of nouns. This deprives the language o1 is called the Chaldee we have only the Syriac with
some distinct forms which are marked in Hebrew; an infusion of Hebraisms. The answer to this,
but the number and variety of nominal formations however, is that some of the peculiarities of the
is also in other respects much more limited. The Chaldee are such as are not Hebraistic, so that it
verb possesses no vestige of the conjugation Niphal, cannot have derived them from this source. Thus,
but forms all its passives by the prefix JK1. The the prefix in the future of the third person fem. pl.
third person plural of the perfect has two forms, to in Chaldee is  whilst in Syriac it is, and in Heb.
mark the difference of gender. The use of the.                                 and 
imperfect with vav consequutivum  is unknown. n; the pron. this in Chaldee is:  and,? whilst
There is an imperative mood in all the passives    yr. has      and the Heb      the passives
the Syr. has ~O', and the Heb. I1';.the passives
Each of the active conjugations, Pad and Aphel, 
possesses two participles, one of which has a passive in Chaldee are formed by an internal vowel change
signification.  The participle is used with the different from the Hebrew, whereas in Syriac the
personal pronoun to form a kind of present tense. passive is formed by the addition of syllables; the
L -..   L      I,~,Chaldee has the status emphaticuspur. in N%-,whilst
The classes of verbs;1 and M', and other weak  C   e hs                       
forms, are almost indistinguishable. In the noun, the Syr. has a simple 1-; and to these may be
again, a word is rendered definite by appending the added the use of peculiar words, such as 
vowel d to the end (the so-called status emphaticus);  
but thereby the distinction between simple feminine  (Dan. v. 7, 6),  (Ezra iv. 8; v. 9, 
and definite masculines is lost in the singular. The vi. I3) n3I3 (Ezra iv. I, II, etc.) injln (Dan.
plural masculine ends in fn.  The relation of. 2, 23); the use of 9 for' in such words as
IT n-, tN, etc.  There are other differences be* [Havernick contends (Introd. p. 87, E. T.) tweeV the Chaldee and Syriac, such as the absence
that some tinge of Aramaic pervades the language from the former of otiant consonants and diphof Balaam (Num. xxiii. xxiv,); and with this Hirzel thongs, the use of dagesh-forte in the former and
(De Chaldaismi Bibl. orig., etc., p. 14) to a certain not in the latter, the formation of the infin. without
extent agrees. Assuming that we have a report of the prefixing of Dt except in Peal; but as these are
Balaam's own words, his language is probably common to the Chaldee with the Hebrew, they
Hebrew, as spoken by an Aramean, who insensibly cannot be used as proofs that the Chaldee was
infused into it some of his own dialectical peculi- a dialect independent of the Hebrew, and not the
arities.]                                     Syriac modified by the Hebrew; and the same




ARAMAIC LANGUAGE                  195         ARAMAIC LANGUAGE
may be said of the difference of pronunciation be-  (Cellarius, Chaldaismus, Sive Gram. Ling. Chald.
tween the Syriac and Chaldee, such as the preva- Cizae 1684; Opitius, Chaldaismus Targ. Talm.
lence of an a sound in the latter where the former Rabb. Hebraismo harmonicus, Kil. 1696; Michaelis,
has the o sound, etc. It may be added, however, Gram. Chald., Gott. 1771; Winer, Gram. desBibl.
to the evidence above adduced, as a general re- und Targum. Chaldaismus, Leipz. 1842, sec. ed.;
mark, that when we consider the wide range of the Rigg, Manual of the Chaldee Language, Lond.
Aramaic language from east to west, it is in the  1858, sec. ed.)
highest degree probable that the dialect of the  II. THE WEST ARAMAIC or SYRIAC.-Of this
people using it at the one extremity should differ dialect in its ancient form no specimens remain.
considerably from that of those using it at the As it is known to us, it is the dialect of a Chrisother. (See Aurivillius, Dissert. ad Sac. Literas et tianized people, and its oldest document is the
Philol. Orient. pertinentes, p. Io7 ff.; Hoffmann, translation of the N. T., which was probably made
Gram. Syr., Proleg., p. II; Dietrich DeSerm. Chald. in the second century. [SYRIAC VERSIONS.]
proprietate, Lips. 1839; Havernicl, General Intro-  As compared with the Arabic, and even with the
duction, p. 91 ff.; Bleek, Einl. in das A. T., p. 53; Hebrew, the Syriac is a poor language; it is also
Winer, Chaldaische Grammatik, p. 5.) It may be harsher and flatter than the Hebrew. As it is now
further added that not only are the alphabetical extant, it abounds in foreign adulterations, having
characters of the Chaldee different from those of received words successively from the Persian, the
the Syriac, but there is a much greater prevalence Greek, the Latin, the Arabic, and even, in its more
of the Scriptio plena in the former than in the latter. recent state, from the Crusaders.  Thus, we have
As, however, the Chaldee has come down to us not only such words as 1Qr^m silver, 3tL
only through the medium of Jewish channels, it is an ido,  i 
not probable that we have it in the pure form in      which are pure Persic, and such words as
which it was spoken by the Shemitic Babylonians.. D  o6ttd, JQLn  o KWavo,.ev,^.y&p, L.Le
The rule of the Persians, and subsequently of the 
Greeks in Babylonia, could not fail also to infuse candea, which are Greek and Latin, but such moninto the language a foreign element borrowed from  strositiesas.-n m icSOMarquis,?JOQ   Count, etc.
both these sources.                             The Syriac of the early times is said to have had
The Chaldee, as we have it'preserved in the dialects. This is confirmed by what has come
Bible (Ezra iv. 8 and 18; vii. I2-26; Dan. ii. 4-  down to us. The Syriac of the sacred books differs
vii. 28; Jer. x. II) and in the Targums has been, from that preserved in the Palmyrene inscriptions,
as respects linguistic character, divided into three so far as those can be said to convey to us any ingrades: i. As it appears in the Targum of Onke- formation on this point, and the later Syriac of the
los, where it possesses most of a peculiar and inde- Maronites and of the Nestorians differs considerably
pendent character; 2. As it appears in the biblical from that of an older date. What Adler has called
sections, where it is less free from Hebraisms; and  the Hierosolymitan dialect is a rude and harsh
3. As it appears in the other Targums, in which, dialect, full of foreign words, and more akin to the
with the exception to some extent of that of Jona- Chaldee than to the Syriac. The Syriac is written
than Ben Uzziel on the Prophets, the language is in two different characters, the Estrangelo and the
greatly corrupted by foreign infusions (Winer, De Peshito [table of Alphabets]. Of these the EstranOnkeloso ejusque Paraphr. Chald., Lips. I819; gelo is the more ancient; indeed, it is more ancient
Luzzato, De Onkelosi Chald. Pent. versione, Vienn. apparently than the characters of the Palmyrene and
1830; Hirt, De Chaldaismo Biblico, Jen. I751). the Egypto-Aramaic inscriptions. Assemanni de[TARGUM.]                                     rives the word from the Greek orpO^-yXoS, round
The language which is denominated in the N. T. (Bibl. Orient. iii. pt. 2, p. 378); but this does not
Hebrew, and of which a few specimens are there correspond with the character itself, which is angugiven, seems, as far as can be judged from the lar rather than round. The most probable derivascanty materials preserved, to have been substan- tionisfrom the Arabic    ing, and..
tion is from the  Arabic ~   writing, and J 3
tially the same as the Chaldee of the Targums
(Pfannkuche, On the Language of the Palestine in gospel. The Peshito is that commonly in use, and
the Age of Christ and his Apostles, translated in the is simply the Estrangelo reduced to a more readable
Biblical Cabinet, vol. ii.) In this language some form.
of the Apocryphal books were written (Hiero-     (Dilherr, Eclogae Sacrxe quibus pramittuntuy
nymi Praef. in Tobit, Judith, I Macc.), the work Rudimenta Gram. Syr. Hal. Sax. 1646, ed. sec.;
of Josephus on the Jewish war (DeBello 7ud. praef. Opitius, Syriasmus facilitati et integritati su&a
~ i), and, as some suppose, the original Gospel by restitutus, Lips. I69I; Leusden, Schola Syriacac
Matthew. It is designated byJerome the Syro- libri tres, Ultraj. 1658; Beveridge, Gram. Syr.
Chaldaic (Contr. Pelag. iii. I), and by this name it tribus libris tradita, Lond. 1658; Michaelis, C. B.,
is now commonly known. The Talmudists intend Syriasmus, i. e., Gram. ling. Syr., Hal. Magd. 1741;
this- when they speak of the Syriac or Aramaic Michaelis, J. D., Gram. Syr., Hal. 1784; Phillips,
(Lightfoot, Hor. Heb. on Matt. v. 18; Winer, Elements of Syr. Grammar, Lond. 1845, sec. ed.;
Realwirterb. ii. 587, note).                  Hoffmann, Gram. Syr. Libli iii., Hal. 1827;
The Chaldee is written in the square character Cooper, Syr. Gr., Lond. i86o; A. Gutbir, Lexicon
in which the Hebrew now appears. This seems to Syr. in N. T. Hamb. I667, new edition by Henhave been the proper Chaldee character, and to  derson, Lond. 1836; Schaaf, Lex. Syr. in N..,
have superseded the old Hebrew or Samaritan   Lugd. Bat. 1708; Castell, Lex. Syr. ed. Michaelis,
character after the exile. The Palmyrean and the  Gitt. 1788.)
Egypto-Aramaic letters [see table of Alphabets]  III. THE SAMARITAN.-This is a mixture of
much more closely resemble the square character Aramaic and Hebrew. It is marked by frequent
than the ancient Hebrew of the coins (Kopp. permutations of the gutturals. The character used
Bilder und Schriften, ii. 164 ff.)           is the most ancient of the Shemitic characters, which




ARAMAIC VERSIONS                196                 ARARAT
the Samaritans retained when the Hebrews adopted  either case; in the former he would translate the
the square character. Few remains of this dialect word destitute, forlorn; in the latter ruins. The
are extant. Besides the translation of the Penta- majority, however, think a plant is intended,
teuch [SAMARITAN VERSIONS], only some liturgical though they have differed as to which is to be prehymns used by Castell, and cited by him as Liturgia ferred.] The words have been variously translated
Damascenorum, and the poems collected and edited tamarisk; tamarin, which is an Indian tree, the
by Gesenius (Carmina Samaritana) in the first tamarind; and retem the broom. The rendering in
fasciculus of his Anecdota Orientalia, remain. the French and English version bruiere, heath, is per(Morinus, Opuscula Hebraco-Samaritana, I657; haps the most incorrect of all, though Hasselquist
Cellarius, Horar Samaritana, Jenae I703; Uhle- mentions finding heath near Jericho, in Syria. As
mann, Institutt. Ling. Samaritana,, Lips. I837.)  far as the context is concerned, some of these plants,
IV. THE SABIAN or NAZOREAN.-This is the as the broom and tamarisk, would answer very
language of a sect on the banks of the Euphrates                               is applied
and Tigris who took to themselves (at least in well; but the Arabic name, 
part) the name of Mendeites (Gnostics) or Nazo- to a totally different plant, a species of juniper, as
reans, but were called Sabians by the Arabians. has been clearly shewn by Celsius (Hierobot. p. ii.
Some of their religious writings are extant in the p. 195), who states that Arias Montanus is the
libraries at Paris and Oxford. Their great book  only one who has so translated the Hebrew arar
(St1 SN'1D), the Liber Adami, has been edited (Jer. xvii. 6):' For he shall be like the heath (arar)
with a Latin translation by Matthias Norberg, Prof. in the desert, and shall not see when good cometh,
at Lund, who died in I826, under the title Codex but shall inhabit the parched places in the wilderNasareus, Liber Adami Appellalus, 3 parts 4to, ness, in a salt land, and not inhabited.' The word
Lund, 1815-16; this was followed by a Lexicon, arar, in all the old Arabic authors, signifies a kind
1816, and an Onomasticon, x817, on the book by of juniper.
the same.  The language is a jargon between    Several species of juniper are no doubt found in
Syriac and Chaldee; it uses great freedom with Syria and Palestine [ERES]. Robinson met with
the gutturals, and indulges in frequent commuta- some in proceeding from Hebron to Wady Musa,
tions of other letters; and in general is harsh and near the romantic pass of Nemela:'On the rocks'irregular, with many grammatical improprieties, above we found the juniper tree, Arabic ar'ar; its
and a large infusion of Persic words. The MSS. berries have the appearance and taste of the comare written in a peculiar character; the letters are mon juniper, except that there is more of the aroma
formed like those of the Nestorian Syriac; and the of the pine. These trees were ten or fifteen feet in
vowels are inserted as letters in the text.  height, and hung upon the rocks even to the sumV. THE PALMYRENE. On the ruins of the ancient mits of the cliffs and needles.' In a note the author
city of Palmyra or Tadmor have been found many says:' This is doubtless the Hebrew''10   aroer
inscriptions, of which a great part are bilingual, (Jer. xlviii. 6); whence both the English version
Greek, and Aramaic. A collection of these was and Luther read incorrectly heath. The juniper of
made by Robert Wood, and published by him in a the same translations is the retem' (Bibl. Researches,
work entitled 7he Ruins of Pamyra, Lond. 1753; ii. 506). In proceeding S.E. he states:'Large
they were soon afterwards made the object of trees of the juniper become quite common in the
learned examination by Barthelemy at Paris and Wadys and on the rocks.' It is mentioned in the
Swinton at Oxford, especially the latter, whose same situations by other travellers, and is no doubt
Explication of the Inscriptions in the Palmyrene common enough, particularly in wild, uncultivated,
Language will be found in the 48th vol. of the and often inaccessible situations, and is thus suitable
Philosophical Transactions, p. 690-756. These in- to Jer. xlviii. 6:'Flee, save your lives, and be like
scriptions are of the first, second, and third cen- the heath (ar'ar) in thewilderness.'-J.F. R.[ARoD.]
turies; they are of little intrinsic importance. The
language closely resembles the Syriac, and is ARARAT (t1'?K) occurs nowhere in Scripture
written in a character akin to the square character, as the name of a mountain, but only as the name
but a little inclining to a cursive mode of writing.  of a country, upon the'mountains' of which the
VI. THE EGYPTO-ARAMAIC -This is found on ark rested during the subsidence of the flood (Gen.
some ancient Egyptian monuments, proceeding pro- viii. 4). In almost every part of the East, where
bably from Jews who had come from Palestine to there is the tradition of a.deluge, the inhabitants
Babylonia. Among these is the famous Carpentras connect the resting-place of the'great vessel' with
inscription, so called from its present location in the some conspicuous elevation in their own neighboursouth of France; this, Gesenius thinks, is the pro- hood. Thus we are informed by the lamented Sir
ductionof a Syrian from the Seleucidinian empire A. Burnes (Travels to Bokhara, vol. i. p. 117),
residing in Egypt, but this is less probable than that on the road to Peshawur and Cabul, the
that it is the production of a Jew inclining to the Sufued Koh, or'White Mountain,' rears its crest
Egyptian worship.  Some MSS. on papyrus also on one side, and the towering hill of Noorgill, or
belong to this head; see Gesenius, Monumenta Kooner, on the other. Here the Afghans believe
Phoen., i. 226-245.  The language is Aramaic, the ark of Noah to have rested after the Deluge.
chiefly resembling the Chaldee, but with a He- Another sacred mountain in the East is Adam's
braistic infusion.-W. L: A.                  Peak, in the island of Ceylon, and it is a curious
ARAMAIC VERSIONS. [SYRIAC VERSIONS circumstance, that in Gen. viii. 4, the Samaritan
TARGUM.]                                     Pentateuch has'Sarandib,' the Arabic name of
AR'AR ( ) and AROER (i)  [Thee Ceylon. In the Sibylline verses it is said that the
~ARAR (sy?) and AROER (-ig  [These mountains of Ararat were in Phrygia; but Bochart
words occur Jer. xvii. 6 and xlviii. 6, and in both has ingeniously conjectured that the misconception
places the A. V. renders by heath.  Gesenius arose from the city of Apamea there having been
doubts whether the name of a plant be intended in  called Kibotos (the Greek word for-an ark), because




ARARAT                    197                 ARARAT'inclosed in fhe shape of an ark by three rivers, p. 312; Porter's Travels, i. 178; Smith and Dwight's
Shuckford, after Sir Walter Raleigh, would place Researches in Armenia, ii. 73, Gesenius adopts the
Ararat far to the east, in part of the range derivation from Sansc. aryavorta, terra sancta.]
anciently called Caucasus and Imaus, and terminating in the Himmaleh mountains, north of India * But though it may be concluded with tolerable
and to this opinion Kirby inclines in his Bridge- certainty that the land of Ararat is to be identified
water Treatise (p. 45). Dr. Pye Smith also, when with a portion of Armenia, we possess no historical
advocating the local and partial nature of the data for fixing on an one mountain in that country
Deluge, seeks for a less elevated mountain thanas the resting-place of the ark. Indeed it may be
the Armenian Ararat, and lays hold of this amongfairlyuestoned whether the phrase in Gen. v
other hypotheses (The Relation between Scripture  4, "n   1r1,'and the ark rested,' necessarily
and Geological Science, p. 302); whereas Kirby means that the ark actually grounded on the top of
embraces it for the very opposite reason, viz.,a mountain; it may merely imply that after it had
because, holding the universality of the Flood, he en drn and tossed to and fro on the waste of
thinks that mountain is not high enough to account waters, it at length settled, i.e., attained a measure
for the long period that elapsed (Gen. viii. 5) beforeof comparative repose, and became more stationary
the other mountains became visible. Now it isover (by) the mouhtains of Ararat, when the waters
evident that these and such-like theories have been began to subside. That this may be the import of
framed in forgetfulness of what the Bible has the expression will be denied by none who are
recorded respecting the locality of Ararat.  We acquainted with the genius of the Hebrew language,
may be unable to fix with precision where that and with the latitude of meaning attachable to the
region lay, but we can without difficulty decide verb r1n, which (as is observed by Taylor in his
that it was neither in Afghanistan nor Ceylon, Concordance) includes whatever comes under the
neither in Asia Minor nor in Northern India.  idea of'remaining quietly in a place without being
The only other passages where'Ararat' occurs disturbed.' A vessel enjoys more real rest when
are 2 Kings xix. 37 (Is. xxxvii. 38) and Jer. li. 27. becalmed, than when she grounds on the top of a
In the former it is spoken of as the country whither submarine mountain in a troubled sea.  What
the sons of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, fled, gives plausibility to our conjecture is the fact that
after they had murdered their father.  The apo- whether the' rest' was obtained on the bosom of
cryphal book of Tobit (i. 21) says it was els Tr 6pr  the now calmer deep, or by coming into contact'ApapdO,'to the mountains of Ararath.'  This with the dry land, it was nearly three months after
points to a territory which did not form part of the this before'the tops of the mountains were seen'
immediate dominion of Assyria, and yet might not (Gen. viii. 5); the same mountains being evidently
be far off from it. The description is quite appli- intended as those spoken of in the previous verse,
cable to Armenia, and the tradition of that country viz. the mountains of Ararat. Now, as the waters
bears, that Sennacherib's sons were kindly received were all the while abating (v. 3), it is much easier
by king Paroyr, who allotted them  portions of to reconcile this latter statement with the idea of
land bordering on Assyria, and that in course of the ark being still afloat, than with the common
time their posterity also established an independent belief that it lay on a mountain peak; besides, that
kingdom, called Vaspurakan (Avdall's Transl. of by this interpretation we get rid of otherwise inexChamich's Hist. of Armenia (vol. i. p. 33, 34). plicable difficulties. If our supposition be correct,
The other Scripture text (Jer. li. 27) mentions then, for anything that appears to the contrary,
Ararat, along with Minni and Ashkenaz, as king- the ark did not touch the earth until the waters
doms summoned to arm themselves against Babylon. were abated to a level with the lower valleys or
In the parallel place in Is. xiii. 2-4, the invaders of plains, and, consequently, the inmates were not
Babylonia are described as'issuing from the moun- left upon a dreary elevation of I6,ooo or 7,00ooo
tains;' and if by Minni we understand the Minyas feet, never till of late deemed accessible to human
in Armenia, mentioned by Nicholaus of Damascus footsteps, and their safe descent from which, along
(Josephus, Antiq. i. 3, 6), and by Ashkenaz some with all the'living creatures' committed to their
country on the Euxine Sea, which may have had care, would have been a greater miracle than their
its original name, Axenos, from Ashkenaz, a son deliverance from the flood. By this explanation
of Gomer, the progenitor of the Cimmerians (Gen, also we obviate the geological objection against the
x. 2, 3)-then we arrive at the same conclusion. mountain, now called Ararat, having been subviz., that Ararat was a mountainous region north  merged, which would imply a universal deluge,
of Assyria, and in all probability in Armenia. In  whereas by the'mountains of Ararat' may be
Ezek. xxxviii. 6, we find Togarmah, another part understood some lower chain in Armenia, whose
of Armenia, connected with Gomer, and in Ezek. height would not be incompatible with the notion
xxvii. 14, with Meshech and Tubal, all tribes of of a partial flood. Finally, we on this hypothesis
the north. With this agree the traditions of the solve the question:-If the descendants of Noah
Jewish and Christian churches, and likewise the settled near the resting-place of the ark in Armenia,
accounts of the native Armenian writers, who how could they be said to approach the plain of
inform us that Ararad was the name of one of the Shinar (Gen. xi. 2), or Babylonia, from the East?
ancient provinces of their country, supposed to  For, as we read the narrative, the precise restingcorrespond to the modem pashaliks of Kars and place of the ark is nowhere mentioned; and
Bayazeed, and part of Kurdistan. According to though for a time stationary'over' the mountains
the tradition preserved in Moses of Chorene, the of Ararat, it may, before the final subsidence of
name of Ararat was derived from Arai, the eighth the waters, have been carried considerably to the
of the native princes, who was killed in a battle east of them.
with the Babylonians, about B.c. 1750; in memory  The ancients, however, attached a peculiar sacredof which the whole province was called Aray-iarat, ness to the tops of high mountains, and hence the
i.e., the ruin of Arai. [See Morier's Second tourney, belief was early propagated that the ark must have




ARARAT                    198                 ARARAT
rested on some such lofty eminence. The earliest'Armenian.'  At Gen. viii. 4, the Arabic of
tradition fixed on one of the chain of mountains Erpenius has Jibal-el-Karud (the Mountain of the
which separate Armenia on the south from Mesopo- Kurds), which is likewise found in the' Book of
tamia, and which, as they also inclose Kurdistan, Adam' of the Zabeans.  For other proofs that
the land of the Kurds, obtained the name of this was the prevalent opinion among the Eastern
the Kardu, or Carduchian range, corrupted into churches, the reader may consult Eutychius,
Gordieaan and Cordyxan. This opinion prevailed  (Annals), and Epiphanius (Hfares. 18).  It was
among the Chaldzeans, if we may rely on the no doubt from this source that it was borrowed by
testimony of Berosus as quoted by Josephus (A;ntiq. Mahomet, who in his Koran (xi. 46) says,'The
i. 3, 6):'It is said there is still some part of the ark rested on the mountain Al-Judi.' That name
ship in Armenia, at the mountain of the Cordyeans, was probably a corruption of Giordi, i. e. Gordizean
and that people carry off pieces of the bitumen, (the designation given to the entire range), but
which they use as amulets.' The same is reported  afterwards applied to the special locality where the
by Abydenus (in Euseb. Prqe. Evang. ix. 4), who  ark was supposed to have rested. This is on a
says they employed the wood of the vessel against mountain a little to the east of Jezirah ibn Omar
diseases. Hence we are prepared to find the tradi- (the ancient Bezabde) on the Tigris. At the foot
tion adopted by the Chaldee paraphrasts, as well of the mountain there was a village called Ka'ya
as by the Syriac translators and commentators, and  ThzamininZ, i. e., the Village of the Eighty —that
all the Syrian churches. In the three texts where being the number (and not eight) saved from the'Ararat' occurs, the TargNll  of Onkelos has flood according to the Mohammedan belief. The'11) Kza'rduz; and, according to Buxtorf, the historian Elmacin mentions that the emperor Heraterm'Kardyan' was, in Chaldee synonymous with  clius went up, and visited this as'the place of the
62. Ararat.
ark.' Here, or in the neighbourhood, was once a maintain here a perpetually burning lamp in an
famous Nestorian monastery,'the Monastery of oratory. (Reivue Franla6se, vol. xii.; or the Semleur
the Ark,' destroyed by lightning in A. D. 776. of October 2, 1839.)
The credulous Jew, Benjamin of Tudela, says that  After the disappearance of the Nestorian monasa mosque was built at Mount Judi,'of the remains tery, the tradition which fixed the site of the ark
of the ark,' by the Khalif Omar.  Macdonald on Mount Judi appears to have declined in credit,
Kinneir, in describing his journey from Jezirah  or been chiefly confined to Mohammetans, and
along the left bank of the Tigris to Nahr Van, gave place (at least among the Christians of the
says,'We had a chain of mountains running    West) to that which now obtains, and according
parallel with the road on the left hand.  This to which the ark rested on a great mountain in the
range is called the Juda Dag (/. e., mountain) by north of Armenia-to which (so strongly did the
the Turks, and one of the inhabitants of Nahr Van idea take hold of the popular belief) was, in course
assured me that he had frequently seen the remains of time, given the very name of Ararat, as if no
of Noah's ark on a lofty peak behind that village.' doubt could be entertained that it was the Ararat
(Comp. Rich's KDzrdistan, vol. ii. p. 124.) A  of Scripture. We have seen, however, that in the
French savant, Eugene Bore, who lately visited Bible Ararat is nowhere the name of a mountain,
those parts, says the Mohammedan dervishes still and by the native Armenians the mountain in
l~nnil ill des~~-=-~-cribing ——`= hi journey:.. fim  ezra  o benchefy  onind o  ohmmtaan




AARART                    199                  ARBEH
question was never so designated; it is by them  Ararat. It was a slightly convex, almost circular
called Macif, and by the Turks Aghur-dagh, i. e., platform, about 200 Paris feet in diameter, com-' The Heavy or Great Mountain.' The Vulgate posed of eternal ice, unbroken by a rock or stone:
and Jerome indeed, render Ararat by'Armenia,' on account of the immense distances, nothing could
but they do not particularize any one mountain.  be seen distinctly. The mountain was, it is said,
Still there is no doubt of the antiquity of the tra- afterwards ascended by a Mr. Antonomoff, but the
dition of this being (as it is sometimes termed) the fact both of his and Parrot's having reached the'Mother of the World.'   The Persians call it top is stoutly denied by the natives, and especially
Kuhi Nuch,'Noah's Mountain.' The Armenian    by the inmates of the neighbouring convent of
etymology of the name of the city of Nakhchevan  Echmiadzin, who have a firm persuasion that in
(which lies east of it) is said to be'first place of order to preserve the ark no one is permitted to
descent or lodging,' being regarded as the place approach it. This is based on the tradition that a
where Noah resided after descending from the monk, who once made the attempt, was, when
mount.   It is mentioned by Josephus under a asleep from exhaustion, unconsciously carried down
Greek name of similar import, viz.'Airoparhpcov, to the point whence he had started; but at last, as
and by Ptolemy as Naxuana.                    the reward of his fruitless exertions, an angel was
The mountain thus known to Europeans as sent to him with a piece of the ark, which is preArarat consists of two immense conical elevations served as the most valuable relic in the cathedral
(one peak considerably lower than the other), of Echmiadzin.
towering in massive and majestic grandeur from  Since the memorable ascent of Dr. Parrot, Ararat
the valley of the Aras, the ancient Araxes. Smith  has been the scene of a fearful calamity.  An
and Dwight give its position N. 57~ W. of Nakh- earthquake, which in a few moments changed the
chevan, and S. 25~ W. of Erivan (Researches in  entire aspect of the country, commenced on the
Armenia, p. 267); and remark, in describing it 20th of June (o. s.), 1840, and continued, at
before the recent earthquake, that in no part of intervals, until the Ist of September. Traces of
the world had they seen any mountain whose im- fissures and landslips have been left on the surface
posing appearance could plead half so powerfully  of the earth, which the eye of the scientific observer
as this a claim to the honour of having once been will recognise after many ages. The destruction of
the stepping-stone between the old world and the houses and other property in a wide tract of country
new.'It appeared,' says Ker Porter,'as if the around was very great; fortunately, the earthquake
hugest mountains of the world had been piled upon having happened during the day, the loss of lives
each other to form this one sublime immensity of did not exceed fifty. The scene of greatest devasearth and rocks and snow. The icy peaks of its tation was in the narrow valley of Akorhi, where
double heads rose majestically into the clear and  the masses of rock, ice, and snow, detached from
cloudless heavens; the sun blazed bright upon  the summit of Ararat and its lateral points, were
them, and the reflection sent forth a dazzling thrown at one single bound from a height of 6000
radiance equal to other suns. My eye, not able to feet to the bottom of the valley, where they lay
rest for any length of time upon the blinding glory scattered over an extent of several miles.  See
of its summits, wandered down the apparently  Major Voskoboinikof's Report, in the Athenaeum
interminable sides, till I could no longer trace their for i841, p. I57). —N. M.
vast lines in the mists of the horizon; when an  ARAUA                         ) a Jeb
irrepressible impulse immediately carrying my eye              T -: 
upwards, again refixed my gaze upon the awful who had a threshing floor on Mount Moriah, which
glare of Ararat.' To the same effect Morier writes: he sold to David as a site for an altar to Jehovah.' Nothing can be more beautiful than its shape, This site was indicated to David by God as the
more awful than its height. All the surrounding  spot where the angel of the plague had stayed his
mountains sink into insignificance when compared  destructive progress. At first Araunah refused to
to it. It is perfect in all its parts; no hard rugged accept payment from the king, but on David's
feature, no unnatural prominences, everything is in insisting on this, he accepted for the site and for his
harmony, and all combines to render it one of the oxen 50 shekels of silver (2 Sam. xxiv. 18-25). In
sublimest objects in nature.'                 I Chron. xxi. 25, the sum is stated at 600 shekels
Several attempts had been made to reach the of gold, a discrepancy which there are no means of
top of Ararat, but few persons had got beyond the reconciling. The Chronicler also spells the name
limit of perpetual snow. The French traveller of Araunah Oman (1y:m), and even in Samuel we
Tournefort, in the year 1700, long persevered inhave the variation nJN   (v. 6). In verse 23
the face of many difficulties, but was foiled in the             T —- T
end. Between thirty and forty years ago the Pasha Araunah is called  n1, but this does not appear
of Bayazeed undertook the ascent with no better in any of the ancient versions and is probably an
success. The honour was reserved to a German, error. Two of Kennicott's codices and one of De
Dr. Parrot, in the employment of Russia, who, in  Rossi's omit it.-W. L. A.
his Reise zum Ararat (Journey to Ararat) gives the  RBA (    Sept.'App6K) the father of Anak,
following particulars:-' The summit of the Great  -B 
Ararat is in 39~ 42 north lat., and 61 55' east and progenitor of the Anakim.  From him the
long. from Ferro.  Its perpendicular height is city afterwards called Hebron received the name of
16,254 Paris feet above the level of the sea, and  Kirjath-arba (Josh. xiv. 15; xv. 13; xxi. II).
13,350 above the plain of the Araxes. The Little First thinks his name means hero of Baal, qu.
Ararat is 12,284 Paris feet above the sea, and 9561i x   -W. L. A.
above the plain of the Araxes.' After he and his
party had failed in two attempts to ascend, the  ARBEH (;1I') occurs in Exod. x 4, Sept.
third was successful, and on the 27th September dKpi&a iroXX'v ('a vast flight of locusts,' or perhaps
(o. s.), I129, they stood on the summit of Mount indicating that several species were employed),




ARBEH                      200                  ARBEH
Vulg. locustam; and, in ver. I2, 13, 14, 19, dcKps has merged it in the parallel passage, 2 Chron.),
and locusta, Eng. locusts; Lev. xi. 22, ppoVxov, and in Nah. iii. 15, by adopting it for 1:I'i.  In
bruchus, locust; Deut. xxviii. 38, &Kpls, locusts, these passages the Sept. translators may have
locust; Judg. vi. 5; vii. 12, dpKil, locustarum, understood the G. migratorius or gregarius (Linn.),
grasshoppers; I Kings viii. 37, Ppov0os, locusta, which is usually considered to be the most delocust; 2 Chron. vi. 28, cpKis, locusta, locusts; structive species (from ppobaKw, I devour).  Yet
Job xxxix. 20, &Kpices, locustas, grasshoppers; Ps. in Joel i. 4; ii. 25, they have applied it to the
lxxviii 46, dKpi8t, Symm. TaKbXlK&, locuste, locust; p9, which, however, appears there as engaged in
Ps. cv. 34, dKpis, locusta, locust; Ps. cix. 23, the work of destruction.  Hesychius, in the third
aKpties, locusta, locust; Prov. xxx. 27, Kpls, lo- century, explains the ppoVKios as dKp85wv eLos,'a
custa, locust; Jer. xlvi. 23, eKpl8a, locusta, grass- species of locust,' though, he observes, applied in
hoppers; Joel i. 4; ii. 25, dKpis, locusta, locust; his time by different nations to different species of
Nahum iii. 15, ppoOvos, bruchus, locusts; ver. 17, locusts, and by some to the drrTXaaos. May not
drrTAapos, locustae, locusts.  In the foregoing con- his testimony to this effect illustrate the various uses
spectus the word il2lK, in Exod. x., as indeed  of the word by the Sept. in the minor prophets?
everywhere else, occurs in the singular number Our translators have wrongly adopted the word
only, though it is there associated with verbs both'grasshopper' in Judg. and Jer. xlvi. 23, where
in the singular and plural (ver. 5, 6), as are the' locusts' would certainly have better illustrated the
corresponding words in Sept. and Vulg.  This it idea of' innumerable multitudes;' and here, as elsemight be, as a noun of multitude; but it will be where, have departed from their professed rule,
rendered probable that four species were employed'not to vary from the sense of that which they had
and  translated before, if the word signified the same in
in the plague on Egypt, 5Dn, p5    n~K,    and  both places' (Translators to the reader, adfinem).
tDOn (Ps. lxxviii. 46, 47; cv. 34). These may all The Hebrew word in question is usually derived
have been brought into Egypt from Ethiopia (which  from Il'11,'to multiply' or'be numerous,' behas ever been the cradle of all kinds of locusts), by  cause the locust is remarkably prolific; which, as
what is called in Exodus,'the east wind,' since a general name, is certainly not inapplicable; and
Bochart proves that the word which properly signi- it is thence also inferred that it denotes the G.
fies'east' often means'south' also. The word  migratorius, because that species often appears in
ilm'1  may be used in Lev. xi. 22, as the collective large numbers.  However, the largest flight of
name for the locust, and be put first there as de- locusts upon record, calculated to have extended
noting also the most numerous species; but in   over 500 miles, and which darkened the air like an
Joel i. 4, and Ps. lxxviii. 46, it is distinguished from  eclipse, and was supposed to come from Arabia,
the other names of locusts, and is mentioned second, did not consist of the G. migratorius, but of a red
as if of a different species; just, perhaps, as we use species (Kirby and Spence, Introd. to Entomology,
the word fly, sometimes as a collective name, and  i. 210); and according to Forskal, the species
at others for a particular species of insect, as when  which now chiefly infests Arabia, and which he
speaking of the hop, turnip, meat fly, etc. When  names G. gregarius, is distinct from the G. migrathe Hebrew word is used in reference to a particu- torius of Linn. (Ency. Brit. art.'Entomology,' p.
lar species, it has been supposed, for reasons which  193).  Others derive the word from 31K,'to lie
will be given, to denote the gryllus gregarius or hid' or'in ambush,' because the newly-hatched
migratorius.  Moses, therefore, in Exodus, refers locust emerges from the ground, or because the
Pharaoh to the visitation of the locusts, as well locust besieges vegetables.  Rosenmiller justly reknown in Egypt; but the plague would seem to    marks upon such etymologies, and the inferences
have consisted in bringing them into that country  made from them,'Quam infirmum verb sit hujusin unexampled numbers, consisting of various spe- modi e solo nominis etymo petitum argumentum,
cies never previously seen there (comp. Exod. x. 4, unusquisque intelliget ipse.' He adds,' Nec alia
6, I5).  The Sept. word f3poxvos (Lev. xi. 22) est ratio reliquarum specierum' (Schol in  oel i. 4).
clearly shews that the translator uses it for a'How precarious truly the reasoning is, derived in
winged species of locust, contrary to the Latin this manner from the mere etymology of the word,
fathers (as Jerome, Augustine, Gregory, etc.), who  everybody may understand for himself. Nor is
all define the bruchus to be the unfledged young or the principle otherwise in regard to the rest of the
larva of the locust, and who call it attelabus when  species.' He also remarks that the references to
its wings are partially developed, and locusta when  the destructiveness of locusts, which are often deable to fly; although both Sept. and Vulg. ascribe rived from the roots, simply concur in this, that
flight to the bruchus here, and in Nah. iii. 17. The  locusts consume and do mischief. Illustrations of
Greek fathers, on the other hand, uniformly ascribe the propriety of his remarks will abound as we
to the ppoOvos both wings and flight, and therein  proceed.  Still it by no means follows from a coinagree with the descriptions of the ancient Greek  cidence of the Hebrew roots, in this or any other
naturalists.  Thus Theophrastus, the pupil of meaning, that the learned among the ancient Jews
Aristotle, who, with his preceptor, was probably  did not recognize different species in the different
contemporary with the Sept. translators of the names of locusts. The English wordfly, from the
Pentateuch, plainly speaks of it as a distinct spe- Saxon fleon, the Heb. l'W, and its representative
cies, and not a mere state: XaXeral sev oOv at'fowl' in the Eng. Version (Gen. i. 20, etc.), all
acpi&es, XaXe7r'repoL 5 ot dT &rXaPOL, Kal TO6Tr v express both a general and specific idea. Even a
AdXitrra o0s KaXo0vt SpoboKovs.-' The &Kpifes (the moder entomologist might speak of'the flies' in
best ascertained general Greek word for the locust) a room, while aware that from 50 to Ioo different
are injurious, the &rrdXaaot still more so, and those species annually visit our apartments. The scripmost of all which they call PpoOKo' (De Anim). tures use popular language; hence'the multitude,'
The Sept. seems to recognise the peculiar de-'the devourer,' or'the darkner,' may have been
structiveness of the Ppo'xos in I Kings viii. 37 (but the familiar appellations for certain species of




ARBELA                    201                   ARCH
locusts. The common Greek words for locusts the reign of Osirtasen I., who is presumed to have
and grasshoppers, etc., are of themselves equally been contemporary with Joseph. Indeed, although
indefinite; yet they also served for the names of the evidence from facts does not ascend beyond
species, as dKpls, the locust generally, from the tops this, the evidence from analogy and probability
of vegetables, on which the locust feeds; but it is can be carried back to about B.C. 2020 (Wilkinson's
also used as the proper name of a particular species,
as the grasshopper: reTplrrepvXXls,' four-winged,' 
is applied sometimes to the grasshopper; *rpwoaXXts, 
from rp'ywo,'to chew,' sometimes to the cater-' 
pillar. Yet the Greeks had also distinct names 
restricted to particular species, as 6vos, uoXovpts,
KepKd,7r77, etc. The Hebrew names may also have                   - 
served similar purposes.-J. F. D. 
ARBELA the name of a place mentioned I
Macc. ix. 2, as determining the site of Maisaloth.  -
It is by some identified with Beth Arbel (which L
see), and by others, with more probability, with the                              -.
existing Irbil (Rob. ii. 398).
ARCE, OR ARKE, is said by Josephus to have                       I
been a name of Petra (Antiq. iv. 4, 7). Probably
we should read'ApK/l- =  i 1 for'ApKf. But'
see Amer. Bib. Rep. for 1833, p. 536 note. — 
W. L. A.
ARCH.     Arches with vaulted chambers and
domed temples figure so conspicuously in modemr
Oriental architecture, that, if the arch did not exist
among the ancient Jews, their towns and houses
could not possibly have offered even a faint resemblance to those which now exist: and this being
the case, a great part of the analogical illustrations              _ 
of Scripture which modem travellers and Biblical
illustrators have obtained from this source must
needs fall to the ground. It is therefore of im-3
portance to ascertain whether the arch did or did Anc. Egyptians, ii. II6; iii. 316). Sir J. G. Wilnot exist in those remote times to which most of kinson suggests the probability that the arch owed
the history of at least the Old Testament belongs. its invention to the small quantity of wood in
Nothing against its existence is to be inferred from  Egypt, and the consequent expense of roofing with
the fact that no word signifying an arch can be timber.  The proofs may be thus arranged in
found in the Hebrew Scriptures (for the word so chronological order:rendered in Ezek. xl. 16, has not that meaning).  The evidence that arches were known in the
The architectural notices in the Bible are necessarily time of the first Osirtasen is derived from the drawfew and general; and we have at this day histories ings at Beni-Hasan (Wilkinson, ii. 117).
and other books, larger than the sacred volume,  In the secluded valley of Dayr el Medeeneh,
in which no such word as'arch' occurs. There at Thebes, are several tombs of the early date of
is certainly no absolute proof that the Israelites Amenoph I.  Among the most remarkable of
employed arches in their buildings; but if it can these is one whose crude brick roof and niche,
be shewn that arches existed in Egypt at a very bearing the name of the same Pharaoh, prove the
early period, we may safely infer that so useful existence of the arch at the remote period of B.C.
an invention could not have been unknown in   1540 (Wilkinson, Topography of Thebes, p. 81).
Palestine.                                    Another tomb of similar construction bears the
Until within these few years it was common to ovals of Thothmes III., who reigned about the time
ascribe a comparatively late origin to the arch; of the Exode (Anc. Egyptians, iii. 319).  At
but circumstances have come to light one after Thebes there is also a brick arch bearing the name
another, tending to throw the date more and more of this king (Hoskins, Travels in Ethiopia).
backward, until at length it seems to be admitted  To the same period and dynasty (the 18th)
that in Egypt the arch already existed in the time belong the vaulted chambers and arched doorof Joseph. The observations of Rosellini and of ways (see cut fig. 4) which yet remain in the
Sir J. G. Wilkinson led them irresistibly to this crude brick pyramids at Thebes (Wilkinson, Anc.
conclusion, which has also been recently adopted  Egyptians, iii. 3I7).
by Mr. Cockerell (Lect. iii. in Athenceum for Tan.  In ancient Egyptian houses it appears that the
28, 1843) and other architects.               roofs were often vaulted, and built, like the rest of
It is shewn by Sir J. G. Wilkinson that the arch  the house, of crude brick; and there is reason to
existed in brick in the reign of Amenoph I. as believe that some of the chambers in the pavilion
early as B.C. 1540; and in stone in the time of the of Rameses III. (about B.C. 1245), at Medeente
second Psamaticus, B.C. 600.  This evidence is Haboo, were arched with stone, since the devices
derived from the ascertained date of arches now  in the upper part of the walls shew that the fallen
actually existing; but the paintings at Beni-Hasan  roofs had this form (see cut, fig. 3).
afford ground for the conclusion that vaulted   The most ancient actually existing arches of
buildings were constructed in Egypt as early as stone occur at Memphis, near the modem village




ARCH                     202             ARCHAEOLOGY
of' Saqqara. Here there is a tomb with two large building at Thebes, constructed in the style of a
vaulted chambers, whose roofs display in every tomb. The chambers lie under a friable rock,
part the name and sculptures of Psamaticus II. and are cased with masonry, to prevent the fall of
(about B.C. 6oo). The chambers are cut in the its crumbling stone; but, instead of being roofed
limestone rock, and this being of a friable nature, on the principle of the arch, they are covered with
the roof is secured by being, as it were, lined with  a number of large blocks, placed horizontally, one
an arch, like our modern tunnels.             projecting beyond that immediately below it, till
To about the same period-that of the last the uppermost two meet in the centre, the interior
dynasty before the Persian invasion-belong the angles being afterwards rounded off to form the
remarkable doorways of the enclosures surrounding  appearance of a vault (fig. x). The date of this
the tombs in the Assaseef, which are composed of building is about B.C. I500, and consequently many
two or more concentric semicircles of brick (fig. 2) years after the Egyptians had been acquainted with
(Wilkinson, Anc. Egyptians, iii. 319).       the art of vaulting (Wilkinson, Anc. Egyptians,
Although the oldest stone arch whose age has ii. 32I).
been positively ascertained does not date earlier  Thus as the temple architecture of the Egyptians
than the time of Psamaticus, we cannot suppose did not admit of arches, and as the temples are
that the use of stone was not adopted by the almost the only buildings that remain, it is not
Egyptians for that style of building previous to strange that arches have not oftener been found.
his reign, even if the arches in the pyramids in  The evidence offered by the paintings, the tombs,
Ethiopia should prove not to be anterior to the and the pyramids, is conclusive for the existence
same era.'Nor does the absence of the arch in  and antiquity of arches and vaults of brick and
stone; and if any remains of houses and palaces
had now existed, there is little doubt that the arch
As..- \would have been of frequent occurrence. We observe that Sir J. G. Wilkinson, in portraying an
Egyptian mansion (Anc. Egyptians, ii. 131), makes
^,!  \2  the grand entrance an archway.
U_  vj  _^od.<      After this it seems unreasonable to doubt that
NI -j  >v'the arch was known to the Hebrews also, and was
lij, ^~~t^^^>^^ ^-^^'employed in their buildings.          Palestine, though'!  T an       r nn mixT - 1better wooded than Egypt, was still deficient of
wood suitable for building and for roofs, is shewn
i I i i i J; jt I  _      by the fact that large importations of timber from
the forests of Lebanon were necessary (2 Sam. vii.
2, 7; I Kings v. 6; I Chron. xxii. 4; 2 Chron.
/IQ fn /  ^0  I       ii. 3; Ezra iii. 7; Cant. i. I7), and that this imported timber, although of no very high quality, was
__ _ /-~""" i  aheld in great estimation. [BRIDGE.]-J. K. [It may
be added that arched gateways are frequently represented on the Assyrian bas-reliefs. (See Layard's
1^ _)^^^^^}^^/^^ —'            Nineveh, ii. 260).  In his second series of researches the same enterprising traveller discovered
~__ -Add      -      -   -several arches belonging to the ancient architecture
~~64-~. ~of Assyria (Nineveh and Babylon, p. 163-4)].
ARCHEOLOG     Y, BIBLICAL. -Archaeology,
temples and other large buildings excite our sur-    has been called by some writers, Archoprise, when we consider the style of Egyptian  or, as it has been called by some writers, Archaeoprise, when we consider the style of Egyptian graphy, has been defined to be'an explanation of
monuments; and no one who understands the those ancient monuments in which former nations
character of their architecture could wish for its
character of their architecture could wish for itshave left us the traces or records of their religion,
introduction.  In some of the small temples of history, politics, arts and sciences' (Miscellanea
the Oasis the Romans attempted this innovation, Aniq. erud.) It may perhaps be more convenibut the appearance of the chambers so constructedenty described as a systematic knowledge of the
fails to please and the whimsical caprice of Osirei public institutions and domestic habits of the ancients
(about B.C. 1385) also introduced an imitation of bricius, Bib     viii i)  Plato uses 
the arch in a temple at Abydus. In this building oXola for antiquarian lore in general (Hipp. Maj.
oXo.ya for antiquarian lore in general (Hi.p.p. Maj.
285 D.) Although the word has been very vaguely
applied, it is generally understood to exclude history, and to deal rather with the'permanent condition' than with the'progressive development' of
the nations concerned (De Wette, Archdol. ~ I).
-~- X: _-    It is thus used in a sense far more limited than was
understood by Diodorus Siculus in the title'Ia-ropla
~65.'~           ~dpxatoXoyovALvr}, or by Josephus, when he gave to
the roof is formed of single blocks of stone, reach- his celebrated History the title of'ApXatoXo-la
ing from one architrave to the other, which, instead'IovaiicI. We should not apply such a term to
of being placed in the usual manner, stand upon books like Ewald's Geschichte des Volkes Israel, or
their edges, in order to allow room for hollowing Dean Milman's History of the 7ews. Jahn, who
out an arch in their thickness; but it has the effect very loosely considers Archaeology to involve'the
of inconsistency, without the plea of advantage or knowledge of whatever in antiquity is worthy of
utility.' Another imitation of the arch occurs in a remembrance' (Archacol. Bib!. ~ I), makes it in



ARCHAEOLOGY                   203              ARCHAEOLOGY
clude Geography; but this subject must be excluded published on the illustrations of Scripture to be
from thepropermeaning of the term, although books found in Herodotus. 5. The Apocrypha, and the
like Bochart's Phaleg and Canaan, and Reland's later Jewish writings, as the Jerusalem and BabyPalestina ex Monumentis veterum illustrata, abound lonian Talmuds, consisting of the Mishna (or
in information most valuable to the biblical student. text), and Gemaras (or commentaries on it). This
Biblical Archaeology must therefore be considered'rich but turbid source' (as Hagenbach calls it,
as the science which collects and systematizes all quoted in Herzog's Encyclop.) has been amply conthat can be discovered about the religious, civil, suited, and the results may be largely found in
and private life of the people among whom the Buxtorf's Lex. Talmudicum, Otho's Lex. RabbiniBible had its origin; and of those nations by whose cum, Meuschen N. T. ex  Talm. illustratum,
history and customs they were mainly influenced. Lightfoot's Hor. Hebraicae, and Schoettgen's Hor,
The Archaeology of the Bible is both more difficult Hebraice, as also in Wettstein's Annot. in N. T.
and more interesting than that of the Greeks and  6. Oriental writers, as Avicenna, Abulfeda, El
Romans; and its interest is commensurate with its Edrisi, the Zend Avesta, and especially the Koran.
importance. To reproduce in living pictures the Something, too, can be gleaned from writers who,
bygone life of other ages must always be a worthy like Jerome and Ephrem Syrus, lived in Syria.  As
task for the thoughtful student, and lessons of the much as an English reader is likely to want on the
utmost importance will arise from the endeavour to subject, may be found in Hottinger's Historia
resuscitate an extinct civilization. But when such  Orientalis, D'Herbelot's Bibl. Orient., and Weil's
a study is pursued in order to understand the Legends. 7. Books of Travel. These have added
character and institutions of that peculiar nation to very largely to our knowledge of Biblical Archaewhich was entrusted the propagation of a revealed  ology, because of the stationary character of all
religion, it becomes worthy of the highest intellect. oriental forms of civilization. A list of them may
Without it no true conception can be formed of the be found in Winer's Handbuch der Theologischen
views and circumstances which lent their chief force Literatur. We may mention the Travels of Poand value to many of the profoundest utterances of cocke, Maundrell, Bruce, Clarke, and De Saulcy;
inspired philosophy during a period of fifteen cen- Niebuhr's Description de l'Arabie, Burckhardt's
turies; and the neglect with which it was long  Travels in Syria, Shaw's Travels in Barbary and
treated gave rise to numerous unnecessary difficulties the Levant, Chardin's Travels in Persia, Harmer's
and unworthy sneers.  Had the peculiarities of Observations, Lieutenant Wellsted's Travels in
Jewish civilization been thoroughly understood, half Arabia, Professor Robinson's Biblical Researches,
of the innuendoes which delighted the admirers of Bonar's Desert of Sinai, Thomson's The Land
Bayle and Volney would only have raised a smile.  and the Book, and especially Professor Stanley's
The sources of Biblical Archaeology are few and  Sinai and Palestine.  On Jerusalem alone, several
meagre, and those that are most copious are un- most valuable works have recently appeared, as
fortunately also most questionable.  Following  the Rev. G. Williams' Holy City, Thrupp's AnFabricius, Jahn, and other writers, we may state cient Jerusalem, and Ferguson's Essay on the
them as follows:-I. The first and chief source is, Ancient Topography of Jerusalem.  Much may
of course, that collection of sacred books, com- also be learnt from the Description de PEgypte,
prising almost the sole relics of ancient Hebrew  Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, and Lane's Modern
literature, which were written in different centuries, Egyptians.
in different styles, and under different circumstances,  If in the term Biblical Archaeology we also induring the entire period of Jewish history, and which  lude Ecclesiastical or Christian Archaeology, we
are now comprised under the one name'Bible.' But shall have to add to the sources of information
among these books there is not a single document already mentioned, the writings of the fathers, and
professedly archaeological, and our knowledge of the innumerable commentaries upon them, as well
the subject must be pieced from scattered and inci- as such works as Baumgarten, Archaol. Compend.,
dental notices, and illustrated from other sources. 1766; Baronius, Annales Ecclesiast., 1558; Bing2. Ancient monuments, comprising coins, inscrip- ham's Origines Ecclesiast.; Augusti, Handbuch d.
tions, bas-reliefs, statues, gems, and the ruins of Christl. Archdologie; Cave's Primitive Christisuch cities as Baalbec, Palmyra, Persepolis, Nine- anity; and many others.
veh, and Petra. The most valuable books on this  Numerous complete manuals of Hebrew antiquibranch of the subject, are Reland, De Spoliis Tem- ties have been compiled, and a thorough knowledge
pli in Arcu Titiano conspicuis, 17i6; F. G. Bayer, of them, so far as it is attainable, may now be easily
De numis Hebr. Samar.; J. H. Hottinger, De acquired.     Of these treatises, we may mention
Cippis Hebraicis; Hessey on Ancient Weights, etc., Goodwin's Moses and Aaron, I614, on which have
1836; Ackerman's Numismatics of the N. T.; been founded the treatises of Witsius and HottinBrissonius, De regno Persarum; Miver's Phnizier, ger, Dr. Jenning's 7ezvish Antiquities, and the
and Layard's Nineveh. The translations of cunei- Apparatus Criticus of Carpzov. The latter will
form inscriptions by Sir H. Rawlinson, Dr. Hincks, be found an unusually rich storehouse of learning
and others, have lately thrown a flood of light on  and research.  In Latin we have Iken's Antiq.
the Jewish monarchy; some of the information thus Hebr., I730; Waehner's Antiq. Hebr., I743 (a
acquired may be found in the Rev. G. Rawlinson's somewhat meagre treatise); Reland's Antiq. Hebr.
Herodotus, but the labours of Dr. Hincks are un- (short, but most valuable); and Pareau, Antiq.
fortunately scattered through a number of separate Heb.: in German, De Wette's Lehrbuch der Hebr.
publications. 3. The works of Philo and Jose- Archaol., 3d edition; Scholz, Handbuch d. Bibl.
phus. 4. Ancient Greek and Latin authors, as Archao.; Rosenmiiller's Alteithumskunde; Zel.
Xenophon, Diod. Siculus, Aelian, Strabo, Plu- ler's Biblisch. Wirterbuch; and Winer's invaluable
tarch, and especially Herodotus. This field has Real-worterbuch. This last is an almost perfect
been so well worked that probably little more can encyclopaedia of biblical knowledge, which those
be gleaned from it. A book has recently been  can best value who have used it most. In Eng.




ARCHELAUS                    204             ARCHITECTURE
lish, till quite recently, we have (with the ex-  ARCHISYNAGOGUS        (Gr. &pXvvwdcy6os,
ception of Goodwin) little of any value.  We called also d&pXwv 7rjs ovvaywytrs (Luke viii. 4I),
may, however, mention Taylor's Calmet (a hetero- and simply dpXwv (Matt. ix. I8); Heb. tKI
geneous book, containing much that is useful, 1f1D;1, chief or ruler of the synagogue). In large
mixed up with more that is fantastic or doubt- synagogues there appears to have been a college
ful), and Upham's abridged translation of Jahn's or council of elders (tl'pt='-rpeoaP6repot, Luke
very painstaking Archaologie. The chief fault in vii. 3), to whom the care of the synagogue and the
Dr. Jahn's book is the absence of reference to  discipline of the congregation were committed, and
other works, and the inferences from  Scripture to all of whom this title was applied (Mark v. 22;
passages, which often rest onveryslender grounds. Acts xiii. 15; xviii. 8, compared with v. I7).
England has, however, contributed to this great Their duties were to preside in the public services,
subject such noble works as Selden's Syntagma De to direct the reading of the Scriptures and the
Dis Syriis, and Spencer's De legibus Hebr. rituali- addresses to the congregation (Vitringa, De Synabus. An exhaustive treatment of almost every in- goga Veler. lib. 3, part i. c. 7, comp. Acts xii.
teresting question connected with the Bible will be  15), to superintend the distribution of alms (Vitr.
found in the monographs contained in the Critici c. 13), and to punish transgressors either by
Sacri (of which the substance is given in Poole's scourging (Vitr. c. II, comp. Matt x. 17; xxiii.
Synopsis), and in the thirty-four folio volumes of 34; Acts xxiiL 9), or by excommunication (Vitr.
Ugolini's Thesaurus.                          c. 9). In a more restricted sense the title is someSpecial parts of the subject are handled in books times applied to the president of this council, whose
of such vast learning, that we must subjoin a few  office, according to Grotius (Annotationes in Matt.
of the principal ones, without attempting anything ix. I8; Luc. xiii. I4), and many other writers,
more than a reference to the countless monographs was different from and superior to that of the
which are yearly produced by German* industry. elders in general. Vitringa (p. 586), on the other
Such are on the Natural History of the Bible, hand, maintains that there was no such distinction
Bochart's Hierozoicon, a book of stupendous re- of office, and that the title thus applied merely desearch; Rosenmiller on the Botany and Miner- signates the presiding elder, who acted on behalf
alogy of the Bible (Clark's Theol. Library); of and in the name of the whole.-F. W. G.
Celsius's Hierobotanicon; and Scheuchzer's Phy- ARCHITECTURE. It was formerly common
sica Sacra.  On the Private Life of the Hebrews, to claim for the Hebrews the invention of scienScacchius's Myrothecium; Selden's UxorHebr. O   tific architecture; and to allege that classical antiSacred Rites, Buxtorf, De Styagoga; Vitringa, te quity was indebted to the Temple of Solomon for
Synag. Vett.; and Braunius, De Vestitu Saceriotis. the principles and many of the details of the art.
And on their Arts and Sciences, Budoeus's Philo- A  statement so strange, and even preposterous,
sophia Ebraorum;  Lowth and Michaelis, De Sacra would scarcely seem to demand attention at the
Poesi; Glassius' PiLowthgia Sacra   Ewald Poet  present day; but as it is still occasionally reproBiicher d. A.'T.; Bartholinus, De Morbis Biblicis.  duced, and as some respectable old authorities can
Michaelis, Hisor. T itri at. Hebr.; Horst, Zauber  be cited in its favour, it cannot be passed altoMichaelis, othe;  and D e Saucy, H st. de  rt, Zauber. gether in silence. The question belongs properly,
Bibliothek; and De Saulcy, Hist. de ~Art Yudaique  however, to another head. [TEMPLF-]   It May
Our knowledge of all subjects connected with however, to another head. [TEMPLE.] It may
Our knowledge of all subjects connected with  here suffice to remark that temples previously
Biblical Archaeology has for some time been increasing in consequence of the great interest which   existed in Egypt, Babylon Syria, and Phenicia,
from which the classical ancients were far more
the study excites, and of the additional information  o or    the ideas which   embodied in
likely to borrow the ideas which they embodied in
which recent discoveries have thrown open to us. new and beautiful combinations of their own.
A good and accurate manual in English, founded
on the best authorities, would be very useful to  There has never in fact been any people for whom
thousands who have not the leisure or opportunity a peculiar style of architecture could with less profor extended inquiries.-F. W. F.              bability be claimed than for the Israelites.  On
ARCHELAUS, son of Herod the Great, and leaving Egypt they could only be acquainted with
Ahissuccessor in Idumoe, Judtea, and   Samaria Egyptian art. On entering Canaan they necessarily
his successor in Idumaea, Judaea, and Samaria
occupied the buildings of which they had dispos(Matt.. 22). [HERODIN        sessed the previous inhabitants; and the succeeding
ARCHERY. [ARMS.]                            generations would naturally erect such buildings as
ARCHEVITES (NS13nK) the Chaldean name the country previously contained. The architecture
~.:::-                    of Palestine, and as such, eventually that of the
of a people, Ezra iv. 9; the chief town of which, Jews, had doubtless its own characteristics, by
according to Gesenius, was Erech (Gen. x. io). which it was suited to the climate and condition of
The Targum, Jerome, and Ephraem Syrus, iden-the country; and in the course of time many imtify it with Edessa. [ERECH.]                 provements would no doubt arise from the causes
ARCHIPPUS ("ApXtr'ros), a Christian minister, which usually operate in producing change in any
whom St. Paul calls his' fellow-soldier,' in Philem. practical art. From the want of historical data
2, and whom he exhorts to renewed activity in CoL  and from the total absence of architectural remains,
iv. I7. From the latter reference it would seem  the degree in which these causes operated in imthat Archippus resided at Colosse, and there dis- parting a peculiar character to the Jewish architeccharged the office of presiding presbyter or bishop. ture cannot now be determined; for the oldest
ruins in the country do not ascend beyond the
* Most of these will be found referred to under period of the Roman domination. It does, howtheir different heads in Winer's Real-wdrierbuch; ever, seem  probable that among the Hebrews
but they are of very unequal merit, and in numerous architecture was always kept within the limits of a
instances are not to be procured.             mechanical craft, and never rose to the rank of a




ARCHITRICLINUS                   205               AREOPAGUS
fine art. Their usual dwelling-houses differed little  o fiovXe, the Council; but it retained till a late
from those of other Eastern nations, and we no- period, the original designation of Mars Hill,
where find anything indicative of exterior embellish- being called by the Latins Scopulus Martis, Curia
ment. Splendid edifices, such as the palace of Martis (Juvenal, Sat. ix. Iox), and still more
David and the Temple of Solomon, were completed  literally, Areum Judicium (Tacit. Annal. ii. 55).
by the assistance of Phoenician artists (2 Sam. v. The place and the Council are topics of interest to
II; I Kings v. 6, I8; I Chron. xiv. I). After the Biblical student, chiefly from their being the
the Babylonish exile, the assistance of such  scene of the interesting narrative and sublime disforeigners was likewise resorted to for the restora- course found in Acts xvii, where it appears that
tion of the Temple (Ezra iii. 7). From the time the apostle Paul, feeling himself moved, by the
of the Maccabsean dynasty, the Greek taste began evidences of idolatry with which the city of Athens
to gain ground, especially under the Herodian was crowded, to preach Jesus and the resurrection,
princes (who seem to have been possessed with a both in the Jewish synagogues and in the marketsort of mania for building), and was shewn in the place, was set upon by certain Epicurean and Stoic
structure and embellishment of many towns, baths, philosophers, and led to the Areopagus, in order
colonnades, theatres and castles (Joseph. Antiq. that they might learn from him the meaning and
xv. 8, I; xv. 19, 4; xv. 10, 3; DeBell. rud. i. 13, design of his new doctrine. Whether or not the
8). The Phoenician style, which seems to have Apostle was criminally arraigned, as a setter forth
had some affinity with the Egyptian, was not, of strange gods, before the tribunal which held its
however, superseded by the Grecian; and even as sittings on the hill, may be considered as undeterlate as the Mishna (Bava Bathra, iii. 6), we read mined, though the balance of evidence seems to
ofTyrian windows, Tyrian porches, etc. [HOUSE.] incline to the affirmative. Whichevet view on this
With regard to the instruments used by builders point is adopted, the dignified, temperate, and
-besides the more common, such as the axe, saw, high-minded bearing of Paul under the peculiar
etc.. we find incidental mention of the 1nln? or circumstances in which he was placed is worthy of
compass, the 3.K  or plumb-line (Amos vii. 7). high admiration, and will appear the more striking
the 1p or measuring-line (see the several words), the more the associations are known and weighed
Winer'sBiblischesReal-worterbuch, art.'Baukunst;' which covered and surrounded the spot where he
Stieglitz's Geschichte der Baukunst der Allen, stood. Nor does his eloquent discourse appear to
1792; Hirt's Gesch. des Bauk. bei der Alten; have been without good effect; for though some
Schmidt's Bibl. Mathematicus; Bellermann'sHand- mocked, and some procrastinated, yet others bebuch, etc., Ewald, Gesch. Israel's, iii. I. p. 27. lieved, among whom was a member of the Council,
-J. K.'Dionysius, the Areopagite,' who has been repreARCHITRICLINUS        ('ApXLtrpIKXv os, master sented as the first bishop of Athens, and is said to.of /he /tricinium, or dinner-bed-ACCUBATION), have written books on the'Celestial Hierarchy;'
very properly rendered in John ii. 8, 9,' governor but their authenticity is questioned.
oi the prfea equivalent to the Roman Magoter    The accompanying plan will enable the reader
tonvhivii.  The Greeks also denoted the same to form  an idea of the locality in which the
social officer by the title of Sympeosiarc (tvro- Apostle stood, and to conceive in some measure
social officer by the title of Symi-osiarch (aVlzTotapdos)r.  He was not the giver of the feast, but the impressive and venerable objects with which he
was environed. Nothing, however, but a minute
one of the guests specially chosen to direct thewas environed. Nothing however, but a minute
entertainment, and promote harmony and good   description of the city in the days of its pride, comentertainment, and promote harmony and good
fellowship among the company. In the apocryphal prising some details of the several temples, portiEcclesiasticus (xxxii. I, 2) the duties of this officer coes, and schools of learning which crowded on his
among the Jews are indicated. He is there, how- sight, and which, whilst they taught him that the
ever, called iryoSlEvos:-'If thou be made the city was'wholly given to idolatry,' impressed him
ever, called ino~lmvos  If thou be made the also with  the feeling that he was standing in the
master [of a feast], lift not thyself up, but be also with the feeling that he was standing in the
among them as one of the rest; take diligent care midst ofthe highest civilization, both of his own
for them, and so sit down; and when thou hast age and of the ages that had elapsed, can give an
done all thy office, take thy place, that thou mayestadequate conception of the position in which Paul
be merry with them, and receive a crown for thy was  aced, or of the lofty and prudent manner in
of the feast.'-J.        which he acted.  The history in the Acts of the
well ordering of the feast.'-J. K.Apostles (xvii. 22) states that the speaker stood in
ARD (ntK Sept.'Apd,'ASdp). I. Son of Ben- the midst of Mars Hill. Having come up from the
jamin (Gen xlvi.  ). 2. Sonof Bela and grand- level parts pf the city, where the markets (there were
jamin (Gen. xlvi. 21). 2. Son of Bela and grandson of Benjamin (Num. xxvi. 4o). From him the two, the old and the new) were, he would probably
Ardites took their descent and name (Num. xxvi. stand with his face towards the north, and would
4~)Ardites took trdecetnthen have immediately behind him the long walls
40).                                          which ran down to the sea, affording protection
ARELI (SCK,'AproX), Son of God, ancestor of against a foreign enemy. Near the sea, on one side,
the Arelites (Gen xlvi I6;* Num. xxvi. I7)    was the harbour of PeirEeus, on the other that designated Phalerum, with their crowded arsenals, their
AREOPAGUS, an Anglicized form       of the busy workmen, and their gallant ships. Not far off
original words (6 "Apetos 7rdyos), signifying in in the ocean lay the island of Salamis, ennobled for
reference to place, Mars Hill, but in reference to ever in history as the spot near which Athenian
persons, the Council which was held on the hill. valour chastised Asiatic pride, and achieved the
The Council was also termed i iv'Apei  rd&yW  liberty of Greece. The apostle had only to turn
IovMX (or 1 fBovX\' { v'Apeidy rdoy), the Council on towards his right hand to catch a view of a sinall
Mars Hill; sometimes j? d&vwo ovX*, the Upper but celebrated hill rising within the city near that
Council, from the elevated position where it was on which he stood, called the Pnyx, where, standing
held; and sometimes simply, but emphatically, on a block of bare stone, Demosthenes and other




AREOPAGUS                    206                AREOPAGUS
distinguished orators had addressed the assembled  Wingless Victory; on the northern, a Pinacotheca,
people of Athens, swaying that arrogant and fickle or picture gallery.  On the highest part of the platdemocracy, and thereby making Philip of Macedon form of the Acropolis, not more than 300 feet from
tremble, or working good or ill for the entire the entrance-buildings just described, stood (and
civilized world.  Immediately before him lay the yet stands, though shattered and mutilated) the
crowded city, studded in every part with memorials Parthenon, justly celebrated throughout the world,
erected of white Pentelican marble, under the
o&- - a-^-^-"-I — e -^              direction of Callicrates, Ictinus, and Carpion, and
e   a c'C     e, --        t           1'   adorned with the finest sculptures from the hand of
"'\s" e' ".<-f  t  \  Gil,,5~'     Phidias. Northward from the Parthenon was the'-.the        trErechv~~;;I^4~~  MA y  ^Erechtheum, a compound building, which contained'IS ^./'',  S      the temple of Minerva Polias, the proper Erech-,S ~s'F% -l'~ ~        i**:    t.         5..... r theum (called also the Cecropium), and the Pan-.-okae~,.L..M,- =.."'-             r/     droseum.   This sanctuary contained the holy
A. The Acropolis.      N. Arch of Hadrian.
B. Areopagus.          0. Street of Tripods.
C. Museium.            P. Monument of PhilopapD. Hadrianopolis.           pus.
E. Temple of Jupiter Olym- Q. Temple of Fortune.
pius.             R: Panathenaic Stadium.
F. Theatre of Bacchus.  S. Tomb of Herodes.             i.. _- _
G. Odeium of Regilla.  T. Gate of Diochares.
H. Pnyx.               U. Gate of Achanae.                         67.
I. Temple of Theseus.  V. Dipylum.
J. Gymnasium of Ptolemy. W. Gate called Hippades  olive-tree sacred to Minerva, the holy salt-spring,
K. Stoa of Hadrian.    X. Lycabettus.          the ancient wooden image of Pallas, etc., and was
L. GTwe of  Andronicu.  Z. Peiraineiuc.       the scene of the oldest and most venerated ceremonies and recollections of the Athenians. Beza. Tombs.             i. Gate.                tween the propylma and the Erechtheum      was
b. To the Academia.    k. Brdge.               placed the colossal bronze statue of Pallas Promac. Cerameicus Exterior.  l. Gardens.
d. Mount Anchesmus.    m. Itonian Gate.        chos, the work of Phidias, which towered so high
e. Ancient Walls.      n. River Ilissus.       above the other buildings, that the plume of her
/ Modern Walls.        o. Callirrhoe.           helmet and the point of her spear were visible on. Road to Matho.          Scaleof half an English the sea between Sunium and Athens. Moreover,
is Road to the Mesognea.  mile.
the Acropolis was occupied by so great a crowd of
sacred to religion or patriotism, and exhibiting the statues and monuments, that the account, as found
highest achievements of art. On his left, somewhat in Pausanias, excites the reader's wonder, and
beyond the walls, was beheld the Academy, with  makes it difficult for him to understand how so
its groves of plane and olive-trees, its retired walks much could have been crowded into a space which
and cooling fountains, its altar to the Muses, its extended from the south-east corner to the southstatues of the Graces, its temple of Minerva, and  west only.I 50 feet, whilst its greatest breadth did
its altars to Prometheus, to Love, and to Hercules, not exceed 500 feet.  On the hill itself where Paul
near which Plato had his country-seat, and in the had his station, was, at the eastern end, the temple
midst of which he had taught, as well as his of the Furies, and other national and commemofollowers after him.  But the most impressive rative edifices.  The court-house of the council,
spectacle lay on his right hand, for there, on the which was also here, was, according to the simsmall and precipitous hill named the Acropolis, plicity of ancient customs, built of clay. There
were clustered together monuments of the highest was an altar consecrated by Orestes to Athene
art, and memorials of the national religion, such  Areia.  In the same place were seen two silver
as no other equal spot of ground has ever borne. stones, on one of which stood the accuser, on the
The Apostle's eyes, in turning to the right, would  other, the accused. Near them stood two altars
fall on the north-west side of the eminence, which  erected by Epimenides, one to Insult ("T/pews, Cic.
was here (and all round) covered and protected by  Conturme/ie), the other to Shamelessness ('Avaciefas,
a wall; parts of which were so ancient as to be of Cic. Zwpudentie).
Cyclopean origin.  The western side, which alone  The court of Areopagus was one of the oldest
gave access to what, from its original destination, and most honoured, not only in Athens, but in the
may be termed the fort, was, during the adminis- whole of Greece, and, indeed, in the ancient
tration of Pericles, adorned with a splendid flight world. Through a long succession of centuries, it
of steps, and the beautiful Propylaea, with its preserved its existence amid changes corresponding
five entrances and two flanking temples, con- with those which the state underwent, till at least
structed  by  Mnesicles  of Pentelican marble, the age of the Caesars (Tacitus, Ann. ii. 55). The
at a cost of 2012 talents.  In the times of the ancients are full of eulogies on its value, equity,
Roman emperors there stood before the Propylsea and beneficial influence; in consequence of which
equestrian statues of Augustus and Agrippa.  On  qualities it was held in so much respect that even
the southern wing of the Propylaea was a temple of foreign states sought its verdict in difficult cases.




AREOPAGUS                     207               AREOPAGUS
Like everything human, however, it was liable to  making a speech (the notion of the proceedings of
decline, and, after Greece had submitted to the  the Areopagus being'carried on in the darkness of
yoke of Rome, retained probably little of its ancient night rests on no sufficient foundation), which,
character beyond a certain dignity, which was itself however, they were obliged to keep free from all
cold and barren; and however successful it may in  extraneous matter (}so TOoV rpdyuaros), as well as
earlier times have been in conciliating for its deter- from mere rhetorical ornaments.  After the first
minations the approval of public opinion, the his- speech, the accused was permitted to go into
torian Tacitus (ut suPra) mentions a case in which  voluntary banishment, if he had no reason to expect
it was charged with an erroneous, if not a corrupt, a favourable issue. Theft, poisoning, wounding,
decision.                                      incendiarism, and treason, belonged also to this
The origin of the court ascends back into the department of jurisdiction in the court of the Areodarkest mythical period.  From  the first its con- pagus.
stitution was essentially aristocratic; a character  Its political function consisted in the constant
which to some extent it retained even after the watch which it kept over the legal condition of the
democratic reforms which Solon introduced into  state, acting as overseer and guardian of the laws
the Athenian constitution.  By his appointment (irta-Ko7ros Kal 0b5hXa rTv vb6wuv).
the nine archons became for the remainder of their  Its police function also made it a protector and
lives Areopagites, provided they had well discharged  upholder of the institutions and laws. In this chathe duties of their archonship, were blameless in racter the Areopagus had jurisdiction over novelties
their personal conduct, and had undergone a satis- in religion, in worship, in customs, in everything
factory examination.  Its power and jurisdiction  that departed from the traditionary and established
were still further abridged by Pericles, through his usages and modes of thought (rrarplois, voptIois),
instrument Ephialtes.  Following the political which a regard to their ancestors endeared to the
tendencies of the state, the Areopagus became in  nation. This was an ancient and well-supported
process of time less and less aristocratical, and  sphere of activity. The members of the court had
parted piecemeal with most of its important func- a right to take oversight of festive meetings in pritions.  First its political power was taken away, vate houses. In ancient times they fixed the number
then its jurisdiction in cases of murder, and even  of the guests, and determined the style of the enits moral influence gradually departed.  During the  tertainment. If a person had no obvious means of
sway of the Thirty Tyrants its power, or rather its subsisting, or was known to live in idleness, he was
political existence, was destroyed.  On their over- liable to an action before the Areopagus; if conthrow it recovered some consideration, and the  demned three times, he was punished with &dT'/ja,
oversight of the execution of the laws was restored  the loss of his civil rights.  In later times, the court
to it by an express decree. Isocrates endeavoured  possessed the right of giving permission to teachers
by his'Apeo7rawyrLKbs Xb6os to revive its ancient (philosophers and rhetoricians) to establish theminfluence. The precise time when it ceased to exist selves and pursue their profession in the city.
cannot be determined; but evidence is not wanting  Its strictly religious jurisdiction extended itself
to shew that in later periods its members ceased  over the public creed, worship, and sacrifices, emto be uniformly characterized by blameless morals. bracing generally everything which could come
It is not easy to give a correct summary of its under the denomination of Tr lep —sacred things.
several functions, as the classic writers are not It was its special duty to see that the religion of the
agreed in their statements, and the jurisdiction of state was kept pure from all foreign elements. The
the court varied, as has been seen, with times and  accusation of impiety (ypaor d&aepelas)-the vaguecircumstances. They have, however, been divided  ness of which admitted almost any charge connected
into six general classes (Real-Encyclopddie von  with religious innovations-belonged in a special
Pauly, in voc.): I. Its judicial function; II. Its manner to this tribunal, though the charge was in
political; III. Its police function; IV. Its reli- some cases heard before the court of the Heliastre.
gious; V. Its educational; and VI. (only par- The freethinking poet Euripides stood in fear of, and
tially) Its financial. In relation to these functions, was restrained by, the Areopagus (Euseb. Prep.
such details only can be given here as bear more or Evang. vi. 14; Bayle s. v. Eurip.) Its proceeding
less immediately on its moral and religious influ- in such cases was sometimes rather of an admonience, and may serve to assist the student of the tory than punitive character.
Holy Scriptures in forming an opinion as to the   Not less influential was its moral and educational
relation in which the subject stands to the Gospel, power. Isoc'ates speaks of the care which it took
and its distinguished missionary, the apostle Paul.  of good manners and good order (Tr^s e6KOoAtas,
Passing by certain functions, such as acting as a  eiratas). Quintilian relates that the Areopagus
court of appeal, and of general supervision, which  condemned a boy for plucking out the eyes of a
under special circumstances, and when empowered  quail-a proceeding which has been both misunderby the people, the Areopagus from time to time stood and misrepresented (Penny Cyclop. in voc.),
discharged, we will say a few words in explanation  but which its original narrator approved, assigning
of the points already named, giving a less restricted  no insufficient reason, namely, that the act was a
space to those which concern its moral and religious sign of a cruel disposition, likely in advanced life
influence. Its judicial function embraced trials for to lead to baneful actions;'Id signum esse pernimurder and manslaughter (06vov Ku ia, r& fovtKd), ciosissimae mentis multisque malo futurae si adoleand was the oldest and most peculiar sphere of its visset' (Quint. v. 9).  The court exercised a saluactivity.  The indictment was brought by the    tary influence in general over the Athenian youth,
second or king-archon (&pXwJv aaoXe6s), whose   heir educators and their education.
duties were for the most part of a religious nature.  Its financial position is not well understood; most
Then followed the oath of both parties, accom- probably it varied more than any other part of its
panied by solemn appeals to the gods. After this administration with the changes which the constithe accuser and the accused had the option of tution of the city underwent. It may suffice to




AREOPOLIS                   208                 ARETHAS
mention, on the authority of Plutarch (Themis. c. camp has given an engraving of a denarius intended
IO), that in the Persian war the Areopagus had the to commemorate this event, on which Aretas
merit of completing the number of men required  appears in a supplicating posture, and taking hold
for the fleet, by paying eight drachmae to each.  of a camel's bridle with his left hand, and with his
In the following works corroboration of the facts right hand presenting a branch of the frankincensestated in this article, and further details, with dis- tree, with this inscription, M. SCAVRVS. EX. S.
cussions on doubtful points, may be found:-   C., and beneath, REX ARETAS (Joseph. De
Meursius, Areopagus, sive de Senatu Areopagitico, Bell. ud. i. 8. I).
in Thes. Gron. t. v. p. 207; Sigonius, Dep.. Ath.  3. Aretas, whose name was originally AEneas,
iii. 2. p. I568; De Canaye, Recherches sur PArfo- succeeded Obodas ('0865bas). He was the fatherpage, pp. 273-3i6; Mem. de rAcad. des Inscr. t. in-law of Herod Antipas. The latter made prox.; Schede, De Areop. and Schwab Num quod posals of marriage to the wife of his half-brother
Areop. in plebiscita aut confirmanda aut rejicienda  Herod-Philip, Herodias, the daughter of Aristojus exercuerit legitimum, Stutt. I8i8; Mier, Von  bulus their brother, and the sister of Agrippa the
der Blutgerichtsbarkeit des Areopag.; Matthia, De Great. (On the'apparent discrepancy between the
7ud. Ath. in Misc. Philol. Krebs, de Ephetis. Evangelists and Josephus, in reference to the name
Notices on the subject may also be found in the of the husband of Herodias; see Lardner's Crediworks of Tittmann, Heffter, Hudtwalcker, Wachs- bility, etc. pt. i. b. ii. ch. 5; Works, ed. I835, i.
muth, Pauly, and Winer.-J. R. B.              408-416). In consequence of this, the daughter of
AREOPOLIS. [AR; AROER.]                     Aretas returned to her father, and a war (which
had been fomented by previous disputes about the
AREPOL, SAMUEL, a Jewish rabbi of the six- limits of their respective countries) ensued between
teenth century belonging to Safet.  He wrote Aretas and Herod. The army of the latter was
SK nrnK    Homilies and Commentary on thePenta- totally destroyed; and on his sending an account
te.         Commtaryon Ecc esiastes Const   of his disaster to Rome, the emperor immediately
Ttuch.  Commentary on Ecclesastes, Cons. ordered Vitellius to bring Aretas prisoner alive, or,
I591; r* nirn "t   On the alphabetic Psalms and if slain, to send his head (Joseph. Antiq. xviii. 5. I).
on tePsalms ofDegrees, Ven. 576; ni5~'It On
on thesamsf DgresVen I76* DSWnoOnVitellius immediately marched with an army against
on   Pam ofDrees, Ven IT-   Petra, but halted during the passover at Jerusalem.
the Song of Songs, Safet. I 579.-W. L. A.     Here he received, four days after his arrival, the news
ARETAS ('ApTaCs; Arab. i,       v. Pococke, of the death of Tiberius (March 6, A. D. 37); upon
_z', Y_ ~which, after administering the oath of allegiance to
Spec. Hist. Arab. p. 58, or, in another form, his troops, he dismissed them to winter quarters,
cJJ; = &hin, Pococke, i. c. 70, 76, 77, 89), and returned to Antioch Joseph. Antiq. xviii. 5,..)i   *.'                              ~ 3). An importance is attached to these occurthe common name of several Arabian kings. rences from      their connection with Paul's flight
I. The first of whom we have any notice was a from Damascus, which we are informed (2 Cor. xi.
contemporary of the Jewish high-priest Jason and 32) was when that city was kept by the governor
of Antiochus Epiphanes about B.C. I70 (2 Macc. under king Aretas. If we knew the exact date of
v. 8).'In the end, therefore, he (Jason) had an  this event, that of Paul's conversion might be deunhappy return, being accused before Aretas, the termined, for it preceded his journey to Jerusalem,
king of the Arabians.' 2. Josephus (Antiq. xiii. which immediately followed his flight by three
13. 3) mentions an Aretas, king of the Arabians years (Gal. i. 18). Wieseler (who is followed by
(called Obedas,'Op35as, xiii. 13. 5), contemporary  Conybeare and Howson and Dean Alford) conwith Alexander Jannaeus (died B. c. 79) and his sons. jectures that Caligula (who was no friend to Herod
After defeating Antiochus Dionysus, he reigned  Antipas, but banished him to Lyons after giving
over Ccele-Syria,'being called to the government his kingdom to HerodAgrippa) restored Damascus,
by' those that held Damascus by reason of the which had been held by preceding Arabian kings,
hatred they bore to Ptolemy the son of Menneus' to Aretas, at the time when he made several other
(Antiq. xiii. 15. 2). He took part with Hyrcanus territorial grants soon after his accession. It is
in his contest for the sovereignty with his brother worthy of notice that no Damascene coins of CaliAristobulus, and laid siege to Jerusalem, but, on gula or Claudius are known, though such coins
the approach of the Roman general Scaurus, he were struck under Augustus and Tiberius, and again
retreated to Philadelphia (De Bell. Jud. i. 6. 3). under Nero and his successors. If, then, Paul's
Hyrcanus and Aretas were pursued and defeated flight took place in A.D. 39, his conversion must
by Aristobulus at a place called Papyron, and have occurred in A.D. 36.
Dr. Neander is inclined to suppose a temporary
/#CVRfw'WR1PSE           Xforcible occupation of Damascus by Aretas at the
/ASE )^cRD                            time of the Apostle's escape (Hist. of Planting, etc.,
vol. i. p. 92), a view which is also favoured by Dr.
2 A/(l@}. _ —  ^^Kitto (D. Bible zllust. vol. viii. 152-I56). (See the'JEE\C/O5        I iiarticle Aretas, by Wieseler, in Herzog's Encyclopddie, vol. i. 488; Conyb. and Howson, Life of
68.                     St. Paul, vol. i. 100, 132, 2d ed.; Alford's Greek
Testament, vol. ii. 94 (Acts-ix. 23).-J. E. R.
lost above 6ooo men. Three or four years after,             i                  J
Scaurus, to whom  Pompey had committed the      ARETHAS, bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia.
government of Coele!Syria, invaded Petraea, but He seems to have been the immediate successor of
finding it difficult to obtain provisions for his army, Andreas [ANDREAS] in that see, and to have lived,
he consented to withdraw on the offer of 300 talents therefore, towards the close of the fifth century
from Aretas (Joseph. Antiq. xiv. 5. I). Haver- (Rettig ueb. Andreas und Arethas, Stud. u. Krit.




AREUS                    209               ARIMATHEA
I831, P.. 748). He wrote a commentary on the 1573; Comm. in Librum     7osuce, Antw. I583;
Revelation, in Greek, which was printed, along  Elucidationes in Act. App., in App. Scripta et in
with the collections of Oecumenius, at Verona in Apocalypsin, Ant. 1588; Comment. in Lib. _udi1532. The work is avowedly a avXuX6y'7, or catena cum, Ant. 1592; Comment. in Esaice Sermones,
from different authors. It is esteemed more valu- Ant. 1599: Comment. in 30 priotes Psalmos,
able than the work of his predecessor Andreas.-  Ant. 1605; Antiquitates 7udaice, Ant. i593,
W. L. A.                                      which have been   incorporated in the Critici
AREUS. In the A. V. this is the name given Sacri; Benj. Tudelensis Itinerarium, Ben. Aria
of the Lacedaemonian king who addressed a letter Montano interprete, Ant. 1575. Simon speaks in
to Onias, and who is called in the Greek text depreciating terms of his translations of the ScripOvwdp-s (I Mace. xii. 20). In verse 7 the same tures, and even goes the length of calling him
person is called AapeZos. Josephus gives the name  "ineptissimus interpres" (Hist. Crit. du V. T Bk.
Aperos, and the Vulg. Arius. As there was an ii. ch. 20). The judgment of Campbell is equally
Areus, a Lacedaemonian king, contemporary with  evere (Prel. Diss. to Four Gospels, Diss. x. 2), and
Onias the high-priest, who held office B.C. 323-300, it must be confessed with reason, his translations
it is probable that this is the person referred to. being so slavishly literal as to be not only barbarous
[ONIAS. ]-W. L. A.                            but often ridiculous. His commentaries are not
ARGAZ (tN K; Sept. O<4a), the receptacle, characterized by much exegetical ability, but they
T:                               display the author's learning and candour. They
called in the Authorized Version, a' coffer' (I Sam. have had the distinction of a place in the Index
vi. 8, I, 15), which the Philistines placed beside Expurgatorius. —W. L. A.
the ark when they sent it home, and in which they 
deposited the golden mice and emerods that formed  ARIEL (5N'I; Sept.'ApthX,'lion of God,
their trespass-offering. Gesenius and Lee agree in  and correctly enough rendered by'lion-like,'
regarding it as the same, or nearly the same thing, 2 Sam. xxiii. 20; I Chron. xi. 22), I. applied as
as the Arabian  ) j"   rinjaza, which Jauhari de- an epithet of distinction to bold and warlike pers'a kind of wallet, into which s s a  sons, as among the Arabians, who surnamed Ali
scbes i as aung to one of the two    stones oare' The Lion of God.' [It is used simply as a proper
put: it is hung to one of the two sides of thename of a man  z viii i6
haudaj [a litter borne by a camel or mule] when it     is     a loalproper name in Is. xxix.
inclines towads he  the.' D. Le, oweer,    2. It is used as a local proper name in Is. xxix.
inclines towards the other.' Dr. Lee, however,     applied to Jersalem    as victorious under
thinks that the Hebrew word denotes the wallet o, 2, applied  Jea        in Ezek. xliii. 1, crios 
itself  whereas Gesenius is of opinion that it God'-says Dr. Lee; and in Ezek. xliii. I5, i6, to
itself; whereas Gesenius is of opinion that it the altar of burnt-offerings. Here Gesenius and
means a coffrer or small box [as also FUrst, who the altar of burnt-offerings. Here Gesenius and
umeans Na cofr  or small box [as also First,  h  others, unsatisfied with the Hebrew, resort to the
suggests f~l' as the root of this word, the appended as answering to the a in the Latin arc-a, Arabic, and find the An in  fire-hearth, which,
which is its synonyme].                       with 5R God, supplies what they consider a more
ARGOB (1SS._; Sept.'Apy63), a district in satisfactory signification.  It is thus applied, in the
Bashan, east of the Lake of Gennesareth, which  first place, to the altar, and then to Jerusalem as
containing the altar.-J. K.
was given to the half tribe of Manasseh (Deut. iii. contaning the altar.h J. K.
4, 13; I Kings iv. I3). The name Argob may ARIMATHEA the birth-place of the wealthy
be traced in Ragab or Ragaba, a city of the district Joseph, in whose sepulchre our Lord was laid
(Joseph. Antiq. xiii. 15. 5; Mishna, tit. AMenachoth (Matt. xxvii. 57; John xix. 38).  Luke (xxiii
viii. 3), which Eusebius places 15 Roman miles 51) calls it a'city of the Jews;' which may be
west of Gerasa. Burckhardt supposed that he had
found the ruins of this city in those of El Hossn,
a remarkable but abandoned position on the east 
side of the lake (Syria, p. 279); but Mr. Bankes            - 
conceives this to have been the site of Gamala              -. 
(Quart. Rev. xxvi. 389). [TRACHONITIS.]                -: — _ _,
ARI. [LION.]
ARIARATHUS, one of the kings to whom
letters were sent from Rome in favour of the Jews
(I Macc. xv. 22). He was the king of Cappadocia
B.C. 163-130.
ARIAS    MONTANO, BENITO, or ARIAS:':.
MONTANUS, BENEDICTUS, a learned Spaniard, 
was born at Frexenal in 1527, and died at Seville? 
in I598. After pursuing his linguistic studies in...    i       --   -. — -
various parts of Europe, he settled down to his
literary labours in the mountains of Andalusia. 
He edited the Antwerp Polyglot Bible, in 8 vols., explained by I Mace. xi. 34, where King Deme1572; and gave an interlinear translation of the trius thus writes-' We have ratified unto them
Hebrew, as also of the Greek of the N. T., which  [the Jews] the borders, of Judaea, with the three
Walton introduced into his Polyglot, and which governments of Aphereum, Lydda, and Ramahas often been reprinted.  Besides this, many thaim, that are added unto Judea from the country
other works intended to facilitate the study of of Samaria.' Eusebius (Onomast. s. v.) andJerome
the Holy Scriptures proceeded from his pen. The  (Epit. Paule) regard the Arimathea of Joseph as
most important are Commentaria in 12 Prophefos, the same place as the Ramathaim of Samuel, and
Antw. 1571; Elucidationes in 4 Evangelia, Antw. place it near Lydda or Diospolis.  Hence it has
VOL. I.                                                                          P




ARIMATHEA                   210             ARIMATHEA
by some been identified with the existing Ramleh, But the assumption he has made is by no means a
because of the similarity of the name to that of safe one, nor one that can be carried through the
Ramah (of which Ramathaim is the dual); and treatise in which the information in question is
because it is near Lydda or Diospolis. Professor contained. Apart from it, however, there is noRobinson, however, disputes this conclusion on the thing in what Jerome says to fix the locality of
following grounds - I. That Abulfeda alleges Arimathea, further than that it was not far from
Ramleh to have been built after the time of Mo- Lydda. Paula may have visited it on her way to
hammed, or about A.D. 716, by Suleiman Abd-al Lydda, or by an excursion from that city, or on
Malik; 2. That Ramah and Ramleh have not the her way from Joppa to Nicopolis, for anything
same signification; 3. That Ramleh is in a plain, that Jerome says.
while Ramah implies a town on a hill. To this it  The testimony of Josephus furnishes a more
may be answered, that Abulfeda's statement may serious objection to the identification of Renthieh
mean no more than that Suleiman rebuilt the with Arimathea.  The latter town was in the
town, which had previously been in ruins, just as toparchy of Thamna (Meijdel Yaba), and by no
Rehoboam and others are said to have built many straining can this be stretched so far west as to intowns which had existed long before their time; elude Renthieh. To this objection we have seen
and that the Moslems seldom built towns but on no reply, nor can we see how it is to be got over.
old sites and out of old materials; so that there is We feel constrained, therefore, to fall in with the
not a town in all Palestine which is with certainty conclusion of Dr. Robinson that the site of the
known to have been founded by them. In such ancient Arimathea has yet to be identified. We
cases they retain the old names, or others resem- may add also, that we are'disposed to attach more
bling them in sound, if not in signification, which weight to the objections he has urged against
may account for the difference between Ramah and Ramleh being identified with that town, than the
Ramleh.   Neither can we assume that a place writer of the article to which these remarks are
called Ramah could not be in a plain, unless we supplementary. The statement of Abulfeda is too
are ready to prove that Hebrew proper names precise and detailed to be explained away in the
were always significant and appropriate.  This manner proposed; and the objection that Ramah
they probably were not. They were so in early and Ramleh cannot be identified because the names
times, when towns were few; but not eventually, have not the same signification-the one denoting
when towns were numerous, and took their names'hilly,' and the other'sandy'-cannot be fairly
arbitrarily from one another without regard to set aside by the supposition that the Moslems sublocal circumstances.  Further, if Arimathea, by stituted Ramleh for Rama from some resemblance
being identified with Ramah, was necessarily in the of sound. Unless we suppose names given absomountains, it could not have been'near Lydda,' lutely at random without any local, personal, or
from which the mountains are seven miles distant. circumstantial reason, it seems incredible that a
This matter, however, belongs more properly to people, hearing a place called a'hill,' should
another place [RAMAH; RAMATHAIM-ZOPHIM]; call it'sandy,' simply because the word'sandy,'
and it is alluded to here merely to shew that Dr. in their language, sounded something like the
Robinson's objections have not entirely destroyed word'hill.' In fine, from the use of the word
the grounds for following the usual course of de- Ramah, it does not necessarily follow that the
scribing Ramleh as representing the ancient Ari- town in question was in the mountains. A place
mathea. [Some of the most recent investigators may be called Hilltown without being on a mounfavour the opinion that we are to seek the repre- tain. But if a town were called Hilltown from
sentative of the ancient Arimathea in the village of being on an elevation, no people would naturally
Renthieh or Remthiah, which lies on the road change the name to Rilltown simply because'rill'
between Antipatris and Lydda or Diospolis.'As and'hill' sound very much alike.]
Dr. Robinson remarks,' says Mr. Thomson,'it   Ramleh is in N. lat. 31~ 59', and E. long.
is sufficiently like Arimathea to be assumed as the 35~ 28', 8 miles S. E. from Joppa, and 24 miles
site of that place; and from what Jerome says, it N. W. by W. from Jerusalem. It lies in the fine
seems to me quite probable that this was really undulating plain of Sharon, upon the eastern side
the city of that honourable counsellor'who also of a broad low swell rising from a fertile though
waited for the kingdom of God, who went in sandy plain. Like Gaza and Jaffa, this town is
boldly unto Pilate and craved the body of Jesus" surrounded by olive-groves and gardens of vege(Laandnd Book, ii. 290). An opinion to the same tables and delicious fruits. Occasional palm-trees
effect is given by the very competent author of are also seen, as well as the kharob and the sycaMurray's Handbook to Syria and Palestine, p. 277, more.  The streets are few; the houses are of
cf. 647. Dr. Rijnson objects tothis opinion partly stone, and many of them large and well built.
on the same grounds on which he sets aside Ramleh, There are five mosques, two or more of which are
partly on the very authority on which Mr. Thom- said to have once been Christian churches; and
son relies, that of Jerome, and partly on the testi- there is here one of the largest Latin convents in
mony of Josephus (Later Bibl. Researches, p. I41). Palestine. The place is supposed to contain about
As respects the testimony of Jerome, it really does 3000 inhabitants, of whom two-thirds are Moslems,
not tell either for the one side or the other; all he and the rest Christians, chiefly of the Greek church,
says is, that Paula visited the village of Arimathea, with a few Armenians. The inhabitants carry on
which is near Lydda.  Dr. Robinson, indeed, some trade in cotton and soap. The great caravanassumes that the order in which Jerome mentions road between Egypt and Damascus, Smyrna, and
the places visited by Paula is the order in which Constantinople passes, through Ramleh, as well as
they were visited by her; and as he names Lydda the most frequented road for European pilgrims
after Antipatris, and Arimathea after Lydda, it is and travellers between Joppa and Jerusalem (Roinferred that the latter could not be between Anti- binson, iii. 27; Raumer, p. 215). The tower, of
patris and Lydda, as Renthieh undoubtedly is. which a figure is here given, is the most conspicu



ARIMATHEA                    211              ARISTARCHUS
ous object in or about the city. It stands a little itself bears the date 718 A.H. (A.D. I310), and an
to the west of the town, on the highest part of the Arabian author (Mejr-ed-Din) reports the compleswell of land; and is in the midst of a large quad- tion at Ramleh, in that year of a minaret unique
rangular enclosure, which has much the appearance for its loftiness and grandeur, by the sultan of
of having once been a splendid khan. The tower Egypt, Nazir Mohammed ibn Kelawan (Robinis wholly isolated, whatever may have been its son, iii. 38; also Volney, ii. 281). Among the
original destination. It is about 120 feet in height, plantations which surround the town occur, at
of Saracenic architecture, square and built with  every step, dr wells, cisterns fallen in, and vast
well hewn stone.  The windows are of various vaulted reservoirs, which shew that the city must
forms, but all have pointed arches. The corers in former times have been upwards of a league
of the tower are supported by tall, slender but- and a half in extent (Volney, ii. 280).
tresses; while the sides taper upwards by several  The town is first mentioned under its present
stories to the top. It is of solid masonry, except name by the monk Bernard, about A.D. 870.
a narrow staircase within, winding up to an ex- About A.D. II50 the Arabian geographer Edrisi
ternal gallery, which is also of stone, and is carried  (ed. Jaubert, p. 339) mentions Ramleh and Jerusalem as the two principal cities of Palestine. The
_..- i.. *  ^.first Crusaders on their approach found Ramleh
i-:^ ^ --     |deserted by its inhabitants; and with it and Lydda
they endowed the first Latin bishopric in Palestine,
which took its denomination from the latter city.
From the situation of Ramleh between that city
it is often mentioned in the accounts of travellers
-__  axld  pilgrim^^    and pilgrims, most of whom rested there on their
=-~ _ ~y~j~ic Iway to Jerusalem. It seems to have declined very
-*:t- ~- r j    ~-.~          fast from the time that it came into the possession..-!._ l_                             al l   w ~~l housalof the Crusaders. Benjamin of Tudela ( stin. p.
70, ed. Asher), who was there in A.D. II73, speaks
-_SB ^  ^of it as having been formerly a considerable city.
J'                   * fe   pitsBelon (Observat. p. 311), in 1547, mentions it as.. c;  Gad calmost deserted, scarcely twelve houses being inqu___               habited, and the fields mostlyr untilled. This deser
(  tion must have occurred after 1487; for, Le Grand,
way tVoyage de Hierusalem, fol. xiv., speaks of it as a
-_                  2 ~~_ peopled town (though partly ruined), and of the'seigneur de Rama' as an important personage.
By i674 it had somewhat revived, but it was still
Rob-~i —nsonX-rather a large unwalled village than a city, without.-n b-onge _ t  ruie sany good houses, the governor himself being miserably lodged (Nau, Voyage Nouveau, liv. i. ch. 6).
Its present state must, therefore, indicate a degree
of comparative prosperity of recent growth.-J. K.
-  ARIOCH  (tiek, dplwrXs, the Arian, Furst;
Sansc. Aryaka venerandus, v. Bohlen), the name
of-i. a king of Ellasar (Gen. xiv. I, 9); 2. a
captain of the king's guard at Babylon (Dan. ii.
14, 15s); 3. a plain in Elam (Jud. i. 6, eIpLbX).ARISTARCHUS ('AptarapXos, Acts xix. 29;
xx. 4; xxvii. 2; Col. iv. io; Philem. 24), a native
y of Thessalonica, who became the companion of St.
i  Paul, and accompanied him to Ephesus, where he
was seized and nearly killed in the tumult raised by
the silversmiths. He left that city with the Apostle,......_ -'s eiand accompanied him in his subsequent journeys,
m AL  - Seven when taken as a prisoner to Rome: indeed,
Aristarchus was himself sent thither as a prisoner,
1.~ ~ i'"~  By     1674or became such while there, for Paul calls him his'fellow-prisoner' (Col. iv. I0). The traditions of
70.                      the Greek church represent Aristarchus as bishop
quite round the tower a few feet below the top  of Apamea in Phrygia, and allege that he continued
(Robinson, iii. 32). In the absence of any histo- to accompany Paul after their liberation, and was
rical evidence that the enclosure was a khan, Dr. at length beheaded along with him at Rome in the
Robinson resorts to the Moslem account of its time of Nero. The Roman martyrologies make
having belonged to a ruined mosque. The tower Ihim bishop of Thessalonica. But little reliance is




AR1STEAS                   212               ARK, NOAI'S
to be placed on accounts which make a bishop of tion we seem authorized in referring the first knowalmost every one who happens to be named in the ledge of Arithmetic to the East. From  India,
Acts and Epistles; and, in the case of Aristarchus, Chaldaea, Phcenicia, and Egypt, the science passed
it is little likely that one who constantly travelled  to the Greeks, who extended its laws, improved its
about with St. Paul exercised any stationary office. processes, and widened its sphere. To what ex-J. K.                                        tent the Orientals carried their acquaintance with
ARISTEAS, a Jew at the court of Ptolemy     arithmetic cannot be determined. The greatest
Philadelphus, to whom is ascribed a history, written  discovery in this department of the mathematics,
in Greek, of the Septuagint translation of the He- namely, the establishment of our system of ciphers,
brew Scriptures. This book was first printed in the or of figures considered as distinct from the letters
sixteenth century, and immediately attracted much  of the alphabet, belongs undoubtedly not to Arabia,
attention among the learned. Five translations of as is generally supposed, but to the remote East,
it into Latin were issued; two into German; three probably India.  It is to be regretted that the
into Italian; two into Hebrew; one into French;name of the discoverer is unknown, for the invenand three into English. It is printed in Hody's tion must be reckoned among the greatest of
great work, De Bibliorum  textibus originalibus; human achievements.  Our numerals were made
and this learned scholar has subjected it to a criti- known to these western parts by the Arabians,
cism which has completely destroyed its claims to who, though they were nothing more than the
genuineness. Isaac Vossius ventured to defend it; medium of transmission, have enjoyed the honour
but the unanimous opinion of all competent judges of giving them their name. These numerals were
goes with the verdict of Hody. It is believed to unknown to the Greeks, who made use of the
be the production of some Alexandrian Jew, who  letters of the alphabet for arithmetical purposes.
wished to magnify the version used by his country-  The Hebrews were not a scientific, but a religious
men in Egypt. [GREEK VERSIONS.]-W. L. A.      and practical nation. What they borrowed from
ARISTOBULUS  (Apt o, a p    n others of the arts of life they used without surARISTOBULUS       ('AproTjoviXoI),  a personrounding itwiththeoryor expanding and framing
named by Paul in Rom. xvi. Io, where he sends it into a system.  So with arithmetic, by them
salutations to his household. He is not himself it ito a    s m. So wsignifyin to determine,
called'1:*D, firom a word signifying to determine,
saluted; hence he may not have been a believer, limit and thence to number. Of their knowledge
or he may have been absent or dead. Tradition
of this science little is known more than may be
represents him as brother of Barnabas, and one of fi   iferred from the pursuits and trades which
the seventy disciples; alleges that he was ordained  faiy irred  for the  successfl prosecution 
a bishop by Barnabas, or by Paul, whom he l   they carried on, for the successful prosecution of
laow inbhis travels orndy thaultwho he was ally which some skill at least in its simpler processes
lowed in his travels; and that he was eventually must have been absolutely necessary; and the large
sent into Britain, where he laboured with much  amounts which appear here and there in the sacred
success, and where he at length died.         books serve to shew that their acquaintance with
Aristobulus is a Greek name, adopted by the the art of reckoning was considerable. Even in
Romans, and also by the Jews, and was borne by fractions they were not inexperienced (Gesenius,
several persons in the Maccabaean and Herodian   rgeb. p. 704). For figures, the Jews, after the
families, viz. —I. ARISTOBULUS, son and successor Lehrgeh p. 704). For figures, the Jews, after the
families, viz.-I. ARISTOULUS, son and successor Babylonish exile, made use of the letters of the
of John Hyrcanus. 2. ARISTOBuLUS, second son alphabet, as appears from the inscriptions on the
of Alexander Jannaeus, and younger brother of so-called Samaritan coins (Eckhel, Doctr. Num. i.
Hyrcanus, with whom he disputed the succes ion     8)                                 m i
Hyrcanus,3 with whom he disputedo the successon iii. 468); and it is not unlikely that the ancient
by arms. 3. ARISTOBULUS, grandson of the pre: Hebrews did the same, as well as the Greeks, who
ceding, and the last of the Maccabaean family, whoborrowed their alphabet from the Phenicians, neighwas murdered by the contrivance of Herod the borrowedtheiralphabetfromthePhcenicians,neighwas murdered by the contrivance of Herod the bours of the Israelites, and employed it instead of
Great, B.C. 34. 4. ARISTOBULUS, son of Herodnumerals.-J. R B
the Great by Mariamne. [HERODIAN FAMILY.]
[This was the name also of a Jewish priest resident  ARK, NOAH'S (; Sept. KfWxr6s; Vulg. arca).
at the court of Ptolemy Philometor (2 Mace. i. Io), The Hebrew word used to designate Noah's Ark
and who is supposed to be the person of whose appears to be foreign, since it has no native etywork on the Pentateuch fragments have been pre- mology. (Comp. Gesen. The. s. sv.) Probably it is
served by Eusebius (Praep. Ev. vii. 14; viii Io; Hebraicized from the Egyptian TAB or TBA, a'chest
xiii. 12), and Clement of Alexandria (Strom. pp. or sarcophagus' (Bunsen, Egypt'sPlace, i. 482), pre411, 705, 755, etc., ed. Potter). Comp. Valcknaer, served in the Coptic 
Diatr. de Aristobulo udeao, Lugd. I806.]      served   the Coptc                 ara, ara
ARITHMETIC, or, as the word, derived from   sepucralis; for in the LXX., where the Hebrew
the Greek dptOuos, signifies, the science of numberstext has it oftheark in whch Moses wa exposed
or reckoning, was unquestionably practised as an it is represented by O4P1 (var. O#1tq) (Exod. ii. 3, 5),
art in the dawn of civilization  since to put things,which does not seem to be a Greek word, and is exart in the dawn of civilization; since 1o put things, plaifed by the Greek lexicographers and scholiasts
or their symbols, together (addition), and to take pained by the Greek lexicographers and scholiasts
one thing from another (subtraction), must have (ap. Schleusner, Lex. in LXX. s. v.) in a manner
been coeval with the earliest efforts of the human that makes it almost certain that they considered it
mind; and what are termed multiplication and  Egyptian, or at least not Greek. The primary meandivision are only abbreviated forms of addition and ingseems to be a chest; fornot onlyhas the Egyptian
subtraction. The origin, however, of the earliest word that signification, butlso thetermsusedbythe
and most necessary of the arts and sciences is lost LX., and in the case of Noah's Ark, by Josephus
in the shades of antiquity, since it arose long beforewho employs \dpea, a coffer' or'chest, do not
the period when men began to take specific notice  ustify the idea of a ship  The Ark of the Covenant
and make some kind of record of their discoveries is, however, called by a different name, IbK, which is
and pursuits. In the absence of positive informa- elsewhere used in a general sense for a chest and




ARK, NOAH'S                  213              ARK, NOAH'S
the like, so that:r., since it is applied only to lands, as well as for the after-sustenance of Noah and
Noah's Ark, and that in whcMoewaex       his household. The beasts were taken, of the clean
Noah's Ark, and that in which Moses was exposed, kinds by seven pairs each, and of the unclean, by
seems to be restricted in Hebrew to receptacleskinds, by seven  each and of the unclean, by
which floated. Berosus, however, uses for the Ark single pairs; the birds, by seven pairs each, and the
of Xisuthrus the words oKdcor, vafs, and 7rXozov creeping things, apparentlyby single pairs. Thus of
(Cory's Ancient Fragments, 2 ed. pp. 26-29).  the more useful creatures there were larger numbers,
The exact form and dimensions of Noah's ark shewing that the advantage of man was a primary
cannot be determined, but it is not difficult to ar- object in their preservation. When it was held that
rive at general conclusions which must be near the the Deluge was universal, great. pains were taken to
truth.  From  the narrative in Genesis we learn shew how all the species of animals could have been
that it was made of'gopher' wood, was pitched
that it was made of'gopher' wood, was pitched contained in the Ark. The discovery of new species
within and without, and was three hundred cubits has, however, long since rendered any more such
in length, fifty cubits in breadth, and thirty cubits computations needless, unless, perhaps, theirauthors
in height. It was lighted, though not necessarily would be willing to accept to the fullest extent
from the roof, for rain would have been thus ad- some theory of development, and to carry back
mitted: it had a door at the side: and consisted of the Deluge to an unreasonably remote age. The
three storeys, divided into cells. The most difficult progress of geology has tended to shew that there
matter in the description is what refers to the man-s not dstnct physical evidence ofone great deluge,
universal as to the earth, and the advance of Hebrew
ner in which the Ark was lighted. The words'IIY criticism  has led to a very general admission
Ln p  nPn L3N9:   I tVS in^'y > i  may be among scholars that the Biblical narrative does
T..-:, —      - T  - V...:.-    not require us to hold such an event to have
most probably rendered,'Light shalt thou make occurred.  The destruction of the children of
for the Ark, and by a cubit shalt thou make [or Adam, and the animals of the tract they inhabited,'finish'] it from above' (Gen. vi. i6).  It has is plainly declared in the narrative, but beyond this
been supposed that one window only was made to we cannot draw any positive conclusions from it.
the Ark; but when, in a later passage,'the win- The word rendered'earth' in the authorized version
dow' is mentioned a definite term (in) is em- may as well mean' land,' and the want of universal
dow  is ment, a     terms in Hebrew must make us cautious in laying
ployed (viii. 6), whence it would seem probable much stress upon what would seem to imply the
that the word' light' is used for several windows. universal character of the Flood. We have indeed
But, on the other hand, the manner in which the reason to infer its partial nature from the statement
window is mentioned in the latter place,'Noah that the waters rose fifteen cubits and covered the
opened the window of the ark which he had made;' mountains (Gen. vii. 20), which appears to mean
and the circumstance that at a later time he' re- either that the whole height of the flood was fifteen
moved the covering of the ark, and looked,' seem  cubits, or that when the waters had covered the
to imply but one window. The second passage high hills (ver. i9), they rose still fifteen cubits
may, however, only mean that he pushed aside a further, until the mountains also were covered:
piece of matting or a shutter. The difficulty of there mountains, it must be remembered, in Semitic
being but a single window led the Rabbins to  phraseology, often being no more than small emiimagine that the Ark was lighted'by a miraculous nences (See The Genesis of the Earth and of Man,
stone, but it may have been so constructed as to 2d ed. pp. 91 seqq.) We must, however, be careful
admit light between the planks or beams of its not to underrate the importance of this great catassides. The second clause of the passage as to the trophe, the character of which is shewn by the
lighting of the Ark can scarcely be held to refer to strong recollection of it that the descendants of
the window or windows, for this would require a Noah have preserved in all parts of the world.
strained construction, but probably relates to the  The traditions respecting the Ark may be ranged
general dimensions of the Ark itself, meaning that under two classes, those which agree in relating that
the prescribed number of cubits was not to be de- it rested where the Bible states that it did so, or
viated from, or that there were to be no fractions, not far from thence, and those which place both
or that it was to have the angles of its roof cut off Deluge and Ark in distant countries. At the head of
by a sloping piece of a cubit's breadth. Although the first class stands the narrative of Berosus the
we know nothing as to the precise form of the Babylonian historian, which may be thus epitoArk, it is most probable that it was similar to mized. In the time of Xisuthrus, the tenth king
that of the rafts still used on the Euphrates and of the Chaldveans, there occurred a great deluge.
Tigris, which are rectangular, and have in the He was warned by Cronus of the approaching
midst a flat-roofed cabin resembling a house. If destruction of mankind, and ordered to construct
so, the measures would probably be those of the a vessel, and take with him into it his relations
square structure and not of the raft.  If, as we and friends, and to put in it food and drink,
shall next shew, there is reason to suppose that and birds and quadrupeds. He accordingly built
the Deluge was partial, and in consequence espe- a vessel, five (Syncellus) or fifteen (Eusebius) stadia
cially overspread the tract through which flow the long, and two stadia broad, and put everything
Euphrates and Tigris, we may look for the form  into it, and made his wife and children and friends
of the Ark in that of the rafts which have been to enter. When the flood had abated, Xisuthrus
used in their navigation for many centuries before sent forth birds, which twice returned, but did not
the present age.                             so on the third occasion: then, having broken or
The purpose of the Ark was to preserve Noah. divided a part of the ship's covering, he found that
and his family, altogether eight souls (vii. 7, 13; it had rested on a certain mountain. He then
I Pet. iii. 20), with certain animals, from perishing came forth, and with some who had been in the
in the Flood sent on account of the sins of mankind. vessel disappeared. Of his ship a portion remained,
The animals were spared to replenish the desolated or was said to remain, on a mountain of the




ARK, NOAH'S                 214              ARK, NOAH'S
Cordieans in Armenia, in the time of Berosus, MEON. Woman andeman, to the left, in an attitude
and some scraped off bitumen from it to serve for of adoration? behind them, a chest, within which,
charms (Ejus navigii, quod demum  substitit in man and woman, to the left; upon the side of the
Armenia, fragmentum  aliquod in Cordiseorum  chest, NOIE, the third letter indistinct: above, dove'
Armeniaco monte nostra adhuc setate reliquum  flying to the right, bearing branch: upon the chest,
esse aiunt. Quin et erasum bitumen quidam inde a similar bird. 2. Copper coin of Philip the Younger.
referunt remedii amuletique causa ad infausta Obv. ATT. K. IOTA.  AIHHIIIIOC ATr. Bust of
quseque averruncanda, Euseb. Arm. ToO  7rXholov  Philip, laureate and wearing paludamentum and
O rTOVTo0 KaTaKXOhSVTOS 4V T'Ap!tevlj rt L Ct pos nr cuirass, to the right. Rev. EH. M. ATP. AAEAN.
&v roZs KopKvpalwv t6peor& rTs'Apevlas c&aidvyew, APOT B. APXI. AHAMEON. The same type: the
Kal Trvas d7rb too 7rXolov  KO/itvew  d7ro~6oTras letters on the chest are illegible. Of the genuine.
olq4aXrov, XpaoaSa U a7rv 7rpbs rTs dlrorpo7rtatuob6s. Synced. See the whole narrative in Bunsen's Egypt's Place, i. pp. 7I3-715, Cory's Ancient
Fragments, 2d ed. pp. 26-29).  The remarkable
agreement of most of these particulars with the
account in the Bible makes the concluding statement worthy of attention. Armenia is the same as
Ararat, but the locality of the resting-place is more
nearly defined by the mention of a mountain of the                  TAC
Cordiveans (for the reading in Syncellus is obviously
corrupt), a people whom we recognize in the modern Kurds, the inhabitants of the ancient Cordyene
or Gordyene. If Berosus mention the remaining in:      M;;7  tflN
his time of part of the Ark on only hearsay evidence,
as Eusebius puts it, we can scarcely insist on the
inaccessibility of the summit of Ararat to the ancients, nor is it necessary that the former should
speak of a summit unless he were describing a
true remnant of the Ark, The same tradition is
still extant, as Sir Henry Rawlinson stated in some
important observations made at a meeting of the
Royal Geographical Society on Nov. 8, I858, when
an account of the ascent of Mount Demawend by
Mr. R. S. Thomson and Lord Schomberg Kerr
had been read. Professor Kinkel has kindly placed
at our disposal his notes made at the time, from
which we take the following extract: -'The
Ararat, now called so, in Armenia, is not the
Biblical Ararat.  The Biblical Ararat is a mountain north of Mosul [El-M6sil], and lies in the
country of Ararat, to which the sons of Sen-                     71'
nacherib fled. It is now called Jebel Joodee, and ness of these coins we are assured, on the excellent
pilgrims still go to the place, returning with bits of authority of Mr. Waddington, and his opinion, as
wood, taken, as they say, from the Ark. I have well as an examination of the casts from which the
seen such bits myself in the hands of returned  engraving was made, convince us that the idea we
pilgrims. This is all I can say; of course, I do formerly entertained, that the letters NOE may be
not mean to say that these are real fragments of a modern addition, or can be explained otherwise
the ark. I believe the Ararat of Armenia bears than as the name of the patriarch, must be abanthis name only for about five hundred years.' Here doned (Enc. Brit. Numismatics, p. 378). The latter
we have a consistent tradition, which has been un- is a point of great importance, for upon it depends
changed for more than twenty-one centuries, the nature of the reference to the Noachian Flood,
although, curiously enough, both Berosus (if we which must therefore be held to be direct, and not
follow the better text) and Sir Henry Rawlinson an indirect reference through the story of Deucagive it only upon hearsay evidence.         lion. It must be remembered that the traditions and
The remarkable tradition of Apamea in Phrygia myths of this part of Asia are not of a strictly
can scarcely be regarded as one of those that Greek character.  The tradition of Annacus or
remove the place of the resting of the Ark, for those Nannacus at Iconium, not unreasonably supposed to
who hold a partial Deluge can hardly limit it to refer to Enoch, of the line of Seth, is especially to be
the plains of the Euphrates and Tigris. We have noted. The supposition that a Jewish or Christian
it on numismatic evidence alone. Certain of the community could have struck these coins is wholly
coins of that place, struck in the second century of untenable, and therefore we can only consider that
the Christian era, bear representations of the Ark, there was at Apamea a tradition of the Deluge. The
accompanied by the name of Noah. The reverses second name, Cibotus, by which it was distinof two specimens in the French Collection are here guished,'A7rdleta KiWrT6S, or'Avrdceta e   Kti6sr&,
engraved, from casts in the British Museum.  from other cities called Apamea, is an important
The coins may be described as follows: I. Cop- point, since that very word is used by the LXX.
per coin of Severus. Obverse: ATT. K. A. CEIIT. for Noah's Ark, and the latter is represented in the
CEOTHPOS II..TI. Bust of Severus, laureate and form of a chest on the Apamean coins. It is prowearing paludamentum and cuirass, to the right. bable that Cibotus was the name of an earlier city
Reverse: EIII ArINOOETOT APTEMA. r. AIIA- on the same site as Apamea, which was called




ARK OF THE COVENANT                215        ARK OF THE COVENANT
after Apame, the wife of Seleucus I. The extra- the Covenant' (Josh. iii. 6; iv. 9); *Iix' lijN' the
ordinary agreement with the Biblical account of  rk of the LORD' (I Sam. v 34 vi 8, se.);
all the particulars in the subject upon the Apamean          Ark of God' (I S. iii 3)
coins is not less striking than the main agreement,..'the Ark of God' (I Sa. iii. 3);
of the narrative of Berosus. Whence, it may be LXX. and N. T. Ktlwr6s; Vulg. area).
asked, was this knowledge of the Apameans de-  The Hebrew word inN, used for the Ark of the
rived? If it be supposed to have been borrowed
from the Jews or the Christians, or their Scriptures, Covenant, has no connection with that which desigwe must imagine the same of the account given nates Noah's Ark. (ARK, NOAH'S.) It comes from
by Berosus.  It is more reasonable to hold that the root iRl,'he or it collected or gathered,' and
both were very ancient traditions, independent of is used for chests, as a money-chest (2 Kings xii.
the narrative of the sacred historian.       I0, 1 ), and a coffin, in the case of Joseph's (Gen.
The traditions of the Noachian Deluge which 1. 26). It has, however, no connection with the
make the place where the Ark rested, or that of the Egyptian term for a coffin, KARS or KRAS.
new settlement of mankind, distant from what is  The ark was made of shittim wood, which canindicated by the Biblical narrative, form too wide not be doubted to be the wood of one or more
a subject to be here discussed. [DELUGE.] There species of acacia, still growing in the peninsula of
are, however, some matters of great importance Sinai  (See art. SHITTAH, SHITTIM.) It was
which must not be passed by. As we have before two cubits and a half in length, and a cubit and a
remarked, the extraordinary extent of these tradi- half both in breadth and height, so that its form
tions, both as to races and as to territory, proves the wasprobably oblong, although we cannot go so far
magnitude of the catastrophe, a point which the as to conclude that it was rectangular. Within
increasing conviction that the Flood was partial as and without, it was overlaid with pure gold. Upon
to the earth has tended to throw into the back- it was a crown of gold, which may have been a
ground. The Ark, or a raft, or boat, is found in border or rim (comp. Exod. xxv. 25), running round
many of these traditions, and when such is the case the upper part of the sides. There were four rings
they may be regarded as more probably refer- of gold, two on either side, one at each of the'feet,'
ring solely to Noah's Flood, than as records of local probably corers (comp. ver. 26), in which rested,
inundations to which some particulars of the great not to be taken away, staves of shittim wood, overCataclysm had been attached by the natural con- laid with gold, by which the ark was to be borne.
fusion of tradition. The absence of any mention 
of the Deluge in the history and mythology of The lid or cover of the Ark (n3V_, lXacr5pov,
Egypt is a remarkable exception, on which, how- lXaarT'-pLov riOera), commonly called the Mercyever, the advocates of more than one origin of the seat, after the rendering of the LXX., also used in
human race cannot lay stress, since the Egyptians the N. T., was of the same length and breadth, and
were unmistakeably connected with the Semitic of pure gold. [MERCY-SEAT.] There were two
race in their language and physical characteristics. golden cherubim of beaten work upon it, one at
The probable reason is to be found in the absence either end, facing one another, and looking towards
of tradition in the Egyptian annals, which pass from  the Mercy-seat, which was covered by their outthe darkness of mythology to the light of history, stretched wings.  Bezaleel made the Ark accordas though the Noachian colonists had suppressed ing to the Divine directions. (Exod. xxv. 10-22;
in Egypt their recollections of Shinar to assume xxxvii. I-9; Deut. x. 1-5; Heb. ix. 4, 5).
the character of autochthons.                  Within the Ark were deposited the Tables of the
With the traditions of the Flood and the Ark, Law, especially commanded to be there placed,
we do not connect those architectural works which a golden pot with manna, and Aaron's rod that
have been fancifully assigned to such an origin, budded. Some suppose that a copy of the book of
such as the Celtic kist-vaens (cut 72), which have the Law was also placed there, but it is said to have
been put'by the side' of the Ark, which can
_ < —^  r/~2:~' ~scarcely be inferred to mean inside (Exod. xxv.' _'^ 7 I, -;;      Ix6, 2I; X1. 20; Deut. x. I-5; I Kings viii. 9;
Exod. xvi. 32-34; Num. xvii. 10; Deut. xxxi. 24 —
nl'tinI    f'\lii^~27; Heb. ix. 4). We read that when Solomon
~ [  }h1~  11             l lbrought the Ark into the Temple'[there was]
>me A_ Lo i-;  - -nothing in the ark save the two tables of stone,
72._~   vwhich Moses put there at Horeb' (i Kings viii. 9),
72.                      where the tables only may be mentioned as larger
no more resemblance to an ark than to a rude than the other objects, or because the rod may
chest or house. The idea of connecting the Ark have perished, and the pot of manna and book ot
with the Pagan religions of antiquity is now also the Law, if ever within it, been removed. It may
exploded by the advance of criticism. Those who be remarked that the Jewish shekels and halfwrote in favour of these and like theories ex- shekels usually, and, we believe, rightly, assigned
pended labour and learningin pursuits which could to Simon the Maccabee, have on the one side, a
only lead them astray.-IR S. P.              pot or vase, and on the other, a branch bearing
three blossoms, usually supposed to represent
ARK OF THE COVENANT (tla, and, dis- Aaron's rod and the pot of manna.*
e Ark of te L   r We cannot attempt to define the object of the
tinctively, rnol'.n'the Ark of the   Law,' here Ark. It was the depository of the Tables, and thus'the Decalogue' (Exod. xxv. 22; xxvi. 33); t-Ie'  t eA of te C n o t  -:  * Cavedoni has objected to this explanation, but
~fl  J1' the Ark of the Covenant of the LOR' his arguments do not seem to us conclusive (Numis(Deut. x. 8; xxxi. 9, 25); fnl' f'jil' the Ark of matica Biblica, pp. 28, seqq.)




ARK OF THE COVENANT                216       ARK OF THE COVENANT
of the great document of the Covenant. It seems and it is certain that it was not contained in the
also to have been a protest against idolatry and Second Temple. Some imagine that a second ark
materialism. The Mercy-seat was the place where was made, but the direct statement of Josephus
God promised His presence, and He was therefore that the Holy of Holies of the Second Temple
addressed as dwelling between the cherubim. was empty (B. J. v. cap. v. ~ 5), and the negative eviOn this account the Ark was of the utmost sanctity, dence afforded by the silence of the books of Ezra,
and was placed in the Holy of Holies, both of the Nehemiah, and the Maccabees, as to an ark, when
Tabernacle and oftheTemple. When the Israelites the sacred vessels after the Captivity are mentioned,
were moving from one encampment to another, make this a very doubtful conjecture. See, howthe Ark was to be covered by Aaron and his sons ever, Prideaux, i. p. 207, and Calmet, Dissertation
with three coverings, and carried by the sons of sur fArche de I'Alliance.
Kohath (Num. iv. 4-6, i6). It was borne in     As we have already indicated, the exact form
advance of the people, and the journey was thus of the Ark has not been discovered from the
providentially directed, as we read:'And they statements of Scripture.  Certain similarities bedeparted from the mount of the LORD three days' tween arks of the ancient Egyptians, and the
journey; and the ark of the covenant of the LORD  description of the Ark, have led to a curious inwent before them in the three days' journey, to quiry, which we shall state in the words of Dr.
search out a resting-place for them.  And the Kitto, from the earlier editions of this work. The
cloud of the LORD [was] upon them by day, when mere form, however, is not the only matter involved;
they went out of the camp. And it came to pass, the inquiry'opens the question whether Moses
when the ark set forward, that Moses said, Arise, adopted, or was commanded to adopt, anything
O LORD, and let thine enemies be scattered; and from the Egyptians. If this question be answered
let them that hate thee flee before thee.  And affirmatively we must remember that the Egyptian
when it rested, he said, Return, O LORD, unto the religion preserved traces of a primeval revelation
ten thousand thousands of Israel' (Num. x. 33-36). (Enc. Brit. Egypt), and also that many rites or
It was in this manner that the Ark passed in observances of Egypt may have been of human
advance through Jordan, and remained in the bed origin and yet harmless. It is very important to
until the.people had gone over, when it was brought remark that we have no evidence, as far as the
out and the waters returned (Josh. iii. iv.) So too writer is aware, of the use of arks in Egypt before
was the Ark carried around Jericho when it was the date of the Exodus, according to Hales's
compassed (vi. 1-20).  Joshua placed the Taber- reckoning; and therefore, as the Egyptians adopted
nacle at Shiloh, and the Ark does not seem to have divinities from their heathen neighbours, there is
been removed thence until the judgeship of Eli, no reason why they should not have taken the use
when the people sent for it to the army, that they of arks from the Israelites, when they had heard
might gain success in the war with the Philistines. of the events of the conquest of Canaan.
Yet the Israelites were routed and the Ark was'We now come to consider the design and form
taken (I Sam. iv. 3-I ). After seven months, of the Ark, on which it appears to us that clear and
during which the majesty of God was shewn by the unexpected light has been thrown by the displaguing of the inhabitants of each town to which coveries which have of late years been made in
it was brought, and the breaking of the image of Egypt, and which have unfolded to us the rites and
Dagon, the Philistines hastened, on the advice of mysteries of the old Egyptians. The subject may
their priests and diviners, to restore the Ark to the be opened in the following words, from the two
Israelites. These incidents and those of the coming volumes on the Religion and Agriculture of the
of the Ark to Beth-shemesh, where the people Ancient Egyptians, which have been published by
were smitten for looking into it, shew its extremely Sir J. G. Wilkinson since we first had occasion to
sacred character, no less than does the death of notice this subject (see Pictorial Hist. of Palestine,
Uzzah, when he attempted to steady it, on the pp. 247-250):-'One of the most important cerejourney to Jerusalem, an event which caused David monies was the'procession of shrines,' which is
to delay bringing it in. It is noticeable that it was mentioned in the Rosetta stone, and is frequently
carried in a cart both when sent from Ekron, and, at represented on the walls of the temples. The shrines
first, when David brought it to Jerusalem, though were of two kinds: the one a sort of canopy; the
after the delay on the latter occasion it was borne by other an ark or sacred boat, which may be termed
the Levites in the ordained manner (i Chron. the great shrine. This was carried with grand
xv. II-I5, 2 Sam. vi. I3). It was then placed on pomp by the priests, a certain number being
Mount Zion, until Solomon removed it to the selected for that duty, who supported it on their
Temple. From the statement that Josiah com- shoulders by means of long staves passing through
manded the Levites to place the Ark in the Temple, metal rings at the side of the sledge on which it
and to bear it no longer on their shoulders (2 Chron. stood, and brought it into the temple, where it was
xxxv. 3), it seems probable that Amon had taken deposited upon a stand or table, in order that the
it out of the sanctuary, or else that the Levites prescribed ceremonies might be performed before
had withdrawn it from the Temple then or in it. The stand was also carried in procession by
Manasseh's time, and the finding of the book of another set of priests, following the shrine, by
the Law under Josiah favours this idea (2 Kings means of similar staves; a method usually adopted
xxii. 8; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 14). A copy of the Law  for carrying large statues and sacred emblems, too
was deposited with, or, as some suppose, in the Ark, heavy or too important to be borne by one person.
as-already noticed, and it seems that this was the The same is stated to have been the custom of the
copy from which the king was required to write Jews in some of their religious processions (comp.
his own(Deut. xvii. 18-20). But perhaps the Ark  I Chron. xv. 2, I5; 2 Sam. xv. 24; and Josh. iii.
was only removed while the Temple was repaired. I2), as in carrying the Ark'unto his place, into the
It is generally believed that it was destroyed oracle of the house, to the most holy [place],' when
when the Temple was burnt by the Babylonians, the Temple was built by Solomon (I Kings viii. 6).'




ARK OF THE COVENANT                 217        ARK OF THE COVENANT...' Some of the sacred boats, or arks, contained  as an authentic illustration of its form. Then the
the emblems of Life and Stability, which, when the  cherubim of the Hebrew ark find manifest represenveil was drawn aside, were partially seen; and  tatives in the figures facing each other, with wings
others presented the sacred beetle of the sun, over- spread inwards and meeting each other, which we
shadowed by the wings of two figures of the god- find within a canopy or shrine which sometimes
dess Thmei, or Truth, which call to mind the rests immediately upon this'stand,' but more gecherubim of the Jews' (Anc. Egyptians, 3d ed. nerally in the boat, which itself rests thereon.
v. pp. 271, 272, 275, and woodcut No. 469, p. 276). These are shewn in the annexed cut (75), in which
In reading this passage, more points of resemblance than occurred to Sir J. G. Wilkinson will     Wstrike the Biblical student, and will attract his close  _.
attention to the subject. In the above description
three objects are distinguished:-I. The'stand;'
2. The boat or'ark;'3. The'canopy.'    This
last is not, as the extract would suggest, an alternative for the second; but is most generally seen
with and in the boat. This is shewn in the first
cut, which exhibits all the parts together, and at 
rest.
75.
li'-~'~~^   ^ >S'the winged figures are, in their position, if not in.ii< ^Z^^^^            their form, remarkably analogous.  We direct
d>  M, 1/YZ/n  ^i    attention also to the hovering wings above, which
are very conspicuous in all such representations.
This part of the subject is interesting; but, as it
&t Swill1 obtain separate attention [CHERUBIM], we
- 1  / Jomit particular notice of it here. Other analogies
occur in the persons who bear the shrine-the
__< _!^^__ _priests; and in the mode of carrying it, by means.         - _,!  of poles inserted in rings; and it is observable that,
A m k,u xi~ k,,#ii,,as in the Hebrew Ark, these poles were not withdrawn, but remained in their place when the
1u1 ffI 1\1\\1               1shrine was at rest in the temple. Such are the
principal resemblances. The chief difference is,
the entire absence, in the Jewish Ark, of the boat,
in which most of the idolatrous objects were assembled. There are, indeed, circumstances which
might suggest the idea that the'mercy-seat' was
not, as commonly supposed, the lid of the Ark,
73-                       but such a covering or canopy as we see in the
Egyptian shrines.  The ground relied upon as
shewing that it was the lid, namely, that its dimensions were the same as those of the Ark,
applies equally to the canopy, the bottom of which
is usually of the same dimensions as the. top of the
stand or chest which answers to the Jewish Ark.
JAd4~ \  LS\The fact, however, that the cherubim stood upon
the mercy-seat, seems to shew that it was the lid,
__[ ~~~    ~(_ [v~ v/ ~i j       and not the canopy; and the absence of this must
W^                 ___       j _ILV    Iwi _______
74.
The points of resemblance to the Jewish Ark inV
the second cut are many and conspicuous: as in                      76.
the'stand,' which, in some of its forms, and
leaving out the figures represented on the sides, therefore be taken as another difference.  To
bears so close a resemblance to the written descrip- shew the effect of these conclusions, we take the
tion of the Hebrew Ark, that it may safely be taken  stand, as already represented (in cut 74), and we




ARK OF THE COVENANT                 218        ARK OF THE COVENANT
place thereon, without alteration (but without the stiff-necked and rebellious people were incapable
canopy), the winged figures as they appear in an  (as a nation) of adhering to that simple form of
Egyptian shrine (the same as in cut 75); and we
need not point out that the representation, thus
formed without any alteration of the parts, affords
a most striking resemblance to one of the two forms.                t
of the Ark with the cherubim above, which scholars
and artists, wholly unacquainted with Egyptian 1        k   J   I       >jV
antiquities, have drawn from the descriptions of the.th.'^,
Jewish Ark which we find in Exodus, as represented' \  }>     y.2'
in the annexed cut (77). Again, we take the same
79worship and service which is most pleasing to
God.*
77-                        The parts of the Egyptian shrine which are omitark, and place thereon the figures of another ted in the Ark are the boat and the canopy: the'shrine (78); and we compare this with another of boat, probably because it was not only intimately
connected by its very form with the Arkite worship,
to which the previous article alludes, t but [also]
because it was the part which was absolutely
crowded with idolatrous images and associations;
and the canopy, probably because it often shrouded
the image of a god, whereas its absence made it
manifest that only the symbolic cherubim rested on
the Ark. The parts retained were the stand or
chest, which was not an object of idolatrous regard.._,...
78.
the common forms of the Jewish Ark as drawn from
descriptions (79). These resemblances and differences appear to us to cast a strong light, not only
on the form, but on the purpose of the Jewish Ark.
The discoveries of this sort which have lately been
made in Egypt, have added an overwhelming
weight of proof to the evidence which previously                 se
existed, that the'tabernacle made with hands,' with
its utensils and ministers, bore a designed external even among the Egyptians, and the winged figures,
resemblance to the Egyptian models; but purged which were purely symbolical, and not idolatrous
of the details and peculiarities which were the most representations.' [?]-R. S. P.
open to abuse and misconstruction. [?] That the
Israelites during the latter part of their sojourn in  * The corrupt Israelites probably rather folEgypt followed the rites and religion of the lowed an idolatry of the Shepherd strangers than
country, and were (at least many of them) gross that of the Egyptians, but had they adopted the
idolaters, is distinctly affirmed in Scripture (Josh. idolatry of Egypt, we should suppose that all likexxiv. 14; Ezek. xxiii. 3, 8, 19); and is shewn by ness to its usages would have been especially
their ready lapse into the worship of the'golden  avoided in the Law.  We believe that it was
calf;' and by the striking fact that they actually avoided, for the reason that nothing would have
carried about with them  one of these Egyptian been allowed to be borrowed from heathen worship
shrines or tabernacles in the wilderness (Amos. v. of any kind.-R. S. P.
26). From their conduct and the whole tone of   + The idea of what is called'Arkite worship'
their sentiments and character, it appears that this must be abandoned.-R. S. P.




ARKITE                    219                ARMENIA
ARKITE, THE (_1.inr; Sept.'ApovKaios), one Synopsis), the following may be noticed:-I. It is
of the tribes-mentioned in Gen. x. 17; I Chron. ifrom Kn, excidium, and lll;  exercitus eoru
15, as descended from the Phoenician or Sidonian  (Drusius, Advocc. eb. N.  Comment p. I6); 2.
branch of the great family of Canaan. This, in it is from 811 and n1, and means Mount of the
Congregation, the Mons Janiculus (Grotius,  in Joe.);
fact, as well as the other small northern states of Cogregtin, the  onsJaniculus (Grotius, 
Phoenicia, was a colony from the great parent state 3. it is from'~1 and F'1Z,'TM, and signifies Mount oJ
of Sidon. Arka, or Arca, their chief town, lay pressure, or f tecompressd multitzde, i.e., Rome
between Tripolis and Antaradus, at the western (Ewald in loc.) But, as the diversity of these etybase of Lebanon (Joseph. Antiq. i. 6, z; Jerome, mologies shews the uncertainty of this method of
Quast. in Gen. x. 15). Josephus (AntS.. 2, interpretation, and as a word which needed to be
3) makes Baanah-who in I Kings iv. li6 is said thus interpreted could not convey much instruction
3) makes  Baanah —fho in a  Kings iv. Ad, is said.
to have been superintendent of the tribe of Asher- to John's first readers, it seems better to resort to
governor of Arka by the sea; and if, as commonly the historical interpretation. Megiddo was famous
supposed, the capital of the Arkites is intended, in the sacred history as the place where the
their small state must, in the time of Solomon, Canaanitish kings were overthrown by Israel,'and
theirsmall state                              mustin thee rtew yo   Solomontl
have been under the Hebrew yoke. S   eety hence by the plain where the antichristian kings
Arka shared the lot of the other small Phenician shall congregate against Christ and his church
states in that quarter; but in later times it formed being thus named, it is intimated that it shall be
part of Herod Agrippa's kingdom. The name and  with those kings as it was with the Canaanitish
p     art of Herod Agrippa's kingdom. The name and wt
site seem never to have been unknown, although  kings at Megiddo' (Dsterdieck in.)  Comp.
for a time it bore the name of Cabsarea Lebani from  Zech. xii. I i. W. L. A.
having been the birth-place of Alexander Severus  ARMENIA, a country of Western Asia, is not
(Mannert, p. 39I). It is repeatedly  ete      mentioned bin Scripture under th   nae, but i
the Areabiand writheers  M as, apirime ntioned  in Scripture under that name, but is
the Arabian writers (Michaelis, Sicil. pt. ii. p. 23;               to in the three following
Schultens, V ita Sagadini;  Abulfeda, Tab. Syri rIsupposed to be alluded to in the three followi ng
Schultens,  ita Saladini; Abulfeda, Tab. Syr    a, iHebrew designations, which seem to refer either
p. ie )  I       t lay 32 R. miles from Antaradus, i8 l to the country as a whole, or to particular districts.
miles from Tripoli, and, according to Abulfeda, a  Ararat    the land upon (or over) the mounparasang from the sea. In a position corresponding  tains of which the ark rested at the Deluge (Gen.
to these intimations, Shaw  (Observat. p  270), viii. 4); whither the sons of Sennacherib fled after
Burckhardt (Syria, p. 62), and others noticed the murdering their father (2 Kings xix. 37; Is. xxxvii.
site and ruins. Burckhardt, in travelling from the  38) and one of the'kingdoms' summoned, along
north-east of Lebanon to Tripoli, at the distance with Mi   and  s of the   to arm against Bablon
of about four miles south of the Nahr el kebir with Minni and Ashkenaz, to arm against Babylon
of~abouts for  ilsouhf-he(Jer. li. 27). That there was a province of Ararad
(Eleutherus), came to a hill called Tel-Arka, which, i ient Armenia, we have th e testimony of Atheaa
from its regularly flattened conical form'' in ancient Armenia, we have the testimony of the
from its regularly flattened conical form and smooth  native historian, Moses of Chorene. It lay in the
sides, appeared to be artifiiial.  He was told that centre of the kingdom, was divided into twenty
on its top were some ruins of habitations and walls. circles, and, being the principal provice, was
Upncan (elevationon Cits eastymbd solic h sid, 2 circles, an d, being the principal province, was
Upon an elevation on its east and south sides, commonly the residence of the kings or governors.
which comma      nds a beautiful view over  the  plain,c                      the
which commands a beautiful view over the plain, For other particulars respecting it, and the celethe sea, and the Anzeyry mountains, are large and  brated mountain which in modern times bears its
extensive heaps of rubbish, traces of ancient dwel- nra th aic                  inni     is
to fix that. Some prefer an etymological explan name, s ee the article ARARAT.eIa but the is
lings, blocks of hewn stone, remains of walls, and nmetionsee  e aJrtice ARARlo. Iwth Ararat an
fragments of granite columns. These are no doubt mentioned in Jer. 2, along with Ararat and
the remaeins of Arkai and the hill was probably gAshkenaz, as a kingdom called to arm itself against
the remains of Arka; and the hill was probably Babylon. The name is by some taken for a conthe acropolis or citadel, or the site of a temple. Babylon. The name is by some taken for a con-[Robinson LaterRes. p 579.]                traction of'Armenia,' and the Chald. in the text
[Robinson, L*ater R *es. P- 579.1    in Jeremiah has  Df'll1.  There appears a trace
ARM. This word is frequently used in Scrip- of the name Minni in a passage quoted by Josephus
ture in a metaphorical sense to denote power. (Antiq. i. 3, 6) from Nicholas of Damascus, where
Hence, to' break the arn' is to diminish or destroy it is said that' there is a great mountain in Armenia,
the power (Ps. x. 15; Ezek. xxx. 21; Jer. xlviii. b7rVp Trv Mcvvda, called Baris, upon which it is
25). It is also employed to denote the infinite reported that many who fled at the time of the
power of God (Ps. lxxxix. 13; xlviii. 2; Is. liii. Deluge were saved, and that one who was carried
I; John xii. 38). In a few places the metaphor is, in an ark came on shore upon the top of it; and
with great force, extended to the action of the arm, that the remains of the timber were a great while
as:-' I will redeem you with a stretched out arm' preserved. This might be the man about whom
(Exod. vi. 5), that is, with a power fully exerted. Moses, the legislator of the Jews, wrote.' SaintThe figure is here taken from the attitude of ancient Martin, in his erudite work entitled Mimoires sur
warriors baring and outstretching the arm for fight. l'Armdnie (vol. i. p. 249), has the not very probable
Comp. Is. lii. IO; Ez. iv. 7; Sil. Ital. xii. 715, conjecture that the word' Minni' may refer to
etc. (See Wemyss's Clavis Symbolica, pp. 23, 24.) the Manavazians, a distinguished Armenian tribe,
ARMAGEDDON (' Ap/cayeA5d, probably-Mont     descended from  Manavaz, a son of Haik, the
Megiddo =the placewhe probablyMouth  ings capital of whose country was Manavazagerd, now
JMegiddo: = tjlJ.D"),  the place where the kings Melazgerd. In Ps. xlv. 8, where it is said'out of
of the east are represented as gathered, Rev. xvi. the ivory palaces whereby they made thee glad,' the
I6. As the force of the statement here evidently  Hebrew word rendered'whereby' is minni, and
rests on the significancy of this word, it is important hence some take it for the proper name, and would
to fix that. Some prefer an etymological explana- translate'palaces of Armenia,' but the interpretation, and others an historical. Passing over a host tion is forced and incongruous. III. T'hogarmah
of merely conjectural derivations (of which a col-'?III'n, in some MSS. ahorgamah, and found
lection may be found in the Critici Sacri and Poole's with great variety of orthography in the Septuagint




ARMENIA                    220                 ARMENIA
and Josephus. In the ethnographic table in the the south; but in all directions, and especially
tenth chapter of Genesis (ver. 3; comp. I Chron. to the east and west, the limits have been very fluci. 6) Thogarmah is introduced as the youngest son  tuating. It forms an elevated table-land, whence
of Gomer (son of Japhet), who is supposed to have rise mountains which (with the exception of the
given name to the Cimmerians on the north coast gigantic Ararat) are of moderate height, the plateau
of the Euxine Sea, his other sons being Ashkenaz gradually sinking towards the plains of Iran on the
and Riphat, both progenitors of northern tribes, east, and those of Asia Minor on the west.. The
among whom also it is natural to seek for the climate is generally cold, but salubrious.  The
posterity of Thogarmah.  The prophet Ezekiel country abounds in romantic forest and mountain
(xxxviii. 6) also classes along with Gomer'the  scenery, and rich pasture-land, especially in the
house of Thogarmah and the sides of the north' districts which border upon Persia.  Ancient
(in the Eng. Vers.'of the north quarters'), where, writers notice the wealth of Armenia in metals and
as also at Ezek. xxvii. 14, it is placed beside precious stones. The great rivers Euphrates and
Meshech and Tubal, probably the tribes of the Tigris both take their rise in this region, as also
Moschi and Tibareni in the Caucasus.   Now, the Araxes, and the Kur or Cyrus. Armenia is
though Josephus and Jerome find Thogarmah in  commonly divided into Greater and Lesser, the line
Phrygia, Bochart in Cappadocia, the Chaldee and  of separation being the Euphrates; but the former
the Jewish rabbins in Germany, etc.; yet a cm- constitutes by far the larger portion, and indeed
parison of the above passages leads to the con- the other is often regarded as pertaining rather to
clusion that it is rather to be sought for in Armenia, Asia Minor. There was anciently a kingdom of
and this is the opinion of Eusebius, Theodoret, Armenia, with its metropolis Artaxata: it was
and others of the fathers.  It is strikingly con- sometimes an independent state, but most comfirmed by the traditions of that and the neighbour- monly tributary to some more powerful neighbour.
ing countries. According to Moses of Chorene Indeed at no period was the whole of this region
(Whiston's edition, i. 8, p. 24), and also King ever comprised under one government, but Assyria,
Wachtang's History of Georgia (in Klaproth's Media, Syria, and Cappadocia shared the dominion
Travels in the Caucasus, vol. ii. p. 64), the or allegiance of some portion of it, just as it is now
Armenians, Georgians, Lesghians, Mingrelians, divided among the Persians, Russians, Turks, and
and Caucasians are all descended from one common Kurds; for there is no doubt that that part of
progenitor, called Thargamos, a son of Awanan, Kurdistan which includes the elevated basins of the
son of Japhet, son of Noah (comp. Eusebius, lakes of Van and Oormiah anciently belonged to
Chron. ii. 12). After the dispersion at Babel, he Armenia.  The unfortunate German traveller
settled near Ararat, but his posterity spread abroad  Schulz (who was murdered by a Kurdish chief)
between the Caspian and Euxine seas. A similar discovered in 1827, near the former lake, the ruins
account is found in a Georgian chronicle, quoted  of a very ancient town, which he supposed to be
by another German traveller, Guldenstedt, which that which is called by Armenian historians Shamistates that Targamos was the father of eight sons, ramakert (i. e., the town of Semiramis), because
the eldest of whom was Aos, the ancestor of the believed to have been built by the famous Assyrian
Armenians. They still call themselves' the house queen. The ruins are covered with inscriptions in
of Thorgom,' the very phrase used by Ezekiel, the arrow-headed character; in one of them Saintn=  111n J1n3, the corresponding Syriac word for Martin thought he deciphered thewords Khshdarsha'house' denoting'land or district.'  From the son of Dareioush (Xerxes son of Darius). In later
house or province of Thogarmah the market of times Armenia was the border country where the
Tyre was supplied with horses and mules (Ezek. Romans and Parthians fruitlessly strove for the
xxvii. 14); and Armenia, we know, was famed mastery, and since then it has been the frequent
of old for its breed of horses.  The Satrap of battle-field of the neighbouring states. Towards
Armenia sent yearly to the Persian court 20,000 the end of the last war between Russia and Turkey,
foals for the feast of Mithras (Strabo, xi. 13, 9; large bodies of native Armenians emigrated into
Xenoph. Anabas. iv. 5, 24; Herod. vii. 40).   the Russian dominions, so that their number in
The'Aptievca of the Greeks (sometimes aspirated what is termedTurkish Armenia is now considerably'ApuLevla) is the Arminiya or Irminiya of the Arabs, reduced. By the treaty of Turkomanshee (2Ist Feb.
the Ermenistan of the Persians. Moses of Chorene  1828) Persia ceded to Russia the Khanats of Eriderives the name from Armenagh, the second of van and Nakhshivan. The boundary-line (drawn
the native princes; Hartmann draws it from Aram  from the Turkish dominions) passes over the Little
(see that article), a son of Shem, who also gave Ararat; the line of separation between Persian and
name to Aramaea or Syria; but the most probable Turkish Armenia also begins at Ararat; so that
etymology is that of Bochart, viz., that it was this famous mountain is now the central boundaryoriginally  i'31i1, Har-Minni or Mount Minni, i.e., stone of these three empires.
the High-land of Minyas, or, according to Wahl  Christianity was first established in Armenia in
(in his work on Asia, p. 807), the Heavenly the fourth century; the Armenian church has a
Mountain (i. e., Ararat), for mino in Zend, and close affinity to the Greek church in its forms and
myno, myny, in Parsee, signify'heaven, heavenly.' polity; it is described by the American missionaries
In the country itself the name Armenia is unknown; who are settled in the country as in a state of great
the people are called Haik, and the country   corruption and debasement. The total number of
Hayotz-zor, the Valley of the Haiks-from Haik, the Armenian nation throughout the world is supthe fifth descendant of Noah by Japhet, in the posed not to exceed 2,000,000. Their favourite
traditionary genealogy of the country (comp. Ritter's pursuit is commerce, and their merchants are found
Erdkunde, th. ii. p. 714).                    in all parts of the East. For the history of the
The boundaries of Armenia may be described  country, see Moses of Chorene, Father Chamich,
generally as the southern range of the Caucasus and the Hist. of Vartan, translated by Neumann.
on the north, and a branch of the Taurus on   For the topography, Morier, Ker Porter, Smith




ARMENIAN LANGUAGE                  221                 ARMLET
and Dwight, Southgate, etc., and especially the and permanent adoption by the nation (Gesenius;
vols. of the  ouwrnal of the Geographical Society, article Palaographie, in Ersch and Gruber). -J. N.
containing the researches of Monteith, Ainsworth,  ARMENIAN   VERSION.      The Armenian
and others.-N. M.
version of the Bible was undertaken in the year
ARMENIAN LANGUAGE. The Armenian 4Io by Miesrob, with the aid of his pupils Joannes
Ecelensis and Josephus Palnensis. It appears that
or Haikan language, notwithstanding the great anti- the patriarch Isaac first attempted, in consequence
quity of the nation to which it belongs, possesses  the  Persians having destroyed all th copies of
no literary documents prior to the fifth century of the  the  ersion, to make a translation from the
Christian era. The translation of the Bible, begun  Pesh ito;  that Miesrob became his coadjutlation from the
by Miesrob in the year 4IO, is the earliest monu-Peshito; that Mesrob became his coadjutor in
ment of the language ythat ha4 s come edown  to us. this work; and that they actually completed their
ment of the language that has come down to us. translation from the Syriac. But when the aboveThe dialect in which this version is written and in  taan f   t    a      t      the abve
which it is still publicly read in their churches, is name  uil  had been sent to the ecclesiasticalled the old Armenian. The dialect now in use cal council at Ephesus, returned, they brought
-the modem Armenian-in which they preach and  with them an accurate copy of the Greek Bible.
-the modemn Armemian-min which they preach and  Upon this, Miesrob laid aside his translation from
carry on the intercourse of daily life, not only departs Upon this, Miesrob laid aside his translation from
carryo the eder cours  dialetua l changes in the p the Peshito, and prepared to commence anew from
from the elder form by dialectual changes in the a more authentic text. Imperfect knowledge of
native elements of the language itself, but also by the  e  reek language, however, induced him to send
great intermixture of Persian and Turkish words
hgreat intermixture of Persianq and Turkish words his pupils to Alexandria, to acquire accurate Greek
which has resulted from the conquest and subjection  scholarship; and, on their return, the translation
of the country. It is perhaps, this diversity of the was accomplished. Moses of Chorene, the histoancient and modem idioms which has given rise to rian  Armenia, who was also employed, as a
the many conflicting opinions that exist as to t  of Armenia, who was also employed, as a
the many conflicting opinions that exist as to the disciple of Miesrob, on this version, fixes its cornrelation in which the Armenian stands to other          e year 4; but he is contradicted by
Xanguages. Thus Cir'itec and T ater oton assert pletion in the year 4Io 1 but he is contradicted by
tanguages. ano us g inllan   ane t ater i one   assert. the date of the Council of Ephesus, which necesthat it is an original language, that is, one so distinct sarily makes it subsequent to the year 43
fr *om all others in its fundamenItal disractir as nct sarily makes it subsequent to the year 43 1.
from all others  its fundamental character as not In the Old Testament this version adheres exto be classed with any of the great families of ceedingly closely to the LX. (but, in the book of
languages. Eichhorn, on theother hand (Sprachen- Daniel, has followed the version of Theodotion).
kunde, p. 349), affirms that the learned idiom of the Its most striking characteristic is, that it does not
Armenian undoubtedly belongs to the Medo-Persian  follow any known recension of the LXX. Although
family. Whereas Pott (Untersuchungen, p. xxxii.) it more often agrees with the Alexandrine text, in
says that, notwithstanding its many points of relation  readings which are peculiar to the latter, than it
to that family, it cannot strictly be considered to  does with the Aldine or Complutensian text; yet,
belong to it; and Gatterer actually classed it as a onhe other hand, it also has followed readings
onthe other hand, it also has followed readins
living sister of the Basque, Finnish, and Welsh  which are only found in the two last. Bertholdt
languages. fahaccounts for this mixed text by assuming that the
As to form, it is said to be rough and full of copy of the Greek Bible sent from Ephesus conconsonants; to possess tencassinthecopy of the Greek Bible sent from Ephesus conconsonants; to possess ten cases in the noun-a  taed the Lucian recension, and that the pupils
number whic is only.exceededbytheFinni; tained the Lucian recension, and that the pupils
number which is only exceeded by the Finnish; brought back copies according to the Hesychian
brought back copies according to the Hesychian
to have no dual; to have no mode of denoting  recension from Alexandria, and that the translators
gender in the noun by change of form, but to be made the latter their standard, but corrected their
obliged to append the words man and woman as version by aid of the former (Einei. ii. 560)  The
the marks of sex-thus to say prophet-woman for version of the New Testament is equally close to
prophetess (nevertheless, mode  writers use the the Greek original, and also represents a text made
syllable oui to distinguish the feminine; Wahl, up of Alexandrine and Occidental readings.
Geschichte d. Morgeni. Sprachen, p. IOO); to b ear            a   O          redns
Geschchte d. Mo*ren  Sprachen, p..,oo) to bear  This version was afterwards revised and adapted
a remarkable resemblance to Greek in the use of
a remarkable resemblance to Greek in the use of to the Peshito, in the sixth century, on the occathe participle, and, in the whole syntactical structure; son of  ecclesiastical union between the Syrians
and to.have adoptedtheArabian sy~i of.  sion of an ecclesiastical union between the Syrians
and to have adopted the Arabian system of metre and Armenians. Again, in the thirteenth century,
and Armenians. Again, in the thirteenth century,
The history of its alphabetical character is a Armenian king Hethom or Haitho, who was so
briefly this: until the third century of our era, the zealous a Catholic thathe turned Franciscan monk,
Armenians used either the Persian or Greek alphabet apted the Armenian version to the Vulgate, by
(the letterin Syrian characters, mentioned by Diodor. way of smoothing the way for a union of the
xix. 23, is not considered an evidence that they  Roman and Armenian churches.  Lastly, the
wrote Armenian in Syrian characters, as that letter bishop Uscan, who printed the first edition of this
was probably Persian). In the fifth century, how- version at Asterdam, in the year 666,is also
ever, the translation of the Bible created the ne- accused of having interpolated the text as it came
cessity for characters which would more adequately down to his time, by adding all that he found the
represent the peculiar sounds of the language. Vulgate contained more than the Armenian version.
Accordingly, after a fruitless attempt of a certain  The existence of the verse I John v. 7, in this verDaniel, and after several efforts on his own part, sion is ascribed to this supplementary labour of
Miesrob saw a hand in a dream write the very Uscan. It is clear from what has been said, that
characters which now constitute the Armenian the critical uses of this version are limited to deteralphabet. The 38 letters thus obtained are chiefly mining the readings of the LXX. and of the Greek
founded on the Greek, but have partly made out tet of the New Testament which it represents, and
their number by deriving some forms from the Zend  that it has suffered many alterations which diminish
alphabet. The order of writing is from left to its usefulness in that respectJ. N.
right. Miesrob employed these letters in his translation of the Bible, and thus ensured their universal  ARMLET. Although this word has the same




ARMON                     222                  ARMON
meaning as bracelet, yet the latter is practically so tree, which is named thrice in the Scriptures. It
exclusively used to denote the ornament of the occurs among the'speckled rods' which Jacob
wrist, that it seems proper to distinguish by armlet placed in the watering-troughs before the sheep
the similar ornament which is worn on the upper (Gen. xxx. 37): its grandeur is indicated in Ezek.
arm. There is also this difference between them, xxxi. 8, as well as in Ecclus. xxiv. I9: it is noted
that in the East bracelets are generally worn by  for its magnificence, shooting its high boughs aloft.
women, and armlets only by men. The armlet,
however, is in use among men only as one of the- 
insignia of sovereign power. There are three dif-        i- c?-".~"
ferent words which the Auth. Vers. renders by                        (.S
bracelet. These are-I. fl'VKY elzadah, which,a.    &
occurs in Num. xxxi. 50; 2 Sam. i. IO; and which        *                   S
being used with reference to men only, we take to 
be. the armlet. 2. Pt  tzamid, which is found       -
in Gen. xxiv. 22; Num. xxxi. 50; Ezek. xvi. I.,i
Where these two words occur together (as in,''.,'
Num. xxxi. 50), the first is rendered by'chain,''_..
and the second by'bracelet.' 3. nl'IV  sheroth,              ii: B
which occurs only in Is. iii. 19. The first we            eg;<-l f^Z, 
take to mean armlets worn by men; the second,    b       l
bracelets worn by women and sometimes by men;    - 
and the third, a peculiar bracelet of chain-work  (Patanus Orienalis), which is adopted by all the
worn only by women. It is observable that the ancient translators, to which the balance of critical
two first occur in Num. xxxi. 50, which we sup- opinion inclines, and which actually grows in Palespose to mean that the men offered their own arm- tine. The beech, the maple, and the chestnut have
lets and the bracelets of their wives. In the only been adopted, in different modern versions, as repre
other passage in which the first word occurs it senting the Hebrew Armon; butscarcely any one
denotes the royal ornament which the Amalekite now doubts that it means the plane-tree. It may
took from the arm of the dead Saul, and brought be remarked that this tree is in Genesis associated
with the other regalia to David. There is little with others-the willow and the poplar-whose
question that this was such a distinguishing band habits agree with it; they are all trees of the low
of jewelled metal as we still find worn as a mark  grounds, and love to grow where the soil is rich
of royalty from the Tigris to the Ganges. The and humid. This is strikingly illustrated by the
Egyptian kings are represented with armlets, which fact that Russell (N. H. of Aleppo, i. 47) expressly
were also worn by the Egyptian women. These, names the plane, the willow, and the poplar (along
however, are not jewelled, but of plain or enamelled with the ash), as trees which grow in the same
metal, as was in all likelihood the case among the situations near Aleppo.
Hebrews. In modern times the most celebrated    But this congruity would be lost if the chestnut
armlets are those which form part of the regalia of were understood, as that tree prefers dry and hilly
the Persian kings, and which formerly belonged to situations. There is a latent beauty also in the
the Mogul emperors of India. These ornaments passage in Ezekiel, where, in.describing the greatare of dazzling splendour, and the jewels in them  ness and glory of Assyria, the prophet says,'The
are of such large size and immense value that the Armon-trees were not like his boughs, nor any
pair are reckoned to be worth a million of our tree in the garden of God like unto him for beauty.'
money. The principal stone of the right armlet is This not only expresses the grandeur of the tree,
famous in the East by the name of the Devid-e-nur, but is singularly appropriate from the fact that the
or Sea of light. It weighs I86 carats, and is con- plane-trees (chenars, as they are called) in the
sidered the diamond of finest lustre in the world. plains of Assyria are of extraordinary size and
The principal jewel of the left armlet, although of beauty, in both respects exceeding even those of
somewhat inferior size (146 carats) and value, is Palestine. It consists with our own experience
renowned as the Tag-e-mah,'Crown of the moon.' that one may travel far in Western Asia without
The imperial armlets, generally set with jewels, meeting such trees, and so many together, as occur
may also be observed in most of the portraits of the in the chenar-groves of Assyria and Media.
Indian emperors. [BRACELET.] —J. K              The Oriental plane-tree ranks in the Linnsean
E<M N  Qclass and order Monecia Polyandrta, and in the
ARMON     (jiY..; Chaldee, 1., Syriac, natural order among the Platanacece. Western^\0    Arabic, -'     Sept. *rXcoS; Vulg.* most Asia is its native country, although, according; Arabic,  J; Sept. rXdrao; Vulg. to Professor Royle, it extends as far eastward as
platanus; Luth. ahorn; A. V.'chestnut-tree'), a Cashmere. The stem is tall, erect, and covered




ARMON                    223            ARMS, ARMOUR
with a smooth bark which annually falls off. The others, mention the groves of noble planes which
flowers are small and scarcely distinguishable: they adorn the plain of Antioch; and the last-named
come out a little before the leaves. The wood of traveller records a night's rest which he enjoyed
the plane-tree is fine-grained, hard, and rather under planes of great beauty in a valley of Lebandn
brittle than tough; when old, it is said to acquire (p. 76). That they are among the principal trees
dark veins, and to take the appearance of walnut- in the plantations near Aleppo has already been
wood.                                        observed, on the authority of Russell. BuckingIn those situations which are favourable to its ham names them among the trees which line the
growth, huge branches spread out in all directions
from the massive trunk, invested with broad, deeplydivided, and glossy green leaves. This body of
rich foliage, joined to the smoothness of the stem,\         \ \    r
and the symmetry of the general growth, renders
the plane-tree one of the noblest objects in the
vegetable kingdom. It has now, and had also of,
old (Plin. Nat. Hist. xii. I), the reputation of being
the tree which most effectually excludes the sun's 
beams in summer, and most readily admits them in
winter-thus affording the best shelter from the extremes of both seasons. 
For this reason it was planted near public buildings and palaces, a practice which the Greeks and
Romans adopted; and the former delighted to
adorn with it their academic walks and places of
public exercise. In the East, the plane seems to
have been considered sacred, as the oak was formerly in Britain.  This distinction is in most
countries awarded to the most magnificent species
of tree which it produces. In Palestine, for instance, where the plane does not appear to have       83. Branch of Platanus Orientalis.
been very common, the terebinth seems to have
possessed pre-eminence.  [ELAH.]  No one is Jabbok (Travels in Palestine, ii. Io8). Evelyn (in
ignorant of the celebrated story of Xerxes arrest- his Sylva) seems to ascribe the introduction of the
ing the march of his grand army before a noble plane-tree into England to the great Lord Bacon,
plane-tree in Lydia, that he might render honourwho planted some which were still flourishing at
to it, and adorn its boughs with golden chains, Verulam in 706. This was, perhaps, the first
bracelets, and other rich ornaments-an action plantation of any note; but it appears from Turmisunderstood, and egregiously misrepresented by ners Heral (published in 1551), that the tree was
lElian (Var. Hist. ii. 14)known and cultivated in this country before the
The Oriental plane endures our own climate chancellor was born.  (Besides the authorities
well, and grows to a fine tree; but not to the quoted, see Hiller, Hierophylicon, cap. 43; Celsius,
enormous size which it sometimes attains in the  uerobotaicon, 5I2-5I6; and Winer's ReaoiirterEast. Several grand old plane-trees have been buch, in'Ahorn').-J. K.
mentioned. Pausanias (1. viii. c. 23) notices a  ARMS, ARMOUR. In order to give a clear
noble plane in Arcadia, the planting of which was view of this subject, we shall endeavour to shew
ascribed, by tradition, to Menelaus; so that if this succinctly, and from the best authorities now availtradition were entitled to credit (and it claims able, what were the weapons, both offensive and
little), it must, when he wrote, although in a sound defensive, used by the ancient Asiatics; leaving to
state, have been above I300 years old. Pliny, in be found under other heads the composition and
his curious chapter on this tree (Nat. Hist. xii. I), tactical condition of their armies; their systems
mentions one in Lycia, in the trunk of which had of fortification; and, finally, their method of conbeen gradually formed an immense cavern, eighty ducting sieges and battles; and their usages of war
feet in circumference. L. Mutianus, thrice consul, as regards spoil, captives, etc.
and governor of the province, with eighteen other  The instruments at first employed in the chace,
persons, often dined and supped commodiously or to repel wild beasts, but converted by the wicked
within it. If nothing more were known of this L. to the destruction of their fellow-men, or used by
Mutianus, we should like him for the pleasure, not the peaceable to oppose aggression, were naturally
unmingled with regret, with which he records the the most simple. Among these were the club and
satisfaction which he occasionally derived from  the throwing-bat. The first consisted originally of
hearing the rain patter upon the leaves overhead, a heavy piece of wood, variously shaped, made to
while he and his company sat dry and safe within: strike with, and, according to its form, denominated
it was the music of their feast. Caligula also had a mace, a bar, a hammer, or a maul. This weapon
a tree of this sort at his villa near Velitrae, the hol- was in use among the Hebrews; for, in the time
low of which accommodated fifteen persons at of the kings, wood had already been superseded
dinnerwith a proper suite of attendants. The em- by metal; and the tF 1 t3   shevet barze, rod of
peror called it' his nest;' and it is highly probable iron (Ps. ii. 9), is supposed to mean a mace, or
that his friend Herod Agrippa may occasionally gavelock, or crowbar.  It is an instrument of
have been one of the fifteen birds who nestled great power when used by a strong arm; as when
there along with him.  Moder   travellers also Van Amburgh, with one in his hand, compels a
notice similar trees. Belon (Obs. Sing. 1. ii. p. tigers ferocity to submit to his will. (See Wilkin105), La Roque (Voy. de Syrie, pp. I97-I99), and son's Mannersand CusomsoftheAncientEgptians,




ARMARMOU                                      AMS, ARMOUR 224  ARMS, ARMOUR
vol. i. p. 327, fig. 3, 4; and mace, fig. I, 2. The used in every part of the East where the material
throwstick or lissan occurs p. 329.) The other can be procured. From existing figures, the dirk
was also known, if, as is probable, Yrad maphiez appears to have been early made of metal in Egypt,
(Prov. xxv. I8) be a maul, a martel, or a war- and worn stuck in a girdle (Wilkinson, i. 319); but
from several texts (I Sam. xvii. 39; 2 Sam. xx. 8;
_ 1 _             _         -         and I Kings xx. I I) it is evident that the real
sword was slung in a belt, and that'girding' and'loosing the sword' were synonymous terms for
13_a                        commencing and ending a war. The blades were,.    -. _o —- -   it seems, always short (one is mentioned of a cubit's
_     4
M              6.....m  x V nm 6 W O                                     = M  
85.
s. Horn Dagger.  4, 5. Tulwar Swords.
2, 3. Swords.    6. Quarter-pike.
-_'.~ -'VV I         length); and the dirk-sword, at least, was always
double-edged. The sheath was ornamented and
" ^____^^-^r3sQ          polished. In Egypt there were larger and heavier
swords, more nearly like modern tulwars, and of
the form of an English round-pointed table-knife.
But while metal was scarce, there were also swords
84.                      which might be called quarter-pikes, being comI, 2, 3. Clubs.        8. Hardwood Sword.     posed of a very short wooden handle, surmounted
4, 5. Crooked Billets, or  9. Sharks-teeth Sword.  by a spear-head.  Hence the Latin telum and
6. Mace.              1i. Saw-fish Sword.
7. Battle-axe.        12, 13. Egyptian Battle-axes. gladius. In Nubia, swords of heavy wood are still
in use.
hammer. It is likely metal was only in general
use at a later period, and that a heavy crooked 
billet continued long to serve both as a missile and._               _
a sword. The throwstick, made of thorn-wood, is
the same instrument which we see figured on
Egyptian monuments. By the native Arabs it is                             _ 
still called lissan, and was anciently known among
us by the name of crooked billet. These instruments, supplied with a sharp edge, would naturally  J-o-_ 
constitute a battle-axe, and a kind of sword; and 
such in the rudest ages we find them, made with                    A, 
flints set into a groove, or with sharks' teeth firmly
secured to the staff with twisted sinews. On the
earliest monuments of Egypt, for these ruder, 
instruments is already seen substituted a piece of
metal witi a steel or bronze blade fastened into a                 86.
globe, thus forming a falchion-axe; and also a. Spear-heads.4. Darts.
lunate-blade, rivetted in three places to the handle,      5. Oryx horn pear-head.
forming a true battle-axe (Wilkinson, vol. i. p.
325, 326); and there were, besides, true bills or  The spear, 1IV  romach, was another offensive
axes in form like our own.                    weapon common to all the nations of antiquity, and
Next came the dirk or poniard, which, in the was of various size, weight, and length. Probably
Hebrew word 1 i cherev, may possibly retain some the shepherd Hebrews, like nations similarly situated
allusion to the original instrument made of the in northern Africa, anciently made use of the horn
antelope's horn, merely sharpened, which is still of an oryx, or a leucoryx, above three feet long,




ARMS, ARMOUR                  225            ARMS, ARMOUR
straightened in water, and sheathed upon a thorn- of bending this instrument, by pressure of the knee,
wood staff.  When sharpened, this instrument or by the foot,''1, treading the bow, or by setwould penetrate the hide of a bull, and, according ting one end against the foot drawing the middle
to Strabo, even of an elephant; it was light, very with the hand of the same side towards the hip,
difficult to break, resisted the blow of a battle-axe, and pushing the upper point forward with the
and the animals which furnished it were abundant seconid hand, till the thumb passed the loop of the
in Arabia and in the desert east of Palestine. At string beyond the nock. The horned bows of the
a later period, the head was of brass, and afterwards of iron. Very ponderous weapons of this
kind were often used in Egypt by the heavy in-   _               1
fantry; and, from various circumstances, it may be 
inferred that among the Hebrews and their imme- _f-     -        s 
diate neighbours, commanders in particular were
distinguished by heavy spears. Among these were 
generally ranked the most valiant in fight and the.iI 
largest in stature; such as Goliath,'whose spear  ___
was like a weaver's beam' (I Sam. xvii. 7), and       \ 
whose spear's head weighed six hundred shekels of
iron; which by some is asserted to be equal to
twenty-five pounds weight. The spear had a point    111   [
of metal at the but-end to fix it in the ground, per- 
haps with the same massy globe above it, which is               j
still in use, intended to counterbalance the point.  llf
It was with this, ferrel that Abner slew Asahel (2
Sam. ii. 22, 23). The form of the head and length 
of the shaft differed at different times, both in 
Egypt and Syria, and were influenced by the fashions               _8
set by various conquering nations.
The javelins, named np1n chanith, and jlp                      87.
kidon, may have had distinct forms: from the con-.. 
text, where chanith first occurs, it appears to have  x 2, 3, 4.  s  5 6 Quivers.  8 A
been a species of dart carried by light troops (I cavalry, shaped like those of the Chinese, occur on
Sam. xiii. 22; Ps. xxxv. 3); while the kidon, which monuments of antiquity.  They cannot be bent
was heavier, was most likely a kind of pilum. In from their form of a Roman C to that of what is
most nations of antiquity the infantry, not bearing termed a Cupid's bow —. —, but by placing one
a spear, carried two darts, those lightly armed using end under the thigh; and as they are short, this
both for long casts, and the heavy armed only one operation is performed by Tahtar riders while in
for that purpose; the second, more ponderous than the saddle.  This was the Parthian bow, as is
the other, being reserved for throwing when close proved by several Persian bas-reliefs, and may
to the enemy, or for handling in the manner of a have been in use in the time of the Elamites, who
spear. This explanation may throw light on the  ere a mounted people. Thesebows were carried
fact of the chanith being named in connection with in cases to protect the string, which was composed
the is tIsinnah, or larger buckler (I Chron. xii. 34), of deer sinews, from injury, and were slung on the
and may reconcile what is said of the kidon (Jobright hip of the rider, except when on the point of
xxxix. 23; xli. 29, and Josh. vii. I8). While on engaging. Then the string was often cast over the
the subject of the javelin, it may be remarked that, head, and the bow hung upon the breast, with the
by the act of casting one at David (I Sam. xix. 9, two nocks above each shoulder, like a pair of horns.
-o), Saul virtually absolved him from his allegiance; The hhitzim, or arrows, were likewise enclosed in
for by the customs of ancient Asia, preserved in, 
the usages of the Teutonic and other nations, the caseor q    the
Sachsen recht, the custom of the East Franks, etc., shoulder, and at other times on the left side; and
to throw a dart at a freedman, who escaped from  Six or eight flight-arrows were commonly stuck in
it by flight, was the demonstrative token of manu-the edge of the cap, ready to be pulled out and put
mission given by his lord or master; he was thereby to the string.  The infantry always carried the
sent out of hand, manumissus, well expressed in arrows in a quiver on the right shoulder, and the
the old English phrase'scot-free.' But for this bow was kept unbent until the moment of action.
act of Saul, David might have been viewed as a On a march it was carried on the shield arm, where
rebel,                                      there was frequently also a horn bracer secured
But the chief offensive weapon in Egypt, and, below the elbow to receive the shock from the
from the nature of the country,. it may be inferred, String when an arrow was discharged. The flight
in Palestine also, was the war.bow inp keshetrh, or long-range arrows were commonly of reed, not
and nlewp kesatoth, the arrows being denomi- always feathered, and mostly tippedwith flint points;
nated rV hhitz, rwn haitzim. From the simple but the shot or aimed arrows, used for nearer purimplements used by the first hunters, consisting poses, were of wood tipped with metal, about 30
merely of an elastic reed, a branch of a tree, or rib iches long, and winged with three lines of feathers
of palm, the bow became in the course of time very like those in modern use  they varied in length at
strong and tall, was made of brass, of wood backed different periods, and according to the substance of
with horn, or of horn entirely, and even of ivory; the bows.
some being shaped like the common English bow, The last missile instrument (o be mentioned is
and others, particularlythose used by riding nations, the sling, 13p kela (Job xli. 281, an improvement
like the buffalo horn. There were various modes upon the simple act of throwing stones. It was
VOL. 1.                                                                       Q




ARMS, ARMOUR                   226             ARMS, ARMOUR
the favourite weapon of the Benjamites, a small uncertainty]. In the more advanced eras of civitribe, not making a great mass in an order of battle, lization shields were made of light wood not liable
but well composed for light troops. They could to split, covered with bull-hide of two or more
also boast of using the sling equally well with the
left hand as with the right. The sling was made 
of plaited thongs, somewhat broad in the middle, 
to lodge the stone or leaden missile, and was twirled
two or three times round before the stone was allowed to take flight. Stones could not be cast
t\0        f         at i(C
0       o
89.
r. The Tsinnah, or Great Shield. 2. Common Egyptian
88. Egyptian Slingers and Sling.      Shield. 3. Target. 4, 5. Ancient Shields of unknown
tribes. 6. Roundel.
above 400 feet, but leaden bullets could be thrown 
as far as 600 feet. The force as well as precision thicknesses and bordered with metal: the lighter
of aim which might be attained in the use of this kinds were made of wicker-work or osier, similarly,
instrument was remarkably shewn in the case of but less solidly covered; or of double ox-hide cut
David.; and several nations of antiquity boasted of  to a round form. There were others of a single
great skill in the practice of the sling.     hide, extremely thick from having been boiled;
great skill in the practice of the sling.
All these hand-weapons were in use at differentther surface presented an appearance of many
periods, not only among the Hebrews and Egyp- folds, like round waves up and down, which might
tians, but likewise in Assyria, Persia, Greece, and yield, but could rarely be penetrated.
Macedonia; in which last country the sarissa car-  We may infer that at first the Hebrews borrowed
ried by the heavy infantly of the phalanx differedthe forms  use in Egypt, and that their common
from the others only in the great length of the shaft. shields were a kind of parallelogram, broadest and
The Roman pilum was a kind of dart, distinguish- arched at the top and cut square beeath, bordered
ed from those of other nations chiefly by its weight, with metal, the surface being covered with raw
and the great proportional length of the metal or hide wlth the ha i on.  The lighter shields ma
iron part, which constituted one half of the whole,have been soaked in o   and died inthe shade to
or from two and a half to three feet. Much of make them hard; no doubt, hippopotamus, rhinothis length was hollow, and received nearly twenty  cro  and elephant skin shields were brought from
inches of the shaft within it: the point was never Ethiopia and purchased in the Phnician markets:
hooked like that of common darts. because thebut small round hand-bucklers of whale-skin,
weapon being nearly indestructible, the soldiers still used by Arabian swordsmen, came from the
always reckoned upon advancing in battle and re-  rythrean sea. During the Assyrian and Persian
covering it without trouble when thrown; where- supremacy the Hebrews may have used the square,
as, if it had been hooked or hamate, they could not oblong, and round shields of these nations, and
have wrenched it out of hostile shields or breast- ma have subsequently copied those of Greece and
plates without trouble and delay.             Rome.    The princes of Israel had shields of
precious metals: all were managed by a wooden
DEFENSIVE ARMS. The most ancient defensiveor leathern handle, and often slung by a thong
piece was the shield, buckler, roundel, or target, or the neck.  With the larger kinds a testudo
composed of a great variety of materials, very could be formed by pressing the ranks close
different in form and size, and therefore in all could be fod    le the  side    the r
nations bearing a variety of names. The Hebrews si  before and  on the fla nksep thein raised
shields before and on the flanks those within raised
used the word;1z= tsinnah, for a great shield; theirs above the head, and thus produced a kind
defence, protection (Gen. xv. I; Ps. xlvii. 9; Prov. of surface sometimes as close and fitted together
xxx. 5), which is commonly found in connection  as a pantile roof, and capable of resisting the
with spear, and was the shelter of heavily-armed  pressure even of a body of men marching upon it.
infantry; I  magen, a buckler, or smaller shield,  The tsinnah was most likely what in the feudal
which, from a similar juxtaposition with sword, ages would have been called a pase, for such
bow, and arrows, appears to have been the de- occurs on the Egyptianmonuments. This weapon
fence of the other-armed infantry and of chiefs;           eet high  ith a poin
and.h sohairah, paima, a roundel, which may..,was about five feet high, with a pointed arch above,
^and,,inD sokaira^ p;lma, X.oundel, which and square below, resembling the feudal knight's
have been appropriated to archers and slingers;sed         a    e           revers.   This
shield, only that the point was reversed.  This
and there was the CtSg   shelet, a kind of shield, kind of large-sized shield, however, was best fitted
[respecting the peculiarity of which there is much  for men without any other armour, when combating




ARMS, ARMOUR                  227             ARMS, ARMOUR
in open countries, or carrying on sieges; for it but archers and slingers had round skull-caps of
may be remarked in general, that the military skins, felts, or quilted stuffs, such as are still in
buckler of antiquity was large in proportion as use among the Arabs. The form of Greek and
other defensive armour was wanting.  Shields Roman helmets, both of leather and of brass, is
were hung upon the battlements of walls, and, as well known; they were most likely adopted also
still occurs, chiefly above gates of cities by the by the Hebrews and Egyptians during their subwatch and ward. In time of peace they were jection to those nations, but require no further
covered to preserve them from the sun, and in notice here.
war uncovered; this sign was poetically used to
denote coming hostilities, as in Is. xxii. 6, etc.
In Europe, where the Crusaders could imitate the     / 
Saracens, but not introduce their climate, shields                   // 
were carved in stone upon towers and gates, as                      // i      / 
at York, etc. The Eastern origin of this practice 
seems to be attested by the word Zuine, which, 
in German, still denotes a battlement, something 
pointed, a summit, and conveys the idea of a
pav'ise with the point uppermost, a shape such as 1 
Arabian battlements often assume.
The Helmet was next in consideration, and in
the earliest ages was made of osier, or rushes, in
the form of a beehive, or of a skull-cap.  The
skins of the heads of animals-of lions, bears, wild
boars, bulls, and horses-were likewise adopted, 
and were adorned with rows of teeth, manes, and
bristles. Wood, linen cloth in many folds, and a
kind of felt, were also in early use, and helmets of
these materials may be observed worn by the
nations of Asia at war with the conqueror kings of                91
Egypt, even before the departure of Israel. At. 2. Canaan.    3, 4. Egypt.
that time also these kings had helmets of metal, of
rounded or pointed forms, adorned with a figure of  Body Armtour.-The most ancient Persian idols
the serpent Knephh; and an allied nation, perhaps are clad in shagged skins, such as the lEgis of
the Carian, reported to have first worn a military Jupiter and Minerva may have been, the type
crest, bears on the skull-cap of their brazen helmets being taken from a Cyrenaean or African legend,
a pair of horns with a globe in the middle-the and the pretended red goat-skin may be supposed
solar arkite symbol. The nations of farther Asia, to have been that of a species of gnu (Catoblepas
Gorgon, Ham. Smith), an animal fabled to have.Ad. -lg=  1g71R    <^killed men by its sight, and therefore answering,~  CH~IDip                           n  dea^  t to the condition both of a kind of goat and of
Jt the3 cn\ diproducing death by the.sight alone.  In Egypt
~ra  M'  vcuirasses were rhanufactured of leather, of brass,
2W>tzg ^ S^& /^~~~ /9fand of a succession of iron hoops, chiefly covering
//6 I~fs / i  A p j Athe abdomen and the shoulders; but a more ancient
J-rl  <?2z//6  7^) yi ^national form was a kind of thorax, tippet, ll4'W
J_,~  7M     g ~  ~//.X/~A      shiryon, or square, with an opening in it for the
head, the four points covering'the breast, back,
9 g/@MB 9. \ \\^~  ^>TJ  ^and both upper arms. This kind in particular was
JU'-J%  )      ^^X'^\ "affected by the royal band of relatives who
N s^  9 //  1>2<  surrounded the Pharaoh, were his subordinate
Hi2 (( Ha  3  _  commanders, messengers, and body-guards, bearing
Xi;'^~~~~ ^) < ~ -       his standards, ensign-fans, and sun-screens, his
portable throne, his bow and arrows.  Beneath
90.                      this square was another piece, protecting the trunk
I. Of Rushes.         8. Assyrian.            of the body, and both were in general covered with
2. Egyptian.          9. Greek.               a red-coloured cloth or stuff. On the oldest fictile
5. Carian?           ii. Parthian. 
6, 7. Egyptian.       12, I3. Other Asiatic tribes.  Greek and Etruscan warriors. It covers the upper
edge of the body armour, is perforated in the
nowever, used the woollen or braided caps, still middle to allow the head to pass, but hangs equal
retained, and now called kaouk and fez, around  on the breast and back, square on the shoulders,
which the turban is usually wound. These were and is evidently of leather.  (See the figure of
almost invariably supplied with long lappets to  Menelaus discovering Helen in the sack of Troy.
cover the ears and the back of the head, and princes Millin, Mon. inedits.) This piece of armour occurs
usually wore a radiated crown on the summit. also on the shoulders of Varangi (northmen, who
This was the form of the Syrian, and probably of were the body-guards of the Greek emperors); but
the Assyrian helmets, excepting that the last they are studded with roundels or bosses, as they
mentioned were of brass, though they still retained  appear figured in mosaic or fresco on the walls of
the low cylindrical shape. The 3n~l  koba, some the cathedral of Ravenna, dating from the times of
helmet of this kind, was worn by the trained Justinian. The late Roman legionaries, as published
infantry, who were spearmen among the Hebrews; by Du Choul, again wear the tippet armour, like




ARMS, ARMOUR                   228             ARMS, ARMOUR
that of the Egyptians, and one or other of the  laps the abdomen. The -term bttp'p kaskasim,
above forms may be found on figures of Danes in'scales,' in the case of Goliath's armour, denotes
illuminated manuscripts of the eleventh century.  the squamous kind, most likely that in which the
pieces were sewed upon a cloth, and not hinged
to each other, as in the tachera.  It was the
1..-^.T  __defensive armour of Northern and Eastern nations,
4 ^     Lt sl r     J J...  ]1|I-  *    I the Persian Cataphracti, Parthians, and Sarmatians.
But of true annular or ringed mail, Denon's figure
I          being incorrect, we doubt if there is any positive
evidence, excepting where rings were sewn separately
z          upon cloth, anterior to the sculpture at Takt-io 1  o 0  Boostan, or the close of the Parthian era. The
IL  L n ~       o co r T jw existence of mail is often incorrectly inferred from
our translators using the word wherever flexible.  |            0 0it  02 0|  0 (  M   armour is to be mentioned.  The techera could
lt  i T iT  l(not well be worn without an under-garment ol
jj l *l   N y * *some density to resist the friction of metal; and
\| |^\^\ \\'^K\  c  this may have been a kind of sagum, the shereyon
^  t ^  iof the Hebrews, under another form-the dress
/  Saul put upon David before he assumed the breast-'>|^^^S \ Si'S^ >ir          plate and girdle.  The Roman sagum    offers a
parallel instance. Under that name it was worn
at first a loricd, then beneath it, and at last again
92.                       without, but the stuff itself made into a kind of
felt.
i. Egyptian tigulated. 2. Sleeve of ring-mail, Ionian. felt
TIhe Cuirass and Corselet, strictly speaking, were
By their use of metal for defensive armour, the  of prepared leather (corium), but often also com.
Carians appear to have created astonishment among  posed of quilted cloths: the former in ancient
the Egyptians, and therefore may be presumed to
have been the first nation so protected in western 
Asia; nevertheless, in the tombs of the kings near
Thebes, a tigulated hauberk is represented, composed of small three-coloured pieces of metal; one 
golden, the others reddish and green. It is this1 
suit which Denon represents as composed of rings\                 A.j
set on edge; but they are all parallelograms, with               1++l                   V
the lower edge forming the segment of a circle,                         a 
and each piece, beside the fastening, has a button                              \ 
and a verticle slit above it, giving flexibility by\             /+       \ t     _
means of the button of each square working in the\ 
aperture of the piece beneath it.  This kind of 
x, 2. Early Greek.    4, 5. Roman.
1  By  Y  \Actk\  3- Greek.             6. Barbarian.
times generally denoted a suit with leathern ap93. Parthian Horseman.            pendages at the bottom and at the shoulder, as used
by the Romans; the latter, one in which the barrel
armour may be meant by the word NK1nn tachara, did not come down below the hips, and usually
the closest interpretation of which appears to be  destitute of leathern vittse, which was nationally
decussatio, tigulatio, a tiling. The expression in 2 Greek.  In later ages it always designates a breast
Chron. xviii. 33, may be that Ahab was struck in  and back piece of steel. It is, however, requisite
one of the grooves or slits in the squares of his to observe, that in estimating the meaning of
techera, or between two of them where they do  Hebrew names for armour of all kinds, they are
not overlap; or perhaps, with more probability, liable to the same laxity of use which all other
between the metal hoops of the trunk of the languages have manifested; for in military matters,
shereyon before mentioned, where the thorax over- more perhaps than in any other, a name once




ARMS, ARMOUR                  229            ARMY, HEBREW
adopted remains the same, though the object may length, in a full suit of armour, with a laurel crown
be changed by successive modifications, till there on the head, a Gallic twisted torque round the
remains but little resemblance to that to which the neck; and from the lion-head shoulder-clasps of
designation was originally applied. The objects the cuirass hang two embossed bracelets, having
above denominated appendages and vittse (in the beneath them a label with three points, from which
feudal ages, lambrequins), were straps of leather are suspended five medals of honour; one large, on
secured to the lower rim of the barrel of a suit ot the pit of the stomach, representing a face of
armour, and to the openings for arm-holes: the Medusa; and two on each side, one beneath the
first were about three and a half inches in width; other; and all as far as can be seen charged with
the second, two and a half. They were ornamented lions' faces and lions' heads in profile. The monuwith embroidery, covered with rich stuffs and gold- ment is now in the museum of the university at
smiths' work, and made heavy at the lower ex- Bonn.
tremity, to cause them always to hang down in  The girdle, or more properly the baldric or belt
proper order; but those on the arm-holes had a (cingula or balteus), was used by the - Hebrews
slight connection, so as to keep them equal when under the name of'lt? ezor: it was of leather,
the arm was lifted. These vitte were rarely in a studded with metal plates or bullae; when the
single row, but in general formed two or three armour was slight, broad, and capable of being
rows, alternately covering the opening between girt upon the hips; otherwise it supported the
those underneath, and then protecting the thighs sword scarf-wise from the shoulder.
nearly to the knee, and half the upper arm. In  Greaves were likewise known, even so early as
the Roman service, under the suit of armour, was the time of David, for Goliath wore them. They
the sagum, made of red serge or baize, coming consisted of a pair of shin-covers of brass or strong
down to the cap of the knee and folding of the leather, bound by thongs round the calves and
arm, so that the vittse hung entirely upon it. Other above the ankles. They reached only to the knees,
nations had always an equivalent to this, but not excepting among the Greeks, whose greaves, elastic
equally long; and in the opinion of some, the behind, caught nearly the whole leg, and were
Hebrew shiryon served the same purpose.      raised in front above the knees. The Hebrew
The Roman and Greek suits were, with slight word ifD seen, in Is. ix. 5, is supposed to mean a
difference, similarly laced together on the left, or half-greave, though the passage is altogether obshield side; and on the shoulders were bands and scure. Perhaps the war-boot may be explained by
clasps, comparatively narrow in those of the Ro- the war-shoe of Egypt with a metal point; and
mans, which covered the joinings of the breast and then the words might be rendered,'For every
back pieces on the shoulders, came from behind, greave of the armed foot is with confused noise and
and were fastened to a button on each breast. At garments rolled in blood,' etc., instead of'Every
the throat the suit of armour had always a double battle of the warrior,' etc. But, after all, this is
edging, often a band of brass or silver; in the not quite satisfactory.-C, H. S.
Roman, and often in the Greek, adorned with a
lion's or a Gorgon's head. It was here that, in the  ARMY, HEBBEW.  The Hebrews, although
time of Augustus, and probably much earlier, the mainly an agricultural pedple, were involved in
warriors distinguished for particular acts of valour frequent wars in the course of their national hiswore insignia; a practice only revived by the tory. The beginning of their history as a nation
moderns under the names of crosses and decora- was signalized by an offensive war, from which they
tions. The Romans, it appears, had phialar and were obliged soon to pass to a defensive, which
phalerce of honour, terms which have been sup- lasted during the whole period of the Judges.
posed to signify bracelets and medals; but all Afterwards, they had combats with their neighopinion on the subject was only conjectural pre- bours, the Syrians and Philistines; and at a still
viously to the discovery, on the borders of the later period their country, owing to its central
Rhine, of a monumental bas-relief, raised by the situation, became a battle-field of the great monarchies of the earth. Hence, the Bible contains
many references to the subject of this article.
According to the law of Moses (Num. i 3
flprt-. ^V          xxvi. 2: comp. 2 Chron. xxv. 5), every male.  ~Ls'f' yIsraelite from twenty years old and upward (acr-?;:C1  rs            cording to Josephus, Anti4. iii. 12. 4,' from
i-i ^K^^ ^^'^'1^      twenty to fifty years of age') was liable to be called
on to serve in war. The Levites were exempt
(Num. ii. 33), and immunity was granted in certain other cases mentioned (Deut. xx. 5-8; comp.
I Macc. iii. 56). The army thus constituted, was
j  L^s  I+ ffdivided into companies of IOOO, Ioo, and 50, each
of which had its own captain, N'W (Num. xxxi. 14;
I Sam. viii 12; 2 Kings i. 9; 2 Chron. xxv. 5),
in accordance with the patriarchal constitution
(2 Chron. xxvi. 12). In I Macc. iii. 55, we have'captains over tens' also.
The people were summoned to the field by
95.-means of messengers, or sound of trumpet, or other
signals (Judg. iii. 27; vi. 34, 35; I Sam. xi 7;
freedman of Marcus Caelius Lembo, tribune of the Jer. iv. 5, 6, 2I; vi. I; li. 27; Is. v. 26; xiii. 2;
(xiix) x8th legion, who fell in the disastrous over- Ezek. vii. I4; Joel ii. I; Amos iii. 6). But only
throw of Varus. The effigy is of three-quarter such a number was selected as was deemed suffi



ARMY, HEBREW                   230            ARMY, HEBREW
cient for the occasion (Num. xxxi. I-8; Josh. no pay, but had to provide their own arms and
vii. 3). The number, however, was sometimes food (I Sam. xvii. 17). Sometimes an arrangement
very great (I Sam. xi. 8; xv. 4; 2 Sam. xvii. II). was made for supplying victuals (Judg. xx. Io).
The Hebrew national militia is designated'the  Under Solomon and Hezekiah there were cities
people of the land,' "nI'i 2p (2 Kings. xxv. 19), and houses of store (I Kings ix. I9; 2 Chron.
and, whilst Palestine was densely peopled, would xxxii. 28). Arms were provided by Uzziah (2
of course supply a very numerous army (comp. Chron. xxvi. I4). In one instance we read of the
Num. i. 46; xxvi. 51; 2 Sam. xxiv. 9; I Chron. payment of mercenaries, but, on the admonition of
xxi. 5; 2 Chron. xiii. 3; xiv. 8; xvii. I4-19). In  a prophet, they were dismissed (2 Chron. xxv. 6).
some of these passages the text may have suffered  A standing army originated with the kings. It
corruption, as there are some discrepancies. Jose- was foretold by Samuel (I Sam. viii. II, 12). Saul
phus tells us (Bell. 7ud. ii. 20. 6) that he got an had a body of 3000 chosen men, which he sought
army out of Galilee of more than a hundred thou- to recruit (I Sam. xiii. 2; xiv. 52). It is supposed
sand young men.                               by Thenius, on I Sam. xxii. 14, that he had a bodyAccording to the fundamental principle of the guard; of which David was captain; but this view
theocracy, Jehovah was himself'Captain of the requires an alteration of the text.
Lord's host' (Josh. v. 14; comp. Num. x. 35, 36;  David also had chosen men (2 Sam. xv. I8).
I Sam. iv. 3, 4), and the judges, kings, or other The 600 men here referred to are supposed to
leaders of the army, were regarded as acting under have been'the mighty men,' n'nl,  2 Sam.
him, and in obedience to his commands.        xx. 7, who had been David's companions in arms
In early times, the heads of the state led forth in  before he became king (I Sam. xxiii. I3; xxv. 13).
person their armies to battle, but in the time of If this be correct,'the mighty men' must be taken
Saul and David the office of'captain of the host,' in a narrower sense in 2 Sam. xxiii. 8. The mean-,rnn i/, K:l.n Ct, was distinct from that of ing of the word toe, shalish, which occurs in
king, and second only to it in dignity and power 2 Sam. xxiii. 8, has been much disputed. Pri(I Sam. xiv. 50; 2 Sam. ii. 8; xxiv. 2).  An  marily it seems to have denoted one of the three
armour-bearer attended the captain of the host, as fighting men in a war-chariot (Exod. xiv. 7; xv. 4,
well as the king (I Sam. xxxi. 4, 5; 2 Sam. xxiii. LXX. dvaPdrTa rpTardira), but it seems to have
37). The king, or captain of the host, with his come latterly to denote just a distinguished class of
principal officers, formed a sort of military council warriors (I Chron. xii. 8; 2 Chron. viii. 9), the
(I Chron. xiii. I). The whole army appears to be highest division, as it were, of'the mighty men,'
designated as'princes,' or captains'and servants,' or, as Ewald suggests, the thirty officers of'the
rD"lpl DPt~   (I Sam. xix. 6).                mighty men' (2 Sam. xxiii. 8, 18).  They appear
The population capable of bearing arms was afterwards as adjutants of the king (2 Kings ix.
numbered by an officer, called b)1D, sopher, scribe; 25; xv. 25).
comp. 2 Kings xxv. 19, Kn:l'7'IbIn,' the     With respect to the Cherethites and Pelethites,
scribe of the captain of the host* which mustered,              we ae i         
the people of the land.'2 Sam. xv,              we are inclined to
With the C  I   was associated a subordinate agree with Gesenius, who translates the expression,
officer, itg,, sh/oter, translated officer, ruler, whose carnfices et cursores. They appear to have been
duty appears to have been to enrol the names in  David's body-guard, to whom it appertained to
the register. Both these officers are named in execute the sentence of deat (Danii. 14ii. Jose2 Chron. xxvi. 11; and the latter in a passage  us calls them  TAaoXaK     (Antiq. vii. 5. 4).
already referred to (Deut. xx. 5).            We read of a guard Ad  afterwards (I Kings xiv.
In the earliest period the Hebrew army con- 28; 2 Kings xi. 4). David had a division of the
-theariesterio, theHebrewnational army in service each month (I Chron.
sisted exclusively of infantry, 511 (Num. xi. 21; xxvii.), and we read of another division according
I Sam. iv. 10; xv. 4). That this was not owing  to the different arms (2 Chron. xiv. 8). From the
entirely to the mountainous character of the country, case of Uriah and of Ittai (2 Sam. xi. 3; xv. 19),
rendering it unsuitable for cavalry, appears from  we learn that foreigners were not debarred from the
the fact, that the Canaanites, whom the Israelites army.
dispossessed, had' chariots of iron' which they  In the time of the Maccabees, the army was at
used in war (Josh. xi. 4; Judg. i. 19).  The first organized by Judas, after the ancient model
Syrians also, with whom  David fought, had a (I Mace. iii. 55, 56). Simon first paid a standing
great number of chariots and horsemen (2 Sam. army, spending much of his own substance for that
viii. 4; x. I8). Notwithstanding the divine prohi- purpose (I Mace. xiv. 32); and John Hyrcanus
bition (Deut. xvii. 16), David reserved Ioo chariots was the first of the Jews who maintained foreign
(2 Sam. viii. 4), and Solomon, having introduced  troops, which, according to Josephus, he did with
the use of chariots and horsemen in war (I Kings the treasures he found in the sepulchre of David
x. 26-29; 2 Chron. i. 14), was imitated by succeed- (Anti. xiii. 8. 4). The factions and discontent
ing kings of Judah and Israel (I Kings xvi. 9; 2 prevailing among the Jews made it necessary for
Kings viii. 21; xiii. 7). Before the establishment Alexander Jannaeus and the queen Alexandra to
of a standing army, and for a considerable period  hire foreign soldiers (Jos. Antiq. xiii. 13. 5; xiii.
afterwards, there was no military service among the  I6. 2). Herod the Great had in his army foreigners
Hebrews, except of natives who not only received  of various nations (Antiq. xvii. 8. 3). Nothing
certain is known respecting the discipline of these
troops, except that they appear to have been organ* Not, as in our English version,' the principal ized according to the manner of the Romans. And
scribe of the host.' The' captain of the host' ap- Josephus tells us, that he himself armed and discippears to have had the direction of the numbering of lined his troops after the Roman manner (Bell.
the people (2 Sam. xxiv. 2; comp. I Mace. v. 42).  atd. ii. 20 7). It was natural that the Jews should




ARNALD, RICHARD                  231                   AROB
endeavour to learn and practise the organization  Palestine) and separating it from the land of Moab
and discipline by which the Romans had subdued  (Num. xxi. 13, 26; Debt. ii. 24; iii. 8, I6; Josh.
them, as well as other nations. The Roman army xii. I- Is. xvi. 2; Jer. xlviii. 20). Burckhardt was
was divided into legions, each legion into ten the first to give a satisfactory account of this river,
cohorts; each cohort into three maniples; each under the name of Wady Modjeb, which it now
maniple into two centuries, so that there were 30 bears. It rises in the mountains of Gilead, near
maniples and 60 centuries (consisting each of Ioo Katrane, whence it pursues a circuitous course of
men) in a legion. During the period that the about eighty miles to the Dead Sea. It flows in a
Romans exercised a direct supremacy over Judaea, rocky bed, and, at the part visited by Burckhardt,
Roman troops were kept there to maintain tran- in a channel so deep and precipitous as to appear
quillity. They were stationed regularly at Caesarea, inaccessible; yet along this, winding among huge
the seat of the Roman procurator (Acts x. I), but fragments of rock, lies the most frequented road,
at the great festivals were partly transferred to and, not being far from Dibon, probably that taken
Jerusalem (Acts xxi. 3).. [BATTLE, ORDER OF; by the Israelites. The descent into the valley from
CENTURION; LEGION.]                           the south took Irby and Mangles (Letters, p. 461),
(See Winer, Real- Woiterbuch, and Herzog's one hour and a half; the descent from the north
Real-Enclopaedie, article Kriegsheer; De Wette, took Burckhardt (Syria, p. 372) thirty-five minutes.
Archreologie (third edition); Pareau, Ant4iuitas The last-named traveller declares that he had never
Hebraica; Jahn, Biblical zAnitiqiies; Exegetisches felt such suffocating heat as he experienced in this
Handbuch zum A. T.; especially Thenius, on the valley from the concentrated rays of the sun and
books of Samuel and Kings; Josephus, etc.)-   their reflection from the rocks. The stream  is
A. T. G.                                      almost dried up in summer; but huge masses of
rock, torn from the banks, and deposited high
ARNALD, RICHARD, a clergyman of the above the usual channel, evince its fulness and imChurch of England, was born in London about petuosity in the rainy season. Irby and Mangles
the year I696. He was rector of Thurcaston in suppose that it is this which renders the valley of
Leicestershire, and prebendary of Lincoln. He is the Arnon less shrubby than that of most other
best known as the author of a Commentary on the streams in the country.' There are, however, a
Apocrypha, which is usually printed along with the few tamarisks, and here and there are oleanders
Commentaries of Patrick, Lowth and Whitby as growing about it.' Near this place the old Roman
part of the same series. This commentary ap- road comes down upon the stream; and here there
peared first in separate parts: the first, which was remains a single high arch of a bridge, all the others
confined to the Wisdom of Solomon, in 1744; the having disappeared (Rob. ii. p. 204).-J. K.
second, on Ecclesiasticus, in 1748; and the last, 
comprising the remaining books, in 1752. The    AROB (3iy) occurs Exod. viii. 2, 22, 24, 29,
remarks of the author are sensible, and throw con- 31; Ps. lxxviii. 45, and cv. 21; all which passages
siderable light on the general meaning of the books; relate to the plague of flies inflicted upon Pharaoh
but they leave much to be desiderated both of a and his people.  In the Sept. it is uniformly
philological and a general kind. The author died rendered Kvvu6uvta, or the dog-fly.  In Exodus
September 4, I756.-W. L. A.                   Jerome renders it by the following phrases and
words, omne genus muscarum, muscae diversi
ARNOLD, NICOLAS, was born at Lesna, in generis, muscae hujusmodi, musca gravissima, and
Poland, December 17, i6I8.  Having settled in musca. In the Psalms he renders it cynomyia.
Holland, he became minister at Beetgum in 1645; It seems most probable that a single species only is
and in 1654 he succeeded Cocceius as professor of intended, whatever it may be, from the way in
theology at Franeker, where he died on the I3th  which it is introduced,'I will send 321'Zn-K, the
October i680.  He wrote Lux in Tenebris seu arob,' compared with verses, 29, 3I,'there rebrevis et succincta Vindicatio simul et Conciliatio mained not 11nK one,' that is, one arob, o63ycla,
locorum  Vet. et Nov. Testamenti quibus omnium  nec una quidem. The words, the arob, may be
sectarum adversarii ad stabiliandos errores suos substituted for'swarms of flies,' throughout the
abutuntur, of which the third edition appeared at narrative, with only an apparent exception in the
Franeker in i680.  Mr. Orme calls'this one of 2h verse; but there, the words 13  W3, etc.,
the most pugnacious books ever written on Scrip- may be rendered, the arob came numerously or
ture.' The author contends for the doctrines of grievously (Sept. 7rapeydvero j Kvviuv a 7rXjOos,'the
the Reformation as taught by Calvinists, and main- dog-fly arrived, a multitude'); since instances of a
tains a close fight against all antagonists, Pontificii, similar use of the word e13  occur Gen. 1. 9;
Arminiani, Sociniani, Philosophi, Anabaptistae, Exod. ix. 3; x. 14, etc., where it appears to be
and Freethinkers, from Genesis to Revelation. In  used like the word gravis by the Romans. It has,
such a work ther   ue must be much that had better however, been much debated what particular spehave been omitted; but the work is a valuable one cies is meant. Nothing can be gathered from the
on the whole. Among other things, the author references to it in the Hebrew, farther than that it
anticipates and suggests the proper reply to many was'upon Pharaoh, and upon the Egyptians,'
of the cavils against Scripture which have been that it filled their houses, covered the ground, correcently adduced. He wrote also Exercitationes rupted or destroyed the land (Query, the inhabiTheologicce ad Epist. ad Hebraeos, Franeker, 1679, tants, Gen. vi. 12), and devoured their persona
besides several theological and polemical works. —  (See also Wis. xvi. 9). The rendering of the SepW. L. A.                                      tuagint, Kvv6/Lvta, is entitled to much consideration.
A N  [fcrom  r, s      It is evidently compounded of KcoV, a dog, and
ARNON     (IlK   [from  l1, stridere, strepere,  va, a fly; and because both the one and the
sonare]; Sept.'Apvwv), a river or torrent (fign) other of these creatures come uninvited, on some
forming the southern boundary of trans-Jordanic occasions, and though driven away, as often return,




AROD                     232                 AROER
so the word formed of the union of the two, is used precipices, whence, with protruded ears, it surveys
by ancient authors to indicate consummate impu- the scene below, blowing and at length braying in
dence. Thus Homer represents Mars as applying  extreme excitement' (Col. C. H. Smith). It was
the epithet to Minerva, for instigating the gods to this animal which the soldiers chased on the
quarrel (I1. xxi. 394). It is also referred to, as an banks of the Euphrates, as described by Xenophon
insect, by.Elian, who, in describing the myops, (Anab. Bk. I, c. v.) He says its flesh is akin to
tabanus, or horse-fly, says, it is similar to what is that of the stag, but tenderer. Some have procalled the Kvv6/tva (Hist. Anim. iv. 5I). Philo, in posed to read'11:) for ayI  and n1', in Jer.
his Lzfe of Moses (i. 23, p. 401, ed. Mangey), ex- xvii. 6, and xlviii. 6, on the plea that the heath is
pressly describes it as a biting insidious creature, not found in Asia; and in the latter place the LXX.
which comes like a dart, with great noise, and actually give the rendering 6vos etypLos. But though
rushing with great impetuosity on the skin, sticks the heath is not found, the junier is, which the
to it most tenaciously. It seems likely that Jerome, A s cl  A, apr              which
in translating Exodus, derived the word from, ly'to mingle,' and understood by it a mixture of is referred to by the prophet [ARAR]. -W. L. A.
noxious creatures, as did Josephus, Aquila, and all  AROER      Sept.'Apo).. A town on
the ancient translators. The diversity of Jerome's 
renderings in Exodus, however, betokens his un- the north side of the river Aron, and therefore on
certainty, and in the Psalms he has adopted that of the southern border of the territory conquered from
the Septuagint. More modern writers, reasoning  the Amorites, which was assigned to the tribes o.
on other senses of the Hebrew word, and which  Reuben and Gad (Deut. ii. 36; Josh. xii. 2; xiii. 9).
are very numerous, have proposed several different The Amorites had previously dispossessed the Am
insects. Thus, one of the meanings of l'p) is monites of this territory; and although, in the texts' to darken,' and Mouffet observes that the name cited, the town seems to be given to Reuben, it is
cynomyia agrees with no kind of flies better than mentioned as a Moabitish city by Jeremiah (xlviii.
with those black, large, compressed flies, which  I9). Burckhardt found the ruins of this town
boldly beset cattle, and not only obtain ichor, as under the name of Ara'yr,-on the edge of a preciother flies, but also suck out blood from beneath, pice overlooking the river (Travels in Syria, 372)
and occasion great pain. He observes that they [a description which agrees with that of the Onohave no proboscis, but, instead of it, have double masticon,'in vertice montis super ripam torrentis
sets of teeth, like wasps, which they infix deeply in  Arnon.'] They are merely alluded to by him, and
the skin; and adds that they greatly infest the ears have not been noticed by other travellers. Aroer
of dogs (Theat. Insect. cxi.) Pliny describes an in- is always named in conjunction with'the city that
sect of this kind (Hist. Nat. xi. 40). So also is in the midst of the river;' [but of this no adequate
Columella (vii. I3). See Pliny by Grandsagne and explanation has been suggested. The most proCuvier, Parisiis, 1828, vol. ii. p. 46i, note. Others bable is, that it was a town situated at the junction
have proposed the blatta Orientalis or YEgyptia of of the Modjeb with the Lejum, where Burckhardt
Linnaus, as answering considerably to the charac- found some ruins (p. 374).]
teristics of voracity, intrusion into houses, etc. etc.  2. One of the towns'built,' or probably rebuilt,
(Forskal, Descrip. Animal., Praef. p. 22). The by the tribe of Gad (Num. xxxii. 34). It is said in
miracle involved in the plague of flies consisted, Josh. xiii. 25, to be'before Rabbah' [of Ammon];
partly at least, in the creature being brought against but, as Raumer well remarks (Paldstina, p. 249),
the Egyptians in so great an abundance during  this could not possibly have been in the topograwinter.  The particular species is, however, at phical sense of the words (in which before means
present undetermined.-J. F. D.               east oJ), seeing that Aroer, as a town on the eastern
border of Gad, must have been west of Rabbah.
AROD ('1iS- ==tI, wildass, Ges.; affliction, But to a person in Palestine Proper, or coming
Fiirst), one of the sons of Gad, and ancestor of the from the Jordan, Aroer would be before Rabbah in
Arodites (Num. xxvi. 17). He is called Arodi the ordinary sense; and it appears to have been
(Gen. xlvi. 17).-W. L. A.                    thus understood by Burckhardt (Syria, 355), who
in journeying from Szalt towards Rabbath Ammon,
AROD (RiOD y). This word occurs Job xxxix. 5; notices a ruined site, called Ayra, as'one of the
and in Dan. v. 21, the plural is found in the Chal- towns built by the tribe of Gad.' ThisAyra,
dee emphatic state, Aradiya (OKT13)). The ren- about seven miles south-west from Szalt, is prodee emphatic state, Aradiya (R~.~]).  The renTA  *           bably the same with the Array-el-Emir, visited by
dering of the A. V. is, in the former case,'wild  Legh (p. 246), on his way from Heshbon to Szalt,
ass,' in the latter'wild asses.' In the latter pas- and which in Berghaus's celebrated map of Palessage Theodoret gives dvdcypcw, and the onager, tine is placed two German (nine English) miles
pvov aypLos, is probably the animal intended by the W.N.W. of Rabbah. Aroer of Gad is also menword.  In the former passage it is paralleled with tioned in Judg. xi. 33, and 2 Sam. xxiv. 5.
the Per? (rendered also'wild ass' in the A. V.),  3. A city in the south of udah, to which David
which was probably the designation of the wild sent presents after recovering the spoil of Ziklag
mule [PER*]. Bochart (Bk. iii. c. i6) regards (I Sam. xxx. 26, 28). At the distance of twenty
the name 13)' as onomatopoetic, having reference geographical miles S. by W. from Hebron, Dr.
to the braying of the onager. The Arod is de- Robinson came to a broad Wady where there are
scribed by Job as having'its house in the wilder- many pits for water, which are called'Ararah, and
ness,' and'its dwellings in the barren lands' which gave name to the valley. In the valley and
(ver. 6), and this agrees remarkably with the on the western hill are evident traces of an ancient
habits of the onager, the favourite resort of which village or town, consisting only of foundations of
is elevated, rocky, and barren places. It is de- unhewn stones, now much scattered, but yet suffiscribed as delighting'to stand on the brink of ciently distinct to mark them as foundations. Small




ARPHAD                     233              ARTAXERXES
fragments of pottery are also'everywhere visible. bable. Knobel conjectures that originally the name
The identity of name satisfies the traveller that he was i)t12'N, the Chaldean highland; and Ewald
has here found the Aroer of Judah. -J. K.     traces the first part of the name to the Arab araph,
Addendum.-In Is. xvii. 2, mention is made of to bind, and translates stronghold of the Chaldeans;'the cities of Aroer' (.t lp ). Thishas ledsome  but these seem unlikely designations of a man,
~": *       ~which undoubtedly was the first use of the word.
to suppose that there was a fourth Aroer further to  The same objection applies to the etymology prothe north than any of the others, near to Damascus; posed by Michaelis, from chesed and ararpah, a
but this is without any supporting evidence. The limit, qu. the region of the chas-dim (Fiirst, kesedLXX. rendering is els -rb alWva, which leads to gebiet), which, otherwise, is preferable.
the supposition that they must have read'2 1W;  2. A king of the Medes, who reigned at Ecbaand this is followed by Lowth, who further argues, tane, and was defeated by Nabuchadonosor, king
that as Aroer was itself a city, the phrase'cities of the Assyrians, who put him to death (Judith,
of Aroer' makes no good sense. But this re-i i, ff.) He has been identified with Deioces, the
mark is sufficiently met by the occurrence of founder of Ecbatane, by some, and with his son
such a phrase as'Heshbon and all her cities,' Phraortes by others; but the former of these died
Josh. xiii. 17; and though the words' the cities in peace, and the latter fell while besieging Nineveh
are deserted for ever' make a perfectly good  (Herod. i. I02); neither of which accords with the
sense, the statement is so vague that it can hardly account in Judith. More probable is the conjecture
be accepted as befitting the position in which it that he was the same as Astyages or Ahasuerus,
stands. The other ancient versions all differ from  whom  Herodotus makes the last king of the
the Hebrew text, the Chaldee rendering'the de- Medes.-W. L. A.
serted cities shall be laid waste,' and the Syriac
having'Ado'ir instead of Aroer. The Hebrew     ARROW. This word is frequently used as the
codices, however, present no various readings here. symbol of calamity or disease inflicted by God
Knobel regards the construction as an instance of (Job vi. 4; xxxiv. 6; Ps. xxxviii. 2; Deut. xxxii.
the genitive supplying the place of a noun in appo- 23; comp. Ezek. v. 6; Zech. ix. x4).  The
sition (comp. Jer. xiv. 17), and renders'the cities metaphor thus applied was also in use among the
Aroer;' by which he supposes are meant both the heathen: thus, Ovid [makes Paris say that he had
towns of gthat name, and that these are put for the been doomed to be transfixed'a cceleste sagitta''east Jordanic towns generally, because the name is (Epist. xvi. 277). An instance more to the point
assonant with 4py, and signifies naked, stript = for is II. i. 44-53]. It derived its propriety and force
the towns of the district east of the Jordan shall be from the popular belief that all diseases were imforsakhz of their inhabitants.' Rosenmiller under- mediate and special inflictions from Heaven.
stands by it the Aroer of Gad, with the towns in  Lightnings are, by a very fine figure, described as
its vicinity which are said to be deserted, because the arrows of God (Ps. xviii. 14; cxliv. 6; Habak.
emptied of their inhabitants by Tiglath Pileser iii. II; comp. Wisd. v. 2I; 2 Sam. xxii. 15).
(2 Kings xv. 29); and in this he is followed by'Arrow' is occasionally used to denote some
Gesenius,.Henderson, Alexander, etc.-W.L.A.   sudden or inevitable danger; as in Ps. xci. 5:AR A,   or A   Sept., p     *'The arrow that flieth by day.' It is also figuARPHAD, or ARPAD (f~K; Sept.'Apqci5), rative of anything injurious, as a deceitful tongue
a Syrian city, having its own king, and in Scripture (Ps. cxx. 4; Jer. ix. 8); a bitter word (Ps. lxiv. 3);
always associated with Hamath, the Epiphania of a false testimony (Prov. xxv. 18). As symbolical
the Greeks (2 Kings xviii. 34; xix. 34; Is. x. 9; of oral wrong, the figure may perhaps have been
xxxvi. i9). It has very commonly been confounded  derived from the darting' arrowy tongue' of serwith the Phoenician Arvad or Aradus. [ARVAD.] pents. The arrow, however, is not always symMichaelis and others seek Arphad in Raphanse or bolical of evil (see Ps. cxxvii. 4, 5); it is also used
Raphanese of the Greek geographers (Ptolem. v. in a good sense to denote the energy of the word
I5; Steph. Byzant. in'E7rtdpveLa; Joseph. DeBel. of God in the hands of the Messiah (Ps. xlv. 5;
7ud. vii. I. 3; vii. 5. I), which was a day's journey  Is. xlix. 2, and Lowth's note thereon).-(Wemyss's
west of Hamath (Mannert, vi. p. 43I). Some, Clavis Symbolica, etc. A. Clarke on Job vi. 4).
however, are content to find this Arphad in the -J. K.
Arpha which Josephus (De Bell.. Jud. iii. 3. 6) ARROWS.      ARMS; DIVINATION.]
mentions as situated on the north-eastern frontier
of the northernmost province of Herod Agrippa's  ARSACES, a king of Parthia and Media, who
tetrarchy. But all these explanations are purely took prisoner Demetrius II., the Syrian king
conjectural, and Arphad must still be numbered  (i Macc. xiv. 2). This event took place I39 B.C.
among unascertained Scriptural sites.-J. K.   (Josephus Antiq. xiii. 5. II, and 8. 4). This ArARPHAXAD       (gifl>;    Sept.'ApDoabAc Ad T), /~;~  Asaces was the sixth prince of the dynasty of the
~ARPHAXAD  (~W;..;   Sept.'ApfadS),   Arsacidae. His proper name was Mithridates I.
i. The third son of Shem, and ancestor of Eber; He was a man of distinguished bravery, and at the
born two years after the deluge, and died at the same time just and temperate (Justin. xxxvi. I;
age of 438 years (Gen. x. 22; xi. 12, if.) Jose- xxxviii. 9; Diod. Sic., Exe. p. 112). Strabo says
phus says that from him the Chaldeans were named  that Arsaces was the common name of the Parthian
Arphaxadeans ('Apqfaaaliovs, Antiq. i. 6. 4), and kings (xv. p. 702). The same name appears still in
in the name'~'VIKZ  we have already the. desig- the Pers. shah. Is A4saces = Ari-shah,'prince of
nation commonly borne by this people iD8A. the noble?'-W. L. A.
Bochart suggests that the name is preserved in  ARTAXERXES, ARTACHSHAST (Y-^fvirm'APAa7raxTrts, a province in northern Assyria, near, AT 
Armenia (Ptol. vi. i), the primitive country of the as it is most frequently written) is the title under
Chaldeans; and this Gesenius thinks not impro- which more than one Persian king is mentioned




ARTAXERXES                   234               ARTAXERXES
in the Old Testament. The Hebrew form is a king here meant is Artaxerxes Longimanus-among
slight corruption of nnt1nrnU K, which letters De whom are J. H. Michaelis, Eichhorn, and Bertholdt,
Sacy has deciphered in the inscriptions of Nakshi rest on the following reasons, as stated chiefly by
Rustam, and which he vocalizes Artahshetr (Antiq. Bertholdt: That the coherence between the several
d.. Perse, p. Ioo). Gesenius pronounces them  portions of the book of Ezra is by no means so
Artachshatr; and, by assuming the easy change strict as to make the first argument conclusive; as,
of r into s, and the transposition of the s, makes even assuming that Xerxes is the person referred to,
Artachshast very closely represent its prototype. there is still a gap of thirty-six years between the
The word is a compound, the first element of end of ch. vi. and the beginning of ch. vii.; that
which, arta-found in several Persian names-is the objection, that the interval between the arrivals
generally admitted to mean great; the latter part of Ezra and Nehemiah in Jerusalem is too short (on
De Sacy conceived to be the Zend Khshethro, King, the supposition that the former left Babylon in the
to which Gesenius and Pott assent.  Thus the reign of Artaxerxes) to account for the confusion
sense of great warrior, which Herodotus (vi. 98) in which the latter found the colony, loses its force,
assigned to the Greek form Artaxerxes, accords if we consider that the progress of the infant state
with that which etymology discovers in the original was necessarily slow in its difficult position, and if
Persian title (particularly when we consider that, we also conceive Ezra's efforts to have been more
as the king could only be chosen from the soldier- directed to reform the religious than the civil state
caste-from the Kshatriyas-warrior and king are of the Jews; that the appeal to Josephus is of no
so far cognate terms); although Pott, according to avail, as he calls the king in whose reign Nehemiah
his etymology of Xerxes, takes Artaxerxes to be returned Xerxes also, which is decidedly incorrect,
more than equivalent to Artachshatr-to be'mag- since Nehemiah went back to Persia in the thirtynus regum rex' (Etym. Forsch. i. p. lxvii.)   second year of the king (xiii. 6), and Xerxes only
The first ARTAcHSHAST (KfJnt, and once reigned twenty-one years; that the Apocryphal
-The first ARTACHSHsdras, in its version of this history, calls the king
pointed Artachshashta; Sept.'Apao-aa-O&) is men- Artaxerxes; that, in taking our Artachshast to be
tioned in Ezra iv. 7-24 as the Persian king who, Artaxerxes Longimanus, we have the support of a
at the instigation of the adversaries of the Jews, considerable resemblance in the two names; and
obstructed the rebuilding of the Temple, from his lastly, that (if Xerxes is the Achashverosh of the
time to that of Darius, king of Persia. According books of Esther and Ezra) we not only'avoid the
to the arguments adduced in the art. AHASUERUS, evil attending the other alternative-the evil of
this king is the immediate predecessor of Darius being obliged to recognise him under two widely
Hystaspis, and can be no other than the Magian  different names in almost contemporaneous books
impostor, Smerdis, who seized on the throne B.C. -but also find Artaxerxes under one and the same
52I, and was murdered after a usurpation of less name in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. This
than eight months (Herod. iii. 61-78). Profane last argument proceeds on the assumption that the
historians, indeed, have not mentioned him under Artachshast of whom Ezra and Nehemiah speak is
the title of Artaxerxes; but neither do Herodotus the same person; and, as Ezra and Nehemiah
and Justin (the latter of whom calls him Oropasta, were decidedly contemporaries (Neh. viii. 9), the
i. 9) agree in his name; so that this fact is not, of reasons here adduced may derive some additional
itself, enough to invalidate any deductions which  force from the arguments brought forward below.
are in other respects sound.                    The third ARTACHSHAST (the forms in the Hebrew and Sept. are the same as in the last case) is
As to the second ARTACHSHAST (    _DFI:. -; the Persian king who, in the twentieth year of his
Sept.'ApOacamcoOd), in the seventh year of whose reign, considerately allowed Nehemiah to go to
reign Ezra led a second colony of the Jewish exiles Jerusalem for the furtherance of purely national
back to Jerusalem (Ezra vii. I, sq.), the opinions objects, invested him with the government of his
are divided between Xerxes and his son Artaxerxes own people, and allowed him to remain there for
Longimanus. The arguments brought forward by  twelve years (Neh. ii. I, sq.; v. 14). It is almost
the advocates for Xerxes, among whom are J. D. unanimously agreed that the king here intended
Michaelis, Jahn, and De Wette, are briefly as is Artaxerxes Longimanus, who reigned from the
follows: That, as the preceding portion of the year 464 to 425 B.C.  The date of Nehemiah's
book of Ezra relates to Darius Hystaspis, it is departure is, therefore, the year 444 B.C. Some
most natural to expect that the next following  few have indeed maintained (and it seems prinsection should refer to his successor, Xerxes; that, cipally for the' purpose of reconciling Neh. xiii. 28,
on the supposition that Artaxerxes is here meant, with Joseph. Antiq. xi. 8. 3, 4) that the king here
we not only have to explain how the reign of referred to is Artaxerxes Mnemon, who reigned
Xerxes, who had been so favourable to the Jews, from the year B.C. 404 to 359; and J. D. Michaelis
is entirely omitted here, but also how the narrative  (Anmerk. f. Ungel.) admits that he should not
can make such a tremendous leap as from the know how to refute any one who advocated that
sixth year of Darius to the seventh of Artaxerxes, opinion. Bertholdt, however (Einleit. iii. 10o4),
a period of fifty-eight years; that, on that suppo- endeavours to find a conclusive argument in the
sition, the interval between the seventh year of his fact that Eliashib, who was the high-priest when
reign, when Ezra set out, allows too short a space Nehemiah arrived at Jerusalem (iii. I), was the
for the affairs of the colony to have reached that grandson of the high-priest Jeshua, who accomstate of disorder in which Nehemiah found them  panied the first colony under Zerubbabel (xii. I, Io).
on his arrival at Jerusalem, in the twentieth year He argues, namely, that the three generations
of his reign; and, lastly, that Josephus calls the which elapsed between the accession of Cyrus
king in question Xerxes (Joseph. Aniq. xi. 5. I, and the arrival of Nehemiah, and which in the
sq.)                                          ordinary computation amount to ninety-nine years,
The supporters of the other alternative-that the tally so exactly with the ninety-two years which




ARTEMAS                    235                ARTICLES
intervene between the first year of Cyrus and  them, two garlands, one of flowers and the other
the twentieth year of Artaxerxes Longimanus, as of acorns; the numerous breasts; the lions, stags,
to render it far more probable that the latter is and cows in various parts; the bees and flowers on
the Artachshast of the book of Nehemiah; where- the sides; and others described in Millin's Galerie
as, on the supposition that Artaxerxes Mnemon is Mythol. i. 26. Her priests were called Megabyzi,
the person meant, Eliashib and his father and and were eunuchs.
grandfather must have enjoyed the high-priesthood
between them for the incredible period of 154 years.
-J. N.
ARTEMAS ('ApreLis), a contraction for Arte-/                     X
midorus (Tit. iii. 12), the name of an esteemed dis —
ciple whom St. Paul designed to send into Crete
to supply the place of Titus, whom he invited to
visit him at Nicopolis.
ARTEMIS ("ApregtLs, Acts xix. 24), the Diana
of the Romans, is a goddess known under variousv            )
modifications, and with almost incompatible attributes. As the tutelary divinity of Ephesus, inwhich 
character alone she concerns us here, she was un- 
doubtedly a representative of the same power presiding over conception and birth which was adored
in Palestine under the name of ASHTORETH. She
is therefore related to all the cognate deities of that 
Asiatic Juno-Venus, and partakes, at least, of their 
connection with the moon. Creuzer has combined
a number of testimonies in order to shew how her
worship was introduced into Ephesus from the coasts
of the Black Sea; and endeavours to point out the
several Medo-Persian, Egyptian, Libyan, Scythian,
and Cretan elements of which she is compounded
(Symbolik, ii. I15, sq.)                                         [t
Her earliest image, which was said to have fallen
from heaven, was probably very rude, and, to judge       -_
from its representation on ancient coins, little more
than a head with a shapeless trunk, supported by                 97.
a staff on each side. There is some dispute as to  Te Arabic version of the Acts renders Artemis
the material of which her image was made.  Most
the material of which her image was made.  Most in the chapter cited, by Az Zuharat, which is the
authorities say it was of ebony, the black colour  rabic name for the planet Venus. -J. N.
being as Creuzer thinks, symbolical. Pliny relates
that Mucianus, who had seen it, affirms that it was of  ARTICLES.  In the later development of lanthe wood of the vine, and that it was so old that guages, logical fulness and accuracy are attained at
it had survived seven restorations of the temple (Zist. the expense of conciseness and delicacy; and if not
Nat. xvi. 79). According to Xenophon, it was of before, at least in this stage the small words called
gold (Anab. v. 3). The latter image with the full articles are uniformly produced. If we confined
our view to the languages which are derived from
Latin, we might easily believe that the presence of
it- >^ zX ^^Xo  > ~these parts of speech is a symptom and proof that./.^.^j^f^fK~'~,~ ~.^ Nthe later and logical stage is already reached: for
in French, -Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, deril  F^  \vatives from the Latin ille and unus fulfil the part
of the English the and a. Nor is the lesson taught
by the Greek language apparently very different:
for in its earliest extant specimens (the poems of
Homer) the word 6, 41, rb, is far oftener used as a
~\A, H o m er) ~ jdemonstrative or relative pronoun, than as the
a\\   i( BLL/a  /definite article. We seem to be able to trace its
4\^^ ^Hr)~   ^growth and establishment in this later function;
and we are tempted to infer from its appearing so
96.                      much earlier in Greek than in Latin, that this is
owing to the earlier development of logical acutedevelopment of attributes, of which we give a re- ness in the Greek mind. Finally, in modern Greek,
presentation below, is, as Creuzer says, a Pantheon the old numeral els, ev6s, one, has given birth to a
of Asiatic and Egyptian deities. Even in it, how- new indefinite article gvas, perfectly analogous to
ever, we see how little influence Greek art had in the Italian uno, French un, and English a.
modifying its antique rudeness. It is still more like  We are here perhaps in danger of building up a
a mummy than a Greek statue. Some of the most theory too rapidly. It is true that in languages
significant attributes in this figure are-The turreted generally, the early and poetical style is defective
head like that of Cybele; the nimbus behind it in articles, while the late prosaic, and logical style
representing the moon; the Zodiacal signs of the is even redundant with them.  Nevertheless, we
bull, the twins, and the crab on her bosom; below  cannot safely infer a high logical cultivation, much




ARTICLES                   236                ARTICLES
less the attainment of thesecondary stage of develop- worked up in extant languages. In fact, the root
ment, from the presence of articles in a language. hu (this) shews itself likewise in the Welsh tongue.
Hebrew has possessed a definite article as long as  The Chaldee branch of the Syro-Arabian has a
it can be traced back; but it would be too much to peculiarity of its own, in compensation for the
impute it to an unusually strong and premature definite article. This consists in the annexation
argumentative acuteness in the nations of Canaan, of the vowel N at the end of nouns, to produce
whose speech the family of Isaac adopted. That what is called the emphatic state; which is
there is a germ of truth in this matter we believe; practically, it seems, equivalent in sense to the
but until the relation of the Syro-Arabian to the English the.  Whether this termination has any
older languages which they supplanted is better etymological relation to the Hebrew article is ununderstood, it is hazardous to engage in any of these certain.  In Arabic, especially in its modem
speculations.                                 Syrian dialect, a very similar elongation of nouns
So much can be stated as fact. If a language is common, with a view of giving specification or
has as yet no definite article, it will gradually form
one out of its demonstrative pronoun, provided that individuality to that which was collective: as 
it be not tied down to a fixed state by imitating
classical models. Under the same circumstances, (fin), fig or figs; L   (tfna), A fig;  (semn),
there is a tendency to generate an indefinite article
out of the numeral one. Closely akin to the last butter; 4:,.  (semna), A piece of butter. This,
is the use of the word that properly means single, however, agrees more nearly to the indefinite than
in the sense of the indefinite article-a change which  to the definite article; nor does its construct form
can be traced in the Bagdad dialect of Arabic.  indicate relationship to the Chaldee termination.
In the Hebrew language the definite article, as  It belongs to grammars of the special languages
printed in our books, appears under the form  I to discuss the uses of the article, and only a few
- general remarks can find place here. The chief
(ha), accompanied by a redoubling of the following  l                  lrty in Hebrew occurs with words joined in
consonant, if it be such a consonant as Hebrew  peculiarity in Hebrew occurs with words joined in
consonant, if it be such a consonant as Hebrew  pc
euphony allows to  doubled.  It is not to be what is technically called'regimen' or'construceuphony allows to be doubled.  It is not to be                           article between the
questindtatera orwesoaew         tion;' in which case a single article between the
questioned that the real word, when isolated, was two nouns serves to define both of them. Thus,
%n (hal), corresponding to the Arabic J3  (al or el), J l (ben ham-melek) means, the son of the king.
especially as the final in the Arabic article also is, in  f the Hebrews wish to join two nouns in this
numerous cases, assimilated to the consonant which relation, so as to define the latter and leave the
follows.  The Hebrews have one demonstrative former undefined, they are forced to abandon the
form  NK (eSl) these, which approaches remarkably  construct form, and to employ the preposition
near to the Arabic; and there is some reason for 5, which in this case is to be rendered of not for.
regarding i1 as a composite, or at least an elongated Thus,'A Psalm of David' is i'B15'1Dt1  (mizmor
form, of which NlH (hu) he, is the root. To this le David). This remark, we believe, was made
attach themselves two different consonants to denote first by Ewald.
the ideas of THAT and THIS, L and DH, which latter  A rule which some have sought to establish is,
becomes z or Dindifferent dialects. The DH is found that when a noun is followed by another noun in
in pure Arabic (as, indeed in English, strange to the genitive, the latter must take the article, if the
think!); but in Hebrew it is z, in Chaldee D, in former has it. But this is not universally true; for
German D, in Greek T; though, in these Eu- instance, Heb. ix. 13, el yap rb atla ra6pwv Kal
ropean tongues the idea of THAT predominates rpdywv,'for if the blood of bulls and goats,' etc.
over THIS. The L is found in Latin (ille, that);  It seems to be a general result of the history of
and the old Latin words olli, oltra, are thought to the article, that in elevated style there is a tendency
indicate that yon, yonder, is its primitive sense. to drop it, because such style generally savours of
Just so,; rl /n(hl'd-) for ultra, beyond. As regas the antique and the poetical.  Thus, oppavbs Kal
apAsregards  eXeIcrera,'Heaven and earth shall pass
the form of the Hebrew article, it thus appears aay is more elevated than  Te heaven andl pt
that the root ho or hu first took to itself the ter-earh  etc. But beside and in contrast to this,
minating /, and then in pronunciation gradually
d it of aind tn in pnnciation gradually every language possesses numerous familiar formulas
The radical element of   the Greek article vacil-or special words, from which the article is dropped;
The radical element of the Greek article vacil- to become acquainted with these is always
lates between ho and to; and a general survey of and to become acquainted with these is always
lares between ha and to; and a general survey of very difficult. In daily life they abound, not only
all the kindred languages makes it probable that very difficult. In daily life they abound, not only
all the kindred languages makes it probable that after prepositions,but as nominative cases: thus, to
these are mere varieties of the same root. In Latin after prepositions,but as nominative cases: thus, to
and in Zend the h maintains its place throughout; st at table; to travel by shp;'No fear least
in Sanscrit the Greek ho and to exist as sa and ta,  nner cool.' A dim perception of th is fact seems
this relation of h to s being notoriously common. t ae it) that the article may always be omitted
In Lithuanian only ta is found; and the seo, dha, make it), that the article may always be omitted
In Lithuanian only ta is found; and the see, dha, after a preposition
of the Anglo-Saxon, sufficiently establish the con-         we have naturally said little of the
nect1on of sa with za * for the sound t  by mere In the above, we have naturally said little of the
nection of sa with ta; for the sound th, by mere indfinite article, because it occurs but a few times
lisping, naturally degenerates into either s or t, and in the New Testament (bca, one, put for A), and
dh into z or d. We are thus nearly brought to a   in the Hebrew of the Old Testamenta one put for A) and
conviction that the two elements hu and dha of the never in the Hebrew of the Old Testament. Though
Syro-Arabian languages were, at a much earlier of less importance to language, its use appears
Syro-Arabian languages were, at a much earlier to be governed by the same general laws which
stage, variations of but oneroot.  Nor is this opinion regulate that of the definite article.-F. W. N.
absurd; so many are the proofs of the extreme
antiquity of the material which is so differently  Addendum.-An induction from the widest field




ARUBOTH                    237                    ASA
leads to the conclusion that it is a law of Greek con- Ruad, a small island and city on the coast of Syria,
struction, that when the article is prefixed only to the called by the Greeks Aradus, by which name it is
first of several words joined by conjunctions, they mentioned in I Macc. xv. 23. It is a small rocky
are together descriptive either of a single subject, island, opposite the mouth of the river Eleutherus,
or of several subjects forming parts of one whole, to the north of Tripolis, about one mile in circumconcomitants in one series, co-agents in one work, ference and two miles from the shore.  Strabo
coefficients to one result.  Thus expressed, the  (xvi. p. 753) describes it as a rock rising in the
canon will be found to enunciate a law exemplified  midst of the waves (7reTpa 7replKXvaros); and
by all writers of Greek who use the article. A few  modem travellers state that it is steep on every side.
apparent exceptions may be adduced; but, as Strabo also describes the houses as exceedingly
reasons can be assigned for them, they cease to be lofty, and they were doubtless so built on account
really exceptions. As illustrative of the rule, the of the scantiness of the site; hence, for its size, it
following instances may be given:-Eph. i. 3, was exceedingly populous (Pomp. Mela, 1. ii. c. 7.)
evXoyrlJi4vos 6 0ebs Kal 7rarip, where 0ebs and  Arvad is not the same as Arpad or Arphad
7raTr'p refer to the same subject; Heb. ix. I9, rb (Michaelis, Spicil. ii. 45).-J. K.
adua rTv u6(TXOV Kal rpdlwv, where the goats and
at4L TWP /6tCJo-   Kait'rpdywv, where the goats and  ARVADITES (nSI1')[; Sept.'Apdt&ot, Gen.
bulls form parts of one whole; Thuc. i. I, rbv                    IT:-:
7r6Xe/Lovv wv IIEeXrovvf7oiWov Kal'AfrOvalwv, where x. 18; I Chron. i. 16), the inhabitants of the
the Peloponnesians and the Athenians were actors island Aradus [ARVAD], and doubtless also of the
in one series of transactions; Matt. xi. I, tro  neighbouring coast. The Arvadites were descended
&L8daKELv Kal KOiplSff-etv, where the teaching and from Arvad, one of the sons of Canaan (Gen. x.
preaching are co-efficients to one result, or two  I8). Strabo (xvi. p. 73I) describes the Arvadites
parts of one official act, etc. On the other hand, as a colony from Sidon. They were noted mariners
we have, Acts xxvi. 30, 6 8atLXeis Kal 6'-ire/u, (Ezek. xxvii. 8,  i; Strabo, xvi. p. 754), and
because different subjects are mentioned; Heb. xi. formed a distinct state, with a king of their own
20, rbv'IaK(cP  Kal riov'Eo-aO, where we have (Arrian, Exped. Alex. ii. p. 90); yet they appear
different subjects receiving different kinds of bless- to have been in some dependence upon Tyre, for
ing; Acts xiii. 59, T&s e poevas yvvatscKas Kai TObs the prophet represents them  as furnishing their
Trp(rovS TJs r6Xews, not only different persons, but contingent of mariners to that city (Ezek. xxvii. 8,
different genders; Arist. Pol. i. I,,&8ptLrat r6 OXv I I). They early entered into alliance with the
Kal rb ooviov, etc. This canon becomes important Romans, and Aradus is named among the states
in connection with such passages as the follow- to which the consul Lucius formally made known
ing:-Eph. v. 5; 2 Thess. i. I2; I Tim. v. 21; the league which had been contracted with Simon
Tit. ii. 13; 2 Pet. i. I; where it may be disputed  Maccabaeus (i Macc. xv. 23).-J. K.
whether there is only one subject or more. Now    SA (MO, healing orphysician; Sept.'AAd),
it would be incompetent, in the case of the, T T                                    A *
majority of these passages, to apply this canon so  son of Abijah, grandson of Rehoboam, and third
as to make them    directly attest the essential king of Judah.  He began to reign two years beunity of Christ and God; for it may be that they  fore the death of Jeroboam, in Israel, and he
only intimate a unity of action between them. But reigned forty-one years, from  B.C. 955 to 914.
indirectly they sustain the doctrine of our Lord's The young king, on assuming the reins of governdeity; for how could a mere creature be thus put on ment, zealously rooted out the idolatrous practices
a par with God? and where is it taught in Scripture which had grown up during his minority and under
that we are to expect a simultaneous appearing of the preceding reigns; and only the altars in the
God and of Christ as distinct beings? In the case'high places' were suffered to remain (i Kings xv.
of 2 Pet. i. r, it seems hardly possible to give the  1I-13; 2 Chron. xiv. 2-5). He laboured to impassage any other rendering than such as shall prove the military resources of his kingdom, and
express the personal unity of God and Christ: b  was eventually in a condition to count on the
&LKaCLO1vy Tro Oeov yuWvP Kal awTrpos I. X. can services of 580,000 men (2 Chron. xiv. 6-8). In
hardly be translated otherwise than'in [the] the eleventh year of his reign, relying upon the
righteousness of our God and Saviour Jesus Christ.' Divine aid, Asa attacked and defeated the nume(Middleton, Doctr. of the Gr. Art.; Green, Gram. rous host of the Cushite king Zerah, who had
of the N. T., p. 205 ff; Winer, Gram. of the N. T. penetrated through Arabia Petraea into the vale of
Diction, by Masson, p. 139.)-W. L. A.         Zephathah, with an immense host, reckoned at a
million of men (which Josephus divides into 900,000
ARUBOTH      (.IL, Sept.'ApapcbO), properly infantry and 1oo,ooo cavalry, Antiq. viii. 12. I),
Arubboth, the seat of one of the twelve officers ap- and 300 chariots (2 Chron. xiv. 9-I5). As the
pointed by Solomon to provide for his household. triumphant Judahites were returning, laden with
It was probably in Judah.-W. L. A.            spoil, to Jerusalem, they were met by the prophet
ARUMA 01,SptAzariah, who declared this splendid victory to be a
ARUMA (olTK, Sept.'Aphd), a town near consequence of Asa's confidence in Jehovah, and
Shechem, the residence of Abimelech (Judg. ix. exhorted him to perseverance. Thus encouraged,
41). Jerome identifies it with Ruma, and says it the king exerted himself to extirpate the remains of
was called in his day Remphis, and was not far idolatry, and caused the people to renew their
from Diospolis, i.e., Lydda. This, however, does covenant with Jehovah (2 Chron. xv. I-15).  It
not accord with the position assigned to it in Judges. was this clear knowledge of his dependent political
Van de Velde thinks he has found it in the ruins position, as the vicegerent of Jehovah, which won
el-Ormah, south-west of Nabulus.-W. L. A.     for Asa the highest praise that could be given to a
ARAD (; Ac. xv. 2), a Jewish king-that he walked in the steps of his
ARVAD (in  h;'Apaose,  Mach. xv. 23),s ances  t   or David (  t Kings xv.  i).  
place in Phoenicia of which the present name is  Nevertheless, towards the end of his reign the




ASAHEL                    238                    ASH
king failed to maintain the character he had thus a Coptic compound Assheneit. The latter part of
acquired. When Baasha, king of Israel, had re- this word he takes to be the name of Neith, the
newed the war between the two kingdoms, and had  titular goddess of Sais, the Athene of the Greeks;
taken Ramah, which he was proceeding to fortify and considers the whole to mean worshipper of
as a frontier barrier, Asa, the conqueror of Zerah, Neith. Gesenius, in his Thesaurus, suggests that
was so far wanting to his kingdom and his God as the original Coptic form was Asneith, which means
to employ the wealth of the Temple and of the who belongs to Neith-quae Neithae est. That the
royal treasures to induce  the  king of Syria name refers to this goddess is the generally received
(Damascus) to make a diversion in his favour by opinion (in modem times, Von Bohlen alone has,
invading the dominions of Baasha. By this means in his Genesis, proposed an unsatisfactory Semitic
he recovered Ramah, indeed; but his treasures etymology); it is favoured by the fact that the
were squandered, and he incurred the rebuke of4 Egyptians, as Jablonski has shewn, were acthe prophet Hanani, whom he cast into prison, customed to choose names expressive of some rebeing, as it seems, both alarmed and enraged at lation to their gods; and it appears liable to no
the effect his address was calculated to produce stronger objection than the doubt, whether the worupon the people (I Kings xv. 16-22; 2 Chron. xvi. ship of Neith existed at so early a period as that
I-Io). In the three last years of his life Asa was of the composition of the book of Genesis.-J. K.
afflicted with a grievous'disease in his feet;' and  ASER  [ASHER.]
trusted for a cure too much in his physicians. At 
his death he was honoured with a funeral of un- ASH   (y) occurs n Job iv. I9;    X11. 28;
usual cost and magnificence (2 Chron. xvi. II-14). xxvii. IS; Is. 1. 9; li. 8; Hoseav. 12: in all which
He was succeeded by Jehoshaphat. —J. K.       places the LXX. read aos, and the Vulg. tinea;
ASAHEL     (Kn;i,C God's creature; Sept. A. V. moth. In Ps. xxxix. II,.T, Sept. dpdXv;,
~.V..'"., -:'      Vulg. aranea. The same Hebrew word occurs in'A<raX), son of David's sister Zeruiah, and brother the phrase'moth-eaten,' Job xiii. 28; Sept. sr7r6of Joab and Abishai.  He was noted for his swift- Ppwuro, comeditur a tineis; James v. 2, OTr6ppwra,
ness of foot; and after the battle at Gibeon he a tineis comesta. The word aos is used also in
pursued and overtook Abner, who, with great re- Ecclus. xix. 3; xlii. 13:.Matt. vi. 19, 20; Luke
luctance, in order to preserve his own life, slew  xii. 33. There is no biblical insect whose identity
him by a backthrust of his spear, B.C. 1055. There is better ascertained. The following is the chain
were two others of this name (2 Chron. xvii. 8; of evidence through which it is traced. The word
xxxi. 13. [ABNER.] (2 Sam. ii. 18-23).-J. K.   Ss, adopted by the Sept., unquestionably means
ASAIAH (i;'W;, 2 Chron. xxxiv. 20  2 Kings'moth' in the writings of Aristotle (who was con- TT;:  1.,temporary with the translators of the earliest and
xxii. 12, where he is called Asahiah in the A. V.), best rendered portions of the Sept.); for when
an officer of Josiah, one of those who were sent to treating of the generation of insects he says: *Iiverac
consult the oracle about the book of the law. An- & Katl &Xa X otbcdpta, r& &v ev pltots, Kai 6la Ad
other of this name is mentioned among David's ptawv Jorfv, otov olf aTre, ol /i06ovrat ua\XXov 6Tac
choristers (I Chron. vi. 30).                 KOPiOpT q Tr& 9pa.' Other small creatures are
ASAPH    (IK, assembler; Sept.'Aacq), a generated, some in wool, and in such substances
TT                              as are formed from wool, as for instance, moths,
Levite, son of Barachias (I Chron. vi. 39; xv. 17), or moth worms, which are principally produced in
eminent as a musician, and appointed by David to  dusty woollen substances:' and, again, speaking
preside over the sacred choral services which he of the same insect, -yverac U  eV %XcV  0 O K6bXrx
organized. The'sons of Asaph' are afterwards oTros,' this worm or insect is produced in garmentioned as choristers of the temple (I Chron. ments.'  To the same effect, Aristotle's pupil,
xxv. 1, 2; 2 Chron. xx. 14; xxix. 13; Ezra ii. Theophrastus, speaking of the herb, roXiov, says,
41; iii. o10; Neh. vii. 44; xi. 22); and this office ro0ro0  Kail rpbs 7os o  Tras robs iv ros ilariots
appears to have been made hereditary in his family dya06v-' this is good against the moths in clothes'
(I Chron. xxv. I, 2). Asaph was celebrated in (Hist. Plant. i. 16). Menander, educated under
after times as a prophet and poet (2 Chron. xxix. Theophrastus, speaking of things which consume,
30; Neh. xii. I6), and the titles of eleven of the says, Tb' lp-drtov  o- rres,'moths consume
Psalms (1xxiiL to lxxxiii.) bear his name. The clothes.'  Then with regard to the word tinea,
merits of this appropriation are elsewhere examined, adopted by the Vulg., Pliny uses it in translating
[PSALMS.] There were three other persons named  our first quotation from Aristotle ('pulvis in lanis
Asaph: one who occupied the distinguished post of et veste tineas creat,' Hist. Nat. xi. 41, edit. Harmazkir (n1I~t) or'recorder' to king Hezekiah (2 duin), and elsewhere, for the moth, though he also
Kings xviii. 18; Isa. xxxvi. 3); another who was applies the word to other insects, etc.; and from
keeper of the royal forests under Artaxerxes (Neh. the time of Pliny to Aldrovandus, this, and almost
ii. 8).J. K.                                  all the other names in natural history, remained
ASCALON. [ASIKELON.]                        the same, and were retained as much as possible
by Willughby and Linnaeus. The latter, under
ASCENSION.      [JESUS CHRIST.]             the order Lepidoptera, genus Phalaena, gives the
ASENATH (in i *    Sept.'Aoevd), the daugh- species of moths, Tinea tapetzella,  T pellionella,
-:                     a g-   and T. recu varia sarcitella, as peculiarly destructer of Potipherah, priest of On, whom the king  tive to woollen clothes, furs, etc. The following
of Egypt bestowed in marriage upon Joseph. allusions to the moth occur in Scripture; —to its
[JOSEPH.] No better etymology of Asenath has being produced in clothes:'for from garments
been proposed than that byJablonski, who (Panth. cometh a moth' (Ecclus. xlii. 13); to its wellEgypt. v. i. p. 56, and Opuscul. ii. 208) regards known fragility:'mortal men are crushed before
the forms Asenath and'Ao-evO as representative of the moth' (Job iv. 19) literally'before the face




ASH                     239                 ASHDOD
of the moth,' but which words really mean' like and when too light a bit of gravel (Transactoins
as the moth is crushed.' The Hebrew word bof the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. i. p. 42).
here translated'before,' occurs in the sense of as  J. F. D.
or like in I Sam. i. I6:'count not thine hand-  ASH (TREE). [OREN.]
maid (         45-n2  S) as a daughter of Belial:'  ASHAN  (j,;) Josh. xv. 42; xix. 7), called
literally,'before,' or'as the face of:' and so the  Chor-ashan in I Sam. xxx. 30, a Levite town in the
Sept. understood our passage, Oyrbs rp67rov.  The tribe of Simeon. According to Eusebius it was I6
Latin phrase ad faciem occurs in the same sense miles from Jerusalem, but 15 according to Jerome,
n Plautus (Cistell. i. 1. 73):'ad istam faciem est who calls it Bethasa. It has not yet been identified.
morbus qui me macerat.' Others take this allusion to the moth in an active sense, thus-' as a  ASHDOD (Wt; Sept. ALros), the AzoTus
garment is consumed by the moth;' so the Vulg. of the Greeks and Romans, and so called in I Mace.
a tinea. The allusion to'the house of the moth' iv. 15; Acts viii. 40 (see also Plin. list. Nat. v. 14;
(Job. xxvii. I8) seems to refer plainly to the silky  Ptolem. v. 16); a city on the summit of a grassy
spindle-shaped case, covered with detached hairs hill, near the Mediterranean coast, nearly midand particles of wool, made and inhabited by the way between Gaza and Joppa, being i8 geog. miles
larva of the Tinea sarcitella; or to the felted case N. by E. from the former, and 21 S. from the
or tunnel formed by the larva of the Tinea pellio- latter; and more exactly mid-way between Askelon
nella; or to the arched gallery formed by eating  and Ekron, being IO geog. miles N. by E, from
through wool by the larva of the Tinea tapetzella. the former, and S. by W. from the latter. AshReferences occur to the destructiveness of the dod was a city of the Philistines, and the chief
clothes-moth:'as a garment that is moth-eaten' town of one of their five states (Josh. xiii. 3; I
(Job xiii. 28);'the moth shall eat them up' (Is. 1. Sam. vi. I 7). It was the seat of the worship of
9);'the moth shall eat them up like a garment' Dagon (i Sam. v. 5; I Mace. xi. 4), before whose
(li. 8);' I will be to Ephraim as a moth,' i. e., will shrine in this city it was that the captured ark
secretly consume him (Hos. v. 12); comp. Matt. was deposited and triumphed over the idol (I
vi. 19, 20; Luke xii. 33; James v. 2, metaphori- Sam. v. I-9). Ashdod was assigned to Judah;
cally; and Ecclus. xix. 3-' Moths and worms but many centuries passed before it and the other
shall have him that cleaveth to harlots,' but the  Philistine towns were subdued [PHILISTINES];
better reading is o',ire,'rottenness.' Since the and it appears never to have been permanently in'treasures' of the Orientals, in ancient times, con- possession of the Judahites, although it was dissisted partly of'garments, both new and old' mantled by Uzziah, who built towns in the territory
(Matt. xiii. 52; and comp. Josh. vii. 21; Judges of Ashdod (2 Chron. xxvi. 6). It is mentioned to
xiv. 12), the ravages of the clothes-moth afforded  the reproach of the Jews after their return from
them a lively emblem of destruction. Their trea- captivity, that they married wives of Ashdod; the
sures also consisted partly of corn laid up in barns, result of which was that the children of these
etc. (Luke xii. 18, 24); and it has been supposed marriages spoke a mongrel dialect, compounded of
that the pcWotss, translated'rust,' joined with the  Hebrew and the speech of Ashdod (Neh. xiii. 23,
AOs in Matt. vi. 19, 20, refers also to some species 24). These facts indicate the ancient importance
of moth, etc., probably in the larva state, which  of Ashdod. It was indeed a place of great strength;
destroys corn.  Kuinoel says the'curculio, or and being on the usual military route between
kornwurm,' the larva of the Tinea granella, is in- Syria and Egypt, the possession of it became an
jurious to corn. Compare the common Roman     object of importance in the wars between Egypt
phrase blatta et tinea. Aquila gives fpijis for VI/ and the great northern powers. Hence it was
in Jer. 1. 9; and those words,'Gods which can- secured by the Assyrians before invading Egypt
not save themselves from moths,' fpwcr&drwv, Ep. of (Isa. xx. I, sq.); and at a later date it was taken
Jer. xii., may be another instance.  Comp. Mal. by Psammetichus, after a siege of twenty-nine
iii. II, Sept. and MS. B. in margin, and Sym- years, the longest on record (Herodot. ii. I57).
machus in Is. v. 9. The word tD occurs, as well as The destruction of Ashdod was foretold by the
the word Vtf, in Is. li. 8:'the -t)j shall eat them  prophets (Jer. xxv. 20; Amos i. 8; iii. 9; Zeph.
up like a garment, and the DD shall eat them  ii. 4; Zech. ix. 6); and was accomplished by the
like wool,' Sept. uos pita fpwUOa-ecrac irb aTr6s Maccabees (I Macc. v. 68; x. 77-84; xi. 4). It
(comp. the first quotation from Aristotle), where is enumerated among the towns which Pompeyi
the similarity between the Hebrew and Greek joined to the province of Syria (Joseph. Antiq. xiv.
word is striking. If two species of moth be here 4. 4, De Bell.ud. i. 7. 7), and among the cities
alluded to, may not the CD be the distinctive name ruined in the wars, which Gabinius ordered to be
for the Tinea tapetzella, which is peculiarly destruc- rebuilt (Antiq. xiv. 5. 3). It was included in
tive to'wool?' [SAS.] The Sept. also gives As7 Herod's dominion, and was one of the three towns
for 3n1, Prov. xiv. 30, and for p'n, Micah vii. 4. bequeathed by him to his sister Salome- (Antiq.
Moths, like fleas, etc., amid other more immediate xvii. 8. I). The evangelist Philip was found at
purposes of their existence, incidentally serve as a Ashdod after he had baptized the Ethiopian eunuch
stimulus to human industry and cleanliness; for, on his professing his belief in Christ (Acts viii. 40).
by a remarkable discrimination in her instinct, the Azotus early became the seat of a bishopric; and
parent moth never deposits her eggs in garments we find a bishop of this city present at the councils
frequently overlooked or kept clean. Indeed, the of Nice, Chalcedon, A.D. 359, Selucia, and Jerumost remarkable of all proofs of animal intelli- salem, A.D. 536 (Reland, Palestina, p. 609).
gence, is to be found in the larvae of the water-  Ashdod subsisted as a small unwalled town in
moth, which gets into straws, and adjust the the time of Jerome. It was in ruins when
weight of their case so that it can always float: Benjamin of Tudela visited Palestine (Itin. ed.
when too heavy they add a piece of straw or wood, Asher, i. 79); but we learn from  William  of




ASHDOTH PISGAH                  240                  ASHIMA
Tyre and Vitriacus that the bishopric was revived unable to expel the Sidonians, who by that time
by the Latin Christians, at least titularly, and made had encroached southward into parts of the coast
suffragan of Treves. Sandys (Travailes, p. 151) actually assigned to the Asherites; and he strengthdescribes it as'a place of no reckoning;' and ens this by referring to the subsequent foundation
Zuallart (Voyage, iv. p. 132) speaks of it as an of Tyre, as evincing the disposition of the Sidonians
Arab village. And this seems to be its present to colonize the coast south of their own proper
condition, for Irby and Mangles (p. I80) describe territories. The Asherites were for a long time
it as inhabited. The site is marked by ancient unable to gain possession of the territories actually
ruins, such as broken arches, and partly buried assigned them, and' dwelt among the Canaanites,
fragments of marble columns, there is also what the inhabitants of the land' (Judg. i. 32); and,'as
appeared to these travellers to be a very ancient it is not usual to say of a larger number that it
khan, the principal chamber of which had obviously, dwells among the smaller, the inference is, that
at some former period, been used as a Christian they expelled but comparatively few of the Canaanites, leaving them, in fact, a majority of the populachapel. The place is still called  dl Esdud. tion' (Bush, note on Judg. i. 32).-J. K.
J. KI.                                          ASHERAH. [ASHTAROTH.]
ASHDOTH      PISGAH (?n:D.lj ri._K, Sept.     ASHES, in the symbolical language of Scrip-'Aa^bo    acryd).  The word Ashdoth by itself ture, denote human frailty (Gen. xviii. 27), deep
occurs twice as a local designation in the 0. T.humiliation (Esth. iv.; Jonah iii. 6; Matt. xi
(Josh. x. 40; xii. 8), and in both instances is2  Luke x. 3; Job xlii. 6; Dan. ix. 3). To sit
translated'springs' in the A. V. In Num. xxi.in ashes was a token of grief and mourning (Job
15, we have the word in the singular masculine i 8; Lam. i. 16; Ezek. xxvi. 30), as was also
strewing them upon the head (2 Sam. xiii. 19; Isa.
(ovv) used with';i,  torrents, where it denotes lxi. 3). [MOURNING.]'Feeding on ashes,' in
either the bed of the torrent or the ravine down  Ps. cii. 9, appears to express grief, as of one with
which it flows. Ashdoth Pisgah may thus desig- whose food the ashes with which he is covered
nate a place where the streams from Mount Pisgah mingle. But in Isa. xliv. 20,'feeding on ashes,'
were collected at the base of the hill. The root which afford no nourishment, is judged to denote
of the word is an obsolete verb signifying to pour ineffectual means, labour to no purpose. Compare
forth; and as in the Arabic the term designating  Hos. xii. I.-J. K.
the foot of a mountain is derived from a verb signifying to pour forth, it is concluded that Ashdoth  ASHIMA  (%SW., 2 Kings xvii. 30; Sept.
may be the designation of a ravine at the foot of a'Aotcd0) is only once mentioned in the Old Testahill in which the waters from the higher grounds ment as the god of the people of Hamath. The
are collected to pour forth as streams. Ashdoth  Babylonian Talmud, in the treatise'Sanhedrin'
Pisgah would thus designate the ravine at the base (cited in Carpzov's Apparatus, p. 516), and the
of Mount Pisgah, or the base of the hill itself. majority of Jewish writers, assert that Ashima was
[PISGAH. ]-W. L. A.                           worshipped under the form of a goat without wool;.     -ASHER.(nVn,        Septh.'Aoap) one the Talmud of Jerusalem says, under that of a lamb.
ASHER  I^.,  kappiness; Sept.'Aop), one Elias Levita gives the word the sense of ape; in
of the sons of Jacob by Zilpah, the handmaid of which he was, in all probability, deceived by the
Leah (Gen. xxx. 13; xxxv. 26), and founder of one resemblance in sound to the Latin simia, and othei
of the twelve tribes (Num. xxvi. 44-47). Asher had fanciful conjectures have been proposed.  The
four sons and one daughter (Gen. xlvi. I7). On opinion, however, that this idol had the form of a
quitting Egypt the number of adult males in the goat appears to be the one best supported by argu
tribe of Asher was 41,500, which made it the ninth ments as well as by authorities. Thus Pfeiffer (in
of the tribes (excluding Levi) in numbers-Ephraim, his Dubia Vexata, ad loc.) suggests that ashima
Manasseh, and Benjamin only being below it. may be brought into relation with the word nDOR,
But before entering Canaan an increase of I,900 which the Samaritan version uses in the sense of
-an increase exceeded only by Manasseh —raised  some species of goat, as a translation of the original
the number to 53,400, and made it the fifth of the lp' in Deut. xiv. 5. On this ground we might
tribes in population (comp. Num. i. 40, 41; xxvi  conjecture that the word ashima actually means a
47). The inheritance of this tribe lay in a very goat without wool, by deriving it from DMt, which,
fruitful country, on the sea-coast, with Lebanon  though it usually signifies to beguilty, yet occurs in
north, Carmel and the tribe of Issachar south, and  the sense of to be laid waste, to be bare, as a cogZebulon and Naphtali east. It is usually stated  nate of Dti4 and  Dtg i: so that ashima would mean
that the whole of the Phcenician territories, includ- bare, bald. Besides, as a goat, the Egyptian god
ing Sidon, were assigned to this tribe. But there Mendes would afford an excellent parallel to Ashare various considerations which militate against ima; as likewise the Greek Pan (cf. Lev. xvii. 7).*
this conclusion (see the arguments on both sides in  It is worthy of mention that the name of this
Pictorial Bible, Num. xxvi. 44; Josh. xix. 24; idol furnished Aben Ezra with an opportunity of
Judg. i. 3I), and tend to shew that the assigned  displaying the inveterate hatred of the Jews against
frontier-line was drawn out to the sea south of the Samaritans. In his preface to the book of
Sidon. The strongest text for the inclusion of Esther, he asserts that the Samaritan text of Gen.
Sidon (Tyre was not then founded) is that in
which it is mentioned to- the reproach of the   * [The majority of recent scholars seem to preAsherites, that they did not drive out the Sidonians fer identifying Ashima with Esmun, the Phoenician
(Judg. i. 3I). This Michaelis is disposed to reject  Esculapius (Thenius in loc.)  Gesenius compares
as an interpolation; but Dr. Kitto (Pict. Bib. in  the word with the Pers. asumdn, heaven; and
loc.) conceives it to denote that the Asherites were  Fiirst with the Pers. eshmani Teufel.]




ASHKENAZ                    241               ASHTORETH
i. I, begins with the words,'In the beginning identity of Ashtaroth and. Ashtoroth Karaim has
Ashima created.' It need hardly be said that there beeh questioned by some. The strongest arguis no trace of this reading either in the Samaritan  ments against it are, that Eusebius and Jerome retext or version. Aben Ezra's own words are cited garded the two places as distinct, and that the
at length in Hottinger's Exercit. Antimorin., p. 40.  Samaritan and Arabic versions assign different
-J. N.                                        names to the two. But the statements of both
ASHKENAZ (tEW     S; Sept.'Axavd~r;c Gen. Jerome and Eusebius bearing on this point are far
AT. A: Sp: -         Gn r v' from clearly intimating their distinctness,-and to
x. 3); and ASHCHENAZ (Jer. li. 27), the proper us Jerome appears rather to incline to their being
name of a son of Gomer, son of Japhet, and of a the same, as he places both in the same region, and
tribe of his descendants. In Jeremiah it is placed refers from the later article to the earlier ( diximus
with Ararat and Minni, provinces of Armenia; et supra de Ash. Carnaim'-De Loc. Heb.) As to
whence it is probable that Ashkenaz was a pro- the versions, the Arabic is too late to be of much
vince of Armenia; or at least that it lay not far authority, and the name given by the Samaritan to
from it, near the Caucasus, or towards the Black  Ashtoroth Car., viz. Haphinith, is confessedly unSea. Nothing more satisfactory is now attainable. known.]
The various fanciful attempts to trace the name may
be seen in Winer (Bib. Realw'rl., s. v.'Askenas').  ASHTORETH (rn'hiy., I Kings xi. 5; Sept.
The modem Jews fancy the name denotes the Ger-'AO-dT^) is the name of a oddess of the Sidonians
mans. —J. K.                                  (I Kings xi. 5, 33), and also of the Philistines
ASHKENAZI, ELS. A Jewish rabbi, first at (I Sam. xxxi. Io), whose worship was introduced
Cremona, afterwards at Constantinople, then at among the Israelites during the period of the judges
Naxos, then at Posen, and ultimately at Cra- (Judg. ii. 13; I Sam. vii. 4), was celebrated by
cow, where he died in 1586.   He wrote 1id.   Solomon himself (i Kings xi. 5), and was finally
a a Conmentary on the Book of Ester, Crem.  put down by Josiah (2 Kings xxiii. I3). She is, a Commentary on the Book of Esther, Crem. P
frequently mentioned in connection with Baal, as
I576. (This has been repeatedly reprinted, and is the corresponding female divinity (Judg. ii. I3);
much esteemed; an edition appeared at Warsaw  and, from the addition of the words,'and all the' 18  /,  an Illustration of the ^ host of heaven,' in 2 Kings xxiii. 4 (although
in i838, 4to.);, an Illustration of the Asherah occurs there, and not'Ashtoreth, which
Historical Contents of the Pentateuch, in four will be accounted for below), it is probable that she
parts, Ven. I583, fol. This work has also been represented one of the celestial bodies. There is
frequently reprinted; the last edition appeared at also reason to believe that she is meant by the
Zolkien in 1802, 8vo.-W. L. A.'queen of heaven,' in Jer. vii. I8; xliv. 17; whose
ASHPENAZ, chief of the eunuchs of king worship is there said to have been solemnised by
Nebuchadnezzar, to whose care Daniel and his burning incense, pouring libations, and offering
companions were. consigned, and who changed   cakes. Further, by comparing the two passages,
companions were consigned, and who changed
their names (Dan. i. 3, 7) — J. KR            2 Kings xxiii. 4, and Jer. viii. 2, which last speaks
ther n s (. i.     of the'sun and moon and all the host of heaven,
ASHTAROTH       (nSlint1; Sept.'Acrapc5), whom they served,' we may conclude that the moon
and A SHTATROTH-CARNAIM  -P niSnry *; Sept. r was worshipped under the names of queen of heaven.-  T   v       ano and of'Ashtoreth, provided the connection between'Avrapod8 Kal Kapvatv), a town of Bashan (Deut. these titles is established.
i. 4; Josh. ix. io), which was included in the terri-  According to the testimonies of profane writers,
tory of the half-tribe of Manasseh (Josh. xiii. 3), the worship of this goddess, under different names,
and was assigned to the Levites (I Chron. vi. 7). existed in all countries and colonies of the SyroIt is placed by Eusebius six miles from Edrei, the Arabian nations.  She was especially the chief
other principal town of Bashan, and twenty-five female divinity of the Phcenicians and Syriansmiles from Bostra. The town existed in the time                    d       
of Abraham (Gen. xiv. 5); and as its name of the Baaltis (i.e., It  domino mea, equivalent to
Ashtaroth appears to be derived from the worship the Greek address, AUorowva!) to Baal;'AcrTdp-rl
of the moon under that name [see the followingJ g eTcYrq, as Sanchoniathon calls her (ed. Orelli,
article], there is little need to look further than the P. 34). She was known to the Babylonians as
crescent of that luminary and its symbolical image Mylitta (i. e., possibly Kn'15Dn, the emphatic state
for an explanation of the addition CARNAIM, or of the feminine participle active of Aphel, genetrix),
rather KARNAIM,'horned.' In 2 Mace. xii. 26, Herod. i. 131; to the Arabians as Alitta, orAlilat,
mention is made of the temple of Atergatis (Ash- Herod. iii. 8 (i.e., according to Pocock's etymology
taroth) in Camion, which is described as a strongly -Secim. p. IIo-al Ilahat, the goddess [which
fortified town of difficult access, but which was may, however, also mean the crescent moon-see
taken by Judas Maccabaeus, who slew 25,ooo of Freytag's Lex. Ar.]; or al Hilal, the moon; or,
the people therein (2 Mace. xii. 21, 26). Astaroth- according to Kleuker's suggestion, al Walid, geneCarnaim is now usually identified with Mezareib, trix.  See Bergmann, De Relig. Arab. Anteisthe situation of which corresponds accurately enough  lanwca.  Argentor, 1834, p. 7).  The supposed
with the distances given by Eusebius. Here is the
first castle on the great pilgrim road from Damascus Punic name Tholath, tnl', which Minter, Hamato Mecca. It was built about 340 years ago by the ker, and others considered to mean genetrix, and
Sultan Selim, and is a square structure, about Ioo to belong to this goddess, cannot be adduced here,
feet on each side, with square towers at the angles as Gesenius has recently shewn that the name has
and in the centre of each face, the walls being 40 arisen from a false reading of the inscriptions (see
feet high. There are no other ruins. (Burckhardt, his Monum. Ling. Phcenic. p. 14). But it is not at
p. 242; Buckingham's Arab Tribes, p. 162.) [The all open to doubt that this goddess was worshipped
VOL. I.                                                                          R




ASHTORETH                    242               ASHTORETH
at ancient Carthage, and probably under her Phe. dove, the crab, and, in later times, the lion, were
nician name.                                   sacred to her; and among fruits, the pomegranate.
The classical writers, who usually endeavoured  No blood was shed on her altar; but male animals,
to identify the gods of other nations with their own, and chiefly kids, were sacrificed to her (Tacit.
rather than to discriminate between them, have Hist. ii. 3). Hence some suppose that the reason
recognised several of their own divinities in Ash- why Judah promised the harlot a kid, was that she
toreth.  Thus she was considered to be Juno might sacrifice it to Ashtoreth (see Tuch's note to
(BrXOLs 0 "Hpa                          Jn'Aoqpo tr, Hesychius;'Juno  Gen. xxxviii. I7). The most prominent part of
sine dubitatione a Poenis Astarte vocatur,' Augus- her worship, however, consisted of those libidinous
tin. Qua-st. in 7ud. xvi.); or Venus, especially  orgies, which Augustine, who was an eye-witness
Venus Urania (Cicer. Nat. Deor. iii. 23;'Ao-rdpr1  of their horrors in Carthage, describes with such
&orTv r1 7rap' "EXXX-aV'AqpoItrl- 7rpoOayopevopxv1,, indignation (De Civit. Dei, ii. 3).  Her priests
Theodoret. in Libr. iii. Reg. Qucst. L.; and the were eunuchs in women's attire (the peculiar name
numerous inscriptions of Bona Dea Ccelestis, Vehus of whom is n^1'p, sacri, i. e., cinaedi, GalliCoelestis, etc., cited in Miinter's Religion der Kar-  i Kings xiv. 24), and women (nflrlp, sacra, i. e.,
thager, p. 75); or Luna (Opaviav cboivKes'Ao-rpo- meretrices-H6s. iv. 14, which term ought to be
dpXTv 6voiducovuo-& a eX4vXv etvat 6MXovres, Herodian, distinguished from ordinary harlots, I'J'1), who,
v. 13; Lucian De Dea Syra, iv.)               like the Bayaderes of India, prostituted themselves
The fact that there is a connection between all to enrich the temple of this goddess. The prohithese divinities cannot escape any student of ancient bition in Deut. xxiii. i8 appears to allude to the
religions; but it is not easy to discover the precise dedication of such funds to such a purpose.
link of that connection. Winer ingeniously sug-  As for the places consecrated to her worship,
gests (Bibl. Realwdrt.) that Ashtoreth was con- although the numerous passages in which the authofounded with Juno, because she is the female rized version has erroneously rendered'It3;m by
counterpart to Baal, the chief god of the Syrians-  grove, are to be deducted (as is explained below),
their Jupiter, as it were; and with Venus, because there are yet several occasions on which gardens
the same lascivious rites were common to her wor- and shady trees are mentioned as peculiar seats of
ship, and to that of Ashtoreth and her cognate (probably, her) lascivious rites (Is. i. 29; lxv. 3;
Mylitta (Creuzer's Symbolik, ii. 23). But so great I Kings xiv. 23; Hos. iv. 13; Jer. ii. 20; iii. I3).
is the intermixture and confusion between the gods She also had celebrated temples (I Sam. xxxi. io).
of pagan religions,' pro diversitate nominis, non  As to the form and attributes with which Ashpro numinis varietate,' as Ambrose says, that Min- toreth was represented, the oldest known image,
ter further identifies Ashtoreth-due allowance that in Paphos, was a white conical stone, often
being made for difference of time and place-with  seen on Phoenician remains in the figure which
the female Kabir, Axiokersa, with the Egyptian  Tacitus describes, /. c. as' Simulacrum non effigie
Isis, with the Paphian Venus, with the Taurian and humana; continuus orbis latiore initio tenuem inEphesian Diana, with the Bellona of Comana, with  ambitum, metae modo, exsurgens, et ratio in obthe Armenian Anahid, and with the Samian, Mal- scuro.' Miinter is unwilling to consider this a
tesian, and Lacinian Juno. She has also been con- Lingam symbol; nevertheless, there appears to be
sidered to be the same as the Syrian fish-deities. some room for disputing his opinion. In Canaan
[ATERGATIS.]                                   she was probably represented as a cow. It is said
As for the power of nature, which was wor- in the book of Tobit i. 5, that the tribes which
shipped under the name of Ashtoreth, Creuzer and  revolted sacrificed r- BdaX rT 6adc\Xei, where the
Miinter assert that it was the principle of concep- feminine article with BdaX is to be remarked. In
tion and parturition-that subordinate power which  Phoenicia she had the head of a cow or bull, as
is fecundated by a superior influence, but which is she is seen on coins. Sanchoniathon states that
the agent of all births throughout the universe. As'Astarte adopted the head of a bull as a symbol
such, Miinter maintains, in his Religion der Baby- of her sovereignty;' he also accounts for the star
onier, p. 21, in opposition to the remarks of which is her most usual emblem, by saying that
Gesenius in his 7esaias, iii. 337-that the original'when she passed through the earth, she found a
form under which Ashtoreth was worshipped was fallen star, which she consecrated in Tyre' (1. c.
the moon; and that the transition from that to the p. 34).  At length, she was figured with the
planet Venus (which we will immediately notice)
was unquestionably an innovation of a later date.
It is evident that the moon alone can be properly
called the queen of heaven; as also that the dependent relation of the moon to the sun makes it a
more appropriate symbol of that sex, whose func-                               \
tions as female and mother, throughout the whole 
extent of animated nature, were embodied in Ashtoreth.   [BAAL. ] 
The rites of her worship, if we may assume their 
resembling those which profane authors describe
as paid to the cognate goddesses, in part agree
with the few indications in the Old Test., in part
complete the brief notices there into an accordant                   8
picture. The cakes mentioned in Jer. vii. i8, which
are called in Hebrew Dl] Kavvanfm, were also human form, as Lucian expressly testifies of the
known to the Greeks by the name Xap8ves, and   Syrian goddess-which is substantially the same
were by them made in the shape of a sickle, in  as Ashtoreth; and she is so found on coins of
reference to the new moon.  Among animals, the Severus, with her head surrounded with rays, sit



ASHTORETH                    243                   ASIA
ting on a lion, and holding a thunderbolt and a scholars assume that Asherah is a name for Ashsceptre in either hand. What Kimchi says of her toreth, and that it denotes more especially the
being worshipped under the figure of a sheep is a relation of that goddess to the planet Venus, as the
mere figment of the Rabbins, founded on a mis- lesser star of good fortune. It appears, namely,
apprehension of Deut. vii. 13.  As the words to be an indisputable fact that both Baal and Ashf. nnn'trV there occurring may be legitimately toreth, although their primary relation was to the
taken as the loves of the flock (Veneres pecoris), sun and moon, came in process of time to be coni. e., either the ewes or the lambs, the whole foun- nected, in the religious conceptions of the Syrodation of that opinion, as well as of the notion that Arabians, with the planets Jupiter and Venus, as
the word means sheep, is unsound.             the two stars of good fortune. [MENI. ] Although
The word Ashtoreth cannot be plausibly derived the mode of transition from the one to the other is
from  any root, or combination of roots, in the obscure, yet many kindred circumstances illustrate
Syro-Arabian languages.  The best etymology, it. For instance, the connection between Artemis
that approved by Gesenius, Fiirst, and others, and Selene; that between 7uno and the planet
identify it with the Persian sitdrah, star, with a Venus, mentioned in Creuzer ii. 566; the fact that,
prosthetic guttural. The latest etymology is that in the Zendavesta, Anahld is the name of the
suggested by Sir W. Betham, in his Etruria Celtica, genius of the same planet; and that KNftDN astro
ii. 22, who resolves Astarte into the Irish elements: (which word is only an Aramaic form of the same
As, out of; tar, beyond; te, deity —the goddess of sitarah which, as was remarked above, furnishes
long voyages! Ashtoreth is feminine as to form; the best derivation for Ashtoreth) is also the name
its plural Ashtaroth also occurs (and is sometimes of the same planet in the religious books of the
erroneously taken to be the proper name of the Tsalians (Norberg's Onomast. Cod. Nasarai, p. 20).
goddess); but it is understood to denote a plurality It is in reference to this connection, too, that a
of images (like the Greek'Ep/at), or to belong to star is so often found among the emblems with
that usage of the plural which is found in words which Ashtoreth is represented on ancient coins.
denoting lord (Ewald's Hebr. Gram. ~ 361; Mo- Lastly, whereas the word Asherah cannot, in the
vers, Phonizier; Creuzer, Symbolik).          sense of grove, be legitimately deduced from the
To come now to ASHERAH (mln, Judg. vi. primitive or secondary signification of any Syro-....            Arabian root fiK, as a name of the goddess of
25): Selden was the first who endeavoured to good fortune, it admits of a derivation as natural
shew that this word-which in the LXX. and in a philological point of view, as it is appropriate
Vulgate is generally rendered grove, in which our in signification. The verb'lW  means to prosper;
authorized version has followed them-must in and Asherah is the feminine of an adjective signisome places, for the sake of the sense, be taken to fyingfortunate, happy.-J. N.
mean a wooden image of Ashtoreth (De Diis Syris,
ii. 2). Not long after, Spencer made the same   ASHURITES (tiKn), a people named among
assertion (De Leg. Hebrcor. L. ii. i6). Vitringa  e or  w   m        
those over whom Abner made Ishbosheth king
then followed out the same argument, in his note those  iior  ). For     some codices read
to Is. xvii. 8. Gesenius, at length, has treated the  S m Asherite  and with this the Targum  of
whole question so elaborately in his Thesaurus, as  oathan agrees, in which we have -Targu, t
to leave little to be desired, and has evinced that Jonhn agrees, f his readig e adopted, the
house of Asher. If this reading be adopted, the
Asherah is a name, and also denotes an image of people mentioned were probably those lying bethis goddess. [GRoVEs.]                       tween Gilead and Jezreel, on the west of the
Some of the arguments which support this par- Jordan.  The Vulg., however, has Gessuri, and
tial, or, in Gesenius's case, total rejection of the with this the Syr. and Arab. versions agree. Ewald
signification grove, for migWi, are briefly as fol- and Thenius adopt this, and think that the people
lows:-It is argued that Asherah almost always intended are the inhabitants of the district of
occurs with words which denote idols and statues Geshur. To this it has been objected, that Geshur
of idols; that the verbs which are employed to had already a king, Talmai, whose daughter David
express the making an Asherah, are incompatible married (I Chron. iii. 2; 2 Sam. xiii. 37); which
with the idea of a grove, as they are such as to renders it incredible that Geshur should form part
build, to shape, to erect (except in one passage, of the territory of Ishbosheth. But the Geshur of
where, however, Gesenius still maintains that the Talmai is specifically described as'Geshur of Syria'
verb there used means to erect); that the words (2 Sam. xv. 8); so that it was distinguishable from
used to denote the destruction of an Asherah are the district to the north ofJordan, usually so called.
those of breaking to pieces, subverting; that the In this region the other parts of Ishbosheth's doimage of Asherah is placed in the Temple (2 Kings minions lay; so that it may be the district intended.
xxi. 7); and that Asherah is coupled with Baal in  -W. L. A.
precisely the same way as Ashtoreth is: comp.
Judg. ii. r3; x. 6; I Kings xviii. I9; 2 Kings  ASIA. This term does not occur in the 0. T.
xxiii. 4; and particularly Judg. iii. 7, and ii. 13, In the books of Maccabees it is found-I. As the
where the plural form of both words is explained  designation of the territory of Antiochus the Great
as of itself denoting images of this goddess. Be- (I Mace. viii. 6), in which case it is nearly idensides, Selden objects that the signification grove is tical with what was subsequently called Asia
even incongruous in 2 Kings xvii. 1o, where we Minor; 2. As the designation of the territory of
read of'setting up groves under every green tree.' the king of Pergamos (I Mace. viii. 6); in which
Moreover, the LXX. has rendered Asherah by case it comprehends Mysia, Lydia, and Phrygia;
Astarte, in 2 Chron. xv. I6 (and the Vulgate has and 3. As the designation of the territory claimed
done the same in Judges iii. 7), and, conversely, by the kings of Antioch, who called themselves
has rendered Ashtaroth by groves, in I Sam. vii. 3. kings of Asia, though only Cilicia really belonged
On the strength of these arguments most modem  to them (I Mace. xii. 39; xiii. 32; 2 Mace. iii. 3).




ASIARCHJE                   244                 ASKELON
By Attalus III. the kingdom of Pergamos was there presided at the public games, but not that
(B.C. I33) bequeathed to the Romans, and thence- the arrangements of all the games were made and
forward became the Roman province of Asia, and  provided by that one asiarch. (See Kuinoel, Hamwas governed by a praetor till the time of Augustus, mond, Bloomfield, etc., on Acts xix. 31; and
who made it a senatorial province, and placed over Winer's Biblisches Realwdrterbuch, s. v.'Asiarit a proconsul (dvOTraros, Acts xix. 38). This is chae,' with the authorities there cited).-J. K.
the territory which Ptolemy describes as - 181ws
KaXovugv?'Aola (Geogr. v. 2); it comprehended  ASKELON (; Sept.A        ), a city
Phrygia, Mysia, Lydia, and Caria; its chief town 
was Ephesus. As used in the N. T., it is only the of the Philistines, and the seat of one of their five
portion of this territory exclusive of Phrygia, which  states (Judg. xiv. I9; I Sam. vi. I7; 2 Sam. i. 20).
the term Asia commonly denotes (Acts ii. 9 (where It was situated on the Mediterranean coast, beit is expressly distinguished from Phrygia); xvi. 6; tween Gaza and Ashdod, twelve geog. miles north
xix. 10, 22, 26, 27; xx. 4, I6, I8; xxi. 27; xxvii. of the-former, and ten S. by W. from the latter,
2; Rom. xvi. 5 (where the reading of the best and fifty-five W.S.W. from Jerusalem.  It was
authorities is'Aolas in place of'AXatas); I Cor. the only one of the five great Philistine towns that
xvi. I9; 2 Cor. i. 8; 2 Tim. i. 15). In some of was a maritime port, and stood out close to the
these passages the wider meaning is given to the shore. Askelon was assigned to the tribe of Judah
term by some interpreters, but without sufficient (Josh. xiii. 13; comp. Judg. i. I8); but it was
reason. In Acts vi. 9, I Pet. i. I, and Rev. i. 4, I1, never for any length of time in possession of the
however, this must be admitted. In these passages Israelites. The part of the country in which it
Asia must be taken to include Phrygia as well stood abounded in aromatic plants, onions, and
as Mysia, Lydia, and Caria, so as to correspond vines (Plin. xix. 32; Strabo, xvi. p. 759, Dioscor.
nearly with whatwas afterwards called Proconsular i. 124; Colum. xii. Io; Alex. Trall. viii. 3). It
Asia. The word Asia is traced by Bochart to the was well fortified (Joseph. De Bell/ ud. iii. 2. I;
Phoenician  anl middle, qu.,T"nw,'id est pars illa comp. Mela, i. Ii),.and early became the seat of
quae media est inter Africam et Europam' (Geogr. the worship of Derceto (Diod. Sic. ii. 4). After
Sac. iv. 33, p. 298, ed. 1682). With greater pro- the time of Alexander it shared the lot of Phoenicia
bability, Pott derives it from aif&s,  s, d, dcs, and Judaea, being tributary sometimes to Egypt,
(Sansc. ushas aurora),' so that it denotes Orient, and at other times to Syria (I Macc. x. 86; xi. 6o;
Levant, Anatolia, as opposed to Hesperia' (Etymol. xii. 33; Joseph. Antiq. xii. 4. 5). The magnifiForsch. ii. g9o).-W. L. A.                     cent Herod was born at Askelon, and although the
city did not belong to his dominion, he adorned
ASIARCHIE ('AoLdpXac, Acts xix. 3I; Vulg. it with fountains, baths, and colonnades (De Bell.
Asia principes; Tertull. presides sacerdotales;.ud. i 21. ii); and after his death Salome, his
Auth. Vers.' certain of the chief of Asia'). These sister, resided in a palace at Askelon, which Caesar
asiarche, who derived their appellation from the bestowed upon her (Antiq. xvii. II. 5). It suffered
name of the province over which they presided much in the Jewish war with the Romans (DeBell.
(as Syriarch, 2 Mace. xii. 2, Lyciarch, Cariarch, fud. ii. I8. 5; iii. 2. 1-3); for its inhabitants
etc.), were in the province of Asia the chief presi- were noted for their dislike of the Jews, of whom
dents of the religious rites, whose office it was to they slew 2500 who dwelt there (ii. I8. 5; iii. 2. I).
exhibit solemn games in the theatre every year, in  After this Askelon again revived, and in the middle
honour of the gods and of the Roman emperor. ages was noted not only as a stronghold, but as a
This they did at their own expense (like the Roman wealthy and important town (Will. Tyr. xvii. 21).
aediles), whence none but the most opulent persons As a sea-port merely it never could have enjoyed
could bear the office, although only of one year's much advantage, the coast being sandy and difficontinuance. The appointment was much as fol   cult of access. The town bears a prominent part
lows: at the beginning of every year (i. e., about in the history of the Crusades. After being several
the autumnal equinox), each of the cities of Asia times dismantled and re-fortified in the times of
held a public assembly, in order to nominate one Saladin and Richard, its fortifications were at
of their citizens as asiarch. A person was then length totally destroyed by the Sultan Bibars A.D.
sent to the general council of the province, at some  1270, and the port filled up with stones, for fear
one of the principal cities, as Ephesus, Smyrna, of future attempts on the part of the Crusaders
Sardis, etc., to announce the name of the indi- (Wilkin, Gesch. der Kreuz. vii. 586). This, no
vidual who had been selected.  Of the persons doubt, sealed the ruin of the place.   Sandys
thus nominated by the cities the council designated  (Travailes, p. 151, A. D. I6I0) describes it as'now
ten. Some suppose that the whole ten presided  a place of no note, more than that the Turke doth
as a college over the sacred rites (comp. Strabo, keepe there a garrison.' Fifty years after (A.'D.
xiv. p. 649); but as in Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. iv. i660), Von Troilo found it still partially inhabited.
15) Polycarp is said to have suffered martyrdom  But its desolation has long been complete, and
when' Philip was asiarch and Statius Quadratus little now remains of it but the walls, with numeproconsul of Asia,' it has been inferred by others rous fragments of granite pillars. The situation is
that, as in the case of the Irenarch, the names of described as strong; the thick walls, flanked with
the ten nominated by the general council were towers, were built on the top of a ridge of rock
submitted to the proconsul, who chose one of the that encircles the town, and terminates at each end
number to be asiarch; whilst others again think  in the sea. The ground within sinks in the manner
that one chosen by the proconsul was pre-eminently  of an amphitheatre (Richardson ii. 202-204; Eli
the asiarch, but that the other nine acted as his Smith, in Missionary Herald for 1827, p. 341).
assessors and also bore that title. Winer contends 
that the solitary testimony of Eusebius amounts to The place still bearsthe name of Aslulan  Lic.
no more than that one asiarch, Philip, then and  -J. K.




ASMODEUS                    245      ASSEMBLY'S ANNOTATIONS.
ASMODEUS ('Ao/ao5abos), a demon or evil agallochum [AHALIM], and Dr. Harris (sub. Lign.
spirit, mentioned in the Apocryphal book of Tobit -aloe) seems to have thought that he got rid of a
as having beset Sarah, the daughter of Raguel, difficulty by suggesting that ahalim, which we have
and killed the seven husbands whom   she had  shewn to be agallochum, should be rendered ASPAmarried before Tobit (Tob. iii. 8; vi. 14; viii. LATHA. Arab authors, as Avicenna and Serapion.
2, 3). The Rabbins have a number of absurd tra- give Dar-shi-shan as the Arabic synonyme of asditions respecting Asmodeus, which may be seen palathus. They quote some of their own countryin the original edition of Calmet and in Lightfoot men as authorities respecting it, in addition to
(Hor. Hebr. ad Luc. xi. 15). They call him, as Galen and Dioscorides. Hence it would appear to
well as Beelzebub,'the prince of devils,' whence have been a product of the East rather than of the
the two names have been supposed to refer to the West, as for such they usually give only the Greek
same demon. But this title they also give to'the name or its translation, and quote only Greek
angel of death,' as the destroyer of all mankind: authorities. Avicenna, in addition to his descriphence some derive the name Asmodeus =  -    OS-, tion, says that some think it may be the root of
from the Hebrew'Ingi shamad, to exterminate, Indian nard. Hence it may justly be inferred that
and would identify it with Abaddon (see the word), Dar-shishan, which the Arabians thought to be
the same as Apollyon, the angel of death. On aspalathus, must have come to them from India, or
this assumption the story in Tobit means no more they would not have hazarded this supposition.  n
than that the seven husbands died successively India the name Dar-shishan is applied to the balk
on their marriage with Sarah. [The sole ground  of a tree which is called kaephul or kyphul. This
for identifying Asmodeus with Abaddon is this tree is a native of the Himalayan mountains from
etymological one. But this is most precarious. It Nepal to the Sutlej, and has been figured and deis doubtful if Asmodeus be a Shemitic name, or scribed by Dr. Wallich, in his Tentamen F]lora
from a Shemitic root. Reland, after Castell, traces Nepalensis, p. 59, t. 45, by the name Myrica
it to a Persic source  L   to \teMipt].       sapida, in consequence of its fruit, which is something like that of the arbutus, being edible. The
ASMONEANS. [MACCABEES.]                    leaves, on being rubbed, have a pleasantly aromatic though faint smell. The bark forms an
ASNAPPER ('(lp]D; Sept.'A~aevaqdp), the article of commerce from the hills to the plains,
name of the king, or possibly Assyrian satrap, who  being esteemed in the latter as a valuable stimulant
medicine. It may be seen mentioned by the name
sent the Cuthean colonies into Palestine (zra  ka-i-phul in Gladwin's translation of the Persian
iv. Io). Taking him for king of Assyria, he is ka-i-phul in Gladwin's translation of the Persian
with most probability identified with Esar-haddon,  Ulfaz-i-Udwuh, No. 884, as a synonyme of Darsheeshan, which is described as an aromatic bark,
although some believe the name to denote Salma- while     ch is described as an aromatic bark,
nezer. ~The title KSj^  ^m  (Auth. Vers.'greatwhile at No. 157 Dar-sheeshan is considered to be
nezer. The title Ns'1] N1'1 (Auth. Vers.'great
and noble') which is given to him belonged to  a synonyme of L)  Jlyj -  ishtelayoos, which seems
the satraps...
to be a corruption of aspalathus from the errors of
ASP. [PETHEN.]                              transcribers in the diacritical points. Kaephul has,
ASPALATHUS (ddA r   aworwsh      moreover, been long celebrated by Sanscrit authors,
A       ours only in Ecclus. xxiv.ao ), a where it is en and it may therefore have easily formed one of the
occurs only in Ecclus. xxiv. 15, where it is enu- early articles of commerce from the East to the
oerated with other spices and perfumes to which  early articles of commercefro  the   East  to the
merated with other spices and perfumes to which  West, together with the Nard, the Costus, and the
wisdom is compared. Though this drug is not Lycium of these mountains.-J. F. R.
mentioned in the canonical Scriptures, it is probable
that it may have been one of the substances com-  ASPHALTUM. [CHEMAR.]
prehended under the general name of spices. It  ASPHAR ('AcpCdp). A'pool' or'spring' (XcKwas no doubt one of the substances employed by  KOS, by which the LXX. often render'KI,'113) in
the ancients as a perfume and incense, as it is de- the wilderness of Thecoe, near to which the Jews,
scribed by Dioscorides (i. c. 19), as well as enu- under Jonathan and Simon, encamped (I Macc.
merated by Theophrastus (ix. c. 7), and by both ix. 33; Jos. Antiq. xiii. 2), to await the attack
among aromatic substances. It forms one of the of Bacchides. It was somewhere near the region
ingredients of the cyphi, or compound incense made of the Nabathites (see ver. 35), and consequently in
use of by the Egyptian priests, as related both by  the direction of Arabia.'Errant qui de Asphaltite
Plutarch and Dioscorides. The substance which hic cogitant.' Grot. in loc. —W. L. A.
was called aspalathus has not been very clearly
ascertained, though several plants have been indi-  ASS, Equus Asinusof Linnaus; by some formed
cated as yielding it. Lignum Rhodium is some- ito a   genus, containingthatgroup oftheEquide
times considered to be one of the kinds of aspalathus which are not striped like Zebras, and have forms
described by Dioscorides, but this is a produce of and characters distinguishable from true horses, such
the Canary Islands and of the plant called Convol- as a peculiar shape of body and limbs, long ears,
vulus scoparius. From it the perfumers of Parisan upright mane, a tail only tufted at the end a
obtain l'Huile de bois de Rhodes. By others aspal-streak along the spine, often crssed with another
athus, which has been supposed to be the same on the shoulders, a braying voice, etc. [AROD;
thing as Syrian aloe, or that of Rhodes and of AARIM; ATHON; CHAMOR; PERE.]
Candia, is thought to have been yielded by species  ASSEMBLY'S  ANNOTATIONS.       By this
of the genus which has been called Aspalathus, name is commonly designated a work bearing the
and especially by the species A. creticus, which is title of Annotations upon all the Books of the Old
now called Anthyllis Hermanniae; but there does and New Testaments, by the Assembly of Divines,
not seem to be sufficient proof of this. Others 2 vols. fol. Lond. 1651, 3d and best edition I657.
again have held that aspalathus was a kind of It was the conjoint work of several eminent minis



ASSHUR                    246                 ASSYRIA
ters, but was in no respect the product of the supporters, rising occasionally and then relapsing
Westminster Assembly, except as it is executed in into the ordinary pursuits of life. It is possible
the spirit of their publications, and by persons that, as Jennings conjectures (Antiq. p. 298), the
some of whom had been members of it. The notes name doa&Sanot, or saints,' came to be applied to
on the Pentateuch and on the four gospels are by them by their enemies as a term of reproach, like
Ley, sub-dean of Chester; those on Kings, Chroni-'Puritans' formerly in this country, and'saints'
cles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther, by Dr. Gouge; very often in the present day.-J. K.
those on the Psalms by Meric Casaubon; on Pro-  A            o   a       f L   r 
verbs by Francis Taylor; on Ecclesiastes by Dr.  ASSO   ("Aaos) a town  of Lesser  y    on
Reynolds; and on Solomon's Song by Smallwood.the northern shore of the Gulf of Adramyttium,
The larger prophets fell to the lot of the learned opposite the island of Lesbos, or Mitylene. Paul
Gataker, the smaller in the first edition, to Pem- came hither by land from Troas, to meet with his
berton, in the second to Bishop Richardson. The friends who came by sea, in order to take shipping
eccentric Dr. Featley undertook the Pauline Epis- for Mitylene (Acts xx. 13, 14). It is now a miserable
ties, but did not complete his work; and Dow- village, called Beiram, built high upon the rocks on
nann and Reading were both employed on thethe side towards the land (Richter, p. 465, s.)
work, though what they did has not been specified.  ASSYRIA. According to Gesenius, the Hebrew
The work is more than respectable; some parts, term'.lWiS1 is used in three different applications.
especially those entrusted to Gataker, are done
with superior learning and ability; and the whole, I. It expresses the country known to Ptolemy * and
though of various merit, does credit to the piety, the Greeks by the name Assyria. In this case the
scholarship, and judgment of the authors. -   word is feminine in Hebrew, owing to the ellipse
W. L. A.                                      of.p., the land of. 2. It is used to expresst the
ASSHUR,. a don of Shem, who gave his name Empire of Assyria, which comprehended Babylonia
to Assyria (Gen. x. 11,-22). [AwS SYRIA.]  n and Mesopotamia, and of which the centre was
to Assyria (Gen. x. 11-22).  A A.Nineveh. 3. After the subdivision of the Assyrian
ASSIDEANS (       -nrn chasidim, I Macc. vii. P empire, it was used with reference to those lands in.'..-:,         which that empire had formerly flourished, e.g.,
13,'Aosaotl, the pious, or righteous); a name de- I. of Babylonia (2 Kings xxiii. 29; Jer. ii. I8; Lam.
rived from the root'IDn, a word used to denote a v. 6; Judith i. 7; ii. I; etc.), where Nebuchadvery good or a very bad action, but more frequently nezzar is called king of Assyria; 2. of Persia (Ezra
the former. As a description of a particular body vi. 22), where Darius is called king of Assyria.
of men it does not occur in the canonical Scrip-  History.- Formerly the history of the Assyrian
tures, nor in Josephus; but in the First Book of empire was one of the most obscure chapters in the
Maccabees, as above, it is applied to the body of world's annals. Much light has been thrown upon
zealous and devoted men who rose at the signal for it of late years in the progress of cuneiform disarmed resistance given by Mattathias, the father of covery, though it must be confessed there are still
the Maccabees, and who, under him and his suc- many points open to elucidation, as well as several
cessors, upheld with the sword the great doctrine, whose greater certainty would be desirable.
of the unity of God, and stemmed the advancing  Nearly all that we know of the history of Assyria
tide of Grecian manners and idolatries.       from classical authorities is derived from Ctesias,
The Jews at a later period gave the name of Berosus and Herodotus. The first of these writers
Chasidim to those pious persons who devoted them- attributes to the earlier Assyrian dynasty a duration
selves to a life of austerities and religious exercises, of I306 years. $  Although Mr. Layard, in his
in the hope of hastening the coming of the Messiah, earlier work on Nineveh, is inclined to credit this
and of making an atonement for their own sins and statement, it has of late been satisfactorily proved
for the sins of others. The name of Chasidim has erroneous; and from the inscriptions which have
also been assumed by a Jewish sect which originated  been deciphered, we have learnt that the accounts
in Poland about a hundred years since, and which  of Berosus and Herodotus are far more worthy of
still subsists (Penny Cyclopedia, art.'Assidians'). reliance. By them a duration of 526 and 520 years
The ideas connected with this later appropriation  respectively, has, with much greater probability,
of the term have, by an obvious association, been and in singular accordance with the native monucarried back to and connected with the Chasidim  ments, been assigned. The available records of
or Assidaeans who joined Mattathias, and who have
generally been regarded as a sect subsisting at that  * The Assyria of Ptolemy had eight districts,
time. No such sect, however, is mentioned by that of Strabo nine. In Ptolemy vi. I, the word
Josephus in treating of the affairs of that period; is'Aoovpla; in Strabo xvi. 736,'Arovpia; in Dio.
and the texts which refer to them (I Macc. ii. 42; Cass. lxviii. 28,'Arvpa.  In Persian cuneiform
vii. 13; 2 Macc. xiv. 6) afford no sufficient evidence 
that the Assidaeans formed a sect distinct from other the word is written  A ds rt(.T Tj
pious and faithful Jews. The analogous Hebrew,,       - "  t   I      I I _
term Chasidim occurs in various passages of Scrip- or Athur; while the Babylonian equivalent is
ture appellatively for good and pious men (Ps.   _'
cxlv. Io; cxlix. I; Is. lvii. I; Mic. vii. 2), but is   V
never applied to any sect or body of men. Upon  + In a general way, Assyria may be said to have
the whole, in the entire absence of collateral infor- been bounded on the north by Niphates and Armation, it seems the safest course to conclude that menia; on the south by Susiana and Babylonia;
the Assidaeans were a body of eminently zealous on the west by the Tigris and Mesopotamia; and
men, devoted to the Law, who joined Mattathias on the east by Media and the Zagros chain. It is
very early, and remained the constant adherents of nearly represented by the modern Kurdistan.
him and his son Judas-not, like the mass of their: Another reading gives the number as I360.




ASSYRIA                   247                 ASSYRIA
the Assyrian empire preserved in cuneiform inscrip- the designation given by the Arabs to the neightions on bricks, slabs, and sculptures, furnish us 
with the traces of two distinct dynasties. We have bouring district, viz.,j.  It may perhaps be as
the names of an earlier and a later line of kings un-well to observe that the four kings in Gen. xiv.,
connected with each other. It is, with one or twoaccording to Josephus, were only commanders in
exceptions, the second of these dynasties which the army of the Assyrian king, who had then, he
comes in contact with the history of the Hebrew  says, dominion over Asia. In allusion to which
nation: as it is also to this later dynasty that the statement, the words of Isaiah, x. 8, have been
vast palaces and temples which have recently beenquoted-'Are not my princes altogether kings.'
discovered by the excavations in Assyria are for But this is very improbable, and is really contrathe most part to be referred.                dicted by recent discoveries, which shew, at least
The earliest mention of Assyria is in Gen. x. I. negatively, that Assyria was not then an indepenThere, however, it is disputed whether or not we dent power. Sir H. Rawlinson thinks that he has
should refer the building of Nineveh to Asshur in-found the name* of a king stamped upon bricks in
stead of Nimrod, as in fact is done in the Auth. Babylonia which corresponds to that of ChedorVers.:' Out of that land went forth Asshur, and laom   and supposes that this king was the Elabuilt Nineveh;' or,'out of that land (of Shinar or mite founder of the great Chaldean empire of
Babylonia) hewent forth (i.e., Nmrod) to Assyria, Berosus. Mr. Stuart Poole thinks it not improand built Nineveh.' The 7} to denote motion to a  able that the expedition of Chedorlaomer was
place is not absolutely indispensable in Hebrew, sodirected against the power of the Egyptian kings
that we are released from the necessity of regarding of the fifteenth dynasty and their Phoenician allies
Mi    as a nominative subject; and it certainly or subjects. Josephus also calls Chushan Rishaseems more in harmony with the context to sup- thaim-who, in Tudg. iii., is said to have been
pose that the historian is still speaking of the king of Mesopotamia-king of the Assyrians, but
family of Ham, than to think that he would mix up this again demands an earlier rise of the Assyrian
with it an account of the doings of an individual in power than the monuments warrant us in assuming.
the family of Shem, to which Asshur belonged, The first known king of Assyria is Bel-lusht or
more especially as he proceeds afterwards, in the Belukh, who, with three others in succession, viz.,
same chapter, at the 2ist verse, to record the his- Pudil, Ivalush, Shalmabar or Shalmarish, is retory of this family  Cf. also Micah v. 6, where it puted to have reigned shortly after its dependence
would seem that the land of Assyria and the land on Babylon had been shaken off.  The period
of Nimrod are identical. If the passage above is from 1273 to 1200 may be assigned to the reign of
read in the way proposed, it would appear that these kings. They have left no other record but
Asshur, in the generation above Nimrod, who was their names upon bricks, etc., which are found
the descendant of Ham, had obtained sufficient only at Kalah Sherghat; and the character in which
footing in the country to cause it to be named after these are inscribed is so ancient and so mixed with
himself, and consequently the mighty hunter must Babylonian forms, that it is for this reason that
have ejected the original occupiers of the territory they are assigned to this period, though the same
when he built the cities ascribed to him, or at least effects might possibly have been produced at a
established a dominion over them. Of course, the later period of Babylonian ascendancy.  After
sequence of events in times so remote is lost in un-these names, we are enabled to trace a continuous
certainty.                                   line of six hereditary monarchs, who, with the
From the records of Tiglath Pileser I., we learn exception of the last, are enumerated on the oldest
that a temple had been founded at Asshur, or historic relic yet discovered in Assyria. This is
Kalah Sherghat, as early as the nineteenth century the octagonal prism of Kalah Sherghat, on which
B. c., by Shamas-iva, a son of Ismi-dagon, who Tiglath-Pileser I. records the events of the first
was one of the early kings in the series answering five years of his reign, and traces back his pedigree
to the great Chaldaean dynasty of Berosus, and to the fourth generation. He calls himself the son
from this circumstance may be inferred to have of Asshur-rish-ili; the grandson of Mutaggil Nebu;
ruled over Assyria. In fact, as long as this dynasty the great grandson of Asshur-dapal-il, whose father
lasted, Assyria probably occupied the position of was Nin-pala-kura, the supposed successor of Shalan unimportant dependency of Babylonia, not being mabar or Shalmarish. Of his great grandfather,
mentioned in one single legend, and not furnishing he relates that, sixty years previously, he had taken
the Chaldaean monarchs with one of their royal down the temple of Anu and Iva before alluded
titles.  At what period Assyria was enabled to to, which had stood for 641 years, but was then in
achieve her independence, or under what circum-a ruined condition. His father seems to have been
stances she achieved it, we have no means of know- a great conqueror, and perhaps was the first to
ing, but the date at which, for several reasons, we raise the character of the Assyrian arms, and to
may suppose it to have been accomplished is ap-gain a foreign reputation. But whatever fame he
proximately 1273 B.C. Probably an Arabian conquest of Babylonia, which caused the overthrow of
this Chaldsean dynasty in the sixteenth century,  * Kudur-Mapula or Kudur-Mabuk.'Mabuk
furnished the Assyrians with an opportunity of in Hamitic is found to be the exact equivalent of
shaking off the Babylonian yoke, but it was not Laomer in Semitic. This is a very recent discotill three centuries later that they appear to have very.'-Rawlinson's Banmpton Lectures, p. 359.
gained a position of importance.  During the   + It is to be remarked, that the orthography of
period of Assyrian subjection to Chaldaea, and for these names is greatly the result of conjecture, and
long after she became an independent empire, the therefore open to modification. In the words of
vice-regal, or the royal city, was probably Asshur, Sir H. Rawlinson,'their definite phonetic renderon the west bank of the Tigris, sixty miles south ing or pronunciation is a matter of exceeding diffiof Nineveh, the name of which is still preserved in culty.'




ASSYRIA                   248                 ASSYRIA
acquired in this way was eclipsed by that of his obelisk now in the British Museum. In his reign
son, who says that he won victories in Cappadocia, the power of the first Assyrian empire seems to
Syria, and in the Median and Armenian mountains. have culminated. He carried his victorious army
Particularly a people called Nairi, who probably over all the neighbouring countries, imposing
dwelt at the north-west of Assyria proper, are con- tribute upon all Babylonia, Mesopotamia, Syria,
spicuous among his conquests. Now, it so hap- Media, Armenia, and the Scriptural kingdoms of
pens, that the date of this king can be fixed in a Hamath and Damascus; the latter under Benhadad
remarkable way, by a rock inscription of Senna- and Hazael are alike conspicuous among his
cherib at Bavian, which states that a Tiglath-Pileser vanquished enemies. But what is of paramount
occupied the throne of Assyria 418 years before the interest in the records of this king is the identificatenth year of his own reign, and as Sennacherib tion in the second epigraph in the above-named
was reigning towards the end of the eighth, or the obelisk of the name of Jehu the king of Israel, who
beginning of the seventh century, this would throw  there appears as Yahua the son of Khumri, and
back the time of Tiglath.Pileser's reign to the latter who is said to have given the Assyrian monarch
part of the twelfth century. c.* We also learn tribute of gold and silver. This name was disfrom this same rock inscription, that Tiglath-Pileser covered independently, but almost on the self-same
was himself defeated by Merodach-adan-akhi, the day, both by Dr. Hincks and Colonel Rawlinson,
king of Babylon, who carried away with him images the latter being at Baghdad and the former in the
of certain Assyrian gods, shewing that Babylon at north of Ireland. It is supposed that Jehu is
this period was independent of Assyria, and a called the son of Khumri or Omri, either as being
formidable rival to her power. Of Asshur-bani- king of Samaria, the city which Omri built, or as
pal I., the son and successor of Tiglath-Pileser, claiming descent from the founder of that city to
nothing is known. Only one record of him has strengthen his right to the throne, and possibly
been hitherto discovered, and this was found at even as being descended from him on the mother's
Koyunjik.   This name was softened or corrupted side.
by the Greeks into Sardanapalus. After this king  Shalmanu-bar was the founder of the central
a break occurs in the line of succession which can- palace at Nimrud, and probably reigned from about
not be supplied. It is thought, however, not to 900 to 850 or 860. He was succeeded by his
have been long, as Asshur-adan-akhi is supposed second son Shamas-iva, his eldest having made a
to have begun to reign about 1050, and therefore revolt during the lifetime of his father, which
to have been contemporary with David.   This probably lost him the succession, and was with
monarch, and the Three kings who succeeded him, difficulty quelled by his younger brother.  The
are obscure and unimportant, not being known for annals of Shamas-iva extend only over a period of
anything else than repairing and adding to the four years. At this time the history is enveloped in
palaces at Kalah Sherghat. Their names are As- much obscurity, but it is probable that the reign of
shur-danin-il, Iva-lush II., and Tiglathi-Nin.  Shamas-iva lasted much longer, as it is with his son
With the last of these, however, Asshur ceased and successor Iva-lush III., that the first Assyrian
to be the royal residence. The seat of govern- dynasty comes to a close, and the reigns of these
ment was transferred by his son Asshur-dani-pal two princes are all we have to fill up the interval
to Calah, now supposed to be represented by from 850 to 747, which is about the time it is supNimrdld, forty miles to the north, near the conflu- posed to have ended. Iva-lush is perhaps the Pul
ence of the upper Zab and the Tigris, and on, the of Scripture. Among those from whom he received
east bank of the latter river. The reason of this tribute are mentioned the people of Khinuri, i. e.,
change is not known, but it is thought that it was Samaria, and Menahem gave Pul o000 talents of
connected with the extension of the empire in the silver to confirm the kingdom in his hand. There
direction of Armenia, which would therefore is a statue of the god Nebo in the British Museum
demand greater vigilance in that quarter.  This which is dedicated by the artist'to his Lord Ivaking, Sardanapalus II., pushed his conquests to lush and his lady Sammuramit.' This personage is
the shores of the Mediterranean, levied tribute of in all probability the Semiramis of the Greeks, and
the kings of Tyre and Sidon, and therefore perhaps her age remarkably agrees with that which Herobf Ethbaal the father of Jezebel. He was also the dotus assigns her, viz., five generations prior to
founder of the north-west palace at Nimrud, which Nitocris, who seems with him to represent Nebuis second only to that of Sennacherib, at Koyunjik, chadnezzar. He also speaks of her as a Babylonian
in magnificence and extent.  The next monarch princess, and since Iva-lush asserts that Asshur had
who sat on the Assyrian throne was Shalmanu-bar'granted him the kingdom of Babylon' he may
the son of Sardanapalus. He reigned thirty-one very likely have acquired it in rigit of his wife or
years, spread his conquests farther than any of reigned conjointly with her. But we cannot here
his predecessors, and recorded them on the black  replace conjecture by certainty. As we are altogether ignorant of the causes which terminated the
* In all probability these two kings are identical, first Assyrian dynasty or established the second,
though Mr. Oppert supposes them not to be.    the interval between both may have been cont It may be convenient to remember, that Koy- siderable, and may account for the difficulty above
unjik, Khorsabad, Kilah-Sherghat, and Nimrud, mentioned with respect to the period from the
are respectively equivalent to Nineveh, Dur-Sar- death of Shalmanubar and the end of the first emgina, Asshur, and Calah. Also, that the founder pire. Tiglath-Pileser II., who founded the second
of the north-west palace at Nimrutd was Asshur- empire, appears before us'without father, without
dani -pal; of the central palace at that place, mother.' Unlike the kings before him he makes no
Shalmanu-bar; of the palace at Khorsabael, Sar- parade of his ancestry in his inscriptions, from which
gon; of the great Koyunjik palace, Sennacherib; circumstance we may fairly assume that he was a
and of the south-west palace at Nimrutd and the usurper.  Much uncertainty has arisen about the
palace at Nebbi-yunus, Esarhaddon.           date of his accession, because he states that he took




ASSYRIA                   249                ASSYRIA
tribute from Menahem in his eighth year, which to have removed the seat of government from
would make it B. C. 767 or 768 (received chronology), Calah to Khorsabad, called from him Dur-Sargina.
whereas it is more likely that it was connected in At this time the influence of Egyptian taste is
some way with the change of events in Babylon manifest in Assyrian works of art.  Sargon was
that gave rise to the era of Nabonassar, or-747. succeeded in the year B. C. 702 by his son Sennacherib.
However, as LXX. give the reign of Manasseh  He fixed his government at Nineveh, which, being
thirty-five years instead of fifty-five, this diminution now greatly decayed, he completely restored, and
of twenty years would exactly rectify the discrepancy, where he built the magnificent structures discovered
or else it is possible that in the said inscription and excavated by Layard. In the repairs of the
Menahem may be by mistake for Pekah, since he great palace alone he is said to have employed nc
is joined with Rezin, whom  Scripture always less than 360,000 men among his captives from
couples with Pekah. The annals of Tiglath-Pileser Chaldsea, Armenia, and elsewhere.  Sennacherib
II. extend over a period of seventeen years, and immediatelyafterhis accessionproceeded to Babylon,
record his wars against Mesopotamia, Armenia, and where Merodach-Baladan had contrived to place
Media; he also invaded Babylon, took the city of himself again upon the throne with the aid of the
Sepharvaim or Sippara, and slew Rezin the king Susianians. He fought a bloody battle with him,
of Syria. It was this king whom Ahaz met at in which the Babylonian was entirely defeated, and
Damascus when he saw the altar of which he sent then appointed Belibus, or Elibus, viceroy of
the pattern to Urijah, the priest at Jerusalem. Of Babylon. In his second year he marched on the
Shalmaneser, his probable successor, little is known north and east of Assyria, and penetrated to certain
but what has come down to us in the sacred Median tribes whom he asserts to have'been quite
narrative. His name has not been found on the unknown to his predecessors. The Philistines also
monuments.   Shalmaneser twice invaded Israel; were subdued by him, and the kings of Egypt who
upon the first occasion it seems that Hoshea the fought with him  near Lachish were worsted.
king bought him off by tribute, but subsequently Lachish and Libnah fell before his arms, and
revolted upon having made an alliance with Sabaco Hezekiah, at Jerusalem, had to purchase peace by
or So, king of Egypt. Uponthis, Shalmaneseragain a tribute of 300 talents of silver and 30 talents
invaded Israel, and besieged Samaria for the space of gold (2 Kings xviii. I3, 14). This, however, is
of three years. He is supposed to have died or to not recorded in his annals, which extend only to
have been deposed before the city surrendered, and his eighth year, and therefore may have occurred
to have left the final subjugation of it to his successor. subsequently to the period at which they close.
This was Sargon or Sargina who came to the throne In the year 699 he again marched against Babylon,
in B. C. 721, was the founder of a dynasty, and is defeated the party of Merodach-Baladan, deposed
therefore suspected of being a usurper; he reigned the viceroy, Belibus, whom he had himself appointed
nineteen years after the captives of Samaria had three years before, and placed his own eldest son,
been brought to Assyria; he made war against Asshur-nadin, upon the throne.  We know that
Babylon, and perhaps placed Merodach-Baladan  Sennacherib reigned twenty-two years, because we
upon the throne.  After this he marched in the have his twenty-second year stamped on a clay
direction of Southern Syria and Egypt.  At this tablet, but it is uncertain when his second expedition
time the latter country was under the dominion of to Syria was undertaken: some, however, consider
the twenty-fifth or Ethiopian dynasty, and had his two Syrian expeditions to have been identical.
recently gained possession of the five Philistine The object of it was to recover the cities of Lachish
cities, according to the prediction of Is. xix. IS,* and Libnah, which had again fallen under the power'In that day shall five cities in the land of Egypt of Egypt. While he was warring against Lachish he
speak the language of Canaan.' It is remarkable heard of the convention that Hezekiah had entered
that Sargon speaks of Gaza as belonging to Egypt, into with the king of Egypt, and sent a detachment
and its king is said to have been defeated at Raphia of his host against Jerusalem, under Rab-Saris and
by the Assyrian monarch. Upon this the Egyptian Rab-Shakeh. For some reason which we are not' Pharaoh' paid Sargon tribute of gold, horses, told, these generals found it expedient to retire from
camels, etc. Afterwards he made war in Hamath, Jerusalem and join their master, who had raised
Cappadocia, and Armenia, turning his arms also the siege of Lachish, at Libnah.  Meanwhile,
against Mount Zagros and the Medes, whose cities Tirhakah, the Ethiopian, perhaps not yet king of
he colonised with his Israelitish captives. Later, Egypt, advanced from the south to meet Sennahe made a second expedition into Syria, and took cherib and reinforce the Egyptian party against
Ashdod by his Tartan, or general (Is. xx. I),t whom he was contending, but before the decisive
the king of this place flying to Egypt, which is battle could be fought, the Angel of the Lord had
said to be under the dominion of Mirukha or smitten in the camp of the Assyrians I85,000 men.
Meroe. At this time, also, Tyre fell under his Sennacherib, with the rest of his army, fled in
power. Subsequently, he made a second war upon dismay, and the Egyptians perhaps commemorated
Babylonia, and drove' Merodach - Baladan, who his disaster in the manner related (Herod. ii. 14I).
seems to have offended him, into banishment. It is not a matter of surprise that this event is
Finally, the Greeks of Cyprus, who are called' the unnoticed on the Assyrian monuments.  In all
Yaha Nage tribes of Yunau' or Ionia, are named probability the murder of Sennacherib by his sons
among those who paid him tribute. He appears did not immediately follow his defeat at Libnah,
but this also we have no means of knowing from
* This interpretation of the prophecy is perhaps the Assyrian records. He was succeeded by one
open to question on account of the words that of his younger sons, not his eldest, who had been
follow-' one shall be called the city of destruction.' regent in Babylon, and was probably dead, Esart'Tartan was the common title of the commander haddon, or Asshur-akh-iddina. He was celebrated
of the Assyrian armies.'- Layard, Nineveh and for his victories and his magnificent buildings.
Babylon, p. 148, n.H e carried on his father's war with Egypt, which




ASSYRIA                   250                 ASSYRIA
country, as well as Ethiopia, he seems to have'During our stay at Arban the colour of the great
subdued. He is also thought to have reigned in plains was undergoing a continual change; after
his own person at Babylon, and perhaps to have being for some days of a golden yellow a new
held his court indifferently, either at Nineveh or family of flowers would spring up, and it would turn
Babylon, which would account for Manasseh being almost in a night to a bright scarlet, which would
carried by the captains of the king of Assyria to as suddenly give way to the deepest blue. Then
Babylon (2 Chron. xxxiii. II); but in B.c. 667, the meadows would be mottled with various hues
thirteen years after his accession, he was succeeded  or would put on the emerald green of the most
on the throne of Babylon by Saosduchinus, who luxuriant of pastures. The glowing descriptions I
was either a rebel or a viceroy appointed by Esar- had so frequently received from the Bedouins of
haddon.  About, the year 660 his son, Asshur- the beauty and fertility of the banks of the Khabour
banipal or Sardanapalus II., succeeded to the were more than realised.  The Arabs boast that
throne of Assyria, and with him began the fall of its meadows bear three distinct crops of grass
the empire. He may have reigned till 640, but he during the year, and the wandering tribes look
feebly imitated the conquests of his predecessors, upon its wooded banks and constant greensward
and appeans to have contented himself with hunting. as a paradise during the summer months, where
He was succeeded by his son Asshur-emit-ili, the man can enjoy a cool shade, and beast can find
last king of whom any records have been discovered. fresh and tender herbs, whilst all is yellow, parched,
Under him, Assyria was hastening its downfall, and sapless' (p. 273).
and Cyaxares, with his victorious Medes, was pre-'The plain, like all the country watered by the
paring for the final attack. If he was not the last Khabour, was one vast meadow teeming with
king he was the last but one, and the Saracus of flowers' (p. 298).
Berosus, perhaps his brother, may have succeeded  Speaking of the district of the Zibari Kurds to
him, or else we must consider Saracus to be the east of Mosul, Mr. Layard says:'The country
identical with Asshur-emit-ili, who corresponded beyond or to the east of the Zab is broken into a
in fate with the war-like Sardanapalus of the number of parallel ranges of wooded hills, divided
Greeks.                                      by narrow ravines.  Small villages are scattered
The notice of the capture of Nineveh will fall here and there on the mountain sides, in the midst
more appropriately under that article. [NINEVEH.] of terraces cultivated with wheat and planted with
The Country ofAssyria. -Of the general charac- fruit trees. The scenery occasionally assumes a
ter of the country of Assyria, Scripture of course character of beauty and grandeur as the deep green
furnishes us with no materials to form an estimate. valleys open beneath the traveller's feet, and the
In its main geographical and geological features it lofty snow-capped peaks of Rahwanduz rise
must necessarily have remained unchanged, and majestically in the clear blue sky' (p. 373).
for these we must turn to the pages of modern  Of the appearance of the lake of Wan, he thus
travellers. In Mr. Layard's two works, and inf speaks:'A range of low hills now separated us
Colonel Chesney's survey of the Euphrates, there from the plain and lake of Wan. We soon reached
are sundry descriptive touches which are subjoined. their crest, and a landscape of surpassing beauty
The general features of the country are plain, was before us. At our feet, intensely blue and
not to say monotonous, diversified only by occa- sparkling in the rays of the sun, was the inland sea
sional ranges, such as the Sinjar, Makloub, etc. with the sublime peak of the Subhan Dagh mirrored
Mr. Layard speaks of the'Assyrian plains uninter- in its transparent waters. The city with its castlerupted by a single eminence and rarely shadowed crowned rock and its embattled walls and towers
by a passing cloud.'                         lay embosomed in orchards and gardens. To our'The detached limestone ridges running parallel right a rugged snow-capped mountain opened midto the great range of Kurdistan, such as the Mak- way into an amphitheatre, in which amidst lofty
loub, Sinjar, Karachek, and Hamim, are a peculiar trees stood the Armenian convent of Yedi Klissia
feature in the geological structure of the country, (the Seven Churches). To the west of the lake was
lying between the ancient province of Siberia and the Nimroud Dagh and the highlands nourishing
the Persian Gulf. Hog-backed in form, they have the sources of the great rivers of Mesopotamia.
an even and smooth outline when viewed from a The hills forming the foreground of our picture
distance, but are really rocky and rugged. Their were carpeted with the brightest flowers, over
sides are broken into innumerable ravines, pro- which wandered the flocks, whilst the gaily dressed
ducing a variety of purple shadows, ever changing shepherds gathered around us as we halted to conand contrasting with the rich golden tint of the template the enchanting scene' (p. 387).
limestone, and rendering these solitary hills, when'We gather from the records of the campaigns of
seen from the plain, objects of great interest and the Assyrian kings that the country both in Mesopobeauty. They are for the most part but scantily tamia and to the coast of the Euphrates, now inwooded with a dwarf oak, and that only on the cluded in the general term of'the Desert,' was at
eastern slope; their rocky sides are generally, even that remote period teeming with a dense population
in spring, naked and bare of all vegetation. Few  both sedentary and nomade; that cities, towns, and
springs of fresh water being found in them, they villages, rose on all sides; and that consequently
are but thinly inhabited. In the spring months, the soil brought forth produce for the support of
when the rain has supplied natural reservoirs in this great congregation of human beings.  There
the ravines, a few wandering Kurdish tribes pitch are still traces in these now desolate regions of
their tents in the most sheltered spots' (Nineveh their ancient wealth and prosperity. Mounds of
and Babylon, p. 222).                        earth covering the ruins of buildings, or the sites
Again he speaks of'pitching tents in a green of fenced stations and forts, are scattered far and
lawn enamelled with flowers that furnished a carpet wide over the plains.  When the winter rains
for our tents unequalled in softness of texture or in furrow the face of the land, inscribed stones, graven
richness of colourbythe looms of Cashmere' (p. 244). pottery, and masses of brickwork, the certain signs




ASSYRIA                   251                 ASSYRIA
of former habitations, are everywhere found by the cold and heat, according to the season. Snow falls
wandering Arab. All these settlements depended occasionally, even in the south. In the summer
almost exclusively upon artificial irrigation. Hence the average temperature is I04~ in the house. In
the dry beds of enormous canals and countless the northern parts the thermometer frequently falls
watercourses which are spread like a net-work  below zero in winter, and the snow continues for
over the face of the country. Even the traveller some weeks during the coldest part of that season.
accustomed to the triumphs of modern science and' In the summer, and during the greater part of
civilization, gazes with wonder and awe upon their autumn, there is scarcely any rain in Upper Mesogigantic works, and reflects with admiration upon potamia; but during the remainder of the latter
the industry, the skill, and the power of those who season, and till the snow is melted in the lower
made them' (p. 636).                         part of the neighbouring range of the Taurus, it
Physical Geography and Productions.-' We may falls abundantly' (p. 107).
infer' (says Captain Felix Jones, in the Journal of'The prevailing trees are the sycamore, the silver
the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. xv. p. 298)'that, in its poplar, with the tamarisk and liquorice plants, both
local features, the region cannot have materially of which are everywhere very abundant. Below the
changed since the era in which Nimrod, Asshur, or Khabur,* wormwood covers the plain. Bustards
Ninis, migrated from the plains of Babylonia to abound; and even wild asses are occasionally seen.
found a dynasty or a kingdom beyond the Zab. Jackals are found in large troops; lions and hyenas
The great mountain ranges of the Taurus to the are not so numerous; but hares, black and stonenorth, and Zagros to the north-east and east, in coloured partridges, francolins, Bramin, and comthis region sink almost imperceptibly into plains,* mon wild geese, ducks, teal, pelicans, cranes, etc.,
traversed at certain intervals only by slight ridges, are abundant. The rivers are full of fish, chiefly
which, having a direction parallel to the sides of barbel and carp, which latter grows to an enormous
the greater chains, just rise in lines above the soil, size in the Euphrates. Truffles and wild capers,
or crop forth only in undulations of varying height peas, spinach, and the carob (ceratonia siliqua), are
from W. N. W. to E. S.E. Eastward of the modern  also found in Mesopotamia.'-Chesney, p. Io8.
Mosul these ridges are most depressed and broken,'The country produces great quantities of barley
offering outlets to the pent-up mountain streams and wheat in their wild as well as cultivated state;
which unite to form the upper Zab, as well as to but oats do not seem to be sown anywhere by the
give passage to other tributaries, principally winter sedentary Arabs. Onions, spinach, and beans, are
torrents or minor rivulets, that issue from the the usual vegetables; and these are largely cultiGebel Maklub, of which the Kh6sr-su or Khorsa- vated along the sides of the rivers, where, just after
bad stream is the chief. During winter lains this the water recedes, the progress of vegetation is surbecomes an impassable barrier, while at other prising. Some idea may be formed of the properiods it is fordable in most places. It falls into  ductive qualities of the soil, from the fact of eight
the Tigris in lat. 36' 21' N., just opposite the mo- crops of clover having been cut in the neighbourdern Mosul; and the Zab debouches in the same hood of Basrah during the year. The domestic
way in the par. of 35~ 59' N., enclosing between its animals of Mesopotamia are camels, horses, buffabroad shingly bed and Kh6sr stream a highly arable loes, sheep, and goats, all of a superior kind; but
plain, diversified here and there only by gentle un- the cows and oxen are of an inferior breed. The
dulations and slopes. This plain, a somewhat ir- more northern and hilly portion of this territory
regular parallelogram in shape, and in extent twenty- produces, in addition to copper, lead, and other
five miles by fifteen, contains most of the Assyrian  minerals, honey, wax, etc.; whilst the southern
sites we are yet acquainted with.' Colonel Chesney contains salt, lime, bitumen, and naphtha; but the
says (Survey of Euphrates and Tigris, vol. i. p. 105): principal wealth of the people is derived from their
-Mesopotamia, generally,'is a plain country, vast flocks.'-Chesney, p. Io8.
abounding with wormwood; but between Baghdad'The most remarkable production in ancient
and the Euphrates, a part of the surface is occupied  Assyria is the celebrated vegetable known here by
by salt lakes and marshes; and near the two rivers the name of manna, which in Turkish is most exthere are several khors, or fresh lakes, the most re- pressively called Kudret-hal-vassiz, or the Divine
markable being those which inundate the neigh- sweetmeat. It is found on the leaves of the dwarf
bourhood of Akar Kff, of the Birs Nimrud, and  oak, and also, though less plentifully and scarcely
Lamlum. The soil of Mesopotamia is generally a so good, on those of the tamarisk and several other
sandy clay, the surface of which, in the absence of plants. It is occasionally deposited on the sand
water, is a positive desert; but wherever it is and also on rocks and stones.  The latter is of a
watered by the numerous inlets and irrigating canals pure white colour, and appears to be more esteemed
branching from the different rivers, it is rich and than the tree manna. It is collected chiefly at two
productive in the extreme.' The northern parts periods of the year, first in the early part of spring,
produce cotton, sugar, indigo, and dates, which are and again towards the end of autumn, in either
said to excel those of Tafilah. About the Khabur, case the quality depends upon the rain that may
however, the date-tree almost ceases to bear; but have fallen, or at least on the abundance of the
oranges, grapes, pears, apples, with other fruits and dews, for in the seasons which happen to be quite
grain, arrive at perfection. The products of the dry it is understood that little or none is obtained.
northern part are tobacco, Indian corn, wheat, bar- In order to collect the manna the people go out
ley, cotton, and gall-nuts. Melons, apricots, figs, before sunrise, and having placed cloths under the
cherries, pomegranates, and quinces also, are abun- oak, larch, tamarisk, and several other kinds of
dant, wherever the least care is taken to cultivate shrubs, the manna is shaken down in such quanthem. The climate is subject to the extremities of
* The wormwood is said by Mr. Rich, Residence
* Strabo speaks of rb 7relov ris'Arouplas in in Kurdistan, to send forth a refreshing agreeable
xvi. 737.                                    odour, iL I.




ASSYRIA                   252                 ASSYRIA
titles from the branches as to give a supply for the to a single suzerain.  The Babylonian, Assyrian,
market after providing for the wants of the different Median, and Lydian, were all empires of this typemembers of the family. The Kurds not only eat monarchies wherein a sovereign prince at the head
manna in its natural state, as they do bread or of a powerful kingdom  was acknowledged as
dates, but their women make it into a kind of paste; suzerain by a number of inferior princes, each in
being in this state like honey, it is added to other his own right sole ruler of his own country. And
ingredients used in preparing sweetmeats, which, the subjection of the inferior princes consisted
in some shape or other are found in every house chiefly, if not solely, in two points; they were
throughout the East. The manna when partially bound to render homage to their suzerain, and to
cleaned is carried to the market at Mosul in goat- pay him annually a certain stated tribute. -Rawlinskins, and there sold in lumps at the rate of 44 lbs. son's Bampton Lectures, p. Io4.
for about 21d. But for family consumption or to  Religion.-The religion of the Assyrians, like
send to a distance out of the country, it is first that of most of the nations of antiquity, was a
thoroughly cleansed from the fragments of leaves polytheism  of considerable variety and extent.
and other foreign matter by boiling. In the natu- The Pantheon consisted of thirteen gods, of whom
ral state it is described as being of a delicate white the chief divinity was the glorified father of the
colour. It is also still, as in the time of the Israelites, nation-Asshur.  Some have supposed this deity
like coriander seed, and of a moderate but agreeable to be identical with the Nisroch of Scripture, but
sweetness.'-Chesney, 123.                    this hypothesis is destroyed by the fact that Asshur
Empire and Government. -The Assyrian domi- had no temple at Nineveh in which Sennacherib
nions, as far as we can yet learn from the inscrip- could have been worshipping when he was slain by
tions, did not extend much further than the central his sons Adrammelech and Sharezer. The only
provinces of Asia Minor and Armenia to the north, temple raised to the honour of Asshur was that in
not reaching to the Black Sea, though probably to the city to which he gave his name, and which is
the Caspian. In the east they included the western now called Kalah Sherghat. The symbol of this
provinces of Persia; to the south Susiana, Baby- divinity may perhaps be recognized in the winged
lonia, and the northern part of Arabia. In the globe which is seen in the sculptures hovering over
west the Assyrians may have penetrated into Lycia the head of the Assyrian monarch, from which a
and perhaps Lydia; and Syria was considered figure with a horned helmet, the emblem of divinity,
within the territories of the great king; Egypt and is represented as discharging his arrows at the foe.
Meroe (Ethiopia) were the farthest limits reached This symbol is called the Ferouher.
by the Assyrian armies (Nineveh and Babylon, p. Next to Asshur is the triad answering to the
633).                                        classical Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, with whom
The empire appears to have been at all times a is oftenrassociated a supreme female deity. The
kind of confederation formed by many tributary remaining individuals of the Pantheon were the
states, whose kings were so far independent that they sky, sun, moon, and planetary bodies.
were only bound to furnish troops to the superior  llustrations of Scripture. - Scattered up and
lord in time of war, and to pay him yearly a certain down in Mr. Layard's two works are various illustribute. Hence we find successive Assyrian kings trations of Scripture language and customs, of
fighting with exactly the same nations and tribes, which these are some of the most striking:-In
some of which were scarcely four or five days' march  certain sculptures the king is represented as treadfrom the gates of Nineveh. On the occasion of ing on his captives. Cf. Josh. x. 24; Ps. Ix. 12, etc.
every change these tributary states seem to have etc.
striven to throw off the Assyrian yoke, and to have  In a bas-relief from Khorsabad captives are led
begun by refusing to pay their customary tribute. before the king by a rope fastened to rings passed
A new campaign was consequently necessary to through the lip and nose. This sculpture illusbring them to obedience.  We learn from the trates 2 Kings xix. 28, and Isa. xxxvii. 29.
inscriptions that when a city or kingdom was thus  The wheel within a wheel, mentioned in connecsubdued, however near it might have been to tion with the emblematical figures in Ezek. i., may
Nineveh, when not actually forming part of the refer to the winged circle or wheel, representing, at
imperial district, a new ruler was appointed to it, Nimrud, the supreme deity.
with the title of'king' written in the same cunei-  The'woe unto them that draw iniquity with
form characters on the monuments as when applied  cords of vanity, and sin as it were with a cart-rope,'
to the head of the empire.                   also, of Isa. v. I8, is supposed to refer to the idol
Mr. Layard further remarks that the political worship of those who are represented on sculptures
constitution of the Jewish kingdom was similar to as thus moving their colossal images from the quarry
that of the Assyrian empire, which illustrates the to the temple or palace. The article in pil, at
words of the sacred historian who says of Solomon this place, appears to give the noun this concrete
that he reigned over all the kings on this side the sense:'the iniquity,' i.e., the idol.
river, I Kings iv. 21, 24.                     On sculptures at Koyunjik, there are supposed
The ancient Eastern monarchies'were in all to be interesting allusions to the sufferings undercases composed of a number of separate kingdoms, gone by the Jewish exiles, to Halah, Habor, etc.,
each under its own native king; and the sole link  v. Nineveh and Babylon, p. 440.
uniting them together and constituting them  an  The ancient mode of keeping records in Assyria
empire, was the subjection of their petty monarchs and Babylonia was on prepared bricks, tiles, or
cylinders of clay, baked after the inscription was
* This fact illustrates the passage in Isaiah (x. 8, impressed. The characters appear to have been
9),'For he saith are not my princes altogether formed by an instrument, or may sometimes have
kings? Is not Calno as Carchemish? Is not Hamath  been stamped. The Chaldaean priests informed
as Arpad? Is not Samaria as Damascus?' (p. Callisthenes that they kept their astronomical ob634).                                        servations on bricks baked in the furnace; and we




ASTAROTH                    253               ASTRONOMY
have the testimony of Epigenes to the same effect.  ASTRONOMY. In considering the passages
Ezekiel, who prophesied near the river Chebar, in in the Bible relating to astronomy, it is important
Assyria, was commanded to take a tile and por- to discriminate between the statements made and
tray upon it the city of Jerusalem, iv. I.-Layard the terms employed. The former, in the opinion
ii. I85.                                      of many scholars, with whom we fully agree, are
The writer in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic consistent with the truths of science, whereas the
Society above quoted, observes, that the words of latter are merely part of the common language of
Nahum ii. 8:' But Nineveh is of old like a pool the Hebrews, and, therefore, in accordance with
of water,' in reality would seem to convey the their common opinions. The meanings of these
primitive aspect of the site at a certain season of terms thus shew us the degree of scientific knowthe year. As the broad and rapid currents of the ledge to which the Hebrews attained, but do not,
Tigris and Zab flowed past it on the west, south, we hold, enable us to form any judgment respectand south-east, and the Khosr rivulet on the north ing the relation of revelation and science.
and north-west, these, at periods of inundation,  Hebrew astronomy appears to consist of two
would be sufficient to submerge the whole. [NINE- elements, the earlier of which would be the popular
VEH. ]                                        knowledge of the science unconnected with chronoThe accompanying table gives, at one view, the logy, the later, the special knowledge of the priests
succession of Assyrian kings:-                necessitated by the ordinances of the Law. The
latter may be of Egyptian origin, since' Moses was
First Empire.                 learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians.' We
Bel-lush.  Circiter, B.C. 1273.         must therefore speak of Shemite astronomy genePudil.                                  rally, and of Egyptian astronomy, before examining
Iva-lush.                               the statements in the Bible bearing upon the main
Shalma-bar.                             subject. The Shemites rarely have made any adNin-pala-kura.                          vance in mathematical science, not so much from an. Asshur-dapal-il.                        inaptitude for its pursuit as on account of their na*   Mutaggil-nebu.                         tional love of an unsettled life. The dwellers in cities
I   Asshur-rish-ili.                        among the Shemites are seldom of pure race: on the
Tiglath-Pileser I.                       coasts of Arabia and Africa the great Shemite cities
x  Asshur-bani-pal I.                      have, from remote ages, held a mixed population.
The Arab, like his camel, is miserable, excepting
(Asshur-adan-akhi                        he enjoy the free life of the desert or the plain. So
Asshur-danin-il.                        the Israelites, though in times of insecurity they
g Iva-lush II.                             dwelt in the fenced cities of Canaan that they
J Tiglathi-nin.                             did not build, in their prosperity returned'to the
X  Asshur-dani-pal.                       tent-life of their forefathers (I Kings viii. 66).! Shalmanu-bar.                           Among them, therefore, we may suppose that no
X  Shamas-iva.                             astronomical knowledge would have flourished but
Iva-lush III.                           that simplest kind which the clear skies of their
land would have taught the shepherds who watched
Second Empir.                  their flocks by night. This was the' case with the
Tiglath-Pileser II. B.C. 747?           Arabs, who attained a high degree of excellence in
Shalmaneser.                            this primitive astronomy, without ever making great
Sargon.                                 progress in the theoretical part of the science.
Sennacherib.                            The learned men of the court of Baghdad were
Esar-haddon.                            often strangers, and the Moorish doctors were not
Asshur-bani-pal II.                     in general pure Arabs. This simplest astronomy
Asshur-emit-ili.                        served with the Arabs, as with the earlier Greeks,
Saracus? B.C. 625.                      to aid in regulating the, calendar, the risings or
settings of important stars marking the divisions of
The writer is under very great obligations to the the year, and the due times for the operations of
Paper'On the Chronology and History of the husbandry.    The astronomy of Egypt, though
great Assyrian Empire,' in Rawlinson's Herodotus, doubtless in its origin the same as that of the
vol. i. Cf. also Mr. Layard's Nineveh and its Re- Shemites, acquired the wonderful exactness that
mnains, Nineveh and Babylon; Sir H. Rawlinson's marked all the sciences of that ancient home of
Papers in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, knowledge. The cloudless sky of Egypt, and its
the Athenaeum, and the Literary Gazette; Dr. warm climate, not only maintained the system of
Hincks' Papers in Dublin University Magazine, and  observation, but carried it to the highest point
in Transactions of Royal Irish Academy; Oppert's attainable without the aid of moder instruments.
Rapport.; Vance Smith on Prophecies relating to The settled life of the inhabitants, and their love of
Assyria; B. G. Niebuhr, Ueber alter Geschichte; mathematical science, enabled them to found upon
and M. Niebuhr's Geschichte Assurs und Babels. these observations a theoretical astronomy, which
See also Sir H. Rawlinson on the religion of Baby- some hold even to have contained certain of the
lonians and Assyrians in vol. i. of Herodotus; great truths of Greek and modern science which were
Rich's Kurdistan; Colonel Chesney's Euphrates lost in the middle ages. By the observation of the
Expedition.-S. L.                             solstices and equinoxes, they were enabled to deASTAROTH. [ASHTORETH.]                     termine the seasons of a solar year, if, as we believe,
they used such a period; and to form a cycle of
ASTARTE. [ASHTORETH.g] great exactness, adjusting their common or'vague'
year to this tropical one, or at least to the seasons.
ASTROLOGY. [IDOLATRY].                      By the observation of the rising of the dog-star, they




ASTRONOMY                    254               ASTRONOMY
similarly adjusted the sidereal phenomena with the its allusions to Egypt, evidently mainly relates to
vague year, and formed another great cycle, that of the life of the desert (circumstances which favour
Sothis, containing 146I vague years and 1460 com- the idea that Moses wrote it while in Midian), we
mencingwith the so-called heliacal rising of that star. have passages of a special character connected
A series of star-risings marked the decads into which  with astronomy. Thus, Job says of God:'Which
the Sothis-year was divided. These principles are maketh'Ash, Keseel, and Keemah, and the chamat least as old as the age of the Pyramids of El- bers of the south' (ix.. 9). And the LORD, speakGeezeh, which we assign to the twenty-third and ing of his mighty works, asks Job,'Canst thou
twenty-fourth centuries B.c.  Moses must have bind the sweet influences of Keemah, or loose
been well versed in this knowledge, and we may the bands of Keseel?  Canst thou bring forth
therefore suppose that he used it, perhaps by Divine Mazzaroth in his season? or'Aeesh with her
command, in the Law, to such an extent as would sons, canst thou guide them' (xxxviii. 31, 32)?
be of service for the Hebrew calendar, and yet The prophet Amos has a similar passage: he, be
not too scientific for the priesthood in later ages. it remarked, was a herdman, and not an educated
At the same time, from its connection with idolatry priest, for we read that he'was among the shepand astrology, it is probable that the Egyptian  herds of Tekoa' (i. I), and that when Amaziah the
astronomy would have been followed rather in priest of Bethel called him a seer, and told him to
principles than in details. We may here allude to go to Judah, there to eat bread and prophesy, he
the Babylonian astronomy, as to which the inter- replied:'I [was] no prophet, neither [was] I a
pretation of the inscriptions has not yet so fully prophet's son; but I [was] a herdman, and a
enlightened us as in the previous case. Judging gatherer of sycamore fruit: And the LORD took
from the statements of ancient writers, it must have me as I followed the flock, and the LORD said unto
greatly resembled that of Egypt; but it is not of me, Go, prophesy unto my people Israel' (vii. 14,
special importance to our present inquiry, since  15). Here, again, we have an exceptional case, and
there is not much reason to suppose that it exer- astronomical knowledge is also distinctly connected
cised great influence upon the Hebrews before the with the pastoral life, as in Chaldaea of old. The proage of the rabbinical literature.             phet speaks of God as'[Him] that maketh Keemah
The principal references to astronomy in the and Keseel, and turneth the shadow of death into
Bible, in accordance with what has been already  the morning, and maketh the day dark with night'
stated, either are traceable in chronology, or allude  (v. 8). We will now notice these terms, comto the primitive observations of the Hebrews. On mencing with Mazzaroth, the explanation of which
the first subject our knowledge is extremely slight, will be useful in guiding us as to the rest.
depending upon the necessities of the case, and a  I. Besides the mention of Mazzaroth, n'l.t,
comparison with the usage of the people in later in Job, Mazzaloth,  i   are spoken of in the
times, and is thus mainly inferential. There can,
be no doubt that the beginnings of the months Second Book of Kings (xxiii. 5), as objects of
were determined by the observation of the new  idolatrous worship, where we read that Josiah put
moon, which long custom must have brought, as down them'that burned incense unto Baal, to
among the Arabs, to remarkable exactness. The the sun, and to the moon, and to Mazzaloth, and
year was essentially solar, since the most impor- to all the host of heaven.' Here the LXX. has
tant of the feasts were to be kept at particular tacovpc50, and whether or not that be the true
periods of the agricultural year. There can be no reading, there can be no doubt that the same
reasonable doubt that the mode of adjustment in objects as the Mazzaroth of the older book are inuse in the rabbinical times, the addition of an inter- tended. Gesenius (Th/es. s. v.) supposes, followcalary month when the lunar year had fallen back ing most of the ancient interpreters, that this term
so far in the seasons, was the ancient institution, means the signs of the zodiac, mentioning the
for in no other manner could the solar and lunar           S.reckonings be used without deviation from the laws Arabic word 4c   a station, and the term
relating to the times when the great feasts should 
be kept.                                                       th s,
The passages illustrating the primitive observa- i I. L,' the sphere or hemisphere of
tions of the Hebrews are mostly of a general cha-t
racter, as the relation of Joseph's dream that the towers, applied to the zodiac, which, as Dr. Lee
sun and the moon and the eleven stars made observes (ranslat. of'ob in loc.) he incorrectly
obeisance to him (Gen. xxxvii. 9), where we have renders' the circle of palaces.' Heholds, however,
no certain indication of the heavenly bodies or that theword means forewaers, presagers  but
asterisms intended under the last term; or, as    Lee, comparing the former Arabic word, is of
a remarkable place in the Song of Deborah: opinion that it signifies'mansions,' and there can'They fought from heaven; the stars in their be no doubt that such is the case, the words being
courses fought against Sisera. The river of Kishon radicallyidentical, and the Arabs using the plural for
swept them  away, that ancient river, the river, 
Kishon' (Judg. v. 20, 21), where the connection of the  1  JL~, or'mansions of the moon.'
the stars with the rainy season, as at least indi-         -
eating it at the times of their rising or setting, is Are we then to understand the twelve signs of the
alluded to, -but no stars are specified. So again, zodiac or the twenty-eight mansions of the moon?
throughout the Psalms, although mention is made The rabbins say the former, but we cannot prove
of the grandeur and beauty of the heavens, and, the antiquity of the zodiac, which, in Egypt at least,
a matter specially to be noted in these days, of seems to be no older than the time of the Greek
the laws by which the Almighty Creator has fixed kings. The rabbins had lost much of the ancient
their order, yet there is no notice of stars by their knowledge of their people; the Arabs, on the
names. In the book of Job, which, notwithstanding  other hand, seem to have preserved unchanged the




ASTRONOMY                   255                  ASYLUM
rude science of their forefathers. We prefer, there- reference is not to a marine or river monster, if we
fore, to suppose that the mansions of the moon are compare the two verses preceding (II, 12), in the
intended; and it may be noticed that, if so, their latter of which there may be a notice of the Exodus.
place in the passage of the Second Book of Kings  There are several important places in the Bible
may not be without significance. The worship of relating to astronomy, which are noticed under
the mansions, which would be stars or asterisms, other articles, which treat of the Cosmogony
presents no difficulty. The mansions of the moon [CREATION]; the great miracle wrought for Joshua
with the Arabs were mostly asterisms, but some of [SUN]; the Sun-dial of Ahaz [DIAL]; and the
them single stars. The pagan Arabs attributed  Star of the Wise Men. [STAR IN THE EAST].
rain and drought, etc., to them, and often prayed  The subject of Astrology will be discussed under
to them for rain. The Egyptian decans were stars the head of IDOLATRY.-R. S. P.
or asterisms, and certainly connected with idolatry. ASTRUC, JEAN, a celebrated French physician,
2. Keemah iD?3, and Keseel  D3, of the latter was the son of a Protestant minister, and was born
at Sauves, in Lower Languedoc, x9th March i684.
of which the plural occurs in Isaiah perhaps, as the at Sauves,  in Lower Languedoc, ntier, and after
Auth. Vers. renders it, for constellations generally  H e taght medicine first at   ontelier, ane died
(xiii. Io),'the heap' or'cluster,' and the'confi- th May 1766, at thllege of Franc82. The Paris. He died
dent?' or'foolish?' are usually held to be the Plei- he enjoyed d g hs lfetime rested chiefly on hic
ades and Orion. The latter, is, however, an unsatis- ailities as a teacher, and on his  edical writings,
factory supposition, since the two are not mentioned a ies as a teer, numerous. These are now foras if near, but rather as if in opposition both in    negected whilst a w      ork which he pubJob and Amos-the prophet apparently connecting gotten or neglected, whilst a work which he pubKeemJob and Awithmos-the prophetning, and Kpparently connecting lished anonymously, and of which he seemed half
Keeah writhers brotr,. E. S. Polwith evennges ashamed, in the department of biblical literature, has
The writer's brother, Mr. E. S. Poole, renders secured for him a permanent reputation. This
Keseel scorpio or cor scorpionis with Aben Ezra, wr appeared under the title of Conectres sur
well remarking on the passage in Job, that famines wok appere d under the title of Conjectude re
generally prevail in the lands of the Bible'when  es Memoi es O x do       e   r de 
the sweet influences of the Pleiades are bound, and  Mois s'est serve tour composer te ivre de a
the bands of Scorpio cannot be loosed,' addi   ens ave des Remarues u apuient ou, eairwhen the best and most fertilizing of the raing,  ssn s Conectures, Bruxelles (Paris), 1753, I2m.
wh      en the b est and mst fertilizing o the ran nos In this work Astruc first fully broached the idea
which fall when the Pleiades set at dawn (not that in the composition of Genesis Moses made
exactly heliacally) at the end of autumn, fail; rain  use of documents (memoiti s) the product of an
scarcely ever falling at the opposite season, when  eai er ae. These he supposed to consist of two
Scorpio sets at dawn' (Smith's Dictionary of the earlier age. These he supposed to consist of two
Scorpio sets at dawn' (Smith's Dictionary of theprincipal works, distinguished chiefly by the use ot
3.'As A     ort A      fr we c   t AMINE).- the names Elohim and Jehovah, as designations of
3.'Ash ti, or'Aeesh'i, for we cannot reason- the divine being, of which portions are distributed
ably doubt that these are but two forms of one name, the divine being, of which portions are distributed
has been supposed to be equivalent to  a bier  through the whole of Genesis; but with these are
has been supposed to be equivalent to g^Y,' a bier,' mixed up fragments of ten other documents. He
mixed up fragments of ten other documents. He
3Sh ~~ /~         ~thus regarded Genesis as a composition from twelve
the Arabic of which, l     s, is the name of the original sources, put together by Moses; and he
conjectured that these were originally placed in
Great Bear or Wain, the three stars in the tail beingtwelve columns, but through faults of the tran
calleder of the ber like the daughtsons' scribers ofa      t be afterwards thrown consfusedly
mentioned in the Bible. Of the correctness of this and oftentimes erroneously together. This theory
identification, there can, we think, be no reason- created an era in biblical inquiry.  A crude hint to
able doubt.                                  the same effect had, indeed, been thrown out by the
4..'The chambers of the south' may possibly older Vitringa (Obsev. Sac., bk. i. ch. 4, ~ 2),
mean a constellation, but nothing probable can-bebut to Astruc belongs the credit of having first
said on this subject.
said on this subject,                        clearly enunciated it as a theory, and applied it to
So far the names are probably of constellations, th Mosaic writings. Whether true or false, this
asterisms, or stars: of the planets, one seems to be theory has been in substance extensively embraced,
mentioned in the magnificent passage of Isaiah and has been productive of numerous results.
where the king of Babylon is likened to the star of[GENESIS  PENTATEUCH. ]-W. L. A.
the morning:' How art thou fallen from heaven,, t  l    k     o 
Lt,...,*,.     /    ASTYAGES (ATru^~S), the last king of the
0 Lucifer    ), son of the morning  * (xiv. 12). Medes, according to Herodotus, who was conHere the planet Venus appears to be intended, quered by Cyrus. It is mentioned in the first verse
the name 55-n well corresponding to the Chald. of the Apocryphal book, Bel and the Dragon.
s-P                     ASYLUM, a temple or other sacred place,
Annl Z1D, and the Arab.  Jbj. The wandering guarded by rights of consecration, and allowed to
extend a protection over human life; so that those
stars, do-ripes rXav^rat, spoken of by St. Jude who sought its shelter could not be torn from it
(I3), are not necessarily planets; shooting stars without the deepest impiety. The word is derived
would more probably be the objects taken for the from d and ovXcdw, and implies an inviolable refuge.
figure. We have not included in this enumeration  It does not occur in the English Bible, but its
the'fleeing serpent,' rni  tinm, mentioned in JobHebrew equivalent is t.p, refuge' (from  p
(xxvi. I3), since it is by no means certain that the Hrw e   t                        - r
recepit), rendered by the LXX. fvya~8evTrpLov,
* This line is a fine, but, of course, accidental, KarcavvyI.
instance of the English hexameter, so rarely suc-  The earliest asylum is said to have been founded
cessful in our language.                     by the Heraclidae at Athens, in a temple of Pity,




ASYLUM                     256                 ASYLUM
or by Cadmus at Thebes. The temples of Apollo leading to them, to see that they were free from
at Delphi and Delos (Liv. xxxv. 5 ) were regarded  all impediment, that the streams were bridged, and
as asylums, and the sanctity with which they were  
invested made them valuable repositories of trea-that signposts, with the words I~pD  tpn, were
sures. Romulus founded a promiscuous asylum   placed at each cross-road (Maimon. Rotseach. c. 8.
in a grove at Rome (Liv. i. 8, Virg..En. viii. s. 5). To prevent all carelessness in matters of
342), in order to increase the number of his citi-blood, even the innocent homicide was compelled
zens. One of the most famous ancient asylums to remain at the refuge city, apparently in a low
was the temple of Diana at Ephesus, and its in- position, until the death of the high-priest, just as
violability extended to the distance of an arrow- at Athens he was condemned by the Areopagus to
shot all round the building. We read in the book  d7revavrvt6s.  This apparent severity had the
of Maccabees that the high-priest, Onias III., took  double purpose of diminishing the fury of the goel,
refuge in an asylum at Daphne (2 Mace. iv. 34), while it inculcated on the manslayer the awful
but he was enticed from its shelter, and put to sacredness of human life. In order to prevent the
death. Although the open violation of an asylum  refugees from praying for the high-priest's death,
excited (as we see in the case of the Megaclidae) the mothers of the high-priests are said to have
the deepest horror, it seems to have been con- supported them with clothes and food. Two youths
sidered perfectly admissible to use either fraud or were provided as an escort to the fugitive on his
force to get the criminal beyond the reach of the way, and the sanctuary extended 2000 cubits beprivilege (Schol. Eurip. Androm. 256; 2 Mace. yond the city walls (Num. xxxv. 4, 5). According
iv. 34); and if all other means failed, it was to Maimonides, from whom several of the above
thought no unpardonable crime to starve the particulars are taken, all the forty-eight Levitical
criminal to death, provided that the pollution  cities possessed in a lesser degree the right of
(&yos) of a violated sanctuary were avoided, by affording a refuge. Both in the Hebrew and in
dragging him from the sacred limits at the very mo- the Gentile asylums an inquiry was, of course, inment when he was about to expire (Thuc. i. 134).  stituted as to the right of the criminal to avail
himself* of the divine protection (Grot. de 7ure
Although asylums were intended for the preser- mself of the dvine protection (Grot. de cure
vation of the innocent, not for the convenience of Bei. 2I), but it isnot very clear from Scripture
the guilty (Ps. Demosth. Ep. 3), it is obvious that (Deut. xix. II; Josh. xx. 4-6) when and where
they were liable to gross abuse. Ephesus, in con-the trial was held. For farther particulars, see
sequence of the rights attached to the temple of Goodwin's Moses and Aaron, ii. 5; Otho  ex.
Artemis, became a nest of robbers (Strabo, xiv.. sv. Asylum; Carpzov. Afp. Ct. p. 336,
641); and in Asia Minor generally it was found se  [CITIES OF REFUGE.]
that the ends of justice were so seriously thwarted  The privilege of &dvXta was also extended by
by the multitude of sacred places of refuge, that Moses to the'horns of the altar' (Ex. xxi. 14),
the emperor Tiberius wisely curtailed immunities, where a man might remain unharmed until he
which were only advantageous to fraudulent debtors could be conducted to a city of refuge, if he could
and guilty slaves (Plut. de Superstit. p. i66; De prove his innocence. There seems to be no ground
Vit. usur. p. 828; Tac. Ann. iii. 60-63; Suet. for confining this privilege to priests (Maimon.
Tib. 37).                                     Hal. Rotseach, c. 5, in Otho Lex. Rab. s. v. Altare).
The privilege of sanctuary descended to the Even in Christian times, the holy table was conmiddle ages from pagan custom rather than from  sidered to possess a similar privilege (Greg. Naz.
the Mosaic law. By a law of Justinian, the jusOr. xx), and from the earliest ages pagan altars
asyli, which had been conferred on temples, was have beenregarded asaffoding a sanctuary(Herod
extended to churches (Instt. i. tit. 8. s. 2, quoted ii. 13  Eur.  c. 49; Virg. En. xii. 20I, etc.)
in Smith's Dict. Ant. s. v.), and the right was The'horns of the altar' were projections at each
defended by stringent laws of Gratian, Valentinian, angle (Joseph. de Bell. _d. vi. 5), covered with
and Theodosius.  It still exists in Italy, and its the same brazen framework as the altar itself, and
abuses exceed its advantages at the present day, they had an obviously symbolic meaning (Exod.
although in troubled and lawless times the exist- xxvii. 2; xxx 2), as well as being necessary to the
ence of such refuges was an invaluable protection  routine of sacrifice (Ps. cxviii 27). For similar
against political persecutions.               reasons horned altars were frequent among the
ancients'(Ov. Her. xx. 99; Callim. Hymn Apoll.
We now proceed to state the nature of the asyla  ncientOv. er.   99; Calhi m. of hyn Apo.to
permitted by Moses, and we shall see that his laws60).  Twce n the hstory of J     notorious
respecting them were framed with a wisdom which criminals sought for impunity by'catching hold
rendered these places of refuge a shield of innocentof the horns of the altar.' In one of these inmisfortune, while it prevented them from becoming  stances the offender, Adonijah, was freely paran incentive to reckless crime. The cities of refugedoned (I Kings i 5); but Joab, who had followed
his example, having been vainly summoned to
(t5pt3in %t1y), six in number, were appointed to leave his place of refuge, was killed as he clung
save the accidental homicide from  the goel or there by Benaiah. Since the law (Exod. xxi. 14)
avenger of blood (Num. xxxv. 6, I2, 25; Josh xx. expressly exempted such wilful and treacherous
I; xxi. 13, 21, 27, 32, 36; I Chron. vi. 67, seq.) murderers as Joab from the right of asylum at the
They were so set apart as to be easy of access, altar, the guilt of the sacrilege rests with him
and were ranged almost in a quincuncial shape on  rather than with his executioner (i Kings ii. 28).
either side of Jordan.  So admirably were they  Our Lord connects a yet darker murder with the
selected, that the persecuted manslayer could never vicinity of the altar, and doubtless means that the
be more than six miles from the nearest city of sacredness of the place made the guilty deed more
refuge (Kalisch on Ex. xxi. I4).  In supposed heinous (Matt. xxiii. 35). See, on the whole subaccordance with Deut. xix. 3, the magistrates, on ject of the horns of the altar, Spencer De Legg.
the 15th of Adar, every year, inspected the roads Hebr. vol. ii. pp. 676-682.




ATAD                     257                ATALLEPH
The case of Shimei (I Kings ii. 36) gives us no Paliurus Athensi of Alpinus,'In all probability
right to infer that Jerusalem itself was regarded  this is the tree which afforded the crown of thorns
as an asylum; but we find that in later times such put upon the head of Christ. It is very common
a privilege was granted to the temple and its in the East. This plant is very fit for the purpose,'liberties,' I Mace. x. 43.-F. W. F.          for it hasmany small and sharp spines, which are
well adapted to give pain: the crown might easily
ATAD ('tIK) occurs in Judg. ix. I4, 15; Ps. be made of these soft, round, and pliant branches;
Iviii. 9. In the first passage the atad, or bramble, and what in my opinion seems to be the greater
is called to reign over the trees. From Ps. lviii. 9, proof is, that the leaves very much resemble those
it is evident that the atad was employed for fuel: of ivy, as they are of a very deep glossy green.'Before your pots can feel the thorns.' Atad is so  Perhaps the enemies of Christ would have a plant
somewhat resembling that with which emperors
similar to the Arabic O  s ausuj, that it has and generals were crowned, that there might be a
calumny even in the punishment.'  Some have
generally been considered to mean the same plant, fixed upon Paliurus aculeatus, and others upon
namely, a species of buckthorn. This is confirmed  Lycium horridum.-. F. R.
by aladmi being one of the synonymes of rhamnus,
as given in the supplements to Dioscorides.  A  ATAD. In Gen. 1. I, we read of'the floor of
species of rhamnus is described both by Belon and  Atad' as the place'beyond Jordan,' where the
by Rauwolf as being common in Palestine, and by sons of Jacob made their great mourning for him.
the latter as found especially in the neighbourhood  Some take Atad here as the name of a man, but this
of Jerusalem.  It has been described by Prosp. is a mistake. The orig.'[KNl means'the thorn,'
Alpinus as having an abundance of long branches, and' the floor of the thorn' must be held to be
on which are found many long and very sharp the designation of a place. Jerome places it on
thorns;  So Rauwolf:' It puts forth long, slender, the east side of the Jordan, and yet he identifies it
crooked switches, on which there are a great many  with Bethagla, which lies on the west side [BETHHOGLAH].    It was called by the Canaanites,
~f.~. h\i i ^^ ^' the inhabitants of the land,' ABEL MIZRAIM.-W. L. A.
ATALLEPH (.Dp). This word occurs Lev.
xi. I9; Deut. xiv. IS; Is. ii. 20 [in all which
places the LXX. give ^6KrepLS; also in Baruch vi.
22]. In Hebrew the word implies flying in the
dark; which, taken in connection with the senY^A~x'^M7  ^^^-/^^ ^ A ^      tence,'Moreover the atalleph and every creeping
thinzg thatflieth is unclean unto you; they shall not
be eaten,' is so clear, that there cannot be a mistake respecting the order of animals meant; though
f&))  \>\g<  8to modern zoology neither the species, the genus,
nor even the family is thereby manifested; the injunction merely prohibits eating bats, and may likewise include some tribes of insects. At first sight,
animals so diminutive, lean, and repugnant to the
\ /  > / fsenses, must appear scarcely to have required the
V x /y \-^y ~~legislator's attention, but the fact evidently shews
that there were at the time men or tribes who ate
animals classed with bats, a practice still in vogue
in the great Australasian islands, where the frugivorous Pteropi of the harpy or goblin family, by
our seamen denominated flying-dogs, and erroneI\   ~ ~~ously vampyres, are caught and eaten; but where
1l  ~~            ~ ~the insectivorous true bats, such as the genera common in Europe, are rejected. Some of the species....'-       - -. -.         of harpies are of the bulk of a rat, with from three
99. Zizyphus Spina Christi.       to four feet of expanse between the tips of the wings;
they have a fierce dog-like head, and are nearly
long, strong, and acute thorns.' This has been  all marked with a space of rufous hair from the
supposed by some to be the true Christ's thorn, forehead over the neck and along part of the back.
Rhamnus, now Zizyphus Spina Christi. The term   They reside in the most dense foliage of large
used by the evangelist (John xix. 25) is akantha trees, whence they fly out at night and do con(dKav0a), which also occurs in Matt. vii. 6; xiii. siderable damage to the plantations of fruit-trees.
7, 22; xxvii. 29; and also in the parallel passages Among them the Pteropus eduis, kalong, or edible
of Mark and Luke.    This word is used in as goblin bat, is conspicuous, and not unfrequently
general a sense as' thorn' is with us, and there- found in our museums of natural history. The first
fore it would be incorrect to confine it to any one tribe of them, distinguished by being without tails,
species of plant in all the above passages, though  is not at present known in Egypt or Northern
no doubt some particular thorny plant indigenous Arabia; but of the second, having tails, a large
in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem would be se- species was discovered by M. Geoffroy in the
lected for plaiting the crown of thorns. Hassel- pyramids, and a very large one is figured on the
quist says of the Zizyphus Spina Christi, the Nabea  oldest-monuments. Species of this or of both are
VOL. T.                                                                          S




ATARGATEION                   258               ATERGATIS
likewise common in Madagascar; and thence it The commutation then takes place between the
may be inferred that they still exist in Southern two letters of every pair; and the term Atbach thus
Arabia. It was to one or more species of this sec- expresses that N is taken for Lt, and 3 for n, and
tion of Cheiroptera that we think the Mosaic pro- conversely.  To illustrate its application, the
hibition was chiefly directed; and it is likewise to obscure word 1lI=  in Prov. xxix. 2I, may be
them that may be referred the foundation of the turned by Atbach into T1iD, testimony. Buxtorf,
ancient legends concerning harpies, which, however De Abbreviaturis, s. v.
much they ma) be distorted, have a basis of truth. ATHBASH (   ) is a similar term for a someIndeed, when we consider their voice, the faculty- 
they have of feeding with their thumbs, their for- what different principle of commutation. In this,
midable teeth, their habit of flying in the day during namely, the letters are also mutually interchanged
dark weather, and their willingness, though they by pairs; but every pair consists of a letter from each
are frugivorous, to devour not only insects, but also end of the alphabet, in regular succession. Thus,
the blood and flesh of small animals, we may admit as the technical term Athbash shews, X and n, and
that originally they were more daring in the pre.: and V, are interchangeable; and so on throughsence of man; that their true characters are but out the whole series. By writing the Hebrew
moderately amplified by poetical fancy; and that alphabet twice in two parallel lines, but the second
the Mosaic injunction was strikingly appropriate.  time in an inverse order, the two letters which form
In the texts of Scripture, where allusion is made every pair will come to stand in a perpendicular
to caverns and dark places, true Vespertilionidse, line. This system is also remarkable on account
or insect-eating bats, similar to the European, are of Jerome having so confidently applied it to the
clearly designated. -C. H. S.                 word Sheshak, in Jer. xxv. 26. His words are,
ATARGATE N.  Ts wd o  s 2 M  c.  Quomodo Babel intelligatur Sesach, non magnopere
ATARGATEION. This word occurs 2 Mace. laborabit qui Hebraee linguae parvam        saltemrn
xii. 26, and is rendered in the A. V.'temple of habuerit scientiam.' He then propounds the same
Atergatis.'  This is probably correct.  lATER-rese lin                      prvam    sam
Atergatis.  This is probably correct.  [ATER  system  of commutation as that called Athbash
GATIS.]                                       (without giving it that name however, and without
ATARGATIS. [ATERGATIS.]                     adducing any higher authority for assuming this'
mode of commutation, than the fact that it was
ATAROTH (n'lt3). Several instances of this customary to learn the Greek alphabet first straight
name (which means crowns) occur in the Scrip-through, and then, by way of ensuring accurate
tures. i. Ataroth-beth-7oab, in the tribe of Judah  retention, to repeat it by taking a letter from each
(I Chron. ii. 54). 2. Ataroth, on the borders of end alternately), and makes jWE to be the same
Ephraim (Josh. xvi. 2, 7), which some identify as  3.   (See Rosenmiiller's Scholia, ad loc.)
with, and others distinguish from, the Ataroth- Hottinger possessed an entire Pentateuch explained
Addar of the same tribe mentioned in Josh. xvi. on the principle of Athbash (Tesaur. Philol. p.
5; xviii. I3. 3. Ataroth, in the tribe of Gad, be- 450).
ycnd the Jordan (Num. xxxii. 3, 34). 4. Ataroth-  There is also another system of less note, called
Srwophan, in the same tribe (Num. xxxii. 35), ALBAM (D2S), which is only a modification of
which some identify with the preceding; but it the preceding.  For in it the alphabet is divided
appears more likely that the addition was used to into halves, and one portion placed over the other
distinguish the one from the other. [ATROTH.] in the natural order, and the pairs are formed out
Eusebius and Jerome (Onomasticon, s. v. Ataroth, of those letters which would then stand in a row'Aerapc60) mention two places in the tribe of Ben- together.
jamin called Ataroth; but they do not occur in  All these methods belong to that branch of the
Scripture. The site of one of these appears to  Cabbala which is called gnrW^l, commutation.have been discovered by Professor Robinson (Bib. J. N.
Researches, ii. 314) under the name of Atara.
Another place of the same name (Atara) he found  ATERGATIS (ArepydTnS, or'Araptyd-rs) is
about six miles N. by W. of Bethel, which appears the name of a Syrian goddess, whose temple
to represent the Ataroth of Ephraim (Josh. xvi. ('ArepyYarteZ) is mentioned in 2 Mace..  26.
2, 7). It is now a large village on the summit of Tht temple appears, by comparing  Mace. v.
a high hill (Robinson, iii. 8).               43, to have been situated at Ashteroth-Karnaim.
Her worship also flourished at Mabug (i. e., BamATBACH (1.O1P) is not a real word, but a byce, afterwards called Hierapolis) according to
fictitious cabalistic term, denoting by its very Pliny (Hist. Nat. v. 19).
letters the mode of changing one word into another  There is little doubt that Atergatis is the same
by a peculiar commutation of letters. The system  divinity as Derketo. Besides internal evidences of
on which it is founded is this: as all the letters identity; Strabo incidentally cites Ctesias to that
have a numerical value, they are divided into three effect (xvi. p. II32); and Pliny uses the terms
classes, in the first of which every pair makes the'Prodigiosa Atergatis, Grscis autem  Derceto
number ten; in the second, a hundred; and in the dicta' (1. c.) We read that Derketo was worshipped
third, a thousand.                           in Phcenicia and at Ascalon under the form of a
woman with a fish's tail, or with a woman's face
Thus:' v,,. n31, vs every pair making ten   ly and the entire body of a fish; that fishes
Lt3, i~s,'~, Y),,, a hundred.
oil, IV,?', P I  a hundre.  were sacred to her, and that the inhabitants
n, 1,, Yp,,,  a thousand abstained from eating them  in honour of her.
Three letters only cannot enter into any of these These facts are found in Lucian (De Dea Syria,
numerical combinations,;, I, and:..  The first xiv.), and together with a mythological account of
two are nevertheless coupled together; and the their origin, in Diodorus (ii. 4). Further, by comlast is suffered to' stand without commutation. bining the passage in Diodorus with Herodotus




ATHACH                    259               ATHANASIUS
(i. 105), we may legitimately conclude that the she is so called only as being his grand-daughter.
Derketo of the former is the Venus Urania of the Athaliah became the wife df Jehoram, the son of
latter. Atergatis is thus a name under which they Jehoshaphat, king of Judah. This marriage may
worshipped some modification of the same power fairly be considered the act of the parents; and it
which was adored under that of Ashtoreth. That is one of the few stains upon the character of the
the'ATrepTeareov, of 2 Macc. xii. 26 was at Ashte- good Jehoshaphat that he was so ready, if not
roth-Karnaim, shews also an immediate connection  anxious, to connect himself with the idolatrous
with Ashtoreth.  Whether, like the latter, she house of Ahab. Had he not married the heir of
bore any particular relation to the moon, br to the his crown to Athaliah, many evils and much bloodplanet Venus, is not evident. Macrobius makes shed might have been spared to the royal family
Adargatis to be the earth (which as a symbol is and to the kingdom. When Jehoram came to the
analogous to the moon), and says that her image crown, he, as might be expected,'walked in the
was distinguished from that of the sun by rays ways of the house of Ahab,' which the sacred'sursum versum inclinatis, monstrando radiorum vi writer obviously attributes to this marriage, by
superne missorum enasci qusecunque terra progen- adding,'for he had the daughter of Ahab to wife'
erat' (Saturnal. i. 23).  Creuzer maintains that (2 Chron. xxi. 6). This king died B.c. 885, and
those representations of this goddess which contain  was succeeded by his youngest son Ahaziah, who
parts of a fish are the most ancient; and endeavours reigned but one year, and whose death arose
to reconcile Strabo's statement that the Syrian from his being, by blood and by circumstances,
goddess of Hierapolis was Atergatis, with Lucian's involved in the doom of Ahab's house. [AHAZIAH.]
express notice that the former was represented  Before this Athaliah had acquired much influence
under the form of an entire woman, by distinguish- in public affairs, and had used that influence for
ing between the forms of different periods (Symbolik, evil; and when the tidings of her son's untimely
ii. 68). This fish-form shews that Atergatis bears death reached Jerusalem, she resolved to seat hersome relation, perhaps that of a female counter- self upon the throne of David, at whatever cost.
part, to DAGON.                               To this end she caused all the male branches of
the royal family to be massacred (2 Kings xi. I);
j/^/y\ A      IIIIIIIII\ / Wyand by thus shedding the blood of her own grandf  >s  E  o,children, she undesignedly became the instrument
ffz( 3^'[^  ^_   vA~Sof giving completion to the doom on her father's'' J  \ / = yhouse, which Jehu had partially accomplished, B.C.
884. One infant son of Ahaziah, however, was
saved by his aunt Jehosheba, wife of the highIoO.                     priest Jehoiada, and was concealed, within the
walls of the temple, and there brought up so
No satisfactory etymology of the word has been  ll of the templ h   an    d there brought up so
discovered. That which assumes that Atergatis is Athalia.  But in the seventh year (B.c. 878)
Ai   thaliah.  But in the seventh year (B.C. 878)
J'       addotft  b   dag, i.e., magnificent fish, which  of her blood-stained and evil reign, the sounds of
has often been adopted from the time of Selden unwonted commotion and exulting shouts within
down to the present day, cannot be taken exactly the Temple courts drew her thither, where she
in that sense. The syntax of the language requires, beheld the young Joash standing as a crowned
as Michaelis has already objected to this etymology  king by the pillar of inauguration, and acknow
(Orient. Biblioth. vi. 97), that an adjective placed ledged as sovereign by the acclamations of the
before its subject in this manner must be the pre- assembled multitude. Her cries of treason!'
dicate of a proposition.  The words therefore failed to excite any movement in her favour, and
would mean'the fish is magnificent' (Ewald's Jehoiada, the high-priest, who had organized this
Hebr. Gam. ~ 554). Michaelis himself, as he bold and successful attempt, without allowing
found that the Syriac name of some idol of Haran time for pause, ordered the Levitical guards to
was O~n~fln,  which might mean aperture, asserts remove her from the sacred precincts to instant
that that is the Syriac form of Derketo, and brings  eath (2 Kings xi.;  Chron. xxi. 6 xxii. iO-a
it into connection with the great fissure in the earth,  a )-J. K.
mentioned in Lucian (1. c. xiii.), which swallowed
up the waters of the flood (see his edition ofd te Grea                           w   
Castell's Lex. Syr. p. 975). On the other hand,  ATHANASIS, surnamed the Great, was born
Gesenius ( Thzesaur. sub voce t) prefers consider- at Alexandria about the year 296, and died in 373,
ing Derketn o to bes   e Syriac  p refers conier- after having exercised the office of bishop in his
fish; and it is certain that such an intrusion of the native city for 46 years. He was one of the
Resh is not uncommon in Aramaic. —J. N.       greatest of the Fathers; but it was chiefly in the
Resh idepartment of dogmatic and polemical theology
ATHACH (IJn.       A town in Judah ( Sam.that he exercised his great abilities. Among his
-'.'T",,  -,,, __Writings, however, are one or two of an exegetical
xxx. 30), conjectured by Bonfrere (Hieron. Ono-character, such as his Liber ad Maxillinum  de
mast. p. 28, note 6) to be the same as Ether interretatione Psalmorum, and the Synopsistotius
(Josh. xix. 7). His only ground for this, however, Scripturee; and in his great controversial works
is its being placed beside Ashan. —W. L. A.   the classical passages reating to the doctrines of
ATHALIAH  (,nior  whom. 7 whom  the Trinity, the Incarnation and the Deity of Christ,:ATHAIAH   (  whom           are carefully expounded by him. He avoids, for
remembered; Sept. roOoXta), daughter of Ahab, the most part, the prevailing vice of his age in the
king of Israel, doubtless by his idolatrous wife matter of interpretation, that of allegorising, and
Jezebel. She is also called the daughter of Omri seeks to elicit the actual and direct sense of the
(2 Chron. xxii. 2), who was the father of Ahab; passage. Like all polemics, however, he is apt to
but by a comparison of texts it would appear that suffer a doctrinal bias to sway his exegesis. His




ATHARIM                    260                 ATHENS
collected works have appeared in several editions; glance at its claims as the seat of literature and
that of Montfaucon (the Benedictine), 3 vols. fol., philosophy.
Paris, 1698, is the best.-W. L. A.'From the earliest times the Ionians loved the
lyre and the song, and the hymns of poets formed
ATHARIM (Dfltjn,'AOap&qt). In the A. V. the staple of Athenian education. The constituthis is taken as an appellative, and rendered'the tion of Solon admitted and demanded in the people
way of the spies' (Num. xxi. i). The LXX. and a great knowledge of law, with a large share in its
the Arab., however, take it as a proper name. All daily administration. Thus the acuteness of the
the other versions agree with the A. V. Gesenius lawyer was grafted on the imagination of the poet.
follows the LXX. (Thes. s. v.) —W. L. A.     These are the two intellectual elements out of which
Athenian wisdom was developed; but it was stimuATHENS ('AOf7vat). This celebrated city is lated and enriched by extended political action
mentioned in the N. T. in connection with a visit and political experience. History and Philosophy,
paid to it by St. Paul (Acts xvii. 15-34). It would as the words are understood in modern Europe, had
be irrelevant to the design of this work to occupy their birth in Athens about the time of the Peloponspace in detailing the history of Athens; it may nesian war. There first, also the Oratory of the bar
suffice for the illustration of the sacred narrative to  and of the popular assembly was systematically culti*..   _'    /...        -
-~;~..._- I —---  - -z_~'.-~     ~'-'..... —
o10. Athens.
yated, and the elements of mathematical science were genius, her maniy mind, and whatever remained of
admitted into the education of an accomplished  her virtue: she long continued to produce talents,
man. This was the period of the youth of Plato, which were too often made tools of iniquity, panwhose philosophy was destined to leave so deep an ders to power, and petty artificers of false philoimpress on the Jewish and Christian schools of sophy.'-(F. W. N. in former ed.)
Alexandria. Its great effort was to unite the con-  St. Paul, on the occasion of his visiting Athens,
templative mysticism of Eastern sages with the preached the Gospel there for some time, disputing
accurate science of Greece; to combine, in short, with the Jews in their synagogues, and with the
the two qualities-intellectual and moral, argu- multitude and the philosophers in the Agora.
mentative and spiritual-into a single harmonious This led to his being carried to the Areopagus,
whole; and whatever opinion may be formed of the (see the woodcut p. 206) where he delivered his
success which attended the experiment, it is not memorable discourse to the'men of Athens.'
wonderful that so magnificent an aim attracted the The character which he gives of them in this disdesires and rivetted the attention of thoughtful and  course as inquisitive and superstitious is fully corcontemplative minds for ages afterwards.     roborated by the ancient authorities (cf. Demos.'In the imitative arts of Sculpture and Painting, Phil. i. 5; Pausan. i. 24, 3).
as well as in Architecture, it need hardly be said  The result of Paul's labours in Athens was the
that Atl i-s carried off the palm in Greece: yet, in founding of a Christian church there. Of this,
all these  he Asiatic colonies vied with her. however, we learn nothing more from the N. T.
Miletus took the start of her in literary com- and very little from  other sources.  Tradition
position; and, under slight conceivable changes, confers on Dionysius the Areopagite, who was
might have become the Athens of the world.   converted by Paul's preaching, the title of first'With the loss of civil liberty, Athens lost her bishop of that church (Euseb. Hist. Eccl. iii. 4).




ATHIAS                    261         ATONEMENT, DAY OF
Quadratus, one of the earliest Christian Apologists Horse andthe Tangum Horse, Naturalst's Library,
was also one of its bishops (Ibid. iv. 23).   vol. xii. No other primaeval invasion from the east
[ALTAR AT ATHENS; AREOPAGUS; DIONYSIUS      by horsemen on Tzachor animals than that of the
THE AREOPAGITE.]                              so-called Centaurs is recorded: their era coincides
nearly with that of the Judges.-C. H. S.
ATHIAS, JOSEPH, a Jewish printer and rabbi,
who died at Amsterdam, the place of his residence,  ATONEMENT.   This word appears in the
in I700. He is chiefly celebrated for his edition of A. V. of the Old Testament as the rendering of
the Hebrew Bible issued under the editorial super- the Heb. 83, used only in the plural D'n33, and
intendence of Leusden in I66I, and in an improved tomake atonement,' as the rendering of  the
edition in I667. In preparing this work he was                              ri     "' 
encouraged by all the scholars and leading persons Piel of the cognate verb |_. The primary meanin Amsterdam,and on its conpletion was rewarded  ing of this verb is to cover; and, as sin was covered
not only by applause from the most competent or hid from the search of avenging justice when an
judges, but with a gold chain and medal from the expiation was made, the verb came to be used in
States-General of Holland, to whom he had dedi- this sense, and from it as so used came the noun.
cated it.  Leusden boasts that this Bible is one The verb is used also not only for the act of expia-'quibus accuratiorem et correctiorem numquam Sol tion (Exod. xxxii. 30; Lev. vi. 7, etc.), but also
aspexit.' This is probably true, but nevertheless for the effect of that act, viz., the removal of guilt
the edition is not immaculate. Some of its defects from the transgressor, and his consequent exempwere pointed out by Clodius in his edition, and tion from punishment, and also the placating or
still more fully by Jablonski in his (see Jablonski's appeasing of the offended party. Thus it is enacted,
Bib. Heb. Berol. i669 Praefat.) The latter, how- Lev. i. 2-4, that when an offering is brought unto
ever, admits that the edition of Athias'omnibus, the Lord, the offerer shall'put his hand upon the
quae eam praecesserunt, palmam priripere, merito head of the burnt-offering, and it shall be accepted
censeri debeat.'  Athias printed also a carefully for him to make atonement for him;' where the idea
revised edition of the Biblia Hispanica, corrected  of a transference of guilt from the offerer to his offerby Sam. De Cazeres, 8vo, Amst. i66I.  He was ing, and the removal of it from the former by the
succeeded in his business and in his zeal for Hebrew  latter is clearly set forth, comp. Lev. iv. 20; v. 18;
typography by his son Emmanuel, who issued a xvi. 6; Num. vi. II, etc. (The prepositions used
very beautiful edition of the Hebrew scriptures after the verb in these passages are not always the
with Rashi's commentary in 4 vols. I mo, Amst.same; sometimes   sometimes, but this does
1700-1703. -W. L. A..same; sometimes 5p, sometimes 8]2, but this does
1~700-1~703~. —W. AL. A.not affect the meaning.) When Jacob sent a present
ATHIAS, SOLOMON, the son of Shem Tob, a before him to his brother Esau, he said' I will apnative of Jerusalem, flourished in the early part of pease him (V4;1 K, lit., Iwill cover hisface, so
-the sixteenth century. *  r t s$L   that he shall forgive my offence, I will make atonethe sixteenth century. He wrote DWJ n VA-I, a ment before him, Iwill placate him), etc., Gen. xxxii.
commentary on the Psalter, collected chiefly from  21 (20). So in Prov. xvi. 4 we read,'The wrath
Rashi, Kimchi, etc. It was printed with the text of a king is as messengers of death; but a wise
at Venice in 1549, fol. -W. L. A.             man will pacify it (i7Wl).' In the New Testament the word atonement occurs only once, Rom.
ATHON (ltfi). This word is rendered she- v. I, as the rendering of KaraXXayb, which is elseass in te A. V. but u i,     where translated reconciling and reconciliation, and
ass in the A. V., but unsatisfactorily, unless we so it is given in the margin of the above passage.
it to refer to a breed of greater beauty and  so it is given in the margin of the above passage.
suppose it to refer to a breed of greater beauty and' Atonement' is in this instance used in its primary
importance than the common, namely, the silveret      ica sense euiaent t    a
gray of Africa; which being large and indocile,  etymolicaenh it occurs in Shakespearen, He
the females were anciently selected in preference sens e in which  ton ent between the Duke of
for riding, and on that account formed a valuable Glo'sr ad   brothers and in Spenser (Faery
Glo'ster and your brothers,' and in Spenser (Faery
kind of property. From early ages a white breed          cant. 2, 297) we haveSo been they
of this race was reared at Zobeir, the ancient Bas- eoth atone,' etc., a  theological sense the word
sora, and capital of the Orcheni, from which place bh atnhe compensation rendered to the divine gocivil dignitaries still obtain their white asses and  men the atio r    r  to th     e o
white mules.  It is now the fashion, as it was vernment by the death of Christ, as a sacrifice for
wduring the Parthian empire, and probably it was mens sins. See Grotius, De Satisfactione Christi;
during the Parthian empire, and probably in the Magee, Discourses on Atonement and Sacrfices,
time of the Judges, to dapple this breed with spots Mage, Ds     courses on   Sacrifice, etc.;
of orange or crimson or of both colours together  3 vols.; Smi   th's ourDo u rses on Sacrfclaw, etc.;
and we agree with the Editor of the Pictorial Bible c ingt on         xten of the Atonement
(note on Judg. v. io) that this is the meaning of corses on the Care a nd   xtent t he A tonement, Edin.
the word 31t Tzachor (chequered?); an interpre-t;        Caish on, Ba to Le  e for I    n.
tation which is confirmed by the Babylonian San-      Thomson, Bamon     ecture for  853
hedrim, who, in answer to King Sapor's offer of a
horse to convey the Jewish Messiah, say:'non   ATONEMENT, DAY OF (ntls?331 Ni, LXX.
est tibi equus centimaculus, qualis est ejus (Messi'e)
asinus.' Horses and asses thus painted occur fre- t?*pa 1-tXato, Talm. K3, THE DAY), a great
quentlyin Oriental illuminated MSS;, and although  religious festival of the Jews, of which the rule and
the taste may be puerile, we conceive that it is the order are given, Lev. xvi. 1-34; xxiii. a6-32;
record of remote conquest achieved by a nation  Num. xxix. 7-II.  It was observed on the tenth
of Central Asia mounted on spotted or clouded  day of the seventh month (Tisri), and was held as
horses, and revived by the Parthians, who were a day of entire rest from all labour (llWti nti=w, a
similarly equipped.  See Introduction to Hist. of sabbath of sabbaths), a day of holy convocation




ATONEMENT, DAY OF                 262         ATONEMENT, DAY OF
( 2 p K'plO), the only day in the year when the omission of the $ of the penult, and the supplying
entire congregation of Israel fasted (W10 1JY). of its place by an immutable vowel, as in Wl'n for
The fast commenced at sunset on the previous  yi'S. This form is intensive.  (See Spencer,
evening, and lasted for twenty-four hours, and was De Legibus Hebr. Ritual, iii. 8; Gesenius, Thes. s.
imperative on every member of the community, v.; Bihr, Mos. Cultus, ii. 665; Hengstenberg,
under pain of being cut off from his people in case Die Biicher Mosis und ZEgyptus [GOAT, SCAPE];
of neglect.                                  Tholuck, Das A. T. im N. T. p. 79; Thomson,
The service of the day was conducted by the Bampton Lec. p. 72.).
high-priest. Having provided a young bullock for  These preliminaries having been settled, the higha sin-offering, and a ram for a burnt-offering, he priest proceeded to offer the victims. First of all,
had first to bathe himself, for the purpose of puri- he took a censer full of coals from off the altar,
fication, and then to clothe himself in white linen, and entered with it into-the most holy place, where
without any of his usual splendour of attire, that he put the incense on the coals, and placed it so
his appearance might be expressive at once of that the smoke might envelope the capporeth or
purity and humiliation. Having taken of the con- mercy seat.  He then proceeded to offer the
gregation two goats as a sin-offering and a ram as bullock of the sin-offering for himself and his house,
a burnt-offering, and having presented the goats and, taking of its blood, he entered therewith
before the Lord at the door of the Tabernacle, he again into the most holy place, and sprinkled the
cast lots upon them, one for Jehovah, the other for blood with his finger once upon and seven times
Azazel.  Great difference of opinion exists as to before the capporeth. He then went out and slew
the signification of this word. The more important the goat on which the lot for Jehovah had fallen,
views may be presented thus:-A. That Azazel and carried off its blood also into the most holy
denotes a Person-I. The devil (Origen, Spencer, place, and did with it as with the blood of the
Hengstenberg, etc.); 2. An evil demon (Gesenius, bullock. Thus atonement was made for himself,
Ewald, Rosenmiller, De Wette, Knobel, and many his house, and all the congregation of Israel.
of the Rabbins). B.. That Azael denotes a Place-  This done, he took of the blood of the bullock and
I. A certain place in the wilderness (Vatablus, of the goat and put it on the horns of the altar,
Deyling, Kimchi, Abenesra, etc.); 2. Any lonely, and sprinkled of the blood upon it seven times to
desolate place (Bochart, Carpzov); 3. A mountain cleanse and sanctify it, so as that none of the un('Mount Azaz,' Arab. Vers.; some Rabbins, Le cleanness arising from the sins of the worshippers
Clerc). C. That Azazel is the goat itself-LXX. might adhere to it.  The live goat was then
d7ro7roiujraos, Lev. xvi. 8, 9 (but see Bochart, Hier. brought forth, and the high-priest having confessed
c. 54, and Suicer, Thes. s. v. on this word); over its head the sins and iniquities of Israel,
Symm. rpd'yos d7repX6ievos, Aq. rp. duroXv6ievos, thereby putting them on the head of the goat, the
Theodotion rp. piseauevos, Vulg. caper emissarius, animal was sent away by the hand of a trustEng. V. scapegoat, Luther der ledige bock, etc.) D. worthy person into the wilderness.  The highThat Azazel is an abstract term, denoting-I. A  priest then took off the dress in which he had perfree going away (Michaelis, Jahn); or 2. An entire formed these rites and left it in the tabernacle of
and utter removal (Tholuck, Winer, Bahr, etc.) the congregation; -bathed  himself in the holy
The LXX. seem to have some such meaning in place; put on' his usual attire; and offered the
view when they rendered the word by d&roaro/ur, rams of the burnt-offering for himself and the
Lev. xvi. o, and dteorts, ver. 26. Of these mean- people. Neither the bullock nor the goat was
ings, the last seems the preferable. The first class eaten, but after the fat had been burnt on the altar
is exposed to the objection that it supposes Satan, the remainder was carried beyond the camp and
or an evil demon, set over against Jehovah, and consumed by fire. The man who conveyed the
equally entitled with him to receive an offering for goat into the wilderness and the man who burnt
sin; a notion utterly repugnant to all Jewish belief the carcasses of the bullock and the goat, had to
and thinking. The rendering'wilderness' is ex- wash their clothes and bathe themselves before
eluded by the statement in Lev. xvi. Io, that the they could return to the camp. This finished the
goat was to be sent to Azazel in the wilderness, services of the day.
which shews that Azazel is not the wilderness  It has been asked, How often did the highitself; and the supposition that some definite place priest go into the most holy place during the peris intended labours under the objection that no formance of this service? Jewish tradition replies
such place as Azazel is elsewhere mentioned, and four fimes; and this is probably correct. The
had it been a mountain the addition of'i, would text of Moses expressly states that he went in
not have been omitted. The third class is incon- twice (comp. ver. I4 and I5); and as he could not
sistent with the express statement of Moses, that well carry the censer, and the incense, and the
the goat was to be sent to Azazel. The only blood within the veil at once, it is probable that
objection that has been offered to the opinion last he first took in the censer and then came out for
mentioned is, that it destroys the exact antithesis the blood. This makes three entrances; and as
between Jehovah and Azazel, by making the latter it is probable that he went in after he had
a thing and not a person, like the former. But sprinkled the blood upon the altar for the purpose
this assumes that it was the design of Moses, in of removing the censer, this would make up the
expressing himself thus, to preserve an exact number of four, The statement of the Apostle,
antithesis, which is by no means evident. If we Heb. ix. 7, may be easily reconciled with this by
render'the 6ne for Jehovah and the other for an understanding the d7rac there of the one entrance
utter removal,' a- meaning sufficiently clear and in the year not of only one in the day; just as
good is obtained. It only remains to add, that the many acts of the day might be spoken of as
[1'tr is regarded by those who take this view as one service.
i regarded by' The name of this festival,' says Bahr''n'B Di
the Pealpal form of the verb 5t?, removit, with the intimates its general significancy; the entire festival




ATROTH                    263               ATTITUDES
had singly and alone expiation for its design, and  by the LXX.; and doubtless it is to-be regarded
that in the most extended sense, universal, all- as only part of the name, of which Shophan, which
embracing expiation.' Along with this it was a day follows, is the other part, the city being called
of perfect rest-a sabbath of sabbaths; so that the Atroth-Shophan, to distinguish it from the Atatwo ideas of full expiation and perfect rest were roth mentioned in the preceding verse. The Vulthus combined.   It was, moreover, a day of gate gives the two as distinct names, Etroth et
fasting, not as a sign of grief, but simply as ex- Sophan, in which it is followed by Luther and the
pressive of humiliation before God as the proper Eng. A. V.; but the Targum of Onkelos, the
state of those who appeared before him to confess Samar. and Syr. of the Polyglot, unite the two.
their sins and offer atonement for them. With  So Diodati, Dutch Vers., Zunz, and most recent
this, the general idea of the day, all the acts of the translators and exegetes.-W. L. A.
priest concurred; his slaying of the victims as
emblematical of the death penalty which sin entails;  ATTALIA ('ArrsTXeia), a maritime city of Pamhis entering the holiest of all with blood, and his phylia, in Asia Minor, near the mouth of the river
sprinkling of it upon and before the capporeth, as Ctarrhactes  It derived its name from its founder,
betokening the need of a mediator to go for the  Attalus Philadelphus, king of Pergamos (Strabo,
sinful people into the presence of God, and the xiv. p. 667). I was visited by Paul and  arnabas,
need of that mediator's coming with sacrificial A.D. 45 (Acts xiv. 25). It still exists under the
blood to his being accepted on behalf of sinners;name of Adalia, the ruis of which attest its former
and his sending away the live goat, after atone- consequence (Leake's Asia Mior, p. 193; Forbes
ment had been made for sin, with the sins that had  and Spratt's Lycia).-J. K
been expiated on its head, into utter and'perpetual  ATTALUS (I Macc. xv. 22), a king of Perbanishment, as intimating that sin atoned for was gamos, about B.C. 139. It is not certain whether
sin utterly taken away, so that when sought for it this was Attalus II., who, according to Strabo
could not be found.   In all these there were (xiii. 624), enjoyed the title of Amicus Pop. Rom.;
presented, in lively symbol, the great truths of a or Attalus III., his nephew and successor.
redemptory system  by means of propitiation.
There was here also a typical foreshadowing of the  ATTERSOL, WILLIAM. A clergyman of the
great truth of Christianity-redemption through  Church of England, who was ejected, in I662,
the expiatory sufferings and vicarious intercession  from the living of East Hoodley, in Sussex. He
of the Lord Jesus Christ, who hath taken away laboured as a non-conformist minister afterwards
sins by the sacrifice of Himself, who hath entered  at Isfield, in the same county. He was the author
into the heavenly temple with atoning blood, and  of a Commentary on Philemon, Lond. I612, and a
who appeareth in the presence of God for us. Commentary on Numbers, Lond. I618.      These
(See, besides the works already referred to, Light- commentaries are of a practical character, and are
foot, Temple Service, ch. 15; Magee, Discoursesand homiletical rather than exegetical. He published
Dissertations on Atonement and Sacrifices, 3 vols.; also a work on the sacraments, entitled The New
J. Pye Smith, Four Discourses on the Sacrifice and  Covenant, Lond.  614, and three Treatises on
Priesthood of Christ, etc., 2d. ed. 1842; Chevallier, Luke xiii. I; xii. I; 7onah iii. 4.-W. L. A.
Hulsean Lecturefor I826, pt. iii.; Litton, Bampton
Lecturefor 1856, lects. 3 afid 4; Russell, On the Old. The usages of the Hebrews 
and New Covenants, ch. iii.; Alexander, Congrea- respect to attitudes were very nearly, if not altotionaectrefor 840, lect. viii.  Kur. Ds gether, the same as those which are still practised
Opfer* Fairbairn, Scripture Typology, vol. ii.  For in the East, and which the paintings and sculptures
the Rabbinical account of the service as performed of Egypt shew to have been of old employed in
in t     con              the reais       ed the secountry. Temple, sources supply ample entitmateYoma in the Mishna, and for the ceremonies rials for illustration, which it may be well to
observed by the later Jews, etc., B. Picard, Cere  arrange under those heads into which such acts
monies et Coutumes Religieuses, etc., i. c. 6, p. 8,naturally divide themselves.
and Buxtorf, Synagoga Judaica, c. xx.)-W. L. A.  ADORATION AND HOMAGE.-The Moslems in
their prayers throw themselves successively, and
ATROTH (nlhty), a city built by the children  according to an established routine, into the various
of Gad (Num. xxxii. 35). This name is omitted  postures (nine in number) which they deem the
tt~  92      3     *4          S          6       y       t8         9
102.
most appropriate to the several parts of the service. Moslems exhibit on one occasion.  This is the
For the sake of reference and comparison, we have chief difference. In public and common worship
introduced them all above; as we have no doubt the Hebrews prayed standing (I Kings viii. 54;
that the Hebrews employed on one occasion or Ezra ix. 5; Dan. vi. 10; 2 Chron. vi., 13; but
another nearly.11 the various postures which the in their separate and private acts of worship they




ATTITUDES                  264               ATTITUDES
assumed the position which, according to their by which they expressed the most intense humilia.
modes of doing homage or shewing respect, seemed tion, was by bringing not only the body but the
to them the most suitable to their present feelings head to the ground. The ordinary mode of prosor objects. It would appear, however, that some
form of kneeling was most usual in private devo- 
tions.
STANDING in public prayer is still the practice of
the Jews.  This posture was adopted from the
synagogue by the primitive Christians; and is still
maintained by the Oriental churches. This appears, from their monuments, to have been the custom also among the ancient Persians and Egyptians,
although the latter certainly sometimes kneeled.                 ^before their gods. In the Moslem worship, four
of the nine positions (I, 2, 4, 8) are standing ones;
and that posture which is repeated in three out of 
these four (2, 4, 8), may be pointed out as the                  105.
proper Oriental posture of reverential standing,
with folded hands. It is the posture in which tration at the present time, and probably anciently,
people stand before kings and great men.    is that shewn in one of the postures of Moslem
While in this attitude of worship, the hands were worship (5), in which the body is not thrown flat
sometimes stretched forth towards heaven in sup- upon the ground, but rests upon the knees, arms,
plication or invocation (I Kings viii. 22; 2 Chron. and head. In order to express devotion, sorrow,
Vi. I2, 29; Is. i. I5). This was perhaps not so
much the conventional posture (I) in the Moslem
series, as the more natural posture of standing
adoration with outspread hands, which we observe
on the Egyptian monuments.  The uplifting of.S.
0o6.
V S^  l  a  (t   compunction or humiliation, the Israelites threw
dust upon their heads (Josh. vii. 6; Job. ii. 12;
Lam. ii. Io; Ezek. xxiv. 7; Rev. xviii I9), as
was done also by the ancient Egyptians, and is still
done by the modern Orientals. Under similar circumstances it was usual to smite the breast (Luke
xviii. 13). This was also a practice among the
I03.                     Egyptians (Herod. ii. 85), and the monuments at
one hand (the right) only in taking an oath was so
common, that to say,'I have lifted up my hand,'
was equivalent to'I have sworn' (Gen. xiv. 22;
comp. xli. 44; Deut. xxxii. 40).  This posture
107~
Thebes exhibit persons engaged in this act while
they kneel upon one knee.
In I Chron. xvii. I6 we are told that'David
104.                    the king came and sat before the Lord,' and in
that posture gave utterance to eloquent prayer,
was also common among other ancient nations; or rather thanksgiving, which the sequel of the
and we find examples of it in the sculptures of chapter contains. Those unacquainted with Eastern
Persia (fig. I) and Rome (fig. 2).
KNEELING is very often described as a posture
of worship (I Kings viii. 54; Ezra ix. 5: Dan.
vi. Io; 2 Chron. vi. I3; comp. I Kings xix. I8;
Luke xxii. 41; Acts vii. 60o. This is still an
Oriental custom, and three forms of it occur (5,
6, 9) in the Moslem devotions. It was also in use, 
although not very frequent, among the ancient
Egyptians; who likewise, as well as the Hebrews                 ro8.
(Exod. xxxiv. 8; 2 Chron. xxix. 29; Is. i. 15),
sometimes prostrated themselves upo.n the ground. manners are surprised at this. But there is a mode
The usual mode of prostration among the Hebrews of sitting in the East which is highly respectful and




ATTITUDES                   265               ATTITUDES
even reverential. It is that which occurs in the doubt that a similar practice existed among the
Moslem forms of worship (9). The person first Jews; especially when we refer to the original
kneels, and then sits back upon his heels. Atten- words which describe the acts and attitudes of salution is also paid to the position of the hands, tation, as IrWK %: to bend down to the earth,
which they cross, fold, or hide in the opposite  ll  nni     to fal prostrte on the eart,
sleeves. The variety of this formal sitting which  gIK "3gM RV   a   i to fall wit te face to the earth,
the foregoing figure represents is highly respectful.and connect them  with allusions to the act of
The prophet Elijah must have been in this or some kissing the feet, or the hem of the garment (Matt.
other similar posture when he inclined himself so i 20; Luke vii. 38, 45). Kissing the hand of
much forward in prayer that his head almost another as a mark of affectionate respect, we do
touched his knees (I Kings xviii. 42).        not remember as distinctly mentioned in Scripture.
SUPPLICATION, when addressed externally to
man, cannot possibly be exhibited in any other 
forms than those which are used in supplication to          I 
God. Uplifted hands, kneeling, prostration, are            ii / 
common to both. On the Egyptian monuments,
But as the Jews had the other forms of Oriental,
~~~~I- -7salutation, we may conclude that they had this
09i. also, although it does not happen to have been
suppliant captives, of different nations, are repre-specially noticed. It is observed by servants or
sented as kneeling or standing with outspread hands. pupilsto masters, by the wife to her husband, and
This also occurs in the sculptures of ancient Persia by children to their father, and sometimes their
(Persepolis). The first of the Egyptian figures ismother. It is aso an act of homage pai to the
of peculiar interest, as representing an inhabitantaged by the young, or to learned and religious men
of Lebanon. Prostration, orfalling at the feet of by the less instructed or less devout. Kissing one's
a person, is often mentioned in Scripture as an act own handis mentioned as early as the time of Job
of supplication or of reverence, or of both (I Sam. (XXXi. 27), as an act of homage to the heavenly
xxv. 24; 2 Kings iv. 37;* Esth. viii. 3; Matt. bodies. It was properly a salutation, and as such
xviii. 29; xxviii. 9  Mak v.  viii. 4 an act of adoration to them. The Romans in like
xviii.' 29; xxviii. 9; Mark v. 22; Luke viii. 41;
John xi. 32; Acts x. 25). In the instance last manner kissed their hands as they passed the temreferred to, where Cornelius threw himself at the ples or statues of their gods. [On the ground that
feet of Peter, it may be asked why the apostle for- a atin is derved from ad and s it has been
bade an act which was not unusual among his own  maintained that the kissing of the hand to the Deity
people, alleging as the reason-' I myself also am  was not  ly the primary but the only genuine
a man.' The answer is, that among the Romans, species of adoration. But this etymology of the
word is at best very dubious (D/Sderlein, Lat. Syn,.
prostration was exclusively an act of adoration, word is at best very dubious (Doderlein, Lat. Syn.
rendered only to the gods, and therefore it had in  I88), and it s certain that this was only one
him a significance which it would not have had inmode amongst several of expressing by outward
an Oriental (Kuinoel, ad Act. x. 26). This custom  gesture reverence to the object of worship. We
is still very general among the Orientals; but, as read in Scripture, besides, of kneeling, of bending
an act of reverence merely, it is seldom shewn  the body, of prostration on the ground, as acts of
except to kings: as expressive of alarm or suppli-adoraton and worship (comp. Gen. xvi. I7; xxiv.
cation, it is more frequent.                  26; Ex. xxxiv. 8; 2 Kings xviii. 42; 2 Chron.
Sometimes in this posture, or with the knees viI3; Job i. 20; Ps. xcv. 6; Matt. xxvi. 39;
bent, as before indicated, the Orientals bring their XV-.'4, etc.)  The last of these (rllynn1i,
forehead to the ground, and before resuming an?rpo0aKb^als) was used especially when any favour
was implored, but it was not confined to this, nor
^n, -— was it used exclusively as an act of homage to the
~ "/'\Divine Being.       It was sometimes accompanied
with a kiss (Ex. xviii. 7), and in cases of earnest
by""  j1 21 }u&lTriL ^             entreaty by laying hold of the knees of the party
addressed (Matt. xxviii. 9; comp. Hornm. It. i. 427);
The most remarkable form of adoration, however,.
_was that performed by the kissing of the hand.
-r^ ^ ^ x   ^ ^That this was in use from very ancient times is
-__.~., ~        evident from Job xxxi. 26, 27; and that it pre___ z. -vailed as a common custom with the heathen is:
IIO.                     attested by Minucius Felix (Ut vulgus superstitiosus solet manum ori admovens, osculum labiis
erect position either kiss the earth, or the feet, or pressit: Octav. c. 2, ap. fin.), and by Pliny (In
border of the garment of the king or prince before adorando dexteram ad osculum' referimus: N. H.
whom they are allowed to appear. There is no xxviii. 2, ed. Lugd. 1563). This act is best de



ATTITUDES                   266                 AUGUSTI
scribed as a holding of the hand before or upon  It is observable that, as before noticed, the word
the mouth, the design of which is said originally 1:1, barak, means to bless and to bend the knee,
to have been to prevent the breath from reaching which suggests the idea that it was usual for a
the superior, but which came ultimately to indicate person to receive a blessing in a kneeling posture.
simply the highest degree of reverence or submission (comp. Judg. xviii. I9; Job xxi. 5; xxix. 9;'r',^,iT
xl. 4; Is. lii. 5).  Comp. Brissonius, ii. De 
formul. p. 840.] The same is exhibited on the
monuments of Persia and of Egypt. In one of the
sculptures at Persepolis a king is seated on his
throne, and before him a person standing in a bent
posture, with his hand laid upon his mouth as he
J9~~~)'1  AJI~~/4I  7                 II4.
We know also that the person who gave the blessing laid his hands upon the head of the person
1    \yT I,                       blessed (Gen. xlviii. 14). This is exactly the case
at the present day in the East, and a picture of
the existing custom would furnish a perfect illus112.                     tration of the patriarchal form of blessing. This
may be perceived from the annexed engraving,
addresses the sovereign (fig. I). Exactly the same which, with some of the other attitudes given in
attitude is observed in the sculptures at Thebes,
where one person, among several (in various postures of respect) who appear before the scribes to 
be registered, has his hand placed thus submissively upon his mouth (fig. 2).
It appears from I Sam. x. I, I Kings xix. I8,      r<
Ps. ii. I2, that there was a peculiar kiss of homage,                          i
the character of which is not indicated. It was                  \ 
probably that kiss upon the forehead expressive of 
high respect which was formerly, if not now, in 
use among the Bedouins (Antar. iL 119)./ _
BOWING.-In the Scriptures there are different                   II5.
words descriptive of various postures of respectful this article, is from Lane's Translation oftheArabowing; as   p to inchine or bowz dozwn the head a, ian  ights Entertainments-a work which, in its
y3r to bend down the body very low, 1t' to bend notes and pictorial illustrations, affords a more comthe knee, also to bless.  These terms indicate a plete picture of the persons, manners, and habits
conformity with the existing usages of the East, in of the people of south-western Asia and of Egypt,
which the modes of bowing are equally diversified, than all the books of travels put together.-J. K.
and, in all likelihood, the same. These are -
2. placing the right hand upon the breast, with or  ATTUDIM  (..1y_, from sing. I.iy), used
without an inclination of the head or of the body; only in the plural, as a designation of animals of
X        2.        3.       4.       the goat species. In the A. V. it is translated
sometimes'rams' (Gen. xxxi. 10, 12), sometimes,6~~~ ~'he goats' (Num. vii. 17; Ps. 1. 9), and sometimes simply'goats' (Ps. 1. 13; Prov. xxvii. 26).
The singular occurs frequently in Arabic 16L,
and is defined in the Camoos as a young goat of
a year old (Bochart, Hieroz. bk. ii. ch. 53, p. 646,
where other authorities are adduced). The name
is derived from  Int, to set, place, prepare; and
II3.                     hence Bochart infers it describes the animal as
IF touching the lips (is this the kissing of the hand fully grown, and so prepared for all its functions
noticed above?) and the forehead with the right and uses; while others think no more is implied
hand, with or without an inclination of the head by the name than that this animal was strong and
or of the body, and with or without previously vigorous.  The attudim  were used in sacrifice
touching the ground; 3. bending the body very low, (Ps. lxvi. 5), and formed an article of commerce
with folded arms; 4. bending the body and resting (Ezek. xxvii. 2I; Prov. xxvii. 26). In Jer. 1. 8, the
the hands on the knees: this is one of the postures word is employed for the leaders of a flock; and
of prayer, and is indicative of the highest respect in Is. xiv. 9, and Zech. x. 3, it is used metaphoriin the presence of kings and princes.  In the cally for princes or chiefs.-W. L. A.
Egyptian paintings we see persons drop their arms  AUGUSTI, GEO. CHRIST. WIL., D.D., was
towards the ground while bowing to a superior, born at Esehenberga, in the duchy of Gotha, 27th
or standing respectfully with the right hand resting Oct. 1771, and died at Coblentz 28th April 1841.
on the left shoulder.                         He was successively professor of philosophy, of




AUGUSTINUS                    267                    AVA
Oriental languages, and of theology at Jena; of more truly and fully the truths taught than any
theology at Breslau, and of the same at Bonn. process of mere philological investigation could
His works are numerous, and belong to all depart- have done (see Clausen, Aurel. Augustinus Hzippo.
ments of sacred science. In that of Biblical litera- Sac. Script. Interpres, Havni e, 1827).  Of his
ture, he wrote Grundriss einer Histor. Kri. collected works, the best editions are that of the
Einleitung ins A. T., Leipz. i806, 1827; Ver- Benedictines, Paris, 1679-I700, 8 vols. fol.; and
such einei histor. dogmat. Einleit. if die Heilige that issued at Antwerp in 1700-1703, in 12 vols.
Schrift, Leipz. 1832; Die Kathol. Briefe neu fol.-W. L. A.
iibersetz und erkldrt, 2 vols., Lemgo 1803-8; besides many articles in journals.  He was the col-  AUGUSTUS(Venerable), the title assumed by
league of De Wette in the first edition of the German  C. Octavius, who, after his adoption by Julius
translation of the Bible, which in later editions bears Cesar, took the name of C. Julius Caesar OctaDe Wette's name alone; and of Hopfner, in the vianus, and was the first peacefully acknowledged
first three numbers of the Exegct. Handbuch, ed. emperor of Rome.  He was emperor at the birth
A. 7., Leipz. 1797-I800. He also edited the    and during half the lifetime of our Lord; but his
Libri Apocryphi, V. T., with various lections,name has no connection with Scriptural events
Lips. I804.  His writings are distinguished by  [except as it was he who confirmed Herod in his
learning, clearness of discrimination, and sound  power], and occurs only once (Luke ii. I) in the
sense. In the beginning of his career he was a New Testament. The successors of the first Auneologist, but as he advanced in life he became gustus took the same name or title, but it is seldom
much more evangelical both in his sentiments and  applied to them by the Latin writers. In the eastern
in the tone of his writings. The difference between  part of the empire the Greek me  corms (which is
his Grundriss and his Versuch in this respect is equivalent) seems to have been more common, and
very marked. Among his other works, his Denk- hece is used of Nero (Acts xxv. 21).-J. K.
wiirdigkeiten aus d. Christl. Archdologie, 12 vols., AUGUSTUS' BAND (Acts xxvi. I), probably
Leipz. 1817-31, issued in an abridged form in  oe o    te c     ts stt   d at    sarea which
one of the cohorts stationed at Caesarea which
3vols. Leipz. 1836, is the most remarkable.-   formed a body-guard to the emperor, and was
employed, as in this instance, on service especially
AUGUSTINUS, AURELIUS, a native of Tag- relating to'him (see Meyer in loc.)-W. L. A.
aste, a town of Numidia, was born 15th Nov. 354,  AURANITIS.     [HAURAN.]
and died at Hippo, of which he was bishop, on the
28th of August 430. The writings of this great   AURIVILLIUS, KARL, professor of oriental
thinker are very numerous; they are chiefly devoted languages at Upsala, was born at Stockholm in
to theological and philosophical investigations; but 1717, and died 9Ith Jan. 1786. He published
he wrote also largely in exposition of Scripture. several dissertations on subjects connected with
There are extant from his pen, besides three treatises biblical and Oriental literature, of which thirty were
on Genesis and some minor expositions, the fol-collected by J. D. Michaelis, and issued under the
lowing works, which are more or less exegetical title, Car. Aurivillii Dissertationes ad sacras literas
in their character-Questiones in Pentateuchum; etphilologiam orientalem pertinentes, Gtt..et Lips.,
Quacst. Evangelicce; De Consensu Evangeliorum;  1790. These dissertations are of standard value;
Expositio inchoata in Ep. ad Romanos; Expos. they bear marks of profound scholarship and most
quarundemropropositionum in Ep. ad Rom.; Expos.judicious thinking on every page. Aurivillius was
Ep. ad Galatas; Annotationes in 7obum; In Evan- employed by Gustavus III. to translate the Scripgel. Yoannis Tractatus; In Ep. I. Joan. Tractatus; tures into the Swedish; but he had only proceeded
Enarrationes in Psalmos.  Many of his Sermones a little way in this work when he was cut off.are also of an expository character. Augustine W. L. A.
was more successful in laying down hermeneutical  AUTENRIETH, IN. HEN. FRED. VON, M.D.,
principles than in applying them. The rules he ws born at Stuttgart 20th Oct. 1772 and died
has given in his tract, De Doctrina Christiana, for    a      at   bi, whe he was pro
2d May i835, at Tuibingen, where he was prothe exposition of Scripture, are marked by all the fessor of Medicine.  He was the author of a
sagacity and comprehensiveness of his mind (see treatise, Ueber das Buch Hiob., Tub. 823, and of
Clausen, Hermeneutik, pp. i62-5; Davidson, Her-    essay, Ueber den Ursprung der Beschnidung
meneutics, p. 133); but in the specimens of his bei widen und halbwilden VT/kern mit beziehung
expositions which are extant, he has widely de- aufdieBesch. d. Israeliten Tub. 1829.-W. L. A.
parted from his own canons.  He indulges to a
large extent in allegorical interpretations, especially  AVA (NSW; Sept;'Ai'd, 2 Kings xvii. 24), also
in his treatment of the Old Testament; the reason                             s xi- 
of which may be that assigned by Sixtus Senensis-IVAH      S             Kgs X       34' Cum Hebraici sermonis ignarus esset et in Graecis 13; Is. xxxvii. 13), the capital of a small monliteris parum instructus, necesse illi fuit a propriae archical state conquered by the Assyrians, and
literae sensu ad extortas allegorias discedere' (Bibl., from which king Shalmaneser sent colonies into
bk. iv. p. 212). Notwithstanding many deficiencies, Samaria.  Some take it for the river, or rather
however, his expositions will ever possess an in- the town which gave name to the river Ahava of
terest and a value to the student of Scripture, for Ezra viii. 21 (Bellerman, Handbuch, iii. 374).'Iken
they are everywhere imbued with the deep thought- (Dissertt. Philol. Theolog. p. I52) would identify
fulness and rich experimental earnestness of the it with the Phoenician town Avatha, mentioned in
author, whilst in many cases one is constrained to the Notitia Vet. Dignitatum Imper. Rom. (but the.
feel that the close sympathy between the mind of reading here is rather doubtful: Reland, Palest.
the expositor and the mind that was breathed into  p. 232, sqq. ); or with the town of Abeje, between
the sacred words, has enabled him to bring out Beirut and Sidon, which Paul Lucas mentioned as




AVEN                     268                   AXE
the seat of a Druse prince. But these are mere A. V. Knobel (Genesis in loc.) suggests that the
conjectures;  Michaelis derives the name from  name Avith survives in Ghoweythe, a range of hills
on the east side of the Moabites (Burckhardt's Syr.
]no    or L.., latrare, and supposes it to be the Pn 375).-W. L. A.
land of the Avites between Tripoli and Beirut, be-            S      6    )   The Hebre
cause they are described as worshippers of tnrI        V-:
Nibhaz (2 Kings xvii. 31), an idol which he com- word, which denotes an awl or other instrument
pares with the great stone dog that formerly stood  for boring a small hole, occurs in Exod. xxi. 6;
in that quarter, on which account the Lycus ob- Deut. xv. 17. Considering that the Israelites had
tained its name of Nahr-el-Kelb, Dog-river (comp. at that time recently withdrawn from their long
Mannert, vi. I. 380). It is most probable, how- sojourn in Egypt, there can be no doubt that the
ever, that Ava was a Syrian or Mesopotamian instruments were the same as those of that country,.
town, of which no trace can now be found either the forms of which, from actual specimens in the
in the ancient writers or in the Oriental topo- British Museum, are shewn in the annexed cut.
graphers.-J. K.                               They are such as were used by the sandal-makers
and other workers in leather.-J. K.
AVEN    (p.; Sept.'Tv)'  This word occurs
Amos i. 5 as the name of a: plain (n]p3) near
Damascus. It is probably that lying between the
ridges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, called (Josh.
xi. I7)'the valley of Lebanon,' and which still'^
bears the name of El-Buka'a. Here was Baalbek,                               l 
the Syrian Heliopolis [BAALGAD], and this may
have led to the application to this district of the
term Aven, which means'nothingness, emptiness,' 
and is used of idols (Is. lxvi. 3). The LXX. On
refers it directly to Heliopolis, that being the de- 
signation of the Egyptian city of this name. In                   ii6.
Ez. xxx. I 7 they give'HXoovuroXts. In these passages there is a play on the word for the purpose  AXE. Several instruments of this description
of expressing contempt for the idolatry which, in are so discriminated in Scripture as to shew that
the estimation of the heathen, gave that city its the Hebrews had them of different forms and for
fame. [BETHAVEN].-W. L. A.                    various uses. I. ylt garzen, which occurs in Deut.
xix. 5; xx. I9; I Kings vi. 7; Is. x. 15. From*
AVIM, AVITES (D.y?; Sept. Eaiaot). [This
word has three distinct applications in the 0. T.                - _ _It is-i. a Gentile name, from K1I, and designates 
the inhabitants of that city, 2 Kings xvii. 31 [AvA]; 
2. the name of a town in Benjamin (Ruins-town), 
Josh. xviii. 23; the designation of] a people                              -
who originally occupied the southernmost portion
of that territory in Palestine along the Mediter- 
ranean coast, which the Caphtorim or Philistines            /
afterwards possessed (Deut. ii. 23). As the territory of the Avim is mentioned in Josh. xiii. 3, in        /             ~   -    -
addition to the five Philistine states, it would
appear that it was not included in theirs, and that 
the expulsion of the Avim was by a Philistine
invasion prior to that by which the five principalities were founded. The territory began at Gaza,1
and extended southward to'the river of Egypt'/ 
(Deut. ii. 23), forming what was the sole Philistine 
kingdom of Gerar in the time of Abraham. The 
original country of the Avim is called Hazerim 
in Deut. ii. 23. [GERAR; PHILISTINES.] [These
Avim have been identifiecd with the Hivites; but,
I. the words O~JY and 4M are radically distinct;7
2. the district belonging to the Hivites is different these passages it appears that this kind was emfrom that of the Avites. [HIVITES.] From the ployed in felling trees, and in hewing large timber.
etymology of the word, the Avim are supposed to for building. The conjecture of Gesenius that, in
have been dwellers in ruins.'To what an anti- I Kings vi. 7, it denotes the axe of a stonemason
quity,' exclaims Mr. Stanley,'does this carry us is by no means conclusive. The first text supposes
back!-ruins before the days of those who pre- a case of the head slipping from the helve in felling
ceded the Philistines;' Sin. and Palest. p. II9.] a tree. This would suggest that it was shaped like
AVITH    (i, Sept. rerOatci), a town of Idu- fig. 3, which is just the same instrument as our
AVITH.(n;  Sept. ra)  a town of Idu- common hatchet, and appears to have been applied
mea, the seat of Hadad, the son of Bedad (Gen. by the ancient Egyptians to the same general use
xxxvi. 35; I Chron. i. 46). In the latter passage as with us. The reader will observe the contrivance
the textual reading is nistV, but this evident mistake in all the others (wanting in this) of fastening the
is corrected in the K'ri, which is followed by the head to the haft by thongs. 2.'*1tD maatzad,




AYARIM                    269                AZMAVETH
which occurs only in Is. xliv. 12; and Jer. x. 3. a very common name among the Hebrews, and
From these passages it appears to have been a hence borne by a considerable number of persons
lighter implement than the former, or a kind of mentioned in Scripture.
adze, used for fashioning or carving wood into  I. A high-priest (I Chron. vi. 9) [the son of
shape; it was, probably, therefore, like figs. 4 to  Ahimaaz, and grandson of Zadok, whom he seems
7, which the Egyptians employed for this purpose. to have immediately succeeded, I Kings iv. 2].
Some texts of Scripture represent axes as being  2. Son of Johanan, a high-priest (I Chron. vi.,employed in carving images-the use to which the  Io). [The statement that'he it is that executed
prophets refer. The differences of form and size, the priest's office in the temple that Solomon built,'
as indicated in the figures, appear to have been should probably be transferred to his grandfather,
determined with reference to light or heavy work: ver. 9. ]
fig. 5 is a finer carving-tool. 3. J'p quardom;  3. The high-priest who' opposed king Uzziah in
this is the commonest name for -an axe or hatchet. offering incense to Jehovah (2 Chron. xxvi. I7).
It is this of which we read in Judg. ix. 48; Ps.  4. A high-priest in the time of Hezekiah (2
lxxiv. 5; I Sam. xiii. 20, 21; Jer. xlvi. 22. It Chron. xxxi. Io).
appears to have been more exclusively employed  5. The father of Seraiah, who was the last highthan the garzen for felling trees, and had therefore priest before the Captivity (I Chron. vi. I4).
probably a heavier head. In one of the Egyptian  6. [One of'the priests, the men of the plain,'
sculptures the inhabitants of Lebanon are repre- who repaired part of the wall of Jerusalem by his
sented as felling pine-trees with axes like fig. I. own house (Neh. iii. 23)].
As the one used by the Egyptians for the same   7. Captain of king Solomon's guards (I Kings
purpose was also of this shape, there is little doubt iv. 5).
that it was also in use among the Hebrews. [4.  8. Otherwise called Uzziah, king of Judah,
t132 barzel, literally'iron' 2 Kings vi. 5], but as [UZZIAH.]
an axe is certainly intended, the passage is valuable  9. A prophet who met king Asa on his return
as shewing that some axe-heads among the Hebrews from a great victory over the Cushite king Zerah
were of iron. Those which have been found in (2 Chron. [xv. I; in v. 8 perhaps the words' Oded
Egypt are of bronze, which was very anciently and the prophet' are to be omitted.]
generally used for the purpose.-J. K.           Io. i. Son of Jeroboam, and A. son of Obed,
two persons to whom   the high-priest Jehoiada
AYARIM (.Bt.). This word isrenderedfoals, made known the secret of the existence of the
Gen. xxxii. 15; ass-cots, Judg. x. 4; xii. 14  and young prince Joash, and who assisted in placing
young asses, Is. xxx., 24. The singular 1n)  him on the throne (2 Chron. xxiii. I).
also is used, Gen. xlix. 1, andJob xi. 12; in the for-  12. Two of the seven sons of king Jehoshaphat
mer of which it isrenderedfoal, in the latter wildass's (2 Chron. xxi. ).
colt. Gesenius gives the meaning young ass, ass's  I13 One of the'proud men  who rebuked
colt, and with this agrees the general opinion. Jeremiah for advising the people that remained in
But on what does this rest? Not certainly on the Palestine, after the expatriation to Babylon, not to
usage of the word; for in none of the above pas- retire into Egypt; and who took the prophet him
sages are the animals denoted necessarily young, self and Baruch along with them to that country
whilst in several of them it can only be an adult (Jer. xliii. 2-7).
animal that is meant. The animals that bare the I4. The Hebrew name of Abed-nego, one of
sons of Jair, and the sons and nephews of Abdon, Daniel's three friends who were cast into the fiery
the animals that shared with camels the burdens furnace (Dan. i. 7; iii 9).
they carried, and that were employed to ear the  AZARIAH, MIN HA-ADOMIM [Rossi DE.]
ground, could not have been mere colts. It may  AZA         ATO  MET, DA
be added that had it been the foal of the ass that AZAZ      [ATONEMENT, DAY OF.]
was intended in Gen. xxxii. 16 (15), we should  AZEKAH (npty,'A~Kd), a town in the plain
probably have had after 1n1n1  simply nlnZll, as of Judah with dependent villages ('Daughters');
in the beginning of the verse after  1.nl  The see Josh. x. 10, II; xv. 35; I Sam. xvii. 1; 2
root of the word is'1f) fervere, aestuare, which is Chron. xi 9; Neh. xi. 30; Jer. xxxiv. 7. It has
supposed to have given a name to the ass from its not been yet identified, though 7ell Zakariya has
lascivious tendencies. This also is unfavourable to  been suggested as its existing representative.the supposition that the colt is intended by it. The W. L. A.
term seems rather to denote the animal in its full  A        te P       rm o    e   
vigour and maturity.-W. L. A.AZEM                            the     l-    of, a tow
AZAL, AZEL (. V). I. The name of a manofJudah (Josh. xv, 29; xix 3).
~r- T                         AZMAVETH (111*t;         Sept.'Ar'I05).  This
(LXX.'ElX), I Chron. viii. 37, 38; ix. 44. 2   AZMAVETH       (; Sept.           This
The designation given to the termination of the word occurs both as the name of a place and as a
cleft of Olivet represented in vision to the prophet man's name. It was evidently a Benjamite name,
(LXX.'Iao68, V. R. do-a)X) Zech. xiv. 5. Jerome as of those who are named as bearing it most were,
takes this as an appellative, and renders usque ad and all may have been, of that tribe; and the place
proximum.   Others regard it as a proper name, seems to have been in Benjamin, for it is named
and that of the gate of Jerusalem up to which the along with Anathoth, Kirjath-jearim, and other
cleft should reach (Hitzig, KA. Pr. in loc. Hender- Benjamite towns. Probably it was the place that
son, Min. Pr. in loc.) —W. L. A.              gave name to the men, for we read of the BeneiAZARIAH (   whom ehova' a    r- Azmaveth, two of whom were among those that
AZARIAH (.1., whzom Jehovah aids, answer- came to help David (I Chron. xii. 3), and fortying to the German name Gotthelf; Sept.'Araplas), two of whom returned from the Captivity with




AZMON                     270                   BA'AL
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 24).  Of the men named    His priesthood, the proper term for which seems
simply Azmaveth there are three-I. Azmaveth to be D'n3, were a very numerous body (I Kings
the Barhumite, or Baharumite (i. e., of Bahurim), xviii. I9), and were divided into the two classes of
one of the mighty men of David (2 Sam. xxiii. 3 I; I prophets.and of priests (unless the term' servants,
Chron. xi. 33); 2. A  descendant of Saul and   which comes between those words, may denote a
Jonathan (I Chron. viii. 36; ix. 42; in the former third order-a kind of Levites; 2 Kings x. I9).
of these passages his father is called Jehoadah, in  As to the rites by which he was worshipped, there
the latter Jarah); 3. The son of Adiel and over- is most frequent mention of incense being offered to
seer of David's treasures (I Chron. xxvii. 25).- him (2 Kings xxiii. 5), but also of bullocks being
W. L. A.                                       sacrificed (I Kings xviii. 26), and even of children,
as to Moloch (Jer. xix. 5). According to the deAZMON (1pi    ), a place on the southern boun- scription in I Kings xviii., the priests, during the.
dary of Palestine, near to Hazar-addar, and be- sacrifice, danced (or, in the sarcastic expression of
tween which and the river of Egypt, the boundary- the original, limtped) about the altar, and, when
line'fetched a compass' (51: 3D, Num. xxxiv. their prayers were not answered, cut themselves
5; Josh. xv. 4). In the former of these passages with knives until the blocd flowed, like the priests
5the LXX. give'A;rva, in the latter peaXsIsd. of Bellona (Lucan. Pharsal. i. 565; Tertull. ApoloIt has been identified with Aseimeh, a place lying get' ix  Lactant Div. nstit. i.  ).  We also
to the west of Kudeis (Kadesh). (Williams, Holy read of homage paid to him by bowing the knee,
City, i. 467.)-W. L. A.                       and by kissing his image (I Kings xix. I8; comp.
Cicero, In Verrem, iv. 43), and that his worshipAZNOTH-TABOR (CymrnjI; Sept.'Aravc,0        pers used to swear by his name (Jer. xii. 16).
~  aland-mark onheestrAs to the power of nature which was adored under
eapI3hlp), a land-mark on the western boundary of the form of the Tyrian Baal, many of the passages
Naphthali.  Eusebius places it in the plain on  above cited shew evidently that it was one of the
the confines of Dio-Cesarea        heavenly bodies; or, if we admit that resemblance
AZZAH (1t3y), the proper mode of spelling the between the Babylonian and Persian religions
Hebrew namewhich is elsewhere rendered Gaza. which Miinter assumes, not one of the heavenly
bodies really, but the astral spirit residing in one of
The name occurs in this form in Deut. ii. 23; Jer. thems and the same line  of induction as that which
xxv. 20; which last clearly shews, that Gaza is them; and the same line of induction as that which
intended.                                      is pursued in the case of Ashtoreth, his female
counterpart, leads to the conclusion that it was the
sun. Nevertheless, the same difference oT opinion
B                        between Gesenius and Minter as that on the subject of Ashtoreth meets us here in the case of Baal,
BA'AL.      The word A 2_ ba'al, as it signifies and of the Babylonian Bel, which we shall, in what
BA'AL. The wor, as it siifies  llows, regard as being essentially the same god.
lord, master, is a generic term for god in many of The former —who has stated his arguments in his
the Syro-Arabian languages.  As the idolatrous  Thesaurus, in his Yesaias, and at some length in
nations of that race had several gods, this word, the Allgemeine Encyclopedie, vols. viii. and xvi.by means of some accessory distinction, became maintains that the idolatry of Babylon was astroloapplicable as a name to many different deities. gical, and that, from  the connection between
There is no evidence, however, that the Israelites Aramaean and Phoenician religious ideas, Baal and
ever called Jehovah by the name of Baal; for the  Bel were representatives of the planet Yupiter, as
passage in Hos. ii. i6, which has been cited as such, the greater star of good fortune.  He builds much
only contains the word baal as the sterner, less on the facts, that the Arabian idolaters worshipped
affectionate representative of husband.       this planet under the name of Mushteri, and sacri-.BAAL (A     with the definite article Judg. ficed a sucking-child to him on a Thursday (dies. BAAL,  with the definite article, Judg.  ois), and that his temple was pyramidal (see
ii. 13; Sept. 6 BdaX, but also i) BdaX, Jer. xix. 5; Norberg's Onomast. Cod. Nas. p. 28); that Bel is
xxxix. 35; Rom. xi. 4) is appropriated to the chief also the name of this planet in the Tsabian books;
male divinity of the Phoenicians, the principal seat and that the Romans called the Babylonian Bel by
of whose worship was at Tyre. The idolatrous the name of Jupiter.  He asserts that the words
Israelites adopted the worship of this god (almost'to Baal, to the sun,' in 2 Kings xxiii. 5, so far
always in conjunction with that of Ashtoreth) in the from  proving the identity of Baal and the sun,
period of the Judges (Judg. ii. 13); they continued  rather directly oppose it; and, as it is impossible to
it in the reigns of Ahaz and Manasseh, kings of deny that the sun was worshipped by the PhoeniJudah (2 Chron. xxviii. 2; 2 Kings xxi. 3); and  cians, he evades the force of the passage from Sanamong the kings of Israel, especially in the reign of choniathon, cited below, by arguing that, even
Ahab, who, partly through the influence of his allowing that the sun was the chief Tyrian god acwife, the daughter of the Sidonian king Ethbaal, cording to the entire religious system, it does not
appears to have made a systematic attempt to sup- follow that he was necessarily the Baal Ki arC' oXv,
press the worship of God altogether, and to substi- the most worshipped god of Tyre or Babylon;
tute that of Baal in its stead (I Kings xvi. 31); and just as, in the middle ages, the excessive worship
in that of Hoshea (2 Kings xvii. 6), although Jehu  of patron saints and of the Virgin Mary was comand Jehoiada once severally destroyed the temples patible with a theoretical acknowledgment of the
and priesthood of the idol (2 Kings x. 18, sq.; xi. I8). Supreme Being.
We read of altars, images, and temples erected  Miinter, on the other hand, in his Religion der
to Baal (I Kings xvi. 32; 2 Kings iii. 2). The Babylonier, does not deny the astrological character
altars were generally on heights, as the summits of of the Babylonian religion, but maintains that,
hills or the roofs of houses (Jer. xix. 5; xxxii. 29). together with and besides that, there existed in very




BA'AL                    271                   BA'AL
early times a cosmogonical idea of the primitive has been compared to the Ze)s"OpKIos of the Greeks,
power of nature, as seen in the two functions of and the Latin Deus Fidius. Bochart and Creuzer
generation and of conception or parturition; that think that this name means'God of Berytus;' but
this idea is most evident in the Kabiric religion, but as the name of that town is probably to be recogthat it exists all over the East; and that the sun nized in the nr'wii  of Ezek. xlvii. i6, there is
and moon were the fittest representatives of these hardly any ground for their opinion.
two powers. He does not admit that the Tsabian 
books, or Ephraem Syrus, are any authority for   3. BAAL PEOR (j'23, or sometimes only
the religious notions of the Babylonians at a period I')Dt, respectively represented in the Sept. by
so remote from their own time, and especially when  BeeXqe-ycp, and (boybp) appears to have been
they are opposed by better and older testimonies. properly the idol of the Moabites (Num. xxv. I-9;
Among these, he relies much on the statement of Deut. iv. 3; Jos. xxii. 17; Ps. cvi. 28; Hos. ix.
Sanchoniathon (p. I4, ed. Orelli), that the Phoeni- io); but also of the Midianites (Num. xxxi. 15,
cians considered the sun to be'u6bvos oipavov K6ptoS,'  6).
calling him'Beelsamen, which is the Zeus of the  It is the common opinion that this god was
Greeks.' Balsamen (i. e., 1KPW $p  lord of the worshipped by obscene rites; and, from the time
heavens) also occurs in Plautus (PzuZt. act. v. s.of Jerome downwards, it has been usual to compare
2. 67), where Bellermann, Lindemann, and Ge-him to Priapus.     Selden and J. Owen (e Diis
senius recognize it to be the same name. Isidorus Syris, i. 5; Theologoumena, v. 4) seem to be the
Hispalensis has the words,'Apud Assyrios Bel only persons who have dispted whether any of the
vocatur, quadam sacrorum suorum ratione, et passages in which this god is named really warrant
Saturnus et Sol' (Orzig ii.Vii.  ).  We moreoversuch a conclusion. The utmost that those passages
express is the fact that the Israelites received this
find Drln Utl (i. e., deus solaris, from,1D, the idolatry from the women of Moab, and were led
sun, Job xxx. 28, with the adjective ending dn; see away to eat of their sacrifices (cf. Ps. cvi. 28); but
Ewald's Hebr. Gram. ~ 34I) in several Cartha- it is very possible for that sex to have been the
ginian inscriptions (in Gesen. Mon. Ling. Phdrn, p. means of seducing them into the adoption of their
I64), which is an evidence that the Carthaginians  worship, without the idolatry itself being of an
worshipped the sun.                            obscene kind. It is also remarkable that so few
As to Gesenius's assertion that 2 Kings xxiii. 5 authors are agreed even as to the general character
is opposed to the identity of Baal and the sun, a of these rites. Most Jewish authorities (except the
consideration of the whole passage would seem to  Targum of Jonathan on Num. xxv.) represent his
shew he has judged hastily.   The words are, worship to have consisted of rites which are filthy
which burnt incense to Baal, to the sun, and to in the extreme, but not lascivious (see Braunius,
the moon, and to the zodiacal signs, and to all the De Vestit. Sacerd. i. p. 7, for one of the fullest
host of the heavens.' Now the omission of the collections of Jewish testimonies on this subject).
and before the sun appears decidedly to favour the If, however, it could be shewn that this god was
notion that the sun is an apposition to Baal, and worshipped by libidinous rites, it would be one more
not a distinct member of the same co-ordinate confirmation of the relation between Baal and the
series. This view might, perhaps, recommend it- sun; as, then, Baal Peor would be a masculine
self to those who appreciate the peculiar use of and phasis of the same worship as that of which
in the Hebrew syntax. Besides solar images (as he Mylitta is, both in name and rites, the female reprehimself interprets D itn) are mentioned in 2 Chron. sentative. The sense assigned by the Rabbins to
xxxiv. 4, as being placed on the altars of the Baals; the verb'i.V is now generally considered untenable.
which is not well reconcilable with any other theory  Peor (hiatus) is supposed to have been the original
than that of the identity of Baal and the sun.  name of the mountain, and Baal Peor to be the
In a certain sense, every argument which goes to designation of the god worshipped there. The
shew that Ashtoreth was the moon is also, on verb 1DS, to be bound, coupled, which is only
account of the close conjunction between her and used in the Old Testament to denote being joined
Baal, as valid a reason for Baal being the sun; for to Baal Peor, has been supposed to express either
the two gods are such exact correlates, that the dis- some obscene rite, or some mere symbol of mitiacovery of the true meaning of the one would lead, tion in the worship of this god. The Sept. renders
by the force of analogy, to that of the other. it by &reXd&OOav; and J. D. Michaelis first tried
Nevertheless, as has been already observed in the to reconcile the primitive sense of binding with the
article ASHTORETH, it must be admitted that the notion of initiation, by taking it to mean binding on
astrological view did subsequently prevail, and that filles. Gesenius, however, points to the same verb
the planets Jupiter and Venus became mysteriously in Ethiopic, in the sense of to serve, to worship;
connected with some modifications of the same and maintains that that is its force here. Neverpowers which were primarily worshipped under the theless Hitzig, in his note to Hos. ix. Io, still
cosmogonical ideas of Bel and Mylitta, sun and tries to shew that the verb may mean to wear a
moon. This relation between Baal and the planet band, as symbol of initiation; and argues that
Jupiter is noticed in the article GAD. For the re- VYi-,  there used, as contrasted with the appropriate
lation between Baal and Moloch, and that between  word IUnt, implies the correspondence between
Baal and Melkarth, the Tyrian Hercules, see the It and the at        (cf. 2 Sam. i. Io). Some
MOLOCH and HERCULES. [BAL.]                   identify this god with CHEMOSH.
2. BAAL BERITH (rn".      3, covenant lord;   4. BAALZEBUB ('3.T 5p>,   Fly-lord; Sept. rq
Sept. Vat. BaaX/pepl; Alexand. -BdaX 8taO5K77s; BdaX tiv'iav Oe6v, always; where more than one
Judg. ix. 4) is the name of a god worshipped by emendation appears necessary) occurs in 2 Kings i.
the people of Shechem (Judg. viii. 33; ix. 4, 46), 2-16, as the god of the Philistines at Ekron, whose
who, on account of the signification of the name, oracle Ahaziah sent to consult. There is much




BAAL                     272                  BAAL
diversity of opinion as to the signification of this lay so near the line of separation between Dan and
name, according as authors consider the title to be Judah, that the fields only were in the former tribe,
one of honour, as used by his worshippers, or one the buildings being in the latter.
of contempt. The former class find a parallel to
him-in the Zebs'A7r6fvLos of Elis, and suppose that  4. BAALTH-BEER (IN  n'; Sept. Ba*XdK),
he was regarded as the god who delivered his probably the same as the Baal of I Chron. iv. 33worshippers from the annoyance of flies. We are a city of Simeon; called also Ramath-Negeb, or
unable, however, to discern the appositeness of Southern Ramath (Josh. xix. 8; comp. I Sam.
this parallel. The name Fly-lord appears rather to xxx. 27).
mean the god of flies than the averter and destroyer BAAL-GAD         Sept. B      ), a city
of flies. As this name is the one used by Ahaziah  5 BA-GAD (; Sept. B      ), a city
himself, it is difficult to suppose that it was not the' in the valley of Lebanon under Mount Hermon'
proper and reverential title of the god; and the (Josh. xi. 17; xii. 7). We are also informed that
more so, as Beelzebub, in Matt. x. 25, seems to be among those parts of Palestine which were unsubthe contemptuous corruption of it. Any explana- dued by the Hebrews at the death of Joshua, was
tion, therefore, of the symbolical sense in which'all Lebanon towards the sun-rising, from Baalflies may have been regarded in ancient religions, gad, under Mount Hermon, unto the entering into
and by which we could conceive how his wor- Hamath' (Josh. xiii. 5). This position of Baal-gad
shippers could honour him as the god of flies, is not unfavourable to the conclusion which some
would appear to us much more compatible with have reached, that it is no other than the place
his name than the only sense which can be derived which, from a temple consecrated to the sun, that
from the Greek parallel. This receives some con- stood there, was called by the Greeks Heliopolis,
firmation, perhaps, from the words of Josephus i.e., city of the sun; and which the natives called
(Antiq. ix. 2. I), who says,'Ahaziah sent to the and still call Baalbek.
god Fly, for that is the name of the god' (rf 0eO).  Baalbek, in the Syrian language, signifies the city
The analogy of classical idolatry would lead us of Baal, or of the sun; and, as the Syrians never
to conclude that all these Baals are only the same borrowed names from the Greeks, or translated
god under various modifications of attributes and Greek names, it is certain that when the Greeks
emblems; but the scanty notices to which we owe came into Syria they found the place bearing this
all our knowledge of Syro-Arabian idolatry do not name or some other signifying'city of the sun,'
furnish data for any decided opinion on this sub- since they termed it Heliopolis, which is doubtless
ject.-J. N.                                   a translation of the native designation. We entertain no doubt that it was then called Baalbek by
BAAL is often found as the first element of the natives. Now the question is, whether this
compound names of places. In this case, Gesenius word has the same meaning as Baal-gad, and if
thinks that it seldom, if ever, has any reference to not, whether any circumstances can be pointed out
the god of that name; but that it denotes the place as likely to occasion the change of name. If we
which possesses, which is the abode of the thing take Baal for the name of the idol, then, as in the
signified by the latter half of the compound-as if case of Baalbek, the last member of the word must
it was a synonyme of n'. The best support of be taken as a modifying appellation, not as in itself
this opinion is the fact that baal and beth are used a proper name; and as Gad means'a troop, a multiinterchangeably of the same place; as Baalshalisha tude, or a press ofpeople, Baal-gad will mean Baal's
and Baaltamar are called by Eusebius Bethshalisha crowd, whether applied to the inhabitants, or to the'
and Bethtamar. [BAAL-PERAZIM.]-J. N.          place as a resort of pilgrims. The syllable bek has
I. BAALAH, BAALE-JUDAH, KIRJATH-BAAL. precisely the same meaning in the Arabic.
[KIRJATH JEARIM.]                               If this should not seem satisfactory, we may conJEARI.],~ d.clude that Baal was so common an element in the
2. BAALAH (iy.,~ Josh. xv. 29), BALAH (n3, composition of proper names, that it is not suffiJosh. xix. 3), BILHAH (nfbllS, I Chron. iv. 29), a ciently distinctive to bear the stress of such an
To -       3       X )  interpretation; and may rather take it to signify
town in the tribe of Simeon, usually confounded  (as Gesenius says it always does in geographical
with Baalath; but, as the latter was in Dan and combinations) the place where a thing is found.
this in Simeon, they would appear to have been According to this view Baal-gad would mean the
distinct.                                    place of Gad. Now Gad was an idol (Is. lxv. 1 ),
D3. BAALATH (^; Septo. -reEExdY), a town in \supposed to have been the god or goddess of good
3. BAALATH (t3.' -; Sept. rdeeeXd^), a town in fortune (comp. Sept. T6Xg; Vulg. Fortuna), and
the tribe of Dan (Josh. xix. 44), apparently the identified by the Jewish commentators with the
same that was afterwards rebuilt by Solomon (I planet upiter.  [GAD.] Butit iswellknown that
Kings ix. I8). Many have conjectured this Baalath  Baal was identified with Jupiter as well as with the
to be the same as Baalbek; but in that case it sun; and it is not difficult to connect Baalbek with
must have lain in northernmost Dan, whereas the the worship of Jupiter. John of Antioch affirms
possession of it is ascribed to that tribe when its that the great temple at Baalbek was dedicated to
territory was wholly in the south of Judah, and Jupiter; and in the celebrated passage of Macromany years before the migration (recorded in Judg. bius (Saturnal. i. 23), in which he reports that the
xviii.) which gave Dan a northern territory. Cor- worship of the sun was brought by Egyptian priests
respondingly, Josephus places the Baalath of Solo- to Heliopolis in Syria, he expressly states that they
mon (which he calls Baleth) in the southern part of introduced it under the name of Jupiter (sub nomine
Palestine, near to Gazara (Antti. viii. 6. I), within  7ovis). This implies that the worship of Jupiter
the territory which would have belonged to Dan, was already established and popular at the place,
had it acquired possession of the lands originally  and that heliolatry previously was not; and thereassigned to it. The Talmud affirms that Baalath fore we should rather expect the town to have




BAAL                      273                   BAAL
borne some name referring to Jupiter than to the  could not then be called by any name correspondsun; and may be sure that a name indicative of ing to Heliopolis.*
heliolatry must have been posterior to the intro-  Baalbek is pleasantly situated on the lowest deduction of that worship by the Egyptians; and, as clivity of Anti-Libanus, at the opening'of a small
we have no ground for supposing that this took  valley into the plain El-Bekaa.  Through this
place before or till long after the age of Joshua, it valley runs a small stream, divided into number8. Baalbek.
less rills for irrigation. The place is in N. lat. have been between Bethel and Jericho {Paia.stina,
34~ I' 30", and E. long. 36~ ii', distant 109 geog. i. 377).
miles from Palmyra, and 38 from Tripoli.             BAAL-HERMON (           ).   The Septua
6. BAAL-HAMON (tiD      _.; Sept. BeeXcL/xo*v), gint makes two names of'this in i Chron. v. 23,
a place where Solomon is said to have had a vine- BadX, Epluzbv'; and in Judg. iii. 3, where the oriyard (Cant. viii. xl).  Rosenmiiller conceives that ginal has'Mount Baal-Hermon,' it has 6povs tro
W, ZX.
if this8. Baal-Hamon was the name of a place that  Aepiv, Mount Hermon.  It seems to have been a
actually existed, it may be reasonably supposed  place in or near Mount Hermon, and  not far from
m     ay have bee n a  corruption of Amon, the Hebrew  place.
way of pro     n ouncing the Amm on of the Egyptians 
(see Nah. iii. 8), whom the Greeks identified with  BAAL-MEN (          V        The Septua. B
Jupiter Bi. G         eog. ii. p. 253).  We are not inclined gintum. xxxii. 38;  Chron. v. 8; otherwise BETHto lay much stress on this conjecture. There was MEON, Jer. xlviii. 23; and BETH-BAAL-MEON,
a place called Hamon, in tribe of Asher (Josh. Josh. xiii. Ep7), a town in udg iii. 3, wherthe tribe of Reuben bex     ix. 28), which Ewald thinks was the same as y  ond the Jordan, but  which was in the possession
B   aal-Hamon.  T  he book of Judith (viii. 3) places of the  Moabites in the time of Ezekiel (xxv. 9).
a Bctualamonly existed, it m ay be reasonably supposedAt the distane   of two  miles south-east of Heshidentral P al     estine, which suggests another alterna- b on, Burckhardt found the ruins of a place called
tive.                                           Myoun, or (as Dr. Robinson corrects it) Mi'Hebrew  place.n,
which is doubtless the same, although Eusebius
7. BAAL-HAZOR (uc  g    3; Sept. BepXcronp), makes the distance greater.
the place where Absalom kept his flocks, and held
his sheep-shearing feast (2 Sam. xiii. 23). The Greeks identifi BAAL-PERAIM ( 3; Sept. BaX
Targum makes it'th     e plain of Hazor.' It is saidu rapaiv). This name, meaning d place of breaches,'
to have bee   n'beside Ephraim,' not in ther (Jo.  osh. x 7    o          tribe of
that name, but near the city c   alled Ephraim, which * [Gesenius rejects this opinion as unfounded
was in thalHamon  The book of J udah,  and is mentioned in  (hes. in voc.), and so does Raumer (Palst. p.
tive2 Chron. xiii.                                        (a; John xi. 5. This  215,-3ded). Robinson identifies Baal-Gad with the
placed by Eusebius eight miles from Jerusalem on  modern Banias (La. Res. p. 409), in which he is
2 Chron. xiii. i9; John xi. 54. This Ephraim is 2I5,- 3d ed). Robinson identifies Baal-Gad with the
placed by Eusebius eight miles from Jerusalem on  modern Banias (Lat Res. p. 409), in which he is
the road to Jericho; and is supposed by Reland to  probably right. ]
VOL. I. 




BAAL                     274           BABEL, TOWER OF
which David imposed upon a place in or near the Baanah is the name of-I. a captain of Saul's
valley of Rephaim, where he defeated the Philis- army, who, with his brother Rechab, murdered
tines (2 Sam. v. 20; comp. I Chron. xiv. I i; Is. Ishbosheth, and brought his head to David. For
xxviii. 2i), is important as being the only one with this David caused them to be executed (2 Sam.
the prefix Baal of which we know the circum- iv. 2-12); 2. the father of Heleb or Heled, one
stances under which it was imposed; and we are of David s mighty men, a Netophathite (2 Sam.
thus enabled to determine that the word was some- xxiii. 29); 3. one of those who returned from captimes at least used appellatively without any refer- tivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. I; Neh. vii. 7).
ence to the name of the idol Baal or to his worship.
BAASHA (RW32];     Sept. Baaad), the son of
II. BAAL-SHALISHA (nt._Wj 5Y3; BatOapdcf, Ahijah, and third king of Israel.  The name,
Cod. Alex. BaOBapLad, 2 Kings. iv. 42), a place according to Gesenius, is derived from  I3n1, an
in the district of Shalisha (I Sam. ix. 4). Eusebius obsolete word, signifying to be bad; whilst others
and Jerome describe it as a city fifteen Roman  derive it from #i'Y, to work, or from t)y, a moth,
miles north from Diospolis, near Mount Ephraim.  or from p'3;, to oppress; all alike uncertain. He
2. BTAMR   ( l   Sept. BdX  -  instigated a conspiracy against Nadab, the son of
12. BAAL-TAMAtR (~     ty'; Sept. BadIX ea- Jeroboam, and having slain him, took possession,udp), a place near Gibeah, in the tribe of Benjamin,of his throne. His reign was that of a restless,
where the other tribes fought with the Benjamites warlike, and ungodly prince. Constantly at war
(Judg. xx. 33). Eusebius calls it Bethamar, thus with the king of Judah, he at one time advanced
affording an instance of that interchange of Beth  almost to Jerusalem, and reduced its king to such
and Baal which is also exemplified in the preceding  extremities, that he had to call to his aid Benarticle and in Baal-Meon.                     hadad, king of Syria, who by attacking the terriI                     tory of Baasha compelled him to retire from Judah.
13. BAAL-ZEPHON    (t'0:?y; Sept. Beek- The town of Ramah, which he had. begun to
ac7rQv), a town belonging to Egypt, on the bor- build in order to blockade the king of Judah, was
der of the Red Sea (Exod. xiv. 2; Num. xxxiii. 7).demolished by the latter after his retreat, and the
Forster (Epist. adJ(.  D.Michaeem, p. 28) believes materials used to build the towns of Mizpeh and
it to have been the same place as HeroopolisGeba. Baasha reigned twenty-four years (from
('Hpww7r6Xs) on the western gulf of the Red Sea 953 to 930, B.C., according to Ussher; 955 to 932,
(Plin. Hist. Nat. v. 12; Strabo, xvii. p. 836; according to Thenius; 961 to 937, according to
Ptolem. iv. 5), where Typhon (which Forster makes Ewald). He lived at Tirzah, where also he was
in Coptic AfI1O N; but, conitn, see Rosenmuller, buried (I Kings xv. 16; xvi. 6; 2 Chron. xvi.
Alterthum. iii. 26I) was worshipped. But accord- I-6).-W. L. A.
ing to Manetho (Joseph. Contra Apion. i. 26), the  BABEL. [BABYLON.]
name of Typhon's city was Avaris (Adapts). In
fact, nothing is known of the situation of Baal-  BABEL, TOWER OF. In Gen. xi. I-9 we have
may be    an account of the commencement of the building
ephon; and whatever conectured with a  osidermed  of a city and a tower by the early occupants of the
respecting it must be connected with a considera- plain in the land of Shin'ar. This tower was to be
tionof the route taken by the Israelites in leaving
Egypt, for it was'over against Baal-zephon' that f brick, cemented by bitumen, and the top of it
they were encamped before they passed the Red  was to reach unto heaven, an expression which
Sea. [EXODUS.]J. K.                           probably means no more than that it was to be
Sea. [EXODUS.]-J. K.          very high (comp. Deut. i. 28; ix. I, and the use
BAAL also appears as forming part of a personal of opavoAxK7so in the classics, e.g., Od. v. 239;
proper name in BAAL-HANAN. Two persons bear- Herod. ii. 138; ~Esch. Ag. 92). The building of
ing this name are mentioned in Scripture: I. One this tower was arrested in the course of its progress
of the early kings of Idumea (Gen. xxxvi. 38, 39; by the divine interposition; but whether it was left
I Chron. i 49, 50); 2. One of David's officers who  ultimately in its originally unfinished state, or was
was set over the olive trees and the sycamore trees completed on a humbler scale, and turned to some
that were in the Shephelah (i Chron. xxvii. 28). other use, no record remains to tell. Tradition
He is described as a Gederite, by which is probably asserts that it was utterly cast down, and that
intended a native of Gederah, a town situated in  Babylon was built out of its ruins (Abydenus in
that district. Baal-hanan (ln  V}:) may be inter- Eusebius, Prp. Evangel., bk. ix. ch. 15; Sybilla
preted Baal is gracious,  ut it may ain Joseph. Anti., bk. i. ch. 4, ~ 3). Benjamin of
preted Baa? is gracious, butit may also mean Tudela says it was struck with fire from heaven,
possessor of grace; and this is the more probable T ea
~meanings of it as borne by an Israelite.-W. L. A. which rent it to the foundations, a tradition which
meaning of it as borne by an Israelite.-W. L. A. still subsists among the Arabs, and to which the
still subsists among the Arabs, and to which the
BAALIS (DO.; Sept. BeXeroad), a king of calcined and vitrified masses which surround the
~,~:  ^ *' i  ^'base of the Birs Nemroud seem to give some
the Ammonites, at whose instigation Gedaliah was base of the Birs Nemroud seem to give some
the Ammonites, at whose instigation Gedaliah was countenance (Bochart, Phaleg, bk. i. ch. 9; Asher's
slain by Ishmael, the son of Nethaniah (Jer. xl. 14).  Translation of Benjamin of  udela's Itinerary;
BAANA     (bytp; Sept. Bapdc, Baavc).  The  Rich, Memoirs on the Ruins of Babylon).
name of-I. one of Solomon's officers who had the  Various hypotheses have been advanced as to the
cname of-. one of Solomon'r te ki s whou had thedesign of the original builders in the erection of
charge of providing for the king~s household this tower. That they actually dreamt of. reach(i Kings iv. 12); 2. the father of Zadok, one of  i  eaen by such an erection is not to be sup
ing heaven by such an erection is not to be supthose who laboured in the rebuilding of Jerusalem  posed, though this hypothesis has found supporters
(Neh. d,. 4).  This nmhypothesis has found supporters
(Neh. iii. 4). This name seems to be the same as (Euseb. and Joseph. locc. citt.); nor is it likely
BAANAH (      ), which, indeed, occurs once in that they fell upon this device in order to preserve
the A. V. for it by mistake (I Kings iv. 16). themselves from a second deluge, as Josephus sug



BABEL, TOWER OF                 275           BABEL, TOWER OF
gests, for from this risk they must have felt them- later date, and besides, was not like the tower of
selves exempt, having God's promise that such a dis- Babel, within the city, but several miles from it;
aster should not recur. The reason assigned in the at least, if it be as Rawlinson and others conclude,
Bible is simply that they might make to them- on the site of the ancient Borsippa. The utmost
selves a name, lest they should be scattered abroad that can be said is, that in the plan of these erecupon the face of the whole earth. These words, tions, and in the materials of which they are comhowever, have been variously interpreted. The posed, we may find something to guide us in
word rendered name (MW) has been taken by some determining what sort of building the tower of
in the sense of sign, or monument; and it has been Babel was.
supposed that the purpose of the tower was to   Herodotus says of the temple of Belus:-' It had
serve as a guide to the nomadic inhabitants of that gates of brass, and was two stadia every way, being
district, by which they might find their way to the quadrangular; in the middle of the temple a solid
central residence of the community (Perizonius, tower was built, a stadium in height and breadth;
Orig. Babyl., pp. I93, I94). The objections to this and on this tower was placed another, and another
are, that Dt1 nowhere has this meaning; that the still on this, to the number of eight towers in all;
phrase nt nIgl has a fixed signification in Scrip- the ascent was on the outside, and was made by a
ture, that, namely of acquiring fame or celebrity winding passage round all the towers; and about
(see 2 Sam. viii. 13; Is. lxiii. 12, 14; Jer. xxxii. half way up the ascent there is a landing, and seats
20; Dan. ix. 15); and that for the mere purpose for rest, where those ascending may repose; and
of a signal tower there was no need in that level in the highest tower there is a large temple, and in
district of an erection so immense as this seems to the temple a large bed well furnished, and beside
have been. The LXX. have rendered the latter it a golden-table, but there is no statue erected in
clause of the verse by7 rpb roo BaTrap rvait 7a8, and it; and by night no one lodges in it, except a
this Philo, the Vulgate, and several of the ancient  ingle woman of the country, whom the god has
fathers have followed; but for this there is no selected from the rest, as say the Chaldeans, who
authority, as Tt never signifies before; and besides, are the priests of this God' (bk. i. ch. I8I).
it seems very improbable that such an idea, as that  The Birs Nemroud (palace of Nimrod) is a huge
which this rendering imputes to the builders of mass of ruins, composed of brick, slag, and broken
Babel, would enter into their minds.  Cocceius pottery. It rises to the height of x98 feet, and has
(in loc.) and Heidegger (Hist. Patriarch., t. i., on its summit a compact mass of brickwork, 37 feet
exerc. 21, ~ II) think that DW  denotes here a in height by 28 in breadth; so that the whole is
senate or body of persons who might preserve the 235 feet in height.
true tradition of the Noachic faith, and thereby
maintain a permanent bond throughout the race;
and Kurz (fist. of the Old Covenant, i. IIo) thinks 
that the Shem they sought to set up had reference
to the Shem God had chosen, and that in their              n
Hamite pride they resolved to combine their ener- 
gies, and provide for themselves a salvation independent of that which God had provided. All this  -       s 
seems fanciful and farfetched. The explanation of 
Rosenmiiller is, that the passage represents these 
builders as resolving to erect in their city a lofty
tower, in order that, by adorning and dignifying
their society, they might attract all, both then  -h
and in time to come, to it, and so prevent the                            a:
bond of community from being dissolved (Scholia,
in loc.)  In such a design, however, there is
nothing impious, and it is plain that impiety prominently marked the scheme in question. The
suggestion of the Targumists, Jonathan Ben Uzziel, and the Hierosolymitan, that the building
was intended for idolatrous worship, and as the
centre of a great warlike confederacy, is probably
not far from the truth (Bib. Polyglott. Londin.             1 9. Birs Nemroud.
vol. iv.)
Bochart repudiates the tradition that the building  When entire, it is supposed to have consisted of
was destroyed, and adopts the opinion that it sur- a series of seven platforms, rising one above the
vived the dispersion, and became the temple of other, but extending farther from the centre in
Belus, described by Herodotus. In this he follows front than behind, so as to present the appearance
Jewish tradition, and has been followed by the ma- of a much more perpendicular ascent in back than in
jority of more recent sch'lars. Of late, however, front. These steps are supposed to have been ornathe claims of the ruined'nound known as Birs mented with different colours, and to have been
Nemroud to be regarded is the site of the tower surmounted by a temple, such as that described by
of Babel have been urged by several writers. Herodotus as crowning the temple of Belus, or a
Neither opinion seems to rest on satisfactory evi- dwelling for the priests. The grand entrance was
dence. The temple of Belus, described by Hero- by the back, approached by a vestibule, the ruins
dotus, was a much later erection, and there is of which constitute the mound on the right of the
nothing to connect it with the tower mentioned by larger mass in the cut. The front faced the northMoses but Jewish tradition resting on conjecture. east; the back looked to the south-west. This
The erection at Birs Nemroud was also of much restoration is to a considerable extent conjectural,




BABINGTON                   276                 BABYLON
but as it is made after careful study of similar days of the sublime Porte. But it appears to us
mounds in other places, it is probably not far from  that, though the foundation of the Babel kingdom
by Nimrod is related in Gen. x. IO, and the buildzr1jI 1      )ing of the tower of Babel is not mentioned till the
following chapter, yet that this was really the
_-~ _ 1 Iearlier event in point of time, and that most proet so   12             bably Nimrod took what he found of the unfinished
e 30          J1           city in the plains of Shinar, and made that'the
80                1 _        beginning of his kingdom,' consequently he would
so                12         adopt the name which he already found in vogue,,t.do                     12       and of which the origin is what it is said to have
_el.[' -been at Gen. xi. 9. To make the narrative conto0 j                            12    sistent with itself, it seems necessary to understand
it thus.
X Jo —                                1      Description.-The description of Babylon given
272                    by Herodotus, who appears to have known it from
20. Restored elevation of the Birs Nemroud.  having been-there, is not easy to be reconciled
with the statements of other ancient writers who
the truth (Layard, Nineveh and Babylon, p. 497;  visited it, or with the character and position of
Rich, Memoirs on the Ruins of Babylon' Fer- those remains which are now supposed to repregusson, Handbook of Architecture, i. 183; Rawlin- sent this famous city. The description of Heroson, Translation of Herodotus, ii. p. 582-3; and  dotus is to this effect: The city stood on a broad
in Smith's Diet. of the Bible). -W. L. A.     plain, and was exactly square, being I20 furlongs
in length each way, so that the circumference of it
BABINGTON, GERV.ASE, an Anglican bishop, was 480 furlongs. It was surrounded by a broad
was born in Nottingham towards the middle of the and deep moat, which was kept full of water, and
sixteenth century. He was educated at Cambridge, beyond this there was a high wall, no less than
and became a fellow of Trinity College. He was 5o royal cubits in width, and 200 in height. It
successively bishop of Llandaff, of Exeter, and of must be borne in mind that there are other stateWorcester, He died in I6xo. His works have ments somewhat different from these.     Ctesias
been collected in one vol. fol., Lond. I622. They gives the circumference as 360 stadia, and others
are chiefly composed of notes on the books of the make it 365, 368, and 385. Also with respect to
Pentateuch, designated by the author'Comfortable the walls, Ctesias makes them to be 200 common
Notes,' and belonging to the class of homiletical cubits in height, there being the difference of three
rather than that of exegetical commentaries. They  fingers' breadth between the royal and common
are the product, however, of a man of sound and  cubit. This measurement in Pliny becomes 200
extensive learning, and have the richness of the feet, and in Strabo 75. Jeremiah makes allusion
olden style of thought in them. He wrote also on to the height and breadth of the walls of Babylon.
the Ten Commandments, and on the Lord's Prayer. Col. Rawlinson has recorded it as his opinion that
-W. L. A.                                     they did not exceed 60 or 70 English feet.
BABYLON, BABYLONIA.N       The word 5= is     It seems perfectly incredible to suppose that a
used in the Hebrew Scriptures to express the city city so large as Babylon could have been surknown by that name, and also the country of Baby- -ounded with walls which would have been higher
lonia, as, eg., in Ps. cxxxvii.,'By the rivers of than St. Paul's Cathedral, and yet that no vestige
Babylon we sat down and wept;*' 2 Kings xxiv.  of these walls can be discovered. M. Oppert, however, believes that he has found traces of them, or
etc., etc. Cyrus also is termed king of )31, or at least of the gates and towers of them, in some
Babylonia, in Ezra, v. I3, and Artaxerxes in Neh. of the tels or mounds which are common on both
xiii. 6, after the Babylonian rule, properlyso called, sides of the Euphrates. Herodotus affirms also
had given place to that of the Persians. There that of the soil which was taken out of the moat
seems to be no good reason for giving up the ety- surrounding the city, bricks were made of which
mology of the word indicated in Gen. xi. 9, from  the walls were built, and that, instead of cement,
5:, to mix, confound;'because the Lord did they used hot bitumnen,. brought from the Is, a
there confound the speech of all the earth.' Ge- small stream which flows into the Euphrates at the
senius gives instances of words similarly formed  point where the city of the same name stands,
v. his Thesaurus, s. v. Some, indeed, have sug-eight days' journey from Babylon. This place is
gested that the origin of the name is to be sought probably the same with that which is now called
in{.,..- (~~ the AHit, and Col. Rawlinson supposes it to be identical
in the Arabic.'.J. the gate orcourt of Bel; with the Ahava of Ezra viii. 15, 21. Upon the
supposing  t o be used for  - (v.  top of the walls, and along the edges of them, they
or, supposing t   to be used for.. (v. examples constructed buildings of a single chamber, facing
given by Gesenius), the hose or temple of Bel. one another, leaving room  between them for a
Others say that it means the gate of the god I, r or -horse chariot to turn.
the gate of God, the term gate being here used in a  There were  0 brazen gates, with lintels and sde
sense analogous to that in which we speak now-a- Posts of brass.  The city was divided into two
portions by the river, which ran through the midst
* In Persian cuneiformof it. The city wall was brought down on both
_- cuneifom, i                     sides to the edge of the stream, and thence from
IT Ity     = J I    < -   <0 7T <      the comer of the wall a fence of burnt brick was
- carried along each bank of the river. The houses
The Babylonian cuneiform writes it in many ways. i were mostly three and four storeys high.  The




BABYLON                    277                 BABYLON
streets all ran in straight lines parallel to the river, D D are embankments on either side the Euphrates.
and at right angles to it. At the river end of these H H appear to represent the embankments of a
latter streets were low gates of brass in the fence water-course, running southward till impeded by a
that skirted the bank opening on the water. Be- mass of rubbish at K.
sides the outer wall there was another within of less
thickness, but very little inferior to it in strength.I A
There was also a fortress in the centre of each
division of the town. In the one was the king's   a~
palace, surrounded by a wall of great strength and
size, in the other was the temple of Bel, a square  v\                    \
inclosure two furlongs each way, with gates of solid              C        \
brass. Now, the first point in this statement which   -
requires to be explained is the extraordinary magnitude ascribed to the city.  Even supposing the               o
more moderate dimensions of other historians are           l 
preferred, yet even these would make the size of/ H
Babylon to have been four or five times that of                                   F
London. It is of course not to be. imagined that       H     L    1              \
the population was condensed and concentrated                                     \\
within this space, after the manner of our modern                           MARSH
cities.  On the contrary, it probably contained a                          INTERMIXE
tract of arable and pasture land very nearly, if not 
quite sufficient to supply the wants of the citizens,  OI                      WITH
besides a large territory laid out in parks and               C            CULTIVATIO
orchards, paradises and gardens, for their recreation 
and amusement. It is, however, a fact that no             D
traces of the wall which may have enclosed this          Fici
space are visible in our time. Strange and un-. 
accountable as it may appear, it is nevertheless 
certain that the besom of destruction has swept
them all away.  The modern traveller wanders                  x
over the supposed site of ancient Babylon andsearches in vain for the ruins of her walls. We                     2.
might almost say the ruins of the city, for it must
be confessed that all that remains of it is scarcely  One great difficulty that occurs in the attempt
enough to warrant us in saying that a great city to identify the present ruins of Babylon with the
ever existed there. The modern remains of Babylon  ancient city, is the fact that they are nearly all,
consist of a few mounds on the left bank of the without exception, to be found on the eastern side
Euphrates, a little above, and on the opposite side to  of the river  whereas it is stated plainly by HeroHillah. They occupy a space of about three miles dotus, Diodorus, Pliny, etc., that the Euphrates.ong and two miles broad, and are almost entirely flowed through the city, and Herodotus says that
enclosed by two ramparts, which form a triangle it divided the temple of Belus from the palace of
having the river for its base. They lie chiefly in the king; or, in other words, the mound of Babel
three groups, of which the most northerly is to from what is now called the'kasr.' Mr. Layard
this day called by the Arabs Babil.  This was supposes this to be accounted for. by the tendency
designated by Rich, Mujellibe, which name is said of the river to flow westward, which has therefore
now to be given to the second mound, the truth  obliterated the ruins originally standing on the right
apparently being that the term is or was applied bank; but Mr. Rawlinson rejects this opinion, and
indifferently to several mounds in that locality. thinks that Herodotus probably mistook for the
The word represents a vicious pronunciation, and river the canal called Shebil, which, as stated
ought by rights to be written' Mukallabeh,' which above, would flow in the required direction, and
would mean'overturned.' In the south of this divide the temple of Belus from the palace of the
mound, and about a mile from it, commences the king.
second, which is known by the name of' Kasr,'  In a line with the mound Amram, on both sides
or Palace. Further still to the south we have the of the Euphrates, there are apparently the ruins of
third and last of these ruins, known as the tomb of another palace, of which some of the bricks are
Amram, said to have been the son of one of the found stamped with the name of Neriglissar, percaliphs who was killed in the battle of'Hillah.' haps the Nergal-sharezer of Holy Writ. It seems
The general position of these ruins will be better better to describe the present appearance of the
understood by reference to the accompanying plan. site by the help of recent travellers than to attempt
In this plan A represents Babil, B the Kasr, C the a description which must, after all, be made up of
mound of Amram. These are the main points of their materials.' The ruins at present existing,'
the ruin, but in addition to these there are others. says Mr. Layard,'stand upon the eastern bank of
For instance, F F is the irregular rampart mentioned  the Euphrates, and are enclosed within an irreabove.  G is a similar rampart bounding the gular triangle formed by two lines of rampart and
Kasr on the north. E E two long lines of rampart the river, the area being about eight miles. This
about Ioo yards apart, probably represent the great space contains three great masses of building, the
reservoir of Babylon, connected with the river by high pile of unbaked brick work, called by Rich
G, the Shebil. This reservoir was called Yapur- Mujellibe, but which is known to the Arabs as
Shapu, and was enlarged by Nebuchadnezzar, Babil, the building denominated the Kasr or palace,
though perhaps built by one of the early kings. and also the mound upon which stands the modern




BABYLON                    278               BABYLON
tomb of Amram-ibn-ali.' The distance of these the ancient world. From,Amram, the last of the
ruins from Baghdad is about fifty miles, according great mounds, a broad and well-trodden track
to Loftus, and the road lies across a barren desert winds through thick groves of palms. About an
tract.'Near the village of Mohawill,' says Mr. hour's ride beneath pleasant shade brings the
Layard,'it crosses a wide and deep canal, still car- traveller to the falling gateway of the town of
rying water to distant gardens. On the southern  Hillah.  A mean bazaar, crowded -with Arabs,
bank of this artificial stream is a line of earthen  camels, and asses, leads to a bridge of boats across
ramparts, which are generally believed to be the the Euphrates.' The following description of this
most northern remains of the ancient city of Ba- place, the modern representative of Babylon, by
bylon. From their summit the traveller scans a Mr. Layard, will also be read with interest:boundless plain, through which winds the Eu-'Hillah may contain 80oo or 9000 inhabitants; a
phrates, with its dark belt of evergreen palms. few half-ruined mosques and public baths are its
Rising in the distance, high above all surrounding principal buildings; the bazaar supplies the desert
objects, is the one square mound in form and size Arabs with articles of clothing, arms, dates, coffee,
more like a natural hill than the work of men's and corn, and contains a few common Manchester
hands. This is the first great ruin to the east of goods, and English cutlery and hardware. The
the river. Beyond it long lines of palms hem in Euphrates flows through the town, and is about
the Euphrates, which now winds through the 200 yards wide and 15 feet deep; a noble stream,
midst of the ancient city. To the vast mound of with a gentle current, admirably fitted for steam
Babil ascend long undulating heaps of earth, navigation.  The houses, chiefly built of bricks
bricks, and pottery; a solitary mass of brick-work taken from the ruins of ancient Babylon, are small
rising from the summit of the largest mound, and mean.   Around the town, and above and
marks the remains known to the Arabs as the below it for some miles, are groves of palm trees,
Mujellibe, or the'over-turned.' Other shapeless forming a broad belt on both sides of the river.
heaps of rubbish cover, for many an acre, the face In the plain beyond them, a few canals bear water
of the land. The lofty banks of ancient canals to plots cultivated with wheat, barley, and rice.'
fret the country like natural ridges of hills.  Some  The complete absence of remains is to be exhave long been choked with sand; others still plained by the nature of the material used in the
carry the waters of the river to distant villages and erection of even the most costly edifices. In the
palm groves.  On all sides fragments of glass, immediate vicinity of Babylon there were no quarmarble, pottery, and inscribed brick, are mingled ries of alabaster or of limestone such as existed
with that peculiar nitrous and blanched soil which, near Nineveh. The city was built in the midst of
bred from the remains of ancient habitations, an alluvial country far removed from the hills.
checks or destroys' vegetation, and renders the The comparatively recent deposits of the mighty
site of Babylon a naked and hideous waste. Owls rivers which have gradually formed the Mesopostart from the scanty thickets, and the foul jackal tamian plains consist of a rich and very thick clay.
skulks through the furrows. Surely'the glory of Consequently, stone for building purposes could
kingdoms and the beauty of the Chaldees' excel- only be obtained from a distance.  The black
lency is as when God overthrew Sodom and Go- basalt, a favourite material amongst the Babylonians
morrah. Wild beasts of the desert lie there, and for carving detached figures, and for architectural
their houses are full of doleful creatures; and owls ornaments, as appears from numerous fragments
dwell there, and satyrs dance there; and the wild found amongst the ruins, came from the Kurdish
beasts of the islands cry in their desolate houses, mountains, or from the north of Mesopotamia. It
and dragons in her pleasant palaces,' for her day was probably floated down the Euphrates and
has come.                                    Tigris on rafts from these districts. Limestone of'The traveller, before reaching Babil, when an inferior quality might have been quarried nearer
about four miles distant, follows a beaten track, to the city, but it seems to have been little used for
winding amidst low mounds, and crossing the building purposes. The Assyrian alabaster could
embankments of canals long since dry, or avoid- have been brought from Nineveh, and the water
ing the heaps of drifted earth which cover the communication by the rivers and canals offered
walls and foundations of buildings. The mounds great facilities for transport: yet enormous labour
seem to be scattered without order, and to be gra- and expense would have been required to supply
dually lost in the vast plains to the eastward. But such materials in sufficient quantities to construct
southward of BAbil, for the distance of nearly an entire edifice, or even to panel the walls of its
three miles, there is almost an uninterrupted line chambers. The Babylonians were, therefore, conof mounds, the ruins of vast edifices collected tent to avail themselves of the building materials
together as in the heart of a great city. They are which they found on the spot. With the tenacious
inclosed by earthen ramparts, the remains of a line mud.of their alluvial plains, mixed with chopped
of walls which, leaving the foot of Babil, stretched straw, they made brick, whilst bitumen and other
inland about two and a half miles from the present substances collected from the immediate neighbourbed of the Euphrates, and then, turning nearly at hood furnished them with an excellent cement. A
right angles, completed the defences on the southern knowledge of the art of manufacturing glaze and of
side of the principal buildings that mark the site of compounding colours enabled them to cover their
Babylon on the eastern bank of the river. Between bricks with a rich enamel, thereby rendering them
its most southern point and Hillah, as between equally ornamental for the exterior and interior of
Mohawill and Babil, can only be traced low heaps their edifices.  The walls of their palaces and
and embankments scattered irregularly over the temples were also coated, as we learn from several
the plain. It is evident,'as he observes, that the passages of the Bible, with mortar and plaster,
space inclosed within this continuous rampart could which, judging from their cement, must have been
not have contained the whole of that mighty city, of fine quality. The fingers of the man's hand
whose magnificence and extent were the wonder of wrote the words of condemnation of the Babylonian




BABYLON                     279                BABYLON
empire'upon the plaster of the wall of the king's Images of stone were no doubt introduced into the
palace.' Upon those walls were painted historical buildings. We learn from the Bible that figures
and religious subjects, and various ornaments, and, of the gods in this material, as well as in metal,
according to Diodorus Siculus, the bricks were were kept in the Babylonian temples. But such
enamelled with the figures of men and animals. sculptures were not common, otherwise more re-'A-^^Ar- ~_~s_
122. Babylon.
mains of them must have been discovered in the  of a very few it is perhaps possible to establish an
ruins.                                        identification with certain proper names with which
The bricks of Babylon are said by Sir R. Ker we are familiar in the Scriptures, but in the great
Porter to be of two kinds, sun-dried and fire-burnt. majority of instances we are introduced to persons
The former is generally the largest, as it is of a  of whom till now we have never before heard. It
coarser fabric than the latter, but its solidity appears has been, nevertheless, clearly ascertained that
to be equal to the hardest stone. It is composed  these excavations have presented us with names of
of clay mixed with chopped straw or broken reeds a line of kings who must have flourished during a
to compact it, and then dried in the sun, He period of upwards of 6oo years, and can be traced
observes also that, considering so many centuries backward to an epoch of very remote antiquity.
have passed since Babylon became a deserted habi- Bricks have been found, for instance, which bear
tation, and its position in the neighbourhood of stamped upon them the name of Urukh, who seems
populous nations, our surprise ought to be not that to have been the founder of several of the great
we find so little of its remains, but that we see so  Chaldaean capitals, and whose reign may be placed
much. From her fallen towers have arisen not as far back as B.C. 2234. These bricks exist in
only all the present cities in her vicinity, but others abundance at Mugheir, Warka, Senkereh, and
which, like herself, are long ago gone down into  Niffer, and being generally found in the base of the
the dust.  Since the ~days of Alexander we find  various buildings, while the bricks of other mofour capitals at least built out of her remains. narchs appear in the.upper storeys of them, this
Seleucia by the Greeks, Ctesiphon by the Parthians, circumstance would seem to point to the conclusion
Almaidan by the Persians, Kufa by the Caliphs, that he was the original founder of these cities.
with towns, villages, and caravansaries without He styles himself king of Hur and Kinzi Accad.
number. Scarce a day passed while he was there The former of these names being Ur of the Chaldees,
without his seeing people digging in the mounds of of which the modern representation is Mugheir,
Babylon for bricks, which they carried to the river while the latter is an ethnic designation of the
and then conveyed in boats to wherever they were  Hamite race, and answers to the Accad of Genesis.
wanted.                                       The son of this king was Ilgi: he has left fewer
Early Histoiy. -It is not easy to give a general relics than his father, but from other inscriptions is
or popular sketch of the early history of Babylonia, known to have completed some of the buildings at
seeing that the discoveries which have lately been  Mugheir which had been left unfinished by him.
made in it are the results of some of the most pro-  We are enabled to fix approximately the date of
found of Col. Rawlinson's researches, which involve another early king of Babylonia by a remarkable
a familiarity with names and writers not ordinarily series of ascertained dates. For instance, an inscripmet with in the range of biblical or classical read- tion of Sennacherib on the rocks at BaviAn relates
ing. Indeed, the names which have been disin- his recovery of certain gods which had been carried
terred and brought to light by the excavations in to Babylon by Merodach-adan-akhi, 418 years
Babylonia and Chaldoea were entirely lost to the before, upon the defeat of Tiglath-pileser by the
world till within a very recent period. In the case latter monarch. This recovery took place in the




BABYLON                    280                BABYLON
tenth year of Sennacherib's reign, and we may of the battle which he fought for the deliverance of
reasonably assign the same date, viz., B. C. 692, to Lot.  The father of Kudur, whom he seems to
this inscription. Moreover, the cylinders at Kalah have succeeded, was Sinti-shil-khak, the last eleSherghat relate that the same Tiglath-pileser rebuilt ment in whose name appears again in that of the
in the city of Asshur, 60 years after it had been pul- Ethiopian king Tir-khak, or Tir-hakah.  After
led down on account of its unsoundness, a temple Kudur Mapula, but with g considerable interval, we
which had stood for a period of 641 years from its must place the Ismi-dagon before mentioned, whose
first foundation. The original builder of this temple date can be obtained approximately from  the
was Shamas-Iva, or Shamas-Phul, the son of Ismi- Assyrian inscriptions. In the title of this king
dagon. Now, adding together these various dates, Babylon is not yet noticed, but mention is made of
viz., 692 B. c., the date of the Bavian inscription, Niffer, from which circumstance we may infer that
the 418 previous years intervening from the defeat in his age the cities of Babylonia proper had risen
of Tiglath-pileser, the 60 and 641 years already to metropolitan importance, while, before his time,
specified, and allowing 50 years for the reigns of the southern portion of the province was exclusively
Shamas-Iva and Ismi-dagon, together with the possessed of that dignity. The son of Ismi-dagon
interval that probably elapsed between the defeat was the builder of the great cemeteries, the remains
and the rebuilding of the temple, we obtain a total of which are still to be seen in the mounds at Muof I86I years, which will represent approximately gheir. He is called the governor of Hur. It may
the date of Ismi-dagon's accession.          readily be supposed that his name is difficult to
The commencement of the Babylonian empire read with certainty; Rawlinson gives it as Ibil-anuwas probably about 2234 B. C., for which date there duma. Nothing is known of this king's son and
i s very considerable evidence. For example, the successor, and the name which is read as Gurguna
chronological scheme of Berosus makes the first is extremely doubtful. It is equally uninteresting
Chaldean empire to extend from the middle of the and unprofitable to record the uncertain names of
twenty-third century before Christ, to the end of the rest of this line of kings,-nothing is known of
the sixteenth, and as we find a list of more than their achievements. The only feature to be noticed
twenty kings before and after the given date I86I, is the frequent occurrence of the word for the moonit is of course evident that the period assigned by god as an element in their own names. This fact
Berosus is at once brought within the limits of shews us very plainly the estimation in which the
probability. We know, moreover, from the same worship of the heavenly bodies was held at that
historian, that the first Chaldaean dynasty consisted early time, though it is not easy to assign a reason
of eleven kings, while from Berosus, Ptolemy, and for the prevalence of the word in the particular
others, we learn that the various dynasties reigning instances where it occurs. It appears that about
in Chaldaea extended over a space of I662 years. 2234 the inhabitants of southern Babylonia, who
Berosus, however, gives the entire chronological were of Cushite origin, and therefore of the same
scheme of the Babylonians as 36,000 years, of which ethnic stock with the first colonists of Arabia and
a period of 34,080 years is assigned to mythical Ethiopia, acquired some sort of supremacy over the
dynasties, consequently to make up this sum the other tribes who were settled in the districts of
number 258 is required, which is missing in the Babylonia. Very good reasons have been advanced
MS., but which singularly enough is a very reason- by Rawlinson for connecting in one common origin
able period, to have comprised the reigns of the inhabitants of southern Babylonia with those of
eleven kings, leaving an average of about 234 years Arabia and Ethiopia. This common origin indeed
for the duration of each reign. The first ruling is indicated in the account of Gen. x. 6, which tells
dynasty of Berosus is a Median one of eight kings, us that Cush and Mizraim were brothers, while
reigning 224 years. As this dynasty probably was Nimrod, the great father of the Chaldaean race, was
not of the same ethnic variety as the subsequent descended from Cush.
dynasties which were Hamite or Semitic, we may  A glance at the scheme given by Berosus shews
disregard it, and then, reckoning backwards from  us that the earliest occupants of Babylonia, leaving
the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, obtain a fixed date out the mythical Chaldaean dynasty, were Medes,
2234 B. C. for the foundation of the first great Chal- who in the twenty-third century B. c. were displaced
dsean empire. Now it is very remarkable that we by a primitive Hamite dynasty, probably represented
are enabled to obtain almost precisely the same date in the Bible by Nimrod, and embracing perhaps
from other independent calculations. For instance, the two monumental kings Urukh and Ilgi.  It
Callisthenes visited Babylon in the year 33I, when was by these kings that the cities named in Genesis
he found that stellar observations had been recorded as forming the kingdom of Nimrod are supposed
for 1903 years. Now we may infer that they were to have been founded. The period assigned by
kept from the commencement of the empire, where- Berosus to this dynasty, from 2234 to I976, is in
fore, adding these numbers together, we obtain once accordance with the dates obtained from the monumore the required 2234.                      ments. A break may be supposed to have occurred
There is one king who may be considered almost at the termination of this period, when a change of
as ancient as Urukh and Ilgi, who is also describedby dynasty took place, and the Hamite kings were
a title which Sir H. Rawlinson reads Apda Martu, displaced by Chaldaeans, who appear to have emiand translates Ravager of the West. His name is grated from Susiana to the Euphrates. This was
Kudur Mapula or Mabuk. He has been supposed the commencement of the great Chaldsean dynasty
to represent the Chedorlaomer of Scripture, and to of Berosus, which lasted for 458 years, till B.c. 1578.
confirm this supposition it has lately been discovered The leader of these Chaldaeans from Susiana was
that Mabuk is in the Hamite dialect what Laomer perhaps the Chedorlaomer of Scripture, though a
or El-ahmar,' Rufus,' is in the Semitic. Few points difficulty occurs in his identification, inasmuch as in
in connection with the cunieform discoveries can  Genesis he is called king of Elam, the Elamites
offer more interest than this, which leads us at once being a people of Semitic origin, while the inscripup to Abraham, and, as it were, makes us spectators tions of Susa appear to be Hamitic. Col. Rawlin



BABYLON                    281                BABYLON
son, however, suggests that in the earliest times docempalus, however, appears to have regained
there may not have been so very marked a difference strength once more, which was the cause of Babybetween. the Hamite and Semitic tongues. It is lonia being again invaded by Sennacherib, who
to the line of kings thus supposed to commence removed Belibus, and put in his place his own son
with Chedorlaomer that the names referred to above Asshur-Nadin. The period of the next few years
as those of his successors are to be assigned. Next is one of obscurity, as it does not appear whether
to nothing is known of the history of these kings. Asshur-Nadin and his successors ruled in their own
Their names very doubtfully read, together with right, or were viceroys of Sennacherib; but about
certain territorial titles, are all that remain to assure the year 680 we arrive at a time of more certainty,
us that they ever existed. This second Chaldaean for it was at this period that Esarhaddon, the
dynasty of Berosus was succeeded, according to king of Assyria, resolved on reigning at Babylon
him, in 15 I8, by what he calls an Arab dynasty, of as well as Nineveh, instead of placing a viceroy in'which, however, no traces have been discovered the former city; as his predecessors had done. He
on the monuments. Mention indeed is often made may have held his court alternately at both places
in the Assyrian inscriptions of several Arab tribes between 680 and 607, for many tokens of his rule
who attained distinction and importance, and in have been found at Babylon, but that which is of
the time of Sargon some had even passed into special interest is the light this fact throws on the
Media and became known as the Arabs of the East, narrative of 2 Chron. xxxiii. I-1I3, which states
but there is no evidence of an Arabian line of kings that the king of Assyria took Manasseh, the king
ruling over Babylonia, and at present the testimony of Judah, and carried him to Babylon. It is thus
of Berosus on this subject is unconfirmed. Of the by the aid of cuneiform discoveries that we are
Assyrian dynasty which, according to this historian, enabled to explain how it was that a king of Assyria
succeeded the Arabian, notice is made under the should take a captive prince to Babylon. Morearticle Assyria. As therefore during the ascendency over, the accuracy of the sacred historian is conof the Assyrian power, Babylonian history was firmed, as Esarhaddon was. the only Assyrian
merged in that of Assyria, we must pass on to the monarch who reigned both at Nineveh and at
period at which Babylon again became dominant, Babylon. The sons of Merodach-Baladan, who
which dates from the so-called era of Nabonassar, had the support of the Susianians, and still conor 747 B. C. The origin of the change of events at tinued to annoy Esarhaddon in his residence at
Babylon, resulting in the accession of Nabonassar Babylon, were eventually removed, and thirteen
to the throne, is not ascertained; neither is it years after his accession Esarhaddon felt himself
definitely known who Nabonassar was or how he sufficiently strong to appoint a viceroy in that city,
raised himself to the throne.                which he intrusted to one Saosduchinus, who held
Later History.-It seems that in some way the the office for about twenty-eight years, and was
establishment of the lower Assyrian dynasty under succeeded by Ciniladanus, the last of the viceroys,
Tiglath-pileser was connected with the successful and perhaps his brother. This man is said to have
movement of Nabonassar at Babylon, but we must reigned for twenty-two years, but nothing is known
wait for subsequent discoveries to enlarge our in- of Babylonian history during that period. The
formation on this point. It is equally a matter of next time that light breaks in upon it is when
uncertainty whether or not Nabonassar secured the Babylon is about to rise to the proudest position
throne to his posterity. Four insignificant names she ever attained, and to enjoy that degree of
follow his in the list of Ptolemy, but the fifth king prosperity and supremacy she had so long envied
is more worthy of consideration. This is Mardo- Nineveh. According to Abydenus, Nabopolassar
cempalus, the Merodach-Baladan of Isaiah.  Of was a general in the service of Saracus, the Assyrian
him we know from the inscriptions that he was monarch, and commissioned by him to oppose
attacked by Sargon in his twelfth year, who con- Cyaxares and his Medes in their advances on
quered and expelled him from his kingdom, when Nineveh. Proving treacherous, however, he went
he either assumed the crown himself, or gave it to over to the army of the Median, who readily acArceanus, one of his sons. Scripture informs us cepted his services, and consolidated his adherence
that at an earlier period Merodach-Baladan had by giving his daughter Amyitis to Nebuchadnezzar,
been moved by curiosity concerning the astronomi- the son of Nabopolassar. Cyaxares and Nabocal wonder that had happened to Hezekiah, and polassar appear to have shared the conquered
consequently had sent ambassadors to him for the dominions between them, the former taking the
professed purpose of making inquiries about it, northern and eastern portions of the Assyrian emand congratulating him on his recovery. Probably, pire, while the valley of the Euphrates and Syria,
however, he meant more than this by such an  Phoenicia, and Palestine fell to the lot of Naboembassy, and perhaps a design was entertained of polassar. Josiah was at this time king of Judah;
forming a league with those powers to whom   he was unaffected by the change of sovereigns
Assyria was likely to be obnoxious or dangerous;'beyond the river,' and therefore it is passed over
and it may have been in consequence of his acting without direct notice in Scripture, though we see
on such a design that Sargon was induced to that the Assyrian power was succeeded by the
chastise him in the way he did. It was, however, Babylonian in holding the sovereignty over Judaea.
only for a time that Mardocempalus was deposed; Nabopolassar very probably removed the mass of
he contrived to seat himself again on the throne, the inhabitants of Nineveh to Babylon, and emthough but for half a year, for Sargon's more ployed them in the various works in which he and
powerful son and successor, Sennacherib, attacked his son engaged. The chief events of his reign are
and defeated him, together with his allies, the the wars he made with Alyattes, king of Lydia,
Susianians, and he was obliged once more to flee and with Neco, the son of Psammetichus, king of
for his life. After plundering the city Sennacherib  Egypt. In the former case he assisted Cyaxares
placed on the throne Belibus or Elibus,' who ruled the Mede, in the latter he was helped by Josiah,
at Babylon from 702 to 699. The party of Mar- king of Judah, who met his death at Megiddo




BABYLON                    282                BABYLON
through devotion to his cause. After this battle the capture of Tyre was in the following year.
Neco seems to have gained all the territories from  The whole extent of his reign was forty-two years,
the river of Egypt to the Euphrates, and on his but for a period of seven years, probably some
return in triumph to Egypt to have deposed   time subsequent to the captivity, he was the subJehoahaz and made Jehoiakim king in his stead. ject of that dreadful affliction recorded by Daniel.
At this time Nabopolassar- was unable, from sick- As yet no allusion to this event has been found in
ness or old age, to endure the fatigues of a cam- the monuments.  He appears to have reigned
paign, but in the fourth year of Jehoiakim he sent some time after his recovery from what is said,
his son, Nabu-kuduri-uzur, with a large army, Dan. iv. 36, and the year of his death was B.C.
against Neco, who met him at Carchemish, but 56I. He was succeeded by his son Evil-Merowas completely routed. This is the battle spoken  dach, who'spoke kindly to Jehoiachin, and did
of in Jer. xlvi. 2, seq. The result of it was that all lift up his head out of prison.' His reign, howthe territory as far as the river of Egypt was re- ever, lasted but two years, when he is said to have
covered, and that the king of Egypt came not any been murdered by Neriglissar or Nergal-shar-uzzar,
more out of his land. 2 Kings xxiv. 7.       the husband of his sister. Of this monarch little
Nebuchadnezzar was on the borders of Egypt is known. It is possible, but not certain, that he
when he heard of his father's death, after reigning was the Nergalsharezer of the taking of Jerusalem;
twenty-one years. He returned with all speed to if so, it must have been nearly thirty years before.
secure his succession to the throne, and immedi- He reigned but three years and a half, and was
ately began to employ the host of captives he had succeeded by his son Laborosoarchod or Labossoaccumulated, in those gigantic works which were racus. This king, who was but a child, reigned
the marvels of his own and succeeding times. only for nine months. Some of his courtiers made
These works consisted of enormous fortifications, in a conspiracy, and murdered him, and then elected
the form of an outer and an inner wall, the former one of their own number to the throne. This was
of which enclosed a Space of more than I30 square Nabonidus, Nabonadius or Labynetus, who began
miles; an entirely new palace, which he completed  to reign, B.C. 555, shortly before the war between
in fifteen days, and of which the ruins are seen in  Cyrus and Croesus. He was persuaded to join a
the modern Kasr. The great canal, 400 miles league with Egypt and Lydia against the rising
long, running from Hit to the Persian Gulf, large power of Persia, and upon the fall of Croesus would
enough for ships, and serving also for the purposes probably have come to his assistance if the moveof irrigation and defence against the Arabs, besides ments of Cyrus had not been too rapid for him.
the reconstruction of various cities of Babylonia, As it was, the principal effect that this event had
Borsippa, Sippara, Cutha, etc., on whose bricks upon him was to increase his diligence in the fortihis name is almost exclusively found. He also fication of his own city. The works attributed by
built the famous hanging garden, which was pro- Herodotus to Nitocris are most probably to be
bably an artificial hill planted with trees, said to assigned to him; and, as Babylon was not behave been made in honour of his wife, the Median  sieged till fifteen years after the fall of Croesus, he
princess, to remind her of the mountainous and had abundance of time to prepare for any enemy,
wooded scenery of her native country, together both in the way of fortification, and also in that of
with various temples, remains of which still exist in laying up abundance of provision against a siege.
the mound of Babil and the Birs-Nimrud.      His name is found stamped upon the bricks of
But the attention of the king was not absorbed  the river walls ascribed by Herodotus to Nitocris.
in such undertakings. Soon after his accession to  When Cyrus appeared before the city, he had only
the throne, Judaea and Phoenicia rebelled, and Ne- to fight one battle, and the Babylonians retreated
buchadnezzar, with the aid of Cyaxares and the to their strongholds, trusting, perhaps, too excluMedes, marched against the rebels, invested Tyre sively to those very fortifications and defences
with a portion of his army, and with the rest be- which Nabonadius had made so fatally strong.
sieged Jerusalem.                            We know not how long the siege lasted, but, after
Jehoiakim, who had depended on the Egyptians, waiting for a religious festival, Cyrus put in action
finding no help from them, surrendered, but was the stratagem of turning the river, and thus, conput to death by Nebuchadnezzar, who placed in trary to all human foresight, brought about the
his stead his son Jeconiah. He, however, pro- fulfilment of the predictions in Jer. li.-contrary to
bably shewing signs of disloyalty, was, after three all human foresight, for there were many possimonths, deposed and carried captive to Babylon, bilities of defeat in the scheme of Cyrus, and any
while Zedekiah, his uncle, was placed on the throne. one of them would have proved fatal. A floodTyre continued to resist all the king of Babylon's gate might have broken, or a dyke burst, and
efforts to reduce it, and, in fact, was not taken swamped a large portion of his army, or the sinktill thirteen years after it had been first invested. ing of the water might have been observed, and
Three years before its fall, Jerusalem had finally then the water-gates of the city would have been
rebelled.  The accession of Uaphris or Apries, closed, and his design frustrated. In the capture
or Pharaoh-Hophra, had inspired the Jews with of Babylon was fulfilled the prophecy of Isaiah,
further hopes of regaining their independence, and  ch. xxi., spoken 170 years before, while in the
Zedekiah sent ambassadors to Egypt to solicit aid present condition of the site we observe the truth
against the king of Babylon; but before his request of the yet more magnificent chapters xiii. and
was responded to, Nebuchadnezzar had besieged xiv. It is but natural to suppose that the city
the city.  It is true that, on the report of the was taken at the extremities, before the inhabitants
Egyptian's approaching, he raised the siege to of the centre were aware of or suspected it. In
meet them, Jer. xxxvii. 5; but it was only to the words of Jeremiah,'One post ran to meet
return again to capture the city, put out the eyes another, and one messenger to meet another, to
of Zedekiah, and carry him captive to Babylon. shew the king of Babylon that his city was taken
This was in the nineteenth year of Nebuchadnezzar, at one end.' Nabonadius, indeed, is supposed to




BACA, VALLEY OF                 283                 BACCHUS
have been at Borsippa when Babylon was taken, duced by the Psalmist with a special reference to a
having fled thither on the defeat of his army by period of sorrow and gloom through which those
Cyrus before the walls. It seems, however, that he refers to pass, and which he places in contrast
he left in Babylon his son Bil-shar-uzar, whom he with the joy of Zion; comp. Ps. cxxvi 5, 6, and
had a few years before admitted to a share in the the use of the phrase'valley of the shadow of
government, and thus the accounts of Berosus and  death,' Ps. xxiii. 4.  A valley was symbolical of
Daniel, hitherto at variance, may be reconciled. depression, and a valley of tears would readily
It was Belshazzar who spent the time which ought symbolize a season in which grief and misery were
to have been devoted to vigilance, in feasting and  added to depression.  (See Hengstenberg, in loc.)
revelry, and who was in Babylon when the Medes -W. L. A.
took it. It was Nabonadius who was really the   BAC         S         ), an ocr         i
king, but at this time was shut up in Borsippa of Sya, wo had o        d tan officer of the k
with his army.  Upon hearing of the calamity thatof    who had occupied the position of the
had befallen his empire and his son, Nabonadius kings friend to Antiochus Epiphanes, and was
surrendered himself on the approach of Cyrus, sent by Demetrius, his successor, to enforce the
who, having orders to destroy the fortifications of appointment of Alcimus as high-priest at Jeru
the captured city, had marched upon Borsippa. salem, and to take vengeance on the Jews, who
the captured city, had marched upon Borsippa were under the leadership of Judas Maccabaeus.
Cyrus treated him well, and, according to Berosus, were under he leadership of Judas Maccabpeus
he died there. After this, Babylon twice sustainedhe               e                  a
Aotruh  Layds, works;n twice sustaine that is, on  the fua rthe r  sid e of the Euphrates, Mesoa siege in the reign of Darius Hystaspis, and once that, on the further side of the Euphtes, Mesoin that of Xerxes. It may well be supposed to  potamia. Coming into Judea with a large body
have suffered in all these attacks, but it still con- of troops, he endeavoured, first by deceit, and
tinued to be the second city of the Persian empire afterwards by open force, to subdue udas, but
without success.    He then returned to the king,
till the time of Alexander. Had his life not been tht s  ess     e   n etne     toth   i
cut short, he intended to have restored it to itsan Alcimus, whom he left to maintain his pretenancient splendour, and made it the capital of his sions to the high-priest's office, soon followed him.
vast dominions but heneforthe Bablon gradually  On the defeat, by the Jews, of a force sent against
vast dominions; but henceforth Babylon gradually them, under Nicanor, Bacchides and Alcimus were
decayed.  In the time of Strabo and Diodorus it them, under Nicanor, Bacchides and Alcimus were
was in ruins, but Jerome, in the fourth century, again espatched into Judreawith an ayof picked
was told that it had been converted into a paradise Jew, in large nmbers, thdroghe fear of woms the
for the Persian kings, and that the walls had been Jews, in arge numbers, deserted from Jdas, so
repaired in order to preserve the game. What is tat he was worsted ad slain. Jonathan Macca
its present condition and aspect has been shewnbaeus, who succeeded his brother, maintained his
its present condition and aspect has been shewn
above. Such is the end of this devoted city,'theground against the Syrian power so successfully,
above. Such is the   end of th is      devoted city,'the
glory of kindoms, the   beauty of the C haldees' that Bacchides retired, on the death of Alcimus,
glory of kingdoms,         the beauty of the Chaldees
excellency,' which has become'as whenC God and left the land in peace for two years. At the
overthrew Sodom and G omeorrah.'  whclose of this period he returned, at the solicitation
The writer is under great obligations to the of the antipatriotic faction among the Jews; but
various essays on the subject inol i and ii. of being again successfully opposed by Jonathan, he
Rawlinson's Herodotus; but see also Ker Porter's made peace with him, and finally left the country,
TRawlinson R's nMemoir on Babplso K w- ere's with Jonathan as its governor, under the Syrian
Travers;  ch L  aas wmoir on Babylion's inr     g ( Macc. vii. 8-25; ix. I-73; Joseph. Antit.
onatheE arlyHistoryof Babylonia;Lo' x. xo, i; xiii. i).  These events occurred B.c.
on the Early History of Babylonia;  Loftus' Chal- I6i 8.-W.  L A
dea; Oppert's Rapport;. M. Niebuhr's Geschichte
Asshur's; etc. etc.-S. L.                       BACCHUS. This name appears in the A. V.
BACA, VALLEY OF (Kn Z;    PipV; Sept. KOALXA  as the equivalent of the Greek At6vvros, 2 Macc.
BACA, VA Y oF (; Sept. KoV  vi. 7; xiv. 33. The latter occurs also in (the sotov KXavOlW1vos).  In Ps. lxxxiv. 6, the writer called) 3 Macc. ii. 29.  In all these instances this
speaks of the blessedness of those who passing mythic deity is named in connection with circum-'through the valley of Baca make it a well.  It is stances which would indicate that he was an object
probable that there was some place actually bear- of special abhorrence to the Jews; for, in the first,
mg this name, to which reference is here made; it is stated that the Jews were compelled to go in
though the LXX. seem to have regarded Baca as procession to Bacchus; in the second, the erection
only an appellative from Az1 tears, and with this of a temple to him is threatened in order to compel
agree the Vulg., in valle lacrymarum, and all the the priests to deliver up Judas to Nicanor; and in
ancient versions. A common opinion is that,1z the third, the branding with the ivy leaf, sacred to
is the mulberry tree, and that the valley was so him, is reported as inflicted on them by way of
called from its being filled with trees of this sort. punishment. This falls in with what Tacitus says,
As this tree probably got its name from the falling that it was a mistake to imagine that, because the
of drops, like tears, from its wounded leaf, the priests of the Jews accompanied their singing with
meaning would even, on this interpretation; come flute and cymbals, and had garlands of ivy, and a
to much the same as the former. It is probable, golden vine was found in the temple, they worshiphowever, that there is really no reference to the ped Bacchus, for that this was not at all in accordBaca-tree here. Without relinquishing the opinion  ance with their institutes (nequaquam congruentibus
that there was a place actually bearing the name institutis, Hist. v. 5). As Bacchus was the god of
of the Valley of Weeping (Burckhardt mentions a wine, and in general of earthly festivity and jollity,
Wady Baka, or Valley of Weeping, which has its and as his rites sanctioned the most frantic excesses
name from the fact that a Bedouin, fleeing before of revelry and tumultuous excitement, he would
an enemy, lost his dromedary here, and, as he necessarily be an object of abhorrence to all who
could not keep up with his companions, sat down  believed in and worshipped Jehovah.  Probably,
and wept), we may regard this name as intro- also, the very fact that some things connected with




BACHUR                    284                  BALAAM
the Jewish worship had, as mentioned by Tacitus,  BAHAT (tn;12), a species of stone used in ornaand still more fully by Plutarch (Symposiac. iv. mental pavement (Esth. i. 6). The Sept. render
qu. 6), led to the supposition that they reverenced
Bacchus may have produced in their minds a more it by a~uapaylrns, and the Syr.  *..m.?.  It
determined recoil from and hatred of all pertaining was probably some species of marble, but of what
to his name. (For the mythological history and kinde havenomeansofdetermining. Gesenius,
attributes of Bacchus, see Smith's Diet. of Biog. from  reference to the root tBii., to feign, or be
and Mythot. s. v. Dionysus; Creuzer, Symboikzvwhite, suggests that it was either white marble, or
undf Mythologe, pt. iii. bk. 3 ch. 2 of Moser's a composition that imitated marble.-W. L, A.
Abridgment; Moritz, Mythol of the Greeks and
Romans, E. T., p. Io3.)-W. L. A.                BAHURIM, a place not far from Jerusalem,
BACHUR. [LEVITA.]                           beyond the Mount of Olives, on the road to the
Jordan, where Shimei cursed and threw stones at
BAD. [BYssus.]                              David (2 Sam. xvi. 5; Joseph. Antiq. vii. 9. 4).
BADGER. [TACHASH.]                         [Here also was the house in the court of which
was the well where Jonathan and Ahimaaz were
BAG, a purse or pouch (Deut. xxv. 13; Job   concealed from the servants of Absalom (2 Sam.
xiv. I7; I Sam. xvii. 40; I4ike xii. 33). The xvii. 18); and here Phaltiel took leave of his wife
money deposited in the treasuries of Eastern princes, Michal when she was claimed from him by David
or intended for large payments, or to be sent to a (iii. I6). All the notices we have of the place are
government as taxes or tribute, is collected in long, thus connected with the history of David. It is
narrow bags or purses, each containing a certain also contained in the word Barhumite (2 Sam.
amount of money, and sealed with the official seal. xxiii. 31). [AZMAVETH.]
As the money is counted for this purpose, and
sealed with great care by officers properly appointed,  BAJITH  (n.n).  This word occurs Is. xv. 2.
the bag, or purse, passes current, as long as the It does not appear that there was any place of this
seal remains unbroken, for the amount marked name. The Targum and Syriac V. connect this
thereon.  In the receipt and payment of large with the following word, omitting the copula, and
sums, this is a great and important convenience read Beth-Dibon, and this is approved by Lowth
in countries where the management of large trans-and others; but for such an alteration of the text
actions by paper is unknown, or where a currency there is no authority. The Vulg. treats the word
is chiefly or wholly of silver: it saves the great as an appellative, and translates donus; and this
trouble of counting or weighing loose money. is followed by Vatablus, Pagnini, and others of
This usage is so well established, that, at this day, the older interpreters, and by Gesenius, Zunz,
in the Levant,'a purse' is the very name for a Henderson, Knobel, etc., among the more recent.
certain amount of money (now five pounds ster- In this case it means the temple of some Moabitish
ling), and all large payments are stated in'purses.' idol, probably Chemosh, their great deity.  In
The antiquity of this custom is attested by the favour of this is the use of the definite article
monuments of Egypt, in which the ambassadors of before no, and the mention of nrv1 in the parallelism, as well as the reference to the'high place,'
whither Moab had gone, in ch. xvi. 12. Ewald,
however, takes the word as a proper name, and
so does Vitringa and several of the older interpreters. On the ground of the conjunction of
Dibon and Nebo with Beth-Diblathaim, in Jer;
xlviii. 22, some have fixed on this as the Beth
here mentioned; but this is purely conjectural,
and very precarious.-W. L. A.
I3.                        BAKER, BAKING. [BREAD.]
distant nations are represented as bringing their  BALAAM  (DYA; Sept. and Philo, BaXadcu;
tributes in sealed bags of money to Thothmes III.;
and we see the same bags deposited intact in theJosephus, BcXauos).  The name is derived by
royal treasury. When coined money was not used, Vitringa from [pa and  Y, lord of the people; but
the seal must have been considered a voucher not
only for the amount, but for the purity of the by Simonis from p[2 and:$, destruction of the
metal. The money collected in the Temple, in people-an allusion to his supposed supernatural
the time of Joash, seems to have been made up  powers. His father's name'l1a comes likewise
into bags of equal value after this fashion; which from a root which means to consume or devour.  It
were probably delivered, sealed, to those who paid
were probably delivered, sealed, to those who paid is deserving of notice that hi, the first king of the
the workmen (2 Kings xii. Io; comp. also 2 Kings Edomites, was also the son of a'1V  Beor (Gen.
v. 23; Tobit ix. 5; xi. i6). -J. K.          xxxvi. 32). In 2 Peter ii. 15, Balaam is called the
BAGOAS (Baycbas), an eunuch, the servant of Son of Bosor, which Gesenius attributes to an early
Holofernes (Judith xii. i I, etc.) The name was a corruption of the text, but Dr. Lightfoot considers
common one for an eunuch (comp. Ovid. Am. ii. it to be a Chaldaism, and infers from'the apostle's
2, I; Plut. De fort. Alex. ii. p. 337). It is said use of it, that he was then at Babylon.  (Works,
to mean eunuch in Persian (Plin. H. N. xiii. 9; vol. vii. p. 80: Sermon on the way of Balaam.)
Burmann on Ovid, 1. c.); but this is a mistake In Rev. ii. 14, 15,'those that hold the doctrine of
(see Pott, Etymol. Forsch. I. xxxvii.)-W. L. A.  Balaam' are evidently distinguished from the Nico



BALAAM                     285                -BALAAM
laitans.  [NICOLAITANS.] The first mention of Jacob's residence for twenty years in Mesopotamia
this remarkable person is in Numbers xxii. 5, contributed to maintain some just ideas of religion,
where we are informed that Balak'sent messen- though mingled with much superstition. To this
gers unto Balaam the son of Beor to Pethor, source and the existing remains of Patriarchal reliwhich is by the river of the land of the children  gion, Balaam was probably indebted for that truth
of his people.' Twelve Hebrew MSS. examined   which he unhappily'held in unrighteousness'
by Dr. Kennicott, two of De Rossi's, the Sama- (Rom. i. I8).
ritan text, with the Syriac and Vulgate versions,  On the narrative contained in Numbers xxii.
instead of InY3 31'children of his people,' read  22-35 a difference of opinion has long existed, even
Vl3' 1'children of Ammon.' This is approved  among those who fully admit its authenticity. The
by Houbigant and Kennicott, but is inconsistent advocates for a literal interpretation urge, that in a
with Deut. xxiii. 4, which informs us that Pethor historical work and a narrative bearing the same
was in Mesopotamia; for the Ammonites, as character, it would be unnatural to regard any of
Rosenmiiller observes, never extended so far as the the occurrences as taking place in vision, unless
Euphrates, which must be the river alluded to. If expressly so stated;-that it would be difficult to
the received reading be correct, it intimates that determine where the vision begins, and where it
Pethor was situated in Balaam's native country, and  ends;-that Jehovah's'opening the mouth of the
that he was not a mere sojourner in Mesopotamia, ass' (Num. xxii. 28) must have been an external
as the Jewish patriarchs were in Canaan.   In  act; and, finally, that Peter's language is decidedly
Joshua xiii. 22, Balaam  is termed'the Sooth- in favour of the literal sense:'The dumb ass,
sayer' 3DIp, a word which, with its cognates, is speaking with man's voice, forbad the madness of
used almost without exception in an unfavourable the Prophet' (2 Pet. ii. i6). Those who conceive
sense. Josephus calls him AidvrLs dpiaros, an emi- that the speaking of the ass and the appearance of
nent diviner (Antiq. iv. 6. sec. 2); and what is to the Angel occurred in vision to Balaam (among
be understood by this appellation may be perhaps whom are Maimonides, Leibnitz, and Hengstenbest learned from  the following description by berg) insist upon the fact that dreams and visions
Philo:-' There was a man at that time celebrated were the ordinary methods by which God made
for divination, who lived in Mesopotamia, and was himself known to the Prophets (Num. xii. 6); they
an adept in all the forms of the divining art; but remark that Balaam, in the introduction to his
in no branch was he more admired than in augury; third and fourth prophecies (xxiv. 3, 4, 15), speaks
to many persons and on many occasions he gave of himself as'the man who had his eyes shut'
great and astounding proofs of his skill. For to  (nwi-= -3lnw  and  1nD, v. Lam. iii. 8), and who,
some he foretold storms in the height of summer; on falling down in prophetic ecstasy, had his eyes
to others drought and heat in the depth of winter; opened; that he expressed no surprise on hearing
to some scarcity succeeding a fruitful year, and then  the ass speak; and that neither his servants nor the
again abundance after scarcity; to others the over- Moabitish princes who accompanied him appear to
flowing and the drying up of rivers; and the reme- have been cognizant of any supernatural appeardies of pestilential diseases, and a vast multitude of ance. Dr. Jortin supposes that the Angel of the
other things, each of which he acquired great fame Lord suffered himself to be seen by the beast, but
for predicting' (Vita Moy.ss, sec. 48).  Origen  not by the Prophet; that the beast was terrified,
speaks of Balaam as famous for his skill in magic, and Balaam smote her, and then fell into a trance,
and the use of noxious incantations, but denies that and in that state conversed first with the beast and
he had any power to bless, for which he gives the then with the Angel. The Angel presented these
following reason: —' Ars enim magica nescit benedi- objects to his imagination as strongly as if they had
cere quid nec daemones sciunt benefacere.' (In Num. been before his eyes, so that this was still a miracuHom. xiii.) Balak's language,'I wot he whom  lous or preternatural operation.  In dreaming,
thou blessest is blessed' (Numb. xxii. 6), he con- many singular incongruities occir without exciting
siders as only designed to flatter Balaam, and ren- our astonishment; it is therefore not wonderful if
der him compliant with his wishes.            the Prophet conversed with his beast in vision,
Of the numerous paradoxes which we find in without being startled at such a phenomenon (v.'this strange mixture of a man,' as Bishop Newton Jortin's'Dissertation on Balaam,' pp. 190-194).
terms him, not the least striking is that with the'Balaam's prophecies, as Herder remarks (Geist
practice of an art expressly forbidden to the Israel- der Ebrdischen Poesie, ii. 22I),'are distinguished
ites (' there shall not be found among you one that for dignity, compression, vividness, and fulness of
useth divination (DtO.jp UDp, Deut. xviii. Io), for imagery: there is scarcely anything equal to them
all that do these things are an abomination to the in the later Prophets, and' (he adds, what few
Lord'-ver. I2), he united the knowledge and wor- readers, probably, of Deut. xxxii., xxxiii., will be
ship of Jehovah, and was in the habit of receiving  disposed to admit)'nothing in the discourses of
intimations of his will:'I will bring you word  Moses.' Dr. Hengstenberg has ably discussed the
again as the Lord (Jehovah) shall speak unto me' doubts raised by Dr. de Wette and other German
(Num. xxii. 8).1 The inquiry naturally arises, by critics respecting the antiquity and genuineness of
what means did he become acquainted with the this portion of the Pentateuch.  (Dr. Jortin's Six
true religion? Dr. Hengstenrberg suggests that he Dissertations, Lond. 1755, PP. 17I-194; Bishop
was led to renounce idolatry by the reports that Butler's Sermons at the Rolls Chapel, Serm. vii.;
reached him of the miracles attending the Exodus; Bishop Newton On the Prophecies, vol. i. ch. 5.
and that having experienced the deceptive nature of Discours Historigues, etc., par. M. Saurin, Amst.
the soothsaying art, he hoped by becoming a wor- 1720, tome ii. Disc. 64; Die Geschichte Bileams
shipper of the God of the Hebrews, to acquire fresh  und seine Weissagungen erlautert, von E. W. Hengpower over nature, and a clearer insight into futu- stenberg, 1842, translated by J. E. Ryland, Edin.
rity. In the absence of more copious and precise  I848; Blunt's Undesigned Coincidences in the
information, we may reasonably conjecture that Writings both of the Old and New   Testament,




BALADAN                    286                BALDNESS
Lond. I859, Pp. 82-87; Origenis Opera, Berl. delicacy. Allusions to this are found in-Is. xl. IS,
1840, tom. x. pp. I68-258.)-J. E. R.          Ecclus. xxviii. 29,'small dust of the balance,''a
little grain of the balance;' and all dishonesty in
BALADAN. [MERODACH-BALADAN.]                the treatment of the scales is sternly forbidden and
BALAK (P  ety  Sept. B ) sn of denounced (Lev. xix. 35; Hos. xii. 7; Am. viii. 5;
T BALAK (P  e   y; Sept. BaXdK), son of Mic, vi. I; Prov. xi. I; xvi. i). Hence arose
Zippor, and king of the Moabites (Num. xxii. 2, 4), the Rabbinic rule that the scales should be made of
who was so terrified at the approach of the vic- marble which could not wear away. In Dan. v.
torious army of the Israelites, who in their passage 27 some have seen an allusion to the curious Ori.
through the desert had encamped near the confines ental custom of weighing a king against quantities
of his territory, that he applied to Balaam, who of gold and silver, a custom mentioned in Sir T.
was then reputed to possess great influence with  Roe's Voyage to India (Taylor's Calmet, Frag.
the higher spirits, to curse them. The result of I86), but in all probability the expression is quite
this application is related under another head. general. The phrase'weights of the bag' (Prov.
[BALAAM.] From Judg. xi. 25, it is clear that xvi. Ii), alludes to the Jewish custom of carrying
Balak was so certain of the fulfilment of Balaam's balances and weights at the girdle in a sort of
blessing,' blessed is he that blesseth thee, and pouch (Chardin's Voyages, iii. 422). The weights
cursed is he that curseth thee' (Num. xxiv. 9), that used were stones (t11K), hence the marginal readhe never afterwards made the least military attempt ing,'a perfect stone,' in Prov. xi. I. Fraudulent
to oppose the Israelites (comp. Mic. vi. 5; Rev. dealers carried two sets of stones, of which one was
ii. 4).-E. M.                                 of lighter weight. This dishonesty is exposed in
Deut. xxv. 13.'Thou shalt not carry in thy bag
BALANCE. The Hebrew word usually ren- (PK1        pX) a stone and a stone,' i.e., divers
dered' balance' in the A.V. is lt&ID (moznaim, weights, as in A.V. For.the earliest known weight
and Chald. r~an Dan. v. 27, LXX. nra0e6sp, rizWp, (Kesitah, Gen. xxxiii. i9; Job xlii. II,'ab ilanes r'), a word derve fromA' piece' A. V.,'lamb' marg.), and all other particu0-raO/ia, Vulg.'bilances'), a word derived from  lars respecting weights as mentioned in the Bible,
-T'be weighed.' The dual form shews that the see WEIGHTS. The Jews do not seem to have had
ordinary balance with scales is intended. Another any officers whose especial duty it was to superinword translated'balance' is * DS LXX. rTbW   tend weighing transactions like the Quebbaneh or
word translated Ibalance' is Dt)l, LXX.             wgof,             t   G
*..              public weighers of Egypt, the Greek Pvty6oazara
Vulg. statera (Ps. lxii. 9), by which many suppose (Artemid. ii. 37), or Latin libripendes (Plin. xxxiii.
that an instrument like our steelyard is intended. 3), but care was always taken that the money used
That the steelyard was an invention known to the should be of full weight' (Gen. xliii. 21).
ancients is certain, for specimens of them, elaborately  The Jews must evidently from the earliest ages
adorned, have been found at Pompeii and Hercu- have been acquainted with balances of ingenious
laneum (Mus. Borbon. i. 55). Still it was probably construction, for they were known to the Egypnot known until the Roman era, and indeed is said tians earlier than to other nations, although even
to have been called Trutina Campana, from its among the Greeks, the invention of a particular
invention in Campania (Dict. of Ant., s.v. Trutina). kind of balance (where the equalization of opposite
No traces of its use have been found either in the lots is ascertained by a plummet), is ascribed by
tombs or temples of Egypt or Assyria, and this is Pliny to the mythical age of Daedalus. A balance
a sufficient proof that the instrument was unknown  of this kind was in use among the Egyptians as
in those countries. The only reason for supposing  early as the time of Osirtasen, the cotemporary of
that the Jews were acquainted with it is the con- Joseph.
trast between DiE3 and UD4*D, in Is. xl. 12; Prov.  In Sir G. Wilkinson's Anc. Egypt will be found
xvi. i. It is clear that our translators supposeda description of several baances of great antiquity
In the common balance' the beam passed through
the words to be synonymous, for they have rendered  In the common balance'the beam passed through'peles' by'scales,' which would certainly have aringsuspended from a horizontal rod immediately
been the more appropriate rendering of' moznaim.' above and parallel to it, and when equally balanced,
The meaning of the verse is not that a'steelyard' the ring, which allowed the beam to play freely,
was used for the great mountains, while the lesser shewed when the scales were equally poised, and
hills were all thrown together into'scales,' but prevented the beam from tilting when goods were
merely that God meted the elevations of the world taken out of one scale and yet suffered to remain in
with exactest reference to the good of its inhabi-the other  Tothlower part of the ring a small
tants. It is therefore better with Kimchi (on Is. plummet was fixed, and this being touched and
found to hang freely, shewed, without looking at
xxvi. 7), to understand by 6D, not a steelyard, the beam, that the weight was just' (Anc. Egypt,
but the iron beam of the balance. The variation iii. 239, and Plate 234). A figure of Thoth, under
of the term, although the same thing is meant, the shape of a baboon, was often placed at the top
occurs constantly in Hebrew poetry. A third word, of the balance as an emblematical ornament; and
BMp'reed,' is once rendered'balance' (Is. xlvi. the instrument occasionally appears in death scenes
6), and here undoubtedly the word means'the as a type of judgment (Ibid. and ii. io).
beam,' which is used by synecdoche for the       It is probable that the Jews knew the constellabalance itself. Balances are only once mentioned  tion Libra as one of the signs of the Zodiac. (2
in the New Testament (Rev. vi. 5, 3yov).      Kings xxiii. 5 Job xxxviii. 32.)  [ASTRONOMY.]
Before the introduction of coins balances were of -F. W. F.
the utmost importance for the weighing of gold
and silver in every commercial transaction (Gen. BALDNESS (n?; Sept. gaXdKpcU-S, aXdKxxiii. I6; xliii. 21; Is. xlvi. 6; Jer. xxxii. 9), so pwoia) may be artificial or natural. Artificial baldthat a balance was required to be of exquisite ness, caused by cutting or shaving off the hair of




BALM                     287               BANQUETS
the head, a custom among all the ancient and the close of the day, as it was not till business was
Eastern nations, in token of mourning for the over that the Jews freely indulged in the pleasures
death of a near relative (Jer. xvi. 6; Amos viii. o1; of the table; and although in the days of Christ
Micah i. i6), Moses forbade to the Israelites (Deut. these meals were, after the Roman fashion, called
xiv. I), probably for the very reason of its being a suppers, they corresponded exactly to the dinners
heathen custom; for a leading object of his policy of moder times, the hour fixed for them varying
was to remove the Jews as far as possible from the from five to six o'clock P.M., or sometimes later.
ways and customs of the surrounding nations.    On occasions of ceremony the company were inNatural baldness, though Moses did not consider it vited a considerable time previous to the celebraas a symptom of leprosy, and declared the man tion of the feast; and on the day and at the hour
afflicted with it to be clean and sound (Lev. xiii. appointed, an express by one or more servants,
40, sq.), yet was always treated among the Israel- according to the number and distance of the exites with contempt (ibid.), and a bald man was not pected guests, was despatched to announce that
unfrequently exposed to the ridicule of the mob the preparations were completed, and that their
(2 Kings ii. 23; Is. iii. 24: comp. Suet. Caes. 45; presence was looked for immediately (Matt. xxii. 8;
Domit. I8); perhaps from the suspicion of being  Luke xiv. 17). (Grotius, in loc.; also Morier's
under some leprous taint, as the Hebrew word Journey, p. 73.) This custom obtains in the East
nTip originally implied an ulcer, or an ulcered per  at the present day; and the second invitation, which
son. The public prejudice thus entertained against is always verbal, is delivered by the messenger in
a bald-headed man was perhaps the main reason his master's name, and frequently in the very
why he was declared unfit for the priestly office language of Scripture:' Behold I have prepared
(Lev. xxi. 20; Mishn. tit. Bechoroth, vi  2). my dinner; my oxen and fatlings are killed, and all
[HAIR]-E. M.                                  things are ready' (Matt. xxii. 4). It is observable,
however, that this after-summons is sent to none
BALM. [TsoRI.                               but such as have been already invited, and have deBAMAH (tms, a height or high place). This dared their acceptance; and, as in these circum~~~~T T~~ ~stances, people are bound by every feeling of honour
word occurs as a proper name, Ez. xx. 29. It isand propriety to postpone all other engagements to
more probably, however, merely an appellitive. the duty of waiting upon their entertainer, it is
The passage is to the last degree obscure; but manifest that the vehement resentment of the
there seems no reason to suppose that any place grandee in the parable of the great supper, where
called Bamah is referred to. The'high place' of each of the guests is described as offering to the
the latter clause is parallel to the'high place' of bearer of the express some frivolous apologies for
the former.-W. L. A.                          absence, was, so far from being harsh and unreasonBAMOTH (1njtn, pl. of the preceding), called able, as infidels have characterized it, fully warranted and most natural according to the manners
more fully BAMOTH HAGGAY, or B. of the valley of the age and country. By accepting his invitation
(Num. xxi. 19, 20), a place in Moab which formed they had given a pledge of their presence, the violaone of the stations of the Israelites in their journey tion of which on such trivial grounds, and especially
through the wilderness. It is commonly regarded after the liberal preparations made for their enteras the same place which is elsewhere called Ba-tainment, could be viewed in no other light than as
moth Baal (Josh. xiii. 17; comp. Num. xxii. 41), a gross and deliberate insult.
in the territory of Reuben. It has been conjec-  At the small entrance door a servant was staturally identified with the place now called Wal, tioned to receive the tablets or cards of those who
on the Wadi W9leh (Kruse ap. Seetzen. Reise, wereexpected; and as curiosity usually collected a
iv. 225).-W. L. A.crowd of troublesome spectators, anxious to press
BANI (, built; Sept. Bavc, Bovvl, Bcavov), forward into the scene of gaiety, the gate was
opened only so far as was necessary for the admisthe name of one of Davi's mighty men (2 Sam. sion of a single person at a time, who, on presentxxiii. 36), and of several other persons mentioned ing his invitation ticket, was conducted through a
in Scripture (I Chron. vi. 46; ix. 4; Neh. iii. 17; long and narrow passage into the receiving-room;
ix. 4, 5; x. 14; xi. 22; Ezra ii. o1 (called Binnui, and then, after the whole company were assembled,
Neh. vii. 15); x. 29, 34, 38; Neh. viii. 7; x I5). the master of the house shut the door with his own
Whether these are different persons, or repetitions hands-a signal to the servant to allow himself to
of the same, cannot always be satisfactorily deter- be prevailed on neither by noise nor by importunimined.                                       ties, however loud and long continued, to admit
BANNER. [STANDARDS.]                       the bystanders. To this custom there is a maniBANOLAS, LEON D. [RALBAG.]                 fest reference in Luke xiii. 24, and Matt. xxv. Io
BANOLAS, LEON DE.  R(Morier's Tourney, p. 142).
BANQUETS. The entertainments spoken of        One of the first marks of courtesy shewn to the
in Scripture, on however large a scale, and of how- guests, after saluting the host, was the refreshment
ever sumptuous a character, were all provided at of water and fragrant oil or perfumes; and hence
the expense of one individual; the 1pavos of the we find our Lord complaining of Simon's omission
Greeks, to which every guest present contributed of these customary civilities (Luke vii. 44; see also
his proportion, being apparently unknown to the Mark vii. 4). [ANOINTING.] But a far higher,
Jews, or at least practised only by the humbler though necessarily less frequent attention paid to
classes, as some suppose that an instance of it their friends by the great, was the custom of furoccurs in the feast given to our Lord, shortly be- nishing each of the company with a magnificent
fore his Passion, by his friends in Bethany (Matt. habit of a light and showy colour, and richly emxxvi. 2; Mark xiv. t: comp. with John xii. 2). broidered, to be worn during the festivity (Eccles.
Festive meetings of this kind were held only towards ix. 8; Rev. iii. 4, 5). The loose and flowing style




BANQUETS                   288                BANQUETS
of this gorgeous mantle made it equally suitable for the sides of the room, and the guests were placed
all; and it is almost incredible what a variety of with their faces towards the walls.  Persons of
such sumptuous garments the wardrobes of some high official station were honoured with a table
great men could supply to equip a numerous party. apart for themselves at the head of the room; and
In a large company, even of respectable persons, in these particulars every reader of the Bible will
someimight appear in a plainer and humbler garb trace an exact correspondence to the arrangements
than accorded with the taste of the voluptuous of Joseph's entertainment to his brethren. Accordgentry of our Lord's time; and where this arose ing to Lightfoot (Exercit. on John xiii. 23), the
from necessity or limited means, it would have been tables of the Jews were either wholly uncovered,
harsh and unreasonable in the extreme to attach or two-thirds were spread with a cloth, while the
blame, or to command his instant and ignominious remaining third was left bare for the dishes and
expulsion from the banquet-room. But where a vegetables. In the days of our Lord the prevailwell-appointed and sumptuouswardrobewas opened ing form was the triclinium, the mode of reclining
for the use of every guest, —to refuse the gay and at which is described elsewhere [ACCUBATION].
splendid costume which the munificence of the host This effeminate practice was not introduced until
provided, and to persist in appearing in one's own near the close of the Old Testament history, for
habiliments, implied a contempt both for the mas- amongst all its writers prior to the age of Amos
ter of the house and his entertainment, which 32s, to sit, is the word invariably used to describe
could not fail to provoke resentment-and our the posture at table (I Sam. xvi. margin, and Ps.
Lord therefore spoke in accordance with a well- cxxviii. 3, implying that the ancient Israelites sat
known custom of his country, when, in the parable round a low table, cross-legged, like the Orientals
of the marriage of the king's son, he describes the of the present day), whereas dvaKXzvw, signifying a
stern displeasure of the king on discovering one of recumbent posture, is the word employed in the
the guests without a wedding garment, and his in- Gospel.
stant command to thrust him out (Matt. xxii. I).  The convenience of spoons, knives, and forks
At private banquets the master of the house of being unknown in the East, or, where known,
course presided, and did the honours of the occa- being a modern innovation, the hand is the only
sion; but in large and mixed companies it was instrument used in conveying food to the mouth,
anciently customary to elect a governor of the and the common practice, their food being chiefly
feast (John ii. 8; see also Ecclus. xxxii. I), who prepared in a liquid form, is to dip their thin wafershould not merely perform the office of chairman, like bread in the dish, and folding it between their
iPXLTpIKX\vOS, in preserving order and decorum, thumb and two fingers, enclose a portion of the
but take upon himself the general management of contents. It is not uncommon to see several hands
the festivities. As this office was considered a plunged into one dish at the same time.  But
post of great responsibility and delicacy, as well as where the party is numerous, the two persons near
honour, the choice which among the Greeks and  or opposite are commonly joined in one dish; and
Romans was left to the decision of dice, was more accordingly, at the last Passover, Judas, being close
wisely made by the Jews to fall upon him who to his master, was pointed out as the traitor by
was known to be possessed of the requisite qualities being designated as the person'dipping his hand
-a ready wit and convivial turn, and at the same with Jesus in the dish.' The Apostle John, whose
time firmness of character and habits of temperance advantageous situation enabled him to hear the
[ARCHITRICLINUS]. The guests were scrupulously minutest parts of the conversation, has recorded
arranged according to their respective ranks. This the fact of our Lord, in reply to the question,
was done either by the host or governor, who, in'Who is it?' answering it by'giving a sop to
the case of a family, placed them according to Judas when he had dipped' (John xiii. 26); and
seniority (Gen. xliii. 33), and in the case of others, this leads us to mention it as not the least among
assigned the most honourable a place near his own the peculiarities of Oriental manners, that a host
person; or it was done by the party themselves, often dips his hand into a dish, and lifting a
on their successive arrivals, and after surveying the handful of what he considers a dainty, offers the
company, taking up the position which it appeared  kulidov or sop to one of his friends. However the
fittest for each according to their respective claims fastidious delicacy of a European appetite might
to occupy. It might be expected that among the revolt at such an act of hospitality, it is one of the
Orientals, by whom the laws of etiquette in these greatest courtesies that an Oriental can shew, and
matters are strictly observed, many absurd and  to decline it would be a violation of propriety and
ludicrous contests for precedence must take place, good manners (see Jowett's Christian Researches).
from the arrogance of some and the determined  In earlier ages, a double or a more liberal portion,
perseverance of others to wedge themselves into or a choice piece of cookery, was the form in
the seat they deem themselves entitled to. See which a host shewed his respect for the individual
Morier, Second Journey; Clarke, Travels; Mal- he delighted to honour (Gen. xliii. 34; i Sam. i.
colm, Sketches of Persia, i. ch. 9; Joseph. Antiq. 5; ix. 23; Prov. xxxi. 15; see Voller's Grec. Antig.
xv. 2. The knowledge of these peculiarities serves ii. 387; Forbes, Orient. Mem. iii. I87).
to illustrate several passages of Scripture (Prov. xxv.  While the guests reclined in the manner de6, 7; Matt. xxiii. 6; and especially Luke xiv. 7, scribed above, their feet, of course, being stretched
where we find Jesus making the unseemly ambition out behind, were the most accessible parts of their
of the Pharisees the subject of severe and merited person, and accordingly the woman with the alaanimadversion).                              baster-box of ointment could pay her grateful and
It would be difficult within a short compass to reverential attentions to Jesus without disturbing
describe the form and arrangements of the table, him in the business. of the table. Nor can the
as the entertainments spoken of in Scripture were presence of this woman, upinvited and unknown
not all conducted in a uniform style. In ancient even as she was to the master of the house, appear
Egypt, as -in Persia, the tables were ranged along at all an incredible or strange circumstance, when




BANQUETS                     289                 BAPTISM
we consider that entertainments are often given in  People of rank and opulence in the East fregardens, or in the outer courts, where strangers quently give public entertainments to the poor.
are freely admitted, and that Simon's table was in  The rich man, in the parable, whose guests disall likelihood as accessible to the same promis- appointed him, despatched his servants on the incuous visitors as are found hovering about at the stant to invite those that might be found sitting by
banquets and entering into the houses of the most the hedges and the highways-a measure which,
respectable Orientals of the present day (Forbes, in the circumstances, was absolutely necessary, as
Orient. Mem.) In the course of the entertainment the heat of the climate would spoil the meats long
servants are frequently employed in sprinkling the before they could be consumed by the members of
head and person of the guests with odoriferous his own household. But many of the great, from
perfumes, which, probably to counteract the effects benevolence or ostentation, are in the habit of proof too copious perspiration, they use in great pro- claiming set days for giving feasts to the poor; and
fusion, and the fragrance of which, though gene- then, at the time appointed, may be seen crowds
rally too strong for Europeans, is deemed an   of the blind, the halt, and the maimed, bending
agreeable refreshment (see Ps. xlv. 8; xxiii. 5; their steps to the scene of entertainment. This
cxxxiii. 2).                                   species of charity claims a venerable antiquity.
The various articles of which an Oriental enter- Our Lord recommended his wealthy hearers to
tainment consists, bread, flesh, fish, fowls, melted  practise it rather than spend their fortunes, as they
butter, honey, and fruits, are in many places set on  did, on luxurious living (Luke xiv. 12); and as
the table at once, in defiance of all taste. They  such invitations to the poor are of necessity given
are brought in upon trays-one, containing several by public proclamation, and female messengers
dishes, being assigned to a group of two, or at are employed to publish them (Hasselquist saw ten
most three, persons, and the number and quality  or twelve thus perambulating a town in Egypt), it
of the dishes being regulated according to the rank  is probably to the same venerable practice that
and consideration of the party seated before it. Solomon alludes in Prov. ix. 3.-R. J.
In ordinary cases four or five dishes constitute the
portion allotted to a guest; but if he be a person  BAPTISM  (fpdTrrtl-a, Pd7rrtoa-os), the act of
of consequence, or one to whom the host is de- baptizing (parrTietv), or the being baptized (/3a7rsirous of shewing more than ordinary marks of rrefeOat), is the designation of a rite instituted by our
attention, other viands are successively brought in, Lord Jesus Christ as the initiatory rite of his religion.
until, if every vacant corner of the tray is occupied, It is administered by the application to the person
the bowls are piled one above another. The object of water,' for (els) the name of the Father, and of
of this rude but liberal hospitality is, not that the the Son, and of the Holy Ghost' (Matt. xxviii. I9).
individual thus honoured is expected to surfeit him- Respecting the meaning and intent of this ordiself by an excess of indulgence in order to testify  nance, the proper mode of administering it, and the
his sense of the entertainer's kindness, but that he persons to whom it is to be administered, great
may enjoy the means of gratifying his palate with  differences of opinion have been entertained, which
greater variety; and hence we read of Joseph's dis- have led to keen and protracted controversies among
playing his partiality for Benjamin by making his the followers of Christ. It forms no part of the'mess five times so much as any of theirs' (Gen. design of this article to attempt a decision of these
xliii. 34). The shoulder of a lamb, roasted, and  controversies; but in a work such as this, a stateplentifully besmeared with butter and milk, is re- ment of the facts belonging to the subject, and of
garded as a great delicacy still (Buckingham's the opinions of different parties on the points conTravels, ii. I36), as it was also in the days of troverted, seems imperatively required. In attemptSamuel. But according to the favourite cookery ing to present this, we shall considerof the Orientals, their animal food is for the most  I. THE USAGE OF prrclTev BY THE CLASSICAL
part cut into small pieces, stewed, or prepared in  WRITERS.-No instance occurs in these writers of
a liquid state, such as seems to have been the  the use of pad7rra/La, and only one in a very late'broth' presented by Gideon to the angel (Judg. author (Antyllus) of the use of its equivalent pdcrvi. I9). The made-up dishes are'savoury meat,' rao-,Ls; but the verb occurs frequently, especially
being highly seasoned, and bring to remembrance in the later writers. It is used to designate: —I.
the marrow and fatness which were esteemed as  The dipping of an object -into water, or any other
the most choice morsels in ancient times. As to fluid, or quasi-fluid, for any purpose whatever: as
drink, when particular attention was intended to be  37Trrttov aeavrbv es OdXaoa-av, dip yourself into
shewn to a guest, his cup was filled with wine till it the sea (for the purpose of bathing or washing),
ran over (Ps. xxiii. 5), and it is said that the ancient Plut. Mor., p. I66 A.; *acrrlewtv rbv At6vvaov 7rpbs
Persians began their feasts with wine, whence it rzv OdcXaTrav,, Ibid., p. 914. 2. The immersing or
was called'a banquet of wine' (Esther v. 6).  sinking of an object: as Oi  y&p rots dKoX\U3ois
The hands, for occasionally both were required, pa7rTtrecOat avfzl3ave& E\Xwv 7p67rov 7rtro\Xd&ovaL,
besmeared with grease during the process of eating, where panrrlieaOa, in the sense of'immersed,' is
were anciently cleaned by rubbing them with the  contrasted with rtnroXdcovat, in the sense of'float;'
soft part of the bread, the crumbs of which, being  v oaaLi yevca ai r7v 7ropelav avvett?, d)Xpjt 6ifuaXoi
allowed to fall, became the portion of dogs (Matt. pa7rrt6bJLevwv, being immersed up to the navel,
xv. 27; Luke xvi. 21).  But the most common    Strabo, Geogr. xiv. p. 667;,6Xtbs ws Trv IJaor7Wv
way now at the conclusion of a feast is for a ser- oe? rerol paarrt6,tevo  &ed/3pavov, Polyb. iii. 72. So
vant to go round to each guest with water to wash, Pindar says (Pyth. ii. 146), adiPrrtoraT6 elUt, QeXa service which is performed by the menial pour- Xbs 6&, where the cork of the fisherman is styled
ing a stream over their hands, which is received  unbaptized, in contrast to the net which sinks
into a strainer at the bottom of the basin. This into the water.  In the same sense is the word
humble office Elisha performed to his master used by the Anacreontic poet of Cupid, 3cdir(2 Kings iii. II).                             TLao' eI rbv oPvov, I immersed him in the wine,
VOL. I.                                                                            U




BAPTISM                     290                 BAPTISM
Julian.Egypt. 5 (59) Anacreont.  3. The cover- ev drTicrttAa, Eph. iv. 5; #dcrrtc-ua, Col. iL. 12;
ing over of any object by. the flowing or pouring  I Pet. iii. 21, etc.; aLTrrTotLuoJ 7roTrrptwv, Mark vii.
of a fluid on it; and metaphorically (in the pas- 4, 8; gacrTro-,fwv &SaXis, Heb. vi. 2; 8&aq6pois
sive), the being overwhelmed or oppressed: thus, the tca7rrTo~zos, ix. IO.
Pseudo-Aristotle speaks of places full of bulrushes  2. With addition of the element of baptism: as
and sea weeds, which, when the tide is at the ebb, iv Obart, Mark i. 8, etc.; iv 7rve6AaTL &ityq Kal rvUpt,
are not baptized (i.e., covered by the water), but at Matt. iii. ii, etc.; jtlarc, Luke iii. I6, etc. The
full tide are flooded over (Mirabil. Auscult., sec. force of iv in such formulae, has by some been
137, p. 50, in Westerman's edit. of the Script. Rer. pressed, as if it indicated that the object of baptism
Mir. Gr.); Diodorus Siculus (bk. i.) speaks of was in the element of baptism; but by most the
land animals being destroyed by the river overtak-  v is regarded as merely the nota dativi, so that iv
ing them, and baptizing them (&a  ~O8elperTa f3ar- ioarT means no more than the simple bOart, as the
TtL6bueva); Plato and Athenaeus describe men in a dv rXoiy, of Matt. xiv. 13 means no more than the
state of ebriety as baptized (Sympos., p. 176 B.; 7rXoty of Mark vi. 32. See Matthiae, sec. 401,
and Deipnos. v.), and the former says the same of a obs. 2; Kiihner, sec. 585, Anm. 2. The use of
youth overwhelmed with sophistry (Euthyd. 277 D.); iv after jarririw in relation to the element of bapPlutarch denounces the forcing of knowledge on  tism, is a departure from classical usage, accordchildren beyond what they can receive as a pro- ing to which ets, or irpbs, with the accusative, or
cess by which the soul is baptized (De Lib. educ.), the simple dative (though rarely) is used.* Only in
and he speaks of men as baptized by debts (Galbe, one instance does the classical usage appear in the
c. 21); Diodorus Sic. speaks of baptizing people N. T., Mark i. 9, where we have es Trbv'Iop8dvrv,
with tears (bk. i. c. 73), and Libanius says,' He and this can hardly be regarded as a real exception
who hardly bears what he now bears, would be to the ordinary usage of the N. T., because cis here
baptized by a little addition' (Epist. 310), and'I is local rather than instrumental. On this differam  one of those baptized, by that great wave' ence of usage stress has been laid as indicative
(Ep. 25). 4. Thewashing or wetting of an object, of a difference of signification between ga/rrTLw
whether by aspersion or immersion; as'AKbOS pa/r- as used in the N. T., and as used by the classical
Tlt, ovvat o r     Ot 4Ejus o-rT,' As a bladder thou  writers.  In connection with this may be noticed
art washed (i.e., by the waves breaking over thee), the phrases KaTapacfvev els Tb i6op, and &ropaveiv
but thou canst not go down' (Orac. Sibyll. d eK or drOb Tro 6oaros. According to some, these
Athenis, ap. Plutarch. Thesei, 24).            decisively prove that the party baptized, as well as
From this it appears, that in classical usage gar- the baptizer, went down into the water, and came
TireLv is not fixed to any special mode of applying  up out of it. But, on the other hand, it is conthe baptizing element to the object baptized; all tended that the phrases do not necessarily imply
that is implied by the term is, that the former is more than that they went to (i. e., to'the margin
closely in contact with the latter, or that the of) the water and returned thence.
latter is wholly in the former.                  3. With specfication of the end or purpose for
II. THE USE OF Ba7rrt'ev BY THE LXX. Here which the baptism is effected: This is usually indithe word occurs only four times, viz., 2 Kings v. 14, cated by els: as parrTiovres tls T r6 voua, Matt.'And Naaman went down and baptized himself xxviii. I9, and frequently; iaa7rrTIo-fev ets Xptoa([paIrrTiaro) seven times in the river Jordan,' where Tv..Is Tbv Odvarov aTrov, Rom. vi. 3, al.;
elis rbv Mcwoi'~v 3azrrTiO-lo-av, I Cor. x. 3; eis Ev
the original Hebrew is >'AD, from 52  to dip, o-/iUa iarrToiarnev, xii. 13; ianrrt-OcrOxT eKaoaros
plunge, immerse; Is. xxi. 4,'Iniquity baptizes.. els ideo-v wiaprTwv, Acts ii. 38, etc.  In
me (1 avo4c ta e Pa-rrrllr), where the word is these cases eis retains its proper significancy, as
plainly used in the sense of overwhelm, answering  indicating the terminus ad quer, and tropically,
to the Heb. nr1 to come upon suddenly, to terrify; thatfor which, or with a view to which the thing is
Judith xii. 7,'She went out by night... and  done; modified according as this is a person or a
baptized herself (48arrrTero) at the fountain;' and thing. Thus, to be baptized for Moses, means to be
Ecclus. xxxi. [xxxiv.] 30, He who is baptized from  baptized with a view to following or being subject to
a corpse" T(pa7rrs4uevos idrb6 veKpov), etc. In these the rule of Moses; to be baptized for Christ, means to
last two instances the word merely denotes washed, be baptized with a view to becoming a true follower
without indicating any special mode by which this of Christ to be baptized for his death, means to be
was done, though in the former the circumstances baptized with a view to the enjoyment of the beneof the case make it improbable that the act. de- fits of his death; to be baptized for the remission
scribed was that of bathing  (comp.
scribed was that of bathing (comp. Num. xix. of sins, means to be baptized with a view to receivI9).                                           ing this; to be'baptized for the name of any one,
In the Greek, then, of the LXX,     a-rripewt  means to be baptized with a view to the realization
signifies to plunge, to bathe, or to overwhelm  It of all that the meaning of this name implies, etc.
is never used to describe the act of one who dips In one passage Paul uses birep to express the end
another object in a fluid, or the case of one who is or design of baptism, a7rTIevoo bIrp rwv VEKpov,
dipped by another.                             i Cor. xv. 29; but here the involved idea of substiIII. USAGE OF Ba7rr1Tlev AND ITS DERIVATIVES  tution justifies the use of the preposition.  Instead
IN THE N. T.-Confining our notice here simply  of a preposition, the genitive of object is someto the philology of the subject, the instances of this times used, as pdfrrT-ua jLeravolas, Luke iii. 3, al.
usage may be classified thus:- 
I. The verb or noun alone, or with the object bap- * Meyer (on Matt. iii. I I) has adduced Polyb.
tized merely: as fparrTaO7^vat, Matt. iii. 13, 14; v. 47. 2, and Odyss. ix. 392, as instances of iv used
a7rriT-Odls, Mark xvi. 16; 3a7rrTlov, Mark i. 4; by the classical writers after f3a7rrT o. But in the
/iarrTiov7-ra, vii. 4; f3aTrrieis, John i. 25; 3dir- former instance the verb used before iv is KaTavoLw,
T7Loa, I Cor. i. 14, etc.; jBSrrTo-La abrom, Matt. iii. 7; and in the latter it is /537rrTo.




BAPTISM                    291                 BAPTISM
-= pdirTrotza els MUeravoiav, the baptism which has of his apostles, it does not concern us at present to
heTravola-as its end and purpose.              inquire. Regarding the intent of baptism by the
4. With specification of the ground or basis on  Spirit, there can be little room for doubt or differwhich the baptism rests.-This is expressed by the ence of opinion; it is obviously a figurative mode
use of ev in-the phrases ev 6v6uLart rivos, and once of describing the agency of the Divine Spirit given
by the use of eirl with the dative, Acts ii. 38:'to through and by Christ, both in conferring miracube baptized on the name of Christ, i. e., so that the lous endowments and in purifying and sanctifying
baptism is grounded on the confession of his name' the heart of man. By this Spirit the disciples
(Winer, p. 469). Some regard these formulae as were baptized on the day of Pentecost, when'there
identical in meaning with those in which els is used appeared unto them cloven tongues of fire, and it
with 6pvoca, but the more exact scholars view them  sat upon each of them; and they were all filled
as distinct.                                   with the Holy Ghost, and they began to speak with
These two last-mentioned usages are peculiar to tongues as the Spirit gave them utterance' (Acts ii.
the N. T., and arise directly from the new signifi- 3, 4); by this Spirit men are saved when they are
cancy which its writers attached to baptism as a'born again of water and of the Spirit' (John iii. 5);
rite.                                          when they receive'the washing of regeneration and
Hitherto we have kept within the field of pure renewing of the Holy Ghost' (Tit. iii. 5); and when
philology; we must now advance to the considera- there is the putting away from them of the filth of
tion of baptism as an act. And here it may be of the flesh, and they have the answer of a good
advantage to consider the instances in the N. T. in  conscience towards God (I Pet. iii. 21); and by
which baptism is used in a non-ritual sense before this Spirit believers are baptized for one body,
we proceed to notice it as a rite.             when through his gracious agency they receive that
IV. NON-RITUAL BAPTISMS MENTIONED IN         Spirit, and those impulses by which they are led to
THE N. T.-These are:-                        realize their unity in Christ Jesus (I Cor. xii. I3).*
I. The baptism of utensils and articles of furni- Some refer to the Spirit's baptism also,, the apostle's
ture; Mark vii. 4, 8.                          expression, (v pdCirTta, JEph. iv. 5; but the com2. The baptism of persons; Mark vii. 3, 4; mon and more probable opinion is, that the referLuke xi. 38, etc.                             ence here is to ritual baptism as the outward sign
These are the only instances in which the verb  of that inner unity which the es.i Kipos and the,Liia
or noun is used in a strictly literal sense in the 7rirTs secure and produce (see Alford,. Ellicott,
N. T., and there may be some doubt as to whether Meyer, Matthies, etc., etc., in loc.), In this figurathe last instance should not be remanded to the tive use of the term'baptism,' the tertium comhead of ritual baptisms. These instances are chiefly parationis is found by some in the Spirit's being
valuable as bearing on the question of the mode of viewed as the element in which the believer is made
baptism; they shew that no special mode is indi- to live, and in which he receives the transforming
cated by the mere use of the word baptize, for the influence; whilst others find it inthe biblical reprewashing of cups, of couches, and of persons, is sentation of the Spirit as coming upon men, as
accomplished in a different manner in each case: in  poured upon them. (Is. xxxii. 15:; Zech. xii. 10;
the first by dipping, or immersing, or rinsing, or Joel.ii. 28; Acts ii. 17), and as sprinkled on them
pouring, or simply wiping with a wet cloth; in the like clean water (Ezek. xxxvi. 25).
second by aspersion and wiping; and in the third  5. Baptism for Moses.-In i Cor. x. 2, the
by plunging or stepping into the bath.        apostle says of the Israelites:' And they all re3. Baptism of affliction: Mark x. 38, 39; Luke ceived baptism ('the middle voice is selected to
xii. 50. In both these passages our Lord refers to  express a receptive sense,' Meyer) for Moses (els rbv
his impending sufferings as a baptism which he had  Mwvonv 3pa7rTrlavro) in (or by, iv) the cloud, and
to undergo.  Chrysostom, and some others of the in (or by) the sea.' In the Syr. V. els r. M. is
fathers, understand this objectively, as referring totranslatedperman               sis; and
the purgation which his sufferings were to effect
(see the passages in Suicer, Thes. s. v. pd7rTtl.a, this is followed by Beza and others. Others reni. 7); but this does not seem to be the idea of the der una cum Mose; others auspiciis Mosis; others
speaker. Our Lord rather means that his suffer- in Mose, i. e.,'sub ministerio et ductu Mosis'
ings were to come on him as a mighty overwhelm- (Calvin), etc. But all these interpretations are
ing torrent (see Kuinoel on Matt. xx. 22, 23; precluded by the proper meaning of els, and the
Blomfield, ibid.)  Some interpreters suppose fixed significance of the phr. pa7rrletv ets in the
there is an allusion in this language to submersion  N. T. The only rendering that can be admitted, is
as essential to baptism  (see Olshausen in loc.;'for Moses,' i.e., with a view to him, in reference
Meyer on Mark x. 38); but nothing more seems to to him, in respect of him.'They were baptized
be implied than simply the being overwhelmed in for Moses, i. e., they became bound to fidelity and
a figurative sense, according to what we have seen  obedience, and were accepted into the covenant
to be a common use of, the word by the classical which God then made with the people through
writers.                                       Moses' (Riickert in loc.; see also Meyer and Al4. Baptism with the Spirit: Matt. iii. II; Mark ford on the passage).
i. 8; Luke iii. 16; John i, 33; Acts i. 5; xi. I6;  V. RITUAL BAPTISM.-In writing to the HeCor. xii. 13. In the first of these passages, it is brews the apostle makes mention of' divers
said of our Lord that he shall baptize with the Holy  baptisms' (ratb6pots paC7rrTfLLoLs) as amongst the:
Spirit and with fire. Whether this be taken as a carnal ordinances of the ancient, dispensation.
hendiadys = the Spirit as fire, or as pointing out
two distinct baptisms, the one by the Spirit the  *'Dieses arrt-Oijvvat e' Mv 7rve1ELarL ist els tv
other by fire; and whether on the latter assump- tw/zua geschehen d. h. (els telisch), es hatte die
tion the baptism by fire means the destruction by  Bestimmung dass wir Alle Einem Leib ausmachen
Christ of his enemies, or the miraculous endowment sollten.'-Meyer, in loc.




BAPTISM                    292                BAPTISM
That there were ritual baptisms practised by the We cannot for a moment suppose that John would
Jews there can be no doubt, and the connection in have administered what he regarded as a sign or
which the apostle introduces the expression strongly token of actual conversion to persons whom he
favours the conclusion, that he refers under it to knew to be unconverted, or even to persons of
the sprinkling of the blood upon the altar, and the whose conversion he possessed no credible evisprinkling of the unclean with the water of separa- dence.
tion (Halley on the Sacraments, i. 383). Beyond  Among those who submitted to the baptism of
the use of the word, however, it does not appear John was our Lord himself. With the cavils and
that any connection subsists between these bap- criticisms which this part of the evangelical narratisms and the ritual baptism of the N. T.     tive has provoked, we have here no concern [see
The earliest mention of baptism as a rite is in the JESUS CHRIST]; all that legitimately comes before
account which the evangelists give of the working us at present is involved in the question, Why did
of John the Baptist.   Whether there existed  He who had no sins to confess, and no repentance
amongst the Jews previous to this an ordinance of to make, insist upon submitting to a baptism which
baptism in the case of proselytes from heathenism, was of repentance, with a view to the remission of
is a point which has been keenly discussed, but sins? The proper answer to this question has been
which it does not seem necessary to consider here. furnished by our Lord himself. In reply to the
[PROSELYTE.] It may suffice to remark, that as remonstrance of John, who humbly shrank from
John's baptizing appears to have excited no sur- seeming to assume any semblance of superiority
prise among the Jews, but to have been regarded over Him whose advent he had come to announce,
by them as the proper and accredited mode by Jesus said, ttqes dcpT' orwos y&p irpeprov E&rlv 7Lf?v
which a new teacher might designate those who 7rX\rpGiac ra oav &OKatoa6vr)v.  The dpr& here has
professed themselves his disciples, the presumption  reference to the existing relations between John
is, that the rite was one with which they were and Jesus, relations which were to be reversed
familiar front their own practice in regard to con- when the latter should come forth as the Teacher
verts from heathenism..                       of Israel, but which were still in force so long as
I. _7ohn's Baptism.-John, the forerunner of the' burning and shining light' of John's ministry
Jesus, appeared preaching and baptizing; and was in the ascendant, whilst that of Jesus was still
great multitudes submitted to his baptism (Matt. beneath the horizon. And this may suggest to us
iii. I-6; Mark i. 4, 5; Luke iii. 3).        the true reason why our Lord sought John's bapThe baptism of John was a baptism with water tism, as expressed by his own words. Our Lord
unto repentance. He came announcing the near appeared as a Jew, subject to all the divine ordiapproach of the kingdom of heaven, and of the nances; in the mission and working of John He
new state of things which would then be intro- recognized a divine ordinance, part of that &KaLoaiv6
duced; he rebuked the prevailing sins of -his day which every Jew was bound to observe; through
with stern severity, and called upon all to repent; it was the divinely appointed transit to the Mesand he made disciples of those who came to him  sianic dispensation; and through it consequently
by baptizing them. He thus, as Paul says,'bap- He who had come to inaugurate and announce
tized with the baptism of repentance, saying unto that dispensation must needs pass, that as God's
the people, that they should believe on Him who servant He might fulfil all the Father's will. In
should come after him, that is, on Christ Jesus' this sense our Lord's baptism by John had the
(Acts xix. 4). It has not been supposed by any same significancy that the baptism of others by
that John's baptism effected repentance in those on John had; it was a confession of submission to
whom it was administered; on the contrary, this John's teaching, and a profession of readiness for
is strenuously denied even by those who are most the coming dispensation. Jesus, who had begun
disposed to attach to Christian baptism regenerating his earthly career as a disciple of Moses, became a
power (see Pusey, Tracts for the Times, No. 67). disciple of John when he appeared as the herald of
The only difference of opinion as to the significance the economy which was to supersede that of Moses;
of John's baptism lies between those who maintain and so passed on to his own high place as the
that it was a token of the sincerity of the parties who author and administrator of the new economy by
submitted to it-a sign that they had really repented the path which God had seen meet to appoint.
and embraced John's doctrine; and those who find  Had the baptism of John been a sign or seal of
in it merely a badgb of discipleship, a designation  repentance, it could not have been submitted to
of those who enrolled themselves among John's by Him who knew no sin; but as a mere outward
followers, an outward expression of their willing- designation of submission to John's teaching, and
ness to be taught by him, with a view to that re. acceptance of his announcement that the kingdom
pentance and remission of sins which he preached. of the Messiah was coming, and of a consequent
This latter view seems the more correct, because change from Judaism towards (els) Christianity, it
-I. It preserves the just sense of the phrase Pair- could be properly received by Him; and he saw
rie.wv etl, used to describe the design of John's meet to receive it, that he in receiving it, and John
baptism (Mark i. 4); 2. It best accords with Paul's in administering it, might fulfil all that God had
description of the intention of John's baptism, as appointed.
announced by himself, viz., that they should believe  It has been a point much debated whether John's
on Him who was coming; and 3. It is supported baptism was the same as that administered by the
by the historical facts, that the multitudes who disciples and apostles of Christ, or different from
received John's baptism were such, that it was im- it. What has lent some keenness to the discussion
possible to ascertain by any just test the sincerity of this question is, that, on the one hand, it enters
of each one's profession, whilst of not a few John  into the controversy between the Catholics and the
himself knew that they were not real converts, but Reformers, the Anglicans and Evangelicals, rewere in many cases very ignorant, and in some specting the efficacy of the sacraments, and, on the
cases bad men (Matt. iii. 7-I2; Luke iii. 7-17). other, touches the question whether we, as Christ's




BAPTISM                   293                 BAPTISM
followers, are baptized with the same baptism as Cong. Led. on the Sacraments, vol. i. p. 198). But
that to which our Lord submitted. By most, the besides the want of any conclusive evidence in
identity of the two baptisms is denied; by the support of the supposition that these disciples of
Sacramentarians, because, as John's baptism con- John had been baptized after the death of Christ,
fessedly did not effect a spiritual change, if it is to it may be argued that even granting this suppobe viewed as identical with Christian baptism, it sition, the case would prove the very opposite
would follow that neither does the latter effect a of what it is adduced to prove, for it would prove
spiritual change; and by others for various reasons. that John's baptism was valid only so long as
The decision of the question depends mainly upon his dispensation lasted, but ceased to be so after
three considerations. I. When John says,'I bap- it had passed; so that there was the same reason
tize with water unto repentance, but He that cometh for rebaptizing one who had received John's bapafter me is mightier than I..... He shall baptize tism as there was for rebaptizing one who had been
you with the Holy Ghost and with fire (Matt. iii. baptized as a proselyte under the Mosaic dispen11); does he intend by the concluding clause to sation. The whole question is encompassed with
describe the baptism by water, which the disciples difficulty; but the evidence, on the whole, seems
administered in obedience to Christ's command, or in favour of the ancient opinion, that John's bapthat inner spiritual baptism which Christ reserves tism was not Christian baptism, but one peculiar
to himself? If the former, then John undoubtedly to and which terminated with his intermediate disasserts a radical difference between his baptism and pensation. (For a view of both sides of the quesChristian baptism, but he does so by ascribing tion, see, on the one side, Hall's Terms of Comdirect saving agency to the act of baptism as ad- munion, Works, vol. ii. p. 20, ff; and on the
ministered by the followers of Christ; so that those other, Halley's Cong. Lect. on the Sacraments,
who accept this argument for the difference of the Lect. 4).
two must accept it as necessarily involving'the  2. Christian Baptism. -During his personal
doctrine of baptismal salvation.  On the other ministry on earth, our Lord did not baptize with
hand, if the latter of the alternative interpretations water; as it was his prerogative to give the higher
be taken, the passage must be held as proving and real baptism, that of the Spirit, it was probably
nothing to the point, its decision attaching to a not fit that He should administer the lower and
matter not in dispute, viz., the inferiority of ritual merely ritual. His disciples, however, baptized,
to spiritual baptism. 2. As John baptized for a and doubtless in his name and into the faith of
Christ who was to come, and the apostles baptized  Him as the Messiah (John iv. I, 2; comp. iii. 25,
for a Christ who had come, it has to be determined 26), though this can hardly be called Christian
whether these two ends were not so different as to baptism.  Properly speaking, Christian baptism
constitute a difference in the baptisms. Those who was instituted when our Lord, after his resurrecwould assimilate the two contend that both were tion, gave the commission to his apostles to'go
baptisms for the same Christ, and that the fact of into all the world and preach the gospel to every
the one being prospective and the other retrospec. creature.' He then authorized and enjoined upon
tive is a mere accident that cannot affect the essen- them to' teach (make disciples of,,u/OrTeboare) all
tial identity of the two; but to this it is replied, nations, baptizing them for the name of the Father,
that as John still stood on Old Testament ground, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, teaching (8&tdsand baptized for the expectation of a coming visible Korves) them to observe all things whatsoever He
theocracy (see Neander, Lehen /esu, p. 57, E. T. had commanded them' (Matt. xxviii. 19, 20; comp.
p. 56), his conception of the Christ as the Theo- Mark xvi. I5). In this commission the primary
cratic King must have been so different from that duty laid on the apostles was that of preaching the
entertained by the apostles, who preached Qirist gospel; as a result of this was the discipulising of
as the propitiatory and glorified Saviour, that we nations; and as consequent again upon this was
cannot regard his baptism, and that of the apostles; the baptizing of them for the name of the Father,
as really baptisms for the same Christ, the one and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, and the teaching
being a baptism for a temporal Christ, the other of them to observe all that Christ, as the Head of
being a baptism for a spiritual Christ. 3. In Acts the new dispensation, had enjoined. All this lies
xix. 5, we read that certain who had received John's so obviously on the mere surface of the passage, that
baptism were rebaptized by Paul' for the name of no doubt or dispute can arise on any of these
the Lord Jesus.' This fact has, from the earliest points. When, however, we c6me to ask, What
times, been urged as decisive of the question. There is implied in discipleship? in what relation does
is, however, the counterfact to be dealt with, that baptism stand to the discipulising of nations? and
the immediate disciples of our Lord seem to have what is intended by men being baptized for the
received no other baptism  than that of John, name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost?
and we must consequently either conclude that differences of opinion make themselves apparent.
they were not baptized at all, or admit the validity  By a'disciple' some contend is meant a man
of John's baptism as equivalent to Christian bap- truly converted to God through faith in Jesus
tism. Various attempts have been made to weaken Christ; and they who hold this view regard bapthe conclusiveness of the argument from the re- tism as a sign and obsignation of such conversion
baptism of John's disciples. Among others, it has in the case of those baptized. In opposition to
been ingeniously suggested that the disciples of this, others maintain that the state of discipleship
John, who were rebaptized by Paul, had been bap- into which nations are to be brdught is simply that
tized with John's baptism subsequently to Christ's of learners in the school of Christianity; and they
death, when John's dispensation had passed away, who take this view hold baptism to be, in relation
and when, consequently, his baptism had become to such, merely the designation of them as disinvalid; and that in this, and not in any intrinsic ciples, and an outward significant expression, on
difference between John's baptism  and that of their part, of their willingness to submit to ChrisChrist, lay the reason of their rebaptism (Halley, tian teaching, so that it may be appropriately ad



BAPTISM                    294                BAPTISM
ministered to all who are brought under such and much difference of opinion and keen discusteaching.                                     sion has, in consequence, arisen in the Church.
The baptismal formula, elI rb 6voLca Tov II. Kal  Christians have entertained different views as to
roO "T. Kal roO'A. II., has sometimes been inter- the design of Baptism.  The principal are the
preted as meaning no more than that baptism is following:administered by the authority of the Triune God;  I. That it is a direct instrument of grace: the
but this is now generally repudiated by interpreters application of water to the person by a properly
as philologically inadequate. It has also been in- qualified functionary being regarded as the apterpreted as denoting simply'in coetum Christian- pointed vehicle by which God bestows regenerating
orum recipi' (Kuinoel on Matt. xxviii. I9); but grace upon men. This general view assumes difthis is at once set aside by the consideration that ferent modifications when the question what is
reception into the church is not an explanation of implied in this regenerating grace comes to be
the baptismal formula, but a practical result conse- determined. With one school it means the actual
quent, among other things, on the rite itself. The infusion into the soul of moral goodness (see Conopinion now most generally received is, that the cil. Trident. Decreta, Sess. iv. c. 2; Catechs. Rom.
name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost means ii. 2, 50; Bellarmin, De Baptismo, c. 12; Pusey,
the revealed fact, lying at the basis of Christianity, On Baptism; Tracts for the Times, No. 67); with
of the Three-One-God, and that to be baptized, another it means a capacity conferred, which, if
els, into, for, with respect to, or with a view to this, rightly used, will lead to salvation (Wilberforce,
means that by submitting to this rite men acknow- Doctrine of fHoly Baptism); with a third it means
ledge this revealed fact, receive God thus revealed an actual goodness hypothetically imparted to all
as their God, and profess willingness to be taught baptized persons, but really received only by those
all that He has enjoined. The formula does not predestinated to salvation (Faber, Primitive Docnecessarily imply that all who receive baptism are trine of Regeneration; Mozley, Prim. Doct. of
true believers in the doctrines of Christianity; it Baptismal Regeneration); and with a fourth it
implies no more than a willingness, and an obliga- means, simply a change of federal condition (Watertion on their part, to submit to the teaching of land, Works, vol. vi p. 343-362; Bethell, General
these doctrines with a view to being ultimately  View of the Doctrine of Regeneration in Baptism,
saved by them. In connection with the preaching ch. 2).
of the gospel, men become icaOrrat, and by baptism  2. That though not an instrument it is a seal of
the,uaqTedetv is carried forward; for thereby they grace; divine blessings being thereby confirmed
become bound to aim at the full apprehension of and obsignated to the individual.  This is the
the revealed truth concerning God the Father, Son, doctrine of the Confessions of the majority of the
and Holy Ghost, as the consummation of their Reformed Churches.
faith and their salvation (See Meyer and Alford on  3.'Tat it is neither an.instrument nor a seal of
Matt. xxviii. I6).                            grace, but simply a ceremony of initiation into
In fulfilment of this commission, the apostles  Church membership. This is the Socinian view of
went forth preaching, and baptizing, and teaching. the ordinance.  See Racovian Catechism, Qu. 345.
With them preaching ever took the higher place;  4. That it is a token of regeneration; to be rethey regarded themselves as sent not to baptize, ceived only by those who give evidence of being
but to preach the gospel (I Cor. i. I7); it was by really regenerated. This is the view adopted by
the proclamation of the glad tidings of salvation, the Baptists.
and not by any mere ritual observance, that men.5. That it is a symbol ofpurification; the use of
were to be saved.  But when men were so far which simply announces that the religion of Christ
moved by their preaching as to become willing to is a purifying religion, and intimates that the party
submit to their teaching, and to Christ as the receiving the rite assumes the profession, and is to
author of their religion, they baptized men, and be instructed in' the principles of that religion.
thenceforward treated them as disciples or learners This opinion is extensively entertained by the Conin Christ's school.                           gregationalists of England.'(See Halley's Lectures
The baptisms recorded in the N. T. are those of on the Sacraments; Godwin, On Baptism.)
the multitude on the day of Pentecost (Acts ii. 41);  Which of these views is to be preferred, we do
of the multitude in Samaria, among whom was not here attempt to decide. No distinct enunciaSimon Magus (Acts viii. I2, I3); of the Ethiopian tion is given in the New Testament on the subject,
Eunuch by Philip (Acts viii. 36, 38); of Saul by and from apostolic practice little can be inferred,
Ananias (Acts ix. I8, 22, I6); of Cornelius and inasmuch as, from the peculiar circumstances in
his company by Peter (Acts x. 47, 48); of Lydia which the apostles stood, several of the aboveand her household, and the Philippian jailor and named ends were usually combined together in
his household, by Paul (Acts xvi. 14, 15; 33, 34); each act of baptism.  It was almost always in
of the twelve disciples of John by Paul (Acts xix. those days a form of profession, a sign of regene5); and of Crispus and Gaius, and the household ration, and a symbolic announcement of the puriof Stephanas, by Paul (I Cor. i. 14, i6). These fying character of the Christian religion.
baptisms were generally performed'for the name  Differences of opinion have also been introduced
of Jesus Christ, or simply'for Christ,' because, in respecting the proper mode of baptism. Some conaccepting Christ as their Lord and Teacher, men tend that it should be by immersion alone; others,
professed submission to all that constitutes Chris- that it should be only by affusion or sprinkling 
tianity.                                      and others, that it matters not in which way it
As administered by the apostles, baptism had a be done, the only thing required being the ritual
clear and well understood significance, and their application of water to the person.  The first
authority determined at once how and to whom it class appeal to the use of pawtrric by the classical
was to be administered.  Since their day, however, authors, with whom they affirm it is always used
much obscurity has gathered around these points, in the sense of dipping or immersing; to the use




BAPTISM                    295                BAPTISM
of the prepositions &v and els in the N. T. in con- the latter received the sign of the covenanted blessstruction with this verb; and to such expressions ings; no evidence can be adduced that this divinelyas'being buried with Christ in baptism,' etc., appointed connection has been abrogated, though
where they understand an allusion to a typical the sign of the covenant has been changed; on the
burial, by submersion in water. The second class contrary, there is abundant evidence to shew that
rely upon the usage of acrrrLw by the sacred the apostles administered to the children of conwriters, who, they allege, employ it frequently verts to Christianity the same rite, that of baptism,
where immersion is not to be supposed as when which they administered to the converts themselves.
they speak of'baptism with fire,' and'baptism  It isal alffi'imed by this party that the requiring
with the spirit;' upon the alleged impossibility of of faith and repentance as a condition of baptism
immersing such multitudes as, we learn, were bap- in the case of adults'cannot be fairly held as intized at once in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost; cluding children, inasmuch as by the same reasonupon the supposed improbability of an Eastern ing children dying in infancy would be excluded
female, like Lydia, allowing herself to be publicly from salvation. It is denied that the absence of
immersed by a man whom she had never seen any express injunction to baptize children virtually
before; upon the language used by Paul at Phi- prohibits their baptismn; and the assertion that inlippi, when he commanded water to be brought fant baptism was unknown in the primitive age is
into the room, that he might baptize the jailor and rebutted by historical evidence (Baxter, Plain
his family, language which, it is said, cannot be Scripture Proof of Infants' Church Membership
understood of such a quantity of water as would be and Baptism; Wardlaw, On Infant Baptism, 3d
required to immerse in succession a whole house- edit.; Williams' Rely to Booth; Monro, On Goa's
hold; and upon the use of the term baptism, to  Covenant and Church.)
designate what is elsewhere spoken of as the out-  3. There are who assert'that baptism is to be adpouring of the Spirit. The third class maintain  mihistered to all who either will place themselves
that, according to universal usage, PaicrrTlw sig- under Christian instruction, such as adults who
nifies simply to wet, and that the following prepo- have grown up as heathens, Jews, or infidels; or
sition determines whether it is to be taken in the  who may be thus placed by their parents or guarsenseof wetting by immersion or not; tley contend  dians, such as infants. In support of this view,
that pacrrtoiP Jv signifies'I wet with,' whilst Pa7r- stress is laid upon our LoTd's words when he comTrIO els means properly'I wet by putting into;' manded his apostles to go and teach and baptize
they urge especially that the word as used in the all nations; the'baptizing being. regarded as assoN. T. possesses so much of a technical character, ciated with the'teaching' and commensurate with
that it is not possible from it to deduce any correct it, whilst what is said abolt'believing' is regarded
inference as to the mode of baptizing; and they as relating to something which may or may not
adduce historical evidence to shew that baptism  follow the teaching and baptizing, but which is
was performed indifferently by immersion or affu- declared to be essential to salvation. -It is argued
sion as convenience dictated. (Wall, History of that the apostolic practice was altogether in accordInfant Baptism with Reply to Gale; Ewing, Essay  ance with this view of our Lord's commission, inon Baptism, 2d ed.; Carson, Baptism in its Mode asmuch as the multitudes frequently baptized by the
and its Subjects; Halley, On the Sacraments; apostles were such, that to obtain satisfactory eviMoses Stuart, On paCrlTw; Beecher, On ditto; dence of the knowledge and piety of each individual
Godwin, On Baptism.)                          was impossible in the time which elapsed between
In fine, differences of opinion have arisen re- the apostles' preaching and the baptizing to which
specting the proper subjects of baptism.      it led; whilst such cases as those of Simon Magus
I. There are who maintain that baptism is to be and the Philippian Jailor shew that even very ignoadministered only to those who believe and give rant men, and men who could not possibly give
evidence of being regenerated. This opinion is what any person would receive as credible evidence
grounded chiefly upon the positions that, Repent- of piety, were at once baptized. The practice of
ance and Faith are distinctly prescribed in the the apostles also in baptizing whole households,
N. T. as conditions of baptism; and the alleged including children and servants, without asking any
fact that the apostles did not baptize any, until questions as to their knowledge and belief, is urged
satisfied that they sincerely believed. It is'urged in favour of this opinion, as well as the practice of
also by the advocates of this opinion, against the'the church (Halley, On the Sacraments; Reply to
practice of infant baptism, that not only are infants  Wardlaw; Godwin, On Baptism).
excluded from baptism by their inability to comply  V. BAPTISM FOR THE DEAD.-In x Cor. xv. 29,
with the required terms, but that they are virtually  Paul asks,'What shall they do who are baptized
excluded by their baptism  not being expressly for the dead (ol arrTTTL6IJevoti irvp rv VeKpiv)? If
enjoined in the N. T. It is also alleged that infant the dead rise not at all, why are they at all (Kal)
baptism was unknown to the Early Church; and baptized for the dead.' On this difficult passage
was a corrupt invention of the patristic age. (Cox, much has been written, and various explanations of
On Baptism; Carson, On ditto; Gale's Reply to the phrase,'baptized for the dead,' have been
Wall; Booth, PErdobaptism Examined.)         offered.'Tanta,' says Bengel (Gnom. in loc),'est
2. There are who contend that baptism is to be interpretationum varietas, ut is qui, non dicam varieadministered not only to believers who have not tates ipsas, sed varietatum catalogos colligere vult,
been before baptized but to the infant offspring of dissertationem scripturus sit.' Of these interpretabelievers.  This opinion is chiefly based ori the tions, a collection maybe seen in Poole's Synopsis;
covenant established by God with Abraham. This Wolf, Curae Philol. in. N. T.; Heydenreich,
covenant it is maintained was the everlasting cove- Comment. in Ep.., Pauli ad Cor.; Meyer,
nant, the covenant of grace; under it a connection Krit. Exeget. Handbuch; Alford, Gr. Test.; and
of a spiritual kind was recognised as existing be- Brown's Resurrection of Life, Edin. 1852. In the
tween parents and their children; in virtue of this former edition of this work, a conspectus of these




BAPTISM                    296                 BAPTISM
was given by Professor Jacobi of Halle, which is ing person used to lay himself under the bed of the
here retained.                                 deceased, and answer in his stead the customary' They chiefly turn upon the question, whether questions, after which the deceased was baptized.
the baptism here mentioned is the general church- He says that they referred to the approval of St.
baptism, or some particular one independent of Paul in the above passage. It is true that this abthe former. We shall examine, first-          surd custom is certainly met with among the uncul-'A. Those interpretations which take it to be some tured and superstitious Marcionites of later times,
particular application of baptism.             yet is it highly improbable, as Neander justly ob-'From the wording of the sentence, the most serves, that such a custom should ever have emasimple impression certainly is, that Paul speaks of nated from Marcion himself, who had entered so
a baptism which a living man receives in the place deeply into the spirit of the Pauline' Faith.'
of a dead one. This interpretation is particularly' A  similar account is given by Epiphanius
adopted by those expounders with whom gramma- (Heres. xxviii. 7) of the Gnostic sect of Cerinthus,
tical construction is paramount.               who were much opposed to the Marcionites:' In' Foremost among the older critics is Ambrose this country,-I mean, Asia,-and even in Galatia,
(Hilar):'In tantum natum et stabilem vult osten- their school flourished eminently; and a traditional
dere resurrectionem mortuorum, ut exemplum det fact concerning them has reached us, that when
eorum, qui tam securi erant de futura resurrectione, any of them had died without baptism, they used
ut etiam pro mortuis baptizarentur, si quem forte to baptize others in their name, lest in the resurmors praevenisset, timentes, ne aut male aut non rection they should suffer punishment as unbapresurgeret, qui baptizatus non fuerat; vivus nomine tized.' We are not justified in denying credence to
mortui tinguebatur.'  Among the moderns are this statement, though there is just suspicion against
Erasmus, Scaliger, Grotius, Calixtus; and of the Epiphanius from his total want of critical judgment,
more recent the most considerable are Augusti and his erroneous supposition that Paul was par(Archceol. iv.), Meyer (who understands birtp = to ticularly combating the opinions of Cerinthus, a
the advantage, in favour, which may indeed well supposition which he applies also to the passage
be the case), Billroth and Riickert, who supposes before us. In the Concil. Carthagin., A.D. 397,
that the Corinthians, convinced of the necessity and  can. 6, and Codex Eccles. Afric., can. i8, it is forbenefit of baptism, but erroneously considering it bidden to administer baptism and the holy connot as a symbol, but as a real means of purifying  munion to the dead: but here baptism by proxy is
the heart itself, had taken it into their heads to give not alluded to, and we have therefore no reason to
the benefit thereof also to the dead, by administer- assume that this custom then existed in those parts.
ing baptism to them by a substitute, a living per- Augusti (1. 1. vii., p. 42) refers to the proselyte
son, and thus imagined that a baptism by proxy  baptism of the Jews, where, he thinks, parents
was practicable.  De Wette considers this the only underwent the rite for their children.  But all the
possible meaning of the words.                 authorities quoted in its favour by Lightfoot (ad' With regard to this interpretation, some doubt Math. iii. 6) prove nothing as to substitution; and
arises as to the actual existence at that time of such  even if they did so, it would still be highly ima custom, since the only information respecting it probable that the Gentile churches would have
would be this passage, though Riickert thinks this adopted it from  them  (comp. Schneckenburger,
is sufficient evidence. It is true, that they refer to  De Bapt. Proselyt., p. 79).
the Shepherd of Hermas (Simil. ix. I16); but all'All therefore we can infer from the above statethat can be inferred from it is, that they had at ments is, that baptism by substitution had taken
that time already begun to evince an overdue and place among the Marcionites, and perhaps also
extravagant respect for outward baptism. Tertul- among the Cerinthians and other smaller sects
lian (Contr. Marcion, v. io) seems in a more direct towards the end of the fourth century; but that it
way to speak of the existence of the custom:' Noli existed between that period and the time when
apostolum novum statim auctorem aut confirma- Paul wrote the above passage is wholly unsubtorem ejus (institutionis) denotare, ut tanto magis stantiated. Is it possible to suppose that in the
sisteret carnis resurrectionem, quanto illi qui vane various quarters of the church of which we have
pro mortuis baptizarentur, fide resurrectionis hoc any information, no notice whatever should have
facerent. Habemus illum alicubi unius baptismi been taken either by a synodical decree, or by a
definitorem. Igitur et pro mortuis tingui pro cor- contemporary writer within that period, of a cusporibus est tingui; mortuum enim corpus osten- tom, which, the earlier it existed, must have apdimus' (comp. De Resurrect. Cam. 48). Ter- peared only so much the more offensive? Is it not
tullian in these words distinguishes a false ap- therefore evident that if it is found 300 years afterplication of baptism  by substitution, from  the wards, it was not a continuation of the primitive
general one adhered to by the apostle; he thinks custom, but had arisen independently of the latter,
that the apostle confirms baptism pro mortuis, either in imitation of it, or from a mistaken internot in that erroneous but in a proper sense, pretation of this passage?
compatible with his other and general views of'The idea, then, that such a superstitious custom
baptism.  Of that erroneous practice, however, existed in the Corinthian community is devoid of
Tertullian, in this as in the other place, evidently all historical evidence; and we must confess that
knows no more than what is indicated by Paul in the clearer the sense of the words becomes the
the above passage; neither does he mention that more obscure becomes the thing itself.
such a custom had prevailed in his time among'The difficulties will still more increase, if we
the Marcionites or any others (comp. Neander, were to admit, with Olshausen, Riickert, and De
Hist. of the Church, ii. 194, Clark's ed.)  More Wette, that the apostle approved of the absurd
certain information is given by Chrysostom, who practice in question, since he would thus be brought
relates of the Marcionites (Homil. 40, ad I Cor.) into contradiction with his own principles on the
that when a catechumen died among them, a liv- importance of faith and external works, which he




BAPTISM                   297                 BAPTISM
developes in his Epistle to the Galatians. Even ideas pursued by Paul from ver. 19. The form of
Ambrose (1. c.) had already correctly judged, when the sentence, however, becomes uncommonly harsh,
he said,'Exemplo hoc non factum illorum probat, because of the transition:'else what shall they do
sed fidem fixam in resurrectione ostendit.' In the who are baptized on account of the dead? (on acwords of Paul we discover no opinion of his own count of themselves, who are dead)? Indeed, it is
concerning the justice or injustice of the rite; it is by far more jarring than Rom. v. 6, which is quoted
merely referred to as an argumentum ex concesso in as a parallel passage.
favour of the object which he pursues through the'2. The words of Chrysostom, just quoted, cerwhole chapter (comp. I Cor. ii. 5). However tainly convey also the same meaning as regards
much may be objected against this interpretation,' the dead,' but differ from the two former interpreit is by far more reasonable than the explanations tations with regard to birp:' in behalf of the dead'
given by other critics. The Corinthian community thus means' in the belief of the resurrection of the
was certainly of a mixed character, consisting of dead.' This ungrammatical version is adopted by
individuals of various views, ways of thinking, and  Theophylact;' Why are men baptized at all in
different stages of education; so that there might behalf of resurrection, that is, in expectation of restill have existed a small number among them  surrection, if the dead rise not?' (Isidor. Pelus.
capable of such absurdities. We are not suffi-'If bodies rise not at all, why do we believe that
ciently acquainted with all the particulars of the in baptism they are changed to incorruptibility?'
case to maintain the contrary, while the simple perhaps with reference to our passage).
grammatical sense of the passage is decidedly in' 3. Pelagius, Olearius, Fabricius, are of opinion
favour of the proposed interpretation.        that the phrase,' on account of the dead,' or'of'2. Origen (Dial. contr. Marcion.), Luther, those who are dead,' although strictly plural, here
Chemnitz, and Joh. Gerhard, interpret the words alludes to an individual, namely, to Christ,'on
as relating to baptism over the graves of the mem- account of whom' we are baptized, alluding to
bers of the community, a favourite rendezvous of Rom. vi. 3. Though the plural is in itself admisthe early Christians. Luther says that, in order to sible (Winer, Gram. p. I63), its use here would
strengthen their faith in the resurrection, the Chris- nevertheless be rather strange, there being no
tians baptized over the tombs of the dead. In that ground whatever for the use of so peculiar a phraseocase i7rep with genit.- must be taken in its local logy; neither can we account for the fact, that the
sense, quite an isolated instance in the New Testa- regular construction of [Sarrtrw with els should
ment (comp. Winer, Grammat. p. 263).    The have been converted into the unprecedented concustom alluded to, moreover, dates from a much struction with ii7rp. Vater justifies the plural, by
later period.                                 including in it 7john the Baptist; Semler under-'3. The above-quoted passage of Epiphanius stands it of Christ and those of the Apostles and
mentions also a view, according to which veKpol is teachers of the church who were already dead at
not to be translated by dead, but mortally ill per- that time; Flatt, by adding, on account of Christ,
sons, whose baptism was expedited by sprinkling  and those who have died in him (in the belief in
water upon them on their death-bed, instead of him): —all quite inadmissible combinations.
immersing them in the usual way; the rite is known' 4. Among the best interpretations is that of
under the name of baptismus clinicus, lectualis. Spanheim and Joh. Christ. Wolf. They consider
But few of the modem theologians (among whom,'the dead' to be martyrs and other believers, who,
however, are Calvin and Estius) advocate this view, by firmness and cheerful hope of resurrection, have
which transgresses not less against the words of the given in death a worthy example, by which (birkp)
text than against all historical knowledge of the others were also animated to receive baptism.
subject.                                      Still this meaning would be almost too briefly and' B. The interpretations which suppose that the enigmatically expressed, when no particular reason
text speaks of general church baptism. To these for it is known, while also the allusion to the exembelongs the oldest opinion we know of, given in plary death of many Christians could chiefly apply
Tertullian (1. c. comp. De Resurrect. Cam. 48): to the martyrs alone, of whom there were as yet' Quid et ipsos baptizari ait, si non quae baptizan- none at Corinth.
tur corpora resurgunt?' According to this view'5. Olshausen's interpretation is of a rather
bir'p is here taken in the sense of on account of, doubtful character. In the first instance he interand veKpWv in that of dead bodies, they themselves, prets birtp =- insteadof, infavourof; and the meanthe baptized, as dead persons. The notion which ing of the passage he takes to be, that' all who are
lies at the bottom of this version is, that the body converted to the church are baptized-for the good
possesses a guarantee for resurrection in the act of of the dead, as it requires a certain number, a
baptism, in which it also shares. The sinking'fulness of believers, before the resurrection can
under and rising up isfwith them a symbol of bury- take place. Every one therefore who is baptized
ing and resurrection. Some of the Greek Fathers is so for the good of believers collectively, and of
also favour this interpretation, and more especially those who have already died in the Lord' (both of
Theodoret, who thus developes the notion:'He which we can hardly suppose veKpwv to embrace
who undergoes baptism is therein buried with his at once!) Olshausen is himself aware that the
Lord, that having partaken in his death, he may apostle could not have expected that such a diffibecome partaker in his resurrection also. But if cult and remote idea, which he himself calls'a
the body is a corpse and rises not, why is it ever mystery,' would be understood by his readers
baptized?' Chrysostom:' Paul said, Unless there without a further explanation and development of
is a resurrection, why art thou baptized for corpses, his doctrine.  He therefore proposes an interthat is, for mere bodies. For to this end art thou pretation as already suggested by Clericus and
baptized, for the resurrection of thy dead body, Doderlein (Instit. Theol. Christ. ii. 405). In this
etc.' The idea thus developed is by itself admis- explanation, it is argued, that the miseries and hardsible, and harmonizes well with the whole course of ships Christians have to struggle against in this life




BAQAR                    298                  BAQAR
can only be compensated by resurrection. Death their movables, were transported on the backs of
causes, as it were, vacancies in the full ranks of oxen in the. manner which the Caffres still practise,
the believers, which are again filled up by other as also the Gwallahs and grain-merchants in India,
individuals.'What would it profit those who who come down from the interior with whole
are baptized in the place of the dead (to fill up  droves bearing burdens. But as the Hebrews did
their place in the community) if there be no re- not castrate their bulls, it is plain some other
surrection? The tendency of the whole connec- method of enervation (bistournure?) was necessary
tion of the text, however, would rather lead us in order to render their violent and brutal indoto expect the question,' What would the dead cility sufficiently tractable to permit the use of a
profit by it?' since the tenor of the passage de- metal ring or twisted rope passed through the
cidedly refers to them. To make brbp == dvI, nostrils, and to ensure something like safety and
therefore, is quite unsuitable; not to mention, that command to their owners. In Egypt, emasculathe idea-to enter into the ranks of Christians-  tion, no doubt, was resorted to, for no ring is obmust first be supposed to be contained in the word servable in the numerous representations of cattle,'baptism,' in order to draw from it the figure of while many of these indicate even more entire
substitution. A reference is made, in support of docility in these animals than is now attained.
the opinion which considers Obr'p = dvrT, to Dionys.  The breeds of Egypt were various, differing in
Halicar. (Antiq. viii.), where he is treating of a the length and flexures of the horns. There were
new conscription, which was to be made to fill up  some with long horns, others with short, and even
the ranks rendered vacant by the death of the sol- none, while a hunched race of Nubia reveals an
diers who had fallen in the war, and the expression  Indian origin, and indicates that at least one of the
there used is —orot itlovv br~p Trv daro0avO6vwv nations on the Upper Nile had come from the valaTpa7Tr1Trv fr9povS Kacraypdceiv.  Nor are there leys of the Ganges; for it is to the east of the Indus
wanting other similar passages in proof of this; alone that that species is to be found whose oribut we must bear in mind, that in Dionys. the word ginal stock appears to be the mountain yak (Bos
denotes a literal substitution, while in bur passage grunniens).  It is born with two teeth in the
the substitution is figurative, far-fetched, and hard mouth, has a groaning voice, and is possessed of
to unriddle. It is not probable that the Apostle other distinctive characters. Figures of this species
should not have said dvrl, if he had really wished or variety bear the significant lotus flower suspended
to express that thought.  Moreover, the very from the neck, and, as is still practised in India,
essence of the argument, the notion that resurrec- they are harnessed to the cars of princesses of
tion is the compensation for the sufferings of life, Nubia.  These, as well as the straight-backed
is here not at all given, nor even hinted at except cattle of Egypt, are all figured with evident indicawe connect the i7rel directly with ver. I9, a thing tion of beauty in their form, and they are in general
quite impossible. A somewhat similar opinion is painted white with black, or rufous clouds, or enexpressed by F. J. Herman, that v7rp = prneter tirely red, speckled, or grandinated, that is, black'(,G'Cur prter eos qui jm  with numerous small white specks; and there are, Genes. xxvii. 9),'Cur praeter eos qui jam  also beeves with white and black occasionally
mortui sunt, alii quoque baptismum suscipiunt, et marked in a peculiar manner, seemingly the kind
ita initiati religionem Christianorum profitentur, si of tokens by which the priesthood pretended to
tamen nulla erit resurrectio mortuorum nec melioris  e their sacred
vite praemium expectandum est?' In this sense, recognize their sacred individuals. The cattle of
however,   p        would require the accusative. s sense, Egypt continued to be remarkable for beauty for'wC. r b7rp6ewocu in aigurative e sense.    some ages after the Moslem conquest; for AbdolC.Some (referrin g to the words of Christ, Mattnse.  latiph, the historian, extols their bulk and proporSome (referring to the words of Christ, Matt. tions, and in particular mentions the Al-chisiah
xx. 22) take it in the sense of the baptism of pas- breed forthe abundance of milk it furnished and
sion, sujfering: this is evidently too forced to for the beauty of its curved horns.
require refutation.'                            The domestic buffalo was unknown to Western
The uncertainty which attaches to this phrase-  The dtic b       w    n       to Western
The uncertainty which attaches to this phrase- Asia and Egypt till after the Arabian conquest; it
ology led Valcknaer to suggest that we should read s  n        ate te    aianon       t 
Par-r. &dr' {p-ywv veiKcpU, in place of. Cp riv is now common in the last-mentioned region and
flanrr. din' gp-ywp eKpwv, in place of P. br~p -rwvfar to the south, but not beyond the equator; and,eg.; but this is pure conjecture, however ingenious,fartothe south, but not beyond the equator; and
nK.d; but sids, is pre onjeture, however inge whih, from structural differences it may be surmised that
and, besides, gives a meaning to the passage which there was in early ages a domesticated distinct speseems pointless and inapposite to the writer's pur-  ere  sa a in early ages a domeica ted distinct spepose.-W. L A.                                cies of this animal in Africa. In Syria and Egypt? *~pose. **W. L. A. *the present races of domestic cattle are somewhat
BAQAR    (j?0  [in Arab.', from a verb less than the large breeds of Europe, and those of
AAT (        inAa..,froerPalestine appear to be of at least two forms, both
signifying to cleave, divide, to wit, the ground; with short horns and both used to the plough, one
comp. Lat. armentum from aro, trio from tero]). being tall and lanky, the other more compact; and
This word is used to designate both the individual we possess figures of the present Egyptian cattle
animal, and collectively the class to which it be- with long horns bent down and forwards. From
longs, or a multitude of individuals of the class. Egyptian pictures it is to be inferred that large
It is applicable to all ruminants, but is especially droves of fine cattle were imported from Abyssinia,
used to designate the Bovidoe or Beeve tribe (the and that in the valley of the Nile they were in
ox, or cow, or a herd of such), and the genus of general stall-fed, used exclusively for the plough,
the larger antelope.                          and treated with humanity.  In Palestine the
The earliest pastoral tribes appear to have had  Mosaic law provided with care for the kind treatdomesticated cattle in the herd; and judging from  ment of cattle; for in treading out corn-the Orithe manners of South Africa, where we find nations ental mode of separating the grain from the strawstill retaining in many respects primeval usages, it it was enjoined that the ox should not be muzzled
is likely that the patriarchal families, or at least (Deut. xxv. 4), and old cattle that had long served




BAR                     299               BARBARIAN
in tillage were often suffered to wander at large  BARAK (p )', lightning; Sept. BapdK), son of
till their death-a practice still in vogue, though binoam of Kedesh-Naptali, a Galilean city of
from a different motive, in India. But the Hebrews Ain  of Ked  Naphtali, a    Galilean cit o
domestic refuge in the tribe of Naphtali (Judg. iv. 6; comp.
and other nations of Syria grazed their domestic     x. 37; xxi. 32)  He was summoned by
stock, particularly those tribes which, residing to   prophetess Deborah to take the field against
the east of the Jordan, had fertile districts for that the  rophetess  eorah th   Canaanitish king Jabin,
pose. Here, of course, the droves became shy the hostile army of the Canaanitish king Jabin,
purpose. Here, of course, the droves became shycommanded by Sisera, with 1o,ooo men from the
and wild; and though we are inclined to apply the tribes of Naphtali and Zebulon and to encamp on
passage in Ps. xxii. I2, to wild species, yet old  Mount Tabor, probably because the 900 chariots
bulls, roaming at large in a land where the lio  of iron (Judg. iv. 3), in which the main force of
still abounded, no doubt became fierce; and as Sisera consisted, could not so easily manoeuvre on
they would obtain cows from the pastures, there  neven ground    er some hesitation, he re
must have been feral breeds in the woods, as fierce solved to do h   iing, on condition that she
and resolute as real wild Uri-which ancient name  d o      h                     pomse
may be a mere modification of Reem. [REEM.]-would go with him, which she readily promised.
may be a mere modification of Reem. [REEM.]-  Confiding, therefore, in the God of Israel, he
C. H. S.                                    attacked the hostile army by surprise, put them to
BAR (), a Hebrew word meaning son, but flight, and routed them to the last man (Judg. iv.
-~~v,-Ii.  14, 15, I6).  In conjunction with Deborah, he
used only poetically in that language (Ps. ii. 12;afterwards composed a song of victory in comProv. xxxi. 2). In Syriac, however, Bar (-D or memoration of that event (ibid). [DEBORAH.]E.EM.
1i.) answered to the more common Hebrew word
f                               BARBARIAN (fcdp3iapos). This term is used
for son, i. e., )b ben; and hence in later times, in  BARBARIAN ( apos).  This term is used
ben and hee in,    in the New Testament, as in classical writers, to
the New Testament, it takes the same place in the denote other nations of the earth in distinction
formation of proper names which Ben had formerly from the Greeks.'I am debtor both to the
occupied in the Old Testament.                Greeks and Barbarians' —"EXX1^1 re Kal pap-,BAR ().    This word,.,,cognate with.ture, gdpois (Rom. i. 14);'der Griechen und der UnBAR (u3). This word, cognate with "13 pure, griechen' —Luther;' To the Grekes and-to them
is used to designate properly corn which has been which are no Grekes'-Tyndale, 1534, and Geneva,
winnowed or purified from-the chaff, and is stored  I557;'To the Grekes and to the Ungrekes'up for use (Gen. xli. 35, 49; Prov. xi. 26; Joel Cranmer, I539. In Coloss. iii. 11,'Greek nor
ii. 24). In one instance it is used to designate Jew-Barbarian, Scythian' —Bdppapos seems to
corn standing in the field (Ps. lxv. 13). The word refer to those nations of the Roman empire who
may be compared with the Arab.    wheat, the did not speak Greek, and ZK607S to nations not
under the Roman dominion (Dr. Robinson). In
Lat. far, Goth. baris, Ang. Sax. (still retained in  I Cor. xiv. I I, the term is applied to a difference of
Scotch) bere, Gr. qfopgf, etc.-W. L. A.       language.:'If I know not the meaning. of the
voice, I shall be unto him that speaketh a barBARABBAS (BapafSias, probably NS_'2, son  barian (' as of another language,' Geneva Vers.),
of Abba, a common name in the Talmud), a per- and he that speaketh shall be a barbarian ('as of
son who had forfeited his life for sedition and mur-another language' Geneva Vers.) unto me.' Thus
der (Mark xv. 7; Luke xxiii. 25). As a rebel he Ovid,'Barbarus hic ego sum, quia non intelligor
was subject to the punishment laid down by the ulli,' rist. v. 1. 37. In Acts xxviii. the ihabiRoman law for such political offences; while, as a tants of Malta are called  ap/3cpo, because they
murderer, he could not escape death even by the were originally a Carthaginian.colony, and chiefly
civil code of the Jews. But the latter were so bentspoke the Punic language. In the Septuagit,
on the death of Jesus, that, of the two, they pre- 3ppapos is used for the Hebrew t?,'A  people
ferred pardoning this double criminal (Matt. xxvii. of strange language' (Ps. cxiv. I); in the Chaldee
16-26;. Mark xv. 7-I5; Luke xxiii. I8-25; John  paraphrase lK1ng1  K(sD.   In the Rabbinical
xviii. 40). Origen says that in some copies Barabbas was also called Jesus. The Armenian Version writers ty? is applied to foreigners in distinction
has the same reading:' Whom will ye that I shall fromt the Jews; and in the Jerusalem Talmud it
deliver unto you, Jesus Barabbas, or Jesus that is is explained by n'rV, i.e., the Greek language;
called Christ?' Griesbach, in his Comment., con- Rabbi Solomon remarks, that whatever is not in
siders this as an interpolation; while Fritzsche has  e Hoy t e  c                    m
adopted it in his text. We can certainly conceive            s called   Buxtorf Le
that a name afterwvards so sacred may have been  According to Herodotus, the Egyptians called all
thrown out of the text by some transcriber. -E. M. men barbarians who did not speak the same
[Tischendorf, in his last edition, rejects this read-lnguae as themselves: j  0ae   owyX\oovs,
ing. Dr. Alford (Smith's Diet. of the Bible, s. v.). 58. Clement of Alexandria uses it respecting
justly observes, that'the contrast in ver. 20, that the Egyptians and other nations, even when speakthey should ask Barabbas and destroy Jesus, seems" ing of their progress in civilization, as in his Strom.
fatal to itas.']               J an deo J, sm  i. c. I6, sec. 74: Oi 0u6Pvs 8 qtXoa-oqias, dXX& Kal'rda —s oXe~obv TrXYrS evperal Bdpf3apoi.  Alty6rBARACHEL (~S.      _, Sept. BapaXthX), the riot yov TrpTrot &drpoXoylav els dvOpnbrovs 1vvey~a, oAoi   o& Kal XaX5a~oi.-'Barbarians have
father of Elihu the Buzite (Job xxxii. 2, 6).  Kai, eoiws &o Kal Xaoalot.o' Barbarians have
been inventors not only of philosophy, but likewise
BARACHIAS (BapaXlas), father of the Zecha- of almost every art. The Egyptians, and in like
riah (Zacharias) mentioned in Matt. xxiii. 35. manner the Chaldaeans, first introduced among men
[ZECHARIAH].                                 the knowledge of astrology.' In a singular pas



BARBURIM                    300               BARNABAS
sage of Justin Martyr's first Apology, the term is ap- family with the emerald, but is of the ruby species,
plied to Abraham and other distinguished Hebrews: and of a deep red colour. [NOPHECH.] —W. L. A.'We have learned and have before explained,     BARHUMITE        AZMAVETH    BAHURIM.
that Christ is the first begotten of God, being the ARHUMITE. [AZMAVETH;       AURI.
Word (or reason) X6yov 6'ra, of which the whole  BAR-JESUS (Bapor0oos). [ELYMAS.]
human race partake. And they who live agreeably
to the Word (or reason) ol /er&T X6yov plcbaavres, are  BAR-JONA  (B&p'Iwva, son of Jonas), the
Christians, even though esteemed atheists: such patronymic appellation of the Apostle Peter (Matt.
among the Greeks were Socrates, Heraclitus, and Xvi I7). [PETER.]
the like; and among the barbarians (' among other BARNABAS (;,Il3 ia; Bapvdcas).       His
nations,' Chevallier's Trans.) 6v Pappdpol, Abra-:  -
ham, Ananias, Azarias, Misael, and Elias, and name was originally'Iwo'0s, _oses, or'Iwcr5,
many others.' —pol. i. 46. Strabo (xiv. 2) sug-  oseph (Acts iv. 36); but he received from the
gests that the word Bar-bar-os was originally an apostles the surname of Barnabas, which signifies
imitative sound, designed to express a harsh dis- the Son of Prophecy. Luke interprets it by vibs
sonant language, or sometimes the indistinct articu.  rapaKgXA ews, i. e., Son of Exhortation. The Helation of the Greek by foreigners, and instances the brew term and its cognates are used in the Old
Carians, who on the latter account he conjectures Testament with a certain latitude of meaning, and
were termed by Homer papSapbuovot (Il. ii. 867). are not limited to that of foretelling future events.
The word appears to have acquired a reproachful Thus Abraham is termed in Gen. xx. 7 KUJ, Sept.
sense during the wars with the Persians; their 7rpoohrqt, as being a person admitted to intimate
country was called J gdppapos (7y). (Rost u. communion with the Deity, and whose intercession
Palm, Lex. s. v. Bdppapos.)-J. E. R.          was deemed of superior efficacy. In Exod. vii. i,
Jehovah declares to Moses,'I have made thee a
BARBURIM      ('SaI.. ).  This word occurs god to Pharaoh, and Aaron, thy brother, shall be
thy prophet,'" IN=, which Onkelos translates by
I Kings v. 3 (iv. 23), and is translated in the thy prophet,'   which Onkelos translates by
A. V.'fowls,' fattened (D:1)  for Solomon's 1W     T, thy interpreer (Buxtorf,Lex. Talmud.)
table. The Targ. of Jonathan gives the sameIn like manner 7rpoTea, in the New Testament
rendering. Kimchi makes them capons, and the means not merely prediction, but'includes the
Jerusalem  Targ. geese.  Gesenius approves this idea of declarations, exhortations, or warnings
last on etymological grounds, deriving the word uttered by the prophets while under divine iflufrom'11 to cleanse, purify, and supposing an allu- ence' (Dr. E. Robinson).  He that prphesieth
sion to the white plumage of the goose. Many of (b rpo7yrewv^) speaketh unto men, unto edificathe rabbins derive the name from Barbary, and  tion, and exhortation (7rapdxX7l0v), and comfort'
suppose the allusion is to some fowl from that (I Cor. xiv. 3). Of Silas and Judas it is said,
country. Bochart has devoted a whole chapter to  bein  propets they exorted (rapeK\Xeaav) the
the inquiry, and after a careful examination of brethren' (Acts xv. 32). It can hardly be doubted
different opinions, comes to the conclusion that that this name was given to Joses to denote his
not birds, but beasts, are intended by the word. eminence as a Christian teacher. In Acts xiii. i
His main argument is, that the adjective wD r is his name is placed first in the list of prophets
used only of fatted beasts; which is true (ieroz. and teachers belonging to the church at Antioch.
ii. 127-35). Lee (Lex. in voc.) follows Bochart, Chrysostom, however, understands the surname in
though he gives a somewhat different account of the same way as theAuth. Vers., Son ofConsolathe origin of the word; Bochart deriving it from  n, and supposes that it was given to Barnabas
113 eligere, and Lee from'1  purus, but both  on account of his mild and gentle disposition:
agreeing that it signifies choice beasts.-W. L. A.  This Barnabas was a    mild and gentle person.
His name means Son of Consolation: hence he
BAREQETH      (3np13, Exod. xxviii. 17), and became a friend of Paul; and that he was very
BAREQATH (pI:, Eze. x. 3, a secis of kind and easy of access is proved by the instance
BAREQATH (ni       zek xxviii. 13), a species of before us, and by the case of John (Mark). (In
gem, so called probably from its sparkling brilliancy Act. Apost. Hom. xxi.) He is described by Luke
(from p13, to lighten, to flash like lightning). In  as'a good man, full of the Holy Ghost and of
all the passages in which this word occurs, it is faith' (Acts xi. 24). He was a native of Cyprus,
rendered by the LXX.    tc-dpa'yor, and by the but the son of Jewish parents of the tribe of Levi.
Vulg. emeraldus; Josephus, also, in his account From Acts iv. 36, 37, it appears that he was posof the high priest's breastplate, calls it ~t.dpa-yos sessed of land, but whether in Judaea or Cyprus is
(De Bell. 7ud. v. 5. 7; Antif. iii. 7. 5). This is not stated. He generously disposed of the whole
the most probable identification of the word. The for the benefit of the Christian community, and
smaragd was what is now known as the Oriental'laid the money at the apostles' feet.' As this
emerald; a gem of the Corundum species, which transaction occurred soon after the day of Pentecontains many varieties.; transparent, in some cases cost, he must have been an early convert to the
colourless, but in most presenting a beautiful green  Christian faith. According to Clement of Alexof different shades. Pliny mentions twelve kinds andria (Strom. ii. c. 20, vol. ii. p. 192, ed. Klotz),
of the smaragd (H. N., bk. xxxvii. ch. 5, sec. x6). Eusebius (hist. Eccles. i. 12), and Epiphanius
Braun contends that one of these is the biblical (Hatr. xx. 4), he was one of the seventy disciples
bareqeth, and borrows an argument for this from  (Luke x. I). It has been maintained that Bamathe etymological resemblance between that word  bas is identical with Joseph Barsabas, whose name
and the Gr. ausdpacyos (De Vest. Sacerto. Heb., occurs in Acts i. 23. Most modem critics, howp. 517); and this Gesenius thinks valid (in voc.) ever, embrace the contrary opinion, which they
The rendering in the A. V. is carbuncle, which has conceive is supported by the circumstantial manner
less in its favour. This gem belongs to the same in which Barnabas is first mentioned.  However




BARNABAS                    301                BARNABAS
similar in sound, the meanings of the names are 0bLXovesKta:''What then? Did they part as enevery different; and if no further notice is taken of mies? Far from it. For you see that after this
Barsabas (a circumstance which Ullman urges in  Paul bestows in his Epistles many commendations
favour of his identity with Barnabas), the same on Barnabas. There was'a sharp fit of anger'
may be affirmed of Matthias. Chrysostom   ob- (Doddridge) he (Luke) says, not enmity, nor love
serves, on Acts iv. 36,' This person is not, in my  of strife.' At this point Barnabas disappears from
opinion, the same that is mentioned with Mat- Luke's narrative, which to its close is occupied
thias; for he was called Joses and Barsabas, and  solely with the labours and sufferings of Paul.
afterwards surnamed Justus; but this man was From the Epistles of the latter a few hints (the
surnamed by the apostles Barnabas, Son of Consola- only authentic sources of information) may be
tion; and the name seems to have been given him  gleaned relative to his early friend and associate.
from the virtue, inasmuch as he was competent From I Cor. ix. 5, 6, it would appear that Barand fit for such a purpose' (In Act. Apost. Hom. nabas was unmarried, and supported himself, like
xi. i).                                        Paul, by some manual occupation. In Gal. ii. I
When Paul made his first appearance in Jeru- we have an account of the reception given to Paul
salem after his conversion, Barnabas introduced  and Barnabas by the apostles at Jerusalem, prohim to the apostles, and attested his sincerity (Acts bably on the occasion mentioned in Acts xv. In
ix. 27). This fact lends some support to an an- the same chapter (ver. 13) we are informed that
cient tradition that they had studied together in  Barnabas so far yielded to the Judaizing zealots at
the school of Gamaliel-that Barnabas had often  Antioch, as to separate himself for a time from
attempted to bring his companion over to the communion with the Gentile converts. The date
Christian faith, but hitherto in vain-that meeting  of this occurrence has been placed by some critics
with him at this time at Jerusalem, not aware of soon after the apostolic convention at Jerusalem
what had occurred at Damascus, he once more re- (about A.D. 52); by others, on the return of Paul
newed his efforts, when Paul threw himself weeping  from his second missionary journey (A.D. 55). Dr.
at his feet, informed him of'the heavenly vision,' Paley thinks'that there is nothing to hinder us
and of the happy transformation of the persecutor from supposing that the dispute at Antioch was
and blasphemer into the obedient and zealous dis- prior to the consultation at Jerusalem, or that
ciple (Acts xxvi. I6).                         Peter, in consequence of this rebuke, might have
Though the conversion of Cornelius and his afterwards maintained firmer sentiments' (Horac
household, with its attendant circumstances, had  Paulinze, ch. v.) The same view has been taken
given the Jewish Christians clearer views of the by Hug and Schneckenburger; but (as Dr. Neander
comprehensive character of the new dispensation, remarks) though Paul may not follow a strict chroyet the accession of a large number of Gentiles to  nological order, it is difficult to believe that he
the church at Antioch was an event so extraordi- would not place the narrative of an event so closely
nary, that the apostles and brethren at Jerusalem  connected with the conference at Jerusalem, at the
resolved on deputing one of their number to inves- beginning, instead of letting it follow as suppletigate it.  Their choice was fixed on Barnabas. mentary (History of the Planting of the Christian
After witnessing the flourishing condition of the  Church, vol. i. p. 248, Eng. Transl.) It has been
church, and adding fresh converts by his personal inferred from 2 Cor. viii. 18, I9, that Barnabas was
exertions, he visited Tarsus to obtain the assistance not only reconciled to Paul after their separation
of Saul, who returned with him to Antioch, where (Acts xv. 39) but also became again his coadjutor;
they laboured for a whole year (Acts xi. 23-26). that he was'the brother whose praise was in the
In anticipation of the famine predicted by Agabus, Gospel through all the churches.'  Chrysostom
the Antiochian Christians made a contribution for says that some suppose the brother was Luke, and
their poorer brethren at Jerusalem, and sent it by  others Barnabas. Theodoret asserts that it was
the hands of Barnabas and Saul (Acts xi. 28-30), Barnabas, and appeals to Acts xiii. 3, which rather
who speedily returned, bringing with them John  serves to disprove his assertion, for it ascribes the
Mark, a nephew of the former. By divine direc- appointment of Paul and Barnabas to an express
tion (Acts xiii. 2) they were separated to the office divine injunction, and not to an elective act of the
of missionaries, and as such visited Cyprus and  church; and, besides, the brother alluded to was
some of the principal cities in Asia Minor (Acts chosen, not by a single church, but by several
xiii. 14). Soon after their return to Antioch, the  churches, to travel with Paul (XetporovOfiels irb
peace of the chqrch was disturbed by certain zealots Trv cKKXr\l7iwv o-vv&cKO58OS jfUiv, 2 Cor. viii. I9).
from Judsea, who insisted on the observance of the In Colos. iv. Io, and Philemon, ver. 24, Paul menrite of circumcision by the Gentile converts. To  tions Mark as his fellow-labourer; and at a still
settle the controversy, Paul and Barnabas were later period, 2 Tim. iv. II, he refers with strong
deputed to consult the apostles and elders at Jeru- approbation to his services, and requests Timothy
salem (Acts xv. I, 2); they returned to commu- to bring him to Rome; but of Barnabas (his renicate the result of their conference (ver. 22), lationship to Mark excepted) nothing is said. The
accompanied by Judas Barsabas and Silas, or Sil- most probable inference is, that he was already
vanus. On preparing for a second missionary tour, dead, and that Mark had subsequently associated
a dispute arose between them on account of John  himself with Paul. For the latter years of BarMark, which ended in their taking different routes; nabas we have no better guides than the Acta et
Paul and Silas went through Syria and Cilicia, Passio Barnabce in Cypro, a forgery in the name
while Barnabas and his nephew revisited his native of John Mark, and, from the acquaintance it disisland (Acts xv. 36-4I). In reference to this event, covers with the localities of Cyprus, probably
Chrysostom remarks-'Ti ov; 4XOpol dvet(bp^l-av; written by a resident in that island; and the
i4 -yhvotro.'Ops 7&p AerT& roTro Bapvdav proXX\ v legends of Alexander, a Cyprian monk, and of
eyKUctwv &droXa6ovra 7rapa& Ia6Xou v v Trals iritoro- Theodore, commonly called Lector (that is, an
Xa4s.  Ilapo)vo!6s, -^6 v,  y'V7Vo, er  OVK xtOpa ovoa va'yvwor5s, or reader) of Constantinople: the two




BARNABAS                    302                BARNABAS
latter belong to the sixth century. According to tainty; if his nephew joined Paul after that event,
Alexander, Barnabas, after taking leave of Paul, it must have taken place not later than A.D. 63 or
landed in Cyprus, passed through the whole island, 64.'Chrysostom,' it has been asserted,'speaks
converted numbers to the Christian faith, and at of Barnabas as alive in A.D. 63.' The exact statelast arrived at Salamis, where he preached in the ment is this: in his Eleventh Homily on the Epistle
synagogue with great success. Thither he was fol: to the Colossians he remarks, on ch. iv. o1,'touchlowed by some Jews from Syria (the author of the ing whom ye received commandments, if he come
Acta names Barjesus as their leader), who stirred unto you receive him' —'cs irap& Bapvdcaa 9vroX&s
up the people against him. Barnabas, in anticipa-  Xap3ov-'perhaps they received commands from
tion of his approaching end, celebrated the Eucha- Barnabas.'
rist with his brethren, and bade them farewell.  There is a vague tradition that Barnabas was the
He gave his nephew directions respecting his inter- first bishop of the church at Milan, but it is so ill
ment, and charged him to go after his decease to supported as scarcely to deserve notice.  It is
the Apostle Paul. He then entered the synagogue, enough to say that the celebrated Ambrose (b.A.D.
and began as usual to preach Christ. But the Jews 340, d. 397) makes no allusion to Barnabas when
at once laid hands on him, shut him up till night, speaking of the bishops who preceded himself
then dragged him forth, and, after stoning him, en- (v. Hefele, Das Sendschreiben des Apostels Barnaaeavoured to burn his mangled body. The corpse, bas, pp. 42-47).
however, resisted the action of the flames; Mark  From the incident narrated in Acts xiv. 8-12
secretly conveyed it to a cave about five stadia Chrysostom infers that the personal appearance of
from the city; he then joined Paul at Ephesus, Barnabas was dignified and commanding. When
and afterwards accompanied him to Rome.   A   the inhabitants of Lystra, on the cure of the impoviolent persecution, consequent on the death of tent man, imagined that the gods were come down
Barnabas, scattered the Christians at Salamis, so to them in the likeness of men, they called Barnathat a knowledge of the place of his interment was bas Zeus (their tutelar deity), and Paul, Hermes,
lost. This account agrees with that of the pseudo because he was chief speaker: /uol 60KeC Kal a7rb
Mark, excepting that, according to the latter, the TrS 6i/eco ditorpeirs elvac 6 Bapvdcas (In Act.
corpse was reduced to ashes. Under the emperor Apost. Hom. xxx.)
Zeno (A.D. 474-491), Alexander goes on to say,  BARNABAS, GOSPEL OF.    A spurious gospel,
Peter Fullo, a noted Monophysite, became patri- attributed to Barnabas, exists in Arabic, and has
arch of Constantinople.  He aimed at bringing been translated into Italian, Spanish, and Engthe Cyprian church under his patriarchate, in which lish. It was probably forged by some heretical
attempt he was supported by the emperor. When  Christians, and has since been interpolated by the
the bishop of Salamis, a very worthy man, but an  Mohammedans, in order to support the pretensions
indifferent debater (6Xbyooarbs 8& irps &dXeewv), was of their prophet. Dr. White has given copious
called upon to defend his rights publicly at Con- extracts from it in his Bampton Lectures, 1784;
stantinople, he was thrown into the greatest per- Sermon viii. p. 358, and Notes, p. 4-69 (See
plexity.  But Barnabas took compassion, on his also Sale's Koran, Prelim. Dissert. sec. 4). It
fellow-countryman, appeared to him by night no is placed among the Apocryphal books in the
less than three times, assured him of success, and  Stichometry prefixed by Cotelerius to his edition
told him where he might find his body, with a of the Apostolical Constitutions (Lardner's Credicopy of Matthew's gospel lying upon it.  The bility, part ii. ch. I47). It was condemned by
bishop awoke, assembled the clergy and laity, and  Pope Gelasius I. (Tillemont, Memoires, etc. i. p.
found the body as described. The sequel may be  IO55).
easily conjectured. Fullo was expelled from An-  BARNABAS, EPISTLE OF. The title of this antioch; the independence of the Cyprian church  cient composition is found in the Stichometries (or
acknowledged; the manuscript of Matthew's gospel catalogues of the sacred books) of the ninth century;
was deposited in the palace at Constantinople, and but from that period to the seventeenth century
at Easter lessons were publicly read from it; and  the work itself remained entirely unknown. Jacob
by the emperor's command a church was erected  Sirmond, a Jesuit, in copying the transcript of a
on the spot where the corpse had been interred. Greek manuscript of Polycarp's Epistle to the PhiThese suspicious visions of Barnabas are termed by lippians, which belonged to Turrianus (a member
Dr. Cave,'a mere addition to the story, designed  of the same order), discovered another piece aponly to serve a present turn, to gain credit to the pended to it, which proved to be the Epistle (so
cause, and advance it with the emperor.'      called) of Barnabas. It was also found in two
Neither Alexander nor Theodore is very explicit manuscripts of Polycarp, at Rome, which Cressorespecting the copy of Matthew's gospel which was lius collated. Sirmond sent a copy to the Benefound with the corpse of Barnabas. The former dictine, Hugo Menard, who had not long before
represents Barnabas as saying to Anthemius, &KeL found an ancient Latin translation of the Epistle
uLOv rb T rav r&wa &droKetrac, Kal eacyy\4Xov 1l6Xetpov of Barnabas in the Abbey of Corbey. About the
6 44Xa3pov dir MarOalov —' There my whole body same time Andreas Schottus (also a Jesuit) obtained
is deposited, and an autograph gospel which I a manuscript containing the Epistles of Polycarp
received from Matthew.' Theodore says, 9Xov irl and Barnabas; this was transcribed by Claudius
aTrovs Trb Kar&t MarOaov ebayyXtov, Io&6ypaqov Salmasius, and given, with a copy of the Corbey
roo Bapvdca- -'Having on his breast the Gospel version, to Isaac Vossius. Vossius shortly after
according to Matthew, an autograph of Barnabas.' paid a visit to Archbishop Usher, who was then
The pseudo Mark omits the latter circumstance. preparing for publication an ancient Latin version
If we believe that, as Alexander reports, it was of the shorter Ignatian Epistles. It was agreed
read at Constantinople, it must have been written between th'em to annex to this work the Epistle
not in Hebrew, but in Greek. The year when    of Barnabas. But it had hardly been sent to press
Barnabas died cannot be determined with cer- when the great fire at Oxford occurred (1644), in




BARNABAS                     303                BARNABAS
which the manuscript was destroyed, with all the  Mosaic economy in writing to Gentile converts.
archbishop's notes, and only a few pages saved  But the Epistle of Paul to the Galatians is a proof
which were in the corrector's hands. These were to what danger Gentile Christians were exposed
afterwards inserted by Bishop Fell, in the Preface in the first ages from the attempts of Judaizing
to his edition of Barnabas, Oxford, I685.  The  teachers; so that, in the absence of more exact
first edition of Barnabas appeared at Paris, in information, the supposition that the persons ad1645; it had been prepared by Menard, but, in  dressed were of this class, is at least not inconconsequence of his death, was edited by Luke   sistent with the train of thought in the Epistle.
d'Acherry.  In the following year a new and    But more than this: throughout the Epistle we
much improved edition was published by Vossius, find a distinction maintained between the writer
for which he collated three manuscripts; it was and his friends on the one hand, and the Jews on
appended to his editio princeps of the Ignatian  the other. Thus in chap. iii.,'God speaketh to
Epistles. In I672 Cotelerius published his magni- them (the Jews), concerning these things,' Ye shall
ficent edition of the Apostolic Fathers.  Besides not fast as ye do this day,' etc.; but to us he saith,
the Greek text, and Corbey's version of Barnabas,' Is not this the fast that I have chosen?' etc.; and
it contained a new translation and valuable notes at the end of the same chapter,'He hath shewn
by the editor. The reprint, in 1724, contained  these things to all of us that we should not run as
additional notes by Davis and Le Clerc. In I685 proselytes to the Jewish law'-' ante ostendit omnitwo additions appeared; Bishop Fell's, already  bus nobis ut non incurramus tanquam proselyti ad
noticed, and one by Stephen le Moyne, at Leyden, illorum legem.' This would be singular language
in the first volume of his Varia Sacra, with copious to address to persons who were Jews by birth, but
notes. It is also contained in Russel's edition of perfectly suited to Gentile converts. In chap. xiii.
the Apostolic Fathers, Lond. I746, and in the first he says,'Let us inquire whether the covenant be
volume of Galland's Biblioth. vet. Patrum, Ven. with us or with them' (the Jews), and concludes
1765. A convenient edition is that by Hefele, in  with quoting the promise to Abraham (with a slight
his Patrum Apost. Opera, Tiib., 1839 and 1842. verbal difference),'Behold I have made thee a
[The latest is that of Dressel in his Patr. Apost. father of the nations which without circumcision
Opp. Lips. I857.]   Four German translations believe in the Lord,' a passage which is totally
have appeared, by Arnold (1696), Gliising (Hamb. irrelevant to Jewish Christians.  For other similar
1723), Grynceus (I772), and Mist (I774); it was passages, see Jones On the Canon, part. iii.
translated into English, by Archbishop Wake (The chap. 39.
genuine Epistles of the Apostolic Fathers, etc.,  Whether this Epistle was written by Barnabas,
Lond. I693 and 17I1); and a French translation  the companion of St. Paul, has been a subject of
by Le Gras is inserted in Desprez's Bible, Paris, controversy almost ever since its publication in the
I7I7. On comparing the Corbey version with the seventeenth century.  Its first editors, Usher and
Greek text, it appears that the latter wants four Menard, took the negative, and Vossius the affirchapters and a half at the beginning, and the former mative side of the question.  Of modem critics,
four chapters at the end; thus each supplies the  Hug, Ullman, Neander, Winer, Hefele, and Dresdeficiencies of the other. To a very recent period  sel agree with the former, and Rosenmiiller, Gieseall the Greek manuscripts were found similarly ler, Bleek, Henke, and Rordam with the latter.
defective; plainly shewing that they were all de- The external evidence for its genuineness, it may
rived from the same source, and formed only one be allowed, is considerable; but besides some confamily of manuscripts; but early in 1859 Tischen- flicting testimonies, criteria furnished by the Epistle
dorff obtained from the monastery on Mount Sinai itself lead to the opposite conclusion.  We shall
an invaluable manuscript, containing about twenty  present a view of both as succinctly as possible.
books of the Old Testament, in the Septuagint    I. The first writer who alludes to this Epistle is
version, the New Testament complete, and, at the  Clement of Alexandria.  I. He quotes a sentence
end, the whole of the Epistle of Barnabas, and the from the tenth chapter, and adds,' These things
first part of the Shepherd of Hermas.  In his saith Barnabas' (Strom. ii. 15. sec. 67, vol. ii.
Nolitia ed. Cod. Bib. Sinaitici, Lipsiae, i860, he p. i65, ed. Klotz. Lips. 1831). 2. A sentence
has given a facsimile of one column of the Epistle from chap. xxi., of which he says,'Barnabas truly
of Barnabas, and two of the Shepherd of Hermas.  speaks mystically' (Strom. ii. 18. sec. 84, vol. ii.
The Epistle of Barnabas consists of twenty-one p. 174). 3. Again, quoting chap. x.,'Barnabas
chapters. The first part (i. I7) treats of the abro- says' (Strom. v. 8. sec. 52, vol. iii. p. 38). 4. After
gation of the Mosaic dispensation, and of the types quoting two passages from chap. i. and ii., he calls
and prophecies relating to Christ; the last four the author the apostle Barnabas (Strom. ii. 6. sec.
chapters are composed entirely of practical direc- 31, vol. ii. p. 142). 5. He cites a passage from
tions and exhortations. The names and residence chap. iv. with the words'the apostle Barnabas
of the persons to whom it is addressed are not says' (Strom. ii. 7. sec. 35, vol. ii. p. 44). 6. He
mentioned, on which account, probably, it was prefaces a passage from chap. xvi. with'I need
called by Origen a Catholic Epistle (Origen. Contr. not say more, when I adduce as a witness the
Cels. lib. i. p. 49). But if by this title he meant apostolic Barnabas, who was one of the Seventy,
an epistle addressed to the general body of Chris- and a fellow-labourer with Paul' (Strom. ii. 20. sec.
tians, the propriety of its application is doubtful, 116, vol. ii. p. 192).  7. He makes two quotations
for we meet with several expressions which imply from chap. vi., which he introduces with these
a personal knowledge of the parties. It has been  words:'But Barnabas also, who proclaimed the
disputed whether the persons addressed were Jewish  word with the apostle, in his ministry among the
or Gentile Christians. Dr. Hefele strenuously con- Gentiles' (Strom. v. o0. sec. 64, vol. iii. p. 46).
tends that they were of the former class. His chief The name of Barnabas occurs in another passage
argument appears to be, that it would be unneces- (Strom. vi. 8. sec. 64, vol. iii. p. 136), but probably
sary to insist so earnestly on the abolition of the by a lapse of memory, instead of Clemens Ro



BARNABAS                     304                BARNABAS
manus, from whose first Epistle to the Corinthians  It is evident, as Valesius (with whom Lardner
a sentence is there quoted. There is also an evident and Hefele agree) has remarked, that Eusebius uses
allusion to the Epistle of Barnabas in Paedag. ii. io. the term vbOa, not in the strict sense of spurious,
sec. 83, vol. i. p. 245, and in some other passages, but as synonymous with dvriXeyy6uevva, i.e., disputed,
though the author's name is not mentioned.     controverted, and applies it to writings which were
II. Origen quotes this Epistle twice.  i. The received by some, but rejected by others. The
sentence in chap. v. respecting the apostles, which  term apocryphal also, used by Jerome, was applied
he says'is written in the Catholic Epistle of Bar- both by Jews and Christians to works which (though
nabas' (Contr. Cels. i. 49). 2. A passage from  the authors were known) were not considered canochap. xviii.:  To the same purpose Barnabas nical. The use of these terms, therefore, in refespeaks in his Epistle, when he says, that'there rence to the Epistle before us, cannot be deemed
are two ways, one of light, the other of darkness,"  as absolutely decisive against its genuineness. The
etc. (De Princip. iii. 2).                     following considerations, however, omitting some
On these testimonies it has been remarked, that of less weight which have been urged by different
both these Alexandrian fathers have quoted works writers, will, it is believed, go far to prove that
unquestionably spurious without expressing a doubt Barnabas was not the author of this Epistle.
of their genuineness: thus Clement refers to the  i. Though the exact date of the death of BarRevelation of Peter, and Origen to the Shepherd  nabas cannot be ascertained, yet from the particuof Hermas, which he believed to be inspired ('quse lars already stated respecting his nephew, it is
scriptura valde mihi utilis videtur, et, ut puto, highly probable that that event took place before
divinitus inspirata,'-In Ep. ad Rom. Comment. lib. the martyrdom of Paul, A.D. 64. But a passage in
x.); and though Clement speaks of the apostolic the Epistle (ch. xvi.) speaks of the temple at JeruBarnabas, he evidently does not treat this Epistle salem as already destroyed: it was consequently
with the same deference as the canonical writings, written after the year 70.
but freely points out its mistakes. Tertullian calls  2. Several passages have been adduced to shew
all the seventy disciples apostles, and in this infe- that the writer (as well as the persons addressed)
rior and secondary sense, as Dr. Lardner observes, belonged to the Gentile section of the Church;
Clement terms Barnabas an apostle.             but waiving this point, the whole tone of the Epistle
III. Eusebius, in the noted passage of his Eccle- is different from what the knowledge we possess
siastical History (iii. 25), quoted at length (in the  of the character of Barnabas would lead us to exoriginal) by De Wette, in his Lehrbuch der histo- pect, if it proceeded from his pen. From the hints
risch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel, etc., Berlin, given in the Acts he appears to have been a man
1840, Theil. i. sec. 32, and translated by Lardner, of strong attachments, keenly alive to the ties of
Credibility,/part ii. chap. 72), says,'The Epistle  kindred and father-land; we find that on both his
reputed to be written by Barnabas is to be ranked  missionary tours his native island and the Jewish
among the books which are' spurious' - v TOLS synagogues claimed his first attention. But throughvb60oL KararerTdXO8... J qepolv4, Bapvdp3a rtio- out the Epistle there is a total absence of symparoX'; and elsewhere,'He (Clement of Alexandria) thetic regard for the Jewish nation: all is cold and
makes use of testimonies out of those scriptures that distant, if not contemptuous.' It remains yet that
are controverted (d7rb rvP dvrti\eyopuvPv ypaPCiv), I speak to you (the I6th chapter begins) concerning
that called the Wisdom of Solomon, and of Jesus the temple; how those miserable men, being dethe Son of Sirach, and the Epistle to the Hebrews, ceived, have put their trust in the house.' How
and that of Barnabas and of Clement, and of Jude' unlike the friend and fellow-labourer of him who
(Hist. Eccles. vi. I3). He also observes of Cle- had'great heaviness and continual sorrow in his
ment,' In his book called Hypotyposes, he gives heart for his brethren, his kindred according to the
short explications of all the canonical Scriptures flesh' (Rom. ix. 2).
(rdao-s rOs vOIta0fOKou ypcpaIf),* not neglecting  3. Barnabas was not only a Jew by birth, but
even the controverted books (r&s &vdr\eyopvas), I a Levite; from this circumstance, combined with
mean that of Jude and the other Catholic Epistles, what is recorded in the Acts, of the active part he
the Epistle of Barnabas, and that called the Reve- took in the settlement of the points at issue between
lation of Peter.'                              the Jewish and the Gentile converts, we might
IV. Jerome, in his work on illustrious men, or reasonably expect to find, in a composition bearing
Catalogue of Ecclesiastical Writers, thus speaks his name, an accurate acquaintance with the Mosaic
of Barnabas:'Barnabas of Cyprus, called also  ritual-a clear conception of the nature of the Old
Joseph, a Levite, was ordained, with Paul, an  Economy, and its relation to the New Dispensation,
apostle of the Gentiles: he wrote an Epistle for and a freedom from that addiction to allegorical
the edification of the church, which is read among  interpretation which marked the Christians of the
the Apocryphal scriptures' (Catal. Vir. illust. cap. Alexandrian school in the second and succeeding
vi.); and in his Commentary on Ezekiel xlii. I9, centuries. But the following specimens will suffice'Many parts of the Scriptures, and especially the  to shew that exactly the contrary may be affirmed
Epistle of Barnabas, which is reckoned among the  of the writer of this Epistle; that he makes unApocryphal Scriptures,' etc.  In another place he authorized additions to various parts of the Jewish
quotes, as the words of Ignatius, the passage rela- Cultus; that his views of the Old Economy are
tive to the apostles, which is cited by Origen from  confused and erroneous; and that he adopts a
the Epistle of Barnabas (Lardner's Credibility, pt. mode of interpretation countenanced by none of
ii. ch. I4).                                   the inspired writers, and to the last degree puerile
and absurd. The inference is unavoidable, that
*'Libri canonici vocantur evstdOi0KoL quia effi- Barnabas,' the Son of Prophecy,'' the Man full of
ciunt utrumque Testamentum    (8ta7?rclv  Grxeci the Holy Spirit and offaith,' was not the author of
appellant) vetus scilicet et novum' (Suiceri Thes. this Epistle.
s. v. 6v3tdO8fKo).                               (I.) The writer denies that circumcision was a




BARNABAS                    305               BARRENNESS
sign of the covenant.' You will say the Jews were in spirit, having a regard to the Son (in 7esum,
circumcised for a sign, and so are all the Syrians Lat. Vers.), circumcised, applying the mystic sense
and Arabians, and all the idolatrous priests.' He- of the three letters (Xac/3v rpiwv - pauLuLdro&v 67yrodotus ii. o04, indeed, says'the Phoenicians and Lara-den geheimen Sinn dreier Buchstaben anSyrians of Palestine acknowledge that they learned wendend, Hefele).  For the Scripture says that
this custom from the Egyptians;' but Josephus, Abraham circumcised 318 men of his house. What
both in his Antiquities and Treatise against Apion, then was the deeper insight (-yvDo-s) imparted to
remarks that he must have alluded to the Jews, him? Mark first the I8, and next the 300. The
because they were the only nation in Palestine who  numeral letters of I8 are I (Iota) and H (Eta),
were circumcised (Antiq. viii. 10, sec. 3; Contr. I I= O, H  8; here you have Jesus'IHo-ov;
Apion. i. 22).' How,' says )iug,'could Barnabas, and because the cross in the T (Tau) must express
who travelled with Paul through the southern pro- the grace (of our redemption), he names 300;
vinces of Asia Minor, make such an assertion  therefore he signified Jesus by two letters, and the
respecting the heathen priests?'              cross by one.'
(2.) Referring to the goat (chap vii.), either that  It will be observed that the writer hastily assumes
mentioned in Num. xix. or Lev. xvi., he says, CAll (from Gen. xiv. I4) that Abraham circumcised only
the priests, and they only, shall eat the unwashed 318 persons, that being the number of'the serentrails with vinegar.' Of this direction, in itself vants born in his own house,' whom he armed
highly improbable, not a trace can be found in the against the four kings; but he circumcised his
Bible, or even in the Talmud.                 household nearly twenty years later, including not
(3.) In the same chapter, he says of the scape- only those born in his house (with the addition of
goat, that all the congregation were commanded  Ishmael), but'all that were bought with money'
to spit upon it, and put scarlet wool about its head; (Gen. xvii. 23). The writer evidently was unacand that the person appointed to convey the goat quainted with the Hebrew Scriptures, by his cominto the wilderness took away the scarlet wool and  mitting the blunder of supposing that Abraham
put it on a thorn-bush, whose young sprouts, was familiar with the Greek alphabet some centuries
when we find them in the field, we are wont to before it existed.
eat; so the fruit of that thorn only is sweet. On  J. P. Lange, Das apostolische Zeitalter, Braunsall these particulars the Scriptures are silent.  chweig, I854, ii. 440-448; A new andfull Method
(4.) In chap. viii. our author's fancy (as Mr. of settling the CanonicalAuthority ofthe New TestaJones remarks) seems to grow more fruitful and  ment, by the Rev. Jeremiah Jones, Oxford, I827,
luxuriant. In referring to the red heifer (Num. vol. ii. part iii. ch. 37-43; Das Sendschreiben des
xix.), he says that men in whom sins are come to Apostels Barnabas aufs Neue untersucht, iibersetzt,
perfection (ev ols iaqapratc rXeiat)r were to bring the und erklart, von Dr. Carl Joseph Hefele, Tibinheifer and kill it; that three youths were to take gen, 1840; sPatrum Apostolicorum  Opera, edidit
up the ashes and put them in vessels; then to tie a C. J. Hefele, Tubingae, I839a; PP. App. Opp.,
piece of scarlet wool and hyssop upon a stick, and  ed. A. R. M. Dressel, Lips. i857; Lardner's
so sprinkle every one of the people.' This heifer Credibility, part ii ch. i.; Neander, Allgemeine
is Jesus Christ; the wicked men that were to offer Gesch. der Christl. Religion und Kirche, i. 653,
it are those sinners who brought him to death; II00, or, History of the Christian Religion and
the young men signify those to whom the Lord   Church, translated by Jos. Torrey, 1847, vol. ii.
gave authority to preach his Gospel, being at the pp. 438-440; Lives of the most eminent Fathers of
beginning twelve, because there were twelve tribes the Church, by William Cave, D.D., Oxford, i840,
of Israel.' But why (he asks) were there three vol i. pp. 90-I05.-J. E. R.
young men appointed to sprinkle? To denote
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. And why was wool      BARQANIM     ('yj il), translated briers in the
put upon a stick?  Because the kingdom of Jesus Auth. Vers., occurs in Judg. viii. 7, I6, where
was founded upon the cross, etc.               Gideon is described as saying,' then I will tear
(5.) He interprets the distinction of clean and your flesh with the thorns (qotsim) of the wilderunclean animals in a spiritual sense.'Is it not ness, and with briers (barqanim).' The Seventy
('Apa oiK-v. Dr. Hefele's valuable note, p. 85) in their version retain the original name. There is
the command of God that they should not eat no reason for believing that briers, as applied to a
these things?-(Yes.) But Moses spoke in spirit rose or bramble, is the correct meaning; but there
(dv 7rve4arTL). He named the swine, in order to is nothing to lead us to select any one preferably
say, Thou shalt not join those men who are like from  among the numerous thorny and prickly
swine, who, while they live in pleasure, forget plants of Syria as the barqanim  of Scripture.
their Lord,' etc. He adds-' Neither shalt thou  Rosenmiiller, however, says that this word signieat of the hyaena: that is, thou shalt not be an fies'a flail,' and has no reference to, thorny plants.
adulterer.' If these were the views entertained by _J F. R.
Barnabas, how must he have been astonished at
the want of spiritual discernment in the apostle  BARRENNESS is, in the East, the hardest lot
Peter, when he heard from his own lips the account that can befall a woman, and was considered among
of the symbolic vision at Joppa, and. his reply to the Israelites as the heaviest punishment with which
the command-' Arise, Peter, slay and eat. But I the Lord could visit a female (Gen. xvi. 2; xxx. 1-23;
said, Not so, Lord, for nothing common or unclean  I Sam. i. 6, 29; Is. xlvii. 9; xlix. 21; Luke i. 25;
hath at any time entered into my mouth' (Acts Niebuhr, p. 76; Volney, ii. 359).   According
xi. 8).                                       to the Talmud (Yeramoth, vi. 6) a man was bound,
(6.) In chap. ix. he attempts to shew that Abra- after ten years' childless conjugal life, to marry
ham, in circumcising his servants, had an especial another woman (with or without repudiation of the
reference to Christ and his crucifixion:-' Learn, first), and even a third one, if the second proved
my children, that Abraham, who first circumcised  also barren. Nor is it improbable that Moses
VOL. I.                                                                           X




BARRETT                    306             BARTHOLOMEW
himself contributed to strengthen the opinion of I and Barnabas became, and were known to be,
disgrace by the promises of the Lord of exemption apostles; the apostolical decree, Acts xv. 23-30,
from barrenness as a blessing (Exod. xxli. 26; etc. Throughout the several essays regard is had
Deut. vii. 14). Instances of childless wives are to the various methods and instrumentalities by
found in Gen. xi. 30; xxv. 21; xxix. 31; Judg. which Christianity was originally propagated, and
xiii. 2, 3; Luke i. 7, 36. Some cases of unlawful the success resulting from these, the whole being
marriages, and more especially with a brother's intended to work out a demonstration of the divine
wife, were visited with the punishment of barrenness origin and truth of the Christian religion. It may
(Lev. xx. 20, 21); Michaelis, however (Mosaisches be added, that while some very valuable informaRecht, v. 290), takes the word M'/V8y  here in a tion is given on the various subjects discussed, the
figurative sense, implying that the children born in erudition displayed- isby no means extensive, and
such an illicit marriage should not be ascribed to the the reasoning, though clear, by no means profound.
real father, but to the former brother, thus depriv- What chiefly delights the student of the Miscellanea
ing the second husband of the share of patrimonial Sacra, is the author's candour and liberality. These
inheritance which would otherwise have fallen to are apparent on every page. The second and comhis lot if the first brother had died childless.  plete edition of this work was published by his son
This general notion of the disgrace of barrenness Shute, Bishop of Durham, Lond. I770, 3 vols. 8vo.
in a woman may early have given rise, in the patri- Lord Barrington took an active part in all questions
archal age, to the custom among barren wives of bearing on toleration, and wrote several anonyintroducing to their husbands their maid-servants, mous pamphlets on subjects relating to dissenters,
and of regarding the children born in that concu- to whom, though he left them, he always remained
binage as their own, by which they thought to cover friendly, and generally worshipped with them. As
their own disgrace of barrenness (Gen. xvi. 2; a friend and follower of Locke, such a course was
xxx. 3). [CHILDREN.]-E. M.                    to be expected from him. He was inclined to
BARRETT, JOHN, D.D., Fellow of Trinity      Arianism.-W. J. C.
College, Dublin, was born in I753, and died     BARSABAS.       [JOSEPH  BARSABAS; JUDAS
November I5, 1807. He held several offices in BARSABAS.]
the University, and left behind him a name for
great learning, and almost equal eccentricity. He  BARTACUS (BaprdKos), the father of Apame,
superintended an edition in fac simile of the the concubine of Darius (I Esdr. iv. 29). He is
Dublin Codex Rescriptus of Matthew's Gospel called O6 OavCao-ar6 (Vulg. mirificus), which may be
(Codex Z), 4to, Dubl. I80i. To this he has pre- an appellation appropriate to his rank (as we say,
fixed Prolegomena, and has added in an Appendix  HEis Worship'); or it may contain some allusion
a collation of the Codex Montfortianus, also pre- to the meaning of his name. In the Syr. V. we
served in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin. have; 1 l3','the magnate Artac,' a form
In the Prolegomena Dr. Barrett discusses at considerable length several questions, and among the which calls up a multitude of names beginning with
rest the genealogy of our Lord. The book is an the syllables Arta (luminous, or worshipful), in use
admirable specimen of typography, but with this among  the Persians. We may compare Artac
its praise must end. The fragments of the palimp-with'ApToas, Xen. Anab. v. 3, 4; Apracuas,
sest are given in copperplate engravings, and oppo-vii. 8 25'ApKa  Diod. ii. 32;'ApraXa s and
site to each is Dr. Barrett's rendering of the uncial Aprao  Herod. ii. 2i, 66, I7, etc.  For the
letters into those now commonly used in printed B in Bartacus, compare 03cipr1s and Bovi3dp7s
Greek.  In this he has committed many mistakes; (Herod. vi. 33; v. 2; Aesch. Pers. 980, cf.
nor has he done justice to the MS. of which he  chol. ap. Schutz, iv. 255).-W. L. A.
professed to furnish a fac simile. Lachmann has  BARTHOLIN, THOMAS, a distinguished Danish
pronounced him'hominem hujus artis, ultra quam  physician, born at Copenhagen Oct. 20, 1619, and
credi potest, imperitum;' and though this judgment died Dec. 4, I680. Besides many works of a purely
is perhaps too severe, it cannot be denied that, in professional character, he wrote some on biblical
the main, it is just. A much more careful and medicine and antiquities. These are-DeArmillis
complete collation of Codex Z has been accom-  eterum, Hafn. 1647; Miscellanea Medica, Ibid.
plished by Mr. Tregelles (Davidson, Biblical Criti- I672, Francof. 1705; De Morbis Biblicis, Hafn.
cism, ii. 3T1; Tregelles' Account of the Printed I672; De Paralyticis N. T. Comment. Ibid. I673,
Text of the N. T., p. I66), and of the Cod. Mont- Lips. I685.-W. L. A.
fort. by Dr. Dobbin, Lond. I854.-W. L. A.
BARTHOLOMEW         (Bctp<oXoa~xo.s  1,
BARRINGTON, JOHN SHUTE, first Viscount        BW                  (n 
Barrington; born I678, died I734; was the i.e., the son' of Tolmai: sv'I) is a name that
youngest son of Benjamin Shute, his mother being occurs in the Old Testament (Josh. xv. I4, Sept.
a daughter of Caryl, author of the Commentary on OoXaala, OoXuca''; Auth. Vers., Talmai; 2 Sam.
Job.  He wrote and published various religious xiii. 37, Sept. OoX/4L, OoXo/la.). In Josephus, we
treatises, the principal of which was his Miscellanea find OoXoouatos (Antiq. xx. I, sec. I). The OoXotiaoos
Sacra, or a New Method of considering so much of in'Anti]. xiv. 8. I, is called IroXe/uazos in Bell.
the History of the Apostles as is contained in Scrip-  /ud. i. 9, sec. 3, not improbably by an error of the
ture; an Abstract of their History; an Abstract of transcriber, as another person of the latter name is
that Abstract, and four Critical Essays.  Lond. mentioned in the same sentence. Bartholomew
1725, 2 vols. 8vo. His lordship, in this work, was one of the twelve apostles, and is generally
treats on such subjects as the following:-the  supposed to have been the same individual who in
teaching and witness of the Spirit; the super- John's gospel is called Nathanael. The reason of
natural gifts bestowed on the first preachers; the this opinion is, that in the first three gospels Philip
nature of the apostolic office; the time when Paul and Bartholomew are constantly named together,




BARTIMAEUS                   307                 BARUCH
while Nathanael is nowhere mentioned; on the though a deficiency of judgment and critical sagacontrary, in the fourth gospel the names of Philip  city renders the work less useful than it otherwise
and Nathanael are similarly combined, but nothing  might be. A fifth volume was added by Imbonat,
is said of Bartholomew. Nathanael therefore must which appeared under the title Bibl. Latina HIebe considered as his real name, while Bartholomew  braica in I694.-W. L. A.
merely expresses his filial relation. He was a
native of Cana in Galilee (John xxi. 2), and intro-  BARUCH  (:13, blessed =  enedict; Sept.
duced by Philip to Jesus, who, on seeing him ap- BapolX; Joseph. BapoiXos), son of Neriah, and
proach, uttered that eulogy on his character which  brother of Seraiah, who held a distinguished office
has made his name almost synonymous with sin- in the court of Zedekiah (Jer. li. 59). He was of
cerity:'Behold an Israelite indeed, in whom is no  the illustrious family of Judah, and of distinguished
guile!' (John i. 47).*  He was one of the disciples acquirements (Joseph. Antiq. x. 9, sec. I), and is
to whom our Lord appeared after his resurrection, especially known as the faithful friend and amanuat the Sea of Tiberias (John xxi. 2); he was also a ensis of the prophet Jeremiah (Jer. xxxii. 12; xxxvi.
witness of the Ascension, and returned with the 4 ff. 32), whose oracles he wrote down twice
other apostles to Jerusalem (Acts. i. 4, I2, 13). (B.C. 605) in the reign of Jehoiakim (Jer. xxxvi.
Of his subsequent history we have little more than  4, 7; xlv. I). He was imprisoned with Jeremiah
vague traditions. According to Eusebius (Hist. by Nebuchadnezzar during the siege of Jerusalem,
Eccles. v. IO), when Pantsenus went on a mission  and when he was released at the capture of that
to the Indians (towards the close of the second  city (B.C. 586) he at first remained at Masphatha,
century), he found among them  the Gospel of but was afterwards compelled to go to Egypt with
Matthew, written in Hebrew, which had been left' the remnant of Judah that were returned from all
there by the apostle Bartholomew. Jerome (De nations' (Jer. xliii. 6;, Joseph. Antiq. x. 9, sec. 6),
Vir. Zllustr. c. 36) gives a similar account, and adds where, as St. Jerome tells us, according to the trathat Pantaenus brought the copy of Matthew's Gos- dition of the Jews, he and the prophet Jeremiah
pel back to Alexandria with him. But the title of died'before the destruction of the country by
Indians is applied by ancient writers to so many  Nebuchadnezzar' {Comment. in Is. xxx. 6, 7).
different nations, that it is difficult to determine the According to another tradition, however, he is said
scene of Bartholomew's labours.  Mosheim (with to have remained in Egypt till the death of Jerewhom Neander agrees) is of opinion that it was a miah, and then to have gone to Babylon, where he
part of Arabia Felix, inhabited by Jews, to whom died in the twelfth year after the destruction of
alone a Hebrew gospel could be of any service. Jerusalem. There are two apocryphal books or
Socrates (Hist. Eccles. i. I9) says that it was the letters extant which purport to be the productions
India bordering on Ethiopia; and Sophronius of Baruch.-C. D. G.
reports that Bartholomew preached the Gospel of
Christ'IvooZs rois KaXov/Odvots ed6atltoav.  This  BARUCH, THE FIRST BOOK OR EPISTLE OF,
apostle is said to have suffered crucifixion at Al- is given in the Paris and London Polyglots in
banopolis, in Armenia, or, according to Nicephorus, Syriac and Latin.
at Urbanopolis in Cilicia. A spurious gospel which  I. The Design of this Epistle.-The design of
bears his name is in the catalogue of apocryphal this epistle is to comfort the nine tribes and a half
books condemned by Pope Gelasius (Fabricius, who were beyond the river' Euphrates, by assuring
Cod. Apoc. i. 137; Mosheim, Commentaries on the them that the sufferings which they have to endure
Affairs of the Christians, etc., translated by Vidal, in their captivity, and which are far less than they
vol. ii. pp. 6, 7; Tillemont, Me'moires, etc., i. 960, deserve, are but for a season, and are intended to
1160; Neander, Allgemeine Geschichte, i. II3, atone for their sins, and that God, whose love toE. T. i. 112; Cave, Lives of the Apostles, Oxford, wards Israel is unchangeable, will speedily deliver
1840, pp. 387-392).-J. E. R.                  them from their troubles, and requite their oppressors. They are, therefore, not to be distracted
BARTIMIEUS (Baprta?,os, i. e. ~1     3, son  by the prosperity of their wicked enemies, which is
of 7im'ai), the blind beggar of Jericho whom   but momentary, but to observe the law of Moses,
Christ restored to sight (Mark x. 46).         and look forward to the day of judgment, when all
that is now perplexing will be rectified.
BARTOLOCCI, JULIO, an Italian scholar,        2. The Method or Plan of the Epistle.-The
born at Celano in 1613, and died Ist Nov. I687. method which the writer adopted to carry out the
He was a monk of the order of St. Bernard, and  design of this epistle will best be seen from a brief
professor of Hebrew at the college Della Sapienza analysis of its contents. Being convinced of the
at Rome. He devoted himself to Jewish literature. unchangeable love of God towards his people (chap.
His Bibliotheca Magna Rabbinica, 4 vols. fol., i. 2l, and of the close attachment subsisting between
Rom. 1675-1693, of which the last was published  all the tribes (3), Baruch feels constrained to write
after his death by one of his pupils, Imbonat, is this epistle before he dies (4), to comfort his capa storehouse of information in that department, tive brethren under their sufferings (5), which are
far less than they deserve (6), and are designed to
* We have thus the highest evidence of the atone for (7, 8), as well as to wean them from,
falsehood in one instance (and the apostle Johp is their sins (9), so that God might gather them
another), of the assertion of the pseudo-Barnabas together again. Baruch then informs them, first'that Jesus selected for his apostles men laden  of all, that Zion has been delivered to Nebuchadwith the greatest sins (iVrap 7raaav AduapTrav dvoico- nezzar because of the sins of the children of Israel
Trpovs), in order to shew that he came not to call (II, 12). That the enemy, however, might not
the righteous, but sinners to repentance' (Ep. boast that he had destroyed the sanctuary of the
Barnab. ch.- v. Hefele's Das Sendschreiben, etc.  Most High by the strength of his own arm, God
p. I60).                                       sent angels from heaven to destroy the forts and




BARUCH                    308                 BARUCII
walls, and also to hide some of the vessels of the Authentic Records, part i., page 25, London, 1727),
temple (13-16); whereupon the enemy carried the this epistle has been and still is regarded by all
Jews as captives to Babylon, and left only few in scholars as pseudepigraphic, and we question
Zion (I7), this being the burden of the epistle (I8, whether a critic could be found in the present day
19). But they are to be comforted (20), for whilst bold enough to defend its Baruchic authorship.
he was mourning over Zion, and praying for mercy All that we can gather from the document itself
(21, 22), the Lord revealed words of consolation to is-I. That it was written by a yew, as is evident,
Baruch, that he might comfort his brethren, which A, from the Hagadic story, mentioned in i. I3-I5
is the cause of his writing this epistle (23, 24), viz., about the destruction of the walls and forts by the
that the Most High will punish their enemies, and angels, and the hiding of the holy vessels (comp.
that the day of judgment is nigh (25, 26). The also 2 Macc. ii. 1-4); B, from the solemn admonigreat prosperity of the world (27), its splendid tion strictly to adhere to the law of Moses; c, from
government (28), great strength (29) and glory (30), the charge that this epistle be transmitted by the
luxurious life (31), barbarous cruelty (32), and glo- Jews to their posterity, together with the law of
rious dominion (33), which the Gentiles now enjoy, Moses, and be read in their assemblies at their
notwithstanding their wickedness, will speedily fasts. And 2, that it was written most probably
vanish, for the day of judgment is at hand (34), about the middle of the second century B.c., as apwhen every thought and deed will be examined pears from the admonition to be patient under the
and made manifest (35, 36).  The captive Jews sufferings from the Gentiles, and to wait for the day
are, therefore, not to envy any of the present ofjudgment which is close at hand (i. 37-41), and the
things, but patiently to look forward to the pro- frequent reference to a future life. The canonicity
mises of the latter days (37, 38), the fulfilment of of this epistle has not been defended even by the
which is rapidly approaching, and for which they  Romish Church, and yet strange to say, Whiston
are to prepare themselves, lest, by neglecting this, maintains that it is canonical. But in this, as in
they might lose both this world and the world to the authorship of it, Mr. Whiston, as far as we
come (39-4I). All that now happens tends to this know, has not been followed by any one.
truth (chap. ii. I-7).  This Baruch sets forth to  5. The Literature on this Epistle.-We have
lead his brethren to virtue (8), and to warn them  already remarked that this epistle has only been
of God's judgment before he dies (9), that they may preserved to us in Syriac, which is printed in the
give heed to the words of Moses, who, in Deut. Paris and London Polyglots, and in Latin in J. A.
iv. 26; xxx. 19; xxxi. 28; xxviii., foretold what Fabricii Cod. Pseudepigr. V. T., ii. p. 147, etc. Yet
would befall them for leaving the law (9-12). strange to say, though numerous expositors, both
Baruch also assures them that after they have ancient and modern, have commented upon all the
suffered, and become obedient, they shall receive other apocryphal books, this interesting relic has
the reward laid up for them  (13, I4), charges been almost totally neglected. Ewald (Geschichte
them to regard this epistle as a testimony between  des Volkes Israel, iv., p. 233), and Fritzsche (Exegehim and his brethren that they may be mindful tisches Handbuch zu den Apokryphen, i. p. 175),
of the law, the holy land, their brethren, the cove- contemptuously dismiss it in a few lines, and most
nant of their forefathers, the solemn feasts and unjustly regard it as written'in a prolix and senseSabbaths (15, 16), to transmit it, together with the less style' by a monk.  Whiston, as far as we
law, to their children (I7), and to be instant in know, is the only one who has, though faultily,
prayer to God that He may pardon their sins, and translated it into English (Collection of Authentic
impute unto them the righteousness of their fore- Records, part i., p. 13, etc.; London, 1727). It is
fathers (18, 19), for'unless God judges us accord- high time that this relic of antiquity should have
ing to the multitude of his mercies, woe to us all due attention paid to it, especially as the beautiful
who are born' (20). He moreover assures them  edition of the Apocrypha, in Syriac, just published
that notwithstanding the fact that they have now  (Libii Veteris Testamenti Apocryphi Syriace, Reno prophets and holy men in Zion to pray for them, cogn., Paul. Anton. de Lagarde, Lond., I86I), has
as in former days, yet if they rightly dispose their made it accessible to all scholars.
hearts, they will obtain incorruptible treasures for
their corruptible losses (21-27), and admonishes   BARUCH, THE SECOND BOOK OR EPISTLE
them constantly to remember these things, and pre-OF.  This is the document generally known as the
pare themselves, whilst in possession of this short apocryphal Book of Baruch; but, as will be seen
life, for the life that is to come (28-35), when front the foregoing, it is only one of the two prolrepentance will be impossible, as the judgment ductions which tradition has transmitted to us as
pronounced upon every one will be final (36-39);the work of Jeremiah's friend.
and to read the epistle on the solemn fast (40, 4I).  I. Tite- This production is called in the Sep
3. The Unity of the Epistle.-The foregoing tuagint b to, which, like the Hebrew,.
analysis will shew that every part of this epistle (2 Sam. xi. 14; 2 Kings x. 6), is here best taken
contributes to the development of the main design to denote epistle, a sense which this expression not
of the writer, thus demonstrating the unity of the unfrequently has, both in the Septuagint and in the
whole. This is moreover corroborated by the uni-o Y                         S
formity of diction which prevails throughout this New Testament, and which the Syriac 1
document. It must, however, be admitted thatr
hypercriticism may find some ground for scepticism  rightly gives. This is most compatible with the
in the latter part of it, viz., ii. 21-41. But even if form of this document, as well as with the existit could be shewn that this is a later addition, it ence and nature of, the foregoing one. We call
would not interfere with the design of the whole.  this epistle the second, and the other thefirst, ac4. The Author, Date, and Canonicity of the cording to the Syriac, which describes them as
Epistle.-With the solitary exception of the learned such.
and eccentric William Whiston (A Collection of  2. The Design of this Epistle.-The design of




BARUCH                     309                  BARUCH
this epistle is to exhort the Jews suffering in Pales- the Epistle. -That Baruch, the companion of Jeretine under the oppression of their conquerors, to  miah, is the personated and not the real author of
submit patiently to the chastisement they drew upon  this epistle is evident from its historical inaccuracies
themselves, because of their departure from the and contradictions, of which neither Baruch, nor
living God, to remind them that in the midst of any one else contemporary with the circumstances
their afflictions they still have the divine teachings therein described, would have been guilty, as will
of wisdom revealed unto them in the law of God, be. seen from  the following instances:-I. The
which no other nation upon this earth ever had, epistle is dated the fifth year after the destruction
and to assure them that if they obey the command- of Jerusalem, whereas Baruch wasat that time in
ments, and return to God in repentance and prayer, Egypt with Jeremiah (Jer. xliii. 3, 6, etc.) 2. Jerthe Lord will have mercy upon them, and make usalem is said to have been burnt with fire in the
Jerusalem  and its inhabitants the praise of the reign of Jeconiah (2, 3), whereas it was only capwhole earth.                                   tured. 3. Jeconiah is described as present in the
3. The Plan and Contents of this Epistle.-This great assembly, before which Baruch read this
document consists of two parts; the first extending  epistle (3), whereas he was in prison till the beginfrom chap. i. I to iii. 8; the second from iii. 9 to  ning of Evil-Merodach's reign (2 Kings xxv. 27).
v. 9. The former of these is the introduction to  4. Joahim is mentioned as high-priest at Jerusalem
what is properly the epistle.  In the second part (i. 7), whereas Jehozadak filled this office in the
the writer admonishes the Jews to listen to wisdom; fifth year after the  destruction of Jerusalem
tells them that their contempt of her, who alone is (i Chron. vi. I5). 5. In chap. i. 2, Jerusalem is
the fountain of life and happiness, is the cause of described as burnt with fire, whereas in i. 10-14,
all their miseries, and exhorts and encourages them  the temple service is represented as still in exto lay hold of her, since their sufferings are not in- istence. 6. Israel is addressed in iii. IO, as'waxen
tended to destroy them, but have come upon them  old in a strange country,' whereas according to i.
because they have forsaken their Creator and wor- 2, it is only the fifth year of their captivity. 7.
shipped idols (iii. 9 to iv. 8). Jerusalem is here- The writer uses the Septuagint translation of Jereupon introduced as a widow bereft of her children, miah, which was made several centuries after
and clothed in sackcloth, mourning to all the -cities Baruch (comp. i. 9 with Jer. xxiv. I; ii. 4 with
around her, over her afflictions, recounting her Jer. xl. 11 (Sept. xlix.), 18; ii. 23 with Jer. xxxiii.
warnings to her disobedient children, and describ- (xl.) IO, II; ii. 25 with Jer. xxxvi. (xliii.) 30). 8.
ing their cruel treatment from the Gentiles (9-20). He moreover uses portions of the Old Testament
She then comforts her children, assuring them that which were written after Baruch (comp. i. I5-17,
He who scattered them will soon gather them, with Dan. ix. 7-1o; Neh. ix. 32; ii. I, 2, with
and that all the cities round about her which have Dan. ix. I2 13; ii. 7-19, with Dan. ix. 13-18,
seen their humiliation shall witness their glory (21- Neh. ix. Io).  The fact that the writer used the
27); exhorts them therefore to suffer patiently, and  Septuagint translation of Jeremiah and Daniel,
to pray to God for mercy, who will receive them  shews that this epistle is of a late date, and was
when they return to him, just as He rejected them  most probably written, as Keil remarks, about the
when they left him (28, 29). Afflicted Jerusalem  middle of the second century, B. c. The opinion
is then seconded in her bright hopes by an address that the original language of this epistle was Hebrew
from God himself, who is introduced as speaking  (Huet, Calmet, Movers, Hitzig, de Wette, Herzto her, assuring her that He will comfort her, and  feld, Ewald, etc.), or that only the first part (i.-iii.
afflict all those who bereft her of her children (30- 8) was written in Hebrew (Fritzsche, Riitschi,
32). Babylon, which rejoiced in her ruin, shall her- Davidson, etc.) is regarded by Grotius, Eichhorn,
self mourn over her own destruction (33-35). En- Berthold, Havernick, and Keil, as having very little
couraged by this comforting assurance on the part to sustain it, and is contradicted by St. Jerome
of God, Baruch calls upon Jerusalem in words of (Praf. in Vers. rer., Praef. in Expos. 7er.), and Epitriumphant joy to look around her, and see already  phanius (De mens. etpond., c. 5). The Hebraisms
her scattered children flocking to her from all the  simply prove that it was written by a Greek speakfour comers of the earth (36, 37); bids her change ing Hebrew, whilst the so-called Greek mis-transher sable weeds for festive garments (v. I, 2); and  lations from the Hebrew are more apparent than
depicts to her in glowing terms, worthy of an  real, and have been ably refuted by Keil (EinleiIsaiah, the restoration of her children, and their tung, p. 729).
future never-ending glory (3-9).  For the sixth   6. The Canonicity of this Epistle.-This epistle
chapter, which contains the epistle of Jeremiah, we is neither quoted in the New Testament nor by the
must refer to JEREMIAH, ADDITIONS TO.          apostolic Fathers; it is not given in the Jewish
4. The Unity of this Epistle.-That this epistle catalogues of their canon (Baba Bathra, 15);
forms one whole is evident from the gradual but nor is it mentioned by the Fathers who reproduce
steady development of its plan, which is manifest these catalogues (e. g., Melito, Gregory Nazianzen,
throughout, and will hardly be questioned when  Epiphanius, etc.) It does not exist in Hebrew,
we consider the beautiful adjustments of its con- and was regarded as uncanonical by those Fathers
stituent parts, as shewn in the foregoing analysis who were best acquainted with the Hebrews and
of its contents. The greater flow of language, and  their sacred literature.  Thus St. Jerome remarks,
the more graphic description, in the second part,'Libellum Baruch, qui vulgo editioni Septuaginta
are owing to its more inspiring theme, as well as copulatur, nec habetur apud Hebraeos; et pevoeto the fact that the writer therein reaches his climax, 7rlypacov epistolam Jeremiae nequaquam censui disand are fully balanced by the pathetic prayer of serendam' (Prof. in expos. 7er., comp. also Pref.
the first part. The diction of every portion is in in Vers. yer.), and Epiphanius (De mens. et pond.
harmony with its subject, and shews both the skill c. 5), o5 Kevrac Tra-roXal (BapohX) Irap''Eppaois.
and the good taste of the author.              It is true that it was quoted by many Fathers, both
5. The Author, Date, and. Ogriinal Language of in the east and in the west, since the time of Ire



BARZEL                     310                BARZILLAI
nseus, as sacred and scripture, but they used these to in Job xxviii. 2. It would seem that in ancient
terms in a general sense, as John Driedo, one of times it was a plentiful production of Palestine
the chief Roman Catholic writers, who also dis- (Deut. viii. 9). There appear to have been furputes the canonicity of this epistle, remarks:-  naces for smelting at an early period in Egypt' Cyprianus, Ambrosius, ceterique patres citant (Deut. iv. 20).  The requirement that the altar
sententias ex libro Barqch, et 3 et 4 Esrae, non  should be made of'whole stones over which no
tanquam ex canonicis libris, sed tanquam ex libris man hath lift up any iron,' recorded in Josh. viii.
continentibus qusedam pia, juvantia et non con- 31, does not imply any objection to iron as such,
traria sed consona potius fidei nostrse' (De Cat. but seems to be merely a mode of directing that,
Script. lib. I. c. 4 ad Dizfcult, II. Opp. Lovan  in order to prevent idolatry, the stones must not
1550, t. i., p. 22). So also Melchior Canus,'Nam  undergo any preparation by art. Iron was preut in secundo libro docuimus, libellum Baruch non  pared in abundance by David for the building of
adeo explorate et firmiter in sacrorum  numero  the temple (I Chron. xxii. 3), to the amount of
ecclesia reposuit, ut aut illum esse sacrum  fidei one hundred thousand talents (I Chron. xxix. 7),
catholice veritas expedita sit, aut non esse sacrum  or rather'without weight' (I Chron. xxii. I4).
haeresis expedita sit' (Opp. Colon., I605, p. 588; Working in iron was considered a calling (2 Chron.
see also Whitaker's Disputation on Scripture, p. 67, ii. 7). [SMITH.] Iron seems to have been better
etc., Parker Society edition).                 from some countries, or to have undergone some
7. Literature on the Epistle.-Amald, A Critical hardening preparation by the inhabitants of them,
Covmmentary upon the Apocryphal Books; Herzfeld, such as were the people called Chalybes, living
Gesch. des Volkes Israelvon der Zerstiirng des ersten  near the Euxine Sea (Jer. xv. 12); to have been
Temzpels, etc., I847, pp. 317-19; Ewald, Gesch. des imported from Tarshish to Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 12),
Volees Israel, iv. pp. 230-233; De Wette, Einleit- and'bright iron' from Dan and Javan (ver. 19).
ung in die Bibel, 1852, p. 424, etc.; Davidson, The superior hardness of iron above all other subThe Text of the Old Testament Considered, etc., stances is alluded to in Dan. ii. 40. It was found
p. 103, etc.; Kurzgefasstes Exegetisches Handbuch  among the Midianites (Num. xxxi. 22), and was
zu den Apocryphen des A. T, i., p. 167, etc.; Keil, part of the wealth distributed among the tribes at
Einleitung, etc., 1859, p. 725, etc.-C. D. G.  their location in the land (Josh. xxii.. 8).
7TBARZEL /(; Se pt. o pos; Vulg. ferrum,               hoIron is metaphorically alluded to in the following
BARZEL (  S.  p; Vg. fu          instances:-affliction is signified by the furnace for
except where it gives an explanatory translation, smelting it (Deut. iv. 20); under the same figure,
as'falcatos currus' (Judg. iv. 3), though it some- chastisement (Ezek. xxii. I8, 20, 22); reducing
times gives the literal translation of the same term, the earth to total barrenness by turning it into iron
as'ferreos currus' (Josh. xvii. 18)). In the A. V. (Deut. xxviii. 23); slavery, by a yoke of iron
it is always translated Iron. The use of the Greek  (Deut. xxviii. 48); strength, by a bar of it (Job
and Latin words, in classical authors of every age, xl. 18); the extreme of hardness (Job xli. 27);
fixes their meaning.  That o-iovpos means iron, in severity of government, by a rod of iron (Ps. ii. 9);
Homer, is plain from his simile derived from the affliction, by iron fetters (Ps. cvii. io); prosperity,
quenching of iron in water, which he applies to the  by giving iron for stones (Is. Ix. I7); political
hissing noise produced in piercing the eye of Poly- strength (Dan. ii. 33); obstinacy, by an iron sinew
phemus with the pointed stake (Odys. ix. 39I). in the neck (Is. xlviii. 4); giving supernatural fortiMuch stress has been laid upon the absence of iron  tude to a prophet, making him an iron pillar (Jer.
among the most ancient remains of Egypt; but i. 18); destructive power of empires, by iron teeth
the speedy decomposition of this metal, especially (Dan. vii. 7); deterioration of character, by bewhen buried in the nitrous soil of Egypt, may  coming iron (Jer. vi. 28; Ezek. xxii. I8), which
account for the absence of it among the remains of resembles the idea of the iron age; a tiresome
the early monarchs of a Pharaonic age (Wilkinson's burden, by a mass of iron (Ecclus. xxii. 15); the
Ancient Egypt., iii. 246). Tubal-Cain is the first- greatest obstacles, by walls of iron (2 Macc. xi. 9);
mentioned smith,'a forger of every instrument of the certainty with which a real enemy will ever
iron' (Gen. iv. 22). From that time we meet with  shew his hatred, by the rust returning upon iron
manufactures in iron of the utmost variety (some (Ecclus. xii. o1). Iron seems used, as by the Greek
articles of which seem to be anticipations of what poets, metonymically for the sword (Is. x. 34), and
are commonly supposed to be modem inventions); so the Sept. understands it, ucdXatpa. The followas iron weapons or instruments (Num. xxxv. 16; ing is selected as a beautiful comparison made to
Job xx. 24); barbed irons, used in huntin (Job  iron (Prov. xxvii. I7),'Iron (literally) uniteth iron;
xli. 7); an iron bedstead (Deut. iii. II); chariots so a man uniteth the countenance of his friend,'
of iron (Josh. xvii. 16, and elsewhere); iron weights gives stability to his appearance by his presence.
(shekels) (I Sam. xvii, 7); harrows of iron (2 Sam. A most graphic description of a smith at work is
xii. 31); iron armour (2 Sam. xxiii. 7); tools (I found in Ecclus. xxxviii. 28.-J. F. D.
Kings vi. 7; 2 Kings vi. 5); horns (I Kings xxii.
II); nails, hinges (I Chron. xxii. 3); fetters (Ps.  BARZILLAI (      Sept. BepXX), awealthy
cv. i8); bars (Ps. cvii. 16); iron bars used in forti- old Gileadite of Rogelim, who distinguished himfying the gates of towns (Ps. cvii. I6; Is. xlv. 2); self by his loyalty when David fled beyond the
a pen of iron (Job xix. 24; Jer. xvii. i); a pillar Jordan from his son Absalom. He sent in a liberal
(Jer. i. 18); yokes (Jer. xxviii. 13); pan (Ezek. supply of provisions, beds, and other conveniences
iv. 3); trees bound with iron (Dan. iv. 15); gods for the use of the king's followers (2 Sam. xvii. 27;
of iron (Dan. v. 4); threshing-instruments (Amos xix. 32). On the king's triumphant return, Bari. 3); and in later times, an iron gate (Acts xii. zillai attended him as far as the Jordan, but deIO); the actual cautery (I Tim. iv. 2); breastplates  clined, by reason of his advanced age, to proceed
(Rev. ix. 9).                                  to Jerusalem and receive the favours to which he
The mineral origin of iron seems clearly alluded  had entitled himself.-J. K. [Two others of this




BASAM                     311                 BASAM
name are mentioned in the 0. T., viz., Barzillai historian (xxxvi. 3) says,'Opes genti Judaicae, ex
the Meholathite (2 Sam. xxi. 8), and a priest who vectigalibus opobalsami crevere, quod in his tanmarried one of the daughters of Barzillai the Gilead- tur regionibus gignitur. Est namque vallis, etc.,
ite, and was called by their name (Ez. ii. 6I; nomine Hierichus dicitur.'In ea valle sylva est,
Neh. vii. 63)].                               et ubertate, et amcenitate arborum insignis; siquidem palmeto et opobalsamo distinguitur.'  So
BASAM    (OW') or BOSEM (DWP), the balsam- Strabo and Diodorus Siculus. Dioscorides states
tree. The name balsam is no doubt derived from the at t is found in one vall  of Jdea, and also in,Arabic L, aen, which is pr      y ao te    Egypt. At a much earlier period Theophrastus
Arabic wa balesan, which is probably also the was aware of the fact that the balsamum tree was
origin of the ^pXo-rascov of the Greeks. Forskal in- found in a valley of Syria, and that it was cultivated
forms us that the balsam-tree of Mecca is there called only in two gardens, one of twenty acres, the other
much smaller, as is also stated by Pliny. Josephus
Aboosham,i.e. perodora. The word  j basham, informs us' that the balsam is produced only in
~  ~r.   the plains of Jericho. Abdollatif (' Memorabilia of
given by him, is the name of a fragrant shrub grow- Egypt,' as quoted by Rosenmuller) says that he
ing near Mecca, with the branches and tufts of which has read in Galenus that the best balsam is prothey clean the teeth, and is supposed to refer to  duced in Palestine: but now (in Abdollatiff's age)
the same plant. These names are very similar to  he says, that no more balsam is found in that'
words which occur in the Hebrew text of several country; also that he knew of it only as'carefully
passages of Scripture, as in the Song of Solomon, reared at Ain;Shames in Egypt, in an enclosed
v. I,'I have gathered my myrrh with my spice' piece of ground.' Prosper Alpinus informs us that
(basam); ver. 13,'His cheeks are as a bed of Messoner, a eunuchi governor of Cairo in 1519,
spices' (basam); and in vi. 2,'gone down into his caused to be brought from Arabia forty plants,
garden to the beds of spices' (basam). The same which he placed in the garden of Matareah. Belon,
word is used in Exod. xxxv. 28, and in I Kings x. in the early part of the sixteenth century, saw the
10,'There came no more such great abundance of shrubs in the balsam gardens of Matareah, a village
spices (basam) as those which the Queen of Sheba near Cairo, and his description of them agrees very
gave to King Solomon.'   In all these passages well with that given by Abdollatiff. Hence it would
basam or bosem  W3' and 13"i, though translated  appear from ancient authors that the plant yielding
V,  -  T..*    balsam was never very common in Palestine —in'spices,' would seem to indicate the'balsam-tree,' balsam was never very common in Palestine-in'spices,' would seem to indicate the Ibalsam-tree, fact, that it was confined to one locality, where it
if we may infer identity of plant or substance from  was found ony as aconfined t cultivation, though it
similarity in the Hebrew and Arabic names. But was found only as a plant in cultivation, though it
similarity in the Hebrew and Arabic names. But  y have been, and probably was, introduced at a,he word may*indicate only a   fragrant aromatic may have been, and probably was, introduced at a
the word may indicate only a fragrant aromatic    early period. That it has long disappeared
s ein general. The passages in theSong very early period. That it has long disappeared
substance in general  he passages in the Song from thence is evident from the authors we have
of Solomon may with propriety be understood as just quoted, as well as from the testimony of all
referring to a plant cultivated in Judaea, but not to travellers in Palestine.  That it was a southern
spices in the general sense of that term. Queen  plant we  ay believe from its being cultivated in
Sheba might'have brought balsam or balsam-trees, the warm southern valley of Jericho, and that it
as well as spices, forboth are the produce of south- was introduced into that locality we have the testiern latitudes, though far removed from each other. mony of Josephus (Anti. viii. 6), who says that
~ t,ft \~ ^it was brought thither by Queen Sheba. Strabo,
moreover, states that myrrhj frankincense, and the
balsam-tree, were produced in the country of the
Sabaeans.
The balsam-tree, or balm of Gilead tree, as it
~"I^  9  2 ^%^is also very generally called, is not a native of
that region, nor indeed does it appear ever to
have been cultivated there. The true balsam, we
have seen, was cultivated near Jericho, and at
a later age in Egypt. From that country it has
been traced to Arabia. Thus Gerlach, as quoted
-0)  Ir ^^fc^'by Bergius, relates that the tree which produces
the balsam of Mecca grows near Bederhunin, a
village between Mecca and Medina, in a sandy
rocky soil, confined to a small tract, about a
mile in length.  Strabo, we have found, was
Taware that the balsam-tree grows on the coast
near Saba, in the happy land of the Sabaeans.
Bruce identifies this spot with that part of the
African coast near the straits of Babelmandel,
which now bears the name of Azab; and he
124.                     further states, that among the myrrh-trees behind
The balsam-tree was one of the most celebrated  Azab all along the coast to the straits of Babeland highly esteemed among the ancients. Pliny  mandel is the' native country of the balsam-tree.
(Hist. Nat. xii. 25) says,' Sed omnibus odoribus It grows to above fourteen feet high, spontaneously
praefertur balsamum, uni terrarum  Judseae con- and without culture, like the myrrh, the coffee,
cessum. Ostendere arbusculam hanc urbi impera- and frankincense tree, all equally the wood of the
tores Vespasiani.' Pompey the Great also boasted  country, and occasionally cut down and used for
of having had it borne in triumph.  Justin the fuel.  It was no doubt early transplanted into




BASAM                    312                 BASHAN
Arabia, that is, into the southern part of Arabia the beginning of September. It is then received
Felix, immediately fronting Azab: the high country into a small earthen bottle, and every day's produce
of Arabia was too cold for it, being all mountain- is poured into a larger, which is kept closely corked.
ous, and water freezing there. The first plantation  The whole quantity collected is but small.
that succeeded seems to have been at Petra, the  From these considerations we conclude that the
ancient metropolis of Arabia, now called Beder, probability is, that the balsam would be noticed in
or Beder Hunein.   Bruce has, moreover, given some part of the Old Testament, as we find it is, in
two figures of the balsam-tree, —one of the whole the above passages of the Canticles, Exodus, and
tree, the other of a single branch, with the dissec- Kings.-J. F. R.
tion of the fruit. These, he says, may be depended  BASCA, or BASCAMA, a town near Bethon, as being carefully drawn, after an exact exami- shan, where Jonathan Maccabeus was killed
nation, from two very fine trees brought from Beder (I Macc. xiii. 23)Hunein. Salt also found it. on the west coast of
the Red Sea, and Mr. Brown, having examined     BA'SHAH (W:N, from ti, to be worthless
or corrupt, to stink), the  name of a plant or weed
his specimen, is sufficient evidence of its authen- or corrupt, to stink), the name of a plant or weed
ticity.. of a worthless or noxious kind (Job xxxi. 40).
The balsam-tree, having been seen by Bruce and  From the connection in which it is introduced, it
Salt, and figured by the former as well as by Nees  probable that some particular and well-known
Von Esenbeek, and introduced into India, has been is probable that some particular and well-known
von Esenbeek, and introduced into India, has been herb is intended. The LXX. render it by fdros,
described by the first and by Wight and Arnott, brabl; the Vulg. has sLina, trorn; and so the
and is now pretty well known. It forms a middle- br; te Vg. and Ar. versions. Fuerst proTarg. and Syr. and Ar. versions. Fuerst prosized tree, with' spreading branches and a smooth  ounces it a useless, noxious, and spinose herb of
ash-coloured bark, but which is no doubt rough in the cockle or darnel species. Celsius (Hierobot.
the older parts, as represented by Bruce.  The
ultimate branches are short, and thorn-like, with ii. 201) makes it a poisonous plant, the { j
small very short abortive branchlets, bearing at   the Arabic writers, a species of aconite. Lee
their extremities the leaves and flowers. The fruit of he Arabc w, a    s th  e probable sno
(Lex. s. v.) suggests hemlock as the probable synois pointed, fleshy, with a viscid pulp; nut 4-angled;  e.  Zunz gives lolch, and Renan (Lire de 7ob
— 2-celled, containing one perfect seed.      inymc.) ivie-W.L.A.
This species is now considered to be identical
with the Amyris opobalsamum of Forskal, found   BASHAN,      li and TBa; Samaritan Vers.
by him in Arabia, in the neighbourhood of the         arg.             5, a lso; the
caravanserai of Oude, not far from Has, where it, also; t.,-1I  -   - caled ~ril  bosha.r  -elatter Buxtorf suggests may have originated in the
is called,L.,1 aboosham, i. a., perodora; and mistake of a transcriber, yet both are found in
Targ. Jon.; Deut. xxxiii. 22; v. Lex. Talm. col.
the wounded bark of which yields opobalsamum, 370; Sept. aDeut xxxiia 22B v; Josephus and
or balsam of Mecca. It is as highly esteemed by 370; Eusebius,  Baradv and  Bottea   is the modus and
all Orientals in the present day as it was by the name.  he word probaby denotes the peuliar
civilized nations of antiquity.  Another species, name. The word probably denotes the peculiar
ivilizoed bations of  andti   cauedi.  the r species, fertility of the soil: in the ancient versions, instead
dovered by Forka, and called b him Amyris of using it as a proper name, a word meaning
Kifal, from its Arabic'name, Ji, is now also fruitful or fat is adopted. Thus in Ps. xxii. 13,
for Bashan, we find in Sept. 7rtoves.; Aquila,
referred to the genus Balsamodendron.  It is a Xtrapo; Symmachus, Tton-roL; and Vulg. Pinguis
tree with reddish-coloured wood, and with branches (Ps. lxvii. i6) (lxviii. 5) for hill of Bashan; Sept.
rather spinous. The younger leaflets are described  6pos 7ro v; Jerome (v. Bochart, Hierozoicon, pars
as being villous and acute, the old ones smooth, i. col. 53 ), mns ping uis.  The sacred writers
often obtuse; the berry compressed, with an ele- include in Bashan that part of the country eastward
vated ridge on each side, the apex forming a black  of the Jordan which was given to half the tribe of
prominent point. The wood he describes as form- Manasseh, situated to the north of Gilead. Bochart
ing an article of considerable commerce, especially incorrectly places it between the rivers Jabbok and
to Egypt, where water-vessels are impregnated with  Arnon; and speaks of it as the allotment of the
its smoke. It is probably the twigs of this species tribes of Reuben and Gad (Num. xxxii. 33). The
which are taken to India, and there sold under the first notice of this country is in Gen. xiv. 5. Chename of aod-i balessan; that is, the wood of the dorlaomer and his confederates'smote the Rebalsam-tree, and therefore analogous to the xylo- phaims in Ashtaroth Karnaim.' Now Og, king
balsamum of the ancients. Carpobalsamum was of Bashan, dwelt in Ashtaroth, and'was of the
probably only the fruit of one of these species. remnant of the Rephaim' ('giants' Auth. Vers.),
Opobalsamum, or juice of the balsam, is generally Joshua xii. 4. When the Israelites invaded the
described as the finest kind, of a greenish colour, Promised Land, Argob, a province of Bashan,
and found in the kernel of the fruit. Carpobalsa- contained'sixty fenced cities, with walls and gates
mum is said to have been made by the expression  and brazen bars, besides unwalled towns a great
of the fruit when in maturity, and xylobalsamum, many' (Deut. iii. 4, 5; I Kings iv. I3). These
by the expression or decoction of the small new  were all taken by the Israelites, and Og and his
twigs, which are of a reddish colour.  But the people utterly destroyed. Golan, one of the cities
ancients probably employed both the fruit and the of refuge, was situated in this country (Deut.
wood for macerating in oil, which would extract the iv. 43; Josh. xx. 8; xxi. 27). ravXavav bd r
odour. The greatest quantity of balsam, and the Baravetd& (Joseph. Antiq. iv. 7. sec. 4). Solomon
best in quality, must in all times have been pro- appointed twelve officers to furnish the monthly
duced by an incision into the bark when the juice supplies for the royal household, and allotted the
is in its strongest circulation, in July, August, and  region of Argob to the son of Geber (I Kings iv.




BASHEMATLI                   313                  BASIN
13). Towards the close of Jehu's reign, Hazael in- them thus: Adah or Bashemath; Aholibamah or
vaded the land of Israel, and smote the whole eastern Judith; and Mahalath. 2. A daughter of Soloterritory,'even Gilead and Bashan' (2 Kings x. mon, and wife of Ahimaaz, one of that king's
33; Joseph. Anliq. ix. 8. sec. I); but after his officers (I Kings iv. 15).-W. L. A.
death the cities he had taken were recovered by                H       JAK     rn 
Jehoash (Joash) (2 Kings xiii. 25), who defeated  BASHUYSEN, HEIN. JAK,     German Or6enthe Syrians in three battles, as Elisha had predictedtast was bo  at Hanau, 26th  t. 679, and
(2 Kings xiii. i9; Joseph. Antiq. ix. 8. sec. 7). died3IstDec. I738. Hewasprofessoroftheology
After the captivity the name Batanea was applied and Oriental languages, and rector of the Gymnato only a part of the ancient Bashan; the rest being um at Herlat  He established a printing press 
called Trachonitis, Auranitis, and Gaulanitis (v. his own house, for the purpose of issuing under his
Lightfoot's Chorograp/hical Notes upon the places own immediate superintendence, the best Rabbinical
mentioned in St. Luke: Works, vol. x. p. 282). Commentaries on the Scriptures. From this issued
All these provinces were granted by Augustus to Abarbanelis Comment. in Pentateuchum cum audit
Herod the Great, and on his death Batanaea formed locorum Bibl. et Tamud, Hanau, 1710, fol.; Psala part of Philip's tetrarchy (Joseph. De Bell. yud terium Davidzi cum notis rabbiicis, Han. 1710,
ii. 6. sec. 3; Antiq. xviii. 4. sec. 6). At his de- in I2mo; C(avis Talmudica Maxima, Han. 1714,
cease, A.D. 34, it was annexed, by Tiberius, to the  n 4t (a new edition, with additions by L'Empeprovince of Syria; but in A.D. 37 it was given by reur, appeared in  740 i 4to).  He published
Caligula to Herod Agrippa, the son of Aristobulus, also Commentaria Scrpturaria, Han. 1707; Obwith the title of king (Acts xii.; Joseph. Antiq.servationes Sacra, Frankf. 1768, Herlat, 1714,
xviii. 6. sec. IO). From the time of Agrippas 2. 4to; Systemanti. Hebb. 8vo Han. I7I5.
death, in A. D. 44, to A. D. 53, the government again  W  L A.
reverted to the Romans, but it was then restored ASILA, RAFAEL, a learned Jew, born at Man
by Claudius to Agrippa II. (Acts xxv. I3; Joseph. tua, who flourished in the early part of the last
Antzq. xx. 7. sec. i).                        century. He issued an addition of the Hebrew
The richness of the pasture-land of Bashan, and  iblewith the critical commentary of Sal. Norzi
the consequent superiority of its breed of cattle, are  completed in t626), with additions and annotafrequently alluded to in the Scriptures. We read   (co d in,  ith additins and annta
in Deut. xxxii. 4, of'rams of the breed Hb  tions, 2 vols. 4to, Mantua, I742. At the end is a
in Deut. xxxii. 4, of I'rams of the breed (Heb. list of various readings, 9oo in number, and a critisons) of Bashan;' and in Ezek. xxxix. i8,'Rams, cal estimate of their comparative value. The corlambs, goats, and bullocks, all of them-fatlings of rections of Norzi are introduced into the text. This
Bashan.' The oaks of 13ashan are mentioned in
Bashan.' The oaks of Bashan  ioned  valuable work has been oftener than once reissued.
connection with the cedars of Lebanon (Is. ii. 13; The best edition is that of George Holzinger, in 4 vols
Zech. xi. 2). In Ezekiel's description of the wealth  ien i  he o    entaro     Pente
and magnificence of Tyre it is said,' Of the oaks of 4, Vien.  6. The commentaryonthePentatuch
alone was printed in the great edition of the PenBashan have they made thine oars' (xxvii. 6). The ae wa  ited i Dobe  ret edition of e entateuch. issued at Dobrowne in i 84.-W. L. A.
ancient commentators on Amos iv. I,' the kine of    
Bashan,' Jerome, Theodoret, and Cyril, speak in  BASILIUS, Bishop of Caesarea, surnamed the
the strongest terms of the exuberant fertility of Great, was born at Caesarea in Cappadocia, in 329,
Bashan (Bochart, Hierozoicon, pars i. col. 306), and died 1st Jan. 379. His name stands high
and modern travellers corroborate their assertions among the Fathers of the Church as one of the
(v. Burckhardt's Travels in Syria and the Holy most eloquent, energetic, and spiritual of their
Land, pp. 286-288; Buckingham's Travels in    number.   A  considerable- number of Homilies,
Palestine, through the countries of Bashan and partly on ethical subjects, partly of an expository
Gilead, London, 1822, vol. ii. pp. 112-II7).-  character, from his pen remain to us. The most
J. E. R.                                      important as respects biblical interests of these are
BASHEMATH, or BASEMATH (nf         -i fra- his Hexaemeron, which consists of nine discourses
BrabH  aI-,,      on the History of Creation in Genesis, and his
grant; Sept. BaorexdO), I. one of the wives of Homilies on the Psalms. He avoids carefully, and
Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 3, 4, I3), and the daughter of on principle, the allegorisingmethod of interpreting
Ishmael. In another passage Bashemath, the wife Scripture; and charges those who follow it with
of Esau, is called the daughter of Elon the Hittite seeking'to add reverence to Scripture, from their
(Gen. xxvi. 34), and the same parentage is ascribed own thoughts.'  A  copious, though somewhat
to Adah, also the wife of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 2). rhetorical eloquence pervades these homilies, and
This would seem to lead to the conclusion that one often comes on a rich vein of thought; and
Adah and Bashemath were different names of the striking descriptions both of natural phenomena
same person; but there is a difficulty in the way of and moral relations abound. Some treatises from
this, from Bashemath being mentioned along with his pen are of a dogmatical character, but here, it
Adah in the list of Esau's wives given Gen. xxxvi. must be confessed, he is less felicitous. We owe
2, 3. The Samaritan Vers. avoids this by reading to Basil, in conjunction with Gregory of Nazianz,
Mahalath in place of Bashemath here; and as the collection of extracts from  Origen's works,
Mahalath is elsewhere found as the name of one of entitled Philocalia, which is printed at the end of
Esau's wives, and as the same parentage is there Spencer's edition of that Father's treatise Contra
ascribed to her as here to Bashemath (Gen. xxviii. Celsum, and was first edited from a MS. in the
9), this is probably the correct reading. If we do Royal Library at Paris by Tarinus in I6I8, 4to.
not conclude that Esau had five wives, which is Several editions of Basil's collected works have
improbable, as only three are mentioned in Gen. appeared; the best is that by Garnier, Paris, I721xxxvi. 2, 3, where we have a formal genealogical 30, in 3 vols. fol.-W. L. A.
record, we must regard two of his three wives as
having each a double name.   We would range     BASIN. [BASON.]




BASKET                    314                  BASON
BASKET.     There are several words in the where it obviously denotes baskets in which grapes
Hebrew Scriptures by which different kinds of bas- were deposited as they were gathered. The form
kets appear to be indicated:-                of the baskets used for this purpose is often shewn
I. 8'1  dud, which occurs in 2 Kings x.. 7, on the Egyptian monuments, and is similar to that
where the heads of Ahab's sons are sent from  represented in fig. 4, cut I26.
Samaria to Jezreel in baskets; Jer. xxiv. 2, as  5. In all the other places where the word basket
containing figs; and Ps. lxxxi. 6 (rendered pots); occurs, we are doubtless to understand a basket
where deliverance from the baskets means deliver- made of rushes, similar both in form and material
ance from the bondage of carrying burdens in to those used by carpenters for carrying their tools.
baskets. In fact, very heavy burdens were thus This is still the common kind of basket throughout
Western Asia; and its use in ancient Egypt is
carried in Egypt, as corn in very large baskets Westen b ia  an  its use n ancienh ws ndE pt i
from the field to the threshing-floor, and from the shewn by an actua specimen which was found in a
threshing-floor to the granaries. They were carried tomb at Thebes, and which is now in the British
between two men by a pole resting on theyir Museum. It was, in fact, a carpenter's basket,
shoulders;  which agrees with the previous clause and contained his tools (fig. I).
between two men by-  a pole resting on theirand contained his tools ( fig. i).
shoulden; which agrees with the previous clause  The specimens of  Egyptian baskets in the British
of the cited text,' I removed his shoulder from the The specimens of Egyptian baskets in the British
burden.' This labour and form of the basket are Museum, represented in our cut, convey a favouroften shewn in the Egyptian sculptures.  s    able idea of the basket-work of ancient times.
Some of these are worked ornamentally with
(DeutB'_-~~~. xcolours (figs. 3, 5, cut 126; also the modern exfore appearto haveamples, figs. 2, 7, cut I27). And besides these the
monuments exhibit a large variety of hand-baskets,
of different shapes, and so extensively employed as
to shew the numerous applications of basket-work
in the remote times to which these representations
extend.'They are mostly manufactured, the
pear to ave bestronger and larger sorts of the fibres, and the finer
is\-      <                     tj~~~i |, 1 of the leaves of the palm-tree, and not infrequently
of rushes, but more seldom of reeds.
125.
2. w t   teba, which occurs it connection with c
agricultural objects,'the basket and the store'
(Deut. xxvi. 2, 4; xxviii. 5, 17), and would therefore appear to have been somewhat similar to the
above; and, in fact, the Egyptian sculptures shew
different baskets applied to this use.
3. nj1B kdub.  From the etymology, this appears to have been an interwoven basket, made of 
leaves or rushes. In Jer. v. 27, however, it is used
for a bird-cage, which must have been of open,              127. Modern Oriental.
work, and probably not unlike our own wicker
bird-cages.  The name is also applied to fruit-  In the preceding cut of examples of modern
Oriental baskets, many are of the same form, and
11925,                                    domostly of the same materials, as those found in the
4  6D  oEgyptian tombs or pictured on their walls. We
doubt not that the three engravings taken together
furnish examples of all the different kinds of baskets in use among the Israelites.
BASMATH ('.'), the daughter of Solomon
and wife of Ahimaaz (i Kings iv. 15). The name
is the same as Bashemath.
BASON.    This appears as the rendering in the
A. V. of —I the Heb.  ) (Exod. xii. 22; 2 Sam.
xvii. 28; I Kings vii. 50; Jer. lii. I9), elsewhere
226. Ancient             rendered cul (Zech. xii. 2); 2, nD}  (I Chron.
126. Ancient Egyptian.          xXviii. I7; Ezra i. Io; viii. 27); 3, i3_ (Exod.
xxiv. 6), rendered goblet (Song vii. 3); cups (Is.
baskets (Amos viii. I, 2), Egyptian examples of xxii. 24)* 4,   got (I King  vi. 40 45; 2  Chron.
which are presented in figs. 2 and 4 (which con-' 
tain pomegranates) of the annexed cut.       iv. 8, I; Numb. iv. I4), translated bozel (Num.
vii. 13, I9, 25), and, 5, of the Gr. t'rrvip (John
4. nI13 >, salsilloth, occurs only in Jer. vi. 9, xiii. 5). That all these were hollow vessels, adapted




BASON                    315                  BATE
to receive and contain liquids, is certain, but what in diameter and I inch in depth.  [BOTTLE.]was their general form, and wherein the peculiarity W. L. A.
of each consisted, we have no means of determining. On the Nineveh monuments are sculptures
of vessels resembling a porringer or large modern 
tea-cup, others approaching more to the form of a       S 
saucer, in some cases with a projecting handle, and.  Y
others more of a vase shape. It is probable that
1 3I. Inscribed Basons-Babylonia.
N'  \s/' VBASTARD.          By this word the Auth. Vers.
renders the Hebrew'.to3, which occurs only in
128. Basons from Nineveh Monuments.
Deut. xxiii. 2, and Zech. ix. 6. But Michaelis
(Mos. Recht, ii. sec. I39) reads the word with a
thsome vessels of the Jews webove mentioned such asuch the same, only different punctuation, so as to make it a compound
some of the vessels above mentioned such as theo
bason which held the blood of the sacrifice, and  of two words i t li,  meaning stain, defect of a
the bason used by our Lord when He washed His stranger, implying the stain that would be cast
the bo used by our Lord when He washed Hisupon the nation by gran ting to such a st ranger the
disciples' feet, must have been of a larger size, in  upon the nation by granting to such a stranger the
respect both of depth and of circumference. Of citizen-right. Some understand by it the offspring
the b     asons above mentioned several are expressy  of prostitutes, but they forget that prostitutes were
the basons above mentioned several are expressly expressly forbidden to be tolerated by the law of
described as of metal, silver, gold, and brass; those  esy fridden to   e  toerated  y the  o
for more common use were doubtless of earthen- Moses (Lev. xix. 29; Deut. xxiii. I7). The most
ware orstone. On the tomb of Rameses IV. there probable conjecture is that which applies the term
is a representation of a golden vase which, as it is to the offspring of heathen prostitutes in the
is a r tio n of a  n vase,     s i t is neighbourhood of Palestine; since no provision
was made by Moses against their toleration (Potter,
ArchTrol. i. 354), and who were a sort of priestesses'a~;   -         oEnto the Syrian goddess Astarte (comp. Num. xxv. I,....   "~\;        e   dsq.; Gesenius, Comment. on Isaiah, ii. 339; Hos.
iv. I4; I Kings xiv. 24; xv. I2; xxii. 46; 2 Kings
xxiii. 7; Herodot. i. I99).
That there existed such bastard offspring among
2Q9. Bason of Metal-Nineveh.       the Jews, is proved by the history of Jephthah
(Judg. xi. 1-7), who on this account waslexpelled,
introduced among the trophies of that monarch's and deprived of his patrimony.E. M.
conquest of the Philistines or Canaanites, may pro-  BAT. [ATALLEPH.]
bably supply a specimen of a vessel in use among
the Jews.  In Mr. Layard's Discoveries in the  BATAN   _EA. [BASHAN.]
Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, p. 509 ff, there is
BATE, JULIUS. A clergyman of the Church
go^                         t is nttbeof England; born 171I, died I77I. He was a
devoted follower of Hutchinson, whose works he
edited, and whose system he defended in a multitude of publications.  With some learning and
acumen, and indefatigable powers of labour, he
was at the same time so deficient in judgment and
temper, and held views so whimsical and baseless,
that he produced little impression in his own day,
and is now known only by name. He attacked,
with some success,, Warburton's position'that the
doctrine of a future state of rewards and punishments is not to be found in, nor did make part of,
the Mosaic dispensation;' and he made a futile
f30. Phlllstian Vase-Egypt.       attempt to oppose Dr. Kennicott's critical labours
on the text of the Old Testament. He prepared
a description, with drawings, of a set of vety a Hebrew-English Dictionary, which Parkhurst (a
curious bowls of terra cotta, with inscriptions disciple also of the Hutchinsonian school) frearound the inner margin in the ancient Chaldean  quently refers to with approbation; and he was
language, written in characters previously unknown  engaged, at the time of his death, on a new transin Europe; these were found on the banks of the lation of the Scriptures, the completed part of
Euphrates and in the ruins of ancient Babylonia, which-Genesis to 2 Kings-was published after
and are undoubtedly of Jewish origin. They are his death.' As a translation it greatly fails in
from 41 inches in diameter, and not more than 2. perspicuity, smoothness, and grammatical accuracy;
inches in depth. The writer of this has in his pos- the notes are full of the peculiarities of his system,
session a stone basin of modern workmanship, and discover no correct acquaintance with the prinround the inside of which is an Arabic inscription  ciples of philology or enlightened criticism' (Orme).
in two lines; it is a little more than 3 inches -W. L. A.




BATH                     316               BATH KOL
BATH, BATHING (rm). The numerous cere- use among the Romans, were probably unknown
to the Jews, until they were introduced with other
monial washings required by the Mosaic law, to to the Jews, until they were introduced with other
heathen customs in the time of Antiochus (Joseph.
secure the proper cleanliness of the priests (Lev.              e must ssume tt 
viii. 6; Exod. xxix. 4), and to serve as a purifica- Ani. xX. 7. 5).  e  u  ue tha
tion from the various kinds of Levitical or actual formed part of the aphebeum built by Jason, the
defilement (Lev. xii.-xx), or as a symbolical re- apostate high-priest, at Jerusalem (2 Mac. iv. 9, I3).
presentation of innocence (Deut. xxi. I-9;* Matt. Similar baths were built on a great scale by the
presentation of innocence (Deut. xxi. I-9; Matt.
xxvii. 24), will be found described under ABLU- Herods, at the hot springs of Tiberias, Gadara,
TION. These religious ordinances were, however, and Calirrhoe. The medicinal value of sulphurous
closely connected with the ordinary rules of clean- springs in bathing was known at a very early period,
liness, to which they wisely gave a religious sanc- and the discovery of some, to the. east of the Dead
tion. It was not until a late period of Jewish  Sea, by Anah) one of the Dukes of Edom, is menhistory that the Pharisaical spirit of formalism  ted in Gen. xxxvi. 24 (where  sh  d be
obscured their moral significance by attaching to rendered'ht springs,' not'mules,' as in A. V.)
them that intrinsic value, and insisting on that The promiscuous use of these public baths led the
scrupulous and exaggerated attention to their small- Jews, in some casesj to feel ashamed at the badge
of their national covenant, and to obliterate its
est particulars, which was exposed and discouraged
by our Lord (Mark vii. I-5; Matt. xxiii. 25; Luke effects ( Mac. i. 5; Joseph. Anti. xii. 5. I;
xi. 39, etc.)                                I Cor. vii. I8). The art of swimming was geneThe practice of bathing, which was t hus inu  rally known, but is not often alluded to (Is. xxv.
cated as a civil and religious obligation, is in the  Ezek. xlvii.; Acts xxvii. 42)
East not only important, but necessary as the only  The constant washing of the feet, rendered necessure preventive of cutaneous and other diseases sary by the use of sandals and the nature of the
(Lev. xiv. 8; xv. 5, etc.) Tlhe extreme heat and soil, is mentioned in Gen. xviii. 4; xxiv. 32; xliii.
(Lev. xiv. 8; xv. 5, etc.) The extreme he at and so
consequent perspiration, the arid and burning soil, 24. Like the'pouring water on the hands' (2
the bites of insects, and the abundance of dust Kings ii. I)  it was usuallyperformed by servants
and sand, make bathing a pleasure as well as a or inferiors (I Sam.xxv. 4e I I Tim. v. IO; John
orieri ors (2 Sa.x.  4x 6  im.; a. a o; th n
duty. Accordingly we find traces of the practice Xl" 5, 6).F. W. F.
at all periods of Jewish history. In Egypt the  BATH. [WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.]
bathing in the water of the Nile was universal
(Exod. ii. 5  vii. Is; Herod. ii. 37), and with the  BATH (ntl), the Hebrew word for daughter,
Egyptians, as with the Hindus, it partook of the is often used as the first element in a proper name
character of an act of worship. The obvious ad- in which case what follows stands to it in the relavantage of washing in a running stream, caused the tion of the genitive in the Indo-European lanHebrews to resort to it when practicable (Lev. xv  guages. In this respect its usage is analogous to
I3; 2 Kings v. II); but as the streams of Judea that of Ben (which see).
are few ajd small, often disappearing altogether at
the hottest season of the year (Job vi. 15, 19, etc.),  BATH  KOL (jip n'  daughter of the voice).
their place was supplied, as far as possible, by  Under this name the Talmd, the later Targums
housebaths (2 Sam. xi. 2i Susan. xv.), and by                          d the   Targums
housebaths (2 Sam. xi. 2; Susan. xv.), and by and the Rabbinical writers, make frequent mention
public pools. Women, as in modem times, usually...
aTpuli poolts. Women, s tin modern thimes, usualy of a kind of oracular voice, constituting the fourth
anointed themselves fte r the bath (Ruth iii. 3) wit  grade of revelation, which, although it was an inoil (2 Sam. xiv. 2), or sweet odours (Esth. ii. 2;  strument of ivine communication throughout the
strument of divine communication throughout the
Judith x. 3), and the use of oil for this purpose was early history of the Israelites, was the mt promialso very general among men. [ANOINTING. ] We early history of the  Israelites, was  the  most promialso very general among men. [ANOINTING. ]                         aWe nent, because the sole, prophetic manifestation
are told in    th    e Mischna that women sometimes in  s..     a
used bran as well as water (Pesach. ii. 7, quoted  the second Temple.  The Midrasim  and the
in Herzog Encykl. s. v.) The Arabs to this day  Gemara, cited in Reland's Anti. Sacr. pt. ii. ch.
sometimes use earth for a similar purpose, but it is, severally affirm that the Bath Kol is the voice.. imrbal tha *r    eian rernc 1su        ix., severally affirm that the Bath  Kol   is the voice
most improbable that there is any reference to such which spoke to Abrahm  Moses David Nebua custom in 2 Kings v. I7. (Winer, RealwOrt, s. v.  which spoke to Abraham, Moses, David, NebuBadcustomin. Kingsv.. (Winerea)t,     v., chadnezzar, and others; and the Targums of
a,The pools (,sovt3'pa) of Hezekiah and of Jonathan and of Jerusalem  make the Bath Kol
appear in Gen. xxxviii. 26; Num. xxi. 6; and in
Solomon were probably public baths (Neh. ii 14, other  laces.  The treatise Sanhedrin, cited in. 6; 2 Kings Xx20; Joseph. de Bell   vVitringa's Obser. Sacr. ii. 338, uses the words: —
4. 2), as were also Siloam (John ix. 7) and Beth-' From the death of Haggai, Zechariah, and Malaesda.*  The latter, from its healing virtue, was                          which according
adorned, like modem  Oriental baths, with five to the HolyJSpirt [Wjp!U non, which, according
colonnades for the protection of those who resorted  to thewish distinction, is only the second degree
to it. From Neh. iv. 23 we see that the use of the of the prophetical gift] was withdrawn from Israel;
of great   but they nevertheless enjoyed the use of the Bath
bath was not omitted even in times of great danger. Rol.'
Large buildings for bathing purposes, like those in ewish authorities are not agreed as to what
The Jewish authorities are not agreed as to what
the Bath Kol was, nor as to the precise reason of
* John v. 2.'The Rabbis and Chald. para- its designation. It is disputed whether the persons
phrast on Ecclesiastes make the words n3.I. B  hearing the Bath Kol heard the very voice from
and ~K.'13~ (the Greek 7rpogpaTK,77 John v. 2, heaven, or only a daughter of it-an echo of it;
d,rt'm r~pparK7) manberhs  an  te wrdwhether, as thunder is often mentioned as a sign
&r!      7rpo/a3rc-) mean baths; and the word
8Dm, a bath-serv~annt.'.;Jahn's  d ie. A rcof the Divine presence, and as the word voice appears to be used for thunder in Exod. ix. 23; Jer.
E. T., sec. I98.                             x. I3; Ps. xxix. 3, the Bath Kol may not signify




BATH KOL                    317                 BATTLE
an articulate voice proceeding out of the thunder; Lightfoot (in his Hor. Hebr. ad Matth. iii. 17) conor whether, according to the explanation of Mai- siders all cases of Bath Kol to be either Jewish
monides,'the Bath Kol is when a man has such a fables or devices of the devil. Instances of voices
strong imagination that he believes he hears a voice from heaven, on occasions outwardly very analofrom without himself.' As to the meaning of the gous to some among the Jews, are recorded in the
name itself, passages are cited in Buxtorf's Lex. history of the early Christian church; as the voice
Talm. s. v. 1n1, and in Reland's Antiq. Sacr. 1. c., which was instrumental in making Alexander
which shew that the daughter of the voice some- bishop of Jerusalem, and that which exhorted
times means the echo of a sound, and sometimes Polycarp to be of good courage (Eusebii Hist.
merely a primary sound itself. It is certain that Eccles. vi. II; iv. 15).
the Peshito has sometimes rendered the simple   Two very learned dissertations on the Bath Kol
Greek qwvfp by'daughter of the voice,' as in Acts may be found in Vitringa's Obser. Sacr. ii. pp.
xii. 22; I Tim. vi. 20; Heb. iii. 15. It is neces- 341-363; and (by Danz) in Meuschen's Nov. Test.
sary, however, to remark that, according to a ex Talmude iltustratum, pp. 351-378.-J. N.
fundamental law of all Syro - Arabian grammar,
these two words must either stand to each other in  BATH-RABBIM. In the Song of Solomon
the relation of apposition, or of the state construct. (vii. 5 [4]), the eyes of the bride are compared to
But as apposition can only take place between'the fish-pools in Heshbon, at the gate of Bathequivalent and convertible terms, which daughter' rabbim' (1-Jn- jy_). This must have been the
and'voice' are not, accordingly the alternative name of a gate of the town of Heshbon, looking
rendering of daughter voice proposed by Prideaux towards, or giving access to the road which led to,
(which Home also has adopted, tugcarnet iv. p.
(which Home also has adopted, in troduct.. i. Bath-rabbim, on each side of which was a pool or
149) violates that rule; because, in such an Eng- tank (not necessarily afish-pool).  It is commonly
lish combination, the word'daughter' has the supposed that Bath-rabbim is Rabbah, the chief
force of an adiective; and the Hebrew language, town of the Ammonites, still known as Amman.
possessing but few adjectives, would have ex- This lies to the north of the present Hesban, on
pressed the sense of daughter voice (if that had which side of the town, however, no tank or pool
been the sense intended to be conveyed by Bath remains, though there is one on the opposite side.
Kol) by making Bath the last word, depending as The Sept. and Vulg. translate the appellation,
a genitive on the former. For instance, what we  ivyarpbs VoXX^, filia multitudinis.-W. L. A.
render the Holy Spirit is literally'the spirit of
holiness' in Hebrew. Thus' daughter voice' is  BATH-SHEBA [tt'n3], daughter of Eliam,
not an apposition in English, nor is it the trans-                - 
lation of a state construct according'to the Hebrew  grand-daughter of Ahitophel, and wife of Uriah.
order; but of a state construct in which Prideaux She was. seduced and became pregnant by King
has taken the liberty of transposing the dependent David during the absence of her husband, who was
word, i. e., of making' daughter of the voice' become, in effect,' voioe of a daughter.' Jennings 4, 5; Ps. ii. 2). [Perhaps in this lay the reason of
also, in his _7ewish Anti9. b. i c. 6, when he ren- Ahitophel's enmity to David, and David's remorseders Bath Kol by' filia vox, seu fita vocis,' only ful dread of him.] The child thus born in adultery
commits, in the first case, the same error more became illand died (2 Sam. xi. IS-I8).  After
palpably; and is guilty of quite as great a violation the lapse of thepeod of mourning for her husband,
of the first principle of Hebrew Grammar, as he who was slain by the contrivance of David (xi. 5),
would be, in the case of Latin, were he to trans-she was legally married to the king (xi. 27), and
latefilia vocis by' voice of the daughter.'  bore him Soloon (xii. 24; I Kings i. I; ii. 13)
The occasions on which it is alleged that the In  Chron iii 5 she is called Bath-Shua [>ini];
Bath Kol was heard after the death of Malachi are and her father, Ammiel, instead of Eliam (comp.
of very various degrees of solemnity or significance. Matt. i. 6). The other children of Bath-sheba are
Supposing the instances mentioned in Josephus named in 2 Sam. v. 14; I Chron. iii 5. She is
(Antiq. xiii. o1. 3), of the voice which announced afterwards noticed only in consequence of her goodto Hyrcanus that his sons had conquered Antio- natured intercession for Adonijah; which incidenchus, and (De Bell. Yud. vi. 5.- 3) of the awful voice tally displays the respect with which she was treated
which was heard in the Temple, just before the by king Solomon, her son (I Kings ii. 19). [DAVID,
capture of Jerusalem, to exclaim, MeraalvdcoLev ADONIJAH.] The Rabbins describe Bath-sheba as
vrTELOev!-not to belong to the Bath Kol (as it a woman of a highly cultivated mind, [and ascribe
is to be observed that the pseudo-Josephus ben to her the counsels contained in Prov. xxxi.]-E.M.
Gorion has, in these cases, merely used the Hebrew
word for voice), most of the other recorded in- BATHSHUA. [BATH-SHEBA.]
stances fall far short of these in dignity; and some  BATH-ZACHARIAS.  [BETH-ZACHARIAS.]
appear irreconcilable to even very credulous notions
of the limits of Divine interposition. Only a few  BATTLE, SYSTEM    OF. Though the Heof them, however, can be classed with quite as brews, in their mode of conducting warlike operatrivial a species of divination as the Sortes Vir- tions, varied somewhat in the course of ages, and
gilianae, which is done in the unfair statement of are elsewhere shewn to have been swayed by the
Prideaux (Connex. ii. p.. 354). The fact is, that practice of greater and more military nations, still,
most Christian writers who have treated of the from the period when the institution of royalty gave
Bath Kol have not been able to divest themselves rise to an organized system, it was a maxim to spare
of an undue desire to discredit its pretensions, in the soldiers all unnecessary fatigue before an engageconsequence of their fearing any comparison which ment, and to supply them  liberally with food.
might be instituted between it and the voices from  Their arms were enjoined to be in the best order,
heaven mentioned in the New Testament. Indeed, and when drawn up for battle they formed a line




BATTLE                     318                  BAUER
of solid squares of a hundred men, each square modem destruction in full activity.  Under such
being ten deep, and with sufficient interval between  circumstances defeat led to irretrievable confusion;
to allow of facility in movements, and the slingers and where either party possessed superiority in
to pass through.  The archers may have occupied  cavalry and chariots of war, it would be materially
the two flanks, or formed in the rear, according to increased; but where the infantry alone had printhe intentions of the commander on the occasion; cipally to pursue a broken enemy, that force, laden
but the slingers were always stationed in the rear with shields, and preserving order, could overtake
until they were ordered forward to impede a hostile very few who chose to abandon their defensive
approach, or to commence the engagement, some- armour, unless they were hemmed in by the locality.
what in the manner of moder skirmishers. Mean- Sometimes a part of the army was posted in ambush,
time, while the trumpets waited to sound the last but this manceuvre was most commonly practised
signal [the priests in the earlier ages (Deut. xx. 1-4), against the garrisons of cities (Josh. viii. I2.; Judg.
subsequently the king, accompanied with priests xx. 38). In the case of Abraham (Gen. xiv. I6),
and levites (2 Chron. xiii. 4-12; xx. 20, 21), and when he led a small body of his own people sudstill later, the general in command (I Macc. iv. denly collected, and fell upon the guard of the cap8-II), delivered an address, by which, either directly tives, released them, and recovered the booty, it
or indirectly, the soldiers might be animated to do was a surprise, not an ambush; nor is it necessary
their duty courageously. The king went to battle that he should have fallen in with the main army
in his royal costume] except when he wished to  of the enemy. At a later period, the Hebrew
remain unknown, as at Megiddo (2 Chron. xxxv. armies formed into more than one line of masses;
22).  It was now, we may suppose, when the but there is evidence that they always possessed
enemy was at hand, that the slingers would be more valour than discipline.-C. H. S.
ordered to pass between the intervals of the line of  BATTLEMENT.  [HouvE.
solid squares, open their order, and with shouts, let
fly their stone or leaden missiles, until by the gradual  BAUER, GEO. LORENZ, Professor of Biblical
approach of the opposing fronts they would be Exegesis and Oriental Languages at Heidelberg,
hemmed in, and be recalled to the rear, or to cover was born 4th August I755, and died 12th January
a flank. Then would come the signal to charge, I8o6. He was a voluminous writer on biblical and
and the great shout of battle; the heavy infantry, theological subjects. His hermeneutical works are
receiving the order to attack, would, under cover his most valuable. Along with Dathe he edited
of their shields and levelled spears, press direct Glassii Phil. Sac. nostris temporibus accommodata,
upon the front of the enemy; the rear ranks might of which the second volume especially is his, Lips.
then, if so armed, cast their second darts, and the  I796.  He wrote also Entwurf einer Hermeneutik
archers from the rear shoot high, so as to pitch  des A. und N. T, Leipz. 1799; which contains
the arrows over their own main line of spearmen  the substance of an earlier work, Hermeneutica V.
into the dense masses beyond them. If the enemy  2:, Lips. I797. These works are deeply tinged
broke through the intervals, we may imagine that with neologianism; but, apart from this, are valua line of charioteers in reserve, breaking from their able. The edition of Glass's work ought rather
position, might in part charge among the disordered  to have appeared as a new work; for it omits much
ranks of the foe, drive them back, and facilitate which that author would have deemed essential,
the restoration of the oppressed masses, or wheeling and introduces much that would have filled him
round a flank, fall upon the enemy, or be encoun- with indignation.  Of the Hermeneutik des A. und
tered by a similar manoeuvre, and perhaps repulsed. A. T, Dr. Davidson says,' It exhibits good arrangeThe king, meanwhile, surrounded by his princes, ment, great perspicuity, an unusual power of conposted close to the rear of his line of battle, and in densation, and no small acuteness.  Unhappily,
the middle of the showered missiles, would watch however,' he adds,'the neology of the author is
the enemy, and remedy every disorder. In this apparent' (Hermen. p. 702). Bauer wrote also Die
position it was that several of the sovereigns of Kleinen Proph. ubers. und mit comiment. eradutert,
Judah were slain (2 Chron. xviii. 33, and xxxv. 23), 2 vols., Leipz. 1786-90; Theologie des A. T. oder
and that such an enormous waste of human life took  Abriss der relig. Begriffe der AZten Hebraer, Leipz.
place; for the shock of two hostile lines of masses, 1796; Biblische Theologie des N. T., 4 vols., Leipz.
at least ten in depth, advancing under the confidence  1800-2; and several works on biblical antiquities
of breastplate and shield, when once engaged hand  and theology. Bauer was the first openly to apply
to hand, had difficulties of no ordinary nature to the term mythology to the divine revelations of
retreat; because the hindernost ranks, not feeling  Scripture, and to speak of the biblical narratives as
personally the first slaughter, would not, and the myths. He even went the length of issuing a work
foremost could not, fall back; neither could the entitled Hebrdische Mythologie des A. und N. T.
commanders disengage the line without a certainty  mitparallelen aus der  ythol. anderen Volkern, etc.,
of being defeated. The fate of the day was there- 2 vols., Leipz. 1802. These works of the' audafore no longer within the control of the chief, and  cious author' (dreiste verfasser,, as Tholuck calls
nothing but obstinate valour was left to decide the  him  (Vermischte Schr. ii. 141) have long since
yictory.  Hence, from the stubborn character of ceased to command any respect. A translation
the Jews, battles fought among themselves were into English of his Theology of the Old Testament
particularly sanguinary i such, for example, as that appeared in I838, but it excited no attention, and
in which Jeroboam, king of Israel, was defeated by was felt to be simply offensive.-W. L. A.
Abijah of Judah (2 Chron. xiii. 3, I7), wherein, if
there be no error of copyists, there was a greater  BAUER, KARL LUDWIG, born at Leipsic I8th
slaughter than in ten such battles as that of Leipzig, July 1730, died 7th September 1799 at Hirschberg,
although on that occasion three hundred and fifty in Silesia, where he was rector of the Gymnasium.
thousand combatants were engaged for three suc- He wrote Philologia Thucydidea-Paulinca, Halle,
cessive days, provided with all the implements of 1773; Logica Paulina, ibid., 1774; Rhetorica




BAUMGARTEN                    319                  BEAR
Paulina, 2 vols., ibid. 1782. These works are orthodox for his tendency to rationalism, and by
worthy of notice; they unite solid learning with the rationalists for his leanings towards orthodoxy.
acuteness and precision.-W. L. A.             -W. L. A.
BAUMGARTEN, SIGISMUND JAKOB, D.D.,            BAXTER, RICHARD, an eminent nonconformwas born at Wollmirstadt I4th March I706. He ing divine, was born at High Ercall, in Shropshire,
was educated at Halle, first in the Orphan House, on November 12, 1615, and after a life of hercuafterwards at the University. After passing through  lean labour amidst almost constant suffering, died
various subordinate offices he became Professor of 8th December I69I. His works, which are very
Theology in that University in I743. He was the numerous, consist chiefly of polemical and practical
most famous theological professor of his day, treatises. His only biblical work is his Paraphrase
having usually as many as from 300 to 400 students on the New Testament, with notes, doctrinal and
attending his lectures, and so casting all his col- practical: Lond. I685, 4to; 1695, 8vo. This work
leagues into the shade that when he announced his the author designed for the use of'religious families
intention to lecture on any branch, it was tanta-in their daily reading of the Scriptures, and of the
mount to an intimation that none of them need poorer sort of scholars and ministers who want
attempt to venture into the same field, as they had further helps.' In accordance with this design,
no chance of an audience. He was an indefatigable it is practical rather than strictly expository; but
student and lecturer, and his published works relate the meaning of the passage is often given with much
to almost every department of theological inquiry. felicity, and the work is full of useful suggestions.
In theology he followed the method of Wolf; Some of his Annotations appended to the Parareducing all the dogmas of the science to the most phrase are valuable specimens of condensed and
rigid schematism, and presenting theology as bare sound interpretation, especially in the Pauline episof life and spirit as it is possible to conceive. tles.W. L. A.
Though himself orthodox in his teachings, he occupied a position of antagonism to the Pietist school,  BAYER, FRANCISCO PERES, a Spanish antiand introduced a spirit of rationalising in religion, quary, born at Valentia in I7I, died 1794. He
which, carried out to its full extent by his pupil and wrote De Numis Hebraeo-Samaritanis, Valent.
admirer Semler, led to that revolution in German  1781, and Numm. Heb. Sam. Vindiciae, 1790.
theology from which its students are as yet only These are standard works on the subject to which
beginning to return. His exegetical writings are they relate.-W. L. A.
his feeblest productions, unless perhaps we exceptLL.D                        English clergy
his sermons. He wrote Auslegung der Briefe Pauli  BAYLY, ANSELM   LL.D., an English clergyan die Ga., Eph., Phil., Co.  nd Tess., edited man, sub-dean of the Chapel Royal. He issued
by Semler, Halle, 1767; Ausleg. der Br. Pauli anan edton of The  d Testament n  ngish and
die Rdmer, Halle, 1749; Ausleg. der Briefe an dieHebreww     remark  critical and gammatical
Cor., edited by Noesselt, Halle, I76I  Erklrung on he ebre, and   oecions of    e English.
der Br. an die Heb., edited by Maschen and Sem- Lond. I774. In this editio the authorised version,
ler, Halle, 1    e763 and a  work on Hermeneutics  with a few alterations, chiefly in the punctuation,
He died at Halle 4th July I757-W  L, A..Sis printed so as to face the Hebrew; a few notes
are added of an explanatory kind; the k'ri readings
BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG FRIED. are conveniently placed on the margin; and sumOTTO, D.D., was born at Mersebutg 3IstJuly 1788, maries of the books are appended. The work is
and died at Jena, where he was Professor of Theo- of little value, except as it supplies a legible Hebrew
logy and Principal of the University, 3Ist May I843. text, The text is pointed, but ohly the athnach
THe was a man of great natural powers and of ample and soph-pasuk accents are inserted. Dr. Bayly
scholarship; and had his life been longer spared published also a Hebrew grammar. -W. L. A.
to complete the plans he had before his mind, he
might have rendered service of the highest kind to BAYNE, PAUL, a Puritan divine who died in
the cause of scientific theology. Of the works   7. He was a fellow of Christ College, Camwhich he published during his lifetime, the most bridge, and succeeded Perkins in the lecture at St.
valuable are his Einleitung in das Stud. der Dog- Andrews, Cambridge. He wrote A Commentary
matik, 1820; his Gru~ndzxilge der B'ibl. Theologie, on the Ist and 2d chapters of St. Paul to the ColosJena, 1828; and his Compendium der Dogmen- stans; together with divers paces of Scripture briefly
geschichte, of which only the first part was issued explained; 4, Lnd. 634;  enir Cor  n th
by himself in I840, the work being completed by  pistle to te Ephesians; fol., Lond. I643. These
Hase in i846. He was engaged at the time of his display learning and acuteness.-W. L. A.
death on a Theologische Auslegung der yohannei-  BAY-TREE. [EZRACH.]
schen Schriften, of which he published the first part
in 1843. A second part, prepared from his MSS.  BPELLIUM.     [BEDOLACH.]
by Kimmel, appeared in I845.   Since then his   BEALOTH     (nlj ),  a town in the southern
Comments on the epistles to the Romans, Galatians, 
Ephesians, Colossians, Philippians, and Thessa- part of the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv. 24).
lonians, collected partly from the notes of his.  PL
students, have been published. These are full of BEAN. [OL.
useful hints, but as a whole they are disappointing. BEAN  CHILDREN OF (iVo Baldv, the name ot
Even his first volume on John's writings is hardly a tribe, predatory in their habits, destroyed by Judas
worthy of his reputation. One cannot, however,Maccabeus (I Macc. v. 4, 5). In the margin of
but notice the impartiality and earnestness with thA. V. they are identified with the Benei Ja'aqan
which he seeks to ascertain the meaning of his  Num  xxxiii. 31
author, irrespective of schools and systems. Belonging to no party, he has been blamed by the  BEAR. [DoB.1




BEARD                     320                  BEAST
BEARD. With the Jews, as with all Oriental most of the nations bordering on Egypt and Palesnations, the beard was an object of care and im- tine. In nearly all of them we see that the upper
portance. They viewed it as the special mark of edges of the beard were shaven off, and apparently
manly dignity, and the loss of it as a disgrace or the hair of the upper lip. In the cut 133, fig. I
degrading punishment (2 Sam. x. 4; Is. vii. 20; represents the head and beard of a Babylonian
Ezra v. I-5)..They encouraged its growth, and figure; fig. 2 is the regal Persian beard, curiously
were careful to trim it, dress it, and anoint it with  curled and tressed; fig. 3 is a somewhat similar
perfumed unguents (Ps. cxxxiii. 2). Where inti- beard from the recently-discovered sculptures of
macy permitted, the beard was the object of salu- Xanthus in Asia Minor; and fig. 4 is Graeco-Syrian,
tation, and Joab availed himself of this to deceive from the sculptures at Palmyra. With these it
Amasa (2 Sam. xx. 9). Only in seasons of sorrow  may be useful to compare the principal varieties of
and calamity did they neglect their beards; in deep  the beard among the modem Orientals, whose tastes
affliction they cut them off, or tore them out, or in this matter are in general much less fantastic
covered them up (2 Sam. xix. 24; Is. xv. 2; Jer. than those of their predecessors. In the following
xli. 5; Ezra ix. 3; Ezek. xxiv. 17, 22). They were  cut the first figure is that of a modern Egyptian
forbidden by Moses to round off the comers of
their beards (Lev. xix. 27; xxi. 5), a practice which
was common among the Arabians, and had with
them an idolatrous significance (Herod. iii. 8), on
which account, doubtless, it was forbidden to the 
Jews. There is a reference to this practice as a
characteristic of heathenism in Jer. ix. 25; xxv.
23 (See Henderson Comment. on the places). The
preservation of the beard established a distinction 
between the descendants of Abraham   and the
Egyptians, among whom they sojourned, as the
latter shaved off the beard entirely, though they            \                   t'32.
adopted the singular practice of fastening false 
beards upon their chins (Wilkinson, Anc..Egypt.                       \ 
iii. 362). [' In cut 132 is a curious collection of 
bearded heads of foreigners obtained from the
i34.
(Copt), and the second that of a Persian, exhibiting
~ /  /            a remarkable contrast between the amplitude of the
I3                       one beard and the scantiness of the other. The
other two figures we offer with pleasure, as presentp- Irf  W\> F X..s-            ing, in all probability, correct resemblances of such
L1 - 1\ tS'beards as were worn by the ancient Israelites.
Fig. 3 is that of an Arab sheikh, and fig, 4 that of
a Syrian Jew.'-J, KI]    (D'Arvieux, Coutumes
des Arabes; Niebuhr, Descr. of Arabia, Sec. xxii.
ch. 4; Harmar, Eastern Customs, II. 357-360;
Home, Introd., vol. iii., pt. 4, chap. 2.)-W. L. A..^   \  -- ^     BEAST. In the Bible, this word, when used
233.                     in contradistinction to man (Ps. xxxvi. 6), denotes
a brute creature generally; when in contradistincEgyptian monuments, and, without doubt, includ- tion to creeping things (Lev. xi. 2-7; xxvii. 26), it
ing the beards, head-dresses, and physiognomies of has reference to four-footed animals; and when to




BEATING                    321                 BECHER
wild mammalia, as in Gen. i. 25, it means domes- translation is not confirmed by any of the cognate
ticated cattle. [ZOOLOGY, BIBLICAL.]          dialects; nor is the pear-tree more appropriate
BEATING.  [PUNISHMENTS.]        than the mulberry. [Celsius (Hierobot. i. 335) sugBEATING. [PUNISHMENTS.]
gests the Arabic L  baka, a tree from which exudes
BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC DE, a French Protestant
minister, was born at Nivort, 8th March 1659.a gum in drops; hence the name from the verb to
Driven from France at the time of the revocation weep; but this tree is unknown.]
of the edict of Nantes, he fled to Holland, whenceThe tree alluded to in Scripture, whatever it is,
he passed to Berlin, and spent the rest of his days must be common in Palestine, must grow in the
there as pastor of one of the French churches in neighbourhood of water, have its leaves easily
that city. His pen was occupied in many literary moved, and have a name in some of the cognate
labours. That by which he is now chiefly re- languages similar to the Hebrew Baca. The only
membered is one which he undertook by order of one with which we are acquainted answering to
the king of Prussia, in conjunction with Lenfant, these conditions is that called bak by the Arabs, or
Le Nouveau   Testament de NV. S.  esus Christ rather shajrat-al-bak-that is, the fly or gnat tree.
traduit en Franais sur l'original Grec, avec des It seems to be so called from its seeds, when
notes literates pour eclaircir le texte; Amst. 2 vols. loosened from their capsular covering, floating
4to, 17I8, of which a new and greatly improved about like gnats, in consequence of being covered
edition appeared in 1741. Of this work Beausobre with light silk-like hairs, as is the case with those
executed the latter part, beginning with the epistle of the willow. In Richardson's Arabic Dictionary
to the Romans. After his death, which took place the bak-tree is considered to be the elm, but to us
in June 1738, there appeared from his pen Re- it appears to be the-poplar. The willow and the
marques historiques crit. et philol. sur le N. T, 2 poplar are well known to have the same kind of
vols. 4to, La Haye, 1742. These biblical laboursseed, whence they are included by botanists in the
of Beausobre are valuable; the translation of the group of Salicinese.
N. T. is one of the best in the French language,  As it seems to us sufficiently clear that the bakand his notes are always judicious, often felicitous. tree is a kind of poplar, and as the Arabic'bak 
He was a man of undoubted learning and ability, i verysimilar to the Hebrew'Baca,' so it is prowhich he devoted to the worthiest pursuits. In  bable that one of the kinds of poplar may be inconjunction with his son, Charles Louis, he pre-tended in the above passages of Scripture. And it
pared Discours sur la Bible de Saurin, which ap- must be noted that the poplar is as appropriate as
peared without date. Four volumes of sermons, any tree can be for the elucidation of the passages
which partake very much of the nature of com-n which bechaim    occurs, as no tree is more
ments, were published after his death in I755.remarkable than the poplar for the ease with which
The rest of his works are devoted to church his- its leaves are rustled by the slightest movement ot
tory. -W. L. A.                               the air; an effect which might be caused in a still
night even by the movement of a body of men on
BEBAI (C~3; Sept. Ba3pat, Ba/t, Brl3t, B/at/). the ground, when attacked in flank or when unprepared. That poplars are common in Palestine
The name of a man whose son, Zechariah, was the prepared    a popar     commoin Palestine
leader. of twenty-eight men who went up with Ezra'Of poplars we only know, with certainty, that
from Babylon to Jerusalem (Ezr. viii. ii); and wh'Of poplars we only know, with certainty, that
from Babylon to Jerusalem (Ezr. viii;. Ix); and who the black poplar, the aspen, and the Lombardy
was at the head of a large body of persons call e  aed  poplar the aspen, nd the Lomard
the sons of Bebai,' of whom upwards of 6 poplar grow in Palestine. The aspen, whose long
(62 the sons of Bebai,' of whom upwards of 6up leaf-stalks cause the leaf to tremble with every,(623 Ezr. ii. xI; 628 Neh. vii. 16) had gone up breath of wind, unites with the willow and the
on a previous occasion with Zerubbabel. Four of oak to overshand, unites with the willo w and the
these had taken strange wives (Ezr. x. 28). The oak to overshadow the watercourses of the Lower
these had taken strange wives (Ezr. x. 28). The
name of Bebai occurs among those of the men that Lebanon, and, with the oleander and the acacia,
name of Bebai.occurs among those of the men that to adorn the ravines of southern Palestine: we do
~signedf the oveant  x.  LA       to adorn the ravines of southern Palestine: we do
signed the covenant (Neh. x. 5). —W. L. A.    not know that the Lombardy poplar has been
BECHAIM (n       ). [The name of a tree which noticed but by Lord Lindsay, who describes it
*.-:.ot.enst~ltrl  dniidas agrowing with the walnut-tree and weepingas not been satisfactorily identified. It occurs willow under the deep torrents of the Upper
only in the plural, the sing. being K.'2] 2 Sam. v. Lebanon.'-J. F. R.
23, 24, and I Chron. xiv. 14, 15,' And let it be,
when thou hearest the sound of a going in the   BECHER (:n1; Sept. Box6p and Baxtp); Getops of the mulberry trees, that thou shalt bestir          v' ('
thyself.'
thyself'                                     senius (7'hes. p. 2o6) connects this word with
Neither the mulberry nor thepear-tree, considered          g,
to be the bechaim of the Scriptures, satisfies trans-'. and Arabic., a young camel.  In older
lators and commentators, because they do not
possess any characters particularly suitable to the  Onomastica (e.g., in Walton, Poyglot, vol. vi.,
above passages. With regard to the mulberry, sub. fin.), it is referred to the root l3, and conRosenmiller justly observes, that this interpretation nected with lin. pnmogenztus, first-born.' The
is countenanced neither by the ancient translators 
nor by the occurrence of any similar term in thesame  gin of this word seems to be given by Fuerst
cognate languages. We should expect, however, (Onomast. Sac., in Concordance, p. 1271); who
some notice in Scripture of a tree which must have compares'l  which he translates F.hgeborner
been common, and always esteemed for its fruit with the Greek names Archigenes, Protogenes.
[SYCAMINE].   Rosenmiller prefers pear-trees in Other derivations have been suggested, but have
the preceding passages, as being the oldest render- found little favour.
ing of the words.  But the correctness of this  This proper name occurs in (i) Gen. xlvi. 21;
VOL I.                                                                          Y




B1ECHER                    822                  BECHER
(2) r Chron. vii. 6, 8, twice; and (3) in Num. list (Gen. xlvi. 2), Benjamin's sons amount to no
xxvi. 35.  In (i) and (2), Becher has the second  less than ten, Becher being the second; in the
place among the sons of the patriarch Benjamin; next list (Num. xxvi. 35), he entirely disappears
hut in (3), the same name is given to one of the  from the catalogue of the patriarch's sons, now
sons (again the second in order) of Ephraim, son reduced to seven, including two of his grandsons;
of Benjamin's brother Joseph.  Becher is further while in the third list, Becher resumes his place as
here described as the head of'the family' (A. V.), second; again, however, to disappear in the first
or rather clan or gens' of the Bachrites' nntirD  verse of the very next chapter, from the enumera3D1 (Mishjpaehath Habbakri).                   tion of Benjamin's sons, five of whom are mentioned
Although this is all that can be alleged with cer- this time, and in preciser terms than anywhere
tainty of this name, yet the purposes of this work  before:'Now Benjamin begat Bela his first-born,
would not be answered were we to ignore the dif- Ashbel the second, and Aharah the third, Nohah
ficulties with which the subject of this article is the fourth, and Rapha the fifth.' In these diverbeset, owing to the apparent discrepancies of the sities lies the difficulty in which the name of
genealogical lists. There are four such lists con- Becher is involved. Before we proceed to offer
nected more immediately with Becher; the three what appears to us the least objectionable solution
occurring in the passages which have been already  of it, we will notice some of the expedients which
mentioned, and.the fourth.in r Chron. viii. i. It have been proposed for meeting the discrepancy.
is important to observe that these documents were It has been a frequent resource among Comnennot only drawn up at different times by different tators to attribute these genealogical variations to
writers, but actually refer to various periods of the textual corruption, and this has been resorted to
national history.  The first of them  enumerates in order to rectify the genealogical discrepancy in
that interesting group of seventy, the nucleus of the use of our word Becher. Thus in the fourth
the future nation, which migrated with the vene- of our lists, I Chron. viii. I, where the text reads,
rable patriarch to Egypt; the second (which seems' Now Benjamin begat Bela his first-born, Ashbel
to be the' eactest of the four, and to have been  the'second, and Aharah the third, etc., etc.' The
derived from  public records) purports to be a word'1r1 ('his first-born'), is reduced to "31
census taken some 250 years afterwards, on the  (Becher), and the pronominal suffix 1 is transplains of Moab, when the nation, now fully or- formed into the conjunction, and prefixed to the
ganised, was about to enter the Promised Land; next word 3.NK, thus producing the sense,'Benthe third and the foutth have all the appearance of jamin begat Bela, Becher, and Ashbel,' in agreeless exactness, they are portions of a long genea- ment with Gen. xlvi. 2I. But this conformity is
logy of a fragmentary and supplemental character, secured only by a mutilation of our verse, and in
derived by the author, not from the public archives direct opposition to the peculiarity of its precise
which must have been destroyed at the period of structural form. Three names are mentioned in it$
the captivity and the fall of Jerusalem, temp. Zede-with the express addition of the ordinals, first-born,
kiah, but from private sources (Kei, Apol. Ver- the second, the thid, etc. It is contrary to sound
such ub. d. Biicher d. Chronik. I98). This opinion  criticism to remove on mere conjecture the first of
coincides with the fact that these genealogies relate these ordinals, retaining still the others, which
mainly to that part of the nation which returned  would in that case become inapplicable and untrue,
from captivity, including the tribe of Benjamin, for Ashbel would be no longer'the second,' nor
which has a remarkable prominence in these lists. Aharah'the third,' etc.  Moreover, Kennicott
These third and fourth lists occur indeed in con- alleges a large amount of MS. evidence in favour
secutive chapters (I Chron. vii. 6, 12, and viii. I, of the plehe scriptum  in this word 1'1131, thus
etc.), but it by no means follows that they refer raising an additional obstacle in the way of the
to continuous periods of time. J. D. Michaelis proposed change.   (See Kennicott's Vet. Test.
assigns the former to the age of David (to which  Hebr. ii. p. 565.) We feel bound to prefer the text
verse 2 refers the census of'the sons of Issachar' as it stands to such  an amendment as this.
therein adduced; but this date need not be ex- Another mode of-reconciling the difficulties of
tended to the other genealogical fragments of the these tables, is based on the alleged and undoubtsame chapter); whereas Keil (Apol. Versuch, p. ed fact, that the members of the Jewish families
i86) suggests its reference to a time previous to  bore more than one name each, and that the same
the calamitous Benjamite war, which is narrated in individual appears in one list under one name, and
Judg. xx. xxi., on the strong ground of the ex- in another list under another name.  (See Carpzovii
tremne improbability that at any subsequent period  Introductio in V. T., vol. i. pp. 292, 293.)  This
so many as 6o,ooo' mighty men of valour' could is not the place to examine this theory fully; suffice
have been forthcoming from three clans only of it to say in passing, that it can only be applied
this tribe.                                    with safety now and then.   Some of BECHER'S
This view, which we accept as the most pro- brothers (Genesis), or else nephews (Numbers and
bable, throws back our list to an early date, for Chronicles), appear with double names, or rather
the Benjamite war took place in the time of Phine- the same names slightly altered; e.g., l'ik Eh',
has (see Judg. xx. 28), not long after the death of in Gen. v. 21, is lengthened into nNrln Ahiram,
Joshua. It will be obvious at once, then, that in Num. v. 38; while the'sni Huippim, of Gen.
a long interval intervenes between this genea- v. 21, becomes tl31n Huipham, in Num. v. 39,
logical fragment and our fourth and last register, and  tlTi  Huram, in Chron. viii. 3. Again, by
which is generally referred to either a later period  transposition and abridgment,'T14 Ard, in Gen.
of the kingdom of Judah, or to the age of the v. 2I, becomes'I Addar, in Chron. viii. 3, and
Return from Captivity (I Chron. ix. I).  With  tDi    Shephupham, in Chron. viii. 5, becomes
these dates of our four genealogies in mind, we  nr'Wi Shupham, in Num., and DrBi Shuppim, in
now proceed to indicate their variations in refer- Chron. vii. 12. These, however, are mild conence to the subject of this article.  In the first jectures, and may be accepted without hesitation.




BECHER                    323                 BECHER
Other attempts at reconciliation are not so accept- most man of the senior clan of the tribe which was
able, as when Junius and Malvenda (Poli, Synop.pre-eminent in Israel for warlike energy and enteron I Chron. viii.) make 7ediael, the third son of prising activity.'The sons of Becher [were] ZeBenjamin according to Chron. vii. 6, the same as mira, and Joash, and Eliezer, and Elioenai, and
Ashbel the second son of the next chapter, and who  Omri, and Jerimoth, and Abiah, and Anathoth,
identify also Becher, whom the former passage men- and Alameth. All these are the sons of Becher.
tions as Jediael's elder brother, with Nohah who is And the number of them, after their genealogy by
mentioned in the latter passage as younger by two their generations, heads of the house of their
degrees than Ashbel. Another class of variations fathers, mighty men of valour, was twenty thousand
is easily reconciled by a careful discrimination of and two hundred.' This statement occurs in our
the word pl (son).  This noun is often used in third genealogical document, which belongs (at the
these lists to designate any lineal descendant. very earliest period assigned to it) to an age subseWhen, therefore, in Gen. xl*i. 2, Naaman and Ard  quent to the date of our second genealogy by some
occur in the same categorywith Bela and Becher fifty or sixty years at least. Becher, therefore
as sons of Benjamin in the first degree, while the must not be excluded through incapacity or want
parallel place in Numbers registers them as the of offspring from the muster-roll of the plains of
sons of his son, i.e., his sons in the second degree, Moab; but our belief is, that he was not in fact
this to the intelligent reader will not seem an in- excluded on that occasion.  We have already
consistency, but a very proper, and it may be a noticed, at the beginning of this article, that (three
profound use of language; for let him consider the verses only previous to the register of the sons of
different character of these two lists, and remember Benjamin) in Numb. xxvi. the name Becher
the division of the nation into (I.) Tribes; (2.) actually occurs with a'=:I nn, M1, a gens, or
Mishjachoth or clans, etc. (Josh. vii. 4). Now, clan, of Bachrites, amongst'the sons of EPHas a general rule, the grandsons of Jacob are re- RAIM' (verse 35).
garded as the founders of the minor divisions, the  This name has by some been identified with theinstitution of the larger ones being invariably attri- Bered of I Chron. vii. 20, but without reason as it
buted to his literal and adopted sons. Whatever seems; for Bered- is the son of Shuthelah according
names therefore occur in our two lists in common, to that passage, and not the son of Ephraim, as
designate the same persons in different relations: the Becher is represented in Num. xxvi.  Now, exfirst refers all its names upward, first to Jacob as the cept this, no other name has been attempted to be
symbol of the nation's unity, and then to his sons identified with Becher as an Ephraimite from any
as representing the simplest and highest plurality, other genealogy. Under these circumstances, then,
that of the Tribes; whereas the second refers all conjecture, which we would never lightly resort to,
its names downwards towards the subdivisions of may be allowed; for if it be allowable at any time
clans, etc. Thus in the case of Benjamin, all the it is surely when it originates an alteration which,
names which in the list of Genesis are classed though slight in itself, squares well with the many
under this patriarch are simply the names of per- conditions of a case otherwise inextricably complisons who are to be regarded as integral members cated. We would therefore propose to transfer from
of the tribe of Benjamin; but in the list of Num- the 35th verse* to the 38th of Num. xxvi., the
bers this relation is no longer considered, the same           _
persons are now mentioned in the new and wider    The ancient  ebrew text, from which the
relation of founders of, Mihpachoth or clans; i.e.,
relation of founders of M pacot  or clans;. e, LXX. version was made, does not seem to have
no longer njO'       (mB'ney Binyatnin), lsons read BECHER (or any name like it) among the sons
of Benjamin,' members of his tribe merely;
of Benjmn  members n of his tribe merely; of Ephraim.   We transcribe from Tischendorf's
isbut apAtam),'sns1      (B'ney Bnj in yamfte in  last edition of the LXX., tom. i., p. 187, that;oishPz'chothamz),  sons of Benjamin after (or in
relation to) their families' or clans. We now ap-portion of the census which pertains to the Ephproach the gist of the difficulty. Why is BECHER'S raimites:-Kal OrTOt viol'Expad  T  2oiaaXa,
name absent from Num. xxvi. 35, when not only          ovaat        Tcva, oos o6 Tcwaxhis elder brother, Bela, but probably four younger OUTOL vol'EZovsXd-Tr  v, 5tos o E&tvl OrTO&
brothers and two nephews appear in the eminent  Lo'Ept       7riKis a      cp, d0 K  rptddifficulty. He acknowledges the force of it* as a of Moab, were comprised in the clans of tzo sons
kind; and he suggests the same solution which  Masoretic Hebrew text, from which our version
had occurred to older commentators (see Bishop  comes, the same total is derived from three sons
Patrick on Num. xxvi. 38).' Becher, Gera, and and a grandson; if, then, we eliminate, as we have
Rosh,' says he, referring to the three names which  proposed to do, the name and family of Becher
disappear from the second list,' are here wantin  from where it lies (like a waif and stray) in an unfor no other reason, undoubtedly, than because they suitable context, and transfer it to its natural posieither died childless, or at any rate did not leave tion among the families of Benjamin, we shall
behind them a progeny sufficiently numerous to  not only reconcile discrepancies which baffle every
form independent clans or families.' Now, how- other resource, but restore an agreement  h oe
ever applicable this view may possibly be to the vice with the Septuagint.  We need hardly say
case of the others, it can hardly be true of Becher. that no other name but that of Becher can be
Our third list (i Chron. vii. 8, 9). attributes to him removed from the text;  X  sqars exact
an offspring scarcely less numerous, and not at all with nehiT, TavX, per metathesin, becomes rin
less conspicuous in military prowess, than his (Tachan),'Eov, by change of 1 for I (whih, is
eldest brother's, who is ever mentioned as the fore- very frequent in these names) becomes rp (Eran).




BECHER                    324              BECHOR-SHOR
clause,' Of Becher the family of the Bachriles,' in-  For BECHER, said to be the son of Ephraim, in
serting it in its natural place between Bela and his our text and version of Num. xxvi. 35, but now
family and Ashbel and his family; the 38th verse shewn to be probably the same as the Becher of
would then stand thus-' The sons of Benjamin, Gen. xlvi. 21, and I Chron. vii 6, 8, see preceding
after their families: of Bela, the family of the article passim.- P. H.
Belaites: of Becher, the family of the Bachrites:
of Ashbel, the family of the Ashbelites,' etc., etc.  BECHOR-SHOR, JOSEPH, also called, by way
This would produce an agreement with both the of abbreviation, Harbash, W)'7;  =-1,W' 13 3i,
preceding and the succeeding lists, which we have the Rabbi Bechor-Shor, flourished about A.D. 1170,
seen the facts of the case to require.        and was the last representative of the GermanoThe occurrence of Becher's name among the French school of biblical commentators founded
Ephraimites has been accounted for, by supposing by the celebrated Rashi. His commentary on the
that'Becher [the Benjamite] or his heir and head  Pentateuch shews that he was a sound exponent of
of his house, married an Ephraimitish heiress, a scripture, and a worthy disciple of his school. Its
daughter of Shuthelah (I Chron. vii. 20, 21), and chief merit consists in its setting forth, in a very
so that his house was reckoned in the tribe of striking manner, the connection,'and evolving the
Ephraim, justasJair,'etc. (SeeSmith's Dictionary  meaning of this, important portion of the Old
of the Bible, vol. i., p. I75.) We have not space Testament without entering into verbal criticism.
here to state in full our grounds of dissatisfaction  As in all the exegetical productions of this famous
with this view. Whether Jair's adoption as a school, we sometimes meet, in the commentary of
Manassite were ex jure hscreditatis, according to  Bechor-Shor, beautiful and rational explanations
Num. xxxvi. 6 (which is certainly doubtful),* or side by side with some Hagadic and puerile rehis transjprdanic property accrued to him, as a suc- marks. A few specimens will suffice to shew its
cessful adventurer, and only in right of conquest value. Gen. iv. 4, 5 is explained according to the
(as seems probable from Deut. xii. 12-15, and Num. Hagada, that the acceptance of Abel's sacrifice and
xxxiii. 41), it is difficult, at any rate, to make his the rejection of Cain's were indicated by fire comcase parallel to Becher's. The assumption that ing down fron. heaven consuming the one and
Becher married Shuthelah's daughter, and so became leaving the other.  This interpretation is also
incorporated into the tribe of Ephraim by the law  adopted by Rashi, and accounts for Theodotion's
of succession just referred to, cannot be sustained. rendering, and St. Jerome's explanation of this
No daughter of Shuthelah as an Ephraimite heiress      The words ii                r 
would be likely to appear on Moses' register, con- (Gen.  ) whh havecaused so m h d ult
trary to his specific law, as giving right of inheri- t    r he      ais' Shs oo     ss
tance to a Benjamite; moreover, that Becher and    mmentators, he explains:-' Seth's goodness
is here shewn in naming his son Enosh, i.e., frail
his family of Bachrites should remain by the side  (comp. Ps. viii. 4), although in his generation
of Shuthelah and the family of the Shuthelahites is mnegan to nae theseles 
of the assump men began to name themselves by the name of the
quite incompatible with the terms of the assump-Almighty, mixing up God's name with theirs, as
tion itself, according to which Becher, as becomingfor instance, Mehujael (Gen. iv. 18). i.e., the
the heir of Shuthelah, instead of retaining a status  mittenofGod; Mahalleel (Gen. v. 2), i. e., the
of his own, would merge into that of Shuthelah.  ise of God.' Upon, but Noah found
But what need is there of argument in a case so fa r G. vi. S    Bechor-Shor beutifully replain? Becher, as we have seen, did not cease to favr  (e.. 8), Bech    or-Shor beautifully reMispcha  long   marks:-' There is frequently a play upon words
be the head of a Benjamiten  Mhpacha( iong afteri in the Hebrew by transposing the letters of the
the census of the plain of Moab (I Chron. vi. name of a good man to his advantage, and of a
6-9). That his family subsequently became insig- bad man to his disadvantage. Thus it is said'Er,
nificant (if not extinct), either by some calamity Judah's first-born, was wicked' (Gen. xxxviii 7),
like the Benjamite war of extermination, which 7),
like the Benjamite war of extermination, wic  where wicked (yi) is obtained by a transposition of
probably fell heavy upon this particular branch of the letters Er (I); so alo here we have It, grace,
the tribe, or else by the Captivity, we conclude fromn of the letters r    in; so also  he name grace,
the omission of his name and family from the fourthby a transposition of the letters in the name Noa.'
of our genealogies. There is an ominous blank  Bo
Bechor-Shor's style is very clear, simple, and
throughout that lengthy catalogue see I Chron.t easy, and his commentary will be understood even
vm. throughout), touching the subject of our article, by tyros in Hebrew. The commentary was puboe oapaaanelsewhere.  by tyros in Hebrew. The commentary was pubwho does not appear again lelsewhere.        lished in I520, Constantinople, but has become so
* See Selden De Success-ionibus, c. IS, for the very Scarce that very few persons have known any
Rabbinical opinion of relaxing the law of Numbers   about it.  The laborious Dr Adolph Jel
xxxvi. 6; and Grotius, Annotations on Matthew i. linek, to whom biblical literature is so much inI6, for the opposite view, who refers to the high  debted  for bringing to light many medireval
authority of Josephus and Philo, in favour of the productions, is republishing it from a MS. in the
perpetual obligation of that law but, after all, Munich library, and the first part, containing
JAIR'S disqualification in the tribe of Judah was the
illegitimacy of his' father Segub (Kurtz' Old Cove- tabular scheme of the posterity of Becher to Saul.
nant, vol. iii. p. 468).                      We cannot (to begin with) grant him the identity
~ After bestowing the attention which is due to  of Becher and Bechorath, nor of Abiah and Aphiah.
whatever proceeds from the pen of the author of We fail to discover, in either of the genealogical
the art. BECHER in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, fragments which give Saul's descent, I Chron. viii.
we regret to find ourselves at variance with him on 29-33, and I Chron. ix. 35-39, after careful comhis opinion of King Saul's descent from Becher. parison with I Sam. ix. I, the soundness of the
In this art., and more fully in his work, On the opinion, which connects the first king of Israel
Genealogies of our Lord, pp. 213, 214, he gives a with the subject of our article.




BECK                     325                   BED
Genesis and Exodus has already appeared in Leip- common in ancient Egypt (see cut 136); the corn.
zig, I856.-C. D. G.                           fort in the use of which is not very apparent, till
one tries the experiment and realizes the complete
BECK, CHRISTIAN DANIEL, D.D., Prof. of repose which is obtained by resting the nape of the
Greek and Latin literature at Leipsic, was born neck and base of the skull upon se similar con
22d Jan. 1757, and died 13th Dec. 1832. His     vance
attention was devoted chiefly to classical literature,  It has been doubted whether the couches of the
in which department he enjoys a high reputation; Jews for repose and for the use of the sick, called
but he gave himself also to sacred studies, and in  mi/a  (Gen. xlvii. 31;  Sam.   ix. 13
the department of hermeneutics especially, has  Sm. iv. 7; 2 Kings i. 4), 3         mishcab
rendered important service by his Monogrammata (Exod. xi. 18  2 Sam. xiii. 5  Cant. i. ), or
Ifermen. Libb. N. F., of which only the first part, y's (ob v.   Cant. i. 16, properly bedcontaining Hermen. N. F. universa, has been pub- stead,' comp. Deut. iii. I), were actually bedlished; Lips. I8O3. The author's familiarity with
lished; Lips. 1803. The author's familiarity with steads of different sorts, or simply the standing and
ancient literature, his sound views of the proper fixed divans suc s those on which the Western
method of dealing with works written in dead Asiatics commonly make their beds at night. We
languages, and his general perspicacity of thought feel satisfied that the different Hebrew  words
and expression, render this a work of great value answer to and describe different arrangements,
to the student of Scripture.-W. L. A.         although we may be unable now to assign to the
BECK, MATTHIAS FRED., a Lutheran minister several words their distinctive applications to still
at Augsburg, born 23d May 1649, died 2d Feb. subsisting things.
1701, was the editor of Paraph. Czhad.. Libri  The divan, or. daYs, is a slightly elevated platChronicorum hactenus inedita, nunc vero e codice form at the upper end and often along the sides
MS. BibL. Erdfurt. exscripta, 4to, Augs. I68; of the room. On this are laid the mattresses on
Par. Chald. II. Lib. Chron. etc., 4to, ibid. 1683.  which the Western Asiatics sit cross-legged in the
day-time, with large cushions against the wall to
BED. The manner of sleeping in warm Eastern support the back. At night the light bedding is
climates is necessarily very different from  that usually laid out upon this divan, and thus beds
which is followed in our colder regions. The for many persons are easily formed. The bedding
present usages appear to be the same as those of is removed in the morning, and deposited in rethe ancient Jews, and sufficiently explain the pas- cesses in the room, made for the purpose. This
sages of Scripture which bear on the subject. Beds is a sort of general sleeping-room for the males
of feathers are altogether unknown, and the Orien- of the family and for guests, none hut the master
tals generally lie on a hard couch. Poor people having access to the inner parts of the house,
who have no certain home, or when on a journey, where alone there are proper and distinct bedor employed at a distance from their dwellings, chambers. In these the bedding is either laid on
sleep on mats, or wrapped in their outer garment, the carpeted floor, or placed on a low frame or
which from its importance in this respect was bedstead.  This difference between the public
forbidden to be retained in pledge over night and private sleeping-room, which the arrange(D'Arvieux, iii. 257; Gen. ix. 21, 23; Exod. xxii. ment of an Eastern household renders necessary,
27; Deut. xxiv. I3).  Under peculiar circum- seems to explain the difficulties which have perstances a stone covered with some folded cloth or plexed readers of travels, who, finding mention
piece of.dress is often used for a pillow (Gen. only of the more public dormitory, the divan, have
xxviii. II)..The more wealthy classes sleep on been led to conclude that there was no other or
mattresses stuffed with wool or cotton, which are different one.
often no other than a quilt thickly padded, and are  The most common bedstead in Egypt and
used either singly or one or more placed upon each Arabia is of this shape, framed rudely of palmother. A similar quilt of finer materials forms the
coverlet in winter, and in summer a thin blanket
suffices; but sometimes the convenient outer garment is used for the latter purpose, and was so 
among the Jews, as we learn from I Sam. xix. 13,
where Michal covers with a'i1, cloak or mantle
(corresponding to the moder abba or hyk), the
image which was to represent her husband sleep-                   I35.
ing. The difference of use here is, that the poor
wrap themselves up in it, and it forms their whole sticks.  It was used in ancient Egypt, and is
bed; whereas the rich employ it as a covering only. figured in the mural paintings.  In Palestine,
A pillow is placed upon the mattress, and over Syria, and Persia, where the palm-tree is not comboth, in good houses, is laid a sheet. The bolsters mon, and where timber is more plentiful, a bedare more valuable than the mattresses, both in frame of similar shape is made of boards. This
respect to their coverings and material: they are kind of bedstead is also used upon the house-tops
usually stuffed with cotton or other soft substance during the season in which people sleep there.
(Ezek. xiii. 18, 20); but instead of these, skins of It is more than likely that Og's bedstead was of
goats or sheep appear to have been formerly used this description (Deut. iii. II). In the times in
by the poorer classes and in the hardier ages. which he lived the palm-tree was more common
These skins were probably sewed up in the natural in Palestine than at present, and the bedsteads in
shape, like water-skins, and stuffed with chaff or ordinary use were probably formed of palm-sticks.
wool (I Sam. xix. 13). It is not unlikely that the They would therefore be incapable of sustaining
Israelites were acquainted with those wooden  any undue weight without being disjointed and
crescent-shaped bolsters of wood, which were bent awry; and this would dictate the necessity




BED                     826                  BEDA
of making that destined to sustain the vast bulk of  A bed with a tester is mentioned in Judith xvi.
Og, rather of rods of iron than of the mid-ribs of 23, which, in connection with other indications,
the palm-fronds. These bedsteads are also of a and the frequent mention of rich tapestries hung
length seldom more than a few inches beyond the upon and about a bed for luxuriousness and oraverage human stature (commonly 6 feet 3 inches); nament, proves that such beds (represented in the
and hence the propriety with which the length of annexed cut) as are still used by royal and disOg's bedstead is stated, to convey an idea of his
stature-a fact which has perplexed those who
supposed there was no other bedstead than the
divan, seeing that the length of the divan has no'                   V
determinate reference to the stature of the persons 
reposing on it.
It is not necessary to suppose that the bedsteads
were all of this sort. There are traces of a kind of
portable couch (r Sam. xix. 15), which appears
to have served as a sofa for sitting on in the daytime <tr Sam. xxviii. 23; Ezek. xxiii. 41; Amos
vi. 4); and there is now the less reason to doubt 
that the ancient Hebrews enjoyed this convenience, as we find such couches in use among 
the neighbouring nations, and figured on their
monuments.   The subjoined example is from
138.
tinguished personages were not unknown under
r >'1 t \the Hebrew'monarchy (comp. Esth. i. 6; Prov.
vii. i6, se.; Ezek. xxiii. 4I).
I^~36.~W             It is evident that the ancient Jews, like the
moder inhabitants of their land, seldom or never
ancient Egypt  The elegance of shape in this changed their dress on going to bed. Most people
ancient hEgypt eTnshews ethe perfetion to which  only divest themselves of their outer garment, and
fT^    ^Z^and other specimens, s ^ews the perfction to w loosen the ligatures of the waist, excepting during
the manufacture of these articles had been brought   hottest part of the summer, when they sleep
nmoag4hatpeople. Persons arerepresented sitting almost entirely unclad.-J. K.
on such sofas in the day-time; and that they were,
used by single persons for sleeping on at night,  BEDA, or BEDE, designated the Venerable,
is shewn by the wooden pillow placed thereon, as was born A.D. 673, and died in 735. His life was
well as by the steps for ascent that occur beside spent almost entirely in the seclusion of the cloissome of the specimens (as at present) which stand  ter at Wearmouth, and his time devoted to study.
higher than the others. Such couches were ca- He wrote a multitude of works, of which the most
pable of receiving those ornaments of ivory which valuable is his Hist. Eccles. Gentis Anglorum.
are mentioned in Amos vi. 4; which of itself At an early period he commenced the practice ot
shews that the Hebrews had something of the kind, extracting from the writings of the Fathers their
forming an ornamental article of furniture.  interpretations of Scripture, and from this source
The next cut shews another variety of couch- his exegetical works are principally derived. These
comprehend the whole of the N. T., most of the
O. T., and part of the Apocrypha. On the N. T.
he follows chiefly Augustine; on the Old he draws
\y -t ^also from Basil and Ambrose.                 His expositions,
especially of the 0. T., are guided by an allegorising spirit; indeed, he avows that it is by this pro-,^(^^^'^  -^'^v^  1 \cess alone that the full meaning of Scripture can
_________>),  3  \   V^be elicited.'He who knows how to interpret
allegorically,' says he (Praef. in Tobiam, Opp. iv.:1"~.' ^^ \(i>       347)'will see that the inner sense excels the
simplicity of the letter as apples do leaves.' In
his comment on the Catholic Epistles, I John v. 7
is omitted. His works have been collected in 6
------        vols. folio, Paris 1544, 1545, 554, editions now of
137.                     great rarity, in 8 vols. fol. Basil 1563, and in 8
vols. fol. Cologne I6I2 and i688 (Wright, Piog.
bed, from the sculptures discovered by Mr. Fel- Brit. Liter., Anglo-Saxon Period, pp. 263, 288)
lows in Asia Minor.                           -W. L. A.




BEDAN                     827               BEDOLACH
BEDAN (i.1). In I Sam. xii II, we read      one of the articles received by the Tyrians from
that the Lord sent as deliverers of Israel-Jerub-Tarshish  In  ech. iv. o it is used to designate
baal, Bedan, Jephthah, Samuel. Three of these an instrument for measuring (t^lfl tlen the stone,
we know to have been judges of Israel, but we the tin, i.e., the plummet); and in Is. i. 25 any
nowhere find Bedan among the number. The kind of alloy that may be mixed up with a preTargum understands it of Samson, and so Jerome cious metal. Tin is a bluish white metal, lus,
and the generality of interpreters; but this inter- trous and fusible; the fused metal crystalizes in
pretation goes on the supposition that pl 3 should regular octahedrons. It is not found native. —
be rendered in Dan, i.e., one in Dan, or of the W. L. A.
tribe of Dan, as Samson was. In this sense, as
Kimchi observes, it would have the same force as BEDOLACH     (    ).  This word occus im
Ben-Dan, a son of Dan, a Danite. Such an in- Gen. ii. 12, and Nunm. xi. 7. Its meaning has
termixture of proper names and appellatives, how- been much disputed. In the Sept. it is considered
ever, is very doubtful, and it is to be noted that as a precious stone, and translated (Gen. ii. 12) by
Bedan is mentioned before Jephthah, whereas dvOpa~, and (Num. xi. 7) by Kp6raXX\o; while
Samson was after him. The Septuagint, Syriac, Aquila, Symmachus, Theodotion, and the Vuland Arabic have Barak, which many think the gate, render it bde/lium, a transparent aromatic
preferable reading (comp. Heb. xi. 32). A man gum from a tree growing in Arabia.   Of this
of the name of Bedan occurs, however, among the opinion also is Josephus (Antiq.. i.. 6), where
posterity of Manasseh (l Chron. vii. I7), and he describes the manna —5/,Aotov ro -rv dppC4Trwv
Junius, followed by some others, thinks that the  \\g, i.e., similar to the aromatic bdellium
judge Jair is meant, and that he is here called  (Num. xi. 7).  In the Syriac version it is
Bedan to distinguish him from the more ancient 
Jair, the son of Manasseh. The order in which  U.O'.   brulcho, evidently for 7..0,the judges are here named is not at variance with bdulco, the two letters r and d being so similar
this view (Num. xxxii. 4I; Judg. x. 3, 4); but  aso, the two letters r and d being so similar
this view (Num. xxxul. 41, Judg. x. 3, 4); but as to be easily confounded with one another in
surely if Jair had been really intended, he might   t  be easily confounded with one another in
have been called by that name without any danger transcribing. We find the same translation in
of his being, in this text (where he is called a de-sthe Sam n by the Sept. and others bear i
liveier of Israel, and placed among the judges),      giveby the Sept. and others bear wi
confounded with the more ancient Jair. [Gesenius them a different name, rpp  or rlp.
thinks Bedan is the same as Abdon, Judg. xii. I3,  The Jewish Rabbins, however, followed by a host
15,'the 3? being dropped, as was often the case of their Arabian translators, and to whom Bochart
with the Phoenicians in the word 13y.' Lex. in (Hieroz. iii. p. 593, sq.), and Gesenius (Thesaur.
v.]                                          i. I8I), accede, translate bedolach by pearl, and
BEDELL, WILLIAM, D.D., successively Pro- consider Havilah (nrhln) as the part of Arabia
yost of Trinity College, Dublin, and Bishop of near Catipha and Bahrein on the Persian Gulf,
Kilmore and Ardagh, was born at Black Notley where the pearls are found.
in Essex, in I570, and died 7th Feb. i642. He   Those who regard bedolach as some kind of
was an eminent scholar, and was devoted to precious stone, rest their argument on the fact
biblical studies. To him the Irish are indebted  that it is placed (Gen. ii. 12), by the side of 0n.
for the translation of the whole Scriptures into the shbham, which is a precious stone, and occurs
Erse tongue. Having acquired a knowledge of several times in the Scriptures, and that they
~that language himself, the bishop employed Mr. are both mentioned as belonging to the producMortogh O'Cionga or King, and the Rev. Dennis tions of the land HavUlah. But, if this meaning
O'Sheridan, to translate the O. T. into it, reserving were intended, the reading ought to be pt$ tW
for himself the task of comparing their rendering            and not, as it actually stands,
with the Hebrew and LXX.      The N. T. had
been previously translated by Dr. Daniel, assisted't;l'ln  r1  n nl"t2 D', expressly excluding bedo.
by King, and published at Dublin in 1602. The lach from the mineral kingdom.
troubled state of the country prevented the print-  Those who translate bedolach by'pearl' refer
ing of Bishop Bedell's translation of the 0. T. to the -later Jewish and Arabian expowders of
before his death, and after that it was neglected, the Bible, whose authority, if not strengthened
and lay in MS. for many years. It was at length by valid arguments, is but of little weight. It
printed, chiefly through the munificence of the is, moreover, more than probable that the pearl
Hon. R. Boyle, and issued in two vols. 4to, in was as yet unknown in the time of Moses, or he
I686. Bedell enjoyed the respect and esteem of would certainly not have omitted it from  the
men of all parties during his life, and was followed costly contributions to the tabernacle, the priestly
to the grave by universal regret.'Sit anima mea dresses, or even the Urim and Thummin, while
cum anima Bedelli,' is said to have been the ex- its fellow shohamt, though of less value, was vaclamation of a Roman Catholic priest who was riously used among the sacred ornaments (Exod.
present at his funeral.-W. L. A.              xxv. 7; xxxv. 9, 27; xxviii. 20; xxxix. I3). Nor
EIL (   Sept. K Epo) t     d in do we find any mention of pearl in the times of
-BEDIL (  Sept. crr ), translated,  David and Solomon. In the.opinion of some, the
Whe A. V. tin, is used to denote both that metal in pearl occurs under its true Arabic name, in Esth.
a pure state, and the alloy of that, or lead, with i 6, i  (dar), Arab. )0 [but this is doubtful, see
silver.  It occurs first in Num. xxxi. 22 among
the metals which had been taken from the Midian- DAR]; in the New Testament it is very frequently
ites, and were to be purified by passing through  mentioned under the Greek name,uapyaplrxs.
the fire; and in Ez. xxvii. 12, it is mentioned as  It is, therefore, most probable that the Hebrew




BEE                     328               BEELZEBUL
bedolach is the aromatic gum bdellium, which issues variation is owing only to the transcribers, as the
from a tree growing in Arabia, Media, and the proper antinome to Beeliada is not Eliada but'
Indies. Dioscorides (i. 8o) informs us that it was Jehoiada.-W. L. A.
called /8XKovJ or IoXX6', and Pliny (xi. ig) that  BEELZEBUB. [BAAL-ZEBUB.] In the N. T.
it bore the names of brochon, malacham,  and malit bore the names of brochon, malacham, and mal- Beelzebub is the name given, according to the
dacon. The frequent interchange of the A/ D andBeelzebub                               th
the p 3 brings the form very near to that of the Text. Rec., the Syr., the Itala, and the Vulg.,
Hebrew word; nor is the similarity of name in the which Luther, Diodati, and the A. V. follow, to
Hebrew and Greek, in the case of natural produc the prince of the demons (Matt. xii. 24; al.) But
tions, less conclusive as to the nature of the article, this reading is not supported by the best authorities,
since the Greeks probably retained the ancient and is consequently rejected in all critical editions.
Oriental names of productions coming from the It was doubtless an exegetical correction of the
Oriental names of productions coming from the
East. Pliny's description of the tree from which  origal reading Beelzebul  Doderlein (Inst. Theo
the bdellium is taken makes Kempfer's assertion  Chr. i. 443), following Castell, takes Beelzebub
(Armnn. Exot. p. 668) highly probable, that it is to be the Chal.  m  3  B'd d bhabha, and
the sort of palm-tree (borassusflabellformis, Linn. 
ci. 6. 3, Trigynia) so frequently met with on the the Syr. l.  \=?   B'dd' bobo, inimicus; and
Persian coast and in Arabia Felix. The term   to have no connection with Baalzebub.-W. L. A.
bdellium, however, is applied to two gummyresinous substances.  One of them is the Indian  BEELZEBUL(BerXe/3ooX). Of this word, which
bdellium, or false myrrh (perhaps the bdellium of is the true reading of the name given in the N. T.
the Scriptures), which is obtained from Amyris to the prince of the demons (Matt. x. 25; xii. 24,
(balsamodendron?) Commiphora. Dr. Roxburgh    27; Mark. iii. 22, 27; Luke xi. 15, i8, 19), dif(Flor. Ind. ii. 245) says that the trunk of the tree ferent explanations have been offered.  i. It has
is covered with a light-coloured pellicle, as in the been supposed to be a contemptuous play on the
common birch, which peels off fronm time to time, name Beelzebub, and to mean Dominus stercoris,
exposing to view a smooth green coat, which in 
succession supplies other similar exfoliations. This DirtGod, from.  filth, and.  the Chaldaic
tree diffuses a grateful fragrance, like that of the form of:21.  This view has the support of Buxfinest myrrh, to a considerable distance around. 
Dr. Royle (Illust. p. I76) was informed that this torf (Lex. Talm. in hT), Selden (De Diis Syr.
species yielded bdellium; and in confirmation of Synt. ii. c. 6), Winer (R. W. B., s. v.), and many
this statement, we may add that many of the spe- besides; indeed this may be regarded as the precimens of this bdellium in the British Museum have vailing view. In support of it is alleged the notoa yellow pellicle adhering to them, precisely like rious fact, that the Jews were in the habit of expresthat of the common birch, and that some of the sing contempt by such changes in the spelling of
pieces are perforated by spiny branches-another words; comp. Sychar for Sychem, Bethaven for
character serving to recognise the origin of the Bethel, etc.; and it is inferred that they could not
bdellium. Indian bdellium has considerable resem- more forcibly express hatred and contempt for an
blance to myrrh. Many of the pieces have hairs idol than by calling him by such a name as Dominus
adhering to them.                             stercoris. Having thus constructed the name, it is
The other kind of bdellium is called African  further supposed that they applied it to Satan as
bdellium, and is obtained from Heudolotia Africana the chief of all uncleanness, the pre-emipently im.
(Richard and Guillemin, Fl. de Senegambie). It is pure. The objections to this are-(I), That it does
a natural production of Senegal, and is called by not appear how the local deity of the Ekronites
the natives, who make toothpicks of its spines, came to be of such importance as to give his name
niottout. It consists of rounded or oval.tears, from  in a corrupted form to the prince of the demons;
one to two inches in diameter, of a dull and waxy and 
fracture, which, in the course of time, becomeand     That there is no such noun as  t in the
opaque, and are covered externally by a white orsense of stercs  Hebrew, the word for stercs
yellowish dust. It has a feeble but peculiar odour, being 5h (galal). Of fhis last objection Winer
and a bitter taste. Pellitier (Ann de. Chim. lxxx. makes light on the ground that,'in word-plays
p.'39) found it to consist of resin 59'0; soluble unusual, nay new forms will be used.' This is
gum, 92; bassorin, 30-6; volatile oil and loss, I12. true, but it is irrelevant, the objection being, not that
Resin of bdellium (African bdellium?) consists, ac- s 
cording to Johnstone, of carb. 40, hydr. 31, oxyg.  1t is a new or unusual word, but that it is not a
5.-E. M.                                      word at all, at least with this meaning. 2. Drusius
(Comment. ad voces Ebr. N. T. s. v.) proposes to
BEE. [DEBORAH.]                             take 51 t as the participle passive of:t (Zabhal)
BEEF.    [FOOD.]                            stercoravit (so used in the Talm.), so that Beelzebul would mean Dominus stercoratus, Ze)s Ko0rBEEILIADA    (gtS.}) The name of one of pis5s. This gives a very forcible meaning to the
David's sons (I Chron. xv. 5). In Sm. V   name; but whilst it leaves unexplained why this
David's sons ( Chron.   xiv. 5). In Sam. v.c 16,  name should be given to the prince of the demons,
and i Chron. iii. 6 he is called Eliada, and so it is exposed to the still more serious objection of
the LXX. and some codices give the name in I being incompatible with the usage of the language,
Chron. xiv.'5. Eliada may have been his original in which to express Dominus stercortus we should
name, and for some reason connected with his his-.s 
tory may have been changed into Beeliada; the have  1tln.y3n.  3. By some h1t is taken in
former signifying  God-known, the latter Baal- the sense of dzelling or house, which is its proknown. It is more probable, however, that the per meaning in Hebrew. According to Michaelis,




BEELZEBUL                   329                 BEEROTH
house is here used in an astrological sense, in been a current description of the prince of the
allusion to the supposed- mansions of the planets, demons, it was not the name of any demon in parwhich were objects of idolatrous worship, a mean- ticular.*-W. A.
ing which may be compared with that of Movers,                           p). Twoplaces
who understands by the word Saturn, as occupier: 
of a dwelling in the seventh heaven (Phonizier, cur in the 0. T. having this as their designation.
I. 260). Gousset (Comment. Ling. Heb. p. 223), I. A place in the land of Moab which received
takes it to refer to the habitation of demons (Tar- its name from a well dug there by the chiefs of
tarus, according to Paulus), of which one was the Israel, and celebrated in a song preserved by
chief or prince; an interpretation with which Meyer Moses (Num. xxi. 16).  This was one of the
substantially agrees (Krit. Exeg. Hd. Buch. on  stations of the Israelites, and according to tradition
Matt. x. 25).  Jahn (Archeol. iii. Th. 490), the water that filled the well which the princes
explains it of the region of the air, of which Satan  dug was the last appearance of the water which
is the prince of the power (Eph. ii 2); Lange had followed the Israelites through the wilderness.
adopts the explanation of Gousset, and suggests 2. A town in the tribe of Judah, to which Jotham
that the name was not a current one among the the son of Gilead fled from Abimelech (Judg. ix.
Jews for Satan, but was used by our Lord with  21). Since the time of Maundrell (7ourney, Mar.
special reference to the case of persons possessed  25) it has been identified with El-Bireh in the
by demons, for the sake of contrasting himself as plains of Judah, between Jerusalem and Bethel.
the true oiKoOe^Or6TS  with that usurping spirit, by But this does not tally with the locality assigned to
whose aid his enemies represented Him as working it by Eusebius (Onom. s. v. Bn7pd), who places
(7heol. Homil.'Bibewerk'on Matt. x. 25, comp. Beer nine Roman miles to the north of EleutherSchleusner Lex. in v.)  This view accords well opolis.  There is, however, another El-Bireh in
with the context of this passage, and also throws the southern part of the province of Ramleh,
great light on the use of the term in the other pas- which corresponds with the locality assigned in the
sages, where the subject is the occupancy of the  Onomasticon, and is probably the Beer of the
soul of man by the powers of evil. This view  Judges (Robinson, ii. 132, note I; iii. App. B.,
further accounts for the noticeable fact that it is Pt. i. No. 6, I).-W. L. A.
only in these passages in the Gospel that this name  BEER-ELIM  (D   g, We/l of heroes, Sept.
occurs; in the copious demonology of the Rabbins.
it is not found, which is hardly to be accounted  fpdap Tro AXtetAl), a place mentioned (Is. xv. 8)
for, had it ever been current among the Jews as a as on the borders of Moab. Junius conjectured
name for Satan. On the other hand, however, if that it is the same as Beer, mentioned Num. xxi.
Beelzebul was not a name in use among the Jews I6-I8, and this is followed by Vitringa, Gesenius,
for the evil spirit, how are we to account for their Rosenmiiller, Henderson, Knobel, etc.-W. L. A.
saying that our Lord cast out demons by the power  BEERI (tan, E,,*r,
of this arch-demon? and if Beelzebul means no       RI          onanus, Gesen   Er      er
more than otKoOcor6T7rs, why should the one be First; Sept. Behp, Bevpet.) I. The father of Jumore a name of reproach to our Lord than the dith, one of the wives of Esau (Gen. xxvi. 34).
other?                                        2. The father of the prophet Hosea (Hos. i. I).
It appears to us somewhat singular, that in the BEERLAHAI-ROI (SK       Enr  s,   We/ of
discussion of this question more notice has not been BEER-AHAI-ROI (,                 ll of
taken of the opinion of Lightfoot, and of the fact ife of vision, Gesen.; wellof the living sight, Hengestablished by him (Hor. Heb. in Matt. xii. 24; stenb.; puteus Dei viventis qui me intuitus est,
*  L,,,, /... r-., Fiirst; Sept. q5plap of &vdnrtov et8ov'  fpiap 7rs
Luc. xi. 15), that W1aI occurs in the Talmudic 6pdoaes) a well or fountain spring between Kadesh
writers in the sense of stercus, and is by them 
in this sense applied to idols.  This seems an and Bered (Gen. x      vi.;. 62; xxv.  G), 
named because Hagar had there a vision of God
important fact, for it proves-I. That 511't in this and yet lived. Near to this well was the usual
aense is a Hebrew word, which may have been, residence of Isaac. At Moyle, Moilahi or Muand probably was in good credit in the best weilah, a station to the south of Beersheba, there
days of the language, though it does not occur is said to be a well called by the Arabs Moilahhi
in the sacred writings; 2. That in this sense Hagar (Tuch. Comment. in loc.; Knobel, Do.;
the Jews applied it as a designation of idols; and  Ritter, Erdkunde, xiv. io86).-W. L. A.
3. That as idols were regarded by them    as    BEEROTH     ljN   Sept. Bqp cT, BpO), one
demons (I Cor. x. 9, 20), Beelzebul, the chiefone
of abomination, i. e., the idol of idols, would be of the cities of the Hivites who made a league with
a very natural appellation of the prince of the Joshua, and so were not destroyed by the Israeldemons (qu..' Daemon daemonissimus,' Lightfoot), ites (Josh. ix. I-I8). Beeroth was allotted to the
This interpretation falls in with the fact that the tribe of Benjamin (2 Sam. iv. 2); it is mentioned
Jews charged our Lord with seeking to introduce along with other Benjamite cities among the places
idolatry; indeed it was on this charge that they whose inhabitants returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra
put him to death (John xix. 7; comp. Whately, ii. 25; Neh. vii. 29). Eusebius places it seven
Kingdom of Christ, Ess. i.); so that they might miles from Jerusalem, on the road to Nicopolis
well apply to him the name Beelzebul, and say  (Onom. in B'qpb); whilst Jerome says it was the
that his miracles were done by the power, and for same distance on the road to Neapolis. It is comthe furtherance of the cause of this wicked spirit.
In this case the word has no connection with    * It is somewhat noticeable that Lightfoot is inBeelzebub. As to the absence of any reference to variably cited as approving the first of the above
Beelzebul in the Talmud, that is sufficiently ac- explanations of Beelzebul; whereas he all but
counted for by the fact that though this may have expressly repudiates it (For. Heb. ad Luc. xi. 15).




BEERSHEBA                   330               BEHEMOTH
monly identified with El-Bireh, between Jerusalem  by any writer earlier than Eusebius and Jerome, in
and Bethel) Robinson, ii 132; Wilson, ii. 39; the fourth century, who describe it as a large
Stanley, 2I3; Nugent, ii. III).  There is, how- village  (Euseb. Kx4fu iey1o-ri; Jerome, vicus
ever, a difficulty here which has not been obviated. grandis), and the seat of a Roman garrison. In
If el-Bireh be Beeroth, then Jerome is right in the centuries before and after the Moslem conquest
placing the latter on the road to Neapolis, but he it is mentioned among the episcopal cities of
is wrong as to the distance from Jerusalem. Again, Palestine (Reland, Palrst. i 35); but none of its
if Eusebius be right in placing Beeroth on the road bishops are anywhere named.  The site seems
to Nicopolis, it cannot possibly be el-Bireh, which  to have been forgotten till the X4th century, when
lies to the north of Jerusalem. Robinson tries to Sir John Maundeville, Rudolf de Suchem, and
obviate this by saying-' the traveller, on emerg- William de Baldensel, recognised the name at a
ing from the hills into the plain round el-Jib, sees place which they passed on their route from Sinai
el-Bireh on his right after a little more than two to Hebron. It was then uninhabited, but some of
hours from Jerusalem' (ii. I32). But Eusebius the churches were still standing. From that time
says nothing of seeing it' on the right;' he says till the recent visit of Dr. Robinson, the place rethat it is a village near to Jerusalem, KarT6vrc v mained unvisited and unknown, except for the
&rl NiK6roXtv. The locality assigned by Eusebius slight notice obtained by Seetzen from the Arabs
is confirmed by the connection of Beeroth with (Zach's Monatl. Corresp. xvii. 143). Dr. RobinChephirah and Kiriath-jearim (Josh. ix. 17; Ezra son says:-'In three-quarters of an hour we
ii. 25); both of which lay to the north-west of reached Wady es-Leba, a wide watercourse or bed
Jerusalem, on the way to Nicopolis (Arnold in of a torrent, running here W.S.W., upon whose
Herzog's Encycl. xiv. 732).                   northern side, close upon the bank, are two deep
Another Beeroth, described as that' of the chil- wells, still called Bir-es-Leba, the ancient Beerdren of Jaakan,' is mentioned (Deut. x. 6) as one sheba. We had entered the borders of Palestine!'
of the stations of the Israelites in the desert. In  These wells are 55 rods apart. They are circular,
Num. xxxiii. 31, 32, the place is called simply and stoned up very neatly with masonry, apparently
Bene-jaakan. It has not been identified. [BENEI- very ancient. The largest of them is 124 feet iu
JAAKAN. ]-W. L. A.                            diameter, and 44J feet deep to the surface of the
water, I6 of which, at the bottom, are excavated
BEERSHEBA      Y,   Well of the o athf  in t he solid rock. The other well is 5 feet in diaSept. Brpo-aace),* a place in the southernmost part meter by 12 feet deep.'The water in both is pure
of Canaan, celebrated for the sojourn of the patri- and sweet, and in great abundance; the finest, in.
archs. It seems to have been a favourite station  deed, we had found sinceleaving Sinai. Both wells
of Abraham, and here he planted one of those are surrounded with drinking-troughs of stone for'groves' which formed the temples of those re- camels and flocks, such as were doubtless used of
mote times (Gen. xxi. 33). A town of some conse- old by the flocks which were fed on the adjacent
quence afterwards arose on the spot, and retained  hills' (Robinson, i 301). No ruins were at first
the same name. It was first assigned to the tribe  visible; but, on examination, foundations of former
of Judah (Josh. xv. 28), and afterwards transferred  dwellings were traced, dispersed loosely over the
to Simeon (Josh. xix. 2), but was still popularly low hills, to the north of the wells, and in the hol.
ascribed to Judah (2 Sam. xxiv. 7). A.s it was the lows between. The site of the wells is nearly midsouthernmost city of the land, its name is of fre- way between the southern end of the Dead Sea
quent occurrence, being proverbially used in de- and the Mediterranean at Raphlea, or twenty-seven
scribing the extent of the country, in the phrase miles south-east from Gaza, and about the same' from Dan (in the north) to Beersheba' (in the distance south-by-west from Hebron. Its present
south), and reversely,'from Beersheba unto Dan' Arabic name, Bir-es-Seba, means  well of the
(Judg. xx. I; 2 Sam. xvii. II; I Chron. xxi. 2; seven,' or' of lions.'-J. K.
2 Chron. xxx. 5).  When the land was divided
into two kingdoms, the extent of that of Judah was  BEESTHERAH   (n^giJp, Sept. J BoCopd,
in like manner described by the phrase'from  var. BeeOepd), a Levitical town in the eastern part
Beersheba to Mount Ephraim' (2 Chron. xix. 4). of Manasseh (Josh. xxi. 27), called simply Ashtar
It was at Beersheba that Samuel established his oth (i Chron. vii. 71). The word is doubtless a
sons as judges for the southernmost districts contraction of,lnt)V P31 (Gesen., Thes. p. I76,
(I Sam. viii. 2): it was from thence that Elijah  193, 195; Winer, R. W  B. s. v.)-W. L, A.
wandered out into the southern desert (I Kings
xix. 3): here was one of the chief seats of idola- BEETLE. [CHARGOL.]
trous worship in the time of Uzziah (Amos v. 5;  BEEVES. [BAQAR, SHOR, PAATZ.]
viii. 14); and to this place, among others, theJews
returned after the captivity (Neh. xi. 27, 30).  BEGGARS. [ALMS.]
This is the last time its name occurs in the Old BEHEADING. [PUNISHMENTS.J
Testament. In the New Testament it is not once
mentioned; nor is it referred to, as then existing,  BEHEMOTH, the designation of an animal,
a description of which is given, Job. xl. 15-24.
* [This word appears in two forms in the ori- Opinions are divided between the hippopotamus
ginal, Beershaba and Beersheba (Gen. xxi. 31; xxvi. and the elephant as the animal intended in thi*
33). The former means well of seven; the latter passage. We shall consider-i. The word itsef
oath well; but both refer to the oath which sig- If 1m1nn  (behemoth) is to be taken as a pure
nalised the place, the verb ZWVl  being derived  Hebrew word, it is the plural of fltolI (behemah)
from y31t  seven, and meaning literally to seven cattle, beasts of burden, wild beasts. This plural
oneself, i. e., to take an oath before seven witnesses, occurs as designating animals collectively, whether
or on seven victims.]                        tame or wild (Ge. vii, 14; Lev.:xxv. 7; Deut,




BEKAH                     331                    BEL
xxxii. 24; Hab. ii. 17); but here it is plainly used  BEL (3, contracted from  21, the Aramaic
to denote some specific animal well known to the form of i   Sept. BiX and BiXos) is the name
writer.  Gesenius calls this an instance of the' 
plural of majesty, and so it is often stated; but it under which the national god of the Babylonians is
is rather an instance of the intensive plural, and  cursorily mentioned in Is. xlvi.; Jer. 1. 2; li. 44.
this name is bestowed on the animal in question  Besides these passages in the Bible, there are notices
because in it the idea of the brute creation is most of this deity in Bar. vi. 40, and the apocryphal
perfectly developed; it stands to the mind of the addition to the book of Daniel, in the Sept., xiv. I,
writer as the concentration of animality (qu. bru- sq., where we read of meat and drink being daily
tissimum brutorum). The question has been raised, offered to him, according to a usage occurring in
however, whether this is a pure Hebrew word; and  classical idolatry, and termed Lectisternia (Jer. li.
since Jablonski suggested that it is a Coptic word, 44?) For fuller information we must turn to the tesP-ehe-mout, signifying water-ox, conformed to He- timonies of profane writers. A particular account
brew analogy, many scholars have embraced this of the pyramidal temple of Bel, at Babylon, is given
view (Jablonski Opusc. ed. te Water, i. 52; Ge-by Herodotus, i. I8I-183. It is there also stated
senius Thes. and Lex. in voc.; Furst, Hdwdrterb. that the sacrifices of this god consisted of adult
in voc.) Before this is admitted, however, one cattle (irpjara), of their young, when sucking
would like to see it made out a little more satis-(which last class were the only victims offered up
factorily that such a word as P-ehe-mout ever on the golden altar), and of incense. The custom
existed, or that it is good Coptic. Dr. Lee has of providing him with Lectisternia may be inferred
adduced some serious objections to it (Lex. in voc.; from the table placed before the statue, but it is
comp. Hengstenberg, Die Auth. des Pentateuch. i. not expressly mentioned. Diodorus (ii. 9) gives a
258); and, at any rate, it is no true induction to similar account of this temple; but adds that there
apply for the solution of a problem what has not were large golden statues of Zeus, Hera, and Rhea
been first shewn to exist as a vera causa (Newton,  n its summit, with a table, common to them all,
Principia, p. 388, Lond. I726).-2. nReasons of before them. Gesenius, in order to support his
those who hold behemoth to be the rhinoceros. One own theory, endeavours to shew that this statue of
of these is the supposed Coptic origin of the name Zeus must have been that of Saturn, -and that that
just mentioned; and, undoubtedly, if it could be of Rhea represented the sun. Hitzig, however, in
made out that the rhinoceros was ever called in his note to Is. xvii. 8, more justly observes that
Egypt by the word P-ehe-mout, signifying water-ox, Hera is the female counterpart to Zeus-Bel, that
as the Italians call it Bo-marino, a strong reason she s called so solely because it was the name of
would be found in this for giving this significationthe chief Greek goddess, and that she and Bel are
to the behemoth of Job. As the case stands, how- the moon and sun. He refers for confirmation to
ever, there is no real force in this reason. OtherBerosus (p. 50, ed. Richter), who states that the
reasons have more weight. The context, it is said, wife of Bel was called Omorca, which means moon;
requires us to recognise an amtihibious animal here, and to Ammian. Marcell. xxiii. 3, for a statement
both because the enumeration in ch. xxxviii. xxxix. that the moon was, in later times, zealously woris confined to land animals and birds, and becauseshipped in Mesopotamia  The classical writers
the description is essentially that of an amphibious generally call this Babylonian deity by their names,
animal (comp. ver. 15, 21, 22, with ver. 23, 24). Zeus and 7u&piter (Herod. and Diod. 1. c.; Plin.
Again, the conjunction of behemoth with leviathan Hst. Nat. vi. 30); by which they assuredly did not
(assumed to be the crocodile) favours this supposi-mean theplanet of that name, but merely the chief
tion, both being natives of Egypt, and both con- god of their religious system. Cicero, however,
stantly mentioned together by ancient authors (De Nat. Deor. iii. I6) recognizes Hercules in the
(E erod. ii. 67-71 Diod. Sic i. 35; Plin. xxviii 8).Belus of India, which is a loose term for Babylonia.
And, in fine, the mention of his tail (ver. 17) is This favours the identity of el and Melkarth.
more appropriate to the rhinoceros than to the  The question whether the sun or the planet
elephant (Bochart, Hieroz. pt. ii. bk. 5, ch. 15; Jupiter was the power of nature adored under the
Ludolf, Hist. Aeth. i. Ii; Gesen. Thes. I83).-3. name of Bel, is discussed under the article BAAL.
Reasons of those who hold behemoth to be the ele- Thefollowingengrang, takenfrom a Babylonian.hant. i. The great muscular strength and power
of traction ascribed to this animal (i6, 18); 2. The 
description of the habits of the animal (20, 21, 22),    ^
which agree with those of the elephant; 3. The..
incompatibility of the statement in ver. 20 with the 
habits of the rhinoceros (Schultens, Comment. in    I     l     j 
loc.; Grotius, in loc.) The advocates of these
two opinions are strong against each other, but^                                     1 
weak for their own side. The description of Job, 
taken as a whole, will apply to neither the hippopotamus nor the elephant. This has led some to               \
think that the animal here described is now extinct      a 
(Mason Good, Wemyss, Ad. Clarke); that it is 
fabulous (Renan, Fiirst also, apparently, Hdwb. p.                 I39.
169; comp. 2 Esdr. vi. 49 ff.); that it is a general
description of the brute creation (Lee, wob, p. 518), cylinder, represents, according to Miinter, the sunwith the idea of the hippopotamus predominant. god and one of his priests. The triangle on the
(C. H. S. in former edition.)-W. L. A.        top of one of the pillars, the star with eight rays,
and the half moon, are all significant symbols. —
BEKAH, half a shekel. [WEIGHTS.]            J. N.




BEL AND DRAGON                  332                BELLOWS
BEL and DRAGON. [DANIEL, APOCRYPHAL         son, Yashar., p. 47); but BeXtap is only another
ADDITIONS TO.i                                form of the word BeXcaX by the substitution of p
L,~.BELA (y,,,.,     /-.   r. ~.   for X, which is common in many languages (e.g.,
BELA (1', destruction).  I. One of the cities Chinese), and is found in many words (e.g., va6Kpaof the plain. [ZOAR.]                         pos for va6KX-\pos, curo colo, ap6tre from apostolus,
2. A king of Edom, whose capital was named  etc. See T. Hewitt Key On the Alphabet).
Dinhabah (qu. inmn SI, lord, i. e., place of plun-  The word is discussed and explained by Gesenius,
dering, Gesen. -a dubious etymology), Gen. xxxvi.  Thes. s. v.; Schleusner, Lex. N. T., s. v.; Rosen32; I Chron. i. 43.                           miller, Schol. ad., Ps. xviii. 5; Ewald, Krit. Gram.,
3. The eldest son of Benjamin, Gen. xlvi. 21 p. 515; Ammon. de Orco ad Hebr. notionem, in
(A. V. Belah).  From him came the family of the Paul, Mentor. iv. 200; Michaelis, Supplem., p. I I9;
Belaites, Num. xxvi. 38.                      Eichhorn, Biblioth. Univ. Lit. Bibl. iv. 120, and
4. The son of Azaz, a Reubenite, who dwelt in especially Bottcher, de Znferis, p. 87.-F. W. F.
Aroer,.I Chron. v. 8.-W. L. A.
BELIAL~ *(~  *  *BELL.                     Bells of gold  (l21t 1 s=V, Sept.
BELIAL (5p3s!).    This word, which in the Kowves) were attached to the lower part of the
blue robe (the robe of the ephod) which formed
0. T. is constantly but erroneously rendered as a     e           hihpie    i hi 
part of the dress of the high-priest in his sacerdotal
proper name, is an adjective derived from 41 ministrations (Exod. xxviii 33, 34: comp. Ecclus.' not,' and $s advantageous (non-frugi), and xv. 9). They were there placed alternately with
denotes'worthlessness,' like the Latin nequilia; the pomegranate-shaped knobs, one of these being
between every two of the bells. The number of
the other derivations proposed, as from S: and these bells is not mentioned in Scripture; but tra51t (absque jugo, Fischer, De Vers. V. T, p. 93), dition states that there were seventy-two (Gemara
and that approved by Ewald from the Arabic ('qui Sevach. io). We need not seek any other reason
non eminet,' Heb. Gram., sec. 348-458; Michaelis, for this rather singular use of bells than that which
Supplem. ad Lowth, p. 1119), are not so probable is assigned:' His sound shall be heard when he
(Rosenmiiller, ad Deut. xiii. 14). The translation  goeth into the holy place before the Lord, and when
of Belial as a proper name arose from the solitary he cometh out, that he die not' (Exod. xxviii. 35);
instance of its use in the N. T. (2 Cor. vi. 15), and by which we may understand that the sound of the
from the expression' floods of Belial,' in Ps. xviii. bells manifested that he was properly arrayed in
4, which by some interpreters has been fancifully the robes of ceremony which he was required to
and incorrectly explained of the'streams of the wear when he entered the presence-chamber of the
underworld.' The LXX, Aquila, and Symmachus, Great King; and that as no minister can enter the
rightly translate it by dvb6,u/a, dvotia, rapdvo$uos, presence of an earthly potentate abruptly and und7roo-rao-a, Xott6s, and only one Greek version, that announced, so he (whom no human being could
of Theodotion, in a single verse, by BeXtaX (Judg. introduce) was to have his entrance harbingered by
xix. 22). Hence we find in Suidas-BaXtaX, r   the sound of the bells he wore. This sound, heard'Eppahwv cwvv rbvp &dTroaTdr7vv 8Xot. The Vulgate outside, also notified to the people the time in which
also translates it'injusta,''impia,'iniqua,'' fla- he was engaged in his sacred ministrations, and
gitium,' and once (i Kings xxi. Io)'diabolus.' during which they remained in prayer (Luke i. 9,
Nor can it be argued that Belial is a proper name  to). [It is probable, however, that these bells had
from the fact that it is constantly qualified by the a symbolical meaning, like all the other parts of the
words 11'a son of,' and VyR, or U'I'a man of' high-priest's dress. The pomegranate was the
(as in Deut. xv. 9; i Sam. xx. 25; Prov. vi. 12, emblem of fulness and the bell of announcement;
etc.), any more than we shoulrd argue that Sn  and the alternation of these on the med indicated
(chair) is an proper namn  e  rom t  phrase that  or the wearer's function as the preserver of the divine
cai is a propr n e fm te p e      word in its fulness, and the announcer of it to the
cn ~2'men of,' or'sons of strength,' i. e., people.  (See Bahr. Symb. d. Mos. Cultus, ii.'strong men' (Rosenmiiller, Schol. ad, Ps. xviii. 5). 126.)] It is remarkable that there is no appearThe word Belial is ofter used without any adjunct ance of bells of any kind in the Egyptian monufor a wicked and lawless man, by metonomy of the ments.-J. K.
abstract for the concrete, like the Latin' Scelus!'  BELLS OF THE HORSES (nN$n), Zech. xiv. 20,
(2 Sam. xxiii. 6; Job xxxiv. 18; Nah. i. I). The have been supposed to denote bells fixed to the
meanings'Orcus' or' destruction,' attributed to foreheads or bridles of horses trained for war, to
the word by commentators in Ps. xviii. 5, Nah. accustom them to noise; but this seems foreign to
i. I I, are incapable of being substantiated.  the design of the passage. With more probability,
The name Belial, and the conception of his it has been suggested that these were'small metallic
character as a prince of evil spirits, arose after the plates suspended from the necks of horses or camels,
close of the 0. T. canon, as we see from 2 Cor. for the sake of ornament, and making a tinkling
vi. I5-Ti srvauoS v7lar s Xptorr 7rpbs BeXtap. In this noise by striking against each other like cymbals'
sense Belial is frequently used in the Fathers, the (Henderson in loc.) The meaning of the passage
Pseudo-sibylline books, and the Apocryphal gos- is that true religion would so prevail that even the
pels, from which the modern notion of Belial as an horses, formerly the instruments of luxury and pride,
impure and apostate spirit has been derived. St. would now become consecrated to God (Hitzig in
Paul (. c.) appears to use the name as an equiva- loc.); and,'in general, that all things should be used
lent to' the wicked one' (Grotius, ad loc.) Cas- so as to glorify Him.-W. L. A.
tell invents for it the derivation gys in,' a wood                              T
BELLOWS ('1 n, Sept. ovoryp).      This word
demon;' and others, deriving it from a Syriac root, LOWS         Sept.       )   Thisword
make it equivalent to Trbv dipovTa rT 1Tovo-las Too only occurs in Jer. vi. 29, and is there employed
dtpos in Eph. ii. 2 (Gesen. Thes., p. 20o; Donald- With reference to the casting of metal. As fires in




BELLY                    333               BELSHAZZAR
the East are always of wood or charcoal, a sufficient that given by profane historians (see Hengstenheatfor ordinary purposes is soon raised by the help berg, Beitrdge, p. 321 ff.); but there is an apof fans, and the use of bellows is confined to the parent difference between them  and Daniel as
workers in metal. Such was the case anciently; to the person during whose reign this took place.
and in the mural paintings of Egypt we observe no From  the narrative of Daniel, taken by itself
bellows but such as are used for the forge or fur- simply, it would appear as if Belshazzar was
nace. They occur as early as the time of Moses, the immediate successor of Nebuchadnezzar on
being represented in a tomb at Thebes which bears the throne of Babylon; whereas profane historithe name of Thothmes III. They consisted of a ans make no mention of Belshazzar, and name
several princes as occupying the throne between
Nebuchadnezzar and the close of the Chaldean
dynasty. Of these, two are elsewhere mentioned
in Scripture, viz., Evil-merodach (2 Kings, xxv.
\ \                  77; r /W\i\27; Jer. lii. 3); and Nergal-shar-ezer (Jer. xxxix.
3, I3), called Neriglissor, by Berosus; Neriglissar,
by Abyducus; Nerigassolassar, by Ptolemy; but
/  /J  properly Nergal-shar-uzur, as given by Rawlinson
from the monuments. The other names mentioned
-rG _~;      ~~l^J_ _.~ ^by the historians are Labrosoarchad and Nabonnedus or Labynetus; the former of whom was slain
I40.                     when a mere child in a conspiracy. As Daniel
leathern bag, secured and fitted into a frame, from  does not profess to record the history of the Babywhich a long pipe extednd ted for carrying the wind lonish empire, but only notices such facts as concern
which a long  pe extended for carrying the wind  his nation and his prophecies, it is easy to reconcile
to the fire. T    ohey were worked by the feet, the his narrative with that of the others so far, by interoperator standing upon them with one under each  ting between the names of Nebuchadnezzar and
foot and pressing them alternately, while he pulled  Belshazzar those ofEvil-merodach (son of Nebuup each exhausted skin with a string he held in his chadnezzar), Nergal-sar-ezer, Labrosoarchad, and
hand. In one instance it is observed from the paint- Nabonnedus (Nabu-nahit).;The real difficulty
ing, that when the man left the bellows they were e ewhen we come to the last of these. Was
raised as if filled with air, and this would imply a he the same as Belshazzar  If not, then Daniel
knowledge of the valve (Wilksons Anc.         and the profane historians are entirely at variance
tans, inL 338).-J. K.                        in their statements, for while he says that Babylon
BELLY. Among the Hebrews and most ancient was taken in Belshazzar's reign, they declare it was
nations, the belly was regarded as the seat of the taken in that of Nabonnedus. But it is impossible
carnal affections, as being, according to their to regard them as the same. The two names
notions, that which first partakes of sensual plea- have no affinity or resemblance, nor can the one be
sures (Tit. i. 12; Phil. iii. I9  Rom. xvi. 18). It regarded as the Hebrew representative of the other.
is used likewise symbolically for the heart, the inner- Besides, the historians not only make Nabonnedus
most recesses of the soul (Prov. xviii. 8; xx. 27; the reigning monarch when Babylon was taken,
xxii. 8). The expression embittering of the belly but they declare that he was not himself at Babylon,
signifies all the train of evils which may come upon but at Borsippa, when that event took place, and
a man (Jer. ix. 15; xxiii. 15; comp. Num. v. 27; that he was not slain by the Persians. It is clear,
Rev. x. 9).-J. K.                             therefore, that he cannot be identified with the
Belshazzar of Daniel. Happily, the discovery of
BELSHAM, THOMAS, a Socinian theologian of certain inscriptions by Col. Rawlinson in 1854 at
considerable note, born at Bedford, April 15, I750, Mugheir, the ancient Ur, has enabled him com-. s., was educated at the academy at Daventry, and  pletely to. reconcile these conflicting accounts.
appointed its principal tutor in I78I. From this From these it appears that Nabonnedus associated
he retired in 1789, on embracing Socinian opinions, with him on the throne, during the later years of
and became tutor at Hackney, where he succeeded his reign, his son Bil-shar-uzur, and allowed him
Dr. Priestley as minister in 1794. In 1805 he suc- the title of king. To effect a perfect agreement,
cedeed Dr. Disney, in Essex Street, London. He then, between the sacred and the profane narradied at Hampstead I829. He wrote many works, tives, we have only to suppose that this is the King
among which The Epistles of Paul theApostletrans- Belshazzar of Daniel; that he was at Babylon,
lated, with an Exposition and Notes, 4 vols. 8vo, and was slain there when the city was sacked by
I822, is the most important in a biblical respect. the Persians, while King Nabonnedus was shut up
He also had a principal share in An Improved Ver- in Borsippa, and on the taking of his capital surrension of the New Testament, put forth by the Uni- dered, and was suffered by the conqueror to live.
tarians, and which made its appearance in 1808. There still remains, however, it is true, the diffiThe work excited great attention at the time. It culty that Daniel calls Belshazzar the son of Nebuwas criticised by Dr. Nares (Remarks on the Version  chadnezzar; but this may be easily removed by
of the N. T. lately edited by the Unitarians, etc., supposing that, according to Hebrew usage, son
2d ed., 1814; see also Smith, Script. Testimony, stands here for grandson, in which relation Belpassim).                                      shazzar might stand to Nebuchadnezzar, through
TTBELSHAZZAR (A-DK,  Dan. v. I;, -tiK*,- Nabonnedus having married the daughter of that
_BELSHAZZAR  _:  a. v. v  king. As it would appear that -Nabonnedus or
vii. I, BaXrdo-ap), the last king of the Chaldees, Labynetus was an usurper (Megasthenes, ap. Euseb.
under whose rule Babylon was taken by Cyrus, Chron. Arm. p. 60), nothing is more probable
according to Daniel. The narrative of this event than that he would seek to strengthen his position
given by Daniel tallies in its main points with by a marriage with one of the princesses of the




BELTESHAZZAR                  334               BEN-HADAD
family whose honours he had usurped. (See Rev. either in the full from Benaiahu, or in the form
George Rawlinson, Translation of Herodotus, i. Benaiah, occurs frequently in Scripture. Besides
525; Bampton Lecturefor 859. p. i66 ff.)     the Benaiah above noticed, we have Benaiah the
BELTESHAZZAR        [DANIEL.]               Pirathonite, one of David's thirty mighty men
(2 Sam. xxiii. 30), and captain of the eleventh
BELUS, TEMPLE OF. [BABEL, TOWER OF.] division of the army          (I Chron. xxvii. 14);
several priests and Levites (I Chron. xv. 18, 24;
BEN (X, son) is often found as the first element several priests and Levites (I Chron. xv. I
~.                         ~~~~~~. ~2 Chron. xx. I4; xxxi. 13); two princes (I Chron.
of proper names; in which case the word which iv. 36; Ezr. xi. I, 13; and four men who, after
follows it is always to be considered dependent on the return from the captivity, had taken to themit, in the relation of our genitive. The word which  selves strange wives (Ezra x 25, 30, 35, 43).]
follows Ben may either be of itself a proper name,
or be an appellative or abstract, the principle of the  BEN-AMMI (s).  je1, son of my people); the
connection being essentially the same in both cases.                         by her father;
As for the first class, as the Syro-Arabian nations and of the  incestuous birth the name was inare all particularly addicted to genealogy, and as  nd  o  e a memorial (Gen. xix. 38).  The
they possess no surnames, nor family names in our LX. make his name Ammon; giving the
sense, they have no means of attaching a definite passage thus:-   dXe    oa ao0'A
designation to a person, except by adding some passage thus -avov Jcd, and this the Vulg. folaccessory specification to his distinctive, or, as we  ova Hs yo, and this the Amm onits o
lows. He was the ancestor of the Ammonites or
would term it, Christian, name. This explains Benei-Ammon.-W. L. A.
why so many persons, both in the Old and NewBenei-A
Testaments, are distinguished by the addition of BEN-HADAD      1, son of  adad; Sept.
the names of their father.  The same usage is-                   - 
especially -frequent among the Arabs; but they viWs "Aep), the name of three kings of Damascenehave improved its definiteness by adding the name Syria. As to the latter part of this name, Hadad,
of the person's child,'in case he has one. In doing there is little doubt that it is the name of the Syrian
this they always observe this arrangement -the god ADAD. The expression son of Hadal, which
name of the child, the person's own name, and denotes dependence and obedience, not only
the name of his father.  Thus the designation accords with the analogies of other heathen names,
of the patriarch Isaac would, in Arabic, run thus-  but is also supported by the existence of such terms
Father of Jacob, Isaac, son of Abraham  (Abu as'sons of God' among the Hebrews (cf. Ps.
Ja'qdb, Ishaq, ben Ibrahim). As for the latter lxxxii. 6).
classy there is an easy transition from this strict  I. The king of Syria, who was subsidised by
use of son to its employment in a figurative sense, Asa king of Judah to invade Israel, and thereby
to denote a peculiar dependence of derivation. compel Baasha (who had invaded Judah) to return
The principle of such a connection not only ex- to defend his own kingdom  (I Kings xv. 18).
plains such proper names as Ben Chesed (son of [AsA.] This Ben-hadad has, with some reason,
mercy), but applies to many striking metaphors in been supposed to be Hadad the Edomite who re.
other classes of words, as sons of the bow, a son belled against Solomon (I Kings xi 14, seq.)
of seventeen years (the usual mode of denoting  2. King of Syria, son of the preceding. His
age), a hill, the son of oil (Is. v. 2), and many earlier history is much involved in that of Ahab,
others, in which our translation effaces the Oriental with whom he was constantly at war [AHAB]. He
type of the expression. All proper names which  owed the signal defeat in which that war terbegin with Ben belong to the one or the other of minated to the vain notion which assimilated
these classes. Ben Abinadab, Ben Gaber, and Ben JEHOVAH to the local deities worshipped by the
Chesed (I Kings iv. 1o, Ii, I3) illustrate all the pos- nations of Syria, deeming Him'a God of the
sibilities of combination noticed above. In these hills,' but impotent to defend his votaries in' the
names, Ben would, perhaps, be better not trans- plains' (I Kings xx. 1-30). Instead of pursuing
lated, as it is in our version; although the Vulgate his victory, Ahab concluded a peace with the dehas preserved it, as the Sept. also appears to have feated Ben-hadad, which was observed for about
once done in ver. 8, to judge by the reading there. twelve years, when the Syrian king declared war
These remarks apply also in part to BAR, the against Jehoram the son of Ahab, and invaded
Aramaic synonyme of Ben, as in the name Bar- Israel: but all his plans and operations were frusAbbas.-J. N.                                  trated, being made known to Jehoram by the prophet Elisha (2 Kings vi. 8, ad fin.). After some
BEN-AIAH     (l,.:l or i $; Sept. Ba aas), years, however, he renewed the war, and besieged
son of Jehoiada, and commander of David's guard Jehoram in his capital, Samaria, until the inhabi(the Cherethites and Pelethites, 2 Sam. viii. IS). tants were reduced to the last extremities and most
His exploits were celebrated in Israel. He over- revolting resources by famine.  The siege was
came two Moabitish champions ('lions of God'), then unexpectedly raised, according to a prediction
slew an Egyptian giant with his own spear, and of Elisha, through a panic infused into the bewent down into an exhausted cistern and destroyed siegers, who concluding that a noise which they
a lion which had fallen into it when covered with seemed to hear portended the advance upon them
snow (2 Sam. xxiii. 20, 2I). Benaiah (doubtless of a foreign host procured byJehoram, thought
with the guard he commanded) adhered to Solomon only of saving themselves by flight. The next
when Joab and others attempted to set up Adoni- year Ben-hadad, learning that Elisha, through
jah; and when that attempt failed, he, as belonged whom so many of his designs had been brought to
to his office, was sent to put Joab to death, after nought, had arrived at Damascus, sent an officer
which he was appointed commander-in-chief in of distinction, named Hazael, with presents, to
his place (I Kings i. 36; ii. 29). [The name, consult him as. to his recovery from an illness




BENJAMIN                   835                BENJAMIN
under which he then suffered. The prophet an- the loss of his brother Joseph, and that his gentle
swered, that his disease was not mortal, but that he and amiable qualities gained the affections even of
would nevertheless die. This was accomplished his elder brothers, appears very clearly on the sura few days after by this very Hazael, who smothered face of the narrative. The impression left on one's
the sick monarch.in his bed, and mounted the mind in regard to him is) that he wanted force of
throne in his stead, B.C. 884 (2 Kings viii. 7-15). character; that he was one of those quiet and
[Calmet suggests that the wet cloth which was somewhat apathetic spirits who give little offence,
laid by Hazael on the face of Ben-hadad, was in- and take kindness from others very much as a
tended to relieve him from the heat of the fever, matter of course; who sabmit to strong outbursts
and that his death was accidental. This is more of affection on the part of their more susceptible
probable than the supposition that Hazael was the friends and relatives, but are never moved to such
intentional murderer of the king. Ewald proposes themselves. So much is this the impression left
to render the verb Mn'  indefinitely,' some one on the mind by what is recorded of him, especially
took,' and thinks Ben-ladad was strangled by his of his experiences in Egypt, his interviews with
servants in the bath; but this is both forced and his brother Joseph, and his whole conduct on that
not in harmony with the context (Thenius, in loc.) occasion, that people generally have carried away
Though not intending to murder the king, it is the idea that he was at this time still a child, a
quite in keeping with Hazael's character that he mere lad, who could not be expected to act any
should allow him to die when accidentally exposed very decided or demonstrative part; whereas he
to this.] [ELISHA; HAZAEL; JEHORAM.]          was a man approaching at least to midlife, and the
3. King of Syria, son of the Hazael just men- father of a large family.
tioned [and his successor on the throne of Syria].  When Jacob and his posterity went down to
He was thrice defeated by Jehoash, king of Israel, Egypt, Benjamin's household consisted of ten
who recovered from him all the cities [Jeroboam  persons (Gen. xlvi. 21), of whom some were sons
completed what Jehoash had commenced, and and some grandsons (comp. Num. xxvi. 38;
restored to the kingdom of Israel the possession  I Chron. viii. i) [BECHER]. From this time his
of its former domains beyond the Jordan], which  history merges in that of his tribe.
Hazael had rent from the dominion of Israel     This appears in Scripture sometimes under the
(2 Kings xiii. 3, 24, 25; xiv. 25; Amos i. 4, 5).  simple designation of' Benjamin' (Judg. xx. 39;
40); sometimes as'the children of Benjamin'
BENJAMIN. This occurs both as a proper (QIVD:2 f3i, B'nd Biinyamin, Num. i. 36); somename and as a Gentile; in the former case it is.                              
always written as one word, W^F! (Sept. Beva,^utv  times as'the tribe of Benjamin' (/1 nP6, Matteh
Bevoa/eliv).              T.                  B., Josh. xxi. 4, 17); and sometimes in the form
The first who bore this name was the youngest of' Benjamite' (.4D4t-p, Ben-yemini, or i A32,
son of Jacob, by his beloved Rachel. The mother, B'nei-yem.,'A hiV, Ish-yem.), which are not'as
dying in giving birth to her son, called him Benoni, if the patriarch's name had been originally Yamin'
a name expressive of calamity [BENONI]; but (Smith's Dict. of the Bible, s. v.), but are either
Jacob changed this for Benjamin (Gen. xxxv. i6- the Gentile form of the word (see Gesen. Heb.
I8). This word (from p1 and l2s) signifies son of Gr., sec. 85, 6; Lee, Heb. Gr., art. I66), or an
the right hand, an expression which some explain abbreviated form, Eta} Why being for /I 1l ti.
as denotingfeicity, success in the sense of goodfor- Gesenius compares the Arabic  Bakri, for
tune, so that Benjamin = son of luck or felicity   us compares the Arabc        Bakri for
(Gesenius, filius fortunee; Fiirst, Gliickssohn);,. I., Abubeker).
others as meaning power, and success as the result * 
of effort (Lee). In either case the name was in-  From the first this tribe was smaller and of less
tended to convey Jacob's desire or prophetic anti- importance than the rest. On the numbering of
cipation that, notwithstanding the unpropitious the people by Moses, in the second year of their
circumstances of his birth, the future career of his deliverance from Egypt, the tribe of Benjamin
son should be prosperous and happy. The Sama- numbered 35,400 capable of going to war (Num.
ritan version and text have I4V instead of t"Y, i. 37), and before their entrance into Canaan this
thus making the name mean'son of days,' i.e., had grown to 45,600 (Num. xxvi. 41). During
of his father's old age; but this cannot be regarded  the journey through the wilderness the tribe of
as the true interpretation, because the context evi- Benjamin appears as subordinated to that of Ephdently requires that the one name should be in raim in the arrangements of the camp (Num. ii,
antithesis to the other.*                     18, 22); they had, however, their own captain
The notices of Benjamin's personal history pre- ( ti3, prince or chief, in this case phylarch),
served by Moses, are few, and throw little light on whose name was Abidan.  In the division of
his character or conduct.  That he was the Canaan the portion allotted to Benjamin was in
cherished favourite of his father, especially after proportion to the size of the tribe; its boundaries
are accurately defined (Josh. xviii. 11-28). Though
*'The name,' it has been said (Smith, Dict. of of limited extent, and in many parts rocky, it had
the Bible, i. 187)' is not so pointed as to agree with many rich valleys, and on the whole was a fertile,
any interpretation founded on'son of,' being.  well-watered territory (see Robinson, ii. P/. locc.;
and not.' B        t siti  i  p - Stanley, ch. iv.); it contained twenty-six towns,
and  But the substitution of Hire par- with their dependent villages. This territory lay
vuin for Tsere here is a mere euphonic change, re- between that of Ephraim and that of Judah, which
suiting from the two words being written and pro- in part accounts for the vacillating course between
nounced as one; when they are separated the a these two pursued by the Benjamites. At first
sound returns, except in I Sam. ix. i, where, how- they sided with Ephraim on the separation of the
ever, there is a K'ri.                       tribes, after the death of Saul (2 Sam. ii. ); and




BENJAMIN                    336              BENEI-KEDEM
the bitterest enemies of David came from  this get' (p. 201). But to us the most eminent and
tribe; but when David made Jerusalem his capital, memorable distinction of this tribe is, that out of
the affections of the Benjamites seem to have been  it came the great Apostle of the Gentiles, who,
gradually drawn towards Judah; and though, on  even after he had renounced Judaism for Christ,
the revolt of the ten tribes, part of Benjamin  could not repress the feeling of satisfaction with
(I Kings xii. 29; xvi 34) joined the Ephraimite which he contemplated himself as'of the stock of
confederacy, the greater part of the tribe adhered  Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, an Hebrew of the
to the house of David (I Kings xii. 21). After Hebrews' (PhiL iii. 5).
the captivity Judah and Benjamin became one     Two other persons are mentioned in Scriptme
people (Ezra i. 5; iv. I; x. 9; comp. Ezek. xxxvii. bearing this name, one a near descendant of the
5I, ff.)                                      patriarch (I Chron. vii. Io); the other one of the
Mild and gentle as the founder of the tribe may Israelites who, in the time of Ezra, had married
have been, his father saw with prophetic eye that strange women (Ezra x. 32).-W. L. A.
this would not be the characteristic of his descendants; and therefore he said of him, as represented  BEN-ONI (iK j.). The name given by the
by them,'Benjamin shall ravin as a wolf: in the dying Rachel to her child (Gen. xxxv. I8). The
morning he shall devour the prey, and. at night he LXX. render it vl6s dGvo7s 1tov, and this is the
shall divide the spoil' (Gen. xlix. 27). The cha- meaning commonly given in the Onomastica and
racter implied by this description the tribe seems Lexicons. Knobel (Exeg. Hdb. in loc.) takes I*
fully to have borne out. We hear little of them  in its proper sense of nothingness or nought, and
except in connection with war or bloodshed. In  renders' son of my nothingness,' i. e., whose birth
the time of the Judges they involved themselves in brings me death. Delitzsch (Gen. in loc.) prefers
a war with the rest of Israel, in consequence of'son of my misfortune' with the same meaning.
their refusing to execute justice on a portion of Hiller's derivation from UK, strength, as if Ben-oni
their tribe who had violated the rights of hospi- =my expiring effort (Onom. 300), is wholly untality in the case of a Levite, and the rights of tenable.-W. L. A.
humanity by abusing his concubine until she died
(Judg. xix., xx.) For a season they sustained alone  BENEI, the plural of Ben, is also used in proand successfully the attacks of the combined forces per names.
of Israel, but ultimately they were overcome and
almost extirpated. Six hundred men alone escaped,  BENEI-BERAK (p..'r n B'nei-B'rak; Sept.
who took refuge in the rocky fortresses of their BavatpaKdr, Alex. BavfgapdK), one of the cities of
country. Peace was at length restored, and the the tribe of Dan (Josh. xix. 45). The name means
Benjamites being supplied with wives, partly from  sons of lightning, but it is impossible now to deterthe sack of Jabesh Gilead, partly through an ex- mine to what the use of such a name is to be traced.
pedient like that by which the early settlers at Scholz (Reise, p. 256) proposes to identify the
Rome found wives from among the Sabines (Judg.
xxi. 8-24), the strength of the tribe was speedily place with the modern.j.. rIn Abrak, a
recovered.  In the time of Asa it numbered
280,000 men that bore shields and drew bows few miles from Jehudiah.-W. L. A.
(2 Chron. xiv. 8).. The men of this tribe were   BENEI-JAAKAN       (tpyVl-4  B'nei-Jaaqan,
famous as slingers (Judg. xx. I6) and as bowmen,
and in general as'mighty men ofvalour' (I Chron. Sept. Brvaia, Alex. BawrKdv), the name of a tribe
viii. 40; xii. 2; 2 Chron. xiv. 8); their superiority to which belonged certain wells [BEEROTH], where
in the use of the sling and the bow arose from their the Israelites encamped (Deut. x. 6; Num. xxxiii.
being ambidextrous. It is probable also that they 3I, 32). In Gen. xxxvi. 27 mention is made of a
availed themselves of the facilities which the phy-Horite chief, called there ply'Aqan, who in I Chron.
sical peculiarities of their district afforded for i. 42 is called Pp4 Jaaqan. In all probability the
marauding expeditions (2 Sam. iv. 2).'In his B'nei Jaaqan descended from him.-W. L. A.
mountain passes-the ancient haunts of beasts of
BENEI-KEDEM (Wil? 4.21, B'ney-Kedem).
prey-Benjamin'ravined as a wolf in the morn-                      (          B.
ing,' descended into the rich plains of Philistia on  This Hebrew appellation (with its English, LXX.,
the one side, and of Jordan on the other, and're- and Vulgate versions) occurs in the passages folturned in the evening to divide the spoil'' (Stan- lowing:-(i.) Genesis xxix. I, The people of the
ley, Sin. and Pal., p. 200).                  East, dvaToXal (terra), orientalis; (2.) Judges vi. 3,
In the course of its history several honourable  The children of the East, ol viol dcvaoXwv, cceteri
distinctions fell to the lot of this tribe; as if'little orientalium nationuz; (3.) Judg. vi. 33; (4.) vii.
Benjamin' still occupied the place of the favourite  12; (5.) viii. o1, The children of the East, ot viol
child among the tribes of Israel.  During the &varoX\v, orientalespopuli; (6.) I Kings iv. 30, The
march through the desert, this tribe seems to have children of the East country, dpXacot EdvpTpwrot,
held the place of honour next to the ark of the orientales; (7.) Job i. 3, The men of the East, ol
Lord (Deut. xxxiii. 12; comp. Von Lengerke, d<' f\Xlov, &aroh'v, orientales; (8.) Is. xi. I4, They
Kenaan, p. 477); fromp them came forth the first of the East, ot dif 4Xtov &vaToXC\i, filii orientis; (9.)
deliverer of Israel in the time of the Judges, Ehud, Jer. xlix. 28, Themen of the East, ol viol Keest,filii
the son of Gera, who destroyed their Moabitish  onentis; (Io.) Ezek. xxv. 4; (II.) xxv. o1, The
oppressors, and presided over Israel for a lengthened  men of the East, ol viol KesO, filii orientales.
period, distinguished by unusual prosperity (Judg.  Under the general designation D1ip, Kedem, the
iii. 13-30); and to them belonged the honour of sacred writers include the whole tract of country
giving the first king to Israel in the person of Saul, east of Palestine, and not only so much as is coexthe son of Kish, an honour which, as Mr. Stanley tensive with the Holy Land itself in latitude, and
observes,'to the latest times they could never for- immediately contiguous with it, but the trans.




BENEI-KEDEM                   337               BEN-ASHER
euphratean Mesopotamia, north, and the upper* derstanding.' But the LXX. renders ti'p 3, in
parts of the Arabian peninsula, south. In the first this our sixth passage, by dpXa^ot dvi'po&rrot, putting
passage Kedemn (called also Aram-LXX. Zvpia-  Solomon in comparison with ancient worthies; and
in Hosea xii. I2) refers to Haran, in Mesopotamia, accordingly Abarbanel makes the phrase refer to
whither Jacob fled to his mother's kindred, who men tf old who used to live to a greater age. Alhad settled there when Terah migrated from Ur though Kedem has this temporal meaning (and even
of the Chaldees, and who are here included among oftener than the local, see Fuerst, Concord., sub
the B'ney Kedem.   In the four next passages voce), it would be a very forced construction so
(in Judges) the B'ney Kedem appear conspicuous to render it here. In our seventh passage, Job is
among the oppressors of the children of Israel described as'the greatest of all the B'ney Kedem.'
whom Gideon destroyed. The Midianites, who Job was of the land of Uz; and Uz is placed in
were at the head of this formidable confederacy, the neighbourhood of the Sabeans, the Chaldeans,
were probably very near akin to the B'ney Kedem. and the Edomite and Arab tribes of Teman,
From  Gen. xxv. 6, it would appear that the Naama and Shuah (see Job i. 15, 17; ii. II, corndescendants of Abraham and Keturah (the sons pared with Lam. iv. 2I). These notices fix Job's
of Midian being included) migrated eastward, residence with tolerable precision, and justify the'1p IP  sRK, to the land of Kedem, or the East; statement of Rosenmiiller (on i. 3), that by Jll
accordingly in one of our passages (Judg. viii. Io):P here, are meant those miscellaneous tribes,
appellation'ey  d, used in a  especially Arabian, which lie between Egypt and
the appellation Bley Kedem, used in a generic the Euphrates (see also Winer, Bibl. Realwoirt,
sense, actually includes the Midianites as well aswald places Uz a little more north
s. v. Uz). Ewald places Uz a little more north,
the Amalekites, whereas in the preceding passages in the district south of Bashan. M. J. E. Miiller
they are specifically mentioned apart from thesereconcies theseanie                ii 
latter nations.  The prominence given in the reconciles these slight discrepancies of opinion by
lsacred histor  to the hprominene glations  these supposing Uz to have been a large country of trisacred history to the hostile relations ap to m e partite division; the first part near Damascus, the
nations with the children of Israel is apt to make second (where he supposes Job to have in fact
us forget their near kindred to them. This affinity, lived) near Chaldea, on the eastern border of the
and their proximity of residence, would naturally Arabian desert, and the third in the region of
account for that identity or similarity of language Arabia Petraa: thus making the whole land of
in an early age, previous to dialectic divergence, U  of equivalent meaning with KEDEM, as we
which is indicated in the remarkable incident defined it at first (see Mler, De Terra  bi
narrated in Judg. vii. 1-15. In the sixth passage largely quoted in Forster's Geogr. ofArabia, ii. 6I).
the wisdom of King Solomon is described as ex-  e come now to the last fourassages, from the
celling the wisdom of all the B'ney Kedem. Nowprophets, which mention the B'ney Kedem. We
as the countries of the East in general, especially observe at once this great difference among the
the Chaldeans (Dan. i. 20; iv. 7), are noted for said passages, that in those from Isaiah and Jerewisdom, it is not obvious at once what people the siah the B'ney Kedem are the spoied, whereas in
to say, however, miah the B'ney Kedem are the spoiled, whereas in
f ney Kedem here indicate. Not to say, owever,the two from Ezekiel they are the spoilers. The
that'the wisdom' of the Chaldeans was probably             u     ecte   th the others, an
[  first passage is unconnected with the others, and
undeveloped at so early a period as Solomon's, it refers  ultimate triumphs of Israel when they
is certain that Arabia was the home of that pro- shall  victorious over western and eastern eeshall be victorious over western and eastern eneverbial philosophy for which the wise king of mies alike (in this sense the B'ney Kedem are opIsrael is celebrated (see Freytag, Arabun Prover- posed to the Philistines of the west). In the three
bia, tom. iii. prSf., who says:-'Apud Arabes other passages the two prophets announce the
proverbiorum origo usque ad tempora antiquissimadownfall of the Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites,..oecu  sdownfall of the Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites,.   praecipue sapientibus, poetis, heroibusqueand (under the name Kedar and Hazr, cf. Gen.
and (under the name Kedar and Hazor, cf. Gen.
regibusque vindicantur); we conclude, therefore,    3      conti
o. S  n r.., xxv. I3) the contiguous Arab nomade tribes,
that the VIj)p N, whose wisdom Solomon excelled, w             o     children of Israel, and
were the Arabian tribes east of the Israelites, hadbeen ever their malignant foes. The mention
stretching, it may be, to the Euphrates in one of' their tents,''their flocks',' their camels,' etc.,
direction, and south-east into the peninsula, in is quite suitable in a description of these wanderis quite suitable in a description of these wanderanother. These are they whom Baruch (ii. 23) ing nations.  But the remarkable point is, that
calls'the Hagarenes, that seek after wisdom upon th  appellation    ('men of the east') is
earth, the merchants of Meran and of Theman, now shifted frm those who are most naturally
the authors of fables and the searchers out of un-designated by it in Jeremiah, namely the Arabs
designated by it in Jeremiah, namely the Arabs
And even more than the         whom Nebuchadnezzar smites and spoils, to the
Aoud seem from'       the munt Supper pa' (G   x. spoilers themselves in the places of Ezekiel. We
would seem from'the mount Sephar' (Gen. x.
30), being by the sacred writer expressly called  cross the river at last (as we did at first, only farther
30), being by the sacred writer expressly called
137pnI On,'a mount of the east,' or Kedem. south), and bring our B'ney Kedem again from beyond the Euphrates; for undoubtedly NebuchadUnder this designation Fresnel, in Gesenius, Thes. yond the Euphrates; for undoubtedly NebuchadUnder ths de    rstand  s the highlands of the central nezzar and his Chaldees are now the'children of the
1193, understands the highlands of the central,  e swift avengers of God upon the nations
East,' the swift avengers of God upon the nations.Nejed, LA     (1 (N ed).  While others place which had so lately exulted over the fall of Judah.
Nejed, j,~ I (' Nejd}i).  While others place   j (So Jarchi and Grotius; and substantially similar
Mount Sephar still further south in El Yemen (see St. Jerome, as quoted by Rosenmiiller on Ezekiel
Forster's Arabia, ii. I54). However far down in xxv. 4. Seealso Fairbairn's.zekiel, p.274.)-P. H.
its latitude we put this'3bT, its description as   appears also in the proper names of mobeing in Kedem is still allowable, reckoning longi-  er Jews.
tudinally; for the most western position assigned 
to it is some 500 miles still to the east of Jerusa-  BEN-ASHER, AARON B. MOSES, of Tiberias or
em.                                          Moeziah (BI7D DIlpDt), as this town was then
VOLI. I.




BEN-ASHER                    338             BEN-NAPHTALI
called, immortalized his name by his accurate edi- Basle editions of the Rabbinic Bibles, as well
tion of the text of the Hebrew Bible, which is the as in other editions, and in Fiirst's valuable conpresent Textus receptus. He flourished about A.D. cordance.  II.  D1t n- DIt.p,  Treatises upon
90o to 960, up to which time the Massoretic text                 H    w a, v, 
was in a very unsettled state, as is evident from the doctrine of the Hebrew accents, vowels, etc.
the Teoogical Der isionas of Mar-Zemach b. Cha- rThis contains the following sections, not marked:jim, who was Gaon from A.D. 889 to 896, where  I. b}      n1'O, on the accents. 2. TD
we are told that the various readings of the Baby- KNpjLI, on the order, titles, and peculiarities of each
lonian and Palestinian codices were then not con-         e Bible. 3.                    on
portion of the Bible. 3. n-,nKm niJgin,., on
fined to unimportant points, such as plene and: 
defective, great pauses which require the beginning  the Hebrew letters, their classification, etc. 4.
of a fresh paragraph, and small pauses which only  N ft,   tedt and fllip N3 b:, a fragment on
require a little space between the two sentences, T:.        T     T - 
accents, and orthography, but even to the division the doctrine of the accents.  5. 11. 1., on
of verses; as well as from the fact that Saadia Gaon  the peculiar accents of the Psalms, Proverbs, and
(A. D. 892-942) still followed readings and divisions  b. 6.,  a fragment also treating upon
of verses in his translations of the Bible different Jo:b. - 6..- a fragment also treating upon
from what we now have.     Impressed with the the accents. This was reprinted in the Rabbinic
importance of having a settled and uniform text, Bible, Venice, I5I8, under the title i34DOn  tt_,
Ben-Asher, who was a consummate grammarian, with the inscription DFol        pio    D   it,
and thorough master of the Massoretic rules, devoted the greater part of his life to collating and  omitting, however, sections 3 and 5, and making
editing the Hebrew Scriptures, which he executed  some transpositions.  It has also been re-edited,
with such care and minuteness, and in so masterly with corrections and additions, after a manuscript
a manner, that notwithstanding Saadia's oppositionin the possession of Luzzatto, as well as with a
to it [SAADIA] and Ben Naphtali's strictures upon it valuable introduction, notes, and supplements, by
[BEN NAPHTALI], his revision superseded all other Leopold Dukes, Tiibingen, I846. III. 14~.T D4j.V,
editions, was soon regarded as sacred, and became a treatise upon assonances, in which Ben-Asher
the standard text from which copies were made, gives eighty Hebrew words, resembling in sound,
both in Jerusalem and Egypt. So great was its but differing in sense. (Comp. Graetz, Geschichte
reputation, that the great luminary Maimonides der yuden, v. p. 344; Furst's Bibliotheca 7udaica,
(A.D. II35-I204) in his treatise upon writing the i p. Ioo.) -C. D. G.
sacred Scriptures, sets forth Ben-Asher's revision
of the text as the most correct; and tells us    BEN CHAYIM. [IBN CHAYIM.]
that after examining other revisions, and finding  BN  JOSEPH, AHARON, a Jewish rabbi in
them differing greatly from each other, he him- Constantinople, who wrote a philosophical comself adopted it as his model,'because,' says he,'Imentary on the Pentateuch, in a condensed and
saw that there is great confusion in all the codices somewhat obscure style, entitled -M in'lt. It
which I have consulted with regard to these                                  r:     v".
matters; and even the Massorites, who wrote and  was written in 294, and printed for the first time,
compiled works to shew which sections are to be- with a commentary on it, by Joseph Salomo Jerugin new paragraphs, and which not, are divided  shalmi, at Kosloff, about thirty years ago. Some
upon these matters according to the authorities excerpts irom  it were published, with a Latin
they leaned upon, I found myself necessitated to translation, and notes, in 4to, by J. Lud. Frey,
write thus all the sections of the law, both those Basil, 1705. Ben Joseph was also the author of a
which begin new paragraphs and those which do  tract on Hebrew Grammar,       5, Constant.
not, as well as the forms of the accents, so that all' ~          -
copies might be made according to it. Now, the  I58i.  He was a leader among the Karaites.
codex which is followed in these matters, is the one W. L. A.
well known in Egypt, which contains the four-and-  BEN-MELECH.    [SOLOMON B. MELECH.]
twenty Sacred Books, which was in Jerusalem for
many years, that all the codices might be corrected  BEN-NAPHTALI, MOSES, was a contemafter it, and whose text all adopted, because Ben- porary of Ben-Asher, and hence flourished about
Asher corrected it, and laboured over it many yeas,A.D. 900 to 960. He distinguished himself by his
and revised it many times; it is this codex which I edition of a revised text of the Hebrew Scriptures
followed in the copy of the law I wrote'-(Mishnein opposition to Ben-Asher, in which he had no
Thora, Hilchoth Sefer Thora, sec. viii. p. 96), and great success, inasmuch as the different readings
it is this revision from which also our Hebrew  he collated and proposed are very insignificant, and
Bibles of the present day are printed.        are almost entirely confined to the vowel points
Ben-Asher also wrote, I. A work called  s   nntnand accents. We subjoin his deviations from Beni-  treatig un th  d e of t'":-   Asher in the first nine chapters of Genesis, in order
f', treating upon the doctrine of the He- to enable the reader to form some idea of their
brew vowel points in their practical application to nature.
the Scriptures, as well as upon the accents andBEN-NAPHTALT.                BEN-ASHER.
Massora; the latter point was also set forth in a
Gen. i. 24. ps-ln~nl           pX lmn~tl
separate treatise called nrb1-I' COD.  From.          i 4 
this work emanated.2 j.  W n                     ii.:.1.  -' 6. n.
it. i6. U i  y nn nmn t'e b it.
ne11, the various readings of the vowels, con-        I
sonants, and accents, printed in the Venice and   iii.'7. n5  Fm tl:1:     nm5n t1\:




BEN-ZEB                    339                  BENGEL
BEN-NAPHTALI.         BEN-ASHER.       ideas as are only expressed by peculiar phrases. 4.
Gen. vi. 7. snlb:1-'K          n       Inked P        S In putting together, in the third volume (which is
German Hebrew), all the synonymous words. 5.
vi. 9. n3-lnnn            n] ]'nnn        In tracing the forms which developed themselves
vii. 23. Mpi,   n o lson-                 in the progress of the language. 6. In adding
v.. 2.   IP               n*'  various exegetical matter; and 7. In giving a table
ix. 2. 3,n a1'1'5%1              con 31   of all the roots. Improved editions of it appeared
in 1804, 1807, I816, and 1839-1840. M. Letteris,
When we add that the most important deviation  the editor of the last edition, has greatly enriched
of Ben-Naphtali from Ben-Asher is that he reads it by introducing into it the labours of Gesenius,! as two words (Song of Songs, viii. 6); Rosenmiiller, De Wette, Hitzig, Reggio, Luzzatto,,'1- n31W1,'i   as two words (Song of Songs, viii. 6);
whilst the other has;lNn:lil   in one word, which  Zunz, etc. He also wrote  p  -K K1,
i T:,''"*: ~-,,   An Introduction to the Old Testament, which apafter all, makes no difference in the meaning; the  pear   introdtion to the  d  has s ine been rinte 
insignificance of his strictures upon the revision he peard Vienna Bib o, and hs ince een voprite
opposes will at once be apparent.  A complete list Vienna, i832-1836.-C. D. G.
of his different readings is appended to the Rabbinic
Bibles and Fiirst's Concordance, p. I37, sec. 48,  BENGEL, JOHANN ALBRECHT, prelate in Wiirunder the title of 4Unn-rp  jell N v p \ll;n n,  temberg, was born at Winnenden, 24th June
the difference between Ben-Asher and Ben-Naph-  I687, the birthday of his great ancestor Johann
tali.-C. D. G.                                 Brenz, whose great-granddaughter his mother
was.   His first lessons were received from  his
BEN-ZEB, JEHUDAH LEB. B. Benjamin-Zeb, afather, after whose death, which happened in i693,
distinguished grammarian and lexicographer; he he became a pupil at the Gymnasium of Stuttgart.
was born in a small town in Poland, not far from  In I703, he entered the University of Tiibingen,
Cracow, in I766, and died at Vienna, February 25, where he devoted himself to the study of philoI8II. Having.devoted himself to the study of sophy and theology, but especially to that of the
philosophy and philology, he resorted in 1787 to  Scriptures in the original tongues. Having been
Berlin, where, at the age of 21, he published the ledto use Fell's edition of the Greek N. T., Oxon.
work of Saadia Gaon, Jnl   nIs, on Religion    i675, he was arrested by the various readings
and Philosophy, with a twofold commentary. He  collected by that writer, and this seems to have
then went to Breslau, where he remained about ten first strongly turned his attention to the criticism
years, and published, in 1796, his highly-esteemed  of the sacred text. After filling several subordiN.1:1 1iES -113n5n Hebrewz Grammar, written in nate situations, both as a pastor and as an academic
*...       H                            teacher, Bengel was in I741 made prelate of
Hebrew, of which improved editions appeared in  Herbrechtingen, and in 1749 he was advanced to
Vienna, i806, I8I8, and 1825, and a German     be prelate of Alpirsbach, with a residence at Stutttranslation, in a condensed form, by Landau, gart. In 1751, he received the tardy honour of a
Prague, 1827. Two years later (1798) he issued  diploma creating him D.D., from the University of
from the press  nD )' I. YS 1 n1n3, the wisdomn  Tibingen. From this time, his time and energies
of oshua,  eson f ch, in Syriac, with Hebrew  were chiefly occupied in the manifold duties of his
of Yoshua, the son of Si   in Syriac, with Hebrewdiocese. He died 2d November I 75 I, gently fallletters, a Hebrew and German translation, and a diocese. He died 2d November 175, gently fallHebrew commentary, of which improved editions ing asleep with the words'Lord Jesus, I am
appeared in Vienna, 1807, I8I8, IS28, and i8A; thine, living or dead,' on his lips. Few names
appeared in Vienna, 807, 88, 1828, and  44  stand so high as Bengel's in the annals of biblical
and twelve months after this,  b. a1'n^, the literature.  In 1734 he issued his edition of the
Book of7udilt, translatedintoHebrewand German, Greek N. T. in 4t and 8vo, prepared from a
with a Hebrew commentary (Vienna, 1799), of collation, not only of the previously printed ediwhich another edition appeared in 1819. He then  tions, but of twenty-four Greek and several Latin
changed his residence from  Breslau to Vienna, MSS., several of the ancient versions, and other
where he published his famous school book n1  sources; and to this he appended an Apparatus;, composd of to ps a  n Criticus, in which he unfolds his critical principles
t, composed of two parts, a, I. X and method, discusses the principal various readMethod of learning Hebrew (the first edition of this ings, and obviates objections which may be brought
had already appeared in 1793), and b, Ntl      against his work, and such efforts in general. By
this work the author greatly advanced the cause of
Dlt.t, Ethics, of which improved editions appear- sound biblical criticism. He has not, it is true,
ed in 1809, i825, and 1842. In all these labours,added much to the materials for settling the text
however, Ben-Zeb prepared himself and gathered  of the N. T.; his various readings were mostly
materials for the publication of a Hebrew lexicon, borrowed from Mill, with the exception of the not
as up to his time the only lexicon used by Jews, very important codices which he himself collated;
and also to a great extent by Christians, was that and he timidly refused to admit into the text any
of Kimchi. Ben-Zeb, making Kimchi's lexicon his alteration, however strongly supported by critical
basis, published, in 1797-1798, his excellent SK  authority, if it had not already appeared in some
erew L, i  - vprinted edition. But his sagacity and discernment
n     Yb, -Hebwrze Lexicon, in three volumes, with the enabled him to bring out clearly certain principles
following improvements.  I. In the references to  of criticism, which all subsequent labourers in this
the different significations of the words according to field have recognised as canonical and indispensable.
their inflections. 2. In giving appropriateverbs as He was the first to see clearly that the extant
predicates of subjects. 3. In references to such  MSS. are of different classes or families; he was




BENSON                     340                BENTLEY
the first to discern fully the importance of classi- 1763. He was successively minister at Abingdon
fying readings according to their relative worth; he in Berkshire, at St. John's Court, London, and at
was the first who laid down clearly the necessity  Crutched Friars, London, where he was the colof fixing some criterion by which to test the an- league of Dr. Lardner. He commenced his public
tiquity of readings apart from the mere antiquity of career as a Calvinist, but afterwards lapsed into
the codex in which they were found; and he was Arian views. He was a man of solid learning, of
the first to adopt the practice of giving the evidence clear and acute judgment, and of indefatigable inagainst a reading as well as the evidence for it. dustry; of which we have the fruits in several elaboIn determining the relative worth of readings, his rate works. The most important of these are-I.
great law was'proclivi scriptioni praestat ardua;' Paraphrase and Notes on Six of the Epistles of St.
a principle which he certainly was not the first to Paul, viz., I and 2 Thessalonians, I and 2 Timothy,
enunciate or employ, but to which he gave such  Philemon, and Titus, published originally sepaprominence and establishment, that it has been  rately, but in 1752, collected in one vol. 4to; 2.
ever since one of the most useful helps to the set- Paraphrase andNotes on the Seven Catholic Epistles,
tling of the sacred text.                     4to, 1749, 1756; 3. History of the First Planting
Having by this labour endeavoured to set forth of the Christian Religion, taken from the Acts of the
a correct text, Bengel next employed himself in an Apostles and their Epistles, 2 vols. 4to, 1735,
effort to expound its meaning.  This he issued best edit., 3 vols. 4to, 1756; 4. History of the
under the title of Gnomon Novi Testamenti, in uo Life of Jesus Christ, taken from the New Testaex nativa verborum vi simplicitas, profunditas, con- ment, 4to, 1764, a posthumous work. As an incinnitas, salubritas sensuum caelestium indicatur, terpreter, Benson avowedly follows Locke, and
of which the first edition appeared at Tiibingen in his commentary is intended, with that of Locke,
1742, 4to.  This work has been repeatedly re- and that of Pierce, to furnish a complete commenprinted (1759, 1773, 1788, 1835 [edited by Steu- tary on the epistles of the N. T. His two other
del], 1850); it has been translated into German  works above cited, may be viewed also in the light
by E. J. Werner, Stuttgart, 1853, and into     of commentaries, the one on the Acts, the other
English under the editorship of the Rev. A. R. on the Gospels. All Benson's writings are heavy
Fausset, 5 vols. 8vo Edin., and its value has been  and lifeless; not a spark of enthusiasm, of genius,
acknowledged by scholarly theologians of every or of sympathy, relieves the dense masses of frigid
school. The notes are short, but often condense narrative, exposition, or reasoning, with which they
in a few words a whole paragraph of meaning, and are filled. But they are learned, accurate, and
by a single happy phrase dispense with the neces- judicious. His exegesis, though occasionally persity of a minute exegesis.                    verted by a dogmatical element, and betraying
These are Bengel's best-known works.  They the superficiality of the school to which he beare not, however, his only contributions to biblical longed, is on the whole correct; his practical reliterature which deserve to be noticed. In 1741 he marks are in general apt and sensible; and his
published Ordo temporum a principio perperiodos historical illustrations are always admirable.  His
ceconomice divince historicas atque propheticas ad works are interspersed with dissertations, some of
finem usque ita deductus ut tota series ex V. et which are very valuable, especially for the clearN. 7T proponatur, of which a second edition ap- ness and accuracy with which conflicting views are
peared at Stuttgart in 1770. Connected with this stated. Several of his works were translated into
work in purpose and principle, is his Verkldrte German, and he enjoyed for long a considerable
Offenbarung.aohannis, Stuttgart 1740, of which  reputation on the Continent.-W. L. A.
many editions have been printed, and this was
followed by his Erbaulichen Reden iiber die Offen-  BENTLEY, RICHARD, D.D., was born at
barung Johannis, I747, also frequently reprinted. Oulton in Yorkshire, 27th Jan. I66I.  Having
These works are of great value to the apocalyptic received his elementary education at the schools
interpreter, both as settling principles of inter- of Methley and Wakefield, he passed in 1676 to
pretation, and as furnishing specimens of the ap- Cambridge, where ie was admitted sub-sizar of
plication of these.  Like many others who have St. John's College in his 15th year. Having taken
ventured to fix a date for the fulfilment of the his M.A. degree in July 1683, he resided for some
apocalyptic symbols, Bengel has been proved by  time in London, engaged chiefly in philological
time to have been an erring prophet; but waiving pursuits.  After the Revolution, he settled at
this, his writings on the Apocalypse are worthy of Oxford, having been admitted to the degree of
most attentive study for their exegetical merits as M.A., ad eundem; and there, surrounded by the
well as for the rich vein of pious thought and feel- splendid literary treasures of that university, he
ing by which they are pervaded. In 1753 Bengel spent several years of diligent study.  On his
published a translation of the N. T. with notes, receiving deacon's orders in 1689, he became
under the title das N. T. nach d. revidirten Grund- chaplain to Bishop Stillingfleet; shortly after, he
text iibersetz, und mit dienlichen Anmerk. begleitet. was appointed the first preacher of the Boyle
He wrote also on the Harmony of the Four Gospels Lecture; in 1692 he was ordained priest, and
(Richtige Harm. der 4 Evangg., 8vo, Tub. I736, became a prebendary of Worcester; in 1693 he
I747, 1766). Bengel's life has been written by was appointed keeper of the royal library at St.
his son, prefixed to the third edition of the Gnomon, James's; and in 1694 he was a second time Boyle
and at large by his grandson J. C. F. Burk, trans- Lecturer. Having taken his degree of D.D. in
lated into English by R. F. Walker, M. A., Lond. I696, he was in 1700 advanced to the dignity of
1837.-W. L. A.                                Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, an office
which occasioned him much trouble, and led to
BENSON, GEORGE, D.D., a learned noncon- his spending the rest of his life in an almost conformist divine, was born at Great Salkeld in Cum- tinual conflict. This, however, did not interrupt
berland, 5th September 1699, and died 7th April his literary labours, for it is during this period of




BENTLEY                    341               BERACHAH
his life that some of his most valuable works were slender, it is not to be forgotten that to Bentley we
issued. His last piece of preferment was the arch- stand indirectly indebted for the most splendid redeaconry of Ely, to which he was collated in I701. suits of modern biblical criticism and exegesis, inasHe died I4th July 1742.                       much as to him belongs the honour of founding the
All subsequent scholars have united in lauding modem school of philology, to which all departBentley's abilities, his attainments as a scholar, and ments of ancient learning owe so much. -W. L. A.
his skill as a critic.'Erat,' says Hermann in his  BENZEL,       Tw   S    sh cho
Opuscula,'vir infinitae doctrinae, acutissimi senof this name, father and son, have distinguished
sus, acerrimi judicii; et his tribus omnis laus et  thms nelves in br iical literate.  Tihe fher
virtus continentur critici.' He has not, however, was born in  biblical liter filling v arious offices
contributed much directly to biblical learning. was born in i642, and after filling various offices
contributed much directly to biblical learning, both in the church and the university, beHis Strictures on Free-thinking, in reply to Collins, came rchbishop of Upsala, in 1700. He wrote
published i 7 ue e m f l came archbishop of Upsala, in 1700o. He wrote
published in 1713, under the nafne of Phila- Breviarium  Hist. Ecces. V  ac N. T, I2mo,
leutherus Lipsiensis, contains some valuable obser-  a, 1714, several treatises in theology and
vations on various readings, and on the critical Upsal, i, s   a  tratiss n     olo 
principles on which the settling of a correct text chuh hiso Chrysostom. He superintended the
depends, as well as a thorough demolition of the ehmiies of Che  w edish Ble, issued rin  ode the
flimsy argument which Collins had founded on the edition of the Swedish Bible, issued by order of
various readings of the N. T. against the duthority  Charles XII. in 703, an edition prepared with much
various readings of the N. T. against the authority   and which still forms the standard text
of that book. In I7I6 Bentley addressed a letter care, and which still forms the standard text,
to Archbishop Wake, containing a proposal to  according to which all copies of the Scriptures
restore the text of the Greek N. T. to the same printed in Sweden are conformed (Paterson, Book
state in which it was at the time of the Council of for every  and, p. 14). He died in 1709.
Nice. With this view he had collated the Codex  Eric Benzel, the younger, was born 27th Jan.
Alexandrinus with great care, and he employed  i675, and died archbishop of Upsala, in  743.
Wetstein, who had shewn him some extracts made He wrote several works, but is chiefly known by
Wetstein, who had shewn him some extracts made
by himselffrom the Cod. Ephremi, to recollate that the share he had in preparing the edition of the
b   y himself  from the Cod. Ephraemi, to recoflate thatG c  v      sp        i    
MS. for him. In his letter to Wake, he dwells on Gothic version of the Gospels issued by Lye.
the accor h  Idance between the oldest MSS. of the This is a carefully executed edition, collated with the
Vulgate an the two Greek codices    of which he had famous Codex Argenteus, preserved in the library
ollation and th r oft reek to b  e ale from acient h  at Upsala, of which Benzel for some years had the
coilations; and professes to be able from ancient charge. Besides a valuable preface, Benzel furwitnesses alone, without'altering a letter of his che d a  ai ves  a nd aluale preac te B ene fr
own head,' to restore the text as it had been in the his deat, the publiation of te wok was uner
his death, the  publication  of the  work was  und erbest copies current at the time of the Council of taken by Edward Lye, who added a Gothic gramNice. For some time this design was enthusiasti-  ard a few. I ap    red   h the f   -
cally pursued by him; John Walker, Fellow of        d a few   notes. It apeared with the follo
l'rinity College, Cambridge, was sent to Paris to ing title; Sacrorum Evangelorum  Versio Gothica
collate MSS. for the proposed edition; and on his ex Cod. Argent. emeedata aiue suppleta, cum
return, Bentley issued proposals to the public, -nzeiretatione L naf et annotationibus Erici
accompanied by the last chapter of the Book ofet Be Rae, etc.  Editb,  servados seas adeci
Revelation as a specimen. These were violently et Gram. Goth. pramnszt, Edvardus Lye, A.M.,
attacked by Dr. Conyers Middleton, and Bentley  Oxon. I750  Until the edition of Zahn, Weiswas for some time involved in a hot controversy thic Gospels; it is still the bemost editiosplendid. of the
with that writer. This, with other circumstances Gothic Gospels; it  still the most splendid.
of an unfavourable kind, prevented his ever carrying
his design into execution; but at his death he left  BEOR ('i Vl; Sept. BecSp). I. The father of
considerable materials which he had collected for 
the work, among the most valuable of which was Bela, an Edomite chief (Genod. xxxv. 32). 2. The
a collation of the Vatican Codex, afterwards pub- father of Balled Bosor in the N. T. (2 Pet.
lished by Ford, from the transcription of Woide, Bhp.
in I799. This edition,'although never published, ii. I). [BALAAM].
is of no small importance in the history of the text  BE-RAB, JACOB, b. Moses, b. Israel. Be-Rab
of the N. T. For the time had arrived when it was was born in Maqueda (,1'rptD), not far from Toledo,
possible to use some discrimination in the choice in 1464. He emigrated from Spain with the 300,000
and application of Greek MSS. to purposes of of his co-religionists, in consequence of the persecriticism. Bentley saw that the ancient MSS. are cution of Isabella and Ferdinand, in 1492, when
the witnesses to the ancient text; and after this had he was i8 years old, and immediately after became
been proved from the general accordance of such  Rabbi in Fas, over a community of 5000 families.
documents with the ancient versions and the early  He afterwards left his charge and went to Egypt,
citations, he was ready to discard from considera- thence to Safet, where he became the colleague
tion, on a question of evidence, the whole mass of of Ob. Bertinoro, and died in I546. He is well
the modern copies.   This limited the field of known to biblical students from his 
inquiry, and reduced it within tangible and practicable bounds' (Tregelles, Account of the printed brief but terse glosses upon Isaiah, Jeremiah,
text of the Greek N. T, p. 66). Bentley's pro- Ezekiel, and some of the minor prophets, which
posal to reproduce from ancient authorities alone, are printed in the third volume of M. Frankfurter's
the text of the N. T., as it appeared at the time of Great Rabbinic Bible, Amsterdam, 1724-1727, 4
the Council of Nice, has been carried out more vols. fol. — C. D. G.
completely than he had the means of doing, by   BERACHAH (,         blessing), the name of a
Lachmann. If the contributions thus made directly  BERACHAlessing), the name of a
to the stores of biblical learning are comparatively valley (p])t), so called because in it Jehoshaphat




BERACHIAH                   342                  BEROSH
and his people assembled to bless the Lord, in  BEROSH (tl'l') occurs in several passages of
gratitude for the deliverance which had been  Scripture, as in 2 Sam. vi. 5; I Kings v. 8; vi. 5,
achieved for them from the combined assault of34 ix. 11; 2 Kings ix. 23; 2 Chron. ii. 8; ii. 5;
34a; ix. I I; 2 Kings ix. 23; 2 Chron. ii. 8; iii..;
the Ammonites, Moabites, and Edomites (2 Chron.Ps. civ. 7; Is. xiv. 8; xxxvii. 24; xli. 9; Iv. I3;
xx. 26). The LXX. give it a\Xrwva fris ei\oyias.  x. I3; Ezek. xxvii. 5; xxxi. 8; Hos. xiv. 8; Nah.
It has been identified with a valley lying between ii. 3; Zech. xi. 2) and BEROTH (n';l), which is
Tekua and the road leading from Bethlehem to. X Z.?
Tekua and the road leaing from  Bethlehem to said to be only the Aramaean pronunciation of the
Hebron, and still bearing the name of iady same word, in Cant. i. 17. In most of these pasBereikut; it stretches to the north of the village sages Eres and Berosh, translated cedar and fir in
of Beit Hajar (Robinson, iii. 275; Wilson L 386).-  the A. V., are mentioned together, as I Kings v.
W. L.A.                                       8,'And Hiram sent to Solomon saying, I will do
BERACHIAHI. [BERECHIAH.]                    all thy desire concerning timber of cedar, and concerning timber of fir;' Is. xiv. 8,' Yea, the fir-trees
BEREA (Bepota), Acts xvii. o1, a city of Mace- rejoice at thee, and the cedars of Lebanon.' But
donia, in the northern part of that province (Plin. Rosenmiller says,'In most of the passages where
Hist. Nat. iv. IO), and in that part of it called the Hebrew word occurs, it is by the oldest Greek
lEmathia (Ptol. Geog. iii. 13). It was on the river and the Syriac translators rendered cypress.' CelAstraeus, not far from Pella, towards the south- sius, on the contrary, is of opinion that Berosh
west, and near Mount Bermius. It is now known  indicates the cedar of Lebanon, and that Eres,
by the name of Verria. Paul and Silas withdrew  which is usually considered to have the same meanto this place from Thessalonica; and the Jewish ing, is the common pine (pinus sylvestris), apparesidents are described as more ingenuous, and of rently because he conceives Berosh to be changed
a better disposition (not'more noble,' as in the from sherbin, the Arabic name of pine. Others
A. V.)' than those of Thessalonica' (oirot  oa-av have thought that Berosh is the box, ash, juniper,
Ef6evT-repol rWv Iv OeoaaXovlIK), in that they dili- etc.
gently searched the Scriptures to ascertain the truth  The word berosh or beroth is slightly varied in
of the doctrines taught by the Apostles (Acts xvii. the Syriac and Chaldee versions, being written
1 ). [Sopater, a native of this town, accompanied  berutho in the former, and berath in the latter. All
Paul to Asia (Acts xx. 4). Two other places of these are closely allied to bruta, a name of the
this name are mentioned in the books of the Mac- Savine plant, which is the ppd0v, /3pdOvv, and 3apacabees (I Maccab. ix. 4; 2 Maccab. xiii. 4). The Oovs of the Greeks, and which the Arabs have conlatter is the modern Haleb or Aleppo; the former verted into burasee and buratee.  By them it is
seems to have been near Jerusalem. ]          applied to a species of juniper, which they call abhul
oBERECHIAH    o(8i1DlT  or An., blessed of and arus or orus. It appears to us that many of
~TBERECHIAH  (W 2 or *:   2, blessed of these terms must be considered generic, rather than
Jehovah; Sept. BapaXla), a proper name borne by specific in the modem sense, when so much care is
several persons mentioned in Scripture.  I. One bestowed on the accurate discrimination of one
of the sons of Zerubbabel, of royal descent (I species from another. Thus arus, applied by the
Chron. iii. 20); 2. The father of Asaph the singer Arabs to a juniper, indicates a pine-tree in Scrip(I Chron. vi. 39; xv. 17); 3. A Levite of the line of ture, whether we follow the common acceptation
Elkaneh (I Chron. ix. i6); 4. A doorkeeper for and consider it the cedar, or adopt the opinion of
the ark (I Chron. xv. 23); 5. One of the chief Celsius, that the pinus sylvestris is indicated.  So
men of the tribe of Benjamin, in the time of Ahaz buratee may have been applied by the Arabs, etc.,
(2 Chron. xxviii. I2); 6. The father of the prophet not only to the Savine and other species of juniper,
Zechariah (Zech. i. I, 7).-W. L. A.           but also to plants, such as the cypress, which resemble these. In many of those cases, therefore,
BERED (11n, hail; Sept. Bapdc), a place men- where we are unable to discover any absolute identioned Gen. xvi. I4, between which and Kadesh tity or similarity of name, we must be guided by
was the well of Lahai-roi. It is the same as Shur, the nature of the trees, the uses to which they were
comp. ver. 7, and the Targ. of Onkelos, where it is applied, and the situations in which they are said
rendered;1 (Hagra), the name elsewhere given  to have been found.. Thus, as we find Eres and
to Shur in the Targum (see Gen. xx. I; xxv. 18, Berosh so constantly associated in Scripture, the
etc,)-W. L. A.                                former may indicate the cedar with the wild pinetree, while the latter may comprehend the juniper
BERENICE or BERNICE (BepVIK)), eldest and cypress tribe.
daughter of Herod Agrippa I., and sister of the  Of 7uniperus, the dpKev8oS of the Greeks and
younger Agrippa (Acts xxv. 14, 23; xxvi. 30). She abhul of the Arabs, there are several species in
was married to her uncle Herod, king of Chalcis; Syria. Of these J. Oxycedrus and J. Phcenicea are
and after his death, she lived not without suspicion  the only species which could have been the Berosh
of incest with her brother Agrippa. She after- of Scripture. Some are of opinion that the wood of
wards became the wife of Polemon, king of Cilicia. J. Oxycedrus, rather than that of the so-called cedar
This connection being soon dissolved, she returned  of Lebanon, is the cedar-wood so famed in ancient
to her brother, and afterwards became the mistress times for its durability, and which was therefore
of Vespasian and Titus (Joseph. Antiq. xix. 5. l; employed in making statues. It is to the wood of
xx. 7; 2. 3; Tacit. Hist. ii. 8i; Suet. Tit. 7). -  certain species of juniper that the name of cedarJ. K                                          wood is now specially applied.
BERITH (Judg. ix. 46). [BAAI-BERITH.]         Cupressus, the Kvirdiptirao of the Greeks and the
suroo of the Arabs, called also by them shujrutBERODACH-BALADAN. [MERODACII-BA- al-hyat, or tree of life, is the Cu;ressus sempervirens,
LADAN.]                                       or the evergreen cypress of botanists. This tree is




BEROSH                    343               BERTHOLDT
well known as being tapering in form, in conse- cypress will be found to answer completely to the
quence of its branches growing upright and close descriptions and uses of the Berosh; for it is well
to the stem, and also that in its general appearance adapted for building, is not subject to destruction,
it resembles the Lombardy poplar, so that the one and was therefore very likely to be employed in
is often mistaken for the other when seen in Oriental the erection of the Temple, for the decks of ships,
drawings. In southern latitudes it usually grows and even for musical instruments and lances. [J.
to a height of 50 or 60 feet. Its branchlets are E. Faber conjectures that the Hebrew name Berosh
closely covered with very small imbricated leaves, included three different trees which resemble each
which remain on the tree for 5 or 6 years. This other, viz., the evergreen cypress, the thyine, and
cypress may be seen on the coast of Palestine, as the savine (see Rosenmiiller, Bot. of the Bible,
Trans., p. 260)].-J. F. R.
BEROTHAI (A'ja, 2 Sam. viii. 8), or BEROTIIAH (nnilI, Ezek. xlvii. I6), a town on the
northern boundary of Palestine, rich in brass, which
was taken from Hadadezer, king of Zobah, by
David. In both places where the word occurs it
i~ ^^*^l~is mentioned in connection with Hamath and Damascus; but from this nothing further can be inferred than'simply that it was somewhere not far
from these cities. It is by most identified with
Berytus, the modern Beirit; but for this there is
nothing except the similarity of sound in the name,
and the circumstance that in I Chron. xviii. 8 it is
P,           called p3, which some suppose to be for 1)%n,
tIt ^'lk&'  icl  USaturn, by whom, according to an ancient tradition,
is little in this; and on the other hand, there is its
j  = _'   ~         - vitbeing placed by Ezekiel by the side of Hamoth in
— ftSB^ ^ " ^ the boundary line, which indicates that it was not,
as Berytus is, by the sea (Wilson, ii. 205; iii. 441;
-,;;^ *.. -g....'......e —  sJIcomp. Rosenmiiller, Bib. Geogr. ii. 265, E.T.)
Faber (Observations on the East, pt. ii. p. 210)
141. [Cypress-Cupressus sempervirens.]  suggests Birah, the Birtha of Ptolemy (v. 19, 3)
as the ancient Berothai; but this, situated on the
well as in the interior, as the Mohammedans plant it Euphrates, is too far east. Van de Velde proposes
in their cemeteries. That it is found on the moun- Tell el Byruth, between Tadmor and Hamath,
tains of Syria is attested by Cyril of Alexandria (In  which is worthy of consideration. The LXX. give
Esai., p. 848) and Jerome (In Hos. xiv. 6). in both places &K rTv <KX\rKTV r6Xewbv.-W. L. A.
The cypress being so common, we should expect it  B          J       a L    
to be frequently mentioned in Scripture; but this  BERRIMANch of, ba orn i6   dceryman o5h  he
does not appear to be the case, if we judge by the hurch of England born i688 died 5th December
A. V., as it occurs there only once, in Is. xliv. 14,  768. He wrote A Critcal lissertation upon I'He heweth him   down cedars and taketh the   Tm. z         erei rues are i aid down to distincypress and the oak,' for the purpose of making guish in various readings which is genuine; an
idols. The word here translated'cypress' is account is iven of above i  Greek MSS. of St.
tirza, which there does not appear to be any other Paul's epistles, etc.; and the conmoz reading of that
authority for identifying with the cypress. But the textGod was manifest in the fesh' is proved to be
cypress is expressly mentioned in the Apocryphathe true one, etc., Lnd. I74I  The substance of
(Ecclus. xxiv. 13), where it is described as growing this work was delivered at the Lady Moyer's lecture
upon the mountains of Hermon; and it has been i  737 and 1738. It is pronounced by Dr. Henobserved by Dr. Kitto, that if this be understood  derson (The Great Mystery of Godliness incontroof the great Hermon, it is illustrated by Pococke, veri  etc., Lond. 83, p 93) a'valuable work.
who tells us that it is the only tree which grows
towards the summit of Lebanon. In Ecclus. 1. o  BERTHOLDT, LEONHARD, D.D., Professor
the high-priest is compared to a' cypress towering of Theology at Erlangen, was born at Emskirchen,
to the clouds,' on account of his tall and noble 8th May 1774, and died 3Ist March 1822. He
figure.' The wood of the cypress is hard, fragrant, belonged to the rationalist school, and was an active
and of a remarkably fine close grain, very durable, propagator of their views. He wrote Daniel aus
and of a beautiful reddish hue, which Pliny says it dem Heb. Aram. iberselz u. erkldrt mit einer einnever loses' (Plin. xvi. 40). This wood was used leitung u. histor. u. exeget. excursen, 2 vols. 8vo,
for a variety of purposes, as for wine-presses, poles, Erl. I806-8; Christologia Judacorum Jesu apostorafters, and joists. Horace says (Ars. P. 332), lorumque stale in compend. red. obsevationibusque
whatever was worthy of being handed down to re- aucta, 8vo, Erl. I8I I; Histor. Krit. Einleitung in
mote posterity was preserved in cypress or cedar- Sdmmtliche Kanonische u. apocryph. Schriften des
wood; and Virgil refers to it in these lines (Georg. A. und N. T., 6 vols. 8vo, Erl. I8I2-I9; besides
i. 442)-                                      many minor pieces (Opuscula Acad. exeget. potius
--'dant utile lignum           argum. collegit, ed. G. B. Winer, Lips. 1824), and
Navigiis pinos, domibus cedrumque cupressosque.' a number of works in other departments of sacred
literature. To Bertholdt cannot be denied the
In all the passages of Scripture, therefore, the praise of learning and acuteness, but his works are




BERYL                   344                BETHANY
ill arranged and prolix, and are wanting in depth  a very appropriate name for a ford. In this case
and solidity.-W. L. A.                        Bethabara and Bethania have substantially the
BERYL.    [TARSHISH; SHOHAM.]               same meaning; so that it is not improbable that
[TARSHH; S M.the place which originally bore the name of Bethany
BESOR    ('i.'; Sept. Boo-6p), a brook men- may have come at a later period to be known by
the name of Bethabara; or it may have had both
tioned in I Sam. xxx. 9. Sanutus derives its course name i p ar ua    a  the necessity of disb
from the interior Carmel, near Hebron, and states tinguishing it from the Bethany on the Mount of
that it enters the sea near Gaza (Liber secretorum, Oives m   have led to the dropping o this name.
P.252). Itiswithout doubt the same that Richard- Olives may have led to the dropping of this name.
P. 252). It is without doubt the same that Richard- It is no objection to this that the etymology of the
son crossed on approaching Gaza from the south, word above stated will not apply to this Bethany,
and which he calls Oa di Gaza (Wady Gaza). The for the Greek BOavla may represent two different
bed was thirty yards wide, and its stream was, early  Hebrew words. 2. Is this Bethabara the Bethin April, already exhausted, although some stagnant barah of Judg. vii. 24? There exist no means of
water remained.
satisfactorily answering this question, but the probaBETAH, properly BETACH (nf't; Sept. Mere- bility is that the two were different. Bethbarah was
K; var. Maa),  a ciy, r  a   t   n by on' the waters,' which, whatever they were, are
D/c; var. Mao-, a city, rich in brass, taken by expressly distinguished from the Jordan; whereas
CDavid from  Hadadezer (2 Sam. viii. 8. In i Bethabara was a ford of the Jordan. It is, besides,
Chron. xvii. 8 it is called Tibhath (nnt13, Tibh- improbable that the pursuit of the Midianites should
chat; Sept. Marac  ). It has not been identified.have extended so far south as the scene of John's
~W. ~~L->. A.~ ~baptizing, to which the inhabitants of Jerusalem
BETANE (Bera7C,, var. BatTdvq, Judith i. 9), a went out in such numbers, must be placed. Van
town in South Palestine, between Jerusalem and  de Velde thinks he has found the Bethabara of
Cades, according to Reland the BO0avlv of Euse- John in the ford by which the Jordan is crossed
bius, four Roman miles from Hebron; the same by the highway from Nabulus to Es-Salt (ii. 271).
as Ain in the tribe of Judah (Josh. xxi. I6).   W. L. A.
Simonis (Onom. 41) identifies it with Beten; Hyde  BETH-ANATH     (nfl'; Sept. BatOaci,
(De Red. Vet. Pers. 541) with Batanah, i.e., the: 
Syrian Ecbatana, which Pliny (v. 17) places on BatOavdX, BatOev8), one of the fenced cities that
Carmel (Winer, Realw. s. v.)                 fell to the lot of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 38), and
from which the Canaanites were not driven out
BETEN (;t3) Josh. xix. 25), a town belonging  (Judg. i. 33). In the Onomasticon it is called
to Asher, called Bethbeten by Eusebius and Jerome, Villa Bathanaea, fifteen Roman miles from Caesarea
and placed by them eight miles east of Ptolemais.  (i e., Diocaesarea Sepphoris; see Reland, Palaest.
p. 629), and said to have medicinal baths (Xovrrpd
BETH (nlu, house) is often found as the first ele- Ida^qa). Van de Velde (i. 170) thinks it may be
ment of proper names of places in the Bible. It is the modem'Ain-ata north-east from Bint Djebeil;
only necessary to observe that, in all such com- but this. does not agree with the locality in the
pounds, as Bethel, etc., the latter part of the word  Onomasticon.-W. L. A.
must be considered, according to our Occidental  BETH-ANTH               S      B        
languages, to depend on the former in the relation BETH-ANOTH; Sept. B      ), a
of the genitive; so that Bethel can only mean  city belonging to the tribe of Judah, and situated'house of God.' The notion of house is, of course, in the mountains (Josh. xv. 59). Wolcot (Bib.
capable of a wide application, and is used to mean Sac. for I843, p. 57) suggests Beit'Ainim to be a
temple, habitation, place, according to the sense of place to the north-east of Hebron, and on the road
the word with which it is combined.-J. N.     from this to Tekua, as its modem representative.
In this Robinson (iii. 281, ed. i856) and Wilson
BETH-ABARA       (B7Oaapdc).  In the Text.    384) concur.-W. L. A.
Rec. this is the name given to the place where
John was baptizing when Jesus came to him (John  BETHANY (B-Oavla). I. Lightfoot (Opp. ii.
i. 28). In all the ancient MSS., however, and 202) derives this name from the Aramaic compound
versions, the reading is B0avIcq, and this has  n-n',' house of dates;' others affirm that it is
accordingly been placed in the critical editions...'       of s
fro.nrn?,'house of sorrow' (Simon. Onoin.
The substitution of the one reading for the other ishouse of sorrow' (Simon. n.
due to Origen, who tells us that the reading found s. v.). The former is the more probable derivain almost all the codices was BOavliq, but that tion. Bethany is mentioned in connection with
he, knowing the localities, altered it to Bartaaapp. Beth-phage,'  house of figs.' We also know that
Most of the Fathers follow Origen in this, even panlt trees were plentiful in the envirohs of Bethany
those best acquainted with Palestine. From this (John xii. I3) and on the Mount of Olives (Neh.
it may fairly be inferred that there was a place on viii. 15); while they were sufficiently rare in Palesthe Jordan called Bethabara, probably some much tine to give to each locality where they were found
frequented ford (the word Bethabara,;ll3 J', a distinctive name (comp. Gen. xiv. 7; Deut. xxxiv.
meaning House, i. e., Place of crossing); to which 3; Judg. iv. 5). It is worthy of note how the seveJohn resorted as a suitable situation for his labours ral places here take their names from their peculiar
as a preacher of the kingdom of heaven. Assum- products. We have the' Mount of Olives;' Bething this, it may be asked-i. Might not this also phage,' the house of figs;' and Bethany,' the
be called Bethany? In reply to this, it may be house of dates.'
observed, that the Greek word B70avla here may  The village of Bethany is unquestionably ancient,
represent the Hebrew Tnl nJn1, which signifies though it was probably so small, and its situation
House, or place of a ship, and would, therefore, be so retired, that it never came into notice until the




BETtIANY                    345                 BETHANY
time of our Lord. Then, however, it became the labours of the day in the great city, after the turscene of two events which have served to place it moil of its crowded thoroughfares, and the wanton
in the highest rank among the sacred towns of insult and persecution of its fanatical populace, it
Palestine.  At Bethany Christ raised Lazarus from  must have been sweet and soothing to the Saviour's
the dead (John xi.); and at Bethany, during His troubled soul to walk over Olivet in the still evenlast interview with His disciples, He ascended into ing or starry night, and seek repose and sympathy
heaven (Luke xxiv. 50). This little quiet village  in the peaceful homes and genialsociety of Bethany.
appears to have been the home of our Lord during  Bethany was never afterwards lost sight of by
His periodical visits to Jerusalem (John xii.; Mark  Christian scholars and travellers. The Bourdeaux
xi. I2; Matt. xxi. I7).  Some of the most inte- pilgrim who visited Palestine in A.D. 333 mentions
resting and affecting incidents in His private life the crypt in which Lazarus was buried as being
occurred here (Matt. xxvi. 6, sq.; Mark xiv. 3; shewn in Bethany (Itin. lZieros, ed. Wessel. p. 596).
John xi. 2).  What Capernaum was in Galilee     And Jerome, writing nearly a century later, says
(Matt. iv. I3), Bethany was in Judsa.  After the  that a church then marked the site of the miracle
I42. Bethany.
(Onomast. s. v. Betl/ania). A few centuries later,  eastern side of the Mount of Olives; and about a
piety or superstition added other churches, with  mile below the summit of the mount. The village
convents for both monks and nuns, and discovered  consists of some twenty wretched houses, huddled
or invented numerous'holy places' (see Early together on the side of a shallow rocky glen, which
Travels int Palestine, Bohn, pp. 6, 28, 44). The  runs down the declivity.  The slopes around are
churches and convents, like most others in Pales- almost covered with bare crowns and jagged fragtine, were destroyed when Mohammedanism    be- ments of gray limestone; but among these are still
came triumphant.  One church was used for a time  some straggling fig-orchards, intermixed with olive
as a mosque, and thus outlived the others; but in  and carob trees.  Bethany stands on the border
the I6th century nothing remained of any of them  of the desert.  Beyond it there is not, and appaexcept a few fragments of massive walls and heaps rently never was, any inhabited spot. It seems as
of rubbish (Robinson's Bib. Res. i. 433).      if excluded from the world of active life, and one
Bethany still exists, though it has long lost its would suppose, from the look of its inhabitants,
old name.  It is a remarkable fact that its new  that they had given up industry in despair. The
name serves to distinguish it as the site of Christ's view from it is dreary and desolate.  Olivet shuts
great miracle.  It is called El-Azartyeh, which  out Jerusalem and the country westward; and the
may be rendered'the place of Lazarus.' It is i: eye roams eastward down the bare, gray,'wildermile distant from Jerusalem, on the opposite, or ness of Judaea' into the deep valley of the Jordan,




BETH-ARABAH                   346               BETH-ARBEL
and then up again to the long wall of the Moab valley, sometimes called Arabah (Josh. xviii. I8),
mountains on the distant horizon. The houses are and is to be distinguished from  the'plain' or
massive and rude, built chiefly of old hewn stones.'Flateau' (Mishor) of ver. 21.  The ravine of
On the top of a scarped rock to the south is a heavy  Heshbon, which descends from the Moab mounfragment of ancient masonry, which may be part tains into the Jordan valley, about three miles
of one of the old churches. The tomb of Lazarus north of the Dead Sea, was the boundary between
is still shewn. It is a deep vault, partly excavated  Reuben and Gad (comp. Josh. xiii. I7, 23, and
in the rock, and partly lined with masonry. Of 26); so that Beth-Aram, being a town of Gad,
course there is nothing to connect it with the great must have been to the north of Wady Heshbon.
miracle of our Lord except the imagination of the It is manifestly the same place which is called
people.                                       Beth-haran (1r't3, Sept. BatOapdv), in Num.
The leading, and indeed the only, road from  xxxii. 36; the only difference in the Hebrew being
Jerusalem to Jericho runs past Bethany. It is one the change of t into [, not an uncommon occurof the dreariest in all Palestine, and it is now, as rence.  Eusebius and Jerome tell us that the
it was in the time of our Lord, one of the most Syrians called this town Bethramtha (it is so
dangerous (Luke x. 30). The road does not pro- named also in the Talmud, see Reland. Pal'ast., p.
ceed direct from the Holy City to this village; it 642); but that Herod changed its name to Livia,
winds round the south side of the Mount of Olives; in honour of the celebrated Livia, the wife of
thus making the distance as nearly as possible Augustus. (Onomast. s. v. Betharam.) We learn
fifteen furlongs (John xi. I8). It was up that road from Josephus, that when Livia took the name of
through the wilderness from Jericho Christ came to  yulia, the name of this town was likewise changed
raise Lazarus; and on it, without the village, the  (Ant. xviii. 2. I). Jerome describes it as lying
weeping sisters met Him (comp. John x. 40, and eastward of Jericho, on the road to Heshbon, five
xi. 1-20). It was along that road to Jerusalem He miles south of Bethnimrah (Onom. s. v. Brl7vagpdv;
went in triumphal procession, and from the'palm  see also Reland. Pal., pp. 496, 650). The site of
trees' in the adjoining fields the multitudes cut Beth-aram has never yet been accurately identified.
down branches (Mark xi. I-I; John xii. 13). A  The writer of this article heard of ruins a few
steep and rugged footpath leads from Jerusalem to miles east of the Jordan, near the place above
Bethany over the summit of Olivet. It was pro- indicated, to which, he was informed, the Arabs
bably by it Jesus'led out' His disciples'as far as give the name er-Ram; but he was unable either
to Bethany'-the same place where He was often to visit them, or to obtain any satisfactory descripwont to retire-and there' He lifted up His hands tion. They may probably be the ruins of Bethand blessed them. And while He blessed them   Aram.   On Van de Velde's map of Palestine,
He was parted from them, and received up into  Beth-haran (Livias) is laid down, on what authority
heaven' (Luke xxiv. 50, 5I). By the same path  does not appear.-J. L. P.
the disciples returned to Jerusalem (Acts i. 12). It
is a singular fact, and one calculated to shew the  BETH-ARBEL (5SK.'3), a place mentioned
value that ought to be attached to eastern traditions,only n Hos..  and supposed with some proba
that a tradition as old as the beginning of the 4thbility to be the same as the Arbela of Josephus.
century fixes the scene of the ascension on the This was a village in Galilee, near which were cersummit of the Mount of Olives, and there, in honour tain fortified caverns. They are first mentioned in
of it, the Empress Helena built a church (Eusebius, connection with the march of Bacchides into Judea,
it. Const. mi. 43); yet Luke distinctly states that at which time they were occupied by many fugithis event occurred at Bethany.  (The fullest ac-, and the Syrian general encamped there long
counts of Bethany are given in Robinson's Biblical eng t s ue them Antiq xii. 11.g; e  Maccabm
Researches; Wilson's Lands of the Bible; Stanley's enough to subdue them (Ant. i. I I.;  Maccab.
Resenarch es Pal.; Mr Lands of n e Bob; Sr tanle's ix. 2). At a later period these caverns formed the
Paletiand Pael.; Murray's Handboofor Syria and retreats of banded robbers, who greatly distressed
2.Palest anyone.)-. L. P. Jordathe inhabitants throughout that quarter. Josephus
2. Bethany n th   BETAAR         gives a graphic account of the means taken by
BETH-ARABAH (,ilyn.?'3; Sept. BatOdpa- Herod to extirpate them (Antiq. xiv. 15. 4, 5;
T..... De Bell. 7ud. i. i6. 2-4). These same caverns
pa, Oapapadp, BOd8pap3a), a town in one place were afterwards fortified by Josephus himself against
ascribed to Judah (Josh. xv. 61), in another to the Romans during his command in Galilee. In
Benjamin (xviii. 22). It lay on the border line of one place he speaks of them as the caverns of Arthe two (xv. 6; xiii. i8),'in the wilderness' bela, and in another as the caverns near the lake
(   g) i.e, in the valley or plain of the ordan  of Gennesareth (Joseph. Vita, sec. 37; De Bell.
and Dead Sea. Hence its name = House of the    ud. ii. 20. 6). According to the Talmud, Arbela
wilderness.-   L. A. Alay between Sepphoris and Tiberias (Lightfoot,
BETH-ARAM       (7nJ'3, House of the lofty;  Chorog. Cent. c. 85). These indications leave little
\ T  "                    doubt that Arbela of Galilee, with its fortified
Sept. BatpOavappd). In describing the allotted ter- caverns, may  identified with the present Kulat
ritory of the tribe of Gad (osh. i 24-28) Mosesibn Maan and the adjacent ruins now known as
first mentions those towns which lay on the high  Irbid (probably a corruption of Irbil, the proper'plateau' ('lds ) east of the Jordan Valley, and Arabic form of Arbela). The best description of
afterwards those situated in the'valley' itself the neighbouring caves is that of Burckhardt (p.
(jnthy), beginning at the southern end. The firstp.
of), beginning la t s s  the ut ern end. The first 33), who calculates that they might afford refuge
of the latter towns is Beth-Aram (ver. 27). We -         men._J. K
to about 6o0 men.-J. K.
conclude, therefore, that Beth-Aram was situated
on the low flat plain on the east bank of the river,  Addendum.-About two miles from the western
and not far from its mouth. The'valley' (Emek), shore of the Sea of Galilee, and three miles and a
mentioned in ver. 27, is manifestly the Jordan half from the town of Tiberias, are the ruins of




BETH-AVEN                   347                BETH-CAR
Irnid.  They are situated on the edge of the was already in ruins, and Bethel's doom was also
plateau of Hattin, where a deep and wild ravine sealed; partly, too, by the appropriateness of the
breaks down from it into the fertile vale of Gen- name to Bethel, after Jeroboam had set up the
nesaret, now called el-Ghuweir.  The ruins are golden calf there.  Before that time it was the
not very extensive. They consist chiefly of rubbish,' House of God' (Bethel); then it was made the
and foundations of hewn stones. Among them'house of idols' (Beth-Azen). Amos has a still
are the remains of a large and beautiful Synagogue, more striking and beautiful play upon the name
perhaps of the fifth or sixth century. A fine portal Beth-Aven, when predicting the final overthrow of
with sculptured ornaments still stands complete, Bethel;'Seek not Bethel, nor enter into Gilgal
and in the interior are several columns with Corin-.... for Bethel shall come to nought.' It shall
thian capitals. There can be no reasonable doubt come to tlN (Aven), which signifies'idolatry,' and
that this is the Arbela of Josephus, and the Beth- also'nothingness' (See Jerome, Onom. s. v.
Arbel of Hosea. The situation, the name, and the Bethel). It would appear that Beth-Aven fell to
singular fortified caverns in the neighbouring ravine, ruin at a very early period, and was never rebuilt.
indicate the identity. The Arabic Irbid is a cor- There is no mention of it after the captivity.
ruption of the Hebrew Arbel.    About three- Eusebius refers to it, but not as a place then existquarters of a mile down the ravine are the caverns ing (Onom. s. v.)  The Septuagint sometimes
referred to by Josephus, and which, in all proba- renders it BatOiX (Josh. vii. 2); sometimes BactObv
bility, led Hosea to mention Beth-Arbel as a place  (Josh. xviii. 12); sometimes BagtO; and in Hos.
of great strength (ch. x. I4).  The sides of the iv. I5, oTKcos'Ov. This proves that the place and
ravine are here cliffs of naked rock, rising to a name were alike unknown to the translators of
height of nearly 600 feet. About half-way up that that version.-J. L. P.
on the right, are extensive and singular excavated  BETH AZMAVETH (Neh. vii. 28). [AzMAchambers, capable of containing several hundred  VETH]
men. Some of them are placed one above the
other, like the stories of a house; some are walled  BETH-BAAL-MEON. [BAAL MEON.]
up in front, having doors and windows. It would  BTH-BARA                        r 
seem that the caves are partly natural, but greatly BET-BARAH, perhaps for 
enlarged by art, and united by rock-hewn doors'house of passage;' Sept. BacOvpd); a town on
and passages.  Within them  are several large the bank of the Jordan. The site has never been
cisterns, into which the rain water was conducted identified; but its position is pretty accurately indifrom the hills and cliffs around by little channels. cated by the reference in Judg. vii. 24, the only
These caves, if only well-provisioned, might be place where it is found in Scripture. Gideon, on
defended by a few resolute men against an army. the defeat of the Midianites, sent to the inhabitants
(Reland. Paalst. p. 575; Wilson, Lands ofthe Bib. of Mount Ephraim, ordering them to intercept the
ii. 308; Robinson's Bib. Res. iii. 342).-J. L. P.  flying foe by occupying'the waters unto Bethbarah and Jordan.' The battle took place in the
BETH-AVEN      (',    ouse of vaniy, or valley o f Jezreel. The Midianites fled down it into
falsehood; Sept. BacuOX and BatOwopev, etc.), the great plain of the Jordan. Their object would
a town in the mountains of Benjamin, near Ai, naturally be to cross the'river by the nearest and
and a short distance east of Bethel (Josh. vii. 2). best fords, so as to retreat into the fastnesses of
It gave its name to a section of that rocky wilder- the eastern mountains. Gideon knew those fords,
ness which extends 4rom the summit of the moun- and resolved to seize them. Hence his message
tain range down to the Jordan valley (Josh. xviii. to the Ephraimites. We would conclude from
12). It is described in I Sam. xiii. 5, as lying to this, that Beth-barah must have been situated
the west of Michmash (comp. ch. xiv. 23). The opposite or nearly so to the valley of Jezreel. If
region between Michmash and Bethel is among   the conjecture of Gesenius be right as to the meanthe wildest in all Palestine. Bleak rounded hill- ing of the name ('House of Passage'), then, in all
tops are thickly studded with jagged, protruding probability, Beth-barah was situated at the ford of
rocks of gray limestone, and strewn with innumer- the Jordan near Succoth, where we know Gideon
able fragments of the same. Ravines, like huge and his little army crossed the river in pursuit of
fissures, intersect them, and rend the mountain the enemy (Judg. viii. 4, 5). The ford at this
sides below. There is scarcely any verdure; and place is one of the best on the river; an island
there is no sign of cultivation, except here and  dividing the stream, and a bar connecting it with
there a little patch of corn among the rocks, or a each bank (Robinson's Bib. Res. iii. 3I6). —J. L. P.
few fig trees nestling in the bottom of a glen, or  BETH-BIRET (')  A town of Simeon
clinging to the sides of a cliff. Joshua might with
truth name it the'Wilderness of Bethaven.' (i Chron. iv. 31), for which Beth-lebaoth is found
Among the rocks are numerous aromatic herbs in Josh. xix. 6. It is called also Lebaoth in Josh.
and shrubs, which make it a favourite pasture- xv. 32, where it is reckoned among the cities of
ground for goats; hence, perhaps, its name'1D. Judah. Reland (Palaest. p. 648) suggests that it
The writer saw, and visited several ruins between  may stand connected with the toparchy of BethMichmash and Bethel, any one of which might be leptephena (Pliny, H. N. v. I5), or of the Beththe site of Beth-Aven; but he could hear nothing leptephenes (Joseph. B. iud. iv. 8. I). From the
of the ancient name.                          name Lebaoth (lionesses), it has been supposed to
The prophet Hosea mentions the name Beth- have been situated in the wild district to the south
Aven three times, but it is evident he applies it in of Judah.-W. L. A.
contempt to Bethel (Hos. iv. 15; v. 8; x. 5).   BET                         pasture, or of a
This is quite characteristic of eastern writers. It BETH-CAR (, H  se ofpast    or of
was suggested partly by the proximity of the two lamb; Sept. BatO66p; Vulg. Beth-char). This place
towns; partly perhaps by the fact that Beth-Aven is only once mentioned in the Bible (i Sam. vii. I i),




BETH-DAGON                    348              BETH-DAGON
and there are no very distinct data to enable us to tween Yafa and Ludd, is considerably above the
fix its site. It was on the side of a hill, or rising northern boundary of Judah. Our Beth-dagon,
ground, on the borders of Judah and the plains of indeed, no longer exists (Robinson, iii. [ist ed.],
Philistia.  The Israelites under Samuel having p. 30, note 2; Van de Velde's Map of Palestine and
overthrown the Philistine army at Mizpeh (a few  Memoir, p. 294). The same must be said of our
miles north of Jerusalem), pursued them' until (2.) BETH-DAGON, mentioned in Josh. xix. 27
they came under Beth-car.' Close to this spot (LXX. Batieryevp; Cod. Al. Bi5a-ycbv) as one of
the Israelites halted, and set up a stone, naming  the border cities of thetribeofAsher. Though, howit Ebenezer, which, Jerome affirms, was near to  ever, no moder landmark points out the site of
({uxta) Bethshemesh (Onomast. s. v. Abenezer). this north Beth-dagon, it is not difficult to discover,
Now Bethshemesh stands on a low ridge on the from the precise topographical statement of the
south side of the rich valley of Sorar. On the sacred writer, that this city was situated at the
opposite side of this valley, on a rising ground, point where the boundary line of the tribe, after
about three miles north-west of Bethshemesh, are crossing the ridge south of the promontory of
the ruins of an old village called Beit-far. The  Carmel towards the east, intersects the stream of
situation answers in every respect to that assigned  the Kishon, on the confines of Zebulon.  It is
to Beth-car; and the name may possibly be an   remarkable that, as there is a moder Beit Dejan
Arab corruption of the latter. It lies in the direct in the south which yet cannot be identified with,
route from Mizpeh to the plain of Philistia, and is but is far to the north-west of, the southern Bethjust on the borders of the latter province where a dagon; so there is still, in the central district of
pursuing army would naturally halt. —(Handbook the Holy Land, a second Belt Dejan, which is
for Syr. and Pal. p. 283.)-J. L. P.            equally far distant from our northern Beth-dagon,
BETH-DAGON       Q(cjTn>, - Houzse of Dagon, only in the opposite direction of south-east. In
E TH(.. Hu se of  the fertile and beautiful plain of Salim, a little to
the god of the Philistines, mentioned in Judg. xvi. the east of Nabulus (Shechem), Dr. Robinson de23, and other places.  See this etymology defended  scried at the east end of it, on some low hills, a
against the older one (which Fiirst retains Heb. village called Beit Dejan. (Bibl. Researches, vol. iii.,
u. Chald. H WB., p. 286) in Gesenius, Monument. p. Io2; Later Researches, p. 298*).  This Beit
Phoen., p. 387, and Thes., p. 294). This collo- Dejan, Robinson thinks, has no counterpart in the
cation of the Hebrew nouns, BETH and DAGON, Beth-dagons of the Bible. The French traveller,
occurs in six passages-(I.) Josh. xv. 41; (2.),De Saulcy, is not of this opinion, but identifies
xix. 27; (3.) I Sam. v. 2; (4.) v. 5; (5.) I Chron. this village near Nabulus with our fifth Bethx. o1; (6.) I Maccab. x. 83.                   dagon.'I am very much inclined to believe,'
In the third and fourth of these passages it is he says,' that the Beth-dagon of the passage just
certain that nothing else than the house (or temple) quoted (i Chron. x. Io) is no other than our Beit
of the gvd Dagon is meant [DAGON]. The others Dejan, because this village is only one day's
claim our attention here-I. BETHDAGON, (LXX. march from Djilboun, the locality in the mountain
Bayasi&X; Cod. Al. B-7q)aySbv), in Josh. xv. 41, to the north-east of Djenin, which was unquestionwas one of the second group of'sixteen cities with  ably the scene of Saul's disaster' (Dead Sea and
their villages,' which the sacred writer places in Bible Lands, i. IOI). If his conjecture be right,
the oands       of the t~ribe of Judah, appa-we must indicate this as the (3.) BETHDAGON
the lowlands (rt~~;) of the tribe of Judah, appa-(LXX. o0cos 1 Aaycu) in the western half tribe of
rently on the actual plain which stretches west-Manasseh (some distance from  Mount Gilboa),
ward towards the Philistine coast from'the hill  aere the  Philistines after their victory placed
country,' so often mentioned. A doubt has been  aul'she      the Philistines afte of their v ictory placed
expressed (see Reland, Palestina, 636, and Smith's and those of his sons having  been carried (the
Dictionary, s. v.), whether, in the absence* of the sam  distance iorth-east) to Bethshan, whence
conjunction 1, this name Bethdagon should not be same distance north-east) to Bethshan, whence
conjunction, this name Bethdagon should not be the Jabesh-Gileadites afterwards rescued them. It
joined, as an epithet of distinction, to the preced- no doubt aids this view, that we are not otherwise
ing word Gederoth, so as to form the compound  informed    e the temple was in which they deappellation, Gederoth-bethdagon.  But then this posited their ghastly trophy; moreover, the phrase
group of sixteen cities would be defective by one; (in  r. 9) h   t-rN, denotig a circuit of the
moreover, the name Gederoth occurs alone inadjacent country,     hih had been evacuated by
2 Chron. xxviii. I8, with the same description as it Israel and was then occupied by the enemy (ver.
has in this place, as one of the cities of the lowlans of this place, as one of the cities of the  - 7), very well suits with the relative positions of this
land fJudah. Gesenius And  rst identify this Beit Da'an and Bethshan, equally distant from the
Bethdagon with the Caphar-dagon, which in the fatal field, and in different directions. We have
time of Eusebius was a very large village + (K(5ccJ now only left the place mentioned in our sixth
LEyr 7 —r, inter Jamniam et Diospolin  Onomast. and last passage, I Maccab. x. 83. Both Gesenius.
s. v.) in the neighbourhood of Joppa; but modern
research has shewn that this latter place, of which  In Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (s. v. BETHstill remain some traces in Beit Dejan, a village be- DAGON 3) occurs this sentence:-'In addition to
the two modem villages mentioned above' [but
* The copulative vav is not always prefixed to  one only appears to have been mentioned]'as
names of cities in this series (cf. inter alia, verses bearing this ancient name, a third has been found
35, 55, and 58).                              by Robinson (iii. 298), a few miles east of Nabul2s
+ Gesenius, Thesaurus, p. 194; and Fiirst, (sic).' This is certainly an error, arising from the
Handworterbuch, p. 286. See also Reland, Palas- writer not observing that this eastern Beit Dejan is
tina, 635, and V. Raumer, Paldstina, 178.     described twice by Dr. Robinson (see the references
+'Caphar,' ~b,    meaning Ktcd1/1 or hamlet. in the text above). There are only two modern
See Stanley's Palestine, p. 527.              villages of this name mentioned by this traveller.




BETH-DIBLATHAIM                 349                 BETH-EL
(7hes. 194) and Winer (Realwodt. 168) express is mentioned as a royal city of the Canaanites
themselves doubtfully whether this passage means (Josh. xii. 16).* It became a boundary town of
only Dagon's temple at Azotus, or a Bethdagon, a Benjamin toward Ephraim (Josh. xviii. 22), and
town so-called in the neighbourhood. We share was actually conquered by the latter tribe from the
in the doubt; but after consideration of the words Canaanites (Judg. i. 22-26). At this place, alof the 84th verse, as compared with those of the ready consecrated in the time of the patriarchs, the
85th verse, we are inclined to regard this as a (4.) ark of the covenant was, apparently, for a long while
BETHDAGON, a city in the vicinity of Azotus (or deposited [ARK], and probably the tabernacle also
Ashdod), answering probably to Dr. Robinson's (Judg. xx. 26; comp. I Sam. x. 3). It was also
western Beit Dejan, and Eusebius' Caphar-dagon, one of the places at which Samuel held in rotation
already mentioned. It will be observed that in his court of justice (I Sam. vii. 16). After the
the 84th verse Bethdagon occurs as a proper separation of the kingdoms Bethel was included in
name, as it also does in the original, B16aayv, that of Israel, which seems to shew, that although
whereas in the next verse, the temple of the Philis- originally in the formal distribution assigned to
tine god is described by the appellative T  iep6v Benjamin, it had been actually possessed by Ephraim
Aaydv. But be this as it may, Ashdod, with its in right of conquest from the Canaanites-which
neighbourhood, seems to have been the chief seat might have been held by that somewhat unscrupu(cf. this passage with I Sam. v. I, 2) of a worship lous tribe to determine the right of possession to a
which was widely spread, not only among the place of importance close on their own frontier.
Phoenician cities of the coast, but in inland towns, Jeroboam made it the southern seat (Dan being the
as is attested both by the names of these ancient northern) of the worship of the golden calves; and
and moder places, and still more remarkably (and it seems to have been the chief seat of that worperhaps unexpectedly) by the remains of Kouyun- ship (I Kings xii. 28-33; xiii. i). The choice of
jik. [See DAGON in this work; also Layard's Bethel was probably determined by the consideraNineveh and Babylon, pp. 343, 344, with the ac- tion that the spot was already sacred in the esticompanying illustration. ]-P. H.              mation of the Israelites, not only from patriarchal
BETH-DIBLATHAIM.        [DIBLATHAIM.]       consecration, but from the more recent presence of
the ark; which might seem to point it out as a
BETH-EDEN ('y'I, Houseof pleasure, Amos proper seat for an establishment designed to rival
i. 5). It is doubtful whether this should be taken  that of Jerusalem. This appropriation, however,
as a proper name or as an appellative. If the former, completely desecrated Bethel in the estimation of
it may be the modem Eden on Lebanon, or Beit-el- the orthodox Jews; and the prophets name it with
pjanneh, on the east declivity of the Antilibanus, abhorrence and contempt-even applying to it, by
hear Damascus. The former of these is called by a sort of jeu de mot, the name of Bethaven (house
Ptolemy 7rapd&ewos (Geog. v. I4).-W. L. A.    of idols) instead of Bethel (house of God) (Amos i.
BETH-EKED    (~'.. a,   This name occurs 5; Hos. iv. 15; v. 8; x. 5, 8). The town was
BETH   D   (.       s. n  e         taken from Jeroboam by Abijah, king of Judah
2 Kings x. I2, where it is rendered in the A. V. as (2 Chron. xiii. i9); but it again reverted to Israel
an appellative,' shearing house;' Luther,'Hirten- (2 Kings x. 29). After the Israelites were carried
haus.' The Onomasticon makes it a proper name, away captive by the Assyrians, all traces of this
BacOaKdO, Bethachad, and places it twelve Roman illegal worship were extirpated by Josiah, king of
miles from Legio, on the great plain. Robinson Judah, who thus fulfilled a prophecy made to Jerofound a village between Jezreel and Samaria called boam 350 years before (2 Kings xiii. I, 2; xxiii.
Beit-kad (ii. 316, 2d ed.), which Ewald thinks was 15-18). The place was still in existence after the
probably Betheked (Gesch. Zsr. iii. I, p. 241).-  Captivity, and was in the possession of the BenW. L. A.                                     jamites (Ezra ii. 28; Neh. vii. 32). In the time. /L.  _..... -   of the Maccabees Bethel was fortified by Bacchides
BETH-EL (5r /., Sept. BatuOX), originally Luz for the king of Syria (Joseph. Antiq. xiii. I. 3).
(n1; Sept. Aov'd), an ancient town which Eusebius It is not named in the New Testament; but it still
places twelve R. miles north of Jerusalem, on the existed, and was taken by Vespasian (Joseph. Bell.
right hand of the road to Shechem. Jacob rested  7ud. iv. 9. 9). It is described by Eusebius and
here one night on his way to Padan-Aram, and Jerome as a small village (Onomast. s. vv. Aggai and
commemorated the vision with which he was fa- Luza); and this is the last notice of it as an invoured by erecting and pouring oil upon the stone habited place. Bethel and its name were believed
which had served him for a pillow, and giving to to have perished until within these few years; yet
the place the name of Beth-el (place or house of God), it has been ascertained by the protestant missionwhich eventually superseded the more ancient de- aries at Jerusalem that the name and a knowledge
signation of Luz (Gen. xxviii. II-I9).  Under that of the site still existed among the people of the
name it is mentioned proleptically with reference land. The name was indeed preserved in the form
to the earlier time of Abraham (Gen. xii. 8; xiii. of Beitin-the Arabic termination in for the
3). After his prosperous return [Jacob again re-Hebrew e being not an unusual change.-J. K.
ceived a divine communication at this spot, which  Addendum.-Jerome describes it as a village
he commemorated as in the former case, by setting
up a stone, which he anointed with oil, and again
named the spot Bethel  Here also] he buried De-  * [There is reason to doubt if the Bethel menborah; received the name of Israel for the second  tioned Josh. xii. x6, or that mentioned x Sam.
time, and promises of blessing; and accomplished xxx. 27, be the Bethel of the other passages.  It
the vow which he had made on his going forth  was apparently more to the south than the latter;
(Gen. xxxv. I-I5; comp. xxxii. 28, and xxviii. probably the Bethul or Bethuel of Josh. xix. 4,
20-22). It seems not to have been a town in those and i Chron. iv. 30. (See Smith's Diet. of the
early times; but at the conquest of the land, Bethel Bible, s. v.)].




BETH-EL                   350               BETHESDA
still inhabited; and he defines with accuracy its to him,'Lift up now thine eyes, and look from the
situation, twelve miles from Jerusalem, on the right place where thou ait, northward, and southward,
of the road to Shechem (Onomast. s. v. Bethel). and eastward, and westward, for all the land which
This is the last notice of Bethel in ancient history. thou seest, to thee will I give it,' etc. (Gen. xiii.
There can be no doubt that it continued to exist, I4-18). What singular minuteness of detail, and
and even to flourish for several centuries afterwards, what wondrous graphic power do we find in the
as there are remains of churches and buildings on Sacred Writings!
the site, which cannot be much older than the  In the valleys and cliffs around Beitdn are numetime of the Crusades.  Its name in the Arabic rous rock-hewn tombs, the very same, doubtless,
form, Beitin, was probably not recognized by the which king Josiah saw as he turned away from
foreign pilgrims and native residents; and the executing judgment on a guilty city, and from which
Bethel of Scripture was sought for far northwards. he'took the bones and burned them upon the
From the 4th century till the I9th, the true site of altar' (2 Kings xxiii. I6).
Bethel remained unnoticed, and indeed appears to  The ruins of Bethel cover a space of three or
have been altogether unknown.  Dr. Robinson four acres. They consist of ancient foundations,
was the first who gave a full description of the site and heaps of hewn stones and rubbish. On the
and ruins, and a full statement of its claims to be highest point are the remains of a square tower;
the Bethel of Scripture, though its identity had and towards the south are the shattered walls of a
been recognized by several others before his visit. church, perhaps the same which Jerome alludes to
Belt is the Arabic form of the Hebrew Beth; and as built upon the spot where Jacob slept (Onomast.
it is no unusual thing to find I and n interchanged s. v. Aggai.) Amid the ruins are about a score of
in the two languages. (Bib. Res. i. 449.)    miserable huts, in which, when the writer last
Though Bethel is one of the oldest of Palestine's visited it (1857), a few poor families and a few
sanctuaries, and though a host of sacred associations flocks of goats found a home.  In the western
cluster round it, yet there is no grandeur or beauty valley is a large and very ancient cistern. It is
to distinguish the site, and there is no richness in now in ruins; but the two springs which fed it
the surrounding country, such as one should expect of yore, bubble and sparkle as when the maidens
to attract early settlers.  The whole region is of Sarah filled their pitchers from them, and the
singularly bleak, and even forbidding in aspect. herdsmen of Abraham and Lot quarrelled about
Jacob could scarcely have found any spot there on their waters. The desolation of Bethel, and the
which a' pillow' of stone was not ready laid for shapeless ruins scattered over its site, are not withhis head. Grey jagged rocks everywhere crop up out their importance even yet —they are silent witover the scanty soil. The hills are rounded, and nesses to the truth of Scripture, and the literal fulare alike destitute of features and of verdure; and filment of prophecy. Amos said many centuries
the vales which divide them are neither deep nor ago;' Seek not Bethel, nor enter into Gilgal, for
picturesque. The ruins are spread over the sheiv- Gilgal shall surely go into captivity, and Bethel
ing point and sides of a low rocky ridge between shall come to nought' (ch. v. 5).-J. L. P.
two converging valleys, which run off southward
into the ravine of Suweinit. Higher ridges encom-  BETH-EMEK (p   Tr"t, House of the valley),
pass it on all sides except the south; in which a place on the borders of Asher (Josh. xix. 27).
direction, from the northern part of the ruins, a Robinson suggests a place called now Amkah,
distant view is gained of the top of Mount Moriah about eight miles to the north east of Akha, as its
and the Great Mosque. The hill to the eastward probable representative.
is the loftiest and most conspicuous in the neighbourhood. Its summit is broad and flat, with one  BETHER ('I.A).  The Mountains of Bether
culminating point, round which a few olive trees   mentioned only in Cant. ii. 7, and no place
are sprinkled. This is a spot of singular interest, called Bether occurs elsewhere. The word means,
and it is one of those places which are describedproperly, dissection.  The mountains of Bether
with so much minuteness and accuracy in the properly, dssecon.   The mountains of Bether
th  1  mmuteness and accuracy m temay therefore be mountains of disjunction, of seSacred Writings, that it is impossible to mistake  aration, etc., that is, mountains cut up, divided
them. It was upon this I mountain, on the east of paration, etc., that is, mountains cut up, divided
them. It was upon this'mountain, on the east of byraines,  etc. [Comp. LXX. 6pq KoLXc~/tLwv;
by ravines, etc. [Comp. LXX. 6p/ KoXoTdrwv;
Bethel, Abraham pitched his tent, having Bethel'super montes vallibus discissos,' Heiligstedt ap.
on the west and Hai on the east; and there he Maurer, Comment in V. T., in loc.    Others
builded an altar unto the Lord, and called upon give the rendering'the mountains of separation,'
the name of the Lord' (Gen. xii. 8). How much  ie., which separate us (Hitzig, in loc.)  The
vividness does a knowledge of the position and  Syriac version substitutes tC   for n  from the
commanding elevation of this mountain give to parallel passage, viii. 14, and translates'm. of
the parting scene of Abraham and Lot! The two spices.' For this there is no authority.]
patriarchs stood upon its summit.  The whole
land was before them (Gen. xiii. 9).  The hill  BETHESDA     (BrqeoSd; from [Syr. L.J.
country was bleak and rocky; but Lot lookede of,  c   i
down the long grey declivities of the wilderness,  Ir   =  D,  nw, House of mercy, according
and saw in the distance the verdant meadows, to some, while others derive it from Heb. KtWN':,
and shady groves, and sparkling waters of the House or place of effusion, i.e., of waters] a
Jordan. The fire of heaven had not yet blasted pool (KoXvLBOpa) at the Sheep-gate of Jerusalem,
that lovely plain; volcanic convulsions had not yet built round with porches for the accommodation
distorted its attractive features-'it was well of the sick who sought benefit from the healing
watered everywhere... even as the Paradise of virtues of the water, and upon one of whom Christ
Jehovah, like the Land of Egypt' (Gen. xiii. IO). performed the healing miracle recorded by St.
And Lot made his unfortunate choice. Abraham  John (v. 2-9).  That which is now, and has long
remained after Lot had gone, and the Lord said been pointed out as the Pool of Bethesda, is a dry




BETHESDA                    351            BETH-HACCEREM
basin or reservoir outside the northern wall of the fountain? And as the Sheep-gate seems to have
enclosure around the Temple Mount, of which   been situated not far from the Temple (Neh. iii.
wall its southern side may be said to form a part. I, 32), and the wall of the ancient Temple proThe east end of it is close to the present gate of St. bably ran along this valley; may not that gate
Stephen. The pool measures 360 feet in length, have been somewhere in this part, and the Foun130 feet in breadth, and 75 in depth to the bottom, tain of the Virgin correspond to Bethesda? the
besides the rubbish which has accumulated in it same as the'King's Pool' of Nehemiah, and the
for ages. Although it has been dry for above two'Solomon's Pool' of Josephus? (Bibl. Researches,
centuries, it was once evidently used as a reservoir, i. 508). For the latest investigations of this subfor the sides internally have been cased over with ject, see Narrative of a Journey round the Dead
small stones, and these again covered with plaster; Sea, by F. De Saulcy, London, I854. [SILOAM,
but the workmanship of these additions is coarse, POOL OF. ]-J. K.
and bears no special marks of antiquity. The west
end is built up like the rest, except at the south-  BETH-GAMUL (5.1?3'., House of the weaned
west corner, where two lofty arched vaults extended  camel-house, First]; Sept. OTKOs I'acuX).  This
westward, side by side, under the houses that now
cover this part. Dr. Robinson was ableso htrace place is only once mentioned in the Bible (Jer. xlviii.
23). It is said to be in'the plain country' of Moab,
or more literally'in the land of Mishor.' Along
i _ M-926 v~i-s - -the eastern side of the Jordan and the Dead Sea,
runs a mountain ridge of uniform elevation, having
an altitude of about 3000 feet above the valley.:_~~~  ~   On its summit is a great plateau, which extends,
with a gentle slope, far eastward, till it joins the
desert of Arabia.  This is the MOishor, the character and boundaries of which will be considered
elsewhere. [MISHOR]. Some would confine it to a
[?,ma!i_..narrow strip along the brow of the ridge overhang-:3Pl oarrec                    thr, ing the Dead Sea; and they affirm that all the
towns enumerated by Jeremiah are there to be
l  sought for. But for this there is no evidence, and
the words of the passage are opposed to it-' Judgment is come upon the land of Mishor... upon
Bethgamul... and upon Kerioth, and upon
n o-'t  -Bozrah, and upon all the cities of the land of
_nd      =:ow  uc risnnw IMoab, far and near' (Jer. xlviii. 21-24). These
three cities still exist, not very far distant from
43. [Pool of Bethesda.]          each other, on the north-eastern section of the
Mishor; and they retain their old names in an
the continuation of the work in this direction under Arabic form.  The writer saw them  all, and
one of these vaults for Ioo feet, and it seemed to visited two of them (Bozrah and Kerioth). The
extend much farther.  This gives the whole a town of Um-es-7emdl, which seems to be, withlength of I60 feet, equal to one-half of the whole out reasonable doubt, the modern representative
extent of the sacred enclosure under which it lies: of Beth-gamul, stands in the open plain, some
and how much more is unknown. It would seem   eight or ten miles south-west (not north-west
as if the deep reservoir formerly extended farther as represented on Van de Velde's map) of Bozrah.
westward in this part; and that these vaults were It is one of the most remarkable places in Syria.
built up, in and over it, in order to support the It was visited for the first time in I858 by Mr.
structures above. Dr. Robinson considers it pro- C. Graham.  It is surrounded by walls, and
bable that this excavation was anciently carried  contains many massive houses, such as are found
quite through the ridge of Bezetha, along the in the towns of Bashan. They are built of large
northern side of Antonia to its north-west corner, blocks of basalt, roughly hewn; the roofs are
thus forming the deep trench whch separatedefor- formed of long slabs of the same material; and
tressfrom the adjacent hill (Bib. Researches, i. 433, the doors and gates are all of stone!  These
434). The mere appearance of the place, and its buildings are evidently of remote antiquity; and
position immediately under the wall of the sacred  though the place has been deserted for many cenenclosure, strongly support this conjecture, so turies, the houses, streets, and walls, seemas if the
that we are still left to seek the Pool of Bethesda, town had been inhabited until within the last few
if indeed any trace of it now remains. Dr. Robin- years. Looking at this large deserted town, and
son himself, without having any definite conviction  the utter desolation of the surrounding plain, we
on the subject, asks whether the Pool of Bethesda can truly say with the prophet,'judgment is come
may not in fact be the' Fountain of the Virgin?' upon the land of Mishor, and upon all the cities of
The question was suggested to his mind by the Moab far and near' (Camb. Essays, i858; our.
exceedingly abrupt and irregular plan of that foun- Geog. Soc., vol. xxviii).-J. L. P.
tain. He remarks-' We are told that an angel
went down at a certain season into the pool and  BETH-GILGAL. [GILGAL.]
troubled the water;' and then whosoever first
stepped in was made whole (John v. 2-7). There  BETH-EDER.        [GEDERAH.]
seems to have been no special medicinal virtue in the
water itself, and only he who first stepped in after  BETH-HACCEREM (:       n.,  House of
the troubling was healed. Does not this troubling  the vineyard).  This name occurs twice, Jer.
Of the water accord with the irregular plan of this vi. I and Neh. iii. I4; from the former passage




BETH-HACCEREM                   352              BETH-HORON
we have some evidence of the situation of Beth- in Hebrew'. A, presided over by its prefect or
haccerem, while the latter drops a hint of its mayor N'j, and appearing, in this respect, on a par
importance.' 0 ye children of Benjamin,' says with Jerusalem itself* (cf. Neh. iii. 12). Ewald,
Jeremiah,'gather yourselves to flee out of the indeed, after the Chaldee Targum and Kimchi,
midst of Jerusalem, and blow the trumpet in regards Beth-haccerem, in Jer. vi. I, as an appelTekoa, and set up a sign of fire in Beth-haccerem: lative noun only, and renders it Weinbergshause, in
for evil appeareth out of the north.' Flight from  allusion to Isaiah v. 2; as if the call were to raise
a northern foe would seem to indicate a southern  the fire beacon on the towers of the vineyards. This
direction from Jerusalem.  With this agrees the acceptation will hardly stand in the face of the
following comment of St. Jerome, in loc. Writing  LXX., which always treats Beth-haccerem as a
from  his monastery of Bethlehem, he says:-  proper name-which it unquestionably is in Neh.' Thecua' (so designating Tekoa)'we daily see iii. 14 (Ewald, Die Proph. d. Alt. Bundes. ii. 47).
before our eyes, a village lying on a hill some twelve  Between verses 59 and 60 of Josh. xv., the LXX.
miles from Jerusalem; and between them both   of the Codd. Al and Vat. inserts a group of eleven
there is another village (vicus), also situated on a cities; among them one is called Kapet.  Even
mountain, the name of which in Syriac and He- if the passage be authentic (which Keil, Joshua,
brew is Bethacharma' (S. Hieronymi Opera, ed. Clark's Tr. p. 389, gives good reasons for believing),
Bened. iv. 882). With this version of the name the Karem mentioned in it must not be confounded
exactly agrees the LXX. (in Jer. vi. I), which in with our Beth-haccerem. Robinson and Van Velde
the text of the Alex. Ald. Vat. and Complut edi- place it immediatelyt west of Jerusalem, and identions reads BaciaXap/cd, while the Cod. Al. has tify it with the modem'Ain Karim, a flourishing
BrS-aXdcp, and the Vulgate Bethacarem.  This village with fountain, the Franciscan convent of St.
authority of St. Jerome has led some modern John Baptist being in the midst of it (see Robinson's
travellers to identify this place with the well-known Later Researches, p. 272).-P. H.
eminence, called by the natives 7ebel-el-Fureidis,*       A.      
and by Europeans'the Frank Mountain.' If this  BETH-HARAM or BETH-HARAN (               
identity t be correct, the site of Beth-haccarem has or i]), a town in the tribe of Gad (Num. xxxii
been the scene of many a remarkable change.       TT
Two great kings, in different ages and different 36; Josh. xiii. 27)  It is called i the Syr. L
ways, probably adorned it with magnificent works. )_ZL   Beth-Othim (Josh. xiii. 27), but Eusebius
From their lofty city the old inhabitants must have says Bethramphtha was the name the Syrians gave
seen stretched before them, up the green vale of it in his day. In the Talmud it is also called
Urtas, the beautiful gardens and fountains of King  Nt^'I. Josephus calls it BOapa/CoBa, and says
Solomon, which suggested to the royal poet some it was fortified by Herod, and called by him Julia,
of the exquisite imagery of the Canticles; and after the wife of the emperor (Antiq. xviii. 2. i).
nearly a thousand years later, Herod the Great In the Onomast. it is called Libias, or Livias
erected, probably on this very hill of Beth-haccarem, which was probably the earlier name.-W. L. A.'a fortress with its round towers, and in it royal
apartments of great strength and splendour' (Jose-  BETH - HOGLA  (ri.n nfs, partridge-house),
phus, Antif. xv. 9. 4); making it serve as an a town on the border of Judah in Benjamin (Josh.
acropolis amidst a mass of other buildings and  xv. 6; xviii. 19, 21); probably Bethagla (Reland),
palaces at the foot of the hill (Bell. J.d. i. xxi. 20). now'Ain Hajla.
To this city, called after him Herodium, the
Idumean tyrant was brought for burial from       BETH-HORON       (i'lh']  The house of the
Jericho, where he died (Antiq. xvii. 8. 3). The hollow; Sept.'7pwliv, and BO6wp(br, and Batlocality still yields its evidence of both these eras. Oeopv). There are two towns of this name, disSolomon's reservoirs yet remain (Stanley, 165); tinguished on account of their situation as' Bethand the present state of'the Frank Mountain' horon the upper,' and'Beth-horon the nether.'
well agrees with the ancient description of Herod- They both lay on the southern border of Ephraim
ium (Robinson, ii. I73). In Neh. iii. I4, the name  (Josh. xvi. 3, 5), close to the territory of BenjaBETH-HACCEREM (LXX. Br1'aKXapuAt, Vulg. Betha- min (Josh. xviii. I3, 14). Beth-horon the nether
caram) occurs, with these additional facts, indicative formed the north-west angle of the latter tribe.
of its importance at the period of the return from  One of the towns, probably'the nether,' as
the captivity (somewhat more than midway between  Eusebius suggests, was allotted out of the tribe of
the ages of Solomon and Herod), that it constituted, Ephraim  to the Levites  osh. xxi. 22).  The
with its neighbourhood, a district or ward, called situation of these two towns is thus clearly defined
* Connected with D    and 7rapcd8etaoos; and in the Bible; and still more clearly by Josephus..Connected with   aand Eusebius. The former places them Ioo stadia
given to this once highly-cultivated hill from its from Jerusalem (Ant. xx. 5. 4, with B.. ii. 12.
vicinity to Solomon's gardens, to which, in Eccles. 2); and the latter twelve miles from Jerusalem on
ii. 5, this word Par'des (or Fatedes) is expressly
applied (Stanley, p. 518; Robinson, iii., Arabic  * This is said on Reland's authority (Palaestina,
Index, p. 210).ii. 641); but it would seem from the phrase'W
t It was suggested by Pococke (ii. 42, fol.); it iPD  n1 rendered in A. V.' ruler of the half at of
is affirmed by Wilson, i. 396; Bonar (Mission to 7erusalem' (iii. 12), that Jerusalem comprised two
the 7ews), I50, I85; and Stanley, p. 166; and is such wards or districts. Beth-haccarem may be
admitted by Robinson to be a not improbable con- more safely compared with Mizpah (v. 15); and
jecture (Researches, ist edition, ii. 174). For the Bethzur and Keilah with Jerusalem (cf. verses i6,
identification with HERODIUM see also Robinson, 17 with 12).
p. 173, and the authorities quoted in the notes;  t Four English miles west, whereas Beth-hacalso V. Raumer, p. 223, art. Thekoa.          cerem (if on Jebel el Fureidis) is eight miles south.




BETH-HORON                   353              BETH-LEHEM
the great road to Nicopolis (Onomast. s. v. Bethorn). the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the
At the exact distance here indicated, on the ancient people had avenged themselves upon their enemies.'
leading road from Jerusalem to the western plain,  In the time of the Maccabees Seron, the general
the line of which can still be traced, stands the little of Antiochus marched against Jerusalem.  The
village of Belt' Ur distinguished as el-fjka,' the warlike Judas having occupied with a few hundred
upper;' and a mile and a half farther, near the men the pass of Beth-horon, attacked and routed
foot of the mountains, is Bet'Ur et-tahia,'the  the foe,'and pursued them from the going down
lower.'  There cannot be a question that these of Beth-horon unto the plain' (I Maccab. iii. 13-24;
are identical with the'upper' and'nether' Beth- Jos. Antiq. xii. 7. I). Two centuries later, Ceshoron.                                        tius Gallus, the Roman proconsul, when approachThe situation of these two villages, and the ing Jerusalem by the pass, also sustained a disastopography of the surrounding region are highly trous defeat. Thus was the same spot the scene
interesting, as tending to illustrate some of the of one of the first, and one of the last victories that
most remarkable events in Jewish history. Beth- crowned the Jewish arms (Jos. Bell.?ud. ii. I9.
horon the upper stands on the summit of a conical 2; Stanley, Sin. and Pal. p. 208; Robinson,
hill, the culminating point of a long narrow ridge Bib. Res. ii. p. 252).
that shoots out westward from the central chain of  In the 4th century, the two villages of BethJudaea. On both the north and south sides of the horon were known to Jerome. From that time
ridge are deep glens, which gradually converge and till our own day their names disappeared from
meet about a mile west of the village, forming by history; although the crusaders more than once
their junction the celebrated'valley of Ajalon.' approached the holy city by this pass. They are
In front, just beneath the apex on which the vil- both small villages still, with some traces of strong
lage stands, the ridge breaks down abruptly, and  fortifications and departed greatness in and around
in places precipitously, to the point of junction; them.-J. L. P.
and a short distance west of this point, on a rocky  B -JE    OTH'    e 
eminence, is situated Beth-horon the nether. The BETH-JESIMOTH      (niDjWl,' ouse of
deep valley between the two places may perhaps the deserts; Sept. Ala-UiOf and BarTrOaaerLvB), a
account for the name,'The house of the hollow.' town in the low valley (nliy, the distinctive name
The ancient road led through both villages. As- 
cending from the plain of Philistia, it crossed the of the Jordan. Itmarkedthe southen limit of the
low hills to the nether Beth-horon, from whichlast encampment of the Israelites east of the river
there is a short descent into the valley. The main lat eampmet of  e      sraelies eas of he rier
ascent to the mountain region here begins. The  (Num. xxx. 49). We learn from   osh. x. 3,
road winds up the mountain r egion here begins. Te  that it stood on or close to the shore of the Dead
road winds up the mountain side in a zigzag line, Sea, and under Ashdoth-Pisgah, or'the cliff of
in many places cut in the rock, until it reaches  e  isgah.' Fromthese combined references it would
point on which the upper Beth-horon is perched; appear to have been situated at the base of the
then after a sharp descent of a few hundred yards, mountains, at the northeast angle of the Dead Sea
there is an easy ascent of some two miles more to (comp Josh. xii. 3; Deut. iii. 17, and iv. 49). It
the top of the rounded ridge, from which the road wa allotted to the tribe of Reuben (osh. xi. 20);
descends gradually into the beautiful plain or basin,  ut subsequently fell into the hands of the Moabin whose centre, on a rocky eminence, stands the ites (Ezek. xxv. 9). The name'House of the
old town of Gibeon. The pass of Beth-horon is
old town of Gibeon. The pass of Beth-horon is deserts' is descriptive of the locality. The valley
rugged and difficult, yet it is the only one by which at that place is singularly barren, and above it rise
an army could approach Jerusalem from the coast; the bare gray cliffs which form the buttresses of
and the two villages completely command it. This  e Moab mountains. Beth-Jesimoth is mentioned
the Moab mountains. Beth-Jesimoth is mentioned
shews why the wise Solomon'built Beth-horon     Eusebius, who places it ten miles south of
the upper, and Beth-horon the nether, fenced cities, Jricho it ouht to be south-east), on the shore of
with walls, and gates, and bars' (2 Ch. viii. 5).  the Dead Sea.  He seems to have confounded it
Beth-horon is chiefly celebrated in Scripture from  with eshimon to which David fled from Saul (
its having been the scene of Joshua's victory overSam  xx. 24, Onomast. s. v. Betesemot and
the Amorites; and the remarkable incidents of Sam. xxnoh 24     ma   s s. near Maon, some
that victory will be more easily understood if read tirty miles from Jericho e w si ne or Maon, some
in connection with the foregoing topographical  thiy  s        fro  Jeric. Te site of Beth-eidetails.  The banded kings assembled around        has never been identified.-J...
Gibeon. Joshua made a rapid night-march from    BETH-LEAPHRAH        (mn01b'/; Sept. oTKos
Jericho, and attacked them in the early morning.    y        ouse of  hrah A.), a town
They were at once driven back along the way'that in Judah or Benjamin (Mic...  ), probably the
goeth up (from the plain of Gibeon) to Beth-horon'  am  Ophrah (which see). The name is pro(Josh. x. io). The steep and difficult pass was  e     phrah   hih ee       he    e i
now before them.   As they fled,'and were in perly Beth-Aphrah, the * being merely the sign of
the going down to Beth-horon, the Lord cast down the genitive. Gesenius translates House of thefarm,
great stones from heaven upon them' (ver. I). taking the latter word to be l'PD); Fiirst derives
When Joshua reached the crest of the hill, and it from'3I2, dust, and translates dst-hole (Schutsaw the enemy rushing down the pass, and the ort), with which Hitzig {Die Kleine Pr. in loc.)
wearied Israelites in pursuit, he feared they might agrees.-W. L. A.
escape as night approached; and then he uttered  BETH-LEHEM      (an','House of bread;'
that wondrous command of faith-' sun, stand thou                  vV. 
still upon Gibeon; and thou, moon, in the valley  Sept. and N. T. BOXe4A; Arabic  L 
of Ajalon' (ch. x. 12). Gibeon was behind him,.r
and the forenoon sun stood over it. Ajalon lay in' House offlesh'). I. Bethlehem and its eventful
front, and the waning moon stood over it.'And history have been before the world for nearly 2000
VOL. I.                                                                        2 A




BETH-LEHEM                   35-              BETH-LEHEM
years.  In sacred interest it is only second to  mother of Benjamin weep for the murdered infants
Jerusalem.  Yet there is nothing in the village of the tribe ofJudah? The reason is now obvious.
itself, or the surrounding scenery, to attract atten- Many of Rachel's own offspring were included in
tion, if we except the shrines which superstition  the massacre; and her spirit is represented as if
has erected over the sites of apocryphal holy places. rising from  the tomb and rending the air with
Bethlehem is five miles south of Jerusalem, a cries, which are heard in Ramah, one of Benjamin's
little to the east of the road to Hebron. It occu- chief cities.
pies part of the summit and sides of a narrow   In the enumeration of the towns of Judah, in
ridge which shoots out eastward from the central Josh. xv., the name of Bethlehem does not appear.
chain of the Judaean mountains, and breaks down  This has occasioned some surprise and controversy,
abruptly into deep valleys on the north, south, and especially as the Septuagint version has a clause
east.  The steep slopes beneath the village are attached to ver. 59, containing the names of twelve
carefully terraced; and the terraces sweep in grace- towns, among which we find EppaOd, aObrrl eaTl
ful curves round the ridge from top to bottom. In  BcatXe^x. Jerome affirms that these towns were
the valleys below, and on a little plain to the east- purposely omitted by the Jews (Comm. Mic. v. I);
ward, are some corn-fields, whose fertility, doubt- and Kennicott maintains that the passage in the
less, gave the place its name, Beth-lehem,'house  Septuagint is genuine. The vast weight of eviof bread;' while the dense foliage of the olives and  dence, however, is against it; and we must regard
fig-trees ranged in stately rows along the hill sides, the clause as an interpolation, however it may
and the glistening leaves of the vines that hang in have crept in (see Reland, Palest., p. 644).
festoons over the terrace banks, serve to remind us,  The story of Ruth forms an interesting episode
amid the desolations of the whole land, and espe- in Bethlehem's history. It was in the cornfields
cially in contrast with the painful barrenness of the below the village that Ruth gleaned; and probably
neighbouring desert, that this little district is still on one of those threshing-floors we still see beside
Ephrath,' the fruitful.'  Immediately beyond  the fields, she slept at the feet of Boaz (Ruth ii. 3,
these fields and terraced gardens is'the wilderness sq.) The traveller who may chance to visit the
of Judaea.' It is in full view from the heights of village in the time of' barley harvest' (April), will
Bethlehem.  White limestone hills thrown con- witness (as the writer has done) on those fields
fusedly together, with deep ravines winding in and many a scene calculated to recall the story of Ruth.
out among them, constitute its chief features. Not The reapers, the gleaners, the threshing-floors, the
a solitary tree, or shrub, or tuft of green grass, is very salutations, are just what they were 3000
anywhere to be seen. The village contains about years ago.
500 houses. The streets are narrow and crooked;  Bethlehem was a fit training ground for the
but being here and there arched over, and having future poet, warrior, and king of Israel. Amid
the rude balconies of the quaint houses projecting  the wildness and grandeur of those ravines which
irregularly along their sides, they have a pic- break down into the Dead Sea, and amid the unturesque mediaeval look about them.  On the broken solitude of the wilderness, the poet would
eastern brow of the ridge, separated from the vil- be naturally led to closer communion with God, to
lage by an open esplanade, is the great convent, contemplation of his wondrous works in nature
grim and massive as an old baronial castle. It is and in providence. At night, when watching his
built over and around the traditional sanctuary of flock, all the glory of the starry heavens would be
Bethlehem. The buildings composing the con- made familiar to him. It was only amid scenes
vent are large and splendid. They are all encom- like these that such psalms as the 23d, 19th, 29th,
passed by a lofty wall, whose huge buttresses rest and 42d, could have been composed. Then Bethon the shelving rocks far below. The nucleus of lehen is a mountain village; and its inhabitants
the whole is a rock-hewn cave, measuring 38 feet were thorough mountaineers, accustomed from
by i feet; at one end of which is the following childhood to vigorous exercise, inured to fatigue,
inscription: —'Hic de virgine Maria 7esus Christus trained to unceasing watchfulness against wild
nalus est.'  Over the cave stands the splendid beasts and robbers, and ever prepared bravely to
Basilica of Helena, the oldest monument of Chris- defend both their flocks and their lives. Under
tian architecture in the world. It is now sadly such training David learned to use his sling with
out of repair; but its four rows of marble Cor- such effect; and his'mighty men,' the chief of
inthian columns are still grand and imposing.  whom were Bethlehemites, learned to wield sword
Bethlehem is first mentioned in connection with and spear.
the death of RacheL  A mile north of the village,  About a quarter of a mile north of the gate of
on the main road from Jerusalem and Bethel, is a the modern village is a' well,' which is now
little building, which marks to this day the place pointed out as that for whose waters David longed
of her sepulture. The position of this tomb serves when in'the hold' of Adullam. It is a cistern, as
at once to illustrate a touching incident of gospel the Hebrew word ('Iin) would seem to indicate.
history, and to explain a difficult point of sacred It is situated at the head of a ravine; and one can
geography. We read in Matt. ii. I6, that Herod easily understand how three active and resolute' slew all the children that were in Bethlehem, and men could approach stealthily, then burst suddenly
in all the coasts thereof.' Bethlehem is in Judah; through the surprised host, fill a water-skin, and
but the southern border of Benjamin extended to escape (2 Sam. xxiii. 15; I Chron. xi. 17, I8).
the tomb of Rachel (I Sam. x. 2); and. a part of  Bethlehem was fortified by Rehoboam, perhaps
that tribe thus fell within'the coasts' of Beth- to defend Jerusalem against attack from the south
lehem. The infants there were included in the  (2 Chron. xi. 6). It would appear that the names
massacre.  With singular pathos the evangelist Bethlehem and Ephrath were both applied to the
adapts the words of Jeremiah to this calamity:-  same village in the time of the patriarchs; though'In Ramah there was a voice heard... Rachel the latter was probably more correctly given to the
weeping for her children,' etc. Why should the district [see EPHRATH].  Hence Micah calls the




BETH-MAACHAH                   355              BETH-NIMRAH
village Bethlehem Ephratah, to distinguish it from  four miles west of the site of Dan, is the village of
Bethlehem of Zebulon. It was also called Beth- Ibi?, occupying a commanding position on the top
lehem Judah. Both appellations continued to be of a tell or little hill. There cannot be a doubt
used; but at length the latter became general. that this is the ancient Abel. The district of BethHence when Matthew quotes the words of Micah, maachah lay around it, including the whole section
he changes the name, using' Bethlehem, land of of the valley between Lebanon and Hermon. ProJuda,' as that which was best known to those he bably it also included a part of the latter mountain
addressed (Matt. ii. 6; Mic. v. 2).           range, as the Maacahthites bordered upon the GeshIt was probably on the little plain to the east of urites, who inhabited the defiles of Trachonitis
the village that the shepherds were watching their (Handbookfor S. and P. p. 506).-J. L. P.
flocks by night when the angels announced the birth
of Christ. They climbed the hill, and ran to the  BETH-MARCABOTH (ni3l3_n i3,'House
stable, and there saw the babe' lying in a manger.' of chariots;' Sept. BatOsuaepp and BacOafLcapThen followed the visit of the magi, the'flight to XaagcbO), a town on the extreme southern border of
Egypt, and the massacre. It is a remarkable and Judah. It was finally allotted to the tribe of
significant fact that the scene of the nativity was Simeon (Josh. xix. 5). On comparing Josh. xix. 5
never honoured, never even incidentally alluded to with xv. 31, we find that this same town is called
afterwards by the sacred writers. It was not until Madmannah (Sept. MaXaplg). It is probable that
sense began to usurp its degrading ascendency over the latter was the proper name of the town, and
spirit, that'holy places' were sought out and fitted that Beth-marcaboth was an appellative given to it
up as sanctuaries for a mistaken devotion. It is because it was a posting' house' (Beth) for chariots.
not till the time of Justin Martyr, I50 years after Jeronie and Eusebius represent Madmannah as a
the nativity, that Bethlehem is again alluded to. little town, called in their time Menois, and situated
He states that Christ was born in a grotto near the near Gaza; yet they strangely confound it with the
village.  Over this grotto the Empress Helena Madmena of Is. x. 31, which lay north of Jeruerected that Basilica which still stands. Towards salem (Onomast. s. v. Medemana). If their account
the close of the 4th century Jerome took up his be correct, then Beth-marcaboth lay on the main
abode in a convent adjoining the church. His cell road from Jerusalem to Egypt. Perhaps it may
-a grotto hewn in the rock-is still shewn. There have been one of those cities in which Solomon
he wrote most of his commentaries, and there he kept his chariots which ran to and from Egypt
prepared one of the very best of our ancient ver- (I Kings ix. I9 with x. 26-29.)-J. L. P.
sions of Scripture, the Latin Vulgate. In the beginning of the I ith century, Bethlehem was captured  BETH-MEON. [BAAL-MEON.]
by the crusaders, and Baldwin I. erected it into an  BETH-MILLO (NIJ', Wall-house  Sept.
episcopal see. The title remained long in the Latin 
church, but the actual occupancy of the bishopric BOctaaXc(, H. of Millo, A. V.). I. A fort, or
was short. (Justin., Dial. e. Tryph. 78; Euseb., (according to the Talmud) a village near to Shechem
d. vit. Const. iii. 43; Will. Tyr., Hist. xi. 12.)  (Judg. ix. 20). In verses 46 and 49, it seems to
The present inhabitants' of Bethlehem are all be identified with the tDfl l I,  which leads to
Christians; and though somewhat turbulent, they 
are industrious, cultivating their fields and vineyards the conclusion that it formed part of the fortificawith much care. Many of them are skilful carvers, tions of that city. 2. A fort or tower, with the
and prepare beads, crucifixes, models of the holy adjoining quarter in Jerusalem, on Mount Sion
sepulchre, and other ornaments, for sale to the pil-(2 Kings xii. 20; Sept. TKos MaXXb). It is called
grims and travellers. (Full descriptions of Bethle- most frequently simply Millo (2 Sam. v. 9, LXX.
hem may be seen in the following works:-Robin- J dKpa; I Kings ix 15, 24; xi. 27; I Chron. xi. 8;
son's Bib. Res.; Ritter, Paldstina undSyrien; Stan- 2 Chron. xxxii. 5 LXX. nb dv&Xrbmua  urs sbXEws
ley, Syr. and Pal.; Handbook for Syr. and Pal)  av).  David found a tower or fort on Mount
E2. A   town  of Zebulun (Josh. xixS.  5  Sept. Sion, which he took from the Jebusites, and round
Bau. Adv)  probably the birthplace of the Judge which he gradually built houses towards the centre
Ibzan (Judg. xii. 8; Sept. BtoXedc. It is simply of the city. Solomon repaired this fort; and at a
mentioned by Jerome (Onomast. s. v.)  It still later period it was repaired by Hezekial.  It 
exists as a small wretched village, situated about described as  Nu' i, that slopes down to Silla,
seven miles west of Nazareth, among the wooded or that leads down to the steps (Ewald, Ges. Isr.
hills of Galilee (Robinson, Bib. Res. iii. I 13; Hand- iii. 70); a description now of somewhat uncertain
bookforS. andP. p. 385).-J. L. P.             meaning. [SILLA.]-W. L. A.
BETH-MAACHAH         (n    i      gh i3; Sept. BeO-  BETH-NIMRAH  (nDlt.l,'House of pure
raXd). A comparison of 2 Sam. xx. 14, I5 with water;' Sept. Naupdpt and BaivOavapdY, a town in
2 Kings xv. 29 would seem to indicate that this was the valley (Emek) of the Jordan, on the east side of
the name of a district, though sometimes applied the river, north of Beth-aram (Josh. xiii. 27). It
also to a town in that district whose proper name was built by the tribe of Gad, and lay near their
was Abel (ABEL-BETH-MACHAH). Beth-maachah     southern border (Num. xxxii. 33-36). It is subseand Abel are represented in the Hebrew text of quently referred to by Isaiah (xv. 6) and Jeremiah
2 Sam. xx. I5 as two distinct places; and both the (xlviii. 34), under the form Nimrim, and in connecSept. and Vulg. so render the passage. [The Cod. tion with the judgment of Moab. The Moabites
Al., however, has v'ApeX 9v BqOCaXdct.] (See also were never entirely expelled from  their ancient
Reland. Palas. p. 5I9.) The town lay south of country; and it appears that when the tribes of
Ijon (2 Kings xv. 29), the site of which is now  Reuben and Gad were taker. captive by Tilgathmarked by the ruins of Ayfin. At the southern  pilneser (I Chron. v. 26), the Moabites occupied
extremity of the beautiful little plain of AyAn, and their whole territory.




BETH-PEOR                  356              BETH-REHOB
About two miles east of the Jordan, opposite salem; and so Jerome states (Reland. Palzest. p.
Jericho, are the ruins of Nimrim. They are situated 653). Von Raumer defines its position with great
on the banks of Wady Shalb, down which a winter minuteness-' Descending about Ioo steps from the
torrent runs; and there is also a fountain beside top of the Mount of Olives; the place is seen where
them (Robinson, Bib. Res. i. 55I). This fact both Bethphage stood, though no ruin remains at this
accounts for the name, and illustrates the peculiar day to mark the spot; fifteen stadia farther down,
reference of Isaiah,'The waters of Nimrim shall or a short half-hour from Jerusalem, we reach
be desolate.' The whole plain round the ruins is Bethany' (see Lange on St. Malt. xxi. I). The
now utterly desolate; but near the fountain, and in latter measurement is manifestly wrong; and for the
the bottom of the Wady, there is still some verdure. site of Bethphage he has no better authority than
J. L P.                                     monkish tradition. Dr. Olin (Travels, ii. 32I)
discovered what he supposed to be the site of BethBETH-PEOR (ni3y'.,'House of Peor,' Sept. phage about a quarter of a mile north of Bethany.
otlKos'0o7,p, and Bai0q,0oybp). This town probably The writer has examined the spot. If any village
got its name from having been the chief seat of the ever stood there, which is uncertain, it was most
worship of the Moabite god, Baa-peor (Num. xxv. probably Bahurim.
3-5; xxiii. 28; xxxi. I6). It was situated on, or  There is just one ancient site between Bethany
beside, Mount Peor, and close to the valley where and Jerusalem which might possibly be that of
the Israelites encamped immediately before de- Bethphage. It is about one-third of a. mile west
scending into the plain of the Jordan (Deut. iii. of Bethany, and about 200 yards to the left of the
29). It was in this valley-apparently the modern road. It is separated from Bethany by a low ridge
Wady Hesban-Moses was buried (Deut. xxxiv. and a deep glen. If we suppose Jesus to have
6); and Mount Pisgah, on which he died, could gained the top of the intervening ridge when He
not have been far distant to the south. With this said to His disciples,'Go into the village over
agree the notices of Eusebius and Jerome, who against you;' and if that village, as it seems, was
state that Beth-peor lay six miles above Livias, on Bethphage, then these ruins on the opposite bank
the road to Heshbon. The valley of Heshbon has of the glen would answer well to the description
never been fully explored. Whatever traveller may  (Handbookfor S. and P. p. 189). In the glen and
succeed in doing so will be rewarded by the dis- on the adjoining ridges are many fig trees, to remind
covery of the ruins of Beth-peor, and the closest us of the appropriateness of the name'house of
approximation that has yet been made to the place figs,' and of the remarkable incident recorded in
of Moses' sepulture.-J. L P.                Matt. xxi. I9.-J. L. P.
BETH-PALET (ta'.1; Sept. Ba&uaXdc), a       BETH-RAPHA      (,1B'I, Sept. BaOpaia,
town in the south of Judah (Josh. xv. 27). It is House of Rapha or Giant), the son of Eshton, of
the same place as Beth-Phelet, mentioned Neh. the posterity of Judah (i Chron. iv. 2).
xi. 26, as one of the places inhabited by the Jews  BETH-REHOB (:fnl'Z; Sept. oTKos'Pacd,
after the Captivity. From this comes the Gentile 
and'Po6b3). A town beside the valley of the upper
ran, the Paltite, 2 Sam. xxiii. 26.-t      Jordan, not far distant from Laish (Judg. xviii. 28).
~BETHPHAGE  (B.ca-yh; Aream. K         It was an ancient stronghold of the Syrians, and
(  apparently the capital of one of their little princiHouse offigs'), a village on the eastern declivity palities (2 Sam. x. 6). It is the same place which in
of the Mount of Olives (Matt. xxi. I), on the lead- Num. xiii. 21 is called Rehob (Sept. ver. 22,'Po63
ing road to Jericho, and not far from Bethany or'Pocb/), and is described as on the way to Hamath.
(Mark xi. i). Our Lord, in journeying from Jericho Now the leading road to Hamath from the south
to Jerusalem, is said to have come' unto Bethphage lay up the Jordan valley, and its continuation
and Bethany, at the Mount of Olives.' From this Coelesyria. This Rehob must not be confounded
some have concluded that the former lay to the with the two other cities of the same name in the
east of the latter; but the words are by no means tribe of Asher, a mistake into which Winer
definite, as may be seen by comparing Mark xi. I (R. W. s. v.), and Gesenius (Thesaur.) have fallen.
with Luke xix. 29. The villages appear to have The whole territory of Naphtali lay between the
stood in close proximity.                   valley of the Jordan and Asher.  Jerome and
It appears from the Talmud that a portion of the Eusebius would identify Beth-rehob with a village
eastern suburb of Jerusalem was called Bethphage, called Rooba, fourmiles from Scythopolis (Onomast.
and Lightfoot hence infers that there was no village s. v. Roob); but this is nearly fifty miles too far
of that name on Olivet, but that some buildings south, for Beth-rehob was near Laish, the site of
beyond the walls of the city were so called (Opp. which is well-known.  Bochart, on the other
ii. 44, ed. Roterod.) This, however, is opposed to hand, places it too far north, near Hamath (Opp. i
the plain statement of the gospels, where a village p. 79; ed. 1712). Only one historical notice of
is unquestionably referred to. The allusion in the Beth-rehob has come down to us. Its inhabitants
Talmud is easily explained. The large cities in the were hired by the Ammonites against David, and
East-Damascus for example-are divided into were defeated by Joab (2 Sam. x. 6-13).'quarters;' and it is not unusual to find those  On the eastern declivity of Lebanon, above the
quarters which lie on the outskirts bearing the great plain of Huleh, is the little village of Hunin.
names of villages near them. So the quarter of It contains the ruins of one of the strongest fortJerusalem lying next the village of Bethphage resses in northern Palestine, exhibiting evidences
bore i*s name (see the quotations from the Talmud in the peculiarity of its bevelled masonry, not merely
in Lightfoot, Opp. ii. I98). We would therefore of the highest antiquity, but of its Phoenician origin.
conclude from the references in the Talmud, that It must have been a place of note in past ages,
Bethphage was situated between Bethany and Jeru- though both its history and name have long been




BETHSAIDA                    357               BETHSAIDA
lost. Dr. Robinson was the first to suggest that this three last places have formed subjects for lengthmay mark the site of Beth-rehob (B. R. iii. 37I). ened discussion among travellers and geographers.
The situation certainly answers in every respect to  Pococke (II. i. p. 68) says he heard the ruins of
the incidental notices in Scripture. It is on the Irbid (BETH-ARBEL) called Baitsida; but no other
leading route from the south to Hamath; it is person has ever heard it, and the site is too far from
upon the northern border of Palestine, beyond  the lake. Seetzen affirms that he heard the name
which it does not appear that the spies sent out by  Bat-szaida applied to the ruins at Khan Minyeh,
Moses penetrated.'They searched the land, from  and he places Bethsaida there. Dr. Robinson could
the wilderness of Zin unto Rehob, as men come not hear anything of such a name, and the writer,
to Hamath' (Num. xiii. 21); it is also near Laish, though he visited the whole region repeatedly, and
the site of which lies eight miles eastward, in the made many inquiries, never heard from a native
plain of Huleh. The writer visited it in I858, and  resident the name Beit-saida. Ritter (Pal. undSyr.
was struck, when looking down from the old castle ii. 334), and Van de Velde (ii. 395), follow Seetzen.
walls into the deep valley far below, with the De Saulcy affirms there was but one Bethsaida,
accuracy of the description given of Laish-' it was and he places it at Tell Hum (CHORAZIN, Travels,
far from Zidon; and it was in the deep valley ii. 441, sq.); and Thomson agrees with him, but
(emek) that lieth by Beth-rehob' (Judg. xviii. 28).-  he locates his Bethsaida at the mouth of the upper
J. L. P.                                      Jordan (Land and Book, p. 374). But neither of
BETHSAIDA  /(B@aad *s  A.ram. l i  these latter theories bears the test of sound criticism.
BETHSAIDA     {(Bir/ai/dT; Aram.',    The incidental allusions to Bethsaida by the'house of fishing.') The various notices of Beth- Evangelists, Jerome, Eusebius, and St. Willibald,
saida in the New Testament and in Josephus, once lead to the conclusion that it was situated on the
formed a subject of great difficulty to geographers. shore of the lake, a little to the north of CaperThey were thought to be, and in one sense they naum. About half a mile north of Capernaum is a
actually were, irreconcilable. Reland was the first beautiful little bay, with a broad margin of pearly
to suggest a proper solution of the mystery (Pal. sand. At its northern extremity are fountains, aquep. 653). He shewed that there were two towns ducts, and half-ruined mills: and scattered round
of the same name; one in Galilee west of the lake, them are the remains of an old town called Tabigthe other in Gaulonitis,.east of it; though he thought hah. There is every reason to believe that this is
the former only was referred to in the Gospels. A  the site of Bethsaida (Robinson, Bib. Res. iii. 358,
careful comparison of the following passages proves sq.) No site along the whole shores seems so adthat both are mentioned.  Mark viii. 10, I3, and  mirably adapted for a fishing town. Here is a bay
22:-from these verses we learn that the Bethsaida sheltered by hills behind, and projecting bluffs on
alluded to was on the opposite side of the sea of each side; and here is a smooth sandy beach, such
Galilee from Dalmanutha, which we know lay on  as fishermen delight to'ground' their boats upon.
the western shore. Luke ix. 10, with Mark vi. The strand forms a pleasant promenade, and so far
32 and 45:-we here find that the disciples were answers to the description in Matt. iv. 18-22. The
in a desert place at or near Bethsaida, east of the locality also suits the details given in Luke v. I-I I,lake; and yet Jesus sent them in a ship across the the boats stranded; the fishermen beside them
laketo Bethsaida. There must, therefore, have been washing their nets; the eager multitude pressing
two cities of the same name, one on the western, upon Jesus as he stood on the shore. Then Jesus
the other on the eastern shore of the lake. The steps into one of the boats, pushes out a few yards,
former is called by John, Bethsaida of Galilee and preaches to the people who lined the curved
(xii. 21); the latter, Josephus tells us, had its name beach.
changed to Julias (Antiq. xviii. 2. x).         Another incident in the Gospel narrative is illusI. Bethsaida of Galilee. This town (7r6XtS, John  trated by the topography of this region. After
i. 44; the other Bethsaida is called K,^cIV, Mark Jesus had fed the multitude near the Bethsaida
viii. 23, comp. Jos. Antiq. xviii. 2. I) stood on which stood on the north-east shore, he told his
the western shore of the Sea of Galilee, not far disciples to cross over in a boat'unto Bethsaida,'
from  Capernaum, and between it and Chorazin as Mark says (vi. 45), or'toward Capernaum,'
(Matt. xi. 2I-23; John vi. 17). It was also near according to John (vi. I7). There is no contrato the plain (or' land') of Gennesaret (Mark vi. diction. Both places are in the same direction,
45-53). Bethsaida is merely mentioned by Euse- and within less than a mile of each other. The
bius and Jerome as being upon the lake of Gene- storm drove the boat a little southward, and so
saret (7rpbs r j revrlaptr-i XlUvy, Onomast. s. v. they landed on the coast of Gennesaret beyond
Bethzaida). The narrative of St. Willibald, who  Capernaum.
visited this region in the eighth century, is impor-  Bethsaida was'the city of Andrew and Peter'
tant as tending to fix the relative positions of seve- (John i. 44); and this little quiet bay beside it was
ral towns mentioned in the Gospels. We are told probably the scene of the remarkable incident rethat he went from Tiberias by Magdala to Caper- corded in John xxi. 1-24. Some of Christ's disnaum; thence to Bethsaida, where'there is now  ciples, after the Crucifixion, returned on a visit to
a church on the site of the house' of Andrew and  their homes, and resumed their old occupation.
Peter (Early Travels in Pal. Bohn, p. I6, sq.) Peter and Thomas, James and John, after a night
Tiberias is known. Magdala is still represented  of fruitless fishing on the Sea of Galilee, saw an
by the little village of Mejdel at the southern  apparent stranger standing alone upon the shoreborder of the plain of Gennesaret; and Capernaum  it was Jesus. At his bidding they' cast the net'
has been identified with Khan Minyeh at its and were rewardedby another'miraculous draught'
northern border (CAPERNAUM).     Between this in the same place as the first; and they drew the full
place, therefore, and the mouth of the Jordan, on nets up on the smooth beach (comp. Luke v. 4-7).
the shore of the lakes we must seek for the sites  A'woe' was pronounced upon Bethsaida beof Bethsaida and Chorazin. The true sites of the cause of the infidelity of its inhabitants; and now




BETI-SHAN, BETH-SHEAN               358      BETH-SHAN, BETH-SHEAN
its prostrate ruins, and its lonely, desolate shore, others. The supposition that these were descendare painful evidences that the'woe' has come ants of the Scythians in Palestine, renders more
(Matt. xi. 2I).-J. L. P.                     intelligible Col. iii. II, where the Scythian is
named with the Jew and Greek; and it also ex2. Bethsaida of Gaulonitis. Christ fed the 5000 plains why the ancient Rabbins did not consider'near to a city called Bethsaida' (Luke ix. Io); but Scythopolis as a Jewish town, but as one of an
it is evident from the parallel passages (Matt. xiv. unholy people (Havercamp. Observat. ad Yoseph.
13; Mark vi. 32-45) that this event took place not in Anti.. I. 22). On coins the place is called
Galilee, but on the eastern side of the lake. It Scythopolis and Nysa, with figures of Bacchus
has been shewn above that there were two Beth- and the panther (Eckhel, pp. 438-440; comp.
saidas, one on the western, and the other on the Reland, p. 993, sq.) As Succoth lay somewhere
north-eastern border of the lake. The former was in the vicinity, east of the Jordan, some would
undoubtedly'the city of Andrew and Peter;' and, derive Scythopolis from  Succothopolis (Reland,
although Reland did not think that the other Beth- p. 992, sq.; Gesenius in Burckhardt, p. 1053,
saida is mentioned in the New Testament, it has German edit.) It is also supposed by some to be
been shewn by later writers that it is in perfect the same as Beth-Sitta (Judg. vii. 22).
agreement with the sacred text to conclude that it  Josephus does not account Scythopolis as bewas the Bethsaida near which Christ fed the five longing to Samaria, in which it geographically lay;
thousand, and also, probably, where the blind man but to Decapolis, which was chiefly on the other
was restored to sight. This, and not the western side of the river, and of which he calls it the largest
Bethsaida (as our English writers persist in stating), town (De Bell. 7ud. iii. 9. 7).
was the Bethsaida of Gaulonitis, afterwards called  Although Bethshan was assigned to Manasseh
Julias, which Pliny (Hist. Nat. v. 15) places on the (Josh. xvii. ii), it was not conquered by that tribe
eastern side of the lake and of the Jordan, and  (Judg. i. 17). The body of Saul was fastened to
which Josephus describes as situated in lower the wall of Bethshan by the Philistines (I Sam.
Gaulonitis, just above the entrance of the Jordanxxxi. Io) Alexander Jannaeus had an interview
into the lake (De Bell. 7ud. ii. 9. I; iii. 10. 7). It here with Cleopatra (Joseph. Antiq. xiii. 13. 3);
was originally only a village, called Bethsaida, but Pompey marched through it on his way from
was rebuilt and enlarged by Philip the Tetrarch  Damascus to Jerusalem (xiv. 3. 4); and in the
not long after the birth of Christ, and received the Jewish war I3,000 Jews were slain by the Scythoname of Julias in honour of Julia the daughter of politans (De Bell. ud. ii. 18. 3). In the middle
Augustus (Luke iii. I; Joseph. Antiq. xviii. 2. I). ages the place had become desolate, although it
Philip seems to have made it his occasional resi- still went by the name of Metropolis Palceslinc
dence; and here he died, and was buried in a tetiz (Will. Tyr. pp. 749, 1034; Vitriacus, p.
costly tomb (Antiq. xviii. 4. 6). At the northern  119). We find bishops of Scythopolis atthe counend of the lake of Gennesareth, the mountains cils of Chalcedon, Jerusalem (A. D. 536), and others.
which form the eastern wall of the valley through  During the Crusades it was an archbishopric, which
which the Jordan enters the lake throw out a spur was afterwards transferred to Nazareth (Raumer's
or promontory, which extends for some distance Palstina, pp. 47-149).-J. K.
southward along the river. This is known by the
people on the spot by no other name than et-Tell  Addendum.-Beisan, the moder representative
(the hill).  On it are some ruins, which were of the Hebrew Bethshean, occupies a noble site at
visited by the Rev. Eli Smith, and proved to be the mouth of the valley of Jezreel, where it breaks
the most extensive of any in the plain. The place down, by an abrupt descent of some 300 feet, into
is regarded as a sort of capital by the Arabs of the the low plain of the Jordan. From its terraced roof
valley (the Ghawarineh), although they have lost one can look down the plain as far south as the fords
its ancient name, and now occupy only a few  of Succoth, where Gideon intercepted the Midianhouses in it as magazines. The ruins cover a large ites; and he can see, on the opposite side of the
portion of the Tell, but consist entirely of unhewn river, the picturesque range of Gilead, and can
volcanic stones, without any distinct trace of ancient mark also the ravine where Jabesh stood, which
architecture (Robinson, Bibl. Researches, ii. 413; Saul once saved from a cruel enemy. The ruins
Winer, Bibl. Realwort. s. v.'Bethsaida').-J. K  of Bethshean cover a space about three miles in
BETH-SHAN  BETH-SHEAN   n       circuit. No less than four streams flow through
BETH-SHAN, BETH-SHEAN (1QN~ 1~2,, B..,; the site, so that the old city must have consisted of
House of rest, or Rest- Town; Sept. BaLto-v), a city several sections, separated by ravines with brawlbelonging to the half-tribe of Manasseh, west of ing torrents leaping over ledges of black rock.
the Jordan. It is on the road from Jerusalem to Between the principal streams rises a dark volcanic
Damascus, and is about four miles from the Jordan, tell to the height of nearly 200 feet.  From its
eighteen from the southern end of Lake Gennesa- southern base the ground ascends gradually for
reth, and twenty-three from Nazareth.  It also about half a mile; and on this slope the great body
bore the name of Scythopolis, perhaps because of the city stood; and here stands the modern
Scythians had settled there in the time of Josiah village, containing some fifty wretched houses,
(B.C. 631), in their passage through Palestine grouped round a square tower, apparently of Phcetowards Egypt (Herod. i. 105; comp. Pliny, Hist. nician origin.  Dr. Robinson well remarks that
Nat. v. I6, 20; Georg. Syncellus, p. 214). This Scythopolis must have been a city of temples (Bib.
hypothesis is supported by 2 Maccab. xii. 30, where Res., iii. 328). It was early a chief seat of the
mention is made of'Jews who lived among the Philistine god Dagon, who had a temple in it
Scythians (in Bethshan'); and by the Septuagint (I Chron. x. io). No less than four temples were
version of Judg. i. 27; BaiOodv, i &Ttn 2KvOPv clustered at the base of the tell, and several others
7r6Xis. In Judith iii. Io, the place is also called are seen elsewhere; and about thirty columns still
KKv6OQv,r6Xts, and so likewise by Josephus and  remain erect beside their prostrate walls. One of




BETHSHEMESII                  359             BETHSHEMESH
the most perfect as well as interesting ruins is the'Fountain of the Sun,' which we can have no
theatre, situated in the valley south-west of the difficulty in identifying with Bethshemesh. It is
tell. Though the outer walls are shattered, all singular that the very same change of Ain ('founthe interior doors and passages are almost perfect. tain') for Beth ('house'), has taken place in
Here we are told a number of poor Christians regard to the Egyptian Bethshemesh. The ruins
were massacred during the reign of the apostate are beautifully situated on the rounded point of a
Julian (Amm. Marc. Hist. xix. 12). The citadel low ridge, having on the north Wady Swiar, and
stood on the summit of the tell, and must have on the south a smaller Wady.  The two unite
been a place of great strength. A massive wall en- below the ridge, forming a broad fertile vale which
circled the level top, and the sides, naturally steep, runs away westward into the plain of Philistia.
appear in places to have been scarped.  It was Immediately behind the ruins, rise up the steep
probably on the wall of this stronghold the Philis- j sides of the Judaean mountains. The name Ain
tines hung up the bodies of Saul and Jonathan  esh-Shems is now given to the ruins of a modern
(I Sam. xxxi. IO). One can understand, from the village; but west of these, on the very point of the
position of the city, how the daring inhabitants of ridge, is the site of the ancient town. Little of it
Jabesh could carry off the bodies. Along the is left. There are some confused heaps of stones
northern base of the tell runs a deep and rugged and rubbish, some fragments of old walls, and a
glen, down which a torrent descends from the few indistinct traces of massive foundations, coverfountain of Jezreel (or'well of Harod', Judg. vii. I) ing a space three or four acres in extent. A
to the Jordan.  The'valiant men of Tabesh' luxuriant crop of thistles almost concealed these
crossed the Jordan in the night by the ford, crept when the writer visited the spot in the spring of
up the glen, scaled the steep side and wall of the  I857.  The thistles, however, were of various
Acropolis, took the bodies, and escaped. On the hues, and were intermixed with multitudes of
north bank of the ravine, opposite the citadel, are bright marigolds and scarlet poppies, so that the
a number of rock tombs. This was the cemetery whole ridge resembled, at a little distance, a great
of Scythopolis.                              flower bank.
The site of Befnsnean is magnificent, command-  Bethshemesh is chiefly celebrated as the place
ing the deep, broad valley of the Jordan, abound- to which the Philistines brought the ark from
ing with water, and in the midst of one of the Ekron  and one cannot but observe, when standrichest districts of Palestine. The natural strength ing on the spot, the minute accuracy of Biblical
of its citadel explains why the tribe of Manasseh topography. Round Bethshemesh are some low
were unable to drive out its old inhabitants. The hills, spurs of the mountain range.  Through
extent and splendour of the existing ruins testify to these runs the wide and beautiful vale of Sorar,
its ancient importance, and shew that it was worthy and opens into the plain about three miles westto hold the first place in Decapolis. In ancient ward.  Ekron is ten miles distant in the same
times the whole of this region was infested annually direction, but is hid by an intervening swell.
by the wild tribes of the east. It is so still. The Standing on the site of Bethshemesh, one can
writer has seen the black tents of the eastern trace the line of the old road to Ekron for miles
Bedawin thickly clustered round the fountain of through the valley. Along that road the ark was
Jezreel, while the valley, and the grassy slopes of brought. The people of Bethshemesh were reapBeisan, were covered with their flocks (comp. Judg. ing in the valley below the town,'and they lifted
vii. I2).-J. L. P.                           up their eyes and saw the ark,' they could see it in
BETHSHEMESH  ('House o tethe distance.    It was brought to the fields and
BETHSHEMESH (,'ose of e  laid upon a'great stone;' and the Philistine lords,
Sun;' Sept. 7r6Xls i\Xlov, and Bacuaao-as). There having given it up,'returned to Ekron the same
are four places of this name mentioned in Scrip- day' (I Sam. vi. 9, i6).
ture.                                          The fatal result of the curiosity of the BethI. A very ancient Canaanitish town situated on shemites in looking into the ark, forms one of the
the eastern side of the Shepheleh, or plain of difficulties of the Bible. The construction of the
Philistia, and close to the foot of the mountains. Hebrew is peculiar, and the meaning is not very
It lay on the northern border of Judah, and in clear:'And he smote of the men of Bethshemesh
those'marches' so often the scene of the struggles because they looked into the ark of Jehovah; And he
between the Israelites and Philistines (Josh. xv. smote of the people seventy mee,fifty thousand men'
10; 2 Chron. xxviii. I8). In this border-land the (I Sam. vi. 19).  The translation in the A. V.
tribe of Dan had a territory allotted out of that of is not agreeable to the original, nor can it be in
Judah, and among their towns we find Irshemesh, accordance with fact. Bethshemesh was a small
which is identical with Bethshemesh (comp. Josh. town. It never could have contained more than
xix. 41; I Kings iv 9; 2 Chron. xxviii. I8). The four or five thousand inhabitants. If the text be
town is called both'the house (nil) of the sun,' pure as it now stands, the meaning may be, as
and'the city (FlE) of the sun' (Sept. r6XIs lau- given in the Vulgate;'et percussit de populo
cuais).  Though within Dan's territory, it was septuaginta viros, et quinquaginta millia plebig.'
assigned to the priests in connection with Judah  It has been found, however, that five ancient MSS.
(Josh. xxi. 16; i Chron. vi. 59). Reland thinks omit the words'fify thousand men;' Josephus
the two places were distinct, but the weight of also omits them. Some able critics have hence
evidence is against him (Pal. p. 656; see Robin. concluded that these words were interpolated
B. R. ii. 225). Eusebius and Jerome place Beth- (see Kennicott, Bib. Heb.; De Rossi, Var. Lect.;
shemesh in Benjamin, though they rightly describe Barrett, Syn. Crit).  The Targum of Jonathan
its position ten miles from Eleutheropolis, east of appears to support this view.*
the road to Nicopolis (Onomast. s. v. Bethsamis). 
At the place indicated by the notices in Scrip-  * [Probably the original reading was I, a variture and Eusebius, is the ruin of Ain esh-Sems, ous reading on the margin was "3, and some one




BETH-SHITTAH                  360            BETH-ZACHARIA
In later times, Bethshemesh was the residence xxiv. 15, 24, 47, 50; xxv. 20; xxviii. 2, 3).
of one of Solomon's twelve purveyors (I Kings iv. Though thus frequently mentioned, it is only on
9). It was the scene of the battle between Judah  one occasion that he appears in the narrative in
and Israel, in which Amaziah was taken prisoner person, and even there he occupies the second
(2 Kings xiv. Ii). After its capture by the Philis- place to his son Laban (Gen. xxiv. 50), who, intines in the reign of Ahaz, it appears no more in  deed, throughout the whole narrative, appears the
history. (Robinson, B. R., ii. 223, sq.; Handbook principal agent.  This has led to various conforS. and P., 281, sq.)                       jectures.  Josephus says (Antiq. i. I6, 2) that
2. A town of Issachar not far distant from  Bethuel was dead at the time of his daughter's beTabar, apparently to the eastward (Josh. xix. 22). trothal; but this is directly in the face of the stateThe site is unknown.                          ment in Gen. xxiv. 50, unless we suppose, with
3. A town in the territory of Naphtali.  It some, that the Bethuel there mentioned was not
appears to have been situated among the moun- the father, but a younger brother of Laban; for
tains, and probably in a strong position, as the which, however, there is not a vestige of authority.
Israelites were unable to expel the ancient inhabi- The Targum of Jonathan B. Uziel (xxiv. 33, 55)
tants. (Josh. xix. 38; Judg. i. 33).          says that he died on the morning after the betrothal
4. An ancient city of Egypt referred to by from partaking of pottage which had been poisoned,
Jeremiah (Sept.'HXiLOvr6mXL  v'fv, Jer. xliii. 13). SO that the care of Rebecca passed into Laban's
It was one of the chief seats of Egyptian idolatry hands; Rashi infers, from Laban's being mentioned
and learning. It is the same place which is called first in the matter of the betrothal, that he was a
On in Gen. xli. 45, where Joseph's father-in-law  disrespectful son who sought to set aside his father;
was priest. Hence the rendering of the Septuagint but Abarbanel suggests that Bethuel spoke last,
both in Jeremiah and Genesis is the same. Arab because he was the more venerable; while Blunt
geographers give to it the name Ain esh-Shems, conjectures that he may have been somewhat imbeand that name is still attached to a well amid the cile (Coincidences, i. sec. 4). Perhaps, however,
ruins. [ON.]-J. L. P.                         Laban's prominence throughout this transaction is
BETH-SHITT AH (T'  Sept. B E8 AL  simply referable to the feeling and usage which gave
BETHH, S.    a brother a special interest in the reputation and
97 BxaeTrra), a town in the north of Palestine, to  disposal of his sister (comp. xxxiv. 5, II, 25; Judg.
which the Midianites fled before Gideon (Judg. vii. xxi. 22; 2 Sam. xiii. 20 ff.)-W. L. A.
22). Josephus says that Gideon drove the Midian- 
ites into a hollow place surrounded by torrents BETHUEL, OR BETHUL (5rF; Sept. Ba(Antiq. v. 6. 5). This would lead to the conclu- Oov\X, BouXa, v. r. Ba0ooX). The former name
sion that Beth-shittah lay in the valley of the Jordan, occurs I Chron. v. [iv.] 30; the latter Josh. xix. 4,
where Abel-meholah, with which it is conjoined in as the name of a place belonging to the tribe of
Judg. vii. 22, also probably lay. Robinson (ii. Simeon,'within the inheritance of the children
356) connects it with a place called ULa  Shetta, of Judah.' In Josh. xv. 30, the name iD:  K'sil
north-west from Beisan; but this is uncertain.- (Chesil) appears instead of Bethul among the
W. L. A.                                      towns of Judah. This Chesil has been supposed
to be the modern Khalasa (Williams, Holy City,
BETH-TAPPUAH (nlj no':,'House of ap- i. 464), the Elusa of Dr. Robinson (i. 333). This
ples;' Sept. BatOaxo:o), a town in the mountains of may be, though the affinity of the two names is
Judah, not far from Hebron (Josh. xv. 53). It isnotclose. Von Raumer (Pal    8), withless
only once mentioned in the Bible.  There is a probability, suggests the identity of Bethul with the
Tappuah referred to in Josh. xv. 34, but it lay at the BaOeXia of Sozomen (Hist. Ecc. v. 15), and of
western base of the mountains. Jerome regards Chesil with the Tell el-Hasi, lying southwest from
the two as identical, and locates the town near the Belt Djibuir. -
borders of Egypt (Onomast. s. v. Bethaphu ana   BETHULIA (ia, BervXoa). The position
Thaffu). The name and the site of this ancient.: 
town remained unknown both to history and geo-ofths ity, which is only mentioned in the apocrygraphy for nearly 3000 years; and yet when Dr. phal book of Judith, has occasioned much discusRobinson visited Palestine in 1838 he discovered  sion and conjecture. One tradition fixes it at Safed;
the old name and the old site. Five miles west of another at the Frank mountain south of Jerusalem;
Hebron, perched on the crest of one of the highestwhile Schultz has recentlyattemted to identify it
ridges in Palestine, stands the village of Teffh, with the village of Beith Ilfa on Mount Gilboa (Ritthe Arabic form of Tappuah. Among its modern ter, Pal. andSyr. ii. 423). But none of these sites
houses are several fragments of massive old walls agree with the descriptions in Judith.  Bethulia
and towers. The place has still a thrifty look, lay south of the plain of Esdraelon, not far from
probably because its position gives it some degree Dothan; and it was situated on the top of a hill
of security. It is encompassed by olive groves;commanding one of the leading passes to Judea
and the old terraces on the hill sides beneath it are (Judith iv. 6, 7; vi. 6-2). There is one place
clad with vines and fig-trees (Robinson, B. R. ii  which appears to answer all these particulars. The
7i)-J. L. P.                                  old castle of Saner stands on the top of a steep
hill, directly over the leading road from Esdraelon
BETHUEL (6.n      Ma, Man of God; Sept. Ba- to Jerusalem; and it is only four miles south of
o ), the son of Nahor, Abraham's brot, ad.Dothan. It is one of the strongest fortresses in
faovX), the son of Nahor Abraham's brother, and 2 central Palestine, and has stood several long sieges.
father of Laban and of Rebecca (Gen.  This is, in all probability, the long-lost Bethulia
thinking this was an omission, introduced it into(see Raume   st      L
the text, and so made the whole "i andt].       BETH-ZACHARIA (BatSOaXapta), a town in




BETH-ZUR                    361                 BETZER
Judah where a battle was fought between the troops Egypt. In the present day the onion, distinguished
of Judas Maccabaeus and those of Antiochus Eu- from other species of Allium by its fistular leaves
pator (I Maccab. vi. 32, 33: comp. Joseph. Antiq. and swelling stalks, is well known to be cultivated
xii. 9. 4; De Bell. mud. i. I. 5). It lay, accord- in all parts of Europe and in most parts of Asia.
ing to Josephus (xii. 9. 4), seventy stadia from  Its native country is not known; but it is probable
Bethzur, northwards towards Jerusalem.  It has that some part of the Persian region may have first
been identified by Robinson with Beit-Sakrrieh, produced it in a wild state, as many species of
south-west from  Bethlehem  (Lat. Res. 284).-  Allium are found in the mountainous chain which
W. L. A.                                      extends from the Caspian to Cashmere, and likewise in the Himalayan Mountains. It is common
BETH-ZUR (1 norl; Sept. BOacoop), a town    in Persia, where it is called piaz, and has been long
in the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv. 58), twenty Roman  introduced into India, where it receives the same
miles from Jerusalem, in the direction of Hebron  name  By theAra    it is called    ba1 or
(Onomast. s. v.'Beth-sur'). It was fortified byname     the        t s called       bas or
Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 7). The inhabitants as- bassal under which name it is described in their
sisted in building the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. works on Materia Medica, in which the description
i6). Lysias was defeated in the neighbourhood by of Kp6y4wov given by Dioscorides (ii. 181) is adopted.
Judas Maccabaeus, who fortified the place as a The Arabic is too similar to the Hebrew name to
stronghold against Idumaea (i Maccab. iv. 29, 61; allow us to doubt that both were originally the
2 Maccab. xi. 5; comp. I Maccab. vi. 7, 26). It same word.
was besieged and taken by Antiochus Eupator (i  The onions of warm dry countries grow to a conMaccab. vi. 31, 50), and fortified by Bacchides (ix. siderable size, and, instead of being acrid and pun52), whose garrison defended themselves against gent in taste, are comparatively bland, and mild
Jonathan Maccabaeus (x. 14); but it was taken and and nutritious articles of diet. The onions of Egypt,
fortified by his brother Simon (xi. 65, 66; xiv. which the Israelites desired, were doubtless of this
7, 33). Josephus calls Beth;zur the strongest for- sort, for Egypt is famed for the production of fine
tress in Judea (Antiq. xiii. 5. 6).           offions, as stated by Hasselquist:' Whoever has
Four miles north of Hebron, on the side of the tasted onions in Egypt, must allow that none can
road leading to Jerusalem, is a copious fountain, be had better in any part of the universe. Here
round which are seen some massive foundations, they are sweet; in other countries they are nauseous
hewn stones and heaps of rubbish marking the and strong.  Here they are soft; whereas in the
site of an ancient town. The fountain is called northern and other parts they are hard, and their
Ain Dirweh. Eusebius and Jerome refer to it, and  coats are so compact, that they are difficult of
state that it was here Philip baptized the Ethiopian  digestion. Hence they cannot in any place be eaten
eunuch (Onomast. s. v. Bethsur).  The present with less prejudice and more satisfaction than in
traditional fountain of Philip is in Wady-el-Werd, Egypt.'-J. F. R.
five miles south-west of Jerusalem, and is that
which Maundrell and Pococke visited. A short    BETZER (I'), the designation of some article
distance from Ain Dirweh, on the west side of the of value (Job xxii. 24, 25). The ancient versions
road, stands a half-ruined tower. Its foundations give us no help in determining its meaning here, as
are Jewish, but the upper walls are more modern they seem to have followed some different reading.
-perhaps of the age of the Crusaders.  It is called The A. V. translates it by'gold;' Rosenmiiller,
Belt S2r, in which we at once recognise the Hebrew  Hirzel (Comment. in loc.), and others, prefer' silBeth-zur. As if to place the question of identity ver;' and Gesenius and Fiirst unite the two by
beyond all doubt, the village of Halhul stands making it'gold' or'silver-ore.' Lee, on the
about a mile to the east, and Jedar three miles other hand, denies that it is a metal at all, and
north-west. Joshua, in enumerating the towns in contends that it properly means crop, vintage (from
this region, joins'Halhul, Beth-zur, and Gedor''1   vindemiavit), and by metonomy wealth gener(Josh. xv. 58). There are no extensive ruins about ally (Lex. s. v.) This has the merit of fixing on
either the tower or the fountain but there are, just the word a meaning derived from a proximate etyover the fountain, and beside the old paved road, mology; but it is a meaning foreign to the passage
traces of some very strong buildings, which probably in which the word occurs. On the whole, the
mark the site of the fortress spoken of by Josephus. view of Gesenius seems that to be preferred. In
It was intended to defend the chief approach to
Jerusalem from the south. There are also several the Arab., tibr, means a piece of gold or silvertombs hewn in the surrounding rocks, such as are
ore from a verb signifying to break off as if broken
found near all the old cities of Palestine (Robinson, ore, from a verb signifying to break off as if broken
Bib. -Res. iii. 277).-J. L. P.,off from the mine. Now, though the Hebrew verb
ib. Res. ii. 277).-J. L. P.        31 has not this meaning, yet, as it occurs in the
BETONIM     (D0LbM, Sept. Borapvlu), a town in sense of cutting off where there is no reference to
vines (comp. Ps. lxxvi. 12), it may have been used
the tribe of Gad, on their northern boundary (Josh.to denote the process by which a piece of ore
xiii. 26).                                    was detached from the rest in the mine. Certainly
BETZAL (hy, in the plural.04) betzalim) the parallelism of the whole passage is best pre~T:        served by this meaning:occurs in Numb. xi. 5, where the Israelites' murmur for the leeks, and the onions (betzalim), and  Cast on the dust the precious ore,
the garlick' of Egypt. There can be no doubt that  And [gold of] Ophir among the stones of the
Betzal means the common onion, the Allium Cepa     brook;
of botanists. This is proved by its Arabic name,  And the Almighty shall be thy precious ore,
and its early employment as an article of diet in  And silver of splendours unto thee.




BE-USHIM                   362                 BEZALEEL
(Ewald, Die Poet. Biich. des.A. B. iii. 213.)-  did not, however, continue long to reside in that
W. L. A.                                       city; for having occasion, in 1568, to visit France
on some family business, he was brought into relaBE-USHIM (D^r., used only in the plural), tions with the Protestants there, which ultimately
a species of plant, or kind of fruit, mentioned Is. led to his making that country the place of his
v. 2, 4. The LXX. give &KdvOas as the Greek    stated residence, and the centre whence his influence
equivalent; which is certainly a mistake, unless was spread abroad.  He occupied the place of
they had some other reading of the original text. leader of the Reformed party in France with great
The rendering of Aquila is aaTrplaL, that of Sym- vigour for several years; but his health beginning
machus dreX~; both of which give rather the to fail, he, in 1600, retired into private life, though
etymological meaning or force of the original word  still continuing to take a lively interest in religious
than translate it into its Greek equivalent as a affairs, and aiding, by his counsels, the deliberasignificative appellation. The rendering of Jerome tions of his brethren.  His death took place I3th
is labrusce; and this has been followed by Luther, October 1605, in his 88th year. Beza was greater
herlinge, and the A. V., wild grapes. The species as a dbgmatic and polemical theologian than as a
of plant intended has been supposed by some to be biblical critic; but his services to the cause of
the Vitis Labrusca, a plant which produces small biblical learning were such as to demand for him
berries of a dark red colour when ripe, but sour to an honourable place among the chiefs in that dethe taste; Hasselquist suggests the Solanum in- partment. Besides his Latiri translation of the
canum, or Grey Nightshade; and Celsius contends N. T., he completed Marot's version of the Psalms
for the Aconitum napeZlus, Wolfsbane. It seems in French verse, and aided in the French translamore probable, however, that no specific plant is tion of the Bible published at Geneva in 1588.
referred to in the passage of the prophet; but that But his most important contribution to biblical
the word he uses is simply used as an adjective literature is his edition of the Greek N. T., which
with its substantive understood, as a designation of he issued first in 1565, under the title, Testamentum
bad or worthless grapes. The Lord expected that Novum, Sive Novum Faedus 7. C. D. N., cujus
his vineyard should produce grapes, but it produced  Grcco contextuirespondent interpretationes dua, una
only B'-ushim, vile, uneatable grapes. (See Rosen- vetus, altera Theod. Bezca, fol. This work, of which
muller, Bibl. Bot. E. T., p. III; and Comment. several subsequent editions appeared, contains also
in loc.; Gesenius, Henderson, Knobel, in loc.; Annotations by Beza, and a dedication to Queen
Fiirst, HWB., in voc.). W. L. A.              Elizabeth, in which the author explains the principles on which he proceeded, especially in his
BEZA, THEODORE DE, was born at Vezelay, translation. Beza's is the first edition of the Greek
24th June I519.  He was a scion of one of the text which can be called critical; he made use of
ancient aristocratic stocks of Burgundy, the proper seventeen MSS., to which were added, for the third
name of which was Beze, or rather Besze. His edition, two others, the Cambridge and Clermont
father was Prefet of Vezelay, and his mother, Codices, both uncials, together with the Peshito
Mary de Bourdelot, was also of gentle birth. No  and the Arabic versions.'It has been Beza's lot,'
pains were spared on his education; he was sent says Hug,'to be frequently much commended,
first to Paris when very young, and in the close of and frequently much censured; both with equal
1528 he was placed at Orleans, under Melchior reason.  His emendations are often sensible; but
Volmar, whose instructions exercised a lasting in- his means for such an undertaking were too scanty,
fluence on his future life. With him he studied and no principles were as yet established in respect
literature and philosophy, and made some progress to their application' (Introd. Fosdick's trans., p.
in the study of law, to the practice of which it was 187). The truth is, Beza was not much of a textual
intended he should devote himself. For a season, critic. In settling the text, his mind was more inhowever, he was diverted from this, and all other fluenced by dogmatical than by critical reasons.
serious pursuits, by the love of gaiety and of light At the time, however, when his work appeared, he
literature, to which his natural temper inclined  did good service to the cause of N. T. criticism.
him, and for which his circumstances and social The part of his work which possesses most permaposition gave him facilities. A fit of sickness was nent interest is that containing his Annotations.
the instrument of turning him from the perilous Doddridge pronounces them'an invaluable treacourse on which he had entered; and an honour- sure,' an estimate which can hardly be accepted;
able attachment which he had formed for a young  but all who have used them will feel safe in assent
woman of a rank inferior to his own, determined  ing to him, when he adds that they'deserve to be
him to resign the ecclesiastical preferments which  read with the utmost attention.' [CRITICISM, BIBby favour he held, though not an ecclesiastic, and  LICAL; COMMENTARY.]-W. L. A.
to yield himself to a life of domestic virtue and public
usefulness.  In 1548 he accordingly removed to   BEZALEEL (5{i_, Sept. Beo-eXeOX), the name
Geneva, where he was married to the object of his
affections, with whom he lived happily for forty  of an artificer of the tribe of Judah, to whom was
years. In I549 he became professor of Greek at'intrusted the construction of the tabernacle and
Lausanne, where he continued for ten years. its furniture in the wilderness (Exod. xxxi. I-II;
tyears.  I Chron. ii. 3, 2o).  For this work he was speWhilst there he published his translation of the  I Chron.   3, 20). For this work he was speN. T. into Latin (Oliva R. Stephani, 1556, fol.), cially fitted by divine inspiration, in reference both
of which numerous editions have since appeared. to the planning othe work and to its execution.
In 1559 he removed to Geneva, where he became Aholiab and the others who were associated with
In I559 he removed to Geneva, where he became
associated with Calvin both as pastor and teacher;h   seem to have acted under his instrctions.
and on the death of Calvin in 1564, Beza assumed  The name is supposed by Gesenius to be a comthe place held by him, and was recognised as the pound of 3, iV, and is, and to signify in the shadow
head of the protestant community in Gereva. He of God; but Fiirst takes the: to be for }1, son,




BEZEK                    363                   BIEL
and renders son of theprotection of God. Another name, in the course of time, superseded all others
of this name is mentioned among the Israelites who both in the Eastern and Western Church, and is
had taken strange wives (Ezra x. 30).-t       now everywhere the popular appellation.  The
T TBEZEK  ( Sept. 1p).    Eusebius and \sacred books were denominated by the Jews the
BEZEK    (pt3; Sept. Be'K&).  Eusebmus and witing (chetib or mikra), a name of the same
Jerome mention two towns of this name close character as that applied by the Mahometans
together, seventeen miles from Neapolis in Shechem, (korawn) to denote their sacred volume.
on the road to Bethshan. I. A city over which   The Bible is divided into the Old and New
Adoni-bezek was king (Judg. i. 4, sq.). 2. The Testaments, X wraXacd, Kal X KaLtJ s&aOhKfj. The
place where Saul numbered the people before going name Old Testament is applied to the books of
to the relief of Jabesh-Gilead (i Sam. xi. 8).  Moses by St. Paul (2 Cor. iii. 14), inasmuch as the
former covenant comprised the whole scheme of
BEZER ('1Y; Sept. Boa6p), a city of refuge in the Mosaic revelation, and the history of this is
the territory of Reuben. Its situation is described  contained in them.  This phrase,'book of the
in Deut. iv. 43, as'in the wilderness ('MFtD), in covenant,' taken probably from Exod. xxiv. 7;
the land of Mishor' (A. V.'plain country'). In  I Maccab. i. 57 (PXflov taOhKq7s), was transferred
Josh. xx. 8 it is said to lie eastward of Jericho. in the course of time by a metonymy to signify the
Josephus says it was on the borders of Arabia writings themselves. The word ita85K/c, which we
(Antt. iv. 7. 4). From  these combined notices now translate testament, signifies either a testament
we conclude that it was situated on the high plain, or a covenant, but the translators of the old Latin
or plateau, of Moab; probably somewhere to the version have by a Grecism always rendered it, even
south-east of Heshbon, on the borders of the desert when it was used as a translation of the Hebrew
of Arabia, near the ruins of Um-er-Rusas. Euse- Berith (covenant), by the word Testamentum. The
bius and Jerome would identify Bezer with Bostra, names given to the Old Testament were, the Scripthe capital of Arabia (Onomast. s. v. Bosor); but tures (Matt. xxi. 42), Scripture (2 Pet. i. 20), the
the latter lay much too far to the north-east to have  Holy Scriptures (Rom. i. 2), the sacred letters
answered the purposes of a city of refuge for the  (2 Tim. iii. 15), the holy books (Sanhed. xci. 2),
tribe of Reuben.-J. L. P.                     the law (John xii. 34), the law, the prophets, and
P7BEZETHA.   [JERUSALEM.]                   the psalms (Luke xxiv. 44), the law and the proBEZE   [JERUSALEM.]    phets (Matt. v. I7), the law, the prophets, and the
BIBLE, /PtXla, libelli (the small books), a name other books (Prol. Ecclus.), the books of the old
to denote the collective volume of the sacred writ- covenant (Neh. viii. 8), the book of the covenant
ings, the use of which cannot be traced above the  (I Maccab. i. 57; 2 Kings xxiii. 2).
4th century. The word occurs in the Prologue to  The other books (not in the canon) were called
Ecclesiasticus,' the Law, the Prophets, and the apocryphal, ecclesiastical, and deuterocanonical.
rest of the books' (t/XI/a), and 2 Tim. iv. 13, The term New Testament has been in common use' and the books' (lpXila). Before the adoption of since the third century, and is employed by Eusethis name the more usual terms in the Christian bius in the same sense in which it is now commonly
Church by which the sacred books were denomi- applied (Hist. Eccles. iii. 23). Tertullian employs
nated were, the Scripture or writing (ypaqtJ), the the same phrase, and also that of'the Divine InScriptures (ypaoSal), the sacred writings (ypapal strument' in the same signification.  [CANON;
dcyLac), and the sacred letters (lep& -ypdjuaara). CRITICISM, BIBLICAL; SCRIPTURE, HOLY.]These names are thus frequently applied to the W. W.
sacred books of the Old Testament by Josephus   BIBLIANDER, THEODOR, a Swiss theoloand Philo, as well as by the writers of the New          name was properly Buchmann, born
gian, whose name was properly Buchmann, born
Testament (2 Pet. i. 20; Matt. xxii. 29; Rom. i. at Bischoffzell, in I504 and died of the plague at
2; 2 Tim. iii. I5). Jerome substitutes for these Ziirich, 24th Sept. 1564. He occupied the chair
expressions the term Bibliotheca Sancta (see Hiero-  theology at Zurch, but devoted himself chiefly
nymi Opera, ed. Martianay, vol. i. Proleg. sec. i), t oriental literature. He superintended the puba phrase which this learned father probably bor- lication of the Tigurine Version, as it is called, of
rowed from 2 Maccabees, ii. 13, where Nehemiah  the Bible; a version commenced by Leo Judah,
is said, in'founding a library' (/t/Xto0lKr/), to and completed by Bibliander, Cholinus, Erasmus,
have' gathered together the acts of the kings, and  d Gualtherus, and first published by Froschover,
the prophets, and of David, and the epistles of the at Zurich, in 1543, fol. Of this version the part
kings concerning the holy gifts.' But although it done by Bibliander comprised Ezek. xli to xlviii.,
was usual to denominate the separate books in  Daniel, Job, Psalms cii. to cl., Ecclesiastes, and
Greek by the term BpXov or BXos, whichisfre- Canticles. [LEO JUDAH.] Bibliander published
quently so applied by Josephus, we first find it also a Commentary on Mica, Zurich, 1534; notes
simply applied to the entire collection by St. Chry-and dissertations appended to a translation of
sostom in his Second Homily,' The Jews have the th Koran, published at Basle in 1543; a Hbrew
books (phXla), but we have the treasure of the  Grammar, Basle, 1535; and a multitude of disbooks; they have the letters (^ypcdLuara), but we sertations on biblical chronology and theology.have both spirit and letter.' And again Horn. ix. W  L A
in Epist. ad Coloss.,'Provide yourselves with
books (/3/Xla), the medicine of the soul, but if you  BIEL, JOHANN CHRISTIAN, was born at Brunsdesire no other, at least procure the new (KacvO), wick in I687, and died there, I8th October 1745.
the Apostolos, the Acts, the Gospels.' He also  He was pastor of the Lutheran Church of St.
adds to the word tpXla the epithet divine in his Ulrich and St. John in that city. He left, in a
Tenth Homily on Genesis:'Taking before and somewhat unfinished state, a Lexicon in LXX. et
after meals the divine books' (r& Oea /3q3Xla), or, alios Interpp. et Scriptores Apocr., which was pubas we should now express it, the Holy Bible. This lished by Miltzenbecher in 3 vols., Hag. Con.




BIER                    364                  BIRCH
1779-80, and which forms the basis of the more  BILHAN (1,2~; Sept. BaXadlc, BaXadp, tencomplete work of Schleusner.-t                             T *
complete work ofSchleusner.-der), the name of-. A Horite chief, the son of
BIER. [BURIAL]                              Ezer (Gen. xxxvi. 27; I Chron. i. 42); 2. One of
the sons of Jediael, the son of Benjamin (I Chron.
BIGTHAN (p::), an eunuch in the court of vii. IO).
king Ahasuerus, whose conspiracy against that   BILLROTH, Jo. GUSTAV. FRIED., Doctor
monarch was frustrated through the disclosures of and Professor extraordinary of Philosophy at Halle,
Mordecai (Esth ii. 21). [He is called Bigthana, was bor at Libeck ith Feb. i8o8, died 12th
Esth. vi. V1  See ABAGTHA]                    was born at Lubeck IIth Feb. I808, died I2th
Esth. vi. 2. See ABAGTH]March I836. Though devoted principally to phiBIGVAI (l.13; Sept. Bayoud, Bayovat). One of losophy, Billroth was also a philologist of the first
e -:' wo c  u  w.ii     rank, and was drawn to biblical studies by the inthose who came up with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 2; terest he felt in religion and in Christian truth.
Neh. vii. 7), and who signed the covenant (Neh. Before he had completed his twenty-fifth year,
x. i6). He was apparently a leader of the people, he published his Commentar zu den Briefen des
and may have been chief of'the children of Big- Paulus an die Corinther, Leipz., 1833, a work
vai,' of whom a large body (2056, Ezr. ii. 14; 2067, which at once established for him a high place
Neh. vii. 19) returned at the same time, and seventy among biblical scholars, and is referred to by all
at a later date (Ezr. viii. 14). The name appears subsequent writers on these epistles as a standard
elsewhere in the form Bago (i Esd. viii. 40) and exposition of them. At the time this appeared,
Bagoi (i Esd. v. 14).-W. L. A.                the author was struggling to support himself as a
BILDAD ("P1T; Sept. BaX8&6), the Shuhite, Privat-docent at Leipzig, and his privations during
one of the friends of Job, and the second of his op-this and the earlier stages of his career laid the
ponents in the disputation (Job ii..  basis of the disease which soon after cut him off.
ponents in the disputation (Job ii. i i; viii.; Aft  his death, Pro
r...                                     1 -; T'I,,, ci, i' r  i- i,'i- After his death, Professor Erdmann edited, from
xviii. I; xxv. I). The Shuah, of which the Sep- his ppers,      fessor Erdmann edited, from
tuagint makes Bildad the prince, or patriarch (BaX- his papers, Vorlesungen  b. RelzXionsphilosophie,
5 6 ZavXcwv xirl pacvsos)J, was probably the district Leipz., I837, the fragmentary utterances of a great
thinker.  His work on the Corinthians has been
assigned to Shuah, the sixth son of Abraham by hker    Hls workon the Conthians has been
assigned to Shuah, the sixth son of Abraham by translated into English, and forms two volumes of
Keturah, and called by his name. This was doubt- tranted intburh  lis, and f s  two v mes of
less in Arabia Petraea, if Shuah settled in the samethe    Bblcal CabetW. L. A.
quarter as his brothers, of which there can be little  BINNUI (533; Sept Bavaa, Baw, Bavov), the
doubt; and to this region we are to refer the town                 i.     t      
and district to which he gave his name, and in name of several men.. The father of Noadiah
which Bildad was doubtless a person of conse- (Ezr. viii. 33); 2, 3. Two of those who had taken
quence, if not the chief.  [SHUAH.]  Wemyss strange wives (Ezr. x. 30, 38); 4. One of those
(Job and his Times, p. XII) remarks:-' Bildad who assisted in the rebuilding of Jerusalem under
attacks the poor sufferer with more keenness than  Nehemiah (Neh. iii. 24); 5. The chief of a clan or
Eliphaz, but with less acerbity than Zophar. He  ept'the children of Binnui' (Neh. vii. I; called
renews the charge which Eliphaz had advanced, Bani, Ezr. ii. Io). The name is derived from
but with less eloquence and less delicacy. His nl, to build, and signifies building, or familysecond address is full of imagery, and wrought up state. -
to a high pitch of terror. He is filled with resent- BIRCH, ANDREAS, D.D., Bishop at Aarhuus,
ment against Job, merely because the latter defends andformerly Professor of Theology at Copenhagen
himself from their criminations; and he uses pro- died 1829. He made extensive preparations for a
voking and taunting expressions. His denunciations critical edition of the New Testament, travelling
are furious and awful; yet he is rather elevated than  this purpose through Italy and Germany, that
sublime, and more passionate than energetic.'  he might collate the MSS. deposited in the libraries
BILEAM    (Db3; Sept.'IqZ^Xdfay, Ali p1. of these countries. Having made extensive col-,ILEAMl   {.1; Sept.'IetXdav, Al.'I/g- lections of various readings, he commenced to carry
XdaCt), a town of Manasseh, situated in the vicinity out his design, and in 1788 issued Quatuor Evanof Megiddo (I Chron. vi. 70.  Comp. 2 Kings gelia Grce cumvaiantibus a textu ecionius Codd.
ix. 27, where, as in Josh. xvii. II, it is called Ib-  SS  etc.,  et sumtibus regis, Havnie, 1788,
lear.) It was one of the cities assigned to the 4t. In the Prolegomena he describes the MSS.
Kohathites.-t                                 4to. In the Prolegomena he describes the MSS.
~Kohathites. —~t^                           ~ used by him, especially the Vatican Codex B.
BILGAH (nr~3; Sept. 6 BeXyds, BeXyat). I.The text is printed from the third edition of SteT: *'                          phen's, and the various readings are placed below.
A priest in the time of David, to whom was allotted  At the end are specimens in fac-simile of several
the headship of the I6th course in the temple service Syriac codices, and of two of the Vatican codices
(I Chron. xxiv. 14); 2. A priest who went up with  of the Greek. A fire in the royal printing office
Zerubbabel and Joshua (Neh. xii. 5, i8). He is prevented Birch from completing this work as he
called Bilgai, Neh. x. 8.-t                   had designed; but he issued subsequently the
BILHAH (iL;5i * Sept. BaXXd), the handmaid various readings he had collected on the remaining
a:  Sept. BXX), tparts of the New Testament, those on the Acts
whom the childless Rachel bestowed upon her hus- and Epistles in I798, and those on the Apocalypse
band Jacob, that through her she might have chil- in  800o. Until lately this work was of peculiar
dren. Bilhah became the mother of Dan and value, from containing the fullest and most reliable
Naphtali (Gen. xxx. i-8). [2. A town of the sons collation of the Vatican Codex B.; but since the
of Simeon, one of the residences of the family of publication of that codex its value has decreased.
Shimei (I Chron. iv. 29). It is called Baalah, Its importance, however, in the history of the
Sept. BaaXd, Josh. xv. 29, and Balah, xix. 3.]  printed text, still remains.  The typography is




BIRDS                    365               BIRTH-RIGHT
worthy of all praise.  [CRITICISM, BIBLICAL. ]   It was the custom at a very ancient period for the
Birch also commenced to issue an Auctarium Cod. father, while music celebrated the event, to take the
Apocr. N. T. Fabriciani, of which only the first new-born child upon his knees, and by this cerepart appeared; Havn. 1804.-W. L. A.            mony he was understood to declare it to be his own
(Gen. 1. 23; Job iii. 12; cf. Ps. xxii. IO). This
BIRDS may be defined oviparous vertebrated  practice was imitated by those wives who adopted
animals, organized for flight. The common name the children of their handmaids (Gen. xvi. 2; xxx.
1Y tsizjpor is used of small birds generally, and 3-5). The messenger who brought to the father
of the sparrow in particular; t913'oph, translated  the first news that a son was born unto him was'fowl' (Gen. i. 21), properly means flyer; tV ait, received with pleasure and rewarded with presents
a bird of prey (&er6s, an eagle) in Gen. xv. II, (Job iii. 3; Jer. xx. 15), as is still the custom in
Job xxviii. 7, and Is. xviii. 6, rendered'fowls;' in  Persia and other Eastern countries. The birth of
Jer. xii. 9,'bird;'.and in Is. xlvi. I I, and Ezek. a daughter was less noticed, the disappointment at
xxxix. 4,'ravenous birds.' IDi''n1  barburim occurs its not being a son, subduing for the time the satisonly in I Kings iv. 23, and is there translated'fowls' faction which the birth of any child naturally occain the A. V., which is a mistake.  [BARBURIM.]  sions.
In the Mosaic law birds were distinguished as  Among the Israelites, the mother, after the birth
clean and unclean; the first being allowed for the of a son, continued unclean seven days; and she
table, because they fed on grains, seeds, and vege- remained at home during the thirty-three days
tables; and the second forbidden, because they sub- succeeding the seven of uncleanness, forming altosisted on flesh and carrion.  The birds anciently gether forty days of seclusion. After the birth of a
used in sacrifice were turtle-doves and pigeons. daughter the number of the days of uncleanness and
(See Kitto's Physical History of Palestine, Stanley's seclusion at home was doubled. At the expiration
Sin. and Pal., p. 427, 429; Thomson's Land and of this period she went into the tabernacle or
Book, passim). [FOWLING.]-C. H. S.            temple, and presented a yearling lamb, or, if she
BIRDS'-NESTS.     [FOWLING.]                was poor, two turtle doves and two young pigeons,
as a sacrifice of purification (Lev. xii. I-8; Luke
BIRTH.    In Eastern countries child-birth is ii. 22). [CHILDREN.]-J. K.
usually attended with much less pain and difficulty
than in our northern regions; although Oriental  BIRTH-DAYS. The observance of birth-days
females are not to be regarded as exempt from the may be traced to a very ancient date; and the birthcommon doom of woman,' in sorrow shalt thou   day of the first-born son seems in particular to have
bring forth children' (Gen. iii. 6). It is however been celebrated with a degree of festivity proporuncertain whether the difference arises from the tioned to the joy which the event of his actual
effect of climate or from the circumstances attend- birth occasioned (Job i. 4, I3, I8). The birthing advanced civilization; perhaps both causes ope- days of the Egyptian kings were celebrated with
rate, to a certain degree, in producing the effect. great pomp as early as the time of Joseph (Gen.
Climate must have some effect; but it is observed xl. 20). These days were in Egypt looked upon as
that the difficulty of child-birth, under any climate, holy; no business was done upon them, and all
increases with the advance of civilization, and that parties indulged in festivities suitable to the occain any climate the class on which the advanced  sion. Every Egyptian attached much importance to
condition of society most operates finds the pangs the day, and even to the hour of his birth; and it is
of child-birth the most severe. Such consideration  probable that, as in Persia (Herodot. i. I33; Xen.
may probably account for the fact that the Hebrew  Cyrop. i. 3. IO), each individual kept his birth-day
women, after they had long been under the influ- with great rejoicings, welcoming his friends with all
ence of the Egyptian climate, passed through the the amusements of society, and a more than usual
child-birth pangs with much more facility than the profusion of delicacies of the table (Wilkinson, v. p.
women of Egypt, whose habits of life were more 290; comp. Plato, Alc. I. 12I c.) In the Bible
refined and self-indulgent (Exod. i. 19). There there is no instance of birth-day celebrations among
were, however, already recognised Hebrew mid- the Jews themselves. The example of Herod the
wives while the Israelites were in Egypt; and their tetrarch (Matt. xiv. 6), the celebration of whose
office appears to have originated in the habit of birth-day cost John the Baptist his life, can scarcely
calling in some matron of experience in such  be regarded as such, the family to which he belonged
matters to assist in cases of difficulty. A remark- being notorious for its adoption of heathen customs.*
able circumstance in the transaction which has In fact, the later Jews at least regarded birth-day
afforded these illustrations (Exod. i. 16) has been  celebrations as parts of idolatrous worship (Lightexplained under ABNAIM.                        foot, Hor. Hebr. ad Matt. xiv. 6); and this proThe child was no sooner born than it was washed bably on account of the idolatrous rites with which
in a bath and rubbed with salt (Ezek. xvi. 4); it they were observed in honour of those who were
was then tightly swathed or bandaged to prevent regarded as the patron gods of the day on which
those distortions to which the tender frame of an the party was born.
infant is so much exposed during the first days of  BI H-R     T.   p
life (Job xxxviii. 9; Ezek. xvi. 4; Luke ii. 7, II).  BIRTH-RIGHT  (lN:; Sept. Tpoor6Kta).
This custom of bandaging or swathing the new- This term denotes the rights or privileges belongborn infant is general in Eastern countries. It was ing to the first-born among the Hebrews, The
also a matter of much attention with the Greeks 
and Romans (see the citations in Wetstein, at Luke  * [It is probable that the day celebrated by Herod
ii. 7), and even in our own country was not aban- was not his birth-day, properly so called, but the
doned till the last century, when the repeated re- day of his accession to the throne. Cf. Joseph.
monstrances of the physicians seem to have led to Antiq. xv. 8. sec. 1-3; Lightfoot, Hor. Heb. ad
its discontinuance.                           Matt. xiv. 6.]




BISCOE                     366                  BISHOP
particular advantages which these conferred were conformed to the Church of England, and received
the following:-                                deacon and priest's orders in 1726. Presented to
I. A right to the priesthood.  The first-born the rectory of St. Martin's, Outwich, London,
became the priest in virtue of his priority of descent, 1727, he shortly afterwards became prebendary of
provided no blemish or defect attached to him. St. Paul's.  The only work for which he claims
Reuben was the first-born of the twelve patriarchs, notice here is entitled, The History of the Acts of
and therefore the honour of the priesthood belonged  the Holy Apostles confirmed from otherauthors, and
to his tribe.  God, however, transferred it from the considered as full evidence forthe truth of Christiantribe of Reuben to that of Levi (Numb. iii. I2, 13; ity: with a prefatory discourse upon the nature of
viii. 18).  Hence the first-born of the other tribes that evidence.  8vo, Oxford, 1840.  The work
were redeemed from serving God as priests, by a contains the substance of sermons delivered in the
sum not exceeding five shekels. Being presented  years 1736-1738, at the Boyle Lecture, and was
before the Lord in the temple, they were redeemed  originally published 1742, in 2 vols. 8vo. Besides
immediately after the thirtieth day from their birth  affording valuable information on the various
(Numb. xviii. 15, I6; Luke ii. 22).  It is to be  topics of which it treats, it demonstrates with
observed, that only the first-born who were fit for great force the truth of Christianity.  Dr. Dodthe priesthood (i. e., such as had no defect, spot, or dridge, and other equally competent authorities,
blemish) were thus presented to the priest.    have commended it as'an elaborate and valuable
2. The first-born received a double portion of his work.' It was translated into German, and pubfather's property.  There is some difficulty in deter- lished in 4to, at Magdeburg, 175I. Biscoe died
mining precisely what is meant by a double portion. in 1748.-W. J. C.
Some suppose that half the inheritance was received  HLAM 
by the elder brother, and that the other half was  BISHLAM (D.). This appears in the A. V.
equally divided among the remaining brethren. as the name of a man (Ez. iv. 7); but the LXX.
This is not probable.  The Rabbins believe that translate it Iv elp'vy, and with this agree the Arab.
the elder brother received twice as much as any of and Syr. versions, and the margin of the A. V.
the rest; and there is no reason to doubt the cor- If it is a Semitic pr. n., it is probably =
rectness of this opinion. When the first-born died           but   rst thinks it is probably 
before his father's property was divided, and left sn spac;      First tn         pr      
children, the right of the father descended to the
children, and not to the brother next of age.     BISHOP.    The active controversy in which
3. He succeeded to'the official authority pos- the subject of episcopacy has been involved,
sessed by his father. If the latter was a king, the although it has not reconciled conflicting opinions,
former was regarded as his legitimate successor, un- has brought out the historical facts in their fullest
less some unusual event or arrangement interfered. clearness. The able and candid on opposite sides
After the law was given through Moses, the   can scarcely be said to differ as to the facts themright of primogeniture could not be transferred  selves; but they differ in their estimate of them.
from the first-born to a younger child at the father's  The Apostles originally appointed men to superoption.  In the patriarchal age, however, it was intend the spiritual, and occasionally even the
in the power of the parent thus to convey it from  secular wants of the churches (Acts. xiv. 23; xi. 30;
the eldest to another child (Deut. xxi. I5-17; Gen. see also 2 Tim. ii. 2), who were ordinarily called
xxv. 31, 32).                                   rpeoa^repot, elders, from  their age, sometimes
It is not difficult to perceive the reason why the  7riCKo7roL, overseers (bishops), from  their office.
first-born enjoyed greater privileges than the rest of They are also said irpot-rao-Oat, to preside (i Thess.
the children.  Apart from reasons common to all v. 12; I Tim. v. 17), never dpXew, to rule, which
mankind, the first born among the Hebrews was has far too despotic a sound. In the Epistle to the
viewed as having reference to the Redeemer, the  Hebrews (xiii. 7, I7, 24) they are named'tyoJtE~vol,
first-born of the virgin. Hence in the epistle to the  leading men (comp. Acts xv. 22); and, figuratively,
Romans, viii. 29, it is written concerning the Son, 7roitJves, shepherds (Ephes. iv. i ). But that they'that he might be the first-born among many    did not always teach is clear from I Tim. v. 17;
brethren;' and in Col. i.'I8,'who is the begin- and the name Elders proves that originally age, exning, the first-born from the dead; that in all things perience, and character, were their most necessary
he might have the pre-eminence' (see also Heb. i. 4, qualifications. They were to be married men with
5, 6). As the first-born had a double portion, so families (I Tim. iii. 2, 4), and with converted children
the Lord Jesus, as Mediator, has an inheritance  (Tit. i. 6.) In the beginning there had been no
superior to his brethren; he is exalted to the right time to train teachers, and teaching was regarded
hand of the Majesty on high, where he reigns far more in the light of a gift than an office; yet
until all his enemies shall be subdued.   The  St. Paul places'ability to teach' among episcopal
universe is his rightful dominion in his media- qualifications (I. Tim. iii. 2; Titus. i. 9; the latter
torial character. Again, he alone is a true priest: of which passages should be translated,'that he
he fulfilled all the functions of the sacerdotal may be able both to exhort men by sound teaching,
office; and the Levites, to whom, under the law, and also to refute opposers').  That teachers had
the priesthood was transferred from all the first- obtained in St. Paul's day a fixed official position,
born of Israel, derived the efficacy of their minis- is manifest from Gal. vi. 6, and I Cor. ix. 14,
trations from their connection with the great high  where he claims for them a right to worldly mainpriest (Jahn's BiblicalArchcaology, sec. I65).-S. D. tenance; in fact, that the shepherds ordered to'feed
the flock,' and be its'overseers' (i Pet. v. 2),
BISCOE, RICHARD, M. A., a divine of the were to feed them with knowledge and instruction,
Church of England, was born about the end of the will never be disputed, except to support a hypor7th century. He was educated for the dissenting  thesis.  The leaders also, in Heb. xiii. 7, are
ministry, and ordained 1716; but he subsequently  described as' speaking unto you the word of God.'




BISHOP                    367                   BISHOP
Ecclesiastical history joins in proving that the two he had received spiritual gifts (i. 6, etc.); there
offices of teaching and superintending were, with is then no difficulty in accounting for the authority
few exceptions, combined in the same persons, as, vested in him (I Tim. v. I; xix. 22), without
indeed, the nature of things dictated.         imagining him to have been a bishop; which is in
That during St. Paul's lifetime no difference fact disproved even by the same Epistle (i. 3).
between elders and bishops yet existed in the con- That Titus, moreover, had no local attachment to
sciousness of the church, is manifest from  the  Crete, is plain from Titus iii. 13, to say nothing of
entire absence of distinctive names (Acts xx. 17- the earlier Epistle, 2 Cor. passim. Nor is it true
28; I Pet. v. I, 2). The mention of bishops and  that the episcopal power developed itself out of wandeacons in PhiL i. I, and I Tim. iii., without any dering evangelists any more than out of the Apostles.
notice of elders, proves that at that time no dif-  On the other hand, it would seem that the bishop
ference of order subsisted between bishops and  began to elevate himself above the presbyter while
elders. A formal ceremony, it is generally be- the Apostle John was yet alive, and in churches
lieved, was employed in appointing elders, although  to which he is believed to have peculiarly devoted
it does not appear that as yet any fixed name was himself. The meaning of the title angel, in the
appropriated to the idea of ordination., (The word  opening chapters of the Apocalypse, has been
ordained is questionably interpolated in the English  mystically explained -by some; but its true meanversion of Acts i. 22. In Tit. i. 5 the Greek word ing is clear from the nomenclature of the Jewish
is KaraorTTas, set, or set up; and in Acts xiv. 23 synagogues.  In them, we are told, the minister
it is XELporov'aav-res, having elected, properly by a who ordinarily led the prayers of the congregation,
shew of hands; though, abusively, the term came besides acting as their chief functionary in matters
to mean simply, having chosen or nominated (Acts of business, was entitled nrj'Cil   [SYNAx. 41); yet in 2 Cor. viii. i9, it seems to have its GOGUE], a name which may be translated literally
genuine democratic sense). In I Cor. xvi. 15 we                             expressed by the
find the house of Stephanas to have volunteered the n s ecces, and is here expressed by the
task of'ministering to the saints;' and that this Greek dyyeXos.  The substantive   3     also
was a ministry of'the word,' is evident from the  (which by analogy would be rendered ^dyyeXa, as
Apostle's urging the church' to submit themselves'  iD is &yyeXos) has the ordinary sense of opus,
to such.'  It would appear then that a formal ministerium, making it almost certain that the
investiture into the office was not as yet regarded'angels of the churches' are nothing but a harsh
as essential. Be this as it may, no one doubts that Hebraism  for'ministers of the churches.' We
an ordination by laying on of hands soon became therefore here see a single officer, in these rather
general or universal.  Hands were first laid on not large Christian communities, elevated into a pecuto bestow an office, but to solicit a spiritual gift liar prominence, which has been justly regarded as
(I Tim. iv. 14; 2 Tim. i. 6; Acts xiii. 3; xiv. 26; episcopal. Nor does it signify that the authorship
xv. 40). To the same effect Acts viii. I7; xix. 6; of the Apocalypse is disputed, since its extreme
-passages which explain Heb. vi. 2.    On the antiquity is beyond a doubt; we find, therefore,
other hand, the absolute silence of the Scriptures, the germ of episcopacy here planted, as it were,
even if it were not confirmed, as it is, by positive under the eyes of an Apostle.  (Neander, Pflantestimony, would prove that no idea of consecration, zung und Leitung, p. I86-90, 2d ed.; Stanley,
as distinct from ordination, at that time existed at Apost. Age, p. 63 f.)
all; and, consequently, although individual elders  Nevertheless, it was still but a germ. It is vain
may have really discharged functions which would to ask, whether these angels received a second
afterwards have been called episcopal, it was not ordination and had been promoted from the rank
by virtue of a second ordination, nor, therefore, of of presbyters.  That this was the case is possible,
episcopal rank.                                but there is no. proof of it; and while some will
The Apostles themselves, it is held by some, regard the question as deeply interesting, others
were the real bishops of that day, and it is quite will think it unimportant.  A second question is,
evident that they performed many episcopal func- whether the angels were overseers of the congregations. It may well be true, that the only reason  tion only, or of the presbyters too; and whether
why bishops (in the modem sensel were then want- the church was formed of many local unions (such
ing was, because the Apostles were living; but it as we call parishes), or of one. Perhaps both
cannot be inferred that in any strict sense prelates questions unduly imply that a set of fixed rules was
are co-ordinate in rank with the Apostles, and can  already in existence.  No one who reads Paul's
claim to exercise their powers. The later'bishop' own account of the rebuke he uttered against
did not come forward as a successor to the Apostles, Peter (Gal. ii.), need doubt that in those days a
but was developed out of the presbyter; much less zealous elder would assume authority over other
can it be proved, or alleged with plausibility, that elders, officially his equals, when he thought they
the Apostles took any measures for securing sub- were dishonouring the Gospel; and, t fortiori,
stitutes for themselves (in the high character of he would act thus towards an official inferior,
Apostles) after their decease. It has been with  even if this had not previously been defined or
many a favourite notion that Timothy and Titus understood as his duty.  So again, the Christians
exhibit the episcopal type even during the life of of Ephesus or Miletus were probably two numerPaul; but this is an obvious misconception.  They  ous ordinarily to meet in a single assembly, espewere attached to the person of the Apostle, and  cially before they had large buildings erected for
not to any one church.  In the last Epistle written  the purpose; and convenience must have led at a
by him (2 Tim. iv. 9), he calls Timothy suddenly  very early period to subordinate assemblies (such
to Rome, in words which prove that the latter was as would now be called'chapels-of-ease' to the
not, at least as yet, bishop, either of Ephesus or of mother church); yet we have no ground for supany other church. That Timothy was an evan- posing that any sharp division of the Church into
gelist is distinctly stated (2 Tim. iv. 5), and that organic portions had yet commenced.




BITHIAH                    368             BITTER HERBS
Episcopalians, Presbyterians, and Congrega- his men passed after crossing the Jordan, on their
tionalists agree in one point, viz., that (because way to Mahanaim (2 Sam. ii. 29). The LXX. renof its utility and general convenience) it is lawful der it 6X\fv rv 7rapaTelvova-av; Aquila makes it Befor Christians to take a step for which they have  copobv, which Jerome follows. This is an evident
no clear precedent in the Scripture, that of break- mistake, as Bethhoron was on the west of Jordan.
ing up a church, when it becomes of unwieldy Thenius and Fiirst identify it with Bethharan; but
magnitude, into fixed divisions, whether parishes the use of the word' all' forbids our understanding
or congregations.  The question then   arises, it of any town.-+t
whether the organic union is to be still retained BITHYNIA (BtOwa), a province ofAsia Minor,
at all.  To this (I) Congregationalists reply in on the Euxine Sea and the Propontis;bounded on
the negative, saying that the congregations in  he west by Mysia, on the south and east by Phrydifferent parts of a great city no more need to be       tia,    on the east by Paph
cit*.  gia and Galatia, and on the east by Paphlagonia
in organic union, than those of two different cities;  trabo, xi. 563]. The Bithynians were a rude
(2) Presbyterians would keep up the union by     a uncivilized people, Thracians who had colomeans of a synod of the elders; (3) Episcopalians nized this part of Asia, and lived in large towndesire to unite the separate churches by retaining like villages (Kw1oToXe^s, Strabo, p. 566). That
them under the supervision of a single head-the  Christian congregations were formed at an early
bishop. It seems impossible to refer to the prac-    in Bithynia, is evident from the Apostle
tice of the Apostles as deciding in favour of any  Peter having addressed the first of his Epistles to
one of these methods; for the case had not yet them (I Pet. i. I; cf. the famous letter of Pliny to
arisen which could have led to the discussion. Trajan). The Apostle Paul was at one time inT.rajan). The Apostle Paul was at one time inThe city churches had not yet become so large as dined to go into Bithynia with his assistants Silas
to make subdivision positively necessary; and, as and Timothy, but the Spirit suffered them not'
a fact, it did not take place. To organize distant (Acts xvi 7). K.
churches into a fixed and formal connection by
synods of their bishops, was, of course, quite a  BITTER, BITTERNESS. Bitterness (Exod.
later process; but such unions are by no means i I4; Ruth i. 20; Jer. ix. 15) is symbolical of
rejected, even by Congregationalists, as long as affliction, misery, and servitude. It was for this
they are used for deliberation and advice, not as reason that, in the celebration of the Passover, the
assemblies for ruling and commanding. The spirit servitude of the Israelites in Egypt was typically
of Episcopacy depends far less on the episcopal represented by bitter herbs.  [Comp. Odyss. iv.
form itself, than on the size and wealth of dioceses, I53; Soph. El. 654 D; Eur. Bacch. 634 D.]
and on the union of bishops into synods, whose  On the day of bitterness in Amos. viii. o1, comp.
decisions are to be authoritative on the whole Tibullus, ii. 4. [5] I -
church: to say nothing of territorial establishment'Nunc et amara dies, et noctis amarior umbra est.
and the support of the civil government. If, under In Habak. i. 6 the Chaldaeans are called'that
any ecclesiastical form, either oppression or disorder bitter and swift nation;' which Schultens illusshould arise, it cannot be defended; but no form is trates by remarking that the root Merer in Arabic
a security against such evils. Our experience may, (answering to the Hebrew word for bitter) is usually
in these later times, possibly shew us which of these applied to strength and courage.
systems is on the whole preferable; but the dis-  The gall of bitterness (Acts viii. 23) describes a
cussion must belong to ecclesiastical history, and state of extreme wickedness, highly offensive to
would be quite out of place here.-F. W. N.    God, and hurtful to others.
BITHIAH (;lfn, daughter, i. e., worshiper of  A root of bitterness (Heb. xiii. I5) expresses a
BIT.* dsper o wicked or scandalous person, or any dangerous sin
7ehovah, Sept. BerTla), the wife of Mered, and the leadingtoapostacy(Wemyss's ClavisSymbolica, etc.)
daughter of Pharoah (I Chron. iv. I8). By some  BITT                          rally bitters;
this' Pharoah' is taken to be a Jewish name (Hiller BITTER  HERBS (; literally btters
Onomast., Patrick in loc., Michaelis in loc.); but Sept. 7rtKpL8es; Vulg. lactucar agrestes). There has
it seems much more likely that it is the designation been much difference of opinion respecting the kind
of an Egyptian king, to whose daughter the name of herbs denoted by this word. On this subject the
Bithiah was probably given, because she had be- reader may consult Carpzov, Apparat. p. 404, sq.
come a convert to the service of the true God.  It, however, seems very doubtful whether any
The whole passage in Chronicles is in confusion, particular herbs were intended by so general a term
and it is impossible to make sense of it as it stands. as bitters; it is far more probable that it denotes
The most probable hypothesis is that the latter part whatever bitter herbs, obtainable in the place where
of ver. i8 has been transposed from ver. 17, and the Passover was eaten, might be fitly used with
that the whole should read thus:-' And the sons meat. This seems to be established by the fact that
of Ezra were Jether, and Mered, and Epher, and the first directions respecting the Passover were given
Jalon. And these are the sons of Bithiah, the in Egypt, where also the first Passover was celedaughter of Pharoah, which Mered took; and she brated (Ex. xii. I-8); and as the esculent vegetables
bare Miriam, and Shammai, and Ishbah, the father of Egypt are very different from those of Palestine,
of Eshtemoa. And his wife Jehudijah,' etc. Ac- it is obvious that the bitter herbs used in thefirst celecording to this, Bithiah was the first wife of Mered, bration could scarcely have been the same as those
and Jehudijah his second. So Piscator, Junius, which were afterwards employed for the same purCalovius, Patrick, and Bertheau. —W. L. A.    pose in Canaan. According to the Mishna (PesaBIHO. -~nlteeto r6cvtvp  chinm, ii. 6), and the commentators thereon, there
BITHRON (i'     -1i, tesection or cutu regio),
BITHRON  t cion  ortp,weregion)  were five sorts of bitter herbs, any one or all of
the name of a district —'fl1gl %3,' all the Bithron' which might be used on this occasion. There were
-lying on the east of the Jordan, apparently be- -I. 1'ntn chazereth, supposed to be wild lettuce,
tween it and Mahanaim, as through this Abner and  which the Septuagint and Vulgate make stand for




BITTERN                    369              BLASPHEMY
the whole. 2. j4W\Pl'ulshin, endives; or, according  BLASPHEMY (~ mt ip__; Sept. aXao-or/tla).
to some, wildendives. 3. ul'ti thamca, which some The Greek word PXaarq5,qA  is generic, denoting
make the garden endive, others horehound, others verbal abuse proceeding from an evil disposition.
tansy, others the green tops of the horse-raddisll, verba        ng from an evil disposition.
while, according to DePomd         It is equivalent to defamalzon or slander, involving
while, according to De Pois, in Zema   David, an attempt to lessen the character of others, with
it is no other than a species of thistle (carduus mar- the intention of doing them injury. All kinds of
rabium). 4. i'=71~    charchabina, supposed to be
a kind of nettle. 5. C1 maror, which takes its abusive language, whether called imprecation,
calumny, or reviling, come under the term.
name from its bitterness, and is alleged by the  The English word bn s come ude the te stric
Mishnic commentators to be a species of the most in is sihifici.   I refes t  ore restricted
bitter coriander. All these might, according to manne wn Pcaton. It refers todGod  ly. Int the
the Mishna, be taken either fresh or dried; but not Supreme Being, or when Jehovah is the object 
pickled, boiled, or cooked in any way.-J. K.  it, it is specific.- In these circumstances it corresBITTERN. [KIPPOD.]                          ponds to the English blasphemy. The Greek pXatBITUMEN. [CHEMAN.]                          qrl0,ta is employed in reference to the defamation
of men or angels equally with the Deity; but it is
BIZJOTHJAH (        ZnF3i), a town in the southern proper to use the term blasphemy only when God
part of Judah (Josh. xv. 28).           is spoken against. Thus the Greek and English
BLACK       Athough the O   tals do not war words are not coextensive in import.
black in mourning, thoey,u  the Or ancient  t Jews  Our English translators have not adhered to the
black in mourning, they, as did the ancient Jews, right use of the term. They employ it with the
regard the colour as a symbol of affliction, disaster, same latitude as the Greek; but it is generally easy
and privation. In fact, the custom of wearing same latitude as the Greek; but it is generally easy
and privation. In fact, the custom of wearing to perceive, from the connection and subject of a
beento p erceive, from the c onn e ction and subject of a
black in mourning is a sort of visible expression of to perceive, from the connection and subject of a
Is. xxiv. II Jer. xiv. 2  Lam. iv. 8; v.  ).  reserving the latter for that peculiarly awful slander
In Mal. iii. 4 we read,'What profit is it that wich is digreted against the ever-blessed God.
we keep his ordinances, and that we have walked      dieted aaint te eerl          
in blackness (A. V. mournfully') before the Lord  Blasphemy signifies a false, irreverent, injurious
of Hosts;' meaning that they had fasted in sack- use of God's names, attributes, words, and works.
cloth and ashes.'Black' occurs as a symbol of Whenever men intentionally and directly attack the
fear in Joel ii. -' All faces shall gather black-perfections of Jehovah, and thus lessen the reverness,' or darken with apprehension and distress.ence which others entertain for him, they are blasness, es ordiaen thwe iathppe walkhnsonnddiedtrss
This use of the word may be paralleled from Virgil, phemers. If the abusive language proceed from
inb. ix. 7I9,'Atrnmque timorem;' and Georg. ignorance, or if it be dishonouring to the majesty
iv. 468                                       of Heaven only in the consequences deduced from
it by others, blasphemy has no existence. It is' Caligantem nigra formidine lucum.'   wilfl calumny directed against the name or proThe same expression which Joel uses is employed vidence of God that alone constitutes the crime
by Nahum (ii. 10) to denote the extremity of pain denoted by the term.
and sorrow.                                     Examples of the general acceptation of basrIn connection with this subject it may be re- <fla in the N. T. are common, where the objects
marked that black is studiously avoided in dress by of it are men, angels, or the devil, as in Acts xiii.
all Orientals, except in certain garments of hair or 45 xviii. 6; Jude 9. The restricted sense is found
wool, which are naturally of that colour. Black is in such passages as Luke v. 21; John x. 36.
also sometimes imposed as a mark of humiliating  By the Mosaic law blasphemy was punished with
distinction by dominant nations upon subject or death (Lev. xxiv. Io-I6); and the laws of some
tributary tribes, the most familiar instance of which countries still visit it with the same punishment.
is the obligation laid upon the Jews in Turkey of Fines, imprisonment, and various corporal inflicwearing black turbans.-J. K.tions are annexed to the crime by the laws of Great
BLANS  DISEASS * E T P   S OF   Britain  It is matter, however, of sincere satisfacBLAINS. [DISEASES; EGYPT, PLAGUES OF.] tion, that there are very few instances in which
BLANCHINUS, JOSEPH (Bianchini Giusep- these enactments require to be enforced.
apo), a priest of the oratory at Rome, was born at  Much has been said and written respecting the
Verona, 9th September 1704. He devoted himself blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, usually but imto archaeological studies, chiefly to paleography. properly denominated the unpardonable sin against
From  his pen we have Vindicic Canonicarum   the Holy Ghost. Some refer it to continued oppoScripturarum Vulg. Lat. editionis, Rom. 740, fol. sition to the Gospel, i. e., obstinate impenitence or
vol. i.; and he edited Evangeliarium Quadruplex final unbelief. In this view it is unpardonable, not
Latinge Versionis antique, seu veteris Italica, edit, because the blood of Christ is unable to cleanse
ex Codd. MSS. plusquam miZlenarie, antiquitatis, from such a sin, nor because there is anythingin its
Rom. 1749, 2 vols. fol.; his other works belong own nature which separates it from all other sins
more to ecclesiastical than to biblical literature, and places it beyond forgiveness, but because, as
The Evangeliarium is a most splendid and costly long as man continues to disbelieve, he voluntarily
work, presenting a transcript of the four codices of shuts himself out from the forgiving mercy of God.
the Itala version, the Vercellian, the Veronian, the By not receiving the Gospel, he refuses pardon.
Corbejan, and the Brixian, with that of a corrected In the same manner, every sin might be styled
codex of the Vulgate.  (See Michaelis, Einleit. p. unpardonable, as long as an individual continues
469; E. 7, vol. ii., p. 0oo.)-t.             to indulge in it.
VOL. I..2 B




BLASTUS                    370                 BLINDING
We object to this opinion, becauses it generalizes tion of Bishop Lowth's on Isaiah, and though perthe nature of the sin in question.  On the contrary, haps not less able as a work of sacred criticism, it
the Scripture account narrows it to a particular yet falls considerably short of its eminent predesin of a special kind, discountenancing the idea that cessor in the matter of taste and acute poetical disit is of frequent occurrence and marked by no cir- cernment. Considered by itself, however, it is a
cumstances of unwonted aggravation.  Besides, all valuable commentary. The student will observe,
the notices which we have refer it not so much to in consulting it, that Blayney, in his arrangement
a state of mind, as to the outward manifestation of of several parts of Jeremiah, differs considerably
a singularly malignant disposition by the utterance from the printed Hebrew text. If the notes are
of the lips.                                   not always clear and satisfactory, they yet shew,
The occasion on which Christ introduced his as Orme remarks, that he had studied the submention of it (Matt. xii. 3I, etc.; Mark iii. 28, ject profoundly, and with all the aids usually emetc.), the subsequent context, and, above all, the ployed in critical investigation. 2. Zechariah: a
words of Mark iii. 30 ('because they said, He hath  new translation, with notes, critical, philological,
an unclean spirit') indicate, with tolerable plain- and explanatory; and an Appendix in reply to Dr.
ness, that the sin in question consisted in attribut- Eveleigh's Sermon on Zech. ii. 8-II.  To which is
ing the miracles wrought by Christ, or his apostles added (a new edition, with alterations), a disserin his name, to the agency of Satan. It was by  tation on Daniel ix. 20-27; 4to, Oxford, I797.
the power of the Holy Ghost, given to the Re- The observations made on the preceding commendeemer without measure, that he cast out devils; tary apply equally to this. The most valuable of
and whoever maligned the Saviour, by affirming  its notes will be found inserted in the edition of
that an unclean spirit actuated and enabled him to the Minor Prophets, by Newcome, published by
expel other spirits, maligned the Holy Ghost.  Boothroyd in I8o9. The dissertation added bears
There is no connection between the description  also, as part of its title, an inquiry into the import
given in the Epistle to the Hebrews, vi. 4-6, and and application of Daniel's vision, usually called
this unpardonable blasphemy. The passages in the Daniel's Prophecy of the Seventy Weeks. ThroughGospels which speak of the latter are not parallel out will be found occasional remarks on Michaelis's
with that in the Epistle to the Hebrews: there is a letter on the same subject. Besides these works,
marked difference between the states of mind and  and some smaller pamphlets and single sermons of
their manifestations as described in both. The a critical nature, Dr. Blayney published, in 1790,
sins ought not to be identified: they are altogether an edition of the Pentateuchus Hebreo-Samaritanus,
dissimilar.                                    in Hebrew letters, with various readings, 8vo.It is difficult to discover the'sin unto death' W. J. C.
noticed by the apostle John (I John v. i6), although  BLEMISHES.  There were various kinds of
it has been generally thought to coincide with the
blasphemy against the Holy Spirit; but the lan- blemishes, i. e., imperfections or deformities, which
guage of John does not afford data for pronouncing  excluded men from the priesthood, and animals
them one and the same. The first three gospels from being offered in sacrifice. These blemishes
alone describe the blasphemy which shall not beare described in Lev. xxi. 17-23; xxii. I9-25;
sphemy which shall not be Deut. xv. 21.   We learn from tht Mishna (Zeforgiven: from it the'sin unto death' stands apart. Deutba   xii. i e lea fromthe Mishna Ztem
(See Liicke's Commentar iiber die Briefe des Evan-            Beoro.       ), that temporar
gelisten 7ohannes, Zweyte Auflage, pp. 305-317; blemishes excluded a man from  the priesthood
Campbell's Preliminary Dissertations to the Gospels, only as long as those blemishes continued. The
Dissertat. ix., part ii.; Meyer's Kommentar on rule concerning animals was extended to imperMatt. xii. 31, and the writers there referred to.-  fectons of the inward parts: thus if an animal,
S. D.                                          free from outward blemish, was found, after being
slain, internally defective, it was not offered in
BLASTUS (BXdo-ros), a man who was cubicu- sacrifice. The natural feeling that only that which
larius to King Herod Agrippa, or who had the was in a perfect condition was fit for sacred purcharge of his bed-chamber (Acts xii. 20). Such  poses, or was a becoming offering to the gods,
persons had usually great influence with their mas- produced similar rules concerning blemishes among
ters, and hence the importance attached to Blastus's the heathen nations (Conf. Pompon. Lset. De
favouring the peace with Tyre and Sidon.-J. K.  Sacerdot. cap. 6; Herodot. ii. 38; Iliad, i. 65;
BLAYNEY, BENJAMIN, D.D., regius professor Servius ad Virg..En. vi. 38, 39; Ovid, Met. xv.
of Hebrew at Oxford, and rector of Polshot. He  I30).-J K.
was educated at Oxford; was installed to the for-  BLESSING.   The terms'blessing' and'to
mer of these offices in 1787; and died 20th Septem- bless' occur very often in the Scriptures, and in
her 18o. As a Hebrew scholar and critic Blayney  applications too obvious to require explanation or
had few equals in his day. He took special pains comment. The patriarchal blessings of sons form
in correcting the text of the English version of the the exception, these being, in fact, prophecies
Bible, printed in 1769, 4to, and which has been  rather than blessings, or blessings only in so far as
followed since as the standard.  The marginal they for the most part involved Lhe invocation and
references were also greatly improved by him.th    promise of ood things to come upon the
Unfortunately, a large number of the impressionwasparties concerned. The most remarkable instances
destroyed by fire, and copies of the book are now  are those of Isaac'blessing' Jacob and Esau
very scarce. His other works, and by which he is (Gen. xxvii.); of Jacob'blessing' his twelve sons
nowbestknown, are thefollowing:-i, i  eremhand  (Gen. xlix.); and of Moses'blessing' the twelve
Lamentations: a   new transatio, it  notes, citi- tribes (Deut. xxxiii.)
cal, philological, and explanatory; first published 
in 1784, 4to; the third and best edition, London,  BLESSING, VALLEY OF. [BERACHAH.]
1836, 8vo. This work was intended as a continua-  BLINDING.    [PUNISHMENTS.]




BLINDNESS                   371                 BLOOD
BLINDNESS.      The frequent occurrence of other transparent media, as well as to the cornea.
blindness in the East has always excited the aston- Tobit's blindness (Tobit ii. Io) was attributed to
ishment of travellers. Volney says that, out of a sparrows' dung having fallen into his eyes. If the
hundred persons in Cairo, he has met twenty quite story be considered true (which we are by no
blind, ten wanting one eye, and twenty others means required to believe), his cure must be rehaving their eyes red, purulent, or blemished garded as altogether miraculous. Though the gall
(Travels in E2gypt, i. 224). This is principally of a fish was an old remedy for diseases of the eyes
owing to the Egyptian ophthalmia, which is en- (Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxii. 24), and has been fredemic in that country and on the coast of Syria. quently used in modern times (Richter, Anfangsgr.
This disease commences with such a violent in- d. Wundarzneik. iii. p. 130), it cannot be supposed
flammation of the conjunctiva, that, in a few hours, to have had any medicinal effect in Tobit's case;
the whole of that membrane, which lines the for not only was the cure instantaneous, but the
anterior surface of the eye and the internal surface specks which impeded vision were seen to escape
of the eyelids, is covered with red fleshy elevations, from the comers of his eyes; which plainly shews
resembling granulations, and secreting a purulent that the whole process, if not the disease itself,
discharge. The inflammation spreads rapidly over was of a kind which does not fall under the prothe eyeball; the delicate internal tissues are vince of science. Examples of blindness from old
destroyed and converted into pus; the outer coats age occur in Gen. xxvii. I; I Kings xiv. 4; I Sam.
ulcerate through; and the whole contents of the iv. 15. The Syrian army that came to apprehend
eye are evacuated. In its acute and most virulent Elisha was suddenly smitten with blindness in a
form, the disease runs its course in three to seven miraculous manner (2 Kings vi. 18); and so also
days; otherwise it may continue for as many weeks was St. Paul (Acts ix. 9). The Mosaic law has
or months. It is to be ascribed to those peculiar not neglected to inculcate humane feelings towards
conditions of the atmosphere which are termed the blind (Lev. xix. 14; Deut. xxvii. -8). Blindmiasmatic, of which, however, nothing is known, ness is sometimes threatened in the Old Testament
except that they exert a specific influence on the as a punishment for disobedience (Deut. xxviii. 28;
body, different from the ordinary effects of cold Lev. xxvi. i6; Zeph. i I7).-W. A. N.
and damp.   The variety of causes assigned by  BLOO       
travellers for this disease, such as the suspension of  BLOOD. There are two respec ts i which the
fine dust and saline particles in the atmosphere, theordinances of the Old and New Testaments con
custom so prevalent amongst the inhabitants of allcerning blood deserve notice herethe prohibition
Eastern countries of sleeping on the roofs of the of its use as an article of food, and the appointhouses, southerly winds, bad diet, shaving the ment and significance of its use in the ritual of
head, etc., can only be regarded as secondary or sacrifice; both of which appear to rest on a comoccasional causes; and amongst these bad diet, mon ground.
great fatigue, and exposure to the night dews, are  In Gen. ix. 4, where the use of animal food is
the most important. The Egyptian ophthalmia is allowed, it is first absolutely forbidden to eat'flesh
contagious; but it is not often communicated from  with its soul, its blood;' which expression, were
one individual to another. It is not confined to it otherwise obscure, is explained by the mode in
the East, but appears here and there throughout which the same terms are employed in Deut. xii.
Europe; and during the last war, probably on 23. In the Mosaic law the prohibition is repeated
account of the practice of bivouacking in the open with frequency and emphasis; although it is generair, and the great hardships to which the troops ally introduced in connection with sacrifices; as in
were often exposed, it was a dreadful scourge to Lev. iii. I7; vii. 26 (in both which places blood is
most of the European armies, more particularly to coupled in the prohibition with the fat of the
the Prussians during the campaigns of 1813 and victims); xvii. Io-14; xix 26; Deut. xii. 6-23;
1814, although that army had never left Europe xv. 23. In cases where the prohibition is intro(Jiingken's Augenkrank. p. 336). The French and duced in connection with the lawful and unlawful
(Jilngken's Augofhrnk. 336)d The French andis generally
English suffered greatly from it while they were in articles of diet, the reason which is generally
Egypt, and subsequently.                     assigned in the text is, that'the blood is the soul,'
Small-pox is another great cause of blindness in and it is ordered that it be poured on the ground
the East- (Volney, I.)                 like water. But where it is introduced in reference
In the N. T. blind mendicants are frequentlyto the portions of the victim which were to be
mentioned (Matt. ix. 27; xii. 22; xx. 30; xxi.offered to the Lord, then the text, in addition to
14; John v. 3).     The blindness of Bar Jesus the former reason, insists that'the blood expiates
(Acts xiii. 6) was miraculously produced, and bythe soul' (Lev. xvii. I, 12).*  This strict in
of its nature we know nothing. Winer (s. v. junction not only applied to the Israelites, but even
Blindheit) infers that it was occasioned by specks on to the strangers residing aong them.  The
the cornea, which were curable, because the same penalty assigned to its transgression was the being
term, d&Xis, is made use of by Hippocrates'cut off from the people;' by which the punish(IIpoAbr/,TK6v, ii. 215, ed. Kuhn), who says that ment of death appears to be intended cf. Heb. x.
dXX6Es will disappear, provided no wound has 28), although it is difficult to ascertain whether it
been inflicted.  Before such an inference can
be drawn, we must be sure that the writers of  * We can only for brevity refer the reader to
the N. T. were not only. acquainted with the Bihr's Symbolik, ii. 207, for the philological rea.
writings of Hippocrates, but were also accustomed sons for this rendering.  He there shews that
to a strict medical terminology.  The haziness t:j1, which is generally rendered as the mere
implied by the expression dXX6s may refer to the object of the verb, must, instead, be the instrument;
sensation of the blind person, or to the appearance so that the sense is, in that the soul is in the blood,
of the eye, and, in both cases, the cause of the therefore theblood atones; or, the blood atones by
haziness may have been referrible to any of the means of the soul, its soul.




BLOOD AND WATER                  372          BLOOD AND WATER
was inflicted by the sword or by stoning. It is that the pericardium was pierced; for, if effusion
observed by Michaelis (Mos. Recht. iv. 45) that the had taken place there, it might also have taken
blood offishes does not appear to be interdicted. place in the cavities of the pleura; and, during
The words in Lev. vii. 26 only expressly mention health, neither the pericardium nor the pleura conthat of birds and cattle. This accords, however, tains fluid, but are merely lubricated with moisture
with the reasons assigned for the prohibition of on their internal or opposing surfaces, so as to
blood, so far as fishes could not be offered to the allow of free motion to the heart and lungs.
Lord; although they formed a significant offering  It may be objected to this view of the question,
in heathen religions. To this is to be added, that that, according to the longest computation, our
the Apostles and elders, assembled in council at Lord died in six hours, and that this is too short
Jerusalem, when desirous of settling the extent to a time to occasion effusion. Indeed, reasoning
which the ceremonial observances were binding from experience alone, it is very difficult to underupon the converts to Christianity, renewed the stand thephysical cause of our Lord's death. The
injunction to abstain from blood, and coupled it crucifixion is quite inadequate to account for it;
with things offered to idols (Acts. xv. 29). It is for, even if the impression produced by this torture
perhaps worthy of notice here, that Mohammed, on a weak nervous system was sufficient to anniwhile professing to abrogate some of the dietary hilate consciousness and sensibility, the death of
restrictions of the Jewish law (which he asserts the body, or what physiologists have termed organic
were imposed on account of the sins of the Jews, death, could not have taken place in so short a
Sura iv. I58), still enforces, among others, absti- time, as long as the brain, lungs, and circulation,
nence from blood and from things offered to idols the so-called atria mortis, had sustained no material
(Qurdn, Sur. v. 4, vi. 146, ed. Fligel).     injury. In other words, the functions of respiraIn direct opposition to this emphatic prohibition  tion, circulation, secretion, and nutrition must have
of blood in the Mosaic law, the customs of unci- continued for a far longer time. In fact, we learn
vilized heathens sanctioned the cutting of slices from Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. viii. 8) that many of
from'the living animal, and the eating of the flesh the Egyptian martyrs perished from hunger on the
while quivering with life and dripping with blood. cross, although they were crucified with their heads
Even Saul's army committed this barbarity, as we downwards. According to Richter, some survive
read in I Sam. xiv. 32; and the prophet also lays on the cross for three, four, and even for nine days
it to the charge of the Jews in Ezek. xxxiii. 25.* (Winer's Bibl. Realwort. s. v. yesus). Our Lord's
This practice, according to Bruce's testimony, death could not have been occasioned by tetanus,
exists at present among the Abyssinians.  More- or else it would have been mentioned; and even
over, pagan religions, and that of the Phoenicians this disease, though the sufferer be racked with
among the rest, appointed the eating and drinking the most frightful convulsions without intermisof blood, mixed with wine, as a rite of idolatrous sion, most rarely puts an end to life in less than
worship, and especially in the ceremonial of swear- twelve hours.  Nor can we attribute it to the
ing. To this the passage in Ps. xvi. 4 appears to wound inflicted by the soldier; for although, when
allude (cf. J. D. Michaelis, Critisch. Colleg. p. it is said he'expired, and the soldiers saw that
io8, where several testimonies on this subject are he was dead,' our Lord might have merely fainted,
collected).                                  yet it is impossible to suppose that the soldier would
The appointment and significance of the use of not have perceived his error the moment he inflictblood in the ritual of sacrifice belongs indeed to this ed the wound, provided it was mortal; for then
head; but their further notice will be more appro- would have commenced the death struggle, which,
priately pursued in the article SACRIFICE.-J. N.  in cases of death by asphyxia and hemorrhage, is
very severe, and would have struck the most careBLOOD AND WATER (John xix. 34) are less spectator.
said to have issued from our Lord's side when the Schuster (in Eichho's Bib. Bibiot. ix.  38)
soldier pierced him on the cross. The only natural is of opinion that, as blood is known to separate
explanation that can be offered of the fact is to into a r  coagulun   ad a watery fluid, the exsuppose that some effusion had taken place in the pio   blood and water' is to be understood as
cavity of the chest, and that the spear penetrated  pr hendiadys, meaning nothing more than de ooda
this to an hendiadys, meaning nothing more than blood.
below the level of the fluid. Supposing this to To this it must be objected that blood is only
have happened, and the wound to have been in- observed to separate in that way when it is alflicted shortly after death, then, in addition to the lowed to coagulate in a vessel, and that therefore
water, blood would also have trickled down, or, at the opportunities for bserving it must have been
any rate, have made its appearance at the mouth of a great deal too rare to allow of such figurative
the wound, even though none of the large vessels lagage eg employed and understood. That
had been wounded. It is not necessary to suppose  certainly was not so understood is clear; for
it certainly was not so understood is clear; for
some of the fathers (Orig. Contr. Cels. ii. 82) in* The use of the preposition pl) in this passage terpreted the expression literally, and looked upon
has been entirely misunderstood by Spencer, who the fact as a miracle, and a proof of our Lord's
(De Leg. Hebr. ii. xI) adduces much testimony divine nature. According to Strauss (Leben yesu,
from profane sources for the existence of the rite ii. 571), the evangelist recollected that dead blood
of feasting over the blood of the victim. Never- separates in the manner just mentioned, and, as
theless, that this preposition also has the sense of he wished to bring forward the strongest proof of
with, in addition to, insuper, is established by our Lord's death, he asserted that blood and
Gen. xxxii. 12; Exod. xii. 9 (Ewald's Hebr. water issued from the wound, meaning thereby
Gram. sec. 524);' as well as by the recurrence of that our Lord's blood had already undergone
Ihe whole phrase in I Sam. xiv. 32. Deyling has that change which is only observed when it is
-efuted Spencer in a special dissertation (Observ. removed from the body and deprived of its vitality.
Sacr. ii. 25).                               This hypothesis is wholly untenable; for, if we




BLOOD, AVENGER OF                 373            BLOODY SWEAT
suppose the evangelist so well acquainted with the  BLOODY  FLUX.   This is the rendering in
separation of blood, he would have known that the the A. V. (Acts xxviii. 8) of what Luke desigcoagulum, which, according to the hypothesis, is nates by its more proper appellation, dysentery
designated by the term blood, could not, on account (8vaevTecta).
of its solidity, have issued from the wound. Moreover, St. John must have known, what every      BLOODY SWEAT. According to Luke xxii.
one knows, that the fact of no blood at all being 44, our Lord's sweat was'as great drops of blood
seen would have been a far better proof of our falling to the ground.' Michaelis takes the passage
Lord's death. Indeed, the appearance of blood  to mean nothing more than that the drops were as
and water could not have been regarded as a proof large as falling drops of blood (Anmerk. fiar Ungeof death, but rather as something wonderful and lehrte, ad loc.) This, which also appears to be a
inexplicable; for the words of Origen, r7v &XX\wv common explanation, is liable to some objection.
veKp.v OWUd7Jdv rb aT2ia 7r'yvvura, Kal LOwp Kaaapbv For, if an ordinary observer compares a fluid
OK d&ro/le? (/. c.), express a fact which every one which he is accustomed to see colourless, to blood,
in those days must have known from personal which is so well known and so well characterized
experience.  St. John then must have entirely by its colour, and does not specify any particular
failed in his object, and merely from his ignorance point of resemblance, he would more naturally be
of the most vulgar opinions.                  understood to allude to the colour, since it is the
It has been asserted by some (as by Winer) most prominent and characteristic quality.
that, when deep incisions are made in the body  There are several cases recorded by the older
after death, the blood will be found separated into medical writers, under the title of bloody sweat.
cruor and serum. This is incorrect. Even in the With the exception of one or two instances, not
heart and large vessels the serum cannot be dis- above suspicion of fraud, they have, however, all
tinguished, because it readily transudes, and is been cases of general hemorrhagic disease, in
imbibed by the surrounding tissues.  In many which blood has flowed from different parts of the
cases coagulation takes place very imperfectly body, such as the nose, eyes, ears, lungs, stomach,
after death.                                  and bowels, and, lastly, from various parts of the
It must not be supposed that the fact of blood skin. When blood oozes from the skin, it must
coming from the wound at all militates against reach the external surface through orifices in the
the idea that our Lord was dead at the moment epidermis, which have been produced by rupture,
he was pierced. This argument is, indeed, made or, we must suppose that it has been extravasated
use of by Strauss (/. c.); but it can be refuted by into the sweat-ducts. But, even in this latter case,
the most ordinary experience. It is well known we must no more consider haemorrhage of the skin
that, even many days after death, blood will to be a modification of the function of sweating,
trickle from deep incisions, especially where any than bleeding from the nose to be a modification
of the large veins have been wounded. The po- of the secretion of mucus. The blood is simply
pular opinion that blood will not flow from a mixed with the sweat, precisely in the same way
corpse, must be taken in a relative, and not ab- as, when spit up from the lungs, it is mixed with
solute sense. It certainly will not flow as it does mucus and saliva in passing through the air-tubes
from a living body; and, when the wound is small and mouth. It is, therefore, incorrect to suppose
and superficial, sometimes not a drop will be seen. that haemorrhage from the skin indicates a state of
The three other evangelists do not mention the body at all analogous to that which occasions
circumstance.-W. A. N. [Comp. Stroud, Physi- sweating. If this distinction had been clearly uncal Cause of the Death of Christ, Lond. 1847.]  derstood, and clearly stated by medical writers, it
E OF. [GOEL.]would have been seen at once how far their exBLOOD, AVENGER OF. [GOEL..]
BLOODs AVENGER~   jperience went to illustrate the case before us.
BLOOD, ISSUE OF (Matt. ix. 20; Mark v.        The greater number of cases described by
25; Luke viii. 43). The disease here alluded to authors were observed in women and children,
is hemorrhagia; but we are not obliged to suppose and sometimes in infants.  Mental anxiety we
that it continued unceasingly for twelve years. It have found mentioned as a cause or as a concomiis a universal custom, in speaking of the duration  tant symptom  only in one case, which will be
of a chronic disease, to include the intervals of noticed below. The case of a young lady who
comparative health that may occur during its course; was afflicted with cutaneous haemorrhage is deso that when a disease is merely stated to have tailed by Mesaporiti in a letter to Valisneri. She
lasted a certain time, we have still to learn whether is noticed to have been cheerful, although she
it was of a strictly continuous type, or whether it must have suffered greatly from debility and febrile
intermitted. In the present case, as this point is symptoms (Phil. Trans. No. 303, p. 2II4). The
left undecided, we are quite at' liberty to suppose case of an infant, only three months old, affected
that the disease did intermit; and can therefore with the same disease, is related by Du Gard (Phil.
understand why it did not prove fatal even in  Trans. No. IO9, p. I93).  A similar case is
twelve years. [In the other passages where this described in the Nov. Act. Acad. Nat. Cur. tom.
expression occurs, it refers to the fluxus uteri, to iv. p. 193. See also Ezh. Acad. Nat. Cur. obs.
which women are subject (tI:1%, Lev. xv. 19-30). 41; and, for other references, Copeland's Diet. of
This entailed a ceremonial uncleanness for seven Med. ii. p. 72.  Where haemorrhagic diathesis
days, or longer when the discharge was abnormally exists, muscular exertion is a powerful exciting
protracted].                                  cause of all kinds of haemorrhage, and must
Bartholinus (De Morb. Bibl. p. 6I) quotes a case likewise give rise to the cutaneous form of the
in which hemorrhage is said to have occurred for disease.  A most remarkable case of the kind,
upwards of two years without cessation; but the occurring in a horse, is mentioned by Dr. Copedetails necessary to render such an extraordinary land. His friend Dr. W. Hutchinson had a fine
case credible are not given.-W. A. N;         Arabian horse, whose sweat was sanguineous after




BLOODY SWEAT                   374                 BOCHART
moderate exertion, and almost pure blood upon   BLUE. [COLOURS.]
violent exertion (Dict. ofMed., 1. c.)
Bloomfield (Greek Test. note on Luke xxii, 44)  BOANERGES     (Boavepys,  explained, by vlol
says that Aristotle adduces a case of bloody sweat Bpo)r, sons of thunder, Mark iii. 7), a surname
from extreme agitation, in his Hist. Anim. iii. 9.given by Christ to James and John, probably on
This statement, however, is incorrect.  Aristotle account of their fervid, impetuous spirit (comp.
is merely speaking of the blood in a general way;Luke ix 54, and see Olshausen thereon).  The
and says,'si sanguis immodice humescit, morbus word boanges has greatly perplexed philologists
infestat: sic enim in speciem saniei diluitur et adeoand commentators. It seems agreed that the Greek
serescit, ut jam  nonnulli sudore cruento exun- term does not correctly represent the original Syrodarint.' There is no allusion made to any case,   dee word although it is disputed what that
nor a word said about extreme agitation. Thereword was.    Many, with Jerome, think that the
is, however, a case of this kind recorded by true word is Beieeen, from the Hebrew tly  n
Durius, a German physician (Miscell. cur. Ephe-benez-ra'am, as in Hebrew 2't  constantly denotes
merid. p. 354, obs. 179). A student was put into thunder. But this varies too much from the vestigia
prison,'propter insolenias nocturnas et alia ten- /lierarum. Others derive it from the Hebrew n.
taa,' when he was seized with such fear and agita.  benei-ra'ash, which deviates still further, and
tion that drops of blood burst forth, here and there, only signifies-sons of tumult or commotion. Refrom his hands, chest, and arms.  Durius was cent interpreters therefore incline to the derivation
ordered by the magistrate, who was informed of of Caninus, De Die, and Fritzsche, who take it
the circumstance, to visit the prisoner; and he from  s nit  benei-regesh, for l, which in Hewitnessed all that had been related to him. The brew signifies a croed a tumut, in Syriac and
prisoner was of course immediately released, and  Arabc signifies thunder.  Thus the word boanwas restored to his former state of health as soon  erges would seem to be a  slight corruption from
as the cause of his anxiety had been removed. Ifboane-regesh, the boane being very possibly the
this was really a fact, the student must have beenGalilsean pronunciation instead of bene (comp.
affected with hemorrhagic disease, or have had aBloomfields New  Tst. on Mark ii   17; and
very strong tendency to it: but the story does not Robinson's Gr. Lex. s. v. Boavepys).-J. K.
deserve the slightest credence. The author does   OAR     CHA
not appear to have imagined, for a moment, that it        I 
was a case of imposition, or that it might be after-  BOAT (7rXotdpLov), John vi. 22, 23, was probably
wards suspected to be such. His account is, there- put for a smaller boat than the fishing craft, 7rXoa,
fore, confined to the bare statement of the fact, and  employed on the sea of Tiberias. The people,
affords no evidence of the correctness of his obser- perceiving that Jesus had not gone with his discivation.  It is highly improbable that a student of ples, supposed he was still on/the east side of the
such habits should feel great alarm at being put sea, as there was not even a boat, irXotdptov, by
in prison; while nothing is more conceivable than  which he could have irossed.  But when they
that he should attempt to impose on the credulity found he was gone, they availed themselves of such
of his attendants, in order to obtain his release, and boats, which had returned from Tiberias, to go in
that he should even succeed in deceiving a phy- quest of him. The boat, o~cdpt (Acts xxvii. x6),
sician. Medical experience abounds in cases of suc-  as the jolly-boat of the ship. [SHIP.]
cessful imposition of a far more extraordinary nature
(Bartholinus, Hist. Anat. rar., cent. i. hist. 52).  BOAZ  (ty1j alacritas: Sept. Bo6k), I. a
While, then, on the one hand, experience teaches wealthy Bethlehemite, and near kinsman of the
that cutaneous hemorrhage, when it does occur, first husband of Ruth, whom he eventually espoused
is the result of disease, or, at any rate, of a very under the obligations of the Levirate law, which
peculiar idiosyncracy, and is in no way indicative he willingly incurred. The conduct of Boaz-his
of the state of the mind, we have, on the other, fine spirit, just feeling, piety, and amenity of mandaily experience and the accumulated testimony of ners-appears to great advantage in the book of
ages to prove that intense mental emotion and pain  Ruth, and forms an interesting portraiture of the
produce on the body effects even severer in degree, condition and deportment of what was in his time
but of a very different nature. It is familiar all the upper class of Israelites.  By his marriage
that terror will blanch the hair, occasion moment- with Ruth he became the father of Obed, from
ary paralysis, fainting, convulsions, melancholy, whom came Jesse, the father of David. He was
imbecility, and even sudden death.  Excessive thus one of the direct ancestors of Christ, and as
grief and joy will produce some. of the worst of such his name occurs in Matt. i. 5. There are
these. Sweat is caused by fear, and by bodily some chronological difficulties respecting the time
pain; but not by sorrow, which excites no secretion  of Boaz and his genealogical connections; but as
except tears..      these are involved in the considerations which
It is very evident, then, that medical experience determine the time of the book of Ruth, they will
does not bear at all upon the words of St. Luke. be more advantageously examined in connection
The circumstances connected with our Lord's suf- with that larger subject. [RUTH; GENEALOGY.]
ferings in the garden must be considered by them-  2. The name given to one of the two brazen
selves, without any reference to actual observation; pillars which Solomon erected in the court of the
otherwise, we shall be in danger of rendering a Temple. [TEMPLE.
statement, which may be easily received on its own
grounds, obscure and contradictory.              BOCHART, SAMUEL, a French protestant
It may be remarked that the passage in question  pastor, was born at Rouen in 1599.  He was
only occurs in St. Luke, and is omitted in the educated at Paris and Sedan, and probably also
two oldest MSS., A. and B., and three others.-  he studied theology at Saumur. The masters to
W. A. N.                                      whose instructions he was chiefly indebted were




BOCHIM                    375                   BOOK
two Scotchmen, Dempster and Cameron, then Bengel from the Oriental versions in the Polyglott,
resident in France. When the college at Saumur are very often incorrectly alleged, and he supplies
was broken up, Bochart followed Cameron to the true varieties. Great care and accurate scholarEngland, where he spent some time, chiefly at ship distinguish the book, though it is pervaded
Oxford, and where he laid the foundation of that by a needless amount of acrimony; and the style in
immense Oriental erudition for which his name is which it is written is so rugged and obscure, that
so famous. After leaving England he was for to read it is a task. All subsequent editors of the
some time at Leyden studying Arabic under Er- Greek text have been deeply indebted to Bode's
penius, and at length settled at Caen as pastor of patient and exact examination of the Oriental verthe protestant congregation there. Here the rest sions.-W. L. A.
of his life was spent, and here his great works
were composed. In I646 he published his Geo-    BOEHME, CHRISTIAN FRED., D.D., a Luthegraphia Sacra seu Phaleg et Canaan, a work of ran pastor at Altenburg and Lucka, was born 3d
vast and varied learning, and from which, as from  Oct. 1766, at Eisenberg. He was the author of
a storehouse, all subsequent writers on biblical Epist. Pauli ad Romanos Gr. cum comment. perpet.
geography and ethnography have drawn; though, Lips. I806; Ep. ad Hebreos lat. vert. atque comas might have been expected, the greater acquaint- ment perpet instruxit., Lips. 1825; and of several
ance with eastern localities and relations obtained treatises of dogmatical and polemical character.
since his day, has led to extensive departures from, Of his commentary on the Hebrews, Delitzsch says,
or modifications of, the results at which he arrived.'that it is philologically strong, but in style disThe work is divided into two parts, Phaleg and agreeable; independent, acute, and, though not
Canaan; The former comprises four books, of thoroughgoing, theologically, yet rich in what is
which the first consists of various discussions of a suggestive and stimulating' (Commentar zum Br.
preliminary nature, the second is devoted to the an die Heb., p. xxxviii.)-W. L. A.
posterity of Shem, the third to that of Japheth,  BOHAN (, a thumb; Sept. Bau(z), a Reuand the fourth to that of Ham. The second part, 
comprises two books, of which the former is occu- benite, in whose honour a stone was erected which
pied with the colonies of the Phoenicians, the latter afterwards served a a boundary-mark on the fronwith the Phoenician and Puniclanguages. Bochart's tier between Judah and Benjamin (Josh. xv. 6;
next great work was his Hierozoicon, siveBiparti- xviii. 7).  It does not appear from  the text
tum opus de animalibus Scriptur, Lond. 1663, whether this stone was a sepulchral monument, or
fol., in which he treats, with an immense profusion set up to commemorate some great exploit perof learning, of all the animals, quadrupeds, birds, formed by this Bohan in the conquest of Canaan.
reptiles, and insects mentioned in Scripture. Of Bunting (Itinerar. tot. S. Script. p. I44), menthis work an edition was published by Rosenmiiller, tioning Bahurim, says that near to it, in the valley
in three vols. 4to. Lips. 1793-6. His collected is a stone called Bohan, of extraordinary size, and
works were edited by Leusden and Villemand, in shining like marble. This wants confirmation, and
3 vols. fol., Leyden and Utrecht, I692, and againno authority is given.
I712. Other editions have appeared, but these are  BOHLEN, PETER VON, ordinary professor of
the best. Bochart died suddenly x6th May i667. Oriental languages at Kinigsberg, was born 9th
-W. L. A.                                     March 1796, at Wippels, in Westphalia, and died
BOCHIM  (     the weepings;  Sept. KX\av- at Halle, 6th Feb. 1840. He contributed SymBOCHIM (D'Bn, the weepings; Sept. 6 KXavOBOCHIM  -                  bole ad interp. sac. codicis ex lingua Persica, Lips.,
JLuv, KXavOlzives), the name given to a place (pro- I822, 4to; and wrote a translation of Genesis, with
bably near Shiloh, where the tabernacle then was) notes, Die Gen. iibers. mit Anmerk. Leipz. 1835.
where an' angel of the Lord' reproved the assem- He belonged to the extreme rationalist school,
bled Israelites for their disobedience in making and his criticism is wholly destructive. The chaleagues with the inhabitants of the land, and for racter of his investigations is chiefly negative, and
their remissness in taking possession of their heri- inimical to the Pentateuch in respect of its antiquity
tage. This caused the bitter weeping among the as well as of its credibility; he does not offer any
people for which the place took its name (Judg. ii. clear or definite view on the proper origin of the
I, 5).                                        book' (Bleek Einleit. in d. A. T. p. 176).
This work has found a translator into English.BODE, CHRIST. ANG., professor of Oriental       L. A.
languages at Helmstadt, was born 28th Dec. 1722,
at Wernigerode, and died 7th March I796. He     BOND, BONDAGE. [SLAVE.]
devoted himself to Oriental studies, and especially  F, JA       a    it prof   r  f
to the Oriental versions of Scripture. He published  BO, J
Eragmenta V T: ex Vers. Aethiop.  nterp. ut et Hebrew at Douay, was born in 1573 at Divant,
alia quedam  opusc. Aethiop. in Latinam  translat. and died 9th May 1643 at Tournay. He edited
Helmst. I    755, 4 to; E lang. sec. Matt. ex vs.  the Onomasticon of Eusebius and Jerome, and acPersici Interp. editum. in Lat. trains., etc.; Ev. sec. companied it with valuable notes. Amst. 1707 fol.
companied it with valuable notes. Amst. I707, fol.
Marc. etc.;* Ev. sec. rLc.; ev.       sec. Xohzan., He wrote also Pentateuch. Moysis comment. illust.
Helmst. 1751, 4to; Pseuido- Critica Milio-Ben- Antw. 1625, fol.;,'osue, udices et Ruth comment.
e a, sie  ctas Critius  illustr. Accessit Onomasticon, S.S., Paris, I631,
geliana, sive Tractatus Criticus quo versionam sac.
orient. allegationes pro variis N. T. Gr. lectionibus  659, fo; t.  Lis Rg      
a Millio et Bengelio frustrafacte plene recensentur,  hom. 643, fol-W. L A.
refutantur et eliminantur, insertis earund. Vers.  BOOK. [WRITING.]
veris allegationibus, 2 vols. 8vo, Halan, I767-9.
This last work is of considerable value. Bode   A sealed book (Isa. xxix. I; Rev. v. I-3) is a
shews that the various readings alleged by Mill and book whose contents are secret, and have for a




BOOK OF LIFE                  376                  BORITH
very long time been so, and are not to be published  BOOTHROYD, BENJAMIN, D.D., a laborious
till the seal is removed.                     and learned minister of the Independent body,
A book or roll written within and without, i. e., and an eminent Hebrew scholar, was born in
on the back side (Rev. v. i), may be a book con- 1763 of the humblest origin. Having come under
taining a long series of events; it not being the religious convictions, he forthwith applied himself
custom of the ancients to write on the back side of with heroic energy and perseverance to studies
the roll, unless when the inside would not contain  designed to fit for the christian ministry, and after
the whole of the writing (comp. Horace, Ep. i. the usual academic training, he was ordained to
20, 3).                                        the ministry. His first settlement was at PonteTo eat a book signifies to consider it carefully fract, where he added to his income by pursuing
and digest it well in the mind (Jer. xv. I6; Rev. the business of a bookseller and printer; and
x. 9). A similar metaphor is used by Christ in  printed his two valuable editions of the Bible.
John vi., where he repeatedly proposes himself as The first was the Biblia Hebraica, or the Hebrew'the Bread of Life' to be eaten by his people.  Scriptures of the 0. T., withoutpoints, after the text
of Kennicott; with the chief various readings selected
BOOK OF LIFE.       In Phil. iv. 3 Paul speaks from his collation of the Hebrew MSS., from that of
of Clement and other of his fellow-labourers, De Rossi, and from the ancient versions; accom-' whose names are written in the book of ife.' On paniedwith English notes, critical, philological, and
this Heinrichs (Annotat. in Ep. ad Philipp.) ob-explanatory, etc., Pontefract, I8Io-I8I6, 2 vols.
serves that as the future life is represented under 4to. It was no ordinary merit for Dr. Boothroyd to
the image of a roXIreevua (citizenship, community, have been at once the editor, printer, and annotator
political society) just before (iii. 20), it is in agree- of this work. The text is well printed, and the
ment with this to suppose (as usual) a catalogue notes, for. the most part selected from the works of
of the citizens' names, both natural and adopted  the best Biblical scholars to which he had access,
(Luke x. 20; Rev. xx. 15; xxi. 27), and from  are generally very judicious and appropriate.  It
which the unworthy are erased (Rev. iii. 5). Thus had the merit, for a time, of being the most usethe names of the good are often represented as ful Hebrew Bible published for common use, and
registered in heaven (Luke x. 20). But this by no  though not always correct, it was sufficiently so for
means implies a certainty of salvation (nor, as general purposes. The other and English edition
Doddridge remarks, does it appear that Paul in of the Bible published by Dr. Boothroyd, was
this passage had any particular revelation), but only entitled, A New Family Bible, and improved version
that at that time the persons were on the list, from  from corrected texts of the Originals; with notes,
which (as in Rev. iii. 5) the names of unworthy critical and explanatory, Pontefract, 1818, 3 vols.
members might be erased. This explanation is 4to.   This translation is excellent, and will be
sufficient and satisfactory for the other important found an important help to the student in ascerpassage in Rev. iii. 5, where the glorified Christ taining the import of the Bible. The notes are
promises to'him that overcometh,' that he will not judicious, useful, and practical. A second edition
blot his name out of the book of life. Here, how- was published at Huddersfield,  824.  Also a
ever, the illustration has been sought rather in  condensed edition in one royal 8vo vol.  In
military than in civil life, and the passage has been  I8I8, after 24 years at Pontefract, Dr. B. removed
supposed to contain an allusion to the custom  to Huddersfield to become minister of Highfield
according to which the names of those who were Chapel. Here he remained i8 years, until his
cashiered for misconduct were erased from  the death in  836, aged 68.-W. J. C.
muster-roll.
When God threatened to destroy the Israelites  BOOTY. [SPOIL.].
altogether, and make of Moses a great nation- I
the legislator implored forgiveness for them, and  BORGER, ELIAS ANNEUS, D.D., professor of
added-' if not, blot me, I pray thee, out of thy  Belles Lettres, formerly of theology, at Leyden,
book which thou hast written' (Exod. xxxii. 32). was born at Joure in Friesland in 1785, and died
By this he meant nothing so foolish or absurd as I2th October 1820. He wrote Interpretatio Ep.
to offer to forfeit eternal life in the world to come Pauli ad Galatas, Leyd. 1807; De constanti et ae-but only that he, and not they, should be cut off quabili Yesu Christi indole, doctrina ac docendi
from the world, and brought to an untimely end. ratione, sive commentt. de Evang.?oannis cum
This has been regarded as an allusion to the re- Matt. Marc. et Luc. evangeliis comp. P. I. Hag.
cords kept in the courts of justice, where the  18I6. These works are valuable; they are marked
deeds of criminals are registered, and hence would by great clearness and accuracy of statement; and
signify no anore than the purpose of God, with the author usually establishes his conclusions satisreference to future events; so that to be cut off factorily. He wrote also a work of great ability
by an untimely death is to be blotted out of this and value, entitled De Mysticismo, Hag. I820.book.                                          His early death is said to have been occasioned by
grief on account of the loss successively of his two
BOOTH (n3D succah; pi. nI3i succoth), a hut wives.-W. L. A.
made of branches of trees, and thus distinguished    IT
from a tent properly so called. Such were the    BORITH    (?) occurs i two passages of
booths in which Jacob sojourned for a while on his Scripture, Jer. ii. 22, and Malachi iii. 2. From
return to the borders of Canaan, whence the place neither of these passages does it distinctly appear
obtained the name of Succoth (Gen. xxxiii. 17); whether the substance referred to by the name
and such were the temporary green sheds in which  of borith (A. V.'sope'), was obtained from the
the Israelites were directed to celebrate the Feast mineral or from the vegetable kingdom. But it
of Tabernacles (Lev. xxiii. 42, 43). [TABERNACLES, is evident that it was possessed of cleansing proFEAST OF.]                                    perties; and this is confirmed by the origin and




BORITH                    377                    BOS
signification of the word, which is thus illustrated  Supposing that the ashes of plants are intended
by Celsius:'  verbo'n3 Barar, purzficavit, quse by the word borith, the next point of inquiry is,
vox etiam apud Chaldoeos, Syros, Arabes in usu whether it is to be restricted to those of any parfuit, descendit nomen'12 Bor, purias' (.IHerobot. i. ticular plants. The ashes of the poplar are menp. 449). So Maimonides, on the Talmud, tract tioned by Arabian authors, and of the vine by
Shemittah,' Species ablutionibus aptse, uti sunt Dioscorides; those of the plantain and of the
Borith et Ahal.'                              Butea frondosa by Sanscrit authors: thus indicatThe word borith is very similar to the boruk of ing that the plants which were most common, or
the Arabs, written baurakh in the Latin transla- which were used for fuel, or other purposes, in the
tions of Serapion and Avicenna; and translated  different countries, had also their ashes, that is,
nitrum-that is, natron, or carbonate of soda. impure carbonate of potash, employed for washing,
Boruk appears, however, to have been used in a etc. Usually the ashes only of plants growing on
generic rather than in a specific sense, as in the the sea-shore have been thought to be intended.
Persian works on Materia Medica, derived chiefly All these, as before mentioned, would yield barilla,
from the Arabic, which we have collated, we find  or carbonate of soda. Many of them have been
that no less than six different kinds of boruk  burnt, for the soda they yield, on the coasts of
(Persian booreh) are enumerated; of which some India, of the Red Sea, and of the Mediterranean.
are natural, as the Armenian, the African, etc.; They belong chiefly to the natural family of the
others artificial, as that obtained from burning the  Chenopodeae and to that of the Mesembryanthewood of the poplar; also that employed in the mums.    In Arabic authors, the plant'yielding
preparation of glass. Of these it is evident that soda is said to be called ishnan, and its Persian
the two last are, chemically, nearly the same, name is stated to be ghasoo4, both words signifying
being both carbonates of alkalis; the incineration'the washer' or'washing-herb.' Rauwotf points
of most plants, as well as of the poplar, yields the out two plants in Syria and Palestine which yield
carbonate of potash (commonly called potash, or alkaline salts. Hasselquist considered one of them
pearlash); while carbonate of soda, or barilla, is to be a Mesembryanthemum. Forskal has enuthe alkali used in the preparation of glass. Pre- merated several plants as being burned for the
vious to the composition of bodies having been barilla or soda which they afford: as Mesembrydefinitely ascertained by correct chemical analysis, anthemum geniculatum  and nodifaorum, both of
dissimilar substances were often grouped together which are called ghasool.  Salsola kali, and his
under one general term; while others, although  Suaeda monoica, called asul, are other plants,
similar in composition, were separated on account especially those last named, which yield sal-alkali.
of some unimportant character, as difference of So on the coasts of the Indian Peninsula, Salicolour or of origin, etc.  It is unnecessary for cornia Indica and Salsola nudiflora yield barilla
our present purpose to ascertain the other sub- in great abundance and purity, as do Salsola
stances included by the Arabs under the general sativa, Kali, Soda, and Tragus; and also Saliterm  of boruk, and which may have been also  cornia annua, on the coasts of Spain and of the
included under the nitrum  of the Greeks.  It South of France.-J. F. R.
is evident that both the carbonate of soda and   BORROWING       [LOAN.]
of potash were comprehended under one name by
the former. It would be difficult, therefore, to  BOS, LAMBERT, professor of Greek at Franedistinguish the one from the other, unless some ker, was born 23d November I760, at Workum,
circumstances were added in addition to the mere and died 6th January I717. Bos was a Greek
name. Thus, in the above passage of Jeremiah   scholar of the first rank, and in his numerous
we have neter (nitre) and borith (sope) indicated  works has rendered most important service to
as being both employed for washing, or possessed  ancient philology, both classical and sacred. His
of some cleansing properties; and yet, from occur- Ellipses Graece, Franek. I702 (best edition, Lonring in the same passage, they must have differed  don, 1825), is a storehouse of sound learning and
in some respects. The term natron we know was, acute observation, of which much has a direct telain later times, confined to the salt obtained chiefly tion to the interpretation of Scripture.  He has
from the natron-lakes of Egypt, and neter may also  also collected much valuable material for the illushave been so in earlier times. Since, therefore, tration of the N. T. in his Exercitationes Philothe natural carbonate of soda is mentioned in one logice, in quibus N. F loca nonnulla e profanis
part of the verse, it is very probable that the maxime auctoribus Grecis illustrantur, I700; and
artificial carbonates may be alluded to in the his Observationes Miscellanece ad loca quaedam turn
other, as both were in early times employed by N. T., turn exterorum  scriptorum  Grecorum,
Asiatic nations for the purposes of washing. The Fran. 1707. One seldom consults Bos in vain on
carbonate of potash, obtained from the burning of a philological peculiarity or difficulty.  But his
most plants growing at a distance from the sea or most enduring contribution to Biblical learning is
a saline soil, might not have been distinguished his Vetus Testantentunm ex versione LXX. interprefrom the carbonate of soda, produced from the turn, secundum exemplar Vaticanum, Rome ediashes of plants growing on the shores of the sea or turn, accuratissime denuo recognitum; una cumt
of salt-water lakes.                          Scholiis ejusd. edit., variis MS.' codd. veterumHence it is probable that the ashes of plants, que, Exempll. lectionibus, necnon Fragmentis Verss.
called boruk and boreh by Asiatic nations, may be Aquiie, Symmachi et Theodotionis, Franek. 1709,
alluded to under the name of borith, as there is no 4to. This is a beautiful and correct edition. It
proof that soap is intended, though it may have does not, however, present the Roman text'acbeen known to the same people at very early periods. curatissime;' the author follows rather the London
Still less is it probable that borax is meant, as has Polyglott, as in all the places where this differs
been supposed by some authors, apparently from  from the Roman edition Bos agrees with the forthe mere similarity of name.                 I mer.-W. L. A.




BOSOM                     378                 BOTANY
BOSOM. It is usual with the western Asiatics springeth out of the wall' (I Kings iv. 33); but the
to carry various sorts of things in the bosom of example of the great king seems rather to have
their dress, which forms a somewhat spacious de- been admired than imitated. No Hebrew book
pository, being wide above the girdle, which con- on the subject of the vegetable world exists; and
fines it so tightly around the waist as to prevent although it has been asserted that Solomon wrote
anything from  slipping through.  The things about plants, it is clear, from the language of
carried in the bosom are such as Europeans would, Josephus, that the Jews did not know of any such
if in the East, carry in their pockets; and this writing, for after enumerating Solomon's I005
mode of carrying valuable property may indicate ptl3ia on songs and music, and his 3000 B34PXo of
the origin of the figurative phrase, into the bosom, proverbs and images, Josephus merely adds, that
without requiring us to suppose that everything he drew moral instruction from the phenomena of
described as being given into the bosom really was the animal and vegetable kingdoms (KcaO' cKarrov
deposited there.                             etos 8vopdov 7rapapo\Xv ebtrei K. r. X. Jos. Antiq.
To have one in one's bosom implies kindness, viii. 2. 5).  It is exactly this metaphorical and
secrecy, intimacy. Christ is in the bosom of the illustrative use of the simplest facts of vegetable
Father; that is, possesses the closest intimacy with, physiology which we find in the Bible. The want
and most perfect knowledge of, the Father (John of scientific knowledge in no way precluded the
i. x8). The expression, leaning on 7esus' bosom, Hebrews from an enthusiastic and almost passionreferred to St. John (John xiii. 23), is explained ate appreciation of the outward world; and
under the articles ACCUBATION, BANQUETS.      although we do not belong to the number of those
who consider that science deadens the sense of
BOSOR (Bo6bp). I. A town mentioned among beauty, it is clear from history that it is possible
the'cities strong and great' in the land of Galaad  for men, without any technical or systematical
(Gilead), in which the Jews were shut up, and  knowledge, to become proficient students in the
which were taken by Judas Maccabeus (I Maccab. school of nature.  Many of the grandest psalms
v. 26, 36). It may be Bezer, which the LXX. derive their beauty from the noble yet unscientific
call Bosor, as does also the Onomasticon.-2. interpretation of every-day phenomena. As speciIBEOR.]                                       mens of fine ethic illustration derived from trees
BOSORA. [BOZRAH.]                           and plants, we may refer to Job xxiv. 20; Ps. i. 3;
cxiv. 12; Prov. xi. 30; Eccles. xi. 3; Is. lxv. 22;
BOSSES, the thickest and strongest parts, the Matt. iii. o1; Luke xii. 27; Phil. i. II; Eph. iii.
prominent points of a buckler. [ARMS, ARMOUR.] I7, etc.
BOSTON, THOMAS, was born at Dunse, I7th       Flowers in the Bible are similarly treated. Very
March 1676, and died 20th May I732, at Ettrick, few species are mentioned; and although their
where he was minister. He occupies an impor- beauty is once or twice alluded to in descriptive
tant place among Scottish divines; his writings passages (sometimes under the general term'grass,'
on doctrinal and practical theology, which have Matt. vi. 30; Cant. ii. 2; v. I3), theyare seldom
been recently collected, in 12 vols., 8vo, London  introduced, except in the single pathetic analogy
1852, have long been highly esteemed, especially which they afford to the transitory life and glory of
his Fourfold State; and among pious families in mankind (Job xiv. 2; P. iii. 5; Is. xxviii. I;
the north his name is'a household word.i  He  xl. 6; Jam. i. Io; I    Pet. i. 24). Gardens (o,
was one of the few in the Scottish church who Jn?  [nT,   irapairot), were in use among
have been distinguished as Hebrew scholars. He  rientals from the earliest times (Gen. xiii. 10;
attached great imp6rtance to accents in Hebrew, Deut. xi. I2, etc.); but although they were planted
and prepared a treatise on them, which he wrote with flowers and fragrant herbs (Cant. vi. 2; iv.
first in English, and afterwards in Latin, which wasI6), often chosen for their beauty and rarity (Is.
published with the title Tractatus Stigmologicus. I), yet they appear to have been chiefly culEbrso-Biblicas; after his death at Amsterdam, in tivated for useful and culinary purposes (Jer. xxix.
1738, with a pieface by the learned David Millius. 5; Cant. vi. II; iv. 13; Deut. viii. 8, etc.)
Of this work the editor speaks in high terms, as   But it must not be supposed that biblical botany'most useful,' and containing a'perspicuous and is an easy as well as a limited study.'The botaniaccurate treatment of the subject.' Boston left cal artist,' says Sir Thos. Browne, in his Miscellanealso in MS. a'two-fdld version of the original text ous Tracts,'meets everywhere (in the Bible) with
of the first twenty-three chapters of Genesis; the one vegetables, and from the fig-leaf in Genesis to the
more literal, the other more smooth and free, but star wormwood in the Apocalypse, are variously
both with due regard to stigmologism.'-W. L. A. interspersed expressions from plants, elegantly advantaging the significancy of the text: whereof
BOTANY (BIBLICAL). The study of biblical many being delivered in a language proper to
botany is not an extensive onei and mainly consists Judaea and neighbour countries, are imperfectly
in the identification of trees and plants mentioned apprehended by the common reader, and now
in Scripture. The whole number of vegetable pro- doubtfully made out even by the Jewish exposiductions specifically alluded to in the Bible does tor. And even in those which are confessedly
not exceed 280. With botany as a science the known, the elegancy is often lost in the appreJews-were wholly unacquainted, and the properties hension of the reader unacquainted with such
of plants were only studied by them superficially vegetables, or but nakedly knowing their natures:
for medicinal purposes.  Of natural philosophy whereof, holding a pertinent apprehension, you
they knew nothing, and even to natural history cannot pass over such expressions without some
their writings contain but few allusions. We are doubt or want of satisfaction in your judgment.'
vaguely told, as an illustration of the wisdom of These remarks of the learned physician well exSolomon, that'he spake of trees from the cedar press the nature of the research necessary to a
tree that is in Lebanon, even unto the hyssop that knowledge of Scripture plants, and are the preface




BOTANY                     379                   BOTNIM
to some ingenious disquisitions on many of the more  Besides these treatises, we may mention Scheuchobscure kinds (Sir T. Browne's Works, Bohn's ed., zer's Physica Sacra, Augsb. I73I; Rosenmiiller's
iii. I54). As an example of the extreme vagueness Bibl. Alterthumsk. Bd. iv. (Bibl. Naturgeschichte,
of nomenclature which makes it often impossible translated in Clark's Theological Series, under the
to identify with certainty a scripture tree or plant, title of Script. Botany and Mineralogy); Dr. T. M.
we may take the words El, Elah, Elon, Ilan, Allah, Harris's Nat. Hist. of the Bible, Boston, 1826;
Allon, about the rendering of which words the  Prof. Paxton's Illustr. of Scripture (vol. ii.); Carutmost doubt is entertained, as the different versions penter's Script. Nat. History, I828; and Balfour's
fluctuate unaccountably between opvs,  dXavcos, Plants of the Bible.  Among special treatises on
rep4^vOos, 7rXdravos, 5v5pov, convallis, and quer- single plants are Biel's Exercitatio de lignis ex
cus; while in the A. V. they are rendered some- Libanopetitis (Brunswick, 1740), and J. R. Forster's
times'oak' (Is. i. 30), sometimes'teil tree' (Is. De Bysso Antiquorum.
vi. I3),'elms' (Hos. iv. 13),'plain' (Gen. xii.-6,  Finally, long and valuable dissertations on sepaetc.), and'trees' (Is. lxi. 3, See Stanley's Sinai rate trees, herbs, etc., are to be found in various
and Palestine, p. 5 19 seq.); and, to add to our con- books of travel and geography, as Reland's Palesfusion, not only are these words apparently inter- tine, Sir W. Ouseley's Trav. in the East (especially
changeable, but even Eshel,'a tamarisk,' stands in the chapter on sacred trees), Russel's Nat. History
one place (I Sam. xxxi. 13) for Elah,'an oak' ofAleppo; Burckhardt's, Niebuhr's, and Wellsted's
(I Chron. x. 12). Hence there is nothing impos-  Travels in Arabit; Salt's Voy. to Abyssinia; Rae
sible, whatever improbability there may be in the Wilson's Travels in the Holy Land, and many other
identification) by some writers, of the Allon- volumes, which will be constantly referred to in
Bachuth of Gen. xxxv. 8, with the palm-tree of articles upon separate subjects.-F. W. F.
Judg. iv. 3; xx. 33, and the tree (A. V. plain) mentioned in i Sam. x. 3. As another instance we may  BOTNIM (Dtb31) occurs only in Gen. xliii. I,
mention the word Armon (t1."l), in the rendering              * T T
of which name the versions waver inconsistentlywhere    cob     s    to       te the ruler of
where Jacob, wishing to conciliate the ruler of
of which name the versions waver inconsistently  Egypt, desires his sons on their return to' take of
between wXdrcwos, LXX. (Gen. xxx. 37), pla- the best fruits in the land in their vessels, and carry
tanus, Vulg. chestnuttree, A. V., while in Ezra down the man a present,' and along with other
xxxi. 8, the LXX. render it bry virvs, and some articles mentions'nuts and almonds.' Here the
modern writers have taken it for the maple or the word rendered nuts is btnim. Among thevarious
beech.                                         word rendered nuts is botnim. Among the various
We have now only to mention all the most im- translations of this term Celsius enumerates walnuts,
portant works on the botany of the Bible. One of hazel-nuts, pine-nuts, peaches, dates, the fruit of
the earliest is the Arboretum Biblicum of Joh. Henr. the terebinth-tree, and even almonds; but there is
Ursinus (Norib. 1663), continued in  665 under little doubt that pistachio-nuts is the true rendering.
the title of Phytologia Sacra et ortus Aromatics, From the context it is evident that the articles
in which the author treated of all the odoriferous intended for presents were the produce of Syria, or
plants, etc., of Scripture (on which the fullest trea- easily procurable there.  Hence they were probably
tise is the Myrothecium  of SAacchius). A  still less common in Egypt, and therefore suitable for
earlier work was that of Levinus Lecanius, in which  such a purpose.
he explained the various similes and parables drawn  The Hebrew  word botnim, reduced from its
from plants (Frankfort, I59I). To these we may  plural form, is very similar to the Arabic  k
add, among the earliest books specially dealing with
the subject, Sir T. Browne's tract already quoted, batam, which we find in Arabian authors, as
the Historia Sacra Plantarum of A. Cocquius, and  Rhases, Serapion, and Avicenna.  It is sometimes
the Herbarium Spirituale of W. Sarcerius (Frankf. written baton, boton, botin, and albotin.  The
1573; see Fabricius Bibl. Antiq. p. 357).      name is applied specially to the terebinth-tree, or
The five most important works on Biblical Pistacia terebinthus of botanists, the -rplxvwOos or
botany are the Hierobotanicon sive de plantis S. S. rep4LtOos of the Greeks. This is the turpentinedissertationes breves of Oliver Celsius, a theological yielding pistacia, a native of Syria and of the
professor at LTpsala (I745); the Hierophyticon of Greek Archipelago, which has already been deMth. Hiller, a professor at Tubingen (Utrecht, scribed in the article ALAH. The tree, as there
1725); the Historia Naturalis.Egypti of Prosper mentioned, is remarkable for yielding one of the
Alpinus (Venice, 1592); the FloraEgypto-Arabica  finest kinds of turpentine, that usually called of
of Peter Forskal (I775), edited by Mth. Vahl, Chio or of Cyprus, which, employed as a medicine
Symbol botan. 1790; and Hasselquist's Travels in in ancient times, still holds its place in the British
the Holy Land (Stockholm, 1757), translated from  pharmacopoeias.  From being produced only in a
the Swedish into German by T. H. Gadebusch, few places and from being highly valued, it is usually
1762, and into French (Paris, 1769). The three adulterated with the common kinds of turpentine.
latter works are especially valuable, because their In many places, however, where the tree grows
authors lived and studied in the countries about well, it does not yield turpentine, which may
which they wrote. Alpinus was a doctor and pro- account for its not being noticed as a product of
fessor at Padua, but he lived for years in Egypt  Palestine; otherwise we might have inferred that
Forsk&l was the coadjutor and fellow-traveller of the turpentine of this species of pistacia formed one
Niebuhr, who edited his works; he died in 1763 at of the articles sent as a present into Egypt.  This
Jerim, in Arabia; Hasselquist travelled for scientific seems to have been the view of the translators of
purposes, and died at Smyrna in 1752. A most the Sept., who render botnim by Treptptvos. The
valuable series of monographs was contributed to name batam is applied by the Arabs both to the
this cyclopaedia by Dr. Royle, the author of Hima- turpentine and to the tree. It appears, however,
layan Botany, etc., who also had the advantage of to be sometimes used generically, as in some
studying eastern products in eastern countries.  Arabic works it is applied to a tree of which the




BOTTLE                    330                  BOTTLE
kernels of the seeds are described as being of a stances, and with very little trouble the parts of
green colour. This is the distinguishing charac- the skin might be sewed together so as to make
teristic of another species of pistacia, the P. vera it hold liquids. The first bottles, therefore, were
of botanists, of which the fruit is well known to  probably made of the skins of animals.  Accordthe Arabs by the name of fistuk, which seems to ingly, in the Iliad (iii. 247) the attendants are
be derived from  the Persian pisteh.  This, no represented as bearing wine for use in a bottle
doubt, gave origin to the Greek 7ro-rdKa, said made of goat's skin,'AOKC^ ev alyety. In Heroby Dioscorides to be produced in Syria, and to  dotus also (ii. 121) a passage occurs by which
be like pine nuts. Besides these edible kernels, it appears that it was customary among the anthe pistacia-tree is described in the Arabic works cient Egyptians to use bottles made of skins; and
on Materia Medica as yielding another product from the language employed by him it may be
somewhat similar to the turpentine of the battam, inferred that a bottle was formed by sewing up
but which is called'aluk-al-anbat, a resin of the the skin and leaving the projection of the leg and
anbat, as if this were another name for the pistacia- foot to serve as a cock; hence it was termed
tree. This brings it much nearer the botnim of 7ro6edv. This aperture was closed with a plug or
Scripture. The Botna of the Talmud is considered a string. In some instances every part was sewed
by annotators to be the pistacia (Celsius, Hierobot. up except the neck; the neck of the animal thus
i p. 26).  Bochart for this and other reasons became the neck of the bottle. This alleged use
considered botnim to be the kernels of the pistacia- of skin-bottles by the Egyptians is confirmed by
tree.                                         the monuments, on which such various forms as
The pistachio-nut-tree is well known, extending  the following occur. Fig. I is curious as shewing
as it does from Syria to Affghanistan.  From the the mode in which they were carried by a yoke:
latter country the seeds are carried as an article and as it balances a large bottle in a case, this skin
of commerce to India, where they are eaten in may be presumed to have contained wine. Fig. 7
their uncooked state, added to sweetmeats, or as a is such a skin of water as in the agricultural
dessert -fried with pepper and salt, being much  scenes is suspended from the bough of a tree, and
relished by Europeans for the delicacy of their from which the labourers occasionally drink. Figs.
flavour. The pistacia-tree is itost common in the 2 and 3 represent two men with skins at their
northern, that is, the cooler parts of Syria, but it backs, belonging to a party of nomades entering
is also found wild in Palestine in some very re- Egypt.
markable positions, as Mount Tabor, and the summit of Mount Attarous (Nebo?) (Physical Palestine,:=:
P- 323).  This tree is said to have been introduced from Syria into Italy by Lucius Vitellius in
the reign of Tiberius. It delights in a dry soil,
and rises to the height of 20, and sometimes 30 feet. 
As it belongs to the same genus as the terebinthtree, so like it the male and female flowers grow
on separate trees. It is therefore necessary for the
fecundation of the seed that a male tree be planted
among the female ones. It is probably owing to                     \ \ 
the flowers of the latter not being fecundated, that
the trees occasionally bear oblong fruit-like but
hollow bodies, which are sometimes described as
galls, sometimes as nuts, of little value. The ripe
seeds are inclosed in a woody but brittle whitishcoloured shell, and within it is the seed-covering,
which is thin, membranous, and of a reddish colour.
The kernel is throughout of a green colour, abounds
in oil, and has a sweetish agreeable taste. Pistachio-nuts are much eaten by the natives of the                    T11.
countries where they are grown, and, as we have
seen, they form articles of commerce from Affghan-  The Greeks and Romans also were accustomed
istan to India-a hot country like Egypt. They to use bottles made of skins, chiefly for wine.
are also exported from Syria to Europe in consider- Some interesting examples of those in use among
able quantities. They might'therefore have well the Romans are represented at Herculaneum and
formed a part of the present intended for Joseph, Pompeii, and are copied in the annexed ennotwithstanding the high position which he occu- graving (cut I45).
pied in Egypt.-J. F. R                           Skin-bottles doubtless existed among the Hebrews even in patriarchal times; but the first clear
BOTTLE.      Natural objects, it is obvious, notice of them occurs Joshua ix. 4, where it is
would be the earliest things employed for holding said that the Gibeonites, wishing to impose upon
and preserving liquids; and of natural objects Joshua as if they had come from a long distance,
those would be preferred which either presented took'old sacks upon their asses, and winethemselves nearly or quite ready for use, or such  bottles old and rent and bound up.' So in the
as could speedily be wrought into the requisite  13th verse of the same chapter:'these bottles
shape. The skins of animals afford in themselves of wine which we filled were new; and behold,
more conveniences for the purpose than any other they be rent; and these our garments and our
natural product.  When an animal had been slain, shoes are become old by reason of the very long
either for food or sacrifice, it was easy and natural journey.' Age, then, had the effect of wearing
to use the hide for enveloping the fat or other sub- and tearing the bottles in question, which must




BOTTLE                     331                   BOTTLE
consequently have been of skin.   To the same made exclusively of dressed or undressed skins
effect is the passage in Job xxxii. 19,'My belly is among the ancient Hebrews.  Among the Egypas wine which hath no vent; it is ready to burst tians ornamental vases were of hard stone, alabaster,
like new bottles.' Our Saviour's language (Matt. glass, ivory, bone, procelain, bronze, silver or
ix. 17; Luke v. 37, 38; Mark ii. 22) is thus gold; and also, for the use of the people generally,
clearly explained:'Men do not put new wine into  of glazed pottery or common earthenware.  As
old bottles, else the bottles break and the wine
tI      ~            2
I45.
runneth out, and the bottles perish;''New wine
must be put into new bottles, and both are pre-         2. Gold. 3. Cut glass.  Earthenware. 5, 7.
served. To the conception of an English reader who  Porcelain. 6. Hard stone. 8. Gold, with plates and
knows of no bottles but such as are made of clay or  bands. 9. Stone. Io. Alabaster, with lid.
glass, the idea of bottles breaking through age presents an insuperable difficulty; but skins may be- early as Thothmes III., assumed to be the Pharaoh
come' old, rent, and bound up;'they also prove, in  of the Exodus, B.C. 1490, vases are known to
time, hard and inelastic, and would in such a condi- have existed of a shape so elegant and of worktion be very unfit to hold new wine, probably in a manship so superior, as to shew that the art was
state of active fermentation. Even new skins might not, even then, in its infancy.
be unable'to resist the internal pressure caused by  Many of the bronze vases found at Thebes and
fermentation. The passage just cited from Job   in other parts of Egypt are of a quality which canpresents no inconsistency, because there'new' not fail to excite admiration, and which proves
means not' fresh,' but new to this use.        the skill possessed by the Egyptians in the art of
As the drinking of wine is illegal among the working and compounding metals. Their shapes
Moslems who are now in possession of Western    are most various-some neat, some plain, some groAsia, little is seen of the ancient use of skin- tesque; some in form not unlike our cream-jugs,
bottles for wine, unless among the Christians of others as devoid of elegance as the wine-bottles
Georgia, Armenia, and Lebanon, where they are of our cellars or the flower-pots of our conservastill thus employed.  In Georgia the wine is tories.    They had also bottles, small vases, and
stowed in large ox-skins, and is moved or kept at pots, used for holding ointment or for other purhand for use in smaller skins of goats or kids. poses connected with the toilet, which were made
of alabaster, glass, porcelain, and hard stone. The.,                                                   t X
But skins are still more extensively used through-  >3
out Western Asia for water.   Their most usual 148.-m, 3. Earthenware.   2, 5, 6, 7. Green glass.
forms are shewn in the above cut (146), which also  4. Blue glass. 8, ii. Alabaster. 9, Io. Porcelain.
displays the manner in which they are carried.
The water-carriers bear water in such skins and  reader is here presented with a view of some of
in this manner.                                 these vases and bottles, from actual specimens in
It is an error to represent bottles as being  the British Museum.




BOUNDARIES                   382                  BOWL
The subjoined representation of a case con- tioned symbolically in Scripture. In Ps. vii 12
taining bottles, supported on a stand, is among the it implies victory, signifying judgments laid up in
Egyptian antiquities in the Berlin Museum, and is store against offenders. It is sometimes used to
supposed to have belonged to a medical man or to denote lying and falsehood (Ps. lxiv. 4; cxx. 4;
the toilet of a Theban lady (Wilkinson, ii. 217). Jer. ix. 3), probably from the many circumstances
It forms a suitable conclusion to this set of illus- which tend to render a bow inoperative, especially
trations.                                     in unskilful hands. Hence also'a deceitful bow'
(Ps. lxxviii. 57; Hos. vii. I6); with which compare
Virgil's'Perfidus ensis frangitur' (Aen. xii. 73I).
The bow also signifies any kind of arms. The
bow and spear are the most frequently mentioned,
because the ancients used these most (Ps. xliv. 6;
xlvi. 9; Zech. x. 4; Josh. xxiv. 12).
In Habak. iii. 9, thy bow was made quite naked,'
means that it was drawn out of its case. The
Orientals used to carry their bows in a case hung
on their girdles.
In 2 Sam. i. I8 the A. V. has'Also he (David)
\fMg; illll  ii;;;bade them teach the children of Judah the use of
the bow.''Here,' says Professor Robinson (Addit.
WSl WW  \\ ll i  \to Calme.),'the words'the use of' are not in the
Hebrew, and convey a sense entirely false to the
1English reader. It should be'teach them the
bow,' i. e., the song of THE BOW, from the mention
of this weapon in verse 22. This mode of selecting
an inscription to a poem or work is common in the
East; so in the Koran the second Sur is entitled
the cow, from the incidental mention in it of the red
149-                     heifer (comp. Num. xix. 2). In a similar manner,
the names of the books of the Pentateuch in the
The perishable nature of skin-bottles led, at an  Hebrew Bibles are merely the first word in each
early period, to the employment of implements of book.' So perhaps, in the bush (Mark xi. 26).
a more durable kind; and it is to be presumed that  BOWELS are often put by the Hebrew writers
the children of Israel would, during their sojourn   the internal parts generally, the inner man, and
in Egypt, learn, among other arts practised by so also for heart, as we use that term. Hence the
their masters, that of working in pottery-ware. bowels are made the seat of tenderness, mercy, and
Thus, as early as the days of the Judges (iv. 19; v. compassion; and thus the Scriptural expressions of
25), bottles or vases composed of some earthy the bowels being moved, bowels of mercy, straitened
material, and apparently of a superior make, were in the bowels, etc. By a similar association of
in use; for, what in the fourth chapter is termed'a ideas the bowels are also sometimes made the seat
bottle,' is in the fifth designated'a lordly dish.'  f wisdom and understanding (Job xxxviii. 36 Ps.
Isaiah (xxx. 14) expressly mentions'the bottle of i I; Isa. xvi. i). [BELLY.]
the potters,' as the reading in the margin gives it,
being a literal translation from the Hebrew, while  BOWING. [ATTITUDES.]
the terms which the prophet employs shew that he
could not have intended anything made of skin-  BOWL. This is the rendering inthe A. V. of'he shall break it as the breaking of the potter's si different Hebrew words. I. I, I Kings vii.
vessel that is broken in pieces, so that there shall 50, elsewhere rendered by bason or cup (see Exod.
not be found in the bursting of it a sherd to take...      ug.
fire from the hearth, or to take water out of the pit.'  22 Jer 1  ech   2)  2         dg
In the nineteenth chap. ver. I, Jeremiah is com-. 38,'a (lordly) dish;' v. 25). 3. $3 nt  (Eccles.
manded,'Go and get a potter's earthen bottle.'
and (ver. io)'break the bottle;''Even so, saith xii. 6; Zech. iv. 2, 3). 4 yN: (Exod. xxv. 31;
the Lord of Hosts (ver. i ), will I break this people elsewhere rendered cup, Gen. xliv. 2 ff, and pot,
and this city as one breaketh a potter's vessel, that Jer. xxxv. 5).  5. nlPDM, used only in the pi.
cannot be made whole again' (see also Jer. xiii.
12-14). Metaphorically the word bottle is used, 1il.~ (Exod. xxv. 29; xxxvii. 6; Numb. iv. 7).
especially in poetry, for the clouds considered as 6. p'th? (Numb. iv. I4, in marg.; vii. I3; Amos
pouring out and pouring down water (Job xxxviii..1
37),' Who can stay the bottles of heaven' The Vi. 6).
37),'Who can stay the bottles of heaven?' The   It  impossible to determine with any accuracy
cut already given in p. 284 affords an illustration of  It s impossible to determine with any accuracy
a passage in the Psalms (lvi. 8),' Put thou my tears  mes  the  ws ued to hd the v s  be d ing 
into thy bottle'-that is,'treasure them u' -'have names. As the e  was s  to hd te dipped, 
a regard to them as something precious.  It was, which the branch of hyssop was to be dipped, we
a regard to them as something precious.' It was,
as appears from the cut at p. 284, customary to tie may conclude that it was a vessel somewhat of
up in bags or small bottles, and secure with a seal, the bason form.  The iT, from the etymology
articles of value, such as precious stones, necklaces. 
and other ornaments.-J. R. B.                 (7    t, ro ll), and from its being used as a reO NAES.   servoir for the oil which fed the lamp, we may
BOUNDARIES. [LANDMARKS.]                   conclude to have been of a goblet shape. The
BOW. [ARMS.] The bow is frequently men- M1t D, Sept. KvdIo, were sacrificial vessels, used




BOWYER                     383                 BOZRAH
chiefly for libations.  The Sit  (Sept. XeKdv,, the University of Edinburgh, but this situation
Vulg. concha), from its being formed from a root, also, at the bidding of conscience, he was obliged
signifying to lie low, and from its being used to to relinquish. He was appointed to Paisley, but
designate a dish on which butter was presented, the anxieties of a troubled time taking effect upon
was probably simply a deep plate or shallow   a weak constitution, he was seized with a complibason. The P:11 (Sept. Kparhp) was evidently a cation 6f diseases, and after seeking in vain relief
large vessel, either a goblet or flagon, which served  from medical skill in Edinburgh, he died in that
as a reservoir for oil to the lamp, or from which  city on January 5, I627.  The chief work for
wine was poured into smaller vessels for drinking. which he is celebrated as an author, is his Com[BASON.]-W. L. A.                             mentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians. It was
published in 1652 at the expense of the Stationers'
BOWYER, WILLIAM, a celebrated English       Society. The work narrowly escaped destruction;
printer, distinguished for his scholarship, was born for a copy of it, sent in manuscript to Dr. Ruet,
g9th December 1699, in Whitefriars, London. in order to be printed at Geneva, on the capture of
Having completed his education at Cambridge, he the ship in which it was sent, fell into the hands of
entered the printing establishment of his father, the Jesuits, who refused to give it up. The origiwhere, in superintending in particular the literary nal, however, still existed, and the book, in a dense
and critical department of the business, he was folio, issued from the London press in 1652. It is
enabled to take the fullest advantage of his ac- a specimen of laborious and valuable commentary.
curate and extensive scholarship in correcting  Besides an analysis of the passage, an exposition
for the press, emendating, etc., the various im- of the doctrine contained in it, and. practical obser.
portant and learned works which passed through vations, it gives special treatises, such for instance
his hands.  He at once won distinction for the as one on Predestination, discussing the more
Bowyer press, and greatly enhanced the value of prominent doctrines to which the epistle refers. It
many of the works which he published.    The is vangelical and instructive.  Principal Baillie
works in connection with which he is now best does not hesitate to rank it above the commenknown are the Origin of Printing, and his Critical taries of Calvin, Zanchius, Rollock, and Bayne,
Conjectures and Observations on the New Testa- on the same portion of Scripture.  It will be
ment, collected from various authors, as well in re- found that he follows to a great extent in the wake
gard to words as pointing, with the reason on which  of Zanchius. The work cannot be said to be very
both are founded. It is for the last of these works diffuse in style; but on the principle of crowding into
that he claims notice here. He prepared it at first it an expression of his views on every theological
in connection with an excellent edition of the Greek  topic that came up in the course of his exposition,
text, which he issued in 1763. The writers from  Boyd discusses at great length matters that had but
whom the collection is principally made, besides slender connection with his duties as an exegete.
Bowyer himself, are Bishop Barrington, Mr. Mark- In reference to his copiousness in the treatment of
land, Professor Schultz, Michaelis, Dr. Henry any subject, it was the witty remark of Du Plessis,
Owen, Dr. Woide, Dr. Gosset, and Mr. Weston.'necessarium ei esse jugerum terrae, in quo se comWhile the best that can be said of the conjectures mode verteret!'-W. H. G.
is, that they are often ingenious, the alterations in
pointing, not being altogether conjectural, may for  BOZEZ (Y. ) one of two sharp rocks (Heb.
the most part be safely relied on. The work re- tooth of a rock = sharp crag, comp. Fr. Aiguille),
ceived the highest commendations from the most between which Jonathan sought to pass into the
eminent Greek scholars, and was translated into garrison of the Philistines (I Sam. xiv. 4).  GeGerman by Dr. Schultz, professor of theology and senius gives shining as the meaning of the word;
Oriental languages at Leipzig. It was enlarged in  Fiirst, height.-W. L A.
1773; published in 1782 in 4to, but the fourth and
best edition appeared in 1812. Mr. Bowyer died  BOZKATH      or BOSCATH       (np:; Sept.
I8th November I777, in his 78th year. For fuller Baaco-&O; Al. MaXXdO, BaoovpcbO), a place in the
account see Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth  plain of Judah (Josh. xv. 39); the residence of
Century, comprising memoirs of William Bowyer, Adaiah, the father of Jedidah, the mother of king
printer, F.S.A., and many of his learned friends, Josiah (2 Kings xxii. i).-W. L. A.
by John Nichols, F.S.A., in 9 vols., 8vo.- 
W. J. C.                                        BOZRAH (mya,. An enclosure' or'fortficaBOX-TREE.     [TEASHUR]                     tion;' Sept. B6o/oAa, and Bor6p). There are two
cities of this name mentioned in the Bible.
BOYD, ROBERT, of Trochrig, was born in        I. A chief town of Edom, and one of its prinGlasgowin I578. He was educated in Edinburgh, cipal strongholds (Gen. xxxvi. 33; Is. Lxiii. I).
where he studied theology under Rollock.  He Though referred to in various parts of Scripture,
repaired to France for the prosecution of his no indication is given of its geographical position.
studies, and after having acted as pastor of the Eusebius merely tells us that it lay in the mounchurch at Verteuil, he received an appointment tains of Idumsea (Onomast. s. v. Bosor).
in I606 to a professorship in the University of  About twenty-five miles south by east of the Dead
Saumur.   He afterwards became professor of Sea, in the district of Jebal, the ancient Gebal, is
divinity in the same college, and the fame of his the village of Buseireh,'little Busrah.' It contains
ability and learning reaching his native country, he about fifty poor houses, clustered together on the
was offered by King James, and accepted, the princi- side of a hill. On the top of the hill is a strong
palship of the University of Glasgow. He resigned  fortress, to which the inhabitants, who are greatly
his office when he could not accede to the views oppressed by the Bedawin, retire when danger
of the government in favour of Episcopacy. He threatens (comp. Jer. xlix. 22). This appears to
afterwards became for a brief period principal of be the site of the Bozrah of Edom. It stands in




BOZRAH                    384                 BRAMBLE
the centre of that country, and occupies a strong  Busrah stands in the midst of a rich plain, on the
position among the mountains. This helps to illus- southern boundary of Hauran. It was one of the
trate that sublime passage in Isaiah (lxiii. I) where largest and most splendid cities east of the Jordan.
the Lord is represented as returning in triumph  Its walls are four miles in circuit, and they do not
from the destruction of His enemies in their very include the suburbs. On its southern side is the
stronghold.  To this day Buseirah is the centre of citadel or castle, of great size and strength, still
a pastoral region.  The people are all shepherds, nearly perfect, though evidently of very ancient
and their whole wealth consists in their flocks of origin. This stronghold, which has long been
sheep and goats.  The allusion of Micah is thus celebrated in Syria, may account for the name
very appropriate,'I will put them together as the Bozrah. Within the castle are the remains of a
sheep of Bozrah;' and the language of Isaiah de- beautiful theatre, and in the town are the ruins of
rives from this fact greater significance (Mic. ii. 12; many temples, churches, and mosques; testifying
Is. xxxiv. 6). See Burckhardt, Trav. in Syr. p. to its wealth and prosperity under Pagan, Chris407; Irby and Mangles, Travels, p. 443; Robinson, tian, and Mohammedan rule. Now the walls are
B. R. ii. 167.                                shattered, the sanctuaries roofless, the houses nearly
2. A city of Moab, mentioned only by Jeremiah, all prostrate, and the rich plain is desolate. The
and said to be in' the land of Mishor'-that is, in castle alone has defied time and neglect; and
the great plateau east of the Jordan valley, extend- within its dreary walls about half a dozen poor
ing to the desert of Arabia (Jer. xlviii. 24). Some families find an asylum from the wild Arabs of the
have held that this city is the same as the Bozrah  desert.
of Edom (Gesenius, Heb. Lex.; Robinson, B. R.   Bostra, so called by the Greeks and Romans,
ii. 167); but that it was a distinct city can be easily was a strong city in the time of the Maccabees
(I Maccab. v. 26, sq.) On the conquest of this
country by the Romans, Bostra was made the capital, and when Christianity was established in the
empire it became the metropolis of a large eccle"~~-':-$>i.:   siastical province (Geog. Sac. ed. Holst. 1704, p.
295). Under the Muslems it rapidly declined,
and now it is a dreary ruin. The words of Jeremiah are fulfilled-'Judgment has come upon
_-_-_i~........Bozrah.' (A full description of?SII-^B~dS~^^^^S ~~ftthe ruins, and a sketch of the history of Bozrah,
are given in Porter's Damascus, ii. 142, sq. See
*9 bi  HBI    II^^1~                      also Burckhardt's Trav. in Syr. p. 226, sq.)J. L. P.
BRACELET. This name, in strict propriety,
i& W^H Hi sis as applicable to circlets worn on the upper part
^^^Pl^^^^ ^  L'==-^^^^^ ^of the arm as to those worn on the wrist; but as it
^  E ^^.'a' "^ * ^ Bhas been found convenient to distinguish the former..~  -" -^ ^.as ARMLETS, the term bracelet must- be restricted
I50.'Bozrah.            to the latter. These are, and always have been,
150. Bozrah.mmuch in use among Eastern females.           Many of
proved. This Bozrah is in the Mishor, which isthem are of the same shape and patterns as the
the distinctive name of the level plateau of Moab  armlets, and are often of such considerable weight
-a name which never was, nor could be given to and bulk as to appear more like manacles than
any part of Edom (Deut. iii. IO; iv. 43; see Stanley, ornaments. Many are often wornone above another
S. and P. p. 484). Again, prophetic curses are on the same arm, so as to occupy the greater part
pronounced by Jeremiah upon both cities, and they f the space beteenthe wrstand the elbow. The
materials vary according to the condition pf the
cannot be applicable to the same place (comp. Jer.ma als    aording to the condition of the
xlviii. 21-24, 47; and xlix. 13).  Others affirm that wearer, but it seems to be the rule that bracelets of
Bozrah of Moab must have stood on the plateau the meanest materials are better than none. Among
east of the Dead Sea, and not far distant from the higher classes they are of mher-of-pearl, of
Heshbon.   For this there is no evidence. It is fine flexible gold, and of silver, the last being the
true some of the cities mentioned by Jeremiah were most common. The poorer women use plated
situated there; but then the passage indicates that steel, horn, brass, copper, beads, and other matethe -cities were scattered over a wide region-rials of a cheap descripton.  Some notion of the'Judgment is come.....         supon all ize and value of the bracelets used both now and
the cities of the land of Moab, far and near' in ancient times may be formed from the fact that
(xlviii. 24), and besides, when the towns of the those which were presented by Eliezer to Rebecca
Mishor near the Dead Sea are enumerated in weighed ten shekels (Gen. xxiv. 22). The braceother places, Bozrah is not included (Numb. xxxii. lets are sometimes flat, but more frequently round
37, 38; Josh. xiii. 15, sq.) Jeremiah puts three or semicircular, except at the point where they open
towns together-' Bethgamul, Kerioth, and Boz- to admit the hand, where they are flattened. They
rah;' and on the north-eastern section of the are frequently hollow, giving the show of bulk
Mishor we now find the ruins of three large cities, (which s much desired) without the inconvenience.
only a few miles distant from each other, whoseBracelets of gold twisted ropewise are those now
names at once indicate their identity-Um el-Jemal, most used in Western Asia; but we cannot deterKureiyeh, and Busrah.  A careful consideration  mine to what extent this fashion may have existed
of the preceding statements leaves little room for in ancient times.-J. K.
doubt that Busrah is the Bozrah of Moab.        BRAMBLE. [ATAD, CHOACH.]




BRANCH                    385           BRASS, SERPENT OF
BRANCH. As trees, in Scripture, denote great Mount Hor to compass the land of Edom, the
men and princes, so branches, boughs, sprouts, Israelites, disheartened by the fatigues and perils
or plants denote their offspring. In conformity of their journey, murmured against God and Moses;
with this way of speaking, Christ, in respect of his and as a punishment for this they were visited by
human nature, is styled a rod from the stem of fiery flying serpents, probably the d&eds, whose
Jesse, and a branch out of his roots (Is. xi. I), that bite occasions a burning pain, accompanied with a
is, a prince arising from the family of David. This fiery eruption, distressing thirst, swelling of the
symbol was also in use among the ancient poets body, ending in death (Nicander, Thernac. 334;
(Sophocles, Electra, 422; Homer, 1I. xxii. 87; Lucan, Phars. ix. 791; Solinus, xxvii. 32; Aelian.
Od. vi. I57; Pindar, Olymp. ii. 45 (80), etc. Hist. An. vi. 51). From the bite of these serpents'And so even in our English tongue (remarks many of the people died, and the rest, humbled and
Wemyss), the word imp, which isoriginally Saxon, alarmed by the visitation, having besought Moses
and denotes a plant, is used to the same purpose, to intercede for them, the Lord directed him to
especially by Fox the martyrologist, who calls make a serpent of brass, resembling doubtless those
King Edward the Sixth an imp of great hope; and by which the people had been bitten, and to elevate
by Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex, in his dying it on a pole (0D, a signal post, like a flagstaff with
speech, who has the same expression concerning us), so that it might be easily visible to all.'And
the same prince.'                            it came to pass that if a serpent had bitten any
A branch is the symbol of kings descended from  man, when he beheld the serpent of brass he lived'
royal ancestors, as branches from the root (Ezek. (Num. xxi. 4-9). This serpent the Israelites carried
xvii. 3, Io; Dan. xi. 7). In Ezek. xvii. 3, Jehoi- with them to Canaan; and it was preserved till the
achin is called the highest branch of the cedar, as time of King Hezekiah, who, finding that the
being a king. As only a vigorous tree can send people were regarding it with superstitious veneforth vigorous branches, a branch is used as a ration, caused it to be destroyed.  (2 Kings
general symbol of prosperity (Job viii. I6).  xviii. 4.)
From these explanations it is easy to see how a  The fact of the preservation of the brazen serpent
branch becomes the symbol of the Messiah (Is. till the time of Hezekiah, is, as Bunsen remarks, a
xi. I; iv. 2; Jer. xxiii. 5; Zech. iii. 8; vi. 12; sufficient guarantee not only for the historical truth
and elsewhere).                               of the narrative in Numbers, but also for the religiBranch is also used as the symbol of idolatrous ous significancy of the symbol; for had it been, as
worship (Ezek. viii. 17), probably in allusion to some have supposed, an image of Satan, it would
the general custom of carrying branches as a sign not have been suffered by David or Solomon to
of honour.                                    remain (Bibelwerk v. 217). The fact also that it
An abominable branch (Is. xiv. I9) means a is referred to by our Lord, as in some sense resemtree on which a malefactor has been hanged.   bling Him, not only vouches for the same things, but
BRASS. This word occurs in the Authorized   further imposes on us the duty of seeking in it a
Version. But  sis  a factios meta deeper significancy than that which the mere narraVersion.  But brass is a factitious metal, no  tive of Moses would lead us to attach to it. We may,
known to the early Hebrews, and wherever it oc- therefore, dismiss at once all the attempts of rationcurs, copper is to be understood [NECHOSHETH]. alists to resolve the facts of the Mosaic narrative
That copper is meant is shewn by the text,'Out into mere ordinary occurrences; such as that of
of whose hills thou mayest dig brass' (Deut. vmi. 9), Bauer, who finds in the cure of the Israelites by
it being of course impossible to dig a factitious looking at the brazen serpent only an instance of
metal, whether brass or bronze, out of mines. the curative power of the imagination (Hebr. Gesch.
That compound of copper and zinc, which formsii. 320), or that of Paulus, who thinks that the
our brass, does not appear to have been known to            being at some distance from the
brazen serpent being at some distance from the
the ancients; but we have every evidence that camp, and the sight of it moving the Israelite who
they knew and used bronze arms, implements of had been bitten to walk to it, the motion thereby
that metal having been found in great abundance produced tended to work off the effects of the
among ancient tombs and ruins.  This, instead poison and so tended to a cure (Comment iv.,
of pure copper, is probably sometimes, in the  98     or that of Hofmann, who ingeniouslyug
i98 ff.):; or that of Hofmann, who ingeniously suglater Scriptures, meant by the word nn;.      gests that the brazen serpent was the title of a rural
Brass (to retain the word) is in Scripture te hospitalhere medicine and doctors were to be
symbol of insensibility, baseness, and presumption  found by those who had faith to go for them.
or obstinacy in sin (Is. xlviii. 4; Jer. vi. 28; These, as Winer, from whom the above citations
Ezek. xxii. 18). Brass is also a symbol of strengthare taken, justly observes (R  W  B. in voc.) are
(Ps. cvii. I6.; Mic. iv. 13). So in Jer. i. i8 and are taken, justly observes (R. W B. in voc.) are
(Ps. Cvi. 16; Micv. 1V.I3). So in Jer. i. 18 and  simply ridiculous (ldcherlich).*  We may pass over
xv. 20, brazen walls signify a strong and lasting also the notion of Marsham, according to whom
adversary or opponent.                        the serpent of brass was an implement of magic or
The description of the Macedonian empire as incantation borrowed from the Egyptians, who he
a kingdom of brass (Dan. ii. 39) will be better saysimprimis,Aayely rvl hrzXy ob serpentum
understood when we recollect that the arms of says  rimTlg          i7rLXwpiL ob serpentum
understood when we recollect thato e  the arms ofincantationem celebrantur' (Canon Chron. p. 148);
ancient times were mostly of bronze; hence the for though this is not ridiculous, it is so purely grafigure forcibly indicates the warlike character of tuitous and so opposed to the narrative of Moses,
that kingdom. The mountains of brass, in Zech. 
vi. i, are understood by Vitringa to denote those  * It is sad to see a man like Bunsen falling back
firm and immutable decrees by which God governs on the old exploded rationalistic explanation of this
the world, and it is difficult to affix any other occurrence.'The fixing of the gaze on the image
meaning to the phrase (comp. Ps. xxxvi. 6).-  brought the mind to a state of repose, and so made
J. K                                          the bodily cure possible' (Bibelwerk, v. 217), as if
BRASS, SERPENT OF. On their journey from   this were all 1
VOL,..2 C




BRASS, SERPENT OF                386                 BREAD
as well as the religious principles and feelings which  BRAUN, JOHANN, Professor of Theology and
he sought to inculcate (comp. Lev. xix. 26), that it Oriental languages at Groningen, was born at Kaimust be at once rejected (see Deyling, Obss. Sac. serslautern in 1628, and died at Griningen in 1709.
II. 210 ff.) The traditionary belief of the ancient His works are Selecta Sacra, Libb. 5, Amst. I700,
Jews is that the brazen serpent was the symbol of 4to; De Vestitu Sacerdotunm Hebr., ibid. 1701, 2
salvation, and that healing came to the sufferer who vols. 4to; Commentarius in Ep. ad Hebrceos,
looked to it, as the result of his faith in God, who ibid. 1705, 4to. All these works display extensive
had appointed this method of cure. Thus the learning, especially in-the department of biblical
author of the Wisdom of Solomon says (xvi. 6, 7), archaeology and Jewish literature. The work on
that it was o~AfpoXov ~awrrpias, and adds, that'he the Dress of the Hebrew priests may be regarded
*that turned himself towards it was not saved by the as a commentary on Exod. xxviii. and xxix. His
thing that he saw, but by Thee that art the Saviour commentary on the Hebrews is chiefly valuable for
of all (&a& a  bvTra 7rdvrcY awTjpa).' So also the Tar- its archaeological illustrations; it is in its theology
gumist Jonathan B. Uziel adds, as conditioning the vigorously anti-Socinian and anti-Remonstrant.-t
cure, that'the heart was intent on the name of
the word of Jehovah (W^   "1ntsD D16$);' and   BREAD. The word'bread' was of far more
the Jerusalem Targum expresses the same by saying extensive meaning among the Hebrews than with
that their faces were to be intent on their father us. There are passages in which it appears to be
who is in heaven (NDFti:1:18:). The Arab. applied to all kinds of victuals (Luke xi. 3); but
V. also makes penitence a condition of the cure. it more generally denotes all kinds of baked
This view is substantially correct; it fully accords farinaceous articles of food. It is also used, howwith the spirit of the Mosaic religion, and it alone ever, in the more limited sense of bread made from
enables us to receive the Mosaic narrative in its wheat or barley, for rye is little cultivated in the
integrity by preserving the providential character East. Barley being used chiefly by the poor, and
of the cure. Without this all attempts to retain for feeding horses [SEORIM], bread, in the more
the historical character of the narrative are futile. limited sense, chiefly denotes the various kinds of
It is vain to remind us that the serpent has been in cake-like bread prepared from wheaten flour.
many nations the symbol of life and healing; this  Corn is ground daily in the East [MILL]. After
is true, but granting that this was familiar to the the wheaten flour is taken from the hand-mill, it
Hebrews, it will not account for the fact that they is made into a dough or paste in a small wooden
actually were healed by looking at the serpent. This trough.  It is next leavened; after which it is
can be accepted as historical only by admitting the made into thin cakes or flaps, round or oval, and
agency of God in the matter; and this is plainly then baked.
what the narrator means to intimate. As Knobel  The kneading-troughs, in which the dough is preremarks,'the author has no thought of a magic pared, have no resemblance to ours in size or
operation of the image, but he has God's help in shape. As one person does not bake bread for
view, who willed to connect this result with the many families, as in our towns, and as one family
looking' (Kurzgef. Exeget. Hdb., 13th lief. p. I ). does not bake bread sufficient for many days, as in
But is this the whole of what the brazen serpent our villages, but every family bakes for the day
was designed to effect? Was it not also a designed only the quantity of bread which it requires, only
type, a symbolical adumbration of Christ, the great a comparatively small quantity of dough is predeliverer and Saviour? That it was, is the conclusion pared. This is done in small wooden bowls; and
to which many have come; moved thereto partly by that those of the ancient Hebrews were of the
our Lord's words before referred to, partly by the same description as those now in use appears from
numerous analogies which may be traced between their being able to carry them, together with the
the transaction narrated by Moses and the salvation dough, wrapped up in their cloaks, upon their
from the penal consequences of sin obtained by shoulders, without difficulty. The Bedouin Arabs,
those who look in faith to Christ (Deyling, Obs. indeed, use for this purpose a leather which can
Sac. II. p. 2xoff.; Witsius, Oeconom. Faed. Bk. iv., be drawn up into a bag by a running cord along
ch. 10, sec. 66-70; Vitringa, Obss. Sac., Bk. ii, the border, and in which they prepare and often
ch. II; etc.) But our Lord's words do not neces- carry their dough.  This might equally, and in
sarily intimate more than the existence of a re- some respects better answer the described consemblance of some sort between his being lifted ditions; but, being especially adapted to the use
up on the cross, and the lifting up of the serpent by of a nomade and tent-dwelling people, it is more
Moses on the pole; and the mere fact that analogies likely that the Israelites, who were not such at the
may be traced between some person or thing or time of the Exode, then used the wooden bowls
act belonging to the ancient dispensation, and some- for their'kneading-troughs' (Exod. viii. 3; xii.
thing belonging to the Person or Work of Christ, 34; Deut. xxviii. 5, 7).  It is clear, from the
has been adjudged by the best writers on Typology history of the departure from Egypt, that the flour
to afford no adequate ground for holding the former had first been made into a dough by water only,
to be a type of the latter (Marsh on Interpretation, in which state it had been kept some little time
Lect. vi.).In the absence, therefore, of the requi- before it was leavened; for when the Israelites
site evidence of the brazen serpent having had any were unexpectedly (as to the moment) compelled
typical significancy, it seems best to content our- in all haste to withdraw, it was found that, although
selves with assigning to it a mere symbolical mean- the dough had been prepared in the kneadinging as a sign of deliverance or healing. Our Lord, trough, it was still unleavened (Exod. xii. 34; comp.
recognising this as its meaning, employs it as illus- Hos. vii. 4); and it was in commemoration of this
trative of that higher deliverance which was to be circumstance that they and their descendants in all
effected through his being raised upon the cross ages were enjoined to eat only unleavened bread at
(Ad. Clarke, Commentary, in loc.; Chevallier on the feast of the Passover.
the Historical Types, Iect. xi.)-W. L. A.      The dough thus prepared is not always baked al




BREAD                    387                 BREAD
home. In towns there are public ovens and bakers the distinction implied in its being prepared for
by trade; and although the general rule in large the table of the Egyptian king. That the name of
and respectable families is to bake the bread at the oven should pass to the bread baked in it, is not
home, much bread is bought of the bakers by unusual in the East, just as the modem tadsheen
unsettled individuals and poor persons; and many (pan) gives its name (say pan-cake) to the cake
small households send their dough to be baked at baked by it. Hezel's conjecture that the oven in
the public oven, the baker receiving for his trouble question is called a hole,'In in Hebrew, and that
a portion of the baked bread, which he adds to his the bread baked by it is called therefrom holebrad,
day's stock of bread for sale. Such public ovens is corroborated by, if not founded upon, a passage
and bakers by trade must have existed anciently in cited by Buxtorf in his Lex. Talmud:' Faciunt
Palestine, and in the East generally, as is evident In11 foramen, vel cavitatem in terra, et calefaciunt
from Hos. vii. 4 and Jer. xxxvii. 21. The latter ear igni coquuntque in ea panem, qui vocatur ninn,
text mentions the bakers' street (or rather bakers' a iWn cavitate illa in qua coctus est.'
place or market), and this would suggest that, as is  There is a baking utensil called in Arabic tajen
the case at present, the bakers, as well as other
trades, had a particular part of the bazaar or (. L ) which is the same word (rycdvov) by
market entirely appropriated to their business,
instead of being dispersed in different parts of the which the Septuagint renders the Hebrew  t11nn
towns where they lived.                      machabath, in Lev. ii. 5. This leaves little doubt
For their larger operations the bakers have ovens that the ancient Hebrews had this tajen. It is a
of brick, not altogether unlike our own; and in sort of pan of earthenware or iron (usually the
large houses there are similar ovens. The ovens latter), flat, or slightly convex, which is put over a
used in domestic baking are, however, usually of a slow fire, and on which the thin flaps of dough
portable description, and are large vessels of stone, are laid and baked with considerable expedition,
earthenware, or copper, inside of which, when although only one cake can be baked in this way at
properly heated, small loaves and cakes are baked, a time. This is not a household mode of preparing
and on the outer surface of which thin flaps of bread, but is one of the simple and primitive probread, or else a large wafer-like biscuit may be cesses employed by the wandering and semiprepared.                                    wandering tribes, shepherds, husbandmen, and
Another mode of baking bread is much used, others, who have occasion to prepare a small
especially in the villages.  A pit is sunk in the quantity of daily bread in an easy off-hand manner.
middle of the floor of the principal room, about Bread is also baked in a manner which, although
four or five feet deep by three in diameter, well apparently very different, is but a modification of
lined with compost or cement. When sufficientlythe principle of the taen, and  used chiefly in the
heated by a fire kindled at the bottom, the bread is houses of the peasantry. There is a cavity in the
made by the thin pancake-like flaps of dough being, fire-earth in which, when required for baking, a
by a peculiar knack of hand in the women, stuck is
against the oven, to which they adhere for a few  plate of iron, or sometimes copper, is placed over
moments, till they are sufficiently dressed. As this the hole, and on this the bread is baked.
oven requires considerable fuel, it is seldom used  Another mode of baking is in use chiefly among
the pastoral tribes, and by travellers in th e open
except in those parts where that article is some- the pastoral tribes, and by trellers in the open
what abundant, and where the winter cold is country, but is not unknown in the villages. A
severe enough to render the warmth of the oven smooth clar so is chosen in the loose ground, a
desirable, not only for baking bread, but for warm- sandy soil-so common in the Eastern deserts and
ing the apartment.                           harder lands —being preferred. On this a fire is
ba kte npar d;kindled, and when the ground is sufficiently heated
Another sort of oven, or rather modef bin, the embers and ashes are raked aside, and the dough
is much in use among the pastoral tribes.  A  is laid on the heated spot, and then covered over
shallow hole, about six inches deep by three or with the glowig em rsand ashes which had just
four feet in diameter, is made in the ground: beenremoved. The bread is several times turned,
this s filled up with dry brushwood, upon which, and in less than half an hour is sufficiently baked.
when kindled, pebbles are thrown to concentrate Bread thus baked is called in Scripture InlI'uggah
and retain the heat.  Meanwhile the dough is   e    i. 6sbieis   xi 1i   Ezek. iv.  ), and
(Gen. xviii. 6o; o  Kings xvii x3; Ezek. iv. I2), and
prepared; and when the oven is sufficiently heated, the indication, I Kings xix. 6, is very clear nx
the ashes and pebbles are removed, and the spot nt'uggath rezafim (coal-cakes), i.e.,cakes baked
well cleaned out. The dough is then deposited under the coals.  The Septuagint expresses this
in the hollow, and is left there over night. The word'uggath very fairly by Kcpvbias, panis subcakes thus baked are about two fingers thick, cinericius(Gen. xviii 6; Exod. xiil 39). Accordand are very palatable. There can be little doubt ing t, Bosbequius (I. p. 36), the name of.f.ul... me to Bosbes uius           (in. o. 36rg the name  of
that this kindof oven and mode of baking bread Huath, which he interprets ash-cakest or ashwere common among the Jews.    Hence, Hezel    t.,
werye ommon among the Jews. Hnce, Hezel- bread, was in his time still applied in Bulgaria to
very ingeniously, f not truly, conjectures (Re- cakes prepared in this fashion; and as soon as a
Lexicon, art.' Brod) comes the a ln e Di of Gen. stranger arrived in the villages, the women baked
xl. I6, which he renders, or rather paraphrases, such bread in all haste, in order to sell it to him.' baskets full of bread baked in holes,' not' white This conveys an interesting illustration of Gen. xviii.
baskets,' as in the Authorized Version, nor'baskets 6, where Sarah, on the arrival of three strangers,
full of holes,' as in our margin; nor' white bread,' was required to bake' quickly' such ash-breadas in most of the continental versions, seeing that though not for sale, but for the hospitable entertainall bread is white in the East. As the process is ment of the unknown travellers. The bread thus
slower and the bread more savoury than any other, prepared is good and palatable, although the outer
this kind of bread might certainly be entitled to rind, or crust, is apt to smell and taste of the smoke




BREAD                     388               BREITINGER
and ashes. The necessity of turning those cakes baked upon the hearth-stone, or plate covering the
gives a satisfactory explanation of Hos. vii. 8, fire-pit which has already been mentioned. This
where Ephraim is compared to a cake not turned, also was to be mixed with oil (Lev. ii. 7).
i. e., only baked on one side, while the other is raw  As these various kinds of baked breads. were
and adhesive.                                  allowed as offerings, there is no question that they
The second chapter of Leviticus gives a sort were the best modes of preparing bread known to
of list of the different kinds of bread and cakes in the Hebrews in the time of Moses; and as all the
use among the ancient Israelites.  This is done  ingredients were such as Palestine abundantly proincidentally for the purpose of distinguishing the  duced, they were'such offerings as even the poorest
kinds which were and which were not suitable for might without much difficulty procure.
offerings.  Of such as were fit for offerings we  Besides these there are two other modes of prefind-                                          paring bread indicated in the Scriptures, which
I. Bread baked in ovens (Lev. ii. 4); but this is cannot with equal certainty be identified by reference
limited to two sorts, which appear to be, Ist., the to moder usages.
bread baked inside the vessels of stone, metal or  One of these is the njlp) nikuddim of I Kings
earthenware, as already mentioned. In this case xiv. 3, translated  cracknels' in the Authorized
the oven is half filled with small smooth pebbles, Version, an almost obsolete word denoting a kind
upon which, when heated and the fuel withdrawn, of crisp cake. The original would seem by its
the dough is laid. Bread prepared in this mode is etymology (from'lp1, speckled, spotted), to denote
necessarily full of indentations or holes, from the something spotted or sprinkled over, etc. Buxtorf
pebbles on which it is baked; 2d, the bread pre- (Lex. Chald. et Talm.) writes under this word:
pared by dropping with the hollow of the hand a'Orbiculi parvi panis instar dimidii ovi, Teramoth,
thin layer of the almost liquid dough upon the out- c. 5;' and in another place (Epit. rad. Hebr. p.
side of the same oven, and which, being baked dry  554),'Et bucellata, I Reg. xiv. 3, quae biscocta
the moment it touches the heated surface, forms a vulgo vocant, sic dicta, quod in frusta exigua
thin wafer-like bread or biscuit. The first of these rotunda, quasi puncta conficerentur, aut quod
Moses appears to distinguish by the characteristic singulari forma interpunctarentur.'  It is indeed
epithet of, perforaedorfu  of  s ad te not improbable that they may have been a sort of
epithet of ythrf, perforador full of holes; and the biscuit or small and hard baked cakes, calculated
other by           the name of  thin cakes, being, to keep (for a journey or some other purpose),
if correctly identified, by much the thinnest of by reason of their excessive hardness (or perhaps
any bread used in the East. A cake of the former being twice baked, as the word biscuit implies).
was offered as the first of the dough (Lev. viii. 26),Not only are such hard cakes or biscuits still used
and is mentioned in 2 Sam. vi 19, with the in the East, but they are, like all biscuits, punctured
addition of'bread,'-perforated bread (n  nSln). to render them more hard, and sometimes also they
Both sorts, when used for offerings, were to be un- are sprinkled with seeds; either of which circumleavened (perhaps to secure their being prepared  stances sufficiently meets the conditions suggested
for the special purpose); and the first sort, namely, by the etymology of the Hebrew word.  The
that which appears to have been baked inside the existence of such biscuits is further implied in Josh.
oven, was to be mixed up with oil, while the other ix. 5, I2, where the Gibeonites describe their bread
(that baked outside the oven), which from its thin- as having become as hard as biscuit (not'mouldy,'
ness could not possibly be thus treated, was to be as in the Authorized Version), by reason of the
only smeared with oil. The fresh olive oil, which  length of their journey.
was to be used for this purpose, imparts to the  The other was a kind of fancy bread, the making
bread something of the flavour of butter, which last of which appears to have been a rare accomplishis usually of very indifferent quality in Eastern  ment, since Tamar was required to prepare it for
countries.                                     Amnon in his pretended illness (2 Sam. xiii. 6).
II. Bread baked in a pan-Ist, That which, as As the name only indicates that it was some
before described, is baked in, or rather on, the favourite kind of cake, of which there may have
tajen. This also as an offering was to be unleavened  been different sorts, no conjecture with reference to
and mixed with oil. 2d, This, according to Lev. it can be offered. See Hezel, Real-Lexicon, art.
ii. 6, could be broken into pieces, and oil poured'Brod;' B.urckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins; and
over it, forming a distinct kind of bread and offer- the various travellers in Palestine, etc., particularly
ing. And in fact the thin biscuits baked on the Shaw, Niebuhr, Monconys, Russell, Lane (Modern
tajen, as well as the other kinds of bread, thus Egyptians), Perkins, Olin, etc., compared with the
broken up and re-made into a kind of dough, form  present writer's personal observations. —J. K
a kind of food or pastry in which the Orientals take
much delight, and which makes a standing dish    BREAD OF THE PRESENCE. [SHEW BREAD.]
among the pastoral tribes. The ash-cake answer-BREASTPLATE, a piece of defensive armour.
ing to the Hebrew'uggah is the most frequently [ARMS; ARMOUR.]
employed for this purpose. When it is baked, it is
broken up into crumbs, and re-kneaded with water,  BREASTPLATE     OF THE HIGH-PRIEST, a
to which is added, in the course of the operation, splendid ornament covering the breast of the highbutter, oil, vinegar, or honey.  Having thus again  priest.  It was composed of richly embroidered
reduced it to a tough dough, the mass is broken  cloth, in which were set, in four rows, twelve preinto pieces, which are baked in smaller cakes and  cious stones, on each of which was engraven the
eaten as a dainty. The preparation for the Mosaical name of one of the twelve tribes of Israel (Exod.
offering was more simple; but it serves to indicate xxviii. 15-29; xxxix. 8-21). [PRIESTS, DRESS OF.]
the existence of such preparations among the     BREECHES. [PRIESTS, DRESS OF.
ancient Israelites.
III. Bread baked uipon the hearth-that is to say,  BREITINGER, JOH. JAK., professor of Hebrew




BRENTANO                    389                   BRICK
and Greek at Zirich, was born there 1st March  V. T. maxime scrzpt. apocryph. spicilegium, Lips.
1701, and died I5th December 1776.     He is I805; and his Liber Jesu Sirac. Gr. adfidem codd.
known to biblical students as the editor of a cor- el verss. emend. et perpetua annot. illustr., Regensrected reprint of Grabe's edition of the LXX. from  burg, I806. In 1820 he published Probabilia de
the Alexandrian codex, with the various readings of Evang. et Epp. Joannis indole et origine; in which
the Vatican codex appended at the foot of the page, he endeavours to raise doubts as to the genuineness
Tiguri, 1730-32, 4 vols. 4to. This edition is com- of these writings. This excited considerable sensamended for the beauty of its typography, and in tion, and called forth a number of replies, which
critical value it occupies a high place. Michaelis fully established the position he had sought to overpronounces it the best edition of the LXX. pub- turn, as he himself admits in the preface to the
lished up to his time. Breitinger promised a fifth secondedition of his Handbuch derDogmatik, where
volume, with critical dissertations, and various read- he says that he threw out doubts as to their genuineings from- MSS. at Basle, Zurich, and Augsburg, ness only for the sake of having the evidence of
but this never appeared. He published a mono- this more thoroughly established than it had been.
gram De antiquissimo Turicensis Biblioth. Graeco It is not easy to define his position in relation to
Psalmorum libro in membrana purpurea tit..aur. ac the different schools of theology among which his
litt. arg. exarato, etc. Turici, 1748. —      countrymen are distributed, as he sided wholly with
no party. His orthodoxy, however, was of so cold
BRENTANO, DOMINIC VON, D.D., a Roman        and formal a type, and he admitted so many sceptiCatholic divine, who died in I797. He commenced  cal positions in relation to the sacred books, that
a translation of the O. T. into German, with notes, he must be ranked as inclining rather to the
of which he completed the first 12 vols. These Rationalist than to theEvangelical party. -W. L. A.
were published after his death, with the title Die
Heilige SchrJften des A. 7. Frankf.-a-M., 797-   BRETT, THOMAS, LL.D., was born at Bettis1832. The work has been completed by Dereser hanger, Kent, in 667, and educated at Cambridge,
and Scholz, the latter of whom has superintended  being admitted to Queen's College in I684, and to
a new edition of the earlier volumes. Dr. Pye Corpus Christi in 1689. He was chosen lecturer
Smith often refers to this translation in his Scrip  in i 69; and appointed rector, first of Bettishanger,
ture Testimony to the Messiah.  The notes ofin 703, and afterwards of Ructing, in 1705. I
Dereser are especially valuable.-t             I715 he resigned his livings, and entered into communion with the non-jurors, in connection with
BRENZ (BRENrTIUS), JOHANN, was born at whom he died in 1743. His writings, chiefly conWeil 24th June i499, and died Inth September troversial, are very numerous. He is noticed here
1570, at Stuttgart.  A disciple of Luther, yet with- as the author of A Dissertation o7 the Ancient
out implicitly adopting all his opinions, Brenz  Versions of the Bible; shewing why our English
was an actor in most of the religious movements translation difers so much from them, andthe excelwhich characterized his age and country. He ren- lent use that may be made of them towards attaining
dered important service in the organization of the the true reading of the Holy Scriptures in doubtful
ecclesiastical and educational establishments of places. This work, published from the author's
Wirtemberg.   At the time of his death he was MS. after his death in 1760, was a greatly enlarged
Provost of Stuttgart. Of all the Lutheran divines edition of what he originally published under the
of his day, he was the best Hebrew scholar, and title of A Letter Showing, etc., 8vo. I743. The
he devoted much attention and labour to the ex- Dissertation has been republished by Bishop Watposition of the 0. T. His theological works fill 8 son in his Collection of Theological Tracts, vol. 3..vols. fol. (Tub. I576-90); of which the first four In a brief notice prefixed, he recommends it as
contain his Commentaries on the Pentateuch and'an excellent dissertation, which cannot fail of
the other historical books, with the exception of being very useful to such as have not leisure or
Chronicles, on Psalms, Job, Ecclesiastes, Isaiah, opportunity to consult Dr. Hody's book, De BibJeremiah, Hosea, Amos, Jonah, and Micah. These liorum Textibus. —W. J. C.
commentaries are chiefly dogmatic, but they con-   I      [The bricks mentioned in the Bible
ttin also very much that is valuable exegetically  are of t   sorts. B. rick formed of a whitish
chalky clay, compacted with straw and dried in
BRETHREN OFOUR LORD. [JESUSCHRIST.] the sun (,., from p               t to be white.  Sept.
BRETSCHNEIDER, KARL GOTTLIEB, was 7rXlv0o.]           It is this sort which is chiefly menborn at Gersdorf, I Ith Feb. I776. Having finished  tioned in the Scriptures; and the making of such
his preparatory studies he became a privat-docent, formed the chief labour of the Israelites when
first at Leipsic, and after that at Wittenberg, where bondsmen in Egypt (Exod. i. 13, I4). This last
he read lectures in the university on logic and meta- fact constitutes the principal subject of Scriptural
physics, and on the proof passages in the 0. T. interest connected with bricks; and leads us to
In 18o6 he became pastor at Schneeberg, where regard with peculiar interest the mural paintings
he continued only two years, leaving it to become of that country, which have lately been brought
superintendent in Annaberg; in I816 he was ap- to light, in which scenes of brick-making are
pointed general superintendent at Gotha, which  depicted.
situation he retained till his death. He died 22dJan.  (The use of crude brick, baked in the sun, was
1848.  Bretschneider's literary activity was very universal in Upper and Lower Egypt, both for
great, and his published works belong to almost public and private buildings; and the brick-field
every department of sacred science. To the biblical gave abundant occupation to numerous labourers
scholar he is chiefly known by his Lexicon Manuale throughout the country. These simple materials
Gr. Lat. in N. T7, 2 vols. 8vo, Lips. 1824, sec. ed. were found to be particularly suited to the climate,
I829, 3d 1840, I vol.; his Lexici in interpp. Gr. and the ease, rapidity, and cheapnesswithwhich they




BRICK                    390                  BRICK
were made, afforded additional recommendations. ing the very same labours as the Israelites described
Inclosures of gardens or granaries, sacred circuits in the Bible; and no one can look at the paintings
encompassing the courts of temples, walls of forti- of Thebes, representing brick-makers, without a
fications and towns, dwelling-houses and tombs, feeling of the highest interest.... It is scarcely
in short, all but the temples themselves were of fair to argue that, because the Jews made bricks,
and the persons here introduced are so engaged,
they must necessarily be Jews; since the Egyptians and their captives are constantly required to
IF  ~~ \_711 r^/'^   ^  ^.    perform the same task; and the great quantity
made at all times may be justly inferred from
the number of buildings which still remain, con-.t. j.:\   structed of these materials: but it is worthy of'"i/ 7\~  A Ff     remark that more bricks bearing the name of,/2  M/A  I Thothmes III. (who is supposed to have been the
king at the time of the Exode) have been discovered
than at any other period, owing to the many prisoners of Asiatic nations employed by him, independent of his Hebrew captives.
The process of manufacture indicated by the re151. Egyptian Brickmaking.        presentations in cut I51, does not materially differ
from that which is still followed in the same councrude brick; and so great was the demand, that try. The clay was brought in baskets from the
the Egyptian government, observing the profit Nile, thrown into a heap, thoroughly saturated
which would accrue from a monopoly of them, with water, and worked up to a proper temper by
undertook to supply the public at a moderate price, the feet of the labourers. And here it is observable
thus preventing all unauthorized persons from  that the watering and tempering of the clay is perengaging in the manufacture. And in order the formed entirely by the light-coloured labourers,
more effectually to obtain this end, the seal of the who are the captives, the Egyptians being always
king, or of some privileged person, was stamped painted red. This labour in such a climate must
upon the bricks at the time they were made. This have been very fatiguing and unwholesome, and it
fact, though not positively mentioned by any consequently appears to have been shunned by the
ancient author, is inferred from finding bricks so native Egyptians. There is an allusion to the
marked both in public and private buildings; some severity of this labour in Nahum iii. 14, 15. The
having the ovals of a king, and some the name and clay, when tempered, was cut by an instrument
titles of a priest, or other influential person: and somewhat resembling the agricultural hoe, and
it is probable that those which bear no characters moulded in an oblong trough; the bricks were then
belonged to individuals who had obtained a licence dried in the sun, and some, from their colour, appear
or permission from the government, to fabricate to have been baked or burned, but no trace of this
them for their own consumption. The employ- operation has yet been discovered in the monument of numerous captives who worked as slaves, ments (Dr. W. C. Taylor's Bible Illustrated, p. 82).
enabled the government to sell the bricks at a The writer just cited makes the following pertinent
lower price than those who had recourse solely to remarks on the order of the king that the Israelites
free labour; so that, without the necessity of a pro- should collect the straw with which to compact (not
hibition, they speedily became an exclusive manu- burn) their bricks:'It is evident that Pharaoh did
facture; and we find that, independent of native not require a physical impossibility, because the
labourers, a great many foreigners were constantly  Egyptian reapers only cut away the tops of the
engaged in the brick-fields at Thebes and other corn [AGRICULTURE].  We must remember that
parts of Egypt. The Jews, of course, were not the tyrannical Pharaoh issued his orders prohibiting
excluded from this drudgery; and, like the cap. the supply of straw about two months before the
tives detained in the Thebaid, they were con- time of harvest. If, therefore, the straw had not
demned to the same labour in Lower Egypt. been usually left standing in the fields, he would
They erected granaries, treasure-cities, and other have shewn himself an idiot as well as a tyrant;
public buildings, for the Egyptian monarch: the but the narrative shews us that the Israelites found
materials used in their construction were the work the stems of the last year's harvest standing in the
of their hands; and the constant employment of fields; for by the word'stubble' (Exod. v. 12) the
brick-makers may be accounted for by the exten, historian clearly means the stalks that remained
sive supply required and kept by the government from the last year's harvest. Still the demand that
for sale' (Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, ii. pp. they should complete their tale of bricks was one
97, 98).                                      that could scarcely be fulfilled; and the conduct of
Captive foreigners being thus found engaged in  Pharaoh on this occasion is a perfect specimen of
brick-making, some have jumped to the conclusion  Oriental despotism.' [Bricks of this sort were used
that these captive foreigners were Jews, and that principally for building purposes, but being of a flat
the scenes represented were those of their actual shape, they were also used for receiving inscriptions,
operations in Egypt. Sir J. G. Wilkinson satisfac- which were engraved on them (Ezek. iv. I, where
torily disposes of this inference by the following the A. V. has tile).
remark:'To meet with Hebrews in the sculptures  [2. The bricks used in the building of the Tower
cannot reasonably be expected, since the remains of Babel were burnt bricks, which were cemented
in that part of Egypt where they lived have not by bitumen (Gen. xi. 3). These were, doubtless,
been preserved; but it is curious to discover other the same as those of which Babylon was built, and
foreign captives occupied in the same manner, and which were made of the clay dug out of the trench,
overlooked by similar f task-masters,' and perform  and burnt i. kilns (Hetod I. I79)  Of such bricks




BRIDE, BRIDEGROOM                391                  BRIDGE
abundant specimens still remain in the ruins of called the Beni Yakoub. The bridge is a very
Nineveh and Babylon. They were sometimes solid structure, well built, with a high curve in the
covered with a thick enamel or glaze, on which middle like all the Syrian bridges; and is composed
figures in different colours were traced; of those of three arches, in the usual style of these fabrics.
which were used for ornament many specimens Close by it, on the east, is a khan much frequented
have also been found (Layard, Nin. and Bab. 507, by travellers, built upon the remains of a fortress
etc.) Some seem also to have been coloured in which was erected by the Crusaders to command
the clay, without glaze. These bricks were flat the passage of the Jordan. A few soldiers are now
and slightly oblong.]                         stationed here to collect a toll upon all the laden
BRIDE, BRIDEGROOM. [MARRIAGE.]              beasts which cross the bridge.
BRIDGE. It is somewhat remarkable that the
word bridge does not occur in all Scripture, although
there were without doubt bridges over the rivers of  \, 
Palestine, especially in the country beyond the     \            / 
Jordan, in which the principal perennial streams.      \ -/ -                "
are found. There is mention of a military bridge                 i 
(2 Maccab. xii. I3) which Judas Maccabneus in-                 /,'/      4          /,
tended to make, in order to facilitate his operations 
against the town of Caspis, had he not been pre-       \ \ 
vented. There are traces of ancient bridges across                    /
the Jordan, above and below the lake of Gennesa-    \                         I 
reth, and also over the Arnon and other rivers
which enter the Jordan from the east; and some. /                t\ 
of the winter torrents which traverse the westernmost plain (the plain of the coast) are crossed by 
bridges. But the oldest of these appear to be of      r- 
Roman origin, and some of more recent date. It. b5                             I
would be useless, in a subject so little biblical, to
trace the contrivances which were probably resorted  P                  l        i\ 
to in the ruder and more remote ages. Such con-;r i                  c
trivances, before the stone bridge is attained, are  -'             n'ti l_
progressively the same in most countries, or varied
only by local circumstances. The bridges which                                     -
existed in the later ages of Scriptural history are' I 
probably not very different from those which we
still find in and near Palestine; and under this         - 
view the following representations of existing bridges  -.
are introduced.                                            s53. Bridge at El Sak.:-;'-'  -                      t --—. -..../.. o  No. 153 is a bridge or arch thrown over a.....o. -c- TY f..........-  > N ravine at El Sak, the antiquity of which is evinced
i~ "-, 0T  ~-'rT' -  ~ by the sculptured cliffs with which it is connected.
152. Jacob's Bridge.., 
The principal existing bridge in Palestine is that   l 
shewn in cut 152. It crosses the upper Jordan 
about two miles below the lake IHoule. The riverJ 
here flows rapidly through a narrow bed i and here     / \\/ 
from the most remote ages has lain the high road
to Damascus from all parts of Palestine; which              -
renders it likely that a bridge existed at this place                    v,-     \
in very ancient times, although, of course, not the                 3,.
one which is now standing. The bridge is called 
Jacob's Bridge (yissr Yakoub), from a tradition that;
it marks the spot where the patriarch Jacob crossed
the river on his return from Padan-Aram. But it
is also sometimes called Jissr Beni Yakoub; the          154. Bridge of St. Anthony.
Bridge of Jacob's Sons, which may suggest that
the name is rather derived from some Arab tribe  8oitiewhat similar to this is the bridge next




BRIERS                     592                   BROWN
represented (No. 154), which is in many respects a  Kidron, Sorek, etc.; and also the brook of the
curious and remarkable structure.  It leads to a  willows, mentioned in Is. xv. 7; 2. to winterconvent (of St. Anthony) among the mountains; torrents, arising from rains, and which are soon
which explains the Christian symbols that have   dried up in the warm season (Job vi. 15, 19).
been placed upon it.                             Such is the noted river (brook) of Egypt, so often
No. 155 is an ancient bridge, at Tchavdere, in  mentioned as at the southernmost border of PalesAsia Minor. It is introduced as a fair specimen of tine (Num. xxxiv. 5; Josh. xv. 4, 47), and, in fact,
such are most of the brooks and streams of Palestine, which are numerous in winter and early spring,...-. -,.....?-,..... but of which very few survive the beginning of the
-                ----     —'~    -* -].' -
X""          jj=;=1". AL ~ )- 1    summer. [3. The word 5nJ is also employed fre7. L _quently to denote the valley through which a brook
flows; comp. Gen. xxvi. 17; Num. xiii. 23, 24,
etc. (A. V. brook, marg. valley), xxxii. 9; Deut. i.
v. 5?'~ ~. ~-.   c,,^  \      B.i- w 24; Judg. xvi. 4; etc.]
—,_t___.\. -,      r       -',     BROTHER (nr; New Test,'A&X06s). This
d_____'        /,, T.  term is so variously and extensively applied in
X,..  _ a..',ri -J  A,'-. Scripture, that it becomes important carefully to..: — -'.;..;   distinguish the different acceptations in which it is
1;5. Bridge at Tchavdere.          used.
I. It denotes a brother in the natural sense,
many ancient bridges of one arch, by which winter whether the offspring of the same father only (Matt.
torrents and small streams are crossed in Syria and  i. 2; Luke iii. I, 19), or of the same father and
Asia Minor.                                      mother (Luke vi. 14, etc.)  2. A near relative or
Bridges, such as the following (No. 156), also  kinsman by blood, cousin (Gen. xiii. 8; xiv. I6;
entirely unfenced, frequently occur.             Matt. xii. 46; John vii. 3; Acts i. I4; Gal. i.
I9). 3. One who is connected with another by
t~\~~ ~~any tie of intimacy or fellowship: hence, 4. One
born in the same country, descended from the same
u.".~-...iy    -    "'  stock, a fellow-countryman (Matt. v. 47; Acts iii.
___..'  22; Heb. vii. 5; Exod. ii. II; iv. I8).  5. One
~....."' __l::  =of the same sort or character (Job xxx. 29; Prov.
xviii. 9; Matt. xxiii. 8). 6. Disciples, followers,.'"-^\-^^^^^  ^:      ^ ~/            etc. (Matt. xxv. 40; Heb. ii. I, 2).  7. One of
the same faith (Amos i. 9; Acts ix. 30; xi. 29;.\fJv@\-M%/ -'/V                  that the first converts to the faith of Jesus were;,~~~r x\^^-//^a^ ^known to each other by the title of Brethren, till
~(  < >+-\"^^lA;.^ /        tthe name of Christians was given to them     at
-''^C^ 4' _Antioch (Acts xi. 26).       8. An associate, colleague
I56 Unfencd Bridge.              in office or dignity, etc. (Ezra iii. 2; I Cor. i. I; 2
x6. Unfenced BdgCor. i. I; etc.)-g. One of the same nature, a
No. 157 is a Persian bridge *but it is here in- fellow-man (Gen. ix. 5; xix. 7; Matt. v. 22, 23,
No. 157 is a Persian bridge; but it is here in.        5;
troduced as a very fair specimen of the general 24; v       Heb. ii. 17; vii II)    Io. One beloved, i. e., as a brother, in a direct address (2 Sam.
i. 26; Acts vi. 3; I Thess. v. I).-J. K.
rl.    _,M; *BROUGHTON, HUGH, an eminent Hebrew
/   i                         sord_- c< ^ f  and rabbinical scholar, was born in 1549 at Old-!- %,'~,:>ii - udis'^  - A\ *     bury in Shropshire, and died near London in I612.
-/x.1 t^ ":',}).",  i[,^   "'- -          His life was spent amidst difficulties and vexations:\ I_ - 72J-^/  "^ _ ^      occasioned chiefly by his own inordinate vanity and
{ 4~'\<w-.7..,? This quarrelsomeness; but his great scholarship pro1 )A t'i - - -  LHcured for him the friendship of some of the most
\:;' s ~r, <" ——.....learned men of his day, both at home and abroad.
_/}   ~ )i 0\''v"~^ - cAmong the rest was Dr. Lightfoot, who edited
Broughton's writings after his death, under the
157. Persian Bridge.             title,'The works of the Great Albonian Divine,
renowned in many nations for rare skill in Salem's
character of the bridges which are met with in all and Athens' tongues, and familiar acquaintance
parts of Western Asia.                           with all rabbinical learning, Mr. Hugh Broughton, fol.' 662.' Some of these writings are in
BRIERS.     [BARQANIM; CHEDEK]; SARAB; Hebrew, and they all indicate familiarity with JewSHAMIR; SILLON; SIRPAD.                          ish learning.  The language is, however,'curt,
BROOK     (rln; Sept. xetLuaPos); the original harsh, and obscure,' as his editor admits, and his
works, it must be confessed, are now, as Orme
word thus translated might better be rendered           or  an obet of c      t tn of 
by torrent.  It is applied, I. to small streams says, more an object of curiosity than of respect.'
by torrent.  It is applied, I. to small streams(Bib. Bib.)-t.
arising from a subterraneous spring, and flowing
through a deep valley, such as the Arnon, Jabboc,  BROWN, JOHN.      In regard to this expositor of




BROWN                     393                  BROWN
Scripture, no vestige of information can be dis- Dispensation, 1781; The Harmony of Scriture
covered either as to his parentage or place of birth. Prophecies, and History of their Fulfilment, I784.
The first allusion to him appears in certain letters The chief value of these works now lies in their
of Samuel Rutherford, dated I637.   When he popular character. The Bible Dictionary is very
came to be settled as minister of the parish of much an abridgment of Calmet; and the SelfWamphray, in Annandale, he justified, by his ex- Interpreting Bible interprets chiefly by copious maremplary diligence and devotedness, the high expec- ginal references, as the notes are almost wholly
tations which Rutherford had formed of his future practical and reflective.-+
usefulness in the Church. After the Restoration,
he became obnoxious to the dominant party, and   BROWN, JOHN, D.D., born at Burnhead, in
was thrown into prison in Edinburgh, where he the parish of Whitburn and county of Linlithgow,
was denied even the necessaries of life. On the in 1784, was the grandson of John Brown of
23d December 1662, he was liberated on the con- Haddington, through his eldest son of the same
dition that he would go at once into exile. He name, many years minister of the Burgher Secession
retired to Holland, where he became minister of the  Church in Whitburn. He received his education at
Scotch church at Rotterdam.  In 1676, at the the University of Edinburgh; after which he studied
instigation of Archbishop Sharp, the English Go- divinity under Dr. Lawson of Selkirk. He was
vernment insisted on the expulsion of Mr. Brown, settled in 80o6 at Biggar, Lanarkshire, where he
together with some other exiles from  the pro- laid the foundation of his theological eminence, by
vinces, but the Dutch States honourably refused  profound and accurate exegetical studies, which
compliance with this demand.   He assisted at were then much neglected. In 1822 he was transthe ordination of the celebrated Richard Came- lated to Edinburgh, and was appointed professor of
ron. His death seems to have taken place about exegetical theology to the United Secession Church
the close of 1679.  To judge from  his works, in I834. His expository works had been slowly
and from  the testimonies borne to his charac- matured during forty years, and repeatedly in subter by competent authorities-such as the learned  stance delivered from the pulpit and the theologiLeydecker, Spanheim, and the historian Wodrow  cal chair. They display a very wide range of her-he must have been a man of singular piety-    meneutical reading, combined with strong native
an earnest and faithful preacher, sound and evan- sagacity and independent judgment, and a clear
gelical in his views, and remarkable for his acute- and vigorous style. Some of them are more pracness and discrimination.  His works, if collected, tical, others more didactic and argumentative, but
would fill nearly ten octavo volumes. They are all bear the stamp of solid and thorough investimostly of a polemical and dogmatical character, gation. The most original.and important are an
some bearing his name, while others are anony- Exposition of the Epistle to the Galatians, pubmous.   His chief expository work is on the lished in 1853, and an Analytical Exposition of
Epistle to the Romans. It is constructed on the the Epistle to the Romans, which appeared in 1857.
principle of giving first a brief view of the con- The first of these works contains the learned apnection and scope of the text. A series df ob- paratus necessary to scientific interpretation; the
servations follows, deduced from the passage when second is merely an outline of the course of
so expounded. The commentary is still of some thought,-Dr. Brown having found it impossible
value. It is rather diffuse in language, and sup- to satisfy his own idea of what was demanded by
plies no help in the elucidation of critical difficul- a fully equipped commentary on that great epistle,
ties. But giving in a short compass the scope of and having, in consequence, sacrificed most of his
the passage, and judicious inferences from it, this preparations. These two works take rank with
commentary of Brown will be found in some re- the highest in recent expository literature, English
spects more useful, especially for the devotional or Continental; and for the union of grammatical,
studies of Scripture, than many productions of logical, and practical commentary stand almost
greater length and more elaborate character.-W. alone. A somewhat lower place is occupied by
H. G.                                         his Exposition of the Discourses and Sayings of
our Lord, published in I850, which is especially
BROWN, JOHN, Minister of the Gospel at valuable for its analysis of the valedictory disHaddington, and for many years professor of divi- course; and which was followed, in i85o, by his
nity to the Associate Burgher Synod, was born at Exposition of our Lord's Intercessory Prayer. Of
Carpow, Perthshire, in I722, and died x9th June the same order is his Resurrection of Life, an ex1787. Though to a great extent self-educated, and  position of I Corinthians xv., issued in I85I. More
that in the face of great difficulties, he proved him- practical and hortatory, though constructed on the
self a scholar among scholars.  As a minister same rigid principle of exegetical analysis, are his
and professor of divinity he stands high among Expository Discourses on First Peter, and on Second
the worthies of the religious body to which he Peter, chapter Z., the former of which, given to the
belonged; and, as an author, his works have corn- world in 1848, first disclosed the rich stores of his
manded wide circulation, and continue to the pre- biblical knowledge. A volume entitled Suffenrngs
sent day to be in constant demand and good and Glories of the Messiah, consisting of exposireputation. They are numerous, and embrace seve- tions of the text of Psalm xviii. and Isaiah liii., conral departments of religious knowledge. His works tains his views of Messianic prediction, and of the
on the Bible are, A Dictionary of the Bible, 2 vols. double sense of prophecy.  In preparing these
8vo, 1769; The Self-Interpreting Bible, 2 vols. 4to, works, Dr. Brown consulted every available autho1778; A brief. Concordance to the Holy Scriptures, rity; and his learning, especially in Scottish, Eng.
I783; Sacred Typology; or a brief view of the lish, and Latin commentary, was in some departfigures and explication of the metaphors contained in  ments almost exhaustive.  His exposition of the
Scripture, 1768; An Evangelical and Practical Galatians contains a list of not less than one hunview of the Types and Figures of the Old Testament dred and fourteen critical and hermeneutical treatises




BRUCCOLI                    391                  BUCER
employed in his preparations. His rigorous method  ties not to be surmounted, 4to. The passages chosen
as an exegete, coupled with his distinction as a as the subject of his observations in this volume, are
preacher, his energy as a church leader, and his those containing the particulars of the history of
sanctity as a man, gave a great impulse to exposi- Balaam; the foxes and firebrands, Judges xv. 4, 5;
tory studies, not only in his own denomination, but the passage in Joshua x. 5-40, concerning the sun's
in other churches, and re-acted upon the style of standing still; and last, the particulars of the histhe pulpit, so as to lay the ground-work both of tory of Jonah.' On all these topics, the author's
preaching and lecturing in a clearer understanding profound acquaintance with the idolatries and myof the Word of God. Besides preparing a com- thology of the heathen, have supplied him with
mentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews, left almost many curious and important illustrations. If he has
ready for the press, he issued at various times not removed all the difficulties, he has at least
other more fugitive publications.  He died at shewn that they may be considerably reduced.'
Arthur Lodge, Edinburgh, in I858, leaving behind  (Orme, Biblioth. Bib.) In I794 appeared his Obhim the reputation of being in his own department servations upon the Plagues inflicted upon the Egypthe greatest biblical expositor in Scotland.-J. C.  tians, in which is shewn the peculiarity of those
udgments, and their correspondence with the Rites
BRUCCIOLI, ANTONIO, an Italian scholar, and Idolatries of that people; to which is prefixed, a
who flourished in the first half of the I6th century. prefatory discourse concerning the Grecian colonies
He was a native of Florence, and having been from Egypt, 8vo. Last edition 8vo, I8Io. The
brought into hostile relations with the Medicean
brought into hostile relations with the Medticean  title is sufficiently descriptive of the design and confamily, and becoming suspected of inclining to the tents of this work, in which, more than in any
opinions of the reformers, he was exposed to much  other of his writings, the author has employed to
harassing persecution, which ended in his being advantage his great learning and uncommon power
banished from  his native country.  Retiring to  and ingenuity of research. His excessive partiality,
Venice with his brothers, who were printers, he however, for etymological research, has in not a few
devoted himself to literary work, chiefly to trans-instances carried him too far. At the same time,
lations from  the Greek and Latin.  He began his honest and uniform good intention is manifest
his labours with the Sacred Scriptures, of whichthroughout; and the light which he has thrown on
he issued the N. T. in I530. This edition was several of the singular, and in some respects obscure
full of mistakes, which were corrected by the subjects of which it treats, is of great and permaauthor when he issued his Biblia tradotta in   nent value. Bryant's only other work of importlingua toscana, fol, Ven.  532.  This was re- ance, and in some respects his greatest work, though
printed in 1538, and again in I539.    It ap- only indirectly bearing on the literature of the
peared again, with extensive notes, Ven. 1542, 47  Bible, is entitled,'A New System, oran Analysis
3 vols. fol., and again without the notes in 1545.of Ancient Mythoogy, werein an attempt is made
This translation professes to be' de la Hebraica to divest tradition offabe, and to reduce the truth to
verita, e da Greco,' and this seems to be true, its originalpurity.  3 vols. 4to, Lond. 1774-776,
though Simon says Bruccioli was a poor Hebraist,and in 6 vols., 8vo, Lond. I807.  The amount of
and that his version of the 0. T. is from the Latin  curious and learned discussion which this work contranslation of Sanctes Pagnini, whose rude and bar- tains relating to the history and religions of all the
barous style he has imitated (Hist. crt. V. 7., lib. ancient nations, is truly'immense.' It has been
II., c. 22). It was placed in the Index of pro- truly characterised as a work of uncommon learnhibited books among works of the first class (eing, aboundingwith great originality of conception,
L~ong Bib. Sac.; Schelhorn, Ergcotzlichkeiten 1.  much perspicuous elucidation, and the most happy
355; Negri, Istor. degl Scritt. Fiorentin, p. 561). explanations on topics of the highest importance.'
-W. L. A.                                     The first vol. of the third and last edition is preBRYANT, JACOB, A.M., an English gentle- faced with an interesting account of the author's
man who devoted himself to letters. He was born life and writings.-W. J. C.
at Plymouth 1715, educated at Eton and at King's  BUBASTIS. [PIBESETH.]
College, Cambridge, and died in 1804. His first
published writings, bearing, however, only indi-  BUCER, properly BUTZER, MARTIN, was
rectly on the literature of the Bible, are Vindi- born at Schlettstadt in Alsace in I491. Having
ciae Flaviana, a tract of eighty-three pages, con- embraced the opinions of the reformers, he was,
taining an able vindication of the testimony given  after various turns of fortune, appointed, in 1524,
by Josephus concerning our Saviour. Lond. I77.7. pastor of one of the churches of Strasburg. This
The sentiments of Philo- udeus concerning the office he retained till 1549, when he was deposed
AOrOz, or Word of God; together with large ex- in consequence of his refusal to accept the Augstracts from his writings, compared with the Scrp- burg Interim. In compliance with the invitation
tures, on many other particularand essential doc- of Cranmer, he passed over into England, where
trines of the Christian religion, 8vo. Camb., 1797. he remained, labouring to further the cause of the
His principal Biblical works are, A Treatise upon  Reformation, till his death, which took place 28th
the Authenticity of the Scriptures, and the Truth of Feb. 1551. His pen was much occupied in conthe Christian Religion, 1792. The last edition, troversy, and in theological discussion; but, like
which was in 8vo, appeared in I8io.   In this all the first reformers, he laboured to elucidate the
work Bryant has not only given a useful and ori- meaning of Scripture by means of commentaries.
ginal view of the evidences of Christianity, but has Besides translating into Latin Luther's discourses
also, as the candid student will find, satisfactorily  on the Epistles of Peter, and into German Bugenobviated most of the chief difficulties of the subject. hagen's Commentary on the Psalms, he wrote EnIn 1803 appeared, Observations upon some pas- narrationes Perpet. in Sacra IV. Evangg., 2 vols.
sages in Scripture which theEnemies of Religion have fol., Argent. 1527, 1528, 1530, Bas. 1536, I vol.
thought most obnoxious, and attended with diffic- fol., Gen. 1553; Tzephaniah quem Sophoniam




BUCHER                    395                 BUNSEN
vulgo vocant, ad Ebraicam veritatem versus et cor- from him Adnotationes in Epp. ad Gal., Ephes.,
ment. explanatus, Argent. 1528; Psamnorumn libri Phili., Coloss., Thess., Tim., Tit., Philem., el
quinque adheb. ver. versi et elucidati, Argent. I529, Hebrewos, 8vo, Argent. 1524, Bas. 1527.  A
I532, Bas. I547, Oliva R. Stephani, I554; Meta- work also professing to be his was published in
phrasis et ennarratio in Ep. ad Romanos, published  I531, under the title' lo. Pomerani, in D. Pauli ad
first at Strasburg in I536, as vol. i. of a work on Rom. Ep. Interpretatio doctissima multisque locis
all Paul's Epistles; separately at Basle, 1562, fol.; locupletata,' but this is his only in so far as it was
Prcelectiones in Ep. adEphesios, habitac Cantabrigie, taken down from his prelections, and was revised
etc., Bas. I562, fol. Bucer sometimes calls himself by him. In the prefatory note he complains of his
Felinus on the title-page of his books.-W. L. A.  lectures on Job having been given to the public in
R, S. F., ws bn at R      - the same way, but without his consent. These
dor, i  ER SeAM. i6FRI, an was borndd  at Rengersnotes are very brief, but they contain often feliciZdorf, i6thSepte 692, and died oth May 1765, attous explanations of the meaning of the Apostle,
Zittau, where he was rector of the Gymnasium. and are always clear and to the point. —W. L. A.
His works are Antiquitates de velatis Heb. et Grac.  
fcsminis, Wittenb., I717; GrammaticaH eb., 1722;  BUKKI ('3p, i. e.,'.=np'j, mouth of God.
Thesaurus Orientis, Frank. 1725; Antiquitates. T.....o 
Biblicce ex N. T. selectee, Witten. 1729.  This lastI. Son of Abshua (ept. BOKK; Alex. BKa), the
work is'a collection of notes-some of which are fifth from Aaron in the line of the high priests
sufficiently prolix-on the four [first three] gos-through Phinehas (I Chron. vi. 5, 51 [Heb. v. 31;
pels, elucidating them principally from rabbinical v. 36]; Ezr. vi. 4). In I. Esdras viii. 2, he is
sources.'-(Horne.)  Bucher wrote also treatises called Boccas (BOKK&), for which, in 2 Esdras i. 2
De Synedio AMagno, De velato Heb. gynaceo, and  there is substituted Borith. Whether he ever filled
De Unctione in Bethania, which are inserted in the office of high priest is uncertain, as Josephus,
Ugolini's Thesaurus, tom. 25, 29, 30.-t       our only authority in the matter, gives two directly
-0, "  - -conflicting statements on this point (Antiq. v. I.
BUGATI, GAETANO, D.D., Professor at the 5 viii. i, 3)
College, and Director of the Ambrosian Library at  2. (Sept. BaKXlp, Alex. BOKKl), son of Jogli,
Milan, was born in that city, 24th Aug. 1745; and of the tribe of Dan, one of the princes appointed to
died 20th April 816. He devoted himself to the divide the land of Canaan among the tribes of
examination of the rich collection of MSS. which  Israel (Num. xxxiv. 22).
that library contains. He published Daniel, sec.  3. (Heb. lip: (full form); Sept. BovKIas;
edit. LXX. Interpp. ex tetraplis desumptam. Ex. Alex. BOKKcas), a Levite of the sons of Heman, the
cod. Syro-Estrangelo Biblioth. Ambros. Syinace leader of the sixth band of singers in the temple
edidit, Latine vertit, pref. notisque crit. illustravit, (i Chron. xxv. 4, I5).-W. L. A.
4to, Mediol. 1788. This work exhibits the text of 
Daniel from a MS. preserved in the Ambrosian BULL BULLOCK. [BAQAR; EGHEL; PAR;
library, and which contains the prophetical and SHOR]
poetical books in Syriac, translated from the hexa-  BULLINGER, HEINRICH, was born at Bremplar text of the LXX. In the prolegomena the garten in Switzerland, I8th July I504, and died at
editor gives an account of the MS., and of the ver- Ziirich, where he was pastor, I7th Sept. 1575.
sion, the latter of which he attributes to Paul, Having been gained over decisively to the reformed
Bishop of Tela in the beginning of the 7th century. opinions by the teaching of Zwingli, he attached
Bugati edited also the text of the Psalms from the himself to the doctrines and party of that reformer,
same MS. in 1820.    The critical value of this but with a leaning to more moderate and catholic
translation for the hexaplar text is very consider- views. On the death of Zwingli, Bullinger succeeded
able. [SYRIAC VERSIONS. —W. L. A.             him at Zurich, and had no small share in settling
often c d P - the constitution and order of the Tigurine church.
BUGENHAGEN, JOHANN, often called PoE- He had a leading share in the composition of the
RANUS, from the name of his native district, was Helvetic Confession; and was the chief medium of
born at Wollen, 24th June 1485, and died at Wit- the intercourse which subsisted between the Church
tenberg, 2Ist Mar. I558, He studied at Greifs-of Zurich and the English reformers. His works
wald, and became rector of the school of Treptow  consexpositorydiscourses and comWhilst there he became acquainted with the writ-iptur
ings of Luther, and soon after he joined the ranks menrias  expositus i. 70T  nci  of tee Treo
ofgsettled at Wittenberg  eremias extositus in I70concionibus. Acc. Threnoof the reformers. Having settled at Wittenberg um explicat    Tigur. 1575; and a series of comas pastor and professor of theology there, he be- m taries on the books of the N. T., published at
came one of the most zealous and able of Luther's metriesn the books of the N. T.,  His DeHe gave Ziirich between 1540 and I549, in folio. His Decoadjutors in the work of Reformation. He     cas were early translated into English (new ed.,
valuable aid especially in organizing the educa- Cam. 1,  vl   8; and      is writings
tional machinery of the Protestant Church in Ger- were held in high repue in tis country. His exmany, and such was the sense entertained of the were held in high repute  this country. His exmvalue of hi suervic s that he was offeerted oy Chr- positions of Scripture are marked by simplicity and
value of his services that he was offered by Chris- clearness, and are distinguished by their direct practiern II. of Denmark the rich bishopric of Schles- ticalcharacter.-W. L. A.
wig, which he declined. He aided Luther also in
his translation of the Bible, and he gave a version  BULRUSH. [AGMON; GOME.]
of that work in Low German, for the benefit of
those by whom that dialect was used. He wrote   BUNSEN, CHRISTIAN CARL JOSIAS, BARON
an Explicatio Psalmorum, of which Luther speaks VON, was born 25th Aug. 1791, at Korbach. He
in the strongest terms of commendation, declar- was educated at Marburg and Gottingen, where he
ing,'esse hunc Pomeranum primum in orbe qui devoted his attention chiefly to biblical and linPsalterii interpres dici mereatur.' We have also guistic studies. He spent some time also in Berlin




BURDER                    396           BURIAL AND TOMBS
at the feet of Niebuhr, and at Paris under the tui- out. The additional matter, which is considerable,
tion of Silvestre de Sacy. In I818 he was ap- will be found to have been gathered from the difpointed secretary to the Prussian embassy at Rome; ferent works of voyages and travels which appeared
in 1827 he became resident minister there; in 1839 subsequently to Harmer's publication. Burder has
he was sent as Prussian ambassador to Bern; also published, Oriental Literature applied to the
shortly after he was sent on a special mission to Illustration of the Sacred Writings,. especially with
England, having reference to the proposed bishopric reference to Antiguities, Traditions, and Manners,
of Jerusalem; and almost immediately after he was collectedfrom the most celebrated Writers and Traappointed Prussian ambassador to the Court of St. vellers, both Ancient and Modern, Lond. I822, 2
James's. Having resigned this post in 1854, he vols. 8vo. This work, as the title indicates, is also
was ennobled, and retired from the diplomatic ser- a compilation, and as such has at least the merit of
vice to devote himself to the chosen studies of his being faithfully executed. In most other respects,
earlier days. Among other things he set himself to the work is similar to that noted above. Another
accomplish what he had adopted as his proper life- work published by Burder, entitled, Oriental Cuswork, a translation of the Bible into German, ac- toms applied to the Illustration of the Sacred Scripcompanied with notes and dissertations, the design tures, sm. 8vo, I831, consists of a selection of the
of which should be to convey to the community more popular articles contained in the two works
the best aids which moder criticism and scholar- above described, viz., Oriental Customs and Orienship afford for the just understanding of the sacred tal Literature. But Burder's most important work
volume. This work, which he intended to occupy is The Scripture Expositor, a new commentary, cri8 volumes large 8vo, he began to publish in I858, tical and practical, on the Holy Bible, in which
and he had issued 7 parts before his death. These dfiicult passages are explained, etc., 2 vols., 4to.
contain the Prolegomena, the translation of the en- This work is only slightly critical; the author's
tire Old Testament, and the Bibel-Urkunden, or confessed and principal aim having rather been to
History of the Books, and restoration of the primi- illustrate the Bible by the application of Eastern
tive Bible texts, as far as Kings. As a preparation  customs and literature in general  He has in this
for this work he issued his Gott in der Geschichte, way, and with very considerable success, made the
3 vols., Leipz. I857-58, in which he develops his fullest use of the volumes described above. Some
philosophy of history, and aims at a Theodicee. It regard has also been had to the doctrinal and devois not fair, perhaps, to offer any decided criticism  tional uses of Scripture, but this only in a limited
on a work which is constructed on a strict and  degree. The ground-work ofthe'Expositor'is the
comprehensive plan, but which the author did not commentary of Dr. William Dodd. To the seleclive to finish; nor is it easy to apprehend aright tions which have'been made from it, Burder has
Bunsen's position in relation to the Bible. That added much original matter, with collections also
he was a sincere, devout, and earnest believer in from writers of eminence in every department of
Christ no one can doubt, and in this respect he sacred literature.-W. J. C.
stands clearly distinct from the rationalist school; BURGESS, THOMAS, D.D, Bishop of Salisyet in his treatment of the supernatural facts of the bury was born  8th Nov. 1756, at  diham in
Bible, he does not scruple to follow in the wake of Hampshire, and died Igth Feb. 1837. He was a
the narrowest and most carping rationaism.  He prelate not more distinguished for his scholarship
borrowed much of his philosophy from Spinoza than for the fidelity, piety, and gentleness with
and Hegel, and yet it would not be true to call him  which he discharged the functions of his high
a Pantheist, for he distinguished clearly between  office. His exertions to diffuse a taste for Hebrew
the immanence of God in the world as an all per- learning, and his own Biblical labours, demand
vading power, and that doctrine which denies the fohi a place here. He published the following
self-existing and independent being of the God- works in this department:-Remarks o the Scriphead. We fear, after all the thought and labour he tural accont ofthe dimension: s of Solomons teple,
spent on the Bible, his Bibel-werk is destined rather  79;  Iniia Paulina, sive Introdutio adLetionem
to remain as a monument of his good intentions, Pali Epitolrum, which contains the Ep. to the
than to be accepted as affording any great help to  hilippians in Gr. and Eng., with notes from
the better understanding of God's Word. The Kiittner, Theophylact's Procemia Epistolarum, his
translation is sometimes felicitous, but not always Interpretation of the Ep. to the Phil., and
correct; the notes are brief, and only occasionally  Rosenmiillers Scholia on that epistle, with Kitt.
furnish fresh instruction; and the Commentary ner's Observata de idiomatibus N. T. prefixed, and
is so full of doubtful and dangerous speculationexcerpts from Stephen's and Gataker's dissertathat it is more likely to bewilder than to guide-  tions de. stylo. T. appended; A Hebrew Primer,
W. L A.                                       1807; Hebrew Elements, 1807, 4th edit. I823;
BUR, S E,.., le of Care H      MotRives to the Study of Hebrew, I8IO; Selecta Loca
BURDER, SAMUEL, D.D., late of Clare Hall, P      etaeum ad Messiam pertinent., Heb. et Gr.,
Cambridge, and lecturer of Christ's Church, New- Pr   H   ebrew Etymology, p813; The Greek orginalr
gate Street, claims notice here for the follo            wingy,1813; TheGreekorznal
gate Street, claims notice here for the following of the N. T. asserted, in answer to Palsoromaica,
works bearing on the illustration of the  ibe   23   Bishop Burgess was also a most determined
Oriental Customs; or an Illustration of the Sacred defendet of the authenticity of I John v. 7, on
Scriptures, by an explanatory application of the Cus- which he issued several pamphlets.-t
toms and Manners of the Eastern Nations, Lond.,
2 vols. 8vo. A new and greatly improved edition  BURIAL AND TOMBS. The information in
was published in i839. This work is by no means the Bible respecting the rites of burial and places
an original contribution to the subject on which it of sepulture of the Hebrews is scanty but curious.
treats; but is chiefly a compilation from the work  In considering it we shall not attempt to systemaof the laborious and accurate Harmer.  Much, tize into a single account the various indications of
however, that is valuable in Harmer has been left the practices of 200oo  years, for the compactness




BURIAL AND TOMBS                397          BURIAL AND TOMBS
thus gained might sacrifice accuracy, as we do not I natural affection can be traced, and, although the
yet know that there were not great changes.  patriarch came from a land, where, probably among
Of the patriarchal burial-rites and tombs little is the so-called Scythic population, there was an extrasaid in Scripture. The subject first occurs where ordinary veneration for tombs, we should err in
Sarah's death is related. We read,'And Sarah appreciation of his grand and simple character if we
died in Kirjatharba; the same [is] Hebron in the thought that anything influenced him but faith in
land of Canaan: and Abraham came to mourn for God's promise and love for the dead. Respecting
Sarah, and to weep for her. And Abraham stood the form of the cave of Machpelah, there can be no
up from before his dead, and spake unto the sons doubt that it was a cave: the rendering'vault' has,
of Heth, saying, I. [am] a stranger and a sojourner however, been here suggested for the term ily.
with you: give me a possession of a burying-place Elsewhere in the Bible it undoubtedly means a
with you, that I may bury my dead out of my sight.''cave.' * We cannot conjecture whether it was nattiThe children of Heth replied, offering Abraham the ral or artificial. The LXX. and Vulg. more clearly
choicest of their sepulchres. Then Abraham an- define its form by translating Machpelah, reading
swered,' If it be your mind that I should bury my 7b ir^X\aLov rb 8rXovv, and spelunca duplex, but
dead out of my sight, hear me, and intreat for me the meaning of that word is doubtful. The Mosque
to Ephron the son of Zohar, that he may give me of Hebron, which, like that of Jerusalem, shares
the cave of Machpelah, which he hath, which [is] with those of Mekkeh and El-Medeeneh the disin the end of his field; for full money shall he give tinctive appellation of Haram, though the latter
it me for a possession of a burying-place amongst two are especially the two Harams, encloses a
you.' Then follows the truly Arab speech of cave which has not been doubted to be that of
Ephron the Hittite, who first gives Abraham the Machpelah, and it seems almost certain that it
field and the cave that was in it, but when the is the veritable cave. No European traveller has,
patriarch offers him money, sets the value at four however, been able to examine it. The masonry of
hundred shekels of silver, adding,' what [is] that the exterior of the mosque is partly ancient, resembetwixt me and thee? bury therefore thy dead.' bling the bevelled stone-work below the so-called
Accordingly, Abraham is related to have weighed Mosque of Omar, which is probably of Julian's
to Ephron'four hundred shekels of silver, current time. Of Abraham's burial nothing is told us but
with the merchant.' It is added that the property, that' his sons Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the
which is specified with unusual minuteness, was cave ofMachpelah' (Gen. xxv. 9). Ishmael's death
made sure to Abraham, and that he buried Sarah is as briefly related, and the passage rendered in
there (Gen. xxiii.)                         the A. V.,' he died in the presence of all his
Thus the first commercial matter recorded in the brethren,' should rather be translated,' he enBible is the purchase of a burying-place. The camped,' etc., and certainly does not admit of the
minute and particular manner in which the cir- former meaning.. He does not seem to have been
cumstances are narrated is noteworthy, and those buried in the caveofMachpelah. Thefirst indication
who hold that the book of Genesis consists of various of customs connected with burial, is where we read
early inspired documents collected by Moses, may that Esau, deprived of Isaac's blessing, said,' The
suppose that this detailed account is a kind of legal days of mourning for my father are at hand; then
record of the purchase, an opinion which the con- will I slay my brother Jacob' (xxvii. 41). The
eluding passage, specifying the contents of the next burial recorded is that of Deborah, Rebekah's
field, and twice stating the ownership of Abraham, nurse, who was buried beneath Bethel, under an
seems to confirm.                           oak, thence called Allon-bachuth,' the oak of
The object of the purchase was to secure a per- weeping' (xxxv. 8). Soon after, Rachel died near
manent right, and the cost at which this was done Ephrath, and was buried, like Deborah, where she
shews that Abraham attached to it great import- died, though the cave of Machpelah was not far.
ance. Whatever was the conduct of Ephron, his' And Jacob set a pillar upon her grave: that [is]
compact seems to have been faithfully kept, cer- the pillar of Rachel's grave unto this day' (ver.
tainly was so kept for near 200 years. To secure I6-20). The plain inference from the passage seems
this burial-right may have been commanded, as a to be that the grave was dug in the earth, and a
sign that Canaan was given to Abraham, who never pillar or similar monument set up to mark its place.
had any other portion of its land. Remarkably The building now pointed out as Rachel's Tomb
enough, Jacob's' parcel of a field,' the only other does not fulfil these conditions, but it is possible
piece of the Canaanite territory held by Abraham's that it covers her grave. Of the burial of Isaac, we
descendants before the conquest, became the bury- are told that,' his sons Esau and Jacob buried
ing-place of Joseph. We have no hint of the burial- him' (ver. 29). This was at Hebron, where he
rites; we only know that Abraham arose from  evidently had died (ver. 27); for Jacob said, when
mourning by his dead, and desired to bury her out charging his sons to bury him in the cave of Machof his sight. But in buying not alone a sepulchre, pelah,' There they buried Abraham and Sarah
but the land where it was, he shewed his faith in his wife; there they buried Isaac and Rebekah his
the Divine promise; how he not only believed that wife; and there I buried Leah' (xlix. 31). It is
he had chosen a burying-place in his own land, remarkable that the less-loved wife should have
but how wholly he had left behind the land and been buried where Sarah and Rebekah lay, while
the sepulchres of his fathers. And this was no Rachel, to whose death Jacob dying had recurred
small proof; for we see in the after-history how this (xlviii. 7), was entombed in a solitary grave. Thus
first tomb was the gathering-place of the offspring far we have the customs of the patriarchal times,
of Abraham at each great burial there. Abraham, and in them we see nothing but the simplest and
in choosing it, and making so careful a provision most natural usages, a desire to secure a permathat it should be respected, must have been also
influenced by that strong affection that is seen in, "
the whole relation. But nothing besides faith and  In Arabic, a cave bears the same name, j.




BURIAL AND TOMBS                398          BURIAL AND TOMBS
nent place of burial, in one case protected by a Josh. xxiv. 32; I Chron. v. I; John iv. 5). It
pillar, and only, as far as we can judge, ordinary seems that the burying-place was the rallying-point
lamentation.                                of the patriarchal family. Long after the patriarIn Egypt we read of different customs, yet cus- chal age, Hebron was the chief town of Judah.
toms mainly necessitated by peculiar circumstances. There David was anointed king. So, too, at SheWhen Jacob's death drew near he charged his sons chem Joshua ruled, and when the house of Joseph
to entomb him in the burying-place of his fathers. set up a king in the time of the Judges, Shechem
We read that' he called his son Joseph, and said was the chosen capital.
unto him, If now I have found grace in thy sight,  Three burials are recorded or referred to in the
put, I pray thee, thy hand under my thigh, and narrative of the sojourn in the wilderness. Of
deal kindly and truly with me; bury me not, I Miriam it is related that she died at Kadesh, and
pray thee, in Egypt: but I will lie with my fathers, was buried there (Num. xx. I). Aaron died on
and thou shalt carry me out of Egypt, and bury me Mount Hor, and was mourned for by all Israel
in their burying-place. And he said, I will do as thirty days (Num. xx. 28, 29): nothing is said of
thou hast said. And he said, Swear unto me. his actual burial, but his traditional tomb, outAnd he sware unto him' (Gen. xlvii. 29-31). After- wardly, at least, moder, is shewn on the summit
wards, if the order of the narrative be chronologi- of the mountain supposed to be Mount Hor. Of
cal, he made the same charge to his sons generally, the death of Moses, we read:'So Moses, the sercommanding them to bury him with his fathers, vant of the Lord, died there in the land of Moab,
mentioning, in a passage already quoted, who were according to the word of the Lord. And he buried
buried there, and specifying the purchase (Gen. him in a valley in the land of Moab, over against
xlix. 29-32). It was therefore necessary that the Beth-peor; but no man knoweth of his sepulchre
patriarch's body should be preserved.  Accord- unto this day.' The same mourning was made for
ingly we read, after the account of his death,'And him as for Aaron.'And the children of Israel
Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to wept for Moses in the plains of Moab thirty days
embalm his father; and the physicians embalmed (Deut. xxxiv. 5, 6, 8)., It is possible, from a comIsrael. And forty days were fulfilled for him; parison of these passages with the account of the
for so are fulfilled the days of those which are embalming of Jacob, as already indicated, that the
embalmed: and the Egyptians mourned [or'wept'] thirty days' mourning was adopted from Egypt.
for him threescore and ten days' (1. 2, 3). It is In these cases we do not, however, see any
here stated that Egyptian usages were adopted, other trace of Egyptian usage.  The narrative
but there is nothing to indicate that those usages of the burial of Moses seems to shew that had
were accompanied by any idolatrous rites. The the people known of his tomb they would have
narrative shews only that due honour was paid paid it undue reverence. After the entrance into
to Jacob. Herodotus speaks of seventy days as Canaan we read how Joshua was buried' in the
the period of embalming (ii. 86), and this may cor- border of his inheritance, in Timnath-serah, which
respond to the period of mourning specified in [is] in Mount Ephraim, on the north side of the
the case of Jacob. Thirty days are mentioned as hill of Gaash,' and Eleazar,'in a hill [that pertained
the period of mourning in the cases of Aaron and to] Phinehas his son, which was given him in
Moses, and this may explain the division of the Mount Ephraim' (Josh. xxiv. 30, 33). In these
seventy days, but a month may be intended. The two cases probably natural caves were used as
duration of the times of embalming and mourning, sepulchres.
may, however, have varied at different periods.  The absence in the Law of ordinances enjoining
After the days of mourning, Joseph went up with the mode of burial is very remarkable. We may
C a very great company,' to bury his father. In infer that the Israelites had retained simple patrithis there is nothing save high respect for the dead. archal customs which the Law did not annul, and
But it is remarkable that they stopped at the in consequence, burial being connected with relithreshingfloor of Atad, beyond Jordan, where' he gion, that some earlier religious rites and points of
made a mourning for his father seven days.' Here belief may also have been preserved and not superwe may almost certainly see a Hebrew custom, for seded. This second inference is of importance in
not only was the week of seven days probably of reference to the absence of mention of the future
great antiquity with the Hebrews, but it is almost state in the Law. It must be noticed that there are
certain that it was not used by the Egyptians (Lep- allusions to the customs of mourning. At the
sius, Chronologie der.Egypter, i. p. I31-133), who death of Nadab and Abihu, it is related that Moses
divided their months of thirty days into three de- gave this command to Aaron, Eleazar, and Ithacades. The sons of Jacob then took his body and mar:' Uncover not your heads, neither rend your
buried it in the cave of Machpelah (Gen. 1. 2, I4). clothes' (Lev. x. 6). The priests were not allowed
Joseph, like his father, would not be buried in to defile themselves for any dead person, but
Egypt. We read that, when his death drew nigh, parents, children, brothers, and unmarried sisters
Joseph took an oath of the children of Israel, (xxi. I, 4). They were also forbidden certain
saying, God will surely visit you, and ye shall carry mourning practices, which appear to have been
up my bones from hence. So Joseph died [being] partial shaving of the head, clipping the beard in
an hundred and ten years old: and they embalmed some similar manner, and cutting the flesh (xxi. 5),
him, and he was put in a coffin in Egypt' (1. 25, 26). customs likewise forbidden to the people, as well
In'this case there was the same motive for embalm- as tatooing, apparently as a usage of the same kind
ing. Moses kept this oath, and, at the Exodus, (Lev. xix. 27, 28; Deut. xiv. I, where the shaving' took the bones of Joseph with him' (Ex. xiii. I9); of the head is shewn to have been'between the
but they were not buried in the cave of Machpelah, eyes'). The high-priest was commanded not to
but in the parcel of ground at Shechem, that Jacob'uncover his head,' nor' rend his clothes,' nor to
bought of the sons of Hamor (Josh. xxiv. 32), and defile himself by any dead body, even a parent's
which became Joseph's inheritance (Gen. xlviii. 22; (Lev. xxi. Io, II). Nazarites were to approach no




BURIAL AND TOMBS                 399         BURIAL AND TOMBS
dead body (Num, vi. 6, 7). Contact with the dead  Absalom was buried where he was slain.' And
caused seven days' uncleanness (vi. 9-II; xix. I 1- they took Absalom, and cast him into a great pit in
22). The only direct command as to burial is that the wood, and laid a very great heap of stones upon
enjoining that a person hanged should be buried him....  Now Absalom in his lifetime had taken
the same day (Deut. xxi. 23).               and reared up for himself a pillar, which [is] in the
The book of Job, whatever its age, represents king's dale; for he said, I have no son to keep my
the life of the patriarchs, partly pointing to Egypt, name in remembrance; and he called the pillar after
partly to the desert, so that, in this respect, the his own name; and it is called unto this day Absaidea that Moses wrote it is not contradicted by its lom's monument' (2 Sam. xviii. 17, i8). This markcontents. It contains a very noteworthy allusion ing the place of burial by raising a great heap of
to magnificent burying-places. Job, wishing he stones seems to have been usual when it was inhad never been born, or had died at his very birth, tended to shew abhorrence of the person buried;
adds,'for now should I have lain still and been it was done at the burial of Achan (Josh. vii. 26),
quiet, I should have slept: then had I been at rest, and that of the king of Ai, in the latter case by
with kings and counsellors of the earth, which built Joshua's command (viii. 29). The monument raised
desolate places for themselves; or with princes that by Absalom has been connected with the structure
had gold, who filled their houses with silver' (iii. called his tomb at Jerusalem, but, as we shall
13, 15). There may be here a reference to the pyra- shew, the latter is of a far later period.
mids, which are situate on a desert tract, of which  The Hebrew kings are not known to have had
the utter desolateness is a striking contrast to the at first a fixed royal burying-place. Of David we
bright verdure of the Nile valley, above which it only know that he' was buried in the city of David'
rises. The latter portion of the passage may relate (I Kings ii. o1), and that in St. Peter's time his
to the custom of burying treasure with the dead, sepulchre was known at Jerusalem (Acts ii. 29).
which, according to tradition, obtained with the Whether the Arab building now held to be the tomb
oldest kings of El-Yemen, as we know it to have of David have a right to its name, cannot be conbeen usual among the Scythians and other nations; jectured in the absence of any clear evidence.
or it may refer to the pyramid-builders, who had The identity of most of the traditional sites in
abundant wealth, and could only in that primitive Palestine is, however, extremely doubtful. There
state of society have hoarded a great part of their is some notice of the burial of every king of
gold and silver.                            David's house to whom it was possible to pay
In the history of the kings, the first notice of this respect. Of several, it is only related either
burial closes the reference to patriarchal funeral that they were buried in the city of David or were
customs. When Samuel was dead, it is related there buried with their fathers.  The latter exthat'all the Israelites were gathered together, pression does not appear to mean that they were
and lamented him, and buried him in his house entombed in the royal sepulchres, as we read in
at Ramah' (I Sam. xxv. I). Thus Samuel was Kings that Jehoram was buried with his fathers
honoured like Moses with a national mourning. (2 Kings viii. 24), and, in a fuller account, that he
The burial in the house occurs again in the case was excluded from the kings' tombs, although
of Joab, who'was buried in his own house in the buried in the city of David: so, too,. of Uzziah,
wilderness' (i Kings ii. 34), and the cases of Joshua whose burial with his fathers, and entombment
and Eleazar may be compared, but they are not apart, occasioned by his leprosy, are mentioned
said to have been buried in their houses. When in the same passage (2 Chron. xxvi. 23, comp.
a house is spoken of, a garden in its court may be 2 Kings xv. 7).  The meaning may therefore
meant as the actual place, such as we may suppose be, either that, as kings slept with their fathers,
was the garden in which Manasseh was buried. so they were buried with them, or else that they
The modern Arabs occasionally bury in courts, were buried in the region of the royal sepulchres.
and even rooms of houses; thus Mohammad's Those kings of whom it is only said that they were
tomb was in a room of his house-            buried in the city of David, are Solomon (I Kings. The account of the funeral rites of the first king of xi. 43; 2 Chron. ix. 31); Abijah (I Kings xv. 8;
Israel suggests a curious inquiry. When the men 2 Chron. xiv. I); Amaziah, though killed at
of Jabesh-gilead had rescued the bodies of Saul and Lachish by conspirators (2 Kings xiv. 19, 20;
his three sons from the wall of Beth-shan, they comp. 2 Chron. xxv. 27, 28); anfo tham (2 Kings
brought them'to Jabesh, and burnt them there. xv. 38, 2 Chron. xxvii. 9). Those said to have been
And they took their bones, and buried [them] buried with their fathers in the city of David are
under a tree at Jabesh, and fasted seven days' (I Rehoboam (I Kings xiv. 31; comp. 2 Chron. xii.
Sam. xxxi. II-I3). Davidafterwards removed the  I6), and Jehoshaphat (i Kings xxii. 50; 2 Chron.
bones of Saul and Jonathan, and apparently of the xxi. I). Of the others whose burial is noticed, we
others also, and buried them'in the sepulchre of have fuller particulars, and it is to be remarked
Kish,' Saul's father (2 Sam. xxi. I2-14).' Here that much importance is assigned from the time of
we meet with the practice of burning the dead, Asa downwards to the honour paid to the king apwhich is very remarkable in the case of Shemites. parently by the people. Asa's tomb and burial
Another mention of it occurs in Amos, where the- are thus spoken of,' And they buried him in his
prophet speaks of burning a body, and bringing the own sepulchres, which he had digged for himself
bones out of the house (vi. 7-o1). The reading in the city of David, and laid him in the bed [or,'burning for' seems here inadmissible. This pas- rather,' coffin' 2~t3O, as in Is. lvii. 2, not'bier,'
sage refers to the state of a besieged city, and as rendered by Gesenius], which he had filled with
burning may have been adopted in such a case perfumes and spices compounded by the apothewithout being a usual custom. These exceptional cary's art; and they made for him an exceeding great
instances shew, however, that the Jews had no burning' (2 Chron. xvi. I4). Asa seems to have
superstitious reverence for the bodies of the dead, made some new excavated tomb, having several
as had the Egyptians.                       galleries or chambers, near the other royal sepulchre




BURIAL AND TOMBS                 400          BURIAL AND TOMBS
or sepulchres, and to have been there buried with successor Amon was buried with his father, but
great state. Two passages may be here compared. apparently in another tomb, or perhaps pit.' And
Jeremiah prophesies to Zedekiah,'with the burn- he was buried in his sepulchre in the garden of
ings of thy fathers, the former kings which were Uzza' (2 Kings xxi. 26). Josiah appears to have
before thee, so shall they bur for thee; and they been buried with them (xxiii. 30; 2 Chron. xxxv.
shall lament thee, [saying,] Ah lord!' (xxxiv. 5); 24), though in a separate tomb or place, perhaps
and St. John, describing the burying of our Saviour, on account of the calamitous state of the kingdom
whose body was wound in linen clothes with spices, at his death, which may have rendered haste necesadds,' as the manner of the Jews is to bury' (xix. sary. Of his successors, none can have been buried
39, 40), though this and the other Gospel-narratives at Jerusalem; Jehoiakim alone may have died on
do not indicate any burning of spices. It has been the throne, and of him Jeremiah prophesied,' He
supposed that Asa's burial resembled that of the shall be buried with the burial of an ass, drawn
Roman emperors, that his body in a bier was and cast forth beyond the gates of Jerusalem'
placed upon a pyre and burnt with spices. The (xxii. I9; comp. xxxvi. 30).
construction does not admit of this explanation, for  Little mention is made of the burials of the kings
it is said of Asa as well as of other kings, that of the ten tribes.- Some, who died in power, were
burning was made, or to be made for them, not that buried at their capital, Samaria (2 Kings x. 35;
they were burnt; the word rendered in the A. V. xiii. 9; xiv. I6). Many, who perished by con-'bed' cannot be translated'bier,' but must signify spiracies which overthrew their line, and were'coffin,' as is shewn by the passage in Isaiah before not aimed, as generally in the cases of the kings
referred to; and among the notices of actual burial of Judah, against themselves only, probably were
the practice of burning is not mentioned, save in left unburied. The relations of the sovereign and
the hurried burial of Saul, and the exceptional case people were not the same as those between the
of a besieged city, foretold by Amos.   The legitimate kings of the house of David and their'bones' of the dead, as Elisha's (2 Kings xiii. 21), subjects, and this will explain why there is no
are spoken of, not the ashes; and the former term  allusion to any public honours or the want of them,
is even applied to the embalmed body of Joseph in the case of any king of the ten tribes; besides
(Exod. xiii. 19, comp. Gen. 1. 25, 26). The mode that the impiety of these kings would have alienof burial seems therefore to have been essentially the ated from them the love of the people, or at least
same as that of the New Testament age. Jehoram, of those who would have been most disposed to pay
having reigned wickedly and unhappily, had no fune- such respect to the dead.
ral honours, and was not buried in the royal tombs.  Further light is thrown on funeral rites during the' And his people made no burning for him, like the period of the kings by passages in the contemburning of his fathers.'' He reigned in Jerusalem  porary books of the Old Testament. The custom
eight years, and departed without being desired. of having hired mourners to make lamentation
Howbeit, they buried him in the city of David, but at the funeral time as well as at the ceremony,
not in the sepulchres of the kings' (2 Chron. xxi. is referred to in the exhortation at the close of
19, 20). Joash, slain in a conspiracy, was buried Ecclesiastes-' Because man goeth to his long'*in the city of David, but they buried him not in home, and the mourners go about the streets'
the sepulchres of the kings' (xxiv. 25), evidently (xii. 5). Jeremiah also speaks of'the mournon account of his impiety; whereas, of the good ing women' (ix. 17-22); and we read respectpriest Jehoiada, we read that'they buried him in ing Josiah's death,'And Jeremiah lamented for
the city of David among the kings, because he had Josiah: and all the singing men and the singing
done good in Israel, both toward God and toward  women spake of Josiah in their lamentations to
his house' (xxiv. I6). Ahaziah, though slain in the this day, and made them an ordinance in Israel:
kingdom of Samaria, and perhaps first buried there and behold, they [are] written in the lamentations'
(comp. 2 Chron. xxii. 9), was brought to Jeru- (2 Chron. xxxv. 25). In this case it may be that
salem and buried' in his sepulchre with his fathers the actual funeral rites are not referred to, but
in the city of David' (2 Kings ix. 28, where a the general lamentation on the death of the king,
special tomb is indicated). Uzziah, as a leper, especially as the circumstances of the kingdom
was excluded from the royal burying-places.'So were such that it is probable, as already suggested,
Uzziah slept with his fathers, and they buried him  that he had a hurried burial. The customs of the
with his fathers, in the field of the burial which Jews in our Lord's time, when minstrels attended at
[belonged] to the kings; for they said, He [is] a a house of mourning, shew, however, that we must
leper' (2 Chron. xxvi. 23; comp. 2 Kings xv. 7). not too positively infer this. A full notice of mournAhaz, being a wicked king, was excluded in like ing customs is where Ezekiel is commanded not to
manner.' They buried him in the city, in Jerusa- observe any for his wife.' Son of man, behold,
lem; but they brought him not into the sepulchres I take away from thee the desire of thine eyes with
of the kings of Israel' (2 Chron. xxviii. 27; comp. a stroke; yet neither shalt thou mourn nor weep,
2 Kings xvi. 20). But Hezekiah's case was far dif- neither shall thy tears run down. Be silent, make
ferent;'they buried him in the mount of the no mourning for the dead, bind the tire of thine
sepulchres of the sons of David; and all Judah head upon thee, and put on thy shoes upon thy
and the inhabitants of Jerusalem did him honour feet, and cover not [thy] lip, and eat not the
at his death' (2 Chron. xxxii. 33).  Manasseh's bread of men' (Ezek. xxiv. I6, 17; comp. 22, 23).
partly wicked, and, as it seems, wholly calamitous Here we see no reference to prohibited customs,
reign, ensured him  a different burial.'And though mourning for a wife was not specially
Manasseh slept with his fathers, and was buried in allowed to the priests as it was for parents, etc.
the garden of his own house, in the garden of Uzza' It is remarkable that some of the practices are the
(2 Kings xxi. I8). This garden was, it seems, same as those commanded to a person proved a
in a court, for it is also said,'they buried him in leper, who may therefore have been held by the Law
his own house' (2 Chron. xxxiii. 20). His wicked to be socially dead; but it must be remembered




BURIAL AND TOMBS                 401          BURIAL AND TOMBS.that some of those concerned in burial-rites must the valleys around Jerusalem, for it is scarcely probahave been rendered unclean, so that the leper ni'ay ble that a mere pit would have been an ostentatious
have been commanded to appear unclean, and not mark 6f security.
as a mourner. He was to have rent clothes, a   There is one curious notice of a tomb of the
bare head, and to have a covering upon his upper period between the return from  Babylon and
lip (Lev. xiii. 45). Jeremiah alludes to prevailing the N. T. age. It is the description of the tomb
mourning customs, which included those forbidden  of the Maccabees at Modin, built or completed
in the Law. He prophesies that the dead of his by Simon, when he buried Jonathan his brother,
people should be left unburied, which is spoken of leaving apparently a place for himself.' Simon
as a great calamity in Ecclesiastes (vi. 3), that there also built a monument upon the sepulchre of his
should be no mourning for them, that people father and his brethren, and raised it aloft to the
should not cut themselves, nor make themselves sight, with hewn stone behind and before. Morebald, nor hold a funeral repast (Jer. xvi. 1-7). The over, he set up seven pyramids, one against another,
house of mourning here mentioned (5) may only for his father, and his mother, and his four
mean a house at the time of a funeral (comp. 8). brethren. And in these he made cunning deIn the same book we read how Ishmael the son vices, about the which he set great pillars, and
of Nethaniah deceived, and for the most part upon the pillars he made all their armour for a perkilled,'fourscore men,' thus described,'having petual memory, and by the armour. ships carved,
their beards shaven, and their clothes rent, and that they might be seen of all that sail on the sea.
having cut themselves, with offerings and incense in This is the sepulchre which he made at Modin,
their hand, to bring [them] to the house of the and it standeth yet unto this day' (I Maccab. xiii.
Lord' (xli 5):-the temple not yet being destroyed. 25-30). This description in some points strikingly
These were probably mourners, or, perhaps, they recalls the two tombs in the Valley of Jehoshaphat,
did this on account of the calamities of the country. called those of Zechariah and Absalom, and its
Isaiah prophesies of the people of Moab, that in difficulties may perhaps be accounted for if we
their overthrow they should lament,'on all their suppose it was written by some one who had not
heads baldness, every beard cut off' (xv. 2); and seen the edifice. It must, however, be remarked,
Jeremiah, of the same people, on the same or a like that a tomb at Petra is surmounted by five little
occasion,'Every head bald, and every beard dini- pyramids or rather obelisks (Feydeau, Usages
nished: upon all the hands cuttings, and upon the Fun~bres, ii. p. I75).
loins sackcloth,' adding that there should be general  Several passages in the N. T. give us a clear idea
lamentations on the housetops and in the streets of the burial-rites of that time. Immediately after
(xlviii. 37, 38). The same prophet speaks of bald- the death, the people of the house, as well as hired
ness and cutting among the Philistines (xlvii. 5). mourners, once called'pipers' ('minstrels,' A. V.,
The customs forbidden to the Israelites seem there- Matt. ix. 23), began to lament (Mark v. 38, 39;
fore to have been generally prevalent in Palestine.  Luke viii. 52). The dead was washed (Acts ix. 37),
Respecting the tombs of subjects, they appear to and wound in grave-clothes, the head being covered
have been very marked in some cases; for when with a separate cloth (John xx. 7; xi. 44). When
Josiah took out bones from the sepulchres at the funeral was costly, as that which the piety of
Bethel and burnt them on the idolatrous altar, he Joseph of Arimatheea and Nicodemus gave to our
refrained from disturbing the remains of the pro- Saviour, a great quantity of spices was put either in
phet who came from Judah, and who had foretold the folds of the grave-clothes or around the body.
that this would come to pass, and those of the It is related that Joseph of Arimathaea took the'Israelite prophet buried with him, because he saw  body of the Lord, and it is added,' And there
a'pillar, known by the people of the city to came also Nicodemus, which at the first came to
mark the tomb where they lay (2 Kings xxiii. 15- Jesus by night, and brought a mixture of myrrh
i8). These sepulchres were'in the mount,' from  and aloes, about a hundred pound [weight]. Then
which it might appear probable that they were took they the body of Jesus, and wound it in
excavations in the side of a hill rather than linen clothes [elsewhere called' fine linen,' Mark
-structures, did not the'pillar' seem to indi- xv. 46] with the spices, as the manner of the Jews is
cate a structure or pit beneath it. It is notice- to bury' (John xix. 39, 40). Sweet spices were also
able that the word rendered pillar, P^Y, is also brought by the pious women to anoint the Saviour's
used of an ordinary gravestone, not set up out body on the morning when they found Him risen
of regard, but simply to mark that a body was (Mark xvi. I; Luke xxiii. 56; xxiv. I). The burial
beneath (Ezek. xxxix. I5); its radical meaning was conducted in secrecy: there is, therefore, no
would be something set up. In the case where account of anypublic rites. It seems, from another
we read'pillar,' it must either have been dis- passage, to have been the custom for the bier to be
tinguished by its form, or have borne an inscrip- borne on the shoulders to the tomb, and accomtion. There is an important notice of an excavated panied by the kinsfolk and friends (Luke vii.
sepulchre, evidently at Jerusalem, where Isaiah I-I4).
prophesies against Shebna the treasurer, who had  At this period it was considered a pious act to
made a tomb for himself, that he would be carried rebuild, restore, or beautify the tombs of prophets
captive and die far from his chosen burying-place. or righteous men, and all tombs were whitened'Thus saith the Lord GOD of hosts, Go, get thee from time to time.
unto this treasurer, unto Shebna, which [is] over the  The sepulchre of our Lord was a new tomb, hewn
house, [and say,] What hast thou here, and whom  in the rock by Joseph of Arimathaea for himself,
hast thou here, that thou hast hewed thee out a and having its entrance closed by a heavy stone
sepulchre here, as he that heweth him out a sepul- rolled to it. The tomb of Lazarus is thus described,
chre on high, that graveth an habitation for himself'It was a cave, and a stone lay upon it' (John xi.
in a rock?' (xxii. I5-I9). Here we are at once 38). St. Paul mentions burning the body as an
reminded of the tombs excavated in the sides of inexpensive manner of burial, which those who
VOL. I.                                                                      2 D




BURIAL AND TOMBS                402          BURIAL AND TOMBS
gave all to the poor enjoined for themselves oblong stone, of which very many are seen in the
(I Cor. xiii. 3). But it must be remembered that Valley of Jehoshaphat. The second is the more
the Apostle was addressing the Gentile church of costly sepulchral grotto, consisting of excavated
Corinth.                                     chambers, approached through galleries, or openWe may now speak of the ancient tombs that ing from a portico.  The third is the isolated
remain in Palestine, and compare them with what sepulchre, like the well-known tombs of Absalom and Zechariah, in the
~ ~   ~        x/b-~~   ~~"-           Valley of Jehoshaphat. The
tomb of the first kind may be
often of great antiquity, but it
will have been observed that
the references to tombstones in
the Bible do not seem to allude
to any but upright ones. It
must, however, be noticed that
there are very numerous tombs
tional tomb of Aaron on the
~     i ~~             ~~/ ~w' —/              of this sort around the tradimountain called Mount Hor,
pulchres would have been needed in the desert, excepting
orS9.~ ~ Tomb-&dee~  o  Kn;   othat of the sojourn of the Israelites, not to speak of the remarkable identity of these with
the common tombs at Jerusawasefe examinatiolem. The tombs of the second
-ortine are of  impoe                    kind correspond in their main
characteristic with the caver58. Tomb of the Prophets.                sepulchres spoken of in Scripture. We have, however, no
we learn from the passages that have been noticed. proof that any of the latter were more than simple
Some of these tombs are probably of great anti- excavations; there is no reference to decoration,
quity, but most of the more remarkable are likely though this may be conjectured, with probability,
to have been rebuilt or altered in periods long after in the instance of Shebna's tomb. Our knowledge
they were first made. In the time of our Saviour of Hebrew architecture is too scanty to give us
the means of deciding whether
some of the tombs of this kind
that remain are of early times.
If, however, we compare one
of the most remarkable of these
excavations, that on the Mount
of Olives called the Tombs of
the Prophets, with the monuments of neighbouring countries, we shall feel little doubt
that it is of the age of the kings,
perhaps one of the royal sepulchres. Nowhere out of Palestine should we suppose it to
be later than this age, excepting
perhaps in barbarous countries.
This excavation will be seen by
the accompanying plan (I) to
resemble the tumulus called the
Tomblf Alyattes, and the late
galleries in the Pyramid of
Steps at Sakkairah.  It is not a
single sepulchre, but has niches
x59. Tomb of the Kings.                  for many bodies. The excavation at the head of the Valit was the custom, as already noticed, to restore or ley of Jehoshaphat, called the Tombs of the Kings
decorate the tombs of persons held in respect. (2), is of a very different style. It is entered frort
The early Christians maintained this practice, and  a court; its face is a portico, adorned externally
have been followed in it by the Muslims. Thus with architectural mouldings and ornaments, both
any monuments to which a tradition is attached, in Graeco-Roman style; within is a hall, from
or indeedany of important aspect, require the most which open several chambers, all of which have
careful examination. The tombs remaininginPales- their walls recessed for bodies excepting one,
tine are of three kinds. The first kind is the com- apparently of later date than the rest, since it
mon excavation in the flat rock, covered by an I is approached through one of the recesses. The




BURK                     403            BURNT-OFFERING
whole is regular in its forms, and thus sustains the to have gone over the whole of the Old Testaopinion which the external decoration warrants, ment in the same manner, but death interposed.and forbids the forced supposition that this decora- W. J. C.
tion was added at a late period. The excava-        R  TTWIIAM        v      f D, 
tion called the Tombs of the Judges (3) resembles BR    T   WL,    a           a   d
tion caled the To s o te  s        born at Hitcham, Northamptonshire, in x650, and
educated at Cambridge.   He was for 21 years
minister of Milden Suffolk, first as curate and
afterwards as rector. He became vicar of Dedham, Essex, in x692, and died in 1703. His
works are various, but the only one of any Biblical
worth is his commentary on the New Testament,
entitled, Expository Notes, with practical observations on the New  Testament of our Lord and
Saviour esus Christ; wherein the Sacred Text is
at large recited, the sense explained, etc., Lond.
I700, fol.  The thirteenth edition, carefully corrected, Lond. 1752, fol. This is not in any respect
a critical work, but is plain and practical, as it was
designed to be; affectionate and earnest in the
manner of its address.  It is, however, of Arminian tendency, and as Dr. Doddridge has observed,
his sentiments vary in different parts of the work,
6. Tomb  thejudges.      as the authors from whom he took his materials
were orthodox or not.-W. J. C.
that just described, but it is important that its  BURNT-OFFERING     (Heb. alnd or     i,
entrance is decorated in Greek style, and cannot                              T 
be considered to be later than the rest of the work. p:, LXX. bXoKa6reThaO, 6XOKdpcra, 6XoKdprwca),
We have spoken of two remarkable isolated tombs the most common and general kind of sacrifice
at Jerusalem as examples of the third kind of among the Hebrews. Of its two designations, the
sepulchres. Both may be described as cubical one (+31Y),which is the moreusual inprose, comes
structures, sustaining an upper portion of a pyramidal or similar form. They thus belong to the from nip,, to ascend, which is used in the Hiphil in
great class of tombs of Graeco-Roman style which reference to sacrifices, in the sense of causing to
were imitations of the famous Mausoleum, and if ascend, not from the ground to the altar, but from
compared with the architectural works of Petra, the altar in flame and smoke to heaven, the habitathey afford evidence that they are of the time of the tion of God who accepts the offering (see Gen. viii.
Idumean dynasty, which, it must be remembered, 20, 2 ). This was, indeed, to a certain extent comwas a building age at Jerusalem.              mon to all sacrifices thatwere in whole or in part conThe modern Muslim burial-rites and tombs are sumed; but it came to be the characterising mark of
described by Mr. Lane. We will not do him the the burnt-offering, as it was wholly so disposed of.
injustice to abridge his account, but refer to the The term  n more common in poetry than in
Modern EgDyptians (chap. xxviii. 5th ed. pp. 5", prose, signifies whole or perfect; and thus indicates
seqq.) It must be remembered that the usages, not  precisely the special. E eature of the offering,
alone of Egypt, but of the Muslim world, as the with some reference, perhaps, to is general and
university of Cairo has been for centuries the place  i some reference, perhaps, to  gener al and
of instruction for all the most learned religious comp reensive character as well. e ct  
tedachers of El-Isla, shew  s lear traces of aiet offering this kind of sacrifice may be traced back
almost to the very earliest mention of sacrifice in
Egyptian practices, as Mr. Lane has observed (p. almst tre the offearlig  oAbel w as probably of
516); therefore, we must not use them at random            e offering of Abel was probably of
this kind o  though this cannot be determined with
to illustrate the notices of burial in the Bible, and  tis k   t   ths a t e deterined with
flto sppl hate there lfth uneoabsolute certainty, as the sacred historian uses only
to supplywhat is there left unrecorded.-R S. P. the word n, which is so general as to include
the word iVt]D, which is so general as to include
BURK, PHILIPP DAVID, D.D., was born at both those of Cain and of Abel (Gen. iv, 3, 4),
Neuffen, 26th July 1714, and died 22d March   But the sacrifice of Noah (Gen. viii. 20) is expressly
I770 at Markgumgen, where he was superinten- said to have consisted of burnt-offerings. It was
dent. His Biblical works are respectively entitled  this kind of offering that Abraham was in the habit
-Gnomon Psalmorum, in quo ex nativa vi Ver- of making (Gen. xxii. 2, 7, 8, 13); and during the
borum, Simplicitas, Profunditas, Concinnitas, Salu- Egyptian bondage it is still the only kind of sacrifice
britas Sensuum  Coelestium indicatur, 2 vols. 4t0. specially mentioned (Exod. x. 25). We also find
Stutz, I760; and Gnomon in Dzuodecim Prophetas that this was the kind of offering prevalent outside
Minores, etc., cun prarfatione C   A. Bengelii, 4to. the pale of the Israelites; as in the cases of Job (ch,.
Heilb, 1753. These works, as the titles plainly i. 5; xlii. 8), Jethro (Exod. xviii. 12), and Balak
indicate, were written after the manner of Bengel's (Num. xxiii. 3, 15). Whether these facts indicate
celebrated Gnomon-the latter of them bearing a that the burnt-offering was the only kind of sacrifice,
recommendatory preface from the pen of Bengel. in use before the Mosaic law, or simply that it was
As both authors were much alike in the eminent the most general in its character, and that the pre.
piety of their characters, so their works are alike cise distinctions afterwards introduced were not.
also in the earnest evangelical sentiment which is known in the patriarchal times, it is not necessary
felt to pervade them throughout.  Burk is, if any. here to inquire. By the Mosaic law the occasions
thing, more technical and constrained in many of and the ritual of presenting a burnt-offering, were
his interpretations than Bengel. It was his design more precisely defined than they had probably been




BURNT-OFFERING                  404                 BURTON
in primitive times; but it still preserved the cha- sacred places, as the veil or the horns of the altar,
racter of the most general and comprehensive of all as was the case with some other sacrifices. It had
the kinds of sacrifice. It was the only kind that not, like the sin-offering and the trespass-offering,
could be offered by itself; and all other kinds of reference to any special and definite offences to be
offering had to be accompanied with a burnt-offer- atoned for. It was not, in any case, the appointed
ing. It was the regular morning and evening sac- means of restoration to the covenant standing of
rifice, and was to be kept burning on the altar all the Jews, for those who had, by a breach of the
night (Num. xxviii. 3; Lev. vi. 2); while on the ceremonial law, forfeited this standing. It was
weekly, monthly, and yearly festivals the number rather the offering of those who were in this coveof burnt-offerings was proportionally increased  nant relation; and as the morning and evening
(Num. xxviii.) Besides these appointments, having  sacrifice, it was the continual expression of the
a general reference to all the people, burnt-offerings devout feelings of the worshippers. Its expiatory
might be presented by individuals, either as free- nature thus had respect to the continual sinfulness
will offerings (Ps. li. I8, 19), or in performance of and shortcomings, even of those who are in a state
a vow (Ps. lxvi. 13-15), or in obedience to the pre- of reconciliation with God; and it presented to the
scriptions of the law in certain cases. These cases mind of the spiritual Israelite the great truth that
were those of a Nazarite polluted with a dead body no man can acceptably approach to God, except
or at the completion of his vow (Num. vi. I, 14); as a sinner trusting in his mercy; and that without
of those healed of leprosy or issues of blood (Lev. shedding of blood there is no remission of sins.
xiv. I9, 20; xv. I5); of women after child-birth  And thus, like all the other sacrifices of the law, it
(Lev. xii. 6, 8); and of the high-priest on the great was a type of that true sacrifice which was to be
day of atonement (Lev. xvi. 24); in all which cases offered in the fulness of time. We cannot doubt,
the burnt-offering was conjoined with a sin-offering. however, that in the entire burning of the victim on
According to Jewish custom, founded probably on  the altar there was also shadowed forth the entire
some indications in the law, the burnt-offering was surrender of the worshipper's whole person to the
the only kind of sacrifice that Gentiles were allowed  service of God. This self-dedication on the part
to offer. With regard to the animals offered, the of the believer is in the N. T. closely connected
only peculiarity of the burnt-offering was that it with the sacrifice of Christ (I Cor. v. 14,  5;
consisted always of males, the same conditions in  Rom. xii. I; xiv. 7-9). But this idea does not
other respects being required as in other sacrifices. seem to have formed the only or even the chief
The manner of the offering is described in the first significance of the ancient burnt-offering.  (See
chapter of Leviticus. The offerer brought the ani- Outram, De Sacroficiis, lib. i., c. Io; Bahr's Symnal to the door of the tabernacle or temple; and  bolik, vol. ii., pp. 361-8; Hofmann's Schriftbeweis,
after laying his hands on its head, slew it. The vol. ii., p. 139 fol.; Fairbairn's Typologv, vol. ii.,
priests then took the blood, and sprinkled it round  pp. 352-5; Winer's Realwrterb, s. v., etc.)about the altar. The offerer flayed and divided J. S. C.
the victim; and the priests, laying it upon the altar,  B
with fire and wood, burned the whole, and the cere- BURROUGHES, JEREMIAH, an eminent Purimony was concluded. The hide of the animal felltan divine born  599died I646. He was apto the share of the priests engaged in the ceremony. pointed to the rectory of Titshall in 631; of which,
In regard to the meaning and import of the burnt- h ever, hewas summarlydeprived on account of
offering, there is much that is common to it with  his non-conformity in 1636.  Having settled in
sacrifices in general, and somewhat also peculiar to  Holland, he was for several years the pastor of a
itself. A discussion of the former will be found in  church at Rotterdam.  On the commencement of
the article SACRIFICE; the latter must be briefly the civil war in England he returned home, when
indicated here. Being a bloody sacrifice, it falls he joined the Independents, and ministered to two
under the head of expiatory, as distinguished from of the largest congregations in London. It is the
eucharistical offerings. This is evident, not only testimony of those who knew him, thatHe was a
from the general principle stated in Lev. xvii.,man of learning candour, and modesty, and of
but because, in the special directions given for the  n exemplary and irreproachable life.' The only
burnt-offering, an expiatory nature is expressly work of any biblical worth which he is known to
ascribed to it (Lev. i. 4). With regard to its dis-  a published, is'An Eposition of the Prophesie
tinction from other kinds of expiatory sacrifice, ofHose.  n divers lectures, 4 vols. 4to, Lond.
various opinions have been maintained. The Jewish  1643-51, of which, however, he prepared only the
Rabbins for the most part ascribe to it a special re-first the others being by Hall and Reynolds. These
ference to sins of thought, the name being derived lecturesare popular and practical rather thancritical,
from the verb to ascend, and, therefore, referring tobut helpful nevertheless to the student of Hsea
what ascends, i. e., in the heart. Other explana- mode  edition of the work has been published
tions refer them to other special classes of sins. i one vol. imperial 8vo, Lond. 1843. Burroughes
Philo and many of the modems explain the totalwrote and published besides a vast number of
burning of the animal as symbolical of the wor-eparate serons.W. J. C.
shippers entire dedication of himself to God; and  BURTON, EDWARD, D.D., was born at
this is not improbably a part of the symbolical Shrewsbury, I3th Feb. 1794.  He was educated
import of the burnt-offering. But its true and  at Westminster and Oxford, where he distinguished
leading characteristic seems to have been its general himself by his diligence and proficiency. Having
and comprehensive character. This is indicated by taken his degree, he spent some time on the Conits early use, by the position assigned to it in rela- tinent, especially in Italy; and on his return in
tion to the other sacrifices in the Mosaic ritual, and  I82I, he received orders from the Bishop of Oxalso by the use made of the blood in the ceremony ford, and became curate of Tettenhall in Staffordwhich was the most general of all, consisting simply shire. In 1825 he removed to Oxford, where he
in sprinkling the altar, and not any more peculiarly  discharged the functions of examining chaplain to




BUSHEL                    405                BUXTORF
the Bishop, and subsequently of Professor of    BUTZ. [BYssus.]
Divinity in the University.  In connection with BUXTORF, JOHANN, the prince of Hebrew
the latter office he held the living of Ewelme,scholars, was born at Camen in Westphalia, 25th
where he fixed his permanent residence from the Dec. 1564.  The proper name of his family was
year i83o, and where he died I9th Jan. I836. Dr.
Byear 1t83  and where he died s9th Jan. a836. Dr  Bockstrop, and hence the goat (bock) in their arms.
Burton was an indefatigable student, a sound and He was educated first at Marburg and Herborn,
accurate scholar, and a theologian of the solid ortho- ere he enjoyed the instructions of Olevian and
dox type. His works, which belong for the most P ator; afteryards he went to Heidelberg, to
Piscator; afterwards he went to Heidelberg, to
part to the department of Historical Theology, Basle, to Ziirich, and to Geneva, for the prosecuhave been collected in 5 vols. 8vo, Oxford, 1837. tion of his studies, and had the advantage succesHe-is noticed here chiefly because of his Bampton  sively of the teaching of Gryneus, Hospinian,
Lecture on the Heresies of the Aposto    lic Age his Bullinger, and Bea. In 159 e became professor
Attempt to ascertain the Chronology of the Acts of of Hebrew at Basle, and from that time devoted
the Apostles and the Epistles of St. Paul; and hishimself with unremitting zeal and diligence to the
Lectures on te Church Hisoy of the first three study of the Hebrew language, literature, and
centuries; all of which throw light on the N. T. study
centres; all of which throw light on the N. T. antiquities. Such was his proficiency in all matters
He also issued an edition of the Greek N. T., lying within this department, that it is said even
with notes, in 1831, 2 vols. 8voo; the value     Jews themselves resorted to him for counsel in
which, however, is not great, either critically or
exwhich l however is not great, ei            cases of doubt as to any of their institutions.
exegetically.W~. - Lw. A.~       Certain it is that no Christian ever more thoroughly
BUSHEL is -used in the Auth. Vers. to express made himself master of all that could be gathered
the Greek fi6L0So, Latin modius, a measure of from Jewish sources belonging to the philology,
about a peck.                                 criticism, and archaeology of the 0. T. His works
in this department are numerous. His earliest
BUTLER, CHARLES, a distinguished Roman      publication was his Manuale Hebraicum, Bas.
Catholic lawyer and author, was born in London  I602, and after this followed his Synagoga Judaica,
in 1750, and died in I832.  He was educated at first published in German, Bas. I6o3, then in
the English College at Douay, and was the first Latin, from the translation of Hermann Germberg,
Roman Catholic called to the bar subsequent to  Hanov. 1604, and ultimately from the translation
the period of the Revolution.  Immediately on of David Clericus, with the revision of Buxtorf
the passing of the Relief Act in I832, and not himself and his son, Bas. I641.  His other works
long before his death, he was made King's counsel are, Epitome Gram. Heb., Bas. 605; Epitome mdiduring Lord Brougham's chancellorship.  He is cum Heb. et Chald., Bas. I607; Lexicon Heb. et
the author of several important works on law and  Chald. cum brevi lexico Rabbin. Philos., Bas. i607;
general jurisprudence, also a Life of Erasmus, Thesaurus Gram. Heb., Bas. 1609; De Abbreviachiefly valuable for the historical information which  turis Heb., Bas. 1613; Gram. Chald. et Syriac.
it contains on the state of literature between the Bas. I6I5; Biblia Heb. cum paraphrasi Chald. et
tenth and the sixteenth centuries. His contribu-  Commentariis Rabbinorum, 2 vols. fol., Bas. I618;
tion to Biblical literature is a work entitled Hore Tiberias sive Comment. Masorethicus, Bas. 1620,
Biblicc.  Pait I. containing an historical and appended to the later editions of the Biblia Heb.;
literary account of the original text, early versions, Concordantiarum Heb., an unfinished work, on
andprinted editions of the Old and New Testament.  which he was engaged at the time of his death,
Part II. containing an historical and literary ac- and which was completed by his son, Bas. 1632.
count of the Koran, Zend-Avesta, Vedas, Kings and The editions above mentioned of these works are
Edda, and with two dissertations-I. On the great the earliest; most of them have passed through so
council said to be held by the rews on the plain of many editions that to enumerate them is impossible.
Ageda, in Hungary, in I650..I. An historical His collection of Jewish writings, with the addiand literary outline of the disputes on the authenti- tions of his son and grandson, was purchased in
city of x John v. 7. Part first of this work was 1705, for Iooo thalers (~I50) for the library at
the fruit of the author's leisure hours, and was Basle, where it is still preserved.  All subsequent
originally printed for private circulation in 1799. writers on Hebrew  Grammar, Philology, and
It was afterwards published, and the fact that in  Lexicography, have been deeply indebted to the
a very short period it passed through several edi- labours of Buxtorf, and the value of his contributions is evidence of the great acceptance in which tions to sound philology in general is such as fully
it was held by Biblical scholars. The learning, to justify the words of Prideaux, who says,'The
research, candour, and good sense of the author world is more beholden to Buxtorf for his learned
are everywhere apparent; and the amount of use- and judicious labours than to any other man that
ful information afforded on all the topics of which lived in his time, and his name ought ever to be
it treats, together with the indicated sources whence preserved with honour in acknowledgment of it'
it is chiefly drawn, constitute it a work of per- (Connection ii. 555, 8th ed.). Buxtorf fell a victim
manent value. It only needs to be added respect- to the plague, which carried him off 13th Sept.
ing the second of the two dissertations in the 1629.-W. L. A.
appendix, that the evidence for and against the  B
authenticity of the passage which has been so   BUXTORF     JOHANN, JUN., son of the premuch disputed is stated with great candour and ceding, and his successor in the Hebrew chair at
accuracy. The fifth and last edition of the Hore Bsle, was born 4th May 630, and died I7th Aug.
Biblicae will be found included in vol. I. of the I664. He followed his father in his devotion to Heauthor's collected Philological and Biographicalbrew studies, and occupied himself much in editing
CYors, 5 vols. 8vo, Lond. 18I7. -W. J. C.    and extending his father's writings. His edition
of the Tiberias, published after his death in 1665,
BUTTER. [MILK.]                            is to a great extent anew work. He was involved in




BUXTORF                    40G                  BYSSUS
a protracted controversy on the integrity of the  Peter's Church, Chester, and vicar of Isleworth
Hebrew text, in connection with which he pub- 1615.  He was held in high repute for his great
lished the following works:-De Litterarum Heb. learning, profound judgment, quick invention,
genuina antiquitate, I643; Tractatus depunctorum  ministerial success, and pious and peaceable disorigine, antiq. et author. oppositus Arcano punct. position. His works, now scarce, are the followrevelato Lud. Capelli, Bas. 1648; Anticritica, seu ing:-A Commentary on the three first Chapters oj
vindicia veritatis Heb. adv. Lud. Capelli Criticam  the First Eistleof St. Peter; wherein aremost judiquam vacant sacram, quibus sacrosancta editionis ciously andprofitably handled such points of doctrine
Bibliorum hebraica authoritas integritas et sinceritas, as naturally flow from the text, together with very
et quamplurima loca vindicantur simul etiam ex- useful application thereof, and many good rules for a
plicantur et illustrantur, Bas. I653.  In this godly ife, folio, Lond. 1637; An Exposition upon
controversy Buxtorf maintained against Capellus the Epistle to the Colossians, wherein the text is not
the divine authority of the entire Masoretic text, only methodically analyzed, and the sense of the
vowels as well as consonants, words as well words, by the help of Wn'ters both ancient and
as things. The feeling of the age went with him, modern, explained, but also by doctrine and use the
and for long it was in many quarters held to be intent of the Holy Ghost is in every place more fully
essential to orthodoxy to maintain his view, though  unfolded and urged, fol., Lond. 1615. It is unit never received the general assent of scholars necessary to add to the sufficiently and, we may add,
(See Walton, Proleg. III. ad Bibl. Polygl.) Be- correctly descriptive titles of these commentaries.
sides these publications, Buxtorf issued also Dis- They are much more practical than critical. But
sertationes Philol. Theol. Access. R. Is. Abarbanalis both works will repay a careful study. Byfield is
aliquot Diss. ex heb. in lat. ling verse, Bas. 1664; also the author of a work entitled,'The Promises,'.xercitationes ad histor. arca federis, ignis sacri, or a treatise shewing how a godly Christian may
Urim et Thummim, manna, petra in desRto, ser- support his heart with comfort,' I2mo, Lond. I647.
pentis irei, Bas. 1659.  He published also a -W. J. C.
translation of the Moreh Nevoehini of Maimonides, BYNAEUS, ANTONIUS, D.D., and professor of
and edited the book Cosri in Hebrew, with a    Oriental languages at Deventer, was born 6th Aug.
Latin translation, Bas. 1640.-W. L. A.         1654, at Utrecht, and died 29th Aug. 1698. He
BUXTORF, JOHANN JAKOB, seventh son of wrote De Calceis Hebraorum, Dord. I682; a new
the preceding, was born 4th Sept. 1645, and died  edition, greatly enlarged, appeared in 1695, to
1st April 1704. Though sustaining the family re- which is appended a reprint of an earlier publicaputation for Hebrew scholarship, and though in tion, Somnium  de laudibus critices; De Natali
frequent correspondence with the most learned. C. die 4to, Amst. 1689; De morle J. Chr. libri
orientalists of his day, he published nothing except 3, sive comment. ampliss. in Evang. iist. etc., 3
a preface to the Tiberias of his grandfather, Bas. vols., 4to, Amst. 1691-98. These works are of
1665, and a revised and corrected edition of his standard value in their respective departments;
Synagoga Judaica, Bas. I680. —W. L. A.        that on the shoes of the Hebrews exhausts all that
can be said on the subject, and goes a little beyond
BUXTORF, JOHANN, TERTIUS, nephew of the it. Bynaeus wrote also in Dutch an Explication of
preceding, was born 8th Jan. 1662. He succeeded  the Prophecy of Jacob, and of the ioth Ps., as
his uncle as Hebrew Professor in 1704, and con- applied to Christ, Deventer, I794 —t
tinued in that office till his death, which took
place I9th June 1732. He published Catalecta     BYSSUS. The Greek word i6oacos occurs in
Philol. Theol. cum Mantissa Epp. claror. viror. ad Luke xvi. I9, where the rich man is described as
aohan. Buxtorfium patrem et filium scriptarum, being clothed in purple and fine linen; and also in
Bas. 1707; Specimen phraseologi e VT. Heb.Rev. xviii. 12, 16, and xix. 8, 14, among the
Francof, 1717; Dissertationes var. argumenti, Bas. merchandise, the loss of which would be mourned
1725. (For further information regarding this il-for by the merchants trading with the mystical
lustrious family see Athena Raurica sive Cata- Babylon.  But it is by many authors still consilogus Professorum Acad. Basil. ab A. 1560 ad A. dered uncertain whether this byssus was of flax or
1768.)-W. L. A.                               cotton. Reference has been made to this article both
from bad and butz, and might be also from shesh.
BUZ (T' contempt, scorn; Sept. 6 Bai6), son  For, as Rosenmiller says,'The Hebrew word shesh,
of Nahor and Milcah, and brother of Huz (Gen. which occurs thirty times in the two first books of
xxii. 21).  Elihu, one of Job's friends, who is the Pentateuch (v. SHESH, and Celsius, ii. p. 259),
distinguished as an Aramaean or Syrian, and called  is in tese places, as well as in Prov. xxxi 22, by
tl:, a Buzite, (Job xxxii. 2), was doubtless de- the Greek Alexandrian translators, interpreted
scended from this Buz. Judgments are denounced  byssus which denotes Egyptian cotton, and also
upon the tribe of Buz by Jeremiah (xxv. 23); and  the cotton cloth made from it.  In the later writfrom the context this tribe appears to have been  ings of the Old Testament, as for example, in the
located in Arabia Deserta; which may render it Chronicles, the book of Esther, and Ezekiel, buz
uncertain whether the descendants of Nahor's son  is commonly used instead of shesh, as an expresare intended, although a migration south of the  sion' for cotton cloth.'  This however seems to
Euphrates is by no means unlikely, and had per- be inferred rather than proved, and it is just as
haps already occurred in the time of Elihu. [The likely that improved civilization may have inname occurs also in I Chron. v. 14, as the name troduced a substance such as cotton, which was
of a man of the tribe of Gad (Sept. Bo6', A.'AX- unknown at the times when shesh was spoken of
Bov.)]                                        and employed; in the same manner as we know
BYFIELD, NICHOLAS, an eminent Puritan       that in Europe woollen, hempen, linen, and cotton
divine; born 1579, died 1622. He was educated clothes have, at one period of society, been more
at Oxford, and was successively minister of St. extensively worn than at another.




BYTHNER                    407                  CABUL
713 bad occurs in numerous passages of Scripture, as Exod. xxviii. 42, and xxix. 29; Lev. vi.
3; xvi. 4, 23, 32; I Sam. ii. I8; xxxii. 18; 2C
Sam. vi. 14; I Chron. xv. 27; Ezek. ix. 2, 3, II;
x. 2, 6, 7; Dan. x. 5; xii. 7. In all these places  CAB, a measure mentioned in 2 Kings vi. 25.
the word linen is used in the Authorized Version, The Rabbins make it the sixth part of a seah or saand Rosenmiiller (Botany of the Bible, p. 175) turn, and the eighteenth part of an ephah. In
says,'The official garments of Hebrew as well as that case a cab contained 3A pints of our wine
of Egyptian priests, were made of linen, in Hebrew  measure, or 28 pints of our corn measure.
bad.'  Celsius. however, (ii. p. 509), states his  ABAAH       KA   AA
opinion thus:'Non fuit igitur 11 vulgarelinum,ALAH. [KABBALAH.
ut arbitrati sunt viri quidam doctissimi; sed linum  CABUL (713).  I. A town of Asher. In
JEgypti optimum et subtilissimum;' and he quotes
gypti optimum et subtioissimumb;' and he quotesh Josh. xix. 27, we read that the border of that tribe
(p. 5 io) Aben Ezra for its being the same thing as'reacheth.. to the valley ofJiphthah-el, toward
butz:'IButz idem est quod bad, nempe species lini the north side of Beth-emek, and Neiel, and goeth
f         or b   oin     I Cgypto.'  iv.     out to Cabul on the eft hand' (or on'the north,'
1     butz or byz occurs in i Chron. iv. 21I; xv.         Vi     C      oh
27; 2 Chron. ii. 14; iii. 14; v. 12; Esther i. 6; 5Kt?).  The Vatican Codex of the Septuagint
viii. 15; Ezek. xxvii. I6; and in these passages in combines the two words, and make the name Xw.
the Authorized Version it is renderedfine linen and Pagao-oluX; but the Alexandrine renders it corwhite linen. According to Celsius,'Butz idem est rectly, Xab\X dSrb dptorepwv. It is doubtless the
quod Graeci /oaaov et Latini byssum adpellant;' same place which Josephus occupied with his little
while Rosenmiiller, as above stated, considers buz army during the Jewish war. He calls it the village
and byssus to indicate cotton and the cloth made of Chabolo, and says it was situated on the confines
from it; as does Forster in his book De Bysso of Ptolemais, and forty stadia west of Jotopata.
Antiquorum.                                   There is a Cabul also mentioned in the Talmud,
The mere similarity of name would not prove which afterwards became a place of Jewish pilgrimthe correctness of either opinion, for they are not age (ReL Pal., p. 701).
Between Jefat, the ancient Jotopata, and Ptolemore like than are.h kootn, and iS kuutan, mais, five miles from the former, and ten from the
adduced by Rosenmuiller t(ib. Bot. p. 176), acs latter, stands the village of Kabil, which we can
the Arabic names of cotton, while in fact they have no difficulty in identifying with the Chabolo
indicate, the first cotton, and the second flax  So of Josephus, and the Cabul of Asher. It is a small
at p. e79, the same author states that'in the and poor village; but it occupies a strong site on
of the time when the Scriptures were written. Mr. assistance he.rendered, and the materials he contriHarmer has justly observed that'there were buted towardsthe building of the Temple. Hiram
various sorts of linen cloth in the days of an- was dissatisfied with the gift, and said when he saw
ansrit   arsenots linen cloth.'^                          dt   ^   ^  ^ Now 
tiquity; for little copious as the Hebrew language them,'What cities are these uhich thou hast given
is, there are no fewer than four different words, at me, my brother? And he called them the land of
least, which have been rendered'linen,' or'fine  Cabul, unto this day' (I Kings ix. 13). The meanbtz, pishtah, and shesh.-[KARPES, SHESH.] Hebrew etymology, it would signify a boundary,'
-J. F R.R.                                    from i3 =    3,'to bound.' This is the interBYTHNER, VICTORINUS, an able Oriental pretation of the Septuagint translators, who render
scholar, a native of Poland. He studiedat Oxford, the word  ptov. The whole passage, however,
and read a Hebrew lecture for many years there, leaves the impression that Cabul was intended to
after which he retired into Cornwall, wherehe died be a term of reproach, and so Josephus regards it.
in  670.  He is the author of Lyra Prophetica He says,'if the name Cabul be interpretedaccordDavidis Regis sive Analysis critico-practica Psalmr  ing to the language of the Phoenicians, it denotes
rum. In qua omnes et singulca voces Hebr. in Pwl- what does notplease' (6viK dapdrop; Antiq. viii. 5. 3).
terio contents ad regulas artis revocantur earitque The position of these cities is not indicated in the
significationes genuine explicantur, etc.  Insuper Bible, farther than that they were in the province
Harmonia Hebr. text. cum paraph. Chald. et vers. of Galilee. Now, Galilee appears to have been oriGr. fideiter consertur; cui addita est brevis in- ginally only a small'circuit' (such is the meaning
stitutio lingua Heb. et Chald., Lond..645,' I650, of the word) of territory in the mountains of Naph 
1654, I664, 1679. This work is fitted to be ex- tali round Kedesh (Josh. xx. 7; 2 Kings xv. 29).
ceedingly helpful to every learner and student of Josephus says the towns of Cabul were not far
the Hebrew language. Themanyeditions through  from Tyre, which is just twenty miles west of
which it passed is evidence of the high reputation Kedesh. If Cabul was situated in this locality,
in which it was for long held. As intimated on which seems highly probable, then it is easy to
the title, Bythner availed himself of the aid of the understand the cause of Hiram's dissatisfaction.
Chaldee Paraphrase and the Septuagint in inter- Tyre's great want was corn for food.  Hiram
preting the Psalms.  he work has been trans- would consequently have wished a part of some of
lated into English under the title of the Lyre ote  f the e  rich cor-growing plains of Palestinpleste; but
David. A new edition was publishedin 1847, 8vo. Solomon only gave him a mountain district, of
-W. J. C.                                     little value to the Tyrians. There is nothing to




CAESAR                    408                C/ESAREA
connect or identify this region of Cabul with the  I. C^ESAREA PALESTINA, or Caesarea of Pales~
town of the same name mentioned above.-J. L. P. tine, so called to distinguish it from the other CaeC2,,ESARa, a name assumed by, or conferred  sarea, or simply Csesarea, without addition, from
CEAR, a name assumed by, or confee   its eminence as the Roman metropolis of Palesupon, all the Roman emperors after Julius Caesar. tine and the residence of the procurator. It was
In this way it became a sort of title like Pharoah, bit b  ed the Great, with much of beauty
and, as such, is usually applied to the emperors in built by Herod the Great, with much of beauty
and, as such, is usually applied to the emperors in  and convenience, twenty-two years before the
the New Testament without their distinctive pro- birth of Christ, on a spot where bad formerly
per names (AUGUSTUS). The Caesars mentioned stood a tower called Straton's Tower
by name in the New Testament are Augustus
(Lukb e iin the Ne T (Luestame nt are Augustus   The whole coast of Palestine may be said to be
(Luke ii. I); Tiberius (Luke iii. I; xx. 22); and extremely inhospitable, exposed as it is to the fury
Claudius (Acts xi. 28). Nero is referred to in Actse, exposed as it s to the fury
xxv. 8, and Phil. iv. 22; Caligula, who succeeded  of the western storms, with no natural port affordTiberius, is not mentioned.-J. K.             ing adequate shelter to the vessels resorting to it.
To remedy this defect, Herod, who, though an
CXESAREA. There were two important towns arbitrary tyrant, did much for the improvement of
in Palestine thus named in compliment to Roman  Judaea, set about erecting, at immense cost and
emperors.                                     labour, one of the most stupendous works of antiI61. C' Lsar. c
quity. He threw out a semicircular mole, which to the rank of a Roman colony, granting it first,
protected the port of Csesarea on the south and exemption from the capitation tax, and afterwards
west, leaving only a sufficient opening for vessels from the ground taxes (the real jus italicum, see
to enter from the north; so that, within the en- COLONY). The place was, however, inhabited
closed space, a fleet might ride at all weathers in chiefly by Gentiles, though some thousands of
perfect security. The mole was constructed of im-JewS.'lived in it (Joseph. De Bell. 7d. iii. 9. I;
mense blocks of stone brought from a great dis-iii. i4; Antiq. xx. 8. 7; Vifa, II).
tance, and sunk to the depth of 20 fathoms in the  Cresarea is the scene of several interesting cirsea. The best idea of the work may perhaps be cumstances described in the New Testament, such
realized by comparing it as to design and execution as the conversion of Cornelius, the first-fruits of
with the Breakwater at Plymouth. Besides this, the Gentiles (Acts x.); the residence of Philip the
Herod added many splendid buildings to the city:Evangelist (Acts xxi. 8); the journey thither of St.
among which was a temple, dedicated to Caesar,Paul; his pleading there before Felix; his ima theatre, and an amphitheatre; and when the prisonment for two years; and his final pleading
whole was finished, which was within twelve years before Festus and King Agrippa (Acts xxiv.) It
from the commencement of the undertaking, he was here also, in the amphitheatre built by his
fixed his residence there, and thus elevated the father, that Herod Agrippa was smitten of God,
city to the rank of the civil and military capital of and died (Acts xii. 21-23).
Judzea, which rank it continued to enjoy as long as  It seems there was a standing dispute between
the country remained a province of the Roman  the Jewish and Gentile inhabitants of Cesarea, to
empire (Joseph. Antiq. xv. 9, etc. See Dr. Mans- which of them the city really belonged. The for-.ord, Script. Gazetteer). Vespasian raised Caesarea mer claimed it as having been built by a Jew,
~~~~~~~~~~~
IR~,~  f;
i:!l   i~~~~~~~~~~~~,N
t       J. 
~;~:c~~F~B~t~ji~'~,.~,~i~e'-F~~A
tord, Script. Gazelltee;v).  Vespasian raised Caesarea  mer claimed it as having been built by a Jew,




CUESAREA                   409                 CIESAREA
meaning King Herod; the latter admitted this, hewn stones and debris, half covered with sand,
but contended that he built it for them and not for and partly overgrown with jungle, serve to mark
Jews, seeing that he had filled it with statues and  its site. Many columns, too, of marble and granite
temples of their gods, which the latter abomi- lie about, and doubtless many more have been
nated (Joseph. De Bell. _ud. ii. 3. 7). This buried beneath the sand drifts. A broad low ridge
quarrel sometimes came to blows, and eventually of sand-hills, thickly sprinkled with thorny shrubs
the matter was referred to the Emperor Nero, and bushes, runs along the eastern side of the
whose decision in favour of the Gentiles, and the ruins, shutting out all view of the plain of Sharon.
behaviour of the latter thereupon, gave deep offence The site of Caesarea is thus singularly lonely and
to the Jews generally, and afforded occasion for desolate. Solitude keeps unbroken Sabbath there.
the first outbreaks, which led to the war with the The sighing of the wind as it sweeps over the
Romans (Joseph. De Bell. Jud. ii. i4). One shattered walls and through the sun-dried jungle;
of the first acts of that war was the massacre of and the deep moaning of the sea as each wave
all the Jewish inhabitants by the Gentiles, to the breaks on the cavernous fragments of the ancient
number of 20,000 (Joseph. u. s. ii. 18. x).   mole, are the only sounds that fall upon the travelIn later times, Caesarea is chiefly noted as the ler's ears as he wanders over the site of Caesarea.birth-place and episcopal see of Eusebius, the  (Htandbk. for S. and P., p. 365.)-J. L. P.
celebrated Church historian, in the beginning of  2. CJESAREA-PHILIPPI (Katdcpeta J PAXtIrrov).
the 4th century.-J. K.                        After healing the blind man at Bethsaida, on
Addendum.-Caesarea, the once proud capital of the north-east coast of the Sea of Galilee, Jesus
Palestine, is now a desolate and dreary ruin. It went with his disciples'into the coasts of Ceebears its old name, though corrupted into the sarea-Philippi' (Matt. xvi. 13). The route he folArabic form Kaisartyeh.  It lies on the coast of lowed appears to have been up the eastern bank
the Mediterranean, between Carmel and Joppa, of the Jordan. This town is not again referred to
about 35 miles north of the latter. The ruins of in the N. T., and there is no indication given of its
the city are strewn along the winding shore, pro- distinct locality. This was unnecessary, however,
iecting here and there into the sea, and presenting  as Caesarea-Philippi was one of the most celebrated
huge masses of masonry, and long files of pros- cities of Syria.  Its ancient name was Paneas
trate granite and marble columns, to the fury of (Plin. H. N., v. 15). Josephus relates its history,
the restless waves. A strong medieval wall, with  and tells us the origin of its Greek name. Caesar
small bastion towers at intervals, encompasses it Augustus, on his visit to Palestine, in B.C. 20, gave
on the land side, enclosing an oblong area about Herod the Great the province of Paneas (Joseph.
half a mile long and a quarter wide. The lower Ant. xv. Io. I, 3; B. y., i. 21. 3). In consepart of the wall is still almost perfect, but the quence of this noble gift, and of others previously
upper part has been thrown over in huge frag- bestowed, Herod built in honour of Caesar a splenments into the dry moat. In the interior all is did temple of white marble at Paneas. Josephus
ruin; not a single building remains entire. There thus describes the place:-' This is a very fine cave
are huge piles of rubbish, almost concealed by the in a mountain, under which there is a great cavity in
dense jungle of thorns and thistles; and there are the earth, abrupt, deep, and full of water. Over
a few shattered arches, and two or three solitary it hangs a vast mountain; and under the cavern
pillars rising up among them like tombstones in a rise the springs of the river Jordan.  Herod
neglected cemetery.  In the southern wall is a adorned the place, which was already a very regateway, still nearly entire.  It was doubtless by markable one, still farther, by erecting this temple,
it Philip entered the city, for it is on the road to  which he dedicated to Caesar' (Ant. xv. Io. 3.)
Joppa. And on the rising ground a little within  At a later period the city of Paneas was included
it, stand four massive buttresses, the only remains in the territory of Philip (Luke iii. I), who rebuilt
of the great cathedral in which Eusebius, the or enlarged it, and gave it the name Caesarea, in
father of ecclesiastical history, presided for a quar- honour of the Emperor Tiberias Caesar, adding
ter of a century. But the most interesting part of Philippi to distinguish it from the Caesarea on the
the ruins is the old harbour. It is unfortunately sea-coast (Joseph. Ant. xviii. 2. I; B. 7.. 9. I.)
not only destroyed, but a large portion of its But the name Paneas had become too deeplymaterials has been carried off for the rebuilding of rooted in the language of the country to be changed
the ramparts of Acre. The mole of which Josephus by the will of a prince. It clings to the place still
writes in such glowing terms, was a continuation  under the Arabic form Baneds, while the Greek
of the southern wall of the city. The ruins of name has been long forgotten.
nearly Ioo yards of it still remain above the water,  Baneas occupies one of the most picturesque sites
and form that bold and picturesque promontory in Syria. A broad terrace on the mountain-side
now so familiar to us from sketches and photo- looks out over the rich plain of Hfleh, westward
graphs. There was evidently a strong tower or to the castellated heights of Hunin. Behind it
castle at this point, perhaps in ancient times the rises, in bold, rugged peaks, the southern ridge of
residence of the governor of the city. About 10o  Hermon, wooded to the summit. Two sublime
yards farther north are the remains of another ravines descend from the ridge, having between
mole; and between the two is a little bay with a them a conical hill more than a thousand feet in
sandy beach. The foundations of the moles are height, and crowned by the ruins of the castle of
composed of huge blocks of stone, such as are Subeibeh. On the terrace at the base of this cone
seen in the old wall round Mount Moriah, and in lie the ruins of Casarea-Philippi. The terrace is
the substructions of Baalbec; but the upper part covered with groves of evergreen oak and olive trees,
is much more recent, and probably not older than  with intervening glades of the richest green turf,
the time of the crusades.                     and clumps of hawthorn and myrtle here and there.
The city of Herod evidently extended considei- A cliff of ruddy limestone, nearly 100 feet high,
ably beyond the present walls. A few heaps of rises on the north side of the ruins. At its base is




CiESAREA                   410                CAHANA
a cave, whose mouth is now almost choked up vii. I7). Jerome confounds it with the city of Dan
with the debris of ancient buildings, and fragments or Laish (Comm. in Ezech. xxvii. I8); and in this
of the overhanging cliff. From the midst of these error he is followed by Winer (R. W., s.v.), and
ruins, and from numerous chinks in the surround- by Dean Alford (Greek Test., Matt. xvi. 13).
ing rocks, the waters of the great fountain gush  Above Baneas, on the top of a lofty conical hill,
forth. They collect a short distance below, and stands the castle of Subeibeh, one of the largest
form a rapid torrent which leaps in sheets of foam  and strongest fortresses in Syria. It is of Phoenidown a rocky bed-now scattering its spray over cian origin; and was probably intended as a dethickets of oleanders, and now fretting against fallen fence for the Phoenician possessions in the plain of
columns. The fountain was the parent of the city; Dan, and for the city and shrine of Paneas. It is
and the cave beside it was the sanctuary which gave frequently referred to in connection with the histhe city its ancient name Paneas. In Greece the tory of the crusades; but it has been deserted for
worship of the Silvan Pan was always associated two centuries. Baneas itself is now a wretched
with caves and grottos; and the Grecian settlers village of some forty houses huddled together in a
in Syria soon made this spot a shrine of their corer of the old citadel. The ruins cover a wide
favourite deity. It is highly probable, however, space. The most conspicuous ruin is the citadelthat there had- been a Canaanitish sanctuary here a large quadrangle surrounded by a massive wall,
at a still earlier date. Dr. Robinson suggests that with heavy towers at the angles and sides. Great
it may be that' Baal-gad, in the valley of Lebanon, numbers of granite and marble columns and sculpunder Mount Hermon,' which formed the northern tured stones are strewn over the site, shewing its
limit of Joshua's conquests (Josh. xi. 17); and former grandeur. -J. L. P.
which appears to have been in that remote age
what Dan subsequently became, the recognised   CAGE.    This word occurs Jer. v. 27, as the
border city of Palestine. A comparison of Josh. translation in the A. V. of:13; but this word dexii. 7; xiii 5; Judg. iii. 3; I Chron. v. 23, proves notes rather a trap or snare for catching birds.
that Baal-gad could not have been very far from  [FOWLING.] In Rev. xviii. 2, cage is given as the
this place; and until some farther light is thrown  reading of OvXaKI, in this case being used in the
upon the subject; we may at least suppose that by sense of a prison. --
this noble fountain, in the midst of this magnificent
scenery, the old Syrians established the worship of  CAHANA  B. TACHLIFA, the celebrated
one of their Baals. At this same spot the temple Hagadist, was born at Pum-Nahara about 330 A D.
of Herod was built.  Its ruins are now partly  He prosecuted his early studies under Raba, whom
buried in the cave, and partly strewn around its he always regarded as the highest authority in matmouth. In the face of the cliff above are several ters affecting the law, and when his revered teacher
sculptured niches, with Greek inscriptions attached died (351), Cahana returned to his native place,
to them. The longest of the inscriptions tells us where he continued to be a diligent student in a
that the little niche over it was consecrated by a school of his own formation till the year 397, when
priest of Pan. Thus, as the favourite Greek deity he was created rector of the academy of PumPan had superseded the Syrian Baal, so the Roman Badita. This distinguished office he held for sixhero-god supplanted Pan.                     teen years, till his death in 413. The value of the
Our Lord appears to have spent some time in services which this renowned teacher of the law
this romantic and interesting region. It was here, rendered to Biblical studies chiefly consists in his
probably beside the -fountain, Peter confessed his having carefully compiled and edited a most importbelief in Christ's divinity; and it was here Christ ant Hagadic work, called Pesicta of Rab Cahana
made that remarkable declaration, which has given (Kn1 3'1' KnWlpDb), comprising a cycle of lesrise to so much bitter controversy, and which has sons, both from the Pentateuch and the Prophets,
formed the innocent cause of such unwarrantable for all the festivals and principal Sabbaths of the
assumptions -'Thou art Peter, and upon this year, and embodying the traditional explanation of
rock I will build my church' (Matt. xvi. I8). A  these portions of Scripture. This Midrash, which
few days afterwards Christ took three of his disci- consisted of twenty-nine sections (each one of which,
ples,'and leadeth them up into an high mountain when taken from the Pentateuch, was called VI'Vt,
apart, and was transfigured before them' (Matt. or KpD,,   pD,' IpDD, and, when from the Proxvii. I, 2). There cannot be a doubt that that phets, wasdenominated K'lt3N15I NnpfDb; comp.
mountain was one of those peaks of Hermon which  Rashi on Jer. xl. i), is now lost in its original form,
tower over Caesarea-Philippi. It was in this region but nearly two hundred fragments of it have been
also he cast the devil out of the poor lunatic boy; preserved in the Midrash 7alkut [see CARA SIMand we can thus understand the full force of the re- EON], where they are printed and indicated in
buke administered to his disciples at the time-' If the margin by the term Pesicta ({n3pD). An
ye have faith as a grain of mustard-seed, ye shall anonymous writer re-edited this work of Cahana
say unto this mountain (Hermon), Remove hence about the year 846 A.D., under the name KlSp^D0
to yonder place (probably pointing down into the  13:1, and intermixed with it portions from andeep valley of the Jordan), and it shall remove' other Hagadic work, called Jelamdenu.  This
(Matt. xvii. 20).                            new edition was first published in Prague 1656;
After the destruction of Jerusalem, Titus amused the best edition is that of Wolf Tssen, Breslau,
the inhabitants of Caesarea by the exhibition of which is more correct than the others, and is also
games and spectacles, and some of the poor Jews accompanied by a critical commentary. For the
who had been captured, were there compelled to importance of this work to Biblical criticism and
fight with each other, and with wild beasts, to exegesis, we must refer to the articles HAGADA and
gratify the tastes of their brutal conquerors (Joseph. MIDRASH, and for more information about Cahana
B. 7 vii. 2. I.)  In the fourth century its old and his labours, to the very able and elaborate
name was again in common use (Euseb. Hist. Ecc. analysis of Zunz, Die Gottesdienstlichen Vortrage de




CAHEN                     411                  CAIN
utden, Berlin i832, pp. 185-226, 239-251; and Caiaphas are coupled by Luke-' Annas and
Fiirst, Kultur-und-Literatur Geschichle der pJden  Caiaphas being the high-priests;' and this has
in Asien, Leipzig I849, pp. 71, 217-222, 254; Bb- given occasion to no small amount of discussion.
liotheca 1udaica, ii. pp. I59-16I.-C. D. G.   The only opinions worth notice are the one cited
CAHEN, SAMUEL. -This celebrated Jewish ex- under ANNAS, viz., that while Caiaphas was the
positor of the Old Testament was born in Metz, high-priest recognised by the Roman authorities
August 4, I796, of very poor parents. He beganAnnas was the hi    iet recognied by the Jews
his studies by becoming a Bachor (lnM), diligentas ejoying that office de u  divin; and the
student of the Talmud, but was obliged to quit his opinion, that Caiaphas was the high-priest, but
that Annas was his vicar or deputy, called in the
parental roof in consequence of poverty, and went t   A s ws hs vicar or deputy, called i the
to Mayence, where the literati Gerson, Levy, Ter-Hebrew, M sagan  Thatofficannotbethouht
quem, Creiznach, etc., became his fellow-students unworthy of a man who had filled the pontifical
and teachers. He thence went to Verdun, where  ffice, since the dignity of sagan was also great.
he became the private tutor of a highly respectable Thus, for instance, on urgent occasions he might
family, and where, at the same time, he prepared  even enter the Holy of Holies (Lightfoot, Hor. Heb.
himself for academic honours, which he soon ob-ad Luc. iii. 2). Nor ought it to seem strange or
tained in a highly creditable way. In 1822 he ac-unusual that the vicar of a high-priest should.be
cepted the professorship of German in an academy called by that name. For if, as it appears, those
at Versailles, which he soon relinquished for the  ho had once held the office were ever after, by
office of secretary to the celebrated Alphonse de courtesy, called high-priests with greater justice
Beauchamp, and in 1824 was made Director of might Annas, who was both a pontifical person
the Consistorial School at Paris, where he pub- and high-priest's vicar, be so called. In fact, the
lishedhis MPp btp-i  Cours delectureh/biaiquesuivu  very appellation of high-priest is given to a sagan
deplusieurs prires, ave traduction interinai're, elby Josephus (Antiq. xvii. 6, 4). See the commend'un petit vocabulaire hgbreu-frangais, Metz 1824, tators on Luke iii. 2; particularly Hammond
of which a second edition appeared in 1833. His Lightfoot, Kuinoel, and Bloomfield.
richly endowed mind and great knowledge of      Caiaphas is the high-priest who rent his clothes,
Hebrew with its cognate languages, and of Jewish an eclared Jesus be      ofdeath     hen
literature, were now almost entirely devoted to the Judas had betrayed him, our Lord was first taken
elucidation of the word of God, the result of to Annas, who sent him to Caiaphas (John xviii
which was given to the student of the Sacred  13), who perhaps abode in another part of the
Scriptures in I831 in the first volume of his gigan-same palace. What became of Caiaphas after his
tic Biblical commentary, under the title of La deposition in A.D. 38, is not known.  (ANNAS.)
Bible, traduction nouvelle, avec rhebreu en regard,  CAIN (1ir.  Haqqayin, The Cain, Sept. ZaKaaccompagnt despoints-voyelles et des accens toniques,   Alex.Z   ), a town in the plain of
avec des notes philologiques, geographiques, eg litta, Alex., a town in the plain of
rave  es, notes prhilologiques geoga nies d ein est e Judah (Josh. xv. 56). It has not been identified.
aies, etlespritnctales variantes dela version des se- Van de Velde suggests the present Yekin, or
tante et du texte samaritain. To render this work  Yeikin, south-east from  Hebron (Robinson, IL
as complete as possible, Cahen engaged the assist-   ut if any weight is to be attached to the
ance of some of the most distinguished Jewish 449); but if any weight is to be attached to the
ance of some of the most distinguished Jewishconjunction of Cain with Gibeah in the narrative of
scholars, viz., Mtmk,  Terquolem, Geson, i ey,  Joshua, we must seek Cain elsewhere than to the
Dukes, and others. The whole was finished 851, south-east of Hebron. -t
consisting of eighteen volumes. As might have
been anticipated from these men, the commentary  CAIN (p}p; Sept. Kdvi, Joseph. Kd's), the eldest
is a store-house of learning, and the student of the
Old Testament will find important lore in the notes  n   a    an  vehe first-bn  the human
of and appendices to this remarkable production  ace  historian to the verb  p, to appropate,
such as he will meet with nowhere else. The ten- sacred            ver,   a       a
dency of the commentary is uneven, in some places to possess, to obtain. Eve bare Cain, and said,
it is conservative, and in others destructive. Thus,  hve ob Jehovah).' In this case Jehovh (r wi
Gen. xix. I  Cahen renders'until he come to the help of Jehovah).' In this case Ilp is equivaGen. xlix. lI, Cahen renders'until he come to lent to possession; as if Eve, expecting the fulfilShiloh,' taking Judah as the subject and Shiloh as  ent o e promise, had in the exuberance of her
denoting the city in the tribe of Benjamin (Josh. je after her pangs had passed, imagined that her
xvom. I; c Sam. iv. 3), which has been doneH b  child was the very deliverer promised, and had
some commentators of the middle ages [SHI~LOH], exclaimed,'Possession! I have obtained a man,'
whereas Is. liii. I, he admits is a Messianic pre- etc omp. the u  of b   in Lev. xxii. 
diction. Cahen died in Paris on the 8th of Jan- Gen. xxxvi. 6; Ps. civ. 24.  Some prefer the
uary i862, and was followed to the grave by men  aning of product orcreature from  pp, Arab.
of various sects and ranks.-C. D. G.          meaning of        or creare from, Arab.
CAIAPHAS(s (-       to make or produce; so that Eve's exCAIAPHAS (Kaido as), called by Josephus (An- 4                      f
q. xviii. 2, ~2) Joseph Caiaphas, was high-priest of clamation is tantamount to'I have produced
the Jews in the reign of Tiberias Caesar (Luke iii. what is worthy of being called production, an
2).  We learn from Josephus that he succeeded actual being,' (Knobel, in loc.); but this seems
Simon the son of Camith (about A.D. 27 or 28), less probable than the former. As for the attempt
and held the office nine years, when he was de- to trace the word to fp, a lance or spear, and to
posed. His wife was the daughter of Annas or find in it an allusion to the invention of smithwork
Ananus, who had formerly been high-priest, and by the Cainites, it is a mere gratuitous conjecture,
who still possessed great influence and control in and palpably a contrivance to serve a preconceived
sacerdotal matters, several of his family successively hypothesis.
holding the high-priesthood. The names of Annas  The history of Cain, as given by the sacred his



CAIN                    412                  CAIN
torian, is a melancholy one. He is presented as a the other members of his family, perhaps the
sullen, self-willed, and self-confident man, of an posterity of Abel,'the Lord set a mark on Cain,
arrogant temper and vindictive spirit; who would lest any finding him should kill him,' and at the
neither humble himself before God nor patiently same time threatened with the severest retribution
endure the want of that approval which he had any who should attempt this (ver. 15).  What
not cared duly to seek. He followed the occupa- this' sign' (n'1t) was, interpreters are not agreed.
tion of a tiller of the ground; and despising the The prevailing opinion that it was a mark put on
ordinance which required sacrifice as the ground of Cain by which he might be recognised can hardly
acceptable worship, he brought only a thank-offer- be retained; it is in itself improbable, and to con.
ing to God of the produce of his field; thereby,   this meaning we should have had  or
instead of confessing himself a sinner and seeking  ths meaning we should have had  or 
acceptance as of grace, coming to God simply as and not Spa.  Many distinguished interpreters
his superior, to whom he owed a sort of feudal understand it of a pledge or token which God gave
homage. Of this God shewed his disapprobation, Cain to assure him of safety; but did Cain need
whilst he shewed his acceptance of the sacrifice any such beyond God's own word personally conoffered by Abel, who'brought of the firstlings of veyed to him? and does not the connection with the
his flock, and of the fat thereof.' In what way preceding clause necessitate the conclusion that the
this was done we are not informed; but it may sign was to serve as a means of deterring any
have been by sending down fire from heaven to who might seek to avenge Abel's death from killing.consume the sacrifice of Abel, while the offering Cain, not as a means of assuring Cain of safety.
of Cain was left untouched (which is the common Bunsen conjectures that the mark was the horror
opinion), or Jehovah himself may have appeared, which the sight of the restless, conscience-stricken
and in person announced his mind to the worship- murderer inspired in every bosom, and which would
pers, which is in keeping with iii. 8, and with what restrain the hand of vengeance, either by reminding
immediately follows in iv. 6 ff.  To Cain, morti- of the fate which the shedding of human blood enfled and rendered sullen by the preference thus tails, or by shewing that Cain was already suffishewn to his younger brother, Jehovah appeared, ciently punished by being left to the vengeance of
and expostulated with him, shewing him that he God; but it may be doubted if nla can be taken
had no occasion for displeasure; that if he were a thus widely. Knobel thinks God gave a sign from
sinless being he would be so accepted, but if he
were a sinner there was the proper offering for sin heaven for Cain's behoof (14p[ comp. ix. 3), acat hand; and that if he would follow the course companied, probably, with a proclamation of his
which was proper and needful he should still retain prohibition of all attempts against Cain's life; and
that pre-eminence over his brother to which his on the whole, this seems the preferable view. An
birthright entitled him (Alexander, Connection and outcast from the rest of the Adamic family, Cain
Harmony of 0. and A. T., second ed., p. 34I). travelled eastwards, and settled in the land of Nod,
Cain, however, was not to be thus reasoned with; the land of wandering or exile; which it is in vain
and finding himself alone with his brother in the to seek to identify with any particular locality.
field (whether by accident or by his own contriv- Here he settled and built a city, which he called
ance does not appear*) his evil passions got the after the name of his son Enoch, born to him submastery of him, and he imbrued his hands in his sequently to his settlement in the land of his exile.
brother's blood. For this God pronounced a curse According to tradition, the name of Cain's wife
upon him, and sent him forth as'a fugitive and was Save (Epiphan. Opp. i. 287). Of the posterity
vagabond upon the earth;' a statement which some of Cain the sacred writer gives a list to the sixth
suppose to allude to his following a nomadic life, generation (ver. I8). He also mentions as their
but which is rather to be taken as descriptive of social characteristics that, though Cain built a city,
the restlessness superinduced by a consciousness of among them was found the first who followed a
his crime and his being estranged from the abodes nomadic life; that among them were found the
of the Adamic family; for we find from a subse- fathers of instrumental music, and the first workers
quent notice (ver. I7) that Cain did not lead the in metal; and that with them the vicious practice
life of a nomad. As he dreaded vengeance from  of polygamy took its rise; they are represented, in
~- -------- _____ _short, as possessing some of the advantages, and
* Many interpreters ae under the conviction with these some of the evils of civilization. By
Many inmtelrpreters are underthe conction some recent critics the attempt has been made to
that something is wrong in the Masoretic text at identify the list of the Cainites in Gen. iv. i8 with
the beginning of ver. 8.  The word ult4 cannot the first decade in the list of the Sethites in v. 6
be translated'he talked,' the proper word forwhich ff  but for this there is no foundation, except
is 1T'l.  The LXX. and other ancient versions in the alleged similarity of the names Cain and
follow the Samaritan text, which inserts,h  Cainan, Irad and Jared, Methusael and Methuse-,ni'i,'let us go to the field,' as the object of the lah, Mehujael and Mahalaleel occurring in both;'tDI, but this reading is not critically stable. an argument which is of force only on the supposiBottcher (Collect. Hebr. p. 116) suggests a correc- tion that in two collateral lines of descent from
tion of -OW. for "IDtt,'And Cain observed,' the same parent stock the occurrence of similar
watched with hate and vindictive feeling'his names is an impossibility. But so far is this from
brother Abel;' and this is approved by.Knobel being the case, that even were the names the
and Bunsen. Tuch, Baumgarten, Delitzsch, and same (which they are not), the fact would only
Drechsler, follow Ibn Esra in retaining the re- accord with what constantly happens in analogous
ceived reading, and render' Cain told it (i.e., what cases.  The whole tenor of the narrative leaves
had happened) to Abel,' etc.  Comp. Exad. xix. the conviction on the mind that the sacred writer in25; 2 Chron. xxxii. 24, for a similar omission of tends to mark the distinction in condition and
the'it' after'1Da.                         character as well.as descent of the Cainites and




CAINAN                   413                 CALASIO
Sethites. For the Rabbinical traditions concerning south.  Strabo mentions a province of Assyria
Cain, see Otho, Lex. Rabbinico-Philol. sub vocc. called Calachene (Geog. xi., p. 530; and xvi.,
Cain and Uxor.-W. L. A.                     p. 736), a name which may perhaps be derived
from the old city of Calah.
CAINAN (P?*1, possessor; Sept. Kaivav; N. T.  Within the boundaries of Assyria proper there
Kaivdv). I. Son of Enos, and father of Mahalaleel are three great groups of mounds indicating the
(Gen. v. 9; I Chron. i. 2). 2. Son of Arphaxad, sites of ancient cities; these are Kouyunjik opposite
the son of Shem, and father of Salah. His name is Mosul, Nimrfid, twenty miles farther south on the
wanting in the present copies of the Hebrew Scrip- left bank of the Tigris, and Kalah-Sherghat, forty
tures; but is found in the Septuagint version of Gen. miles south of the latter on the right bank of the
x. 24; xi. 12, and in Luke iii. 36. As the addition river. It is now established beyond doubt that the
of his generation of 130 years in the series of names mounds opposite Mosul mark the site of Nineveh.
is of great chronological importance, and is one of The name and the situation of Kalah-Sherghat sugthe circumstances which render the Septuagint gest its identity with the ancient Calah. Resen
computation of time longer than the Hebrew, this was situated between Nineveh and Calah, and is in
matter has engaged much attention, and has led to all probability the modern Nimrfid.
great discussion among chronologers. Some have  Rawlinson maintains that Calah was at Nimrfd,
suggested that the Jews purposely excluded the chiefly on the authority of an inscription on the
second Cainan from their copies, with the design of celebrated obelisk discovered at that place by Mr.
rendering the Septuagint and Luke suspected; Layard, and now in the British Museum (Vaux,
others, that Moses omitted Cainan, being desirous Ninev. and Persep., p. 262, sq.) The names upon
of reckoning ten generations only from Adam to these monuments cannot be accurately determined,
Noah, and from Noah to Abraham. Some sup- and some eminentAssyrian scholars have questioned
pose that Arphaxad was father of Cainan and Rawlinson's views (Layard, Ninev. and Bab., pp.
Salah, of Salah naturally, and of Cainan legally; 354, 639; Bonomi's Nineveh, pp. 99, sq., 389).
while others allege that Cainan and Salah were the The position of Nimrfd does not answer to the
same person, under two names. It is believed by notice given in the Bible. Resen was situated bemany, however, that the name of this second tween Nineveh and Calah. If we locate Calah at
Cainan was not originally in the text of Luke, but Nimrd, we donot leave sufficient space for Resen
is an addition of inadvertent transcribers, who, re-which is described as a great city; and there is not
marking it in some copies of the Septuagint, added a trace of ruins in the district.
it (Kuinoel, ad Luc. iii. 36). Upon the whole, the  Kalah-Sherghat was one of the most ancient
balance of critical opinion is in favour of the rejec- places in Assyria. On a cylinder discovered there
tion of this second Cainan. Even Hales, though, is an inscription recording the fact, that the King
as an advocate of the longer chronology, predis- Tiglath-pileser restored a monument which had
posed to its retention, decides that we are fully been taken down sixty years previously, after havwrranted to conclude that the second Cainan was ing stood for 641 years. It must, therefore, have
not originally in the Hebrew text, and the Septua- been foundedabout B.c. I87 (Rawlinson's Htedot.,
gint versions derived from it. And since water i 457, 460; Vaux, in. and Pers., p. 3). On
cannot rise to a level higher than that of the spring the brcks and pottery found at Kalah are the names
from which it issues, so neither can the authority andtitles oftheearliestknown Assyriankings. The
of the N. T. for its retention, rise higher than that name Asshur is found among them. Rawlinson
of the 0. T., from which it is professedly copied, supposes this to be the old name of the city; but
for its exclusion (Chronology, i. p. 291). Some of may it not be that of its founder? (Rawlinson,
the grounds for this conclusion are-I. That the Herodot. i. 588, sq.) Kalah is situated on the right
Hebrew and Samaritan, with all the ancient ver- bank of the Tigris, in the midst of beautiful measions and targums, concur in the omission; 2 dows, which are abundantly watered by a small
That the Septuagint is not consistent with itself; tributary stream. The mound is one of the largest
for in the repetition of. genealogies in I Chron. i. in Assyria, measuring a quarter of a mile in circuit,
24, it omits Cainan and agrees with the Hebrew  and sixty feet in height (Bonomi's Nineveh, p. o03).
text; 3. That the second Cainan is silently rejected -J. L. P.
by Josephus, by Philo, by John of Antioch, and by  CALAMUS. [KANEH, KANEH BOSEM].
Eusebius; and that, while Origen retained the
name itself, he, in his copy of the Septuagint,  CALASIO, MARIO DI, was born in 1550 at a
marked it with an obelus as an unauthorized small town in Abruzzo, from which he takes his
reading.-J. K.                              name. He devoted himself to the study of Hebrew,
and became professor of that language at Rome.
CAKES. [BREAD].                            His first publication was a Hebrew grammar; this
L.__,                Gen. -.,,.  was followed by a Lexicon; and then he gave
CALAH (n; Sept. XaXdX). In Gen. x, forth his great work, entitled, Concordantia Biblio12, we read that Asshur went out of the land of rum Heb. et Lat., 4 vols. fol., Rom. I621. The
Shinar, or, as the margin renders it, he (Nimrod) basis of this work is the Hebrew Concordance of
went out of the land of Shinar to Asshur,'and Rabbi Nathan, first printed at Venice in x523, and
builded Nineveh and Calah, and Resen between again at Basle I581. Calasio corrected some of
Nineveh and Calah.' The Hebrew will scarcely the errors in this work, and added,'I. A Latin
bear the marginal reading; but, however this may translation of the Rabbi's explanations, with addibe, we learn that Calah was not far distant from  tions of his own; 2. The Rabbinical, Chaldaic,
Nineveh. These cities all lay within ancient As- Syriac, and Arabic words derived from or agreesyria, which appears to have included the rich plain ing with the Hebrew root in signification; 3. A
on both banks of the Tigris, between the mountains literal version of the Hebrew text; 4. The variaof Armenia on the north, and Babylonia on the tions between the Vulgate and Septuagint versions;




CALDRON                    414                  CALEB
and 5. lile i-oper names of men, rivers, moun- in one respect, undoubtedly, Caleb has the advantains, etc.' (Horne, Introd., IL 2, p. 365). A  tage in this comparison; having but one wife at a
splendid edition of this work was issued in London  time, he escaped the domestic troubles which so
in 4 vols. fol., 1747, edited by the Rev. W. much afflicted Jacob-'When Azubah was dead,
Romaine; it is said, however, to contain many  Caleb took unto him Ephrath.' The chapter before
errors, and to be somewhat affected by the editor's us, in its genealogical fragments, has preserved to
Hutchinsonian leanings.  Calasio died in  62o, us the names of upwards of a dozen sons, besides
before his work was published; it appeared the their children, some of whom are mentioned as men
following year under the auspices of the Pope, by of wealth and power.
whom the expenses.of the publication weredefrayed.  2. Still following the chronological order, we
-W. L. A.                                     must place as second on our list CALEB, the son of
CALDRON.      This is the rendering in the A. Hur, whose name occurs I Chron. ii. 50. This
is is te renderin in te.Hur is described as'the first-born of Ephratah'
V. of four different Hebrew words-(I.) fnnbll, (or Ephrath, as she is called in verse I9), conseSam. ii. 14; Mic. iii. 3; (2.) ID, Ezek. xi. 3, quently this second CALEB was grandson of Caleb
the son of Hezron, through his second marriage;
7, I I; pi. 1n'VD, Jer. lii. I8, 19; rendered pot or he was also the brother of Uri (comp. vv. 20 and
pots, Exod. xvi. 3; I Kings vii. 45; 2 Kings iv. 5o), and therefore uncle of the artificer Bezaleel38; Ps. lviii. 9; Jer. i. 13; Ezek. xxiv. 6; Zech. the contemporary of the great Caleb, who thus apxiv. 20, 21; pans, Exod. xxvii. 3; (3.)'i., 2 pears to come later by one generation. [See No.
Chron. xxxv. I3; (4.) i=S., Job xli. 12 [2o], a 3.] The second Caleb, like his ancestral namemistranslation.  [AGMON.]                    sake, was through his sons Shobal, Salma, and
mistrahnsil thus designated was a vessel used for Hareph, the father of a numerous and wealthy race;
The utensil thus designated was a vessel used for the first and second of these sons are called by the
the purposes of cooking, and also in the temple the first and seconder   of these sons are called by th
service. It was probably of copper. Copper cal- jari, ad the more illustrious Bethlehem  by
drons have been found among the Nineveh remains,  earim, and thed meillustrious Bethlehemx  by
some of which are about  feet in diameter, by  which is undoubtedly meant [as Vatablus explains,
some of which are about 2 feet in diameter, by 3 C in Critic. Sacr. ] that they were the princes or chiefs
feet deep (Layard Nn. and Bab., p. 177). 1 Cal-of I the families,' or clans-Mishpachoth -which
drons are frequently represented as part of the  t    famil    or clan    shpach
settled there after the conquest of Canaan. We
spoil and tribute in the sculptures of Nimroud and come no te   the
Kouyunjik. They were so much valued by thecome now to the
ancients that it appears from the Homeric poems,  3. CALEB,' the son of Jephunneh,' who is
that they were given as prizes at public games, and designated by this patronymic in no less than sixwere considered amongst the most precious objects teen of the twenty-eight, passages in which reference
that could be carried away from a captured city. is made to him in the Scriptures; in three of the
They were frequently embossed with flowers and sixteen (See Num. xxxii. 12; Josh. xiv. 6 and 14)
other ornaments.  Homer declares one so adorned the additional designation J;l,'the Kenezite,'is
to be worth an ox' (Ibid, p. 80o; comp. p. 588). applied to him, the notice of which we postpone
Caldrons taken by the Babylonians from Jerusalem  to the end of this article. This eminent man is
(Jer. lii. I8) are represented in the Monuments of first mentioned in the mission of the spies [Num.
Nineveh, 1st ser. pi. 24, and 2d ser. p. 35 —  xiii. 6], whom Moses, at God's command,. desW. L. A.                                      patched, from the wilderness of Paran, to reconCALEB (1S3; Sept. Xcd\eX. Gesenius ( Thes. noitre the land of Canaan, in the second year after
p. 6  sas, pe  ps t   ens d, i.          the exodus. He was one of the twelve'rulers,'
p. 684) says,'perhaps it means dog, ie. 3:1;D:SW, or'heads, tf4ti4, of the children of
3,.    Israel,' who comprised the mission, and he repreArab.'.   Furst (in his new Lex i. 593) sented the illustrious tribe of Judah on this great
occasion. Besides his parentage and his tribe, we
explains by'Der Kiine, Tapfere, d. h. Held.' know nothing of his antecedents; it is often the
Meier controverts Gesenius, and gives the sense as way of Holy Scripture to introduce its great men
Fiirst renders it,'Der tapfereHeld,' the valiant hero). abruptly to our view.'Elijah the Tishbite,' and
I. Taking the probable chronological order, we'Caleb, the son of Jephunneh,' appear suddenly on
have in I Chron. ii. I8, 19, and 42, certainly, the stage of their great enterprises, without eulogy
and in 46, 48, possibly, the earliest CALEB men- or description. But of Caleb it is not unreasonable
tioned as the son of Hezron, who was son of Pharez, to suppose that, after the lawgiver and his brother,
and grandson of the patriarch Judah. This Caleb none but Nahshon,'the captain of the tribe of
was great-uncle of Nahshon,'the prince of the Judah,' out of all the host of Israel, excelled the
children of Judah,' who was the illustrious brother son of Jephunneh in personal rank and dignity;
of Aaron's wife Elisheba. A question has been hence his selection to represent the foremost and
raised, whether Caleb's wives were three or two. largest of the tribes in the most important national
According to our version there were three, Azubah, service which had yet arisen.  The manner in
Jerioth (verse 18), and Ephrath,' which bare him  which he discharged this duty proves him to have
Hur,' the grandfather of the great artificer Beza- been possessed of moral qualities, which were even
leel (verse I9); but there is much MS. variation.  more eminent than his social and political rank.
On the whole, that seems to us the most tenable His eminent services are described in Num. xiii.
opinion, and most supported by the best reading of 6-30; xiv. 6-9; (comp. I Maccab. ii. 56); 24,
the Hebrew Text, which assigns to Caleb, like his 30; xxxii. 12; Deut. i. 36; the divine favour
great ancestor Jacob, two wives, Azubah and towards him is instanced in Num. xiv. 38; xxvi.
Ephrath, and (as it would further seem from verses 65; Josh. xiv. 6-15; xv. 13, 14; Judg. i. 20;
4 and 48) two concubines, Ephah and Maachah; Josh. xv. 15-I9; Judg. i. 12-15. One other pas



CALEB                    415                  CALEB
sage occurs, which we here mention, though some- the last says plainly,'according to the literal
what out of its order, as describing both good meaning of Scripture, Caleb the son of Jephunneh,
service and honourable reward, Num. xxxiv. I8, is not the same man as Caleb the son of Hezron,
I9. In this appointment of Caleb to act with for grave reasons, which the intelligent will under-'the princes of the tribes,' as one of the commis- stand;' with this opinion of the Jewish doctor,
sioners for dividing Canaan after its conquest, there Drusius expresses his emphatic agreement (on
is a twofold fitness and force; he was the only Joshua xiv. 6). To us the chronological argument
man, except Joshua, of the old generation, who seems decisive against the alleged identity. Hezrespected God's reversionary gift of the land, and  ron, Judah's grandson, was one of the company
(except the commander-in-chief) he was the only (See Gen. xlvi. I2) which migrated with Jacob into
old man left to set foot in it, after the long and  Egypt; so that; on the principle of identity, Caleb
fatal migration of the wilderness.* Having fully could not have been less than 120 years old at the
recounted the great services and the providential time of the exodus, i.e., about three times as old as
reward of Caleb, the Scripture is silent about he declares himself to have been. Moreover, the
the last years of his noble life; these were pro- great artificer Bezaleel must have been of about the
bably spent in the neighbourhood of Hebron in same age with the son of Jephunneh; in I Chronithe possession of a hale old age. Full of honours cles, however (ii. 20), this Bezaleel is registered as the
and full of days, in the possession of undimmed great grandson of our first Caleb, the son of Hezfaculties, and to the last enjoying the respect and  ron. The second question we propose briefly to
friendship of the illustrious Joshua, his companion  consider is on the meaning of the epithet' Kenezite,'
in duty, trial, and heaven-gifted prosperity, he de- as applied to either Caleb or his father Jephunneh.
parted to the rest, of which the Canaan he had Now, in Genesis xv. I9,' the Kenizzites' are menhelped to conquer was but a type.t' Besides his tioned as a Canaanite tribe; while in the same
daughter Achsah, he had at least three sons, whose book, chap. xxxvi. v. I, I5,' Kenaz' occurs as an
names, with that of a grandson, are preserved in I Edomite name; from these facts an interesting
Chron. iv. 15. We cannot close this article with- speculation has been advanced of theforeign origin
out allusion to two of the chief questions which  of Caleb.:[Smith's Dict. s. v. Caleb.] Similarity
have been raised on the subject of it. The first'of of names, however, in nations of closely kindred
these, touchingthe identityofthefirstandthirdCalebs, origin (like the Hebrews and the Edomites), is by
(the son of Hezron and the son of Jephunneh), we no means so unusual as to render such a conjecture
should not have referred to, if it had not lately re- at all safe. A comparison of the table of'the
ceived the sanction of so respectable a writer as generations of Esau,' in Gen. xxxvi., or I Chron. i.,
Keil (on Joshua, page 356, Clark's Tr.) This is with any genealogy of Hebrew names, is sufficient
not a modern question.  J. Buxtorf the younger to shew how  frequently Edomite and Israelite
(in Historia Arccefoederis, ii. 2) discusses it, and ad- names are identical-Jeush, Korah, Nahath, Kenaz,
duces the opinions of the leading Hebrew doctors, Zerah, Shammah, Thobal, Manahath, Amram,
D. Kimchi, Raschi, and Aben Ezra. The first of Ithran, Bela, Ezer, Jobab, and Saul, all occur in
these discards the opinion of the identity, from the the Edomite lists; but they are not on that account
chronological difficulties which it produces; and foreign or less Hebrew; for they can be readily
found also in the Israelite lists. The occurrence,
* Joshua sharedthe divine favour, as he had also therefore, of the proper name  Kenaz,' and the
encountered the dangers of fidelity, with his friend patronymic' Kenezite, in the family of Caleb, is no
Caleb: but certain passages of their beautiful his- proof of its Edomite origin. It has been also sugtory seem to indicate that Caleb was foremost, if gested [Smith's Dictionary, s. v. Caleb] that the
not alone, in some particulars of the noble ser- expression'God of Israd,' in Josh. xiv. 14, is' sigvice,-see especially Num. xiii. 30, where it is nificant' in this argument; as if Caleb in that verse
only Caleb who' stills' the infuriate people; so were regarded as one, who ab extra had come over
again in xiv. 24, he alone has the wonderful honour to the worship of Jehovah; but the phrase'God
of the divine approbation,' But my servant Caleb  of Israel' has no such necessary implication. It
had another spirit with him, and hath followed me has such a meaning, no doubt in Ruth ii. I2; but
fully;' and again in Moses' recapitulation of Jeho- the case of Jabez is more to the point, another
vah's words to the men of the next generation, worthy of the tribe of Judah (I Chron. iv. g, Io);
Deut. i 36, Caleb comes foremost (and in one now it is impossible to suppose that because he is
sense alone) in the divine commendation: and, described as calling on'the God of Israel,' the
consistently with this pre-eminence, in all the pas- sacred writer meant to imply that he did this as a
sages where the two worthies are mentioned to- proselyte.
gether, Caleb's name precedes. Joshua's, except in  The phrase'Lord God of Israel' of Joshua xiv.
two instances, Num. xiv. 6, and Josh. xiv. 38; but 14 is no doubt' significant,' but the significance is
even this latter instance is in observable contrast best explained by an unambiguous passage in the
with the words of the Lord which occur just before previous chap. xiii. 33.  The name'Kenaz' was
in the 30th verse. It is in strict accordance with this evidently a favourite one in the family of Jephunpriority of honourable mention, that for Caleb was neh; probably it was borne by his father, as it
reserved the unique reward of receiving an inherit- seems to have certainly been by his great grandson
ance in the promised land before any of the tribes (I Chron. iv. 15). We regard then the appellawere endowed with theirpossessions; whileJoshua's tion,'tnp,'the Kenezite,' as a patronymic,
inheritance was only given to him'when they had,       
made an end of dividing the land.' Comp. Josh.  lke'the Calebite') equivalent to tp
xiv. with xix. 49.'son of Kenaz,' a designation of the illustrious
+ St. Jerome, amongst other writers, places the  thniel occurring in these four passages-Joshua
sepulchre of Caleb in the vicinity of Hebron. See xv, 7; Judges i. I3; iii. 9 and i.
Corn. a Lapide on Yoshua xiv. 15.              4. CALEB.EPHRATAH occurs in I Chron. ii. 24,




CALENDAR                    416                 CALMET
and nowhere else; possibly it was situated near of Melancthon's.  After receiving the rudiments
Hebron in the Negeb-Caleb.  There could have of education at Flensburg, he was sent to the
been no difficulty in conjecturing that, when the University of Helmstadt in his sixteenth year.
grandsons of Hur were colonising portions of Judah  From  I603 to I607 he devoted himself to philo[No. 2], they would bestow the double name of sophical and philological studies; but from I607
Caleb-Ephratah on one of their settlements, in he applied himself to theology.  From  I609 to
honour of two parental names which must have I6I3 he spent his time in travelling through Belbeen venerable to them-were it not written in our gium, France, Germany, and England, consulting
passage that'IHzron died in Caleb-Ephratah.' libraries and holding disputations.  In 1614 he
We have seen that Hezron migrated with Jacob was appointed professor of theology at Helmstadt,
into Egypt [No. 3]; he most probably, therefore, a position he occupied till his death, March Igth
lived and died in Egypt; hence.our difficulty. The  I656. His doctrines were moderate Lutheranism,
present text is, after that Hezron was dead,  in opposition to the harsh and stiff Lutheranism
nmST, in Cale~b-Ephratah;' now the change is which had begun to prevail.  His theology was
^ Lp  a. now tewider, deeper, and more philosophical than that
not great to lnDlK 3!', i.e., Caleb went to of his opponents. He wrote many works of a
Ephratah after Hezron's death:t this would im-polemical character relating to theology.  After
ply that, on the death of his father [in Egypt, say], his death appeared Orationes selects, 1660  ExpoiCaleb went to Ephratah [i.e., according to Fiirst  iones literates upon almost all the New Testament
and Gesenius, Bethlehem, see Gen. xlviii. 7; Micah books; Concordia evangeliorum; Lucubrationes ad
v. 2; according to Houbigant and others (with less quorundam V T librorum intelligentiamfacientes
reason), a placein Ephraim, I Sam. i. I]. Migra-  665.  Many of his MSS. are still unprinted.
tions to the promised land from the land of bond- Among them there is a large collection of letters.
age are not incredible, especially in the case of As Calixtus was so much suspected and attacked
wealthy and powerful men. The Latin Vulgate by the narrow Lutherans of his day, he was obliged
has ingressus est Caleb ad Ephrata, as if the con- to write controversial tracts and books in his selfsummation of Caleb's marriage did not take place defence. He was accused of Catholicism and of
until the death of his father; it is, however, a strong leaning to the Reformed theology.  But
against this view that the preposition 5i  does not though attacked and persecuted by men of an unaccompany the verb, which it should do to express christian spirit, he maintained his ground, and
this meaning;  a construction which the sacred became influential in relation to the future bf
chronicler actually employs in verse 21 (11'ln Mt  Lutheranism.  The strength of his mind lay in'*.<iteg'_ L\~             the department of historical theology. His read.'Dt~ n/'~K')  L)'  *ing was immense, and he could take a masterly
5. CALEB, South of, (0:"3'j;    Sept. N6rog survey of any period of church history. See G.
XaX/g; Vulg., Meridies Caleb) I Samuel xxx. a4. Calixtus und seine Zeit, by Henke.-S. D.
This was no doubt the district which the great
Caleb gave as her dowry with Achsah to the heroic  CALLISTHENES (KaXX\o\0s). An enemy of
Othniel; the nucleus of it was Debir, or Kirjath- the Jews who had set fire to the holy gates, and
Sepher, which Achsah designates'a south land' was burnt by the Jews after the defeat of Nicanor
(or rather the land of the south, 21 l r'); comp. (2 Maccab. viii. 33).-t
Judges i. 15 with i. II, I2.-P. H.              CALMET, AUGUSTINE, a learned Benedictine,
A A  [CHRONOL; MO; was born at Mesnil-la-Horgne, near Commerci, in
LEN                [CHRONOLOGY     MO         Lorraine, in 1672.  After some early study at the
YEAR1]                                        Priory of Brenil, he removed, in 1687, to the UniCALF. This is the rendering in the A. V. of versity of Pont-a-Mousson, where he went through
the Heb. *i~ff  and Gr. uoxog, by which, however, a course of rhetoric. In 1688 he entered, in the,,,, Abbey of St. Mansui, into the order of St. Beneis designated rather a young bull or cow [EG- dict; and subsequently completed his philosophical
HEL]. The proper Hebrew designation of a calf and theological studies in the Abbey of Munster.
is 1~pl'1   (Gen. xviii. 7; Lev. i 5; I Sam. xiv. 32); In I696 he was studying with a class of learned
i  (Lev. ix  );t  (I Sam. vi. 7,  ).companions in the Abbey of Moyen-Moutier.
-   (Lev. iX. 2;  I Sa. vi     From this time we hear of him as an instructor.
CALF-WORSHIP. [MOSCIHOLATRY.]               In 1698 he was appointed tutor in theology and
philosophy to the young alumni of the last-menCALIXTUS, GEORGE, a celebrated Lutheran      ioned abbey.  From   this employment he was
divine of the 17th  century, was born in a Schlesdwivine o the n7th.century, was born m   a Schles- promoted in 1704 to the post of sub-prior of the
wig village on the x4th December 1586.   His Abbey of Munster, where, at the head of an acafather, the pastor of the place, had been a pupil demy of a dozen religieux, he diligently pursued
biblical theology. The fruit of his learned labours
* The K of K3 was occasionally omitted in the at Moyen-Moutier and Munster were voluminous
haste of copying, as the Masoretes themselves notes and dissertations on various parts of Holy
admit, when they correct the 6'I  of Gen. xxx. II Scripture, carefully drawn up for the use of himby their K'ri,'l K1.  Houbigant on I Chron. self and his pupils, rather than for publication. It
ii. 4.                                        was in deference to the judgment of the Abbe
~t The ancient Hebrew text must have so read Duguet and the learned Mabillon that he published
the passage; for the LXX. translation is Mer& rb these commentaries in I707-I716, in twenty-three
dlrowaveiv'Eopeol JX\ev XaX^ els'EppacLd-' after volumes 4to, under the title Commentaire littoral
that Esrom was dead, Caleb went to Ephratah.'  sur tous les livres de l'Ancien et du Nouveau Testat See Gesenius, Thesaurus, and First, Hebraisch, ment. This valuable work brought him reputation
Worterbuch, s. v. Kt1.                        and promotion. In I715 he became prior of Lay,




CALMET                    417                 CALNEEH
near Nanty; in 1718 he was appointed by the were deprived of it by Mr. Taylor, who superseded
chapter Abbe of St. Leopold in Nancy, and in the it by other matter of questionable value in comparifollowing year he was promoted to the dignity of son with it. The learned Italian Mansi so highly apVisitor of the Congregation of St. Vannes. In preciated Calmet's biblical labours that he trans1728 he resigned his priory of Lay, on being chosen lated the whole of his Commentary, Dissertations,
Abbe of Senones in Lorraine, on which appoint- and Dictionary (including the Bibliotheca and the
ment he entered in 1729. Here he lived in the Supplements) into very readable Latin.  This
prosecution of his favourite studies, and in great aggregate of ten folio well-printed volumes is the
esteem for his learning, amiability, and candour, most convenient form in which the learned student
until the year 1757, when he died, October 25, can possess Calmet's still valuable biblical works.
having declined a bishopric which Pope Benedict The following judgment, pronounced by a eompeXIII. offered him, at the suggestion of the College tent man, on these works of the French divine, we
of Cardinals.  His Commentaire litteral was after- translate from the Bibliotheca Theologica selecta of
wards republished in 26 vols. 4to, and again in 9 J. G. Walch (iv. 433):-' Let Calmet's Roman
vols. folio; and in I72I abridged by Pierre Guille- Catholic opinions which he occasionally introduced
min. Rondet published a revised edition of the be only put aside, and certain inaccuracies amended,
abridgment at Avignon in 1761-1773.          and then his great work is worthy of all praise and
In I715, Calmet published the dissertations and recommendation.  Rejecting all allegorical interprefaces of his Commentary, with I9 new disserta- pretation, Calmet, with great painstaking, investitions, in a separate work of five vols. 8vo, entitled gates the literal sense of Holy Scripture; exhibits
(in the first and second editions), Dissertations qui the divergences of the Greek and Latin, and other
peuvent servir de Proldgomenes d l'Ecriture Sainte, versions, from the Hebrew text; and what is obrevues, corrigees, considerablement augmentaes, et scure and difficult in history, chronology, geography,
mises dans un ordre methodique. The third edition and criticism, he carefully explains. In his disserwas considerably enlarged and republished under tations he has, with much erudition, illustrated
the title of Tresor d'Antiquites Sacrees et profanes; various points of interest, and thereby shed much
Paris, I 722, 3 vols. 4to. This work was so favour- light on the sacred writings.'-P. H.
ably received, that it was translated very soon into  CLNEH      Sept. Xa,  or 
Latin, German, Dutch, and English. The Latin(; Sept.           orrather
version was by J. D. Mansi, Lucca, 1729, in two CHALNEH, the fourth of Nimrod's cities (Gen. x.
folio vols.; the German by L. Mosheim, with Io)+ and probably not different from the Calno of
notes and prefaces of the translator, Bremen, 1738- Is. x. 9, or the Canneh of Ezek. xxvii. 23. Accord47, in six vols. 8vo. The English edition was ingto the Chaldee translation, with which Eusebius
brought out in the year 1726, by Samuel Parker and Jerome agree, this is the same place that was
at Oxford. But neither of these works acquired  subsequently called Ctesiphon. It lay on the Tigris,
either the celebrity or the durable reception of opposite Seleucia, and was for a time the capital
Calmet's best known publication, first published at of the Parthians. This ancient opinion respecting
Paris, in four vols. 4to, under the title Dictionnaire Chalneh is rendered probable by the circumstance
Historique et Critique de la Bible; this work ob- that the city named Ctesiphon was in the district
tained a European circulation, having been trans- called by the Greeks Chalonitis (Pliny, Hist. Nat.
lated in England, Holland, Germany, and Italy. vi. 26, 27  Polyb. v. 45).  Ammianus MarcelliThe English translation, which first appeared in nus (xxiii. 6, 23) states that it was the Persian king
1732, in three folios, was republished with much  Pacorus (who reigned from A.D. 71 to 107) who
additional matter, as' Biblical Fragments,' by Mr. changed the name of the city to Ctesiphon; but
Charles Taylor, first in 1793, in quarto. These that name must have been more ancient, as it is
fragments contain a vast amount of curious infor- mentioned by Polybius. In the time of the prophet
mation relating to the manners and customs of the Amos, Calneh appears to have constituted an inEast, the natural history of the Bible, extracts from  dependent principality (Amos vi. I, 2); but not
the writing of travellers, etc., all -well illustrated by long after it became, with the rest of Western
plates. Taylor lived to publish a fourth edition in Asia, a prey to the Assyrians (Is. x. 9). About
1823. The last edition, bearing the date of 1841, I50 years later, Calneh was still a considerable
and designated as the eighth edition, consists of town, as may be inferred from its being mentioned
two vols. of Calmet's original, two more vols. of by Ezekiel (xxvii. 23) among the places which
Taylor's fragments, and one vol. of plates and traded with Tyre. The site of Ctesiphon, or Calmaps-all in 4to. This once much-prized publica- neh, was afterwards occupied by El-Madain, i. e.,
tion, notwithstanding its elegant getting-up and un- the (two) cities, of which the only remains are the
doubted worth in some respects, has been super- ruins of a remarkable palace called Tauk-kesra
seded by works of sounder and more advanced  (see cut 162), some mounds of rubbish, and a conlearning. Of the many other writings which issued siderable extent of massive wall towards the river.
from  the pen of the industrious Calmet, three The ruined palace, with its broken arch, although
should be here mentioned as connected with Bibli- it stands on low ground, is a most conspicuous
cal literature-(I.) His Histoire de I'Ancien et du  object, and is seen at a considerable distance, in
Nouveau Testament, intended as an introduction to ascending the river, in varied and striking points
Fleury's Eccl. History; (2.) Dela Pogsieet Musique of view, in consequence of the serpentine course of
des Anciens HZbreux, Amst. 1723, 8vo; (3.) the stream in this part.-J. K.
Bibliotheca Sacra, a most copious and useful   Addendum.-Sir Henry Rawlinson, and some
catalogue of the best books to be read in order to other writers on the geography of Babylonia, have
acquire a good understanding of Holy Scripture in endeavoured of late to identify Calneh with Nifer.
every department of biblical literature. This work  In the Talmud it is stated that Calneh is called
was originally a pendant to the'Dictionary:' but Nopher. Now there can be no doubt that Niffer
the English readers of the 4to edition of that work was one of the most ancient sites in Babylonia.
VOL..                                                                        2 E




CALOVIUS                    418                 CALVIN
It is situated on the borders of an extensive marsh  mound rising seventy feet above the plain' (Loftus,
between the Tigris and Euphrates, about fifty miles  Chal. and Susian. p. Ioo, sq.) There are other
south-east of the ruins of Babylon.' The present mounds and traces of ruins around this principal
aspect of Niffer is that of a lofty platform of earth  one. The site was explored by Layard, and afterand rubbish, divided into two parts by a wide chan- wards examined by Loftus; but no remains of any
nel. Nearly in the centre of the eastern portion  importance were discovered (Layard's Nin. and
are the remains of a brick tower of early construc- Bab., 556, sq.) The arguments of Rawlinson are
tion, the debris of which constitutes a conical not sufficient to establish the identity of Niffer and
-_
I62. Tauk-kesra.
Calneh. Jerome distinctly affirms that Calneh was  CALVARY, the place where Christ was crucicalled Ctesiphon in his time (AdAmos, 6; Bochart, fied. In three of the Gospels the Hebrew name
Opp. i. 238); and Rawlinson himself'has shewn  GOLGOTHA (place of a skull) is given; and in
that Niffer is an ancient name found on Babylonian  Luke (xxiii. 33), where we find Calvary in the
monuments (Herodot. i. 447).-J. L P.           Authorized Version, the original is not Calvary,
but Cranion (Kpavlov, a skull).  Calvaria is the
CALOVIUS, ABRAHAM, a Lutheran divine        Latin translation of this word, adopted by the
of the I7th century, was born at Norungen in   Vulgate, from which it found its way into our verEast Prussia, I6I2 A.D. In 1626 he went to the  sion.'It may be well to remind the reader that
University of Kinigsberg, and studied four years. there are two errors implied in the popular expresIn I634 he went to Rostock; in I637 he became  sion' Mount Calvary.' I. There is in the scripextraordinary professor at KSnigsberg; in I643  tural narrative no mention of a mount or hill.  2.
he removed to the Gymnasium at Dantzig. At the  There is no such name as'Calvary.' (Stanley,
Thorn Conference, 1645, he came in contact with  Sin. and Pal., p. 460, note).  For particulars
Calixtus, and appeared against syncretism.  In  concerning the site of the crucifixion, see GOL1650 he received a call to Wittenberg, where he  GOTHA.
stood in-high favour with the Elector, George II.
Here he lived, laboured, and wrote till his death  CALVIN, JOHN, the illustrious Reformer, was
in I686. Many students were attracted to the born at Noyon in Picardy, on the loth of July
place by his fame as a theologian; and had it not 1509; and died at Geneva on the 24th of May
been for his colleague John Meisner, he would  I564.  His father Gerard's name was Chauvin,
have ruled undisputed master in the University. which was afterwards Latinized by his son (in the
When he had attained the age of 70 he married his dedication of his first work on Seneca's treatise
sixth wife, four months after the death of the fifth, De Clementia) into the more euphonious shape of
at a time when he was so weak as to be able to  Calvinus.  In this article we omit all reference to
walk little more than five steps.  He had followed  the vast and various labours of this great man,
to the grave thirteen children, besides the five wives. which contributed so much to change the opinions
Calovius was a violent polemic, a malleus hereti- of mankind, and which have given him an imperishcorum in his day. Lutheran orthodoxy was the able renown. Even the mention of his polemical
object of his conservative efforts. But his spirit and miscellaneous writings would be here out of
and temper. were opposite to the teachings of place; we therefore confine ourselves to a record
Christ. The best known of his works is his Biblia  of his Biblical Works. These fill seven of the nine
illustrata, in four parts or vols. folio, aimed against folio volumes of the best and classical edition of
Grotius.  In this commentary all portions of the his works, which was published at Amsterdam in
Bible, without exception, are equally attributed to  I667. The contents of all these volumes are in
the Holy Ghost as their author. The work is per- Latin; but the Latin is by no means Calvin's comvaded by learning and ability; but its tone is ex- position in every instance; many of his exegetical
cessively dogmatical.  We see Calovius as a works are, in fact, most carefully prepared* versions
doctrinal theologian most clearly in his Systema
locorum theologicorum, 1655-1677, 12 vols.; and  * The accuracy of these Latin versionsis avouched
his Apodixis articulorum fidei, 1684; Theologia by Calvin; for instance, in a short preface to his
naturalis et revelata, I646.-S. D.            Prelections on the Minor Prophets (Amst. ed. vol. v.)




CALVIN                     419                 CALVIN
of his Homilies and Prelections-which he ad- Palatine of Wilna, etc., August I, 1560.   The
dressed to crowded audiences in vernacular French  Harmony, which as such is not held in high respect
-rendered into the more enduring form of that (owing to Calvin's simply grouping like passages of
classic tongue which made them intelligible to the the Evangelists together mechanically, without any
learned throughout Europe, by the help of a de- order of time, which he supposes the sacred authors
voted staff of pious scholars whom he had gathered  neglected), was at once, like all his writings, transaround him at Geneva. These versions were gene- lated into French; into English by Eusebius Paget,
rally, perhaps in every instance but three, carefully  I584; and into German by Woofg. Haller, I590.
revised and prefaced by Calvin himself. In our enu- The best modern edition is by Tholuck. (Amst. ed.
meration of the biblical works of our illustrious vol vi. throughout.) [4.] Commentarii in omnes
author, we propose to classify the contents of the Epp. S. Pauli Apostoli, atque etiam in Ep. ad
Amsterdam  edition into (I) The treatises which Hebravos, necnon in Epp. Canonicas; with various
Calvin himself wrote and published; and (2), dedications to men illustrious in rank or in connecThose which were taken down from his oral de- tion with the Reformers.   These commentaries
livery, translated into Latin by learned friends of have been praised for the perspicuity and judicious
the reformer, and published either (a) with pre- tone of the author-among other critics by the
faces by Calvin's own hand, or (b) with prefaces by  Romanist Father Simon (Histoire critique desprinciother editors.                                paux commentateurs du Nouv. Test. C. L. p. 748).
I. The treatises which were Wholly the produc- The commentary on the Ep. to the Romans (Caltion of Calvin are (following the order of the vin's earliest Biblical work) has been especially
Amsterdam   edition)-[I] Commentarii in libros commended, as exhibiting some of his very best
Mosis et quidem in Genesin seorsim, reliquis IV in  exegetical qualities. This work was soon translated
formam   Harmonice digestis; necnon in librum  into French, and has often been republished. Tholosuc.  This work, though arranged the first luck's is again the best moder edition. (Amst.
amongst his collected writings (Amst. ed. vol. I.), ed. vol. vii., throughout.)
was yet the very last which proceeded from his   2. We come now to the second class of Calpen.  The dedication to Henry of Navarre bears vin's treatises, viz. those which were taken down
the late date of Aug. 1st, I563.  Of the greater from his oral delivery, translated into Latin by
portion of this work Mr. Horne says:-' His har- learned friends; and published either (a) with premony of the four last books of the Pentateuch has faces in Calvin's own hand, or (b) with prefaces by
been much and deservedly admired for its ingenuity. other writers; and, first, we mention those which
The history contained in them  forms a distinct Calvin himself revised and prefaced-again followpart. The rest is comprised under the following ing the order of the Amsterdam edition.
divisions-(a) Those passages which assert the excel-  [i.] Commentarii in lesaiam Prophetam were
lence of the Law by way of preface; (b) The ten  first published, by a friend called Nich. Gallasius,
commandments, under each of which are compre- in a rough form, with a dedication written by
hended all those parts of the Law which relate to  Calvin to King Edward VI. (Dec. 25, 1550); afterthe same subject, and this it is which forms the wards Calvin revised and enlarged the work himgreat body of the Harmony; (c) The sum of the self, and published it with a second dedication to
Law, containing those passages which enjoin love our Queen Elizabeth, addressed to her on her
to God and love to our neighbour; (d) The use of coronation-day; ultimately this valuable work was
the Law; and, lastly, its sanctions and threats.' wrought into its finished state by the original
Introduct., vol. v. p. 287, 9th ed. The bulk of the editor, Gallasius (' tertio recogniti et aucti ampla
work (which Mr. Home thus epitomises) is pre- accessione locorum Scripturse qui passim in toto
ceded by a commentary on Genesis, and followed  opere citantur, etc.), and dedicated by him to his
by one on Joshua.  Hengstenberg has edited the'old friend' John Crispin, Jan. I, I570. In 1552,
best modern edition of the commentary on Genesis, a French translation was published. (Amst. ed. vol.
Berlin, I838.  [2.] Commentarii in Librum Psal- iii. part 2.) [2.] Prwelectiones in yeerniam et Lamorum (Amst. ed. vol. iii. pt. I). The dedication mentationes were taken down from Calvin's public
is dated July 23, 1557. This work was translated  lectures, and prepared in Latin for:publication, by
into French four years afterwards.  Tholuck's is John Bude and C. Joinville, and were issued with
the best modern edition of this very valuable com- a dedication from the pen of Calvin, addressed to
mentary, which is marked by some of Calvin's best'the people of God, who desire that Christ's kingcharacteristics of style, lucidness, grasp of the sub- dom shall be rightly established in France,' Aug.
ject, and absence of all affectation in treating it, I9, 1561. This work was translated into French
[3.] Commentarii in Evv. IV., quorum tres priores in the year I565. (Amst. ed. vol. iv. part i.) [3.]
in formam Harmoniea sunt digesti; quartus vero Prwlectiones in librum Prophetiarum Danielis were,
seorsim explicatur, quod pauca cum reliquis corn- like the preceding, prepared for publication in their
munia habeat; necnon in Acta Apostolorum. The present shape byBude and Joinville; Calvin writing
dedication of the Harmony to the magistrates of a dedication to Frederick, Prince Palatine of the
Frankfort bears the date of August I 1I555; of Rhine, datedGeneva, July23, I553. A second carethe Gospel of St. John, addressed to the municipal fully revised edition was superintended by the same
authorities of Geneva, January I, 1553; of the editorsin1576. Meanwhile a French translation had
Acts, addressed to the Prince Nicholas Radziwil, been published in the year 1569, and an English
one in London, I574. (Amst. ed. vol v. part I.)
he writes-' Incredibilis vero mihi res fuisset, nisi, [4.] Prelectiones in XII. Prophetas (guos vocant)
quum mihi postridie recitarent dare vidissem, quse Minores; prepared this time by Bude alone,* to
scripserant [amici nostri optimi] a sermone meo nihil
dierre * * * tanta fide exceperunt ii quod ex ore  * Bude's name occurs alone, but from an intermeo audierant ut nullant  mutationem  animad- esting statement appended by another of Calvin's
vertam.                                        paladins, J. Crispin, it would seem that four per



CAMBYSES                   420                  CAMEL
the great satisfaction of the author, who authenti- Geogr. Znschriften, ii. pp. 53, 54). On the supcated the work with a dedication to Gustavus, position that the origin of the word is Semitic,
King of Sweden, Feb. I, 1559, and a short address two derivations have been proposed.  Bochart
to the Christian reader, in which he praises the takes it from  VL  gamal'he or it gave re
fidelity and loving industry of Bude, and his other 
editors. A French translation was published at paid,' because the camel was supposed to be
Geneva in I56o. (Amst. ed. vol. v. part 2.) We vindictive. The reason is, however, very doubthave now only left the three works, which have ful, for the camel, though usually a complainbeen already referred to as having been taken down ing and occasionally an ill-tempered animal, can
from Calvin's oral delivery, and published carefully scarcely be called vindictive. Gesenius supposes
indeed, but without the advantage of the author's that it is related to  h, hamala,'he or it
own superintendence. [I.] Homiliae in I librumn
Samuelis; put into Latin from a transcript of the carried,' but this is too far-fetched to be even prooral original, and published after Calvin's death by bable.  If the name be Iranian, the Sanskrit
orloiia, and published -fter Calvin'   kramdla would signify the walking animal, from
David Claude, who, in his dedication to Prince ram      would signify the walking animal, from
Maurice of Hesse, calls his labour,'posthuma the root kram,'to walk, step,' but a foreign word
viri magni suboles.' (Amst. ed. vol. ii. part.) might have been modified to adapt it to a Sanskrit
[2.] Conciones in librum Mobi were first publishedroot (Pictet, Or es Indo-Europeennes, i. p. 386).
by eager friends as they were taken down from  2. "1, f. ni-,'a young camel,' where the radical
Calvin's pulpit discourses in the original French; signification is youthfulness. 3. nl1i3'3 (Is. lxvi
they were some years afterwards,'by two pious ), reasonably supposed to mean'T 
purpose'(Betrhasoat isuos wfto cmelas from       dromedaries,'
and learned men selected for the purpose' (Beza's 20) reasonably supposed to mean' dromedaries,'
preface), translated into Latin,' if not with all the that is, swift camels, from  viii., ka) translated
elegance they deserved, still with the utmost care,' danced.       (Est. viii.,  translated
and published by Theodore Beza, with an address in A. V.' camels,' should rather be rendered
to the Christian reader, dated Aug. 14, I593. The'mules,' if the expression'sons of mares' designate
work had, however, been previously translated into the same animals, as seems almost certain (io).
German (in 1587) under the title, Erkldrung des Gesenius compares the Persian dstar, etc., and the
Buchs Hiob in hundert und neun und funfzig Pre- Sanskrit arvatara,'a mule,' the latter, which is
digten. (Amst. ed. vol. ii. part 2.) [3.] The last no doubt the source, meaning that which is more
work which bears the name of Calvin is Pralec- than a horse, as a beast of burden (Pictet, p.
liones in Ezechielis viginti capita priora; collected  355).  Gesenius should, however, have noticed
and translated by Joinville and Bude, and pub- the Sanskrit ushtm,'a camel,' which is found in
lished with a preface addressed to the renowned various Iranian languages (Ibid, pp. 385, 386).
Coligny, by Beza, Jan. 15, i565.  They were     In the Bible, gamal and its equivalents corressimultaneously published in French. (Amst. ed. pond to the genus Camelus, as constituted by
vol. iv. part 2.)                             modem naturalists.'In this arrangement it comThere is great natural propriety in the fact that, prises two species positively distinct, but still posnext to Geneva, the home and centre of all Cal- sessing the common characters of being ruminants
vin's labours, where two editions of his collective without horns, without muzzle, with nostrils formworks were published, in 12 folio vols., in 1578, ing oblique slits, the upper lip divided and sepaand again in I617, in 7 folio vols., the churches of rately movable and extensile, the soles of the feet
Holland and Scotland have' delighted to honour' horny, with two toes covered by unguiculated
the illustrious man to whom they owe so much. claws, the limbs long, the abdomen drawn up, and
We have mentioned the Amsterdam edition, as the the neck, which is long and slender, bent down and
very best collection of the published writings of up, the reverse of that of a horse, which is arched.
Calvin in their original shape; Edinburgh is now  Camels have thirty-six teeth in all, whereof three
doing honour to itself by the publication of a uni- are cuspidate on each side above, six incisors, and
form series of translations, in about 5o octavo two cuspidate on each side below, which, though
volumes, of writings which have helped more per- differently named, still have all more or less the
haps than any others to form the opinion of Re- character of tushes. They have callosities on the
formed Chrstendom.-P. H.                      breast-bone and on the flexures of the joints. Of
CAM~BYSES. r~Aw~A<T~c the four stomachs, which they have in common
CAMBYSES. [AHASUERUS.]                  with other animals chewing the cud, the ventriCAMEL. Three names for the camel occur in culus, or paunch, is provided with membranous
the 0. T., and a fourth is perhaps to be added. cells to contain an extra provision of water, enabling the species to subsist for four or more days
They are as follows:-I. aDl, Arab. anc. and mod. [even as many as sixteen] without drinking. But
TT.,,,.,.,,  when in the desert, the camel has the faculty of
J,., jemel or gemel, and the like in the other smelling it afar off, and then, breaking through all
Semitic languages; Sansk. kramtla, Gr. KdcC/Xos; control, he rushes onwards to drink, stirring the
rot. X >\ /Memph, \element previously with a forefoot, until it is quite
Copt.   &LU.OTAX (Memph.), 6"       i.OTA,,    muddy. Camels are temperate animals, being fed
60JULR,&X (Sah.) The word has been sup- on a march only once in twenty-four hours, with
about a pound-weight of date-stones,* beans, or
posed by Mr. Birch to be found in anc. Egyptian, barley, and are enabled in the wilderness, by means
written kamr (Bunsen, Egypt's Place etc., i. p. of their long flexible necks and strong cuspidate
543), but this is an incorrect reading (see Brugsch's teeth, to snap as they pass at thistles and thorny
sons at least were engaged in preparing the work  * In the original art.'dates,' an error or overfor publication.                              sightl —R. S. P.




CAMEL                     421                  CAMEL
plants, mimosas and caper-trees. They are em- bearance, carried to the length of self-sacrifice in
phatically called the ships of the desert;* having  the practice of obedience, so often exemplified by
to cross regions where no vegetation whatever is the camel's bones in great numbers strewing the
met with, and where they could not be enabled to surface of the desert; when we perceive it furcontinue their march but for the aid of the double nished with a dense wool, to avert the solar heat
or single hunch on the back, which, being corn- and nightly cold, while on the animal, and to clothe
posed of muscular fibre, and cellular substance and lodge his master when manufactured, and
highly adapted for the accumulation of fat, swells know that the female carries milk to feed him;in proportion as the animal is healthy and well fed, we have one of the most incontrovertible examples
or sinks by absorption as it supplies the want of of Almighty power and beneficence in the adaptasustenance under fatigue and scarcity; thus giving  tion of means to a direct purpose that can well be
an extra stock of food without eating, till by ex- submitted to the apprehension of man; for, withhaustion the skin of the prominences, instead of out the existence of the camel, immense portions
standing up, falls over, and hangs like empty bags of the surface of the earth would be uninhabitable
on the side of the dorsal ridge. Now, when to and even impassable.  Surely the Arabs are right,
these endowments are added a lofty stature and'Job's beast is a monument of God's mercy!' The
great agility; eyes that discover minute objects at two species are-I. The Bactrian camel (camelus
a distance; a sense of smell of prodigious acute- Bactrianus of naturalists), which is large and roness, ever kept in a state of sensibility by the ani- bust; naturally with two hunches; and originally
mal's power of closing the nostrils to exclude the a native of the highest table-lands of Central Asia,
acrid particles of the sandy deserts; a spirit, more- where even now wild individuals may be found.
over, of patience, not the result of fear, but of for- The species extends through China, Tartary, and
163. Camels.
Russia, and is principally imported across the ous other intermixtures of races in Asia Minor and
mountains into Asia Minor, Syria, and Persia. It Syria, having for their object to create greater
is also this species which, according to the re- powers of endurance of cold or of heat, or of body
searches of Burckhardt, constitutes the brown  to carry weight or to move with speed, have still
Taoos variety of single-hunched Turkish or Toor- more perplexed the question.
kee camels commonly seen at Constantinople,'2. The Arabian camel or dromedary (camelus
there being a very ancient practice among breeders, dromidarius or Arabicus of naturalists) is properly
not, it appears, attended with danger, of extirpat- the species having naturally but one hunch.' It is
ing with a knife the foremost hunch of the animal probably of Western-Asiatic origin. It has indeed
soon after birth, thereby procuring more space for been supposed to have had its first habitation in
the pack-saddle and load. It seems that this mode  Africa, but the Egyptian monuments do not once
of rendering the Bactrian similar to the Arabian  represent it, nor do the inscriptions and papyri
camel or dromedary (for Burckhardt misapplies the speak of it. The mentions in the Pentateuch do
last name) is one of the principal causes of the not seem to prove that camels were kept in any
confusion and contradictions which occur in the  part of Egypt but its north-eastern tract, at the
descriptions of the two species, and that the vari- time to which they refer the home of strangers, as
we shall shew later. It is evident, however, that
* The expression ship of the desert, now com- the camel was abundant in Syria and Palestine at a,
mon in the West, has its origin in a mistranslation  very early period as a beast of burden.
o.f the Arabic.   markab, a word also ap-'Of the Arabian species two very distinct races
of the Arabic  s  mrkab, a word also ap- are noticed; those of stronger frame but slower
plied to a horse, and signifying a thing ridden on pace, used to carry burdens varying from 500 to
or that carries, its radical meaning, from  ~  700 weight, and travelling little more than twenty-, t.  four miles in a day; and those of lighter form, bred
rakaba,'he or it rode:' it is used for a ship to de- for the saddle with single riders, whereof the fleetest
note that it is a carrier.-R. S. P.           serve to convey intelligence, etc., and travel at the




CAMEL                     422                  CAMEL
rate of upwards of zoo* miles in twenty-four hours.  he seems no longer to have kept them. When
The latter are designated by several appellations, his sons went down to Egypt to buy corn, they
all more or less implying swiftness. The best come took asses. Joseph sent wagons fQr his father and
from Oman, or from the Bisharees in Upper Egypt. the women and children of his house (xlv. I9, 27;
Caravans of loaded camels have always scouts and  xlvi. 5). After the conquest of Canaan, this beast
flankers mounted on these light animals.  The seems to have been but little used by the Israelites,
Romans of the third and fourth centuries of our and it was probably kept only by the tribes borderera, as appears from the' otitia,' maintained in ing on the desert. It is noticeable that an IshEgypt and Palestine several ale, or squadrons maelite was overseer of David's camels (I Chron.
mounted on dromedaries.   Bonaparte formed a xxvii. 30).. On the return from Babylon the people
similar corps, and in China and India the native had camels, perhaps purchased for the journey to
prihces and the East India Company have had    Palestine, but a far greater number of asses (Ezr. ii.
them also.                                     67; Neh. vii. 69).  There is one distinct notice' All camels, from their very birth, are taught to  of the camel being kept in Egypt. It should be
bend their limbs and lie down to receive a load or observed, that when we read of Joseph's buying
a rider.  They are often placed circularly in a the cattle of Egypt, though horses, flocks, herds,
recumbent posture, and together with their loads and asses, are spoken of (Gen. xlvii. I7), camels
form a sufficient rampart of defence against robbers do not occur: they are mentioned as held by the
on horseback. The milk of she-camels is still con- Pharaoh of the exodus (Exod. ix. 3), but this may
sidered a very nutritive cooling drink, and when  only have been in the most eastern part of Lower
turned it becomes intoxicating. Their dung sup- Egypt, for the wonders were wrought in the field of
plies fuel in the desert and in sandy regions where Zoan, at which city this king then doubtless dwelt.
wood is scarce; and occasionally it is a kind of  It is in the notices of the marauding nomad
resource for horses when other food is wanting in tribes that wandered to the east and south of Palesthe wilderness. Their flesh is eaten by the Arabs, tine, that we chiefly read of the camel in Scripture.
who considerthehunch a delicacy, butwas forbidden  In the time of Jacob there seems to have been a
to the Hebrews (Lev. xi. 4; Deut. xiv. 7). On swift regular traffic between Palestine, and perhaps
dromedaries the trotting motion is so hard that to  Arabia, and Egypt, by camel caravans, like that of
endure it the rider requires a severe apprentice- the Ishmaelites or Midianites who bought Joseph
ship; but riding upon slow camels is not disagree- (Gen. xxxvii. 25, 28). In the terrible inroad of
able, on account of the measured step of their walk; the Midianites, the Amalekites, and the Beneladies and women in general are conveyed upon  Kedem, or children of the east,' both they and
them in a kind of wicker-work sedan, known as their camels were without number: and they enthe takht-ravan of India and Persia.'         tered into the land to destroy it' (Judg. vi. 5,
In the history of the Hebrews the camel is used  comp. vii. I2). When Gideon slew Zebah and
only by nomad tribes. This is because the desert is Zalmunna, kings of Midian, he' took away the
the home of the Arabian species, and it cannot thrive ornaments [or'little moons'] that [were] on
in even so fine a climate as that of the valley of the  their camels' necks' (viii. 21), afterwards menNile in Egypt. The Hebrews in the patriarchal tioned, with neck-chains, both probably of gold
age had camels as late as Jacob's journey from  (26). We also find other notices of the camels of
Padan-aram, until which time they mainly led a very the Amalekites (I Sam. xv. 3; xxx. I7), and of
wandering life. With Jacob's sojourn in Palestine, them and other and probably kindred peoples of
and still more, his settlement in Egypt, they be- the same region (xxvii. 8, 9). In the account of
came a fixed population, and thenceforward their the conquest by the Reubenites, the Gadites, and
beast of burden was the ass rather than the camel. the half-tribe of Manasseh, of the Hagarites beyond
The camel is first mentioned in a passage which Jordan, we read that fifty thousand camels were
seems to tell of Abraham's wealth (Gen. xii. I6, as taken (I Chron. v. 18-23). It is not surprising that
xxiv. 35), to which Pharaoh doubtless added, Job, whose life resembles that of an Arab of the
rather than to recount the king's gifts. If the mean- desert, though the modern Arab is not to be taken
ing, however, is that Pharaoh gave camels, it must as the inheritor of his character, should have had a
be remembered that this king was probably one of great number of camels (Job i. 3; xlii. 12). The
the Shepherds who partly lived at Avaris, the Zoan  Arabian Queen of Sheba came with a caravan of
of Scripture, so that the passage would not prove  camels bearing the precious things of her native
that the Egyptians then kept camels, nor that they land (I Kings x. 2; 2 Chron. ix. I). We read also
were kept beyond a tract, at this time, and long  of Benhadad's sending a present to Elisha' of
after, inhabited by strangers. The narrative of the every good thing of Damascus, forty camels' burjourney of Abraham's servant to fetch a wife for den' (2 Kings viii. 9). Damascus, be it rememIsaac portrays the habits of a nomad people, bered, is close to the desert.
-perhaps most of all when Rebekah, like an Arab  In the prophets the few mentions of the camel
damsel, lights off her camel to meet Isaac (xxiv.) seem to refer wholly to foreign nations, excepting
Jacob, like Abraham, had camels (xxx. 43): when  where Isaiah speaks of their use, with asses, in a
he left Padan-aram he'set his sons and his wives caravan bearing presents from the Israelites to the
upon camels' (xxxi. I7); in the present he made to  Egyptians (xxx. 6). He alludes to the camels of
Esau there were' thirty milch camels with their Midian, Ephah, and Sheba, as in the future to
colts' (xxxii. I5). In Palestine, after his return, bring wealth to Zion (lx. 6). The'chariot of
camels' may be symbolical (xxi. 7). Jeremiah
* In the original art.,'the rate of 200 miles;' makes mention of the camels of Kedar, Hazor,
but I can find no instance recorded, nor do I and the Bene-Kedem (xlix. 28-33). Ezekiel proremember any to have occurred while I was in the phecies that the Bene-Kedem should take the land
East, warranting a greater distance than I20 miles of the Ammonites, and Rabbah itself should be
in the twenty-four hours.-R. S. P.'a resting-place for camels' (xxv. 1-5).




CAMERARIUS                   423                CAMERON
Two passages in the N. T.,' It is easier for a logical and ecclesiastical subjects. Of his works
camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for on biblical subjects, the following are the principal:
a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God' (Matt. -Sententiac et sapientia Siracidce; Notatio figuraxix. 24); and the reproof of' blind guides, which rum sermonis in ibris Evv. et apostol. scrr.; Hisstrain at a gnat, and swallow a camel' (xxiii. 24), toria. Christi; Homilice. He wrote a biography
are held to be proverbial expressions. Commenta- of Prince George of Anhalt, 1555 (republished
tors have tried to explain the first, either by sup  with a German translation by Schubert I853) and a
posing the needle's eye to have been a small gate, memoir of Melanchthon (Narratio de Ph. Mel.
or by the reading of Kd/utXos, a rope, probably an ortu, totius vita curriculo et morte, etc.) 1566, reinvented word, for Kd,7UXos, a camel. The former published with notes and documents by Strobel,
idea seems worthy of consideration, especially as Halle, 1777; also Melanchthon's letters in I569.
the passage of a camel through a small gate, cor- (Herzog's Encyclopadie, vol. ii. p. 542, and Conrectly described, when the animal is deprived of his versations Lexicon, Leipzig, 1843, vol. iii p. 142.)
burden, made to kneel, and so unwillingly dragged -J. E. R.
through by force, affords a figure of remarkable
exactness. The'raiment of camel's hair' worn by  CAMERON, JOHN, born in Glasgow in 1579,
St. John the Baptist with a leathern girdle (Matt. laureated in its university 1598, and admitted as a
iii. 4; comp. Mark i. 6), was no doubt a coarse regent 1599. In 600o he taught the classical lanshirt like those worn by the Bedawees, who like- guages in the French College of Bergerac, and
wise make tents of camel's hair. The Baptist's afterwards became professor of philosophy at
seems to have been the same dress as that of Eli- Sedan. He was chosen one of the students supjah (2 Kings i. 8), and others of the earlier prophets ported for four years by the French church, in
(Zech. xiii. 4).-[C. H. S. and R. S. P.]     order that they might devote themselves exclusively
The zoological portion of this article, distin-to sacred studies, and on closing the last year of
guished by marks of quotation, is retained from the this course in Heidelberg, 1608, he composed some
preceding editions.                          theses that excited considerable interest,'De
triplici Dei cum homine foedere.' For ten years
CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM, belonged to an following he acted as colleague to Dr. Primrose in
ancient noble family, of the name of Liebhard,. the charge of the church at Bordeaux, from which
which he exchanged for that of Camerarius, from  he was translated to Saumur, where he officiated as
the circumstance that several of his ancestors had professor of divinity. Driven from France by the
filled the office of chamberlain (Kammerer) to the public commotions of the time, he gave private lecbishops of Bamberg. He was born at Bamberg, tures in London, and in 1622 was appointed prinApril 12, 1500. In 1515 he-entered the University cipal of the university of Glasgow. As he had
of Leipzig. Such was his proficiency in classical committed himself to the royal policy ini opposiliterature that he was elected Professor of Greek at tion to Presbytery, he did not feel himself at home
Erfurt in 1521, where he embraced the principles in his native city, so that he left it in a year, and
of the Reformation. The plague, and the unsettled at Montauban, where he obtained the theological
state of the university, occasioned his removing to chair, he became equally unpopular by his advoWittenberg, where he formed an intimate friend- cacy of the tenet of passive obedience. He died
ship with Melanchthon, at whose recommendation  in 1625, leaving a widow, to whom he had been
he was made Professor of History and the Greek  married but a few months, and three daughters by
language at Numberg in I526. In I530 he was an earlier marriage, whose support was undertaken
one of the deputies to the Diet at Augsburg, where by the French church.
he took a leading part with Melanchthon. Under the  Cameron has won celebrity from his eminent
patronage of Duke Ulrich he removed to the Univer- scholarship, his connection with the Salmurian consity of Tiibingen, where he composed his Elements troversy (Mosheim, Eccl. Hist., cent. 17, sect. ii., p.
qf Rhetoric. In 154I he was employed by the Dukes 2, ch. 2), and especially his abilities as an exegete.
Henry and Maurice of Saxony to remodel the It is in this last capacity that Cameron chiefly has
University of Leipsic. In 1555 he again went as claims on the attention of the biblical student. He
a deputy to the Diet at Augsburg, and in the year has left no regular and sustained commentary on
following to Regensburg. During the last years of any portion of Scripture. In i626-28, his Prehis life he withdrew almost entirely from public lectiones in selectiora loca Novi Testamenti appeared
affairs, and died at Leipsic April 15, I574, leaving in three 4to volumes; in 1632, a separate 4to was
behind him five sons, all men of worth and reputa- edited by Cappel, under the title, Myrothecium
tion; one of them, especially Joachim, attained to Evangelicum, in quo aliquot loca N. T. explicantur;
great eminence as a botanist, and practised as a and in 1642, all his theological works, with the
physician at his native place, Niiraburg. (Born Nov. exception of the Myrothecium, were collected into
5, 1534, died 1598).                         one folio.  His treatises in the body of his works
Camerarius was a man of the strictest integrity, are polemical disquisitions on particular texts
quiet and taciturn; disposed to moderation, but of rather than exegetical inquiries into their meangreat energy and perseverance in the two great ing. So far as the latter process is made the basis
objects to which he devoted his life, the cultivation on which his doctrinal and controversial concluof classical learning and the advancement of the sions rest, it is of great value, from the subtle tact
Reformation. To the former he contributed by and luminous precision with which it is conducted.
numerous editions of the Greek and Latin classics Many of the topics are of great interest, while the
(of which a list is given by Fabricius in his Biblio- discussion of them is by no means trite or supertheca Graca) and by the improvements he intro- seded by later exegesis. The passages expounded
duced into several of the German Universities. relate to the primacy of Peter, the consistency of
The latter he aided by his advocacy on important grace with responsibility, the ascension of Christ,
public occasions, and by various writings on theo- his second advent, etc., from Matthew xvi. 18, 19;




CAMON                     424           CANA OF GALILEE
Phil. ii. 12, 13: Ps. lxviii. 9g; Mat. xvi. 27; xvii. lay down clearly the principles and criterion of
10-13; xvii. 14, I5; xvii. 24-27; xviii. I; xviii. biblical interpretation, and abound in sound criti2-5; xviii. 7; xviii. 8, 9; xviii. 10; xviii. I5-20; cism. The translation presents generally the sense
xix. 3. The notes in the Myrothecium are much  of the original, but is disfigured by false taste and
shorter, comprehending no small part of the ex- a stilted artificial style. The appended notes are,
pository matter in the Praelectiones; but besides like the dissertations, worthy of commendation.
this, it has a great variety of short notes on dif- CAMPHIRE. [KPHER.]
ferent parts of mostly all the books of the
N. T. There are no special principles on which  CANA OF GALILEE (Kava r^o raX\dtas),
the author proceeds. He seems fond of discover- a village only mentioned by the Evangelist John.
ing a Hebraistic tinge in many phrases.  His It was the native place of Nathanael; but it was
consummate knowledge of the original tongue ena- chiefly. celebrated as the scene of Jesus' first
bles him to apprehend with singular clearness the miracle, in turning the water into wine (John xxi.
scope of any statement, while he can give his 2; ii. I- I). It appears from the Bible that it was
readers his conclusions respecting it in language at not far from Nazareth; and an incidental remark
once terse and perspicuous. They may not concur of Josephus shews that it was a night's march diswith him in his views, but they are sure to profit tant from Tiberias (Vit. I6. I7).  Eusebius and
from the freshness and point with which they are Jerome represent Cana as identical with Kanah, a
given. —W. H. G.                              town of Asher (Josh. xix. 28; Onomast. s. v.);
S   Vat. ac; Alex. but the latter was much farther north. [KANAH].
CAMON (pDi,; Sept. PaTrvSv; Vat. paTcS; Alex.  The true site of Cana of Galilee now forms a subKapuGv, 7osephus). The burial-place of Jair the ject of keen dispute. Some affirm that it is at the
Gileadite. Its exact site is not known, but Josephus village of Kefr Kenna, three miles north-east of
asserts that it was in Gilead (Ant. v. 7. 6) which  Nazareth; others at Kana, eight miles north of
is highly probable, as that was the native country  Nazareth. The-arguments in favour of each may
of Jair, and the district in which his family had ex- be thus summed up, taking the latter first.
tensive possessions (Judg. x. 4). Dr. Robinson, in   Kana.  Cana of Galilee isuniformly rendered
his Later Biblical Researches (p. 114) mentions a
Caimon, which he identifies with the Cammona of inthe Arabic version Kana-el-eil (L.L  Ui?,
Eusebius, and the Cimana of Jerome, near the
plain of Esdraelon, but supposes it may be the site and this is the proper name of Kana as known to
of a still earlier city, Jokneam; he makes no al- the people of the district. Saewulf, who visited
lusion, however, to the burial-place of Jair.-  Palestine in A. D. IO2, says,'Six miles to the N.E.
J. E. R.                                      of Nazareth, on a hill, is Cana of Galilee' (Early
Trav. in Pal., p. 47). This can only refer to
CAMP. [ENCAMPMENT. ]Kana. Marinus Sanutus, in the fourteenth century,
CAMPBELL, GEORGE, an eminent preacher, describes Cana as lying north of Sepphoris, on the
divine, and metaphysician of the Church of Scot- side of a high hill, with a broad fertile plain in
land, born at Aberdeen in I719. He shewed early front (Gesta Dei, p. 253). Quaresmius states that
talent, and prepared himself for the law till the in his time (A.D. I620) two Canas were pointed
age of 22, when he devoted himself to the study of out, one of which is Kana-el-Jelil (Elucd. ii. 852).
theology, attending lectures both in King's College
and in Marischal College, and at the same time  2. Kefr Kenna. The name of this place (
forwarding his general improvement by joining a  a  n aa            aa.  
learned society. He was ordained minister of Ban-bears no analogy to the Cana ( t) of the Gospel;
chory-Ternan in 1748, and there began those lite- yet the monks at Nazareth, and most modern
rary labours which have given him a lasting repu- travellers attempt to identify them. The tradition
tation.  In 1757 he was translated to Aberdeen, attached to Kenna cannot be traced farther back
where he acquired great fame as a preacher, and  than the seventeenth century. De Saulcy says St.
as a lecturer on rhetoric and criticism. In I759 Willibald alludes to it; but he gives no indication
he was appointed Principal of Marischal College, of the position of Cana (Early Trav. in Pal., p.
and soon after published his celebrated Dissertation  I6). Phocas is also indefinite. Quaresmius is the
on Miracles, in answer to Hume's essay on the same first who mentions it. He speaks of both Kana
subject. This work passed through several editions, and Kenna; but he gives his opinion in favour of
and was translated into French, Dutch, and Ger- the latter. From his time until within the last few
man. In 1771 he was elected Professor of Divinity years, Kefr Kenna has been almost universally
in Marischal College, and devoted himself with the regarded as Cana. The arguments in favour of its
greatest energy to the duties of that office. In  claims are fully given by De Saulcy (journey, ii.
1795, having attained the age of 76, he resigned 376, sq.); while those of its rival are stated by
his professorship, and soon after, on receiving a Robinson (B. R., ii. 346).
pension of ~300 a-year from Government, also    On reviewing the arguments, there can be little
gave up his office of principal. In the following  difficulty in deciding that Kana-el-Jelil is the true
year he was struck with paralysis, and died.  site of Cana of Galilee. The ruins occupy a fine
Besides his Dissertation on Miracles, and the position on the declivity of a hill, looking out over
Lectures on Ecclesiastical History, which were pub- the rich plain of Battauf. It is about five miles
lished after his death, he published in I776 his from Sepphoris, and seventeen from Capernaum
Philosophy of Rhetoric, and at a later date his and Tiberias. When visited by the writer in the
Translation of the four Gospels, with preliminary  spring of x857 it was uninhabited, and had the
disserlations and explanatory notes. This has long  appearance of having been so for many years, though
been a standard work in biblical literature. The a few of the houses were standing. There are no
Preliminary Dissertations are very valuable; they traces of antiquity except a few cisterns; and the




CANAAN                      425                  CANAAN
probability is it was always an obscure village. In  monks shew them at Kefr Kenna!  (Robinson,
former times, the house in which the marriage-feast..  346, sq; iii. 108; Thomson's Land
was held, and the water-pots themselves, were aznd( the /Book, 426, sq.; Van de VclMc ii. 405).shewn to travellers at Kana-el-Jell; but now the J. I 
A;-.y.  a. —! ~ —-----
104. Cana: Kefr Kenna.
CANAAN (j~_3; Sept. Xavai,), son of t1am      Aram was a son of Shem, and his descendants
and grandson of Noah. The transgression of hiscolonised the country of Aram    (Gen. x. 21-3i).
father Haml (Gen. ix. 22-27), to wlich some sup- The view of Gesenius is not even supported by the
pose Canaan to have been in some way a party, physical geography of the countries referred to.
gave occasion to Noah to pronounce that doom o        cannot, with any rega
the descendants of Canaan which was, perhaps, a'highland region.' It comprised the vast plains
at that moment made known to him by one of thosealong the banks of the Euphrates, and westward to
extemporaneous inspirations with which the patri-the Orontes and Anti-libanus.  Canaan, on the
archal fathers appear in other instances to have  contrary, is a hil country, with strips of plain
been favou-red [BIESSING].  That there is no justalong the coast. In one passage it is distinguished
ground for the conclusion that the descendants of from  the  ow  valley of the Jordan- Abram
Canaa N     Qwere curslled as an immediate lcoanseqece  of        Canaan, and Lot dwelled in
the transgression of Ham, is shewn by Professor
Bush, who, in his Nodtes on Genesis, has fairly met GCanczz is not confined to the Bible. It occurs on
the difficulties of the subject.                some of the most ancient monuments of Egypt
(Kenrick's P/z'zpci'a, p. 40).  It is also mentioned
CANAAN,     LAND   OF.-The   ancient name of by Sanchoniathon and Stephanus of Byzantium
CouNtry   A    D between  I  Jorane valley ad  as the original name of Phenicia; and it is found
t   ne coruntry lying bhetwdeen tne Jordan valley                                 an-'Ar.nd
the   werote lying ba.t.een immedi  3o*  c. iii. on and old Phcenician coin of Laodicia (Kenrick,
the Mediterranean (Gen. xii. 5; xvi. 3; Judg.  Pkuiii. pp 42 460, (e.ae2I           seiI.
I).  Different opinions are held regarding the  xxii i                andlate2; Gesen.in Is.
origin and meaning of the name.  Gesenius states                 bodaries of Canaan are given
that it is from the root,  one meaning of whichi                      tolerable exactness in the Bible. On the west
is'to be low or depressed;' and that the country is the sea was its border from Sidon to Gaza (Gen. x.
so called because of its low situation, as contrasted  i9). On the south it was bounded by a line runwith the'highlands' of Aram (sTiescaucrs; Stan- ning from Gaza to the southern end of the Dead
ley, S. and P., i28, 263. Others think that it is so  Sea, including the Judean hills, but excluding the
called as contrasted with the mountains and plateau  country of the Amalekites (Gen. x. 9; Num. xiii.
of Gilead.  Such views are purely fanciful, and29). The Jordan was the eastern boundary; no
they are at variance with the plain statements of part of Canaan lay beyond that river (Num. xxxiii.
the Bible.  Canaan was the son of Ham.     He   5I; Exod. xvi. 35, with Josh. v. 2; xxii. II.
and his family colonised western Syria, and whileSee Reland, Pal. 3, sq.)  On  the north, Canaan
the whole region took his name, different sections extended as far as Hamath, which was also the
of it were called after his sons (Gen. x. 15-20). utmost boundary of the'land of promise' (Gen.
ofGled     Sc  ves  r prl fnifl ad29.th                  ora    aste atenbonar;n
thyar  t aiac  it  hepai  taeetso       pr o    aaa    aybyodthtrve Nu.xxii
th   ile   aaa   a   tesn  fIla.H      5     xo.xi-3,wihjs.12;Xii      I




CANAAN                    426             CANAANITES
xvii. 8; Num. xxxiv. 8).  The coast from Sidon most weight (see Gesenius, Gesch. d. Heb. Spr.
northwards to Arvad, and the -ridge of Lebanon, p. 16).
were inhabited by Canaanites, though they do not  To account for this some have supposed that the
appear to have been included in Canaan proper Canaanites and the Hebrews were of the same ori(Gen. x. 15-19. See Bochart, Opp. i. 308, sq. ginal stock, and that the account in Genesis of their
Reland, Pal. 3, sq.)                        being descended from different branches of the
While such was the country usually called Noachic family is a fiction to be put to the account
Canaan in the Bible, we find that the name was of national bigotry on the part of the writer. But
sometimes used in a much more limited sense. this is a hypothesis utterly without foundation,
Thus, in Num. xiii. 29,'The Hittites and the and which carries its own confutation in itself; for
Jebusites and the Amorites dwell in the mountains; had national bigotry directed the writer, he would
and the Canaanites dwell by the sea, and by the coast have excluded the Edomites, the Ammonites, the
of the Yordan.' In 2 Sam. xxiv. 7, the Canaan- Moabites, from the Shemitic family, as well as the
ites are distinguished from the Hivites, though the Canaanites, nay, would hardly have allowed the
latter were descended from Canaan; and in several Canaanites to claim descent from the righteous
passages the Canaanites are mentioned with the Noah.  The list of the nations in Gen. xi. is
Hittites, Amorites, Jebusites, etc., as if they con- accepted by some of the most learned and unfetstituted a special portion of the population (Exod. tered scholars of Germany as a valuable and trustiii. 8; Deut. vii. I; Josh. iii. IO). The prophet worthy document (Knobel, Vdlkertafel der Genesis,
Zephaniah uses Canaan as a specific name for 1850, Bertheau Beitrige, p. 174, I79). But if
Philistia (ii. 5).  Isaiah (xxiii. I) appears to give these were different races, how came they to have
this name to Phoenicia-' The Lord gave command- the same language? Knobel thinks that the country
ment concerning Canaan to destroy her strong- was first occupied by a Semitic race, the descenholds.' The A.V. renders (n3'Merchant City,' dants of Lud, and that the Hamites were immi(Sept. Xava&v). So the person called by Mark a grants who adopted the language of the country' Syrophenician' (vii. 26), is called by Matthew  into which they came (p. 204 ff.) Grotius, on the
(xv. 22)'a woman of Canaan.' The Septuagint other hand, Le Clerc and others, are of opinion
often translate Canaan'Phcenicia;' as in Exod. that Abraham acquired the language of the country
xvi. 35; Josh. v. 12. It is not easy to understand into which he came, and that Hebrew is consewhy there should be so much diversity in the use quently a Hamitic and not a Shemitic language
of the name Canaan. The most probable explana- (Grotius, Disselt. de Ling. Heb., prefixed to his
tion is, that while some of the tribes which in- Commentary; Le Clerc, De Ling. Heb.; Beke,
habited Syria retained for their territories the name Origines Biblica?, p. 230; Winning, Manual of Comof their common ancestor Canaan, others pre- par Philology, p. 275); by later writers Abraham's
ferred taking, as a distinctive appellation, the name native tongue is supposed to have been Indo-gerof some subsequent head or chief of the tribe. manic or Aryan. On the other hand, some main-'he very same practice prevails to this day among tain that Abraham retained the use of the primeval
the great Arab tribes of Arabia.  For an account language, and brought it with him to Canaan; conof the geography, etc., of Canaan, see PALES- tending that, had he borrowed the language of the
TINE.-J. L. P.                              country into which he came, the result would have
been a less pure language than the Hebrew, and
CANAAN, LANGUAGE OF, (I2_3 ng0, lip of we should have found in it traces of idolatrous
Canaan).  This expression occurs Is. xix. 18,notions and usages (Havernick, Jinleit. 151, E. T.
where it undoubtedly designates the language p. 133; Pareau, Inst. Interp., p. 25, E. T., i. p.
spoken by the Jews dwelling in Palestine. The use 27). This last ls the oldest opinion, and there is
of such an expression, however, suggests the ques- much to be urged in its favour. It, however, leaves
tion as to the relation of the Hebrew to the lan-the close affinity of the language of Abraham and
guage spoken by the inhabitants of Canaan at the that of the Canaanites unaccounted for. The hytime of the immigration of Abraham. Was that pothesis that Abraham acquired the language of
language the Hebrew? and if so, how is this to be the Canaanites, and that this remained in his
accounted for?                               family is certainly the one least burdened with diffiThat the language spoken by the Canaanites was culties, and accounts not only for the affinity of the
substantially identical with Hebrew, appears-I. Hebrew and Phenician tongues, but for the ease
From the fact that the proper names of Canaan- with which Abraham and his son made themselves
itish persons and places are Hebrew, and can be ac- understood in Egypt, and for the affinity of the
counted for etymologically from the Hebrew as ancient Egyptian and several moder African lanreadily as Hebrew proper names themselves. Thus guages with the Hebrew. (See Bleek, Einleit. ins
A. T., p. 6I ff.; J. G. Miiller. in Herzog's Real.we have DtW, pD"5n.'12Kn, In ron'   etc.; Enc., Bd. vii., p. 240.)-W. L. A.
2. Close as was the intercourse of the Hebrews
with the Canaanites, there is no hint of their need-  CANAANITE, THE (6 Kavavtrf7s, var. lee.
ing any interpreter to mediate between them; KavaveirTs, Kavavatos, XavavaCos, Matt. x. 4;
which renders it probable that their respective lan-   iii. 8), eqivalent to the Syr.  an
guages were so nearly allied to each other as to beMark  8 equivalent to the Syr.   and
substantially the same; 3. The remains of the the Gr. tX&woris. [SIMON.]
Phoenician  language, which was undoubtedly
Canaanitish, bear the closest analogy to the He-  CANAANITES (C.1.1 the Canaanite collecbrew, and are best explained from it; which proves tively; sometimes also as a gentile adjective (Gen.
them to be substantially the same language (Bo- xxxviii. 2, etc.); Sept. Kavavacot), the descendants
chart, Geogr. Sac. ii col. 699 ff., ed. 1682). Other of Canaan, the son of Ham and grandson of Noah,
reasons might be adduced, but these are of the inhabitants of the land of Canaan and the adjoin.




CANAANITES                    427                CANDACE
ing districts.  A general account of the different the Rephaim, or giants (Deut. iii. I ). The tract
nations included in the term is given in the present of which they thus became possessed was sibsearticle, and a more detailed account of each will quently allotted to the tribes of Reuben and Gad,
be found under their respective names.         and the half tribe of Manasseh.
The Israelites were delivered fiom  Egypt by   After the death of Moses the Israelites crossed
Moses, in order that they might take possession of the Jordan, and, under the conduct of Joshua, took
the land which God had promised to their fathers. possession of the greater part of the Promised Land,
This country was then inhabited by the descend- and destroyed its inhabitants. Several cities, howants of Canaan, who were divided into six or seven  ever, still held out, particularly Jebus, afterwards
distinct nations, viz., the Hittites, Girgashites, Jerusalem, which was not taken till the time of
Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites, and Je- David (2 Sam. v. 6), and Sidon, which seems
busites (Exod. iii. 17, where the Girgashites are never to have yielded to the tribe of Asher, to
not mentioned; Dent. vii. I, etc.)  All these whom it was allotted (Judg. i. 31).   Scattered
tribes are included in the most general acceptation  portions also of the Canaanitish nations escaped,
of the term Canaanites; but the word, in its more and were fiequently strong enough to harass, though
restricted sense, as applied to one tribe, designated  not to dispossess, the Israelites.  The inhabitants
those'who dwelt by the sea, and by the coasts of of Gibeon, a tribe of the Hivites, made peace by
Jordan' (Num. xiii. 29). Besides these'seven  stratagem, and thus escaped the destruction of their
nations,' there were several tribes of the Canaanites fellow-countrymen.  Individuals from amongst the
who lived beyond the borders of the Promised   Canaanites seem, in later times, to have united
Land, northward. These were the Arkites, Sin- themselves, in some way, to the Israelites, and not
ites, Arvadites, Zemarites, and Hamathites (Gen. only to have lived in peace, but to have been
x. 17, I8), with whom, of course, the Israelites capable of holding places of honour and power;
had no concern.  There were also other tribes of thus Uriah, one of David's captains, was a Hittite
Canaanitish origin (or possibly other names given  (I Chron. xi. 4I). In the time of Solomon, when
to some of those already mentioned), who were the kingdom had attained its highest glory and
dispossessed by the Israelites. The chief of these greatest power, all the remnants of these nations
were the Amalekites, the Anakites, and the Rep- were made tributary, and bond-service was exacted
haim (or'giants,' as they are frequently called in from them (I Kings ix. 20, 2I). The Girgashites
our translation).* These nations, and especially  seem to have been either wholly destroyed or abthe six or seven so frequently mentioned by name, sorbed in other tribes.  We find no mention of
the Israelites were commanded to dispossess and  them subsequent to the book of Joshua, and the
utterly to destroy (Exod. xxiii. 23; Num. xxxiii. opinion that the Gergesenes, or Gadarenes, in the
53; Deut. xx. I6, I7). The destruction, however, time of our Lord, were their descendants, has very
was not to be accomplished at once. The promise little evidence to support it (Rosenmiiller, Scholia
on the part of God was that he would'put out in Gen. x. I6; Reland, Palcestina, i. 27, p. 138).
those nations by little and little,' and the com- The Anakites were completely destroyed by Joshua,
mand to the Israelites corresponded with it; except in three cities, Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod
the reason given being,'lest the beasts of the  (Josh. xi. 21-23); and the powerful nation of the
field increase upon thee' (Exod. xxiii. 29; Deut. Amalekites, many times defeated and continually
vii. 22).                                      harassing the Israelites, were at last totally deThe destructive war commenced with an attack  stroyed by the tribe of Simeon (I Chron. iv. 43).
on the Israelites, by Arad, king of the Canaanites, Even after the return of the Jews from the Babywhich issued in the destruction of several cities in lonish captivity, there were survivors of five of the
the extreme south of Palestine, to which the name  Canaanitish nations with whom alliances had been
of Hormah was given (Num. xxi. I-3).     The made by the Jews, contrary to the commands
Israelites, however, did not follow up this victory, which had been given them. Some of the Canaanwhich was simply the consequence of an unpro- ites, according to ancient tradition, left the land
voked assault on them; but, turning back, and  of Canaan on the approach of Joshua, and emicompassing the land of Edom, they attempted to  grated to the coast of Africa.  Procopius (De
pass through the country on the other side of the Bello Vandalico, ii. Io) relates that there were in
Jordan, inhabited by a tribe of the Amorites. Numidia, at Tigisis (Tingis), two columns on
Their passage being refused, and an attack made which were inscribed, in Phoenician characters,
on them by Sihon, king of the Amorites, they not 1/Lets ^-liAv orl )vuy6vres al7ro rpoa7rou'Ir/ov 70 o
only forced their way through his land, but de- Xo-roO vioV Nav?-' We are those who fled from
stroyed its inhabitants, and proceeding onwards the face of Joshua, the robber, the son of Naue.'
towards the adjoining kingdom of Bashan, they in (Bochart, Geogr. Sac., i. 24; Michaelis, Laws of
like manner destroyed the inhabitants of that dis- Moses, art. 31, vol. i. p: I76, Smith's Transl.;
trict, and slew Og, their king, who was the last of Winer's Reaiwvorterbuch, arts.' Canaaniter' and'Josua.')-F. W. G.
* Other tribes are mentioned in the promise to
Abraham (Gen. xv. I9), viz., the Kenites, Keniz-  CANDACE, or, more correctly, KANDAKE
zites, and Kadmonites.  Of these the Kenites, or (both the c's being hard), was the name of that
at least a branch of them, seem to have adhered to  queen of the Ethiopians (KavSdcK-q/ 41 aoatXto-ca
the Israelites, through their connection by marriage AiOo6rrv) whose high treasurer was converted to
with Moses (Judg. iv. I ), and they were treated  Christianity under the preaching of Philip the Evanwith kindness when the Amalekites were destroyed  gelist (Acts viii. 27). The country over which she
by Saul (I Sam. xv. 6).  The others are not else- ruled was not, as some writers allege, what is
where mentioned-the term Kenezite, applied to  known to us as Abyssinia; it was that region in
Caleb (Josh. xiv. 14), being a patronymic.  (See Upper Nubia which was called by the Greeks
Josh. xv. 17.)                                 Aeroe; and is supposed to correspond to the present




CANDACE                    428             CANDLESTICK
province of Atbara, lying between I30 and I8~0  Ethiojp. p. 89).  [ETHIOPIA; ABYSSINIA.]north latitude.  From  the circumstance of its N. M.
being nearly enclosed by the Atbara (Astaboras
or Tacazze) on the right, and the Bahr el Abiad,  CANDLESTICK    (n'i:n; Sept. i Xuvvla).
or White river, and the Nile, on the left, it was The candelabrum which Moses was commanded
sometimes designated the' Island' of Meroe; but to make for the tabernacle, after the model shewn
the ancient kingdom appears to have extended at him in the Mount, is chiefly known to us by the
one period to the north of the island as far as passages in Exod. xxv. 31-40; xxxvii. I7-24; on
Mount Berkal. Meroe, from being long the centre which some additional light is thrown by the
of commercial intercourse between Africa and the Jewish writers, and by the representation of the
south of Asia, became one of the richest countries spoils of the Temple on the arch of Titus.
upon earth; the'merchandise' and wealth of
Ethiopia (Is. xlv. 14) was the theme of the poets     rboth of Palestine and Greece; and since much of
that affluence would find its way into the royal
coffers, the circumstance gives emphasis to the
phrase-irdoa- s rj ydrs s,' all the treasure' of Queen
Candace. It is further interesting to know, from
the testimonies of various profane authors, that for 
some time both before and after the Christian era,
Ethiopia Proper was under the rule of female
sovereigns, who all bore the appellation of' Candace,' which was not so much a proper name as
a distinctive title, common to every successive
queen, like'Pharaoh' and'Ptolemy' to the kings
of Egypt, and' Caesar' to the emperors of Rome.
(Pliny, hist. Nat. vi. 29; Strabo, p. 820, ed. Casaub., comp. Dion Cassius, liv. 5. Eusebius, who
flourished in the fourth century, says, that in his
day the Queens of Ethiopia continued to be called 
Candace.
A curious confirmation of the fact of female
sovereignty having prevailed in Ethiopia has been             f
remarked on the existing monuments of the country.  Thus, on the largest sepulchral pyramid
near Assour, the ancient Meroe (see Cailliaud,
plate xlvi.), a female warrior, with the royal en-                65
signs on her head, drags forward a number of
captives as offerings to the gods; on another com-  The material of which it was made was fine
partment she is m a warlike habit, about to de- gold, of which an entire talent was expended on
stroy the same group. Heeren, after describing the candelabrum itself and its appendages. The
the monuments at Naga, or Naka, south-east of mode in which the metal was to be worked is
Shendy, says,' It is evident that these representa- described by a term which appears to mean wrought
tions possess many peculiarities, and that they are with the hammer, as opposed to cast by fusion.
not pure Egyptian. The most remarkable diffe- The structure of the candelabrum, as far as it is
rence appears in the persons offering. The queens defined in the passages referred to, consisted of a
appear with the kings; and not merely as present- base; of a shaft rising out of it; of six arms,
ing offerings, but as heroines and conquerors. which came out by threes from two opposite sides
Nothing of this kind has yet been discovered on of the shaft; of seven lamps, which were supported
the Egyptian reliefs, either in Egypt or Nubia. It on the summits of the central shaft and the six
may therefore with certainty be concluded, that arms; and of three different kinds of ornaments
they are subjects peculiar to Ethiopia.  Among belonging to the shaft and arms. These ornaments
the Ethiopians, says Strabo (p. 1177), the women are called by names which mean cups, globes, and
also are armed.  Herodot[ (ii. Ioo) mentions a blossoms. The cups receive, in verse 33, the epithet
Nitocris among the ancient queens of Ethiopia. almond-shaped (it being uncertain whether the reUpon the relief [on the monument at Kalabshe] semblance was to thefruit or to theflowers). Three
representing the conquest of Ethiopia by Sesostris, such cups are allotted to every arm; but four to
there is a queen, with her sons, who appears before the shaft: two-and-twenty in all. Of the four on
him as a captive' (Hereen, On the Nations of Africa, the shaft, three are ordered to be placed severally
vol. ii. p. 399). Irenaeus (iii. 12) and Eusebius under the spots where the three pairs of arms set
(Hist. Eccl. ii. I) ascribe to Candace's minister her out from the shaft. The place of the fourth is not
own conversion to Christianity, and the promulga- assigned; but we may conceive it to have been
tion of the Gospel throughout her kingdom; and either between the base and the cup below the
with this agrees the Abyssinian tradition, that he lowest tier of arms, or, as Bahr prefers, to have
was likewise the apostle of Tigre, that part of been near the summit of the shaft. As for the
Abyssinia which lay nearest to Meroe; it is added name of the second ornament, the word only
that he afterwards preached the Gospel in Arabia occurs in two places in the Old Testament, in
Felix, and also in the island of Ceylon, where which it appears to mean the capital of a column;
he suffered martyrdom.  (See Tillemont, Mem. but the Jewish writers generally (cited in Ugolini,
Hist. Eccl. tom. ii.; Basnage, Exercitatt. anti- Thesaur. xi. 917) concur in considering it to mean
Baron. p. 113; Ludolph, Comment ad Hist. apples in this place. Josephus, as he enumerates




CANDLESTICK                   429                  CANNE
four kinds of ornaments, and therefore two of his to the latter signification, and build on a tradition
terms must be considered identical, may be sup- that the central lamp alone burnt from evening to
posed to have understood globes, or pomegranates evening, the other six being extinguished by day
(a-aLptpa abv foAt'Kos, Antiq. iii. 6. 7). But as the (Reland, Antiq. i. 5, 8).
term here used is not the common name for pome-  In the first temple, instead of this single candegranates, and as the Sept. and Vulgate render it labrum, there were ten candelabra of pure gold
0ac-pwor7pes and sphcerule, it is safest to assume (whose structure is not described, although flowers
that it denotes bodies of a spherical shape, and to  are mentioned: I Kings vii 49; 2 Chron. iv. 7),
leave the precise kind undefined. Bahr, however, one half of which stood on the north and the other
is in favour of apples (Symbolik, i. 414). The name on the south side of the Holy Place. These were
of the third ornament means blossom, bud; but it carried away to Babylon (Jer. lii. x9). In the
is so general a term that it may apply to any flower. temple of Zerubbabel there again appears to have
The Sept., Josephus, and Maimonides, understand  been only one candelabrum (I Maccab. i. 23; iv.
it of the lily; and Bihr prefers the flower of the 49, 50). It is probable that it also had only seven
almond. It now remains to consider the manner lamps. At least, that was the case in the candelain which these three ornaments were attached to brum of the Herodian temple, according to the dethe candelabrum.  The obscurity of verse 33, scription of Josephus (De Bell.?ud. vii. 5. 5).
which orders that there shall be'three almond- This candelabrum is the one which, after the deshaped cups on one arm, globe and blossom, and struction of Jerusalem, was carried with other
three almond-shaped cups on the other arm, globe spoils to Rome; then, A.D. 455, became a part of
and blossom; so on all the arms which come out the plunder which Genseric transported to Africa;
of the shaft,' has led some to suppose that there was again, about A.D. 533, recaptured from the
was only one globe and blossom to every three Vandals by Belisarius, and carried to Constancups. However, the fact that, according to verse tinople, and was thence sent off to Jerusalem, and
34, the shaft (which, as being the principal part of from that time has disappeared altogether. It is
the whole, is here called the candelabrum itself), to this candelabrum that the representation on the
which had only four cups, is ordered to have arch of Titus at Rome was intended to apply; and,
globes and blossoms (in the plural), is a sufficient although the existence of the figures of eagles and
proof to the contrary.                        marine monsters on the pediment of that lamp
It is to be observed, that the original text does tends, with other minor objections, to render the
not define the height and breadth of any part of accuracy of that copy very questionable (as it is inthe candelabrum; nor whether the shaft and arms credible the Jews should have admitted any such
were of equal height; nor whether the arms were graven images into their temple), yet there is reacurved round the shaft, or left it at a right angle, son to believe that, in other points, it may be
and then ran parallel with it. The Jewish autho- relied upon as a reasonably correct representation
rities maintain that the height of the candelabrum  of the Herodian candelabrum. Reland has devoted
was eighteen palms, or three ells; and that the a valuable little work to this subject, De Spoliis
distance between the outer lamps on each side was  Templi Hierosolym. in Arcu Titiano, ed. sec.
two ells. Bahr, however, on the ground of har- Schulze, 1775.-J. N.
monical proportion with the altar of incense and
table of shew-bread, the dimensions of which are  CANE (or CALAMUS), SWEET, an aromatic
assigned, conjectures that the candelabrum was seed, mentioned among the drugs with which saonly an ell and a half high and broad. The cred perfumes were compounded (Ezek. xxvii. 19).
Jewish tradition uniformly supports the opinion [KANEH, KANEH-BOSEM.]
that the arms and shaft were of equal height; as  CANKER-WORM. [YELEQ.]
do also Josephus and Philo (/. c.; Quis Rer. Div.
Her. sec. 44); as well as the representation on the  CANNE, JOHN. The place and date of his
arch of Titus. Scacchius has, however, maintained  birth are unknown, though the latter is supposed to
that they formed a pyramid, of which the shaft be about 1590. He is said to have been originally
was the apex.                                 a minister of the Established Church, but for the
This candelabrum was placed in the Holy Place, greater part of his life he was one of its most deon the south side (i.e., to the left of a person enter- cided opponents. In 1621 he was chosen pastor
ing the tabernacle), opposite the table of shew- over a Nonconformist (Neal says a Brownist or Inbread (Exod. xxvi. 35). Its lamps, which were dependent) church' in London.  After preaching
supplied with pure olive oil only, were lighted  in that capacity for a year or two, he was driven by
every evening, and extinguished (as it seems) every the severity of the times to Holland, and became
morning (Exod. xxvii. 21; xxx. 7, 8; Lev. xxiv. pastor of the ancient English Church at Amster3; I Sam. iii. 3; 2 Chron. xiii. II). Although  dam, carrying on at the same time the business of
the tabernacle had no windows, there is no good a printer. After seventeen years' absence, he reground for believing that the lamps burnt by day turned to his native land in I640. Between the
in it, whatever may have been the usage of the years 1634 and 1640 he had become a Baptist, and
second temple. It has also been much disputed in 1641 visited Bristol, and as'a baptized man'
whether the candelabrum stood lengthwise or dia- was invited to assist in the formation of the Broadgonally as regards the tabernacle; but no conclu- mead Baptist church in that city. He again sufsive argument can be adduced for either view. As fered severity from  the dominant ecclesiastical
the lamp on the central shaft was by the Jewish  powers, though acquitted when brought to trial,
writers called N2i.'At, the western, or evening about five months before Cromwell's death, in
lamp, some maintain that the former name could  I658. How soon after this he returned to Amsternot be applicable unless the candelabrum  stood dam is not known, but he died there in 1667. The
across the tabernacle, as then only would the cen. work by which he is best known, and which has
tral lamp point to the west.  Others again adhere conferred upon him a lasting reputation, is his




CANNEH                      430                  CANON
Reference Bible, which has formed the basis of all while Semler (Von Freier Untersuchungen des
similar undertakings. Eleven editions at least are  Canons), Doederlein (Institutio  Theol.  Christ.
known to have been published in little more than a tom. i. p. 83), and others, define it as' The List
century, from i644 to. I754. They are given in  of the Books publicly read in the meetings of the
Anderson's Annals of the English Bible, Lond. early Christians.' The former of these definitions
I845, vol. ii. p. 559, who says-' Several of these eviscerates the term Canon, as applied to the sacred
books are but too incorrect, and many of the later writings, of its proper meaning; and the latter is
have been corrupted by additional texts.' His doubly erroneous, as it not onlyomits the main chaother works are numerous, and occasioned by the racteristic of the Canon, its divine authority, but subpeculiar circumstances of the times.  (Canne's stitutes for this a characteristic which is historically
Necessity of Separation from the Church of Eng- false, as the Canon was not at any time synonyland, etc., with an Introductory Notice by the Rev. mous with the list of books read in public in the
C. Stovel, London, I849; Neal's Hist. of the Pui- early churches. De Wette and some others would
tans, 1732, vol. ii. ch. 7.)-J. E. R.          identifythe Canon, at least as respects the Old TestaCANNEH (Ezek. xxvii. 23), probably the same ment, with the national literature ofthe Jews, on the
as CALNEH, which is the reading in one codex.  ground, that it was enough for a Jew that a book
was written by one of his own nation to entitle it
CANON.     I. The Greek word KIavc v denotes, to be viewed as also, and for that reason, sacred
primarily, a straight rod; and from this flow nu- (Einl., sec. I6). But this is not true in point of fact;
merous derivative uses of it, in all of which the idea for the Jews distinguished among writings all of
of straightness, as opposed to obliquity, is manifest. which were of Jewish authorship, those which they
Among the rest, as a rod was employed to keep  held sacred from those whichrwere not so held.
other things straight, or as a test of straightness, (Cf. Eccl. xii. II, 12; Joseph. Contr. Apion, i.
the word is employed to denote a rule or standard, 8). Something beyond mere national authorship
by a reference to which the rectitude of opinions or was required to entitle any book to a place in the
actions may be determined.   Thus the Greeks Canon of the Jews.
spoke of a Kavbv 6TOV KCIXo (Eurip. Hec. 602), and  3. According to this definition, in order to estaAristotle (Eth. Nicom. iii. 6) describes the good man  blish the Canon of Scripture, it is necessary to
65wrep Kav(^v Kal jLUpov PK&dTrwv &v.  They also  shew that all the books of which it is composed
used the verb Kavovi'etv to denote determining by are of divine authority; that they are entire and
rule or standard (Aristot. Eth. Nic. ii. 2). In this incorrupt; that, having them, it is complete withlatter acceptation KWvSv is used in the New Testa- out any addition from any other source; and that
ment(comp. Gal. vi. I6; Phil. iii. I6). In the same it comprises the whole of those books for which
sense it is frequently used by the Greek fathers divine authority can be proved.  It is obvious
(Suicer. Thes. Eccles. in voc.); and as the great that, if any of these four particulars be not true,
standard to which they sought to appeal in all Scripture cannot be the sole and supreme stanmatters of faith and duty was the revealed will of dard of religious truth and duty. If any of the
God contained in the scriptures of the Old and New  books of which it is composed be not of divine
Testaments, they came insensibly to apply this authority, then part of it we are not bound to
term to the truth thus revealed. Whether from  submit to; and consequently, as a whole, it is
the first they applied it also to the collective body  not the standard of truth and morals.  If its sepaof the sacred writings, and spoke of them in this rate parts be not in the state in which they left
capacity as the canon or rule, does not appear. the hands of their authors, but have been mutiThey may have done so, however, for the usage lated, interpolated, or altered, then it can form
already existed among the Greek grammarians, by no safe standard; for in appealing to it, one canwhom the collective body of the Greek classics was not be sure that the appeal is not made to what is
called the Canon (Ruhnken, Hist. Orat. 94; comp. spurious, and what, consequently, may be erroQuintil, Inst. Rhet x. 1, 54). The earliest instance  neous. If it require or admit of supplementary
extant of the term being applied to the sacred books, revelations from God, whether preserved by tradias such, is in the iambic lines to Seleucus preserved  tion or communicated from time to time to the
by Gregory of Nazianzus, when, after enumerating  Church, it obviously would be a mere contradicthe books of the New Testament, the author tion in terms to call it complete, as a standard of
says, 0iros dt'evU8oraros Kavw'v a efi7 TWInv  eo- the divine will.  And if any other books were
7rve;a-rTv ypaptov. Before this, however, we have  extant, having an equal claim with the books of
Origen speaking of'canonical scriptures' (De Prin- which it is composed to be regarded as of divine
ci. iv. 33; Prol. in Cantic. s. f.; Comment. in Matt., authority, it would be absurd to call it the sole
sec. II7) and'canonized books' (In Matt., sec. standard of truth; for in this case the one class of
28), though it remains uncertain whether by this books would be quite as deserving of our reverence
epithet he intends books having regulative autho- as the other.
rity, or books ratified by authority. The term as  4. Respecting the evidence by which the Canon
used now of the sacred books is employed in the  is thus to be established, there exists considerable
former sense, and in this acceptation we shall use difference of opinion amongst Christians.  Some
it in this article.                            contend, with the Catholics, that the authorita2. The Canon, then, may be defined to be' The  tive decision of the Church is alone competent to
Authoritative Standard of Religion and Morals, determine the Canon; others appeal to the concurcomposed of those writings which have been given  rent testimony of the Jewish and early Christian
for this purpose by God to men, or the collection of writers; and others rest their strongest reliance
books which comprise the divine and authoritative  on the internal evidence furnished by the books
standard of religious truth and duty.  We prefer of Scripture themselves. We cannot say that we
this to the definition frequently given of the Canon, are satisfied with any of these sources of evidence
that it is'The Catalogue of the Sacred Books;' exclusively. As Michaelis remarks, the first is




CANON                     431                 CANON
one to which no consistent Protestant can appeal, By this is meant the collection into one whole of
for the matter to be determined is of such a kind, all those books whose divine authority was recogthat, unless we grant the Church to be infallible, nised by the Jews, and which now form the Old
it is quite possible that she may, at any given pe- Testament, as that is received by the Protestant
riod of her existence, determine erroneously; and churches-The question is, At what time and by
one sees not why the question may not be as suc- whom was this done?
cessfully investigated by a private individual as  In answer to this, a very steadfast tradition of
by the Church. The concurrent testimony of the the Jews ascribes the completion of the Old Testaancient witnesses is invaluable so- far as it goes; ment Canon to Ezra [EZRA], and certain other perbut it may be doubted if it be sufficient of itself sons, who, after the rebuilding oftheTemple, formed
to settle this question, for the question is not en- with him, and under his auspices, what has been
tirely one of facts, and testimony is good proof called the Great Synagogue  h  n ). Withonly for facts. As for the internal evidence, one out pretending to be able to give full demonstration
needs only to look at the havoc which Semler and  p 
hines school have mae o the Caon, to be satisfied  of the accuracy of this traditionary opinion, it seems
his school have made of the Canon, to be satisfied to  one which may by evidence, both direct and
that where dogmatical considerations are allowed to us one which may by evidence, both direct and
that where dogmatical considerations are allowed circumstantial, be rendered so extremely probable,
to determine exclusively such questions, each ma that to call it in question  ould be to exhibit a
will extend or extruncate the Canon so as to adjust  of scepticism such as, in all other questions
it to the Procrustean couch of his own preconceived of a similar kind, would be thought highly unreanotions. As the question is one partly of fact and onable and absurd. In the first place, there is
partly of opinion, the.appropriate grounds of deci-the testimony of the tradition itself   The earliest
sion will be best secured by a combination of form in which. this appears is in the fourth book of
authentic testimony with the evidence supplied by Esdras, a work dating from the end of the first or bethe books themselves. We want to know that
the books themselves. We want to know thatginning of the second century after Christ. Here it is
these books were really written by the persons assertedthat Ezra,bydivine commandandby divine
whose names they bear; we want to be satisfied aid, caused to be composed 94 books by three men
that these persons were commonly reputed and i frty days, 70 of which, wherein is a vein of
held by their contemporaries to be assisted by the understanding, a fountain of wisdom, and a stream
divine spirit in what they wrote; and we want to of knowledge,' were to be given to the wise of the
be sure that care was taken by those to whom people, whilst the rest were to be made public,
their writings were first addressed, that these that'oth the worthy and the unworthy might
should be preserved entire and uncorrupt.  For read them' (xiv. 42-47)*  Thesetwenty-fourthus
all this we must appeal to the testimony of compe-  ad  public are doubtless, the canonical books.
tent witnesses, as the only suitable evidence for Th  statement is very vague; but that this is its
such matters. But after we have ascertained these reference is rendered probable by the appearance
points affirmatively, we still require to be satisfied i the writings of some of the Christian athers of
that the books themselves contain nothing obvi-a tradition, that the sacred writings, Which had been
ously incompatible with the ascription to their lost during the exile, were restored by Ezra in the
authors of the divine assistance, but, on the con- time of Artaxerxes by inspiration (Clemens Alex.,
trary, are in all respects favourable to this suppo- Strom. I. 22, p. 410; Potter; Tertullian, De cuitu
sition. We want to see that they are in harmony foem. i 3  Irenseus, Adv. Haer. iii. 21 [25], etc.)
with each other; that the statements they contain In accordance with this, as respects person and
are credible; that the doctrines they teach are not time, is the Talmudic tradition contained in the
foolish, immoral, or self-contradictory; that their Babylonian Gemara (Tr. Baba Bathra, fol. 3 b.
authors really assumed to be under the divine direc- d  b. See the passages in Buxtorf's Tiberias,
tion in what they wrote, and afforded competent bk i c. Io; Wehner, Antiq. Heb. i. I3). The
proofs of this to those around them; and that all substance of this is, that, whilst Moses, Joshua,
the circumstances of the case, such as the style of Samuel, David, Jeremiah, Hezekiah, and his
the writers, the allusions made by them to places friends, wrote the earlier books, the men of the
and events, etc., are in keeping with the conclu-Great Synagogue wrote  (13n) Ezekiel, the
sion to which the external evidence has already led. Twelve [Minor Prophets], Daniel, and Esther;
In this way we advance to a complete moral proof   his own book, ad he and Nhemiah the
of the divine authority and canonical claims of the books of Chronicles. Everything depends here on
books of Chronicles. Everything depends here on
sacred writings.                              the sense in which the verb  n:1 is taken. That
5. The books specified as canonical in the 6th it cannot be taken throughout in the sense of
Article of the Church of England, and the Ist compose is manifest from the fact that David is said
of the Confession of the Church of Scotland, are to have'ritten' the Psalter through ten venerable
received as such by the majority of Protestants. elders  Adam, Melchizedek, Abraham, Moses,
To these the Church of Rome adds, as part of the Jeduthan, Asaph, and the three sons of Korah,
Old Testament, ten other books, or parts of books, which n only mean that he incorporated their
which Protestants reject as Apocryphal. [APO-       ian only   an        a   that Hezekiah
su r o  th  compositions with his own; and that Hezekiah
CRYPHA.]   For. the evidence in support o  te and his friends are said to have'written' the book
genuineness and divine authority of those books of Isaiah, the Proverbs, the Song of Solomon, and
universally regarded by Christians as canonical, Ecclesiastes; in this case it cannot denote the oritaken individually, we shall refer here to the arti- ginal wr  
cles in this work under the titles of these books    tg of the boo
respectively. The remainder of the present article
shall be devoted to a sketch of the formation anid  The numbers here given are those of the
history of the Canon, first of the Old Testament, Arabic and Ethiopic texts. The Vulg. has 204
and then of the New.                          books (for which a Dresden MS. gives 904, sug6. Formation of the Old Testament Canon.-   gesting an error for 94) and five men.




CANON                     432                  CANON
tion (or the to-writing) of them to the canon, or be assigned to the period immediately after the Capthe preparation and redaction of them, so as to fit tivity, and which presuppose the existence of some
them for a place in the Canon. This last is the institute such as the Great Synagogue, whether
interpretation advocated by Keil, and it has the re- this be regarded as formally constituted by Ezra
commendation of being suited to all the uses of the or as a voluntary association of priests and scribes
verb in this passage, without pressing into it more (Zunz, Gottesdienstlichen Vortrdge der 7uden, p.
than it legitimately signifies. It may be added, 33). 2dly, The part of this tradition which asthat this is the verb used by the Targumist on  cribes the formation of the Canon, before the Exile,
Prov. xxv. I, as equivalent to the Hebrew pn)V. to Moses and the prophets, is sufficiently supported
This more detailed statement of the Gemara throws by the testimony of Scripture itself. When Moses
light on and gives force to the following passage in had finished the writing of the Law,' he delivered
one of the oldest of the Talmudic books, the p'lj it to the priests, the sons of Levi, and unto the
J1'lK, or Sayings of the Fathers:-' Moses re- elders of Israel' (Deut. xxxi 9); and the book was
ceived the Law on Mount Sinai, and gave it to then taken and put in the side of the ark, in the
Joshua, Joshua to the elders, the elders to the most holy place (ver. 26). Towards the close of
prophets, the prhetsets gave it to the men of the the book of Joshua, it is said that'he wrote these
Great Synagogue.' In the book ND41, fol. 69, 2, it words in the book of the law of God;' which Le
is also said-' Wherefore is their name called Men  Clerc, with considerable probability, explains as
of the Great Synagogue? Because they restored the meaning that he agglutinated the membrane on
Crown (i.e., of the Law) to its pristine splendour.' which his words were written to the volume of
According to this, the steadfast tradition of the Jew- Moses which had been deposited in the side of the
ish books, Ezra and his contemporaries added the ark (Comment. in loc.) At a later period we find
later books to the Canon, and thereby completed that Samuel, when he had told the people the
it. An attempt has been made to discredit this manner (ZDDOE   the juspublicum) of the kingdom,
tradition, by adducing the circumstance that Simon  wrote it in the book (OiDl), and laid it up before
the Just, who lived long after Ezra, is said, in the the Lord (I Sam. x 25).  Hilkiah, at a still
Pirke Aboth, to have been one of the members of later date, is said to'have found the book of the
the Great Synagogue; but to this much weight Law in the House of the Lord' (2 Kings xxii. 8).
gannot be allowed, partly because Simon is, in the Isaiah, in calling attention to his own prophecies,
passage referred to, said to have been one of the says,'Seek ye out of the book of the Lord and
remnants of the Great Synagogue, which indicates read: no one of these shall fail' (xxxiv. 16); a
his having outlived it; and principally because the passage on which Gesenius says (Comment. i. 921),
same body of tradition which states this opinion' The poet seems to have before his mind the
makes him the successor of Ezra: so that either the placing of his oracle in a collection of oracles and
whole is a mistake, or the Simon referred to must sacred writings, whereby future generations might
have been a different person from the Simon who judge of the truth of his predictions.' In the writis commonly known by the title of'Just' (Cf. ings of Jeremiah we find frequent allusion to the
Othonis, Lex. Rabbin. Philol., p. 604, Gen. z675; earlier books, especially the Pentateuch; in opHaverick's Einleitung in das A. T. Th. i. Abt. position to the false prophets, he sustains himself
1. s. 43). Or we may adopt the opinion of Hart- by an appeal to the prophets that were before him
mann (Die Enge Verbindung des Alt. Test. mit d. (xxviii. 8); and he represents himself as a link in
Neuen, s. 127), that the college of men learned in the chain of true prophets whose words had come
the law, which gathered round Ezra and Nehe- to pass (vii. 25, xi. 8, xxvi. 4-6; see Kueper,
miah, and which properly was the synagogue, con- 7eremzas libb. sac. interpres atque vindex, I837;
tinued to receive accessions for many years after Koenig, Altestament. Studien, 2ter Th.)  The
their death, by means of which it existed till the author of Ecclesiastes refers (xii. 10-12) to his own
time of the Maccabees, without our being required  work as destined to form part of a great whole of
to suppose that what is affirmed concerning its sacred writings, which he distinguishes from the
doings in the time of Ezra is meant to refer to it'many books' of ordinary human literature (See
during the entire period of its existence. Suspi- Hengstenbergand Ginsburg, in loc.) And Daniel
cions have also been cast upon this tradition from  informs us, that he'understood, by the books,
the multitude of extravagant wonders narrated by the number of the years of the captivity' (ix. 2);
the Jews respecting the Great Synagogue. But an expression which seems to describe the sacred
such are found in almost every traditionary record  Canon so far as it then was complete (Gesenius, Lex.
attaching to persons or bodies which possess a na- Heb. in v.!DD).  From these notices we may
tionally heroic character; and it is surely unrea- gather-that such books as were sanctioned by the
sonable, because a chronicler tells one or two authority of Moses and the prophets (whose busithings which are incredible, that we should disbe- ness it was, as the watchmen of Zion, to guard the
lieve all besides that he records, however possible people against either the reception of any writing
or even probable it may be.'Je ne nie pas,' says that was spurious or the loss of any that was
Fabricy (Des Titres Primitifs de la Rvelation, i, 87, genuine) were acknowledged by the Jews before
Rome, 1772),'que les Docteurs Juifs n'ayent the Exile as of Divine authority; that, in all proavance bien des chimeres au sujet de cette Grande- bability, an authentic copy was in every case laid
Synagogue; mais laissons le fabuleux, et prenons up in the sanctuary, and placed under the care of
ce qu'il y a de vrai dans un point d'antiquite He- the priests* (Joseph. Antiq. v. I. I7), from which
braique, appuye sur des temoignages que la bonne copies were taken and circulated among the people
critique ne permet pas de revoquer en doute.' To
this it may be added that there are some things, such  * The entrusting of the sacred books to the care
as the order of daily prayer, the settling of the text of of the priesthood was common to the Jews with
the Old Testament, the establishment of the tradi- the ancient nations generally.  See Hivernick's
tional interpretation of Scripture, etc., which must Einleit. i. I. sec. 17, and the authors cited there.




CANON.
&=~qFS~~ —71  VLnIG l., *  1'              -IN~S V I
IVF   EVANGA Q    U    UL      VSON
AZ 11    I Ap PI       ~efX   I a, I'v'Ng i   l IO  Yu_0  a 6_V.~        o
oth Century, Hareian MSS. No. 22. 
x EDINBURG: ADAM AN D CHARLES BLACK.
~ScV~ao 1~l  |CV%     cESt     *   L W v
kcuogo ("    v a      aytva       CA PVIRo
es| ttau  I  ts Aa v 0  to     *      all a
C111  I;       D 0    is co g          0s  a a
(||   a               CCile a  l e  Z  DG
1Fl feLXwssiss. _  xz~s  v  ~eL=Xw~  _ 6  e Wstv I
r cljM   C ssCCesn a  (tct~lh PQ  b~d3 6C Vv
1~t enl~seo~a   cc am a   a cs~gC. 1r  It -11  E
C C r6arruI  C WHF.O  LX a C S I M LEa
Fronm the EVANGELIA QUATUOR VULGATA: VERSIONIS,
Ioth Century, Harleian MSS., No. 2821.
EDINBURGIH: ADAM AND CHARLES BLAC9.








CANON                     433                  CANON
(2 Chron. xvii. 9); and that collections of these of the sacred books was completed by an authority
were made by pious persons for their own use, which thenceforward ceased to exist. 6thly, Those
such as Daniel probably had in Babylon, and such  who refuse to accept this date as that of the closing
as Jeremiah seems to have had, from the frequent of the Old Testament Canon, are unable to fix on
quotations in his prophecies from the older books. any date later than the time of the Maccabees.
3dly, It is natural to suppose that, on the return  But it may be safely affirmed that no book, issued
of the people from their exile, they would desider- for the first time during the interval between the
ate an authoritative collection of their sacred books. death of Malachi and the time of the Maccabees,
We know that, on that occasion, they were filled could have been received by the Jewish people as
with an anxious desire to know the will of God, for divine; and this for two reasons-(I) That no writneglect of which, on the part of their fathers, they  ing was accepted as divine which was not the prohad so severely suffered; and that, to meet this duction of or authorized by a  M'3, a Trpooipr-, a
desire, Ezra and certain of the Priests and Le-.man enjoying divine inspiration, whereby he was
vites read and expounded the word of the Lord fitted to become the medium of communication beto the people (Neh. viii. i-8; ix. I-3). As their tween God and the people; and (2) That no prophet
fathers also had been misled by false prophets, it appeared in Israel after the death of Malachi; for
is natural to suppose that they would earnestly both of which assertions we have the testimony of
crave some assurance as to the writers whose words Josephus (Cont. Ap. i. 8) confirmed by that of Philo,
they might with safety follow. The Temple also who throughout uses the term 7rpoq50Trs as the prowas now bereft of its sacred treasures (Joseph. De per designation of the authors of those books which
Bell. _ud. vi 6; Tract. Rabbin. yoma. ed. he cites as holy, and to whom he ascribes all the
Sheringham, p. 102, sq.) During the exile, and writings he cites as such (Hornemann, Obss. ad
the troublous times preceding it, several prophets illustr. doctr. de Canone V. T.); by that of the
had committed their oracles to writing, and these son of Sirach, who speaks of the existence of
required to be added to the Canon; and the ma- prophets in his nation as a privilege of the past
jority of the people having lost acquaintance with (xlix. Io); and by that of the passage above cited
the Hebrew, a translation of their sacred books from the first book of Maccabees.
had become necessary. All this conspired to ren- 7. Division of the Canon into three parts, the
der it imperative that some competent authority  Law, the Prophets, and the  Writings (lmn
should, at the time of the second temple, form and  D43.l'n31 tN4:21). This division is very ancient;
fix the code of sacred truth. 4thly, The time of it appears in the prologue to Ecclesiasticus, in the
Ezra and Nehemiah was the latest at which this New Testament, in Philo, in Josephus, and in the
could be'done. As the duty to be performed was Talmud (Surenhusii Bid. KaraXX. p. 49). Renot merely that of determining the genuineness of specting the principle on which the division has
certain books, but of pointing out those which had  been made, there is a considerable difference of
been divinely ordained as a rule of faith and  opinion. All are agreed that the first part, the
morals to the Church, it was one which none but Law, which embraces the Pentateuch, was so
a prophet could discharge. Now, in the days of named from its containing the national laws and
Nehemiah and Ezra there were several prophets regulations. The second embraces the rest of the
living, among whom we know the names of Hag- historical books, with the exception of Ruth,
gai, Zechariah, and Malachi; but with that age Esther, Ezra, Nehemiah, and the Chronicles; and
expired the line of prophets which God had ap- the writings of the prophets, except Daniel and
pointed'to comfort Jacob, and deliver them by  Lamentations.  It is probable that it received its
assured hope' (Ecclus. xlix. IO). On this point name a parte potiori, the majority of the books it
the evidence of Josephus, the Apocryphal books, contains being the production of men who were
and Jewish tradition, is harmonious (comp. Joseph. professionally prophets. That this criterion, howCont. Apion. i. 8; I Mace. iv. 46; ix. 27; xiv. ever, determined the omission or insertion of a
41; Hieronym. ad yes. xlix. 2I; Vitringa, Obs. book in this second division, as asserted by HengSac. lib. vi. cap. 6, 7; Havemick, Einleit. i I. stenberg (Authent. des Daniel, p. 27), and by
27; Hengstenberg, Beitrdge zur Einleit. ins A. Haverick (Einl. I. sec. 11), cannot be admitted;
T. i. s. 245). As Ezra and his contemporaries for on the one hand, we find inserted in this diviwere thus the last of the prophets, if the Canon  sion the book of Amos, who was'neither a prowas not fixed by them, the time was passed when phet nor a prophet's son;' and on the other, there
it could be fixed at all. 5thly, That it was fixed is omitted from it the Book of Lamentations,
at that time appears from the fact, that all subse-'which was unquestionably the production of a
quent references to the sacred writings presuppose prophet. The insertion of this book in the last
the existence of the complete Canon; as well as rather than in the second division, has its source
from the fact, that of no one among the Apocry- probably in some liturgical reason, in order that it
phal books is it so much as hinted, either by the might stand beside the Psalms and other lyric
author or by any other Jewish writer, that it was poetry of the sacred books. It is more difficult
worthy of a place among the sacred books, though  to account for the insertion of the book of Daniel
of some of them the pretensions are in other re- in the third rather than in the second division;
spects sufficiently high (e. g., Ecclus. xxxiii. I6-I8; and much stress has been laid on this circumstance,
1. 28). Josephus, indeed, distinctly affirms (Cont. as affording evidence unfavouralle to the canonical
Ap. loc. cit.) that, during the long period that had  claims of this book.  But if the book of Daniel
elapsed between the time of the close of the Canon be a forgery, why, if inserted at all, was it not
and his day, no one had dared either to add to, or inserted in the division to which it claims to beto take from, or to alter'anything in, the sacred long? The answer is, that the second division
books. This plainly shews that in the time of was then closed, and could not be reopened so as
Artaxerxes, to which Josephus refers, and which  to admit the new comer. But in what sense was
was the age of Ezra and Nehemiah, the collection  it closed?  Had some competent authority, preVOL. I.                                                                         2 F




CANON                     434                  CANON
vious to the appearance of the Book of Daniel, so others. All extant evidence is against it. The
fixed that a certain number of prophetical books Son of Sirach, and Philo, both Alexandrian Jews,
were possessed by the Jewish nation, that no other make no allusion to it; and Josephus, who eviever could be possessed by them.   If so, how  dently used the Greek version, expressly declares
came the Book of Daniel to be inserted at all against it in a passage above referred to (sec. 6). The
among the sacred books, seeing, on this supposi- earlier notices of the Canon simply designate it by
tion, no one could regard it in any other light than  the threefold division already considered. The
as spurious? But is it certain that the Book of Son of Sirach mentions'the Law, the Prophets,
Daniel occupied from the first the place it now  and the other books of the fathers;' and again,
occupies in the third, and not in the second divi-'the Law, the Prophecies, and the rest of the
sion? The only evidence for this assertion is, that books;' expressions which clearly indicate that in
such was the place of the book in the fifth century his day the Canon was fixed.* In the New Testaof the Christian era, as we learn from Jerome and ment our Lord frequently refers to the Old Testathe Talmud; from which it is inferred that such ment, under the title of'The Scriptures,' or of
was always its place. But is this inference legiti-'The Law' (Matt. xxi. 42; xxii. 29; John x. 34,
mate? Is it not possible that for some reason of a etc. etc.); and in one place he speaks of' the Law
mystical or controversial kind, to both of which  of Moses, the Prophets, and the Psalms' (Luke
sources of influence the Jews during the early ages xxiv. 44); by the third of these titles intending,
of Christianity were much exposed, they may have doubtless, to designate the Hagiographa, either
altered the position of Daniel from the second to after the Jewish custom of denoting a collection of
the third division?  What renders this probable is, books by the title of that with which it comthat the Talmudists stand alone in this arrange- menced; or, as Havernick suggests, using the
ment. Josephus, Siracides, Philo, the New Testa- term  f/aX\,ot as a general designation of these
ment, all refer to the Hagiographa in such a way books, because of the larger comparative amount
as to induce the belief that it comprised only the of lyric poetry contained in them (Einl. sec. 14);
poetical portions of the  Old Testament- the or, what is most probable, naming this because
psalms, hymns, and songs; whilst in all the cata- it was that one of the class which principally
logues of the Old Testament writers given by the testified concerning the Christ.  As an evidence
early Fathers, up to the time of Jerome, Daniel is of the extent of the Old Testament Canon in the
ranked among the prophets, generally in the posi- time of our Lord, may be cited Matt. xxiii. 35,
tion he occupies in our common version. In the and Luke xi. 51; where our Lord, by naming
version of the LXX. also, he is ranked with the Abel and Zechariah, the former of whom is menprophets next to Ezekiel. Nor does Jerome agree tioned in Genesis, and the latter in 2 Chronicles,
with the Talmud in all respects, nor does one class probably intends to indicate the first and the
of Jewish rabbis agree with another in the ar- last examples of the shedding of the blood of
rangement of the sacred books. All this shews the righteous according to the order of the books.
that no such fixed and unalterable arrangement Paul applies to the Old Testament the appellations
of the sacred books, as that which is commonly'The Holy Writings' (ypafal dryiac, Rom. i. 2);
assumed, existed anterior to the fifth century of'the Sacred Letters' (lep& pypdc/tara, 2 Tim. iii.
the Christian era, and proves very distinctly that 15), and' the Old Covenant' (X 7raXatc& rca085Kj,
the place then assigned to Daniel by the Talmud- 2 Cor. iii. 14). Both our Lord and his Apostles
ists was not the place he had during the preceding ascribe divine authority to the ancient Canon
period, or originally occupied. The very founda- (Matt. xv. 3; John x. 34-36; 2 Tim. iii. x6;
tion of the objection being thus sapped, the whole 2 Peter i. 19-2, etc.); and in the course of the
superstructure necessarily falls to the ground. The New Testament, quotations are made from all the
Book of Daniel being accepted as the authentic books of the Old except Ruth, Ezra, Nehemiah,
production of that prophet, was, from the first, Esther, Canticles, Lamentations, and Ezekiel; the
ranked with the other prophetical writings, and all omission of which may be accounted for on the
that has been built upon its alleged exclusion from  simple principle that the writers had no occasion
among the prophets is the mere'baseless fabric of to quote from them. Philo attests the existence in
a vision.' As respects the name given to the third his time of the lep& ypdqLhuara, describes them as
division, the most probable account of it is, that, comprising laws, oracles uttered by the prophets,
at first, it was fuller-viz.,'the other writings,' as hymns, and the other books by which knowledge
distinguished from the Law and the Prophets (comp. and godliness may be increased and perfected (De
the expression r &tXXa 8\3Xla, used by the Son of Vita Contemplat. in Opp., tom. ii. p. 275, ed.
Sirach, Ecclus. Prol.); and that in process of time Mangey); and quotations from or references to
it was abbreviated into'the writings.' This part the most of the books are scattered through his
is commonly cited under the title Hagiographa.  writings. The evidence of Josephus is very im8. Subsequent History of the Old Testament portant, for, besides general references to the sacred
Canon.-The Canon, as established in the time of books, he gives a formal account of the Canon, as
Ezra, has remained unaltered to the present day. it was acknowledged by the Pharisees and the
Some, indeed, have supposed that, because the priesthood, of which he was a member in his day,
Greek version of the Old Testament contains some ascribing five books, containing laws and an acbooks not in the Hebrew, there must have been  count of the origin of man, to Moses, thirteen to
a double canon, a Palestinian and an Egyptian
(Semler, Apparat. ad liberaliorem V. T. interpret.  Hitzig and some others speak of the title thus
sec. 9, o; Corrodi, Beleuchtung der Gesch. des ii- applied to the third division as'vague,' and as
disch. u. Christlich. Kanons, s. I55-I84; Augusti, indicating no settled canon. But this is absurd.
Einleit. ins. -A. T. s. 79); but this notion has' The rest of the books' presupposes a fixed numbeen completely disproved by Eichhorn (Einleit. ber of books, by subtracting from which the rebd. i. s. 23), Havernick (Einl. i. sec. i6), and  mainder is found.




CANON                     435                  CANON
the Prophets, and four, containing songs of praise that doubts existed among the Jews as to the
to God and ethical precepts for men, to different Canonicity of Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs;
writers, and affirming that the faith of the Jews in but all that the passages cited from the Talmud in
these books is such that they would for them suffer support of this shew, is, that in the school of
all tortures and death itself (Cont. Apion. i. 7, 8; Shammai, where unusual scrupulosity in such
Eichhorn, Einleit. i. sec. 50; Jahn, Introductio, p. matters was affected, objections, arising out of sup50). It is true that the number thus specified only posed difficulties and contradictions, had been
amounts to 22; but this deficiency is generally, started against these and other books, but that
and, we think, satisfactorily accounted for, by sup- these were overruled by the concurrent decision of
posing that Josephus classed Lamentations with the 72 elders, and declared to be invalid (GinsJeremiah, that he viewed Ezra and Nehemiah as burg, 1. c. p. 13-I6). It thus appears that the
one book (comp. Baba Bathra, 15, a; Sanedrin, Canon once fixed remained among the Jews un93, b), and that the twelve minor prophets were altered, and was the same as we now have. For
classed by him  under one head (Stuart on the the history of the Old Testament Canon in the
Canon, p. 245). It has been objected to this, that Christian Church, see APOCRYPHA.
Josephus must on this supposition have ranked Job  9. Formation of the New Testament Canon.among the Prophets; for as the Psalms, Proverbs, Whilst there is abundance of evidence in favour
Canticles, and Ecclesiastes constitute the four of the divine authority of the New Testament
which he places under the third head, it is only books, taken separately, fully greater perhaps
under the second that Job can find a place. But than can be adduced in support of many of
there seems no violence in the supposition that Job  those of the Old Testament, the history of the
was so reckoned by Josephus; for this book     formation of the New Testament Canon is inpossesses a historical pretension as its fundamental volved in greater obscurity than that of the Old.
characteristic, and with Josephus the prophets An ecclesiastical tradition ascribes to the apostle
were primarily historians (rb Kar' a0robs irpaxO8vTa John the work of collecting and sanctioning the
avv&ypacv, Cont. Ap. L c.)  In accordance with  writings which were worthy of a place in the
this, it is noticeable that Josephus never quotes as Canon; but this tradition is too late, too unscripture a passage which is not found in some one supported by collateral evidence, and too much
of these books. Melito, bishop of Sardis in the opposed by certain facts, such as the existence of
second century of the Christian era, gives, as the doubt in some of the early churches as to the
result of careful inquiry, the same books in the canonicity of certain books, the different arrangeOld Testament Canon as we have now, with the ment of the books apparent in catalogues of the
exception of Nehemiah, Esther, and Lamenta- Canon still extant, etc., for any weight to be
tions; the two first of which, however, he pro- allowed to it. A much more probable opinion,
bably included in Ezra, and the last in Jeremiah  and one in which nearly all the modern writers
(Euseb. Hist. Eccles. iv. 26; Eichhorn, Einl. i  who are favourable to the claims of the Canon are
sec. 52). The catalogues of Origen (Euseb. Hist. agreed, is, that each of the original churches, espeEccles. vi. 25), of Jerome (Prol. Galeat. in Opp. cially those of larger size and greater ability, coliii.), and of others of the fathers, give substantially lected for itself a complete set of those writings
the same list (Eichhorn, I. c.; Augusti, Ein. which could be proved, by competent testimony,
sec. 54; Cosins, Scholastical Iizst. of the Canon, ch. to be the production of inspired men, and to have
iii. vi.; Henderson, On Inspiration, 449). In the been communicated by them to any of the churches
Talmudic Tract entitled Baba Bathra, a catalogue as part of the written word of God; so that in this
of the books of the sacred Canon is given as fol- way a great many complete collections of the New
lows:-Moses wrote his own book and the section  Testament scriptures came to be extant, the accordBileam and Job; Joshua wrote his own book and  ance of which with each other, as to the books adeight verses in the Law; Samuel wrote his book, mitted, furnishes irrefragable evidence of the correctand Judges and Ruth; David the book of Psalms ness of the Canon as we now have it. This opinion,
through (or under the lead of ST xV) ten venerable which in itself is highly probable, is rendered still
more so when we consider the scrupulous care
elders, Adam, Melchizedek, Abraham, Moses, which the early churches took to discriminate spuHeman, Jeduthan, Asaph, and the sons of Korah; rious compositions from such as were authenticJk Kingsrious compositions from such as were authentic-.
Jeremiah wrote his book, the Books of Kings the existence, among some, of doubts regarding
and Lamentations; Hezekiah and his friends wrote certain of the New Testament books, indicating that
the sign p"DWf, viz., Isaiah, Proverbs, Song of each church claimed the right of satisfying itself in
Songs, and Coheleth; the men of the Great Syna- this matter-their high veneration for the genuine
gogue wrote the sign l"'ip, viz., Ezekiel, the apostolic writings-their anxious regard for each
twelve (minor prophets), Daniel, and the Megilloth  other's prosperity leading to the free communiEsther; Ezra wrote his book, and the genealogies cation from one to another of whatever could proof the Books of Chronicles, down to himself.. mote this, and, of course, among other things, of
Who brought down the rest of them (the Chroni- those writings which had been entrusted to any one
cles)? Nehemiah the son of Checaliah' (see the of them, and by which, more than by any other
original, quoted in Ginsburg's Ecclesiastes, p. 244). means, the spiritual welfare of the whole would be
In another passage the order of the books is given  promoted-the practice of the Fathers of arguing
thus:-The Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, the canonicity of any book, from its reception by
Kings, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Isaiah, and the minor the churches, as a sufficient proof of this-and the
prophets, of which Hosea is the first; Ruth, reason assigned by Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. iii 25)
Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Coheleth, Song of Songs, for dividing the books of the New Testament into
Lamentations, Daniel, Esther, Ezra, and Chronicles 6o/oXo-yo6ie'vo and &vrtX\Ey6/LevoI, viz., that the for(Ibid. p. I2; Eichhorn, Einleit. i. 130). They  mer class was composed of those which the univerthus make out 24 books.   It has been asserted  sal tradition of the churches authenticated, while the




CANON                     436                  CANON
latter contained such as had been received by the rences in these writings to the gospel history are to
majority, but not by all* (Stosch, Comment. Hist. be traced to our extant Gospels must be admitted
Crit. de Libb. N. Testamenti Canone, etc., p. I2, as a doubtful point; but it is important to observe,
ff.; Olshausen's Echtheit der IV. Evang. s. 439). that near as these writers were to the apostolic
In this way we may readily believe that, without age, they draw a clear line of distinction between
the intervention of any authoritative decision, themselves and the Apostles.  Clement calls his
either from an individual or a council, but by the readers to' the illustrious and venerable Canon of
natural process of each body of Christians seeking their holy calling' (Ad. Cor. i. 7), which, however,
to procure for themselves and to convey to their it must be confessed, may refer merely to princibrethren authentic copies of writings in which all pies, without relation to these as embodied in
were deeply interested, the Canon of the New Tes- writing; and he appeals them'to the epistle of
tament was formed. With this natural desire two the blessed Paul,' addressed to them as of supreme
circumstances of an outward kind co-operated. authority (47). In the same spirit Polycarp calls
The one was the rise of heretical sects, leading to the attention of the Philippians to the wisdom of
disputes, for the settling of which a fixed canon be-'the blessed and glorified Paul,' as that to which
came indispensable; the other was the persecutions neither he nor any other like him could aspire,
to which the Christians were exposed, and which  and which they had embodied in that epistle writnaturally led them to be scrupulously careful to ten by Paul to them, and by attention to which
determine on solid grounds the number of books they might be edified in the faith (Ep. ad Phil.
for adherence to which they were prepared to suf- c. iii.) Ignatius, writing to the Romans (sec. 4), says,
fer. The persecution of Diocletian may be almost'Not as Peter and Paul do I enjoin upon you,'
said to have given the touch by which the previ- etc.; and the relation, in general, in which these
ously somewhat unsettled elements were crystal- men considered themselves and their writings, as
lized and fixed.                               standing to the churches, may be gathered from the
Io. History of the New  Testament Canon.-   statement of Barnabas, who, after saying that the
On this interesting subject we can do little more Lord had spoken by the prophets, adds:' but I,
here than indicate the sources of information, and  not as a teacher, but as one of yourselves, will shew
state generally the results of inquiry.  The first a few things by which you may be in very many
certain notice which we have of the existence respects gladdened' (c. i.)  In the anonymous
of any of the New Testament writings, in a col- Epistle to Diognetus, which is, on good grounds,
lected form, occurs in 2 Pet. iii. I6, where the supposed to be one of the earliest of the uninspired
writer speaks of the epistles of Paul in such a way  Christian writings, the writer speaks of the Law,
as to lead us to infer that at that time the whole or the Prophets, the Gospels, and the Apostles (sec. xi.
the greater part of these were collected together, ed. Hefele). But the most remarkable passage is
were known amongst the churches generally (for that in which Ignatius speaks of' betaking himPeter is not addressing any particular church) and  self to the Gospel as the flesh of Jesus, and to the
were regarded as on a par with'the other Scrip- apostles as the Presbytery of the church,' and adds,
tures,' by which latter expression Peter plainly' the prophets also we love;' thus shewing, that it
means the sacred writings both of the Old Testa- is to the Scriptures he was referring (Ep. ad Philment and the New Testament, as far as then ex- adelphenos, sec. v.) Theophilus ofAntioch speaks
tant. A late tradition ascribes to St. John the frequently of the New Testament writings under
collection and arrangement of the other Gospels the appellation of al &iyLta ypafal, or 6 0eios X6yos,
(Photius, Bibl. Cod. 254); to this much importance and in one place mentions the Law, the Prophets,
cannot be attached; but that St. John must have had  and the Gospels, as alike divinely inspired (Ad.
before him copies of the other evangelists is pro- Autol. iii II). Clement of Alexandria speaks of the
bable.from the sApplementary character of his own IrooaroX1Kc ypba0o, and discriminates the dTr6-TOXos
gospel                                         or the &i7r6orXoL as the designation of a collective
Second centry. -The witnesses here are the body of writings from the ecay'yeXtov, and classes
Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Papias, the both with the 7rpo/frat as containing the doctrine
Muratori Fragment (of uncertain authorship, but of the Lord, and as being authoritative.  (See the
certainly not of later date than the latter part of passages in Lardner, Works ii 231, ed. 1788). Terthe second century), the Peshito version, Irenaeus, tullian distinctly intimates the existence of the New
Tatian, Theophilus of Antioch, Clement of Alex- Testament Canon in a complete form    in his
andria, Tertullian, and the Gnostic and hMarcionite day, by calling it' Evangelicum Instrumentum'
heretics. In the Apostolic Fathers we have little (Adv. Marc. iv. 2), by describing the whole Bible
beyond citations from the New Testament writers as' totum  instrumentum  utriusque Testamenti'
to which to appeal; but these are so numerous as (Adv. Prax. c. 20), and by distinguishing between
to embrace not only the Gospels, but all the Epis- the' Scriptura Vetus' and the' Novum Testatles with the exception of Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 mentum (Ibid. c. I3). Irenaeus repeatedly calls the
John, from which no quotations are made, and   writings of the New Testament' the Holy ScripI and 2 Thess., Colos., Tit., and Philem., to which  tures,'' the Oracles of God' (Adv. iter. ii. 27;
the references were too indistinct to be held valid i. 8, etc.), and in one place he puts the Evangelical
in a question of evidence. Whether all the refe- and Apostolical writings on a par with the Law
and the Prophets (Ibid. i. 3, sec. 6). From these
* Strictly speaking, they had three classes into  allusions we may justly infer, that before the end
which the books were at first divided, viz.  Those of the second century the New Testament Scripuniversally acknowledged; those universally re- tures were generally known by the Christians in a
jected; those which were received by some but collected form, and reverenced as the word of God.
not by all. In process of time the last class disap-  What the books were which they thus reverpeared, as the books of which it was composed  enced, may be gathered partly from the quotations
were placed in one or other of the other two.  made by the Christian writers of that age, partly




CANON.                    437                  CANON
from their formal statements. The result is, that the judgment, but that of others who lived before his
Four Gospels, the Acts, thirteen of Paul's Epistles, time.  He divides the books into three classes,
I John, and I Peter, were generally recognized in I. The 6boXoyo6lgeva, or those universally received
all the churches; the Revelation was received by as apostolical; 2. The d&TvLXey76b va, or those rethe most, though not by all (in the Syriac version it ceived by some as apostolical, but not by all, along
is wanting, which would seem to shew that it was with those which were spurious (v60a), that is, either
unknown to, or not held canonical in the churches a forgery, such as the Acts of Paul, or a work that
for which that version was made); the Epistle to the was genuine but not apostolical, such as the ShepHebrews was generally received as Pauline in the herd of Hermas; and 3. Heretical, or such as were
Greek churches, was received, but not as Pauline, to be at once set aside as'monstrous and impious.'
nor apparently as directed to any church in parti- The result of his researches is, that the books
cular, but as catholic, by the Syrian churches, and generally acknowledged in the churches as canoniwas apparently unknown to the churches of the cal, were the Four Gospels, the Acts, thirteen Episwest; the Epistle of Lames was received by the tles of Paul, I 7ohn, and I Peter.  Of the other
Syrian churches, but it is not mentioned as known  seven writings, he himself seems to have recognized
elsewhere; the Epistle of 7ude was received in the the canonical authority, though he admits that by
Western churches, but is not in the Syriac Canon, some they were doubted; but he appears to have
nor is it mentioned by any belonging to the Greek  remained in uncertainty regarding the Revelation.
churches; 2 John, and probably 3 J7ohn also, were' The testimony of Eusebius,' it has been justly
known to the western and eastern churches, but remarked,' marks a definite step in the history of
not to the Syrian; no certain trace of acquaintance the Canon, and exactly that which it was reasonwith 2 Peter is found in the writings of this age. able to expect from his position. The books of the
The Muratori Fragment formally rejects, as spu- New Testament were formed into distinct collecrious and heretical, the Epistle of Paul to the tions-' a quaterriion of Gospels,'' fourteen EpisLaodiceans, and another, now lost, to the Alexan- ties -of St. Paul,''seven Catholic Epistles"
drians.                                       (Westcott, History of the Canon, etc., p. 490).
Third century. The witnesses here are Origen, From this time the Canon of the New Testament
Firmilian of Cappadocia, Apollonius, Hippolytus, may be regarded as fixed, and as embracing all the
Cyprian, Victorinus, Dionysius of Alexandria, and books now contained in it. It was some time beMethodius. Of these the chief is Origen, whose fore the Revelation and the Epistle to the Hebrews
judgment on the Canon is preserved by Eusebius were accepted by all the Eastern churches; but, by
(Hist. Eccl. vi. 25). He recognises our four Gos- the end of the fourth century, these writings, as
pels as a complete whole, and admits no others to well as all the catholic epistles, seem to have been
the same rank; the Acts he names as the work of universally received. In the churches of the West
Luke, and places it between the Gospels and the we find the same concord prevailing at this date;
Epistles as of equal authority with them (In  oan. all the books now received as canonical were
t. i. c. 5); of the writers of the Epistles he refers recognized by them; and the Canon was announced
only to Paul, Peter, and John, though, from his other as determinately fixed by decrees of councils and
writings, it would appear that the Epistles of James rescripts of the bishops of Rome. In the Syrian
and Jude were also known to him; of the Epistles of churches the Canon of the Peshito still prevailed;
John he mentions the First as of more undoubted'they seem never to have accepted rude, 2 Peter,
authority than the other two; he ascribes the Reve- 2 and 3 John, and Revelation; though, in his
lation to John; the Epistle to the Hebrews he writings, which are preserved in Greek, Ephrsem
reckons as Pauline, in the sense of containing the Syrus uses these as canonical
sentiments (vo/uara) of that Apostle; the Second  It does not seem necessary to cdntinue this hisEpistle of Peter he is the first to name expressly, torical sketch any further. From the beginning of
but he names it as doubtful. Origen cites some of the fifth century the Canon of the New Testament
the writings of the Apostolic Fathers as if he at- was fixed in the churches; and any divergencies
tached canonical authority to them, but he does from the standard thus exhibited, made either by
not class them with the Gospels, the Acts, and the churches or individuals in later times, are to be
Apostolical Epistles, to which he refers as a collec- viewed as mere utterances of opinion, and carry
tive whole under the title of J Kaxa  &aOfKrt or with them no evidential authority.
raaca 7 KacvU  &LaOiKfl. Other testimonies shew,  It. With the external evidence thus furnished
that in the Eastern church the 2d and 3d 7ohn  in favour of the sacred Canon, the internal fully
were, at a date a little after the time of Origen, accords. In the Old Testament all is in keeping
generally received, also the Epistle to the Hebrews. with the assumption that its books were written by
This also was accepted in the Syrian churches, but Jews, sustaining the character, surrounded by the
not in those of the West, especially Rome. Re- circumstances, and living at the time ascribed to
specting the Revelation, serious doubts were enter- their authors; or if any apparent discrepancies
tained by many in the Alexandrian church, and by have been found in any of them, they are of such.
some it was utterly rejected, though only on inter- kind as further inquiry has served to explain and
nal grounds.                                   reconcile. The literary peculiarities of the New
Fourth century. Here the witnesses are Euse- Testament, its language, its idioms, its style, its
bius, Athanasius, Cyrill of Jerusalem, Gregory of allusions, all are accordant with the hypothesis that
Nazianzus, the author of the iambic lines to its authors were exactly what they profess to have
Seleucus, preserved by Gregory, and by some been-Jews converted to Christianity, and living at
ascribed to him, by others to Amphilochius of Ico- the commencement of the Christian era  Of both
nium, Canon 59 of the Laodicean Council, the Testaments the theological and ethical systems are
Canones Apostolici, Epiphanius, Augustine, and  substantially in harmony; whilst all that they conJerome.  Eusebius made the Canon the object of tain tends to one grand result-the manifestation
anxious inquiry, and he gives us not only his own  of the power and perfection of Deity, and the re



CANOPY                    438               CAPERNAUM
storation of man to the image, service, and love of script, by his brother in his Commentarius de Capel
his Creator. The conclusion from the whole facts lorum gente, originally written in French, and
of the case can be none other than that the Bible translated into Latin by his son James, who sucis entitled to that implicit and undivided reverence ceeded his father when only nineteen as professor
which it demands, as the only divinely appointed  of Hebrew at Saumur; on the revocation of the
Canon of religious truth and duty.            Edict of Nantes he took refuge in England in I689,
12. Besides the Introductions to the critico-his- and died at Hackney in I722, 83 years old.torical study of Scripture, the following works may J. E. R.
with advantage be consulted on the subject of the
Canon:-Cosins, Scholastical History of the Canon,  CAPERNAUM   (Karepvao6), a city on the
4to London, 1657, 1672; Du Pin, History of the north-western side of the Lake of Gennesaret, and
Canon and Writers of the Books of the Old and on the border of the tribes of Zebulun and NaphNew Test. 2 vols. folio, London, 1699-1700; Ens, tali. The infidelity and impenitence of the inhabiBibliotheca Sacra, sive Diatribe de Librorum Nov. tants of this place, after the evidence given to them
Test. Canone, I2mo Amstel. I710; Lardner, Cre- by our Saviour himself of the truth of his mission,
dibility of the Gosp.e History, Works, vol. i.-vi., 8vo, brought upon them this heavy denunciation:-' And
edit.; Stosch, Comment. Hist. Crit. de Libb. Nov. thou, Capernaum, which art exalted unto heaven,
Test. Canone, 8vo Francof. ad Viadrum, 1755; shalt be brought down to hell: for if the mighty
Schmid, Hist. Antiq. et Vindicatio Canonis V. et works which have been cone in thee had been done
N. Test. 8vo, Lips. 1775; Mill, Proleg. in Nov. in Sodom, it would have remained until this day,'
Test. Pars Prima, Oxon, 1707; Jones, Newv and etc. (Matt. xi. 23). This seems to have been more
Full Method of settling the Canonical Authority of than any other place the residence of Christ after
the New Test. 3 vols. 8vo; Paley, Horce Paulince; he commenced his great mission; and hence the
Alexander, Canon of the Old and New Test. ascer- force of the denunciation, which has been so comtained, I2mo Princeton, U. S. 1826, London, pletely accomplished that even the site of Caper1828; Stuart, Critical Hist. and Defence of the 0. naum is quite uncertain.  Dr. Robinson (Bib.
T7 Canon, Lond. 1849; Westcott, General Sur- Researches, iii. 288-294) exposes the errors of all
vey of the History of the Canon of the N.., previous travellers in their various attempts to idenCamb. I855; Kirchhofer, Quellensammlung zur tify the site of Capernaum; and, from a hint in
Gesch. des N. T. Canons, Ziirich, I844; Art. Quaresmius, he is rather inclined to look for it in a
Kanon, by Oehler and Landerer in Herzog's Real- place marked only by a mound of ruins, called by
Encyclopedie. —W. L. A.                       the Arabs, Khan Minyeh. This is situated in the
fertile plain on the western border of the Lake of
CANOPY (Kwovo'retov). This word occurs only  Gennesaret, to which the name of'the land of
in Judith x. 21; xiii. 9, I5; xvi. I9, in reference to  Gennesaret' is given by Josephus (De Bell. Jud.
the tester or roof of the couch on which Holofernes iii. 10. 8). This plain is a sort of triangular holrested. It is described as'woven with purple, and low, formed by the retreat of the mountains about
gold, and emeralds, and precious stones;' and was the middle of the western shore. The base of this
evidently a luxurious addition to the ordinary angle is along the shore, and is about one hour's
couch. [BED.]   Judith pulled down this canopy journey in length, whereas it takes an hour and a
from the pillars on which it was supported, not, as half to trace the inner sides of the plain. In this
has been suggested, to hide the blood she had shed, plain Josephus places a fountain called Capharbut rather to carry it away as a trophy; for it is naum: he says nothing of the town; but, as it can
expressly said, she gave, as a gift to the Lord, the be collected from the Scriptural intimations that
canopy which she had taken out of the bed-chamber the town of Capernaum was in- this same plain, it
of Holofernes (xvi. I9).-W. L. A.             may be safely concluded that the fountain was not
CANTICLES. [SOLOMON'S SONG.]                far from the town, and took its name therefrom.
In this plain there are now two fountains, one called
CAPELLUS, JAMES, belongs to a family dis-'Ain el Madauwarah, the    Round Fountain'-a
tinguished as statesmen, jurists, and theologians in large and beautiful fountain, rising immediately at
the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth century. the foot of the western line of hills. This Pococke
He is generally styled James Capellus III., to dis- took to be the Fountain of Capernaum, and Dr.
tinguish him from his father and grandfather. He Robinson was at the time disposed to adopt this
was born at Rennes, 157o.   His father died in conclusion.
I586. His mother was persuaded to attend mass   Addendum. At the hill which bounds the plain
as an expedient for saving the family estate at Til- of Gennesaret on the north is the fountain of Ain
loy from confiscation, but this violation of her con- et-Tin, so called from a fig-tree which spreads its
science brought on an illness from which she never branches over it. Beside the fountain are foundarecovered. In I593 James took the younger chil- tions of old buildings, now almost obliterated. A
dren from the hands of their Popish guardians, and  few hundred yards west of it are the extensive
removed to Sedan. Two years after he returned  ruins of Khan Minyeh; and a short distance southto Tilloy, and preached to the Protestants in the ward are mounds of stones and rubbish, now
neighbourhood. In 1599 he was appointed, by the nearly covered with thorns and thistles.  The
Duke de Bouillon, to be preacher and Hebrew   writer was enabled to make out traces of ruins exprofessor at Sedan. In I6Io he was appointed tending over a space of several acres. This appears
professor of theology in the same university, an to be the true site of Capernaum; but as this view
office which he held till his death, in September has been opposed by Wilson, Ritter, Thomson,
1624. His Observationes Criticce in Libb. V. T. and other recent authors, it may be well to sum up
were published with those of his younger brother in a few words the leading arguments in its favour.
Louis, Amst. 1689.  The same volume contains Robinson gives them in full (Bib. Res. iii. 348, sq.)
a list of his other works published and in manu-  I. Capernaum was situated on the shore of the




CAPHAR SALAMA                   439               CAPHTHOR
lake, in the plain of Gennesaret (John vi. 17, 21, Palestine, from Joppa to the borders of Egypt,
24, 25, with Mark vi. 53). This plain is easily having expelled the original occupants, the Avim
identified; it extended from Mejdel to Ain et-Tin. (Deut. ii. 23; Jer. xlvii 4; Am. ix. 7). 2. That
2. In Gennesaret was a fountain called Caper- it was a maritime district, if not an island (Jer.
naum, and therefore in all probability beside the xlvii. 4, where it is called'-nS3 o). 3. That its
town. Ain et-Tin is the only fountain near the people were a Mizraite race, and its locality, conshore.                                        sequently, somewhere within the range of the Miz3. The notices of some of the mediaeval pil- raitic settlements. Beyond this it is only conjecgrims, though not very clear, seem to point to Ain turally that anything can be advanced regarding it.
et-Tin as the site of Capernaum.  That of St. It has been identified with-i. CAPPADOCIA. This
Willibald certainly does so (Early Travels in Pal., is the rendering of the older versions, and this
p. I6). Quaresmius identifies Khani lMinyeh and view has been followed by Bochart (Phaleg. iv. 32);
Capernaum (Robinson, B. R., iii. 357).        Gesenius (Thesaur. s. v.); Koester (Eriduterun4. It is only since the seventeenth century that gen derheiligen Schrfteraus den Kassikern, p. I57),
an attempt has been made to locate Capernaumn at etc. 2. CYPRUS. This was suggested by Calmet
Tell Hum. The arguments in its favour may be in the first edition of his Commentaries on Genesis,
seen at large in Wilson, Lands of the Bible; Ritter, and it has recently been conjecturally resumed by
Pal. and Syr., ii. 340 if.; Thomson, Land and  Hock (Kreta i. 368), and Redslob (Alttest. Namen,
Book, 352, sq.                                p. I5). 3. CRETE. Lakemacher was the first to
Capernaum is now utterly desolate; its very propose this (Obss. Philol. ii. II); it was adopted
name is unknown to tradition, and its site is dis- by Calmet (Disquis. Bibl. iii. 25); and it has found
puted. What a comment on our Lord's predic- verygeneral acceptance with recent inquirers, among
tion,'Thou shalt be brought down to hell!'  Ca- whom may be named Rosenmiiller (Bibl. Aterpernaum was perhaps more closely connected with thumsk. ii. 2, 363; iii. 385); Mbvers (Phanizien,
Christ's public ministry than any other town in i. 28); Lengerke (Kenaan i. 194); Ewald (Gesch.
Palestine. After he was rejected by the Nazarenes d. Volkes Zsr. i. 330); Tuch (Genesis, p. 243);'he came and dwelt in Capernaum,' which was Knobel (Genes. p. I o); Delitzsch (Genes. p. 290);
hence called'his own city' (Matt. iv. 13; ix. I). First (Heb. und Chal. W. B.), etc. 4. CERTAIN
Here he healed the demoniac (Mark I.-21-28), PARTS OF EGYPT.    (I), The Coast of the Egyptian
cured'Peter's wife's mother' (Luke iv. 38), re- Delta. This is the opinion of Stark (Gaza und die
stored the paralytic, and called Matthew (Matt. Philist. iiste, p. 76). (2), Damietta. So Saadias
ix. 2-9), cured the centurion's servant (Luke vii. I- in  e Arab. Vers. P 6, Dimyai; Benjamin of
Io), raised Jairus' daughter (Mark v. 22-43), and 
miraculously obtained the'tribute-money' (Matt. Tudela; the Heb. book 5uchasin, quoted by Boxvii. 24-47).  Near Capernaum   he chose his chart (Phaleg, iv. 38); Haine (Obss. Sac. ii. 6. lo).
apostles (Mark iii. 13-19), preached the'Sermon 3. Part of Morocco, west from Egypt (Quatremere
on the Mount,' (Matt. v), related the parables of 7ournal des Savans, 1846, p. 265).
the'sower,' the'tares,' the'treasure hid in a  Of these opinions the last two alone are worthy
field,' the'merchant seeking goodly pearls,' and of consideration. The first rests on little beyond
the'net cast into the sea' (Matt. xiii.)  In -Ca- the similarity of sound between Caphthor and Cappernaum he gave a lecture on fasting at Levi's padocia, a Similarity which is by no means striking,
feast (Matt. ix. o1-17), on formality to the Phari- and which entirely disappears when it is known
sees (Matt. xv. I-20), on faith (John vi. 22-7I), that the ancient name of Cappadocia was Katand on humility, forbearance, and brotherly love patuk or Katapatuka (Rawlinson, Yourn. of the
(Mark ix. 33-50). Well might the Saviour, after Asiat. Soc. xi. I, 95). Koster urges, as the strongest
such acts of love and power, and such words of argument in favour of this view, that' all the
wisdom and mercy, denounce woe upon the city eastern districts of Asia Minor beyond the river
that had seen and heard, and yet rejected! (Hand- Halys, and as far as Mount Taurus, were undoubtbookfor S. and P., p. 430, sq.)-J. L. P.      edly occupied by Semitic peoples;' but supposing
CAPTHAR-SALAMA        (XarapaXa\uLdo,  Alex. it proved that the Cappadocians were originally a
XaapaapaLt), a village in Palestine, near to which  Semitic people (which, however, is very far from
being Iundoubted'), one does not see what proof
Judas Maccabaeus defeated Nicanor, one of the being'undoubted'), one does not see what proof
generals of Demetrius Soter, I Mac:c.    w   ii. 3I there is in this that the Caphtorim, who were a
Josgenerals of DemetI  Soter. N.  M. V   3,Hamitic race, emigrated thence, or that Caphthor
is Cappadocia. The opinion that Cyprus is the anCAPHENATHA, Xa<evaicd, Caphehatha, Cha- cient Caphthor rests also almost solely on a supphanantha; i Maccab. xii. 37. The word occurs posed resemblance between'1nDS  and Kirpos, an
nowhere else, and its derivation is very uncertain. argument of but little weight; while the opinion
It appears to have been the name given to a part of itself stands opposed to the fact, that the Hebrews
the fortifications on the eastern side of Jerusalem  knew Cyprus under the name of bD', and they
which were repaired by Jonathan Maccabaeus. It were not likely to fall into any confusion respecting
is not mentioned by Josephus.-J. E. R.        an island so near their own shores. The extensive
CAPHTHOR, a d  t or c     y agreement of scholars in favour of Crete as the
CAPHTHOR      (knp3), a district or country ancient Caphthor, gives a preliminary probability
respecting the position of which great diversity of to this supposition; and it receives support from
opinion prevails, All thatwe learn from the notices the fact, that the inhabitants of the same disof it in Scripture is-I. That it was the mother trict, apparently occupied by the Caphthorim,
country of the Philistines, or rather a portion of are called D'n'3, Crethi, which is assumed to
them called the CAPHTORIM, for there were Philis- mean Cretans (A. V. Cherethites), and that these
tines also who came from Casloch (Gen. x. 4), Crethi were undoubtedly Philistines (I Sam. xxx.
who emigrated from it and settled on the coast of 14, I6; Ezek. xxv. i6; LXX. Kpi^ras; Zeph.




CAPPADOCIA                   440                 CAPTAIN
ii. 5; LXX. KpT0riv; comp. 2 Sam. viii. i8). for many centuries. Some of the most eminent
To this it may be added, that Tacitus, apparently fathers of the early church were natives of this proconfounding the Jews with the Philistines, calls vince.  The celebrated Gregory Thaumaturgus
them'Judaeos Creta insula profugos' (Histor. flourished here in the middle of the third century.
v. 2); that Stephanus Byzant. (s. v. Gaza), says Gregory Nazianzen (so called fromNazianzus, atown
that Gaza was previously called Minoa from Minos of Cappadocia), Gregory Nyssen, and his brother
king of Crete; and that such a name as )aXcodapva Basil the Great, were born in Cappadocia, and
in Crete indicates the presence of the Philistines lived there together during a part of the fourth centhere. The weight of these auxiliary reasons can- tury (Connyb. and Howson, L~fe of St. Paul,
not be thought great, and the force of the main i. 267).-J. L. P.
reason is seriously impaired by the consideration,  CAPPEL or CAPPELLUS, Louis (LUDOVIthat the Crethi are identified by the sacred writers cus), was born at St. Helier, 1585  He was the
with the S'1 or inhabitants of Caria [CARIA]. On  son of Jacques Cappel II.  He lived for the most
the other hand, it is extremely improbable, either part in Sedan from his eighth till his twentieth
that a small island like Crete should be able to year. At the age of 24 the church in Bourdeaux
send forth so large a body of emigrants as must furnished him with the means of travelling abroad
have landed on the territories of the Avim, so as for four years through Great Britain, Belgium, and
to be able to expel them, and take possession of Germany. At Oxford he studied two years. After
their country, or that the Phmenicians would allow  his return, he was elected professor of Hebrew in
a sea-faring race like the Cretans to settle in their the Academy of Saumur, 1613; and two years
vicinity (see Hick, Kreta, p. 367). On the whole, after he became a preacher there. In 1633 he bethe supposition that the Caphthorim  were an   came professor of theology in Saumur to the ReEgyptian race, which crossed over from somewhere formed Synod.  Here he laboured till his death,
in the vicinity of Damietta, seems the most pro- which took place on i8th June 1658. Cappel was
bable. The close resemblance of the Philistines a very learned and many-sided theologian, who
to the native Egyptians on the monuments, shews possessed a spirit of independent inquiry, and freely
that they were originally kindred peoples, though  gave the results of it to the public without fear.
the differences in costume and manners are such as The leading subject of his researches was the histo indicate that the separation must have taken  tory of the Old Testament text. His principal
place at an early period. The similarity of the  works are, Arcanum punctationis reveatum, first
term'InD with Ko7rr6s (in hieroglyphics kebt-hor, published by Erpenius anonymously, Leyden, 1624,
see Encycl. Briann. vol. viii. p. 419), and so with  4to. In this work it is proved that the Hebrew
-y0irros in Atyv7rros, favours this view; though, points were not of divine origin, but were the inwhen this is pushed the length of actually finding vention of Jewish critics after the completion of the
Atyvrros in In, we cannot help thinking that Babylonian Talmud.  Another important work
a good reason is subjected to suspicion, from an  which he wrote is his Critica sacra, shewing that
attempt to strengthen it unduly, as the Gr. at is the Masoretic text is faulty in many, respects.  In
most certainly not the Heb. It, though the letters consequence of the difficulty and danger attending
are the same.-W. L. A.                         the promulgation of the views advocated, it was not
published till I650 at Paris, sixteen years after it
CAPPADOCIA (Ka7rra8oKta).      Among those had been written.  He is also the author of Diawho were present on the day of Pentecost, when  triba de veris et antiquis Hebraeorum literis, Amthe apostles received the miraculous gift of tongues, sterdam, 1645, 2mo, written against a treatise of
were' dwellers in Cappadocia.' They with others the junior Buxtorf's. He wrote besides, Templi
exclaimed,' How hear we every man in our own Hierosolymitani delineatio triplex; and Chronologia
tongue, wherein we were born?' (Acts ii. 8, 9.) Sacra, printed in the prolegomena of the London
Peter also addressed his First Epistle, among  Polyglott; Historia apostolica illustrata, Geneva,
others, to the'strangers scattered throughout Cap-  634. In I689 his son Jacques published L. Cappadocia' (i Pet. i. I). In ancient times the Cappa- pelicommentarii et notte criticc in Vet. Test. This
docians occupied the whole eastern section of the contains his Vindicica Arcani punctationis against
great plateau in the centre of Asia Minor, and also  Buxtorf, the son. The views so ably propounded
the lower plains between that plateau and the and maintained by Cappel respecting the Hebrew
Euxine. The latter portion was subsequently cal- text are now generally received.  Several of his
led Pontus (Rawlinson's Herodot. i. 653, 659, 399). works are still in MS.-S. D.
Ptolemy makes Cappadocia extend as far north as
the shores of the Euxine (Geog. vi. i). The pro-  CAPTAIN. This is the rendering in the A. V.
vince mentioned in the New Testament is more of different Hebrew and Greek words, and denotes
limited in extent, because Pontus is also named. It sometimes a military, sometimes a civil chief. It
was bounded on the north by Pontus, on the west represents, [I],', which means chief or ruler,
by the river Halys, on the south by Mount Taurus, and is used generally to designate a military comwhich separated it from Cilicia, and on the east by  mander (Gen. xxi. 22; xxxvii. 36; xl. 4; etc.)
the Euphrates.                                [ARMY]; but sometimes also the prefect of a city
The Cappadocians were a mixed race, descended  (Judg. ix, 30), or the leader of a choir of priests
from theMoschi, a Scythian tribe, and another tribe or singers (I Chron. xxiv. 5; xv. 27). [2],  M,
of Persian origin. Their language was therefore 
partly Scythian and partly Persian. It bore no apeson of rank, used to designate a prince orking
analogy to the Semitic, and it was thus the more (I Kings i. 34), the chief of a tribe (Num. ii. 3,
wonderful to hear Jews speak it with accuracy and  5), or of a family (Num. iii. 24). [3], thy, profluency (Bocharti Opp: i. 535).                perly head (Num. xiv. 4. [4],'1p, a decider, a
Christianity took deep root in Cappadocia at a judge, hence a prince (Prov. xxv. I5); a civil ruler
very early period, and it continued to flourish there (Is. i. 0o; iii. 6); amilitary chief (Judg. xi. 6, 1r).




CAPTIVITIES                 441               CAPTIVITIES
[5], ~'1,   a chief or president, hence a military  Babylon as retaining the power of life and death
chief (I Sam. ix. I6; xiii. 14; 2 Sam. v. 2. Inover their own people (i. 28), when Daniel was as
2 Kings xi. 4, I9, Nl. is rendered captains by mis- yet a very young man. The authority of that book
take [CARIA].  In the N. T. captain represents cannot indeed be pressed as to the chronology;
dpX^ybs (Heb. ii. Io); * rpar7yys (Luke xxii. 4; yet the notices given by Ezekiel (xiv. I; xx. I)
Acts v. 26); *XXlapXos  (Mar. vi. 21; John xviii. concur in the general fact, that they still held an
12; Rev. xix. I8). The'captain of the temple' internal jurisdiction over their own members. At
(Acts iv. i), was not a military officer; he was a later time, under the Seleucide, we have distinct
chief of the body of Levites to whom was entrusted  proof that in the principal cities the Jews were gothe guardianship of the temple (2 Maccab. iii. 4;veed by an officer (udvephs) of their own nation 
Joseph. Bell. ud. ii. 12. 6; Ani. xx 6. 2). Theas also in Egypt under the Ptolemies. The book
captains' mentioned Luke xxii 4, were robabl  of Tobit exhibits Israelities in Media possessed of
his subalterns.                              slaves themselves (viii. I8); the book of Daniel
God is called    (Dan. viii. I I) nt as tells us of a Jew, in eminent political station; and
God is called K IV (Dan..  Ii), not asthat of Esther celebrates their power and conseequivalent to ntlsJl o, but because he is the quence in the Persian empire.  Under the SeleuHead and Protector of his people. So, intheN.T., cidae [ANTIOCHUS] they were occasionally imporour Lord is called Captain of his people's Salva- tant as garrison-soldiers; and it may be suspected
tion (dpXnyb' T7iTS oawrplas abrwv, Heb. ii. xo), that, on the whole, their lot was milder than that.because he is the beginner, source, and author of of the other conquered nations among which they
their salvation, the Head of his church, which he dwelt.
conducts with and in himself, to blessedness.  That which we name the first Captivity, was by
W. L.A.                                      no means brought about by a single removal of
the population. In fact, from beginning to end,
CAPTIVITIES. The word Captivity, as ap- the period of deportation occupied full 150 years;
plied to the people of Israel, has been appro- as the period of return reaches probably through
priated, contrary to the analogy of our language, Ioo.  The first blow fell upon the more distant
to mean Expatriation. The violent removal of the tribes of Israel, about 741 B.C.; when Tiglathentire population of a city, qr sometimes even of pileser, king of Assyria (2 Kings xv. 29), carried
a district, is not an uncommon event in ancient off the pastoral population which lived beyond the
history. As a measure of policy, no objection to Jordan, with Zebulon and Naphtali. (To this
it on the ground of humanity was felt by any one; event allusion is made in Isaiah ix. I; a passage
since, in fact, it was a very mild proceeding, in very ill translated in our received version). In the
comparison with that of selling a tribe or nation time of this conquering monarch, Assyria was
into slavery.  Every such destruction of national rapidly rising into power, and to aggrandize Nineexistence, even in modern times, is apt to be em- veh was probably a great object of policy. It is
bittered by the simultaneous disruption of religious therefore credible, as he had received no particular
bonds; but in the ancient world, the positive provocation from the Israelites, that he carried off
sanctity attributed to special places, and the local these masses of population to stock his huge city
attachment of Deity, made expatriation doubly with. His successor Shalmanezer made the Israelsevere. The Hebrew people, for instance, in many itish king Hoshea tributary. When the tribute
most vital points, could no longer obey their was withheldi he attacked and reduced Samaria
sacred-law at all, when personally removed from  (B.c. 721), and, by way df punishment and of preJerusalem; and in many others they were forced vention, transported into Assyria and Media its
to modify it by reason of their change of circum- king and all the most valuable population remainstances.                                     ing to the ten tribes (2 Kings xvii. 6).  That he
Two principal motives impelled  conquering did not carry off all the peasants is probable from
powers thus to transport families in the mass; the nature of the case; Hengstenberg, however,
first, the desire of rapidly filling with a valuable maintains the contrary (Authentie des Pentateuches,
population new cities, built for pride or for policy; ch. i.' On the Samaritan'). The families thus renext, the determination to break up hostile organi- moved were, in great measurei settled in very
zations or dangerous reminiscences of past great- distant cities; many of them probably not far from
ness. Both might sometimes be combined in the the Caspian Sea; and their place was supplied by
same act. To attain the former object, the skilled colonies from Babylon and Susis (2 Kings xvii.
artizans would in particular be carried off; while 24). Such was the end of Israel as a kingdom.the latter was better effected by transporting all the An interval of more than a century followed before
families of the highest birth, and all the well- Judah was to suffer a similar fate. Two separate
trained soldiery. The Greeks used the special deportations are narrated in the book of Kings,
epithet dvdynrcwrot for a population thus removed three in that of Jeremiah, while a fourth and
(Herod. iii. 93; vi. 9, etpassim).           earlier one appears in the book of Daniel. JereThe expatriation of the Jewish people belongs miah dates by the years of Nebuchadnezzar's reign
to two great eras, commonly called the first and  (who came to the throne B.C. 606 or 605), and
second Captivity; yet differing exceedingly in estimates that in his seventh year 3023 were carried
character. It is to the former that the above re- off, in his eighteenth 832, and in his twenty-third
marks chiefly apply. In it, the prime of the nation only 745; making in all,' as the writer is careful to
were carried eastward by the monarchs of Assyria note, 4600 (Jer. lii. 28, etc.)  The third removal
and Babylon, and were treated with no unnecessary he ascribes to Nebuzaradan, the Babylonian geneharshness, even under the dynasty that captured ral. That some error here exists, at least in the
them. So far were they from the condition of numbers, appears undeniable; for 4600 persons
bondsmen (which the word'captive' suggests), was a very petty fraction of the Jewish people;
that the book of Susanna represents their elders in and, in fact, 42,360 are stated to have returned im



CAPTIVITIES                 442               CAPTIVITIES
mediately upon the decree of Cyrus (Ezra ii. 64). and laying the foundation of the second temple, 53
In 2 Kings xxiv. 8-16, we find 18,000 carried off years after the destruction of the first. The proat once, in the third month of king Jehoiachin, gress of the work was, however, almost immeand in the eighth year of Nebuchadnezzar; which  diately stopped: for Zerubbabel, Jeshua, and the
evidently is the same as the first removal named by rest, abruptly refused all help from the half-heathen
Jeremiah, and may be placed in B.C. 598.  After inhabitants of Samaria, and soon felt the effects of
this, the vassal king Zedekiah having rebelled, his the enmity thus induced. That the mind of Cyrus
city is beleaguered, and finally in his eleventh year was chaniged by their intrigues, we are not inis reduced (B.C. 588) by Nebuchadnezzar in per- formed; but he was probably absent in distant
son; and in the course of the same year,'the parts, through continual war. (There is a diffinineteenth of Nebuchadnezzar' (2 Kings xxv. 8), culty in Ezra iv. as to the names Ahasuerus and
Nebuzaradan carries away all the population ex- Artaxerxes; yet the general facts are clear.)cept the peasants.  Perhaps we need not wonder When Daritis (Hystaspis), an able and generous
that no mention is made in the'Kings' of the monarch, ascended the throne, the Jews soon obthird deportation  for the account of the destruc- tained his favour.  At this crisis, Zerubbabel was
tion was in a manner complete, upon the second in chief authority (Sheshbazzar perhaps being dead),
invasion. There is a greater difficulty in the state- and under him the temple was begun in the second
ment with which the book of Daniel opens, Which and ended in the sixth year of Darius, B.C. 520is generally interpreted to mean that in the third 5I6.  Although this must be reckoned an era in
year of Jehoiakim, Nebuchadnezzar besieged and the history, it is not said to have been accompanied
captured Jerusalem, partially plundered the tern- with any new immigration of Jews.  We pass on
pie, and carried off the first portion of the people to'the seventh year of king Artaxerxes' (Longiinto captivity, among whomwas Daniel. The text, manus), Ezra vii. 7, that is, B.C. 458, when Ezra
however, does not explicitly say so much, although  comes up from Babylon to Jerusalem, with the
such is the obvious meaning; but if this is the only king's commendatory letters, accompanied by a
interpretation, we find it in direct collision with large body of his nation. The enumeration in Ezra
the books of Kings and Chronicles (which assign viii. makes them under 1800 males, with their
to Jehoiakim  an eleven years' reign), as also families; perhaps amounting to 5000 persons,
with Jer. xxv. I. The statement in Daniel par- young and old: of whom 113 are recounted as
tially rests on 2 Chron. xxxvi. 6; which is itself having heathen wives (Ezra x. I8-43). In the
not in perfect accordance with 2 Kings xxiv. In twentieth year of the same king, or B.C. 445,
the earlier history the war broke out during the Nehemiah, his cupbearer, gains his permission to
reign of Jehoiakim, who died before its close; and restore'his fathers' sepulchres,' and the walls of
when his son and suiccessor Jehoiachin had reigned his native city; and is sent to Jerusalem with large
three months, the city and its king were captured. powers.  This is the crisis which decided the naBut in the Chronicles, the same event is made to tional restoration of the Jewish people; for before
happen twice over, at an interval of three months their city was fortified, they had no defence against
and ten days (2 Chron. xxxvi. 6 and 9), and even the now confirmed enmity of their Samaritan
so, we do not obtain accordance with the received neighbours; and, in fact, before the walls could
interpretation of Dan. i. I-3.  It seems on the be built, several princes around were able to offer
whole the easiest supposition, that'the third year of great opposition [SANBALLAT]. The Jewish popuJehoiakim' is there a mistake for' the third month lation was overwhelmed with debt, and had geneof Jehoiachin.'  Hengstenberg, however, and rally mortgaged their little estates' to the rich; but
Havernick defend the common reading, and think  Nehemiah's influence succeeded in bringing about
they reconcile it with the other accounts.  On the a general forfeiture of debts, or at least of the
whole, it is pretty clear that the people of Judah, interest; after which we may regard the new order
as of Israel, were carried out of their land by Two  of things to have been finally established in Judaea
principal removals. The former B. c. 598, was [NEHEMIAH]. From this time forth it is probable
directed to swell the armies and strengthen the that numerous families returned in small parties, as
towns of the conqueror; for of the I8,ooo then to a secure home, until all the waste land in the
carried away, Iooo were' craftsmen and smiths, all neighbourhood was re-occupied.
strong and apt for war,' and the rest are called  There has been great difference of opinion as to'mighty men of valour.' (Yet there is a difficulty how the 70 years of captivity spoken of by Jereabout verses 14 and I6 in 2 Kings xxiv.)  It was miah (xxv. 12; xxix. Io) are to be estimated.  A
not until the rebellion of Zedekiah that Nebuchad- plausible opinion would make them last from the
nezzar proceeded to the extremity of breaking up destruction of the first temple, B.C. 588, to the
the national existence, B.C. 588. As the temple finishing of the second, B.C. 516; but the words
was then burnt, with all the palaces and the city of the text so specify'the punishing of the king of
walls, and no government was left but that of the Babylon' as the end of the 70 years-which gives
Babylonian satrap, this latter date is evidently the us the date B.C. 538-that many, with Jahn, cing
true era of the captivity. Previously Zedekiah was to the belief that a first captivity took place in
tributary; but so were Josiah and Ahaz long be- the third year of Jehoiakim, B.c. 605.  Winer,
fore; the national existence was still saved.  on the contrary, suspects that a desire to make out
Details concerning the Return from the captivity the 70 years in this way, has generated the story
are preserved in the books denominated after Ezra in Daniel, so irreconcilable with the books of
and Nehemiah; and in the prophecies of two con- Kings and of Jeremiah. But, in fact, if we read
temporaries, Haggai and Zechariah.  The first Jeremiah himself, it may appear that in ch. xxv.
great event is the decree of Cyrus, B.c. 536, in he intends to compute the 70 years from the time
consequence of which 42,360 Jews of Babylon re- at which he speaks (ver. I,'in the fourth year of
turned under Sheshbazzar, with 7337 slaves, be- Jehoiakim,' i.e. B.C. 604); and that in xxix. o1
sides cattle. This ended in their building the altar, the number'seventy years' is still kept up, in re



CAPTIVITIES                 443               CAPTIVITIES
membrance of the former prophecy, although the restored nation.  Whatever want of zeal the anlanguage there used is very lax.             xious Ezra might discern in his comrades, it is no
The great mass of the Israelitish race neverthe- slight matter that he could induce them to divorce
less remained in dispersion. Previous to the cap- their heathen wives-a measure of harshness which
tivity, many Israelites had settled in Egypt (Zech. St. Paul would scarcely have sanctioned (i Cor.
x. 6-II; Is. xix. I8), and many Jews afterwards vii. 12): and the century which followed was, on
fled thither from Nebuzaradan (Jer. xli. I7). Others the whole, one of great religious activity and imporappear to have established themselves in Sheba tant permanent results on the moral character of
(see Jost's Geschichte, etc.), where Jewish influence the nation. Even the prophetic spirit by no means
became very powerful (SHEBA).                disappeared for a century and a half; although at
It is maintained by Von Bohlen (Genesis, p. cxvi.) length both the true and the false prophet were
that the ten tribes intermarried so freely with the supplanted among them by the learned and diligent
surrounding population as to have become com- scribe, the anxious commentator, and the overpletely absorbed; and it appears to be a universal literal or over-figurative critic. In place of a peoopinion that no one now knows where their de- ple prone to go astray after sensible objects of
scendants are. But it is a harsh assumption that adoration, and readily admitting heathen customs;
such intermarriages were commoner with the ten attached to monarchical power, but inattentive to a
tribes than with the two; and certainly, in the hierarchy; careless of a written law, and movable
apostolic days, the twelve tribes are referred to as by alternate impulses of apostacy and repentance;
a well-known people, sharply defined from the we henceforth find in them a deep and permanent
heathen (James i. I; Acts xxvi. 7). Not a trace reverence for Moses and the prophets, an aversion
appears that any repulsive principle existed at that to foreigners and foreign customs, a profound
time between the Ten and the Two.'Ephraim   hatred of idolatry, a great devotion to priestly and
no longer envied Judah, nor Judah vexed Eph- Levitical rank, and to all who had an exterior of
raim;' but they had become'one nation;' though piety; in short, a slavish obedience both to the
only partially'on the mountains of Israel' (Is. law and to its authorized expositors. Now first,
xi. I3; Ezek.' xxxvii. 22). It would seem, there- as far as can be ascertained (observe the particufore, that one result of the captivity was to blend larity of detail in Neh. viii 4, etc.), were the synaall the tribes together, and produce a national gogues and houses of prayer instituted, and the
union which had never been effected in their own law periodically read aloud, Now began the close
land.  If ever there was a difference between observance of the Passover, the Sabbath, and the
tiem as to the books counted sacred, that differ- Sabbatical year. Such was the change wrought in
ence entirely vanished; at least no evidence ap- the guardians of the Sacred Books, that, whereas
pears of the contrary fact. When, moreover, the the pious king Josiah had sat eighteen years on the
laws of landed inheritance no longer enforced the throne without knowing of the existence of' the
maintenance of separate tribes and put a difficulty Book of the Law' (2 Kings xxii. 3, 8); in the
in the way of their intermarriage, an almost in- later period, on the contrary, the text was watched
evitable result in course of time was the entire over with a scrupulous and fantastic punctiliousness.
obliteration of this distinction; and as a fact, no From  this era, the civil power was absorbed in
modern Jews know to what tribe they belong, that of the priesthood, and the Jewish people
although vanity always makes them choose to say affords the singular spectacle of a nation in which
that they are of the two or three, and not of the the priestly rule came later in time than that of
ten tribes. That all Jews now living have in them  hereditary kings. Something analogous may perthe blood of all the twelve tribes, ought (it seems) haps be seen in the priestly authority at Comana in
to be believed, until some better reason than mere Cappadocia under the Roman sway (Cicero, Ep. ad
assertion is advanced against it.            Div. xv. 4, etc.)
When Cyrus gave permission to the Israelites to  In their habits of life, also, the Jewish nation
return to their own country, and restored their was permanently affected by the first captivity.
sacred vessels, it is not wonderful that few persons The love of agriculture, which the institutions of
of the ten tribes were eager to take advantage of it. Moses had so vigorously inspired, had necessarily
In two centuries they had become thoroughly  declined in a foreign land; and they returned with
naturalized in their eastern settlements; nor had a taste for commerce, banking, and retail trade,
Jerusalem ever been the centre of proud aspirations which was probably kept up by constant interto them. It is perhaps remarkable, that in Ezra ii. course with their brethren who remained in dis2, 36 (see also x. 18, 25), the word Israe is used persion. The same intercourse in turn propagated
to signify what we might call the Laity as opposed towards the rest the moral spirit which reigned at
to the priests and Levites; which might seem as Jerusalem. The Egyptian Jews, it would seem,
though the writer were anxious to avoid asserting had gained little good from the contact of idolatry
that all the families belonged to the two tribes. (If (Jer. xliv. 8); but those who had fallen in with
this is not the meaning, it at least shews that all the Persian religion, probably about the time of its
discriminating force in the words Israel and Judah great reform by Zoroaster, had been preserved
was already lost. So, too, in the book of Esther, from such temptations, and returned purer than
the twelve tribes through all parts of the Persian they went. Thenceforward it was the honourable
empire are called Jews.) Nevertheless, it was to function of Jerusalem to act as a religious mebe expected that only those would return to Jeru- tropolis to the whole dispersed nation; and it cansalem whose expatriation was very recent; and not be doubted that the ten tribes, as well as the
principally those whose parents had dwelt in the two, learned to be proud of the Holy City, as the
Holy City or its immediate neighbourhood. The great and free centre of their name and their faith.
re-migrants doubtless consisted chiefly of the pious The same religious influences thus diffused themand the poor; and as the latter proved docile to selves through all the twelve tribes of Israel.
their teachers, a totally new spirit reigned in the  Thus in Egypt and Arabia, in Babylonia, Assy



CARA                     444                  CARA
ria, Media, masses of the nation were planted, who, order to explain it away (comp. Kimchi in loco).
living by traffic and by banking, were necessitated  Cara most plainly remarks upon it:-' We have
to spread in all directions as their numbers in- here an evidence that this book was not written at
creased.  By this natural progress they moved the time of Samuel, as in his day a prophet was
westward, as well as eastward, and, in the time of called iil; it was in a later day, when he was no
St. Paul, were abundant in Asia Minor, Greece, longer called by this name, but was termed K'3,
and the chief cities of Italy.               that his book was written. Moreover, the expresThe extermination suffered by the Jewish inhabi- sion riR  does not occur in any other portion of
tants of Palestine, under the Romans, far better the Bible. Our ancient sages, however, maintain
deserves the name of captivity: for after the mas- that Samuel did write the book which is called by
sacre of countless thousands, the captives were his name. May He who causeth the light to shine
reduced to a real bondage.  According to Jose- upon the world make darkness light, and the
phus (De Bell. -ud. vi. 9. 3), I, Ioo,ooo men fell in crooked straight.' The traditional explanation of
the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, and 97,ooo were Gen. xxxiv. 25, making it to describe the acute
captured in the whole war. Of the latter number, pain and fever which seized all the Shechemites on
the greatest part was distributed among the pro- the third day after their circumcision, has perplexed
vinces to be butchered in the amphitheatres or cast some interpreters, so much so that Abrabanel felt
there to wild beasts; others were doomed to work himself constrained to explain it,' and it came to
as public slaves in Egypt: only those under the pass on the third day (i.e., after the violation of
age of seventeen were sold into private bondage. Dinah), when they were sore,' etc. Cara, with
An equally dreadful destruction fell upon the re- more justice remarks, that it was the third day
mains of the nation, which had once more assem- when this operation was completed upon all the
bled in Judaea, under the reign of Hadrian (A.D. males when they were sore,  1   VIW  tll
133), which Dion Cassius concisely relates; and 
by these two savage wars, the Jewish population 13,  nt      At 1i n. 4 m    3.
must have been effectually extirpated from  the  Cara's commentaries extend nearly over the
Holy Land itself-a result which did not follow  whole O. T.; and it is greatly to be regretted that
from the Babylonian captivity. Afterwards a dreary fragments only have been printed of most of them.
period of fifteen hundred years' oppression crushed  I. His n'1nn 1IT  glosses upon Rashi's commenin Europe all who bore the name of Israel, and tary on the Pentateuch have mostly been published
Christian nations have visited on their head a crime by Geiger under the title nOlp$ in'his 4u
perpetrated by a few thousand inhabitants of Jeru-  W^, Breslau, 1847; and Parshandatha, Leipzig,
salem, who were not the real forefathers of the  I855. 2. Fragments of his commentary on the ProtEuropean Jews. Nor in the East has their lot been phels, Dil3.10P, are given by De Rossi in his
much more cheering.   [For an interesting and  Varis Lectiones, Parma, 1785, on I Sam. vi. 19
scientific calculationof the probable numbers taken  (vol ii. p. 4I)  Ezek. xlvii. 13 (vol. iii. p. 168)
away in the first captivity, see Question of the sup-., 
posed lost tribes of Israel, by James Kennedy, LL. B., Zech. xii. io (ibid., p. 2I7); Jo, by Leopold
1855]-]-F. W. N,                              Dukes, Eslingen, i846; * D:1V  VUt), by Geiger,
~^S-J-r* > vv* 1Breslau, I847. 3. Fragments of the Commentaries
CARA, JOSEPH, son of the celebrated Hagadist on Esther, Ruth, and Lamentations, have been
Simeon Cara, flourished in the north of France published by Dr. Adolph Jellinek, Leipzig, I855.
towards the end of the eleventh century, and was a The commentary on Lamentations has been printed
junior contemporary of the immortal Rashi, whose in Naples, 1487; and reprinted in the collection,
commentary on the Pentateuch he completed. t1Dn an, pp. 16-23, Metz 1849.          4  The
Although the Germano-French school in which he commentary on 7obis printed in Frankel's Monatwas brought up devoted at that time all its intel- schrift ftir Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenlectual powers to the study of the Talmud, and ex- thums, 1856-58. 5. His commentary on Hosea has
plained the Bible according to the Hagada, Cara, just been published in Breslau, i86I.-C. D. G.
stimulated by the noble example of his uncle Mena-  CARA  SIMEON, B. CHELBO, also called R.
chem B. Chelbo [Menachem], abandoned the alle- SI      HA-D,   o eced t
gorical mode of interpretation (WIlt), of which his S e fm  reading  wo rein the synagogue the
own father was so great a defender, and consecrated lesson on the Sabbath, and the latter from his colhis great talents to the simple'and grammatical ex-lecing and explaining  ) the Midrashim, was
position of the word of God (tMA), which he proposition of the word of God ~(),~ which he ~pro- brother of the celebrated commentator Menachem
secuted with unabated zeal and distinguished suc-   Chelbo and ourished in the eleventh century.
cess. Having no exegetical helps, he had to frame       a    orised i    e el   th ctu
laws of grammar and interpretation of his- own, in Cara has immortalised his name by his famous collaws of grammar and interpretation of his own, in  ^^  of Midrashim; on almost every verse of the
accordance with which he unfolded the meaning of lection of Mi, on al h  p is  er the ne of
every section in a most lucid manner and in logi-. T, which he pulished under the name of
cal sequence, he even applied to the text rules of 7alkut (tlrp, collection).  The labour which
higher and lower criticism as they are now termed, this assiduous scholar must have expended in bringand obtained results contrary to the generally ing together from upwards of fifty different works
received opinions, which he maintained in defiance of all ages such a catena of traditional expositions
of tradition. Let a few specimens suffice. The can hardly be described, and will only be apprestatement in I Sam. ix. 9, that,'He who is now  ciated by those who use this Hagadic Thesaurus, as
called (KN43) a Prophet was beforetime (i.e., the it is fitly denominated. Besides the many fragtime of Samuel) called (ni ) a Seer,' has occa- ments of Cahana's Pesicta [Cahana] which Cara
sioned great difficulty to the Jews, who hold fast to gives us, and which otherwise would not have been
the traditional opinion that Samuel wrote this book, known, he has also preserved other Hagadic relics
and made them resort to various expedients in  of great importance.  He has arranged all his




CARAITES                   445                 CARAVAN
amassed lore under the respective verses of Scrip- the mountainous region of Gilead, would seem,
ture, and has also divided the O. T. into two like the nomade tribes of Africa in the present day,
thousand and forty-eight sections, in order to facili- to have engaged themselves as commercial traveltate the references to it.  This storehouse of lers, and were then, in passing over the plain of
Midrashim is the text-book of all students of Dothan, on the high caravan-road for the market
Hagadic interpretation, and some idea may be of Egypt.
formed of its utility and popularity from the fact  Besides these communities of travelling merthat, notwithstanding its necessarily large size and  chants in the East, there are caravans of pilgrims,
great price, ten different editions of it have ap- i.e., of those who go for religious purposes to
peared between 1526 and I805. As to the import- Mecca, comprising vastly greater multitudes of
ance of this work to the critical exposition of the people. These Hadj caravans that travel yearly
Bible, we can only remark here that there is hardly to Mecca, bear so close a resemblance to the joura deviation to be found in the Septuagint, the Vul- ney of the Israelites through almost the same exgate, etc., from the Hebrew text, or an explanation tensive deserts, that, as the arrangement of those
in St. Jerome and other fathers of the Christian vast travelling bodies seems to have undergone no
Church who were acquainted with the sacred lan- material alteration for nearly four thousand years,
guage of the O. T., which appears to be at vari- it affords the best possible commentary illustrative
ance with the present reading of the text, to which  of the Mosaic narrative of the Exodus.  Like
the clue will not be supplied in it. For illustra- them, the immense body of Israelitish emigrants,
tions of this remark, we must refer to articles while the chief burden devolved on Moses, was
Hagada and Midrash. One of the best and most divided into companies, each company being under
convenient editions of this work is the one pub- the charge of a subordinate officer, called a prince
lished at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, x687, fol., by  (Num. vii.) Like them the Hebrews made their
the brothers Isaac Eisac and Seligmann, the sons first stage in a hurried manner and in tumultuous
of Hirz Reis, 4''ry  WO tpD1 p  l p"p,n  DSI  disorder-(Exod. xii. II, 38, 39); and, like them, each
1:D^n^ ~AcjO:F p 3pt8  p n^ ^ m  P^lpn.>nn~j  tribe had its respective standard, the precise form
4  /   paN pp   n   n n w ~and device of which, amid the conflicting accounts
tr"ln n1w' t"st ra' yrn'l n',n: m~n I   5Dn' of the Rabbins, it is not easy to determine [STANDpL/gL. Compa    the mase      a  e of R    - ARDS]; but which, of whatever description it was,
poW. Compa reth     masterly article of Rapa- was pitched at the different stages, or thrust perport in the Hebrew Annual called Kerem Chemedpendicularly into the ground, and thus formed a
("OFn ti1n), vol. vii. p. 4, etc. Zunz, Die Gottes- pendicularly into the ground, and thus formed a
('V!^dienst1 icfvl11.4 en   detc.wr p Z p. 2 otte03  central point, around which the straggling party
diensthchen Vortrdge der _uden, pp. 295-303; spread themselves during their hours of rest and
Steinschneider, Catalogs Librorum Hebreorum   leisre (Num. ii. 2). Like them, the signal for
Bibliotheca Bodleiana, Berolino, 1852-60, col.starting was given by the blast of a trumpet, or
2600, 2604.-C. D. G.rather trumpets (Num. x. 2, 5); and the time of
CARAITES. [KARAITES.]                       marching and halting was regulated by the same
CARAVAN..t.   n e  rules that have been observed by all travellers from
CARAVAN (J.)z5.     ) is the name given to a time immemorial during the hot season.  Like
body of merchants or pilgrims as they travel in the theirs, too, the elevation of the standard, as it was
East. A multitude of people, of all ages and con- borne forward in the van of each company, formed
ditions, assembling to undertake a journey, and  a prominent object to prevent dispersion, or enprosecutting it en masse for days and weeks toge- able wanderers to recover their place within the line
ther, is a thing unknown in Europe, where, from  or division to which they belonged.  Nor was
the many facilities for travelling, and a well organ- there any difference here, except that, while the
ized system of police, travellers can go alone and Israelites in like manner prosecuted their journey
unprotected along the highways to any distance occasionally by night as well as by day, they did
with the most perfect security.  But troops of not require the aid of fires in their standards, as
people on march are a common spectacle along the the friendly presence of the fiery pillar superseded
roads of Eastern countries; and, indeed, the na- the necessity of any artificial lights. One other
ture of the countries in many places, as well as the point of analogy remains to be traced in the cirdisorderly state of society, points out the only cumstance of Hobab being enlisted in the service
practicable way of travelling to be in large cara- of the Hebrew caravan as its guide through the
vans.                                         great Arabian desert. At first sight, the extreme
The earliest caravan of merchants we read of is solicitude of Moses to secure his brother-in-law in
the itinerant company to whom Joseph was sold that capacity may appear strange, and not easily
by his brethren (Gen. xxxvii.)'Here,' says Dr. reconcilable with the fact that they enjoyed the
Vincent,'upon opening the oldest history in the special benefit of a heavenly guide, who had
world, we find the Ishmaelites from Gilead, con- guaranteed, in a supernatural manner, to direct
ducting a caravan loaded with the spices of India, their progress through the wilderness. But the
the balsam and myrrh of Hadramaut, and in the difficulty will vanish when it is borne in mind, that
regular course of their traffic proceeding to Egypt although the pillar of cloud by day and of fire by
for a market. The date of this transaction is more night sufficed to regulate the main stages of the
than seventeen centuries before the Christian era, Hebrews, foraging parties would at short intervals
and notwithstanding its antiquity, it has all the require to be sent out, and scouts to reconnoitre
genuine features of a caravan crossing the desert at the country for fuel, or to negotiate with the native
the present hour' (Commerceand Navig. of the An- tribes for provender and water. And who so well
cients, vol. ii. p. 262). This caravan was a mixed  qualified to assist in these important services as
one, consisting of three classes, Ishmaelites (ver. Hobab, from his intimate acquaintance with the
25), Midianites (ver. 28), and Medanites, as the localities, his influence as a Sheikh, and his family
Hebrew calls the last (ver. 36), who, belonging to connection with the leader of Israel?




CARAVANSERAIS                   446            CARAVANSERAIS.
The nature and economy of the modern Hadj could in the open air. In the Arab towns and vilcaravans might be applied also to illustrate the re- lages, however, when a traveller arrives in the day.
turn of the Hebrew exiles under Ezra from the time, the sheikh, or some principal person of the
land of their captivity; and the bands of Jewish  place, goes out to welcome him, and treats him
pilgrims that annually repaired from every corner with great civility in his own house; or else he
of Judaea to attefrd the three great festivals in Jeru- conducts him to the menzil, which, though a place
salem. On such occasions the inhabitants of the of rather a nondescript character, is understood to
same village or district would naturally form them- be the house occupied by those who entertain
selves into travelling parties, for mutual security as strangers, when there are no other lodgings, and
well as for enjoying the society of acquaintance. to which the women in the sheikh's house, having
The poorer sort would have to travel on foot, while surveyed the number of the guests, send provisions
females and those of the better class might ride on  of every kind according to the season, and provide
asses and camels.  But as their country was every accommodation the place can afford (La
divided into tribes, and those who lived in the Roque, De la Palestine, p. 124).
same hamlet or canton would be more or less con-  The first mention of an inn, or house set apart
nected by family ties, the young, the volatile, and  for the accommodation of travellers  S
active among the Jewish pilgrims had far more in- the        odation of travellers; Sept.
ducements to disperse themselves amongst the KardXvia), occurs in the account of the return of
crowd than those of the modem processions, num- Jacob's sons from Egypt (Gen. xliii. 21); and as it
bers of whom are necessarily strangers to each was situated within the confines of that country,
other. In these circumstances it is easy to under- and at the first stage from the metropolis, it is
stand how the young Jesus might mingle succes- probable that the erection of such places of entersively with groups of his kindred and acquaintance, tainment originated with the Egyptians, who were
who, captivated with his precocious wisdom and far superior to all their contemporaries in the habits
piety, might be fond to detain him in their circle, and the arts of civilized life, and who, though not
while his mother, together with Joseph, felt no themselves a commercial people, yet invited to
anxiety at his absence, knowing the grave and their markets such a constant influx of foreign
sober character of their companions in travel; and traders, that they must have early felt the necesthe incident is the more natural that his parents sity and provided the comforts of those public
are said to have gone'one day's journey' from  establishments. The' inns' where travellers lodge
Jerusalem before they missed him? since, accord- in the East do not, however, bear the least reseming to the present and probably the ancient, prac- blance to the respectable houses of the same class
tice of the East, the first stage is always a short in this country, much less do they approximate to
one, seldom exceeding two or three hours. Mic- the character and appurtenances of European
mash-the modem    El Vyra, where Mary's dis- hotels. The Egyptian inn, where the sons of Israel
covery is reputed to have been made —is, accord- halted to bait their asses, was probably, from the
ing to Mr. Munro (Summer Ramble, vol. i. p. 265), remote period to which it belonged, of a rude and
scarcely three miles from Jerusalem, where the humble description, in point both of appearance
caravan of Galilseaipilgrims halted.-R. J.     and accommodation-merely a shed; under the roof
of which the cattle and their drivers might obtain
CARAVANSERAIS.         In the days of the elder shelter from the heats of noon and the dews of
patriarchs, there seem to have been no places spe- midnight; and such is the low state of art, or the
cially devoted to the reception of travellers, at tyrannical force of custom in the East, that estaleast in the pastoral districts frequented by those blishments of this kind in the present day can,
venerable nomades; for we find Abraham, like the with few exceptions, boast of improvements, that
Oriental shepherds of the present day, under a render them  superior to the mean and naked,
strong sense of the difficulties and privations with  poverty of those which received the pilgrims of the
which journeying in those regions was attended, patriarchal age.
deeming it a sacred duty to keep on the outlook,   1   khan or sl          aravanserai is the
and offer the wayfaring man the rights of hospi-..)    j 
tality in his own tent. Nor could the towns of name which this kind of building bears; and though
Palestine, as it would seem, at that remote period, the terms are often applied indiscriminately, there
boast of any greater advance with respect to esta- is an acknowledged distinction, which seems to be,
blishments of this sort; for the angelic strangers that khan is applied to those which are situated in
who visited Lot in Sodom were entertained in his or near towns, whereas caravanserais (a lodge for
private house; and on the tumultuous outrage oc- caravans, as the compound word imports) is the
casioned by their arrival disinclining them to sub- more appropriate designation of such as are erected
ject his family to inconvenience and danger by pro- in desert and sequestered places. A khan is always
longing their stay, they announced their intention  to be found in the neighbourhood of a town; and
to lodge in the streets all night. This elicited no  while houses corresponding to the description of
surprise, nor any other emotion than a strenuous the other are generally disposed at regular stages
opposition on the part of their kind-hearted host along public and frequented roads, they are more
to their exchanging the comforts of his home for a or less numerous in proportion to the relative discheerless exposure to the cold and dews of mid- tances of towns, and the populous or desert state
night; and hence we conclude that the custom, of the country. Though varying in character and
which is still frequently witnessed in the cities of size, this class of establishments preserves so genethe East, was then not uncommon for travellers rally the same unif6rm plan of construction, that a
who were late in arriving, and who had no intro- description of one may serve to convey an idea of
ductions to a private family, to bivouac in the all. Let the reader imagine, then, a large edifice,
street, or wrapping themselves up in the ample which, though in the distance it seems an immense
folds of their hykes, to pass the night as they best pile, resembling a castellated fort, on a nearer




CARAVANSERAIS                   447            CARAVANSERAIS
approach loses much of this formidable appearance, for a saddle, and squat upon the floor, or repose
when it is found that no part of the building rises himself at night; or, if he is a pedestrian, and
above the enclosing wall. It presents the form of must travel as lightly as possible, he makes the
a square, the sides of which, about Ioo yards in  cloak which he wears by day discharge the office
length each, are surrounded by an external wall of of a counterpane by night. In the victualling define brickwork, based on stone, rising generally to partment he finds as great a dearth as in that of
the height of twenty feet. In the middle of the furniture. He must subsist on the supply of food
front wall there is a wide and lofty archway, having  and articles of luxury he may have had the ftreon one or both sides a lodge for the porter and  sight to provide, and husband them as well as he
other attendants; while the upper part of it, being  can, as no addition to his stores can be made till
faced with carving or ornamental mason-work, and he reaches the next town. In general, he must
containing several rooms, surmounted by elegant content himself with a plain diet of dry bread,
domes, is considered the most honourable place of fruits, or such prepared viands as admit of preserthe building, and is therefore appropriated to the vation; or, if he wishes a fresh cooked meal, he
use of the better sort. This archway leads into a must himself furnish the fuel, kindle the fire, superspacious rectangle, the area forming a court-yard intend the boil or the roast, as well as wash and
for cattle, in the midst of which is a well or foun- arrange his eating-pan.'The baggage of a man,
tain. Along the sides of the rectangle are piazzas therefore, who wishes to be completely provided,'
extending the whole length, and opening at every says Volney,'consists of a carpet, a mattress, a
few steps into arched and open recesses, which blanket, two saucepans, with lids, contained within
are the entrances into the travellers' apartments. each other; two dishes, two plates, etc., coffeeAn inner door behind each of these conducts to a pot, all of copper well tinned. A small wooden
small oblong chamber, deriving all its light from  box for salt and pepper, a round leather table,
the door, or from a small open window in the back  which he suspends from the saddle of his horse,
wall, entirely destitute of furniture, and affording  small leather bottles or bags for oil, melted butter,
no kind of accommodation in the way of presses water, a pipe, a tinder-box, a cup of cocoa-nut,
or shelves, except some rude niches excavated in some rice, dried raisins, dates, Cyprus cheese, and,
the thick walls. This cell is intended for the dor- above all, coffee berries, with a roaster and wooden
mitory of the traveller, who generally prefers, how- mortar to pound them. Every one, although his
ever, the recess in front for sitting in under shade travelling equipage may not be so complete as this,
during the daytime, as well as for sleeping in must find several of these items and implements
during the night, when the season allows; being indispensable to existence during a journey in the
the more adapted for this purpose that the floor is East; for in many of the khans or caravanserais to
neatly paved, or consists of a smooth bed of earth, which he may come, he can look for nothing from
on a platform rising two or three feet above the the keeper except to shew him the way to his chamlevel of the area. There being no other door but ber, and give him the key if it is furnished with
the entrance arch, each occupant remains isolated a door. One assistance only he may depend upon,
in his own quarters, and is cut off from all com- and it is no inconsiderable one,-that of receiving
munication with the other inmates of the caravan- some attendance and aid if overtaken by sickness;
serai. But in the middle of each of the three sides for one of the requisite qualifications for the office
there is a large hall, which serves as a travellers' is, that the functionary possess a knowledge of
room, where all may indiscriminately assemble: simples, and the most approved practice in case of
while at the end of each side there is a staircase fracture or common ailments. And hence the good
leading to the flat roof of the house, where the cool Samaritan in the parable (Luke x. 30), although he
breeze and a view of the surrounding country may was obliged, in the urgency of the case, himself to
be enjoyed. These chambers generally stand on apply from his own viaticum a few simple remethe ground-floor, which is a few feet above the dies for the relief of the distressed man, left him
level of the court-yard; but in the few buildings with full confidence to be treated and nursed by
of this sort which have two storeys, the travellers the keeper of the khan, whose assiduities in dressare accommodated above, while the under flat is ing the wounds and bruises of his patient might
reserved for the use of their servants, or appro- be quickened, perhaps, by the liberal remuneration
priated as warehouses for goods. And in such he was promised, as well as by the example of the
establishments there is found one other additional humane traveller.
advantage in having a supply of servants and     The state of Judaea, in the time of Christ and the
cooks, as well as a shop in the porter's house, Apostles, was, probably, in respect to means of
where all commodities may be procured. Cara- communication, much superior to that of any Orienvanserais of this superior class, however, are rarely tal country in the present day; and we may be
to be met with. The most part are but wretched disposed to conclude, that for the encouragement
lodging-places-filled, it may be, with dirt and of intercourse between distant parts, that country
vermin-consisting only of bare walls, in which  was then studded with houses of public entertainnot an article of furniture is to be seen, nor a ment on a scale of liberal provision at present uncooking utensil to be found, nor provisions of any known in the same quarter of the world. But the
sort to be obtained for love or money. The tra- warm commendations of hospitality so frequently
veller must'carry along with him, as well as pro- met with in the works of contemporary classical
vide with his own hands, whatever is necessary for writers, as well as the pressing exhortations of the
his use and comfort. If he performs his journey inspired Apostle to the practice of that virtue, too
on camels or on horseback, he must, on arriving plainly prove that travellers were then chiefly deat the stage, act as his own ostler, tie up his beast, pendent on the kindness of private individuals.
and distribute its provender and litter. To supply The strong probability is, that the'inns' men.
the want of a divan and bed, he must take his mat tioned in the N. T. find their true and correct
and carpet, which, folded up, may have served him  representations in the Eastern khans and cara



CARAVANSERAIS                 448              CARCHEMISH
vanserais of the present day; and that, although the place (Justin Martyr, Dial. with Trypho,
the Jews of that period could not have been p. 303; Origen, Cont. Cels.)  [BETHLEHEM.]
acquainted with the largest and most magnificent Moreover, much learning has been expended on
of this class of buildings, which do not date earlier the word ofirvt, which our translators have renthan the commencement of the Mecca caravans, dered' manger;' although it is capable of the
and which the devotion of opulent Mussulmans clearest demonstration, that the ancients, equally
then began to erect for the accommodation of the with the moder inhabitants of the East, are stranpilgrims, they had experience of nothing better gers to the conveniences which go under that name
than the bare walls and cell-like apartments of in European stables. The anecdote, quoted by
such edifices as we have described above. Bishop  Campbell from Herodotus, respecting Mardonius,
Pearce, Dr. Campbell, and others, indeed, have the Persian general, having brought with him a
laboured to shew that Kar-dXvua, the word used by brazen manger for his horses, only establishes our
Luke to denote the place whence Mary was ex- remark, proving as it does that those ancient
cluded by the previous influx of strangers, is not mangers were more like troughs than the crib
synonymous with 7rav6oxetov, the house to which out of which our horses are fed; and, indeed, in
the good Samaritan brought the wounded stranger, the only other place in the N. T. where qdrpT
although in both instances our translators, for want occurs, it is rendered' stall;' that is, not the thing
of corresponding terms in the English language, out of which the cattle ate, but the place from
have indiscriminately rendered it by' inn.' Kard- which they ate (see Parkhurst in loco). No explaXv/a signifies the guest chamber (Mark xiv. 14; nation, however, that we have met with, appears
Luke xxii. II); and it is extremely probable that, so satisfactory, and conveys such an intelligible
as upper rooms were always the largest in a house, picture to the eye as that given by the editor of the
and most suitable for the reception of a numerous Pictorial Bible (Luke ii. 7); with whose words we
company, every respectable householder in Jeru- shall conclude this article.' The most complete
salem appropriated one gratuitously to his friends establishments have very excellent stables in covered
who flocked to Jerusalem at the annual feasts, and avenues, which extend behind the ranges of apartwho from that circumstance might call it their ments-that is, between the back walls of these' inn.' IIav3oXEov, again, was a house set apart ranges of building and the external wall of the
for the accommodation of all strangers who could khan; and the entrance to it is by a covered paspay for their lodging and entertainment; and as sage at one of the corers of the quadrangle. The
the name,'receiver of everything,' seems to imply, stable is on a level with the court, and consewas of a mean description, having no partition- quently below the level of the buildings, by the
wall, men and cattle being both included under height of the platform on which they stand. Neverthe same roof, the former occupying one side, theless, this platform is allowed to project behind
and the latter the other. Beth-lehem being the chief into the stable, so as to form a bench, to which the
city of the family of David, a KardXvxua might have horses' heads are turned, and on which they can, it
been placed, by the kindness of some friend, at they like, rest the nose-bag of haircloth from which
the service of Joseph and Mary, who were wont to they eat, to enable them to reach the bottom when
resort to it as often as business or friendship called its contents get low. It also often happens, that
them to town. But, as the same privilege might not only this bench exists in the stable, but also
have been offered to others, who, owing to the recesses, corresponding to those in front of the
general census, flocked in such unwonted numbers, apartments, and formed by the side walls which
that the first comers completely occupied every divide the rooms being allowed to project behind
vacant space, they were obliged to withdraw to into the stable, just as the projection of the same
the 7ravooxeZov, where, in the only retired comer, walls into the great area forms the recesses in front.
viz., at the head of the cattle, the mother of Jesus These recesses in the stable or the bench, if there
brought forth her child. [But it is to the last de- are no recesses, furnish accommodation to the sergree improbable, that any one who received Joseph vants and others who have charge of the beasts;
and Mary as guests, would not, on such an occa- and when persons find on their arrival that the
sion as hers, have found some accommodation for apartments usually appropriated to travellers are
hei in his house. The distinction between Kard- already occupied, they are glad to find accommoXvua and 7ravSoxeLov, is probably simply, that the dation in the stable, particularly when the nights
former denotes any place where strangers have free are cold or the season inclement. It is evident,
accommodation, the latter one where they had to then, from this description, that the part of the
pay.]                                       stable called'the manger,' could not reasonably
have been other than one of those recesses, or at
least a portion of the bench which we have mentioned as affording accommodation to travellers
under certain circumstances.'-R. J.
_.-.-...        CARBUNCLE. [BAREQETH; EKDAH.]
- 66.
CARCHEMISH       (i.?3?l) is mentioned in
Many caravanserais, however, have not the Is. x. 9 among other places in Syria which had
accommodation of stables, the cattle being allowed been subdued by an Assyrian king, probably
to range in the open area; and hence has arisen Tiglath-pileser. That Carchemish was a strongan opinion warmly espoused by many learned hold on the Euphrates appears from the title of a
writers, and supported by a venerable tradition, prophecy of Jeremiah against Egypt (xlvi. 2):that our Lord was born in an adjoining shed, or'Against the army of Pharoah-necho, king of
probably in a subterranean cave, like the grotto  Egypt, which lay on the river Euphrates, at Carthat is sometimes connected with the fountain of chemish, and which Nebuchadnezzar the king of




CARIA                    449                CARMEL
Babylon overthrew, in the fourth year of Jehoia- range on the coast of Palestine, and also to a town
kim, the son of Josiah, king of Judah.' Accord- in the south of Judah.
ing to 2 Chron. xxxv. 20, Necho had five years  I. Mount Carmel.-The word Carmel is of frebefore advanced in spite of Josiah, the father quent occurrence in Scripture as a common noun,
of Jehoiakim, against the Babylonians, on the and signifies'a highly cultivated tract,' as conEuphrates, to take Carchemish. These two cir- trasted with Midbar,'a wilderness.' Thus, in
cumstances-the position of Carchemish on the Jeremiah ii. 7,'I brought you into a land like a
Euphrates, and its being a frontier town, render                    tt          t  t t
it probable that the Hebrew name points to a city rden (            that ye might eat the
which the Greeks called Kirkesion, the Latins fruit thereof;' and Is. xxix. 17,'Lebanon shall be
Circesium, and the Arabs, Kerkesiyeh (Lu ); turned into a fruitful field (58i).' In some
for this too lay on the western bank of the Eu- passages it is difficult to determine whether the
phrates, where it is joined by the Chaboras. It word is used as a common noun or as a proper name;
was a large city, and surrounded by strong walls, as 2 Kings xix. 23; 2 Chron. xxvi. Io. The fact
which, in the time of the Romans, were occasion- seems to be that the mountain range received the
ally renewed, as this was the remotest outpost of name Carmel as descriptive of its character-fertile,
their empire towards the Euphrates, in the direc- wooded, and blooming; and that the mountain ittion of Persia (Ammian. Marcell. xxiii. II).-J. K. self came afterwards to be used as an emblem of
Addendum —At the point where the Khabur richness and beauty. Thus, in Is. xxxv. 2;'The
(the ancient Chebar) joins the Euphrates, there are glory of Lebanon is given unto it, the beauty of
large mounds on both banks of the former river, Carmel and Sharon.' These and similar allusions
marking the sites of old cities, or perhaps of diffe- become doubly emphatic and expressive when we
rent sections of one great city. The mound on the connect them with the picturesque scenery, the
right bank is crowned with a modern Arab village, natural richness, and the luxuriant foliage and hercalled Abu Serai, or, as Layard writes it, Abu- bage of Carmel.
Psera. It stands on a narrow wedge-shaped plain,
in the fork of the two rivers. This corresponds;
exactly to Procopius' description of Circesium, who 
says that its fortifications had the form of a triangle 
at the junction of the Chabur and Euphrates (B. P. ii.)  -
This seems to be the true site of Carchemish. 1T.. 
was visited by Benjamin of Tudela in the twelfth                 - 
century, who found in it two hundred Jews (LEarly
Travels in Pal., p. 93). It has been recently con-                                 o 
jectured that the site of Carchemish was further up
the Euphrates, and closer to the borders of northern Syria. For such a conjecture there seem to be
no just grounds. (See Layard's NVi. and Bab.
283-286; Chesney's Expedition, i.; Bonomi's N2in.
and Persep., p. 42.) —J. L. P.
CARIA (Kappa), a country lying at the south-                                o:    tc
western extremity of Asia Minor, to which, among  -
others, the Romans wrote in favour of the Jews                                   a
(I Maccab. xv. 22, 33). At one time it belonged to
Rhodes; but the Romans deprived the Rhodians           f
of it (B. C. 68), and made it free; afterwards (B.C.         167. Carmel.
I29) they added it to their province of Asia. It
was in the interval between these dates that the  The ridge of Carmel branches off from the
letter referred to was written. Its principal towns northern end of the mountains of Samaria, and
were Halicarnassus, Cnidus, and Myndus, which runs in a north-westerly direction between Sharon
are all mentioned in the rescript of the Roman and the plain of Acre.  Its extreme length is
senate. Cnidus is mentioned in Acts xxvii. 7, as about sixteen miles, the greatest breadth of its
having been passed by St. Paul on his voyage to base five, and its highest point 1750 feet above the
Rome. The "1) mentioned in the 0. T. (2 Sam. sea. It projects far into the Mediterranean, formxx. 23, Cherethites, A. V.; and 2 Kings xi. 4, I9, ing a bold promontory-the only one along the
Captains, A. V.) are supposed by some to have bare coast of Palestine.  At the place of junction
been Carians. This is rendered highly probable with the mountains of Ephraim the ridge is low,
by the fact, that the Carians were of old a warlike and the scenery bleak and tame.  The ancient
people, who were always ready to serve the neigh- caravan road from Tyre, Sidon, and the coast of
bouring princes as soldiers and as body guards Phoenicia to Sharon and Egypt, crosses this sec(comp. Herod. I. 171; II. I52; V. III; Thuc. tion by a pass called Wady el-Milh. At the mouth
I. 8), They are identified with the 11ng, Crethi of this wady, in the great plain of Esdraelon, is
in Scripture (comp. 2 Sam. xx. 23, and 2 Kings Tell Kaimon, the site of the ancient 7oknieam  ol
xi. 4, 19, with 2 Sam. viii. I8; see also the K'ri Carmel (Josh. xii. 22). Immediately on the west
on 2 Sam. xx. 23). The Crethi were a Philistine side of Wady el-Milh, Carmel rises up in all its
race. [CAPHTHOR.]-W. L. A.                   beauty, thickly sprinkled with oaks, and rich in
CARMEL (, A garden or fruitful eld;  pasturage. Towards the plain of Acre it here pre-.CARMEL                      _ 4 garden or fruidfieldsents steep and lofty peaks, clad in dark foliage,
Sept. Kcdptx7Xos), a name given to a mountain reminding one of the hills above Heidelberg. The
VOL. I.                                                                    2 G




CARMEL                    450                 CARMEL
heights are all wooded, not densely like a forest, It was probably from his knowledge of these wild
but more like an English park; and long deep retired dells and secret grottos of Carmel, where
ravines of singular wildness wind down the moun- the persecuted and the outlaw now, as of yore, find
tain sides, filled with tangled copse, fragrant with a secure asylum, that the prophet Amos wrote,
hawthorn, myrtle, and jessamine, and alive with'Though they hide themselves in the top of Carmel
the murmur of tiny brooks and the song of birds. I will search and take them out thence' (ix. 3).
At intervals along the slopes are open glades, car- The limestone strata of Carmel abound in geodes,
peted with green grass, and spangled with myriads and beautiful specimens of the fossil echinus. At
of wild flowers of every hue (Robinson's B. R., one place near the town of Haifa great numbers
iii. 114, sq.; Van de Velde, i. 3 7, sq.; Thomson, of them lie on the surface of the ground, and the
Land and the Book, 487, sq.). The western ex- peasantry think they are petrified melons and
tremity of the ridge-that, unfortunately, with  olives.  A singular legend is attached to this spot
which ordinary travellers are most familiar, and  (Handbookfor S. and P., p. 371).
from which they take their impressions-is more  Carmel formed the south-western boundary of
bleak than the eastern. Its sides are steep and Asher (Josh. xix. 26). Its position, projecting into
rocky, scantily covered with dwarf shrubs and aro- the Mediterranean and towering over it, illustrates
matic herbs, and having only a few scattered trees the singular expression in Jeremiah (xlvi. i8),
here and there in the glens (compare Van de Velde,' Surely as Tabor is among the mountains, and as
i. 293; The Crescent and the Cross, i. 54, sq.) The  Carmel by the sea.' But Carmel derives its chief
writer has frequently visited the mountain range of interest from Elijah's sacrifice, and the tragic event
Carmel. He has been there at all seasons, and he which followed it. The exact spot is still identified
can confidently affirm that no part of Palestine by local tradition, and preserves in its name, elwest of the Jordan can be compared with it for Muhrakah,'the sacrifice,' a memorial of the event.
the picturesque beauty of its scenery, the luxuriance At the eastern extremity of the ridge, where the
of its herbage, and the brilliancy and variety of its wooded heights of Carmel sink down into the usual
flowers. Well might such a mountain suggest to bleakness of the hills of Palestine, is a terrace of
the Hebrew royal naturalist the words:'Thine natural rock. It is encompassed by dense thickets
head upon thee is like Carmel' (Cant. vii. 5). Re- of evergreens; and upon it are the remains of an
ference is made to thick tresses of the'Bride,' old and massive square structure, built of large
covering the head, and interwoven, as is still the hewn stones. This is el-Muhrakah; and here, in all
custom in Syria, with garlands of flowers, and probability, stood Elijah's altar (i Kings xviii. 30).
studded with gold ornaments and gems. The fer- The situation and environs answer ip every particutile plains on the north and south of the ridge add lar to the various incidents of the narrative. A
greatly to the effect. Esdraelon, and its continua- short distance from the terrace is a fountain, whence
tion, the plain of Acre, are like a vast meadow, the water may have been brought, which was
That'ancient river, the river Kishon,' winds poured round Elijah's sacrifice and altar (chap.
through it in a tortuous bed, deeply cut in the al- xviii. 33). The terrace commands a noble view
luvial soil; in places laving the rocky roots of the over the whole plain of Esdraelon, from the banks
mountain.  The declivities on the southern side of the Kishon down at the bottom of the steep detowards Sharon are more gradual.  Low spurs clivity, away to the distant hill of Gilboa, at whose
shoot out here and there into the undulating pas- base stood the royal city of Jezreel. To the 850
ture-Iands of that rich plain, terminating in wooded prophets, ranged doubtless on the wide upland
knolls or broken banks, covered with brushwood sweep, just beneath the terrace, to the multitudes
and brake. The wood that clothes the greater of people, many of whom may have remained on
part of Carmel is the prickly oak (quercus ilex); the plain, the altar of Elijah would be in full view,
the foliage is thus evergreen, and the underwood is and they could all see, in the evening twilight, that
mainly composed of evergreen shrubs. Conse-'the fire of the Lord fell, and consumed the burntquently Carmel might well be taken by Isaiah sacrifice, and the wood, and the stones, and the
(xxxv. 2) as the type of natural beauty; while dust, and licked up the water' (ver. 38). The
Amos (i. 2) might with equal truth and appro- people then, trembling with fear and indignation,
priateness regard the withering of the top of Car- seized, at Elijah's bidding, the prophets of Baal;
mel as the type of utter desolation.'and Elijah brought them  down to the brook
The whole ridge of Carmel is deeply furrowed Kishon, and slew them there.' On the lower decliwith rocky ravines, filled with such dense jungle as vities of the mountain is a mound called Tell elscarcely to be penetrable. Here jackals, wolves, Kusis,'the Hill of the Priests,' which probably
hyenas, and wild swine make their lairs, and wood- marks the very scene of the execution. May not
cocks find excellent cover; while in the open the present name of the Kishon itself have origiforest glades, partridges, quails, and hares sport nated in this tragic event-it is called Nahr el-Moabout. In the sides of the mountain, especially katta,'the River of Slaughter.' The prophet went
round the convent and overhanging the sea, are up again to the altar, which is near, but not upon,
great numbers of caves and grottos, formed partly the summit of the mountain. While he prayed, he
by nature and partly by art and industry in the said to his servant,'Go up now, and look toward
soft calcareous rock. Carmel at one period swarmed the sea.' The sea is not visible from the terrace,
with monks and hermits, who burrowed in these but a few minutes' ascent leads to a peak which
comfortless dens. Curious traditions cling to some commands its whole expanse. ~Seven times did the
of them, in part confirmed by the Greek inscrip- servant climb the height, and at last saw the little
tions and names that may still be traced upon their cloud'like a man's hand' rising out of the sea
walls. One of them is called the'Cave of the (Stanley, S. and P., p. 346, sq.; Van de Velde,,Sons of the prophets,' and is said to be that in i. 324, sq.; Thomson, p. 483, sq.)
which the pious Obadiah hid the prophets from  Carmel was also the retreat of Elisha, and thus bethe fury of the infamous Jezebel (I Kings xviii. 4). came the scene of another interesting episode in




CARMEL                    451                 CARRIAGE
Scripture history. The prophet was here when the CARMI (3, Sept. XapJl)       I. The fourth
Shunamite's son died. Looking down one after- 
noon, probably from the side of Elijah's altar, he son  Reuben (Gen. xNvi. ) from whom sprang
saw her'afar of,' hastening towards him on her ass.  ather of A an ad sn of Zabdi (Josh. v.  e,
She paid little regard to the inquiries of his servant fathr of Chron. iv. I, Carmi is called the son
sent to meet her, but pressing on past him'to the of). dah;  but ison. there must mean simply
man of God,' she dismounted, threw herself on the  descendant, as out of the five nasms entioned
ground before him, and' caught him by his feet'-'descendant,' as out of the five names mentioned
ground before him, and' caught him by his feet' —  only one wasproperly the ssmvf Juab,
aa Ar~  ab Adt  12c dar s aoenly  one was properly he son of jA  t
msyt 0.s 0.~.4,-0,5b matkr macd du aet aife prreent
day under similar circumstances. The storyis well  CARNAIM. [ASHTAROTH.]
known (2 Kings iv. 25-37). 
The fame of Elijah's great sacrifice appears to  CARPENTER. [HANDICRAFT.]
have rendered Carmel sacred even among the hea-  CARPUS (Kdp7ros), a friend of Paul who
then. Pythagoras, we are told,, spent some time dwelt at Troas, and with whom he left a cloak
upon the mountain in meditation (Jamblicus, Vit. (2 Tim. iv' 3). [At what time this visit to Troas
Pytag. iii.); and here, too, Tacitusinformsus, Ves- was paid is uncertain.  If a second imprisonment
pasian consulted'the oracle of Carmel' (ist. ii. 78). of Paul at Rome be supposed, it may have ocThe convent of Carmel is a modem building. It curred during the interval between this and his
was erected about twenty-five years ago, on the site liberation from that recorded in Acts.]
of an older structure, by a poor monk who begged
the funds through the whole world, and completed  CARPZOV, JOHN BENEDICT, IV., born 1720,
it at a cost of nearly half a million of francs! The studied in Leipzig under Gesner and Ernesti, and
order of the Carmelites, to whom  the convent became professor of poetry and Greek in Helmbelongs, is of ancient date. The scattered monks stadt, 1748.  He was a good philologian and
were concentrated on this mountain in the I2th cen- Hebraist. In 1768 he published Liber doctrinalis
tury. The convent is said to stand on the spot theologice purioris; in 1750, Sacrte exercitationes in
where Elijah and Elisha dwelt, and the prophet's epistolam ad Hebrcos; Strictura theologica in epist
cave is shewn beneath the great altar. The modern  ad Romanos, 1756; Septenarius epzitolarum cathoname of the whole range of Carmel is yebel Mar licarum, I790. He died in I803.-S. D.
Elias,' the mountain of St. Elijah.' 
2. A town in the mountains of Judah, situated on  CARPZOV, JOHANN GOTTLOB, the most illusthe borders'of the wilderness of Paran,' or'of trious of the learned family to which he belonged,
Maon,' as the Septuagint renders it (Josh. xv. 55  was born at Dresden 26th Sept. 679, and died at
I Sam. xxv. I). It is best known as the residence Libech 7th April 1767. He studied at Wittenof the churlish Nabal, and the scene of an incident berg, Leipzig, and Altdorf; in I706 he became
highly characteristic of modern as well as ancient pastor of one of the churches in Dresden; in 1708
Syrian life. Were a feast like Nabal's held near thehe was called to fill that office at Leipzig;in 719
same spot now, there is little doubt that some he became professor of oriental languages in the
neighbouring Arab sheikh would apply for a share, university there; and in I730 he was elected to be
as David did (I Sam. xxv. 4-35). Carmel is not superintendent-general and first pastor at Lubeck,
afterwards mentioned in Scripture. Eusebius and where he remained till his death. He wrote many
Jerome allude to it as a flourishing town, ten miles works, but those by which he s now best known
south-east of Hebron, and having a Roman garri-ae his  troducto in ibros canonios V 7. 4to,
son (Onomast., s.v. Carmelus). In the 12th century  Lips. 72, 173, 757; Critica Sacra V T. 4to,
Lips. I721, 1731, 1757; Critica Sacra V 7'. 4to,
King Amalrich encamped here when forced to re-      728; Apparatus Histor. Crit. Antiqitatum
treat before the army of Saladin. He was led to e Cod. Sac. et gent. Hebr. etc., 4to Lips. I748.
select it on account of its abundant waters (Will. These are works of solid and extensive erudition,
Tyr. in Gesta Dei., p. 993).                  sound judgment, and orthodox tendency. It has
Seven miles south-by-east of Hebron, and one mile been the fashion of the rationalistic school to denorth of Maon, are the extensive ruins of Kurmul, preciate his labours; but all who have examined
the ancient Carmel. They lie round the semi-cir- his witings impartially will admit that to him the
cular head, and along the shelving sides of a little science of Biblical Isagogik is deeply indebted.
valley, which is shut in by rugged limestone rocks. Havernik calls his Introductio a master-piece of
The houses are all in ruins, and their sites are Protestant science.' He is especially powerful in
covered by heaps of rubbish and hewn stones. In the apologetic department against Spinoza, Simon,
the centre of the valley is a large artificial reservoir, Toland, Whiston, etc., and many, as Havernick
supplied by a fountain among the neighbouring observes, have spoken lightly of his labours, who
rocks.  Westward of it, on the rising ground, but for them might have made a less learned apstands the castle, the most remarkable ruin in Car- pearance in their own writings than they have.
mel. Its walls are ten feet thick; their sloping  His work on Biblical Antiquities consists princibasement and bevelled masonry are evidently of pally of extensive annotations on Goodwin's Moses
Jewish origin, probably the work of Herod. TheandAaron.-W. L. A.
interior was remodelled, and the upper part rebuilt  CARRIAGE. This word occurs in the A. V.
by the Saracens. Beside it are the ruins of a mas-repeatedly, but in no instance in the sense of a
sive round tower. Around and among the ruins ofvehice.  In Judg. xviii. 2, it is the translation
Carmel are the foundations of several old churches, given of, which signifies property or heav
shewing that the town had at one period a largebaggage  in I Sam. xvii. 22, and Is. x 28 il
Christian population. Carmel has been a desolate  a 
ruin for many centuries (Robinson, B. R., ii. 493,  tands for s foh, which means equipment, tools,
sq.; Handbook forS. and P., p. 6i. VandeVelde, baggage; in Is. xlvi. I, it represents KW2, a burii. 78). —J. L. P.                            den; and in Acts xxi. I5, it is used to convey the




CARRIERES                   452              CARTWRIGHT
meaning of the noun TK~UOS, involved in the verb used by a nomade people (enemies of the EgypfrTLcKevdCieV, which simply means to get ready or tians) in their migrations. If any of these had, by
prepare. The only passage in which any allusion the rout of this people, been left in the hands of
to a vehicle can be supposed is I Sam. xvii. 20, the Egyptians, the king would, no doubt, consider
where the word in the original 5.,= though    them suitable to assist the migration of another
meaning there a rampart or bulwark, propery people of similar habits. At any rate, they afford
meaning there a rampart o  bte wark, properly the only attainable analogy, and are for that reason
designates one made of the waggons or baggage. here represented (No. I68)
carts of the army. [CART; CHARIOT.]-W. L. A.
s of te a..    Elsewhere (Num. vii. 3, 6; I Sam. vi. 7) we
CARRIERES, Louis DE, a learned French       read of carts used for the removal of the sacred
divine, was born 1662, died 17I7.   He com- arks and utensils. These also were drawn by two
menced life as a soldier, but retired from the army oxen. In Rossellini we have found a very curious
at the age of twenty-seven, and entered the congre- representation of the vehicle used for such purgation of the Oratory. He is deserving of notice poses by the Egyptians (No. 169, fig. 3). It is
here for his Literal.Commentary on all the books little more than a platform on wheels; and the
of Scripture, published in 24 vols. I2mo, 1711- apprehension which induced Uzzah to put forth
1716; also a separate work of the same kind, re- his hand to stay the ark when shaken by the oxen
stricted to the four gospels, entitled-Commentaire (2 Sam. vi. 6), may suggest that the cart employed
Litteral sur l'histoire et concorde des quatre Evan- on that occasion was not unlike this, as it would be
grlistes. Insere' dans la traduction FranSoise, avec easy for a jerk to displace whatever might be upon it.
le lexte Latin a la marge. I2mo, a Reims, 1711.  As it appears that the Israelites used carts, they
-W.. C.                                      doubtless employed them  sometimes in the reCARSENA     The first of the seven  moval of agricultural produce, although we are not
CARSHENA (K:~).        The first of the seven aware of any distinct mention of this practice in
princes of Persia and Media who formed the Scripture. This is now the only use for which
inner council of King Ahasuerus. Fiirst derives
the word from Zend Keres, slim, and nd, a man =                          2
Slim-man.A1 -t
CART (Tfl,;; Sept. "A/aca). The Hebrew               ~ I
word rendered by our translators in some places                    3 
by'waggon,' and in others by'cart,' denotes any                  i
vehicle moving on wheels and usually drawn by              ^
oxen; and their particular character must be de-     ",                    xt
termined by the context indicating the purpose for. ii_
which they were employed. First, we have the                        69.
carts which the king of Egypt sent to assist in
transporting Jacob's family from  Canaan (Gen. carts are employed in Western Asia. They are
xlv. 19, 27). From their being so sent it is mani- such as are represented in No. I70.
fest that they were not used in the latter country;
and that they were known there as being peculiar
to Egypt is shewn by the confirmation which they
afforded to Jacob of the truth of the strange story  5   -/^-' ML-gztold by his sons. These carts or waggons were, of                 (          it
course, not war-chariots, nor such curricles as were 
in use among the Egyptian nobility, but were not
suited for travelling.  The only other wheel:                                       -
170.''/ -x'           CTW R s  IGHCARTWRIGHT, CHRISTOPHER, was a native
^^s _- ^J/^U jh      q j —^;  |  { I T of York, where he was born in I602, and died in
i658. HewasofPeterhouse, Cambridge, towhich
UPS\_^ qi /i^ 4   J      4     X   E ~he was admitted June 29, I617; he proceeded A.B....'.  M/      N^),J < J  y.^        in I620, and A.M. in i624. He was afterwards
653.                     minister at York. He wrote Carmina in obitum
Annae Regina I6I9, and in nuptias Caroli regis
vehicles actually or probably used by the Egyp- I625. Besides a commentary on the 15th Psalm,
tians themselves are those represented in figs. I, 2, and some controversial pamphlets, he is the author
of No. 169. But they are not found on the monu- of Electa Thargumico-Rabbinica, sive Annott. in
ments in such connection as to shew whether they  Genesin ex triplice Thargum nempe Onkeli, Hierosol.
were employed for travelling or for agriculture. et yonathan.; item ex R. Salomone et Aben Ezra,
The solid wheels would suggest the latter use, if, etc., excerpts, una cum Animadd. subinde interindeed, the same feature does not rather shew  spersis, etc., sm. 8vo, Lond. x648; Electa Thargumthat, although figured on Egyptian monuments, Rabbin. in Exodum, Lond. I653. In the 8th vol.
they are the cars of a foreign people.  This is the of the Critici Sacri, another work of Cartwright's,
more probable, ina'smuch as the ready means of in character resembling the above, is frequently
transport and travel by the Nile seems to have cited, viz., Mellificium Hebraicum sive Obss. ex
rendered in a great measure unnecessary any other Hebr. antiquiorum monumentisdesumptae, etc., but
wheel-carriages than those for war or pleasure. this does not appear to have been published separThe sculptures, however, exhibit some carts as ately. All these works are of great value. The




CARTWRIGHT                    453             CARVED WORK
author, besides great erudition, displays much  (Ezek. viii. 1o; xxiii. I4; and Job xiii. 27) seems
soundness of judgment and exegetical tact. Both to indicate sculpture and painting on walls. From
the volumes of the Electa are now scarce. -   other passages in which (3) is used (such as I Chron.
W. L. A.                                      xiv. I; xxii. 25; xxiv. I2; Is. xliv. 12, 13), it
CARTWRIGHT, THOMAS, a Puritan divine, signifies working in stone and in iron, as well as in
born about the year 1535, died 27th Dec. 603. wood; (4) which is more frequently translated
He studied at St. John's College, Cambridge, and  ravn image, is only a general expression not
in 1560 was chosen a fellow of that college. In indicating the material; (5) generally translated
1567 he commenced B.D., and three years aftere' s al        seal,   Exod
he was chosen Lady Margaret's divinity reader. xxxix. 6, I4, 30; (6), like (4), is too general to
His strong Puritan convictions, and the freedom  indicate the material'carved.' There has been a
with which he professed them, brought him into good deal of discussion as to the extent of the prodifficulties, and led to his being deprived by hibition contained in the second commandment;
Whitgift of his place as Margaret professor in some (including earlyJewish commentators) have
1571, and of his fellowship in the following year.contended that all imitative art was forbidden
He now passed over to the Continent, where he against this extreme view Michaelis protests (Law
laboured first as minister to the English merchants of Moses, Art. 250) on the reasonable ground, that
at Antwerp, and afterwards at Middleburg. He re- cta   figures were in fact made by Gods own
turned to England in 1573, only to leave it againcommand  Both i the Tabernacle and the Temple
after a short time. In 1580 he returned once many objects were provided, which would put
more, and for the next twelve years was involved under contribution largely the arts of carving and
in constant conflict with the high Church party, engraving, e. g., the two cherubim in the holy of
and spent a considerable part of the time in pri-holies (Exod. xxv. I8, 20); the floral ornaments
son, in consequence of his zealous advocacy ofof thegolden candlestick, xxv. 34; the various
Puritan opinions. Besides his controversial writ- embroidered hangings of the sanctuary xxvi.; and
ings, he wrote Commentaria Practica in totam  the brazen serpent, Num. xxi 8, 9. So again in
Histor. Evangel. ex. IV. Evangg. harmonice con- the temple, besides the cherubim, there were on
cinnatam, 4t0, 1630, Amst. 1647; Commentarii the walls various figures of all kinds, as well as the
in Proverbia Salomonis, 4to, Amst. 1638; Meta- brazen sea, as it was called, which rested on twelve
phorasiset omil in i.Salomonis qui inscribitur brazen oxen. Ezekiel's temple, in like manner,
Ecclesias etest, i, Amst. Sa.These works dis-r has cherubim with the heads of men and lions.
Ecclesiastes, 4to, Amst. i647. These works display considerable exegetical ability, and are remark-Even after the return from Babylon when men
able for clearness and precision of thought and  severely interpreted the prohibition of the commandexpression. Hengstenberg in his work on Eccle- met, there were figuresof animalsonthegolen
siastes has borrowed largely from  Cartwright's candlestick (Reland deSpoiis Templ Hier, in Arcu
Metaphrasis.-W. L. A.                         Titiano), and vines with pendent clusters on the
roof of the second temple, and the golden symbolic
CARVED WORK, properly speaking, differs vine overthelarge gate. Notthe makingof images
from sculpture and chasing; it embraces simply as works of art, but the worship of them was exworks in ivory and wood; while sculpture operates cluded by the decalogue. Among the Mohammeon marble or stone, and chasing on metals. This dans, the more liberal Persians (followers of Ali)
distinction, however, does not exist in the bibli- allow themselves the fullest latitude, and paint and
cal terms, which refer to carved work; these are mould the human figure, while their stricter rivals
(I) njYitn,'carved works,' Prov. viL I6; (2) confine their art to representations of trees and
n  (in {Pual Part),'carved work,' I Kings vi. 35  fruits, or inanimate objects; but all alike abhor all
~TT.i".ual.art), - d.' -,s -i,;.attempts to represent God, or even their saints
(3) n;in,' carving of timber,' Exod. xxxi. 5; carv- (Kitto, Pictorial Bible, Deut. v. 8, 9). There were
ing of wood,' Exod. xxxv. 33; (4) 53, carved however, from whatever cause, limitations in fact,
J.,.  which the artizans who ornamented the Tabernacle
image,' Judges xviii. i8, and 2 Chron. xxxiii. 7,and the Temple observed. In the former, nothing
with its plural Dt3.,'carved images,' 2 Chron. is mentioned as fabricated of iron; nor is skill in
xxxiii 22, and xxxiv 3, 4; (5)  b'.carved manipulating this metal included among the quali-,-. -fications of the artificer BezaleeL  While'in the
figures,' I Kings vi 29;'carved work,' Ps. lxxiv. temple there is no mention made of sculptured stones
6; (6) 3p (in Kal part),'he carved,' i Kings vi. in any part of the building. All the decorations
~29, 32,  5  (6) n p'carved' (a carving), I \ were either carved in wood and then overlaid with
29, 32, 35; (6),'carved'  (a carving)  metal, or wholly cast in metal. Even the famous
Kings vi.  8;' carved figures,' I Kings vi. 29. pillars of Jachin and Boaz were entirely of brass'
Comparing (I) with other passages in which the  (Kitto on 2 Chron. iii 6). The qualifications of
cognate verb occurs (such as Deut. xix. 5; Josh, the accomplished men who built the Tabernacle
ix. 21; 2 Chron. ii IO; Jerem. xlvi. 22), we find  (Bezaleel and Aholiab) and the Temple (Hiram)
it refers to WOOD carving;* (2) in other passages are carefully indicated; to the former, especially
Bezaleel, is attributed skill in'carving' and' sculp* According to Gesenius and Fiirst (Hebr. WOr- ture' (Exod. xxxi. 5), whereas the latter seems to
terb.), nlt~n describes the art of embroidery, in  have rather executed his decorative works by fusile
Prov. vii. i6.'Tapestry of variegated stripes processes (comp. I Kings vii. 4, I5 with 46;
as to pattern, made of Egyptian thread.' The Miller's Ancient Art, by Leitch, p. 216; and De
LXX. renders theword in thispassage by /Atra7ros, Wette's Archceol, sec.. io6). Working in ivory,
&tTLord7rots 8oarTpuoaa Tos dbr' Alyirrov, which which culminated in the Olympian Zeus of Pheidias
agrees with the view of the German critics. See and the Athene at Athens (Grote's Greece, vol. vi.
also Schleusner, s. v.                        PP 30-32), appears to have been carried to great




CARYL                     454               CASAUBON
perfection by Hebrew artists; see I Kings xxii. 39 so affected him that he gave up his appointments
on Ahab's ivory house (compared with Amos iii in France and passed over into England, where he
15); also I Kings x. I8-20 on Solomon's  p6bvos was received with much courtesy and regard. In
XpvaeXec~dvTrvos, with lions at both arms, and on the  I6I 1 the king granted him a pension of ~3oo, and
sides of the six steps. Ezekiel says of Tyre, accord- gave him, though a layman, a prebend in the
ing to the LXX. (xxvii. 6), r& lepd oaov iorolir-av a  Church of Canterbury.  He died ISt July 1614,
\XbavTros (Miiller ut supra, p. 215). Artificers and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Casaubon
among the Hebrews were not (as among the Greeks was one of the most learned men of a learned age,
and Romans) servants and slaves-but men of rank, and was held in the highest repute for his scholarwho do not seem to have disdained the pursuit of ship, especially in Greek, by the most eminent
the plastic and decorative arts as a profession; e.g., scholars of his day.  His learning was chiefly exthe nephew of the first judge Othniel (of the illus- pended on editions of the classics, most of which
trious and wealthy family of Caleb) was at the head  are still prized by scholars. In 1587 he issued an
of apparently a guild of craftsmen, who inhabited  edition of the Greek N. T. with notes, which were'the valley of Charashim'. (Gl'nn A1, see our reprinted in Whittaker's edition, Lond. 1633, and
(3) above), near Jerusalem, I Chron. iv. 14; comp. in the Critici Sacri.  There are also some useful
Neh. xi. 35. See also the remarkable statement observations on passages of scripture in his Exerof 2 Kings xxiv. 14, where'the craftsmen and citationes de rebus sacris et Ecclesiasticis, in reply
smiths' are reckoned among'princes,' and con- to Baronius, and in the Casauboniana collected
trastedwith' the poorest sortof people.' Compare from his MSS. by C. Wolfius, Hamb. I7I1.with Jer. xxiv. I and xxix. 2. (Jahn's Archo- W. L. A.
logia Biblica, v. sec. 83). Taking this fact into
consideration, we need not regard the occupation  CASAUBON, MERIC, son of Isaac Casaubon,
of Joseph, the husband of the blessed Virgin, as de- and grandson of Stephens the printer, was born at
grading. —P. H.                               Geneva, Aug. I4, 1599. He was educated at OxCARYL, JOSEPH, was a native of the city of ford, where he was a student of Christ Church and
London, and was born in I602.   He became a M.A. in I62I, in which year he published a defence
student of Exeter College, Oxford, where he pro- of his father against the calumnies of certain Roman
ceeded M.A. in i627. After his ordination, he Catholics. In I624 Bishop Andrewes presented
was chosen preacher at Lincoln's Inn, an office him tothe living of Bleadon, Somersetshire; and in
which he held for several years with much accept- 1628 Archbishop Laud made him prebendary of
ance. In 1645 he was presented to the living of Canterbury, and Rector of Ickham. In 1636, by
St. Magnus, near London Bridge, where he con- the command of Charles I., who was then residing
tinued till he was ejected in 1662. After this he at Oxford, he degree of D.D. was conferred upon
gathered a separate congregation from amongst his him. At the outbreak of the civil war, however,
he lost all his preferment. Cromwell wished him
former hearers, to whom  he ministered till his he lost allhis preferment.  rome  ihe 
death, which took place 7th Feb. I671.  Caryl to write the history of the war, and endeavoured
was a moderate Independent, and is admitted by  to persuade him to undertake it by very liberal
Wood to have been'a learned and zealous Non- offers, one of which was that all his father's books,
conformist.' During the Protectorate he was em- then in the Royal library at St. James', having
ployed in many offices of trust, and seems to have been purchased by James I., should be made over
fully enjoyed the confidence of those in power. to him, and a pension of ~300 paid to his family
He published a considerable number of sermons, as long as he should have a son living. These,
and had a principal hand in a Greek and English  however, were all refused, as he did not sympathize
Lexicon which appeared in i66i, the earliest, we with the great hero of the war. Christina, Queen
believe; of its kind. But his great work is his of Sweden, also offered him the'government of one,
Commentary on the Book of oob, I2 vols. 4to,  or the superintendence of all the universities in her
Lond. I644-66, 2 vols. fol. I669.  This pon. kingdom, which he likewise refused, preferring to
derous work, it is obvious, must contain a great live in England. At the restoration, he recovered
deal that hardly belongs legitimately to the depart- all his preferment, and wrote till his death in I67I
ment of Commentary; it is full of polemical He left several children, and was buried in Canterdivinity, and homiletical discourse; but, at the bury Cathedral. His works, which are for the
same time, it has very considerable worth in an most part controversialor practical, arenot of great
exegetical point of view. Poole cites it frequently value. Walton mentions him in the preface to his
in the second vol.. of his Synopsis, and Dr. E.   Pil olyglott, as having contributed to that work by
liams says it contains'a rich fund of critical and sending him a copy of the Jerusalem Taigum, with
practical divinity' ( Christian Preacher, P. 431 ). a Latin translation by Cenellerius, but in so corrupt
A very usefil abridgment of it by John Berriea state as to be almost unusable. One of the rarest
Esq., Dalkeith, appeared at Edinburgh in one vol. and most curious of his works is entitled De Q
8vo, 1836.-W. L. A.                           tuor linguis Comment. Pars prior fque de Ling.
Heb. et de Ling. Saxon. Lond. I650. In this he
CASAUBON, ISAAC, was born at Geneva in treats briefly of the Hebrew, more fully of the
1559. In I582 he became professor of Greek- in  Saxon, especially with a view to their etymological
the university of his native town.  After holding  affinities.  The book is curious, and not withthis office for I4 years, he removed to Mpntpelier, out value, though some of the author's etymowhere he acted for two years as professor of Greek  logies are such as in the present state of philological
and polite literature.  In i603 he became libra- learning cannot but provoke a smile. The latter
rian to the French king, and for a short time ex- part never appeared. He wrote also De verborum
ercised considerable influence in various ways in  usu et accurate eorum cognitionis utilitate Diatribe,
France.  The murder of the king, however, and  i647, I2mo. A discourse concerning Christ, his
the fact of his oldest son turning Roman Catholic, Incarnaion, and Exinanition, as also concerning




CASEMENT                    455              CASSIODORUS
the principles of Christianity by way of Introduc- slight clue afforded in the history, which states that
tion, Lond. 4to, 1646; which is a treatise on the Judas and his brother Jonathan on their errand of
JKivwOe of Phil. ii.; in it he also derides the doctrine liberation had proceeded three days' journey into the
of the millennium  incidentally.  He left many wilderness east of Jordan, before they received from
MSS. to the university of Oxford, which are there the Nabathaeans information, which determined
preserved.-S. L.                              their military movements, added to the specific deCASEMENT (wj         Prov. vii 6) e\lsewhere scription of the cities to be attacked-that they were
CASEMENT (_:', Prov. vii. 6) elsewhere strong andgreat (7rao-aL at 7r6Xe6s aTrac 6Xvpal Kal
rendered Lattice (Judg. v. 28). [HOUSE.]       eyctXat), it is not unreasonable to conjecture, that
we have in this gr6up the originals of some of the
CASIPHIA    (FKDD; Sept. vi dpyvpt     rov ruined cities of the Haurin and neighbouring disr76rov; Chasphia). A place or district occupied  tricts which are now exciting the curiosity of travelby a colony of Jewish exiles, to whom Ezra sent, lers. After a careful comparison of the routes of
when going up to Jerusalem, in order to obtain  Ritter (section on Haurdn-ebene) and Seetzen (notes
Levites for the service of the Temple (Ezra viii. on part I., March I806, vol. iv. p. 198), with the
I7). Dr. Fiirst (Handwdrterbuch, s.v.) places it maps of Van de Velde and Robinson (in Later Bibl.
in the south of Media which borders on Babylonia; Researches), we suppose that on the confines of
and supposes that the name refers to the snowy  Hauran [Auranitis] and Jebel Ajlun [Galaaditis]
mountains in that region. According to a Jewish  near the ascertained sites of Bostra, Astaroth-Kamtradition it was the' large country' to which Shebna, aim and Edrei, may be placed our Casphon.
the treasurer of Hezekiah, was threatened to be ex- Seetzen's commentators suggest the modem  es
iled (Is. xxii. 8).-J. E. R.                  Szbdn, as the possible site of Casphon, but add-.  Site however uncertain.' Calmet (in. loc.), from
CASLUHIM  (DD,_ Sept. Xa-,lPit4e), a another form of the Vulgate, Chesbon or Cheschbon
Mizraite people from whom went forth a portion  supposes, with extreme improbability, that Heshof the Philistines (Gen. x. 14; I Chron. i. 2). bon, the well known capital of Sihon, was identical
Bochart, on the. ground of the similarity of the with Casphon.-P. H.
names, and the assertion that the Colchians were an  CASPI.  IBN CASPI.
Egyptian colony (Herod. ii. o14; Diod. Sic, i.
28), identifies them with the Colchians (Phaleg. iv.  CASPIS, Kdartv, Casphin, 2 Maccab. xii. I3.
31); but in these reasons there is little weight, and  A  fortified city inhabited by people of various
it is extremely improbable that the Philistines nations, and situated near a lake two stadia in
should have migrated from Colchis to the south of breadth (v. I6), taken with great slaughter by
Palestine.  More recent scholars generally adopt Judas Maccabaeus. Winer supposes it to be the
the suggestion that the Casluhim were the abori- same as Casphon (Casbon, Vulg.) in I Maccab. v.
gines of Casiotis, a region lying on the borders of 36, or Heshbon.-J. E. R.
Egypt towards Arabia Petrsea, south of the      CASSIA    [KETZIAH]
Serbonian bog (Ptolem. Geogr. iv. 5. 12; Amm.
Marcell. xxii. i6), and which contained the town  CASSIODORUS, MAGNUS AURELIUS. Born
Casium, the modem el Kas. Here was the Mons in Calabria about 470 or 480. He was of good
Casius to which reference is repeatedly made by family, and was the principal minister and associate
the ancient writers (Strabo, i. p. 50, 55; Plin. v. of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, and conII, 12; Lucan Pharsal. viii. 539; x. 433).  It is tinued in high office under his immediate succesdescribed as a'low littoral tract of rock, covered  sors. At the age of 66 years, probably from a
with shifting, and even quicksand,' and this has desire for repose, increased by the disorders he
been regarded as furnishing a serious difficulty in saw threatening his country, he withdrew to a
the way of the supposition that it was from it that monastery which he had founded,in a beautiful
the'Casluhim  went forth (Smith's Dict. of the spot in Calabria. Here he established an order
Bible, i. 282). ButPtolemy (1. c. comp. Joseph. less severe than usual, and the inmates of Viviers
Bell. 7ud. iv. 5. Ii) gives us the names of several devoted themselves not only to sacred studies but
towns lying in this district, so that it must have to agriculture and secular pursuits.  Cassiodorus
been capable of supporting a population, and may  drew up short treatises for them on most of the
have, in an earlier period, been quite inadequate to subjects of a liberal education at that time, and dethe support of a tribe. The position of the Cas- fends this innovation in his book De institutione
luhim in the list beside the Pathrusim and the Divinarum Litterarum, which forms a sort of inCaphthorim renders it probable that the original troduction to the work referred to above, De
seat of the tribe was somewhere in Lower Egypt, artibus ac disciplinis Liberalium litterarum.  His
and not far from the vicinity of that'Serbonian  favourite occupation, or at least object, was the
Bog betwixt Damiata and Mount Casius old' (Par. accurate copying of ancient MSS. He paid great
Lost. ii. 592).W. L. A.                       attention to this, and wrote a treatise, de Ortho.
CASPHON(Sept c Xa- bv and[ex.]Xab  graphia, for the guidance of the copyists whom he
lCASPHON    oc(Sept. Xaibd and [AClex. v.Xa 36,;a directed. He wrote this work in. the 93d year of
Vulg. Casbon) occurs in I Maccab. v. 36, as his age, and much is not known of his life afteranother form of                               wards. He is said to have lived.to Ioo years, or
CASPHOR (Sept. Xaca0Sp [Al. Kaocrbp]; Vulg. at least to 97. Besides other Works, he wrote An
Casphor, aiad Josephus, Ant. xii. 8, 3, Xdo-taia), exposition of the Epistle to the Romans, now lost,
which was 6ne of the cities in'the land of Galaad' especially directed against Pelagius; and works
taken by Judas Maccabseus in his brilliant campaign  called Complexiones in Epistolis Apostolorum et
against the Syrian general, the younger Timotheus. Actibus eorum et Apocalypsi Quasi brevissimn exSee I Maccab. v. 24-54. The site of this city does planatione decursas. Cassiodorus was a man of
not appear to have been identified.  From the infinite industry, and did considerable service to




CASTELL                    456                 CASTELL
literature.  His theological works are of little in- King Charles II., and possessed of these honours
herent value-very interesting as exhibiting in a he died in I685, having bequeathed all his Oriental
man of high cultivation in the sixth century the MSS. to the University which was his Alma
aspect of Christianity and ancient philosophy; but Mater.  His Lexicon was by no means his only
from this very combination and the position of the  work. He assisted Walton in his Polyglott. In
man, somewhat artificial and wanting in earnest- the preface of that magnum opus the author acness. His works and life are in Migne's Biblio- knowledges Castell's labours upon the Samaritan,
theca Patrum.-H. W.                            the Syriac, the Arabic, and the Ethiopic versions,
with his notes upon all of them, as well as his
CASTELL, EDMUND, eminent among the Latin translation of the Ethiopic version of the
famous band of Oriental scholars which adorned  Canticles. Moreover, in vol. vi. Walton acknowour literature in the I7th century, was born in ledges his farther assistance of collation. Besides
I6o6 at Hatley, in Cambridgeshire.  In 162I he all this, he is said to have also translated several
became a pensioner of Emmanuel College, Cam- of the books of the N. T. and the Syriac version
bridge, from which he afterwards migrated to St. of Job, where differing from the Arabic. Amid
John's College, for the sake of its library, which  all his discouragements he was ever on the watch
was of great service to him in the preparation of to advance the progress of oriental and biblical
his grand work, the Lexicon Heptaglotton, or Dic- learning.'Though I perish,' he said,'it comforts
tionary of Seven Languages, which cost him'the me not a little to see how Holy Writ flourishes.'
drudgery,' as he called it, of 17 years, impaired  He published in I66o a congratulatory work on
health, and (as some have said) ruin of a compe- the King's restoration, which does not pertain to
tent fortune. The biographer of Dr. Lightfoot our subject; and in 1667 an important contribumentions the sum of ~I2,ooo, of his own estate, tion to biblical learning, which we must not omit
as spent by the toilsome scholar; but this was not to mention, entitled Oratio in Scholis Theologicis
expended entirely on the Lexicon;'with his usual habita ab Edm. Castello S. T. D. et Linguae Aragenerosity in the prosecution of his favourite bicN in Academia Cantabrig. Professore, cizm Prcliterature, he  contributed  oo000 to Walton's lectiones suas in secundum  Canonis Avicennae
splendid undertaking, the great Polyglott Bible. librum  auspicaretur, quibus via prazstruitur ex
Without believing that his costly sacrifice of time, Scriptoribus Orientalibus ad clariis ac dilucidiis
and money, and health, extended to absolute ruin, enarrandam  Botonologicam  S.S. Scripturze parwe may yet be certain that his loss was very great. tem, opus a nemine adhuc tentatum, 4to.
While preparing his Lexicon, Castell maintained  The title of his great work is' LEXICON Heptain his own house and at his own expense seven glotton; Hebraicum, Chaldaicum, Syriacum, SaEnglishmen and seven foreigners as writers, all of maritanum, AEthiopicumn, Arabicum, conjunctim;
whom died before the completion of the work, et Persicum, separatim. In quo omnes Hebrcec,
when'the whole burthen,' says Strype (Life of Chaldce, Syra, Samaritane,,Ethiopicce, Arabica,
Lightfoot)'fell upon himself-though, by God's et Persicce, tam in MSS. is quam Impressis libris,
grace, he at last finished it, before it finished cum primis autem in Bibiis Polyglottis, adjectis
him.' He refers to his own desolate condition and hinc inde Armenis, Turcicis, Indis, Japonicis, &c.,
ill-requited labours in his Preface, where also he ordine Alphabetico, sub singulis Radicibus digests
mentions Beveridge (afterwards Bishop), Murray, continentur.'  The copious title-page goes on to
and Wansleb, three eminent orientalists, as most describe the'ample and lucid arrangement and
persevering in their help, Dr. E. Pococke also explication of the MEANINGS of all these words
assisted him-but to Dr. Lightfoot, the renowned  (especially of those which occur, be they but wra~
Hebrew and Rabbinical scholar, he in his letters Xey6Aeva in the Hebrew Scriptures), on a different
expresses the greatest acknowledgments;'With- plan from any pursued by moder lexicographers,
out him,' he said,'his work could never have been whether Hebrew or Christian; with materials deso entire as it is.'* He received some prefer- rived from the three Chaldee Targums; and the
ments, which, however inadequate as a recompense two Talmuds-of Babylon and Jerusalem; from
for his services, were yet honourable. In the early the Commentators, Theologians, and Philosophers
part of his life, he had been vicar of Hatfield  of the most ancient Rabbins; from the various
Peverell, in Essex, and afterwards rector of Wode- readings of the S. Scripture, Hebrew, Chaldee,
ham Walter, in the same county, both of which  etc.; from three copies of the Syriac O. & N.
he resigned at different periods. He was also Test.; three Ethiopic of the greatest portion of
rector of Higham Gobion, Bedfordshire, a bene- the same; besides three Arabic copies and two
fice which he retained till his death. He was ap- Persian; and three copies of the Samaritan Pentapointed Professor of Arabic in the University of teuch; furthermore, from innumerable Lexicons of
Cambridge in i666, and Prebendary of Canterbury all these languages; from the Koran; from Aviin 1667.  He was also chaplain in ordinary to cenna, the Geographer of Nubia, etc.; and from
the Septuagint Version of the Scriptures. In addi* Besides these, and others at home, he rejoiced tion to all this, difficult and discrepant opinions of
in the friendship of many illustrious foreigners, different interpreters are compared and examined;
companions in his Oriental learning.'Besides very many errata in other Lexicons, as well as in
some amongst ourselves,' he says, in one of his Polyglott Bibles and faulty translations, are often
letters,'I have a Golius, a Buxtorf, a Hottinger, amended, and restored to their proper meaning.'
a Ludolfo, etc., in foreign parts, that both by  And as if this enormous labour were not enough,
their letters and in print have not only sufficiently the very learned author' added a brief and (as far
-but too amply and abundantly for me to com- as could be compiled) a harmonized sketch of the
municate-expressed their over-high esteem of that Grammar of the afore-mentioned languages.' We
which finds but a prophet's reward here in its know not how better to indicate the value of this
close.                                        work, than by saying, that subsequent scholars,




CASTELLIO                   457                 CATENAE
who have been great in the several departments Jupiter by Leda.  They had the special province
here combined, have agreed in doing honour to of assisting persons in danger of shipwreck (TheoCastell's labours: thus J. D. Michaelis, in I787, crit. Id. xxii. I; Xenoph. Symp. viii. 29, comp.
republished the Syriac portion in a quarto edition  Horat. Carm. i 3. 2; iv. 8. 3I; Senec. Nat.
of two volumes,' cum annotationibus;' and, three  Quzs. i. I); and hence their figures were often
years afterwards, the Hebrew lexicon' cum sup- adopted for'the sign' (rb rapdarluov, insigne),
plementis,' in a similar form. The two volumes of from which a ship derived its name, as was the
Castell are generally found combined with the six case with that'ship of Alexandria' in which St.
volumes of Walton's Polyglott in the shape of an  Paul sailed on his way to Rome (Acts xxviii.
appendix.' Some copies of the Lexicon have in  II).
the title,' Londini, Scott, I686,' but this proves             T     ani        n      nnothing more than a reimpression of the title, for  CAT (   os). This animal could not beunthere never was a second edition of the work.' known to the Hebrews, for their ancestors had
Home's Introduction (9th ed.), vol. v. p. 252. If witnessed the Egyptians treating it as a divinity,
Castell did not receive his recompense when living, under the denomination of Pasht, the Lunar Godposterity has awarded him constant praise. (The dess, or Diana, holding every domesticated idibest account of Dr. Castell is to be found in The vidual sacred, embalming it after death, and often
Life of Bishop Walton, by the Rev. H. J. Todd, sending it for interment to Bubastis. Yet we find
M.A., F.S.A., (chap. v.), hvole. i. pp. I63-I7].- the cat nowhere mentioned in the canonical books
PMp. H                             63\19      as a domestic animal   And in Baruch (VL 22) it
is noticed only as frequenting Pagan temples,
CASTELLIO, or, as he called himself, CAS- where no doubt the fragments of sacrificed aniTALIO, (CHATEILLON) SEBASTIAN, was born in mals and vegetables attracted vermin, and renSavoy or Dauphine, in 1515. He first studied at dered the presence of cats necessary. This singular
Lyons, then at Strasburg, where he lived in the circumstance, perhaps, resulted from the animal
same house with Calvin.  When the latter re- being deemed unclean, and being thereby excluded
turned to Geneva, Castalio got the situation of domestic familiarity, though the Hebrews may still
teacher in a school there through his influence. have encouraged it, in common with other verminHe soon shewed, however, independent thought hunters, about the outhouses and farms, and cornand inquiry-not agreeing with the Geneva cate- stores, at the risk of some loss among the broods
chism about Christ's descent into hell, nor with  of pigeons which, in Palestine, were a substitute
Calvin's doctrine of election.  Here he began to for poultry. [TsIYIM.]
translate the Bible into. Latin and French; but  CATENAE, a name given to collections of exCalvin did not like many parts of the work. He positions culled from the writings of the Fathers,
was obliged to leave Geneva, having been refused and linked together so as to form one continuous
admission into the ministry, and repaired to Basel, series. The application of this name to works of
where he had to contend with poverty, till a pro- this sort has been attributed to Thomas Aquinas,
fessorship of Greek was conferred upon him in whose collection on the Four Gospels bears the
1553. He was involved in controversy with Beza; title of Catena Aurea; but that it is of later invenand with his colleague Borrhaus about predestina- tion appears from the fact that the older editions of
tion. In consequence of complaints from various this work bear the title of glossa continua, accordquarters, he was cautioned by the Basel council to ing to what was the customary phraseology of the
confine himself to the duties of his office.  His time, and that Thomas himself, in his dedication to
death took place on 23d December I563. His Pope Urban IV., calls his work continua expositio.
principal work is the Latin translation of the Bible, The early names for these among the Greeks were
Biblia Veteris et Novi Testamenti ex versione Sebast. 6riroual plpvetWv, atvaywyal 1l ySewv, oX6XLa
Castalionis, cum  ejusdem  annotationibus, Basil, darb 8i&a0pwv  pfpetsuwv, etc., which are more
1551, folio; which was reprinted several times. justly descriptive of their contents than the later
He also published a French translation of the names.puo-a K/cpdXaca and aetpal. These catenae
Bible, Basil, I555; Dialogi 4 de predestinatione, are of different kinds.' Sometimes the words of
electione, libero arbitrio, et fide, 1578; Defensio the Fathers from whom they were compiled are
suarum translationum Bibliorum et maxime N. T., presented in a mutilated state, and not as they
1562. He edited Theologia Germanica, 1557; and were originally written. Sometimes the bare exThomas a Kempis, 1563, besides several of the position is given, without the reasons by which it
ancient classics. Castellio was an elegant Latin is supported. Sometimes we find that the opinions
scholar, as his version of the Bible attests. The of different writers are confounded; that being
language is Ciceronian and polished. It loses, assigned to one which properly belongs to another.
however, on this very account, much of the strength  By far the greater number appear to have been
belonging to the original. His spirit was tolerant, hastily and negligently made, with so many omisbenevolent, independent, as the dedication to his sions, corruptions, and errors, that they cannot be
Bible and the anonymous work written against relied on' (Davidson, Hermeneut. p. 156). All
Calvin respecting the persecution of Servetus, are not alike in the method of their arrangement,
shew. Beza accused him of Pelagianism and laxity  nor are all equally skilfully or neatly arranged.
in his religious belief; for which there was ground, They vary, also, according as the writers from
if the stand-point of Calvinism be taken as the whom they are drawn were attached to the gramcriterion. But Castellio was liberal and enlightened  matical, the allegorical, or the dogmatic principle
beyond his day.-S. D.                         of interpretation; and sometimes the compiler's
CASTLE. [FORTIFICATIONS.]                   own inclination in this respect gives a character to
his work. The use of these catenae is, nevertheCASTOR     AND POLLUX      (Ai6Tcoupoc), the less, considerable; as they preserve to us many
Dioscuri: in heathen mythology, the twin sons of fragments of Aquila and the other versions of the




CATERPILLAR                   458                  CAVES
H-exapla; as they contain extracts from the works tent; these are noticed by Strabo, who speaks of
of interpreters otherwise unknown to us; and as a cavern near Damascus capable of holding 4000
they occasionally supply various readings.     men (xvi. p. o096, edit. I707). This cavern is
The number of these Catenae is considerable; shewn to the present day. Modern travels abound
many yet remain in MS. Of those that have been with descriptions of the caves of Syria. The Cruprinted may be mentioned:-Catena Gr. Patrum   sade writers record the local traditions respecting
in beatum rob, collectore Niceta, ed. Pat. Junius, them current in their times (William  of Tyre;
fol. Lond. 1637; Symbolarum     in Matthceum   Quaresmius, Elucid. Ter. Sanc.) Tavernier (Voytomus prior exhibens Catenam Gr. Patrum xxi., ed. age de Perse, part ii. chap. iv.), speaks of a grotto
P. Possinus, fol. Tolos. 1646; Ejusd. tomus alter between.Aleppo and Bir, which would hold near
quo continetur Catena PP. Gr. xxx., interpr. 3000 horse.     Maundrell has described a large
Balth. Corderius, fol. Tolos. 1647; Catena Gr. cavern under a high rocky mountain, in the vicinity
PP. in Evang. sec. AMarcum collect. atque interp. of Sidon, containing 200 smaller caverns (Travels,
P. Possinus, etc., fol. Rom. 1673; Catena lxv. Gr. pp. 158, 159).  Shaw mentions the numerous
PP. in Lucam, quca simul Evangg. introducit ex- dens, holes, and caves, in the mountains on the
plicatiorum, luce et latinitate donata, etc., a B. sea coast, extending through a long range on each
Corderio, fol. Antw. I628; Catena PP. Gr. in   side of Joppa. The accounts of the latest and
yoannem ex antiquiss. Gr. codice in lucem ed. a most accurate travellers verify their statements.
B. Corderio, fol. Antw. I630; Catence Gr. PP. The first mention of a cave in Scripture relates to
in Nov. Test., ed. J. A. Cramer, 8 vols. 8vo, that into which Lot and his two daughters retired
Oxon. I844.  To this class belong also the Com- from Zoar, after the destruction of Sodom and
mentaries of Theophylact, Euthymius Zigabenus, Gomorrah (Gen. xix. 30). It was some cavern in
CEcumenius, Andreas, Arethas, Bede, Aquinas, etc. the mountains of Moab, but tradition has not fixed
As to the origin of this class of commentaries upon any of the numerous hollows in that region.
there is much uncertainty. The introduction of The next is the cave of Machpelah, in the field of
them has been assigned to Olympiodorus by Wolf Ephron, which Abraham purchased of the sons of
and others, but this cannot be substantiated; still Heth (Gen. xxv. 9, Io). There Abraham buried
less can the opinion of those who would ascribe Sarah, and was himself afterwards buried; there
this to Procopius Gaza. It is probable that the also Isaac, Rebecca, Leah, and Jacob, were buried
practice of compiling from the great teachers of the  (Gen. xlix. 31; 1. 13). The cave of Machpelah is
Church grew up gradually in the later and less en- said to be under a Mohametan mosque, surrounded
lightened ages, partly from a feeling of veneration  by a high wall called the Haram; but even the
for these earlier and brighter luminaries, partly  Moslems are not allowed to descend into the
from inability to furnish anything original on the cavern.  The tradition that this is the burialbooks of scripture. It was a season of night, when place of the patriarchs, is supported by an imthose who sought after truth felt that even reflected  mense array of evidence (Robinson, Biblical Relights were a great blessing. (See Simon, Hist. searches in Palestine, ii. 433-440).
Crit. des princ. Commentateurs de N. T., c. 30,  The situation of the cave at Makkedah, into
Ittigius de bibliothecis et catenis patrum, Lips. which the five kings of the Amorites retired upon
1708; Fabricius, Bibl. Gr., T. vii. p. 728; J. C. their defeat by Joshua, and into which their carWolfius, Exercitatio in cat. PP. Gr., reprinted in  cases were ultimately cast, is not known (Josh. x.
Cramer's Catena in N  T, vol. i.; Noess'elt, De x6, 27). Some of the caves mentioned in the
Cat. PP. Gr. in N. T.; Opusc. iii. 325, ff.; Cra- Scriptures were artificial, or consisted of natural
mer's Pracfatio to his edition of the Catenae).- fissures enlarged or modified for the purposes inW. L. A.                                       tended. It is recorded (Judg. vi. 2), that,'because of the Midianites, the children of Israel made
CATERPILLAR. [CHASIL.]                      them the dens which are in the mountains, and
CATTLE.     [BAQAR; EGHEL; PAR; SHOR.]      caves, and strongholds.' Caves made by art are
met with in various quarters.  An innumerable
CAVES.    The geological formation of Syria is multitude of excavations are found in the rocks
highly favourable to the production of caves. It and valleys round Wady Musa, which were proconsists chiefly of limestone, in different degrees of bably formed at first as sepulchres, but afterwards
density, and abounds with subterranean rivulets. inhabited, like the tombs of Thebes (Robinson's
The springs issuing from limestone generally con- Researches, ii. 529). Other excavations occur at
tain carbonate of lime, and most of them yield a Deir Dubban (ii. 353); others in the Wady leadlarge quantity of free carbonic acid upon exposure ing to Santa Hanneh (ii. 395).' In the mountains
to the air. To the erosive effect upon limestone of Kiul'at Ibn Ma'an, the natural caverns have been
rocks, of water charged with this acid, the forma- united by passages cut in the rocks, in order to
tion of caves is chiefly to be ascribed. The opera- render them more commodious habitations. In
tion of these causes is sometimes exemplified by a the midst of these caverns several cisterns have
torrent perforating a rock, and forming a natural been built; the whole would afford refuge for 600
arch, like that of the Nahr el Leben, which falls men' (Burckhardt's Travels, p. 331).  Caves were
into the Nahr El Salib, called also the river of used as dwelling-places by the early inhabitants of
Beirout. The arch is upwards of i60 feet long, Syria. The Horites, the ancient inhabitants of
85 feet wide, and nearly 200 feet above the torrent Idumsea Proper, were Troglodytes or dwellers in
(Kitto's Physical History of Palestine, art' Geology  caves, as their name imports. Jerome records that
and Mineralogy'. The su6ordinate strata ofSyna, fi fix time fdumoea, or tie wfofe soutfern region
sandstone, chalk, basalt, natron, etc., favour the from Eleutherogolis to Petra and Ailah, was full
formation of caves. Consequently the whole region  of habitations in caves, the inhabitants using subabounds with subterranean hollows of different terranean dwellings on account of the great heat
dimensions.  Some of them are of immense ex- (Comm. on Obad. v. 6).'The excavations at Deii




CAVES                    459                 CEILING
Dubban and on the south side of the Wady, lead- existed in the time of the Crusades. It is mening to Santa Hanneh, are probably the dwellings tioned by William of Tyre (xxii. 15-2I), as situate
of the ancient Horites' (Robinson, ii. 353), and in the country beyond the Jordan, sixteen Roman
they are peculiarly numerous around Beit Jibrin miles from Tiberias. The cave of Elijah is pre(Eleutheropolis) (ii. 425). The Scriptures abound tended to be shewn, at the foot of Mount Sinai,
with references to habitations in rocks; among in a chapel dedicated to him; and a hole near
others, see Num. xxiv. 21; Cant. ii. 14; Jer. xlix. the altar is pointed out as the place where he lay
I6; Obad. 3. Even at the present time many    (Robinson, i. 52).-J. F. D.
persons live in caves. The inhabitants of Anab, a
town on the east of the Jordan, lat. 320 N. long.  CAWTON, THOMAS, a learned English divine,
35~ E., all live in grottoes or caves hollowed out of and son of an eminently learned Puritan of the same
the rock (Buckingham's Travels among the Arab name, was born in I637. He studied first at
Tribes, p. 6i). In the neighbourhood of Hebron  Utrecht, where he soon rose into reputation for his
peasants still live in caves, and especially duringextensiveacquirements, andsubsequentlyatOxford,
the summer, to be near their flocks (Wilkinson's where, having completed his studies under Samuel
Travels, i. 313). Poor families live in caverns in Clarke, he soon after received ordination from the
bishop of the diocese. But so much dissatisfied
the rocks which seem formerly to have been in- bishop of the diocese. But so much dissatisfied
habited as a sort of village, near the ruins of El d he soon become with the party then dominant
Burj. So also at Siloam, and in the neighbour- in the establishment, that after having officiated
hood of Nazareth. Caves afforded excellent refugeas chaplain first to Sir Anthony Irby, and afterin the time of war. Thus the Israelites (I Sam. wards to Lady Arim, he left it to become the
xiii. 6) are said to have hid themselves in caves, pastor f a  Nonconformist congregation in Westand in thickets, and in rocks, and in high places,mister, where he died in  677. It was while a
and in pits. See also Jer. xli. 9; Joseph. Antiq.
and in pits. See also Jer. xli. 9; Joseph. Antiq.student at Utrecht that he wrote and published the
xii.. I. Hence, then, to  enter into the rock,  following learned dissertationsatio de
to go into the holes of the rocks, and into the  Versione Syriaca Vet. et Novi Testamenti, Ultraj.
caves of the earth' (Is. ii. I9), would, to the Is-  657, 4t; Dssertatio de us  Linguca Hebraicao
raelites, be a very proper and familiar way to ex-in Phisophia Theoretica, Ibid. I657, 4to. Orme's
press terror and consternation. The pits spoken account of these works is not more succinct than
of seem to have consisted of large wells, in'the it is correct. He says,'That on the Syriac Scripsides' of which, excavations were made, leading tures i more valuable though not more curious
into various chambers. Such pits were sometimesthan the one on the Herew language  Cawton
used asprisons (Is. xxiv. 22; li. 14; Zech. ix. ), discusses the Syriac versions both of the 0. and
N. T. On the former he endeavours to shew that
and with niches in the sides, for burying-places N. T. On the former he endeavours to shew that
(Ezek. xxxii. 23). Many of these vaulted pits re-   from ther e were  ently two Syriac translations, one
main to this day. The cave in which Lazarus was made from the Septuagint, and the other from the
buried was probably something of this kind. TheHebrewtext. It was a co   of the latter which
tomb shewn as his, at Bethany, is not attended  Usher obtained, and which is printed in Walton's
tomb shewn as his, at Bethany, is not attended          The author of it, he conceives, cannot
with the slightest probability (Robinson, ii 10). Polyglot. The author of it he conceives, cannot
The strongholds ofEngedi, which afforded a retreat now be ascertained; but the age of it he considers
to David and his followers (I Sam. xxiii. 29;to be about the time of the Apostles, and its
xxiv. I), can be clearly identified. They are now  authority he ranks very high. The Syriac version
called'Ain Tidy by the Arabs, which means the  of the..   inks, was made about the second
same as the Hebrew, namely,'The Fountain of or third century. He gives a short account of the
the Kid.''On all sides the country is full of editions of it published by Plantin, Hutter, Gutcaverns, which might serve as lurking-places for birius, and in the Polyglot; and makes some observations on the translations of it by Tremellius
David and his men, as they do for outlaws at theservations on the translations of it by Tremells
present day. The whole scene is drawn to the and Boderianus.' Cawton was greatly celebrated
life' (Robinson, ii. 203).  The cave of Adullam, tofor hs extensive acquirements  the oriental lanwhich David retired to avoid the persecutions of guages, especially in the Hebrew and its cognate
Saul (i Sam. xxii. I, 2), and in which he cut off dialects, Chaldaic, Syriac, and Arabic.-W. J. C.
the skirt of Saul's robe (I Sam. xxiv. 4), is an im-  CEDAR. [ERES.]
mense natural cavern at the Wady Khureitun,      EDRON. [KIDRON.
which passes below the Frank mountain (Herodium: see the Map of Palestine).  For a descrip-  CEILING. The orientals bestow much attention of this cave by Irby and Mangles, and the tion upon the ceilings of their principal rooms.
reasons for believing its identity, see article ADUL- Where wood is not scarce, they are usually comLAM.   Dr. Pococke refers to a tradition that posed of one curious piece ofjoinery, framed entire,
30,000 persons once retired into it to avoid a and then raised and nailed to the joists. These
malaria. Such is the extent of the cavern, that it ceilings are often divided into small square comis quite conceivable how David and his men might partments; but are sometimes of more complicated' remain in the sides of the cave,' and not be patterns. Wood of a naturally dark colour is
noticed by Saul (Travels, vol. ii. p. 4I). Caverns commonly chosen, and it is never painted. In
were also frequently fortified and occupied by places where wood is scarce, and sometimes where
soldiers. Josephus often mentions this circum- it is not particularly so, the ceilings are formed of
stance. Certain caves were afterwards fortified by fine plaster, with tasteful mouldings and ornaments,
Josephus himself during his command in Galilee coloured and relieved with gilding, and with pieces
under the Romans. In one place he speaks of of mirror inserted in the hollows formed.by the
these as the caverns of Arbela (Vita, sec. 37), and involutions of the raised mouldings of the arabin another as the caverns near the lake Genne- esques, which enclose them as in a frame. The
sareth (De Bell. ued. ii. 20. -6). A fortified cavern antiquity of this taste can be clearly traced by




CELSIUS                    460                  CENSER
actual examples up to the times of the Old Testa- eastern side of the isthmus, about seventy stadia
ment, through the Egyptian monuments, which    from the city: the other port on the western side
display ceilings painted with rich colours in such  of the isthmus was called Lechaeum. [CORINTH.]
patterns as are shewn in the annexed cut. The
CENDEBIEUS (Kevp8/3aos), a general of Anti-.^c^3S:o~ e-  I ___ochus Sidetes, defeated and driven out of Judaea
by Judas and John Hyrcanus, the sons of Simon
Maccabaeus (i Maccab. xv. 38, 40; xvi. I, 4, 8;
i..... I     _. _._ — - _ -x-x —_I- Joseph.  Antiq.,  xiii.  7. 3;  Bell.  J d.  i.  2. 2).S. N.
m: III,,;,E cIN f EiI HE III It  ||        CENSER, the vessel in which incense was
XSI        B e. =fi l /Cm _ 35 |Ipresented in the temple (2 Chron. xxvi. 9; Ezek.
-[ l ^'i 1R  ~  ~;       ~an       t viii. II; Ecclus. 1. 9). Censers were used in the
li1]8~l,_1; E i  W r   10 i~daily offering of incense, and yearly on the day of
atonement, when the high-priest entered the Holy
||i'~|  E  hof Holies. On the latter occasion the priest filled
the censer with live coals from the sacred fire on
the altar of burnt-offering, and bore it into the
sanctuary, where he threw upon the burning coals
the'sweet incense beaten small' which he had
brought in his hand (Lev. xvi. 12, I3). In this
case the incense was burnt while the high-priest.... - ^^^held the censer in his hand; but in the daily offerr.-       -            ing the censer in which the live coals were brought
|';  ~ ll   _from the altar of burnt-offering was set down upon
* i,!01 q/^   0/   ll     15b7^i~gi(      the altar of incense. This alone would suggest the
i[! Qjrl1 QJ, (     |7                                / 
171.                               i'. 7           U     j
explanation thus obtained satisfactorily illustrates A 
the peculiar emphasis with which' ceiled houses'-                       -
and' ceiled chambers' are mentioned by Jeremiah  6
(xxii. i4) and Haggai (i. 4).
CELSIUS, OLAUS, was born at Stockholm                                           7
in 1670, and died in 1756. He was a minister, and
professor of theology and of thoo  n o  e oriental languages  i
in Upsal, and was twice offered the dignity of arch-          A       8 
bishop of Upsal. He published many dissertations                          I 
on points of theology, history, anand antiquities, of
which the most important are, De Lingud novti                       ^9
Testamenti originali, Upsal, 1707, 8vo; De Helsingid antiqud, 713, 8vo; De versionibus Bibliorum | 
Sueo-Gothicis, Stockholm, I716, 8vo; De Sculp-          L             lo    f 
turd Hebrceorum, Upsal, 1726, 8vo, etc. But his 
most distinguished and most useful labours were on
the natural history of the Bible.  He had a great 
knowledge of botany, is looked upon as the founder72. Egyptian Censers.
of the school of natural history among the Swedes, probability of some difference of shape between the
and was the patron of Linnaeus; and, by direction  censers used on these on   es ccasions. The daily cenof Charles XI., travelled over the principal states sers must have had a base or stand to admit of
of Europe to determine the different plants men- their being placed on the golden altar, while those
tioned in the Bible. The result of his labours were employed on the day of atonement were probably
seventeen dissertations, published at intervals from  furnished with a handle.  In fact, there are dif1702 to 1741, and afterwards collected into one ferent names for these vessels. Those in daily use
work, called Hierobotanicon, seu de plantis Sancta. were called T1M3"p  miktereth, from  tIDp,'inScripturaedissertationes breves, Upsal, 1745 and I747. cense;' whereas that used on the day of atoneCelsius joined to immense learning e very exact ment is distinguished by the title of nnn1   michtah
observation of nature, and the work is one of con- or'coal-pan.' We learn also that the daily censiderable value, determining upwards of 1oo plants. sers were of brass (Num. xvi. 39), whereas the
Particulars of his life and works may be found in  yearly one was of gold (Joseph. Anzti. xvi. 4. 4).
the second vol. of the Memoirhs of the Society of The latter is also said to have had a handle (Mishn.
Sciences of Upsa. -H. W.                       tit. Yoma, iv. 4), which, indeed, as being held by
CENCHREA, or CENCHREAE (KeyXpea), the priest while the incense was burning, it seems
one of the ports of Corinth, whence Paul sailed for to have required. These intimations help us to
Ephesus (Acts xviii. Is).  It was situated on the  conclude that the Jewish censers were unlike those,




CENSUS                   461             CHABAZZELETH
of the classical ancients, with which the sculptures phrastus and Pliny, likewise mention it as a native
of Greece and Rome have made us familiar; as of Syria. Celsius states that no tree is more frewell as those (with perforated lids, and swung by quently mentioned in the Talmud, where its fruit is
chains) which are used in the church of Rome. stated to be given as food to cattle and swine: it is
The form of the daily censer we have no means of now given to horses, asses, and mules. During
determining beyond the fact that it was a pan or the Peninsular war the horses of the British
vase, with a stand whereon it might rest on the cavalry were often fed on the beans of the Carobgolden altar. Among the Egyptians the incense tree. Both Pliny (Hist. NVat. xv. 23) and Coluwas so generally burned in the hand of the officiat- mella (vii. 9) mention that it was given as food to
ing priest, that the only censers which we find in swine. By some it has been thought, but appathe least degree suited to this purpose are those rently without reason, that it was upon the husks.
represented in Figs. 2 and 3 of No. I7I.  But the of this tree that John the Baptist fed in the wildernumerous figures of Egyptian censers, consisting of ness: from this idea, however, it is often called
a small cup at the end of a long shaft or handle St. John's Bread, and Locust-tree.
(often in the shape of a hand), probably offer ade-  The Carob-tree grows in the south of Europe
quate illustration of those employed by the Jews on and north of Africa, usually to a moderate sine,
the day of atonement.  There was, however, but it sometimes becomes very large, with a trunk
another kind of censer (fig. I) less frequently seen of great thickness, and affords an agreeable shade.
on the Egyptian monuments, and likewise fur- The quantity of pods borne by each tree is very
nished with a handle, which will probably be re- considerable, being often as much as 800 or 900
garded by many as offering a more probable resem- pounds weight: they are flat, brownish-coloured,
blance. It is observable that in all cases the from 6 to 8 inches in length, of a sub-astringent
Egyptian priests had their costly incense made up taste when unripe, but, when come to maturity,
into small round pellets, which they projected suc- they secrete, within the husks and round the seeds,
cessively from between their finger and thumb into a sweetish-tasted pulp. When on the tree, the
the censer, at such a distance, that the operation pods have an unpleasant odour; but, when dried
must have required a peculiar knack to be acquired
only by much practice. As the incense used by
the Jews was made up into a kind of paste, it was
probably employed in the same manner.-J. K.
CENSUS. [POPULATION.]
CENTURION        (hanrovrcdppXs and &Kar6vTcpXos), a Roman military officer in command of a
hundred men, as the title implies. Cornelius, the
first Gentile convert to Christianity, held this rank
(Acts x. 1, 22). Other Centurions are mentioned 
in Matt. viii. 5, 8, 13; xxvii. 54; Acts xxi. 32; /;  
xxii. 25, 26; xxiii. 17, 23; xxiv. 23; xxvii I, 6,
II, 31, 43; xxviii. I 6.
CEPHAS (Koabs; in later Hebrew or Syriac
sZN:),   a surname which Christ bestowed upon
Simon (John i. 42). [PETER.]                                 r
CERATIA, CERATONIA, is the name of a tree
of the family of Leguminous plants, of which the
fruit used to be called Siliqua edulis and Siliqua dulcis. By the Greeks, as Galen and Paulus
-.Egineta, the tree is called KeparTa, Kepa7rwvta,
from the resemblance of its fruit to Kipas, a horn. 
The word   Kept7-tov occurs in Luke xv. I6, a
where it has been translated husks in the A. V.:
our Saviour, in the parable of the prodigal son,
says that'he would fain have filled his belly            173. Ceratonia Siliqua.
with the husks that the swine did eat; and no
man gave unto him.' In the Arabic version of.upon hurdles, they become eatable, and are
the N. T., the word  Z...  Kharoob, often writ- valued by poor people, and during famine in the,    countries where the tree is grown, especially in
ten   t      Kharnoob, is given as the synonym  Spain and Egypt, and by the Arabs. They are
given as food to cattle in modern, as we read they
of Keratia.  According to Celsius, the modern were in ancient, times; but, at the best, can only
Greeks have converted the Arabic name into be considered very poor fare. J. F. R.
Xdpov/3a, and the Spaniards into Garrova and
Algaroba. The Italians called the tree Caroba, the  CETUBIM (r'ln, the Writings). [CANON.]
French Carroubier, and the English Carob-tree.
Though here, little more than its name is known,  CHABAZZELETH             occurs in two
the Carob-tree is extremely common in the South places in Scripture, first in the passage of Cant.
of Europe, in Syria, and in Egypt. The Arabs ii. I, where the bride replies,'I am the Rose of
distinguish it by the name of Kharnoob shamee-  Sharon and the lily of the valleys;' and secondly,
that is, the Syrian Carob. The ancients, as Theo- in Is. xxxv. I,'The wilderness and the solitary




CHABAZZELETH                   432                  CHAFF
place shall be glad for them; and the desert shall without reason, as some oriental translators have
rejoice, and blossom as the rose.' In both passages so explained it. In the Targum, Cant. ii. I, inwe see, that in the A. V., as also in some stead of chabazzeleth we have narkomr, which,
others, the word is considered to indicate the rose. however, should have been written narkos Dtp13,
The Sept. renders it simply byflower in the pas- as appears from the words of David Cohen de
sage of the Canticles. In this it has been followed  Lara,' Narkos idem est ac chabazzeleth Saron.' So
by the Latin Vulgate, Luther, etc. It is curious, in Is. xxxv. I, chabazzeleth is written chamzaloito
however, as remarked by Celsius, Hiero., i. p. 489, in the Asyrian translation,'quod maronita Latine
that many of those who translate chabazzeleth by vertit narcissum' (Cels. Hierobot. i. p. 489). This,
rose or flower in the passage of the Canticles, ren- Rosenmiiller informs us, according to the testimony
der it by lily in that of Isaiah.             of Syriac-Arabic dictionaries, denotes the'colchiThe rose was, no doubt, highly esteemed by the cum  autumnale,' that is, the meadow  saffron.
Greeks, as it was, and still is, by almost all Asiatic That plant certainly has a bulb-like root-stock; in
nations, and, as it forms a very frequent subject of form the flowers resemble those of the crocus, are
allusion in Persian poetry, it has been inferred that of a light violet colour, but without any scent.
we might expect some reference to so favourite a Narkom and narkos are, no doubt, the same as the
flower in the poetical books of the Scripture, and                       ad whic, thr
that no other is better calculated to illustrate thePersiannurgus, Arabic,and which, throughabove two passages. But this does not prove that out the East, indicates Narcissus Tazetta, or the
the word chabazzeleth, or any similar one, was ever  hus narcissus. The ancients describe and
applied to the rose. Other flowers, therefore, have allude to th   narcissus on various occasions and
allude to the narcissus on various occasions, and
Celsius has quoted various passages from the poets
(V\\/  (\\ s  \indicative of the esteem in which it was held. As
aM,'d^S^,-JJ\ \they were not so particular as the moderns in dis1..c_._.^^^^-~'/ A/  \tinguishing species, it is probable that more than
^^       4<(7A      % \one may be referred to by them, and, therefore,
l'r 11 \/(( /,j28~ ^that N. Tazetta may be included under the same
names as N. poeticus, which was best known to
them. It is not unimportant to remark that the
~\\'!'O ~ ^;T!    I   /         narcissus was also called poXfpbs luerLK6s, and Bulbus vomitorius, and the Arabic busl-al-kye, no doubt
refers to the same or a kindred species. It is curi~\ \\ % 1N  l;/  )' L //     ous also that an Eastern name, or the corruption
of one, should be applied by gardeners even in this
country to a species of narcissus-thus, N. Trewrianus and crenulatus,-the former, supposed by
I'j\ } /,~/ fsome to be a variety of N. Orientalis, were once
I{f i~/////called bazalman majorandbazalman minor, That
I, ij/ /~ Y ~/ jthe narcissus is found in Syria and Palestine is well
j /;/            known, as it has been mentioned by several travell 1^ / ////lers; and, also, that it is highly esteemed by all
K\k \ \i\ / ////      Asiatics from Syria even as far as India. Hence,
if we allow that the word chabazzeleth has refer~\ \~\ V\ 1  /  Y/ence to a bulb-bearing root, it cannot apply to the
174. Narcissus tazetta.         rose. The narcissus, therefore, is as likely as any
other of the bulbous tribe to have been intended
been indicated, to which the name chabazzeleth in the above passages.-J. F. R.
may be supposed, from its derivation, to apply  C.     s is t  r         i t. 
more fitly. Scheuzer refers to Hiller (Hierophyt. CHAFF. This is the rendering in the A. V.
p. 2), who seeks chabazzeleth among the bulbous- of three Hebrew words-I. rt or rib (Job xxi.
rooted plants, remarking that the Hebrew word  IS; Ps. i. 4; xxxv. 5; Is. xvii. 13; xxix. 5; Zeph. ii.
may be derived from chabab and batzal, a bulb, or 2, etc.)  This word, from rtn, to press out, to
bulbous root of any plant; as we have seen it ap- separate, properly designates that which is severed
plied to the onion in the article BETZAL. So from the grain, the refuse from thewinnowed corn,
Rosenmiiller remarks that the substantial part of and is the proper word for chaff (Sept. XvoOs,
the Hebrew name shews that it denotes a flower except in Zeph. ii. 2, where ~v'os IrapA 7ropevbuevov
growing from a bulb, and adds in a note'that is substituted). Worthless and wicked characters
ntl^n is formed from Ai3 or bulb, the guttural are compared to chaff, because they shall be swept
n being sometimes put before triliterals, in orderaway, and destroyed by the divine judgments (Ps.
to form  quadriliterals from  them' (see Gesen. i 5; Zeph. ii. 2; Matt. iii. 12).
Lehrgeb. p. 863).  Some therefore have selected  2. tVn (Is. v. 24; xxiii. II). This word, from
the asphodel as the bulbous plant intended; respect- Ctn, to be dry, withered, denotes not so much chaff
ing which the author of' Scripture Illustrated' re- s
marks,' It is a very beautiful and odoriferous as dry withered grass, such as easily takes fire and
flower, and highly praised by two of the greatest is consumed.
masters of Grecian song.  Hesiod says it grows  3. 1V  (Jer. xxiii. 28) elsewhere rendered straw
commonly in woods; and Homer (Odyss., i. 24) calls (Exod. v. 7, 10, I2; Is. xi. 7; lxv. 25), and stubble
the Elysian fields' meads filled with asphodel.'  (Job xxi. I8).  It properly means chopped straw,
Celsius (/. c.) has already remarked that Bochart such as was used to mix with clay for bricks, and
has translated chabazzeleth by narcissus; and not to form litter for cattle, horses, and camels, or,




CHAGAB                     463                 CHAJUG
perhaps, mixed with barley, to form part of their tion of life more nearly resembled that of the Isprovender (Gen. xxiv. 25, 32; Judg. xix. I9; I raelites before they obtained possession of Canaan.
Kings iv. 28; Is. xi. 7). Comp. Chaldee sK3l, 2. As ornaments.   It would seem  that chains
Syr. d   I'r, Ar.      Th.. e       p. give   were worn both by men and women for this purSyr.  -',  A..". ~ The Sept. gives iXv  pose (Prov. i. 9; Ezek. xvi. I ), and we find them
as its equivalent.                            enumerated among the ornaments of brides (Cant.
In Dan. ii. 35, the Chaldaic word "I.V is used to i. IO; iv. 9). In Cant. iv. 9 the neck ornament of
designate the husk of corn, the chaff; though the the bride is called the chain of her neck; and in
LXX., reading KovLopr6r, would indicate that they  Prov. i. 9 parental counsels are compared to ornaregarded it as describing the dust that rises from  ments of grace unto the head, and chains around
the threshing-floor rather than the chaff. In the the neck of a child. Among the spoils taken from
N. T. the word rendered chaff is dtvpov (Matt. iii. the Midianites were chains which they used to adorn
12; Luke iii. 17).-W. L. A.                   the necks of their camels (Judg. viii. 26). 3. As a
means of confinement (Judg. xvi. 21; Ps. cxlix. 8).
CHAGAB (n) a winged edible locust (Lev. It was a custom among the Romans to fasten a
xi. 22; Num. xiii. 33; Is. xl. 22; Eccles. xii. 5; prisoner with a light chain to the soldier who was
and 2 Chron. vii. I3). In all these passages the appointed to guard him. One end of it was atSept. reads cKpls, Vulgate locusta, and English tached to the right hand of the prisoner, and the
grasshopper, except the last, where the English has other to the left hand of the soldier. This is the
locusts. The manifest impropriety of translating chain by which Paul was so often bound, and to
this word'grasshoppers' in Lev. xi. 22, accord- which he repeatedly alludes (Acts xxviii. 20; Eph.
ing to the English acceptation of the word, appears vi. 20; 2 Tim. i. i6). When the utmost security
from this, that the =nn is placed there among the was desired, the prisoner was attached by two'flying creeping things.' In all the other instances chains to two soldiers, as was the case with Peter
it most probably denotes a species of locust, and  (Acts xii. 6).
so our translators have properly rendered it in 2                  w      b    a  G      
Chron. vii. 13. Oedman infers, from its being so CHAIS, CHARLESwasbo         at Ge
often used for this purpose, that it denotes the 1701, and died in 1786 at the Hague, where he
smallest species of locust; but in the passage in had been pastor since 1728. He publishedLaSainte
Bible avec un Comment. litteraf, et des Notes choisies
Chronicles voracity seems its chief characteristic.  b aven Comment. itteral et des Notes chosies
An Arabic root, signifying'to hide,' is usually ad- tres de diers auteurs Anglais, 6 vols. 4t, Hag.
duced, because it is said that locusts fly in such  1742-77; a seventh volume was issued in I790
crowds as to hide the sun; but others say, from  after his death, by Dr. Maclaie, who furnished
their hiding the ground when they alight. Even  the preliminary dissertations; Le Sens itteral de
Parkhurst demurs, that'to veil the sun and darken'Ecriture Sainte, traduit de'Anglais de Stackthe air is not peculiar to any kind of locust;' and house, 3 vols. 8vo, 1751; Theologie de'Ecriture
with no better success proposes to understand the S., ou la Science du Salut, comprise dans une ample
cucullated, or hooded, or veiled species of locust, collection de passages du V. et N. T., 2 vol. 8vo,
Tychsen suggests the G. coronatus.I 752. -
Fiirst (following Rashi) proposes to understand CHAUG     HUDAB. DAVID commonly called
the word in EccL.                   xii.               5, as referring to the -CHAJUG, JEHUDA B. DAVID, commonly called
the word in Eccl. xii. 5, as referring to the sola- Chiug, and in Arabia Abukaria, Jachja B. Daud
hum pomigerum spinosum, thence to the mertbrumin
num pomiger-um, spinosum, thence to the membrum  el-Fasi el-Kartubi, and Jachja, who is justly revirile, and the whole passage as describing the pass- gaed by aJwish citis  expositors as the
ing away of all desire for carnal pleasutes, and this pre by all ewih  ritiand expositors as 
view is adopted by Mead (Med. Sac. p. 44), Des- prince of Hebrew grammarians, p'1 l    K,
view is adopted bywas born in Fez about 1020-I040, A.D., and
voeux, Hitzig, and others. But why resort to hence is sometimes also called Jehuda Fasi i
such an explanation when the ordinary meaning of Sn   He was the first who recognised that the
the word gives as good a sense (not to say a better)? stem words of the Hebrew consist of tree conThe day' when the locust shall be loathed' is the
The day'when the locust shal be loathed' is te asonants, as up to his time some of the chief etymoday when even what in health is esteemed a deli- logists and expositors, e..,Suadia Gaon, Menacacy, will be refused (See Ginsburg's Ecclesiastes, lchem  Ibn-Sardk, maintained that there were
chem, Ibn-Saruk, maintained that there were
P. 463)'                                      biliteral and even monoliteral stems, and derived
CHAIN. Chains of gold appear to have been "I'l from'1, nM3 from W/, ToI (Lev. viii. 20) from
much used among the Hebrews-i. As badges a stem consisting of the single letter T.  He, too,
of official distinction, as they are among ourselves was the first who discovered the true relation of
at the present day. The earliest mention of them  the quiescent letters, forming the Mnemonic pink,
occurs in Gen. xli. 42, where we are told that a and their changes. It was he, too, who arranged
chain of gold formed a part of the investiture of the verbs according to their conjugations (D4n=),
Joseph in the high office to which he was raised indistributing them under two heads-. KAL 
Egypt; a later instance occurs in Dan. v. 29, from  t, not burdened with any formative additions;
which we learn that a golden chain was part of a and 2 CABED (, heavy, being burdened with
dress of honour at Babylon. In Egypt the judges formative additions; and fixed  six conjugawore chains of gold, to which was attached a
jewelled figure of Thmei, or Truth; and in that tions, viz.-I. Aal (lp); 2. Niphal (65.y); 3. Hipcountry similar chains were also worn as ornaments
by the women. It is not, however, necessary to hil (5 n); 4. Hithpael (5~nl); 5. Paul and
suppose that the Hebrews derived this custom  Hophat, designated J5ly itW DV p lq.'VdWK, where
from the Egyptians; for the fact that chains are the name of the actor is not mentioned; and 6. Piel
mentioned among the spoil of the Midianites shews
that they were in use among people whose condi- (Q), charadterised as'nl 1:1,  the other heavy




CHALCEDONY                   464                CHALDAEA
conjugation. This number and arrangement have  CHALDAEA, OR CHALDEA. The Hebrew
been adopted by all grammarians, and is exhibited word D'li   is rendered in the A. V. both
in all the regular paradigms of the verb given by  a 
Chaldea (jer. 1. io; Ezek. xi. 24) and Chaldeans
Gesenius, Ewald, and all modem linguists in their (b i. 1. xxi.; ze. xi. 2  a plural noun
heandscien- (Job i. I7; Is. xxlii. 13). It is a plural noun,
IHebrew grammars. These discoveries and scien-and signifies primarily'Chaldeans.' But as the
tific principles Chajug propounds in three books. country was called'  (Jer. xxv. 12), the
t. The first is called        n    on nl~   nls       ADD, also:D~country was called rity3 OR  (Jer. xxv. I2), the
I. The first is called'1,'I nl'Bl13I  "t, also'i... 
fItnWl  WnD-lr mniKm and treats on the quiescent same signification came to be given elliptically
letters, is divided into three sections; section a. to rDpjl   (Jer. li. 24; Ezek. xvi. 29). In the
comprises the verbs whosefirstradical is quiescent, Septuagint the rendering is almost as arbitrary as
viz., ( ) v s e Ae  (),  ad (  in the English. Thus it is XacXaa in Jer. 1. 0o;
viz., (6lN 5 4l~) verbs Pe Aleph (W," ), and (5 l' l'rreZs in Job i. 17; but usually XaXacio. The
I11), Pe Yodh (,"D), e.g. 3W, etc.; section b. com- word Casdim is only found in the Hebrew Scripprises those verbs whose, second radical is quies- tures. All the Greek authors have XaXcdtca and
cent ("I IpY n1  ) =Ayin JYav. (V"y), e. g.  Ip; and XaXcaro. The word in the ancient cuneiform insection c. those whose third radical is quiescent scriptions is Kaldai (Rawlinson's Herodotus, i. 665,
note).
("n'  a)_ Lamed He, e.g. d, etc. 2. The se-  The term Casdim, as the name of a country, is
cond book is called niln IDb, and treats on verbs not employed with uniformity of signification in the
whose second and third radicals are alike =Ayin  Bible. It generally means Babylonia (Jer. xxiv. 5;
doubled (W"), e.g. 33D, etc. 3. The third book li. 24); sometimes it is applied to a still wider disis called   and treats upon the vowl trict, including the whole of Mesopotamia and the
ps ncalle n'tf3~;1'O as         regions to which the Casdim tribes had spread
points, and accents. Originally written in Arabic, regions to which the an be little doubt, had spread
these marvellous grammatical discoveries were at tt origi 3)n  The  an be little doubtn however 
first inaccessible and unknown to the Germano-that originally the name was confined to a small
province colonized by the remarkable and enterFrench interpreters; but they exercised so extra- provinc  lonized by the remarkable and enter 
ordinary an influence upon the Spanish school of  general boundaries of this provincm The position and
intereters, tt th renowned Ibn Ezra and general boundaries of this province we have now
i   nterpreters,                   that the renowned Ibn Ezra and
Dinterpreters, that the dtwhne ino  Hesbry to osufficient data to define; to a consideration of these
render theill         a translated them into Hebrew, to data and a description of that province this article
orendere them morie gerally useful, and Chajug is confined. Chaldea is deserving of the attention
soon became the praise of all grammarians, lexico- of every student of biblical literature, because it
ather Simond commentators, lib.h coantly 31)uote thisof every student of biblical literature, because it
graphers, a    nd commentators, who constantl quote 
graphers, and commentators, who constinty quote was not only the native country of the great Hebrew
him in their works.  Chajug's productions have patriarch, but it was, in all probability, the original
been published by the learned and indefatigable source and centre of literature and science.
LpldDuks (Bibra ouru  Gebrchgor e B othec  Bod-cylindsource  and centre of literature and science.
Leopold Dukes (Beitrige zur Geschichte der Aeltes-.
ten Acuslegung und S        Grach-erkldrung des Alten  The first notice of Chaldaea is in Gen. xi. 28
7Testa2mentes, Von Heinrich Ewald und Leopold  where it is said that' Haran died in the land of his
Dukes, Stuttgart, I844), who also gives an elabo- nativity, in  r of Casdim.' Here the word Casdim
rate sketch of the author's life and linguistic dis- evidently means a definite territory, taking its name
coveries (pp. 155-i63), to which, as well as to from those who dwelt in it. From the tenth chapter
Ewald's remarks (pp. 123-125, Erstes Bindchen), of Genesis we learn that the beginning of Nimrod's
we must refer against the partial account given by kingdom was'Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and
Father Simon (Hist. Crit. lib. i. cap. 31) of this Calneh, in the land of Shinar.' This land is now
celebrated philologist. Chajug also wrote a He- generally acknowledged to be the great marshy
brew Lexicon, which is often quoted by the lexico-plain extending on both banks of the Euphrates
graphers Ibn Ganach and Parchon, but this work from Babylon southward to the Tigris. In this
hras o   oe g    h and own, Nbuot         thic        e o
has not come to light yet; comp. Munk, aotice region the remains of great cities have been diss    sr Abolwaid, p. 64, etc.; Steinschneider, iCata- covered and explored.  Many inscribed bricks,
logrs Librorm  Hebranorum in Bibliotheca Bod- cylinders, and fragments of pottery have been found;
leiana, cols. I301-I306.- C. D. G.           and from these, combined with the notices of ancient
historians and native traditions, Sir Henry RawlinCHALCEDONY (XaXK5og.Sv, Rev. xxi. I9), a son and other Assyrian scholars have been able to
precious stone, supposed by some to be the same identify the sites of the principal cities mentioned
that occurs in the Hebrew  Scriptures (Exod. in Genesis. The old cities of the great eastern
xxviii. I8) under the name of nophek (translated empire are now represented by huge mounds of'emerald'); but this is doubtful. Chalcedony is a rubbish, which rise like islands out of the vast
variety of amorphous quartz, and the distinction plains, and which contain, buried within and bebetween it and agate is not very satisfactorily esta- neath them, the most precious relics of ancient
blished. It is harder than flint (specific gravity monumental literature.  On the right bank of the
2'04), commonly semi-transparent, and is generally Euphrates, opposite the mouth of the western arm
of one uniform colour throughout, usually a light of the Tigris, are the mounds of Mugayer, which
brown, and often nearly white; but other shades mark the site of Ur (Rawlinson's Herodotus, i. 447).
of colour are not infrequent, such as grey, yellow, Ancient Chaldoea therefore lay, in part at least,
green, and blue. Chalcedony occurs in irregular along the right bank of the Euphrates. But the
masses, commonly forming grotesque cavities, in inscriptions discovered at Warka and other places
trap rocks and even granite. It is found in most shew that Ur, which appears to have been a terriparts of the world; and in the east is employed in tory as well as a city (comp. Gen. xi. 28), extended
the fabrication of cups and plates, and articles of across the Euphrates (Loftus, Chal. and Susian.
taste, which are wrought with great skill and p. i62). Hence Chaldaea must have included the
labour, and treasured among precious things.-  extreme southern portion of Mesopotamia. The
J. K.                                        same view is taken by ancient geographers, who




CHALDIEA                    465                CHALD2EA
supply still farther information, which the monu- known. There can be no doubt, however, that
ments of Assyria now enable us fully to understand. this is the Hebrew equivalent for the Kaldai of
Ptolemy (v. 20) places Chaldaea in the south-wes- Babylonian monuments, and the XaXIazot of the
tern part of Babylonia, bordering on the Arabian  Greek historians. In Rawlinson's Herodotus (i.
desert.  Pliny notices the Chaldseans in several 655) we find the following remarks, containing the
places, distinguishing between Chaldea proper and  most recent and authentic notice of the old inhabithe Babylonian empire, which was afterwards called  tants of Chaldea:-' The monuments of Babylonia
Chaldaea. He calls Babylon'the capital of the furnish abundant evidence of the fact that a Hamitic
nations of Chaldaea' (Hist. Nat., vi. 30), and then  race held possession of that country in the earliest
he designates the marsh at the junction of the times, and continued to be a powerful element in
Euphrates and Tigris Lacus Chaldaici (vi. 31). He  the population down to a period very little precedcalls Orchenus (the Erech of Genesis and modern ing the accession of Nebuchadnezzar. - The most
WVarka) a chief seat of Chaldaean learning, and he ancient historical records found in the country, and
says that'below the confluence of the Euphrates many of the religious and scientific documents, are
and Tigris you have the Chaldmeans dwelling on the written in a language which belongs to the Alloleft side of the river' (vi. 32). Strabo's testimony is phylian family, presenting affinities with the dialects
to the same effect. He refers to a tribe of Chal- of Africa on the one hand, and with those of high
dseans who lived beside the Arabians on the shores Asia on the other. The people by whom this lanof the Persian Gulf, inhabiting a section of Baby- guage was spoken, whose principal tribe was the
lonia (~o-r Kal fpOXbv Tr rvX XaXoaiwv Kal xcbpa rs Akkad (Accad, Gen, x.. Io), may be regarded as
Bap3v\wvlas br' CKELvW  OIKOUvi^v', K. r. X. xvi.) represented by the Chaldaans of the Greeks, the
Combining these notices, we are enabled to locate Casdim of the Hebrew writers. This race seems
Chaldaea proper around and below the junction of to have gradually developed the type of language
the Euphrates and Tigris, and to distinguish it, known as Semitism, which became in course of
besides, from Babylonia. It was bounded on the time the general language of the country; still,
west by tlfe Arabian desert, on the south by the however, as a priest-caste, a portion of the Akkad
Persian Gulf, on the east by Susiana and the Tigris, preserved their ancient tongue, and formed the
and on the north by Babylonia. Probably a line learned and scientific Chaldaeans of later times.'
drawn across Mesopotamia, through the ruins of Their language was the language of science in those
Niffer, might mark its northern boundary. The countries; and the Chaldaeans devoted themselves
whole region is flat and marshy. It was formerly to the study of the sciences,, and especially astrointersected by numerous canals, into which the nomy. The scientific tablets discovered at Nineveh
waters of the Euphrates were turned, for the pur- are all in this dialect. These facts throw new and
poses of irrigation, by dams and embankments. clear light on the many allusions to the Chaldsean
The canals are now neglected, the channel of the wise men in the Bible (Dan. i. 4; ii. 2; iv. 7; Ezek.
river is choked up with mud, and the waters spread  xxiii. 14). The influence and power of the Chalfar and wide over the low plain. Great numbers daeans rapidly increased, so that in the early part
of bare, scorched mounds rise up at intervals, like of the 9th century B.c., they became the dominant
little islands, marking the sites of the old cities of race in Babylonia, and gave that kingdom their name
Chaldaea. Among these the mounds of Niffer, (2 Chron. xxxvi. 17; Dan. ix. I) [BABYLONIA;
Warka, and Mugayer are the largest.    Recent CHALDWEANS]. During the 8th century B.c., a
excavations have shewn that the Chaldaeans were number of them emigrated from their native plains,
as skilful in architecture as they were in arms and  and settled in the mountains of Armenia. This is
literature. The engraved gems and cylinders also possibly the true explanation of the occurrence of
bear witness to their proficiency in the fine arts. Chaldseans in that region, as noted by many ancient
The country was not only intersected by navigable writers (Xen. Anab. iv. 3, 4; Strab. xii.; Steph.
canals, but by good roads, which connected the Byz., s. v. XaX6la); and this, too, shews why Geseleading towns, and extended to neighbouring coun- nius and other recent authors were led to believe
tries. All is now changed. The once fertile plain that the Chaldaeans of Babylonia were a colony
has become a wilderness. It is not difficult to from the northern mountains, settled in that counaccount for the rapid decay. The canals which  try by one of the later Assyrian monarchs (Rawlinsupplied water for irrigation were the sources of son's Herodotus, i. 656; Winer, R. W. B. s. v. Challife and fertility to the country. When these were daer; Ditmar, Vaterland d. Chaldder; Bochart,
neglected, they were soon choked up, the waters  Geogr.})-J. L. P.*
ceased to flow, a burning sun parched the soil, and
corn fields, gardens, and groves of palms soon dis- * As this sheet is passing through the press, a
appeared. Now the waters which once gave rich- valuable paper from the pen of Sir H. Rawlinson
ness and beauty to the country, converts a large has made its appearance in the Athenaeum, from
section of it into pestilential marshes, and dense which it appears desirable to give the following exjungles and cane-brakes, where the lion, the pan- tract relating to the subject of this article:ther, and the wild boar find a fitting abode. A few'.If time and space permitted, I should desire,
Arab tribes still reside here, but they are wild and before concluding my letter, to say a few words on
lawless, and scarcely more intelligent or human  the proper meaning and etymology of the Hebrew
than the buffaloes which they tend. Most inte- VIl:, which is universally rendered in the Bible
resting and instructive descriptions of ancient Chal- by Chaldaea and the Chaldees. I am not prepared
daea, with historical notices, will be found in Loftus' to go the length of Mons. Oppert, who maintains
Chaldcea and Susiana, Layard's Nineveh and Baby- that Kasdim is Turanian for'Mesopotamia' (from
Ion, and the papers communicated by Sir Henry kas'two,' and'dim' water); but there is no
Rawlinson to the Royal Geographical and Asiatic concealing the fact, that there is something eminSocieties.                                     ently unsatisfactory in the forced assimilation of
The true etymology of the name Casdim is un- Kasdim with Chaldaea. In the first place, the subVOL. I.                                                                         2 H




CHALDzEAN PHILOSOPHY                466              CHALDAEANS
CHALD.EAN        PHILOSOPHY.      [PHILO- it, infusing at the same time young blood and
SOPHY.]                                      fresh vigour into all the veins and members of the
social frame. What length of time the changes
CHALDEANS ('nJ3s). The originand con- herein implied may have taken cannot now be
dition of the people to whom this name is assigned ascertained. Winer (Realwiirterbuch, s. v. Chalin Scripture have been subjects of dispute among dder) conjectures that the Chaldaeans were at first
the learned.  Probably, however, they were the subjects of the Assyrian monarchy, which, from
same people that are described in Greek writers as 2 Kings xvii. 24, etc., also 2 Chron. xxxiii. II, aphaving originally been an uncultivated tribe of pears to have been established in Babylon; and
mountaineers, placed on the Carduchian moun- that, while subjects of that empire, they became
tains, in the neighbourhood of Armenia, whom  civilized, gained for themselves the government,
Xenophon describes as brave and fond of freedom  and founded the Chaldee-Babylonian kingdom or
(Cyrop. i. 31; Anab. iv. 3, 4, 7, 8, 25).  In dynasty.
Hab. i. 6-io the Chaldaeans are spoken of in   Authentic history affords no information as to
corresponding terms:'Lo, I raise up the Chal- the time when the Chaldaean immigration took
daeans, that bitter and hasty nation, which shall place.  It is possible that, at a very early period,
march through the breadth of the land to possess a tribe of Chaldees wandered into Babylon and
the dwelling-places that are not theirs; they are gave to the land the seven Chaldee kings menterrible and dreadful; their horses are swifter than tioned by Berosus; but it is possible also that
leopards and more fierce than evening wolves; the Chaldaeans entered in a mass into the Babytheir horsemen shall spread themselves; they shall lonian territory for the first time not long before
fly as the eagle that hasteth to eat.' They are the era of Nabonassar (B.c. 747), which Michaelis
also mentioned in Job i. 17:  Chaldaeans fell and others have thought the words of Isaiah renupon the camels (of Job) and carried them away.' der probable, ch. xxiii. 13-' Behold the land of
These passages shew not only their warlike and the Chaldaeans, this people was not, till the
predatory habits, but, especially that in Job, the Assyrian founded it for them that dwvll in the
early period in history at which they were known. wilderness.'  The circumstance, moreover, that
As in all periods of history hardy and brave a Shemitic dialect is found to have prevailed in
tribes of mountaineers have come down into the Babylon, corroborates the idea that the Chaldaeans
plains and conquered their comparatively civilized were immigrants, since the northern Chaldaeans
and effeminate inhabitants, so these Armenian must, from their position, have spoken a different
Chaldaeans appear to have descended on Babylon, form of speech.
made themselves masters of the city and the go-  The kingdom of the Chaldees is found among
vernment, and eventually founded a dominion, to the four'thrones' spoken of by Daniel (vii. 3,
which they gave their name, as well as to the in- so.), and is set forth under the symbol of a lion
habitants of the city and the country tributary to having eagles' wings.  The government was despotic, and the will of the monarch, who bore the
title of'King of Kings' (Dan. ii. 37), was
stitution of the Hebrew sibilant for the Assyrian supreme law, as may be seen in Dan. iii. 12; vi.
liquid is without precedent, although the reverse 24. The kings lived inaccessible to their subjects
change is sufficiently common.  In the second in a well-guarded palace, denominated, as with
place, the Hebrew term is sometimes used as a the ancient Persians (Xenoph. Cyrop. I),'the gate
feminine singular as well as a masculine plural. of the king' (Dan. ii. 49, compared with Esther
Again, the term Kaldai does not seem, from the ii. 19, 21, and iii. 2). The number of court and
inscriptions, to have been known in the olden time, state servants was not small; in Dan. vi. I, Darius
the name never once occurring among the many is said to have set over the whole kingdom no
ethnic titles of the early kings of Babylonia. The fewer than' an hundred and twenty princes.' The
Kaldai, indeed, of the inscriptions are first met chief officers appear to have been a sort of'mayor
with as a tribe on the Lower Euphrates in the of the palace,' or prime minister to which high
annals of the son of Sardanapalus, about B.c. 850; office Daniel was appointed (Dan. ii 49),'a
and there is no trace on the monuments of their master of the eunuchs' (Dan. i. 3),'a captain of
ever having occupied, either geographically or the king's guard' (Dan. ii. 14), and'a master of
politically, the position which is assigned to the the magicians,' or president of the Magi (Dan. iv.
Kasdimz in the historical and prophetical books of 9). Distinct probably from the foregoing was the
Scripture.  On the other hand, there is the con- class termed (Dan. iii. 24, 27)'the king's counselsentient voice of all antiquity, and the authority of lors,' who seem to have formed a kind of'privy
present usage, for the identity of the Kasdirm with  council,' or even'cabinet,' for advising the monarch
the Kaldai or Chaldaeans; and I am entirely with- and governing the kingdom. The entire empire
out the means of explaining how, if the names were was divided into several provinces (Dan. ii. 48;
originally distinct, and applied to different people, iii. I), presided over by officers of various ranks.
such a complete amalgamation should have taken An enumeration of several kinds may be found in
place.                                       Dan. iii. 2, 3.  The head officers, who united in'I can only regard this question of the Kasdim  themselves the highest civil and military power,
as one of those puzzles which, together with the were denominated  IBltinws,'presidents' (Dan.
etymology and application of Shinar, Nimrud, and vi. 2); those who presided over single provinces or
some other early biblical names, have not yet districts bore the title of JnlnI (Hagg. i. I; ii. 2),
yielded to research; but which must, it would in the Chaldee dialect NJnlnb,'governors.' The
seem, in due time be solved, as our acquaintance administration of criminal justice was rigorous and
with the darker points of Babylonian archaeology cruel, will being substituted for law, and human
becomes, through the bilingual tablets, more ex- life and human suffering being totally disregarded.
tended and certain.'                         Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. ii. 5) declares to the college




CHALDEE LANGUAGE                  467                CHAMOR
of the Magi-' If ye will not make known unto be directed backwards or forwards. Chameleons
me the dream with the interpretation thereof, ye are slow, inoffensive, and capable of considerable
shall be cut in pieces, and your houses shall be abstinence from food; which consists solely of flies,
made a dunghill' (see also Dan. iii. 19; vi. 8; caught by the rapid protrusion of a long and visJer. xxix. 22). The religion of the Chaldees was, cous tongue. Among themselves they are irascias with the ancient Arabians and Syrians, the ble, and are then liable to change their colours
worship of the heavenly bodies; the planets Jupi- rapidly: dark yellow or grey is predominant when
ter, Mercury, and Venus were honoured as Bel, they are in a quiescent state, but, while the emoNebo, and Meni, besides Saturn and Mars (Gesen- tions are in activity, it passes into green, purple,
ius On Isaiah).  Astrology was naturally connected with this worship of the stars, and the
astronomical observations which have made the         - 
Chaldaean name famous were thereby guided and- ^^4.' I
advanced.  The language spoken in Babylon was..
what is designated Chaldee, which is Shemitic in
its origin, belonging to the Aramaic branch. The..:
immigrating Chaldaeans spoke probably a quite       "','J':
different tongue, which the geographical position'4              i -
of their native country shews to have belonged to
the Medo-Persian stock.'
The term Chaldaeans represents also a branch   -.; 
of the order of Babylonian Magi (Hesych. XaX8aio y'vos Mc'yov). In Dan. ii. 2 they appear75 Chameleon Africanus.
among'the magicians, and the astrologers, and
the sorcerers,' who were'called for to shew the and even ashy black. The species found in Palesking his dream.' In the Ioth verse of the same tine and all Northern Africa, is the common Chamechapter they are represented as speaking in the leon Afncanus, and is that referred to in Lev. xi.
name of the rest; or otherwise theirs was a gene- 30, where unclean animals are mentioned. -
ral designation which comprised the entire class C. H. S.
(Dan. iv. 7; v. 7); a general description of these  CHAMOIS. [ZEMER.]
different orders is found in Dan. v. 8, as'the
king's wise men.'  In the Greek and Roman      CHAMOR (1itnl or'bin). The domesticated
writers the term  Chaldeans describes the whole
order of the learned men of Babylon (Strabo. xv. ass used for carrying burdens (Gen. xlii. 26; xlix.
order of the learned men of Babylon (Strabo. xv.
p. 508; Diod. Sic. ii. 29; Cic. De Div. i. I. 2) I4), for riding (Gen. xxii. 3; Josh. xv. I8, etc.),
In later periods the name Chaldaeans seems, wi  and for the plough (Deut. xxii. I; Is. xxx. 24).
wh frnIt was the animal used for riding in times of peace,
out reference to place of birth, to have been
applied in the western parts of the world to per  as opposed to the horse, which was for war, and
to ride on it indicated  that the  party  came on a
sons who lived by imposing on the credulity of t  e       ndicd tt he pay came on 
peaceful er rand (Zech. ix. 9). The  common work'.
others, going from place to place professing to in- p   rr...                r
terpret dreams and disclose the future. In this ing ass of Western Asia is described as' an animal
sense  e  o  s o ously  d sehs    of small stature, frequently represented on Egypsense the word is obviously used by Josephus (De tian monuments with paniers on the back, usually
Bell.  u   ad. r ii. 7. 3), when'diviners and some of a reddish colour, and the same as the Turkish
Chaldaeans' are said to have been called in by  ymar.' The ass was held inesteem   among the
Archelaus to expound what was' portended' by a
dream he had; and by Ephraem Syrus in his controversial works, where a Chaldean is an astrologer
and fortune-teller. Winer's Realwirterbuch; Real- 
Encyclolpdie der Class. Alterthum, W. von Pauly;
Ideler, Handbuch  der Chron.   [BABYLON.]J. R. B.
CHALDEE LANGUAGE. [ARAMAIc LANGUAGE. ]
CHALDEE VERSION.        [TARGUM.]'
CHAMELEON       appears to be a satisfactory
translation of n/D~nFI, tinshemeth, which denotes a
small species of lizard, celebrated for the faculty it
has of changing the colour of its skin. This property, however, has no reference to the substance
it may be placed on, as generally asserted, but is
solely derived from the bulk of its respiratory
organs acting upon a transparent skin, and on the. 
blood of the animal. The chameleons form a             176. DomesticAssofWesternAsia.
small genus of Saurians, easily distinguished by the
shagreened character of the skin, and the five toes Jews on account of its serviceable qualities. To
on the feet, divided differently from those of most be' buried with the burial of an ass' (Jer. xxii. 19)
other animals, there being, if the expression may is not an expression of contempt, but rather a
be allowed, two thumbs opposed to three fingers. threatening of punishment; instead of being buried
Their eyes are telescopic, move separately, and can with his fathers, the party so. threatened should be




CHANAAN                     468               CHANNAEL
cast out to be food for birds and beasts of prey. of the Resurrection of esus Christ re-examined, and
Though' the ass was among the animals forbidden  their testimony proved entirely consistent, 1744; 8vo;
by the law of Moses to be used for food, it would A  Critical History of the Life of David, 1766, 2
appear that in cases of great extremity this prohi- vols. 8vo-this is one of the most valuable of Dr.
bition was relaxed (2 Kings vi. 25); among some Chandler's works, it discusses with much acuteness
other'nations it seems to have been an article of the facts of the history of David, and contains a
food even when there was no dearth (comp. Apu- detailed exegesis of those psalms which refer to
leius, Metam. vii., p. 158, ed. Bipont.; Galen him; it was re-printed at Oxford in 1853 in one
Facult. Aliment i. 2, p. 486, ed. Kiihn; Plin., H. vol. A Paraphrase and Notes on Galatians, EpheN. viii. 68). The charge of worshipping the ass sians, and Thessalonians, 1777, 4to. This was a
brought by the heathen against the Jews (Joseph., posthumous work, edited by Nath. White. The
cont. Apion. ii. 7; Plutarch, Sympos. iv. 5; Tacit., remaining works of Dr. Chandler are-ReflexHist. v. 4) must be set down to mere calumny.-  ions on the Conduct of Modern Deists, 1727, 8vo;
W. L. A.                                      Plain Reasons for being a Christian, 1730, 8vo;
A Translation of the History of the Inquisition, by
CHANAAN. Canaan is thus spelt inthe Apo- Phili     Limborch, with an Introduction concerncryphal books and the N. T.                   ing the Rise and Progress of Persecution, 1731,
CHANAMEL (VnJ).         This rLrat X\y6,uevov 2vols. 4to; A History ofPersecution, in four parts,
T*'-:                      (i.) Among the Heathen; (ii.) Under the Christian
occurs Ps. lxxviii. 47, and there the Targum ex- Emperors; (iii.) Under the Papacy and Inquisiplains it as meaning hoar-frost (t'?ID), and with tion; (iv.) Among Protestants, 1736, 8vo; A
this the Sept. (r irdXviv), Vulg. (pruina), Syriac, Short and Plain Catechism, being an explanation
and'Arabic agree. This opinion is adopted also of the Creed, Ten Commandments, and Lord's
by Kimchi, Bochart, etc. Others, among whom is Prayer, 1742, 12mo; A Review of (the work enIbn Esra, prefer hailstones as the reading of tn.titled) the History of the Man after God's own Heart,
Some of the Jewish interpreters, cited by Ibn Esra,  762, 8vo. Four volumes of sermons were pubmaintain that the word denotes a species of locust  lished in 1768, under the editorship of Dr. Amory.
and this Lee (Lex. in voc.) attempts to defend by For a complete list ofseparate Sermons and Pamphilological arguments from the Arabic. These, phlets, see Protestant  issenter's Mag., vol i.
however, are very inconclusive, and this interpreta-  794  260-264.-S. N.
tion has all the appearance of being, adopted for  CHANNAEL, R., the son of the celebrated
the sake of bringing the passage into harmony  R. Chusiel, the president of the Jewish community
with Exod. x. 5, 15. The A. V. has followed theat Kairan (afterwards Mahadia), flourished about
ancient versions, by rendering  frost,' and this 950-980 A.D. He wrote glosses on the Talmud,
seems the best course. There is no ground what-  the jurisprudence of the Bible andTalmud
ever for Michaelis's opinion that the word meansand composed liturgies. He also wrote a comants; indeed it is absurd to suppose the ant couldmentary on the Pentateuch, which, owing to its
be introduced as a destroyer of sycamores.-antiquity, is of peculiar interest to the biblical stu~W.~ L"~.~ A-~. dent, inasmuch as it shews the ancient mode of
CHANDLER, SAMUEL, D.D. (1693-1766), a interpretation. A few specimens will shew how
learned nonconformist divine, born at Hungerford, expositors tried to grapple with difficult passages.
and educated for the ministry at Gloucester and  Upon Gen. xxxi. I,'and Rachel had stolen the
Tewkesbury by the Rev. Samuel Jones. Butler, the images tht were her fathers, he remarks, she
author of the Analogy, and SecJer, afterwards stole them to convince her father, that a god which
Archbishop of Canterbury, were amongst his fel- cannot protect himself from being stolen is of no
low students;  In 1716 he was chosen to be pastor  e, just as it is said,  f he (Baal) be a god, let
of the Presbyterian congregation, Peckham. In  him plead for himself because one hath cast down
I726 he became minister of another congregation  his altar (Jud  vi. 31); and again,  wilt thou
of the same denomination in Old Jewry, London, yet say before  m   that slayeth thee I am God?
and continued to sustain this office until his death  but thou shalt be a man and no God in the hand
His first biblical work was an edition with notes of him that slayeth thee' (Ezek. xxviii. 9).' Bishop
of the recently discovered annotations of Cassio- Patrick gives the same explanation of this passage.
dorus, Cassiodori Senatoris Complexiones in Epis- Upon Exod. iv. IO,'I am slow of speech and of
tolas, Acta Apostolorum, et Apocalypsin, e vetustis-a sow tongue, he remarks the statement of the
simis Canonicorum Veronensium Membranis nuper two things, viz. flWS'13'l n' 12f, shews that our
erutae. Editio altera ad Florentinam fideliter ex- teacher Moses could neither pronounce distinctly
pressa, opera et cura Samuelis Chandleri 1722,. the dentals D"tY?, this being indicated by the
I2mo. His other biblical works are-A Vindica- first assertion i 1, nor the Linguals  "r;
tion of the Christian Religion, in two parts, I725,, 
8vo, 2d ed. I728,-the first part is on the nature and hence the second assertion pw  "1:.' So also
and use of miracles, the second part is a reply to Ibn Esra, who has evidently taken it from ChanCollins; A  Vindication of the Antiquity and nael. Upon Exod. iii. 22,'but every woman shall,'
Authority of Daniel's Prophecies, and their applica- etc., he remarks' profane be the thought that God,
tion to 7esus Christ, 1728, 8vo; A Paraphrase and blessed be his name, authorised his people to deCritical Commentary on the Prophecy of 7oel, 1735, ceive the Egyptians to borrow from them vessels
4to; A Vindication of the History of the Old Testa- of gold and vessels of silver, and not return them.
ment, I740,*8vo *A Defence of the Prime Ministry       L
ment, 1740,Svo; A Defence of the Prime Ministry  The word 5Rg  means to ask, to request a present;
and Character ofyoseph, I742, 8vo. The last two
and Character of J7ose~ph, 1742, 8vo. The last two thus it is used in Judg. viii. 24,'and Gideon said unto
works were in answer to Thomas Morgan, M.D.,
author of The Moral Philosopher.  The Witnesses them, I would desire a request of you (SWS




CHANUCA                    469              CHAPPELOW,I5"K   b~n), that you would give me,' etc. The rather resembled a pair of crowns or caps, so
learned Rapaport has collected the surviving frag- joined as to form an oval figure of five cubits high,
ments of this commentary, and published them with bulging out all around beyond the breadth of the
explanatory notes, and a biography of the author, column which it surmounted, not unlike, as we
under the title ulnn  $      n lt tn 4lV fWlp,  may suppose, the truncated lotus-bud capitals of
in the Hebrew Annual called Bicure Ha. itim, vol.the gand pillars of the  emnonm, Thebes (See
xii. Vienna, 1831.-C. D. G.                  Friths Egypt and Palestine Photographed, vol. i.
pi. 35). Dr. Lightfoot, who adopts Gershom's
CHANUCA. [DEDICATION, FEAST OF.]          view (Descri2tio Templi, xiii 2, 3), goes on to reCHAOS. [CREATION.]                        concile the discrepancy between I Kings vii. I6,
which gives the height of the chapiters as five
CHAPHAR-PEROTH (fnin'Afl). This word, cubits each, and 2 Kings xxv. 17, which states it
the pi. of nan, occurs Is. ii. 20, as the designa- to be only three cubits. These three cubits contion of some object to which those who have beentaied (says Ligtfoot, after-the Jewish commentarecovered from idolatry shall cast their idols. Intors) the sculpture or'wreathen-work' which is
the A. V. it is translated moles, a rendering which mentioned in the same verse; whereas the other
follows that of the Vulg. (talpa), and is adopted bypassage included two belts or necks of plain space
many interpreters, among whom are Ibn Esra  of two more cubits below the ornamental portion.
Bochart, Ewald, and Umbreit. Others think it The chapiters were festooned with'nets of checkermeans an animal of the nouse or rat species, com-wrk an wreaths of chain work' with sculptured
pomegranates,' forming an ornate group similar
paring the Ar. j,  laj, from   j, to dig, to bur- tohat which still adorns the columns of the
row (Gesen., Maurer, Knobel). Either of these beautiful temple ruins of Wady Kardassy in Nubia
row (Gesen., Maurer, Knobel).  Either of these  (Frith, vol. ii. pl. 4). I Kings vii. I9 is very
will suit the etymology of the word, which is de- obscure. What is the meaning of the'lily-work in
rived from the pealal form of WIn, to dzg = the~ the porch?' Lightfoot (ut antea) translates the verse
much digger. It has been objected to the opinion thus:'The chapiters upon the top of the pillars
that it denotes the mole, that this animal is not
that it denotes the mole, that this animal is not possessed lily-work of four cubits over the porch,'
found in houses. But the passage does not oblige  sppose that the lily-work surrounded the
us to understand it of an animal found only in column  nd  and not around the chapiter; the
houses; on the contrary,'the consideration that lily-leaf not enveloping the chapiter, which had its
persons fleeing for safety not only throw away what ents alea  t c      latery o     th
they may have accounted valuable before abandon- ornaments already, but curving laterally over the
space of the porch, and occupying four cubits of
ing their houses, but also in their flight through the the column below the chapiter.  2. The second
open country, renders it more likely, that precisely Hebrew word translated chapiter' in A. V. is
moles are meant' (Henderson, in loc.) The same     which occurs only in 2 Chron. ii. 15. (The
writer adds:' Since the verb'1Dn signifies to dig,  -., 
its geminated derivative must denote some animal Sept. and the Vulgate combine fYL and ]iK in
particularly noted for perforation, than [among]                           v
which none rivals the mole.' The opinion of this passage, and render the united words by ras
Kimchi, which is followed by Hitzig, that the word KfXd  and capita). It is derived from iE), to
signifies sparrows, has nothing but a dubious ety-contract, draw together; Pie, to overlay (with
4~~~- -a.            metal), as in I Kings vi. 2I, and many other
mology (from Ar..) to support it, and is out of places; from  this notion comes (according to
V, _.j) to's- u t it...       Meier, Hebr. Wuirzwbortbuch., i6o) the sense of
keeping with the whole representation of the pas- arrangement and ornamental decoration; very
sage. —W. L. A.                              arrangement and ornamental decoration; very
~sage.~-W..L.~ ~A.~             suitable, therefore, is the derivative 1Jt to express
CHAPITER, not the same word, though syno- the decorated part of a pillar. 3. The other Henymous, with the architectural term capital, the brew noun for'chapiter' is fWa,'the head' or
head or uppermost part of a column or pilaster,'top,' as it is so often rendered. (See e. g., Numb.
In the 0. T. there occur three different Hebrew  xxiii. 14). This word, which the Sept. renders
words to express the English noun'chapiter.' I. ce.aXtZes, and the Vulg. capita, occurs in Exodus
The first and most frequent is nrnb, which occurs xxxvi. 38; xxviii, 19, 28, in the description:'",.. -   *',. of the Tabernacle, and very suitably there, inas(I Kings vii., 2. Kings xxv., 2 Chron iv., and much as it does not (like the other nouns) imply
Jer. lii.) no less than twenty-three times (sing. and ment, but simply the highest part or apex
plur.), but always in connection with the building
plur.), but always in connecion with the building of a shaft; in this sense, it is directly contrasted
or the destruction of Solomon's temple. The word with  in   Kings vii. 6.'He made two
is derived from f'n, to'inclose round' (udges xx. cith,, i of molen brass to set upon the
23), Piel; and'compass about' (Ps. cxlii. 8), top s, l, of th e pilars. A  vast amount of
Hiphil; and signifies'crown' (i.q.'n), then tops,     of the pillars. A vast amount of.... v'   learned information, from ancient and modern'the ornament which surrounds the top of a pilas- sources, is accumulated on the subject of this art.
ter.' [Sept. LSri-Liara, plur.; Vulg. capitella.] in Meinhard Plesken's Dissertatio Philologica de
The prevalent idea of the Hebrew term is the  Columnis..Eneis, sec. viii.-P. H.
roundness of the forms which characterised the
capitals of the Egyptian and Assyrian columns  CHAPPELOW, LEONARD, was born in 1683,
(Fiirst, Hebr. Wdrt. 643). The n1nn consisted of and died in I768. He was educated at St. John's
two portions, the crown or ledge (in which sense it College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow
is applied to the laver, I Kings vii. 31), and the in I717.  In 1720 he succeeded Ockley as
pommel' or turban-shaped bowl beneath (     Arabic professor, and soon after he was presented.oto the livings of Great and Little Hormead, in
According to R. Levi Ben Gershom, this chapiter Hertfordshire.  In 1727 he published Spencer's




CHARGOL                    470                CHARGOL
famous work, De legibus Hebreorum  ritualibus, several words in this passage,  lan, gn, h e 1i,
with additions and corrections left by the author,,  denote 
2 vols. fol. Other works of his are Elementa           denot      e four successive statesof
Ling. Arab., I730; A Commentary on the Book locusts, produced by casting off their several skins
of j/b, with the Hebrew text and a translation, or coverings.
etc., 2 vols. 40, I752; an edition of the Arabic  Theirfist state, he thinks, is before they have
^oet.,  4ie~~t0, 752 ~cast off their first cuticle; but that, since in this
poem, entitled Tograi, with Pococke's Latin trans-cast off their first cuticle; but that, since in this
lation and notes, and an English translation, with state they are so small as not to be readily used for
additional notes, by the editor; Six Assemblies or food, Moses enumerates only theirfour remaining
Ingenious Conversations of learned men among bthe states (Supplement. ad Lexicon Hebraic., pt. iii. pp.
4rabians, etc., formerly published by Schultens in  667-669, and 910-912). To this view, however,
Arabic and Latin, with large notes and observa- t isjustly objected by Kosenmiiller (apud Bochart),
tions, etc., 8vo, 1767. Chappelow was a good that the phrase'after its kind or species,' added to
Oriental scholar, and his notes on these Arabic eac of these terms, is not consistent with the vaiworks are valuable. In his Commentary on Job, ous states merely through which the locust passes.
he follows in the wake of Schultens, to whose Tychsen maintains that the words refer to four
school he belonged, and whose tenden t        differdency tot species of locusts, and endeavours to shew
undue importance to the Arabic as an auxiliary tothat nln  is thegryl s gregarius, Forskalii; that
Hebrew philology, he all but surpassed.  He   OYD is thegryllus eversorde assoapudRceselium
cannot be said to have added much to our means
of interpreting the book of Job, but his example An, the gryllus gurges de asso, et gryllus verruciand his publications did much to advance Oriental vorus, Linn.; and that the 31n is the gryllus
literature in England.-W. L. A.               coronatus, Linn. (Tychsen, Comment. de Locustis
Biblicis, subjoined to Don Ignacio de Asso y del
CHARGOL. (5in; Sept.'OiotudX^s; Vulg. Rio's, Abhandlungvon den Heuschreckenundihren,
Ophiomachus; A.V. Beetle; found only in Lev. etc., Rostock, 787-88).
xi. 22). This word cannot mean the beetle. No   In attempting to ascertain the particular species
species of scarabaus was ever used as food by of locust intended by the word'chargol,' great
the Jews, or perhaps any other nation. Nor does deference is due to the term adopted by the Sepany known species answer to the generic descrip-tlagit and repeated by Jerome, which is evidently
tion given in the preceding verse:'This ye mayderived from  5ir and  7, and indicates a creaeat of every winged creeper which goeth upon four ture that fights with serpents.  Inapplicable as
(feet); that which hath joints at the upper part of such a description may seem to be to the habits of
its hind legs, to leap with them upon the earth' any known species of locust, it may, nevertheless,
(comp. Niebuhr, Descrip. de PArabie, Copenhague, 1773, p. 33). Hence it is plain that the
chargol is some winged creeper, which has at least
four feet, which leaps with its two hind jointed legs,
and which we might expect, from the permission,'
to find actually used as food. This description
agrees exactly with the locust-tribe of insects, which
are well-known to have been eaten by the common
people in the East from the earliest times to the present day. This conclusion is also favoured by the
derivation of the word, which comes from'ln, to
shake, and i:, the foot, like the English grass-             77. Truxalis nasutus.
hopper, and   French sauterelle.  The Arabic
Jl.-.. is derived from a word signifying a troop help to identify the species of which we are in
J-..      search. Now the ancients have certainly referred
or swarm, and is explained by Golius as a species of to the notion of locusts fighting with serpents
locusts without wings. It seems, indeed, to be so (Aristot. Hist. Anim. ix. 9; Plin. Hist. Nat. xi.
generally agreed among the learned that chargol 35). Although this notion is justly discarded by
denotes the locust, that the matter of dispute is Cuvier (Grandsagne's edition of Pliny, Parisiis,
rather what particular species of locust is intended, I828, p. 451, note), yet it may serve to account for
or whether the word describes any one of those the application of the term d0tot/dXns to a species
several states through which the locust passes, in of locust. For this word instantly suggests a refereach of which it greatly resembles the perfect ence to the ichneumon, the celebrated destroyer of
insect, the only difference being, that in the larva serpents and other vermin; and it is remarkable
state it is entirely destitute of wings and wing-cases, that Hesychius, in the second century, applies the
and that in the pupa state it possesses only the word 6qliosdXos both to the ichneumon, and a
rudiments of those members gathered up so as to species of locust having no wings. If, then, any
form four little buttons on the shoulders. Swam- species of locust can be adduced whose habits remerdam observes that the want of attention to semble those of the ichneumon, may not this resemthese particulars, in former writers, had led to a blance account for the name, quasi the ichneumon
very unnecessary multiplication of names, Aldro- (locust); just as the whole genus of insects called
vand, Johnson, Mouffet, and others, having de- Ichneumonidae were so denominated because of the
scribed the locust in these several states under supposed analogy between their services and those
the names bruchi, atelabi, aselli, etc., suppos- of the Egyptian ichneumon? and might not this
ing them to be so many distinct species.  Mi- name, given to that species of locust at a very early
chaelis, on the other hand, contends that the period, have afterwards originated the erroneous




CHARIOT RACES                  471                CHARIOTS
notion referred to by Aristotle and Pliny? Now, not appear to have been different from their warthere is one kind of locusts, the genus truxalis chariots, the splendid military appointments of
(fierce or cruel), inhabiting Africa and China, and which rendered them  fit for purposes of royal
comprehending many species, which hunts and pomp. This view of the matter is confirmed by
preys upon insects. It is also called the truxalis our finding that, although the same word (iD'lt,
nasutus, or long-nosed.  May not, then, this mercabah) is again used for chariots of state in Gen.
winged, leaping, insectivorous locust, and its vari- xlvi. 29; I Sam. viii. II; 2 Sam. xv. I, it unous species, be'the chargol, after its kind,' and  doubtedly denotes a war-chariot in Exod. xv. 4;
the d60to/wdX, of the Septuagint? or might the Joel ii. 5. In Is. ii. 7, the same word appears to
name have arisen from the similarity of shape and comprehend chariots of every kind which were
colour, which is striking, between the truxalis found in cities. This may be accounted for by the
nasutus and the ichneumon; just as the locust fact that chariots anciently in the East were usal
generally is, at this time, called cavalette by the almost entirely f9r purposes of state or of war,
Italians, on account of its resemblance in shape to being very rarely employed by private persons.
the horse  We know that the ancients indulged We also observe that where private carriages were
in tracing the many resemblances of the several known, as in Egypt, they were of the same shape
parts of locusts to those of other animals (Bochart, as those used in war, and only differed from them
Hieroz. pt. ii lib. iv. c. 5, p. 475). It may be ob- by having less complete military accoutrements,
served, that it is no objection to the former and although even in these the case for arrows is not
more probable supposition, that a creature which wanting. One of the most interesting of the Egyplives upon other insects should be allowed as food tian paintings represents a person of quality arrivto the Jews, contrary to t - general principle of ing late at an entertainment in his curricle, drawn
the Mosaic law in regard to birds and quadrupeds, (like all the Egyptian chariots) by two horses. He
this having been unquestionably the case with
regard to many species of fishes coming within the
regulation of having'fins and scales,' and known 
to exist in Palestine at the present time-as the 
perch, carp, barbel, etc. (Kitto's Physical History 
of Palestine, article FISHES). The fact that the      L               f/f )1         A!
Chargol is never made the means of the divine
chastisements (for which purpose a locust preying-                                i
upon insects could scarcely be used), concurs, at
least, with the foregoing speculation*.-J. F. D.                T      )
CHARIOT RACES. [GAMES.]
178. Egyptian Curricle.
CHARIOTS. The Scriptures employ different78 Egyptian Curricle.
words to denote carriages of different sorts, but it is attended by a nmber of running footmen, one
is not in every case easy to distinguish the kind ofof hom hastens forward to knock at the door of
vehicle which these words severally denote. We     ouse, another advances to take the reins, a
are now, however, through the discovery of ancient thr  s a stool to assist his master in alighting,
sculptures and paintings, in possession of such in- thid bears aem carry their sandals in their hands
formation respecting the chariots of Egypt, Assyria, tt t   run  h the more ease. This con9.         d..^.,that they may run with the more ease. This conBabylon, and Persia, as gives advantages in the  s a lively illust
discussion of this subject which were not possessed vey.  ration of such principal disti n.
viii..  x;.Sam. xv. I. The principal distinction
by earlier writers. The chariots of these nations.
by earlier writers. The chariots of these nationsbetween these private chariots and those actually
are, in fact, mentioned in the Scriptures; and by used in war was, as appears from the monuments,
connecting the known with the unknown, we may that in the former the party drove himself, whereas
arrive at more determinate conclusions than have  i   r   the chariot, as among the Greeks, often
in war the chariot, as among the Greeks, often
hitherto been attainable.                     contained a second person to drive it, that the warThe first chariots.mentioned in Scripture are            at liberty to employ his weapons
those of the Egyptians; and by close attention to with the  ore effect. But this was not always the
the various notices which occur respecting them, case for in the Egyptian monuments we often see
we may be able to discriminate the different kinds eenroyal personages alone in their chariots, warwhich were in use among that p     e         ve n royal personages alone in their chariots, warwhich were in use among that people..i.wea.., r, *           ring furiously, with the reins lashed round their
The earliest notice on this head occurs in Gen. ring friousl, wit  appears     that Jehu (who
xli. 43, where the king of Egypt honours Joseph  waist (No. i). So it appears that Jehu (who
xli. 43, where the king of Egypt honours Josephcertainly rode in a war-chariot) drove himself; for
by commanding that he should ride in the second hi  peculiar style of driving was recognised at a
of the roal hiot   Th       doubtless  stat-.his peculiar style of driving was recognised at a
of the royal chariots. This was doubtless a state-considerable distance (2 Kings ix. 20).
chariot, and the state-chariots of the Egyptians do  There has been some speculation as to any difference of meaning between the preceding word
* Since the above was written it has been found mercabah (nn'ln), and mercab (31D). In I
that Becmana, reasoning from the Sept. and Vulg., Kings v. 6 (A. V. iv. 26), the latter obviously means
arrived at a similar conclusion; viz., that some chariots, taken collectively. But in Lev. xv. 9 (reninsect of the sphex or ichneumon kind was meant dered in the A. V.' saddle') and Cant. iii. Io (ren(apud Bochart, a Rosenmiller, vol. iii. p. 264). dered'the bottom') it has been understood by
The genus of locusts called truxalis answers the some to denote the seat of a chariot. To this view
description.  It is some excuse for the English there is the fatal objection that ancient chariots had
rendering'beetle' in this place, that Pliny classes no seats. It appears to denote the seat of a litter
one species of gryllus, the house-cricket, G. domes- (the only vehicle that had a seat), and its name
ticus, under the scarabaei (Hist. Nat. xi. 8).  mercab may have been derived from the general




CHARIOTS                   472                CHARIOTS
resemblance of the body of a litter (distinguished  And the horsemen spread fear
from the canopy, etc.) both in form and use, to  In the streets, the chariots madden:
that of a chariot.                              They run to and fro in the broad places:
Another word, =31 receb, from the same root,  Their appearance is as lamps, they run
appears to signify a carriage of any kind, and is   as lightning.           Nahum ii. 3, 4.
especially used with reference to large bodies of
carriages, and hence most generally of war-cha-  These allusions to the horsemen and chariots of
riots; for chariots were anciently seldom seen to- Nineveh give much interest to one of the very regether in large numbers except when employed in cent discoveries of M. Botta, on the site of that
war. It is applied indifferently to the war-chariots very ancient city. In excavating a certain mass of
of any nation, as to those of the Egyptians (Exod. building, which appears to have formed part of
xiv. 9), the Canaanites (Josh. xvii. i8; Judg. i. I9; some much more extensive pile, he discovered
iv. 3), the Hebrews (2 Kings ix. 21, 24; x. x6), various inscriptions and sculptures, which seem to
the Syrians (2 Kings v. 9), the Persians (Is. xxi. shew that the work was earlier than the' age of
7, 9). By a comparison of these references with  Cyrus, and may be referred to the times of the
those passages in which rmercabah occurs, we find Assyrian empire. In one place is a bas-relief, rethe two words applied with so little distinction to presenting a horseman at full gallop. Another
all sorts of carriages as to suggest that they were part of the same wall represents two horsemen
used indifferently and interchangeably, just as we galloping side by side, with another following at a
should say either' carriage' or' coach'-neither of short distance.  Further on, two armed horsewhich is specific, and both of which differ more men are visible, one following the other at full
from each other than the Hebrew receb and merca- gallop. The movement of the horses is very anibah-to denote the same vehicle. Indeed there mated; and both men and horses shew traces of
are passages in which both words are manifestly colour. In another place are two horsemen walkapplied to the same identical vehicle, as in 2 Kings ing their horses side by side. The only horseman
v. 9, 21, and I Kings xxii. 35, 38; where no visible has a sword; a quiver and bow are over
reader would suspect a change of vehicles, which his shoulder, and his legs are clothed in mail.
some have endeavoured to establish in order to These figures are very interesting, not only in
make out a difference between the receb and mer- connection with the prophecy which so distinctly
cabah. Mr. Charles Taylor, in one of the frag- mentions the'horsemen' of Nineveh, but because
ments appended to his edition of Calmet, indulges they are, in fact, the only mounted figures which
in much ingenious speculation on this subject, and  occur among the more ancient monuments of
labours to make out that while the mercabah de- Asia. None have been found at Babylon, none at
noted a chariot of state drawn by four horses, the Persepolis; and among the numerous sculptures
receb was a humbler chariot drawn by two horses, and paintings of Egypt, only one solitary unarmed
and sometimes a litter carried by two horses. To figure, who seems to have crossed the back of the
this it may be sufficient to answer that chariots of animal by accident. But the matter of greatest instate were not drawn by four horses in the East; terest is the discovery of a curious bas-relief, rethat no instance of such a practice can be produced; presenting a chariot drawn by two horses, and
and that the best Hebrew scholars of the Continent cdntaining three persons.  The principal of these
deny that it can be proved that receb anywhere appears to be a bearded man, lifting his right arm,
denotes a litter, for which indeed there is a differ- and holding in his left hand a bow. He wears a
ent word. [LITTER.]                           tiara painted red (' the valiant men are clothed in
There is another word which is sometimes ren- scarlet'); behind him is a beardless slave, carrying
dered by chariot, viz. nip,,'agalah; but as we a fringed parasol, and at his left is the charioteer
dered by chariot, viz. r14),.agalak; but as we holding the reins and the whip. The principal
have elsewhere [CART] shewn that it denotes ap   o   and the  hrieer    eThe
plaustm, cart, or waon, drawn b  oxenwe person and the charioteer wear ear-rings. The
nplaustrume, cart, or waggon, drawn by oxen, wee chariot-wheels have eight spokes; the chariot itself
need not here return to the subject. It is indeed
has been covered with carving, now impossible to
alleged that in Ps. xlvi. 9 the word manifestly im- be made out.  The most noticeable thing is a
ports a chariot of war.  The plural'agaloth, is  m               m 
poth          ere used, and the supposition that it meanga, s bench, which seems to be attached to the chariot
there used, and the supposition that it means a                                 supposes to
chariot of war proceeds on the assumption that by a double belt, and which M. Botta supposes to
chariot of war proceeds on the assumption that h     b    a m        intended to secure the
have been a metal rod, intended to secure the
only chariots were used in war. But this is not  olidit o the  hoe  he h   e     admirably
the fact, for in the scenes of Egyptian warfare we so y of te w e  Te hors o   re a  rably
find carts, drawn by oxen, brought into the field drawn, and afford  dications of pure Arabian
by certain nomade nations, and in which they en- blood. Their harness is very rich, and still bears
by certain nmade nation, ad in whih they e    evident traces of colouring, among which blue and
deavour to escape from their pursuers.,,,,red only can be distinguished, the rest having
In the prophecy of Nahum, who was of the first turned black. Behind thchariot rides a cavalier
captivity, and resident (if not born) at Elkosh in  ern  lace  ith a       t hs belt, and a
Assyria, there is much allusion to chariots, sug- earg  a leh shoulder   Athenisbe, July 29,
gested doubtless by their frequency before his eyes quiver ove
in the streets of Nineveh, and throughout the As-        d           i 
syrian empire.  In fact, when prophesying the  From this description it would appear that the
dyrian empire.  In e act, when g   prophesying theAssyrian chariots were considerably differentfrom
downfall of Nineveh, he gives a particular an  those of the ancient Egyptians, and even from
animated description of their action in the streets those of the  ans, with which we are acquannt 
of the greaLt city                            those of the Persians, with which we are acquaintoft tthie great city:-ed through the Persepolitan sculpture (now in the
The shield of his mighties is made red:     British Museum), here copied (No. I79), and
The valiant men are clothed in scarlet:     which are of a much heavier build than those of
The chariots are as the fire of lamps, in the day Egypt, as perhaps the more mountainous characwhen he prepareth them.                 ter of the country required. The chariots of




CHARIOTS OF WAR                 473          CHARIOTS OF WAR
Assyria would seem in some respects to have oc- siderable diameter, had four horses abreast; and,
cupied a middle place between the other two. in early ages, there were occasionally hooks or
Among other points we observe that the spokes of scythes attached to the axles. In fighting from
chariots great dexterity was shewn by the warrior,
not only in handling his weapons, but also in stepping out upon the pole to the horses' shoulders, in
— me.f'-  /' X  order the better to attain his enemies, and the
i  r  I\!  s charioteer was an important person, sometimes
equal in rank to the warrior himself. Both the
x79. Persian Chariot. 
the wheels are never more than six in the Egyptian
chariot, while in the Assyrian there are eight, and 
in the Persian eleven. Not very different from the
Persian chariot is one represented on a coin found
at Babylon (No. I8o); but the spokes of the
i8o. Babylonian Chariot.
x81. Egyptian War Chariot.
wheels are eight, as in the Assyrian chariot. This
coin has given occasion to much unsound specula- kingdoms of Judah and Israel had War-chariots,
tion in the attempt to connect it with the history and, from the case of king Josiah at the battle of
of Daniel.                                   Megiddo, it is clear they had also travelling-vehicles, for being wounded. he quitted his fightingCHARIOTS OF WAR. The Egyptians used chariot, and in a second, evidently more commohorses in the equipment of an armed force before dious, he was brought to Jerusalem (2 Chron.
Jacob and his sons had settled in Goshen; they xxxv. 24). Chariots of war continued to be used
had chariots of war, and mounted asses and mules, in Syria in the time of the Maccabees (2 Maccab.
and therefore could not be ignorant of the art of xiii. 2), and in Britain when Caesar invaded the
riding; but for ages after that period Arab nations
rode on the bare back, and guided the animals
with a wand. Others, and probably the shepherd 
invaders, noosed a single rope in a slip-knot, round
the lower jaw, forming an imperfect bridle, with 
only one rein; a practice still in vogue among
the Bedouins.  Thus cavalry were but little formidable compared with chariots, until a complete
command over the horse was obtained by the discovery of a true bridle. This seems to have been  -
first introduced by chariot-drivers, and there are 
figures of well-constructed harness, reins, and
mouth-pieces, in very early Egyptian monuments,
representing both native and foreign chariots of
war.  These differed little from each other, both
consisting of a light pole, suspended between and
on the withers of a pair of horses, the after end
resting on a light axle-tree, with two low wheels.      182. Egyptian War Chariot.
Upon the axle stood a light frame, open behind
and floored for the warrior and his charioteer, who island; but it would lead us beyond our proper
both stood within: on the sides of the frame hung limitsif we were to expatiate on the Biga andQuadrithe war-bow, in its case; a large quiver with arrows ga, the Essedum, Rheda, and Covinus of the
and darts had commonly a particular sheath. In ancients. The subject belongs more properly to a
Persia, the chariots elevated upon wheels of con- dictionary of classical antiquities. —C. H. S.




CHARISMATA                   474                 CHARUL
CHARISMATA. [SPIRITUAL GIFTS.]              deed, seems to preclude any thorny plant or nettle,
Cas no one would voluntarily resort to such a situaG O  S    tion; and one of the commentators, as quoted by
CHARTUMMIM        (Det3n; Sept. -hdrao&oot, Celsius (ii. p. 168) appears to have been of the. RTU IM'- (s.:- t' ra, same opinion:'Bar Bahlul apud Castellum pisa
oap/taKco). This is the title rendered'magicians' vel cicerculas explicat:' that is, he considers pease,
in our version, applied to the'wise men' of Egypt or rather vetches, to-e intended. Moreover, it is
(Gen. xli. 8, 24; Exod. vii. I; viii. 7, I8, 19; worthy of remark, that there is a word in a cogix. II), and of Babylon (Dan. i. 20; 11. 2). The nate language, the Arabic, which is not very disword'magicians' is not in either case properly similar from charul or kharul, and which is applied
applied, as the magi belonged to Persia, ratherto plants apparently quite suitable to al the bove
than to Babylon or Egypt; and should be altogether avoided in such application, seeing that it passages. The word j.  khardul is applied
has acquired a sense different from that which it in all old Arabic works, as well as at the present
once bore. The Hebrew word properly denotes day, to different species of mustard, and also to'wise men,' as they called themselves, and were plants which are employed for the same purposes
called by others; but, as we should call them, as mustard (as we hope to be able to shew in the'men eminent in learning and science,' their exclu- article SINAPI), and it is not very unlike the kharul
sive possession of which in their several countries or  rul of Scripture. In fact they do not differ
enabled them occasionally to produce effects which
were accounted supernatural by the people. Pytha- 
goras, who was acquainted with Egypt and the            t   /
East, and who was not unaware of the unfathomable         i,
depths of ignorance which lie under the highest 
attainable conditions of human knowledge, thought'....
the modest title of philosopher (X6aroPQs),' lover'             - 
of wisdom,' more becoming, and accordingly he 
brought it into use; but that of'wise men' still\                                3,
retained its hold in the East. 
Gesenius concludes that the Egyptian Char/urnmmim were those of the Egyptian priests who had
charge of the sacred records. His etymological
reasons may be seen in his-Thesaurus. There can
be little doubt that they belonged to some branch 
of the priesthood, seeing that the more recondite 
departments of learning and science were cultivated /Y
exclusively in that powerful caste. 
CHARUL (.;t) occurs in three places in Scrip- 
ture, and in them all is translated'nettles' in the,i.z
A. V. (Prov. xxiv. 30, 31; Job xxx. 7; Zeph. ii. 9).
Considerable difficulty has been experienced in de- 
termining the plant which is alluded to in the            w     /
above passages, which, as Celsius says,'sacrisl                      /'
scriptoribus parcius memorata, et notis paucissimis                  /
descripta, ac distincta.' The majority of transla-l
tors and commentators have thought that some         - Al /'/, 
thorny or prickly plant, or a nettle, is intended by 
the charul, on account of the other plants which,       " "'-      /
are mentioned along with it. Hence brambles, the83. SinapiS Orientalis.
wild plum, and thistles, have been severally selected;
but nettles have had the greatest number of sup- more than many words which are considered to
porters.  Celsius however prefers the Zizyphus Pa- have been originally the same. Some of the wild
liurus, or the plant which has been called Christ's kinds of mustard are well known to spring up in
thorn, as that best suited to the several contexts.  corn fields, and to be the most troublesome of all
Of all these determinations, however, it must the weeds with widch the husbandman has to deal:
be observed that they amount to nothing more one of these, indeed, sinapis arvensis, is well known
than conjectures, because, as Rosenmiiller says, to be, and is specially mentioned by a modern bothe cognate languages have not this word, and also tanical author, Sir James Smith, as abundant in
because'the Greek translators of Alexandria in corn-fields, where it is a very troublesome weed,
the first and last of these three places entirely and also in waste ground, when newly disturbed.
deviate from our present Hebrew text; but in the So also, as old a writer as Gerarde, in his Herbal,
passage of Job they translate charulby wild shrubs.' says,'There be three sorts of wild turneps; one,
To us it does not appear, from the import of the our common rape, which beareth the seed whereof
above passages, that a thorny plant is necessarily is made rape-oil, and feedeth singing birds: the
meant by the term under review. All that is im- other, the common enimy to come, which we call
plied is that neglected fields, that is, fields in culti- charlock.' He likewise mentions that this is also
vation which are neglected, will become covered called carlock, chadlock, and kedlock, words which
with weeds, and that these should be of a kind such it is curious to observe for their resemblance to
as idlers, as in the passage of Job, might take shel- khardul, kharul, or charul, and which are applied
ter under, or lie down among. This passage, in- in our country to this wild kind of mustard, as




CHASE                     475                CHASIDIM
khardul is to the species of mustard indigenous in an earnest defender of the ancient faith, for the
different parts of Asia. That some of these are maintenance of which they were always ready to
found in Syria and Palestine is well known, as lay down their lives.
Russel mentions the above sinaipis arvensis, or  The essential principles of the Chasidim were as
charlock, as common in the neighbourhood of follows:-Most rigidlytoobserve allthe ritual laws
Aleppo, and, in fact, it is one of the most widely of purification-to meet together frequently for
diffused of the species. Decandolle, in his Syst. devotion, carefully preparing themselves for it by
Natural. ii. p. 615, describes it as' Habitat arvis, ablutions, and wearing their phylacteries longer
vineis, agris Europse interdum  nimis copiosa, a than others-to seek diligently for opportunities of
Lusitania ad Petropolim, a Sicilia ad Daniam, ab  offering sacrifices (Nedarim, o1, a), to impose upon
Anglia ad Tauriam.' Irby and Mangles moreover themselves voluntarily great acts of self-denial and
state, that in their journey from Bysan to Adjeloun  mortifications; like the Nazarites they abstained
they met with the mustard plant growing wild, and from wine and all intoxicating liquors sometimes
as high as their horses' heads. In fact, so large do  for weeks, and sometimes during their whole lives;
some of the species grow in these countries, that and like the priests they observed the Levitical
one of them has been supposed to be the mustard  purifications during the time of their being Nazatree alluded to by our Saviour. S. arvensis being rites and sometimes longer. Thus it is related of
so widely diffused is probably also found in Pales- Jose ben Joeser, who was the spiritual head of the
tine, though this can only be determined by a good  community at the time of Judas Maccabseus, and one
botanist on the spot, or by a comparison of genuine of the sixty Chasidim, who were slain by Bacspecimens. But there is another species, the S. chides through the treacheryof Alcimus (I Maccab.
orientalis, which is common in corn-fields in Syria, vii. 12-16) that he observed in his dress and food
and south and middle Europe, and which can    the Levitical purity, which belonged to the priests
scarcely be distinguished from S. arvensis. Either (Chagiga, i8, b). They, to a great extent, had all
of these will suit the above passages, and as the things in common, as is evident from the remark in
name is not very dissimilar, we are of opinion that the Mishna,' he who says mine is thine, and thine
it is better entitled to be the charul of Scripture is thine, is a Chasid' (Aboth. v. o1); and the inthan any other plant that has hitherto been adduced. junction of Jose ben Jochanan, the colleague of
It would be the first to spring up in a carelessly Jose ben Joeser,' let thy house be always open,
cultivated field, and choke the neglected corn, and regard the poor as inmates of thy house' (ibid.
while it would soon cover deserted fields, and  i. 5); some of them  withdrew altogether from
might readily be resorted to for shelter from a hot general society, and devoted themselves entirely to
wind, or even from the rays of the sun, when  contemplation and to the study of the written and
growing so large as is described by some of the oral law, whilst others continued to prosecute the
travellers in the Holy Land.-J. F. R.         affairs of the world, therefrom maintaining their
CHASE. [HUNTING.]                           brethren engaged in devotion, and were called
WYA3  VFAlK, practical men or the party of action;
CHASIDIM (pT     lro;'Acrvtao, I Maccab. (Krochmal, More Neboche Ha-seman x44) they
vii. I3), one of the three chief Jewish sects, of did not speak much even with their own wives
which the other two were the Hellenists and the (Aboth. i 5), and would not look at all at strange
Maccabeans, and from which were developed after- women. Their self-denying and holy life, as well
wards other sects, such as the Pharisees, the Es- as their reputed power to perform miraculous cures
senes, etc. The appellation'"iDno or the singular and to drive out evil spirits, secured for them the'iSOn, the benevolent, the pious, is already used in high respect of the Jewish community at large.
the Psalms to denote those of the Jewish com-   Their principles, however, became too narrow,
munity who were distinguished by their love to God and were carried to such extravagant excesses, that
and good will towards men. These were singled  R. Josua ben Chananja regarded those who were
out from the midst of (      OrKi1 I? ) God's chosen so foolishly rigid (lD1W TDn) as'corrupting the
people as fl Vl H n, the saints of 7ehovah (Ps. iv  world,' ie., as dangerous members of society
4; xii. 2; xvi. IO  xxx. 5; xxi. 24; xxx ii. 6  (Mishna Sota, iii. 4). Some idea may be formed of
xxxvii. 28  lxxix. 2; al) It was therefore natura their absurd rigidity, from the remarks of the
XXXVii. 2  IxxiX. 2; al.  Itwas therefore natural
that when, in later days, the influences and practices Gemaras upon this passage, defining what is meant
by a foolish Chasid.-' He,' says the Jerusalem
of these heathen nations who conquered Palestine by a foolish Chas -'  e, says the Jerusalem
had cooled the zeal of many in Israel in the cause Talmud (in loco), who neglects to rescue a drownof God, when multitudes grew lax in the observance ing child from the water because he must first take
of the law, and when the religion of their fathersoff his phylacteries, or <he,' remarks the Babywas in imminent danger, those who feared the Lord lonian Talmud (2, b),' who does not come to the
should separate themselves more visibly from theirhelp of a female in a perilous situation, i order to
Hellenizing brethren, unite together by special ties avoid looking upon a female, orhe who gives away
to keep the ordinances,' and hedge themselves in all his property to benevolent purposes, and thereby
more securely by the voluntary imposition of works reduces himsel to beggary, he s afoolsh Casid.
of supererogation, thus becoming an organised sect  These-impracticable and wild extravagances procharacterised- by the special name Chasicdim in a duced, in the course of time, their natural effect,
and resulted in the splitting up of the association
peculiar and sectarian sense (tendon,I~, 7 vvr y?'Aoaocw^, i Maccab. ii. 42). That this old sect  (;lSI(p). Those who insisted upon the rigid obshould first come before us so late as the time of servances formed themselves into separate denomiJudas Maccabseus, and unite themselves so readily nations, such as the Essenes, etc., whilst the mowith him (i Maccab. i. I I; ii. 42; vii. 13; 2 Maccab. derate party retained the name Chasidim.
xiv. 6; with I Maccab. iii. 6, 8; vi. 2; vii. 5; The standard of a Chasid in the Talmudic period
ix. 23), is owing to the fact that they found in him  (20o-5oo A.D.) was more what it had originally




CHASIDIM                   476                CHASIDIM
been, and almost approached the demands of      The tendency in the human heart to that which
the 0. T.,Not to be over-righteous, and not is mystical, the inclination to believe that the deto press the observance or non - observance of parted spirits of those we have loved may still hold
certain things to its utmost extreme (1nw1=D V$  converse with us, the readiness with which those
Jcfl) but to be temperate, mild, forbearing, bene-who have been afflicted long, and who have in vain
volent, pious, etc., were now the qualifications of sought relief from natural means, will resort to pera- Chasid o(rnT ln), comp. Baba Mezia, 30, b; sons who believe themselves endowed with the
52, b; Sabbath I20, a,')He who wants to be a power of performing supernatural cures, and the
52, b; Sabbath 12o, a, I He who wants to be a           a
Chasid,' says R. Jehuda ben Jecheskiel, I'must assurance that God manifests himself unto his own
observe the laws of equity, leave to every one that as he does not unto the world, so remarkably exemwhich belongs to him, and give every man that plified in the rapid spread of the doctrines of the
which is due to him' (Baba Kama, 30e a; Kethu- Christian schoolmen, in the credence given to the
both, 82, a; Baba Bathra, 46, a; Chuilim, I27, a). supernatural pretensions of the Romish Church, to
But even among these more sober-minded C1a2sid- a Swedenborg, Irving, etc., secured a ready welcome
i        there were some who would neer give a letter to the marvellous teachings of the Kabala for cent a thenonHe re some vhoat on he nabath day to be turies, and gradually prepared the way for the reto a non-Hebrew servant on the Sabbath day to be
carried anywhere (Jerusal. Sabbath, I, 8, b; i9, organizationof the different Chasidim into one sect,
a), nor repair a hedge because the resolution to do  h ver a qualified leader should arise. The
harvest did not wait long; the reaper soon made
it had been formed on the Sabbath day (ibid., 5O  hrest d       long;   e eer s      
b), nor extinguish a fire which broke out on the  s appearance.
The Organizer of the sect Chasiddm, existing to
Sabbath (ibid., I6, 7; Nidda, 38, a). This, how        ea       er- 
ever, was not the ruile but the exceptions.  - the present day in various parts of the continent,
In the post-Talmudic period and in the middle was Rabbi Israel ben Eiezer Baal Shem (DW 1b,
ages, the old and venerable Scripture name Chasid i e., possessor of the secret how to call upon the
was claimed by parties belonging to different name so as to be able to affect the creation); also
schools, and was made to describe characters comcalled Bescht, orpi l, from the initials of to God
patible with the respective notions entertained by  ad Bes, Ph, from te iniis of  d a  lp l
these several parties.  The philosophic school un-   Baal Shem made his first public appearance
derstood by itx simple piety (andl d Jfr) in con- fin Tlusti in the district of Czortkow in Poland,
tradistinction to scientific knowledge tn   n Jn).where he began his wonderful deeds, which soon
T   hus, R. Tobiah bmen Eiezermof Woredms (io8o A.D.) led to the discovery, on the part of his disciples,
Thus, R. Tobiah ben Eliezer of Worms (io8o A.D.) that his father had been visited by the prophet
in his comment upon the words,'My doctrine shall that his father had been visited by the prophet
drop as the rain' (Deut. xxxii., says,'just as thei Elijah, to predict his birth, and that his mother was
drop as the main' (Deut. xxxii. 2), says,' just as      the              w  a   bled of
ram waters every tree according to its nature, so are an hundred yem s  od hen she to  delivered of
the operations of the Thora [The word of God]  him. Baal Shem then removed to Medziboze in
the operwations oflthe Thom [The word ofs:Godc, Podolia where his wonderfulworks secured for him
to one it imparts knowledge, and the other it. makes Podoia, wshere his ony derl works secrehi  frequmt
a Chasid' (Letach Tob, in ioco).  Maimonides the na             ).  He spoke of his frequent
communications with the Deity and the world of
takes Chasid to denote one religiously moral as dis-communicationswit  ei     and  e  rld
spirits, performed miraculous cures, and reclaimed
tinguished from philosophically moral (Deoth. i. 4,  human souls which had entered into beasts. His
di4, 3 d to Aboh. *.)Te    s claimhuman souls which had entered into beasts. His
2, 3; Introd. to Aboth. iv.) The Karaites claim  fame spread far and wide, and multitudes of deluded
the title Chasidim for those who earnestly strive to fame spread far and wide, and   utitudes o deud
know God as he is.'The perfect Chasidim   Jews flocked from all parts of Poland to this thauGdi  msteis.'e,   e   h, maturgus, to submit themselves to his guidance,
(bysteI ol' Dniil), says Aaron b. Eliah (flo. and he formed them into the sect Chasidim of the
346 A.D.),'long for the days of the Messiah, in present day. The following are their chief princiorder to know God without any hindrance and   ples and tenets:without any external medium, as it is written of  I. The great aim of every Chasid is to be in
that day, in Jeremiah xxxi. 34, they shall teach no intimate communion with (n11p':1) or wedded to
more every man his neighbour and every man his the Deity (   Mf 1 flelt), who is regarded as a bride.
brother, saying, Know the Lord, for they shall all This communion is effected through prayer, and
know me, from the least of them even unto the more especially through frequent contact with the
greatest of them' Etz Chaim, 203). Hence they T7zadic, or spiritual head, who is espoused to God,
only give this distinguished title of Chasidim to and who, as his delegate upon earth, can do all
their spiritual heads. The French and German  manner of wonderful things. The Tzadic is thereschools also fixed so high a standard for the quali- fore the king and supreme judge of the community,
fications of a Chasid that few, except the Rabbins, has absolute power over their thoughts, words, and
- could attain to it. In these schools, however, it deeds, is richly.supported by the voluntary contriapproaches more the asceticism of olden times, and butions of his followers, they perform pilgrimages
even the T'wMlO VSKY, men of practice, make their to him to spend the Sabbaths and festivals with
appearance again (Thur Or. Ch. 113, 6i9). In him, when the rich sit with him at the table, and
the Kabalistic school representing the Sohar, the the poor esteem it the greatest privilege to touch
Chasidim approximated still more closely the old the hem of his garment, or even to catch a glimpse
sect. Here we not only find a vigorous observance of him. 2. Revelation and the reward of all good
of externals and mortifications insisted upon, works depend upon absolute faith, which is greatly
actually based upon the authority of the old Chasi- interfered with by research and philosophy. 3.
dim, SV1jRp C'"1n (Sohar iii. 9, a; M. Abr.), but Miracles must be implicitly believed in; the greatalso retirement from the world for meditation upon est devotion is to be manifested during prayer, and
the divine mysteries. Here, too, a knowledge of the hence shouting, clapping of hands, singing, dancing
mysteries of God is claimed, as well as intercourse before the Lord, etc., must be resorted to, so as to
with the angelic worlds, and the power of perform- preclude the intrusion of profane thoughts. 4.
inig miracles, healing the sick, driving out devils, etc. Repentance and conversion are essential to salva.




CHASIL                    477                  CHASIL
tion; a man must always prepare himself for them  the larva of the genus lepidoptera, and more espeand never despair. 5. The Chasid must keep    cially to the larve of a section of it, the Papilionida.
aloof from profane knowledge and from the love of It, ho r  r     p         
mammon, which lead to unbelief, but worship God,     wever far from provable that the    is
even in the performance of business. 6. He must any species of caterpillar. The root iDn, from
be exceedingly cheerful, contented, unselfish, bene- which it is derived, signifies to' consume' or' devolent, peaceable, charitable in judging others, vour,' and it is especially used to denote the ravages
courageous, temperate in his dress and mode of
living, etc. In every town or village where ten  of the locust (Deut. xxviii. 38, 3'Tfl'n lirn).
Chasidim are to be found, they must meet sepa- The Arabic and Syriac cognates also signify to
rately for prayer and meditation, and use the consume. The word SpoOXos, by which it is freSpanish form of prayer, introducing into it the quently rendered in the Septuagint, from 3pb6TKw,
Kabalistic elements. These doctrines the Chasidim  I eat up, conveys also the idea of ravenousness.
derive from the Bible, the Talmud, and more espe- All these names indicate a creature whose chief
cially from the Sohar. At the death of Baal Shem, characteristic is voracity, and which also attaches
A.D. 1760, his three grandsons, Bar of Meseritz, to all the species of locusts. The ancients, indeed,
Mendel of Przemislaw, and Michael of Kolk, con- concur in referring the word to the locust tribe of
tinued to govern the sect; they spread the fame of insects, but are not agreed whether it signifies any
their grandfather's wondrous deeds, promulgated  particular species of locust, or is the name for any
his doctrines, and established communities through- of those states or transformations through which
out Poland, Wallachia, Moldavia, Galicia, and in the locust passes from the egg to the perfect insect.
Palestine, where they exist to the present day. R. The Latin Fathers take it to mean the larva of
Moses Dattelbaum of Galicia, a Chasid who was the locust, and the Greek understand it as the name
invited to become the head of the Jewish com- of an adult locust. The Latins give the name
munity at Sator-Alja-Ujhely, introduced these doc- bruchus to the young locust before it has wings,
trines into Hungary in I809, and, by means of his call it attelabus when it begins to fly, and locusta
imposing appearance, deep penetration, profound when it is fully able to fly. Thus Jerome, in his
Talmudic knowledge, and great popular talents, Comm. in Nahum. c. iii.:' Bruchus nihil aliud
soon secured for them a rapid spread. The follow- faciat, nisi semper in terra sit, et absque alis cibo et
ing incident of this most remarkable orator's life ventri serviat; attelabus autem saltem modicas aswill help to explain the cause of the extraordinary sumat alas, et, cum in altum volare non possit,
increase of Chasidim in Hungary. Dattelbaum, in tamen de terra exsilire notatur, et tandem pervenidelivering a discourse to a large assembly of Jews ens in locustam volitat.' And again,' Attelabus
the evening before the great day of atonement, quem significantius commessorem interpretatus est
paused suddenly, and ordered all the youths present Aquila, parva locusta est, inter locustam et bruchto be conducted before the sacred ark wherein the um, et modicis pennis reptans, potius quam volans
scrolls of the law are deposited, which was done semperque subsiliens.' Augustine also, on Ps. civ.,
immediately. The whole congregation watched says,'Bruchus est locustae ftus; una plaga est
with breathless silence what was coming.' Chil- locustae et bruchi, quoniam altera est parens, et
dren,' said the Rabbi,'are you resolved to lay down alter est foetus.' The same opinion is maintained
your lives for our holy faith, if the Holy One, by Gregorius in yobum, lib. xxxiii. c. I7. These
blessed be His name, should demand it of you? statements of Jerome, and the other Latins, are
Oh! I know your resolution. Respond then with  very remarkable, since the Vulgate, in Nahum
a loud voice, Yes, Rabbi, we are prepared to die.' iii. I6, reads Bruchus expansus est et avolavit, and
The children repeated these words. The congre- flies away; and the Septuagint, also, in the same
gation was deeply moved, and Dattelbaum   ex- place, reads pSpoOXos 6ppo'ea Kal 1e7rerda7t, and
claimed,' Lord of the universe, the Thora men- what is still more remarkable, Jerome himself,
tions only one Isaac who was willing to submit to Lev. xi. 22, puts the bruchus among the volucres.
death to glorify Thy name, but here are assembled  It is curious to see the Greek fathers ascribing
a large number of Isaacs, for their sakes look down wings and the power of flight to the bruchus in
upon us graciously!'                         their comments on the same passages. Thus Cyril
Literature.-The Chasidim have published some upon Nahum iii.: haol'y&p, Srt, TirTrro6oTis XaXdrs,
very able and learned works in defence of their Kal 6ergwv KaTapT)yyvv4wPvw  aSpav lis Esrro-Lyv.6
peculiar doctrines. The following are some of /poOxos, KcTaoeaevLd'wv airc T wv 7rrepwv. And
them:-I. A small work called   ul'n, by Senior Theodoret upon the same passage: riTs iX\aK)s
Salman Lidier, 1780, reprinted in Konigsberg, 7rpospa\XXo6irs d&crFvo &vc'lrTaTat Kal 7reTdvvU-& r&A
1823; 2. nSinl n'iinfl ky1W''D, Sklow, I820; 7rrep&, Kal eis Trpov /eTrapalcveL r6bov. The same
3. n1JT1   mTnjllin, a book of ethics, arranged in writer on Amos vii. I plainly distinguishes the
alphabetical order by R. Nachman, 1821; comp. bruchus from the young of the locust.'Eiryovxv
also yost Geschichte des Judenthums und seine  8 dKpi&ov, he observes, KcdXeae Trb'Aoao6ptov,
Secten, iii. p. I85, etc.; Ben Chananja, ii. pp. I, ppoOxov 8 TbOV BapvX\6vov. The Septuagint also
49, 145, I93.-C. D. G.                        in Lev. xi. 22, seems to distinguish the bruchus
f~~CHASI- AL      occurs I Kins and its 7T& 6OLa,' and its kind,' from the dKpts, or
CHASIL (. This word occurs    Kingscommon locust, and its r& 8,xota as differing not in
viii. 37; 2 Chron. vi. 28; Ps. lxxviii. 46; Is. age but in species. Theophrastus also, Hepl r7iv
xxxiii. 4; Joel i. 4; ii. 25. In the first two pas- d8p6bov fawvotuviwv frwv says, XaXeiral tuv odv al
sages the LXX. give ppoOxos; in the other JpvraIpfS, dKpI&E, XaXeTrCrepo  ol dTtrrXAeoC, Kal TroiTrw
except in Is. xxxiii. 4, where they seem to have /udtXLtra oDs KaXoOvrl 3pO0KOIV (PpO0XOis)..The
followed a different text. In the A. V. the word testimony of Hesychius is very clear: BpoOKos
is translated by caterpillar in all these passages.  dKpl8wv etlos "Iwves. K6irptot 8e Tr5V XXwpdv dKThe English word taterpillar belongs strictly to I pita, /3povKav. TapavTrZvot 8,'ArTreTXov, Trpo,




CHASKUNI                    478                CHATZIR'Apovpalav AdrrLv. The inconsistency of Jerome's brightness of gold and the hardness of copper, and
statements, and the contrariety both of his notions might not improbably have been our present
on the subject, and of the other Latins, to those of platina, which has been re-discovered in the Ural
the Greeks, may be owing to the circumstance mountains, after having long been known as an
that in his time the use of the words in question American fossil. Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 12) says
might have become arbitrary, or loose and uncer- of aurichalcum,' Nec reperitur longo iam tempore,
tain. Even Pliny calls the attelabi, minimse locus- effeta tellure.' Perhaps by the:nn   1 nn (Ezra
tarum sine pennis (Nat. Hist. xxix. 4, 20). Thus viii. 27) was meant aurichalcum; at least the deriJerome translates  -n,^ in I Kings viii. 37-, by vation of the words tallies with the properties of
Jerome translates ^D~l, in I Kings viii. 37, by t       _l   M.
rubigo; nor does the Septuagint observe strict uni- t.-..
formity; for, in Ps. lxxviii. 46, it has Jpvait, and CHATZIR  (ne), or CHAZIR, also CHAJIR.
in Is. xxxiii. 4, dKplSe.               a.
The superior antiquity however of the Septua- This word occurs in several places in the 0. T.,
gint entitles its opinion to preference, and, in the where it is variously translated, as grass, in I Kings
gint entitles its opinion to preference, and, in the
passages already quoted, it ascribes flight to the xviii. 5; 2 Kings xix. 26; Job xl. I5; Ps. xxxvii.
tppoiXos, and speaks of it as a distinct species and 2, etc.; herb, in Job viii. I2; hay, in Prov. xxvii.
in the former particular especially, it is difficult to 25, and Is. xv. 6; an court in Is. xxxiv. 13  but
suspect it of an egregious error. The statement of in N. 5 it is translated leeks. Hebrew
scholars state that the  word signifies'greens' or
Aristotle is also worthy of notice, who speaks of scholars stte tt the  ord signiies'ree  or
the attelabus as a mature insect, for he refers to its'grass' in general; and it is no doubt clear, from the
parturition and eggs (Histu. An. tv. 29)  prt context of most of the above passages, that this must
The arguments and speculations of the most be its meaning. There is therefore no reason why
eminent modern writers may be seen in Bochart, it should not be so'translated in all the passages
dierozo, ed. Rosenmiiller, vol. iii. pt. 256, ~s  where it occurs, except in the last. It is evidently
Lips. I793-96. Upon those arguments and specula  incorrect to translate it hay, as in the above pastions, the learned editor gives an opinion, which sages of Proverbs and Isaiah, because the people
to us the best that can be formed f Eastern countries, as it has been observed, do
appears to us the best that can be formed; it is             The author of ragmens, in conthis, that the Hebrew word does mean a locust, tnuaton o   amet ha         rem   ed on the
but of what species it is impossible to determine. inorrctnss of  urCme, versin' e ay appea o rth
ne oi oserati  e cnote forenar to incorrectness of our version,'The hay appeareth,
One of his observations we cannot forbear to quote, and the tender grass sheweth itself, and the herbs
namely, that in Ps. lxxviii. 46, the i'DA is parallel of the mountains are gathered' (Prov. xxvii. 25) 
to ilaNa, the most certain name for the locust; -' Now certainly,' says he,'if the tendergrass is
and that in Is. xxxiii. 4, the B sili n answer to the but just beginning to shew itself, the hay, which is
continues,'The word, I apprehend, means the
CHASKUNI, BEN MANOACH, a learned Jew        first shoots, the rising, just budding spires of grass.'
who flourished in France about the beginning of So in Is. xv. 6.
the 13th century.  He wrote a commentary on     In the passage of Num. xi. 5, where the Israelthe Pentateuch, in which he made large use of ites in the desert long for'the melons, and the
the Midrashic literature; indeed it is almost en- leus, and the onions, and the garlick' of Egypt, it
tirely a compilation.  It was printed at Venice in is evident that it was not grass which they desired
1524, fol., and again at Basil in i606; and in I559  for food, but some green, perhaps grass-like vegea carefully revised edition, by Vittorino Eliano, table, for which the word chatzir is used, and
grandson of Elias Levita, appeared at Cremona, which is above translated leeks. In the same way
4to. It may be found also in the Biblia Magna that, in this country, the word greens is applied to
of Moses Frankfurter, Amst. I724-27.-W. L. A.  a variety of cabbage, in India subzee, from subz
CHASMIL (n        Ezek. i. 4, 27   i 2) was'green' is used as a general term for herbs cooked
t hAet olg     Ezk.    4. 893. 2) was a; kitchen vegetables. It is more thin probable,
probably a composition of several sorts of metal, therefore, that chatzir is here similarly employed,
since even dXEKTpOV, by which the word is rendered though this does not prove that leeks are intended
by the ancients, frequently signifies a composition  Ludolphus, as quoted by Celsius (Hierobot. ii. 264),
of gold and silver (Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxiii 23; ix. supposes that it may mean lettuce, or salads in
65). Nor were the ancients unacquainted with the general, and others that the succory or endive may
art of amalgamating various species of metal; and be the true plant. But Rosenmiiller states,'The
the Latin aurichalcum, at least according to the most ancient Greek and the Chaldee translators
derivation of Isidorus (Orig. xvi. I9;' Aurichalcum- unanimously interpret the Hebrew by the Greek
dicitur, quod et splendorem auri et duritiem seris Irpdcra, or leeks.' The name, moreover, seems to
possideat'), would thus coincide with Bochart's have been specially applied to leeks from the repetymolog  (Hieoz. iii. p. 893) of H; for semblance of their leaves to grass, and from their
being conspicuous for their green colour. This
he thinks the word composed of ung hs, and >>D  is evident from minerals even having been named
alyum, and proposes to read.nVM~, instead of from 7rpdalov on account of their colour, as prasius,
fauuom, and proposes to read rin., i.stead of xprasites, and chrysoprasium. The Arabs use the
inan.   Neither can there be any doubt that auri- word   k   as, or oorat, as the translation
chalcum is a mere Latinized form of the Greek                                   translation
dpeXaXKoS (Homer, Hymn. v. 9; Hes. S&ut. 122; of the 7rpdoroh of the Greeks, and with them it sigCallim. n la. PaIn ad. i9). According to Serv. nifies the leeks, both at the present day and in their
(ad eno. xii. 87), the aurichalcum possessed the older works. It is curious that of the different




CHAZIR                    479                 CIIEBAR
kinds described, one is called kooras-al-bukl, or hind quarters from wild boars, and offer a conleek used as a vegetable.  That the leek is venient mode of concealing from the women and
esteemed in Egypt we have the testimony of Has- public that the nutritive flesh they bring home is a
selquist, who says,'that the kind called karratby  luxury forbidden by their law.-C. H. S.
the Arabs must certainly have been one of those
desired by the children of Israel; as it has been  CHEBAR ('1'; Sept. XoSdp), a river upon
cultivated and esteemed from the earliest times to the banks of which king Nebuchadnezzar planted
the present time in Egypt.'   So the Roman    a colony of Jews, among whom was the prophet
satirist (Juv. xv. 9)-                        Ezekiel (2 Kings xxiv. 15; Ezek. i. I, 3; iii. 15,
23;x. x5, 22). The prevailing opinion is that'Porrum et cepe nefas violare et frangere morsu.23; x. I1, 22). T  he prevailing opinion is that
O sanctas gentes, quibus haec nascuntur inhortis  p         Xapas (Ptol. v     18) of the
xvi. p. 747), or Xa/3bpas (Ptol. v. i8) of the
ancients; which rising in the vicinity of Nisibis,
The Romans employed it much as a seasoning to passes through  upper Mesopotamia, flows for
their dishes, as is evident from  the number of a while parallel to the Euphrates, and then, sudrecipes in Apicius referred to by Celsius.  The denly turning to the right, falls into the Euleek (Allium Porrum) was introduced into this phrates at Circesium. For this identification the
country about the year 1562, and, as is well known, similarity of the names strongly speaks. It has,
continues to be esteemed as a seasoning to soups however, been objected to this, that'in the 0. T.
and stews.-J. F. R.                           the name of Chaldaea is never extended so far
northwards.' But Chebar is not placed by Ezekiel
CHAZIR ()n"n; in Arabic chizron; Sept. 5s).in Chaldara, but'in the landof the Chaldscans;' an
Occurs in Lev. xi. 7; Deut. xiv. 8; Ps. lxxx. 13;  expression which might apply to any part of the
Prov. xi. 22; Is. lxv. 4; lxvi. 3, I7.        territory ruled over by the king of Babylon
The Hebrew, Egyptian, Arabian, Phcenician, Bochart's conjecture that Chebar was the Nahrand other neighbouring nations abstained from  Malcha, or royal canal, cut by order of Nebuchadhog's flesh, and consequently, excepting in Egypt, nezzar, and which Pliny (H. AN, vi. 26) says was
and (at a later period) beyond the Sea of Galilee, made under the superintendence of a person named
no domesticated swine were reared. In Egypt, Chobar, is ingenious; but can be entertained only
through the supposition that the Nahr-Afalcha was
_ ~__ui|  - -||  |called also the Nahr. Chobar, from the name of the. B8 f^ As ^ ^Bofficer under whose directions it was made-a sup~'~'?imii ~~SAW''s:2,/. ^' - ^position entirely irreconcilable with the usages of
j'^^^K,. -1 -'^.. A.. 4 ~       Oriental despotisms; if the work was called Nahr-...ll.  ^;': X  mMalcha'flumen regium quia regia cura effossum,'
^Bwi^^^^:-^ By  ^^f^we may be very sure it would not be called also,:*^,-........?^'       and at the same time, Nahr Chobar,'a Chobaris,'^;':FF^    z=^-         b? — -    nomine huic operi praefecti.' Tradition places the
tomb of Ezekiel at Keffi, and this has been sup_'HBB     ^"~.'    -posed to favour the opinion that Chebar must be
sought in Babylonia and not in Mesopotamia. But
x84. Wild Boar.              such a tradition has only a faint bearing on the
question: if tradition would indicate Tel Abib for
where swineherds were treated as the lowest of us, it would lend us more important aid, as it
men, even to a denial of admission into the temples, would help us to determine where Ezekiel lived.
and where to have been touched by a swine defiled  From  this name, however, something may be
the person nearly as much as it did a Hebrew, it borrowed in support of the identification of Chebar
is difficult to conjecture for what purpose these with the Aborras. Tel Abib means corn-hill or
animals were kept so abundantly, as it appears by grass-mount, and might well be on the banks of
the monumental pictures they were; for the mere that river, of which it is said,' Aborse amnis herservice of treading down seed in the deposited mud bidue rizce' (Amm. Marc. xiv. 3). Whether the
of the Nile when the inundation subsided, the only Chebar (n13) of Ezekiel be the same as the
purpose alleged, cannot be admitted as a sufficient Habor ('1ln) of 2 Kings xvii. 6; xviii. 11; I
explanation of the fact.  Although in Palestine, Chron. v. 26, admits of doubt. Habor was a river
Syria, and Phoenicia, hogs were rarely domesticated, of Gozan. If Gozan be the Gauzanitis (Mygdonia)
wild boars are often mentioned in the Scriptures, of the ancients, it must have flowed in the same
and they were frequent in the time of the Crusades; district as the Chebar, and is therefore probably to
for Richard Coeur-de-Lion encountered one of vast be identified with it. But it has been suggested
size, ran it through with his lance, and while the that Gozan is the modern Zozan, a term applied by
animal was still endeavouring to gore his horse, he the Nestorians to the pasture lands of Assyria; and
leaped over its back, and slew it with his sword. as there is a river still bearing the name of Habor,
At present wild boars frequent the marshes of the or Khabour, which flows through a rich pasture
Delta, and are not uncommon on Mount Carmel, land till- it joins the Tigris near Jezirah, it has been
and in the valley of Ajalah.  They are abun- proposed to identify this with the Habor to which
dant about the sources of the Jordan, and lower the Israelites were deported (Grant, The Nestodown, where the river enters the Dead Sea. The rians, p. 129, ff.) What gives weight to this sugKoords and other wandering tribes of Mesopo- gestion is, that all the other places which are mentamia, and on the banks of both the great rivers, tioned along with Habor lie in Assyria, and that it
hunt and eat the wild boar, and it may be suspected was by the kings of Assyria the Israelites were carthat the half-human satyrs they pretend sometimes ried away. In this case Chebar and Habor are not
to kill in the chase, derive their cloven-footed  the same.-W. L. A.




CHEDEK                    480               CHELBENAH
CHEDEK. [THORNS.]                           still common in the East; which is usually exCHEDORLAOMER       (LXX. Xov8oX,yoA6\ p,hibited in small cakes about the size of a tea
CHEDORLAOMER  (LXX. Xoo yop      saucer, white in colour, and excessively salt. It
Joseph. XooXX\\Cdopos).  A king of Elam who   sauc,  wi     nd soon becomes excessively hard
has no rind, and soon becomes excessively hard
comes before us in connection with the history of  d dry-being, indeed, not made for long keepAbraham as a great conqueror. He made war           t s beswhen new and comparatively soft;
upon certain kings of South Palestine, and for a and, in this state, large quantities are consumed in
period of twelve years received tribute from them. lumps or crumbs not made up into cakes. All
When, however, this was refused, he, in alliance c s    the East is of very indifferent quality;
with other east Asiatic sovereigns, attacked the and  is within the writer's own  knowledge that
confederates'in the vale of Siddim, which is the the natives infinitely prefer English or Dutch cheese
Salt Sea,' and slew the kings of Sodom   and when they can obtain it. In making cheese the
Gomorrah, carrying off much spoil, together with  common rennet is either butter-milk or a decoction
Lot, Abraham's nephew.   Upon hearing of this, ofthe great-headed thistle, or wild artichoke. The
Abraham armed his trained servants to the number curds are afterwards put into small baskets made
of 318, pursued the victorious army, fell upon them f rushes or palm leaves, which are then tied up
by night, slew the king of Elam and his allies, and  closend the necessary pressure applied.
rescued Lot (Gen. xiv. 1-17). Interesting remarks There are several decisions in the Mishna relaon Chedorlaomer, are to be found in Rawlinson's ve   the pre   e by which cheese was made
Herod., vol. i. pp. 436, 446, where it is suggested  (Choim, viii. 2). This proves that, as observed
that he is the Kudur-Mapula of early Babylonian before, no preparation of milk was regarded as
history (BABYLON).   Mr. Stuart Poole, with   cheese while in a fluid state, or before being subgreat probability, supposes that the conquests ofjected to pressure  In another place (Avoda Sara,
Chedorlaomer are in some way connected with theeee                          dereir
shepherd domination in Egypt.  It app   to i. 5) it is decided that cheese made by foreigners
smeheperd dominat theion in Egypt  It apeas to  could not be eaten, from the fear that it might posme, he says,'that the first invasion of Palestine l be derived from the milk of some animal
byCeorma   r an  hsofetsr'.ba            sibly be derived from the milk of some animal
Dby Chedorlaomer anald his contfederates pro zbably which had been offered in sacrifice to idols.
caused the shepherds to leave the East and settle
in Egypt,' Horce,Egypt. p. I50. The narrative is  CHEKE, SIR JOHN, an eminent scholar, and
strangely supposed by Hitzig, Ps. ii. 176, to be a one of the first to promote the study of Greek in
late fiction referring to the expedition of Senna- England, was born at Cambridge in 15I4. He
cherib against Jerusalem.  Cf. Gen. xiv. 5, and 2 was attached to the opinions of the Reformers, and
Kings xviii. 13.  See on the other side, Tuch  for this suffered much during the reign of Mary.
Genes. 308; Bertheau Israel. Geschichte2I7.-S. L. In an evil hour he consented to recant the views
CHEESE.T     The most important passage in he had professed, and this he did on the 4th of
which this preparation from milk is mentioned in       556, before the queen and the whole
Scripture is that where Job, figuratively describing court. He soon found, however, that the stings
in  court. He soon found, however, that the stings
Scripture is that where ob, figormatively describing of his wn conscience were less easy of endurance
the formation of the fetus in the womb, says- than the persecutions of the queen, and in less than'Hast thou not poured me out like milk,     a year after his recantation, he died of a broken
And curdled (condensed, solidified) me like heart, I3th Sept. 1557. Among his other literary
cheese?' (x. 1o).                       labours was a translation of Matthew's Gospel into
We know not how our biblical illustrators have English, of which the MS., with the exception of
deduced from this that the cheese used in the East one or two leaves, is extant, and has been edited
necessarily was in a semi-fluid state.  It rather by the Rev. J. Goodwin, Camb. I843.  This
alludes to that progressive solidification which is translation is interesting on several accounts, and
common to all cheese, which is always soft when deserves a place in the history of the English Bible.
new, though it hardens when it becomes old. But It was executed, it is believed, about the year 1550.
for the tendency to seek remote and recondite The author's desire was to produce a more purely
explanations of plain things, it must seem perfectly  English translation than those which were making
obvious that to' curdle like cheese' does not mean  their appearance in his day, and which were in his
that curdled milk was cheese; but that milk was judgment disfigured and rendered less generally
curdled to form eventually the hardened cheese. useful by the multitude of foreign, chiefly Latinized,
If the text proves anything as to the condition of words which they contained. In pursuit of this,
cheese, it would rather shew that, when considered he goes so far as to givefro-sent instead of aostles,
fit for use, it was hard, than that it was soft or crossedinstead of crucifed, againraising for resurfluid; the process of solidification being the sub- rection, groundwrought instead of founded, etc. A
ject of allusion, of which curdling the milk is, in few notes are added, partly exegetical, partly rethe case of cheese, only the first though the most flective. It seems to have been the author's intenessential operation. Undoubtedly the Orientals do tion to translate the entire N. T., but he completed
eat curds, or curdled milk; but that therefore their only Matthew and a few verses of Mark.
cheese consists of curdled milk is not the correct CHE      H          i mentn    in Ex
inference. We also eat curds, but do not regard CHELBENAH (            is mentioned in Exod.
curds as cheese-neither do they. The other pas- xxx. 34, as one of the substances from which the
sages describe' cheese' in the plural, as parts of incense for the sanctuary was to be prepared. The
military provision, for which the most solid and  Hebrew word is very similar to the Greek %aXcompact substances are always preferred. Persons Icdv, which occurs as early as the time of Hippoon a march would not like to encumber themselves crates.  The substance is more particularly dewith curdled milk (2 Sam. xvii. 29).          scribed by Dioscorides, who gives FierbTrtov as an
There is much reason to conclude that the cheese additional name, and states that it is an exudation
used by the Jews differed in no respect from that produced by a ferula in Syria.  So Pliny (xii. 25),




CHELBENAH                    481                CHELUBAI
as translated by Holland,'Moreover we have from  of a brownish, or brownish yellow colour, with
Syria out of the same mountain, Amanus, another white spots in the interior, which are the agglutkind of gum, called galbanum, issuing out of an inated tears. Its odour is strong and balsamic,
herb-like fennelgeant, which some call by the name but disagreeable, and its taste warm and bitter. It
of the said resin, others stagonotis. The best gal- is composed of 66 per cent of resin, and 6 of volabanum,. and which is most set by, is grisly and tile oil, with gum, etc., and impurities.  It was
clear, withal resembling hammoniacum.'  Theo- formerly held in high esteem as a stimulant and
phrastus had long previously (Hist. PI. ix. 7) said anti-spasmodic medicine, and is still employed as
that galbanum flows from a Panax of Syria. In such and for external application to discuss indolent
both cases it is satisfactory to find a plant of the tumours. A French author enumerates various
same natural family of Umbelliferae pointed out as pharmaceutic preparations of which it formerly
yielding this drug, because the plant has not yet constituted an ingredient, as' le Mithridate,
been clearly ascertained. The Arabs, however, l'orvietan, le dioscordium de Fracasta,'onguent
seem to have been acquainted with it, as they give des Apotres ou dedacapharmaque d'Avicenna, etc.,
its names. Thus,'galbanum' in Persian works les emplatres divins de Jacques Lemort, manus Dei
has barzu assigned to it as the Arabic, bireeja as magnetique d'Ange Sola,' etc. It is still more to
the Hindoostanee, with khulyan and metonion as our purpose that we learn from Dioscorides that,
the Greek names (evident corruptions of XaX\cdvr in preparing a fragrant ointment, galbanum was
and LerToST7rov, arising from errors in the reading of mixed with other aromatic substances; as under
the diacritical points): Kinneh and nafeel are MeTrcrLov he says, in the Latin translation of
stated to be names of the plant, which is described  Sprengel,' Paratur et in AEgypto unguentum veras being jointed, thorny, and fragrant (Royle, naculo nomine Metopium dictum, scilicet propter
Illust. Himal. Bot. p. 23). Lobel made an attempt galbani permistionem.  Lignum enim e quo galto ascertain the plant by sowing some seeds which banum manat, metopium vocatur. Ex oleo omhe found attached to the gum of commerce:'Ori- phacino et amygdalarum amararum, cardamomo,
tur in hortis nostris hec pervenusta planta semine scheno, calamo, melle, vino, myrrha, balsami
copioso, lato, foliaceo, aromatico, reperto Antwer- semine, galbano et resina componitur.'-J. F. R.
piae in galbani lachryme' (Obs. p. 43 ). The plant
which was thus obtained is the Ferula ferulago of  CHELCIAS (XeXtas, the Greek form of the
Linnaeus, a native of N. Africa, Crete, and Asia Heb. name sip.n Hilkiah). Six persons of this
Minor. It has been objected, however, that it
does not yield galbanum in any of these situa-name arereferred tointheApocrypha.  i. Oneof
tions; but the same objection might be made, the governors (erordrat) of the temple in the time
though erroneously, to the mastich-tree, as not of Josiah, I Esd. I. 8; and the same as the Hilyielding mastich, because it does not do so except kiah, who is called a ruler of the house of God, 2
in a soil and climatesuitable to it. Other plants, Chron. xxxv. 8; and high-priest, 2 Kings xxii. 4.
as the Bubon galbanum and gummiferum, have, in  2 The great-grandfather of Ezra,  Esd. viii. I
consequence, been selected, but with less claim, comp. Ez vii. I. 3. One of the ancestors of
as they are natives of the Cape of Good Hope. Judith, Jnd. viii. I, according to the Vatican text,
The late Professor Don, having found some seeds the Alex. gives a somewhat different genealogy. 4.
of an umbelliferous plant sticking to the galbanum  One of the remoter ancestors of Baruch, Bar. i. I.
of commerce, has named the plant, though yet un- 5. The father of Joachim, high-priest in the house
known, Galbanum officinale. These seeds, however, of Baruch, Bar. i. 7. 6. The father of Susannah,
may or may not have belonged to the galbanum  Sus. w. 2, 29; identified with (i) in the fragment
plant. Dr. Lindley has suggested another plant, of a commentary on Susannah, attributed to Hipwhich he has named Opoidiagalban ifera, and whichpolytus Hpp. Op., ed. Fabrici, vol. i. p. 273 —
grows in Khorassan, in Durrood, whence specimens  N
were sent to this country by Sir John M'Neill, as CHELLUS (XeXou', Judith i. g. This place
yielding an inferior sort of ammoniacum. Upon               (   o   J   t l 9. Th^ place
yielding an inferior sort of ammoniacum. Upon and several others are omitted in the Vulgate).
the whole, it is evident that the plant is yet to be Movers supposes it to be the same as Halhul (osh.
ascertained. Galbanum is in the present day im-      and that Betane mentioned with it is the
ported into this country, both from the Levant and xv. 58), and that Betane mentioned with itis the
same as Beth-anoth (Josh. xv. 59).-J. E. R.
from India.  That from the latter country is exported from Bombay, having been first imported  CHELUB (1..3). I. In the Hebrew text dethither, probably from the Persian Gulf.  It is
therefore probable that it may be produced in thescribed as'the brother of Shua and the father of
countries at the head of that gulf, that is, in the Mehiv' (XaXaj 7rarp'AoX&, Sept. Chron. iv. i ).
northern parts of Arabia or in Persia (portions of 2. The father of Ezri, one of David's'rulers' who
which, as is well known, were included in the Syria was over them that did the work of the field for
of the ancients), perhaps in Kurdistan, which  tillage' ( Chron. xxvii. 26, Sept. XeXoi, Chelub,
nearly corresponds with ancient Assyria.  TheVulg.)-J. E. R.
later Greeks, finding the country to the north of CHELUBAI (; LXX. XaXi), the name
Palestine subject to the Assyrians, called the country), the nam
Assyria, or by contraction Syria. It is on this ac- given in I Chron. ii. 9 to the brother of Jerahmeel,
count that in classical writers the names Assyria and and the son of Hezron, the grandson of Judah.
Syria are so often found interchanged (. c. p. 244). In verses I8 and 42 he is called Caleb. It is proGalbanum, then, is either a natural exudation, bably to the same person that reference is made in
or obtained by incisions from some umbelliferous verse 50, where the LXX. seem to have preserved
plant. It occurs in commerce in the form either the more correct reading; and also in I Chron. iv.
of tears or masses, commonly called lump-fgalbanum. i, where both Heb. and LXX. read Carmi.The latter is of the consistence of wax, tenacious, S. N.
VOl. I.2 1




CHEMAR                     482               CHEMARIMS
CHEMAR ('Inf; Arab.          chomar; Sept. crash, like the pulvis fulminans of. the chemists.
T *-     >  ~^                 This, however, he continues, only occurs along the
do-aaXros; A. V.'pitch'). Luther, like the mo- shore; for, in deep water, it is supposed that these
dern Rabbins, erroneously translates the Hebrew  eruptions shew themselves in large columns of
by' clay.' The Hebrew and Arabic names pro- smoke, which are often seen to rise from the lake.
bably refer to the reddish colour of some of the The fact of the ascending smoke has been much
specimens (Dioscorides, i. 99). The Greek name, questioned by naturalists; and although apparently
whence the Latin Asphaltum, is doubtless derived  confirmed by the testimonies of various travellers,
from the Lake Asphaltites (Dead Sea), whence it collected by Biisching in his Erdbeschreibung, it is
was abundantly obtained. Usually, however, as- not confirmed by the more observant travellers of
phaltum, or compact bitumen, is of a shining black recent years. Pococke (Description of the East,
colour; it is solid and brittle, with a conchoidal etc., ii. sec. 46) presumes that the thick clumps of
fracture, altogether not unlike common pitch. Its asphalt collected at the bottom of the lake have
specific gravity is from  i to 1.6, and it consists been brought up by subterraneous fire, and afterchiefly of bituminous oil, hydrogen gas, and char- wards melted by the agitation of the waters. Also
coal. It is found partly as a solid dry fossil, Strabo (xvi. p. 764) speaks of subterraneous fires
intermixed in layers of plaster, marl, or slate, and in those parts (comp. Burckhardt, Syria, 394).
partly as liquid tar flowing from cavities in rocks  Dr. Robinson, when in the neighbourhood,
or in the earth, or swimming upon the surface of heard from the natives the same story which had
lakes or natural wells (Burckhardt, ii. 77).  To  previously been told to Seetzen and Burckhardt,
judge from Gen. xiv. o1, mines of asphaltum must namely, that the asphaltum flows down the face
have existed formerly on the spot where subse- of a precipice on the eastern shore of the lake,
quently the Dead Sea, or Lake Asphaltites, was until a large mass is collected, when, from its
formed, such as Mariti (Travels, iv. 27), discovered weight or some shock, it breaks off and falls into
on the western shore of that sea. The Palestine the sea (Seetzen, in Zach's Monat. Correspond.
earth-pitch, however, seems to have had the pre- xviii. 441; Burckhardt, p. 394; Robinson, ii
ference over all the other sorts (Plin. xxviii. 23; 229).  This, however, he strongly doubts, for
Discor. i. p. Ioo). It was used among the ancients assigned reasons, and it is agreed that nothing of
partly for covering boats, paying the bottoms of the kind occurs on the western shore. The provessels (comp. Niebuhr, ii. p. 336; Gen. vi. I4; fessor rather inclines to receive the testimony of
Exod. ii. 3; Joseph. De Bell..d. iv. 8. 4; the local Arabs, who affirm that the bitumen only
Buckingham, Mesopot. p. 346), and partly as a appears after earthquakes.  They allege that after
substitute for mortar in buildings; and it is thought the earthquake of 1834 huge quantities of it were
that the bricks of which the walls of Babylon were cast upon the shore, of which the Jehalin Arabs
built (Gen. xi. 3; Strabo, xvi. p. 743; Herod. alone took about 60 kuntars (each of 98 lbs.) to
i. 179; Plin. xxxv. 51; Ammian. Marcell. xxiii. 6; market; and it was corroboratively recollected by
Vitruv. viii. 3; comp. Joseph. Antiq. i. 4. 3) had  the Rev. Eli Smith, that a large amount had that
been cemented with hot bitumen, which imparted year been purchased at Beirut by the Frank merto them great solidity. In ancient Babylon asphal- chants. There was another earthquake on January
tum was made use of also for fuel, as the environs I, 1837, and soon after a large mass of asphaltum
have from the earliest times been renowned for the  (compared by one person to an island, and by
abundance of that substance (Diod. Sic. ii. 2; another to a house) was discovered floating on the
Herod. i. 179; Dion. Cass. lxviii. 27; Strabo, sea, and was driven aground on the western side,
xvi. p. 738; Plut. Alex. c. 35; Theodoret, Qucst. near Usdum. The neighbouring Arabs assembled,
in Genes. 59; Ritter, Geogr. ii. 345; Buckingham, cut it up with axes, removed it by camels' loads,
Mespot. p. 346). Neither were the ancient Jews and sold it at the rate of four piastres the rutl, or
unacquainted with the medicinal properties of that pound; the product is said to have been about
mineral (Joseph. De Bell. Jud. iv. 8. 4).      3000 dollars. Except during these two years, the
Asphaltum was also used among the ancient Sheik of the Jehalin, a man fifty years old, had
Egyptians for embalming the dead. Strabo (xvi.) never known bitumen appear in the sea, nor heard
and many other ancient and modern writers assert, of it from his fathers (Robinson's Bib. Researches,
that only the asphalt of the Dead Sea was used for ii. 230). This information may serve to illustrate
that purpose; but it has in more recent times been  the account of Josephus, that'the sea in many
proved, from experiments made on mummies, that places sends up black masses of asphaltum, which
the Egyptians employed slaggy mineral pitch in float on the surface, having the form and size of
embalming the dead. This operation was per- headless oxen' (De Bell. av.d. iv. 8. 4); and that
formed in three different ways: first, with slaggy  of Diodorus (ii. 48), who states that the bitumen
mineral pitch alone; second, with a mixture of this is thrown up. in masses, having the appearance of
bitumen and a liquor extracted from the cedar, islands.-E. M.
called cedoria; and third, with a similar mixture,
to which resinous and aromatic substances were   CHEMARIMS (tSDn,_j; Sept. XwCuapit).
added (Haiiy. Mineral. ii., 315).             This name is applied exclusively in the 0. T. to
Asphaltum is found in masses on the shore of idolatrous priests (Hos. x. 5, 2 Kings xxiii. 5;
the Dead Sea, or floating on the surface of its Zeph. i. 4). According to Kimchi, who derives it
waters. Dr. Shaw (Travels in Barbary and the from a word signifying blackness, sadness, it conLevant) was told that this bitumen, for which the tains an allusion to the dark garments and ascetic
Dead Sea is so famous, rises at certain times from
the bottom of the sea in large pieces of semiglo-habits of the priests. The Syr. 1   is used i
bular form, which, as soon as they touch the sur- the Epistle to the Hebrews of the Jewish priests and
face, and the external air operates upon them, of Christ.  Comp. Gesen. on Is. xxii. 12; xxxviii.
burst asunder in a thousand pieces, with a terrible!15; and Thes. s.v. Fiirst says that the applica



CHEMNITZ                   483               CHEPHIRAH
tion of this word specially to idolatrous priests is a coupled with Moloch, favour the theory that he
purely Hebrew idiom. In the Targ. Onkel. K'nlD  had some analogy with the planet Saturn.-J. N.
is used for Inf in Gen. xlvii. 22; Judg. xvii. 5; etc.  CHENAANAH (r;3YI, Sept. Xavavdv; Vulg.
CHEMNITZ, MARTIN, a distinguished theolo- Chanana. Fiirst, in Hebr. Wortb. s. v., says it
gian of the x6th century, was born on the 9th is the original form of the noun V3_3, Canaan 
November I522, in Mark Brandenburg. At the
November 1522, in Mark Brandenburg. At the and suggests that the prevalence of such names as
age of fourteen he was sent to the school at Wit-  and Tsu arsis and Cust among the Benjamies,
tenberg, where he had an opportunity of hearing indicates special connection byintermarriage with
Luther preach. He was soon taken back to his                 the straits to which this tribe
parents. In I539-42 he was a student at the uni-   specially reduced may have driven its memversity of Magdeburg; in 1543 he went to Frank- bers to special alliances with their Phoenician
furt-on-the-Oder; and in 1545 Melancthon had neighbours). Thispropername occurs fivetimes.
him settled at Wittenberg, and helped him in his  I, o  ron. vii. po it designates a  great-grandstudies. In 1547 he went to Kcenigsberg, where soI. In I Chron. vii. Io it designates a great-grandstudies. In I547 he went to Koenigsberg, where     of the patriarch Benjamin; CHENAANAH being
he was favourably received on account of his astro- the  rth  seven sons  Bilhan, who was the son
logical knowledge. Here he began to proseu   the fourth of seven sons of Bilhan, who was the son
logical knowledge. Here he began to prosecute of Jediael, the third son of Benjamin. Chenaanah
theological studies.  Having opposed Osiander's is described as, like his brethren, the head of a
doctrine of justification by faith, his post of libra-  s described as,  hi ethen the hea of va
rian was made uncomfortable, and he removed M     acha or clan, an   d a mightymanofvalour.'
again to Wittenberg, I553, where he attached him-s xxCHEN        i thefather of the false proself closely to Melancthon; but in 1555 went to   23, HEAAAH is the father of the false prophet Zedekiah, who smote Micaiah the son of
Brunswick as preacher. Here, too, he became a   h  o the cheek, and induced Ahab to underteacher of theology. He died April 8th, i586, Imlah on the cheek, and induced Ahab to underteacher of theology. He died April 8th, 1586) take the military expedition to Ramoth-Gilead, in
having led a very active life, chiefly taken up with take the mperished.-P..t
controversial theology. His connection with M6r- 
lin, the great opponent of Osiander, had an impor-  CHENANI (I., slortened from  n,3, from
tant influence on his life and opinions. He is the  n to prepare),'Jah is preparing,' Fiirst) is menauthor of De caena Domini, 1560; Anatomeproposi- T 
tionum  Alberti Hardenbergii de cena Domini; tioned but once; in Neh. ix. 4  He was one of
Fundamenta sane doctrine de vera et substantia/i the Levites who took part in the solemn service of
prastentia, exhibitione et szmtione corporis et san- confession and praise to God, after the public readguinzis Domini in cena; * De duzabus na/uris in ing of the law. There -is much variation in the
Christo; Theoogiz 7esuzitarum prccipua capita; text of this verse. Thus in the name before us
Examinis conciZii Tridentiniper Martinum Cham- one of Kennicott's MSS. (80o), and six of De
nicium scripti opus integrum, quatuor partes, etc., Rossi's, read. T a'sons of Chenani,' instead of
a work of great learning, ability, and acuteness,'3 A 31'Bani, Chenani' (for there is no conjunction
which was published in parts, and occupied ten    T
years of labour Bedenken wderden neuen  iten- in the original). This reading is very probable, for
byeares nof labour; Bedenke wider den neuen Wien- there is not only another Bani in the verse, but
bergf is 59en Catecrismum; and Harmi a cuatupord the Sept. supports the MSS., its version being viol
Evangg. 1593, afterwards continued and completed XwE  (or as the Cod. Alex. has it, viol Xvav).
by Lyser and Gerhard, 3 vols. fol. I704  A list of     o version assimilates the names of verse
thirty-two printed works of Chemnitz is given by 4 to those of verse 5, omits Chenani, and in place
Rethmeyer. The only one of any importance at of it reads Pethahia. In the omission of Chenani,
the present day is his great work against Catholi-  supported b the    i      s of LXX
cism. See Rethmeyer's Historice ecclesiastics in- iis        he Cod. Frid. manu. The Latin
cyt urbis Brunv   pars III.S. D.  which omits viol XwvevI, primd manu. The Latin
clYtL   urbis Brunsvii pars III.-S. D.  Vulgate translates as A. V.-P. H.
CHEMOSH (d'y3; Sept. Xa/cuSs) is the name    CHENANIAH (nl^n, God's goodness; Sept.
of a national god of the Moabites (I Kings xi. 7; Xwvevta), a master of the temple music, who con2 Kings xxiii. 13; Jer. xlviii. 7, who are for this ducted the grand musical services when the ark
reason called the'people of Chemosh,' in Num. was removed from the house of Obed-edom to Jexxi. 29), and of the Ammonites (Judg. xi. 24), rusalem (I Chron. xv. 22).
whose worship was introduced among the Israel-  C   PHRA                   v' Set
ites by Solomon (i Kings xi. 7). No etymology  CHEPHIRAH       (mm,'a     vilage;  Sept.
of the name which has been proposed, and no at- KeLbpa), one of the towns of the Gibeonites who
tempt which has been made to identify this god by a clever trick induced Joshua and the Israelites
with others whose attributes are better known, to enter into an alliance with them (Josh. ix. 3,
are sufficiently plausible to deserve particular sq.) The other towns of this tribe were Gibeon,
notice. Jerome's notion that Chemosh is the same Beeroth, and Kirjath-jearim. Chephirah was alas Baal-Peor has no historical foundation; and the lotted to Benjamin, and its position is indicated by
only theory which rests on any probability is that its being mentioned in connection with Kirjathwhich assumes a resemblance between Chemosh jearim and Mizpeh (Josh. xviii 26; Ezra ii. 25).
and Arabian idolatry (cf. Beyer, Addit. ad Selden. On the western declivity of the mountain range,
p. 322; Pocock, Specimen, p. 307). Jewish tradi- eleven miles from Jerusalem, and four from Kirtion affirms that he was worshipped under the sym- jath-jearim, is a ruined village called Kefir, which
bol of a black star; and Maimonides states that doubtless marks the site of the old city of Chephihis worshippers went bareheaded, and abstained rah. After remaining unknown, or at least unfrom the use of garments sewn together by the noticed, for more than 2000 years, its site was disneedle.  The black star, the connection with  covered by Dr. Robinson in 1852 (Robinson, B. R.,
Arabian idolatry, and the fact that Chemosh is iii. 146; Handbook of S. and P., 22I).-J. L. P.




CHERETHITES                   484                CHERUBIM
CHERETHITES and PELETHITES (%n.1.             Addendum.-No spot in Palestine is better fitted
Ln% Crethi and Plhi without the final b in th'e to afford a secure asylum to the persecuted than
^   1, Crethi and Plchi without the final ~ in the~....  C                                      Wady el-Kelt.  On each side of it extend the bare,
plural; Sept. Xepel icKa 4e\XcOl), names borne by desolate hills of the wilderness of Judaea, in whose
the royal life-guards in the time of David (2 Sam. fastnesses David was able to bid defiance to Saul.
viii. 18; x Chron. xviii. 17). Prevailing opinion The Kelt is one of the wildest ravines in this wild
translates their names'Headsmen and Foot-run- region. In some places it is not less than 500 feet
ners.'  In the later years of David, their captain, deep, and just wide enough at the bottom to give
Benaiah, rose to a more commanding importance a passage to a streamlet (i Kings xvii. 6) like a
than the generals of the regular troops; just as in silver thread, and to afford space for its narrow
imperial Rome the praefect of the praetorian guards fringe of oleanders. The banks are almost sheer
became the second person in the empire. It is precipices of naked limestone, and are here and
evident that, to perpetrate any summary deed, there pierced with the dark openings of caves and
Benaiah and the guards were chiefly relied on. grottoes, in some one of which probably Elijah lay
That they were strictly a body-guard is distinctly hid. The Wady opens into the great valley, and
stated in 2 Sam. xxiii 23. The grammatical form of from its depths issues a narrow line of verdure into
the Hebrew words is nevertheless not quite clear; the white plain; it gradually spreads as it advances
and, as the Cherethites are named as a nation of the until it mingles at the distance of a mile or more
south (I Sam. xxx. I4), some are disposed to be- with the thickets that encompass Riha, the modem
lieve Crethi and Plethi to be foreign Gentile names representative of Jericho.  To any one passing
used collectively. No small confirmation of this may down from Jerusalem or Samaria towards Jericho,
be drawn from 2 Sam. xv. 18;'All the Chereth- the appropriateness of the words in i Kings xvii. 3
ites, and all the Pelethites, and all the Gittites, would be at once apparent-' the brook Cherith,
600 men,' etc. If the two first words were gram- that is before ordan.'
matical plurals, like the third (Gittites), it is  Wady'el-Kelt is unquestionably the valley of
scarcely credible that final 1 should be added to the Achor, in which the Israelites stoned Achan (Josh.
third, and not also to the other two. As the word  vii. 26), and which served to mark the northern
all is repeated three times, and 600 men is the border of Judah (xv. 7). Along the southern bank
number intended the third time; the Cherethites of the Wady, by a long and toilsome pass, ascends
and Pelethites must have been reckoned by thethe ancient and only road from Jericho to Jerusahundred; and since the Gittites were clearly lem. This is doubtless'the going up to Adumforeigners, all the a priori improbability which some  im which is on the south sideof the river' (xv. 7).
have seen in David's defending himself by a The Kelt being near Mount Quarantania, the traforezgn guard falls to the ground.            ditional scene of the Temptation, was a favourite
That in 2 Sam. xv. I, Absalom's runners are resort for anchorites when the example of St.
called by the name DtyI, which they also after- Saba made that order fashionable in Palestine
wards bear, may perhaps go to prove that Plethi (Robinson, B. R., i. 558 Handbook of S. and P.,
or Pelethites does not mean' runners.' Indeed, as I9I). Van de Velde locates Cherith at Ain Fesail
such a meaning of the word cannot be got out ofa few miles north of the Kelt (ii 3Io).-J. L. P.
pure Hebrew, but recourse to the Arabic language
is needed, the probability would in any case be,  CHERUBIM    (      or.3F  or b:ll, sing. 3131;
that the institution, as well as the name, was im-' ~: 
ported by David from the south. Ewald believes LXX. Xepov; A. V. Cherubims where the s is
that Plethi means Philistines, and that it has beena superfuous addition to the Hebrew plural form.
slightly corrupted to rhyme with Crethi. May not The singular is seldom used when they are spoken
Plethi have been from another dialect? Be this a fgnericaly, except in Ps. xvii. i, and as a proper
it may, these body-guards for the prince are notname Ezr. ii. 59).'Cherubim' is the name given
found under the reign of Saul  [ARMY; CARIA.] by the sacred writers to certain well-known religious
found unr te rn                               symbols, intended to represent a high order of spiritual beings,'and variable, within certain condiCHERITH     (nl'13; Sept. Xo/AOd), a river in tions, by the pictorial or poetic imagination of the
Palestine, on the banks of which the prophet Hebrew people. A correct conception of their
Elijah found refuge (I Kings xvii. 3-7). Eusebius nature and purpose is of so much importance, that
and others have conceived themselves bound by it has occupied the attention of almost every writer,
thewoherds have cot them s   Jord Jewish and Christian, who has devoted himself to
the words Pt'n IJ! S=, rendered'east of the Jor- biblical criticism; yet, after the vast learning and
dan,' to seek the rver in the Trans-Jordanic coun- labour which has been applied to an elucidation of
try: but although the words sometimes may     this interesting and difficult subject, many of our
ceive this translation (as in Gen. xxv. I; Josh. xix. conclusions must still remain, in a high degree, in
II), they properly denote simply before- before  definiteanduncertain
the Jordan' (comp. Gem  xviii. 6)-that is, in                rta 
coming from  Samaria   And this interpretation,    As the chief data for our inquiry lie within
which places the Cherith west of the Jordan, agreesthe narrow limits of afew passages, to which concoming from     Samaria.  And this interpretation, the narrow limits of a few passages, to which conwith the history, withJosephus oAnf t  viii. r. 2)s stant reference must be made, it will be best to
and with the local traditions which have uniformly mmence by bringin these passages together, and
placed the river of Elijah on this side the Jordan. bjeting them to a careful analysis. In the book
Dr. Robinson drops a suggestion that it may beof Genesis cherubim are onlyonce mentioned (Gen.
the Wady Kelt, which is formed by the union of iii. 24), where the office of preventing man's access
many streams in the mountains west of Jericho, to the tree of life is assigned to  the cherubim
issuing from a deep gorge, in which it passes by  (:' i,  not as in A. V.' cherubims') with the
that village and then across the plain to the Jor- flame of the waving sword.' They are thus abdan. It is dry in summer.-J. K.               ruptly introduced, without any intimation of their




CHERUBIM                    485               CHERUBIM
shape and nature, as though they were too well the fact. All that we learn about these figures is,
understood to require comment. That some angelic that they each had a body ten cubits high (i Kings
beings are intended is obvious, and the attempts to v. 23), and stood on theirfeet (2 Chron. iii. 13), so
refer the passage to volcanic agency (Sickler, Ideen that the monstrous conception of winged child-faces
zu einem Vulkan, Erdglobus, p. 6), or to the inflam- is an error which should long ago have been banished
mable bituminous region near Babylon (Plin. ii. from Christian iconography (De Saulcy, Hist. de
o09, etc.), is a specimen of that valueless rational- PArt yudaique, p. 25). The expression'cheruism which unwisely turns the attention from the bims of image work, in 2 Chron. iii. 10 (
inner spirit of the narrative to its mere external    LXX., 
form. We might perhaps conjecture, from the use      LXX., pv     K XWv, Vulg. opere statu
of the article, that there were supposed to be a defi- ario, Marg., of moveable work), is very obscure, but
nite number of cherubim, and it seems that four is would probably give us no farther insight into the
the mystic number usually attached to the concep- subject (Dorjen, de opere Zaazyim in Ugolini, Thes.
tion of them. As the number four has special sig- viii. No. 6); but in I Chron. xxviii. I8, 19, we learn
nificance in Hebrew symbolism-being the number that David had given to Solomon a model for these
to express the world and divir e revelation (Baehr's figures, which are there called' the chariot of the
Symbolik., i. xI9, sq.)-this consideration must not cherubim' (Vulg. quadriga cherubim).  We are
be lost sight of.                             not to suppose from this that any wheels supported
We next meet with cherubim in Exod. xxv. I8 the figures, but we must take'cherubim' in ap(xxxvii. 7), where Moses receives the command to position to'chariots' (Bertheau, ad loc.)  The
make two cherubim of solid gold, one at each end same phrase is found in Eccles. xlix. 8, and is in
of the capporeth or mercy-seat, and out of the same both cases an allusion to the poetical expression,
piece with it (n s)    with outstretched wings'He rode upon a cherub, and did fly' (2 Sam.
ces  _., one  o-teh xxii. Ii; Ps. xvii. o), an image magnificently ex.
and'faces one to another and towards the mercy- panded in the subsequent vision of Ezekiel, which
seat.' Here, again, the introduction of the cheru- for that reason has received from the Rabbis the
bim is equally abrupt, and it is most remarkable title of 1n'1 D,'the chariot.' Although the mere
that, while the minutest instructions are given for word' cherub' is used in these passages, yet the
the other details of the tabernacle furniture, the simple human figure is so totally unadapted to percherubim are left entirely undescribed, and we only form* the function of a chariot, that we are almost
learn that they were single figures with faces and driven to the conclusion arrived at by De Saulcy
wings. But with what faces?  If we may trust on this ground alone, that the normal type of the.
the unanimous testimony of Jewish tradition, we cherub involved the body of an ox, as well as
must suppose that they are the faces of human be- spreading wings and a human face (Hist. de'Art
ings, according to the positive assertion of Maimo- 7udaique, p. 29). If this conjecture be correct, we
nides, Abarbanel, Aben Ezra, etc. (Otho. Lex. Rab. shall have in these symbols a counterpart, exact in
s. v. Cherubim; Buxtorf, Hist. Arc. Fced. p. IOO). the minutest particulars, to the human-headed
In this connection, we mayobserve, without pressing oxen, touching both walls with their wings, which
it into the argument, the fact that the phrase'faces have been discovered in the chamber. of Nimroud
one to another,' is literally,'faces, man to his and Khorsabad.  This close analogy has been
brother' (JynPM-  iN,* Exod. xxv. 2o); nor do pointed out by Mr. Layard and others (Nineveh
- *T  V  *                          and Babylon, ii 643). We shall find further on,
we see any difficulty in the command that they were the strongest additional confirmations of this reto look' one to another'' towards the mercy-seat,' markable inference. We may here mention the
because the former expression may only mean that suspicion of its truth, which we cannot but derive
they were to be exactly opposite to each other. from the strange reticence of Jbsephus, who in one
Similar figures were to be enwoven on the ten blue, place (Antif. iii. 6. 5) calls the cherubim winged
red, and crimson curtains of the tabernacle (Exod. creatures, unlike any existing shape (Zwa rereav&,
xxvi. I). The promise that God would'meet and  uopov 8' o0ts&   TWv r'  &vdOp6frw v  pa,6Ywv
commune with Moses from between the two cheru-  apaXnai ), and in another (viii. 3. 3), declares
bin' (Exod. xxv. 22), originates the constant occur- that no one could een conjecture their true form
rence of that expression as a description of the (oSdels biroact L rwe frav dciret' ot r elirdara 8ivTa).
divine abode and presence (Num. vii. 89; I Sam. Now, it is hardly conceivable that an emblem seen
iv. 4; Is. xxxvii. 16; Ps. lxxx. i; xcix. i, etc.)  daily by multitudes of priests, and known to the
It has been sometimes disputed whether the Jews from the earliest ages; could be so completely
colossal cherubim of olive wood, overlaid with gold  secret and forgotten as this. If the cherubim were
with outspread wings, touching in the centre of the simply winged genii, there would have been no
oraFle and reaching to either wall, placed by Solo- possible reason why tosephus should have been
mon in the Holy of Holies, were substitutes for, ashamed to mention the fact, and, in that case, he
or additions to, the original golden pair. The lat- would hardly have used the ambiguous word Zgov.
ter is probably the truth, for had the Mosaic cheru- If on the otherhandi theywere semi-bovine in shape,
bim been lost, we should have been informed of Josephus, who was of course familiar with the revolting idolatry of which his nation was accused
* Compare the corresponding phrase S;ib   (Tac., Hist. v. 4; Jos. c. Apion, ii. sec. 7, p. 475),
nnn'woman to her sister' where wing oy had the best reason to conceal their real form
wo         n to hr s' whe wngs only (Spencer, de Legg. Ritt. Hebr., III. iv. 2 ad ff.), and
are referred to. Hence it is an error to lay any to avert, as far as possible, all further inquiry about
stress on what is a mere idiom.  Cherubim' are them.
sometimes spoken of in the masculine, sometimes
in the feminine; another proof of their indeter- * It must be admitted that Ps. Ixviii. 17, slightly
minate character.                             invalidates the inference.




CHERUBIM                    486                CHERUBIM
Arks, surmounted by mysterious winged guar- could hardly have been regarded as otherwise than
dians, were used in the religious service of most idolatrous; but in the words of S. Thomas Aquiancient nations, and especially in Egypt (Plut. de nas,'Non ponebanturad cultum, quod prohibebaIsid., xxxix.; Wilkinson's Anc. Egypt, v. 271; See tur primo legis prsecepto, sed in signumn mrysterzi.'
ARK), but none of them involved the sublime and  We again find here an argument in favour of a
spiritual symbolism of the cherubim on the mercy- shape other than that of a mere winged man. Such
seat,-at once* guardians of the Divine oracles and  figures, the direct representations of angels, would
types of God's presence for the expiation of sin. have been far more dangerous and questionable
But a question here arises, how the profuse intro- than such a compound enigma as a human-faced
duction of these figures into the tabernacle was and winged ox. The latter would be in direct acreconcileable with obedience to the second com- cordance alike with the letter and spirit of the
mandment. It is certain that the rigid observance Decalogue; the former would be only defensible if
of this commandment was as serious a hindrance to it resulted from a direct command.
the plastic arts among the Jews as the similar in-  A  remarkable comparison in Ezekiel (xxviii.
junctions of the Koran are to the Mohammedans; 14-I7) throws great light on our views about the
and yet no word of condemnation was breathed   nature and object of these cherubim on the Capagainst the cherubim, though Josephus even ven- poreth, and also serves to bring them into connectures to charge Solomon with distinct disobedience  tion with the vengeful guardians of Paradise, and
to the Law for placing oxen under the brazen   to confirm their purely emblematical character. In
sea (ciLJaprel a6rbv trvXev xal ~4a7)'vac  rep p this passage the king of Tyre, in his'wisdom,
pv fvuXaK'v rev Vot4uCiwv). The cherubim, in- beauty, magnificence, and perfection,' under his
deed, were made in obedience to a distinct com- robe and canopy of ruby, chrysolite, and chrysomand; but how was it that they did not offend the prase, and in the midst of flutes and tabrets, is
consciences or seduce the allegiance of the theo- compared to one who has been'in Eden the garcratic Hebrews? The answer seems to be, that den of God,' to'the anointed cherub that covereth,'
the second commandment only forbids the plastic and to'the covering cherub from the midst of the
arts when prostituted to the direct object of idola- stones of fire.' The first of these expressions (v. 14)
try, and Tertullian is right in defending the intro- is rendered by St. Jerome,' Tu es cherub extentus
duction of cherubim on the ground that they were et protogens sc. arcam,' and is obviously an allusion
a simplex ornamentum (c. Marcion, ii. 22); even  to Exod. xxv. 20, I Kings vi. 24, as is clear from
the Talmudists allowed the use of images for the reference, in thesame verse, to the'holy mounpurely decorative purposes (Kalisch on Exod., p. tain of God;' the'stones of fire,' or gems of fiery
346). Besides, they represented created beings as splendour (cf. Mart.,xiv. og9; Stat., Theb. ii. 276)
created beings, and also as themselves in the atti- are the hidden palace-treasures of the secluded
tude of humility and adoration (Exod. xxv. 20'; I monarch (cf. Lucan., Pharsal x. II2); while the
Pet. i. 12), so that instead of violating the con- king himself, guarding them in the midst of his
mandment they expressed its highest spirit, in thus lonely splendour, recalls to the mind the glorious
vividly symbolising God's supremacy over the crea- beings who protect the material beauties of Para.
tures which stood on the highest step of life, and  dise, and the mysterious moral treasures of the
were, in fact, the ideal of absolute and perfect Divine Covenant. - That these beings are typically
created existence (Bahr, Symbol. i. 340, sq.)  We regarded, appears yet further in the opening exmay add that the danger was less, because, in all pression (v. I2),'thou art the seal of similitude,
probability, they were seen by none but the priests and the crown of beauty' (LXX. vers.)-i.e., thou
(Cornel. a Lapide on Exod. xxv. 8); and when, in  art like a splendid hieroglyph of created prethe desert, the ark was moved from   place to  eminence.
place, it was oovered over with a triple veil (Num.  As yet we have only heard of cherubs presented
iv. 5, 6), before which even the Levites were not as single figures, but the composite creature-forms,
suffered to approach it (Bochart, Hieroa. II. with which we are familiar through Ezekiel and the
xxxiv. ad. ff.) It may even be the case that the Apocalypse, had their archetypes also in the temshape of the cherubim was designedly considered  ple. For we are told that, on the borders of the
as indefinite and variable-'einetwandelbare Hiero- molten sea, and on the plates of the ledges, Sologlyphe'-that the tendency to worship them might mon graved lions, oxen, and cherubim, and'cherustill further be obviated. This wavering and in- bims, lions, and palm-trees' (I Kings vii. 29,
distinct conception of them was due to their sym- 36). Villalpandus explains these passages by apbolical character, a factso thoroughly understood  position, as though the lion and oxen were themamong all Oriental nations as at once to save the selves cherubic emblems; and in this there is little
Jews from any strong' temptation, and to raise  doubt that he is right, as may be seen from the
them above the breath of suspicion. It is both  parallel description in Ezek. xli., where the figures
important and necessary to bear this in mind, be- of men and young lions between palm-trees are
cause it will save us from futile inquiries as to the called cherubim (w. I8, 19). Indeed it seems clear
objective reality, as well as the ideal truth of that a figure with eitherof the four component faces
cherubic existences.  Had they been'a likeness of may be called a cherub, and the shapes of Ezekiel's
anything,' instead of,a changeable emblem, they  vision, which were the fullest and completest emblem  of these existences, might be ideally indi* We may mention two fanciful applications of cated by a single shape and face. Besides, as a
these figures.  Some have compared them to the  quadriform shape could not, in days when pertwo angels (John xx. 12) in the tomb of Christ spective was unknown, be represented in alto(Otho, Lex. Rabb. s. v.); others to Jews and Gentiles relievo on aflat surface, the artist, whether a Bezaopposed to each other, yet both looking to a com- leel or a Hiram, could only represent two, or one
mon mercy-seat (Godwin's Mos. andAar. ii. I. 7). face as visible at a time, and by alternating the
+ J. F. v. Meyer.                           faces give the full type. The absence of eagle



CHERUBIM                    487                CHERUBIM
headed figures in Solomon's actual, and Ezekiel's human hands three times repeated (Ezek. i. 8; x.
mystic temple, is the less surprising, because the 8, 21), would be singularly superfluous if the
aquiline element was abundantly symbolised by the human figure was their normal type. We have
mantling wings (Spencer, de Legg. Hebr.. c.) We already seen other strong reasons to adopt the
cannot, however, agree with Grotius, Spencer, etc., belief that they were normally represented as
in supposing that, D^Bm, means appearances and not winged oxen, and the proofs of that position will
faces, ~~~accumulate as we proceed.
faces, so that the cherub would be regarded as a  Instead of full f eyes, some would render 
single-headed figure composed of four elements; an
opinion obviously untenable, and amply refuted by'colours,' referring it to the fugitive opalescent reGataker, Miscell. Advers., II. x., p. 323 (see flected tints which fell about them, and asking
Rosenmiller, Schol. in Ezek. i. o1).           what was the use of these eyes when the faces
We now pass to'the chariot' or vision of looked every way, or how on feathers there could
Ezekiel, which must always be regarded as the be room for the sensorium, optic nerve, etc. (Taylocus classicus respecting cherubs. In the first of lor's Calmet, Fr. clii. cclxxxiii.) It is superfluous
these sublime visions (Ezek. i. 4-28), the prophet to observe that the question is decided at once by
sees a whirlwind out of the north, a great cloud  y4uovra 6dOaXu\^v, in Rev. iv. 6, and we only menand an infolding fire (comp. Gen. iii. 24,' a tion it to shew the absurdities necessarily involved
sword infolding itself'), and out of the midst of this in these heavy attempts to reduce the rapture of a
rolling amber-coloured flame, the dim outline of prophetic ecstacy into shapes of anatomical prefour quadriform living-creatures, with straight legs, cision. Such matter of fact criticisms of glowing
calves feet, and the similitude of a human hand un- poetic imaginations are radically erroneous, as all
der their four wings. The faces were those of a attempts are which confuse rhetoric with logic.
man, an ox, a lion, and an eagle; and they flashed  The fact that even a Raphael (in his vision of Ezeto and fro like lightning. They (or it) were up- kiel) fails to give any satisfactory picture of the
lifted on the broad concentric hands of dreadfully  marvellous image, suffices to prove the inadequacy
high living wheels, and supporfed on their heads, or of the highest* art to attain the sublime heights of
head (for, as they are both masculine and feminine, the poet's inspired imagination. A curious resemso they are both four and one, plural and singular, blance has been pointed out between the general
w. 5, 19, 20, 21, 22), a firmament like terrible features of the molten sea in Solomon's temple, and
crystal, whereon gleamed the likeness of a sapphire- this compound image (Vitringa, Observatt. Sacr.
coloured throne, on which in dim human Epiphany  IV. i. sec. I7, Sf.); nor is it strange, considering
was seen the glory of God.   They are silent, how often this imposing object must have beei
and the Prophet did not know what they were, seen by Ezekiel in his boyhood, and how strong a
except that they Were nl'J,'a living creature,' hold every ornament of that beloved temple took
_.._~t, *to7 ~n his priestly and devout imagination
or n1in,'living creatures.' But in Ezek. x., when  o h  es     devout imagination.
It was professedly in vision that Ezekiel saw the
they again appear as the gorgeous chariot-throne of cherubim (Kimchi on Ezek. x. 8), and it is idle to
Jehovah, then, and then first, he recognises that they attribute objective reality to the imagery of a dream.
are cherubim (x. 20), and he adds the additional Who has thought of inquiring whether the ladder of
particulars that their wings sounded like thunder Jacob or the great sheet of St. Peter were actual and
(x. 5, Ps. xxix. 3), and that their bodies, as well as material things? The ideal truths thus revealed to
the peripheries of their wheels, were' distinct with the prophet were necessarily translated into the forms
eyes.' In this new description the prophet adds a  of his finite understanding, and were thus permeated
single expression, which, in all probability, is the by his own individuality, and coloured by the circlue to the right understanding of the subject; for, cumstances of his life. The cherubim of this Apoin v. 14, he says,' the first face was the face of a calypse were so moulded by the workings of his
cherub,' the second of a man, the third of a lion, high imagination, that he did not at first recognise
and the fourth of an eagle. Comparing this with the old Mosaic symbol in these mysterious beings
Ezek. i. o1, we find that'the face of a cherub is who formed for the Divine Being at once a living
identical'with theface of an ox.' If we set aside chariot and a lightning throne.  We shall afterall preconceived prejudices, and the influence of wards explain the chief details of the composition
long tradition, we seem driven by this to the* irre- which recur in the'living creatures' of the Revelasistible conclusion that the idea of the cherubic tion of St. John (Rev. iv. 6-II; v. 8), where the
shape was predominantly bovine; or, at least, if rendering of Zwa by'beasts' is the most unfortuthis inference (unhesitatingly adopted by Grotius, nate in the whole English version. It should be
Spencer, Bochart, etc., who speak of them as An- rendered' Immortalities,' and they differ from the
geli IuoaXoJLopqfol) should seem to militate against cherubim of Ezekiel in having six wings instead of
Ezek. i. 5, it is certain that the cherubim, when re- four, in speaking and giving praise instead of keeppresented as single figures, were either repre- ing an awful silence, and in being single instead of
sented as winged oxen (perhaps with human      quadriform. We have, however, already seen that
heads) or as winged men. But Ezek. i. 5 refers, even in Ezekiel there is a perpetual variation bewe believe, only to the erect figure, the' os sub- tween one single tetramorphic being, and the'fourlime,' while the prominent mention that they had  fold-visaged four'
* Lightfoot seems to think that the cherubim of  * An attempt to render the cherubim of Ezekiel
the Holiest were quadriform, and explains this in a Greek Mosaic of Mount Athos (given in Mr.
verse by the precarious supposition that the bovine Jamieson's Sacred and Legendary Art, p. 136, No.
face was at the high-priest's right, and was there- 49) is not wholly destitute of a rude sublimity. See,
fore the one he saw most often. and most clearly too, Milton's magnificent amplification, Par. Lost,
(Descript. Templi., Opp. I. 652).              vi. 744, sq., 836.




CHERUBIM                    488                CHERUBIM
We are then, from a review of all these pas- stitute them the representative and quintessence of
sages, entitled to infer that although the complete creation, placed in subordination to the great
symbol of the cherubim was composed of four se- Creator (Leyrer, im Zellers Worterb. s.v.) The
parate or united forms of life, they might be suff- heads, too, represent not only creatures, perfect
ciently indicated by any one of these four elements, after their kind, but also perfect qualities, as
and that the shape in which they were commonly re- love, constancy, magnanimity, sublimity, the free
presented was either that of a winged ox (perhaps consciousness of man, the strong courage of the
with a human head), or of a winged man (perhaps lion, the enduring strength of the ox, the rapid
with calves' feet).  The final argument, which to flight of the eagle (Hoffman); and possibly the
our minds gives preponderance to the former view, number four may indicate the universe as conis the overwhelming amount of proof which tends posed of four elements or four quarters.  The
to shew that Aaron in the wilderness, and Jero- four traditional (?) standards of the quadrilateral
boam at Dan and Bethel, intended by the figures, Israelite encampment (Num. ii.), the lion of Judah,
which in Scripture are contemptuously called   the man of Reuben, the eagle of Dan, the ox of
calves, to establish for the materialising vulgar Ephraim, are far too uncertain to be relied upon.
unconcealed cherubic emblems, not as involving a Their eyes represent universal knowledge and in.
new cultus, like Baal-worshipor Apis-worship, but sight (cf. Ov. Metam. i. 624, and the similar
to give popular expression to the worship of Je- symbol of the Phoenician god Taut, mentioned by
hovah (see Exod. xxxii. 5; I Kings xii 28). This Sarchoniatho, ap. Euseb. Praep. Evang. x p.
fact is a strong corroboration of the conclusions at 39), for they are the eyes of the Lord, which run to
which we have inductively arrived, but its further and fro through the whole earth (Zech. iv. Io).
development belongs to another place (see Mon- The wings imply speed and ubiquity; the wheels
cceus de Vitula Aureo, Critici Sacri, vol. ix. Bo- are necessary for the throne-chariot, itself a perfect
chart, ffrvt. ii 34, 41, and CALF).  It only re- and royal emblem, and so used by other nations
mains to add, that a prevailingly animal form in (Chrysost. Orat xxxv. i); and the straight feet
the cherubim may well have originated the strange  imply the fiery gliding and lightning-like flash of
calumny (above alluded to) that the Jews and   their divine motion (cf~ vro&s). We purposely
Christians worshipped the figure of an ass (Joseph. avoid the error of pressing the minor particulars,
c. Apion. II. p. 475; Tac. Hist. v. 4; Diodor. such as those suggested by Clemens Alexandrinus,
Fragm. Lib. xxxiv. and 40, evp( v v airT X\Oivov when he supposes that the twelve wings hint at
d&yaXza &vopos 8aOv7royJyw os KafGtuevov &I 6vov. the twelve signs of the Zodiac (Stromata, V. cap.
Tert. Apol. i6 ad Natt. i. 14; Epiphan. de Hares. vi. sec. 37, p. 240, ed. Sylb.) Thus explained, they
xxvi. io; Min. Fel. Oct. ix.)  We know that the become a striking hieroglyphic of the dazzling conJews and Christians were, till the war of Bar- summate beauty of universal creation, emanating
chocebas, constantly confounded together, and from and subjected to the Divine Creator, whose
among many conjectures we can find no more attributes are reflected in his works. And thus,
probable origin for this'inepta persuasio.'  too, it becomes more than ever obvious that we are
II. Having thus determined approximately the dealing with an allegory, and the most learned of
shape of the symbol, we proceed to consider what the Christian fathers is right when he distinctly
it was intended to represent, what were the cheru- asserts oi0' arL rTPv dpX'v jrUt6vOer6v rt Kal altao0bim supposed to be? About the answer to this rbv rov ov oipavp  S4 d  rws gXov, 2i6t/oXov 8' Tar,
question there need be no doubt; they were in- K. T. X; a symbol, he proceeds, speaking of the
tended to represent divine existences in immediate Mosaic cherubim, the face of reason, the wings of
contact with Jehovah.   This was the view of Liturgies and Energies, the voice of thankful glory
Chrysostom, Athanasius, Ambrose, Augustine, and in ceaseless theoria.
the Fathers generally (Sixt. Senensis, Bibl. Sanct.,  It is clear that the interpretation of the symbol
p. 348), and the Pseudo Dionysius places them  must be as variable as the symbol itself, and we
second (between seraphim and thrones) in the nine shall accordingly find that no single explanation of
orders of the celestial hierarchy (Dion. Areop. de the cherubim can be accepted as adequate, but
Celest. Hier. 5-9). The Kabbalists, on the other that the best of the various explanations contain
hand, placed them ninth in their ten choirs of elements of truth which melt and fade into each
spirits (Buddaeus, Philos. Hebr., p. 415). The  other, and are each true under one aspect. Unnature of the passages in which they occur-pas- satisfactory and vague as is the treatise of Philo
sages poetical and highly-wrought; the existence'on the Cherubim and Flaming Sword,' it has at
of exactly similar images among other nations, and least the merit of seizing this truth. Thus, discardthe purely symbolic character of their form, has ing his astronomical vagaries which are alien to the
led, not only Jewish allegorists like Philo, and  spirit of Mosaism (Kalisch on Exod., p. 496), we
Christian philosophers like Clemens of Alexandria, may safely follow him in regarding the cherubim
but even such writers as Hengstenberg, Keil, Neu- as emblems at once of divine perfection (r&s Tro
mann, etc., to deny them any personal reality, and'Owios vvdteLs rTv re TrotL7rtLK  KCI (a~ aC\TK~v), perin this way we may explain Zullich's definition of sonifications in fact of natural power employed in
them  as*'mythical servants of Jehovah' (Die God's service, as De Wette holds; and emblems also
Cherubim-Wager, Heidelb. I832). Thus, in the of the divine attributes, his slowness to anger, his
vision of Ezekiel, it is obvious that their animal speed to love (Grotius on Exod. xxv. I8; Bochart,
shape and position implies subjection to the Al- Hieroz. ii. I8; Rosenmuller, Scholia in Ezek. i.,
mighty; that the four heads, uniting what were, &6vafvtv e rp Kal KoXaaor5piov; Philo, wrept rwv
according to the Jewish proverb, the four highest Xepovg. KaI r7 s q\Xoy. pow., sec. 7-9; De Vite
things in the world (Schoettgen's Hor. Hebr. ad  ilos. p. 688). Both of these views are admissible;
Rev. iv.)-viz., the lion among beasts, the ox the cherubim represent at once the subordination of
among cattle, the eagle among birds, and man   the universe to God (Pirke, R. Elieza, c. 3; Schemoth
among all, while God is the highest of all,-con- Rabba, sec. 23, ap. Schoettgen, Hor. Hebr. ad




ARTICLE CHERUBIM.....- -.L
2.
x. Man-headed Winged Bull, from Khorsabad.
2. Winged Symbolical Figure, from a bas relief, Nineveh.








CHERUBIM                    489                CHERUBIM
Apoc. iv. 6, r3s a3catXeta aorov o,67iloXop; Isidor., multitude of the universal church (iv. 7; v. 13); no
lib. iv. ep. 70; Alford on Rev. iv. 8), and the glory longer armed with flaming swords, with wrathful
of Him whose servants they are (Xepov[ll 80o js, aspect, and repellant silence, but mingling with the
Heb. ix. 5);'as standing on the highest step of elders, and joining in the new song. And here, too,
created life, and uniting in themselves the most per- we find the recovered Eden, the water of life flowfect created life, they are the most perfect revelation  ing freely, and the tree of life with no flame to
of God and the divine life.' This is the conclusion hedge it round. Thus it is in the Apocalypse
of Baehr, whose whole treatment of the subject, that the fullest and divinest significance is attached
though over-ingenious, is the most valuable contri- to this profound emblem. In the cherubim of the
bution to a right understanding of this important last book of the Bible we find the highest explanaand interesting question (Symbolik, i. 340).  tion of the cherubim in the first. The apparent
As the other suggestions of their meaning are, wrath which excluded man from the forfeited parafor the most part, mere adaptations, they may  dise,* was but the mercy in disguise, which secured
simply be mentioned and passed over; as that the for him its final fruition in a nobler form of life.
cherubim represent the four archangels; the four And thus, to give the last touch of meaning to this
major Prophets; the church (Cocceius); the two  changeful symbol, we catch in it a gleam dim at
uncreated angels, i.e., the Son and the Holy Spirit first, but growing into steady brightness, of that
(Hulse); the two natures of Christ (Lightfoot); the redeemed created perfection, that exalted spiritual
four ages of the world (Kaiser, de Cherubis humani body, for which is reserved hereafter the paradise
generis mundique atatum symbolis, 1827); or God's of God. Beyond this we cannot go; but we have
fourfold covenant with man in Christ, as man, as said enough to shew the many-sided applicability
sacrificed, as risen, and ascended (Arndt, Wahres of this inspired conception-a many-sidednesswhich
Christenthum, iv. I, 6). We may mention also for is the strongest proof of its value and greatness.
their curious absurdity the notions of Justin Martyr  4. It is most important to observe the extra(Qusest. xliv.), that the cherubim represent Nebu- ordinary resemblance of the cherubim, as described
chadnezzar in his overthrow and madness; of in Scripture, to the symbolical religious fancies of
Clermont, that they are the northern army of Chal- heathen nations. It is not true in any sense to say
deans; and of Vatke, that they symbolise the de- with Kurz that the animal character is far more
structive powers of the heathen gods. The very predominant in the emblems of heathen pantheism.
wide spread and early fancy which attached the Even if we concede (which is more than doubtful)
cherubic figures to the four evangelists is equally that the simplest conception of Cherubim was reuntenable, though it first appears in the Pastor presented by winged men, we find four-winged and
Hermas, and was adopted by the school of St. John  six winged human figures in the sculptures of Nine(Iren. adv. Hair. iii. 2. 8; Athanas. Opp. v. 2, p. veh (Layard, i 125). Infact, there is no single che155; August. de consens. Evang. i. 6; Jerome rubic combination, whether of bull, eagle, and man
Grol. ad Evw. ep. 50 ad Paulin; Greg. Hom. (Layard, Nineveh, i 127); man, lion, and eagle
4 in Ezek.; Adam de St. Vict. Hymn de Ss. Evang., (Ibid., pp. 70,349); man and eagle (Ibid., i. 64); man
etc.)  The four, in their union, were regarded as and lion (Ibid., ii. 463); or to take the most prea symbol of the Redeemer-                      valent (both in Scripture and in the Assyrian sculp-'Est homo nascendo, vitulusque sacer moriendo,  tures), man and bull (Ibid., i.), which may not be
Et Leo surgendo, ccelos aquilaque petendo.'  profusely paralleled. In fact, these woodcuts might
teo ge, to a ilu      etestandfor direct illustrations of Ezek. xli. 9; Rev. iv.
(See Trench's Sacred Lat. Poetry, p. 6i; Mrs. 6, sq.; I Kings vii. 29, etc.; and when we also
Jamieson, Sacred and. Leg. Art., p. I35).  The find'wheels within wheels' represented in the same
last to maintain this view is Dr. Wordsworth (on  sculptures (Ibid., ii 448), it is Mr. Layard's natural
Rev. iv.), who is rightly answered by Dean Alford inference, that Ezekiel,'seeking to typify certain
(ad loc).                                      divine attributes, chose forms familiar not only to
3. What was the office ascribed to these sym- himself, but to the people whom he addressed' (Id.,
bolic beings whose shape and nature we have ex- Ibid.; see, too, Nineveh and Babylon, ii 643); or,
amined? It is mainly twofold, viz.-I, a protective  as we should greatly prefer to see it expressed, the
vengeful function in guarding from man's too close familiardecorations of the Assyriantemples moulded
intrusion the physical and moral splendours of a lost the forms of his imagination, even at its most exalted
paradise and a sacred revelation; and 2, to form  moments. But, as we have already seen, Ezekiel
the throne and chariot of the divine being in his was far more likely to have been supplied with this
earthly manifestations, and to guard the outskirts imagery by the sacerdotal sympathies which imof his unapproachable glory (Eichhorn, Einleit. iii. pressed his memory with the minutest details of the
sec. 80). The cherubim engraved and woven in temple at Jerusalem; and the same symbols were
the temple decorations, while they symbolise this not exclusively Assyrian, but were no less familiar
function, serve also as'a seal of similitude,' i.e., as to the Egyptians (Porphyr. deAbstinent. iv. 9; Ritter,
heraldic insignia of the divine attributes to mark  Erdkunde, viii. 947; Witsius, AEZypt. ii 13), the
Jehovah's presence by their guardian ministries  Persians (Hdt. iii. I 6; iv. 13; Ktes. Ind. xii;
(Isidor. iv., ep. 73).  At the same time, from  Plin. vii. 22; Wilkinson's Anc. Egypt., passim;
another point of view, they were no less significant-_
of the fulness of life subordinated to him who   * For an explanation of the reason why the
created it. A reference to the Apocalypse enables cherubim belonging to an elohistic sphere appear
us to combine these conceptions with a far sublimer in Gen. iii. in the Jehovistic sphere, a question
truth, and to explain the connection of the cheru- which at present would have little interest to Engbim with the mercy-seat as a type not only of ven- lish readers, See Kurz in Herzog's Cyclopaedia,
geance but of expiation and forgiveness. For in s. v., and Geschichte des Atlen Bundes. Disagreeing
the vision of St. John these immortalities appear in  widely from some of his conclusions, we have gained
the same choir with the redeemed innumerable much from his remarks.




CHERUBIM                    490                CHERUBIM
Chardin's and Niebuhr's Travels); the Greeks sidered to be revealed in Ezek. i.) by the name of
(Pausan. i. 24, 6); the Arabians (D'Herbelot, Bibl.  23'nlDn nl tD, or opus vehiculi. In confirmation
Orient, s. v. Simourg. Anka), and many other na- of this view, compare Deut. xxxiii. 26; Exod. xix.
tions (Plin. x. 49, 69; Parkhurst's Lexicon, s. v.) I8; Ps. Ixviii. 4; Hab. iii. 5, with Ezek. i 4, 13.
On this subject generally, see Creuzer Symbol, For the seraphim, see SERAPHIM; several ciri 495; Rhode, Heil. Sage S., 217; and Rodiger cumstances distinguish them  clearly from  the
in Ersch. and Gruber, s. v. Cherub. The similarity  Cherubim, and we disagree with Hendewerk, who
to the sphinx is such as to have led even in early regards them  as identical (De Cher. et Ser. in
times to a very strong belief that the idea of the Biblici non divernis, 1836).
Mosaic cherubim was in some way derived from     6. We may now proceed to the derivation of
them (Clem. Alex., Strom. V., cap. vi., sec. 37, the name, but we can only give the chief conjeced. Sylb. p. 240; Orig., c. Cels., iii. p. I2I; Euseb. tures, with their several authorities. They will be
Prnep. Evang., iii. I2). For a number of weighty explained and justified for the most part by what
arguments to this effect, see Bochart, Hieroz., II. has been already said, but it is impossible to decide
xviii. xxxiv. and xli.; Spencer, de Legg. Ritt., III. between their respective merits.  From  Semitic
iv.; and especially Hengstenberg, Die BB. Mos. u. sources we have the following conjectures-I.
AEg. S. 157, sq.   And besides these external That the word is derived from 313 aravit, and
coincidences, still more striking, perhaps, are the 
cherubicfunctions ascribed in Greek mythology to  means the plougher or ox;' as it is used for
the fiery-breathing bulls which guarded the golden  ii in Ezek.  10; x. 4.  This is the derivation
fleece (Ov., Met. vii. 14), to the winged dragon of most generally adopted.  2. By metathesis from
the Hesperides, to the resuscitated Phoenix, to the 2,'a chaiot,' Ps. xii Ietc. (Lud. de Dieu,
Gryphons (lion-eagles) who kept the Afimaspians Rodiger, etc.) 3. For 3Hip,'near,' meaning the
from their guarded g'ld (Esch., Prom. v. 843; angels nearest God (Hyde, de Rel. vett. Pers. p.
Meld.. x; comp. Milton, Par. Lost, ii. 943),and 63)     From' (Maurer o Is. vi.
to the thundering-horses that draw the chariot of
Jupiter (Hor., Od. i 34, 7). Influenced by too ex- 2, cf. D^S3:).  5. From K''11n,'like a boy;'
clusive an attention to these single resemblances, adopted by most of the Rabbis (Otho, Lex. Rab.
Herder identifies the cherubim with the mythic s.v. Buxtorf Hist. Arc p. 100). 6  From'nn
gold-guarding monsters of antiquity (Geist. der,,      
Hebr. Poes. i. 163), and J. D. Michaelis with the'he consecrated' =guardian, or attendant.  7.
Equi Tonantes (De Cherubis. Comment. Reg. Soc. From, like,, powerful, like Cabeiri= eo
Gotting. i. 157; Velthusenius, Von den Cherubinen, 8&varo. See Ps. ciii. 20; uvvcd/eLs,  Pet. iii. 22;
Braunschweig, 1764, etc.; Schleusner, Lex. N. T.  tpXatl, Eph. i. 21.'Scriptura solet vocare Cherus. v. Xepo6i). Similarly, Justin Martyr considers bim quidquid potens est.' Procopius on Gen. iii.;
that Plato borrowed from the Scriptures his rr lvbv Theodor. in Gen.?u. xlvi  8. From a Syriac
d&pf/a of Zeus (?rpbs6EXX\7as, p. 30). From these root meaning to cut (cf. carve). This is suggested
conclusions we dissent. It seems far more likely  by Havernick on Ezek., p. 5. Hence Abenezra
that the Hebrews were in the most ancient times says that cherub is the same thing as,i, and
acquainted with a symbol familiar to so many na- means any artistic figure (Schulten's Prov. Salomtions, than to suppose either that they borrowed it or. p. 472). Keil on i Kings v. 9. The oldest
from the Egyptians, or that any other nations derivation is from:1 and'J, as though it meant
adopted it from them. In fact, the conception be-'abundance of knowledge,' a meaning once unilongs to the common cycle of oriental tradition, frag- versally adopted (Philo de Vit. Mos. p. 688;
ments of which were freely adopted by the Hebrew  Clem. Alex., Strom. V. p. 240, ed. Sylb., ErX\0os
writers, who always infused into them a nobler yvorews; Lex. Cyrilli, 7rlyvwatrX \ozdrvo; Fragm.
meaning and an unwonted truth.. Lex. Origen. p. 114;   Multitudo scientise;'
5. It may appear presumptuous to inquire into  Jerome on Is. vi. 2; Dionys. de ccel. Hier., vii. p.
the phenomena which suggested the germ of the 96; Spencer, de Legg. III. 3. I, etc.)  Hence the
cherubic symbol. Yet we think that there are remark of Thomas Aquinas,'Nomen Seraphim
traces in the Bible that the primary type of these imponitur ab ardore, qui ad charitatem pertinet,
celestial beings was derived from those wreathing  nomen autem Cherubim imponitur a scienti' (I. i.
fires and rolling storm-clouds which were always qu. o8, cap. vii.) This distinction between the
regarded as the most immediate proofs of divine fiery zeal of seraphs and the wisdom of cherubim
proximity. The clouds, which are God's chariot, is often alluded to in our earlier divines, as in
were early and naturally personified as sentient Jeremy Taylor;'there are some holy spirits whose
attendants; and the creatures of poetic metaphor-  crown is all love, and some in whom the brightest
inseparable from Semitic modes of thought-were jewel is understanding' (Sermon on Advent). To
soon invested with objective existence. It would this long list of Semitic derivations (which by no
have been impossible for a Hebrew poet to speak  means exhaust the conjectures of the learned) we
of the dark and fleeting storms and vivid lightning- may add one from  the Persian root griftan,
flashes without attributing them to a living agency; (Sanskr. gribh; Goth. gripan, Greek'ypd^, yp67ros)
and hence the air, and the fire, and the wind, were'to seize' (Eichhorn, and Vatke; see Gesen. Thes.
to him the attendants of Jehovah, and' he did fly II. p. 7fo). If among these conflicting conjectures
upon the wings of the wind,' is the natural epex- we might give an opinion, we should most readily
egesis of'he rode upon a cherub and did fly.' The adopt the first, which, on philological grounds, is
magnificent passage in Ps. civ. 3, 4, is, in fact, a wholly unobjectionable, and which, when taken in
distinct recognition of this method of description. connection with the arguments which prove the
In Zech. vi. a vision of four chariots represents predominance of a bovine shape in the cherubic
the four spirits, or'winds,' of heaven; and the symbol, becomes exceedingly probable.
Jews call the doctrine of angels (which they con-  7. It only remains to give a list of the principal




CHERUBIM                    491                CHERUBIM
authors who have treated of cherubim. Besides Moses, this may suggest another reason in addition
others already quoted, we may mention Philo, 7rept to that already given, why a particular description
Xep. Kal r7Ts \Xoy' popfctas; Clem. Alex., Strom.V. of the cherubim was not judged necessary.
cap. vi.; Spencer, de Legg. Ritt. Hebr., III. 5, p.  The next group of figures (No. i86) is also
843.; Bochart, Hieroz. I. 2, cap. xxxiv., etc.; Egyptian, and shews the diversity of the winged
Carpzov, Apparat Critic, p. 268, sq.; J. H. A. symbols which'so often appear on the monuments.
Dorjen in Ugolini, Thes. viii.; Rodiger, s.v. Figs. I and 8 are such hovering winged figures as
in Ersch. and Gruber Cyc., tom. xvi; Bahr,
Symbolik, I. 340, sq.; De Saulcy, Hist. de l'Art
Judaique, p. 23, sq.; Jac. Ode, Comment de
Angelis, I. v. 73; Deyling, Observatt. Sacr., II.   _
442; Hengstenberg, Die Bucher      Mos. und,Egypt, 8. I57, sq.; Rosenmuller, Schol. in
Ezek.; Havernick, Ezek. s. 5; Kalisch, on Exod.,
p. 430; Gesen, Thes. II. 710.  To these may 
be added a large number of monographs, the                 2 
most important of which have already been men-' b. a
tioned or quoted in the article itself. -F. W. F.
[As tending in some respect to illustrate this sub- 
ject, we subjoin the following figures, copied from
ancient monuments, all of which illustrate some one/ 
or more of the notions which we attach to the      l                 s
cherubic forms; and while they afford material
assistance to our ideas on the subject, they shew
that figures of this kind, as sacred symbols, were
not peculiar to the Hebrews, and that their
presence in the sanctuary was not calculated to excite any surprise among the neighbouring nations,
or to lead to'the notion that the Jews also were
worshippers of idols, for even in the pagan monu-       n
ment they never appear as idols, but as symbols;'t 
and it was very possibly this fact-that the cherubic figures were not liable to be misunderstoodwhich induced the Divine wisdom to permit their 
introduction into the most holy place. Of all these, 
the most remarkable is the figure sculptured in bas-                       _
relief. The first group (No. 185) is from Egypt.
/~ a-...z m            i                                 I86.
usually surmount the whole of a sacred tablet or
shrine; and to such hovering wings there seem
some symbolical allusions in Scripture, even when
the cherubim are not mentioned. Figure 4, that
of a hawk with the face and symbols of Isis, and
-the crowned and winged serpents (figs. 6, 7), are
the only compound images, and, as such, deserve
particular attention.
1 I \\\1NIf we proceed to Babylon, similar winged symbols are discovered.  The cut (No. 187) is from
187.
an antique gem found at Babylon,  It combines
x85.                     the human and quadrupedal forms, with the wings
of a bird, and is not unlike the Egyptian sphinx,
The figures are the more remarkable from being such excepting that the head is that of a man, not of a
as appear uponthe sacred arks of that country, and woman.  The next:(No. 188) is from a Babythe disposition of their wings agrees much with one lonian cylinder, and is remarkable, as giving not
or another of the arrangements which have been only the wings, but the head of a bird to the human
ascribed to the cherubim of the Ark.  As such form.
figures certainly existed in Egypt before the time of  In proceeding to the monuments of ancient




CHERUBIM                    492                CHERUBIM
Persia, the winged symbols become still more Babylonian sphinx in a different position. The
striking. The very remarkable example in the  other figures in the same cut are frequently reQ-I~~~~~~~~~   -o~~~
I88.                                          I90
s-rlief at   peated in the Persian sculptures. They are acannexed engraving is from a  as-relief at Mourg knowledged Mithric symbols; and, as such, they
Aub (No. 189), representing a man arrayed in a
richly embroidered robe, with such quadruple                           ^     s
wings as the vision of Ezekiel ascribes to the cherubim, with the addition of ample horns (the 
Am.:89.
well-known symbols of regal power) issuing from                      M 
the head, and upbearing a symbolical crown or
mitre, such as is often seen on the heads of the
Egyptian gods and their ministering priests.
The next group of figures (No. I90) is collected
from different ancient Persian sculptures and gems./
Fig. I is a hovering winged symbol which occurs 
as frequently in the Persian monuments as the               D
similar figures do in those of Egypt.  I and 4 are 
remarkable as offering a near approach to the
traditional figure which has been assigned to
angels; and 3 affords a very curious example — 
of quadruple wings, resembling those in No. i89,..           _
but being much shorter.                                            191
The 4th figure in the cut No. I91 affords a
rare example of the combination of the beast, go far to evince the purely symbolical character of
bird, and man, and seems to be the same as the the cherubic figures. In all of these, except the




CHESALON                    493                  CHEZIB
last, a warrior is represented grasping with one From this it might be inferred that Chesulloth
hand these winged symbols by the single horn, with was situated between Jezreel and Shunem, both
which all of them are furnished, while he thrusts his of which lie in the valley between Little Hermon
sword into them with the other. It is observable and Gilboa; but a closer examination of the
that these figures, taken together, include all those whole passage shews that the border towns are
which Ezekiel's vision assigns to the Cherubim-  named without any regard to their geographical
the head of a man, an eagle, a lion, and an ox order; and besides, the writer of this article was
(fig. 5); but we do not anywhere find all these unable to discover any trace of town or village in
combined in a single figure, as appears to have the valley between Shunem and Jezreel. In verse
been the case in the visionary cherubim.      12, Chisloth-Tabor is mentioned in the description
It is of some importance to remark, that the of the boundary of Zebulun, where it bordered on
winged symbolical figures of this description are Issachar, and this is by some supposed to be the
far more rare in the remoter East-in India or same as Chesulloth. [CHISLOTH-TABOR.] From
China, than in Western Asia.]                 the base of Carmel the line ran eastward, apCHESALON  Sept. Xa     ), a p e parently along the banks of the Kishon to ChislothCHESALON      (plSOf; Sept. XaaX v), a place Tabar, and to Daberath (now Deb2rieh), which lay
mentioned only in Josh. xv. o1. In describing the at the base of Mount Tabor. Josephus mentions a
boundaries of Judah, it is said that' the border town called Xaloth in the'great plain' (Bell. ud.
compassed from Baalah westward unto Mount Seir, iii. 3. I), and Eusebius and Jerome speak of it as in
and passed along upon the side of Mount Jearim  the plain near Tabor (Onomast, s.v. Acchaselath).
upon the north, which is'Chesalon.'  Chesalon  On the northern side of the great plain of Estherefore lay on- the north side of Mount Jearim, draelon, at the point indicated by the notices in the
and a subsequent reference shews that Bethshemesh  Scriptures, and in Eusebius and Jerome, stands the
was west of it. Eusebius describes it as a large little village of Iksdl. There can be no doubt that
village in Benjamin, on the confines of Jerusalem; this is identical with Chisloth or Chesulloth, which is
Jerome says it lay in yudah; but neither defines just another form of the same name, and with the
its true position (Onomast. s.v. Chaslon).    Xaloth of Josephus. The village is built on a low
On the side of a hill five miles east of Beth- rocky spur, which shoots out from the base of the
shemesh is the village of Keslu, in which it is not mountain range of Galilee. It contains no ancient
difficult to recognise the ancient Chesalon.  Its buildings, and few ruins; but there are around it,
position on the' side' or' flank' of the hill may and in the neighbouring cliffs, numerous tombs hewn
perhaps have originated the name Chesalon, which in the rock, such as are usually found near the old
signifies the'flank' (Robinson, B.R., ii. 30; iii towns of Palestine (Pococke's Travels, ii. 65;
I54; Gesenius, Thesaur. s.v.)-J. L. P.        Robinson, B.R., ii. 332; Ritter, Pal. und Syr., ii.
CHESIL (DM.; LXX. Vat. BacutX; Alex. 393). J. L. P.
Xao*vip), oefCHEZIB (3tf l; Sept. Xaapo, according to the
Xaatlp), one of the cities originally assigned to the
tribe of Judah, Josh. xv. 3, but probably the same Masoretic text and the LXX., is the name of the
as the Bethul (osh. xix. 4), which, with other place where Judah's Canaate wfe  huah verse
towns, was given up to the tribe of Simeon (Josh. 2), or Bathshuah (verse 12), gave birth to his third
xix. 9), and which is called Bethuel, I Chron. iv.son Shelah. It occurs in this form but once; in
30. Its exact position is unknown.-S. N.      Gen. xxxviii. 5. In Josh. xv. 44, the LXX.
mentions a Ke'i~ as one of the western cities of the
CHEST.    I. A box for containing treasures. tribe of Judah. This is Achzib in the Hebrew.ext
In this sense it is used in the A. V. for the Heb. and A. V.  Hence the identity of Chezib and
DtJ  (Ez. xxvii. 24). This word, in the Stat. Achzib has been inferred by Grotius and others.
Constr..tW, occurs Ez. xxvii. 24, where it denotes[A IB] The place CHOZEBA in I Chron iv
22 is probably the same. It is mentioned in close
that in which precious wares are stored; Esth. iii. connection with Shelah, the son of Judah. But ac9; iv. 7, where it is rendered in the A. V. trea- cording to the fragment of Aquila, preserved by
suries, but probably denotes properly the place in  St. Jerome (in Quwst. Hebr.; See also Montfaucon's
which the royal treasures were kept, and so would Origen's Hexapla, Oig. 09p., de la Rue, v. 287),
correspond exactly to our Treasury (Sept. yako- Chezib is not a proper name at all.  Jerome's
VX\d.&Kov). The word is formed from t? (comp. rendering of Aquila's version of this passage isGr.'ydta, Lat. gaza) and is the same as the Chald.'Et vocavit nomen ejus Selom, et factum est ut
jtty, def. stB (Ez. v. I7; vi. I; vii. 20), which, mentiretur in partu, postquam genuit eum.' Simihowever, is used rather to denote the treasure it- larly the Vulgate translates-' quo nato parere ultra
self than that in which it is contained. 2. A box cessavit;' as much as to say, that after the birth of
into which money might be dropped (2 Kings xii. this son the mother ceased bearing; which seems
9, 10; 2 Chron. xxiv. 8, 10, ii) or in which  a more intelligible statement than-'He [Judah]
reliques might be conveyed (Gen. 1. 26). This was at Chezib when she bare him.' This sense of
sort of chest we may presume was of the same Aquila and the Vulgate is also supported by the
form as the Ark of the Covenant, from the same Peschito Syriac version. Nor is there any objecword (VIN) being used to designate both. [ARK  tion to rendering:':31 iTill byfactum est ut menOF THE COVENANT. ]-W. L. A.                   tiretur, etc. The root 1t3, to lie or deceive, is in
Is. lviii. i, applied to the'failing' or drying
CHESTNUT-TREE. [ARMON.]                     up of a spring of water. See Gesenius and Fiirst
CHESULLOTH           (bid    Septc. Xaa ) \ (Lexicon), s. v., and Drusius on Gen. xxxviii. 5. In.CHESU;  Sept. Xaa  ). Micah i. 14, the proper name and the appellative,
In Josh. xix. I8, the border of Zebulun is said to  derived from 3t3, are brought together in a striklie'toward Jezreel, and Chesulloth, and Shunem.' ing paronomasia.-P. H.




CHIDON                    494                CHILDREN
CHIDON (t4n?; Sept. [Alex.] Xetobv; [The it being considered as a mark of divine favour,
word is omitted in the usual (Vat.) text]; Vulg. while sterile people were, on the contrary, held in
Chidon) is the name given, in I Chron. xiii. 9, to  contept (comp. Gen xi. 30; xxx. I; I Sam. ii.
the threshing-floor where Uzza met his sudden  5; 2 Sam. vi. 23; Ps. cxxvii. 3, sq.; cxxviii. 3;
death when he'rashly' touched the ark on its Luke i. 7; ii. 5). That children were often taken
way from  Kirjath-Jearim to Jerusalem  [UZZA]. as bondsmen by a creditor for debts contracted by
The locality is not identified. St. Jerome indeed thefather, is evident from 2 Kings iv. I; Is. 1.;
says (Qust. Hebr. Opp. [ed. Ben.] iii. 870), Neh. v. 5. Among the Hebrews, a father had'Chidon means shield (clypeus). For there is a almost unlimited power over his children, nor do
tradition that it was on this spot that Joshua was we find any law in the Pentateuch restricting that
standing when it was said to him, Raise thy shield power to a certain age; it was indeed the parents
towards the city Ahi' in reference to Josh. iii. I8.who even selected wives for their sons (Gen. xxi.
But this is obviously too vague to help us; the site 21;Exod xxi., 10,; Judg. xiv. 2, 5). It
of Ai is itself unknown. Moreover, it is not cer- would appear, however, that a father's power over
tain that Chidon is the name of a place at all;his daughters was still greater than that over his
according to some it is the name of the proprietor sons, since he might even annul a sacred vow made
of thee hreshing-floor (comp. I Chron. xxi. 15, by a daughter, but not one made by a son (Num.
etc. and see Poli Synops. on 2 Sam. vi 6). In- xxx. 4, I6).  Children cursing or assaulting their
deed, among the extreme variations of the versions ents were punished by the Mosaical Law with
this threshing-floor has been identified with that death (Exod. xxi. 15, 17; Lev. xx. 9); a remarkof Araunah or Oman, the Jebusite. In one of the able instance of which is quoted by Christ (Matt.
fragments of the Hexapla (Origen's Works, by  xv 4, 6; Mark vii. 9, 13). Before the time Of
Dela Rue, Migne. vi I. 42) a portion of 2 Sam. v  Moses a father had the right to choose among his
6 is preserved; and one of the variations of the male children, and declare one of them (usually
LXX., as known to Origen, expressly assigns this the child of his favourite wife) as his first-born
threshing-floor to Oran or Ernan; *ws  s TS &\  ('13l), though he was perhaps only the youngest.'Epv  TO'IeCovaiov. Nor is this improbable; for Properly speaking, the'first-born' was he who
the cortege which brought the Ark seems to have was first begotten by the father, since polygamy
approached near the end of their appointed journey  excluded all regard in that respect to the mother.
when the calamity which befel Uzza suspended for Thus Jacob had sons by all his four wives, while
three months their progress. The house of Obede- only one of them was called the first-born (Gen.
dom was probably not far from'Perez-Uzza' (see xlix. 3); we find, however, instances where that
I Chron. xiii. 1-13) while it was undoubtedly name is applied also to the first-born on the monear to' the city of David' (xv. I, 3). The word thers side (I Chron. ii. 50; comp. v. 42; Gen.
tl is defined by J. C. Ortlob (De Scutis c Clypeis xxii. 21). The privileges of the first-born were
Hebr.) as an offensive weapon, hasta brevius, considerable, as shewn in BIRTHRIGHT.
longum tamen satis, et exitiale;' like Bochart The first-born son was regarded as devoted to
(after R. Salomon), he derives it from t (exitium), God, and had to be redeemed by an offering (Exod.
xm. 13; Num. xviii.    S; Luke ii. 22). This
and conjectures that the threshing-floor was called probably stood connected with the priestly characChidon because Uzza met his death in it,' quasi ter of the eldest son in patriarchal times. The firstaream cladis atque exitii' (Hieroz. p. 140).  So born son, if not expressly deprived by the father
First (Lex. 589) renders, Tenne des Todes. Gesen- of his peculiar rights, as was the case with Reuben
ius sees no such allusion in the name, and trans- (Gen. xlix.), was at liberty to sell them to a younger
lates, area jaculi. The pVD, according to him, brother, as happened in the case of Esau and Jacob
was a weapon like that of the Polish lancers (Gen. xxv. 31, sq.) Considering the many privi(Uhlanen) see Thes. 683. According to R. Abra- leges attached to first.birth, we do not wonder that
ham  Ben David (De Templo) it resembled the the Apostle called Esau a thoughtlessperson (Heb.
Italian alabarda (halberd). The noun, as an ap-xii. i6)
pellative, is translated spear in Josh. viii. I8, 26;  Mothers usually nursed their children, but nurses
target, I Sam. xvii. 6; shield, Job xxxix. 23; and(nlj=) were sometimes employed (Gen. xxxv. 8;
lance, Jer. 1. 42.  The Peschito-Syriac has the in- 2 Kings xi. 2). Whether the nurse (nlDK) of
w                      Mephibosheth (2 Sam. iv. 4) is properly so desigexplicable reading, - 0  (Ramin), in which it nated may be doubted; the word rather means
is followed by the Arabic version,  (Ramen),                            2
for the name Chidon. Josephus, like the Alex.
Sept., writes Xeo&&v  (Antiq. vii. 4. 2). For the 
other designation of this threshing-floor in the
parallel passage, see NACHON.-P. H.
CHILDREN.      The word' children' is sometimes used in the plural number, when meant to
designate only one male issue (comp. I Chron. ii.       --------  - L
31; 2 Chron. xxiv. 25; xxxiii. 6). In such places                  192.
the terms BJaj, literally'sons,' is equivalent to
offspring, all of whom had probably died except governess or curatrix. Children of both sexes were
the last-mentioned in the text. The more chil- probably under the care of women for some years
dren-especially of male children-a person had  after their birth, and in the case of delicate boys this
among the Hebrews, the more was he honoured, might be continued much longer. There are some




CHILMAD                    495                 CHITTAH
allusions in Scripture to the modes in which  the different dialects (Monatsnamen einiger alter
children were carried. These appear to be ade-  Volker, p. I24).
quately represented by the existing usages, as  The memorable days which were observed in
represented in the cut No. 192, in which fig. I re- this month were:-The feast of the dedication of
presents a Nestorian woman bearing her child the Temple, in commemoration of its being puribundled at her back, and fig. 2, an Egyptian  fled from the heathen abominations of the Syrians,
female bearing her child on her shoulder. The which was celebrated by illuminations and great
former mode appears to be alluded to in several demonstrations of joy for eight days, beginning
places, and the latter in Is. xlix. 22. For other from the 25th of this month (I Maccab. iv. 59): and
matters regarding children, see ADOPTIoN; BIRTH; a fast on account of Jehoiakim having, in-this
BIRTHRIGHT; EDUCATION.-E. M.                  month, burnt the roll containing Jeremiah's prophecy (Jer, xxxvi. 22, 23). There is some disCHILMAD (mn1; XapL&v; Chelmad). Aplace pute whether this fast was observed on the 6th or
carrying on traffic with Tyre, named in connection on the 28th of the month. It is an argument in
with Sheba and Ashur (Ezek. xxvii. 23).  Thefavour of the earlier day that the other would fall
Targum supposes that Media is intended, but with- in the middle of the eight days' festival of the deout any foundation. Bochart and others have sug- dication. J. N.
gested Charmande, a town beyond the Euphrates,  CH1SLOTH-TABOR            n      Sept   amentionedbyXenophon (Anab. i.. I), but though.                                 *
described as large and flourishing, it seems not of o-eXowSa, or [Alex.] Xao-eXcbB paoSp; Vulg.
sufficient importance to be introduced in this con- Ceseleth Thabor) is mentioned in Josh. xix. 12, as
nection.-J. E. R.                             one of the towns on the southern border-line of the
tribe of Zebulon. It has been sometimes accounted
CHIMHAM (D;D.). Probably a son (I Kings the same place as Chesulloth [CHESULLOTH], by
7) of Barzillai the Gileadite, permitted by him  Masius and Rosenmuller among others. Robinson
to return with David over Jordan after the defeat (Researches iii. 82) affirms the identit, and Keil (on
of Absalom, Barzillai himself having declined on   a, Trans., p 423) denies it.  he two places
account of his great age, 2 Sam. xix. 37, 38, 40. were at least very near each other. The city menTh acunt of is great agen 1S and in Jer. l 38, 40  tioned in verse 22, and again in I Chron. vi. 77, as
The name is also written (1?t, and in Jer. xli. 17,
T..                   simply Tabor, is no doubt the same place as our
tlrDD in the Kethiv. This may have been the Chisloth-Tabor. The name is itself suggestive of its
original form of the word of which the others are position. Jarchi (in Keil) explains it to mean ilia seu
contractions, but it is more likely the mistake of a lumbos Thaboris, in French les flancs (So Stanley,
transcriber. Professor Blunt observed in the men- p. 496,' Loins or flanks of Tabor'),' not the sumtion of the dwelling of Chimham, Jer. xli. 17, at mit nor the lowest part of the mountain, but upon
Bethlehem, an indication of the actual munificence the slope somewhere near the centre, and on the
of David to the family of Barzillai, for which we front, in about the same situation as that of the
are prepared by the narrative in Samuel and Kings. loins in an animal.' -Others (such as Simonis OnoSee Undesigned Coincidences, 6th ed., p. I50.-  mast., and Rosenmiiller) give a different turn to the
S. L.                                         meaning; regarding the loins as the seat of strength,
CHINNERETH. [CINNERETH.]                    they render JnD+ byfiducia Thaboris, i. q., muniCHIOS (Xo). An  island in the  gea   mentum; as if the city were strongly fortified.
CHIOS (Xios). An island in the ]Egean Sea,, which is  anks in Lev. iv., and oins, Ps.
about 380 30' N. lat.; 26~ o' E. long., near the   which is flanks in Lev. iv. 9, and loins, Ps.
west coast of Asia-Minor.  It was one of the 12 XXXViii 7, is translated confidence in Prov. iii. 26.
Ionian states, inhabited, however, by a mixed Fiirst (Lex. 614) and Gesenius (Thes. 702) compopulation.  It fought bravely and suffered   bine both meanings in their definitions. Pococke
severely in the Ionian revolt, and after the Persian  (i 65) mentions a  village which he calls Za, about
war, passed under the power of the Athenians, threemilesfromTabor. This isbyRobinson, Van
Macedonians, and Romans successively. St. Paul de Velde (Map and Memoir, p. 304), V. Raumer
passed it when sailing from Troas on his last visit (I24) and Ritter (Palest. and Syria, ii. 393), called
to Jerusalem (Acts xx. I5).-H. W.             Iksdl;'probably,' says Robinson,'the Chesulloth
and Chisloth-Tabor of Joshua on the frontier of
CHIQUITILLA.      [GIKATILLA.]              Zebulon and Issachar, the Chasalus of Eusebius
and Jerome in the plain near Tabor (Onomast.,
CHISLEV (1tS.: I Maccab. i. 54, XaoeXeu) s.v. AXETeXcE), Aschaseluth), and the Xaloth of
is the name of that month which is the third of Josephus situated in the great plain' (De Bell.'ud.,
is the name of that month which is the third o
the civil, and the ninth of the ecclesiastical year ii 3. I; De Vita, sec. 44).  See also Dr. Zunz,
of the Jews, and which commences with the new  On the Geography ofPalestinefrom 7ezish Sources
moon of our December.    It corresponds, in Jo- in Asher's Benj. of Tudela, vol ii. p. 432; and
sephus, to the Macedonian month'AreXXcaos. Seetzen's Reisen durch Syrien, u. s. w. iv. 31II.
As it is now admitted that Chislev is one of those P. H.
Persian names of months which the Jews adopted  CHITTAH          ) occurs in various passages
after the captivity, it is fruitless to search for aT                            i 
Syro-Arabian etymology of the word.   Benfey of Scripture, as enumerated by Celsius: Gen. xxx.
~L.. mtia f. r   rI4; Exod. ix. 32; xxix. 2; xxxiv. 22; Deut. viii.
has shewn that J5m    is a mutilated form  of 8;xxxii. 14; Judg. vi. II; xv.; Ruth ii. 23;
5~D5; and, by an ingenious, although adven- I Sam. vi. i3; xii. 17; 2 Sam. iv. 6; xvii. 28;
turous, mode of derivation, deduces that word  I Kings v. II; I Chron. xxi. 20, 23; 2 Chron ii.
from the Zend Khsathravairya, through a series 15; xxvii. 5; Jobxxxi. 40; Ps. lxxxi. i6; cxlvii. 14;
of commutations incident to its transit through  Cant. vii. 2; Is. xxviii. 25; Jer. xii. 13; xli. 8;




CIITTAH                    496                CHITTIM
Ezek. iv. 9; xxvii. 17; xlv. 13; and Joel i. I. yet the general resemblance between the Slavonic,
There can be no doubt that chittah, by some writ- the Thracian, and the Gothic languages is so strong,
ten chittha, chetteth, cheteh etc., is correctly trans- that no philologist now doubts their identity of
lated'wheat,' from its close resemblance to the origin'-4. c. p. 75;
Arabic as well as to the names of wheat in other  Rosenmiiller further remarks that in Egypt and
languages. Celsius says,'itnM, chittha, occultato in Barbary  u  kamich is the usual name for
Z in puncto dagesch, pro  ritn chintha dicitur
ex usu Ebrseorum.' This brings it still nearer to wheat (Descrip. de l'Egypte, t. xix. p. 45; Host's
the Arabic name of wheat,  L. which in Roman Account of Maroko and Fez, p. 309); and also,
characters is variously written, hinteh, hinthe, that in Hebrew, np kemach denotes the flour of
henta, and by Pemplius in his translation of Avi- wheat (Gen. xvii. 6; Num. v. I5). This, it is
cenna, hkinttka; and under this name it is de- curious to observe, is not very unlike the Indian
scribed by the Arabic authors on Materia Medica. name of wheat, kunuk. All these names indicate
communication between the nations of antiquity, as
As the Arabic   ha, is in many words converted  well as point to a common origin of wheat. Thus,
in his Himalayan Botany, the author of this article
into  * kha, it is evident that the Hebrew and has stated:'Wheat having been one of the earliest
cultivated grains, is most probably of Asiatic
Arabic names of wheat are the same, especially as origin, as no doubt Asia was the earliest civilized,
the Hebrew n has the guttural sound of -. Dif- as well as the first peopled country. It is known
f di t  w to the Arabs under the name of hinteh, to the Perferent derivations have been given of the word sians as gundoom, Hindu gehoon and kunuk. The
chitta: by Celsius it is derived from'  Wn chanath, species of barley cultivated in the plains of India,
protulit, produxit, fructum, ex. Cant. ii. 13; or and known by the Hindoo and Persian name juo,
the Arabic'L.-, rubuit, quod triticum rubello Arabic shaeer, is hound hexaerstichum. As both
wheat and barley are cultivated in the plains of
sit colore' (Hierobot. ii. II13).  The translator of wheat and barley are cultivated in the plains of
India in the winter months, where none of the
species of these genera are indigenous, it is probable
Ii //ji''i tthat both have been introduced into India from the
I[ I\,l~/i       north, that is, from the Persian, and perhaps from
the Tartarian region, where these and other species
of barley are most successfully and abundantly culi' l \1  i I Ii'  tivated' (p. 419). Different species of wheat were
\\\>  t/X/1/(             no doubt cultivated by the ancients, as triticum
compositum in Egypt, 7: astivum, 7: Hibernum in
X  \\\kJ %//j/        Syria, etc.'; but both barley and wheat are too well
I' \\l\n' &W'  X gi     |known to require further illustration in this place.
/^^^,' /       -/^ ~J. F. R.
K ^inn \\\\ ^ I~ //l^     A       CHITTIM, or KITTIM (numb &^m.), a branch
of the descendants of Javan, the son of Japheth'/^^'' i:(Gen. x. 4). The plural termination of Chittim,?/~' Q"\.A:      - o57'o      and other names in this ethnographical survey
/- -S-W] i ->     (ver. I3, 4), renders it probable that the term
~-:-.'.x<^ (A< -' ~2~'~C  —' K  son must be understood (like its correlate, father;
v. AB) not in the strict sense of that relation. On
the authority of Josephus, who is followed by Epiphanius and Jerome, it has been generally admitted
_  -~-_ ~ 9....;.-'      that the Chittim migrated from Phoenicia to Cyprus, and founded there the town of Citium, the
modern Chitti.' Chethimus possessed the island
of Chethima, which is now called Cyprus, and
from this all islands and maritime places are called
Chethim by the Hebrews' (Joseph. Antiq. i. 6.
I93. Triticum compositum-Egyptian Wheat.  sec. i). Cicero, it may be remarked, speaks of
the Citians as a Phoenician colony (De Finibus,
the Biblical Botany of Rosenmiiller justly observes iv. 20),' scis enim Citiaeos clientes tuos a Phcethat'the similarity in sound between the Hebrew  nicia profectos.'  Dr. Pococke copied at Citium
word chittah and the English wheat is obvious. Be thirty-three inscriptions in Phoenician characters,
it remembered that the ch here is identical in sound of which an engraving is given in his Description
with the Gaelic guttural, or the Spanish x. It is of the East (vol. ii. p. 213), and which have refurther remarkable that the Hebrew term is ety- cently been explained by Gesenius in his Monum.
mologically cognate with the words for wheat used Phcenic. (p. 124-133). Some passages in the proby every one of the Teutonic and Scandinavian  phets (Ezek. xxvii. 6; Is. xxiii. I, I2) imply an
nations (thus we have in Icelandic hveiti, Danish intimate connection between Chittim  and Tyre.
hvede, Swedish hvete, Maesogoth. hwaite, German  At a later period the name was applied to the
weizen); and that, in this instance, there is no re- Macedonians (I Maccab. i. I, Xerreel6; and viii. 5,
semblance between the Scandinavian and Teutonic KCrtdw). Hengstenberg has lately endeavoured to
terms, and the Greek, Latin, and Slavonic (for the prove that in every passage in the 0. T. where the
Greek word is irvp6s, the Latin frumentum or tri- word occurs, it means Cyprus, or the Cyprians.
ticum, the Russian psienitsa, Polish pszenica); and  On Num. xxiv. 24, he remarks, that the invad



CHIUN                    497                 CHOLED
ers of Ashur and Eber are said to come not herself was probably a religious matron (Poli
from Chittim, but In1'14 t, from  the coast of Synops., in loc.), either'an inhabitant of Corinth
Chittim, that being the track of vessels coming  (Theophylact), or some Christian woman (Estius)
from the west of Palestine. In Dan. xi. 30, he known to the Corinthians elsewhere, or (Michaelis,
contends that the use of the absolute form, DN,  Meyer) an Ephesian having friends, who had been
instead of the construct, denotes a less intimate at Corinth.' (Alford, in loc.) Chloe is an occonnection with the following word, and that the casional name in Greek, and especially in Latin
phrase means, like that in Balaam's prophecy (to writers. It was a surname of Aulrqp, and gave
which he supposes the prophet alludes) ships sail- name to a festival in her honour. Among other
ing along the coast of Chittim. The Vulgate trans- Chloes, Horace mentions one in a well-known ode
lates Chittim, in this passage, Romanos, an inter- (iii. 9. 9), to whom he assigns Thrace, or perhaps
pretation adopted by several of the ancient Jewish  Crete, as her birth-placeand Christian writers. Bochart attempts to sup-'Me nunc Thressa [Al. Cressa] Chloe regit
port it on etymological grounds, of which Michaelis  Dulces docta modos et citharse sciens.'
presumes to say,' etymologica autem quae de Latio 
Bochartus habet, facile ipsi relinquo, qusestiones
geographicas his crepundiis carere cupiens.'    CHOACH      (rnin). This word is in the A.'Chittim. seems to be a name of large significa-. 
tion (such as our Levant), applied to the islands. translated thistle in 2 Kings xiv. 9;   Job
and coasts of the Mediterranean, in a loose sense, XXX 40; and thorns i Job xli. 2; Prov. xxv. 9;
without fixing the particular part, though particu- Is  xxxiv. 13, etc. From  the context of the
lar and different parts of the whole are probably several  s sages, it is evident that choach must
in most cases to be understood' (v. Pictorial Bible,  e uless plant or weed of a thorny
notes on Ezek. xxvii. 6); Michaelis, Spicilegium  nature. Prov. xxvi. 9:'As a thorn (choach) goeth
Geographi  ebror   Exerce post Bochartu, into the hand of a drunkard,' etc. The SeptuaGeographp. Iebravoru3z LMicheris post locenrtuma
pars i. pp. 1-7, 103-I14; Michaelis Supplementa gint translates it by idKavOa and dKav, that is,
ad Lexica Hebraica, pp. 1I38, I377-i380; Bo- words which signify thorny plants in general, and
charti Geogr. Sacr. c. 157-161; Gesenii Thesaurus, also by KvI81,'a nettle.' But it is difficult in this,
p. 726; Pococke's Description of te East, vol. ii. as in other instances, to ascertain what particular
p. 213; Newton's Dissertations on the PropAchies, plant is intended, and hence choach has been
p. 213; Newton's Dissertations. an thePro~htue
v.; Hengstenberg, History of Baaam, etc., p  50  variously translated. Celsius has pointed out that
transl. by J. E. Ryland, Edin. 1848; Conybeare the Arabic.-   khokh is similar in nature and
and Howson's St. Paul, i. I88.-J. E. R.
origin to the Hebrew word, and is employed as its
CHIUN (V>3). The original word in Amos v. synonyme, and that chucho is the Syriac version.
27, which is translated by LXX.'Pacq5v, and in Khookh is applied in Arabic to the peach, and bur
Acts vii. 43'Pefdiv or'Pecv. The meaning of it khookh, whence we have apricock, etc., to the apriis uncertain. See Alford, Gr. Test. 1.c. Some sup- cot.  Choach may therefore be considered as a
pose pf3 is a mistake for pAN; others think that generic term applied to the plum tribe; and some
it is a common noun, meaning the car -i orframe- of these, as the common sloe, Prunus spinosa, are
work on which the idol was bore:~.andther opinion  well known to be of a thorny nature:'Sylvestris
is, that it is a Coptic appellation of' the planet  runu, humils, ac solidis spinis munitus est.'
-(,/  ~     Some kindred species, as a thorny Cratsegus, may
Saturn (?), but cf. Persian  \  the an   ply its place in Syria. Bove says of Mesteh,
Saturn (?), but cf. Persian     the 1n      not far from the Jordan,'Les arbustes qui y
Saturn.  [REMPHAN.]-S. L.                     croissent m'ont paru des Rhamnees ou des Rosacees du genre Prunus.' —J. F. R.
CHLOE is mentioned in I Cor. i II, in a
manner which has left it doubtful to some, e. g., St.  CHOBA, CHOBAI (XwPd, XoBat). A city of
Ambrose, Thomas Aq., Stunica and Calvin (see Samaria, in the neighbourhood of Bethulia, referred
Erasmus, in Crit. Sacr., in loc.; also Calvin, in to  the book          4, 5); and identified
boc.),whether a place or a person be meant'Tr  by Van de Velde (Memoir, p. 304; Syria and
TrV X\6s is St. Paul's expression.  Notwith- Palestine, vol. i p. 368) with Kubatieh, a village
on the road from Jenin to Sebustiyeh (Samaria).
standing the efforts of Stunica, no place at all onWtheroad fromtJenin tonSebustiyeh (Samiv. i
suitable has been found to satisfy the Apostle'ser the Choba mentioned Jud. iv 4 is the
reference; besides which, the phrase should have same as the preceding, or as the Hobah (Ifn,
been, not rTv XX6qs, but r-v &v XX6p, to express LXX. Xo/3d) of Gen. xiv. 15 (Gesenius Heb. Lex.
the local sense.  The ellipsis here is probably s. v.) is uncertain.-S. N.
olKdcov, meaning Chloe'sfamily (See Wolf's Cur;                   Ara, 
Philologics in I Cor. i. II; and Bos, Ellips. 37.CD; Arabic,                       d; Lev.
A similar construction occurs in Rom. xvi. 10, 11; xi. 29, in our version,'weasel'). Although the
where the ol'ApLaroao6Xov and ol NapKclaov are similarity of sound in names is an unsafe ground
translated in A. V. by the ellipsis of household. to depend upon when it is applied to specific
Olshausen (in loc.) suggests Chloe's slaves alone; animals, still, the Hebrew and Syriac appearing
but nearer relations still may have been St. Paul's likewise to imply creeping into, creeping underinformants; and it has been even suggested that neath by burrowing-characteristics most obvious
Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus, whose arrival in moles-and the Arabic denomination being unat Ephesus from Corinth gladdened the apostle (I doubted, chaled may be assumed to indicate the
Cor. xvi. 17), were sons of Chloe (See Hammond  above animal, in preference to chinsemeth, which,
and Wordsworth, in loc.)  The Peschito-Syriac in conformity with the opinion of Bochart, is
version is equivalent to De domesticis Chloes. Chloe referred to the chameleon.  This conclusion is
VOL. I.                                                                        2 K




CHOMET                     498               CHORAZIN
the more to be relied on as the animal is rather the word fnl' (Beth.) This accounts for the form
common in Syria, and in some places abundant. Betasan given to the name by Jerome and EuseZoologists have considered the particular species to  is. Frst rejects too summarily sfalse the verbe the Tatpa EuropTa, which, under the name of sion of the Peschito, the Alex. LXX., and the Vulthe common mole, is so well known as not to re-   o te [t-Pesc, B hwpao A  Lacus Asan (orBorasane 
quire a more particular description. The ancients gate [   relation tov, Lacusell of w ater, makin
represented the mole to have no eyes; which as i         The Vato LXXs Br    water, somewhat
assertion later scientific writers believed they had countenances the idea.  On another ground we
disproved by shewing our species to be possessed c ounnanes the  ea to have been well-watered 
of these organs, though exceedingly small. Never- may suppose the place to have been well-watered:
of these organs, though exceedingly small. Never-Ashan is probably the Ain of Josh. xxi.  6
theless, recent observations have proved that a  Asn  This seemsindeedmore than probable on
species, in other respects scarcely, if at all, to be comparing the list of this passage (xxn p   o-6)
distinguished from the common, is totally destitute c    the  t of t he plac e in  C. 357of eyes, and consequently has received the name of with that of the parallel place in  Chrn. iii 57Talpa csca. It is to be found in Italy, and pro-  *  Now though Aa   well'a spring,' is dlstinbably extends to the East, instead of the Europaea. gushed from Beer,  l'a well' (See Stanley, Sin.
Moles must not, however, be considered as form- and Pal., 509), it yet points to a fact of a similar
Moles must no, owevere consiereas form-nature. From these last-mentioned passages, we
ing a part of the Rodent order, whereof all the learn the ecclesiastical character of our town as one
families and genera are provided with strong incisor of the Levitical cities.-P. H.
teeth, like rats and squirrels, and therefore intended for subsisting chiefly on grain and nuts;  CHORAZIN   (Xopatlv).  This place is only
they are, on the contrary, supplied with a great mentioned in the Bible as one of the three cities in
number of small teeth, to the extent of twenty-two which most of Christ's mighty works had been
in each jaw-indicating a partial regimen; for done, and on which woes were pronounced because
they feed on worms, larva, and under-ground in- of their unbelief (Matt. xi. 21; Luke x. I3). No
sects, as well as on roots, and thus belong to the indication is given of its situation farther than that
insectivorous order; which brings the application  it seems to have been near Bethsaida. Jerome inof the name somewhat nearer to carnivora and its forms us that Capernaum, Bethsaida, and Chorazin
received interpretation,' weasel.'-C. H. S.  all lay on the shore of the Sea of Galilee; and that
CHOMET (than, from /ni, to twist, wind, Chorazin was two miles from Capernaum (Comm.
CV.E    -                  in Esai. ix. I; Onomast. s.v. Chorazain). The most
bend one'r self); the name given to a reptile (Lev. satisfactory description of the position of Chorazin
xi. 30; Sept. aappa; Vulg. lacerta; A. V. snail). is given by St. Willibald, who visited this region
It designates one of the lizard species, probably the in the beginning of the eighth century.  From
true lizard, of which multitudes are found in Pales- Tiberias he went to Magdulum (now Mejdel); thence
tine, especially amid ruins and sandy plains.  to Bethsaida; thence to Chorazin, where there was
CHORASHAN       Qr A M; Sept. B-> i*aqe4 d; a Christian church; and thence to the sources of the
CHORASHAN       (_iY g;   Sept. BIpcraa^P;Jordan at Banias (Early Trav. in Pal., p. i6).
Alex. Bwpaadv; Vulg. Lacus Asan). This place Capernaum was situated at Khan Minyeh (CAPERis mentioned in I Sam. xxx. 30, as one of the NAUM), Bethsaida at Tabighah (BETHSAIDA); and
towns amongst whose elders David made a friendly consequently we must look for the site of Chorazin
distribution of the spoils of the Amalekites. It is along the'shore between the latter place and the
generally supposed to be identical with the Ashan mouth of the upper Jordan, and at the distance of
of Joshua. [ASHAN.] See Keil on Joshua, Tr., about two miles from Capernaum. With such data
p. 382; Gesenius, Thes. 672; Furst, Lex. i. 583. we can have no difficulty in identifying Chorazin
By St. Jerome and Eusebius (Onomast. s. v. Asan) with the extensive ruins of Tell HIm, situated on
it is designated Bethasan, and is placed by the the shore of the lake, nearly three miles from
former fifteen, and by the latter sixteen, miles from  Capernaum.
}Elia (Jerusalem), irpbs 8vaud&s, as Eusebius adds; to  The ruins of Tell Hum are among the most rethe west, with a slightly southern direction: this markable in northern Palestine. To reach and exwould bring the town near to Ziglag, whence David plore them is no easy task. No trodden path leads
sent his presents. According to Josh. xv. 42, this to them. The Arabs seem to avoid them. Thickets
town was in the tribe of Judah; while in Josh. xix. of thistles as tall as a man on horseback, and so
7, and i Chron. iv. 32, it is assigned to the tribe of dense that no horse can break through them, enSimeon. To reconcile these statements, it is not compass and cover'the whole site. The ruins lie
necessary (with Von. Raumer, p. 173) to suppose close upon the shore, and are here and there washed
two places of the same name; but (with Winer, by the waves. They cover a level tract about half
Bibl. Real/w., v. i. p. 93) to include Ashan within a mile long by a quarter broad, and consist chiefly
that portion of Judah, which, as being'too much' of foundations and heaps of rough stones. There
for it (Josh. xix. 9), was afterwards transferred to is a small tower built up of old materials, in part
the'children of Simeon.' The name Chor-ashan  standing. A short distance from it are the remains
is described by Gesenius and Fiirst to mean' a of one of the most beautiful buildings in Palestine.
smoking furnace,' the latter conjecturing that the It was upwards of ioo feet long by 80 wide.
place was the seat of some iron-foundry. Winer,
however, resorts to the most satisfactory conjec- * Robinson, however, seems to identify Ain
ture, to the effect that the prefix CHOR is synony- with'the ruins of a village called El-Ghuwein,'
mous with the Syriac 3CQ, and the Arabic which, in his latest map, he puts south of Hebron.
This would destroy the identity not of Ain and
j   (Chor), which often means  habitation' or Ashan, but of Ashan and Chorashan. But Robinson does not write with certainty. Bibi. Researches,
place of any kind (ortschaft) [comp. Xcbpa], like vol. ii. p. 625, note 2.




CHOZEBA                    499                CHRISTIAN
Numbers of Corinthian columns, sculptured entab- there in preaching by Paul and Barnabas. It was
latures, and ornamented friezes, lie around it in con- therefore first used about the year 44 A.D. Both
fused heaps. Among them are large slabs of lime- Suidas (ii., p. 3930, a, ed. Gaisford) and Malalas
stone, on which are sculptured panels and orna- (Chronograph. x.) say that the name was first used
mented work. This splendid structure appears to in the episcopate of Evodius at Antioch, and Evohave been a synagogue. Its date cannot be earlier dius is said to have been appointed by St. Peter
than the fifth century.  After the destruction of as his successor A. D. 45 (Jerome, Chronic., p.
Jerusalem, the Jewish Sanhedrim  assembled at 429). That Evodius actually invented the name
Tiberias, which continued to be the capital of their (Malalas L.c.) is an assertion which may be disrenation for three centuries.  The Jews gathered garded as safely as the mediaeval fiction that it was
round it, and formed a large proportion of the adopted at a council held for the purpose.
population of Galilee from the second to the sixth  Throughout the N. T.the followers of Christ are
century. They were rich and powerful; and they called by vague and general names, such as ol
have left traces of their taste and architectural skill caOrcTat (Acts ix. 26; xi. 29; xiii. 52), ol vrLTroi ol
in many of the towns. The woe pronounced by   7rt-re6ovres (Acts xv. 23; iv. 32; Ronm xv. 25; Col.
our Lord has come upon Chorazin (Robinson, i. 2) ol &?eX\ol, ol &-yoi, ol rTs 6ov (Acts xv. I, 23;
B.R., iii. 359; Handbook of S. and P., 427).  I Cor. vii. I2; Rom. viii. 27; Acts xix. 9, 23, etc.)
About three miles inland from Tell Hufm is a The very variety of these terms, many of which are
fountain, and the ruins of a small village, bearing wholly unadapted for use by any but the believers
the name Kerazeh, which some identify with Chora- themselves, prove the non-existence of, and the neceszin (Keith on Prophecy; Thomson, The Land and sity for, some common and indifferent appellation.
the Book). But may it not be, as suggested by Dr. That the new designation did not arise from the
Robinson, that after the destruction of the town on Jews is obvious, first because they had generally
the exposed coast, some of the inhabitants retired adopted the opprobrious terms'Galileans' and
to this more secure spot, carrying with them the'Nazarenes,' which sufficiently expressed their conname of their home; just as happened at Sarepta? tempt and hatred for the new sect (Acts xxiv. 5; ii.
(Van de Velde, ii. 396).-J. L. P.             44; iv. 32; John i. 46; Luke xiii. 2); and secondly,
because it is certain that they would not have used
CHOZEBA      (lp,'failing  water,' Fiirst; the hallowed title of Messiah (XPL-rT6, the. Anointed)'lying,' Gesenius; Sept. Xwto'7d;:tlb LicK is to apply as a name of ridicule to those whom they
rendered by Vulgate i mend i: -           so much despised. That the name did not originate
rendered by Vulgate  men stead of menwith the Christians themselves is equally certain,
of Chozeba') was a town of the plain of Judah, because even after it had been invented, it was
on the west side, probably the same as ACHZIB not adopted by them, As the name is essentially
and CHEZIB, which see.   It is mentioned only external, it is not even alluded to for twenty years
once, in I Chron. iv. 22. The Vulgate renders (Actsxxvi. 28). In both of the places where alone
the proper names of this verse by appellatives, fol. it subsequently occurs, it is placed in the mouth of
lowing a curious Rabbinical tradition which is    enemy. That the tendency of Agrippa's speech
given by St. Jerome (Quast. Hebr. on I Chron. iv. s sarcastic when he said,'Almost thou persuad22) and may also be found in Corn. a Lapide, and  est e to be a Christian'-is evident from the conCalmet, in loc. According to this absurd inter- text; but as the sarcasm was intended to be halfpretation aokim is Qui fecit stare Solem,' He who  comlimentary, we may infer that the new name
made the sun stand still;' not indeed the great did not involve the same designed animosity as the
Joshua; but the Elimelech mentioned in Ruth, the insulting title'Nazarene.' In I Pet. iv. i6,'if
father of Mahlon and Chilion, who are the viri      n suffer as a Christian,' the word is again
mendacii, etc. Elimelech, it seems, was a right- used as anamegivenfrom withoutby unfavourable
eous man, and performed the stupendous miracle judges a term in fact of legal indictment (cf. Clem.
to convert the sinners of his people, among whomtrom. p. 297, 13, ed. Sylb.) and the conh w p s   et. T Alex., Strom. p. 297, 13, ed. Sylb.); and the conhis sons were unhappily conspicuous, etc. Thetinuation ofthe verse,'let him glorify God in this
remarkable clause which terminates the verse-  tinua   (leg. 6o a, pro  p), is t  earliest indi-'And these are ancient things,' is said to refer to  natime  we have that the church was prepared to
cation we have that the church was prepared to
these ancient traditions; whereas, most probably, adopt the badge which had been fixed upon it by
it points to some authentic old vouchers of the the world. In fact, the name Christian1 though
genealogy of the Sons of She/ah, whose name, it originally used as a stigma, was regarded in afterwill be observed, is brought into connection with times as a peculiar glory, jst as the ross, once the
our Chozeba a     el is clo selyi             mark of infamy  nd degradationthis pas afterwards
ture, as the same Shelah is connected with the the proudest emblem on the banners of armies and
Chezib of Gen. xxxviii. 5. But see CHEZIB.P. H. the diadems of kings. We hear of more than one
CHRIST.    [JESUS,]                         martyrand confessor, who at the tribunal or the stake
shouted repeatedly, as his cry of triumph and consoCHRISTIAN (XpTTLriav6s). This world-famous lation,'I am a Christian' (Euseb. H. E. v. i., Tert.
name,'quod sicut unguentum diffusum longe late- Apolog. 2); and in the Clementine Liturgy (quoted
que redolet' (Gul. Tyr. iv. 9), occurs but three by Mr. Humphry on Acts xi. 26) we find an express
times in the N. T. (Acts xi. 26; xxvi. 28; i Pet. thanksgiving that Christians were suffered to bear
iv. i6). In Acts xi. 26 we are informed that it the name of their Lord (eiXaptrovulv roct 8r rbs
arose in the city of Antioch* during the year spent 6Svolua Tov Xpi-roOv -OV Krt4XKCK raC p' las). The
*' No slighthonour to the city,' as St. Chrysostom  was significant of the ultimate diffusion of Christiobserves; but it is a pure fiction that its name was anity that the name arose in a great city, which was
changed in consequence to Theopolis (See William  neither the civil nor the religious capital of the
of Tyre, quoted by Conybeare and Howson). It world.




CHRISTIAN                    500               CHRONICLES
name itself was only contemptuous in the mouths Lactant., Instt..Dio. iv. 7), and one which the
of those who regarded with contempt him from   Christians were the less inclined to regret, because
whom it was derived; and as it was a universal it implied their true and ideal character (ol els
practice to name political, religious, or philosophi- Xpta-rv 7re7rLTrevKb6re s Xpflro T elo-l Kctl Xeyovrat,
cal societies from the name of their founders (as Clem. Alex., Strom. II. iv. 18.'Sed quum et
Pythagoreans, Epicureans, Apollonii, Coesariani, perperam Chrestianus pronuntiatur a vobis (nam
Vitelliani, etc.), it was advantageous rather than  nec nominis certa est notitia penes vos) de suaviotherwise for the Christians to adopt a title which  ate et benignitate compositum est,' Tert. 4Aol. 3).
was not necessarily offensive, and which bore  The explanation of the name Christian, as referwitness to their love and worship of their master; ring to the'unction from the Holy One,' although
a name intrinsically degrading - such  as the  supported by the authority of Theophilus Antiowitty Antiochenes, notorious in the ancient world  chenus (A.D. 170),'who lived not long after the
for their propensity to bestow nicknames,* might death of St. John' (ro0rov tveKe~V KacXOofEL0a Xpireasily have discovered (Philost., Vit. Apol., iii. rTavol 6,t Xpi6LbeOa X\atov OeoO, ad Autolyc. i. I2),
I6; Zosim. iii. I I —yeXoots re Kal &Tra~i LKavCS can only be regarded as an adaptation or an after9Xovrat, Procop. Bell. Pers. ii. 8),-would certainly thought (See Jer. Taylor, Disc. of Confirm.' sec.
have retarded the progress of the new religion; 3, and compare the German Christen).
and as we see even in modem times that it is the  The adoption of the name marks a very importendency of rival sects to brand each other with tant epoch in the history of the Church; the period
derisive epithets, it is natural to suppose that the when it had emerged even in the Gentile observaname'Christians' resulted rather from philoso- tion from its Jewish environment, and had enrolled
phical indifference than from theological hatred. followers who continued Gentiles in every respect,
The Latinised form of this hybrid word-Greek in  and who differed widely from the Jewish proseform, Latin in termination-is not indeed a con- lytes.'It expressed the memorable fact that a
clusive proof that it emanated from the Romans, community consisting primarily of Jews, and dibecause such terminations had been already fami- rected exclusively by them, could not be denoted
liarised thoughout the East by the Roman domi- by that name or by any name among them. To
nion; but it is precisely the kind of name which  the disciples it signified that they were witnesses
would have been bestowed by the haughty and    for a king, and a king whom all nations would be
disdainful spirit of victorious Rome, which is so often  brought in due time to acknowledge' (Maurice,
marked in early Christian history (John xviii. 31; Eccl. Hist., p. 79). See Buddaeus Miscell. Sacr.
Acts xxii. 24; xxv. I9; xviii. I4). That the disciples i. 280, sq.; Wetstenii, N. T. in Acts xi. (Conyshould have been called from' Christus,' a word im- beare and Howson, i. 30o; Zeller., Bibl. Worterb.
plying the offce, and not from'Jesus,' the name of s. v. Christen, etc.-F. W. F.
our Blessed Lord, leads us to infer that the former 
word was most frequently on their lips,'which   CHROMATIUS, Bishop of Aquileia during
harmonises with the most important fact that in thethe latter part of the 4th century, and the earlier
Epistles he is usually called not'Jesus,' but Christ' years of the 5th; the friend and correspondent of
(Conybeare and Howson's St. Paul, i. 130).Jerome, Rufinus, Ambrose, and Chrysostom; and'Christus non proprium nomen est sed nuncupatio  held by them, and others, in the highest esteem.
Christus non proprium nomen est, sed nuncupatio  He            me'the most holy and the most
potestatis et regni,' Lactant (Div. Institt. iv. 7).He is styled by Jerome'the most holy and the most
In later times when the features of the'exitiabilisf learned of bishops; Rufinus expresses such consuperstitio' were better known, because of its ever-fidence in his udgment that he terms him'the
superstitio' were better known, because of its ever- Bezaleel of our time;' and he was one of the three
widening progress (Tac., Ann. xv. 44), this indif- zaeel of our time' and he was one of the three
ferentism was superseded by a hatred against the western bishops whose support was sought by
name as intense as the Christian love for it, and  Chrysostom, after his deposition by the Council of
for this reason the Emperor Julian' countenancedthe Oak.  Inseveral ways he  ndered important
and perhaps enjoined the use of the less honourable services on behalf of biblical and ecclesiastical
appellation of Galileans' (Gibbon, v. 312, ed. Mi- literature. It was at his instigation that Rufinus
man; Greg. Naz. Orat. iii. 8i).  Yet as Tertul- made his translation of the Ecclesiastical History
lian, in an interesting passage points out, the name   Eusebius, and also of the Homilies of Origen on
so detested was harmless in every sense, for it Joshua (Rufin. Hist. Ecc. Praf, Orig. Hore. in
merely called them by the office of their master, des. Prol).  It was by the pecuniary aid he renand that office merely implied one set apart by  dered to Jerome that the latter was enabled to
solemn unction (Tertull., Apolog. 3).          prosecute his literary labours, and it was partly in
It appears that by a widely prevalent error the  consequence of his urgent appeals that Jerome
Christians were generally called Chrestiani, andmade his translation of the. T. from the Hetheir founder Chrestus-a mistake which is very  brew, and not from the Greek of the Septuagint
(Hieron, Proef. in lib. Sal., Praf. in lib. Paralip.
easily accounted for (Suet., Ner. I6, Claud. 25;(Hieron, Pr  n     Sa   P     in. arap.
Pn3zf. in lib. Tobie).  His only extant works
* If the name were meant for one of those are eighteen homiletic pieces on the earlier chapsneering jests (O-KuSlara), which Julian especially ters of Matthew.  One of these-that on the eight
attributes to the Antiochenes, it is hard to see the beatitudes-is clearly a sermon. The others were
point of it, unless it can be meant to ridicule their itended to be read, and probably form part of a
adherence to the cause of one who had been cruci-practical exposition of Matthew, the remainder of
fied (See Wetstein, N. T. in Acts xi. 26).     which has been lost. His style is simple and clear,
+ Gibbon's conjecture that this disgust partly  and his method of interpretation is literal and not
arose from a confusion of the'Galileans' with the allegorical.  The best edition is that by Braida
followers of Judas the Gaulonite, is rightly de- (Utini, i8i6, 4to), and reprinted by Migne in the
nounced by Guizot as'devoid not only of verisimi- twentieth volume of his Patrol. Curs.-S. N.
litude but even of possibility' (i. 545, el,. Milman.)  CHRONICLES. Name.-The Hebrew name




CHRONICLES                   501               CHRONICLES
of Chronicles is b.'_l nT, i. e., words of the days, Iddo, appears to have contained an explanation of
annals.   In the Hebrew canon they formed athe section of the large work termed the book of
annals.  In the Hebrew canon they formed a Iddo the seer. In No. 9 the word Ntil is most
single book, which the Greek translators divided dd  te seer  In No    the word     is most
into two with the title 7rapaXe~7r6j~eva, things probably a proper name, not the plural seers.
omitted, because many things omitted in the books,
of Kings are contained in them. The common      If the term  rn_,'1", in No. 3, means belonging
name, Chronicles, is from the Latin Chronicon, which  t ealogica and thus refers to the place
Jerome first used (Prolog. galeat. in libr. Regg.) t he  words of Shemaiah and Iddo were to be
The example of the Septuagint, in dividing the we   the  ord of Se   i   n     o  ere o e
work, was followed by the Vulgate and Luther. found, the oinion rpecting the prophetic monoD. Bomberg also introduced it into his editions of graphs in question that they formed a part of the
h    e Hebrew Bible so that it into his editions oflarge historical work, would be corroborated. But
the Hebrew Bible, so that it is now universal.  it is very difficult to tell what it means. Our transThe books of Chronicles may be divided into two lators seem to have come as near its signification as
parts, as follows                             any critics who have since attempted an explanation.
I. Containing chapters i.-ix. 34.          Thenius conjectures, that in the history of RehoII. Containing ix. 35-2 Chron. xxxvi.       boam, contained in the books of Kings, there were
The former consists of genealogical lists inter- copious accounts of the race of David; and that the
spersed with short historical notices; the latter, of section in which particulars respecting Rehoboam
the history of the kings in Jerusalem from David and the prophets Shemaiah and Iddo stood, began
-to Zedekiah.                                 with a genealogical list. This is more than doubtSources.-The following documents are referred ful. The manner in which the document is referred
to by the compiler himself:-to seems to shew that it was not incorporated with
I. The book of Samuel the seer, and the book  the large historical composition, for in 2 Chron.
of Nathan the prophet, and the book of Gad the xxxiii. 18, the book of the Kings of Israel is referred
seer (I Chron. xxix. 29); for the history of David. to for the history of Manasseh; whereas for the
2. The book of Nathan the prophet, the pro- same king, the sayings of the seers (No. 9) are apphecy of Ahijah the Shilonite, and the visions of pealed to in the next verse. Surely, therefore,
Iddo the seer against Jeroboam the son of Nebat; Nos. 8 and 9 were not identical, nor was the latter
for the history of Solomon (2 Chron. ix. 29).  a part of the former.
3. The book of Shemaiah the prophet and of    In No. 6 the citation is peculiar:'the rest of
Iddo the seer (2 Chron. xii. 15); for the history of the acts of Uzziah, first and last, did Isaiah the
Rehoboam.                                     prophet, the son of Amoz, write' (2 Chron. xxvi.
4. The book of Jehu the son of Hanani, trans- 22). One is inclined to believe that the monoferred into the book of the kings of Israel (2 Chron. graph of Isaiah was single and independent, espexx. 34); for the history of Jehoshaphat.      cially as it is not found either in Isaiah's prophecies,
5. The story (Midrash) of the book of the Kings in the canon, or in the historical appendix in Is.
(2 Chron. xxiv. 27).                          xxxvi.-xxxix.
6. A work of Isaiah the prophet respecting    In addition to the sources enumerated, the comUzziah (2 Chron. xxvi. 22).                   piler must have had others. Thus the lists of
7. The vision of Isaiah the prophet (2 Chron. David's heroes (xi. 10-47), of those who came to
xxxii 32); for the history of Hezekiah.       him at Ziklag (xii. 1-22), of the captains, princes of
8. The book of the Kings of Israel (2 Chron. the tribes, and officers of David's household (xxvii.),
xxxiii. 18); for the history of Manasseh.     the number and distribution of the Levites, and
9. The Sayings of the Seers (Hosai), in 2 Chron. the minute information given respecting Divine
xxxiii. I9; for the history of Manasseh.      worship (xxiii. -xxvi.), must have been derived from
o1. The book of the Kings of Judah and Israel written sources not included in the book of the
(2 Chron. xxviii. 26; xvi. II; xxv. 26); for the Kings of Israe and Judah.
histories of Asa, Amaziah, and Ahaz.            Some documents are mentioned by the compiler
11. The book of the Kings of Israel and Judah which he did not use. Thus a writing of Elijah
(2 Chron. xxvii. 7; xxxv. 27; xxxvi. 8); for the addressed to Jehoram is spoken of in 2 Chron.
histories of Jotham, Josiah, and Jehoiakim.   xxi. 12; and a collection of lamentations, in which
12. The Story (Midrash) of the prophet Iddo  was an elegy composed by Jeremiah on Josiah's
(2 Chron. xiii. 22); for the history of Abijah.  death (2 Chron. xxxv. 25).
In relation to Nos. o1, II, 8, 4, it is observable,  In I Chron. i.-ix., we have only a few references
that all refer to one and the same document. A  to the origin of the genealogical lists. Throughout
large work is quoted under different names, and most of this portion the compiler relied on regisconsisting of two leading divisions;. the one con- ters, which he carefully followed. But his inforcerning the kings of Judah, the other those of Israel. mation respecting them is not definite.
No. 5 seems to us to denote an explanatory docu-  It has been inquired, whether our present books
ment occasionally employed by the compiler of of Samuel and Kings were one of the sources
Chronicles. But the term  Midrash is obscure. whence the Chronicle writer drew his materials?
Nos. I, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, were prophetic documents, The question is answered in the affirmative by De
i e., they were written by prophets; and it appears Wette, Movers, and Bleek; by Havernick and
to us most probable, that they existed as separate others in the negative.  The first-named critic
monographs (with the exception of No. 4), rather adduces three arguments in favour of the hypothan that they were incorporated with the large thesis that the parallel accounts were derived from
historical work, the book of the Kings of Israel the earlier books, only one of which appears to us
and Judah, which grew to its full dimensions out valid, viz., the certainty of the Chronist's having
of memoranda committed to writing in different known the earlier books. After denying the vali.
reigns, No. 12, viz., a Midrash of the prophet dity of all his arguments, Keil proceeds to adduc,




CHRONICLES                    502               CHRONICLES
some positive grounds against the hypothesis that the  Whence were the names in (a) taken? There is
books of Kings and Samuel were used as sources.  little doubt that Genesis was the source. But the
Ist, The circumstance that both narratives agree form is different here, and it may therefore be
with one another, and have parallel sections only  asked, Did the compiler of Chronicles derive the
when they cite their sources.  But no more than  accounts immediately from Genesis, or did he take
15 verses appear after the last citation of sources in them from some other historical work in which
the Chronicles, in which the destruction of the  they had already got their present form? It is unJewish state is described very briefly. It is pro- necessary to resort to the latter hypothesis.  We
bable that the writer employed the Kings up to  may reasonably suppose that he borrowed them at
this time and not after.                       once from Genesis, abridging and contracting them
2dly, The different arrangement of materials in  according to the object he had in view.
both works. All the difference of arrangement that  Whence were the genealogies in (b) and (c) taken?
exists is not great, and is sufficiently explained by  In consequence of their characteristic nature they
the use of other sources in addition to the indepen- must have been borrowed from other sources than
dence of the writer.                           the historical books of the 0. T. The Pentateuch,
3dly, The many historical additions which the Joshua, Samuel, and Kings, could not have furChronicles have in the parallel sections. These are nished them, for they have a better connection and
accounted for like the last.                    are more complete than the fragmentary genealo4thly, The apparent contradictions in the parallel gies in those books with which they coincide. The
sections.  These are explained by the use of other differences are too great to admit of their derivation
sources besides, on which the writer may have some- from the canonical writings. They must therefore
times relied more than on the accounts in Kings.  have been compiled from old genealogical and topoThe considerations adduced by Keil are singu- graphical lists existing among the author's contemlarly wanting in validity. If the compiler of Chro- poraries. This is plainly indicated in various places.
nicles knew the canonical books, why should it be  On comparing the different notices with one
thought that he abstained from using them? They  another, it will be found that the names vary very
would have facilitated his work. The most con- much. Various causes contributed to this result,
vincing proof that he both knew and used them is one consisting in the mistakes of transcribers. Trafurnished by parallels, which are often verbal. dition had also varied in progress of time, and the
Thus in 2 Chron. i. I4-17, there is a paragraph  genealogies varied accordingly.
almost verbally coinciding with I Kings x. 26-29.  In I Chron. ix. 35-44, we have a duplicate of
Again, I Chron. xvii. and xviii. are in many places viii. 29-40 with a few deviations, viz., Jehiel, Ner,
verbally parallel with 2 Sam. vii and viii. Com- and Mikloth are wanting in viii. 29-31; Shimeam
pare also I Chron. xix. I-xx. i, with 2 Sam. is Shimeah (viii. 32); and Ahaz -n viii. 35 is omitx.-xi.; 2 Chron. x. I-xi 4, with I Kings xii. ted in ix. 4I.  For Jehoadah and Rapha in viii.
1-24; 2 Chron. xv. I6-I8, with I Kings xv. 13-15; 36, 37, we have Javah and Rephaiah in ix. 42, 43.
2 Chron. xxv. 1-4, 17-28, with 2 Kings xiv. I-6, At ix. 44 the two verses viii. 39, 40, are omitted.
8-20; 2 Chron. xxxiii. I-9, with 2 Kings xxi. I-9;  There are many dificulties in this genealogical
2 Chron. xxxiii. 21-25, with 2 Kings xxi. I9-26. part which cannot be resolved for want of data.
The deviations, however, are often the best index  One of the most obvious is in I Chron. vi. 61,
of the author's use of the earlier books, because they  where it is stated, that ten cities were given by lot
shew design.                                    to the sons of Kohath out of the half tribe of ManThe genealogies in chapters i.-ii. 2, relating to  asseh. This contradicts Joshua xxi. 20-26, where
the ante-Mosaic period, are all contained in the we see that some of the ten cities were in the terribook of Genesis, though they are compressed as tories of Ephraim and Dan. It is said, indeed, in
much as possible, as the following table will shew. the 66th and following verses, that the sons of
(a) I Chron. i. I-4 from Genesis v.          Kohath had cities out of the tribe of Ephraim;,,   i. 5-23 from Genesis x. 2-4, 6-8, but here the entire number is eight instead of ten.
13-I8, 22-29.                Besides, Gezer and Shephem were not cities of,,   i. 24-27 from Genesis xi. 10-26.  refuge, as is stated.,,   i. 29-33 from Genesis xxv. 12-16,   On comparing I Chron. ix. I-34 with NeheI-4.                         miah xi. 3-36 great perplexity arises as to the,     i. 35-54, from Genesis xxxvi. 23- original relation between them.  Three points
26, and xlvi. 8, etc.       require investigation, viz., whether the one geneaAgain, a number of names and families met with logy was derived from the other, whether they
in earlier historical books occur in Chronicles in a were taken independently from a common source,
different genealogical connection, or at the head of and to what time they refer. The last determines
longer lists peculiar to these books-          the other two.
(b) as I Chron. ii. 10-12, the ancestors of David;  It is apparent that Nehemiah gives a list of the
comp. Ruth iv. 9-22, etc., etc.                 principal inhabitants of Jerusalem after the exile.
(4 Lists whici are peculiar to Chronicles are  Does I Chron. ix. also present a post-exile list of
found among the chapters referred to in (b), as those dwelling at Jerusalem? Keil asserts that it
ii. 18-53; iii. 16-24; iv. 2-23, 34-43; v. I-26, relates to the inhabitants of Jerusalem before the
33-36; vi. 1-34. It will be seen that these are exile; laying considerable stress on ix. 2,'thefirst
more numerous than such as are commonly admit- inhabitants that dwelt in their possessions, in their
ted to have been taken from the older biblical cities,' contrasted with Neh. xi. I,'and the rulers
books.  Because they are not found elsewhere it is of the people dwelt at 7erusalem.  But his reaunnecessary to view them with suspicion, or to con- soning is precarious here. The first verse of I
sider them as the arbitrary addition and fabrication  Chron. ix. is from the chronist himself, referring
of the writer himself. Yet Gramberg does not his readers for farther information to the source
hesitate to maintain this.                     whence he drew most of the preceding genealogies




CHRONICLES                   503              CHRONICLES
But in the second verse there is an obvious transi-  David's song of thanksgiving and last words, 2
tion to the post-exile time. In ix. I6 mention is Sam. xxii., xxiii.
also made of Berechiah'that dwelt in the villages  Adonijah's usurpation of the kingdom, and the
of the Netophathites,' which villages are refer- anointing of Solomon as king, I Kings i.
red to in Neh. xii. 28, after the captivity. Both  The encounter between David and Michal, when
registers in I Chron. ix. and in Neh. xi. 3, etc., the latter came forth to mock him, 2 Sam. vi. 20-23.
are arranged alike.  Their general plan corre-  David's last charge, I Kings ii. I-9.
spends. There is also a remarkable coincidence  Solomon's deposition and banishment of Abiaof names and incidental notices amid many thar, and his putting to death Joab and Shimei, 2
deviations.  Allowance should be made for the Kings ii. 26-46.
numerous mistakes made in the transcription of  Solomon's marriage with Pharaoh's daughter, I
names. Both agree in the main points, i.e., the Kings iii. I.
account of the heads of families, while they also  His wise judgment, iii. 16-28.
touch in subordinate particulars.  Hence they  His princes and officers, the peace and largeness
could not have originated independently. They of his kingdom, the daily provision of his houserefer to the same persons and time, i.e., the post- hold, his stables, etc., 2 Kings iv.
exile inhabitants of Jerusalem. Which is the ori-  The building of his palace, I Kings vii. I-12.
ginal? De Wette and Zunz suppose Nehemiah      His wives, concubines, idolatry, and threatened
the original, and the other a copy. No compari- punishment, I Kings xi. I-13.
son we can make leads to such a conclusion. The  His adversaries, I Kings xi. I4-40.
most natural hypothesis is, that both were taken  The copiously detailed transactions which hapfrom one and the same source. It is not, however, pened at Hebron during the reign of David, 2
easy to conceive that both drew from it directly. Sam. i.-iv.
Rather does their source seem to have existed in  Description of the ornaments and vessels of the
different abridgments and forms more or less exact; Temple, I Kings vii. 13-39.
a fact which will account for the various peculiarities  Prayer of Solomon, I Kings viii. 56-61.
of each.                                       The taking of Gath in war with the Syrians, and
As to the time when the heads of the families delivering up of the temple vessels to the Syrian
mentioned in chapter ix. lived in Jerusalem, there king, 2 Kings xii. 17, I8.
is no internal mark of importance to guide us in  There are also many omissions in the histories of
determining it. We hold with Herzfeld, that the Ahaz and Hezekiahj 2 Kings xvi. 5-18; xviii 4-8.
list in Chronicles was written somewhat later than  2. Additions or interpolations.
that in Nehemiah. It would appear that in the  (a.) Primary facts.
interval between Neh. xi. and i Chron. ix., an  A list of those who attached themselves to David
important accession had been made to the inhabi- during Saul's life, and the number of the warriors
tants of Jerusalem; for of the tribe of Judah dwelt who chose him king at Hebron, I Chron. xii,
there, according to Nehemiah, 468; but 690 ac-  David's preparations for building the temple, I
cording to I Chron. Of Benjamin there were 928 Chron. xxii.
according to Nehemiah, 956 according to I Chron.,  The number and distribution of the Levites and
etc. etc. A long interval, however, should not be priests, with the settlement of their employments,
assumed, because the population would increase  I Chron. xxiii.-xxvi.
rapidly.  Bertheau's attempt to invalidate this  Accounts of David's army and officers, I Chron.
argument is unsuccessful.                    xxvii.
In farther considering the relation of Chroni-  His last directions and regulations in a solemn
cles to the other historical books of the 0. T., we assembly before his death, I Chron. xxviii.-xxix.
shall now confine ourselves to their properly his-  Arrangements of Rehoboam for strengthening
torical portion, commencing with i Chron. ix. 35. his kingdom; the reception of the priests driven
Here more than forty parallel sections of greater or out of Israel into Judah; the wives and children of
less compass come under review, side by side with the king, 2 Chron. xi. 5-23.
others in Samuel and Kings. The agreement is   Abijah's war with Jeroboam, 2 Chron. xiii. 2-20;
often verbal; but the deviations are also frequent his wives and children, 21-22.
and considerable.  The differences between the  Asa's victory over Zerah, an Ethiopian who inparallels may be classed under three heads, viz.-  vaded Judah 2 Ghron. xiv. 8-14.
Such as relate to the matter; such as concern the lan-  Address of the prophet Azariah to Asa, in conguage in which facts are narrated; and those which  sequence of which the king renounces idolatry, 2
concern both matter and language.            Chron. xv. 1-15.
I. Deviations in the matter of the narrative.  Address of the prophet Hanani, and how Asa reHere there are omissions, additions, and a different ceived his admonition, 2 Chron. xvi. 7-10.
order.                                         Jehoshaphat's carefulness to secure his kingdom,
I. Omissions.                              his endeavours to extirpate idolatry, and to pro(a.) Of primary facts.                     mote the knowledge of religion among the people,
David's kindness to Mephibosheth and Ziba, 2 2 Chron. xvii.
Sam. ix.                                       Jehu's opinion of Jehoshaphat's covenant with
His adultery with Bathsheba and Uriah's mur- Ahab, and Jehoshaphat's arrangements for restorder, 2 Sam. xi. 2-xii 25. The surrender of Saul's ing the due administration of justice, 2 Chron. xix.
seven sons to the heathen Gibeonites as all atone-  The invasion of various eastern peoples, and how
ment, 2 Sam. xxi. 1-14.                      they destroyed one another, so that the arms of
The large episodes respecting David's family his- Jehoshaphat had no share in the victory, 2 Chron.
tory, including Absalom's rebellion and its conse- xx. I-30.
quences, with Sheba's revolt, 2 Sam. xiii.-xx.  His provision for his sons, and their slaughter by
A war with the Philistines, 2 Sam. xxi. 15-17.  Jehoram, 2 Chron. xxi. 2-4.




CHRONICLES                   504               CHRONICLES
Jehoram's idolatry and punishment, including a  (b.) Variations according to a later, and for the
letter to him from Elijah, 2 Chron. xxi. II-I9.  most part Aramaising pronunciation, as the interDeath of Jehoiada, and apostacy of the people; change of K the softer consonant with the harder
the appearance of the prophet Zechariah and his Hi, at the beginning and end of words; thus:iT1,
death, 2 Chron. xxiv. I5-22.
Amaziah's equipments, and his hiring of soldiers 
out of the northern kingdom, whom he sent home  3. Grammatical.
again at the exhortation of a prophet, xxv. 5-10.  To this head belongHis introduction of Edomite idolatry, and cen-  (a.) The regular mode of writing, instead of the
sure by a prophet, xxv. 14-16.                irregular, abridged, or incorrect mode employed
Uzziah's fortunate wars, his buildings and armed in the earlier books, as NK13, I Chron. xi. 2, for
force, 2 Chron. xxvi. 6-I5.                        2 Sam. v. 2.
Jotham's successful war with the Ammonites, 2..
Chron. xxvii. 5-6.                              (b.) To this head belongs also the later form of
Hezekiah's celebration of the passover, xxx. 1-27.a word instead of the earlier, as n, I Chron.
His arrangements for the regular worship of 
Jehovah and for the support of the priests and      for the older, 2 Sam v. 2.
Levites, 2 Chron. xxxi. 2-21.                   (.) The older or irregular flexion of a verb or
Manasseh's transportation to Babylon, his con- substantive is changed into that belonging to the
version and restoration, 2 Chron. xxxiii. II-I3.  later usage, as tD)'W  in I Kings x. 20, which beHis measures towards strengthening the king-                T-.
dom, 2 Chron. xxxiii. 14;comes in 2 Chron. ix. I9 j'a.N
(b.) Short notices in the books of Samuel and  (d.) Alterations in construction are made, as the
Kings are here enlarged and completed. Compare avoidance of the infinitive absolute with the finite
I Chron. xiii., xv., xvL, with 2 Sam. vi.                    hron. xiv.        for 
(c.) Insertions, consisting of reflections by the                         -. r
author, or his own views assigned to the persons 2 Sam. v. 20.
described, as,' But Amaziah would not hear: for  4 Exegetical alterations of language embrace
it came of God that he might deliver them into the the followinghand of their-enemies, because they sought after the  (a.) The substitution of a younger or commoner
gods of Edom,' 2 Chron. xxv. 20; compare 2 Kings synonym for an older or unusual one.  Thus
xiv. II.                                      in I Chron. x. 12, we find i1., deadbody, for
3. The Chronicles also differ from the books of nf 3 in I Sam. xxxi. 12.
Samued and Kings in the order in which several   - T:
occurrences are placed.                         (b.) A more distinct reference is given to an inComp. I Chron. xi. 1-9 with 2 Sam  vi.-I-Io.  definite expression, as in I Chron. xiii. 10, because,,  xi. 10-47          xxiii. 8-o. he put his hand to the ark, instead of the indefinite
X iii.,,   vi. 3-Il.   phrase of 2 Sam. vi. 7, forhis error.
Xi.,,  V. II-25.    (c.) Euphemisms belong here, as in I Chron.,,    v.,,  vi. I2, etc. xix. 4, nyTnT, instead ofnni,Sam.
2 Chron. i. 3-13    I Kings ii. 4-I4.  x. 4.,,    i 14-I7,,   x. 26-29.     III. Other deviations relate both to the language,  ii.        vand matter; but change the sense for the worse.
II. The linguistic deviations exhibited by the They may be classed as follows:books of Chronicles compared with the earlier his-  (a.) Alterations which obscure the meaning; as
torical works included in the canon, are either I Chron. xix. 3,'are not his servants come unto
omissions; or they are orthogr'phical, grammatical, thee for to search, and to overthrow, and to spy
and exegecal.                                 out the land,' instead of,'to search the city, and to
I. Omissions.                              spy it out, and to overthrow it,' 2 Sam. x. 3.
(a.) The omission of superfluous or less suitable  (b.) Exaggerations in numbers. Thus in I Chron.
words.                                        xxi. 5, the number of those fit tobear arms in Israel
I Sam. xxxi. 3,'the archers hit him,' tjitH;r  is, Ioo,ooo, and in Judah 470,000.  But in 2
ri3p tlDwOK.   In 2 Chron. x. 3, the word     Sam. xxiv. 9, the numbers are, Israel 800,000, and
~v        T -:. Judah 500,000.
D' KW., which is harsh in its present position, is  (c.) It is to this head that De Wette and others
omitted.                                      would refer what they regard as mythological alteraI Sam. xxxi. 11, $S. is superfluous. In I tions ad additions.
Chron. x. I I,: is substituted.                I Chron. xxi. 6,'And David lifted up his eyes,.) Much oftener than the preceding do we find and saw the angel of the Lord stand between the
(b.) Much oftener than the preceding do we find earth and the heaven, having a drawn sword in his
earth and the heaven, having a drawn sword in his
2 Kings xxi. 8,'And Manasseh slept with histh     ehe       y   Sa   xv.when
omitted by the Chronist to the injury of the connec- the  ord ov ed Jera lem,'     et up his
2 Kings axi. I8, I'And Manasseh' slept with his sword again into the sheath thereof.' Instead oi
fathers and was buried in the garden of his own this, we have onlyin 2 Sam. xxi. I,  hen Daid
house,' etc. 2 Chron. xxxiii. 20,' And they buried saw the angel that scope of the work has reference to
him in his own h    "ouse!                Sdcoe.-The scope of the work has reference to
him2. Orfhi ogra h e.                      the temple and its worship. The compiler living
2(a.       pi   lena insteadOl.  the def    after the captivity, and looking back to the history
(a.) The scritio plena instead of the defectiva, of his nation before its calamities, was animated
as'lVV, I Chron. ii. 15, etc. etc., for'!,I Sam. with the desire of holding up the mirror of history
xvi. 13, 19, etc.                             before his contemporaries, that they might see tle




CHRONICLES                   505               CHRONICLES
close connection between regard for the true worship  most impugned in the portions peculiar to themand national prosperity. In accordance with this selves. Here the Levitical bias of the writer apdesign, we find most attention directed to the times pears most strongly. But it should be always re.
in which religion prevailed among the people, and  collected, that the author being himself a Levite,
to the men who were most active in purifying the and taking a post-exile view of Jehovah's worship,
kingdom from idolatry.  David, Solomon, Asa, brings forward arrangements connected with divine
Jehoshaphat, Joash, Hezekiah, Josiah, are described  service in the temple; that he was a native of Judah,
at length in relation to the temple and its appointed which was much less addicted to idolatry than
ordinances.                                    Israel; and that pious kings who manifested right
The spirit of the work is Levitical. This is only zeal for the glory of God are commended; while
natural, because the author himself was a Levite. the ruinous consequences of idolatrous practices are
His stand-point is an ecclesiastical one; and there- shewn. The general credibilityof the sacred writer's
fore Levites everywhere occupy the fore-ground, communications may be safely asserted here.' In.while prophets are in the distance. There is an  many cases they are confirmed by independent testiabsence of the prophetic element. The book was mony. It is true that he has sometimes transferred
compiled in an daologetic tone, the writer having  customs and usages established in his own time to
been desirous to present the favourable side of an earlier period. Thus in I Chron.' xvi., a psalm
his country's history. Thus in I Kings ix. 21, it of praise is represented as sung by David, which
is said that the children of Israel were not able did not then exist in its present state. The parts
utterly to destroy the old inhabitants of Canaan; of it are found scattered through various psalms.
but in 2 Chron. viii. 8, the statement is softened  Verses 8-22 are from Psalm cv.; verses 23-33 are
into,'whom the children of Israel destroyed not.' from Psalm xcvi.; verses 34-36 are from the close
Hence many of the bad parts of David's conduct, of Psalm cvi. No critic pretends that either the
which are related in the books of Samuel and Kings, psalm here, or those from which it was made, exare here omitted.                             isted as early as David's time.
If it be asked how the compiler employed his   The state of the text in Chronicles is closely consources, the question is difficult to answer. He nected with the judgment that may be pronounced on
did not make his extracts from them verbally and  the nature of the contents. If the text be regarded
slavishly.  In other words, he was not a mere as exceedingly corrupt, some of the contradictions
copyist or abridger of existing accounts. He must and difficulties which appear in the narratives may
have used them   freely and independently.  It be readily removed. But if the text be taken as it
cannot be maintained, however, that his sources is, and adhered to, inaccuracy will often lie at the
were always as good as those used by the writer door of the writer. We believe that the text is corof the Kings; or that he followed them so exactly rupt, and to a considerable extent. Transcribers
and faithfully. Hence in places where his narra- have made more mistakes in copying it than any
tive contradicts the earlier books, it is almost al- other. The reasons are perhaps not very remote.
ways less reliable. Compare 2 Chron. xx. 36, 37, Wherever proper names occur in abundance, there
with I Kings xxii. 48.  It speaks most favourably is greater liability to err.  So with regard to numon behalf of his general fidelity, that he has in some bers; for letters alike in shape being used as numecases given two different accounts of the same thing, rals, were easily interchanged. Besides, where so
which he found in his sources; as in I Chron. xxiii. many parallels appear in other books, there was a
24-32 compared with xxiii. 3; it being stated in the  temptation to correct or supplement one by another.
one case, that the Levites were to do service in the  The following list of discrepant numbers may
house of the Lord from twenty years of age and  shew that there are corruptions in the text. We
upwards; in the other from thirty. Both numbers do not mean to say that all are such. It is suffiare given as the compiler found them.          cient for us to assert, that some of them are owing
The historical character of the books has been  to errors of transcription: -
Jair had 23 cities in Gilead (i Chron. ii. 22).  He had 30 cities (Judg. x. 4).
Jashobeam, one of David's mighty men, slew 300   Jashobeam slew 8oo (2 Sam. xxiii. 8).
at one time (i Chron. xi. ii).
The famine, proposed by Gad to David, is said to  It lasted 7 years (2 Sam. xxiv. 13).
have lasted 3 years (I Chron. xxi. I2).
When David numbered the people, Judah had        Judah had 500,000 (2 Sam. xxiv. 9).
470,000 men (i Chron. xxi. 5).
Solomon had 4000 stalls (2 Chron. ix. 25).       He had 40,000 (i Kings iv. 26).
Jehoiachin was 8 years old when he became king   He was i8 years old (2 Kings xxiv. 8).
(2 Chron. xxxvi. 9).
David slew of the flying Aramaeans 7000 men      He slew 700 (2 Sam. x. I8).
who fought in chariots (i Chron. xix. I8).
The sum of the people numbered under David       It amounted to 800,ooo (2 Sam. xxiv. 9).
amounted to, oo100,00ooo (r Chron. xxi. 5).
David bought the threshing-floor of Oman for 600  He gave for it 50 shekels of silver (2 Sam
shekels of gold (I Chron. xxi. 25).              xxiv. 24).
At the building of the temple Solomon had 3600   He had 3300 overseers (x Kings v. i6).
overseers (2 Chron. ii. 2).
The brazen sea contained 3000 baths (2 Chron. iv. 5).  It contained 2000 baths (i Kings vii. 26).
The ships of Solomon brought from Ophir 450      They brought 420 talents ({ Kings ix. 28).
talents of gold.(2 Chron. viii. I8).
Ahaziah was 42 years old when he began to reign  He was 22 years old (2 Kings viii. 26).
(2 Chron. xxii. 2).




CHRONICLES                  506               CHRONICLES
According to I Chron. xxii. 14, David gave for of the Persian dynasty or the beginning of the Grethe building of the temple I00,000 talents of gold cian, i. e., 330-320 B. C. This coincides with the
(500,000,000o), and I,000,ooo talents of silver date already given.
(f353,000,000). Besides, according to xxix. 4,  Notwithstanding such probable calculation of the
he gave out of his private purse 3000 talents of date, there are modes of bringing it within the
gold of Ophir (/'21,600,000), and 700 talents of period defined by Hengstenberg and Havernick as
silver.  The nobles of the kingdom  also gave the antecanonical one, i. e., 400 B. C. Both Movers
5000 talents of gold and Io,ooo drachmas (darics); and Havemick contrive to make the Chronicle
Io,ooo talents of silver, I8,000 talents of brass, writer a younger contemporary of Nehemiah, by
and oo00,ooo talents of iron (xxix. 7). These, added assuming that the genealogist stops with Hanatogether, make an incredibly large sum, which is niah's two sons, Pelatiah and Jesaiah, the author
greatly reduced, however, by Reinke conjecturing appending to these names single individuals of
that letters representing smaller numbers were David's posterity. It is supposed that after these
exchanged for others signifying the present larger grandsons of Zerubbabel, there is another parallel
ones; and by Keil, who indulges in arbitrary genealogy of returned exiles, whose relation to
assumptions.                                 Zerubbabel is not stated. Shemaiah, a contempoA similar example occurs in 2 Chron. xvii. 14, rary of Zerubbabel, as is conjectured, has his family
etc., where Jehoshaphat king of Judah is said to register carried down four degrees, as far as his
have had an army of, 6o0,000 men; while Adnah great grandsons. Hence these critics bring the
the chief had 300,000; Jehohanan, the next to him, register to about 400 B.C. This view is more inge280,000; Amasiah, 200,000; Eliada, 200,000; nious than correct; for it is tolerably clear, from
Jehozabad~ I80,ooo. Besides these, the king put Neh. iii. 29, that Shemaiah was not the contemnumbers in the defenced cities throughout all porary of Zerubbabel but,of Nehemiah; and,
Judah. In this instance again, corruption is as- if he were so, he lived ninety years later than Zesumed.                                       rubbabeL  Instead of his being put somewhere
A third example of the same kind is in 2 Chron. about 530o that is in Zerubbabel s time, as Movers
xiii. 3 and 17, where Abijah led forth to battle and Havernick suppose, he must, as a contempo400, oo00men, andJeroboam, king of Israel, 800,000. rary of Nehemiah's, be placed about 440 B.c. The
500,000 are said to have fallen. The two king. explanation of these scholars would not readily
doms could scarcely have contained so many fights suggest itself to the reader of I Chron. iii. 21. It
ing men, nor could so many have been slain in is most natural to carryforward the genealogy there,
one battle.                                  just as it is contained in the preceding and subseAnother example is in 2 Chron. xxviii. 6, 8, quent verses, even though the expression be varied.
where Pekah, king of Israel, is said to have slain  Another way of preventing the genealogy from
120,000 men in one day; and to have carried away bringing the whole work down to a comparatively
captive 200,000 women and children into Samaria. recent date, is by assuming its origin to be posteOn the whole, there is a limit to the assumption rior to the rest of the history. It is supposed that
of textual corruption in the books of Chronicles, it did not proceed from the author of the Chrowhich critics like Reinke manifestly transgress, and nicles, but was subsequently inserted by another
which apologists are too prone to lay hold of. hand.  The hypothesis is arbitrary.  It should
There is also a limit to a constant maintenance of therefore be summarily dismissed, though sancthe Masoretic text as it is, which De Wette has tioned by the respectable names of Vitringa, Heidperhaps exceeded. We believe that both the oppo- egger, Carpzov, and apparently KeiL
nents of the Chronist and his defenders have fallen  2dly, The employment of a word which has
into error. The sacred writer is not so culpable as been thought to mean Darics, introduced into the
the former would lead us to infer; neither is he history of David (I Chron. xxix. 7), shews that
infallible as the latter allege.             the compiler wrote at a time when the name and
Time and author.-x. The history containedin use of the coin had become familiar. If the word
the work is brought down to the termination of the really mean Darics, as Geseiius and others think,
exile in Babylonr when Cyrus issued a decree en- it brings us far down into the Persian period or
couraging the Jews to return and rebuild the temple after. But Ewald supposes the term  to
in Jerusalem. This may be assigned to the year. But wd supposes the term:  to
535 B.C. And there are marks of a still later age. be merely the Greek 8palj,4i. If so, the writer
n I Chron. iii. 19-24, the genealogy of Zerub- must have lived after Alexander the Great, when
babel's sons appears to be carried down to the third Greek money became current. The term;'~3,
generation. Shemaiah, the son of Shechaniah, wasT
contemporary with Nehemiah (Neh. iii. 29). One meaning apalace or temple (i Chron. xxix. I, I9),
of Shemaiah's sons was Neariah; one of Neariah's does not necessarily limit the date to the Persian
three sons was Elioenai; and Elioenai's seven sons dynasty. It is used in Nehemiah, Esther, and
are enumerated. In. this way the genealogy comes DanieL
down to nearly 300 B.C., or at least to 330 B.C.  3dly, It is commonly admitted that Ezra and
We admit that the list is by no means easy of expla- Nehemiah formed originally one work; and it apnation.  Hence it has been variously interpreted. pears to us that Ezra was connected with the
According to R. Benjamin and the LXX. there are Chronicles at first, so that all belonged to the same
nine descents from Jesaiah (verse 21) to Johanan, compilation. If this be so, the notices bearing on
so that the history reaches to 270 B.c.  Zunz's the time of composition of the Chronicles found in
calculation (26o Brc.) amounts to nearly the same Ezra and Nehemiah are appropriate.  In Neh.
time. Ewald again, reckons the succession from  xii. II, Jaddua is the last in the list given of high
Zerubbabel as containing about six generations. priests. He lived in the time of Alexander the
He assumes from 150-200 years after Zerubbabel Great. The line is carried down no farther, and
and Joshua; and therefore obtains the termination therefore we may presume that he was contempo



CHRONICLES                   507               CHRONOLOGY
rary with the compiler of Nehemiah's book. Again, nicles. Dahler's work, published at Strasburg in
compositions of Nehemiah and Ezra were used by  I819, is superficial.  More elaborate and able are
the compiler of the works called after them, whence the treatises of Movers and Keil, especially the forit may be inferred that the compiler lived a con- mer. That of Movers is entitled, Kritische Unsiderable time after those writers. Besides, he tersuchungen ueberdieBiblische Chronik, 1834, 8vo;
speaks of the time of Ezra and Nehemiah as one that of the latter, Apologetischer Versuch ueber die
long past (Neh. xii. 26, 47). The manner too in  Chronik, 1833, 8vo. In addition to these works,
which Cyrus and his successors are constantly styled  the reader may consult Davidson's Text of the Old'Persian Kings,' shews that the Greek dynasty had  Testament considered, etc., 1856; Zunz's Gottesbegun (Ezra i. I; iv. 5). Thus, the earlier part of dienstlichen Vortrcege der Yuden; the last edition of
the Greek dominion is the probable date of Chro- De Wette's Einleitung, the Einleitung of Keil, and
nicles.                                        especially that of Bleek, I860, 8vo. Davidson's
The name of the compiler is unknown.    De Introduction to the Old Testament, vol. ii., conWette thinks that he belonged to the priests. He  tains a longer account of Chronicles than the
seems to have been one of the singers in the temple  present article.  The best commentary on the
at Jerusalem, for he speaks much of them and the  Chronicles is that of Bertheau, in the Exegetisches
porters, shewing a minute acquaintance with their Handbuch.  But a satisfactory and able comemployments and position. The Levitical bias is mentary is still a desideratum, Bertheau's falling
much more prominent than the priestly; and there- far short of the conditions required.-S. D.
fore Ewald correctly supposes that he was a Levitical musician.                                  CHRONOLOGY is the science which treats
Many have assigned the authorship to Ezra. of the measurement, denotation, and recording of
This opinion was held by various Rabbins, ecclesi- time. That part of it which deals with the units of
astical fathers, and older theologians.  In more time, as defined by the revolutions of the heavens,
modern days it is advocated by Pareau, Eichhom, is called Theoretical or Mathematical Chronology.
and Keil. In its favour the last-named critic ad- The consideration of  the methods, adopted by difduces the identity of the termination of Chroniclesferent nations, of rckonig the succession of these
with the commencement of Ezra. Here, howeverunits, of dividing them into smaller, and grouping
it is assumed that Ezra wrote the book which bears them into larger portions of time, and of giving
his name-a view which cannot be sustained. The names to these natural or conventional units, in order
great similarity of diction is also adduced in favourtateach may have its ownproper appellation, forms
of identity of authorship. This is correct, butthe subject of Technical orApplied Chronology.
proves nothing for Ezr s authorship, The same And when, by means of this nomenclature, the
remark applies to the argument derived from the events of the nations are set forth in their due refrequent citation of the law with the same formula,lations of time this (which, properly speaking, is a
as     t DiW13  (I Chron. xxiii. 31; 2 Chron. xxxv. branch of history) is called Historical Chronology.
T:-.                     2. The date of an event is the name of the time
13; xxx. I6; Ezra iii. 4); as also to that founded' of its occurrence, and to assign the date of a past
on the love for copious descriptions of the arrange- event is to say how long ago it took place. The
ments connected with public worship, with the reckoning in every case, ultimately and essentially,
temple music and songs of the Levites in standing  has its point of departure in the present instant, the
liturgical formulae, for genealogies and public regis- now of the speaker.  The savage has no other
ters. Till it be first shewn that the book of Ezra method of dating an event than to say that it ocproceeded from the scribe himself, these analogies curred so many days, or moons, or summers and
between it and Chronicles fail to establish the posi- winters ago; and a date expressed in terms of the
tion that Ezra wrote the latter work. They are most finished nomenclature of time resolves itself
just analogies, corroborating identity of authorship, at last into the sam'e procedure.  For the statement,
but not Ezra-authorship.' On such a day of a given month and year, in such
There is not the least foundation for believing  an era or succession of years,' gives the measure of
that the compiler lived at Babylon, not Jerusalem. the time elapsed from the epoch or commencement
The use of such language as' the treasures, all of the era, reign, or other succession of years to the
these he brought to Babylon' (2 Chron. xxxvi. I8), occurrence of the event, and assumes that it is
does not favour the idea that the writer was there, known or ascertainable by what number of years,
because the words,' many brought gifts to the months, days, etc., that epoch precedes the present
Lord, to the Lord to Jerusalem' (2 Chron. xxxii. instant, or some other instant, the distance of which
23), would also shew that the writer was himself from the present is known. Otherwise, the date is
at 7erusalem, the same verb occurring in both  only relative, not absolute.
places.  When it is written,' the King of Syria  3. For purposes of historical denotation, it matbrought Israel to Damascus' (2 Chron. xxviii. 5), it ters not what method of dividing, arranging, and
does not follow from the use of the verb that the naming the portions of time be adopted, provided
writer was himself at Damascus.               the method be constant, and the information capA good deal has been written about the books able of rendering an answer to the question, How
of the Chronicles, aggressive and defensive. Of the long ago? or, which is essentially the same thing,
former kind was De Wette's Beitrdge zur Einlei- How long before or since the epoch of the Christung in das alte Testament, i806, 8vo, since modi- tian or any other known era: the only difference
fled and softened in his Einleitung, throughout its being this, that a fixed instant of time is taken as the
successive editions. Gramberg's Die Chronik nach  point of departure in place of the ever-shifting Now
ihrem geschichtl. Charakter und ihrer Glaubwuerdig- of the speaker (the Is Adt of Herodotus, e.g., ii. 145,
keit neu gepriift, 1823, 8vo, belongs to the same which his reader has to fix as best he may). Thus,
side.  On the other hand, Dahler, Movers, and  such a day, month, and year of the era of NabonKeil, wrote in defence of the credibility of Chro- assar, or of the Hegira, can be rendered with abso.




CHRONOLOGY                    508              CHRONOLOGY
solute precision in year B.C. or A.D., and month to doubt that the years intended in the enumeration
and day of Julian or Gregorian Calendar, because of men's lives are years of the seasons, marked by
in both eras, the epoch, the dimensions of the years, the recurrence of seed-time. and harvest, or other
and the calendar arrangements, are absolutely  events dependent on the earth's revolution round
known. It makesno difference whatever, that the the sun. (In fact, the Hebrew l, year, implies
Nabonassarian (or Egyptian vague)'year' consistsT T
only of 365 days, and the year of the Hegira only of this, its original meaning, like the Lat. annus, annu354 days, neither of them a true measure of the lus, being ring, round). There canbe no question,
tropical year. In both eras, each day has its name that the author or last redactor of the book of Genesis
and designation, which distinguishes it from  all intended that the narrative should be connected by
others, past, present, and to come, and this is all this continuous series of time-marks. Jewish and
that is needed for purposes of chronology. The Christian chronographers accepted the statements
convenience of civilized life requires that our' year' unquestioned, and held that the series of' years of
should be brought by well calculated intercalation  the world' thus formed, from the creation of the first
as near as possible to the dimensions of the natural man to the death of Joseph, accorded with the truth
year; but this is a consideration so perfectly dis- of facts. The'import' and the'authority' of the
tinct from the requirements of chronology, that if numerical statements were to them unimpeachable;
instead of the'year' as our larger unit of time, the only question was that which related to their
we chose to reckon by periods of any assignable'genuine form' (sec. 4). For so it is, that while
number of days, say 500 or Iooo, with a calendar, the received Hebrew text gives one set of numbers
which should give each of them a name, every pur- for the descents from Adam to Terah, father of
pose of' dating' would be attained.           Abraham, the numbers in the LXX. differ from
4. Bibical Chronology. —If the chronology of these by enlargements, usually an entire century
the 0. and N. T. is to be ascertained as a whole added to each descent (Adam 230 years, where the
or in part, e.g. if we are to be enabled to ex- Hebrew has 130 years, etc.), while the Samaritan
press such statements as nth year of Zedekiah, text varies from the Hebrew by deductions from
I4th of Hezekiah, 4th of Solomon, in equivalent the antediluvian, and agrees for the most part with
terms of the era B.C., it is necessary, first, to col- the LXX. in the postdiluvian portion of the genealate all the cardinal notes of time contained in the logies. And supposing the inquirer to have derecord; to ascertain their genuine form, import, and  cided in favour of the Greek text, even so there are
authority; to obtain from them, thus digested, a diversities to be discussed; for the LXX. has varicontinuous tract of time, with no gaps and no over- ous readings of some of the numbers both before
lappings; and, lastly, to refer this by means of proved  and after the Flood: in particular, while most of
synchronisms with other accredited history, to some the copies have a second Cainan after Arphaxad,
fixed and known point of time.  Until this is done, with a descent of 130 years, this addition is ignored
and so done that there remains nothing questionable by bther copies and by important authorities (Ordo
or conjectural in the procedure, we have no de- SecL., sec. 307 and note, and Dr. Mill on the Determinate chronology, and any dates we may assign  scent and Parentage'of the Saviour, p. 143, ff.)
are only approximate, and more or less hypothetical These considerations will account for the enormous
and precarious.                                discrepancy which appears in the estimates formed
5. The ancient Hebrews had no era, and the by different chronologists of the number of years
current denotation of time, down to the age of contained in the Book of Genesis. The Hebrew
Solomon, is expressed in terms of the lives of men. numbers, from Adam to Terah's 70th year, make
The whole book of Genesis is pervaded by a thread  I656 plus 292 years; the LXX. with its various
of chronology of this description. Thus, Adam at readings, 2242 or 2262 plus 942 or I042 or 1072
a specified age begat Seth, who at such an age begat or I 172; the Samaritan, I307 plus 942. This last,
Enos, and so on without intermission, down to the however, need not come into consideration, since
birth of Jacob at such a year of Isaac. The death it is well understood that the Samaritan text, here
of Joseph at the age of Io years, is the last event as elsewhere, is merely fabricated from the Greek
recorded in this book; and as it is clearly to be  (Hengstenberg, Auth. des Pent., I, 32, ff.); and
gathered, that when Jacob was 130 years old (xlvii. those who treat it as an independent authority (e.g.,
9), Joseph had reached or completed his 39th year Lepsius, Chronol. der Aeg., p. 397, ff.) only shew
(xlv. 6; xli. 46), the sum total of the years con- themselves ignorant of the results of criticism on
tained in Genesis can be ascertained: not indeed this subject. Of course the LXX. in one or other
with exact precision, unless the birth of each patri- of its enumerations would be followed by those early
arch be supposed to coincide with the exact com- enquirers who had access to that text only: the
pletion of the given year of his father's life; but earliest extant estimate, by Demetrius, an Alexanwith less than 23 or 24 years of excess or defect, drine Jew of the third century B.C., quoted from
since that it is the number of the successive lives Alexander the Polyhistor by Euseb., Prasp. Ev. ix.
recorded. The year of the Hebrews after the time 21. 12, makes the interval from Adam to the birth
of Moses was lunar, of I2 months, with now and  of Abraham, 2262 plus 1072. Josephus certainly
then a 13th, which was added whenever, on inspec- did not follow the LXX.: his numbers in the genetion of the barley fields towards the close of the rations before and after the Flood have been forced
x2th month, it appeared that there would not be into conformity with the Greek by a. later and unripe ears enough to form the omer or first-fruits skilful hand, which betrays itself by leaving its work
offering by the i6th day of the next moon (Levit. incomplete (Ordo Secl., sec. 319-321).  As the
ii. I4; xxiii. 10, I; Ordo Saclorum, sec. 407). chronology of Dr. Hales (which some, it seems,
This economical arrangement secured to the lunar still accept as authoritative) professes to be based
year of the Hebrews a general average conformity on the LXX., rectified by the aid of Josephus, it
with the year of the seasons. Whatever was the ought to be known that the text of this author, beform of year in the earlier times, there is no reason  sides having been palpably vitiated in this portion




CHRONOLOGY                   509             CHRONOLOGY
of it (Ant. i. 3. 4; and 6. 5), swarms with gross in- cally worded and iterated (Exod. xii. 40-42, 51),
consistencies, caused, it would seem, byhisadopting, that the Exodus took place at the exact close, to a
without reflection, statements belonging to different day, of a period of 430 years. But the question
chronological systems (see this well shewn by M. is, from what point of time are these years
v. Niebuhr, Gesch. Assurs u. Babels; p. 347, ff.) reckoned? And as this is variously answered, the
Of the Christian writers of the first three centuries, chronological schemes vary accordingly.  Some,
Origen alone knew Hebrew, and he first leaves the as the LXX., Josephus, the Jewish Chronology,
LXX., but only in part; Jerome, the learned He- and most Christian writers, assign the period to
braist, declares for' the Hebrew verity,' and as his the entire sojourn in Canaan and Egypt, beginning
recension of the old italic version forms the basis either with the Call of Abraham (Gen. xii.), or
of the Sixtine Vulgate, which a canon of Trent de- the Promise (xv.); others date it from the close of
dares, under anathema, to be canonical and infalli- the period during which the Promises were made
ble, the Hebrew chronology is virtually perpetuated  (Perizonius, Schbttgen); some (as Bengel) from
in the churches of the Roman obedience. The the birth of Jacob; while numerous recent writers
Greek church still holds by the LXX. Our own give the whole period to the sojourn in Egypt,
popular Bible chronology (Ussher's, which Bishop reckoned from  the descent of Jacob and the
Lloyd attached to the margin of our Bibles) follows patriarchs into that country. See Knobel, ad 1.,
the Hebrew. During the last century, there has and Ordo Sarcl. sec. 281. The genealogy of
been a disposition in some of our own and the Moses is inconsistent with so long an interval as
Continental writers to abandon the Hebrew for the 430 years between Jacob 130, and Moses 80; as
LXX., chiefly prompted by the wish to enlarge the are the others, in which (with one exception, and
period before Abraham, so as to.allow more time that only apparent), in the 4th, 5th, or 6th descent
for the growth of nations after the Flood, and from the twelve patriarchs, we constantly arrive at
(more recently) to facilitate the'connection of sacred contemporaries of Moses (Ordo Sadc. sec. 284and profane chronology' in the earliest ages of 288). Any argument from the increase of populamankind, especially in respect of Manetho's Egypt- tion must be precarious, because the basis of calian Chronology. The question of probability and culation can only be conjectural  We only know
inducement-to enlarge on the part of the Alexan- that the settlement in Goshen was eventually condrine Jews (comp. Bunsen, Aeg. St. 5, 68); to con- stituted as twelve tribes in seventy houses (for
tract on the part of the Masoretes-is discussed in so Gen. xlvi. 8-27 must be understood, see HengOrdoScclZorum, sec. 308, ff.; and theartificial pro- stenberg, Authentie des Pent. 2, 35, ff.): if
cesses by which the LXX. numbers are formed from  these houses, or rather clans, consisted not only of
the Hebrew, and not vice versa, have been exposed the offspring of the twelve patriarchs but of the
partly, ibid., sec. 313, ff., and further in The Cycles families of the circumcised male-servants (Gen.
ofEgyptian Chronology, sec. 72 (Arnold's Theolo- xvii. I3), who were probably numerous, a basis
gical Critic, vol. ii., p. 145, if.)         of population is provided which might increase in
6. At the 70th year of Terah the discrepancy the course of rather more than two hundred years
between the Hebrew and the LXX. ceases. But into a nation numbering more than 600,000 fighthere another difficulty arises in the question rela- ing men.
tive to the birth of Abraham: whether this is to  8. After the Exode, the history records 40 years
be set, as Gen. xi. 26 seems to say, at Terah 70, of wandering in the wilderness, and in Josh. xiv.
or, since the Call is placed at Abraham 75, and 7-o1, an incidental notice of the age of Caleb,
seems to have taken place only upon the death of who, 40 years old in the 2d year from the Exode,
Terah at the age of 205, whether the birth of was now 85, brings us to the 47th year. Then acAbraham must not be set 60 years later (Gen. xi. curs a gap, as the interval between the partition of
32; comp. Acts vii. 4).  Ussher contends that lands (Josh. xiv.) and the opening of the book of
the latter is the true construction, and since his Judges is not recorded. Here, with the history of
time it has been very generally adopted by writers the heathen oppressions and the deliverers, comon Chronology. There are evident traces of it in mences a series of time-marks, which, if meant to
ancient writers, Ordo Sacl. sec. 297, and note. be continuous, make 390 years to the end of the
The moder Jewish chronology (Mundane Era of Philistine oppression (Judg. xiii. I). Then another
Hillel) takes the numbers as they lie in the text, gap between Judges and the 1st book of Samuel,
and reckons from Adam to the birth of Isaac, for it is not stated at what conjuncture in the
when Abraham was Ioo years old, I656+292+ I00 time of the Judges, or how long after it, the 40
= 2048. From the birth of Abraham to the end years of Eli (I Sam. iv. 18) began. This, which
of Genesis no further difficulty occurs, the enu- is the first item in I Sam., is followed by a term of
meration being, expressly or by implication, as 20 years and 7 months, ending with the great defollows:-To birth of Isaac, Ioo; to birth of liverance at Mizpeh (vi. I; vii. 2), with which beJacob, 60; to birth of Joseph, 91; to his death, gins the undefined term of the rule of Samuel,
I I.                                        followed by the reign of Saul, also undefined, and
7. With Joseph the enumeration by genealogical this by the reign of David, 40 years and 6 months,
succession is discontinued, and the book of Exodus and Solomon 40 years, in the 4th of which he beopens with the birth of Moses, without note of gan to build the temple (I Kings vi. I).
time: only we learn that between Levi and Moses  9. It appears, then, that the direct narrative
were two descents, indeed by the mother's side furnishes a continuous enumeration of time from
(Jochebed, daughter of Levi) only one; and as Adam to the 47th year after the Exode, subject to
the sum of the lives of Levi, Kohath and Amram  three sources of discrepancy, as regards-I. The
is 137+ I33+ 37, it follows that from the birth of genuine numbers; 2. Terah's age at the birth of
Levi to the birth of Moses must be considerably Abraham; 3. The bearings of the period of 430
less than 407 years. The desiderated information years. The tract of years enumerated in the book
is supplied further on in the statement, emphati- of Judges is isolated by two chasms; one of




CHRONOLOGY                   510              CHRONOLOGY
which, extending from the partition of lands under to a N. T. writer or speaker when casually adJoshua to the first servitude, may, for aught that verting to matters of chronology in 0. T. times
appears, be 20 or 50 years, or even more; the (as here in Acts xiii., and again Gal. iii. 17, and
other is the undefined term of the rule of Samuel also Acts vii. 4)? Those who account that such
and Saul, preceded by 40 years of Eli, which may statements are merely the result of the writer's own
be either altogether detached.from the time of the investigation, or an echo of the rabbinical exegesis
Judges, or may reach up into it to some point not of his times, will of course decline to allow them
expressed. (The mention of 300 years by Jeph- as conclusive. In this case, unless we fall back
thah, Judg. xi. 26, is too vague and general to upon I Kings vi. I, which, in a measure, is open
have any weight in the decision of the question). to the same objection, we are without the means
But here again the information which is needed of forming a continuous chronology from Moses to
seems to be supplied in the statement (I Kings vi. Solomon. The method of genealogies, precarious
I) that'the 4th year of Solomon, in which he be- at best-that is, if we possessed even one demongan to build the Temple, was the 480th year after strably complete in all its descents from Moses to
the children of Israel were come out of the land of David-fails utterly, from the fact that those which
Egypt.' This statement is accepted by Hillel, who have been preserved, especially those of the sacermakes the 480 years one of the elements for the con- dotal and Levitical families, which might have been
struction of his Mundane Era, by Ussher also, by expected to have been the most carefully registered,
Petavius, who, however, dates the period from the are, one and all, demonstrably incomplete. This
Eisode, and by many others. In more recent has been shewn by the writer of this article in an
times, Hengstenberg, Authentie des Pentateuchs, ii. examination of Lepsius on Bible Chronology, Ar23, ff.; Hofmann, in the Studien u. Kriliken, nold's Theol. Critic, i. p. 59-70. If, then, neither
x838; Thenius on I Kings vi. I; Tiele, Chronol.  Kings vi. I nor Acts xiii. I8-2I be deemed availdes A. T.; Gehringer, uber die biblische Aere; M. able, nothing remains but that some authentic
v. Niebuhr, Gesch. Assurs u. Bab., uphold the synchronism from  profane, especially Egyptian,
statement as historical  But though this measure, annals should be applied, if any such can be ascerby bridging over the interval from Moses to Solo- tained, to the decision of this question. In what
mon, enables the chronologist, when he has manner, andwithwhat degree of success this attempt
formed his mundane series down to the Exode, to has been made, will be shewn in the article on
assign the A. M. of 4 Solomon and so of I David, MANETHO.
or, having traced the reckoning B.c. up to I Solo-  I0. After Solomon's forty years, from Rehomon, to give the year B.C. of the Exode, the whole boam downward, we find connected notes of time
tract of time occupied by the Judges is still loose expressed by years of the parallel reigns of Judah
at either end, and needs much management to and Israel. Here and there, indeed, the numbers
define its bearings. For the items actually enu- are inconsistent and manifestly corrupt, but seldom
merated, being (even if the entire 40 years of Eli, those synchronisms which are cardinal for the conand the 20 years of the Ark at Kirjath-Jearim, be struction of a Canon. The result is, that the last
included in the 390 of the Judges) 47+390+43 =  year of Hoshea, last king of the Ten Tribes, cor480, no room is left for Joshua and the Elders, responding wholly or in part with Hezekiah, is the
Samuel and Saul. Accordingly, the chronologists 257th from Rehoboam. The gross sum total of the
who accept this measure are obliged to resort to regnal years of Judah, to that year inclusive, is 260;
violent expedients-the assumption that some of of the Ten Tribes, 243; but, as corrected by the
the servitudes were contemporary, and others, synchronisms, only 257 and 238 years. This deficit
which it is clearly impossible to exalt above the of I9 years has been by most chronologists taken
rank of ingenious conjectures. But the number 480 to imply that the two gaps in the Israelite succesis, in fact, open to grave suspicion. The LXX. has sion which are brought to light by the synchroninstead of it 440. Josephus takes no notice of either, isms, were intervals of anarchy, one of I years,
and on various occasions makes the interval 592, between the death of Jeroboam II. in 27 Uzziah,
612, and 632 years; the early Christian chrono- and the accession of Zechariah in 38 Uzziah; the
graphers also ignore the measure, thus Theophil. other of 8 years, between the death of Pekah in 4
Antioch. reckons 498 to I David; Clem. Alex. to Ahaz, and the accession of Hoshea in the I2th of
I Saul, 490; Africanus, 677 years. St. Paul's enu- the same reign. But later writers prefer to liquimeration in Acts xiii. 18-21, also proves at least date the reckoning, by assuming an error in the
this, that Jews in his time reckoned the interval in regnal years of Jeroboam II. and Pekah. Thus
a way which is inconsistent with the statement in Ewald, making the difference 21 years, gives these
I Kings vi. I: he gives from the Exode to I David kings 53 and 29 years respectively, instead of 41
40 + 450 + 40 = 530; therefore to 4 Solomon, and 20, Gesch. des Volks Isr. iii. I, p. 261-313;
573 years. Some chronologists accept St. Paul's Thenius die BB. der Konige, p. 346, by a more
term of 450 years for the interval from the first facile emendation, makes the numbers 51 and 30
servitude to the end of those 20 years of the ark,
I Sam. vii. 2 (composed of 390+40+20). Mr. ({W for tt, and 5 for ~); J. v. Gumpach, Zeitr.
Clinton, Fasti Hell. i. 312, dates the 450 from the der Bab. u. Assyr., though reducing the total
partition of lands (47th after Exode), assumes 20 amount to 241 years, gives Pekah 29 years, and
years for Joshua and the elders, and another term  retains the 41 of Jeroboam; Lepsius, Chronol. der
of 12 years between the 20 years of the ark, I Sam. Aeg. makes the reigns 52 and 30; and Bunsen,
vii. 2, and the 40 years which he gives entire to Aegypens Stelle, b. iv., pp. 381, 395, 402, makes
Saul-thus making the sum 612 years. In Ordo Jeroboam reign 6I years, and retains for Pekah his
Seclorum the 40+450+40 are taken as continuous 20 years. Movers (die Phonizier, ii. I. I53), by a
from the Exode to I David, and the detailed items peculiar method of treatment, reduces the reigns of
are adjusted to this measure, sec. 240-269. But Israel to 233 years, and brings the reigns of Judah
here the question arises-What authority is due into conformity with this sum, by making Jehoram




CHRONOLOGY                    511             CHRONOLOGY
co-regent with Jehoshaphat 4 years, Uzziah with ten, i. 209) proposed to strike out that number
Amaziah x2, and Jotham with Uzziah i years. of years from the 55 assigned to Manasseh; then
From this point, viz., from the end of the kingdom  the interval to 4 Jehoiakim = I Nebuchadnezzar,
of Israel, we.have only the reigns of the kings of would be I5+35 + 2+3I+3= 86. Since NieJudah, the sum of which, from 7 Hezekiah to buhr's time an important Assyrian monument of
xI Zedekiah, is 133 years.                   the time of Sennacherib, interpreted by RawlinI. Synchronisms with Profane Annals.-In the son and Hincks, informs us that the invasion of
latter part of this tract of time, we meet with syn- Judaea, which in the book of Kings is said to have
chronisms, more or less precise, between sacred been in the I4th of Hezekiah, took place in
and profane history.  Thus Jer. xxv. I, the ISt Sennacherib's 3d year.  Hence the interval to
year of Nebuchadnezzar, coincides wholly or in part 4 Jehoiakim becomes 86 years. Of itself this does
with 4 Jehoiakim; 2 Kings xxiv. I2, the epoch of not prove much, and Ewald, iii. 364; Thenius,
Jeconiah's captivity and of Zedekiah's reign, lies in p. 410; Bunsen, iv. 398, retain the biblical num8 Nebuchadnezzar; ibid. xxv. 8, the i th of Zede- ber, which also the younger Niebuhr, Gesch.
kiah, the 5th month, ioth day, lies in I9 Nebu- Assurs u. Babels, 99-105, learnedly upholds against
chadnezzar; and Jer. lii. 31, the 37th of Jeconiah, his father's objections. With the assistance, too,
12th month, 25th day, lies'in the year that Evil- of the Canon, and of the extract from Abydenus's
merodach began to reign.' From these synchron- account of the same times, it is not difficult to
isms it follows demonstrably, that, in this reckon- bring the statements of Berosus into conformity
ing, Nebuchadnezzar has 45 years of reign, two with the biblical numbers; as in Ordo Scl., sec.
years more than are assigned to him in the Astro- 489, ff.; Brandis, Rerum Assyriarum  tempora
nomical Canon, where his reign of 43 years begins emendata, p. 40, ff. (retracted, however, in his
Ae. Nab. 44 = 604 B.C.; consequently, that his later work ilber den hist. Gewinn aus der Entzf.
reign in the Jewish reckoning bears date from the der Assyr. Inschr. p. 46, 73); and in the work just
year 606 B.C. (Ordo Secl., sec. I61-I7I, 438). cited of the younger Niebuhr. On the other hand,
Hence it results, that the year of the taking of Lepsius, Konigs-Buch der Aegypter; Movers, die
Jerusalem and destruction of the Temple is 588 Phcenizier, ii. I. 52, ff. (whose arguments A. v. GutB.c. Those chronologists who, not having care- schmid, Rhein. Mus., I857, thinks unanswerable);
fully enough collated and discussed the testimonies, Scheuchzer, Phul u. Nabonassar; and J. v. Gumaccept unquestioned the year 604 B.C. as that first pach, Abriss der Bab. Assyr. Gesch., p. 98, ff.,
year of Nebuchadnezzar, which coincides with 4 contend for the reduced numbers.
Jehoiakim, place the catastrophe two years later,  13. In connection with this discussion, a passage
586 B.C. With this latitude for difference of views, of Demetrius Judaeus (supra, sec. 5) has been
the synchronism I Nebuchadnezzar = 4 Jehoiakim  deemed important (v. Gumpach, u. s. 90, I8o).
= 6o6 or 604 B.C., has long been generally taken  He seems to have put forth a chronological account
by chronologists as the connecting link between  of the biblical history, from which Eusebius, Prep.
sacred and profane annals, the terminus a quo of Ev., ix. 21, 29, gives-quoting it from the Polythe ascending reckoning.  From  this point the histor-what relates to the patriarchs and Moses:
series of years B.C. is carried up through the reigns another passage, preserved by Clem. Alex. Strom.
of the kings to Rehoboam, and thence to Solomon i., sec. 141, is a summary of the period elapsed
and David: but there it is arrested, unless, in one from the captivity of the Ten Tribes to his own
or other of the ways which have been indicated, we times. Its substance is as follows:-From Sencan measure the interval between the time of the nacherib's invasion of Judah to the last deportation
Judges and the accession of David, and then again from Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, I28 years 6
that between the partition of lands under Joshua months. From the captivity of the Ten Tribes to
and the first servitude in the book of Judges. On PtolemyIV. (Philopator), 473 years 9 months (so we
the other hand, the descending reckoning can be must read for 573); from Nebuchadnezzar's deporpursued-but in a vast variety of forms-down to tation from Jerusalem, 338 years 3 months. As the
the time of the settlement in Canaan; so that, if epoch of Ptolemy IV. in the Canonis B.C. 222 (24th
it be possible to carry the ascending line of years October), this gives for Nebuchadnezzar's'last
up to that point, our Mundane Era, of whatever deportation' 560 B.C. (July); for Sennacherib's inform, can be rendered in terms of the era B.C.  vasion, 688 B.C. (Jan.); and for the captivity of.12. But, besides the fundamental synchronisms, Samaria, 695 B.C. (Jan.) But unless we are prethe history of the kings presents points of connec- pared to set aside the Astronomical Canon, at
tion with the contemporary history of Assyria, least its dates for Nebuchadnezzar and Evil-meroBabylon, and Egypt, which recent monumental dis- dach, the captivity under Nebuchadnezzar, whecoveries have invested with a high degree of im- ther it be that in his Igth year (I th Zedekiah), or
portance. Thus in 2 Kings xviii. 13; xix. 9, it'the last' in his 23d year, Jer. lii. 30, cannot fall so
appears that Sennacherib, king of Assyria, and low as 560 B.C. That the final deportation is
Tirhaka, king of Ethiopia, were both contem- meant, is plain from the exact correspondence of
porary with Hezekiah, and at the 14th year of his the sum with the biblical items-Hezekiah, 5;
reign. Now, in the recently recovered Armenian  Manasseh, 55; Amon, 2; Josiah, 31; Jehoiakim,
version of Eusebius's Chronicle, we have it on the 3; Nebuchadnezzar, 22 = I28 years.  The 6
authority of Berosus (quoted from the Polyhistor) months over are perhaps derived from the 3 of
that from  Sennacherib to Nebuchadnezzar were Jehoahaz, and 3 of Jeconiah.  M. v. Niebuhr,
88 years (the names and numbers are given, and u. s., p. 102, ff., sets himself to solve the difficulty;
agree with the expressed sum): this account places but the writer of this article is satisfied that the
the accession of Sennacherib at B.C. 692, which  whole matter is to be explained by an error in the
is 20 years later than the lowest date that the ordinal of the Ptolemy. Set the goal at Ptolemy
biblical numbers will allow for 14 Hezekiah. III. (Euergetes) = 247 B.C., Oct.; then we have
Accordingly, Niebllhr (kl. histor u. philol. Schrif- for the captivity of the Ten Tribes 720 (Jan.); for




CHRONOLOGY                    512             CHRONOLOGY
Sennacherib in Judaea, 713 (Jan.); for the depor- seems to appear on the scene as an unexpected
tation in 23 Nebuchadnezzar, 585, July; and conse- enemy of Sennacherib (M. v. Niebuhr u.s. 72, ff.,
quently 589 for the destruction of the Temple-  173, 458); he may have reigned in Ethiopia long
very nearly in accordance with the date for the before he became king of Egypt: though, on the
last assigned by Clement of Alexandria, 588 B.C., other hand, it is clear that this originally Ethiopian
Strom. i. sec. I27. In fact, the chronological state- dynasty was contemporaneous in its lower part with
ments in this.portion of the Stromata swarm with the 26th, a Saite dynasty of Lower Egypt, and pronumerical errors, and a careless scribe might easily bably in its upper part with the preceding Saite
misread TETAPTOT for TOTTPITOT. Be that as dynasty, as Lepsius makes it. The real difficulty,
it may, it is a great mistake to suppose that Deme- however, consists in this, that the' So (KlD), King
trius or aly other Jew of his or of later times, can of Egypt,' whose alliance against Assyriawas sought
be competent to rule a question of this kind for us. by Hoshea in his 5th or 6th year (2 Kings xvii. 4)
He may have been, as M. v. Niebuhr thinks,' a sen- can be no other than one of the two predecessors
sible writer' (though others, judging from the frag- of Tirhaka, Sebek I. or II., to the first of whom
ments preserved by Eusebius, may fairly think  Manetho gives 8, to the other I4 years of reign.
otherwise); that' he may have handed down good Thus, at the earliest, the former would begin to
materials' is just possible; the probability is, that reign 719 B.C., whichis at least 5 years too low for
he gives us the results of his own inquiries, con- the biblical date. As a conjectural remedy for this
fined to the text of the sacred books, except that'desperate state of things,' v. Niebuhr, p. 459,
he gathered from  the Astronomical Canon the suggests that the 50 years of the 25th dynasty were
year corresponding to 23 Nebuchadnezzar, the last possibly not continuous; failing this, either an error
recorded in the sacred books.                 must be assumed in the canon somewhere between
I4. A farther synchronism with 14 Hezekiah is its 28th and its I23d year, both of which are astrofurnished by the mention, 2 Kings xix. 9, of Tir- nomicallyattested, orelsethereignof Manassehmust
haka, undoubtedlytheTarkos,Tarakos ofManetho's be reduced. On the whole, it seems best to wait
25th dynasty, in which, according to the uncor- for further light from the monuments. At present,
rected numbers, his reign begins I70O (Afr.), 183 these attest the 12th year of Sebek II., but give no
or i88 (Eus. Gr.), x85, 187, or 193 (Eus. Armen.) dates of his predecessor; the genealogical connecbefore Cambyses, 525 B.C.: the extremes therefore tion of the two, and of Taharka, is unknown; of
are 695 and 718 B.C. for his epoch. But we are Bocchoris, the only occupant of the preceding
not dependent on the lists for the time of this king dynasty, no monument has been discovered, and
Taharka   The chronology of the 26th dynasty but scanty and precarious traces of the Tanite kings
had already been partially cleared up by funerary of the 23d dynasty, the last of whom, Zet, may
inscriptions (now in the museums of Florence and even be the Sethos whom Herodotus, ii. 141, makes
Leyden), which by recording that the deceased, the hero of the miraculous defeat of Sennacherib's
born on a given day, month, and year of Neko II., army. And, indeed, Is. xix. I I; xxx. 4, both seem
lived so many years, months, and days, and died  to imply that Zoan (Tanis) was at that time the
in a given year, month, and day of Amosis, enabled residence of the Pharaoh of Lower Egypt. Here
us to measure the precise number of years (41) from  is ample scope for conjecture, and also for disthe epoch of the one king to the epoch of the other coveries which may supersede all necessity for con(Bockh, MAanetho 729, if.): and now it is placed jecture.
beyond further question by Mariette's discovery of a  15. The mention of'Merodach Baladan, son
number of inscriptions, in each of which the birth, of Baladan, king of Babylon,' apparently in or not
death, day of funeral, and age of an Apis are re- long after 14 Hezekiah, 2 Kings xx. I2, forms yet
corded in just the same way (see Mariette's own another synchronism. For Sennacherib's inscripaccount, Renseignement sur les 64 Apis, trouves tion records his defeat of this king in his first year; a
danslessouterrains du Serapgum-Bulletin Archol. Marudakh Baldan appears in the Polyhistor's extract
de l'Ath/n. Franis, Oct. 1855; and the selection from Berosus as king in Babylon early in Sennafrom these by Lepsius On the 22d dynasty, trans- cherib's reign, but with circumstances which make
lated by W. Bell, I858). There remains only a it extremely difficult to make out the identity of the
slight doubt as to the epoch of Cambyses: whether three persons with each other, and with either the
with the canon this is to be referred to 525 B.. Mardok Empad, who in the canon reigns in Baby(the usual date), or with De Rouge to 527, for which lon from 721 to 709, or the Mesesi Mordak of the
v. Gumpach also contends, or 528 with Dr. Hincks same document, from 692 to 688. (See HEZEKIAH
On the age of the 26th dynasty, or even 529 B6ckh, and MERODACH BALADAN).  Here it may be
Manetho, 739, ff.  The main result is, that sufficient to mention, that Dr. Hincks, Trans.
Psametik I. began to reign 138 years before the of Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxii. 364, retaining
epoch of Cambyses, therefore 663 B.C. (or at most the 55 years of Manasseh, proposes to solve the diffi3 years earlier). Now Mariette, No. 2037, records culties by placing Sennacherib's invasion of Judaea
that an Apis born 26 Taharka, died 20 Psametik in Hezekiah's 25th instead of his 14th year, at the
I., 12th month, 20th day; its age is not given. As date 701 B.C.: Hezekiah's illness remains at its
the Apis was not usually allowed to live more than  earlier date. Bunsen, tacitly adopting this construc25 years, though some of the inscriptions record an tion, makes 3 Sennacherib fall in 24 Hezekiah, and
age of 26 years, on this, as an extreme supposition, imagines that the invasion which terminated disthe interval from I Taharka to I Psametik will be astrously to the Assyrian king was a second, in
at most 3r years, and the highest possible epoch  Hezekiah's 28th year, on which latter occasion it
for Tirhaka, 697 B.C. This result, in itself, is not was that Tirhaka came to the relief of Jerusalem
necessarily opposed to the biblical date for 14 (Aeg. St., b. iv. 505). Retaining for this Egyptian
Hezekiah: for in the narrative itself, while a king an epoch, 712 B.C., which is plainly disproved' Pharaoh, King of Egypt' is mentioned, xviii. 21, by the Apis inscriptions (sec. I4), he makes it posthis Tirhaka is styled'King of Ethiopia,' and he sible for So = Sevek II. to have been contemporary




CHRONOLOGY                    513              CHRONOLOGY
with Hoshea. It must be owned, that the received  considered-I. That between the flight of Elisa, in
chronology of Hezekiah's reign is beset with diffi- Pygmalion's 7th year, which is the goal of these
culties on the side both of Egypt and of Assyria I43-4 years, and the founding of the city, there
and Babylon. But from neither have we as yet all certainly occurred a train of events (the settlement
the facts we need, and the fuller and clearer in- in Byrsa o  ozrah, and the growth around it of the
formation which is confidently expected from the Magalia =Mdhal, which eventually became the
cuneiform inscriptions, in particular, will probably New-Town, Kartharasa = Carthage) which implies
make much bright that is now dark. In the mean- a considerable tract of time; and 2. That as the
time, it will be well to remember that no man's in- ancient dates of the fall of Troy vary over a range
sight is final; he who least commits himself to per- of about I80 years, Timaeus placing it at 1333,
emptory conclusions now, will perhaps have least Herodotus at 1270, Eratosthenes at 1183, Areto retract by and bye.                        tinus, I I44, besides intermediate dates (Miller,
I6. Another argument tending to lower' still Fragmenta Chronol. sec. 17), the 240 years may
more the whole time of the kings, and the date of be so measured as to fall near enough to the time
the building of Solomon's Temple, is fetched from  given to 4'Solomon by the usual chronology. It
some ancient data of Tyrian chronology. It is as has been generally received hitherto that the Era
follows:-Josephus, c. Ap. i. 17, announces that of Tyre dates from cir. 1250 B.C., and there seems
the building of the Temple lies 143 years 8 months to be no sufficient reason to the contrary (Bunsen,
before the foundingof Carthage; he gives this on the iv. 280, if.)  The concurrence of the two lines
authority of Menander of Ephesus, meaning his of argument in the year 969 B.c. is one of those
own summation of that author's enumeration of coincidences which are so perpetually occurring in
reigns professedly copied from public monuments. chronological combinations, that the practised inIn proof, he quotes the regnal numbers of the quirer at last pays little heed to them. In fact, it
kings from  Hirom, the friend of Solomon, to may only imply that Justin's author got from
Pygmalion inclusive, eleven in all, making a sum  Menander the date 384 Tyre = 7 Pygmalion, mis(not however expressed) of I77 years 8 months. takenly, as by Josephus, identified with I Carthage;
He adds, from his author,' It was in the 7th year and having also obtained from the same or some
of Pygmalion that Elisa fled from Tyre, and founded  other source the year equivalent to I Tyre, would
Carthage in Libya;' and, from himself,' The sum  so arrive at his datum for I Carthage, or, vice
of years from the reign (epoch) of Hirom to the versa, from the latter would rise to the former.
founding of Carthage is 155 years 8 months; and And, after all, when we inquire what is the worth
since it was in 12 Hirom that the Temple was of Josephus as a reporter; and, supposing him
built, the time from thence to the founding of accurate, what is the value of the Tyrian annals,
Carthage is 143 years 8 months.' (The inter- the answer is not of necessity unfavourable to the
val, as the numbers stand in the text, is, in fact, claims of the biblical chronology of the kings of
177 years 8 months, minMs 12 of Hirom and 40 Judah and Israel. Furnished, as this is, by an
of Pygmalion, i.e., only 125 years 8 months: it annalistic series incomparably more full and exact
does not concern us here to consider how the mis- than any profane records of the same times which
sing 18 years may be restored; the number, 143 have come to us at second hand, it is not to be
years 8 months, given twice by Josephus, is not impeached by any but clear contemporary monuaffected by errors what may have crept intol the de- mental evidence (such as Mariette's Apis-records);
tails.) Now, the founding of Carthage is placed by and if the entire Hebrew tale of years from 4 SoTimamus (Dion. Hal. i. 74) 38 years before 01. I, i.e., lomon to I Zedekiah is to be materially lowered
814-I3 B.C.; by Trogus (Justin, xviii. 6) 72 years on the scale of the series B.C., this can only be done
before the building of Rome, i.e., 825 B.C. Nie- by proving some capital error in the Astronomical
buhr (the father), accepting the date 814-13 B.C. as Canon.
indisputable, deduces for the building of Solomon's  I7. And, in fact, an attempt has lately been
Temple the year 957-56 B.C. (Lect. on Anc. Hist. iii. made in this direction, which, if successful, must
159); Movers (Picenizier, ii. I 140, if.), preferring  set our biblical chronology adrift from its old bearthe other, gets the date 969 B.C. Again, Josephus, ings.  It is contended by Mr. Bosanquet (ReAnt. viii. 3. I, after stating that I Hirom is 4 Solo- adjustment of Sacred and Profane Chronology, 1853)
mon, and the year of the building of the Temple, that a lower date than 606-604 B.C. for the accesadds (probably from Menander), that the year in sion of Nebuchadnezzar is imperatively demanded
question was 240 years from the building of (New) by the historical connection of that event with the
Tyre. It does not appear that he found the I I or 12 famous' Eclipse of Thales;' which, according to
Hirom expressed by Menander or Dius as answer- Herodotus i. 74, 103, occurring during a pitched
ing to the 4 Solomon. Probably he obtained the battle between the Medes and Lydians, was the
synchronism from his own investigation of the occasion of a peace, cemented by marriages, bevarious places in 2 Sam., I Kings, and I Chron., tween Cyaxares and Halyattes, after which, as
where Hiram is mentioned; but the number 240  Herodotus seems to imply, the former turned his
is probably Tyrian. Now Trogus (Justin xviii. 3) arms against Assyria, and, in conjunction with
states, that Tyre was founded by the Sidonians in the Labynetus (the Nabopolassar of Berosus and the
year before the fall of Troy. Among the numerous Canon), took and destroyed Nineveh. The dates asancient dates assigned to that event one is 1208 signed by the ancients to that eclipse lie between 01.
B.C. (Ephorus, followed by the Parian Chron. and 48 and 50. Kepler, Scaliger, and Sir Isaac Newton
other authorities).  But 1209-240=969 B.C., made it B.C. 585; Baily (P/ilos. Trans., 1811)
precisely the year which resulted from the former and Oltmanns (Schr. der Berlin. Akad. 1812-13)
argument. Such is the twofold proof given by  found it 3oth Sept. 610o B.C., which date was acMovers, accepted by J. v. Gumpach and others, cepted by Ideler, Saint-Martin, and most subseand highly applauded by A. v. Gutschmid in Rheinz. quent writers. More recently it has been announced
ilisslslJ, 1857. On the other hand, it should be by Mr. Airy (Philos. Mfag., 1853) and Mr. Hind
VOL. T.                                                                        2 L




CHRONOLOGY                    514              CHRONOLOGY
(At/heneum, Aug. 1857), as the result of calcula- this is to bring the destruction of the Temple to
tion with Hansen's improved tables, that in the  560; Sennacherib's 3d and Hezekiah's I4th year
eclipse of 6Io the moon's shadow traversed no part to 689; and the 4th of Solomon to 989 or 990
of Asia Minor, and that the only suitable one is B.c. Of course this involves the necessity of exthat of 28th May 585 B.c., which would be total tensive changes in the history and chronology of
in Ionia, Lydia, Lycia, Pamphylia, and part of the lower portion of the 6th century B.c.  Thus
Cilicia.  It has, indeed, been contended by Mr. Cyrus is made into two persons of the name; the
Adams, that the tables need a further correction, first, beginning to reign in Persia, 559 B.C., suCthe effect of which (as Mr. Airy remarked, Ath/en- ceeded by Cambyses as viceroy 535 (which is made
auem, Oct. I859) would be such as to render the the Ist year of Evil-merodach), and as king, 529
eclipse of 585 inapplicable to the recorded circum- B.C., together with a second Cyrus as joint-king of
stances: but it appears that the Astronomer-Royal Media in 13 Cambyses = 523 B.C. The length of
no longer entertains any doubts on this point, reign of this Cyrus II. is not assigned; he disaphaving quite recently (see Athenz., Sept. 186I) ex- pears from Mr. B.'s table, together with Cambyses,
pressed his'unaltered conviction, that the tables who, with Smerdis between, is followed at 516 by
of Hansen give the date of the great solar eclipse, Darius Hystaspis as king, which Darius had bewhich terminated the Lydian war, as the most re- come viceroy in Babylon and Media in 521 B.C.
liable records of antiquity placed it, in the year 585 It should be remarked that this're-adjustment'
B.C.' And, indeed, however the astronomical ques- of the chronology is proposed with a view to a
tion may ultimately be decided, it would appear, fulfilment of Daniel's Prophecy of the Seventy
from all that is known of the life of Thales, that he Weeks (Chronol. of the Times of Daniel, Ezra, and
could hardly have predicted an eclipse in Ionia so ANehemiah, I848)-namely, the predicted seventy
early as 6Io B.C. (Rith, Gesch. unserer abendzdndis- years of desolation reach from  the destruction
chen Philosophie, ii. 98). But that the' Eclipse of of the temple, 560, to 490 B.C.; the date of
Thales' occurred at the conjuncture indicated by Daniel's prophecy in the first Babylonian year of
Herodotus, rests only on his testimony, and in this Darius Hystaspis, then'62 years old' (Dan.
he might easily be mistaken.   Either he may vi. I), is made 493 B.C., whence to the birth
have confounded with the eclipse predicted by of Christ, which the author places (wrongly)
Thales an earlier one occurring during the war of in 3 B.c., are the seventy times seven years foreCyaxares and Halyattes-possibly that of 6Io, for told: also this year 493 is itself the goal of an earlier
no locality is mentioned, and there is nothing to  period of 490 years, reckoned from 983 B.C., Mr.
forbid our seeking the battle-field in some suitable B.'s date of the dedication of Solomon's Temple.
situation (e. g., with M. v. Niebuhr, p. 508, in At- So extensive a refashionment of the history will
ropatene, or with v. Gumpach, Zeitr. der Bab. u. hardly be accepted on the strength of the alleged
Assyr., p. 94, in Armenia); or, he may have as- proofs, unless, perhaps, by those who regard the prosigned to that earlier war what really took place phecy of Daniel as itself furnishing an element of the
during a later war of the Medes and Lydians under chronological question. Thisview wasboldly followAstyages and Halyattes. And the latter supposi- ed out, in ignorance or scorn of all Gentile chronolotion is not without support of ancient authors. gy, by the framers of the Jewish Mundane Era. AsCicero (WdeDivinat. i. 50), from some lost authority, suming that a period of 490 years 2mzst reach from
places the eclipse, without date or mention of the the destruction of the first Temple to that of the
war, under Astyages.  Pliny (H. N. ii. 9), giving  second, which latter they set at A.D. 69 (a year too
the date 01. 48.4= B.C. 585, says, also without early), they obtained for I9 Nebuchadnezzar =  II
mention of the war, that the eclipse occurred in the  Zedekiah, the year 422 B. c. (which, in profane
reign of Halyattes (this lasted, in the usual chro- chronology, lies in the reign of Darius Nothus).
nology, from 620 to 563 B.C.) Solinus (c. 15, I6) On the like grounds Lightfoot does not hesitate to
assigns 01. 49. I as date of eclipse and battle, but place the first year of Cyrus 490 years before the
(c. 20) he speaks of the war as between Halyattes Passion, for which his date is 33 A.D..   From this
and Astyages. From Eudemus, a much earlier year [458 B.c.] to the death of Christ, are 490 years;
author, Clement of Alexandria (Strom. i. I4, sec. and there is no cause, because of doubtful records
65) gives the date of the eclipse'about 01. 50,' among the heathen, to make a doubt of the fixedwith the addition, that it was the time of the war ness of the time, which an angel of the Lord had
between Cyaxares and Halyattes-in which Eude- recorded with so much exactness.'-(Hfarmzony of
mus, if more than the date be his, merely repeats the 0. 7., Works, vol. i., p. 312.)  A late noble
Herodotus; but the addition is as likely to be writer (Duke of Manchester, Daniel and his
Clement's own. The Eclipse of Thales, therefore,  Times, 1845), with the like end in view, identifies
is by no means so cardinal an event as has been  the Darius of Ezra, Haggai, and Zechariah, and of
assumed; and to uphold the loose statement of Dan. viii. I (made different from  him of vi. I),
Herodotus, in connection with the earlier date 6Io  with Darius Nothus; and, in order to this result,
B.C., is as precarious a proceeding as is the attempt sets himself to shew that the founder of the Persian
to urge it with the lower, and, in all probability, monarchy, whom the Greeks call Cyrus, is in fact
authentic date, 585 B.C., to the subversion of the NebuchadnezzarI. (the Nabopolassar of the Canon),
received chronology.  Mr. Bosanquet, however, for the'Persians' and the'Chaldeans' are the
holds that from  the testimony of this eclipse same people: his son Cambyses is the Nebuchadthere is no escape; and supporting by this the nezzar of the Bible, destroyer of the Temple: Belarguments above described (sec. I3-I6), together shazzar is the last king of the Cyrus dynasty at
with others fetched from new combinations, does Babylon: his conqueror,' Darius the Mede,' Dan.
not hesitate to interpose'25 years of Scythian  vi. I, is Darius Hystaspis: and the biblical Koresh,
rule in Babylon' between Nabopolassar and      the restorer of the Jews (and Cyrus of Xenophon,
Nebuchadnezzar, thereby lowering the epoch of altogether different from him of Herodotus and
the latter from 604 to 579 B.c.  The effect of Ctesias), is a satrap, or feudatory of Xerxes and




CHRONOLOGY                     515              CHRONOLOGY
Artaxerxes.  Strange to say, this wild speculation, long before it (Antiq. xvii. 6. 4, fin.), which, by calwith its portentous conglomeration of testimonies, culation, can only have been that of I2-I3 Mar.
sacred and profane, ancient and modern, genuine B.C. 4; the length of Herod's reign, together with
and spurious (conspicuous among these the' Philo' the recorded date of its commencement (Antiq. xvii
and'Megasthenes' of the impudent forger Annius 8. I; comp. xiv. 14. 5 and I6. 4); and of that
of Viterbo), has not only been gravely listened to  of his sons-Archelaus (Antiq. xvii. 13. 3; comp.
by scholars of Germany, but has found among     Bell. iud. ii. 7. 3), the consular year of whose
them zealous advocacy and furtherance.  Ebrard in  deposal is given by Dion Cass. Iv.; Herod Philip
the Theol. Studien u. Kritiken, I847; Metzke    (Bell. Jud. xviii. 4. 6, length of reign and year of' Cyrus der Griinder des Pers. Reiches war nicht der death); for Herod Antipas, Josephus (Antiq. xviii.
Befreier der Jzuden sondern der Zerstorer 7eru- 7. 2) gives date of deposal, but not length of reign;
salems, 1849.                                  this, however, is known from coins (Eckhel, Doct.
It should, however, be remarked, that the iden- Num. iii. 489) to have reached its 43d year. All
tification of Ezra's Darius with D. Nothus has these indications point to B.c. 4, not long before
commended itself (still with a view to Daniel's the Passover, as the time of Herod's death. Those
prophecy) to more than one eminent writer. who would impugn this conclusion urge other, disProposed by Scaliger, it is advocated by the late  crepant, statements in Josephus; or call in question
Dr. Mill in his Treatise on the Descent and Parent- either the fact of the eclipse or its calculated date;
age of our Saviour, 1842, p. 153, and the reasons or contend that the death of Herod could not have
given deserve consideration.  See the Art. DARIUS. taken place so soon after it. The inducement is,
ApSocryphal Books of the Old Testament. -The  that our Lord's age may not exceed 30 years at the
Book of Tobit contains an outline of Assyrian   time of his baptism, i. e., at the earliest in the 15th
history (from the deportation of the Ten Tribes year of Tiberius, for if this note of time is to be
to the Fall of Nineveh), to which the moral fic- taken strictly, the earliest date for the Nativity
tion is attached (Ordo Secd. p. 555, note; v. Nie- should be the year 3 B.C. The year supposed
buhr Gesch. Assurs. p. Ioo, note; comp. Fritzsche known, it is attempted to approximate to the day
das Buch Tobi 1853, p. 14, ff.; Ewald, Gesch. des by calculating the order of the sacerdotal cycle, and
V. Isr. 4, p. 233, ff.)  To treat it as a narrative finding at what time in the given year'the course
of facts, and apply it to purposes of chronological of Abijah' (Luke i. 5) entered upon office. The
proof, as some, even recent, writers have done, starting-point for the reckoning is furnished by a
(e.g., v. Gumpach, Babyl. Zeitr. p. 138), is quite to Jewish tradition (Mishna, iii. 298. 3), and it is
mistake its character. -As regards the book of assumed that the conception of John the Baptist
7udith, it is surprising that any one conversant ensued at the expiration of Zechariah's week of
with history and criticism should fail to see that service, and the Annunciation five months later
this is not a record of facts, but a religious, quasi- (Luke i. 23-26, 36; but in the church calendars six
prophetical allegory (Ordo Secl., p. 556, note; months).-Here, it should be observed, thatwe have
Fritzsche, das B.'Judith, p. I23, ff.; Ewald, Gesch. no reason to suppose the ancients to have been in
des. Israel 4, p. 541. See also Winer, Real..- possession of the true date, either year or day.
B. s. v.; Movers in the Bonn. Zeitschr. fiir kathol. Having ascertained, as they supposed, the year and
Theologie, I835, p. 47; Vaihinger s. v. in Her- day of the Baptism, they counted back 30 years to
zog's Real-Encyclop. 7, p. 135, ff.)  M. v. Nie- the Nativity (see a paper by the present writer, S.
buhr, acknowledging this (u.s. p. 212-285), never- Clemens Alex. on N. T. Chronology in the yournal
theless finds in its dates, according to the Lat. of Classical and Sacred Philology, 1854, vol. i., p.
version, a background of historical truth with  327, ff.) Also, it would be well that all such conreference to the times of Nebuchadnezzar.   V. siderations as the'fitness of things' prescribing a
Gumpach u. s. I6I, ff., maintains its historical particular year, or day of the year, for this or any
character, and applies it to his own purposes with  other event of sacred history, should be banished
extraordinary confidence. See also Scholz, Einl. from chronological investigations. Let the date be
in die hell. Schriften, I845.-In the books of Mac- first clearly proved before attention is called to any
cabees the years are regularly counted, under the supposed natural fitness, sacred significance, or
name -aTr 75rS Bao-cXedas rTv'EXXVPwv, meaning the alleged fulfilment of prophecy. These must not be
Era of the Seleucidoe, beginning in the autumn of allowed to rank among the primary elements of a
312 B.C.; only, in the First Book the epoch is question of chronology. At most they may recommade I Nisan of that year, while in the Second  mend one of two or more conclusions between
Book it is I Tisri of the following year (3II B.C., which the chronological arguments are evenly
i.e., eighteen months later).  This, which has been  balanced, or may countervail any slight uncertainty
sufficiently proved by earlier writers (see Ideler, attaching to the proof; but even this, for the most
Hdb. der Czronol. i. 53I, if.; Ordo Secl. sec. part, only to the inquirer himself: whatever con440-42), is contested on inadequate grounds by  viction they may convey to his mind will rarely
v. Gumpach, Zwei Chronol. Abhandl. 1854.        reach the minds of others.
I8. Nezw  Testament Chronology. The Gospels     I9. St. Luke's date,' 5th of Tiberius' (iii. I), inand Acts of the Apostles have (with one exception, terpreted by the constant rule of the imperial annals
Luke iii. I) no express dates: in the absence of (and also of the Canon), denotes the year beginthese, combinations, more or less probable, are all ning August A.D. 28, and ending in the same
that the chronologist has to go by.             month of A.D. 29.  Referred to the current conFor the Nativity, the citerior limit is furnished  sular year, it may mean either A. D. 28 or 29.
by the death of Herod (Matt. ii. i, 9; Luke i. 5), Taken in the Jewish sense, it may be the year
the year of which event, as it is nowhere named  beginning either I Nisan or I Tisri A.D. 28, or
by Josephus or any other extant historian, has to  even I Tisri A.D. 27. The hypothesis of a dating
be determined by various circumstances.  These  of the years of Tiberius from an epoch earlier by
are-the mention of an eclipse of the moon not three years than the death of Augustus, which,




CHRONOLOGY                     516              CHRONOLOGY
from the I6th century downward, has found favour the ministry necessarily occupied at least one year,
with many learned men, will not bear examination: or because they were misled by erroneous consular
it is unknown to the early ecclesiastical writers, fasti, or because they wished to make out a term of
and nowhere in histories, on monuments, or coins, three and a half years from  the baptism to the
is a trace of any such epoch of Tiberius to be met Passion, with a view to a fulfilment of Daniel's
with. The utmost latitude is that which arises prophecy, which at an early period was imporfrom the question of technical use-imperial, con- ted into this question.  As the fourth Gospel
sular, or Jewish; and when this is decided, there specifies three Passovers, implying a ministry of
remains the further question, Whether the evan- at least two entire years, it follows that, if the year
gelist intended by this date to mark the commence- of the Passion was A.D. 29, the baptism of our
ment of the Baptist's ministry, or the baptism of Lord did not take place, in any sense, in the 15th
our Lord, or the crowning event of the whole nar- of Tiberius. But the earliest writers, with great
rative-the crucifixion and resurrection.  All these  consent, hold that the Lord's ministry occupied
views have their advocates.                     little more than one year. The first three Gospels,
20. The note of time (John ii. Io) connected  by naming only two Passovers, favour this view.
with the Passover after the Baptism, points, if the  The text of John vi. 4, as it appears in all known'forty and six years' are reckoned from Herod's  MSS. and versions, is conclusive against it; but
announcement of his purpose in his eighteenth year there is strong reason to believe that the words rb
(Atziq. xv. II. I) to 27 A.D.: if from the actual -rio-xa were not found in the text of that passage in
commencement, after all the materials were pro- early times.  It is inexplicable that with these
vided, it may denote either 28 or 29, or 30 A.D., words in their copies the ancients should have failed
according to the length of time supposed to be  to see that three Passovers imply at least two years:
spent in preparation. But here, again, besides dis- Irenseus, in making out a list of the Passovers for a
crepant statements in Josephus as to the epoch of controversial purpose, takes no notice of John vi.
Herod's reign, it chances that the earlier account 4; Origen and Cyril of Alexandria demonstrably
of the same proceedings in Bell. Jitd. i. 21. I, dates held'the feast of the Jews' there mentioned to be
this undertaking of Herod in hisfi/ftenth year. It the Feast of Tabernacles (Ordo Sscl., sec. 85-94).
does indeed admit of proof, even from the context,  23. In the Acts, the mention of the death of
that the I5th year is too early, but it may, plausi- Herod Agrzpfa (xii. 23), interposed between an
bly enough, be urged by those who wish to do so, arrival of St. Paul at Jerusalem  and his return
that, if Josephus is wrong in the one statement, he  thence to Antioch (xi. 30, xii. 25), would yield a
is just as likely not to be right in the other.  firm resting-point for that portion of the narrative,
21. The Crzcifxion certainly cannot be placed  viz., Easter A.D. 44 (Joseph. Antiq. xviii. 8. 2;
earlier than A.D. 28, in which year the I5th of comp. xix. 5, I; Bell. Ytd. ii. I. 6), couldwebe
Tiberius began, and it has never been proposed by  certain that the death of Agrippa took place soon
inquirers of any note to place it later than A.D. 33. after, or even in the same year with the Easter menThe astronomical element of the question-namely, tioned xii. 3, 4.  (The time of Agrippa's death is
that in the year of the Passion, the I4th of Nisan  determinable with high probability to the beginning
fell on a Friday-if it be rigorously applied, i. e., of August of that year).  But as it is possible that
according to a definite rule of Jewish usage and the  the writer, after his narrative of the acts of this
results of strict lunar calculation, indicates only one king, thought fit to finish off all that he had to
of the six years mentioned, viz., A.D. 29, in which  say about him before going on with the narrative
14 Nisan was I8 Mar. and Friday. If a certain   about Paul and Barnabas, it may be that their
laxity as to the rule be allowed, the I4th Nisan  mission to Jerusalem, and return, after the martyrmay possibly have fallen on 3d April, Friday, in  dom of James, and deliverance of Peter, took place
A.D. 33. But if, in compliance with the apparent before the year 44. It might even be inferred from
import of the first three Gospels, without explana- xi. 26 irts'y evero &rl KXavstov, that the prophecy
tion from the fourth, it is contended that the cruci- of Agabus was delivered before, or quite in the befixion took place on the day after the Passover, the ginning of 41 A. D., as the famine is known to have
year may have been A.D. 30, in which the I5th   prevailed at Rome during the first two years of
Nisan fell on Friday 7 April, or A.D. 33, in which  Claudius (41, 42; Dion Cass. lx.  I), but that it
it was (in strictness) Friday 3 April. Lastly, if it appears not to have been felt in Judoea till after the
be maintained that the Jewish Passover-day was death of Agrippa, in the procuratorship of Cuspius
regulated, not by actual observation of the moon's Fadus and Tiberius Alexander (45-47; Joseph.
phases, but by cycles more or less faulty, any year Antiq. xx. 2. 5, and 5. 2). If there are conclusive
whatever of the series may be available in one form  reasons for assigning this second visit of St. Paul
or other of the hypothesis.                    to Jerusalem to the year 44, they are to be sought
22. Ancient testimony, if that is to have weight elsewhere.
in this question on the supposition that the year  24. In Gal. i. 2, St. Paul speaks of two visits to
was known, either by tradition or by access to pub- Jerusalem, the one (i. 8) /zera -)o Trpla, viz., from
lie records (the Acta Pilati, to which the ancients his conversion, the other (ii. I) 6tc 6eKa-reao —cipwv erv.
so confidently appeal), certainly designates the The first of these is evidently that of Acts ix. 26;
Passoverof theyear 29, coss. dztobzcs Geminis, the 15th that the other must be the second of those mentioned
year of Tiberius.  In the Western Church the con- in the Acts, viz., that of xi. xii., has been undersent to this year is all but general; in the Eastern, stood by many, and probably would have been by
the same year is either named or implied in the two  all, could it have been made to square with their
earliest extant testimonies, Clem. Alex. (Strom. i. chronology.  The argument, restricted from irrele21, sec. Io1-I43; see ozurnal of Class. and Sacr. vant issues, lies in a very narrow compass. To
Philol. u. s.), and Julius Africanus. Those of the make good his assertion (i. ii, if.), that he received
ancients who assign a different year, do so, either not his gospel and commission from Peter, or any
because they placed the baptism in that year, and  other man, but direct from  Christ himself, the




CHRONOLOGY                     517               CHRONOLOGY
Apostle begins to enumerate the occasions on which  attempts to separate Gal. ii. I and Acts xi. xii. are
alone he saw and conversed with the other Apostles plainly designed only to meet a supposed chronoat yerusalem.  Now, if the visit Gal. ii. I be not logical difficulty. The time of Acts xii. being
that of Acts xi. 12, it must be later (no one wishes defined to A.D. 44, a term of 17 years, the sum of
to put it earlier): but if so, then he has not enumer- the 3 and the 14, supposed to be consecutive, would
ated all the occasions on which he saw the other lead to A.D. 27, which cannot possibly be the year
Apostles.  The very purpose of the recital forbids of Paul's conversion; and, if both terms are supthe supposition that he would omit any; yet he had posed to he dated from the same epoch, it would
other conferences with the Apostles, if this was not follow that the conversion took place A.D. 30, a
the second of them (Comp. Meyer on Gal., p. 41). date still too early for those who assign the CruciThis one argument ought to be sufficient for all who  fixion to that or to a later year  But not too early
accept as authoritative, both the statement of the if the year of the passion be 29 A. D.; and in exact
history, and that of the epistle; it is clearly useless accordance with the most ancient traditions reto allege (with Wieseler, Chronol. des apost. Zeit- corded by ecclesiastical writers, according to which
alters, p. I80) that the Apostle, not writing a his- the martyrdom of Stephen took place within a year
tory, is not bound to recite all his visits to Jerusalem; after the Ascension, and St. Paul's conversion,
or (with Ewald, Gesch. vi. 50), that he is concerned  which clearly was not much later, in the year after
to enumerate only those visits which he made for the the Ascension, i.e., in this year 30 (Ordo Secl.
purpose of conferring with the Apostles. His inten- sec. 102).*
tion is so plain, that if the visit Gal. ii. I cannot be  25. The mention of Gallio (xviii. 12), would
identified with that in Acts xi. 12, one or other state- furnish a note of time, were the date of his proment must be rejected.   Accordingly, Schleier- consulate in Achaia on record.  We can only conmacher (Einleit. ins AS. Z. 569, if.), Neander(Pdfa. jecture that it was through the interest of his
i. Leit. i. I88 of the 4th ed.), De Wette (Kommn. in  brother Seneca, who, disgraced and in exile from
loc.), Meyer (u. s. p. 47), find the conclusion inevi- 41 to 48, thereafter stood in the highest favour
table that Luke was misinformed in saying that with Claudius and Agrippina, that Gallio was prePaul went up to Jerusalem as related in Acts xi. sently made consul (suffect) and then proconsul of
30, because the Apostle himself declares that Achaia (Plin. H. N. xxxi. 33; comp. Senec. Ejp.
between his first visit, which can be no other 105).  So, the date would be not earlier than 49,
than that of ix. 26, and the other, which can and not much later.
only have been that to the Council, as related    26. The decree of Claudius for the expulsion of
in Acts xv., there was none intermediate.  But, all Jews from Rome (xviii. 2) is mentioned by
in fact, the circumstances of the visit, Gal. ii. I, Suetonius in a well-known passage, Claud. 25, but
are perfectly compatible with those of Acts xi. neither dated nor placed in any discoverable order
xii., the only difficulty being that which is sup- of time (Dion Cass. Ix. 6, relates to merely reposed to lie in the chronology: whereas the dis- strictive measures taken or contemplated in the
crepancy between Gal. ii. I, ff., and Acts xv. is such beginning of the reign). If, as is likely, it formed
that it is difficult to see how they can relate to the part of a general measure for the expulsion of the
same fact. Which manifest incongruity furnishes'astrologers' (Chaldici, matthezatici, astrologi), its
Baur (Pauzts, p. I2o, ff.) with an argument in  date may be as late as 52, in which year de nmathesupport of his position, that the book of Acts is the naticis Italia pellendisfactun SC. atrox et ibritum
work, not of a companion of St. Paul, but of some  (Tacit. Ann. xii. 52). But Zonaras (p. 972, ed.
much later hand (in the 2d century), And, indeed, Reimar) in the summary compiled from Dion Cass.,
here also the conclusion does seem to be inevi- places an expulsion of the astrologers from Italy
table; if both. accounts are meant for the same oc- immediately after the elevation of Agrippina, A.D.
currence, one of the two misrepresents the facts. 49, and before the arrival of Caractacus at Rome,
Wieseler, to evade this conclusion, gives up the  A.D. 50; and in Tacitus, u. s. 22, we find Agripassumed identity of Gal. ii. I with Acts xv., and  pina, just after her marriage, accusing her rival
labours to shew that it was the visit xviii. 22, an  Lollia of dealings with Chaldeans and Magi. It
hypothesis which needs no discussion, unless we is not likely that any general severe measure
are prepared to say that the Apostle was not against the Jews would be taken while the younger
even present at the Council, Acts xv.: for that a Agrippa, a special favourite of Claudius, was still
Council was held is not denied, even by those who  at Rome, as he certainly was to the end of 48,
contend that the account given of it in the Acts is 
not authentic; and, if Paul was present at it, it is  * The chronological difficulty, which would preimpossible to explain his passing it by in silence, sent itself as soon'as the ancient date of the Passion
as if it had no bearing upon the point which he was abandoned for a later year, has induced the
is concerned to substantiate.  His silence on the  conjecture, seemingly as early as the Chron. Pasch.
subject of the Council need be no difficulty to those p. 436, ed. Bonn., that for I4 should be read 4 (AIA'
who hold that he is here speaking of the visit A' for AI''IA); see Meyer u. s. 49. On this supActs xi. xii.; the explanation being, either that the position the conversion might be assigned to A.D.
Epistle was written before the Council, against 37, the first visit to A.D. 40, the second to A.D. 44.
which supposition the only weighty objection (and  With this would accord the note of time 2 Cor. xii.
that not conclusive) is, that the first mention of 2, according to the ancient date of that Epistle,
Galatia occurs in the Acts after the Council (xvi. viz., A.D. 54 (see below), that year being 14 years
6); or, that the Apostle breaks off from the tone  after the date so assigned to the first visit and the
of narrative into expostulation and indignant re- trance (Acts xxii. I7).  But the present writer,
proof just where the next thing to be mentioned, holding (with Grotius) that the Apostle is speaking
after the notice of Peter's dissimulation, was the  of a man'who had been in Christ already fourteen
settling of the matter in controversy by the years' at the time of the revelation there mentioned,
apostles and elders at Jerusalem.  In short, the  refers it to the year 44 (Ordo Seed. sec. 125).




CHRONOLOGY                     518              CHRONOLOGY
when he succeeded his uncle Herod as king of Chal- terial circumstances relative to Felix he certainly
cis (Antiq. xx. 5. 2, and 7. I; Bell. Ytd. ii. 14. 4, was ignorant, unless we are to suppose that Tacitus
where for eTrraKaLt6Karov we must read evPeaKact). had no documentary warrant for the very circumThe insurrectionary movements in Judoea early in stantial account which he gives under the year 52
49 may have been connected with the decree as (Ann. xii. 54); how Felix was then jam p5ridem
cause or effect (Antiq. xx. 5. 3, 4). All these indi-  zudc iimposilus, holding a divided command with
cations point to the year 49, and it is remarkable  Cumanus, ut huic Galilceorum natia, Felici Samarithat that is the year named by Orosius (Hist. vii. tce parerent.  He may have mistaken the nature
6,'ninth year of Claudius') from some lost source  of this divided rule; in fact, there is reason to beof intelligence; ut yosephus tradit, he says; but lieve that Felix held a military command, as Suethat is a mistake.                              tonius relates (Claud. 28); Felicem legionibus et
27. The year of the recall of Felix and appoint- alis provincieeque 7udaee imposuit, and Victor (in
ment of Festus as his successor (Acts xxiv. 27) is the Epitome, p. 361); Felicem legionibus 7udceed
not on record, and the arrival of St. Paul at Rome, prcfecit.  Of that associated government, and of
in the spring of the following year, has been as- Felix's equal share in the wrongs of which Cumasigned to every one of the years, from 56 to 63 in- nus was accused, Josephus is ignorant; but what
clusive. The earliest is that given by the ancients, he says of Pallas and Felix is far more suitable
and is advocated in Ordo Scclorum, sec. io8, ff. to that earlier conjuncture, as described by TaciBut the writer perceives now that one principal tus, than to the later occasion to which he refers
argument there used is not tenable. From   the it. At that time, viz., when Cumanus was destatement of Josephus (Antiq. xx. 8. 9) that Felix  posed,'Felix would certainly have suffered for the
on his return to Rome escaped condemnation upon  wrongs done by him to the Jews, but for the inthe charges laid against him before Nero, chiefly tercession of his brother Pallas, whom the emperor
through the influence of his brother Pallas, whose  [Claudius] at that very time held in the highest
consideration with that emperor was'just then  consideration;' for that Pallas just then had
at its highest' (/XciX-nra 8' r6re && rqTkIS gXwv reached the pinnacle of his commanding influence,
eKfceov), combined with the fact, related by Tacitus Tacitus shews in the preceding recital of the public
(Ann. xiii. 14, I5), of Pallas's removal from his honours decreed to him, and by him recorded as
office at the head of the fiscus, shortly before the  the crowning glory of his life in his own epitaph
death of Britannicus, who had nearly completed  (Plin. Ep. vii. 29; viii. 6).  Even in the account
his I4th year, and with the latter part of the state- Josephus gives of that earlier conjuncture (in which
ment in Sueton. Clazd. 27, that Britannicus was he speaks only of Cumanus and the final hearing
born vigesimo imperii die inque secundo consulatu  before Claudius, Ant. xx. 6. 3), he mentions the
(==A.D. 42), it was inferred that not long before'very great exertions made by the emperor'sfreedFeb. 56 A. D., Pallas had ceased to be at the height men and friends for Cumanus and the Samaritans.'
of imperial favour, consequently the recall of The absence of dates, of which Josephus is not
Felix could not be placed later than the summer sparing when he has them, of itself implies that his
of A.D. 55. This must be rejected; for Tacitus, materials for the account of Felix were scanty; and
u. s. I5, evidently places the death of Britannicus the way in which Burrus is introduced, after the
early in 55, the events of which year begin at ch. passage relating to Pallas (Ant. xx. 8. 9), strengthII, and end with ch. 25; therefore the former ens the suspicion raised by the conflicting account
part of Suetonius's statement is alone true-that in Tacitus, that the Jewish historian in this paraBritannicus was born on the 20th day of the reign  graph is mixing up with his recital of what took
of Claudius, = I3th Feb. A. D. 41.  Dion Cassius, place on the recall of Felix, occurrences of an earlier
indeed, mentions the birth under the second year time. Certainly the accompanying notice, oSTroS 
(lx. Io), but not until he has expressly returned to 7ractaywyebs iv rev Ndpwvos is more apposite to
the former year, Tr 7rpoTrpcP Tret.  Hence it is that earlier conjuncture in the time of Claudius
clear that if the date of Pallas's loss of office is (A.D. 52), when Nero was barely fourteen years
decisive for the date of his brother's recall, this old: it might still in some sense be notable as the
must have occurred, at latest, in 54, before the ground of Burrus's influence in the beginning of
death of Claudius (13th Oct. of that year) and no  Nero's reign, when he and Seneca are spoken of
part of the procuratorship of Felix would have as rectores imp5eratorie juventce (Tacit. Ann. xiii.
been under Nero: a result totally incompatible with  2); but the description is very strange when rethe narrative of Josephus, Antiq. xx. 8; Bell. _ud. ferred to the year 61, the last of Burrus's life,
ii. 13. On the other hand, it is hard to say at especially as this is not the first mention of him.
what conjuncture in Nero's time Pallas could be   28. The argument for the year 61, as the date
said to have been held ciXto-ra  ro-re &&L r-As. of St. Paul's arrival at Rome, is thus put by Wiesee
At the very beginning of the reign it is noted of ler, Chronologie des Apost. Zeitalters, p. 66, ff. The
him that tristi arrogantia modum liberti egressus narrative of Josephus, Antiq. xx. 8, Bell. _zd. ii.
tcedium sui moverat (Tacit. Ann. xiii. 2); within a  13, from Nero's accession (13th Oct. 54) to the demonth or two he is removed from thefiscus; about feat of the'Egyptian' implies at least two years;
a year later, when impeached, together with this impostor, claiming to be another Moses, would
Burrus, nec tam grata Pallantis innocentia quam  of course make his appearance at the Passover, i.e.,
gravis superbiafuit (Tacit. u. s. 23); as the ally of at the earliest, that of 57 A.D. That this must
Agrippina he was an object more of fear than of have been at least a year before St. Paul's arrest
favour; and his great wealth caused his removal by  is implied in the tribune's expression, 7rpb TrTrcov
death A.D. 62, quod immensam pecuniam lonfga   4epu  v (Acts. xxi. 38); therefore the earliest possenecta detineret (Ann. xiv. 65). The present sible date for this arrest is A.D. 58, Pentecost; the
writer strongly suspects that in this matter of &erca of xxiv. 27, gives A.D. 60 as the earliest posPallas's influence, exercised on behalf of his sible date for the arrival of Festus, and the spring
brother, Josephus was misinformed.  Of very ma- of 61 for the Apostle's arrival at Rome. The latest




CHRONOLOGY                    519              CHRONOLOGY
possible is given by the &Kc0X6rcs of Acts xxviii. 31, had been prisoners three years at least, and for
implying that after these two years some great aught that appears, may have been so seven or'hindrance' did arise, which could be no other eight years or more. That they were obscure and
than the Neronian persecution, beginning July A. D. insignificant persons is evident, from the fact that
64. The extreme date hence resulting is limited by  Ismael and Helkias, whom the'devout' Poppsea,
these further considerations.  Pallas and Burrus two years before, had graciously detained at her
were living, and influential men at the time when  court, appear to have made no intercession for
Felix was recalled; but Pallas died in the latter their release.
half, and Burrus in the first or second month of  29. But Wieseler, p. 99, ff., after Anger, de
A. D. 62; consequently Felix arrived in 6I at latest. temp. in Act. Ap. ratione, p. Io6, if., has an arguBut Paul was delivered T7 vTpa-rolreadpXq, the one ment to which both attach high importance, deproefect of the praetorian guards, who must there- rived from the notice of a Sunday (Acts xx. 7),
fore be Burrus, before and after whom there were the I2th day after leaving Philippi, which departwo. As Burrus died Jan. or Feb., and Paul ture was'after the days of Azyma' (15-21 Nisan),
arrived May or June, the year could not be 62, and  and, indeed, very soon after, for the Apostle'hastthe latest possible date would be A.D. 6I. Latest ed, if it were possible, to reach Jerusalem  for
possible and earliest possible thus coinciding, the the Pentecost,' v. I6, and of the 43 days which he
date, Wieseler thinks, is demonstrated,-To this had before him from 22 Nisan to the day of Penteit is objected, and justly, that rpt -rparoTreaipXq of cost, the days specified or implied in the narrative,
necessity means no more than the praefect con- Acts xx. xxi., amount to 35 to the landing at
cerned (Meyer, Komm. in Apostelgesch, p. I9; Csesarea (comp. Chrysost. in Act. Homn. xlv. 2),
Lange, Apost. Zeit. ii. 9). And in favour of the leaving but eight days for the stay there ({/udpas
laterdate (62 A.D.), it is urged that on the hearing  7rXeiov, xxi. Io), and the journey to Jerusalem.
before Nero of the complaints relative to Agrippa's Wieseler concludes that the departure from Philippi
building overlooking the Temple (Antiq. xx. 8. Io, was on the 23d Nisan, which being I2 days before
I I; Bell. _ 1d. ii. 14. I),theJews obtained a favourable the Sunday at Troas, would be Wednesday, consejudgment through the influence of Poppsea,'Nero's quently the I5th Nisan fell on a Tuesday. Accordwife.'  But Poppma was married May 62, and un- ing to his method ofJewish calendar reckoning (from
doubtedly Festus's successor, Albinus, was atJerusa- which the present writer dissents), from A.D. 56 to
lem in the feast of Tabernacles of the same year 59 inclusive, the only year in which I5th Nisan
(Bell. 7yzd. vi. 5. 3). Hence it is argued, that un- would fall on a Tuesday would be 58, which is his
less KaT& rTOv Katpbov roroov (Antiq. xx. 8. ii) is date for St. Paul's arrival at Jerusalem.  Were it
taken with undue latitude, Festus cannot have worth while, the argument might be claimed for the
entered upon the province earlier than 6I (Meyer year 55 (the date assigned by the ancients), in which
u. s.)  Ewald (Gesch. vi. 44) also urges the aKoJ- year the day of true full moon ==15 Nisan was Ist
XTrws of Acts xxviii. fin. for this year 62, and calls April and Tuesday. But in fact it proves nothing;
attention to the circumstance that the imperial re- the chain is no stronger than its weakest link, and
script, rescinding the Jewish isopolity, obtained by  a single'perhaps' in the reckoning is enough to
the Greeks of Csesarea through the influence of invalidate the whole concatenation.
Burrus (Antiq. xx. 8-9), is spoken of as something  30. On the whole, it seems to the present writer
recent in the beginning of the rebellion (spring of that neitherin the Acts norin the historyof the times
A. D. 66); indeed, in Bell. 7ud. ii. 14. 4, it seems have we the means of settling this part of the chroas if the rescript had but just then reached Cuesarea. nology. Josephus in particular, from whom  are
Ewald surmises that the death of Festus and of fetched the combinations which recent German
Burrus may have retarded the process. But the fact writers deem so unanswerable, is discredited in this
may be (as was suggested above), that Josephus in part of the history (written probably from his own
that passage has confused some exercise of Burrus's resources and the inaccurate recollections of his
influence in behalf of the Caesarean Greeks in the boyhood) by the infinitely higher authority of
time of Claudius, or early in the time of Nero, with  Tacitus, who drew his information from the public
the much later matter of the rescript, which would records.  Only, in whatever degree it is probable
officially pass through Burrus's hands as secretary that the first residence at Corinth commenced A. D.
for the East (rciT rjv e7rlT rZv'EXXv tKiv   e7riorro0Xiv 49, in the same it is probable that the arrest at
7re6r7retuuvos), and the operation of which may Jerusalem belongs to the year 55, six years being
have been delayed through the influence of Poppea sufficient, as nearly all enquirers are agreed, for the
(ob. Aug. 65). That Poppsea is spoken of as Nero's intermediate occurrences. Then, if the arrival at'wife,' on the occasion above mentioned, may be Rome took place, as the ancients say, in the second
merely euphemistic anticipation: this woman, dinz year of Nero, it will be necessary (with Petavius)
pellex, et adulleri Neronis, mox marriti otens (Ann. to refer the hterla (xxiv. 27) to the term of Felix's
xiv. 60), may have befriended the Jews in the former (sole) procuratorship.
capacity (at any time after 58, Ann. xiii. 45). In  3. That the two years' imprisonment,with which
fact the marriage could not have taken place at the the narrative in the Acts ends, did not terminate in
time when she is said to have aided them, unless it the Apostle's death, but that he was set at liberty,
be possible to crowd the subsequent occurrences  and suffered martyrdom under Nero at a later
Antiq. xx. 8. I I and 9. I, into the space of three or time, appears to have been the unanimous belief
four months (Ordo Secl. p. 122, ff.) Nor can any  of the ancients (see the testimonies in Ordo Scec.
certain inference be drawn from the narrative in sec. I30). And, indeed, in no other way is it po'
Joseph, tFit. 3, of certain priests whom Felix had  sible to find a place for the three pastoral Epistles,
sent to be tried at Rome, and for whom Josephus, and especially to account for statements in the'after his 26th year,' which was complete A.D. 64, Second Epistle to Timothy.  Wieseler's forced exwas enabled, through the good offices of' Cesar's planations have satisfied and can satisfyno one. (See
wife,' Poppnea, to obtain their liberty.  The men  also Lange Apostol. Zeitalter, ii. 386, fi., and in




CHRYSOLITE                   520              CHRYSOSTOM
Herzog's Encycl. s. v. Paulus 244, ff., and Huther rendering of tilln in Gen. ii. 12 [SHOH'IAM].in Meyer's krit. exeg. CKonam. p. 25, if.  Meyer W. L. A.
himself, lRomerbr. Einleit, p. I2, ff., owns that the
three pastoral Epistles' stand or fall together,' and  CHRYSOSTOM, JOHN. Chrysostom, or the
that if they be genuine, the conclusion is inevitable: golden-mouthed, was the complimentary title bewhich he turns into an argument against their stowed by a later generation on John, Archbishop
genuineness). But if, after his release, the apostle of Constantinople, the most eloquent, and pervisited not only Spain (as Ewald admits, Gesch. vi. haps the best, of the Christian Fathers. After
631, on the unquestionable testimony of Clemens, shewing brilliant oratorical and philosophical proRorn. c. 5), but Greece and Asia, as is clear from  mise in the schools of Libanius and Andragathius,
the Epistles to Timothy and Titus, scant room is left he was induced by the teachings of the Bishop
for thesemovementsbetween the late dates, assigned Meletius to abandon the law, and receive the
with almost one consent by recent German writers, sacrament of baptism.  After six years of close
to the close of the first imprisonment (63 and 64), ascetic seclusion in the mountains of Antioch,
and the year 65 or 66, which the ancients give as during which he committed the Scriptures to methe date of St. Paul's martyrdom. So far, there- mory, and enjoyed the instructions of Diodorus,
fore, it is more probable that the first imprisonment and the warm friendship of Basil and Gregory,
ended in one of the years 58-60. Another con- and Theodore of Mopsuestia, he was ordained
sideration points the same way: when Poppea's deacon by Meletius, A. D. 381, and priest by Flaviainfluence was established (58-65), which, after she nus, A.D. 386. He continued to preach at Antioch
became a Oeoo-ejs (i.e., atleast as earlyas 6I), was for twelve years, and distinguished himself not
freely used in favour of the Jews, it would certainly only by his burning eloquence, but also by the unhave been invoked against the Apostle by his swerving faithfulness with which he denounced
enemies (comp. Ewald vi. 62I); and even if he every form of profligacy and error.  Eutropius,
escaped with life, his confinement would not have the infamous eunuch who swayed the feeble mind
been of the mild character described in the con- of the Emperor Arcadius, had heard the great
cluding verse of the Acts: more especially as his preacher of Antioch during a visit to the East, and'bonds in Christ were manifest in all the palace' having determined to summon him as a successor
(praetorium), Phil. i. 13, and among his converts to Nectarius in the patriarchal throne of Constanwere some'of Caesar's household,' i. iv. 22.-  tinople, Chrysostom was, in the year 398, secretly
H. B.                                         inveigled from the scene of his early labours to the
perilous splendour of a dignity which he had
CHRYSOLITE (Xpvo-6Xt0os), a species of pre- hitherto shunned; and from this time forward he
cious stone, called by some Xpvcr-6vXXov (Epi- seems to have enjoyed but little peace. Having
phan. de gemmis, c. x.) It received its name from  incurred the hatred of Theophilus, Archbishop of
the yellow or golden lustre by which it is per- Alexandria, that false and wicked prelate by disvaded ('aureo fulgore translucens,' Pliny, H. N., seminating against his supposed rival the vague
xxxvii. 9). It is of the quartz kind, is completely charge of Origenism, and enlisting against him the
diaphanous, has a strong double refraction and a suspicions of the honest but credulous Epiphanius,
glassy fracture. Pliny describes it fully (Hist. Nat. bishop of Cyprus, with the assistance of Eudoxia
xxxvii. 9). By some the ancient chrysolite is sup- managed to get Chrysostom  condemned by a
posed to be the modern topaz; but this is liable to packed and incompetent synod at Chalcedon,
objection (Bellermann, Urim et Thummim, p. 62). known by the name of the Synod of the Oak. It
The LXX. give it as the synonym of the Heb. would have been easy for Chrysostom to save himtWV1IR [TARSHISH]. It is used once in the N. T. self by appealing to the devoted multitude, whose
as the stone which formed the seventh of the foun- passions he swayed with unequalled power. But
dations of the new Jerusalem  (Rev. xxi. 20).-  fearing the excesses to which they might be stimuW. L. A.                                      lated by their affection for himself, he yielded to
CHRVSOP ASUS (pv7rpas    a precious the Imperial messenger, and left Constantinople.
CHCRYSOPBASUS (yxpvobrpaao-P),   a preciouspFrom this banishment he was almost immediately
stone allied to the beryl, but of a paler hue. From  recalled, bonly to be in a few months expelled
the composition of the word (from xpvobs, gold, from his episcopate. Contrary to the secret hopes
and wrpaci-ov, a leek) it may be presumed that its pre- of his fanatic persecutos, he reaced in safety,
vailing colour was green, streaked or spotted with  fter an ti  sufferings, the dreary town of
yellow; and this may account for its having re- Cucucus in Armenia. Neither the rigour of climate
ceived the name Panlzenion, from its resemblance nor the miseries of a perilous exile quenched his
to the marked skin of the Panther (Schleusner, c ie  glowing zeal in God's service, and from his distant
voc. The statement made by Schleusner, and copied retirement he still continued to uphold the faith
in Smith's Dict. of the Bible, i. 328, that Pliny and cou e o hi  oc    u the implacable reapplies the term PardaZios to this gem is a mistake; senten  of his flock. But the implacale resentment of his enemies, not yet sated, procured
he simply says (xxxvii. I1) that'some gems are his instant removal (A.D. 407) to the remote solicalled pardalios, from the skin of the panther')  te of Pityus in Pontus.  Exhausted by past
tude of Pityus in Pontus.  Exhausted by past
The gem is named only once in Scripture (Rev. xx.'sufferings, he sank under the heat and weariness of
20); but the LXX. give 6 Wi0os o 7rpdAos as the
this journey, and died on the way, at Comana in
Pontus, Sept. 14, A.D. 407, in the sixtieth year of
*; If the Narcissus of Rom. xvi. II was the cele- his age.  His favourite words —b6ba r  0rec
brated freedman of Claudius, the Epistle to the  r'cvTrwvI iYeKa - were the last he ever uttered, and
Romans, written shortly before the Apostle's last they form the fittest motto for a noble and unvisit to Jerusalem, cannot be placed so late as A.D. selfish life. The love and reverence with which he
58 or 59, for Narcissus died very soon after Nero's was regarded produced in Constantinople the
accession, Tac. Ann. xiii. i.                 schism of the Johannites, which was only healed




CHRYSOSTOM                    521                   CHUB
by the patriarch Proclus, thirty years after Chry- tion, in which he does not dwell on the'loci conzsostom's death, when his mortal remains were munes of morality, but generally develops with
transferred by Theodosius II. from their obscure wonderful power some of those favourite and pregresting-place to a splendid sepulchre in the im- nant apophthegms which have been called his
penal city.'Golden Paradoxes,' which, although they freAs a zealous and laborious minister, as a brave quently recur in his sermons, are treated with a
and orthodox bishop, and as a cheerful martyr, beautiful diversity of style and illustration. Such
Chrysostom stands very high in the veneration of are, among others, the sayings,' It is far easier to
the Christian Church. In several aspects his cha- live well than wickedly;' Light and trifling sins
racter resembles that of his namesake, the great must be more carefully guarded against than great
Forerunner of Christianity. As a preacher he has ones;' No punishment is more dreadful than an
bequeathed to us many sermons, which though de- evil conscience;''No one can be injured except
faced by the oratorical conceits of his age, yet burn by himself;''It is better to suffer than to inflict
with the genuine earnestness of true eloquence, an injury;' Charity is the most lucrative of purinspired by deep conviction and passionate feeling. suits;'' Contented ignorance of some subjects is
Without the learning of Jerome, or the profundity the highest wisdom' (see Sixtus Senensis Bibl.
of Augustine, in power and picturesqueness of Sanct. 1. c.)  Chrysostom's complete works have
language he surpasses them both, and stands un- been published by Savil, Eton, 1613, 8 vols.;
rivalled among the early Christian orators for the Fronto Ducaens, Paris, I609, 12 vols.; Montfaufire and beauty of his style. As an exegetical con, Paris, 1718, 13 vols.; re-edited by Suiner,
writer he ranks deservedly high.  Free from all Paris, I835. This is the best and most useful
unwise spirit of system, and from the vague alle- edition. Of single works the six books on the
gorisitig mysticism of the Origenistic school, his Priesthood have been published by J. A. Bengel,
explanations are distinguished by the clearness 1725; the Orations on Eutropizes, by Orelli, 1828;
with which he seizes and illustrates the grammati- and various German and English translations of
cal and historical meaning of the text, and the select homilies-as those on St. Matthew, by J.
force with which he deduces from it a practical W. Feder, Augs. I786; J. A. Cramer, Leip. 1748;
moral bearing. It is chiefly to his wise and cor- on St. John, by Schneider, Augs. 1788; on the
mon-sense example that we owe the useful con- Statues, by Wagner, Vienna, 1838; and in the
mentaries of such men as Theodoret, Theophylact, Oxford Library of tie Fathers. A list is given by
and CEcumenius; and the manly intellectual vigour Hagenbach (s.v. Chrysostom in Herzog's Cycloof all his works derives additional value from the p dia).-F. W. F.
sincere Christian feeling, the charity, the humility,  CHUB. 
and the reverence which pervades everything which CHUB (n13). In Ezek. xxx. 5 this occus as
he wrote. For this reason, Chrysostom demands      name of a people, who, along wth Ethiopia,
an important place in the history of exegesis; he Phut, Lud, all the mixed people (:'t 5), and the
never twists his text into a meaning like Jerome sons of the land of the covenant (doubtless the Jews
and Augustine, or foists into it some mystic lesson who had gone down to Egypt), are mentioned as
like Origen and Clemens of Alexandria, or ob- in alliance with Egypt, and destined to share her
scures it with idle speculations for the display of fate. The name does not occur elsewhere in Scriphis ingenuity. His value best appears by compar- ture, nor does it appear to have been in the copy
ing his brief, lucid, practical explanation of such a used by the LXX. Various conjectures have been
verse as Rom. iv. I6, given in half a dozen words, offered as to the locality of the nation thus desigwith Augustine's long discussions about foreknow- nated. Michaelis contends for KofS, a fort menledge, reprobation, and freewill; or again, by con- tioned by Ptolemy (iv. 7, sec. Io) as situated on the
trasting his moral and practical commentary on the Indian sea; and others have adduced other names
first chapter of Genesis, with the Hexae'meron of of places in Africa of similar sound, such as XcowpTr
Ambrose, or the subtle speculations of Basil and  (iv. 2) and KcbiPov (iv. 5). Bochart suggests the
Ilippolytus (Neander, Ch. Hist. iv. 428; Hagen- town Paliurus in Marmarica (Strabo xvii. 838),
bach, Hi-st. of Doctr. i. 248, 317, Engh. Transl.)  because in Syric   means  a     s.  All
Chrysostom's works were very numerous.  Suidas (s.v.'Iwvcovds) says that there were more than  this helps little, and is very precarious.  It has
he could number. With the exception of his book  been proposed to read 11. in place of 11: (Gesen.
De Sacerdotio, lib. vi., the majority of his works  Thes. i. 21I), and to understand it of Nubia; in supconsist of homilies on almost every book of Scrip- port of this may be adduced the rendering of the
ture, of which the most important are those on  Arab. vers.,'the inhabitants of Nubia,' and the
Genesis, the Psalms, the first eight chapters of reading =32, found in one of De Rossi's MSS.
Isaiah, and St. Matthew.  His other homilies may  (cod. 409); but a fatal objection to it is that the
be classed (as has been done by Hagenbach) under Bible has already another name for Nubia, viz.,
four heads. —I. Separate lectures on Scripture't,  which it always uses.  Hitzig suggested
narratives and texts, as on the parable of Dives      te proper reading (   dr Kriik, p. 129),
and Lazarus, etc.  2. Discourses on Christian
but this he has himself since rejected, on the ground
duty, on prayer, repentance, etc. 3. Occasional utthisehashimselfsincereected, ontheground
sermons, like the twenty-one discourses on the  chiefly that the 0. T. knows only one people of the
sermons, like the twenty-one discourses on the
statues, the oration on Eutropius, etc. 4. Festival W89 and no 115 (Kurzgef. Exeget. Hdb. in Ezechiel,
sermons on the commemorations of apostles and in loc.) The suggestion of Havernick, that the
martyrs. Each homily usually consists of three name Chub is to be connected with lifoa, which
parts; I. the Exordium (rrapalc-Kevr), often admir- occurs on the Egyptian monuments as that of a
ably adapted to enchain the hearer's attention; people conquered by the Egyptians (Wilkinson,
2. The Exegesis or exposition, generally consisting Anc. Eypt. i. 367, 371) would be deserving of
of a clear and simple paraphrase; 3. The Applica- notice were it not that it involves the somewhat




CHURCH                    522               CINNERETH
violent proposition that a people, of whom we only and the Cilician Sea (Acts xxvii. 5) on the South.
know that they were the allies of the Egyptians, By the ancients the eastern part was called Cilicia
should be identified with a people of whom we only Propria ( J i&iws KtXKtua, Ptolemy), or the level
know that they were the conquered enemies of the Cilicia ( 7rrenacs, Strabo); and the western, the
Egyptians; though it is certainly possible that they rough (j rpaxelZa, Strabo xiv. 5), or mountainous
who were at an early period foes, may at a later (i 6pet, Herod. ii. 34). The former was wellperiod have become allies. But for the objection watered, and abounded in various kinds of grain
thus raised, this is by much the most probable of and fruits (Xenoph. Anab. i. 2, sec. 22). Ciliciaany of the conjectures advanced.  Worthy of dives bonis omnibus terra. Ammianus Marcell.
notice also is the suggestion of Fiirst, who says-  xiv. 8, sec. I. The chief towns in this division' It is possible that it is to be connected with Coba, were Issus (Xenoph. Anab. i. 4), as the souththe existing name of an Ethiopian port, and which, eastern extremity, celebrated for the victory of
perhaps, was formerly the name of a district' (Heb. Alexander over Darius Codomanus (B.C. 333), and
u. Chald. H. W. B.)-W. L. A.                 not far from the passes of Amanus (rCiv'ALaCvi6wv
CHURCH  ('EKKXfO-ta). -The original Greek Xcyoeovwv IHuvXv. Polyb. xii. 17); Soloe, originally
~~~~~CHURCH  ('Ec/Xr~a).        a colony of Argives and Rhodians, the birth-place
word, in its larger signification, denotes a number ofMenader, the comic poet (B.. 262), of the stoic
of persons called together for any purpose, an philosopher Chrysippus (B..  26), and of Aratus,toic
assembly of any kind, civil..rreligiou. As,.  philosopher Chrysippus (B.C. 2o6), and of Aratus,
assembly of any kind, civil or religious. As, how  author of the astronomical poem  ae.ea (B.c.
ever, it is usually applied in the N. T. to religious  a  Tasus, thbirh-place of the Apostle
assemblages, it is very properly translated by as- 27; and   Tarsus, the birth-place of hed an ine
sembly,' in the few instances in which it occurs in haustible supply of cedars and  fior ship-building
the civil sense (Acts xix. 32, 39, 4I. It is, how- haustible supply of cedars and firs for ship-building;
the civil sense (Acts xix. 32, 39, 41)  It is, how- it was also noted for a species of goat, of whose
ever, well to note that the word rendered'assem- hair a cloth (clic/um) was manufactured for cloaks
bly' in these verses is the same which is rendered and tents (Varro de Re Rustica, lib. ii. cap. xi.) Its
I'cchurch' evehryewhere else..   breed of horses was so superior, that 360 (one for
In a few places the word occurs in the Jewish ach day of the year) formed part of the annual
sense, of a congregation, an assembly of the peo- ribute to the king of Persia (Herod. ii.  ). The
pie for worship, either in a synagogue (Matt. xvii neighbourhood of Corycus produced large quantiI7) or generally of the Jews regarded as a religious ties of Saffron (Crocum sylvestre optimum. Prima
body (Acts vii. 38; Heb. ii. 12). The text last nobilitas Cilicio, et ibi in Coryco monte,Plin. t.
cited is quoted from Ps. xxii. 22; where the Sept  st. xxi. 6, 17). Herodotus says that the first
uses CKKX\otacL for the Hebrew >Up, which has the inhabitants of the country were called Hypachei,
same meaning, namely, assembly or congregation.'Tvraxcaol; and derives the name of Cilicia from
Elsewhere also this word, which we render Cilix, son of Agenor, a Phoenician settler (vii. 91).' church' in the N. T., is used by the Sept. for the He also states that the Cilicians and Lycians were
Hebrew word which we render'congregation' in the only nations within the Halys who were not
the 0. T.                                    conquered by Croesus (i. 28). Though partially
But the word most frequently occurs in the subjected to the Assyrians, Medes, Persians,
Christian sense of an assemblage (of Christians) Syrians, and Romans, the Eleuthero- (or free)
generally (i Cor. xi. 18).  Hence it denotes a Cilicians, as the inhabitants of the mountainous
church, the Christian church; in which, however, districts were called, were governed by their own
we distinguish certain shades of meaning, viz.-i. kings (Reguli, Tacit. ii. 78), till the time of VesA particular church, a church in a certain place, as pasian.  The sea-coast was for a long time occuin Jerusalem (Acts viii. I; xi. 22, etc.), in Antioch pied by pirates, who carried on the appropriate
(Acts xi. 26; xiii. I, etc.), in Corinth (i Cor. i. vocation of slave-merchants, and found ample
2; 2 Cor. i. i), etc. etc. 2. Churches of (Gentile) encouragement for that nefarious traffic among the
Christians, without distinguishing place (Rom. xvi. opulent Romans (Mannert, vi. I; Strabo xiv. 5);
4). 3. An assembly of Christians which meets but at last their depredations became so formidanywhere, as in the house of any one (Rom. xvi. 5; able, that Pompey was invested with extraordinary
I Cor. xvi. I9; Philem. 2). The Church univer~ powers for their suppression, which he accomsal-the whole body of Christian believers (Matt. plished in forty days.  He settled the surviving
xvi. 18; I Cor. xii. 28; Gal. i. 13; Eph. i. 22; freebooters at Solce, which he rebuilt and named
iii. Io; Heb. xii. 23, etc.)-J. K.           Pompeiopolis.  Cicero was proconsul of Cilicia
CHUSHAN-RISHATHM?(TAlp: W(A.u.C. 702), and gained some successes over the
-CHUSHAN-RISHATHAIM  (Itl     3 _; mountaineers of Amanus, for which he was reSept. Xovu-apo'aOail), a king of Mesopotamia, by warded with a triumph (Epist. ad Farz. xv. 4).
whom the Israelites were oppressed for eight years, Many Jews were settled in Cilicia (Acts vi. 9;
(B.C. I394 to B.C. 1402) until delivered by Othniel Philo, De legat. ad Caium, sec. 36).
(Judg. iii. 8-io).                             According to the modern Turkish divisions of
CIHUZA, prop. CHUZAS (Xovt6s3), steward of Asia Minor, Cilicia Proper belongs to the Pashalic
Herod Antipas, whose wife Joanna was one of of Adana; and Cilicia Trachaea to the Liwah of
those who had been healed by Christ, and who Itchil in the Mousselimlik of Cyprus (Conybeare
employed their means in contributing to his wants and Howson's St. Pau, 2d ed., I858, vol. i. pp.
and those of his apostles (Luke viii. 3).    24-26, 29; Mannert's Geograpice der Griec/zez und
Rodner. vi. 2, pp. 32-II3.-J. E. R.
CILICIA (KiXLKi[a), the south-eastern part of  CI, 
Asia Minor, bounded on the W. by Pamphylia;    CINNERETH, CHINNERETH, and CINNE
separated on the N. from  Cappadocia by the ROTH (,       and ]T.; Sept. KrEpeO).    The
Taurus range, and on the E. by Amanus from   name of a fortified town in Naphtali (Josh. xix.
Syria; and having the gulf of Issus (Iskenderoon) 35), situated on the shore of the Sea of Galilee,




CIRCUMCISION                  523              CIRCUMCISION
and which gave that sea its ancient name 1'2). During the passage through the wilderness,
(Num. xxxiv ). It was also the name othe practice, from some cause, fell into disuse, so
-v?? (n~u.- xxxv.. -t wthat of those who entered Canaan none had been
a district apparently encircling the town (I Kings circumcised. As this was fatal to their title under
xv. 20). Jerome says that Tiberias was originally the covenant to take possession of the land, Joshua,
called Cinnereth; but he is evidently giving a mere in obedience to God's command, caused all the
tradition, as his words are'ferunt hoc primum  males to be circumcised, and thus rolled away the
appellatum nomine' (Onomast. s. v. Chennereth). reproach from Israel (Josh. v. 2-9). From this
Reland denies that Cinnereth could have been  time forward it became the pride of the nation to
situated at Tiberias. His reason is founded on observe this ordinance; on all those people who
Matt. iv. 13, where Capernaum is said to be' in did not observe it theylooked down with contempt,
the borders of Zabulon and Nephthalim.' Now   not to say abhorrence (Judg. xiv. 3; xv. I8; I
Capernaum lay six miles at least north of Tiberias, Sam. xiv. 6; xvii. 26; 2 Sam. i. 20; Is. lii. I;
and hence Tiberias must have been so far south of Ezek. xxxi. 18; Eph. ii. I, etc.); and so much
Naphtali.  The passage, however, will scarcely did it become a rite distinctive of them, that their
bear such a strict interpretation. Jerome's view is oppressors sought to prevent their observing it, an
opposed to that of the Jewish rabbins, who state attempt to which they refused to submit though
that Tiberias was built on the site of Rakkath threatened with the last penalties in case of dis(Lightfoot, 0pp. ii. 223); and in this they are obedience (I Maccab. i. 48, 50, 60-62).  The insupported by Joshua xix. 35-38, from which it troduction of Christianity was the signal for the aboliappears that the territory of Naphtali included the tion of this rite in the Church of God; as the old
whole western shore of the Sea of Galilee. The covenant had waxed feeble, and was passing away,
principal towns are enumerated, apparently begin- that which was the token of it also ceased to be
ningat the south. Among them are Hammath, binding; the rule was proclaimed that'in Christ
Rakkath, and Cinnereth.   There can be little Jesus neither circumcision availeth anything nor
doubt that Hammath was situated at the Ham- uncircumcision, but a new creature' (Gal. vi. 15 
mdm, or warm springs, a mile south of Tiberias; Col. iii. II); though among the Jewish Christians
Rakkath would then be Tiberias; and the site of were still found many who clung tenaciously to
Cinnereth would be to the north along the shore, their ancient distinctive rite, and would have
probably somewhere in the little plain of Genne- imposed it even on the Gentile converts to Chrissaret. Some maintain that Gennesaret was just a tianity (Acts xv. I; Gal. vi. 12, etc.) Our Lord
more modem form of the ancient Hebrew Cinne- himself was circumcised, because it became him
reth, and so it is explained in the Targums (Light- who was of the seed of Abraham according to the
foot, Opp. i. 496. GENNESARET).-J. L. P.     flesh to fulfil all righteousness, and because he was
CIRCUMCISION (n'r, rreprop), a rite or ta minister of the circumcision for the truth of
CRU C O  X p,   a rt o    God, to confirm the promises made unto the
usage, which consisted in the cutting off of the fore- fathers' (Rom. xv. 8); and Paul caused Timothy
(skin d(, aKpo/3vau -rI ztac, pr&,We shallto be circumcised to avoid offence to the Jews, his
Tn                    uium).  We shall mother being a Jewess; but the spirit of Chrisconsider-                                     tianity was averse from such institutions (Acts xv.
I. The History of this among the  wzos.-When  I-I; Gal. ii. 3, etc.); for the outward carnal cirGod announced to Abraham that he would esta- cumcision it sought to substitute that of the heart
blish his covenant with him, he said to him,' This (Rom. ii. 28, 29),' the circumcision not made with
is my covenant, which ye shall keep between me hands in putting off the sins of the flesh, even the
and you, and thy seed after thee: Every man- circumcision of Christ' (Col. ii. II).
child among you shall be circumcised. And ye    Among the ancient Jews, the rule that circumshall circumcise the flesh of your foreskin; and it cision should take place on the eighth day after
shall be a token of the covenant betwixt me and birth was rigidly followed (Luke i. 59; ii. 21;
you' (Gen. xvii. Io, II). It was also ordained  Phil. iii. 5), save in such very exceptional cases as
that this should be extended to servants belonging  those mentioned, Exod. iv. 25, Josh. v. 5. Even
to Abraham and his seed, as well as to their own their reverence for the Sabbath did not prevent the
children; and that in the case of children it was to Jews from observing it on that day (John vii. 22,
be done on the eighth day after birth. This was 23); according to the Rabbins circumcision' pellit
appointed as an ordinance of perpetual obligation  Sabbatum' (Lightfoot, Hor. Heb. in yoan vii. 22).
in the Abrahamic family, and the neglect of it en- The operation might be performed by any Israelite,
tailed the penalty of being cut off from the people but usually it was performed by the father of the
(12-14).  In compliance with this, Abraham, child; in special cases women might perform it
though then ninety-nine years of age, was himself (Exod. iv. 25). The instrument used in the earlier
circumcised and all his household, including Ish- times was a sharp stone or a knife of flint (Exod.
mael. On the birth of his son Isaac, the rite was iv. 25; Josh. v. 2, 3; comp. the XfOos A&O6rl-KOs,
attended to in respect of him (Gen. xxi. 4); and used by the Egyptians in preparing bodies for emit continued to be observed by his posterity, and balming, Herod. ii. 86).* It was usual to condistinctively to characterise them from among the
people amidst whom they dwelt (Gen. xxxiv. 14,    The following is said to have been the mode
I5). The usage thus introduced by Abraham was of performing the operation:-Circumcisor imponit
formally enacted as a legal institute by Moses (Lev. mentuie bacillum et proeputium quantum potest
xii. 3; comp. John vii. 23); and it was appointed  super ilium extendit, deinde forcipe partem ejus
to be observed in relation to all who became pro- prehendit et novacula proecidit. Deinde duobus
selytes from heathenism to Judaism (Exod. xii. 48; pollicis unguibus prreputium  arripit et dev6lvit,
comp. Judith xiv. Io; Maimonides, Issure Biah, donec glans tota denudatur; quo facto, sanguinem,
c. I3, cited by Lightfoot, Ha-monic E vang., sec. exsugit donec advenerit sanguis ex remotioribus




CIRCUMCISION                  524              CIRCUMCISION
nect the naming of the child with the circumcision  also mentions the'Saracens of the desert' as hav(Gen. xxi. 3, 4; Luke i. 59; ii. 21) a practice which ing this usage; and this is confirmed by Josephus
probably had respect to the fact that it was in con- (Antiq. i. 12. 2). That it was not, however,
nection with the institution of the rite that God  originally universal among the tribes of the desert
gave to the ancestor of the race his name of Abra- is clear, from the narrative in Exod. iv.; the conham (Gen. xvii. 5).                           duct and feeling of Zipporah shew that to the
Jews who were ashamed of their nation, or Midianites the rite was strange and horrible.
unwilling to endure reproach because of being cir- Among the Arab tribes of more recent times the
cumcised, occasionally used means to obliterate usage is common, but not universal (Niebuhr,
this distinctive mark of their descent (i Maccab. i. Arabie i. c. I9); that it was older than Moham15; Joseph. Antiq. xii. 5. I). Sometimes this was med, and that he regarded it merely as a usage and
done by a surgical operation, such as Celsus not as a rite, has been inferred from his silence redescribes (De Medic. vii. 25; comp. Galen, Met/. garding it in the Koran.  Among the Abyssinian
Med. xiv. I6; Paul. Aegin. vi. 53; Epiphan. De Christians the practice still subsists, and is extended
pond. et Mens., p. 538, ed. Basil. 1544); some- to females as well as males; a fact which seems to
times by other means (Dioscor. iv. I57). To this shew that it must have come to them from some
it has been supposed the apostle alludes I Cor. vii. other source than through Judaism. The same is
18 (Wetstein, in loc., Schlaeger and Groddeck in true of the Coptic Christians (Niebuhr, /. c.)
Ugolini, Thes. xxii.)                         Among the Arabs also it is practised on women,
For the opinions of the rabbins concerning cir- though not commonly (Ibid.) It is found also
cumcision, see Otho, Lex. Rabbin. Philol., and for among some of the African tribes; and traces of it
the practice of the modern Jews, see Buxtorf, have been observed among the natives of some of
Synazoga 3u-zdaica, ch. 2.                    the South Sea Islands (Pickering, Races of lMten,
2. Circumcision as practised by other Nations.-  I53, I99, 200, etc.)
Herodotus tells us that the Egyptians, the Col-  On comparing these different accounts one cannot
chians, the Ethiopians, the Phcenicians, as well as but be struck with the conflicting character of much
the Syrians in Palestine, were circumcised (Hist. ii. of the evidence. There is hardly a single statement
o04); though from another statement of the same made by one authority which is not contradicted by
writer, it would appear that among the Egyptians some other.  On the whole, however, the prethis was a law only for the priests (ii. 36; see sumption remains that circumcision was practised
Wesseling's note); and with this falls in the fact by other nations besides the Hebrews.  Of these
that Apion, an Egyptian, was uncircumcised, and nations some evidently derived it from the Heonly submitted to the rite when it was too late, in brews, others from the Egyptians. The question
hopes of finding the cure of a painful disease as to the origin of the usage, therefore, lies en(Joseph. Cont. Ap. ii. 13). The Egyptians, more- tirely between these two.
over, are, along with the Edomites, the Ammon-  This inquiry is not foreclosed, as some have
ites, and the Moabites, classed by Jeremiah (ix. 25, thought, by the account in Gen. xvii. I, ff., and
26) among'the uncircumcised.' The passage, it is our Lord's declaration recorded in John vii. 22, 23.
tre, in its openin  clause i15 lnA125,L  which  These passages undoubtedly preclude the suppositrue,      i its opening clause n5'Ifl 5,^ which  tion that the Hebrews borrowed the rite from the
may be rendered' all the circumcised uncircum- tion that the Hebrews borowed the rite from the
cised,'may or morenderally,'every one circumcised uncircun Egyptians or any other nation; but they do not
cised,' or more literally, everyone circumcised in shut us up to the conclusion that we have in the
circumcision,' or'with a         foreskin,' may seem tohe account of the orhiin of the
cfde the nationsss whose names follow  among  practice. The mere fact that God appointed it, as
the circumcised, as being so in flesh though  the token of his covenant with Abraham, is no
not in heart; but as the closing clause of proof that it was then originated; for God might
the verse plainly distributes the totality, the have selected a practice already in use among
~3, of the first clause, and as in so doing a dis- other nations, and given it a new significancy by
tinction is made between the Jews as circumcised  the special use to which he consecrated it; just as
in flesh but not in heart, and the nations as un- he made a natural phenomenon, with which men
circumcised in flesh as well as in heart, we must must have been familiar from the creation, the sign
understand the first clause in accordance with this; of his covenant with Noah (Gen. ix. 12-17); or as
and in this case the rendering in the A. V.,' the cir- our Lord selected an ordinance already in use to
cumcised with the uncircumcised,' expresses the occupy under the new dispensation a place analoreal sense of the writer.  On the other hand, we gous to that which circumcision held under the
are told that the Troglodytes of Africa (Diodorus, old. It is open, therefore, for us to ask whether
iii. 31), all with the exception of the Koloboi, the usage is to be regarded as purely Hebrew in its
practised circumcision, having learned it from the origin, or whether it maynot have had a more geneEgyptians.  Jerome also affirms that' of the ral source. This question is substantially whether,
Egyptians, Idumeans, Ammonites, and Moabites, seeing the Hebrews did not borrow it from the
the greater part were circumcised' (In z er. ix. 25); Egyptians, the Egyptians borrowed it from them.
and Barnabas says that'so are all the Syrians and  Now, it must be asserted that it is quite possible
Arabians.... nay, even the Egyptians are that such may have been the case. The consideracircumcised' (sec. 9); a statement which cannot be tion which is commonly adduced as conclusive
accepted to the full extent, but which serves to against it, viz., That the Egyptians would never
shew that it was commonly believed that other have borrowed any practice from a despised race
nations besides the Jews observed this rite. Jerome like that of the Israelites, is of no weight at all;
for, however despised the Israelites were in the
corporis partibus, vulnerique emplastrum imponit times immediately preceding the Exodus, it must
(Otho, Lex. Rabbin. P/2ilol., p. 133; comp. Bux- be remembered that Abraham and Isaac were retorf, Synog. 71ud., cap. ii.)                 ceived in Egypt as princes, who associated with its




CIRCUMCISION                   525              CIRCUMCISION
chief men, and that Joseph's position in Egypt was to promote health, facilitating cleanliness, and presecond only to that of the Pharaoh himself.  From  venting certain painful afflictions, such as that of
such men there would be no disgrace in borrowing  the dvOpa$, to which in hot climates men are subany usage sanctioned by them; and as with them  ject (Philo De Circumcis., Opp. ed. Hoeschel, p.
it was a sacred usage, this may account for its be- 8Io; Joseph. cont. Apion. ii. 13; NiebuhrZ el'Ariacoming in Egypt a priestly institute, and for its bie, ch. I9). In so far as it served this end the
being found among the Colchians, who were ori- Israelites had, of course, the benefit of it; but that
ginally soldiers from Egypt, and as such, also a this formed the reason and design of its appointsacred class. It is worthy of notice also that the  ment among them by God, though asserted by
information we possess of the existence of the  some men of learning and ability, seems utterly
usage in Palestine remounts to a far higher anti- untenable; for, in the first place, this opinion is
quity than the information we have regarding its without the slightest support from Scripture; often
existence in Egypt; which gives a presumption pro as the subject is referred to there, we find no hint
tanto in favour of its having originated with the as to this being the purpose of the observance;
Hebrews.   Herodotus, it is true, says that the 2dly, This hypothesis is quite opposed to the acPalestinian Syrians (meaning by them  probably  count given by Moses of the introduction of the
the Jews) themselves acknowledge that they have rite among the Israelites; 3dly, It is absurd to supderived it from the Egyptians; but this must be pose that a mere prophylactic usage should by
admitted to be a mistake on the part of the Father God be elevated to the solemnity of a religious
of History, as the sacred books of the Jews amply  ordinance; 4thly, Whatever advantages in a hygieshew.   So far, then, the probability seems in nic respect might accrue from the practice, these
favour of the conclusion that the Egyptians bor- were confined to individuals; circumcision is not
rowed this rite from the Hebrews.  When, how- necessary for health to men generally in hot cliever, we consider that the practice had certain  mates (Niebuhr, loc. cit.); and therefore to oblige
hygienic uses for which it was followed by the the whole male community to undergo this process
Egyptians and other nations, the scale of probabi- in infancy for purposes of health, would have been
lity seems rather to incline to the side of the con- to act as unwise a part as if it had been enjoined
clusion that the practice had its origin in the  that every one should lose a limb, because it was
discovery of these uses, and was probably known  possible that some might contract severe disease in
in Egypt before the time of Abraham.           that limb if allowed to remain; and 5thly, If cirBut it may be asked if the usage was not origin- cumcision was a mere hygienic precaution, why
ally and from the first exclusively Hebrew, how  should it have been abolished by Christianity?
came it to be distinctive of the Hebrew people? why should the apostles have held it to be so hosThat it was so cannot be doubted. The entire tile to Christianity? and why should the difficulty
phraseology of Scripture shews that the Jews them- of becoming a Christian have been increased by
selves regarded it as such; the fact that those who  the prohibition to those who embraced Christianity
were ashamed of their nation sought to obliterate  of a necessary condition of their children's health?
this mark of their descent confirms this; and we These considerations seem to us sufficient to demay appeal to such a statement as that of Tacitus, monstrate the error and absurdity of the opinion
who says of the Jews' circumcidere genitalia insti- they are intended to set aside.
tuere zit diversitate noscantlur' (Hist. v. 5), and to  In seeking to determine the meaning and use of
such allusions as those of Juvenal (Sat. xiv. I04) a biblical institute, our proper course is to examine
and Martial (Epig. vii. 8I) as tending to the same what the Bible teaches on the subject. Now, in
conclusion.  But wherein did this distinctiveness relation to circumcision, the teaching of Scripture
exist if other nations besides the Jews practised  is most explicit on this head.  When first apcircumcision? To this it may be replied-i. That pointed by God, circumcision was expressly set
they alone practised it as a religious rite; with forth as a token of the covenant which God had
other nations it was a usage, a custom more or less made with Abraham; and the Apostle tells us
generally observed; with the Jews it was a religious that Abraham received'the sign of circumcision
rite, and this gave it a specialty in their case, just as a seal of the righteousness of that faith which he
as baptism by being made a religious rite becomes had, being yet uncircumcised' (Rom. iv. II); so
a special mark of a Christian, though other nations that to Abraham it was not only a sign or token of
practise' divers baptisms.'  2. Among the Jews God's covenant, but also an obsignation or certifialone was circumcision made universally imperative  cate that he was in a state of acceptance before he
by statute; with other nations it might be observed was circumcised.  As a Mosaic institution it was
or not as circumstances dictated; with the Jews it also the sign of the covenant which God made with
could not be omitted without exposing to the   Israel, which is hence called the'covenant of ci —
severest penalties. 3. The Jews alone practised it cumcision' (Acts vii. 8). In consequence of this
on children; with other nations it was delayed till it became the medium of access to the privileges of
some occasion in adult age rendered it necessary, the covenant, and entailed on all who received it
but with the Jews it was invariably observed on  an obligation to fulfil the duties which the covenant
the eighth day after birth. The only nation who  imposed (Rom. ii. 25; iii. I; Gal. v. 3). Circumapproached to the Jews in this respect was the  cision served also to separate the people of the
Arabs, who delayed it only till the child was past Jews from the rest of the nations, as a people set
teething (Abulfeda Aznnal. Mus/em.) In conse- apart to God. These were its uses. As respects
quence of these peculiarities the presumption was its meanzing, that was symbolical, and the things
that every circumcised man was a Jew, and if he which it symbolised were two: I. Consecration
was not, his being in that state was a thing to be to God; and 2. Mental and spiritual purification
accounted for by some special reason.         (Exod. vi. 12; Lev. xix. 25; Deut. x. I6; xxx.
3. Mfeanzingand z se of the rite. -Circumcision, as 6; Is. lii. I; Jer. iv. 4; vi. Io; Rom. ii. 25-29;
practised by the Gentiles, was simply an expedient Col. ii. II, etc. Comp. Philo De Ciirzcicisione;




CISTERN                    526           CITIES OF REFUGE
Jones, Figurative Language of Scrzipure, Lect. v.! of themselves, would furnish a tolerable supply in
p. I35).'There was thus involved the concept case of a siege.'But, in addition to these, almost
of consecration, and along with this that of re- every private house in Jerusalem, of any size, is
conciliation, in circumcision; and it was thereby, as understood to have at least one or more cisterns,
Ewald rightly remarks (Alterts, p. 95), an offering excavated in the soft limestone rock on which the
of the body to Jehovah, which according to the true city is built. The house of Mr. Lanneau, in which
meaning of all the offerings, as fully developed and we resided, had no less than four cisterns; and as
raised to their true elevation by the prophets, had these are but a specimen of the manner in which
to be presented to Him as an offering of the soul. all the better class of houses are supplied, I subOnly as this inner offering was perfectly presented join here the dimensions:could the obligation to be a priestly kingdom and     Length.      Breadth.        Depth.
a holy people be fulfilled' (Vaihinger in Herzog's  L   feet.       8 feet.       12 feet.
Real-Cyc. ii.  o.)                               II.  8             4             15
On this subject in general, see Spencer De egibus  II.,,       1,          15
Heb. ritualibus i. 5; Michaelis, Commentaries onz  IV  30,
the Laws of Moses iii. 58-93; Witsius De Foedere 
Bk. iv. 6, 8; Winer Real-W. B., s. v. Beschneid- This last is enormously large, and the numbers
ung; Herzog's Real-Cyclop., ibid., etc.-W. L. A. given are the least estimate.  The cisterns have
CISTERN.     (13, from C-R, to dig. Sept. usually merely a round opening at the top, some-?T 7times built up with stonework above, and furnished
XdKKOS). In a country which has scarcely more with a curb and a wheel for the bucket; so that
than one perennial stream, where fountains are not they have externally much the appearance of an
abundant, and where the months of summer pass ordinary well. The water is conducted into them
without rain, the preservation of the rain water in from the roofs of the houses during the rainy
cisterns must always have been a matter of vast season; and, with proper care, remains pure and
importance, not only in the pasture-grounds, but sweet during the whole summer and autumn. In
in gardens, and, above all, in towns.  Hence thethis manner most of the larger houses and the pubfrequent mention of cisterns in Scripture, and more lic buildings are supplied. The Latin convent, in
especially of those which are found in the open  particular, is said to be amply furnished; and in
country. These were, it seems, the property of seasons of drought is able to deal out a sufficiency
those by whom they were formed (Num. xxi. 22). for all the Christian inhabitants of the city.
They are usually little more than large pits, but  Most of these cisterns have undoubtedly come
sometimes take the character of extensive subter-down from ancient times; and their immense exraneous vaults, open only by a small mouth, like tent furnishes a full solution of the question as to
that   a  e            a  ll  withat          the supply of a well.  They are filled with rain water,y. Under the disand (where the climate allows) with snow during  advantages of its position in this respect, Jerusalem
winter, and are then closed at the mouth with  must necessarily have always been dependent on
large flat stones, over which sand is spread in such its cisterns; and a city which thus annually laid in
a way as to prevent their being easily discovered. its supply for seven or eight months could never be
If by any chance the waters which the shepherd  overtaken by a want of water during a siege. Nor
has thus treasured up are lost by means of an is this a trait peculiar to the Holy City; for the
earthquake or some other casualty, or are stolen, case is the same throughout all the hill-country of
both he and his flocks are exposed to great and Judah and Benjamin.  Fountains and streams are
imminent danger; as are also travellers who has- few, as compared with Europe and America; and
ten to a cistern and find its waters gone.  For this the inhabitants, therefore, collect water during the
reason a failure of water is used as the image of rainy season in tanks and cisterns in the cities, in
any great calamity (Is. xli. I7, I8; xliv. 3). There the fields, and along the high roads, for the sustenis usually a large deposit of mud at the bottom ofance of themselves and of their flocks and herds,
these cisterns, so that he who falls into them, even and for the comfort of the passing traveller. Many,
when they are without water, is liable to perish if not the most, of these are obviously antique;
miserably (Gen. xxxvii. 22, sq.; Jer. xxxviii. 6; and they exist not unfrequently along the ancient
Lam. iii. 53; Ps. xl. 2; lxix. 15). Cisterns were roads which are now deserted. Thus, on the longsometimes used, when empty, as prisons, and in- forgotten way from Jericho to Bethel,'broken
deed prisons which were constructed undergound  cisterns' of high antiquity are found at regular inreceived the same name,'l3 (Gen. xxxix. 20; tervals. That Jerusalem was thus actually supplied
xl. I5).                                   of old with water is apparent also from the numerIn cities the cisterns were works of much labour, ous remains of ancient cisterns still existing in the
for they were either hewn in the rocks or sur- tract north of the city, which was once enclosed
rounded with subterraneous walls, and lined with  within the walls' [RESERVOIRS].
a fine incrustation. The system which in this
respect formerly prevailed in Palestine is, doubt-  CITHERN.  [MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.]
less, the same that exists at present; and indeed CITIES. [TowNs.
there is every probability that most of the cisterns
now in use were constructed in very ancient times.  CITIES OF REFUGE. Among the Jews the
Robinson assures us (i. 480, ff.) that'the main de-'cities of refuge' bore some resemblance to the
pendence of Jerusalem at the present day is on its asylum of the classic nations [ASYLUM], but were
cisterns; and this has probably always been the happily exempt from  the evil consequences to
case.'  He then mentions the immense cisterns which they were apt to lead, and afford, even to
now and anciently existing within the area of the the present day, no mean proof of the superior wisTemple; supplied partly by rain water, and partly  dom and benignant spirit of the Jewish laws.
by an aqueduct from Solomon's Pools, and which,  The institution was framed with a view to abate




CITIES OF REFUGE                 527            CITIES OF REFUGE
the evils which ensued from the old-established  fore, was the homicide made to feel some legal
rights of the blood-avenger [BLOOD-REVENGE], inconvenience. Accordingly he was removed from
and thereby to further the prevalence in the nation  his patrimony, restricted in his sphere of locomoof a mild, gentle, and forgiving spirit.      tion, affected indirectly in his pecuniary interests,
From  the laws on this point (Exod. xxi. 13; and probably reduced from an affluent or an easy
Num. xxxv. 9-34; Deut. xix. I-I3) it appears that station to one of service and labour (Michaelis,
Moses set apart out of the sacerdotal cities six as Mios. Rec/t, vi. 4). Should any reader still think'cities of refuge.' There were, on the eastern side that this treatment of a manslayer was unnecessarily
of the Jordan, three, namely,' Bezer in the wilder- severe, let him advert to the spirit of the age, and
ness, in the plain country of the Reubenites, and  especially study the recognised rights of the next
Ramoth in Gilead of the Gadites, and Golan in  of kin to a slain person, and he will most probably
Bashan of the Manassites' (Deut. iv. 43); on the be ready to allow that everything was done in
western side three, namely,'Kedesh in Galilee in this matter which circumstances admitted.  The
Mount Naphtali, and Shechem in Mount Ephraim, benefit of the protection afforded was common to
and Kirjath-arba, which is Hebron, in the moun- strangers and sojourners with native Israelites.
tain of Judah' (Josh. xx. 7).  If found desirable,  What ensues rests on the authority of the Rabthen other cities might be added. An inspection bins. In order to give the fugitive all possible
of the map will shew how wisely these places were advantage in his flight, it was the business of the
chosen so as to make a city of refuge easy of access Sanhedrim to make the roads that led to the cities
from all parts of the land. To any of these cities of refuge convenient by enlarging them and remova person who had uanwares and unintentionally ing every obstruction that might hurt his foot or
slain any one might flee, and if he reached it before hinder his speed. No hillock was left, no river
he was overtaken by the avenger of blood, he was was allowed over which there was not a bridge,
safe within its shelter, provided he did not remove and the road was at least two and thirty cubits
more than a thousand yards (Num. xxxv. 5) from  broad. At every turning there were posts erected
its circuit, nor quit the refuge till the decease of bearing the words Refuge, Refuige, to guide the
the high-priest under whom the homicide had taken unhappy man in his flight; and two students in
place. If, however, he transgressed these provi- the law were appointed to accompany him, that if
sions, the avenger might lawfully put him to death. the avenger should overtake him before he reached
The roads leading to the cities of refuge were to the city, they might attempt to pacify him till the
be kept in good repair.  Before, however, the legal investigation could take place.
fugitive could avail himself of the shelter conceded  When once settled in the city of refuge, the
by the laws, he was to undergo a solemn trial, and manslayer had a convenient habitation assigned
make it appear to the satisfaction of the magistrates him gratuitously, and the citizens were to teach
of the place where the homicide was committed  him some trade whereby he might support himthat it was purely accidental. Should he, however, self. To render his confinement more easy, the
be found to have been guilty of murder, he was mothers of the high-priests used to feed and clothe
delivered'into the hand of the avenger of blood, these unfortunate fugitives, that they might not be
that he might die.'                           impatient and pray for the death of their sons, on
And the Israelites were strictly forbidden to whose decease they were restored to their liberty
spare him either from considerations of pity or in  and their property. If the slayer died in the city
consequence of any pecuniary ransom.  This dis- of refuge before he was released, his bones were
allowal of a compensation by money in the case of delivered to his relations, after the death of the
murder shews a just regard for human life, and ap- high-priest, to be buried in the sepulchre of his
pears much to the advantage of the HIebrew legis- fathers (Lewis, Origines Hebraicce).
lation when compared with the practice of other  That the right of asylum among the Jews was
countries (Athens, for instance, and Islam), in in later periods of their history so extended as to
which pecuniary atonements were allowed, if not open the door to great abuses may be inferred from
encouraged, and where, in consequence, the life of I Maccab. x. 43, where unqualified impunity and
the poor must have been in as great jeopardy as exemption from both liabilities and penalties are
the character of the wealthy.                  promised under the influence, not'of the Mosaic
The asylum afforded by Moses displays the same law, but of heathen morals and ambition, to' whobenign regard to human life in respect of the soever they be that flee unto the temple at Jerusahomicide himself. IHad no obstacle been put in lem, or be within the liberties thereof.'
the way of the Goel, instant death would have    In the words now cited reference appears to be
awaited any one who had the misfortune to occa- made to a custom which prevailed from very early
sion the death of another. By his wise arrange- times, both among the chosen people and the
ments, however, Moses interposed a seasonable nations of the world, of fleeing, in case of personal
delay, and enabled the manslayer to appeal to the danger, to the altar. With the Jews it was cuslaws and justice of his country. Momentary wrath tomary for the fugitive to lay hold of the horns of
could hardly execute its fell purposes, and a suit- the altar, whether in the tabernacle or temple;
able refuge was provided for the guiltless and un- by which, however, shelter and security were obfortunate.                                     tained only for those who had committed sins of
Yet as there is a wide space between the inno- ignorance or inadvertence; thus true did Moses
cence of mere homicide and the guilt of actual remain to his principle that the wilful shedding of
murder, in which various degrees of blame might human blood could only by blood be atoned-a
easily exist, so the legislator took means to make principle which the advances of civilization and the
the condition of the manslayer less happy than it spread of the gentle spirit of the Gospel have caused
was before the act or the mischance, lest entire to be questioned, if not exploded (Exod. xxi. 14;
impunity might lead to the neglect of necessary  I Kings i. 50; ii. 28). From the two last pasprecaution and care. With great propriety, there- sages it seems that state criminals also sought the




CITIZENSHIP                  528                 CLARKE
protection of the altar, probably more from the  CLARISSE, TIHEOD. ADR., a Dutch divine,
force of custom than any express law. Their safety, professor of theology at Groningen, who died at
however, depended on the will of the king; for in  Leyden, 25th Sept. 1828. Besides some academic
the passages referred to it appears that in one case programmata of various import, he issued a valu(that of Adonijah) life was spared, but in the other able exegetical work, entitled Psalmi 15 Ham(that of Joab) it was taken away even'by the zmaloth Phifologice el critice illustrati, Lug. Bat.
altar.' Compare Matt. xxiii. 35.-J. R. B.     1819.-+
CITIZENSHIP.      Strict isolation did by no  CLARIO (CLARIUS), ISIDORE, born at Chiari
means, as some suppose, form the leading prin- in Brescia in I495, and died in 1555. He was a
ciple in the system of theocracy as laid down by monk of the Benedictine order, and was succesMoses, since even non-Israelites, under the various sively prior of the monastery of St. Peter at
names of Gi, Sn':, or 31. l, not only were allowed  Modena, abbot of Pontida and of St. MaryinCesena,
to reside in Palestine, but had the fullest protection  and Bishop of Foligno. He was famous as a pulof the law, equally with the native Israelites! pit orator, and in the Council of Trent, of which
(Exod. xii. I9; Lev. xxiv. 22; Num. xv. 15; xxxv. he was a member, he no less distinguished himself
15; Deut. i. 16; xxiv. 17: the law of usury, Deut. in debate.  His principal work was a corrected
xxiii. 20, made, however, an exception), and were edition of the Vulgate, with annotations on the
besides recommended in general terms by Moses difficult passages, Ven. I542. He asserted that
to humanity and charity (Exod. xxii. 21; xxiii. 9; he had corrected it in 8000 places, a service which
Lev. xix. 33, 34; Deut. x. I8; comp. Jer. vii. 6; was rewarded by his book being placed in the
Mal. iii. 5; Joseph. Contra Ap. ii. 29, 30), as well index Expzrrgatorius. Afterwards it was allowed
as to a participation in certain prerogatives granted  to be read, the preface and prolegomena being
to the poor of the land, such as a share in the  omitted. The notes are inserted in the Critici
tithe and feast-offering, and the harvest in the Sacri; they are of little value, and are chiefly taken
Jubilee-year (Deut. xiv. 29; xvi. 10, 14; xxvi. I; without acknowledgment from Sebastian Miinster.
Lev. xxv. 6). In return, it was required on the -W. L. A.
part of non-Israelites not to commit acts by which  CLARKE, ADAM, LL.D.   A celebrated Westhe religious feelings of the people might be hurt leyan divine, born of humble parents in the north
(Exod. xx. 10; Lev. xvilY. 2I; xvi. 26; xx.;    iof Ireland, 1762.  Owing to the poverty of their
xxiv. 16; Deut. v. 14. The eating of an aninmal circumstances his education was extremely limited,
which had died a natural death, Deut. xiv. 21, and though, by dint of unwearied energy and perseems to hIave been the sole exception).  The severance, he afterwards became remarkable for
advantage the Jew had over the Gentile was thus the extent and variety of his learning, it may be
strictly spiritual, in his being a citizen, a member doubted if he ever thoroughly supplied his early
of the theocracy, of the lliT' 51jp (community of deficiencies. His parents were Methodists, and
God), on whom    positive laws were enjoined. members of the congregation of Breedon, the
[CONGREGATION.]    But even to this spiritual friend of Wesley, through whose influence young
privilege Gentiles were admitted under certain  Adam  was introduced to the notice of Wesley
restrictions (Deut. xxiii. 7, 8); thus we find among himself, and admitted to a school founded by him
the Israelites Doeg, an Edomite (I Sam. xxii. 9), at Kingswood, near Bristol. He had previously
as also Uriah, a Hittite (a Canaanite, 2 Sam. been apprenticed to a linen manufacturer, but had
xxiii. 39). The only nations that were altogether left on finding the business uncongenial to his
excluded from the citizenship of the theocracy by  studious habits.  While at school he got hold of
especial command of the Lord, were the Ammon- a Hebrew grammar, which gave him the first imites and Moabites, from a feeling of vengeance pulse to the study of that and thecognate languages
against them (Deut. xxiii. 3"); and in the same for which he was afterwards famous.  In 1782
situation were all castrated persons, and bastards, he was ordained by Wesley himself, and sent as an
from a feeling of disgrace and shame (Deut. xxiii. itinerant preacher to the neighbourhood of Bradi-6). In the time of Solomon, no less than    ford, Wilts. Subsequently he came to London,
153,600 strangers were resident in Palestine (2 and was much followed as a preacher.  The uniChron. ii. 17).                               versity of St. Andrews gave him the degree of M. A.
Roman citizenship (7roXireta, Acts xxii. 28, jus and of D.D. In 1802 he published his Bibliocivitatis, civitas) was granted in the times of the graphical Dictionary, which gained him a great
Emperors to whole provinces and cities (Dio Cass. reputation, so that he was even selected by the
xli. 25; Suet. Aug. 47), as also to single indivi- Record commission to edit Rymer's Faodera, a task
duals, for some service rendered to the state or the to which he confesses he was unequal. He, howimperial family (Suet. zAug. 47), or even for a cer- ever, laboured at it sedulously for some years, and
tain sum of money (Acts xxii. 28; Dio Cass. xli. the first vol. and part of the second was published
24). The Apostle Paul was a Roman citizen by  with his name, after which he retired.  He also
family (Acts, 1.c.), and hence his protesting against wrote Lives of the Wesley Family, in which he
corporal or capital punishment (Acts xvi. 37; strangely suggested an Arabic origin for that name.
comp. Cic. in Verr. v. 63, 66; Euseb. Hist. Eccles. But his great work, to which all his studies were
v. I, etc.)-E. M.                             subsidiary, was his Commentary on the Holy ScripCITR~ON. [TAPUACH.]             htlures, of which the first vol. appeared in i8Io, and
CI ON. [TAPUACH.]        the eighth and last in 1826.  This excited much
attention, from the peculiarity of opinions expressed
[* And yet we find Zelek the Ammonite among in it on the subject of the Fall.  It is, however,
David's'mighty men' (2 Sam. xxiii. 37). This that on which his fame still rests, and must be rewould seem to shew that even they were not hope- garded as a valuable contribution to biblical literalessly excluded.]                             ture. Dr. Clarke was the means of establishing a




CLARKE                    529                CLAUDIUS
Methodist mission to the Shetland Isles. He also from foundering under the pressure of a fortnight's
founded schools in his native province of Ulster gale in Adria,' and preserved her for the rough
some time before his death by cholera in I832.-  remedy of a wreck on the island of Melita. The
S. L;                                        Greek name of the island appears in several forms;
CLARKE, SAMUEL, D.D., a celebrated philo- KXaia or KXa6h& in most MSS. and versions; but
sopher, divine, and mathematician, was a native Kava in Cod. Vat. and Lachmann; and Kavt6
of Norwich, where he was born Oct. ii, I675. and ravl6s in Suidas; while Ptolemy and HieroHe was educated at the Free School in that city,cles call it K^os. Pomponus Mela, and Pliny
and at Caius College, Cambridge. He devoted designate it Gaudos, which is in fact its present
himself first to philosophy, but subsequently hav-Greek name-Gaudonesi, or island of Gaudos,
ing turned his thoughts to divinity, he studied thewhich has been Italianised into Gozzo, not, of
scriptures in the original languages, and the early course to be confounded with the somewhat larger
Christian writers.  He was ordained by Moore,island of the same name close to Malta.'Mr.
Chistian writers.  He was ordained by hloore,
Bishop of Norwich, and became his chaplain. In  Brown was informed upon the spot that the island
170i he published A iparaphrase upon the Gospelstill retained its ancient name, Chlauda, or Chlau570nhepubishddAda Nesi, XXac6a, or KXav6a Nsuog' (see Smith's
of St. Maathezw; and in I702 Paraphrases upon  ya Nes, etcs, p or KXa9 a NPook' (see Smiths
the Gospels of St. Mark and St. Luke, which were  Voyag, etc., p. 93). Pococke, Description of the
followed by a third volume upon St. John. These East, vol. n. Pt. I, p. 240, gives an account of the
were afterwards printed in two vols. 8vo, and  e and its inhabitants; e also says the road for
have since passed through several editions. Heshipping is on the north.-P. H.
intended to have gone on with the rest of the  CLAUDIA (KXavtla), a Christian female of
N. T., but was accidentally prevented. The work  Rome, the wife of Pudens (2 Tim. iv. 21). The
has been continued by Pyle.  Moore gave him  attempt to identify this Claudia with the British
the rectory of Drayton near Norwich, and a parish lady Claudia, whose marriage to Pudens is celein the city.  In I704 he was appointed Boyle's brated by Martial (Epig. iv. I3), rests on no founlecturer, and chose for his subject' the Being and dation beyond the identity of the names of the
Attributes of God.' This discourse being popular parties, and the fact that Martial calls Pudens
he was re-elected the following year, and chose'sanctus,' and says he was a corrector of his' the Evidences of Natural and Revealed Reli- verses.  But such reasons are very weak. The
gion,' for his subject. These two works were identity of names so common as Pudens and
afterwards printed together, as'A Discourse con- Claudia, may be nothing more than a mere accicerning the Being and attributes of God, the obli- dental coincidence that proves nothing; as for the
gations of natural religion, and the truth and cer- term'sanctus,' it is precisely the term which a
tainty of the Christian Revelation, in opposition to heathen would not have applied to a Christian,
Hobbes, Spinoza, the author of the Oracles of whom he would have regarded as the adherent of
Reason, and other deniers of natural and revealed a' prava superstitio' (Plin. Ep. ad  r-aj.); and as
religion.'  His other writings are numerous; they respects Pudens's correction of Martial's verses,
are chiefly of a theological cast. He enjoyed until we know whether that was a correction of
several pieces of preferment, and it is said that their style or a correction of their morals (in
Queen Anne would have made him Archbishop of which case Pudens really must have done his
Canterbury, but Gibson, the Bishop of London, work of correction very badly), we can build
replied,'Madam, Dr. Clarke is the most learned nothing on it. On the other hand, the immoral
and eloquent man in your Majesty's dominions, character of Martial himself renders it improbut he is no Christian,' with reference to his views bable that he should have had a Christian and
on the Trinity. On Sunday, May 10, I729, as he a friend of St. Paul among his friends. Furwas going to preach before the Lords Justices at ther, Paul's Pudens and Claudia, if husband and
Serjeants' Inn, he was seized with illness, and wife, must have been married before A.D. 67, the
died the following Saturday.  Voltaire has called latest date that can be assigned to Paul's writing.
Clarke' un moulin a raisonnement.'-S. L.    But Martial's epigram must have been written aster
CLAUDA is the name of a small island off the tis, perhaps several years after, for he came to
south coast of Crete (Candia), about 20 miles to Rome only in A.D. 66; so that if they were married
the south-west of Cape Matala, the most south- persons in 67, it is not likely Martial would celeernly point of Crete, where its coast slopes away brate their nuptials years after this. And, in fine,
in a north-west direction and forms a bight, which if Paul's Pudens and Claudia were unmarried at
has Clauda for its seaward boundary. This island, the time of his writing, they must at least have
which is about 7 miles long and 3 broad, occupiesbeen persons of standing and reputation among the
a prominent point in the voyage of St. Paul, as Christians; and in this case can it be supposed
narrated in Acts xxvii. (see verse I6).  Its west thata poet meaning to gratify them would invoke
shore, which trends in a north-west direction, andon them the favour of heathen deities, whom they
is prolonged by'some rocks adcjacent,' would had renounced with abhorrence?  Burdened with'afford the advantage of comparatively smooth these difficulties, the hypothesis seems deserving
water for some twelve or fifteen miles' (Adm. Pen- only of prompt rejection.-W. L. A.
rose's MS. in C. and H.'s St. Paul, ii. 336) to a  CLAUDIUS (KXaitlos), Emperor of Rome, is
ship'caught,' as St. Paul's was, with' a tempest- mentioned twice in the N. T., in the Acts xi. 28,
uous wind'fromthe north-east. Accordingly, under and xviii. 2.  Bishop Pearson (Annales Paulini)
the lee shore of Clauda were those skilful precau- has arranged the events of St. Paul's public life actions of'hoisting in the boat,''undergirding' [or cording to the years of the Imperial reigns: in
frapping]' the ship,' and making her snug by this register the beginning of Claudius' reign syn-'lowering the gear' (Smith's Voyage, etc., of SI. chronizes with St. Paul's preaching in Syria and
Paul [2d ed.] p. Io6), taken, which kept the ship the mission of Barnabas to Antioch (Acts xi. 22) 
VOL I.                                                                       2 Ml




CLAUDIUS                    530                  CLAY
and the termination of it with his arrival at Ephe- |two different opinions, as to whom  Suetonius
sus and the opening of his ministry in that city meant by Chrestus; whether some Hellenist, who
with his public discussions, for three months, with  had excited political disturbances [as Meyer and De
the Jews in their synagogue (Acts xix. 8). As this Wette suppose; see Conybeare and Howson, St.
reign is of importance in connection with the his- Paui (Ist ed.) i. 414], the name Chrestus fretory of the N. T., we propose to transfer to our quently occurring as borne by manumitted slaves;
pages, with due acknowledgment, the article of or whether, as there is good reason to think (LipWiner (Biblisch. Realw. ii. 231, 232), in which the sius, on Tacit. AnnaZ xv. 44; Grotius on Acts
chief events, with their copious authorities, are xviii. 2; Neander Ch. Hist. (Bohn) i. 129), Suesuccinctly put together. Our care will simply be tonius does not refer to some actual dissension beto give a correct translation of the Art., verify the tween Jews and Christians: although he does
references, and add an occasional one to English this in a very indistinct manner, confounding the
authors. *'The name of Claudius in full was name Christ, which was most unusual as a proper
Tib. Claudius Nero Drusus Germanicus; he was name, with the much more frequent appellation of
the fourth Roman emperor, and succeeded Caius Chrestus (See Tertullian, A1po. 3; Lactantius, InCaligula, reigning from Jan. 24. A.D. 41, to Oct. stit. iv. 7. 5 [and Milman, Hist. of Christianity, i.
I3, A.D. 54 (Suetonius, Calig. 58, Claud. 45). 430]. Orosius, Hist. vii. 6, places Claudius' edict
He was the ('mentally neglected,' Tacitus Ann. of banishment in the ninth year of his reign (i.e.,
vi. 46. I, Suet. Clazd. 2) son of Nero Drusus, 49 or 50 A.D.), and he refers to Josephus, who,
born at Lyons (Aug. I, A.U.C. 744), and led an however, says nothing about the matter). [InKing
entirely inglorious life in privacy before his eleva- Alfred's Anglo-Saxon Version of Orosius, however,
tion to the throne. It was chiefly through Herod  this reference to Josephus does not occur; the reAgrippa I. that his nomination to the imperial gister simply connects the expulsion with a famine
purple was brought about (Josephus, Antiq. xix. -' In the ninth year of his government there was
2 (sec. I), 3, 4; Suet. Claud. o1 [Merivale, a great famine in Rome, and Claudius ordered all
Romans under the Empire, v. 474, 475]), and   the Jews that were therein to be driven out.'
Claudius, when on the throne, shewed himself, in  Bosworth's Orosius, pp. II9 of the Saxon, and I79
return for this good service, not only an especial of the Trans. See this statement of Orosius combenefactor of Agrippa, whose territories he en- mented on by Scaliger, Animadv. on Euseb. Chron.
larged by the addition of Judaea, Samaria, and p. I92]. On the contrary, Pearson (Ann. Paulin.),
some districts of Lebanon (Joseph. Antiq. xix. 5. and Vogel (in Gabler's yournal), without, howI, Dio Cass. Ix. 8), and because of whom  he ever, giving decisive grounds for their opinion,
granted the Jews freedom of worship (Antiq. xx. suppose Claudius' twelfth year (i.e., A.D. 52) to be
i. I, 2), but also conferred on his brother Herod  the more likely one.  With Anger (de temporum
the sovereignty of Chalcis (Antiq. xix. 5. I), and ratione in Act. Apost. p. II8), one might on negaafter Agrippa's death gave to this same brother the tive grounds assert, that so long as Herod Agrippa
oversight of the Temple of Jerusalem (Antiq. xx. was at Rome with Claudius, the edict of expulsion
I. 3). The Jews in Asia and Egypt were, in the would hardly be published; i.e., previous to the
beginning of his reign, treated by Claudius with  year A.D. 49.  [Dr. Burton, however, On the
great moderation (Antiq. xix. 5. 2, 3, and xx. I. Chronology of the Acts, etc., p. 26, puts the date
2); but the Jews of Palestine seem to have suffered  of the edict some time between A.D. 41 and 46,
much oppression at the hands of his governors supporting his opinion by the fact,'that no men(Tacitus, Hist. v. 9, etc.). During the reign of tion is made of Claudius' decree in the Annals of
Claudius there arose famines in divers places, in Tacitus which have come down to us; and that,
consequence of bad harvests (Comp. Dio Cass. since the lost books of the Annals occupy the
lx. II; [ix. p. 949, ed. Reimar]; Aurel. Victor, De first six years of the reign of Claudius, it is proCoes. c. 4; Eusebius Chron. Arm. i. 269, 27i bable that Tacitus mentioned this decree in one of
[ed. Scal. p. 79]; Tacit. Annal. xii. 43; Kuinoel, those books.']  The reign of this weak emperor,
on Acts xi. 28 [See also Biscoe, on Acts, pp. 60, who was ruled by his wife Agrippina (Sueton.
66; Pearson, Annal. Paul s. anno Claudii 4; xxix.), was not altogether an inglorious one (SueJahn's Hebrew  Commonwealth (trans.) p. 367; ton. xx. etc.), although his domestic life was conLardner, Credibility, i. II. 2; above all, Kitto, temptible. [See, however, Merivale for a vindicaDaily Bible Illustrations, last vol. [' Agabus and tion of Claudius from some of the charges which
the dearth'], pp. 229-232]), and one of these tradition has affixed to his name with doubtful
visited Palestine and Syria (Acts xi. 28-30), in the propriety; Romans under the Empire, vol. v. pp.
time of the Procurators Cuspius Fadus and Tibe- 478, 479, 480, 597, 598].  He was poisoned by
rius Alexander (Joseph. Antiq. xx. 2. 6; v. 2), Agrippina after a reign of more than thirteen
which possibly lasted several years.  Owing to a years (Tacitus, Ann. xii. 66; Sueton. Claud. 44);
tumult of the Jewish inhabitants of Rome, the Josephus, Antiq. xx. 8. I; Bell. cud. ii. 12. 8,
emperor was induced to expel them from the city [who in both these passages makes the reign of
(Sueton. Claud. 25).'Judaeos impulsore Chresto  Claudius'thirteen years, eight months, and twenty
assiduei tumultuantes Roma expulit;' comp. Acts days.']-P. H.
xviii. 2 [and Winer's art.'ROM.' ii. 335, where he  CAD   S LSIAS. 
says,'but they soon returned, and in later reigns
became numerous' (comp. Jahn's Hebrew   Coin-   CLAUDIUS FELIX. [FELIX.]
nmonwealth, trans. p. 37I, and Acts xxviii. I7, 23),'although heavily burthened with taxes (Sueton.  CLAY, a substance frequently mentioned in
Domit. 12) and even reduced sometimes to mendi- Scripture, chiefly with reference to its employment
cancy' (Juvenal, iii. I4)]. Winer then discusses the by the potter, the elegant and useful forms assumed.*- Our. —--- are -by the rude material under his hands supplying a
Our additions are placed within brackets.  significant emblem of the Divine power over the




CLAYTON                    531                  CLOUD
destinies of man (Is. lxiv. 8; Rom. ix. 21). A  attention to the ancient inscriptions still existing in
remarkable allusion to the use of clay in sealing  the Wady Mukatteb.-S. N.
occurs in Job xxxviii. 14,'It is turned as clay to
the seal.'  This may be explained by reference to  CLEMENT (KXI3  s), a person mentioned by
the ancient practice of impressing unburnt bricks Paul (Phil. iv. 3), as one whose name was in the
with certain marks and inscriptions which were book of life. For the meaning of this phrase, see
obviously made by means of a large seal or stamp.   OF LIFE. This Clement was, by the ancient
We trace this in the bricks of Egypt and Babylon  church, identified with the bishop of Rome of the
[BRICKS]. Modern Oriental usages supply another same name (Euseb. Hist. Eccles. iii. 4; Constitu.
illustration.  Travellers, when entering the khans Apost. ii. 46); and that opinion has naturally
in towns, often observe the rooms in which goods been followed by Roman Catholic expositors.  It
have been left in charge of the khanjee sealed on  cannot now be proved incorrect but the suspicion
the outside with clay.  A piece of clay is placed  exists that the case here may be as with many
over the lock, and impressed by a large wooden other names in the N. T., which have been
stamp or seal.-J. bK                          assigned to celebrated persons of a later period.
Clement is said to have lived to the third year of
CLAYTON, ROBERT, D.D. (I695-1758), the emperor Trajan (A.D. Ioo), when he suffered
Bishop successively of Killala, Cork, and Clog- martyrdom.
her; of the Arian, or, more correctly speaking, the  There is an epistle of Clement to the CorinSubordinationist school of theology.  In I75I he thians, which was highly esteemed by the ancient
gave rise to a considerable controversy by the pub- church, and was publicly read in many churches
lication of a work entitled An Essay on the Spirit.[EPISTLES OF THE APOSTOLICAL FATHERS].It subsequently appeared, that although Clayton's J. K.
name was attached to the dedication, the work   CLEOPAS (KXe67ras), one of the two diswas not written by him. In I756 he proposed, in  ciples to whom Jesus appeared in the way to
the Irish House of Lords, the omission of the Emmaus (Luke xxiv. I8). He is not to be conNicene and Athanasian creeds from the Liturgy. founded with the Cleophas, who was also called
In the following year he more directly impugned  Alphaeus.  [Cleopas is a Greek name, probably
the doctrines of the Irish Church in the third part,,
of his Vindication of the History of the Old and contractfro, whilst Clopas 
NVewTestament. In consequence of this, measures is Aramaic].
were taken for a legal prosecution of the bishop,  CLEOPATRA. The name of two princesses
but his death occurring shortly afterwards, all mentioned in the Apocrypha.  I. In Esth. xi. I.
further action was stayed.  His more important This was probably the grand-daughter of Antiochworks are, The Chronology of the Hebrew Bible us III.  His daughter Cleopatra married Ptolemy
vindicated, the facts compared with other ancient Epiphanes, by whom she had two sons, Ptolemy
histories, and the dizffculties explained, from the Philometor, and Ptolemy Physcon, and one daughflood to the death of Moses, together with some con- ter-the Cleopatra in question. She married both
jectires in relation to Egypt during that period of her brothers in succession. The Ptolemy referred
time, I747, 4to. This work contains much curious to in Esth. xi. I is Ptolemy Philometor.
learning, but will not now greatly assist the Bible  2. In I Maccab. x. 57. This was the daughstudent in the elucidation of chronological difficul- ter of the Cleopatra of the last paragraph and
ties. A dissertation on Prophecy, I749, 8vo. An  Ptolemy Philometor. She married, first, Alexander
ompiartial inquiry into the time of the coming of the Balas; secondly, Demetrius Nicator; thirdly, AnlMessiah, together with an abstract of the evidence tiochus Ledetmes. She was poisoned by her son
on which the Belief of the Christian Religion is Antiochus Grypus, 121 B.C.-H. W.
founded, I751, 8vo. In these two works the
opinion is advocated with much learning and in-  CLEOPHAS (KXnras), or rather Clopas,
genuity that the restoration of the Jews and the who was also called Alphoeus, which see.
downfall of the papacy will occur about the year  CLERICUS.   [LE CLERC.]
2000. A Vindication of the Histories of the Old       AE. 
and New Testament, in anszoer to the objections of CLIM           STINE.]
the late Lord Bolizgbroke, Part i. 1752; Part ii.  CLOUD. The allusions to clouds in Scripture,
I754; Part iii. I757, 8vo. In the earlier parts of as well as their use in symbolical language, must
this work the objections of Bolingbroke are skil- be understood with reference to the nature of the
fully met; in the latter, as already intimated, occa- climate, where the sky scarcely exhibits the trace
sion is taken for an attack upon Trinitarian and  of a cloud from the beginning of May to the end of
Calvinistic views.                            September, during which period clouds so rarely
His other works are, An Introduction to the His- appear, and rains so seldom fall, as to be contory of the yews. This is said to have been his sidered phenomena-as was the case with the
earliest publication. It was translated into French  harvest rain which Samuel invoked (I Sam. xii.
and published at Leyden, 1747, 4to. Letters be- I7, Is), and with the little cloud, not larger than
wueen the Bishop of Clogher and William Penn on  a man's hand, the appearance of which in the west
the subject of Baptism, 1755, 8vo.  A Jyournal was immediately noticed as something remarkable
front Grand Cairo to Mount Sinai and back again.  not only in itself, but as a sure harbinger of rain
Translated from a Manuscript written by the Pre- (I Kings xviii. 44).
fetto of Egypt, in company with the Missionaries de  As in such climates clouds refieshingly veil the
propaganda Fide at Grand Cairo; To which are oppressive glories of the sun, clouds often symboadded some remarks on the Origin of Hieroglyphics lize the Divine presence, as indicating the splenand the Mythology of the ancient Heathens, 1753, dour, insupportable to man, of that glory which
4to. This was published with the view of exciting they wholly or partially conceal (Exod. xvi. 10;




CLOUD                     532                    COAL
xxxiii. 9; xxxiv. 5; xl. 34, 35; Num. xi. 25;   COACI (iZ), a species of reptile, placed among
xxi. 5; Job xxii. I4; Ps. xviii. II, 12; xcvii. 2; the unclean animals, Lev. xi. 30. In the A. V. it
civ. 3; Is. xix. I; Matt. xvii. 5; xxiv. 30, etc.; is rendered chameleon, and this is the rendering of
Acts i. 9; Rev. i. 7; xiv. I4, I6).  Somewhat the Sept. and the Vulg. The Arabic version makes
allied to this use is that which makes clouds the it a species of land-crocodile.  Bochart contends
symbols of the Divine power (2 Sam. xxii. I2; that it is a species of lizard, the aZworlo or gzaril of
Ps. lxviii. 34; lxxxix. 6; civ. 3; Nahum i. 3).  the Arabs (properly waran), the Lacerta Nilo/ica of
Clouds are also the symbol of armies and mul- naturalists. From its name (n3 =- streatg/),  we
titudes of people (Jer. iv. 13; Is. lx. 8; Heb. may presume that it was a large and powerful repxii. I). This is often very scientifically explained  tile, so that Bochart may be correct in his conjecby the information that clouds are composed of ture. Robinson's guides killed one 3 feet 8 inches
innumerable drops of rain or vapour. This, al- in length on the coast of the Dead Sea (Bib. Res.
though true, is certainly not the truth which the ii. 253).-W. L. A.
Hebrew poets had in view. Any one who has
noticed the effect of a large and compact body of COAL. The Hebrew words most frequently and
men upon the surface of an extensive plain, mov- properly translated coal are two, _. or T1F}, and
ing like a cloud in the clear sky, or who has seen a  T   h te H                      * -
similar body of men upon the side of a distant. Though the Herews seem to have frequently
hill, will find a more obvious source of the com- used the word [in in the same generic sense as we do
parison.                                       when we say a ton of coals, meaning coals not yet
There are many other dispersed symbolical allu- burnt, a pan of coals, meaning coals on fire, and as
sions to clouds in Scripture not coming under the Greeks, though not so loosely, apply dvOpaKta,
these descriptions; but their purport is in every  and the Romans carbo, yet when precision required
case too obvious to need explanation (see particu- it, the Hebrews, as well as ourselves and the
larly Prov. xvi. 15; Eccles. xii. 2; Is. iv. 5; Greeks and Romans, knew how to express the difxliv. 22; 2 Pet. ii. 17; Jude 12).-J. K.ference in the case of ignited coals, which they most
commonly do by the addition of Ng, a distinction
CLOUD, PILLAR OF (PI). Wi1Y3J, Pl J Ol, or preserved in the Septuagint by the word vrop
P! 69p3; *Sept. rvu7Xos se~tX-s, 7rvp6s), the emblem  (though the Septuagint often iztroduces this word
JTT'..,-             -                     w    lewhen the sense of the single Hebrew word seems
of the Divine Presence, which accompanied the Is- to require it, and generally with great correctness);
raelites in their journeyings in the wilderness by day, and which distinction is also generally preserved in
and which at night assumed the appearance of a the Vulgate by the use of the appropriate word
pillar of fire (Exod. xiii. 2I; xiv. 24; Num. xiv. I4). pruna:-Serv. ad m n. xi. 788: Docet hoc esse
When the cloud was not removed the host rested, discrimen inter prunam  et carbonem, quod, illa
when it was taken up they went on their journey accensa sit, hic verb extinctus.  Sed etiam dum
(Exod. xl. 36, 37; Num. ix. x7).  At times it was ardet carbo dicitur' (Facciolati).  The following
not only the symbol but the mode of the Divine classification is offered, comprehending all the inpresence (Num. xii. 5). The Lord talked with stances in whic        or      occurs:-First, in
Moses from it (Exod. xxxiii. 9). Modern Germansstances    n  which e. or pp  occurs:-First, n
explain it of a natural appearance, or of the holy  ts geneic and idefinite appication, that is, meanfire carried before the host from off the altar. But in  coal whether ignited or not; 2 Sam. xiv. 7,
it is clearly spoken of as miraculous, and grate-'They shall quench my coal which is left;' Sept.
fully remembered in after ages by pious Israelites  vOpa; Vulg scitillam; evidently ignited used
(Ps. cv. 39; lxxviii. I4; Wisd. x. I7) as a token  tropica'y for posterity, like,  Kings xv. 4, and
of God's special care of their fathers.  It is said several other passages; Job xli. 13 [A. V. 2],'His
that caravans still carry beacons of fire before breath kindleth coals,' dopaKes, prunas, i. e., coals
them in a somewhat similar way, and traces of a not before ignited: Is. xlvii. 14,'Not a coal towarm
like custom are found in classical writers, e.g., Q. at,' but here the word Dnt1 decides the ignition,
Curtius 3. 3. 9; ordo agminis Persarum talis fuit. dvOpaKas 7rvp6s, prune: Ps. xviii. 8,'Coals were
Ignis quem ipsi sacrum et seternum vocant argen- kindled at it,' &vOpaKEs, carbones succensi sunt: Ps.
teis altaribus prseferebatur; and 5. 2. 7, he says, cxx. 4,'With coals of juniper,' Sept. a-y ros
that because all in Alexander's army could not dvOpact ros EprLcKOis; Vulg. cum  carbonibus
hear the trumpet, Ergo perticam  qua undique desolatoriis: Prov. vi. 28, English version supplies
conspici posset supra prsetorium statuit ex qua sig- (hot) coals: Sept. adds -rvpbs to aiOpdcKwv, prunas:
num eminebat pariter omnibus conspicuum. Ob- Prov. xxv. 22,'Shall heap coals of fire upon his
servabatur ignis noctu fumus interdiu. See also head,' Sept. supplies 7rvp6s, prunas: Is. xliv.
an account of an appearance of fire by night in  I9,'Upon the coals,' advOpaKcv, carbones: Ezek.
the expedition of Timoleon to Italy, Diod. Sic. xxiv. II,'Upon the coals,' dvtOpKas, prunas.
16. 66. Isaiah has a remarkable allusion to it (iv.  Our second class consists of instances in which
5), and St. Paul (i Cor. x. I, 2).-S. L.       the word WV is added in order to fix the sense of
ignition:-Lev. xvi. 12,'A censer full of burning
CNIDUS (KvRiSs), otherwise GNIDUS, a town    coals of fire,' aOpacv  7rsvp6s, prunis: 2 Sam. xxii.
and peninsula of Doris in Caria, jutting out from  9, 13,'Coals of fire were kindled at it,' dvBpaKes
the south-west part of Asia Minor, between the 7rvpos, carbones ignis: Ps. xviii. 12,'The coals of
islands of Rhodes and Cos. It was celebrated for fire passed,' avOpaKes 7rvp6s, carbones ignis: Ps.
the worship of Venus (Strabo, xiv. p. 965; Plin. cxl. o1,'Let burning coals fall on them,' avOpaKces
Hist. Nat. xxxvi. 15; Hor. Carm. i. 30). The 7rup6s carbones: Ezek. i. 13,' Coals of fire, &aOpAKw,
Romans wrote to this city in favour of the Jews (I 7rvps, carbonum ignis: Ezek. x. 2,'Coals of fire,
Maccab. xv. 23), and St. Paul passed it in his way adOpciKWo 7rvp6s, prunis ignis.
to Rome (Acts xxvii. 7).                         The other Hebrew word translated coal is Bhn.




COCCEIUS                   533             COCKCROWING
It occurs only three times: -Prov. xxvi. 21, i2S4n  held also Millenarium views. His works have been
DrID,'As coals are to burning coals, and wood collected in 12 vols. fol., Amst. I70I, of which two
to fire,' etc.,'EoXcipa &dOpaCt, sicut carbones ad contain his posthumous publications. His fame
prunas: here the word uDl plainly means unig- rests chiefly on his services to Hebrew philology.
nited coal (Qu. mineral coal?), as appears from  His Lexicon et Comnmentarius Sermonis Heb. et
the parallel comparison, and'as wood to fire,' Is. Chald. had a wide circulation. It was twice rexliv. 12,'The smith worketh in the coals,' the edited by Maius, Frankfort I689, and I714, fol.;
Sept. has no corresponding word, but old com- and again by Schulz in 1777; and again in 2 vols.
mentators read dv dvOpact, in prunis. Is. liv. I6, 8vo, in 1793-96. The last edition, however, is'The smith that bloweth the coal in the fire,' d,- much altered from the author's original, and has in
OpcKas, prunas. From the foregoing analysis it it hardly a vestige of anything Cocceian.-W. L. A.
appears that the word  Fl often means coals    COCK (d'XKrcCp; in Hebrew possibly = Gaber,
thoroughly ignited; but Inn, coal before being if Jerome's version of Is. xxii. 17, i8 be correct:
ignited.                                      our version of the passage is obscure). It is someThere are several instances in which the word what singular that this bird and poultry in general
coal' in our version is an improper translation. should not be distinctly noticed in the Hebrew
I Kings xix. 6, U&nlVi T)'a cake baken on thle Scriptures. They were, it may be surmised, uncoals,' *yKpv/ts, subcinericius panis. mB   here known in Egypt when the Mosaic law was proproperly means a hot stone (a2 avemen, Esth i  6
propery means a hot stone  avemet, Esth. i. 6, mulgated, and, though imported soon after, they
and elsewhere), and t]n    fiJ properly means always remained in an undetermined condition,
small cakes baked under ashes-a common food to neither clean nor unclean, but liable to be declared
this day among the Orientals, especially when either by decisions swayed by prejdice, or by
travelling [BREAD]...   is also a hot stone thrown fanciful analogies; perhaps chiefly the latter; beinto milk or broth in order to heat it (Gesenius).   poultry are devourers of unclean animals,
cause poultry are devourers of unclean animals,
Another mis-translation occurs (Hab. iii. 5),'Burn- scorpions, scolopendra, small lizards, and young
ing coals went forth at his feet,' in the marginserpents of evey kind'burning diseases' (Deut. xxx. 24).  The Sept.  But although rearing of common fows was not
vanres widely; the Vulgate still more widely  encouraged by the Hebrew population, it is evi-'egredietur diabolus,' which is, however, explained dently drawing inferences beyond their proper
as pestis by the commentators.  Another mis-bounds, when it is asserted that they were untranslation is (Lam. iv. 8),' Their visage is blacker known in Jerusalem, where civil wars, and Greek
than a coal;' margin,'darker than blackness;' and Roman dominion, had greatly affected the
ni'tn   iOIU, bT7rp car6X?-^, super carbones. national manners.
Another mis - translation occurs (Cant. viii. 6),  In the denials of Peter described in the four'the coals thereof are coals of fire;' nTV EGospels, where the cockcrowing is mentioned by
USN lB23 7repl-r-repa airO5, lreplrrepca wrvps, Aid. our,   4n',,repir-repa1 au, 7epivrepaI vrvp6S, Aid* our Lord, the words are plain and direct, not we
dVpcaKEs rvp6s, ut lampades ignis  A questionable think admitting of cavil, or of being taken to
translation occurs (Is. vi. 6),'a live coal,' H 9  signify anything but the real voice of the bird, the
VOpaKa rsrvp6s, calculus; but the Rabbis render it,.' coal.' The instances of the word coal in the N.  aKropoq5ca, as it is expressed in Mark xiii 35
/T'coal.'rea to e notiaced:-Joh xvii.,'a fire in ists literal acceptation, and not as denoting the
T remain to be noticed:-(John xv. 18), are sound of a trumpet, so called, because it proof coals,' cavpaKid, ad prunas.  The word here claimed a watch in the night; for, to what else
evidently means a mass of live charcoal (so Suid.                         does our Saviour
I,    ^. than a real hen and her brood does our Saviour
WcvpaKLia 7re0vpaKTWALO &viOpaCIKs, who gives an allude in Luke xiii. 34, where the text is proof
adage which makes a plain difference —   TV71^'" that the image of poultry was familiar to the disreT6pav esiywv, eas a'OpaKiiv?3s,' which may  ciples, and consequently that they were not rare in
be exactly paralleled by a well-known English Judea?  To the present time in the East, and on
adage). (Eccl. vii. 10; xi. 32, occur in the same the Continent of Europe, this bird is still often
sense in the Apocrypha).-C. H. S. [Whether kept, as amongst the Celta (Cesar, Bell. Gall.
in any of these passages the coal referred to is iv. 12), not so much for food as for the purpose
natural coal is matter of doubt. It may have  f announcing the approach and dawn of day.been so, for coal is found in Syria; but there is C H S
nothing to render this certain or more probable
than that it is to artificial fuel that they relate].  COCKATRICE. [TSIPHONI.]
COCCEIUS (COCH), JOHANN, was a native        COCKCROWING.        The cock usually crows
of Bremen, where he was born in I603. In I650 several times about midnight, and again about
he was appointed Professor of Theology at Leyden, break of day. The latter time, because he then
where he died in I669.  He was a man of pro- crows loudest, and his'shrill clarion' is most usefound scholarship, especially in Hebrew and Rab- ful by summoning man to his labours, obtained
binical literature. Besides many works of a dog- the appellation of the cockcrowing emphatically,
matical and polemical cast, a Hebrew Lexicon, etc., and by way of eminence; though sometimes the
he wrote commentaries on most of the books of distinctions of the fitsi and second cockcrowing
the Bible. He also edited the Mioreh N evochim of are met with in Jewish and heathen writers
Maimonides, and the Talmudic Tracts Sanhedrinz (Bochart, vol. iii. p. II9).  These times, and
and Mfaccoth.  He occupies a prominent place these names for them, were, no doubt, some of
among the adherents of the mystical and spiritual- the most ancient divisions of the night adopted in
izing school of interpreters. He maintained that the East, where'the bird of dawning' is most
every passage has as many meanings as it can be probably indigenous.  The latter aXCKTopotwvia
made to bear; and everything in the 0. T. he re- was retained even when artificial divisions of time
garded as typical of Christ and his church. He were invented. In our Lord's time the Jews had




COCKLE                    534               COELES-YRIA
evidently adopted the Greek and Roman division  the idols' (BN pj, chap. i. 5). The name was
of the night into four periods, or watchings; each             Th    ho   sid  o  he vall
cositi  otre  hus th firs               are.most appropriate. The whole sides of the valley
conisting of three hours; the firstbegnning at are thickly studded with-old heathen temples. The
six in the evening, iv  eUTepg  vap, cat      writer has visited no less than fourteen of them,
r t rplr.3                               and he hxvisite dp
T7f TPiLTy uv\aKyj (Luke xn. 38); rerdap7rp d  uXr  and he has heard of several others. Some of them
Trs VuKr6s (Matt. xiv. 25; Mark vi. 48). These were of great size and splendour, such as those of
watches were either numbered first, second, third  Baalbek, Mejdel, Niha, and Hibbarlych.  This
and fourth, as now specified, or were called o4iE  appears in fact to have been the chosen house of
/e9ovPKTLov, aieCTropopovpla, 7rpct. These are all
mentioneK (Mark xiii. 35, TrpW ee.  e  are. ii. 8, idolatry (Porter's Damascus, i. 12; ii. 320; Robinmentioned (Mark xiii. 35; Veget. Re Thilt. iiL. 8, son,^. R.iii. 438,492, 529 Handbook ofS. andP.,'In quatuor partes ad clepsydram  sunt d       iviii. 43S, 492,529;Handbook of S.asnd?,'In lqlatuor partes ad clepsydrai sunt divise 568, 570). The modern name of the valley convigiliae, ut non amplius quam tribus horis nocturns, firms the ahove view.  It is called El-Bukao
necesse est vigilare,' Censorin, de Die Natal. lepl
0. -rerdprqiv, vide Joseph. Anty. xviii. 9, C. IIp  (  1), which is strictly the same as the Hebrew
0. 8EUrTpav, Diod. Sic. I8. 40; Xen. Anab. iv. Bia  (    ).
It has been considered a contradiction that Mat-  In the Apocryphal books the name Coelesyria
thew (xxvi. 34) records our Lord to have said to frequently occurs, and is used to denote one of the
Peter, 7rpiv acXKTOopa cwvo-rac, rpis rarapvpa4o  te, political divisions of Syria under the Persian satraps
whereas St. Mark. (xiv. 30) says, rpiv } 81s Opwv^- (i Esdr. ii. 17; iv. 48), and subsequently under
oact. But Matthew, giving only the general sense the Seleucidae (I Maccab. x. 69; 2 Maccab. viii. 8).
of the admonition (as also Luke xxii. 34; John  Its extent is not defined, but it appears to have
xiii. 38), evidently alludes to that only which was embraced the whole region extending from Hamath
czstomarily called tle cockcrowing, but Mark, to Beersheba, and from Phoenicia to the Arabian
who wrote under Peter's inspection, more accu- desert. Polybius employs the name in the same
rately recording the very words, mentions the two general way, and states that Coelesyria and Phoecockcrowings (Wetstein on Mark xiv. 30; Scheuch- nicia formed the chief scene and cause of the
zer, Phys. Sacr. on Mark xiii. 35; Whitby's struggles between the rival dynasties of the SeleuNote on Matt. xxvi. 34). Afs, in Mark, is for /K cidre and the Ptolemies (Hist. i. 7I; iii.  I; v. 80,
5erTepov, and Tpis is explained, semel iterumque, etc.) Strabo gives two widely different accounts
plus simplici vice, a certain for an uncertain num- of Coelesyria. In one place he thus describes it-6oo
ber, as I Cor. xii. 28. So Eusth. ap. Schl. Lex. eoa-r i6py T&'ro toOvrCa 7~v KoiAr1v KaXov/sLv'yqv Lvplav,
says rpis is for 7roXXaKLs. Thus the seeming con- cbs av 7rapcXX-hXa, 6, re AitPavos Kal 6'AvrihXtivos
tradiction, at least, between Mark and the other (Geog. xvi., p. 517). Here he confines Coelesyria
Evangelists is removed (Lightfoot, Hfor. Heb.; within what appears to be its proper limits; while,
Bynoeus de morte Christi, ii. 6; Reland, Orat. de in another place, he makes it include the whole
Gall. Cantt; Altmann De Gallicin.; Biel Ani- country extending from  Seleucia to Egypt and
mad. ad J. G. Altmann; Ansaldi Coomment., the Arabia (p. 520). Pliny appears to apply the name
four last in Ugolini, Thesacr. vol. xxvii. Ven. only to the valley along the eastern base of Lebanon
1763; Adam's Roman Antin. Boyd's Ed. 269; (H. N. v. 17). Josephus includes in Coelesyria the
Winer, Biblis/zces Real- Wobrterbuch, Leipzig, I833, whole valley of the Jordan, as well as that between
art. Hiihner).-J. K.                          Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon.   He calls the Ammonites and Moabites inhabitants of Coelesyria
COCIK(LE.  [BEISHAJ.]           ~(Antzi. i. II. 5). Ptolemy mentions as towns of
CODDAIUS, WILHELM, Professor of Hebrew      Coelesyria, Damascus, Scythopolis, and Gerasa,
at Leipsic about the beginning of the 17th century. thus shewing that he agreed with Josephus (v. 25;
He published Hoseas poropeta Ebr. et Ciald. cum  cf. Joseph. Antiq. xiii. 13. 2 and 3).
dnplici vers. Lat. et comment. ebraicis trizum doctiss.  From these various notices it will be seen that
Y7daorm n; AMasora itemt parva, ejz'sque et com- ancient writers used the name Coelesyria with
went. Lat. quoque interpret.  Accedunt in fine suc- great latitude of meaning.  The cause of this it
cinctce sed necessarie Annott. 4to Lug. Bat. 1621. is not difficult to explain. After the Macedonian
A very useful book.-W. L. A.                  conquest the name was applied by the Greeks to
the great valley lying between Libanus and AntiCOELESYRIA      (KooiXk Zvpta).  This name Libanus. It was descriptive of its physical aspect
does not occur in Scripture, but there can be little -the Greek KoiXs corresponding to the Hebrew
doubt that a part at least of Coelesyria was in-;bpt. The Jordan valley was a continuation of,clu ded, i that'CVally of L'     oelesyria on the south, as was the Orontes valley
lded in that Valley of Lebanon  (  ) on the north, so that the term KolXA being equally
mentioned by Joshua (xi. 17; xii. 7), the extent applicable to them, they were subsequently inof which has been too much restricted by recent eluded. Hence those writers who had not a very
geographers.  The name'Valley of Lebanon' accurate knowledge of the country came to apply
could scarcely be applied with propriety exclusively the name indefinitely to the whole of southern Syria
to that section of the great valley which lay at the east of Phoenicia. Under Roman rule the bounds
base of Hermon, at a considerable distance from  of Coelesyria became somewhat more contracted,
the range of Lebanon. Doubtless Baal-Gad was the valley of the Orontes being excluded on the
situated'under Mount Hermon;' but we have north, and the province of Judmea on the south.
reason to believe that' the Valley of Lebanon' in-  Coelesyria, properly so called, included only the
eludes the whole of that valley which separates the valley between the parallel ranges of Libanus and
ridge of Hermon from that of Lebanon. It seems Anti-Libanus.  Strabo's first description of it is
that at a subsequent period this valley was called consequently the most accurate, he says the valley
by Amos, apparently in contempt,'the valley of was also called Marsyas (Geog. xvi.)  This great




COFFER                    535                 COLOSSE
valley forms the most striking feature in the physi- Ie probably consulted the Parisian codices. Some
cal geography of central Syria.  It is a northern of his readings are very good.  Beza has charged
continuation of the remarkable crevasse down him (Tract. ad Defens et RepreAens. Castellionis, p.
which the Jordan flows.  It runs from S.W. to 502) with allowing emendations from mere conjecN.E., and is seventy miles long by from three to ture to be introduced, but from this charge Mill
seven broad.  It is quite flat, and the soil is in has amply defended him (Prolegg. ad N. T. p.
general rich, and abundantly watered by streams cxv.) This edition was never reprinted, nor does
from the mountain ranges. As seen in early spring  it seem to have exercised much influence on subsefrom the heights of Lebanon, it resembles a vast quent editions.-W. L. A.
sea of verdure, here and there dotted with little
conical mounds, like islands, on most of which  COLLAR. This is the rendering i the A. V.
villages are perched.  The watershed near the of, I. n11   (Judg. viii. 26), which properly means
centre of the plain has an elevation of about 3000  ear-ring, or rather ear-drop or pendant, from IUD,
feet above the sea, and toward each end there is a to drop [EAR-RINGS]; 2.  ( (Job xxx. I8), where
very gentle but regular descent; On the north it  
is drained into the Orontes, and on the south into  A, literally mzouth or opening, is used to denote the
the Litany.  Near the watershed, on the eastern  hole of a seamless robe through which the head
side of the valley, lie the magnificent ruins of   inserted, and which fitted tight to the throat
Baalbek. Twenty miles southward, at the base of (Exod. xxxx. 23; Comp. Braun, De Vest. SacerAnti-Libanus, is the site of Chalcis, once a royal dott.  e. ii. 2; Lee on sb, in loc.) Ewald takes
city, now a desolate heap. Opposite the latter, in  as a propositio, as m Exod. xvi. 21, where it
a wild mountain gorge, is Zahleh, the modernhas the sense of  prportion to, and renders it by
capital of Lebanon. It was recently burned by the  lke' it girds me like my  smock' or'underDruzes. At the extreme northern end of the plain  garment.' So also Hirzel,'als wie mei leibrock
is the great fountain of the Orontes, the Aiz of umgirtet es mich;' Renan,'elle m serrecomme
Num. xxxiv. II; and a few miles east of it, on  ma tunique.  In ch. xxxi. 6, we have  D used
the banks of the Orontes, is Riblah.  Not one thus,  I, like thee (sv), to God' (C. Noldius,
half of Coelesyria is now under cultivation, yet it is Cfncord. Pic. He. s. v.) When, however we
the granary of the neighbouring mountains.  Full find the LXX. and the   ulg supporting the comdescriptions of Coelesyria may be seen in the fol- on rendering there seems the less reason for
lowing works:-Robinson, B. R. iii.; Stanley, S.deserting it.-W. L. A.
and P.; Handbook of S. and P.; Reland,          COLONY (KoXdvia). This designation is apPalcstina; Bochart, Geogr.; Ritter, Pal. und Syr. plied to Philippi in Macedonia (Acts xvi. 12).
-J. L. P.                                     Augustus Caesar had deported to Macedonia most
iCOFFER.    [ARGAZ.]                       of the Italian communities which had espoused
the cause of Anthony; by which means the towns
COFFIN.    [BURIAL].                        of Philippi, Dyrrachium, etc., acquired the rank of
Roman colonies (Dion Cass. p. 455). They posCOKE, THOMAS, LL.D., was born at Brecon, sessed the jus coloniarium (Plin. Hist. Nat. v. I),
in South Wales, 9th September I747.  He was i. e., so called jus Italicum (Digest. Leg. viii. 8),
educated at Oxford, and having received orders, consisting, if complete, in a free municipal constiwas appointed to the curacy of South Petherton, tution, such as was customary in Italy, in exempwhere his zeal in good doing was met with so tion from personal and land taxes, and in the
much opposition as obliged him to retire from his commerce of the soil, or the right of selling the
post in I776. He subsequently cast in his lot with land.-J. K.
the Wesleyans, and was ever afterwards, till his
death at sea on the 3d of May 1814, on his way to  COLOSSE, properly COLOSSI (oXocai), a city
India, with the object of establishing the Wesleyan  of Phrygia, on the river Lycus (now Gorduk), not
missions there, the faithful and indefatigable co- far from its confluence with the Mander, and near
adjutor of John Wesley in his multifarious evangel- the towns of Laodicea, Apamea, and Hierapolis
istic efforts both at home and abroad.  He wrote (Col. ii. I; iv. I3, 15; comp. Plin.  list. Nat.
and published A  Commentary on Ate Old and v. 4; Strabo, xii. p. 576). [The reading of the
Nrew Testaments, Lond. 1803, 6 vols. 4to.  This best MSS. of the N. T. is KoXaawal. There can
work is chiefly a compilation, the materials of which be no doubt that KoXoo-a is the proper spelling
were drawn for the most part from the Commentary  of the name, but the other was probably in accordof the unfortunate Dr. Dodd. It is neither critical ance with the common pronunciation, and on this
nor profound, but useful, nevertheless, as a prac- account was used by Paul.] A Christian church
tical exposition of the Divine Word.-W. J. C.  was formed here very early, probably by Epaphras
(Col. i. 7; iv. 12, sq.), consisting of Jews and
COLINAUS, SIMON, a celebrated Parisian      Gentiles, to whom Paul, who does not appear to
printer, father-in-law to Robert Stephens.  He have ever visited Colossae in person (Col. ii. I), adissued an edition of the Greek N. T., 8vo, Par. dressed an Epistle from Rome. Not long after
1584. This edition contains simply the text, with- the town was, together with Laodicea and Hieraout notes or even preface.  The text is a combina- polls, destroyed by an earthquake. This, accordtion of the Complutensian and the 3d edition of ing to Eusebius, was in the ninth year of Nero;
Erasmus, but Mill detected more than I50 read- but the town must have been immediately rebuilt,
ings which are not traceable to either of these for in his twelfth year it continued to be named as
sources. As most of these have been found in a flourishing place (Nicet. Chron. p. II5). It still
MSS. collated since the publication of this edition, subsists as a village named Khonas, an identificait is presumed that Colinseus based his text on MS. tion which is due to Mr. Hamilton (Res. in Asia
authority as well as that of the printed editions. MInor, i. 508). The huge range of Mount Cad



COLOSSIANS                   536               COLOSSIANS
mus rises immediately behind the village, close to nothing in the Epistles themselves which renders
which there is in the mountain an immense per- the common opinion improbable; but it is conpendicular chasm, affording an outlet for a wide tended that there are various considerations of a
mountain torrent.  The ruins of an old castle general kind which tend to make the view of
stand on the summit of the rock forming the left Schulz preferable.  We shall briefly state the
side of this chasm. There are some traces of leading arguments in favour of this opinion, along
with the counter-arguments of those who oppose
____... it:-I. It is highly improbable that Paul would....:;!?=__- =L —-----....-:  allow two years of easy imprisonment (Acts xxiv....;. ~-.... S- -        23-27) to pass away without writing to some of
the churches at a distance, especially as he tells us
__- ythat upon him'came daily the care of all the
--— ~   ~     churches,' 2 Cor. xi. 28), and as we find that he
secured time for this even when most actively employed in his public apostolic labours. To this it
is replied, that admitting the facts here assumed,
dJ1.    - ^ i. 1              thney only prove that Paul migoe t have employed
Jl:V                            himself during these two years in epistolary corre^lOS^^.^"J ~  ( eRspondence with distant churches, but afford no
certain evidence that he really did so, far less that
but bahlyorta           attest^v  t                      t  Athe wrote then the very epistles in question. 2.
-Sel||     ofananieThese epistles bear evident marks of having been
Rev. F.V. J.l,  |written in consequence of communications made
personally to Paul by parties connected with the
churches to which they were addressed; and there
1J ll[':T^T[Jihi^ 01rit  te''      is greater probability of his receiving such communications at Coesarea than at Rome, especially
during the earlier part of his residence there, to
which these epistles (if written at Rome) must be
COLOSJ-SIAS  L  ORascribed. But it is replied to this, that distant as
194. Colossae:-[Khionas.]        Rome was from the churches of Asia Minor, there
is nothing unlikely in the supposition that Eparuins and fiagments of stone in the neighbourhood, phas and others ma hae undertaken a journey
but barely more than sufficient to attest the exist- thither to consult the Apostle about the s ate of
ence of an ancient site; and that this site was these churches, threatened as they were with danthat of Colossae        is satisfactoily established by the ge  and  for anytin we know to the contrary
ger; and, for anything we nnow to  the  co nt rary,
Rev. F. V. jC. Arundell, whose book (Discovheries many of the Asiatic Christians may have had occain Asia Iriaoer contailns and  aple  description of sion to be at Rome at any rate on affairs of their
in Atsei Mino) sco. i4s and ale desitio     t (.   Ii      *mown. 3. There is no small difficulty in supposing
i ls cran the place.                         that in the early part of the Apostle's residence at
COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE.-That this Rome, all the parties mentioned in these epistles,
Epistle is the genuine production of the apostle viz., Timothy, Aristarchus, Mark, Jesus-Justus,
Paul is proved by the most satisfactory evidence, and Epaphras, Luke, Demas, Onesimus, Tychicus,
has never indeed been seriously called in question  should be found there with him, especially as we
(see Lardner, Credibility; Davidson, Introd. ii. 426). are told (Acts xxvii. 2) that only Aristarchus accomThe objections which Schwegler, Baur, etc., have panied Paul and Luke from C oesarea, and as, in
urged against the authenticity of this Epistle, rest the epistles known to have been written from Rome,
chiefly on minute details, which we cannot examine only two of the parties above mentioned, Timothy
here; the reader will find them discussed by De and Luke, are referred to as with the Apostle
Wette, Eizleit. sec. 144, and Alford, Gr. Test. It (Phil. i. I; ii. 9; 2 Tim. iv. I ); whilst, on the
is less certain, however, whene and where it was other hand, from Acts xx. 4, we learn that some
composed by him. The common opinion is that at least of these parties were with Paul at Cesarea.
he wrote it at Rome during his imprisonment in In answer to this it is said, that it does not appear
that city (Acts xxviii. i6, 30). Erasmus, followed  other than natural that Paul should have gathered
by others, supposes that Ephesus was the place at around him in his imprisonment those young men
which it was composed; but this suggestion is who had elsewhere been the companions and inobviously untenable from its incompatibility with  struments of his operations, and have used them
the allusions contained in the Epistle itself to the for the purpose of maintaining a continual interstate of trouble and imprisonment in which the course with distant churches according to their
Apostle was whilst composing it (i. 24; iv. Io, 18). circumstances and wants. 4. The appearance of
In Germany, the opinions of theologians have been  Onesimus, the slave of Philemon, at the place
divided of late years between the common hypothesis where Paul was, very soon, 7rpbs tipav, after he
and one proposed by Dr. David Schulz, viz., that had left his master at Colossm (Philem. ver. 15),
this Epistle, with those to the Ephesians and  agrees better with the supposition that Paul was
Philemon, was written during the Apostle's two  at Cmesarea, than with the supposition that he was
years' imprisonment at Cacsarea previous to his at Rome. To this it is replied, that Rome was
being sent to Rome.    This opinion has been  the most likely of all places for a fugitive slave to
adopted and defended by Schott, B/ttger, Wig- betake himself to, and that with respect to the
gers, and Reuss, whilst it has been opposed by expression 7rpbs ipav, it is so vague, and is used so
Neander, Steiger, Harless, Riickert, Credner, obviously as an antithesis to.citOltov in the same
Bleek, and others. It is admitted that there is verse, that nothing certain can be argued from it.




COLOSSIANS                   537                COLOSSIANS
5. The request of Paul to Philemon (ver. 22), that must have been written after these. 2. When Paul
he would provide him a lodging at Colossoe, as he wrote to the Colossians, etc., Timothy was with
hoped to visit that place shortly, agrees better him (Col. i. I; Philem. I); consequently 2 Tim.,
with the supposition that this epistle was written  by which Timothy was summoned to Rome, was
at Cesarea, whilst yet hopes might be entertained  written before these. 3. According to Col. iv. I4,
of his liberation, than that it was written at Rome, Demas is with Paul, but, according to 2 Tim. iv. Io,
when his expectations of freedom must have be- he has already left him, so that the latter epistle is
come faint, and whence, according to his avowed  the later. 4. Timothy is commanded to bring
purpose (Rom. xv. 28), he was more likely, in case Mark (iv. I ); but, according to Col. iv. Io, he is
of being liberated, to travel westwards into Spain  already with him; consequently, 2 Tim. was writthan to return to Asia. The answer to this is, ten earlier' (Reuss, Gesch. der Heil. Schr. des N. T.
that though the Apostle had originally designed to  p. 97, 3d edit.) These chronological difficulties,
journey from Rome to Spain, the intelligence he he thinks, will be all avoided if we suppose Eph.,
received of the state of things in the churches of Col., and Philem., to have been written at Cesarea,
Asia Minor may have determined him to alter his when the persons mentioned were present with
resolution; and upon the whole, we know so little him, and that they, having separated from him, he
of the Apostle's relations during his imprisonment on his arrival at Rome sent for Timothy. There is
at Rome, that it is not safe to build much upon  certainly considerable weight in this, and on the
any such allusions. In a very able article in the  supposition that 2 Tim. was written during St.
Stzudien end Kritiken for 1838, the whole question  Paul's imprisonment at Rome, recorded in Acts
has been subjected to a new investigation by xxiv., we do not see how it is to be got over. But
Dr. Julius Wiggers of the University of Rostock, these chronological difficulties may be avoided as
who comes to the conclusion, that of the facts well by supposing that 2 Tim. was written during a
above appealed to, none can be regarded as deci- second imprisonment of the apostle at Rome; and
sive for either hypothesis.  He inclines, however, as there are many considerations which lead to this
to the opinion of Schulz, chiefly on the grounds conclusion, we are free to prefer this solution of the
that Paul, in writing to the Ephesians, makes no  difficulties to that proposed by Reuss. There thus
mention of Onesimus, who accompanied Tychicus, appears to be no reason strongly urging us to bethe bearer of his epistle to that church, and that lieve that these epistles were written at Czesarea;
both in this epistle and in that to the Colossians, and, as in such a case, the testimony of tradition may
he states that he had sent Tychicus eis avrb be fairly admitted as adequate to decide the quesrTOTO, Eva pvTre r   ra 7repi r/71v, Kal qrapaKaXo-p tion, we abide by the conclusion, that Paul wrote
raS Kapslas 4vecv (Eph. vi. 22; Col. iv. 8 [ac- these epistles at Rome during his first imprisoncording to the best MSS.])  The former of these, ment there. Nor are there wanting notices in the
Wiggers thinks, can be accounted for only on the epistles themselves which favour this conclusion, assupposition that Tychicus and Onesimus having to  I. The fact, that whilst writing these epistles Paul
set out from Csesarea, would reach Colossce first, was at liberty to preach the gospel (Eph. vi. I9,
where the latter would tarry, so that he did not 20; Col. iv. 3, 4, II), a statement which we know
need to be commended to the church at Ephesus; to be true in respect of his imprisonment at Rome,
the latter of these, he thinks, indicates that the but which we do not know to be true of his implace where Tychicus was to set out was one from  prisonment at Coesarea; 2. The fact, that whilst
which he might proceed either to Colossse or writing these epistles he was a prisoner in chains
to Ephesus first, not one from which he had, as (Eph. vi. 20; Col. iv. 3; Philem. Io), which is
a mere matter of course, to pass through Ephesus true of his imprisonment at Rome, but is apparently
in order to reach Colossse; and hence he infers not true of his imprisonment at Csesarea, where he
that Coesarea, and not Rome, was the place whence seems to have been a prisoner in custodia libera
these epistles were dispatched (Stud. u. Krit. 1841, (Acts xxiv. 23).
sec. 436). We cannot say that these two con-     In what order these three epistles were written
siderations appear to us so cogently decisive of this it is not possible clearly to determine. Between
question as they do to Dr. Wiggers. For, not to that to the Colossians and that to the Ephesians
insist upon the obvious incoherence of the one with the coincidences are so close and numerous (see
the other, it does not by any means appear neces- Home's Introduction, vol. iv. p. 381; Davidson,
sary that Paul should have commended Onesi- ii. 344) that the one must have been written immemus to the care of the church at Ephesus in case diately after the other, whilst the mind of the
of his passing through that city, seeing he was the Apostle was occupied with the same leading train of
companion of one whose introduction would be thought. By the greater part the priority is asenough to secure their kind offices on his behalf; signed to the Epistle to the Ephesians; though for
and surely there is nothing improbable in the sup- this no more convincing argument has been adposition that Paul should have sent Tychicus on  duced than that urged as conclusive by Lardner,
the same errand both to Colossoe and to Ephesus, viz., the omission of Timothy's name in the salutaeven though he must needs pass through the one to tion of the Epistle to the Ephesians, from which it
reach the other. A recent writer has urged some is inferred that this epistle was written before the
chronological difficulties, which he thinks decisive arrival of Timothy, and consequently before the
of the question in favour of Csesarea.' If,' says writing of that to the Colossians, in which his name
he,' these epistles are genuine, and also Philip- occurs along with that of the Apostle's. But this
pians and 2 Timothy, it is impossible to reduce all assumes that the only possible reason for the omischronologically to the time of Paul's imprisonment sion was the absence of Timothy from Rome, an
at Rome. This appears from the following dates: assumption which can hardly be granted, as other
-I. Paul narrates, 2 Tim. iv. 12, that he has sent reasons besides this may be supposed; and moreTychicus to Ephesus; now, since in Eph. vi. 21, over, even supposing the arrival of Timothy took
and Col. iv. 7, he announces this mission, 2 Tim. place in the brief interval between the writing of




COLOSSIANS                   538               COLOSSIANS
the two epistles, yet, as the two were sent off to- having formerly been amongst the Colossians, for
gether, we can hardly say it was the absence of the vdeb airez[u is used properly only of such abTimothy which caused the omission in that to the  sence as arises from the person's havinoggone away
Ephesians, for had the Apostle thought it neces- f-om the place of which his absence is predicated.
sary, he would have inserted it before sending off In support of the same view have been adduced
the epistle. For the priority of the Epistle to the  Paul's having twice visited and gone through PhryColossians, it has been argued that this supposition  gia (Acts xvi. 6; xviii. 23), in which Colossie was
best explains the force of the conjunction Kal be- a chief city; his familiar acquaintance with so
fore b/Ulcs in Eph. vi. 21, which seems to imply  many of the Colossian Christians, Epaphras, Arthat the same knowledge had been conveyed to   chippus, Philemon (who was one of his own conothers; and as Paul makes the same statement to  verts, Phil. 13, I9), and Apphia, probably the wife
the Colossians, but without the Kal v/els, it is of Philemon [APPHIA]; his apparent acquaintance
argued that the recollection of having made that with Onesimus, the slave of Philemon, so that he
statement being in his mind when he was writing  recognised him again at Rome; the cordiality of
to the Ephesians, he expressed himself in the man- friendship and interest subsisting between the
ner above noted. This, it must be allowed, is not Apostle and the Colossians as a body (Col. i. 24,
very satisfactory; for, as an argument, it holds 25; ii. I; iv. 7, etc.); the Apostle's familiar acgood only on the supposition either that the Epistle  quaintance with their state and relations (i. 6;
to the Colossians was to be read also and first by ii. 6, 7, etc.); and their knowledge of so many of
the Ephesians, or that the Apostle fell uncon- his companions, and especially of Timothy, whose
sciously into the mistake of supposing, that be- name the Apostle associates with his own at the
cause what he had written to the Colossians was commencement of the epistle, a circumstance which
fresh in his own recollection, it must be as well is worthy of consideration from this, that Timothy
known to the Ephesians. There is much more was the companion of Paul during his first tour
force in the argument based on the different tone through Phrygia, when probably the Gospel was
and train of sentiment in the two epistles; that to first preached at Colossse. Of these considerations
the Colossians having much more the appearance it must be allowed that the cumulative force is very
of what would be called forth on the first contem- strong in favour of the opinion that the Christians
plation of the subject, while in that to the Ephe- at Colossce had been privileged to enjoy the persians there seems to be more of the fulness, ma- sonal ministrations of Paul. At the same time, if
tureness, and elevation, which flow from greater the Colossians and Laodiceans are not to be infamiliarity with the subject (see Neander, Apostol. cluded among those of whom Paul says they had
Age, I. 329; Alford, N. T. iii. Proleg. 4I). This, not seen his face, it seems unaccountable that in
however, is a subjective reason, of the force of writing to the Colossians he should have referred
which different persons might judge very diffe- to this class at all. If, moreover, he had visited
rently. The Epistle to Philemon being a mere the Colossians, was it not strange that he should
friendly letter, intended chiefly to facilitate the have no deeper feeling towards them than he had
reconciliation of Onesimus to his master, was pro- for the multitudes of Christians scattered over the
bably written immediately before the departure of world whose faces he had never seen? In fine, as
the party by whom it was to be carried.       it is quite possible that Paul may have been twice in
The Epistle to the Colossians was written, ap- Phrygia without being once in Colossie, is it not
parently, in consequence of information received  easy also to account for his interest in the church
by Paul through Epaphras concerning the internal at Colossse, his knowledge of their affairs, and his
state of their church (i. 6-8). Whether the Apostle acquaintance with individuals among them, by suphad ever himself before this time visited Colosse posing that members of that church had frequently
is matter of uncertainty and dispute. From ch. ii. I, visited him in different places, though he had never
where he says,' I would that ye knew what great visited Colossoe?
conflict I have for you and for them at Laodicea,  A great part of this Epistle is directed against
and for as many as have not seen my face in the certain false teachers who had crept into the
flesh,' etc., it has by some been very confidently  church at Colossoe. To what class these teachers
concluded that he had not. To this it is replied  belonged has not been fully determined. Heinby Theodoret, Lardner, and others, that Paul does richs (Nov. Test. Koppian. vol. vii. part ii. p. 156)
not intend to include the Colossians and Laodiceans contends that they were disciples of John the Bapamong those who had not seen his face, but spe- tist.  Michaelis and Storr, with more show of
cifies the latter as a distinct class; as is evident, reason, conclude that they were Essenes.  Hug
they think, from his using the third person in v. 2. (Introd. vol. ii. p. 449, E. T.) traces their system
This latter consideration, however, is of no weight, to the Magian philosophy, of which the outlines
for the use of the third person here is easily ac- are furnished by Iamblichus. But the best opinion
counted for on the principle that the pronoun takes seems to be that of Neander (lib. cit. i. 374, ff.) by
the person of the nearer noun rather than that of whom they are represented as a party of specuthe more remote (cf. Gal. i. 8); and it certainly latists who endeavoured to combine the doctrines
would be absurd to maintain that all contained in  of Oriental theosophy and asceticism with Christhe second verse has no relation to the Colossians tianity, and promised thereby to their disciples a
and Laodiceans, notwithstanding the reference to  deeper insight into the spiritual world, and a fuller
them in ver. I, and again in ver. 4. As respects approximation to heavenly purity and intelligence
the words in ver. I, they will, in a mere philo- than simple Christianity could yield. Against this
logical point of view, bear to be understood in  party the Apostle argues by reminding the Coloseither way. It has been urged, however, that sians that in Jesus Christ, as set before them in
when, in ver. 5, the Apostle says,' though I am  the Gospel, they had all that they required-that
absent in the flesh, yet am I with you in the spirit,' he was the image of the invisible God, that he was
etc.> his language is strongly indicative of his before all things, that by him all things consist,




COLOSSIANS                   539                 COLOURS
that they were complete in him, and that he would to the Crediilfitty, Works, 6, p. 327, 377; Schulz
present them to God holy, unblameable, and unre- in the Theologiosche Studien und ICritiken for 1829,
provable, provided they continued steadfast in the p. 612, ff.; Wiggers, Ibid. for 1838; Wieseler,
faith. He then shews that the prescriptions of a  Chronologie des Apostol. Zeitaeter; Neander, Aposmere carnal asceticism are not worthy of being sub- to/. Zeitalter, i. 395-405, E. T. i. 319, ff., Bohn's
mitted to by Christians; and concludes by direct- ed.; Bbttger, Beitrige zur Einleit. in die Pazlizn.
ing their attention to the elevated principles which  Brife; Schneckenburger Beitraige zzr Einleit. u.
should regulate the conscience and conduct of such, s. w.]- W. L. A.
and the duties of social and domestic life to which.   T    n      o     r      rrn
these would prompt.
these would prompt.                              COLOURS. The names of colours occurring
In the conclusion of the epistle, the Apostle, in the 0. T. are the following:-I.:$; 2..f;
after sending to the Colossians the salutations of;  4; 5.; 6. I1; 7. "
himself and others who were with him, enjoins; 5.; 6.; 7.;
the Colossians to send this epistle to the Laodi- 8.  il-; 9. p1; IO. to'; II. ~1; 12.
ceans, and that they likewise should read Ttv, &K ~1; 13.     14l; 14'. t.; 15.  -3i; i6. y;
AaotKeias.  It is disputed whether by these con-.   "';            I9.' T  *g. "  f
cluding words Paul intends an epistle from him  17. t.Pi.; I8.    n.i;    I9. n        Of
to the Laodiceans or one from the Laodiceans to these the first nine are simple natural colours; the
him. The use of the preposition eK favours the nt six are compound natural colours; and the
latter conclusion, and this has been strongly urged  emaining four are artificial colours. Besices these,
by Theodoret, Chrysostom, Jerome, Philastrius, such words as W, }t, ym    are used to describe
CEcumenius, Calvin, Beza, Storr, and a multi-           s      n    
tude of other interpreters. Winer, however, clearly wzagte objects; but in them the term is properly the
shews that the preposition here may be under designation of the object, not of its colour; the
the law of attraction, and that the full force of colour in fact is expressed only in the translation.
the passage may be thus given-' that written to In the N. T. the colours mentioned are XweVKs,
the Laodiceans and to be brought from Laodicea  daXas, ruvppbs, XXcopb, rop.ipa, rrp op/ipeos, KOKto you' (Grammatik d. Neutestament/. Sprachi- Kc1os.
dioms, s. 434, Leipz. 1830).  It must be allowed  I DESCRIPTION OF COLOURS.
that such an interpretation of the Apostle's words. 
is in itself more probable than the other; for   A. Simpte Natzral Colours.
supposing him to refer to a letter from the Lao-  I. t.   By this the Hebrews properly desigdiceans to him, the questions arise, How were  n      t   s      n      
the Colossians to procure this unless he himself a ed t     lee     n. xxx. 35, 37)w to mi
sent it to them? And of what use would such a  (Gen. xlix. (12), to manna (Exod. xvi. 31), to
document be to them? To this latter question it hair diseased by leprosy (Lev. xiii. 3), to garhas been replied that probably the letter from the ments (Eccles. ix. 8), to horses (Zech. i. ), etc.
Laodiceans contained some statements which in- The corresponding Greek term is XvKs, though
fluenced the Apostle in writing to the Colossians,   sometimes used in the.. to designate
and which required to be known before his letter  something more than mere witeness-the dazzling
in reply could be perfectly understood. But this brilliancy of light reflected from a bright surface
is said without the slightest shadow of reason  (. x. 2     x; Rev. i. 14; com
from the epistle before us; and it is opposed by Josep. xe  el.  Xd. v. 5 6; Hen.gstenberg on
Joseph. De Bell. Yud. v. 5. 6; Hengstenberg on
the fact that the Laodicean epistle was to be used  
by the Colossians after they had read that to them-   2.           from       to   bri 
2. nX. This word, from N MY, to be bright, of
selves (6rav e vayvwacr-, K.. X.) It seems, upon 
the whole, most likely that Paul in this passage a dazzling white, is sometimes used to denote that
refers to an epistle sent by him to the church in which is bright, clear, shining (Is. xviii. 4; Jer. iv.
Laodicea at the same time with that to the church  1I; Is. xxxii. 4). It is used once of colour (Song
at Colosse. It is probable also that this epistle of Songs v. io), where it is joined with 1H1N, and
is now lost, though the suggestion of Grotius that designates the natural white of a healthy and beauit was the same with the canonical Epistle to the tiful countenance.  It is said to be the intensive of
Ephesians has found some advocates [EPHESIANS, 1:1, but this may be doubted; *l5 is used to
EPISTLE TO THE]. The extant epistle to the Lao- describe the purest white; rt rather describes the
diceans is on all hands allowed to be a clumsy brilliancy of the complexion than the intensity of
forgery (Michaelis, Introd. vol. iv. p. 124, f.; the colour. Sept. XevKos.
HIug, Introd. ii. 436; Steiger, Colosserbr. in loc.;. 3  I. This word occurs only in the Chaldee
Heinrichs, in loc.; Raphel, in loc.)              -
Commnentaries-Davenant, Cantab. 1627, fol., of Dan. vii. 9; but it stands connected with the
translated by the Rev. J. Allport, 2 vols. vo, Hebrew  1jn, wzate lienz, and the verb 1, to beLond. 183I-32; Storr, in his OpzUscula, ii. 120- come w/ite, as the face does when shame causes
241; Bohmer, 8vo, Berol. 1829; Bahr, 8vo, Basel, paleness (Is. xxix. 29). It is used in Dan. of snow,
1830; Steiger, 8vo, Erlangen, 1835; Huther, to the whiteness of which the colour of the gar2 vols. 8vo, Hamb. 1841; Eadie, 8vo, Glasg. I856; ment of the Ancient of days is compared.  Sept.
Ellicott, Svo, Lond. 1858; and the Commentaries XevK6S.
of De Wette, Olshausen, Meyer, Alford; and       4.  W or r, to be gray or hoary (I Sam. xii.
Conybeare and Howson's Life anzd Epistles of St.
Coaybea^e and Wowson's Lrfe aszd Epii ^,^s of S~  2); hence,n:P^g, grayness or hoaryness (t-Ios. vii.
Paid, Lond. 1850-2.  For further information, see2) hence     grayness or oaryness (Hos. vii.
the Introductions of Michaelis, Horne, Davidson,  9; Set. 7roohal).
De Wette, Feilmoser, Reuss, Bleelk, and the Pro-  5. thgW. This is the proper term for black.  It
tegromenza in Commentaries; Lardner, S5iplemenzt is applied to hair (Lev. xiii. 31, 37), to horses




COLOURS                    540                 COLOURS
(Zech vi. 2), to the plumage of a raven (Song v. in the passage cited, that the distinction named was
II). It is used also for a swarthy countenance a rare one. In the East at the present day the
(Song i. 5). The verb from which it comes is used  breed of white asses is carefully preserved for the
(Job xxx. 30) of the countenance blackened by use of state dignitaries.
disease. Sept. /eXas, except in Lev. xiii. 31,   3. 1jD. This is applied to he-goats, and is
where we have ~avOI~'ovoa, probably in consequence
where we have 49v~iroua, probably in consequence  rendered in the A. V. ring-streaked (Gen. xxx.
of the use of this word in the preceding verse.  eeed i te. V. rig-stroeak    (Gen. xxx.
6.  rlpl, of a dark-brown hue, from tin to be 3   ); Sept.  a      S    
burnt, to be dark-coloured; used of sheep (Gen.  V1i- According to the last two, with which
xxx. 32, ff.).  Sept. pac6s (= XpcfJL'a vjvOerov K the Arabic version also agrees, the peculiarity
dXcavoos Kal XevKoV, -yovv 64ivov, Suidas.)    specified is that of being white-footed. But this
7., the proper term for red>; used of gar- requires an Arabic etymology, and it seems better
7.,~lR, the proper term for red I used of gar- to trace the word to the Hebrew'I,, to streak or
ments stained with blood (Is. lxiii. 2); of a heifer mark with bands, and to understand it of a skin
(Num. xix. 2); of a horse (not as Gesenius sug-marked with white bands.
gests, because of its being of a chestnut or bay  4. ip:, used also of sheep or goats (Gen. xxx.
colour, but because of its symbolically indicating  32, ff.) A. V. spckled; Sept. woucixos, probably
bloodshed and war, Zech. i. 8; vi. 2); of water white spots on a dark ground.
(2 Kings iii. 22) coloured either by red earth           (       x         A.., 
(Ewald, Keil, Fiirst), or by the rays of the rising  5. T. (Gen. xxx. 32, if.);. V. s5otted, persun (Thenius); of the complexion of a young and  haps white and black intermixed; the white porbeautiful person (Song v. Io); comp. 19N1, Lam. tions being larger than where lpj is used.
iv. 7. To express the subordinate idea of reddish,  6. No, used of goats (Gen. xxxi. IO), and of
a diminutive from this word 107UJi is used (Lev. h                6. It probably means piehorses (Zech. vi. 3, 6). It probably means piexiii. 10; xiv. 37). From it also is taken the name  in which the portions of white are still larger
aIl, which designates the ruby or the garnet   than in thepreceding.  (Jacob wasto ave all the
8.       This word is used (Lev. xm. 30) togoats that had any white in them, whether merely
describe the colour of the hair of a leprous person. speckled or spotted, or piebald or streaked).
In the A. V. it is rendered yellow; LXX.  av-    C. 
Oiovuaa; Vulg. fiavs.  It was probably of a dun  C    rtcia Colomrs.
yellow inclining to red.                         I. PF6iI. This word, wherever it occurs, the
9. pjb, a pale green colour, inclining to yellow; LXX. reder by bKvOos, or iaKivO os, except at
used of fresh herbs (2 Kings xix. 26; Is. xxxvii. Num. iv. 7, where 0Xor0bprvpov is used; and in this
27), and as a noun to designate the produce of the rendering Philo, Josephus, and the Church Fathers
garden generally (p'p l~, a garden of herbs, Deut. concur (Bochart, Hieroz. ii. 5; IO, p. 728). We
xi,. o, etc.; comp. our greens). Another noun from  may therefore regard them as synonymous terms.
the same root, PD, yereq, is used to designate But what colour is Hyacinth?  This name belongs
generally all vegetable products (Gen. i. 30; ix. 3, both to a flower and a gem. The flower, however,
etc.) Another cognate noun ljt11' yeraqon, is used is of various hues, and the gem is said by some to
of the greenish pallor which fear produces on the be the sapphire, by others the amethyst, and by
countenance (Jer. xxx. 6), as well as the peculiar others the carbuncle.  We must, therefore, go
greenish yellow hue of withering plants (Deut. into a wider field of induction, and see how the
xxviii. 22; Am. iv. 9; Hag. ii. r7; A. V. blast- terms 3Icbivos and VCaKlvOlvos are applied by the
ing). Where the yellow predominated still more ancients, if we would determine with any approxiover the green the word used was pp1D3   y'raqraq mate certainty the colour thus denoted. Now we
(Lev. xiii. 49; xiv. 37, greenish, A. V.; Ps. lxviii. find Homer comparing hair to it (Odyss. vi. 231;
14, yellow, A. V.) The word p:)' ra'anan, is fre- xxiii. 158, where Eustathius says it indicates black
quently translated green in the A. V., but it has no  hair); so also Theocritus (Idyll. x. 28) says the
direct relation to colour; it means fresh, vigorous, hyacinth is black. That in the latter case, howflourishing; it is green only in the translation,  ever, black is used in the sense of dark-coloured,
BI. Mixed Natral Colours,                   is evident from the same term being applied in the
same line to the violet ( op AXv  iTi,;v comp. VirI. ph;, fox-coloured or chestnut, a mixture of gil's Niger, Ecl. ii. 18). Ovid expressly says that
red and brown (Zech. i. 8). On the ground that the colour of the hyacinth is purple (AMe. x. 213);
this term is applied to grapes (Is. xvi. 8), it has been  Virgil that it is red (Ecl. iii. 63) and ferrugineous
contended that it means also purple; but the juci- (Georg. iv. 183), that is, as Servius explains,
est grapes are not so much purple as reddish' vicinus purpurse subnigre;' and Pliny identifies
brown.                                        its colour with that of the vaccinhiu  or blackberry
2. ily, applied to asses (Judg. v. O).   It (xvi. I8, cf. xxi. 26), and says that it is' color violaT2.  applied to as..   tceus dilutus' (xxxvii. 9). It is represented also concomes from the same root as Fth, and the only tinually as the colour of the heavens and of the sea.
reason assigned for regarding it as having any dif- Philo (de vit. Mosis iii. p. 671) calls it o-a6p3oXov, or
ferent meaning from that word, is, that perfectly  ec,uayieov adpos, and with this Josephus (Ansti. iii.
white asses are so rare, that it cannot be supposed  6. 4; 7. 8) accords. The Gemara says,'techelet
it was a common thing for judges to ride on them. similis mari et mare firmamento' (Menach. 4);
Hence the rendering white-red has been advocated  Abarbanel (on Exod. xxv. 4) describes it as
(Gesenius, Fiirst, Bertheau), meaning by that white' sericum infectun colore, qui mari similis est;'
and red mixed, or red spotted with white. But and IKimchi makes it azure or ultramarine. This
asses might be called white, though not peifectly  would lead to the conclusion that the colour called
white; and it is evident from the style of address by the ancients hyacinthine was blue; and as blue




COLOURS                    511                 COLOURS
deepens into black, especially when we look into rendered by the LXX. by fbtros, in the latter by
the depths of the air or of the sea, this will account ypa0is.  That it was a dye of a red colour is cerfor the term being applied as synonymous with tain, but opinions are divided between identifying
purple or black. The hair, like a hyacinth, of it with red lead and with vermilion. As this colour
Homer was doubtless dark shining hair, which, was used in fresco paintings, it is probably the
seen under certain aspects, had a purplish hue; vermilion still discernible on the sculptures of the
just as claret wine appears blue or purple accord- Assyrian palaces (Bonomi, Nineveh and its Palaces,
ing to the light. The conclusion at which Bochart p. 206).
arrives as the result of his elaborate investigation   SMBOLICAL SGNIFICANCE OF COLOURS.
is, that the hyacinthine colour' eundem esse cum
coeruleo aut saltem illi vicinum;' and.with this  Throughout antiquity colour occupied an impormost have concurred.  Hartmann (Die IebrdIerin tant place in the symbology both of sentiment and
amn Pdtztische, i. 374; iii. I28, etc.), whom Ge- of worship. Of the analogies on which these symsenius and Winer follow, contends that it was pro- bolical meanings were founded, some lie on the
perly the purple or violet colour; but his principal surface, while others are more recondite. Thus
reason for this, viz., that the ancients often identify wAite was everywhere the symbol of purity and the
it with wropof pa, is without weight, inasmuch as we emblem of innocence; hence it was the dress of
know that they used this word so widely as to com- the high priest on the day of atonement, his holy
prehend a vast range of colours, so that' omnia dress (Lev. xvi. 4, 32); the angels as holy (Zech.
splendida, elegantia, venusta et nitescentia vocantur xiv. 5; Job xv. I5), appear in white clothing
purpura' (Ugolini, Thes. Antiy. Sac. xiii. p. 299); (Mark xvi. 5; John xx. 2); and the bride, the
thus Horace speaks of'Purpurei olores' (Od. iv. Lamb's wife, was arrayed in white, which is
I. Io); Virgil celebrates a'Ver purpureum' (Ec. explained as emblematical of the &cKatl(caTa rTWv
ix. 40); and Aulus Gellius tells us, that when a poet &yiaov (Rev. xix. 8). White was also the sign of
whom he quotes says of the wind,'purpurat un- festivity (Eccl. ix. 8; comp. the albatus of Horace,
das,' he means' quod ventus mare crispificans nite- Sat. ii. 2. 6) and of triumph5 (Zech. vi. 3; Rev.
facit' (Noct. A4tt. xviii. I I). In Scripture this term  vi. 2; see Wetstein, N. T. in loc.) As the lightis applied to a string or loop (Exod. xxvi. 4), to a colour (comp. Matt. xvii. 2, etc.) white was also the
veil or cloth (xxvi. 31), to a lace or fringe (xxviii. symbol of glory and mzajesty (Dan. vii. 9; comp.
28), and to the priest's robe (xxviii. 3I), and to  Ps. civ. 2; Ezek. ix. 3, if.; Dan. xii. 6, ff.; Matt.
cloth stuffs (Ezek. xxvii. 24).                xxvii. 3; John xx. 12; Acts x. 30).   As the
2.  Al ae a d tt tis is         opposite of white, black was the emblem of mourn2. I1D?. All are agreed that this is properly  ig, aficion, calamity (Jer. xiv. 2; Lam. iv. 8;
what we now call puzrple-' color sanguinis con- v. Io; comp. the atralis and toga pulla of Cicero
creti, nigricans aspectu, idemque suspectu refulgens' in Valin. 13); it was also the sign of hunzilia(Plin. H. N. ix. 38). The purple, Kar' 6bXrv, tion (Mal. iii. I4) and the omen of evil (Zech.
was the 310ac5os or Tyrian purple, the dye of which vi. 2; Rev. vi. 5).  Red indicated, poetically,
was obtained from the zmurex Tyrizus. It is sup- bloodshed and war (Nah. ii. 4 (A. V. 3); Zech. vi.
posed by some that the reference is to this mollusk  2; Rev. vi. 4). Green was the emblem of freshin Song vii. 5, where the hair of the bride is com- ness, vizgour, and prosperity (Ps. xcii. 15; lii. 0;
pared to PDMIN, but it is probably to the colour of xxxvii. 35). Blue, or hyacinth, or cerulean, was
the hair as dark and lustrous that the allusion is. the symbol of revelation; it was pre-eminently the
This word is frequently combined with the pre- coelestial colour, even among heathen nations
ceding, an additional evidence that the latter was (comp. e.g., Jer. ix. o0 of the idols of Babylon,
not regarded as properly a purple.             and what Eusebius says, Prep. Evang. iii. ii, of
3. OW ni3n. These words mean literally worl the omcovpybs KIv, and the Crishna of the Hindoo mythology); and among the Hebrews it was
of lustre, or brighzt worln (from Ar.  9, to shine), the Jehovah colour, the symbol of the revealed
God (comp. Exod. xxiv. Io; Ezek. i. 26). Hence
and they are used to designate an insect, or species it was the colour predominant in the Mosaic cereof woodlouse (coccus ilicis, Linn.), which haunts monial; and it was the colour prescribed for the
the leaves of the ilex aculeala, from which the dye ribbon of the fringe in the border of the garment
of the crimson was procured.  The corresponding  of every Israelite, that as they looked on it they
Greek name is K6KKOS, and by this the LXX. in- might remember all the commandments of Jehovah
variably render it. The coccus is frequently called  (Num. xv. 38, 39). With purpe, as the dress of
the Phcenician colour, because chiefly produced by kings, were associated ideas of royalty and mcjesty
the Phcenicians; it was highly esteemed by the  (Judg. viii. 26; Esth. viii. 15; Song iii. 10; vii.
ancients, and was the colour adopted by men of 5; Dan. v. 7, i6, 29; comp. Odyss. xix. 225, the
high rank (Martial, Epig. ii. 39, I; iii. 2, 11, etc. pallizmz pzJepureum  of the Jupiter Capitolinus at
Sueton. 1Domit. 4. Comp. Gen. xxxviii. 28; Jer. Rome, the jurpuroea vestis of Phcebus (Ovid.
iv. 30; Matt. xxvii. 28, etc.)  Many of the fur- lMetamz. ii. I, 23), the XXhae/es iropqphpat of the
nishings of the tabernacle, and some parts of the Dioscuri (Pausan. iv. 27), the 7roppvpoTy&vrTos of
priests' clothing, were of this colour (Exod. xxviii. the Byzantines, etc.) C(rimson and scarlet, from
5; xxxviii. I8; xxxix. I, ff.; Num. iv. 8, etc.) their resemblance to blood (probably) became
Sometimes WV alone is used (Gen. xxxviii. 28-30), symbolical of life; hence it was a crimson thread
and sometimes VJT    alone (Is. i. 18) for this which Rahab was to bind on her window as a
colour. In the A. V. it is generally translated  sign that she was to be saved alive when Jericho
scarlet.                                       was destroyed (Josh. ii. I; vi. 25), and it was
4.  This wod o s Jr  xi      crimson which the priest was to use as a means of
4- 3~.'   This word occurs Jer. xxii. 14; restoring those who had contracted defilement by
Ezek. xxiii. 14; in the former of which places it is touching a dead body (Num. xix. 6-22). From




COMFORTER                    542               COMMENTARY
its intensity and fixedness this colour is also used  tion of sentences, the peculiarities of the diction
to symbolize what is indelible or deeply engrained  employed, the difficulties belonging to certain comr
(Is. i. i8). The colours chiefly used in the binations of words, and the mode in which they
Mosaic ritual were white, hyacinth (blue), purple, affect the general meaning. But this is only a
and crimson. It is a superficial view which con- small part of the business belonging to a commencludes that these were used merely from  their tator. He may be able to unfold the significations
brilliancy (Braun, de Vest. Sa. Heb.; Bihr, Sym. of words with discriminating nicety; with the genius
d. AMos. Czdt.)-W. L. A.                       of language he may be familiar; he may clearly
COMFORTER.       [PARACLETUS.]               perceive all its idioms, and rightly apprehend its
difficult phrases; in short, as far as verbal criticism
COMMENTARY. In the discussion of this is concerned, he may be a consummate master,
subject we propose to pursue the following ar- while he may prove an indifferent commentator.
rangement:-                                    True commentary embraces much more than an
I. To inquire what is meant by commentary.   acquaintance with isolated words and phrases, or
2. To notice different kinds of commentary.  with the grammatical principles of the Hebrew and
3. To mention the prominent defects of existing  Greek languages. It fills a more extended and
commentaries.                                  elevated sphere than simple philology.  It takes a
4. To review the leading and best known com- higher range than lexical minutiae or rhetorical admentaries.                                    justment. These, indeed, form one of its elements;
I. By commentary, in its theological application, but they are far from being the only feature by
is usually meant an exhibition of the meaning which  which it is distinguished.
the sacred writers intended to convey; or a develop-  (b.) Another characteristic of commentary is an
ment of the truths which the Holy Spirit willed to  exhibition of the writer's scope, or the end he has
communicate to men for their saving enlightenment. in view in a particular place. It ascertains the
This is usually effected by notes more or less ex- precise idea he intended to inculcate in a given
tended-by a series of remarks, critical, philologi- locality, and how it contributes to the general truth
cal, grammatical, or popular, whose purport is to  enforced. Every particle and word, every phrase
bring out into view the exact sentiments which the and sentence, form links in the chain of reasoning
inspired authors meant to express. The ideas con- drawn out by an inspired author-steps in the protained in the 0. and N. T. are thus transferred gress of his statements.  It is therefore essential to
into other languages, and rendered intelligible by  perceive what contribution they make to the import
the help of oral or written signs. There is a high  of an entire passage, whether in the way of enrichand sacred meaning in the words of holy men who  ing or qualifying the sentiments embodied. A comspake as they were moved. To adduce this in a mentary should thus exhibit the design of a writer
perspicuous form is the important office of the com- in a certain connection-the arguments he employs
mentator. As there never has been, and from the to establish his positions, their coherence with one
nature of the case there never can be, a universal another, their general harmony, and the degree of
language, God selected for the revelation of his will importance assigned to them. The drift of a disthose languages which were in all respects the  course should never be lost sight of; else an author
fittest media for such a purpose.  Hence arises the will be misunderstood and misinterpreted.
necessity of transplanting from these individual dia-  (c.) In addition to this, the train of thought or
lects the momentous truths they were selected to reasoning pursued throughout an entire book or
express; and of clothing in the costume of various epistle, the various topics discussed, the great end
people, as far as that costume can be adapted to  of the whole, with the subordinate particulars it
such an object, the precise sentiments which were embraces, the digressions made by the writerin the minds of the inspired writers.  It is true these and other particulars of a like nature should
that this can only be imperfectly done, owing to be pointed out by the true commentator.  The
the various causes by which every language is connection of one argument with another, the conaffected; but the substance of revelation may be  sistency and ultimate bearing of all the statements
adequately embodied in a great variety of garb. The  advanced-in short, their various relations, as far
truths that make wise unto salvation are capable of as these are developed or intimated by the author,
being fairly represented in every tongue and dialect should be clearly apprehended and intelligently
under heaven.  There is an adaptation in their stated. There is a plan or purpose that pervades
nattire to the usage of every language that can  every book, epistle, or prophecy of the sacred
possibly arise. The relation of immortal beings to  writers; a plan which does not indeed wholly extheir great Creator is everywhere the same; and  clude, but usually takes precedence of, other obthe duties consequent upon such a relation are also jects to which the book may be subservient. To
identical.  Their wants and necessities, too, are trace such a plan, as it is carried out by the original
essentially alike.  Hence there is a peculiar fitness writer, and to unfold the particular mode in which
in divine truth for appearing without injury in the it promotes the highest interests of mankind, is one
linguistic costumes of different tribes.       of the chief characteristics of commentary.
The characteristics of commentary are,-        (d.) Another characteristic of commentary is,
(a.) An elucidation of the meaning belonging  that it presents a comparison of the sentiments conto the words, phrases, and idioms of the original,  tained in one book, or one entire connected portion
The signification of terms is generic or specific. of Scripture, with those of another, and with the
A variety of senses also belongs to the same term, general tenor of revelation. A beautiful harmony
according to the position it occupies. Now a com- pervades the Bible. Diversities, indeed, it exhibits,
mentary points out the particular meaning belong- just as we should expect it a.priori to do; it presents
ing to a term in a particular place, together with  difficulties and mysteries which we cannot fathom;
the reason of its bearing such a sense.  So with  but, with this variety, there is a uniformity worthy
phrases. It should likewise explain the construc- of the wisdom of God.  All his worlss are cistin



COMMENTARY                     543              COMMENTARY
guished by the same kind of arrangement; and the places alone are selected as their object; at other
revelation of his will forms no exception. A com- times they embrace continuously an entire book.
mentator should therefore bring into juxtaposition  In every case brevity is, or ought to be, their disthe various portions of the divine word, and point out tinguishing feature.
their divine symmetry. He should be able to ac-   2. There are two kinds of commentary which we
count for diversities of sentiment, in reference to shall notice, viz., the critical and the popular. The
the same topic, that appear in the pages of books former contains grammatical and philological rewritten at different periods, and addressed to indi- marks, unfolds the general and special significations
viduals or communities whose circumstances, in- of words, points out idioms and peculiarities of the
tellectual and physical, were dissimilar. An ex- original languages, and always brings into view the
position that fails to do this is deficient in one of its Hebrew or Greek phraseology employed by the
highest qualities.  Without it, religious truth will sacred writers.  It dilates on the peculiarities and
be seen in disjointed fragments; no connected   difficulties of construction which may present themsystem, progressive and harmonious in its parts, selves, referring to various readings, and occasionwill meet the eye. The adaptation of the entire  ally bringing into comparison the sentiments and
scheme of revelation to the salvation of mankind  diction of profane writers where they resemble those
will be dimly apprehended, while there is no com- of the Bible. In a word, it takes a wide range,
prehensive survey of its fair proportions.      while it states the processes which lead to results,
From what has been stated in regard to the con- and does not shrink from employing the technical
stituents of commentary, it will also be seen that it language common to scholars. In this way the
differs from translation.  The latter endeavours to  meaning of the original is brought out. Extended
find in another language equivalent terms expressive  dissertations are sometimes given, in which the
of the ideas which the words of the Hebrew and  language is made the direct subject of examination;
Greek languages were framed to convey.  It seeks and the aid of lexicons and grammars called in to
to embody the same sentiments as are contained in support or confirm a certain interpretation.  Poputhe Scriptures, by means of phraseology closely  ar commentary states in perspicuous and untechnicorresponding in its symbolical character to the  cal phraseology the sentiments of the holy writers,
diction of the Bible. It is easy to see, however, without usually detailing the steps by which that
that in many cases this cannot be done; and that meaning has been discovered.  It leaves philologiin others it can be effected very imperfectly. There  cal observations to those whose taste leads them to
are and must be a thousand varieties of conception  such studies.  All scientific investigations are
expressed in the original languages of Scripture, of avoided.  Its great object is to present, in an atwhich no other can afford an adequate representa-  ractiveform, the thoughts of the sacred authors,
tion. The inhabitants of the countries where the  so that they may vividly impress the mind and insacred books were written lived amid circumstances terest the heart.  It shuns all peculiarities that
in many respects diverse from those of other people. might repel the simple-minded, reflecting reader of
These circumstances naturally gave a colouring to the Bible, and endeavours to adduce the truth of
their language.  They affected it in such a way as God without minute details or tedious digressions.
to create terms for which there are no equivalents It avoids everything that a reader unacquainted
in the languages of tribes who are conversant with  with Hebrew and Greek would not understand;
different objects, and live amid different relations. and occupies itself solely with the theology of the
Translation fails in numerous instances, just because inspired authors-that holy sense which enlightens
the language of one people contains words and   and saves mankind. This, however, is rather what
idioms to which that of none other presents fit popular commentary should do, than what it has
counterparts.  In such a case, no expedient is left hitherto done. We have described the appropriate
but circumlocution.  By the help of severaliphrases, sphere of its duty, rather than the province which it
we must try to approximate at least the sentiment has actually occupied.
or shade of thought which the inspired writers de-  The limits of critical and tpopular commentary are
signed to express.  Where exact erepsentatives can- not so wide as to prevent a partial union of both.
not be found, we bring together various terms which  Their ultimate object is the same, viz., to present
may give as vivid a representation of the original as the exact meaning which the sacred writers intended
can be effected through the medium of the lan- to express. Both may state the import of words
guageinwhichthe interpretation is given. Commen- and phrases; both may investigate the course of
tary is thus more diffuse than translation.  Its ob- thought pursued by prophets and apostles. They
ject is not to find words in one language corres- may develop processes of argumentation, the scope
ponding to those of the original languages of the  of the writers' remarks, the bearing of each particuScriptures, or nearly resembling them  in signifi- lar on a certain purpose, and the connection becance, but to set forth the meaning of the writers in tween different portions of Scripture.  In these
notes and remarks of considerable length. Para- respects critical and popular commentary may subphrase occupies a middle place between translation  stantially coincide.  Perhaps the union of both
and commentary; partaking of greater diffuseness presents the best model of commentary, provided
than the former, but of less extent than the latter. the former be divested of learned parade or repulIt aims at finding equivalent terms to those which  sive technicalities; and the latter be perspicuously
the sacred writers employ, accompanied with others full. Yet there is much difficulty in combining
that appear necessary to fill up the sense, or to their respective qualities.  Inpopularising the critispread it out before the mind of the reader in such  cal, and in elevating the popular to the standard of
a form as the authors themselves might be supposed  intelligent interpretation, there is room for the exto have employed in reference to the people to  ercise of great talent. The former is apt to dewhom the paraphrast belongs.  Scholia differ from  generate into pkhilological sterility; the latter into
commentary only in brevity.  They are short notes trite reflection.  But by vizvifing the one, and
on passages of Scripture.   Sometimes difficult solidifying the other, a good degree of affinity may




COMMENTARY                    544              COMMENTARY
be effected. The results which learning has at- the true sense, which ought ever to be the one obtained, by processes unintelligible to all but the ject in view. It is very easy to write, czrrentecalascholar, may surely be presented to the unlearned  mo, anything however remotely connected with a
reader so as to be understood and relished. And passage, or to note down the thoughts as they rise;
what are the results which it is the great object of but to think out the meaning of a place, to exercise
every commentator to realise? They are simply independent mental effort upon it, to apply severe
the ideas which the inspired writers designed to set and rigid examination to each sentence and paraforth.  These constitute theology.  They are em- graph of the original, is quite a different process.
phatically the truth. They are the mind of God, To exhibit in a lucid and self-satisfying manner the
as far as he has thought fit to reveal to men-the  results of deep thought and indomitable industry,
pure and paramount realities whose belief trans- is far from the intention of those prolix interpreforms the sinner into the saint. The commentator ters, who, in their apparent anxiety to compose a
who comes short of this important end, or fails in fall commentary, present the reader with a chaos
exhibiting the whole counsel of God in its gradual of annotations, burying the holy sense of the inunfoldings, is not successful.  It matters little spired writers beneath the rubbish of their prosaic
whether he possess profound learning, if he cannot musings.
exhibit in all their strength and richness the exact  (b.) Some commentators are fond of detailing
thoughts of the holy men who wrote. To this all various opinions, without sifting them. This also
his erudition should be subordinate.  Critical and  we reckon a defect. They procure a number of
antiquarian knowledge should only be regarded as former expositions, and write down out of each
a mean of arriving at such an object. Geographi- what is said upon a text. They tell what one and
cal, chronological, and historical remarks should  another learned annotator affirms; but do not
subserve the purpose just stated. The building  search or scrutinise his affirmations. No doubt an
about which they are employed they should raise, array of names looks imposing; and the reader
strengthen, or consolidate. As long as they contri- may stare with surprise at the extent of research
bute nothing to the rearing or cementing of its displayed; but nothing is easier than to fill up
parts, they are useless lumber. The grand ques- pages with such patchwork, and to be as entirely
tion with every commentator should be, what did ignorant of the nature of commentary as before.
the Holy Ghost mean to express by such a phrase The intelligent reader will be inclined to say, What
or sentence? What train of thought does the in- matters it to me what this rabbi has said, or that
spired writer pursue? what truth does he design to  doctor has stated? I am anxious to know the true
teach, what doctrine to embody, what duty to in- sense of the Scriptures, and not the varying opinculcate? Am I exhibiting as the mind of the Spirit ions of men concerning them.  I long to have the
what I have sufficient reason to believe to be really refreshing truths of the Bible presented to me in
such? Have I examined everything within my their native purity, just as they are found in the
reach, which could be supposed to throw light on pages of inspiration.  Do not perplex me with the
the original, or aid in understanding it?  Has notions of numerous commentators, many of whom
every known circumstance been taken into ac- were utterly incompetent for their task; but let me
count? These and similar questions should never see the mind of the Spirit fully and fairly exhibited,
be lost sight of by the intelligent commentator. In  without the artificial technicalities of scholastic
proportion as he is actuated by the motives they  theology. It is a work of supererogation to collect
imply will he produce a solid and safe exposition, a multitude of annotations from various sources,
such as the sacred original was truly meant to ex- most of which the industrious collector knows to
hibit.                                         be improbable or erroneous. It is folly to adduce
3. The prominent defects of existing commen- and combat interpretations, from which the comtaries.                                        mon sense and simple piety of an unsophisticated
(a.) Prolixity.  This defect chiefly applies to reader turn away with instinctive aversion.  If
the older works: hence their great size. It is not plausible views be stated, they should be thoroughly
uncommon to meet with a large folio volume of analysed.  But in all cases the right meaning ought
commentary on a book of Scripture of moderate to be a prominent thing with the commentator;
extent. Thus Byfield, on the Epistle to the Co- and prominently should it be manifested, surlossians, fills a folio volume; and Venema, on rounded, if possible, with those hues which Heaven
Jeremiah, two quartos. Peter Martyr's' most itself has given it, and qualified by such circumlearned and fruitfull commentaries upon the Epis- stances as the Bible may furnish.
tie to the Romans' occupy a folio, and his'con-  (c.) Another defect consists in dwelling on the
mentarie upon the book of Judges,' another tome easy and evading the dzffcult passages. This feaof the same extent. But Venema on the Psalms, ture belongs especially to those English commenand Caryl on Job, are still more extravagant, the taries which are most current among us.  By a
former extending to no less than six volumes quarto, series of appended remarks, plain statements are
the latter to two goodly folios. It is almost super- expanded; but wherever there is a real perplexity,
fluous to remark that such writers wander away, it is glozed over with marvellous superficiality. It
without confining themselves to exposition.  We may be that much is said about it, yet there is no
do not deny that even their extraneous matter may penetration beneath the surface; and when the
be good and edifying to those who have the patience reader asks himself what is the true import, he
to wade through its labyrinths; but still it is not finds himself in the same state of ignorance as when
commentary. It is not a simple elucidation of the he first took up the Commentary in question.
meaning which the sacred writers intended to ex- Pious refections and multitudinous inferences enter
press. To say everything that it is almost pos- largely into our popular books of exposition. They
sible to say on a passage, or to write down what spiitzualise but do not expound. They sermonise
first comes up in the mind, and nearly in the same upon a book, without catching its spirit or compreform in which it suggests itself, is far from giving hending its meaning.  All this is out of place. A




COMMENTARY                    545              COMMENTARY
preaching, spiritualising commentary does not de- the meaning of the sacred writers, he has few
serve the appellation of commentary at all. When  equals. It has been well remarked that he chiefly
a writer undertakes to educe and exhibit the true attended to the logic of commentary. He possense of the Bible, he should not give forth his own  sessed singular acuteness, united to a deep acmeditations, however just and proper in themselves. quaintance with the human heart, a comprehension
Put in the room of exposition, they are wholly out of mind by which he was able to survey revelation
of place. The simple portions of the Bible are in all its features, and an enlightened understandprecisely those which require little to be said on  ing competent to perceive sound exegetical printhem; while to the more difficult superlative at- ciples, and resolute in adhering to them. He can
tention should be paid. But the reverse order of never be consulted without advantage; although
procedure is followed by our popular commentators. all his opinions should not be followed. His
They piously descant on what is well known, leav- works present specimens of exegesis that deserve
ing the reader in darkness where he most needs as- to be ranked among the best extant, because they
sistance.                                      are occupied with the spiritnal essence of the Bible
The intelligent part of the public are beginning -with the theology of the inspired writers.
to see that no one man, be his industry what it  Beza.-Beza's talents are seen to great advanmay, is competent to write a commentary on the tage in expounding the argumentative parts of the
whole Bible. Let him possess vast learning, great Bible. I-e possessed many of the best exegetical
abilities, sound judgment, mental acumen, and in- qualities which characterised his great master. In
defatigable zeal, he will still find it impossible to tracing the connection of one part with another,
produce a solid commentary on all the canonical and the successive steps of an argument, he disbooks. It is true that one person may write what plays much ability. His acuteness and learning
is commonly styled a commentary embracing the  were considerable. He was better acquainted with
entire Bible, but how little of independent inquiry the theology than the criticism of the N. T.
does such a work present! How feebly does it     Hammond.-This learned annotator was well
trace out the course of thought pursued by each of qualified for interpretation.  His paraphrase and
the inspired writers, the numerous allusions to  annotations on the N. T. possess considerable
manners and customs, the whole meaning of the value; and many good specimens of criticism are
original. Much, very much, is left untouched by found in his notes. Yet he has not entered deeply
it. It pursues an easy path, and difficulties vanish into the spirit of the original, or developed with
before it, because the hijhest object of the right- uniform  success the meaning of the inspired
minded interpreter, so far from being attained, is writers. Many of the most difficult portions he
not sought to be realised. There may be a great has superficially examined, or wholly mistaken.
amount of writing-the thoughts of preceding corn-  Poole.-Poole's annotations on the Holy Bible
mentators may be given in another costume with  contain several valuable, judicious remarks. But
appended reflections; but, in all this, there is no  their defects are numerous. The pious author had
profound or satisfying investigation. The mere only a partial acquaintance with the original. He
surface of revelation is skimmed. The work is was remarkable neither for profundity nor acuteperformed perfunctorily.  Nothing of value is ness. Yet he had piety and good sense, amazing
added to former interpretations. The essence and  industry, and an extensive knowledge of the older
spirit of the original are to a great extent unper- commentators.
ceived. The shades and colourings of thought are  Poll Synopsis Criticorztm.-In this large work,
unreflected. Two or three books are quite suffi- the annotations of a great number of the older
cient for one man, to whatever age he may attain. commentators are collected and condensed. But
By intelligently exponmding them, he will do more they are seldom sifted and criticised, so that the
to advance the cause of sacred interpretation, than  reader is left to choose among them for himself.
if he were to travel over the entire field of the  Such a chaos of remarks is apt to confuse the
Bible.  We prefer a sound and able commentary  mind. Whoever has time, patience, and discrion one book, to a prosing expansion of stale mination, may find correct exegesis scattered
remarks on all.   It displays more real talent, through the whole; but simpler and more direct
as it exhibits more independent thought.  We   commentary is much to be preferred.
value highly the labours of those nmen who devote  Grotizs. —This very learned writer investigates
themselves to a few books, with an honest deter- the literal sense of the Scriptures with great dilimination to ascertain their true meaning, and with  gence and success. He had considerable exegetisuch qualifications intellectual, moral, and literary, cal tact, and a large acquaintance with the heathen
as have been already noticed.  If they be men of classics, from which he was accustomed to adduce
the right stamp, we may expect great benefit from  parallels. His taste was good, and his mode of
their investigations. As for those who have the unfolding the meaning of a passage, simple, direct,
self-confidence to undertake the exposition of all and brief. His judgment was sound, free from
Scripture, we are inclined to pass by their harmless prejudice, and liberal beyond the age in which he
drudgery, never looking to it for true exposition. lived. As a commentator he was distinguished for
They are mere hewers of wood and drawers of his uniformly good sense.    But he wanted the
water. They collect the observations of others; depth and acuteness of Calvin. It has been said
but it will be found that sermonising and discursive without reason, that he found Christ nowhere in
annotations fill up their lengthened pages.   the 0. T. It is true that he opposed the Coc4. We shall very briefly refer to the principal ceian method, but in this he should be commended.
commentators on the Bible.                     His chief defect is in spiritual discernment. Hence
Calvin.-In all the higher qualifications of a he sometimes rests in the literal meaning, where
commentator Calvin is pre-eminent. His know- there is a higher or ulterior reference.
ledge of the original languages was not so great as  Le Clerc. - Excellent notes are interspersed
that of many later expositors; but in developing  throughout the commentaries of this author, which
VOL. I.                                                                         2 N




COMMENTARY                    546              COMMENTARY
the younger Rosenmiiller transcribed into his about and paraphrases the original. His simpliScholia.  His judgment was good, and his mode city of purpose generally preserved him from misof interpretation perspicuous.  From  his richly takes; but as a commentator he was neither acute
stored mind he could easily draw illustrations of nor learned.  He wanted a competent acquaintthe Bible both pertinent and just.  Yet he was ance with the original, power of analysis, a mind
very defective in theological discrimination. Hence, unprepossessed by a doctrinal system, and penetrain the prop/hetic and doclrinal books, he is unsatis- tion of spirit.
factory. It has been thought, not without truth,  A. Clarke.-In most of the higher qualities by
that he had a rationalistic tendency.  It is certain  which an interpreter should be distinguished, this
that he exalted his own judgment highly, and pro- man of much reading was wanting. His historical
nounced dogmatically where he ought to have and geographical notes are the best. But he had
manifested a modest diffidence.                no philosophical ability. His prejudices warped
Calmzet.-Calmet is perhaps the most distin- his judgment. His philology is not unfrequently
guished commentator on the Bible belonging to  puerile. Acuteness and penetration are not seen
the Roman Catholic Church.  In the higher qua- in his writings. There is no deep insight into the
lities of commentary his voluminous work is very mind of the sacred writers.
deficient. It contains a good collection of histori-  The Greek Testament of Alford contains a critical materials, and presents the meaning of the ori- cal and exegetical commentary now completed.
ginal where it is already plain; but his historical This is a very valuable work.  The learned author
apparatus needs to be purified of its irrelevant, has produced a good commentary, pervaded by
erroneous statements; while on the difficult por- sound sense, skill, theological perspicacity, and
tions no new light is thrown.                  spiritual perception. The labours of those who
Patrick, Lowth, Arnold, and Whitby.-Bishop   have preceded him, especially of De Wette and
Patrick had many of the elements belonging to a Meyer, have been freely used; nor has Stier been
good commentator.  His learning was great when  forgotten in the Gospels.  But the writer has
we consider the time at which he lived; his method  everywhere exercised his own independent judgbrief and perspicuous.  Lowth was inferior to  ment, and stamped the whole with the impress of
Patrick. Whitby presents a remarkable compound  a reflecting mind. The work is an immense adof excellencies and imperfections.  In philosophy vance upon the three volumes of Bloomfield, or his
lie was a master. In critical elucidations of the Recensio Synoptica with its ill-digested gatherings.
text he was at home. Nor was he wanting in       In addition to these commentaries on all Scripacuteness or philosophical ability. His judgment ture, or one of the Testaments, there are numewas singularly clear; and his manner of annotat- rous expositions of separate books, which should
ing straightforward. Yet he had not much compre- not be omitted. A few are worthy of mention:hensiveness of intellect, or a deep insight into the  I. Ealisch has commented on Exodus and Genesis
spiritual nature of revelation. The sublime har- learnedly and copiously. Few works in English
mony of the N. T. was but dimly seen by him. can be compared to these expositions in thoroughIn the spirit of a high relish for the purity of the ness and ability. We trust that the learned writer
Gospel he seldom mounts up into its mysteries. may be spared to complete his gigantic task of
Deeply baptized in the Spirit's influences he could  going through the 0. T. in the same way.
not have been, else many of his expository notes  2. Stzuar.-This esteemed writer, after furnishwould have been different.                    ing examples of solid commentary on the epistles
Hezny.-The name of this good man is vener- to the Hebrews and Romans, undertook a copious
able, and will be held in everlasting remembrance. and learned exposition of the Apocalypse, as also
His commentary does not contain much exposition. of the Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. The author has
It is full of sermzonising.  It is surprising, how- endeavoured to enter fully into the spirit of the
ever, to see how far his good sense and simple sacred writers, evading no difficulty, and tracing
piety led him into the doctrine of the Bible, apart the course of their reasoning with considerable sucfrom many of the higher qualities belonging to a cess.  He has consequently thrown much light on
successful commentator.  In thoroughness and the difficult books he expounds.
solidity of exposition he is not to be named with  3. Hodge has written commentaries on the episCalvin.  His prolixity is great. Practical preach- tles to the Romans, Ephesians, and Colossians, in
ing is the burden of his voluminous notes.     which he cannot be said to have gone beyond
Gill.-The prominent characteristic of Gill's Calvin, whose theology he seems to follow.
commentary is heaviness.  It lacks condensation  4. Alexander of Princeton has published a very
and brevity. The meaning of the inspired authors learned and valuable commentary on the propheis often undeveloped, and more frequently dis- cies of Isaiah-the most elaborate exposition of the
torted. It has the lumber and rubbish of learning, prophet in the English language. He has also comwithout learning itself.                       mented on the Psalms, Acts of the Apostles, and the
Doddridge.-The taste of this pious commen- Gospels of Matthew and Mark, but less successfully.
tator was good, and his style remarkably pure.   5. Henderson.-This writer has published good
He had not much acumen or philosophy in his commentaries on Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and
nature; but he had an excellent judgment, and a the minor prophets. In point of learning the works
calm  mode of inquiry.  His paraphrase leaves are very respectable, while they are pervaded by a
much unexplained, while it dilutes the strength true spirit of theological research.
of the original. It is too discursive and sermonis-  6. Ellicott has published gramnmatical and critical
ing. The notes are few, and ordinarily correct.  commentaries on various epistles of St. Paul, which
Scott.-The prevailing characteristic of Scott's possess much excellence. The writer is well fitted
commentary is judiciousness in the opinions ad- for his task, and adheres very faithfully to what he
vanced. The greater portion of it, however, is not proposes.  His works are by far the best of their
proper exposition.  The pious author preaches kind in the English language.




COMMENTARY                     517              COMMENTARY
7. Eadie has published commentaries on the!author is intent on higher things. He investigates
epistles to the Ephesians, Colossians, and Philip- the thought, traces the connection, puts himself in
plans, containing a large amount of good mate- the same position as the writers, and views with
rials. Too much, however, of Scotch theology is much ability the narratives and reasonings of the
attributed in them to the apostle, and the esteemed  inspired writers.  The critical and popular are
commentator preaches rather often.             admirably mingled.   Four volumes were com8. Stanley. —This able writer is the author of an  pleted when the writer was prematurely cut off.
excellent commentary on the epistles to the Corin- Of these the first two are the best. The work
thians.                                        has been continued and completed by Ebrard and
9. yowett has commented on the epistles to the  Wiesinger; who, though painstaking scholars, canThessalonians, Galatians, and Romans, with great not be regarded as possessing high exegetical
philosophical ability and theological freedom. The  ability.
essays or excursus interspersed evince no small  Lzicke on the writings of John. The best comexegetical excellence. The learned commentator mentator on John's writings in Germany is the
has indulged in a style of criticism which is fitted to learned and able Liicke, who did not live to cornalarm  the timid, and even to startle the more plete the exposition of the Apocalypse, though he
cautious theologian at times. His work is at once wrote an elaborate introduction, which left nothing
profound and suggestive.                      to be desired in regard to the literature of the book.
We cannot characterise other commentators on  On the Gospel, his volumes will always occupy a
separate books of Scripture, such as Phillips and  prominent place.  He is less successful in his
De Burgh on the Psalms; Ginsburg's able volumes exposition of the epistles, which he had intended
on the Song of Solomon and Ecclesiastes; Maclean  to improve had his life been spared.
on the Epistle to the Hebrews; Preston on Ecclesi-  Gesenizs's commentary on Isaiah was an epochastes, etc., etc. It would detain us too long even making book. Nor can it be said to be superseded
to enumerate the majority of them. On each book  by the many later expositions of the same prophet.
two or three may be selected as the best, and the As might be expected, its philological, historic,
rest safely neglected.                         and archreological side is the strongest and ablest.
The modern Germans, prolific as they are in    De Wette.-This learned critic has commenttheological works, have seldom ventured to under- ed on the N. T. with rare skill and excellence.
take an exposition of the whole Bible.  Each   He has fine taste, exegetical tact, wonderful power
writer usually confines himself to the task of com- of condensation, clear perception of difficulties,
menting on a few books. In this their wisdom is a bold method of meeting them, and an eye for
exhibited.  Yet they do not always excel in good  detecting the sequence of ideas and propositions.
specimens of commentary. They are often word- His work exhibits both a compendium of the exexplaizners.  In pointing out various readings, in positions of his predecessors and an excellent
grammatical, historical, and geographical annota- exegetical commentary of his own, in the briefest
tions, as also in subtle speculations respecting the  and most lucid words. The labour of many years
genius of the times in which the writers of the is here compressed into small space. Its value
Bible lived, they are at home. In the lower criti- can hardly be over-estimated. There is nothing
cism we willingly sit at their feet and learn.  But equal to it. His work on the Psalms is an excellent
with regard to the higher-in all that pertains to  manual of interpretation which none can safely disthe logic of commentary, in development of the pense with, notwithstanding the depreciating resense and sequence they are wanting.  Refined  marks made upon it by Ewald.
notions fiequently usurp the place of practical  Meyer.-The critical and exegetical commentary
piety; and the minutiae of verbal criticism furnish  of Meyer on the N. T. bears greater resemblance
them nutriment apart from the rich repast of theo- to De Wette's than any other.  In some of the
logical sentiment and sanctifying truth.  But there books he had the co-operation of Lunemann, Huare noble exceptions.                         ther, and Diisterdieck, all able expositors. The
E. F. C. Rosenmziillea.-The Scholia of this whole work possesses a sterling value, and cannot
laborious writer extend over the greater part of the be dispensed with by any theologian.  As might be
O. T. Looking to the last editions, they are un- expected, it is of unequal merit. The commentaries
questionably of high value.  They bring together on the Epistles to the Corinthians are the best.
a mass of annotation such as is sufficient to satisfy  Meyer has neither the taste nor exegetical tact of
the desires of most biblical students.  Yet the. De Wette; but in some other qualities he is supelearned author undertook too much to perform it rior. His theological stand point is not very difin a masterly style.  Hence his materials are not ferent.
properly sifted, the chaff from the wheat. He has  The Exegetical Handz-Book to the 0. T. is a comnot drunk deeply into the spirit of the inspired  pressed compendium of expositions embracing all
authors. He seems indeed not to have had a soul the canonical books. The writers are Hitzig, Theattuned to the spirituality of their utterances, or im- nius, Bertheau, Knobel, Hirzel, and J. Olshausen.
pregnated with the celestial fire that touched their It is difficult to characterise a production so unequal.
hallowed lips.  His father, the author of the Pervaded by considerable learning, it often exhibits
Scholia on the N. T., is a good woriz-explainer for a want of judgment and thoroughness. Hitzig, the
students beginning to read the original.  He has chief writer, is too fond of far-fetched interpretanot produced a masterly specimen of commentary tions; and has no sympathy with the poets of the
on any one book or epistle.                    O. T., whom he converts into prose-writers; or,
Olshazlsen.-A good example of commentary on  at least treats them as if they were.  Hirzel, Knothe N. T. has been given by this writer.  It is an  bel, and Thenius, excel Hitzig in all the qualities
excellent specimen of exposition. Verbal criti- that constitute useful commentators; though they
cism is but sparingly introduced, although even are his inferiors in philological acuteness and gramhere the hand of a master is apparent.   The matical knowledge of Hebrew.




COMMENTARY                    548               COMMERCE
Ewald.-This learned critic has published com- would improve his works; which, however, are
mentaries more or less extended, on the poetical of considerable value, because the author has a
and prophetic books of the 0. T., on the first degree of spiritual insight into Scripture denied to
three gospels and the writings of John, and on many of his countrymen.
Paul's epistles. All are pervaded by the genius of  Keil. -This orthodox theologian has written
the author, whose critical sagacity and rare talents good commentaries on the Books of Joshua and
are acknowledged by every right-minded reader. Kings; which are superseded by those in the
On the 0. T. he is at home, and has shed a flood Exegetical Hand-Book on the same.
of light on the history and books of the Hebrews.  We cannot afford space to speak particularly
Ewald is an epoc/z-making man.                of Hdvernick on Daniel and Ezekiel; of Billroth
Umzbreit wrote what he termed apractical com- on the Corinthians, now nearly superseded by
mentary on the O. T. prophets, besides expositions the later works of De Wette, Meyer, Riickert,
of Job, the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Osiander, Stanley, and others; of Baehr on the
Solomon. These contain many good and useful Colossians; of Philippi on the Romans; and of
things, but do not possess first-rate excellence.  Harless on the Ephesians, which Tholuck thinks
Tholuck. -The commentaries of this eminent the best specimen of commentary extant.  The
writer on various books, especially those on the number of such expository treatises on books of
Sermon on the Mount, and the Epistle to the Ro- the N. and 0. T. is continually augmenting, and
mans, as they appear in the last editions, exhibit unless a work of the kind has some peculiar or
high exegetical excellence.  While the author in- marked excellence, it is soon liable to be superseded
vestigates critically phrases and idioms, he ascends by a later, into which all the valuable material is
into the region of ideas, unfolding the sense with incorporated.-S. D.
much skill and discernment. His commentary on 
John, even in its most recent form, is more popular COM Ehe            ea c   ee    by thi
than the rest; though now superior to that onword is represented n te saced writis by the
the Epistle to the Hebrews.  His exposition of the word trade; the Hebrew term i: rekel signifying
Psalms satisfied none. In the 0. T. the author literally'trade' or'traffic.'
is hardly at home; his knowledge of Hebrew      Commerce, in its usual acceptation, means the
being imperfect.                              exchange of one thing for another-the exchange
Hengstenberg. -This learned writer has pub- of what we have to spare for what we want, in
lished commentaries on the Psalms, Canticles, whatever country it is produced.  The origin of
Ecclesiastes, and Apocalypse.  He   is better commerce must have been nearly coeval with the
fitted for explaining the Old than the New T. world.  As pasturage and agriculture were the
His work on the Psalms is the best. But it is only employments of the first inhabitants, so cattle,
lengthy and laboured; though a very valuable con- flocks, and the fruits of the earth were the only
tribution towards the understanding of the book. objects of the first commerce, or that species of it
Its philology is inferior to its theology, and the called barter. It would appear that some progress
latter itself cannot be always approved.      had been made in manufactures in the ages before
DelitzscA. -This able scholar has commented  the flood. The building of a city or village by
on the Epistle to the Hebrews, the Book of Cain, however insignificant the houses may have
Genesis, the Song of Solomon, Habakkuk, and the been, supposes the existence of some mechanical
Psalms.  He has no lack of learning, nor of pious knowledge.  The musical instruments, such as
sympathy with the writers. But we have little harps and organs, the works in brass and in iron
confidence in his judgment.  He is deficient in  exhibited by the succeeding generations, confirm
many of the higher qualities of a good expositor; the belief that the arts were considerably advanced.
especially in a clear and condensed exhibition of The construction of Noah's ark, a ship of three
the writers' meaning.                         decks, covered over with pitch, and much larger
[Z,/feld.-This learned scholar's exposition of than any modern effort of architecture, proves that
the Book of Psalms is a model of thorough exposi- many separate trades were at that period carried
tion, critical and theological.               on. There must have been parties who supplied
Bleek.-The erudite Bleek published but one Noah and his three sons with the great quantity
commentary-viz., that on the Epistle to the and variety of materials which they required, and
Hebrews. It is constructed on the exhaustive this they would do in exchange for other commodiprinciple, leaving hardly anything untouched or ties, and perhaps money. That enormous pile of
undiscussed. It is thorough and masterly; but building, the tower of Babel, was constructed of
tedious and somewhat heavy.                   bricks, the process of making which appears to
Fritzsche wrote commentaries on the Gospels of have been well understood. Some learned astronoMatthew and Mark, and the Epistle to the Ro- mers are of opinion that the celestial observations
mans, which are unrivalled specimens of the gram- of the Chinese reach back to 2249 years before the
matical and critical. The author had no equals in  Christian era; and the celestial observations made
his knowledge of N. T. Greek, not even in Winer at Babylon, contained in a calendar of above nineand Bleek. But in all the higher qualities of corn- teen centuries, transmitted to Greece by Alexander,
mentary, his works are very deficient.        reach back to within fifteen years of those ascribed
Stier.-This voluminous writer has commented  to the Chinese. The Indians appear to have had
very copiously on the words of the Lord Jesus in  observations quite as early as the Babylonians.
the Gospels, the Epistles of James and Jude,    Such of the descendants of Noah as lived near
the Epistle to the Hebrews, Isaiah, and seventy the water may bie presumed to have made use of
select Psalms, etc. He is a better expositor of the vessels built in imitation of the ark-if, as some
N. T. than of the 0., and is fonder of its theo- think, that was the first floating vessel ever seen in
logical aspect than of the plain meaning.  More the world-but on a smaller scale, for the purpose
compression and less of the homiletic character of crossing rivers. In the course of time the de



COMMERCE                     549               COMMERCE
scendants of his son Japhet settled in' the isles notices tend to prove that, although the patriarchal
of the Gentiles,' by which are understood the system of making pasturage the chief object of
islands at the east end of the Mediterranean Sea, attention was still maintained by many of the
and those between Asia Minor and Greece, whence greatest inhabitants where the author of the book
their colonies spread into Greece, Italy, and other of Job resided, the sciences were actively cultivated,
western lands.                                the useful and ornamental arts in an advanced
Sidon, which afterwards became so celebrated  state, and commerce prosecuted with diligence and
for the wonderful mercantile exertions of its inhabi- success; and this at a period when, if the chronotants, was founded about 2200 years before the logy of Job is correctly settled, the arts and sciences
Christian era. The neighbouring mountains, being were scarcely so far advanced in Egypt, from
covered with excellent cedar-trees, furnished the whence, and from the other countries bordering
best and most durable timber for ship-building. upon the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea,
The inhabitants of Sidon accordingly built nume- they afterwards gradually found their way into
rous ships, and exported the produce of the adjoin- Greece.
ing country, and the various articles of their own  The inhabitants of Arabia appear to have
manufacture, such as fine linen, embroidery, tapes- availed themselves, at a very early period, of their
try, metals, glass, both coloured and figured, cut, advantageous situation between the two fertile and
or carved, and even mirrors. They were unrivalled opulent countries of India and Egypt, and to have
by the inhabitants of the Mediterranean coasts in  obtained the exclusive monopoly of a very profitworks of taste, elegance, and luxury. Their great able carrying trade between those countries. They
and universally acknowledged pre-eminence in the were a class of people who gave their whole attenarts procured for the Phoenicians, whose principal tion to merchandise as a regular and established
seaport was Sidon, the honour of being esteemed, profession, and travelled with caravans between
among the Greeks and other nations, as the inven- Arabia and Egypt, carrying Upon the backs of
tors of commerce, ship-building, navigation, the camels the spiceries of India, the balm of Canaan,
application of astronomy to nautical purposes, and and the myrrh produced in their own country, or
particularly as the discoverers of several stars nearer of a superior quality fromi the opposite coast of
to the north pole than any that were known to  Abyssinia-all of which were in great demand
other nations; of naval war, writing, arithmetic; among the Egyptians for embalming the dead, in
book-keeping, measures and weights; to which it their religious ceremonies, and for ministering to
is probable they might have added money.       the pleasures of that superstitious and luxurious
Egypt appears to have excelled all the neigh- people. The merchants of one of these caravans
bouring countries in agriculture, and particularly  bought Joseph from his brothers for twenty pieces
in its abundant crops of corn. The fame of its of silver, that is about ~2: I I:8 sterling, and carfertility induced Abraham to remove thither with ried him into Egypt. The southern Arabs were
his numerous family (Gen. xii. Io).            eminent traders, and enjoyed a large proportion,
The earliest accounts of bargain and sale reach  and in general the entire monopoly, of the trade
no higher than the time of Abraham, and his between India and the western world, from the
transaction with Ephron. He is said to have earliest ages, until the system of that important
weighed unto him'400 shekels of silver, current commerce was totally overturned when the inhabimoney with the merchant' (Gen. xxiii. I6).  The tants of Europe discovered a direct route to India
word merchant implies that the standard of money by the Cape of Good Hope.
was fixed by usage among merchants, who com-     At the period when Joseph's brethren visited
prised a numerous and respectable class of the  Egypt, inns were established for the accommodacommunity. Manufactures were by this time so tion of travellers in that country and in the northern
far advanced, that not only those more immediately  parts of Arabia. The more civilized southern parts
connected with agriculture, such as flour ground  of the peninsula would no doubt be furnished with
from corn, wine, oil, butter, and also the most caravanserais still more commodiots.
necessary articles of clothing and furniture, but even  During the residence of the Israelites in Egypt
those of luxury and magnificence, were much in manufactures of almost every description were caruse, as appears by the ear-rings, bracelets of gold ried to great perfection. Flax; fine linen, garments
and of silver, and other precious things presented  of cotton, rings and jewels of gold and silver,
by Abraham's steward to Rebecca (Gen. xxiv. works in all kinds of materials, chariots for plea22, 53).                                       sure, and chariots for war, are all mentioned by
In the book of Job, whose author, in the opinion  Moses.  They had extensive manufactories of
of the most learned commentators, resided in bricks. Literature was in a flourishing state; and,
Arabia, and was contemporary with the sons of in order to give an enlarged idea of the accomplishAbraham, much light is thrown upon the com- ments of Moses, it is said he was'learned in all
merce, manufactures, and science of the age and  the wisdom of the Egyptians' (Acts vii. 22).
country in which he lived. There is mention of   The expulsion of the Canaanites from a great
gold, iron, brass, lead, crystal, jewels, the art of part of their territories by the Israelites under
weaving, merchants, gold brought from  Ophir, Joshua, led to the gradual establishment of cowhich implies commerce with a remote country, lonies in Cyprus, Rhodes, and several islands in the
and topazes from Ethiopia; shipbuilding, so far AEgean Sea; they penetrated into the Euxine or
improved that some ships were distinguished for Black Sea, and, spreading along the shores of
the velocity of their motion; writing in a book, Sicily, Sardinia, Gaul, Spain, and Africa, estaand engraving letters or writing on plates of lead blished numerous trading places, which gradually
and on stone with iron pens, and also seal-engrav- rose into more or less importance.  At this period
ing; fishing with hooks, and nets, and spears; mention is first made of Tyre as a strong or fortimusical instruments, the harp and organ; astro- fled city, whilst Sidon is dignified with the title
nomy, and names given to particular stars. These of Great.




COMMERCE                    550             CONCORDANCE
During the reign of David, king of Israel, that fine linen, corals, and agates from Syria; corn,
powerful monarch disposed of a part of the wealth  balm, honey, oil, and gums from the Israelites;
obtained by his conquests in purchasing cedar- wine and wool from  Damascus; polished irontimber from Hiram, king of Tyre, with whom he ware, precious oils, and cinnamon from Dan,
kept up a friendly correspondence while he lived. Javan, and Mezo; magnificent carpets from Dedan;
He also hired Tyrian masons and carpenters for sheep and goats from the pastoral tribes of Arabia;
carrying on his works. Solomon, the son of David, costly spices, some the produce of India, precious
cultivated the arts of peace, and indulged his taste stones, and gold from the merchants of Sheba or
for magnificence and luxury to a great extent. He  Sabaea, and Ramah or Regma, countries in the
employed the wealth collected by his father in south part of Arabia; blue cloths, embroidered
works of architecture, and in strengthening and works, rich apparel in corded cedar-chests, supimproving his kingdom.   He built the famous posed to be original India packages, and other
Temple and fortifications of Jerusalem, and many  goods from Sheba, Ashur, and Chilmad, and from
cities, among which was the celebrated Tadmor or Haran, Canneh, and Eden, trading ports on the
Palmyra.  From the king of Tyre he obtained   south coast of Arabia. The vast wealth that thus
cedar and fir, or cypress-timbers, and large stones flowed into Tyre from all quarters brought with it
cut and prepared for building, which the Tyrians its too general concomitants-extravagance, dissiconveyed by water to the most convenient landing- pation, and relaxation of morals.
place in Solomon's dominions. Hiram also sent a  The subjection of Tyre,'the renowned city
vast number of workmen to assist and instruct which was strong in the sea, whose merchants were
Solomon's people, none of whom had skill'to  princes, whose traffickers were the honourable of
hew timber like the Sidonians.' Solomon, in ex- the earth,' by Cyrus, and its subsequent overthrow
change, furnished the Tyrians with corn, wine, and  by Alexander, after a determined and most foroil, and received a balance in gold. Solomon and  midable resistance, terminated alike the grandeur
I-Iiram appear to have subsequently entered into a of that city, and the history of ancient commerce,
trading speculation or adventure upon a large  as far as they are alluded to in Scripture (Anderscale. Tyrian shipwrights were accordingly sent son's History of Commerce; Vincent's Conmmerce
to build vessels for both kings at Eziongeber, Solo- and Navigation of the Indian Ocean; Heeren's Remon's port on the Red Sea, whither he himself searches; Barnes's Ancient Commerce of Western
went to animate them with his presence (2 Chron. Asia, in American Biblical Repository, I84I).viii. I7). These ships, conducted by Tyrian navi- G. M. B.
gators, sailed in company to some rich countries
called Ophir and Tarshish, regarding the position  CONCORDANCE, the name assigned to a
of which the learned have multiplied conjectures book which gives the words contained in the Holy
to little purpose. The voyage occupied three years; Scriptures in alphabetical order, with a reference
yet the returns in this new found trade were very to the place where each may be found. This is
great and profitable. This fleet took in apes, the essential idea of a concordance.  Other ancilebony, and parrots on the coasts of Ethiopia, gold lary information may be presented in concordances,
at Ophir, or the place of traffic whither the people such as a separate order of proper names, the
of Ophir resorted; it traded on both sides of the meanings which, in the compiler's opinion, imporRed Sea, on the coasts of Arabia and Ethiopia, in tant words are found to bear, and the etymological
all parts of Ethiopia beyond the straits when it had  signification of appellatives, etc.  There are two
entered the ocean; thence it passed up the Persian  great distinctive principles on which concordances
Gulf, and might visit the places of trade upon both  may be constructed-either to present every word
its shores, and run up the Tigris or the Euphrates found in the Bible, or only the leading and most
as far as these rivers were navigable.        important words. The adoption of the first necesAfter the reign of Solomon the commerce of the sarily swells a book to inconvenient dimensions,
Israelites seems to have very materially declined. and renders its use in the ordinary purposes of
An attempt was made by Jehoshaphat, king of study somewhat onerous and inconvenient.   But
Judah, and Ahaziah, king of Israel, to effect its great judgment is requisite in compiling a concordrevival; but the ships which they built at Ezion- ance on the other principle, lest words of less imgeber having been wrecked in the harbour, the portance should be preferred to those of greater;
undertaking was abandoned.  It does not appear and as importance is altogether a relative matter,
that they had any assistance from the Phoenicians the selection made by the author may omit words
in fitting out this fleet. Great efforts were made by  which some, if not many, readers would desiderthe Egyptians to extend the commerce of their ate. The Germans also make a distinction becountry, among which, not the least considerable tween concordances of things and concordances of
was the unsuccessful attempt to construct a canal words; the first comprising in detailed and alphafrom the Nile to the Arabian Gulf.            betical form  the subject-matter of the sacred
The rising prosperity of Tyre soon eclipsed the volume; the second corresponding with the ordiancient and long-flourishing commercial city of nary English notion of a concordance. ConcordSidon. About 6o0 years before Christ her com- ances, too, vary with the languages in which, or
mercial splendour appears to have been at its for which, they are constructed, as for the original
height, and is graphically described by Ezekiel Hebrew and Greek, or for the several versions of
(xxvii.) The imports into Tyre were fine linen  the Scriptures, such as the Vulgate, the German,
from  Egypt; blue and purple from the isles of the English, etc.
Elisha; silver, iron, tin, and lead from Tarshish-  It is not here intended to present a full or a
the south part of Spain; slaves and brazen vessels chronological history of all the concordances which
from  Javan or Greece, Tubal, and Meshech; have been produced, but to put down those
horses, slaves bred to horsemanship, and mules particulars which seem to combine interest and
from Togarmah; emeralds, purple, embroidery, utility.




CONCORDANCE                    551             CONCORDANCE
Writings of this kind imply that the sacred little service, unless the student is familiar with the
Scriptures are regarded with reverence, held to be Masoretic system. This work was abridged under
authoritative in religion, and are made the subject the title of Fons Leonis, etc., Berolini, I677, 8vo.
of appeal alike in learning, teaching, and dispu- The concordance of Calasio was republished in
tation.  It is to the wide-spread conviction of the London under the direction of W. Romaine, I747plenary and even verbal inspiration of the Bible, 49, 4 vols. fol., and under the patronage of all the
that the world is indebted for the care, diligence, monarchs in Europe, not excepting the pope himlearning, and self-denial which have been em- self.  Before this republication, however, there
ployed in constructing and perfecting the concord- appeared, in 1679 (Kopenh. fol.), Ch. Nolde Conance.                                          cor. particularum Ebr. Chaldaicarum.  Reference
The utility of concordances in the way of ex- may also be made to Simonis Onomasticon V. T.,
egesis, is based on the position that the several Halle, 1741, fol. But the best and, at least to the
parts of divine revelation are consistent with each  English reader, most important work on this subother and form harmonious elements in one grand ject is, The Hebrewz Concordance, adapted to the
system of spiritual truth, so that by comparing to- English Bible, disposed after the manner of Buxgether parallel passages, what is clear may be torf, by John Taylor, D.D., London, I754, 2 vols.
exemplified and confirmed, and what is dark may fol.  Dr. Taylor was an eminent Presbyterian
be expounded.   Books of this sort, too, are of divine at Norwich, the author of several publicaservice to the Christian teacher, as affording tions which shew great industry and learning. His
facilities by means of those fragmentary recollec- concordance is by far the most complete work of
tions of words and things which the. mere hearing the kind.  It was the fruit of many years' labour,
of the Scriptures read leaves in the mind, for and has left little room for improvement. The
readily discovering the particular book and verse patronage of all the English and Irish bishops rewhere any desired passage is to be found; and  commended the work to the world.
also as enabling him, with comparatively little  An edition of Buxtorf's Hebrew Concordance,
trouble, to take a survey of what the Bible con- which has received so much care and attention on
tains in regard to any particular subject which he the part of the author, as nearly to deserve the
may have to handle.                            name and bear the character of a new workAntony of Padua (born A.D. 1195, died 123I) Hebrischen und Chalddischen Concordanz zu den
is said to have produced the first work of the kind, Heiligen Schriften Allen Testaments, von Dr. Julius
entitled Concordantiae iforales, which was formed  Fiirst (Leipzig, Tauchnitz; London, Nutt), offers
from  the Vulgate translation. Hugo de Santo   one of the most useful aids to the study of the
Caro, better known as Cardinal Hugo, a Domi- Bible that have ever appeared. The necessity of
nican monk, who died about 1262, followed An- such a work as the present arises not only from the
tony in I244, by compiling for the Vulgate a con- errors found in Buxtorf and the comparative rarity
cordance of the Scriptures. Having given himself of the work, but also from the great advances
sedulously to the study of holy writ, with a view of which, since the time when Buxtorf's work apwriting a commentary thereon, he was, in order to  peared (A.D. 1632), have been made both in the
facilitate his labour, led to project and undertake knowledge of the Shemitic languages, in the geneto form  a concordance, calling to his aid his ral science of theology, and the particular departbrother monks to the number of no fewer than five ment of biblical exegesis. We may specify one
hundred. Their labours have been a rich store- or two of the advantages offered by this work. In
house for subsequent compilers. The concordance addition to those of a more mechanical kind, such
thus made was improved by Conrad of Halber- as a good type and clear arrangement, there are,
stadt, who flourished about 1290, and by John of I. A corrected text, founded on Hahn's VanderSegovia in the ensuing century.                hoogt; 2. The Rabbinical significations; 3. ExThese works seem to have led to the first He- planations in Latin, giving the etymology of the
brew concordance, which was produced by Rabbi Rabbinical; illustrations from  the three Greek
Mordecai Nathan, which he began in 1438, and Versions, the Aramaic Paraphrase, the Vulgate,
finished in 1448, after ten years' hard labour by etc.; the Greek words employed by the Seventy as
himself and some assistants. It was first printed  renderings of the Hebrew; together with philoloat Venice in 1523, fol., by Dan. Bomberg, then  gical and archaeological notices, so as to make the
in Basle in 1581, and afterwards at Rome in 1621. Concordance contain an ample Iebrew lexicon.
It is entirely Hebrew, and entitled The Light of This work is far preferable to Taylor's Hebrew
the Way. In 1556 it was translated into Latin by  Concordance, which is now not easily met with.
Reuchlin, but both the Hebrew and the Latin edi- Every theological library which has not a copy of
tions are full of errors.                      Fiirst must be considered as wanting an essential
These errors were for the most part corrected  requisite. The work, when known, will, we are
and other deficiencies supplied by Calasio, a Fran- assured, be welcomed by English scholars.
ciscan friar, who published Concordantice Sacr.  The best Greek concordance to the Septuagint
Bibl. Hebr. et Latin. Romse, 1621, 4 vols. fol. is that which bears the title —A. Trommii Con.
[CALASIO], and still better in Concordantice Bibl. Gricc. Vers. vu/ngo dic. LXX. Interpret. Amst.
Ebraicee, nova et artficiosa methodo disposite, Basil, 1718, 2 vols. fol. The author of this learned and
I632, fol. This is the production of John Bux- most laborious work was minister of Groningen,
torf, the father, but was published by his son. It and published the concordance in the eighty-fourth
takes for its basis the work of Rabbi Nathan, year of his age. He was born in I623, and died
though it is much better arranged, more correctlyin 1719. It follows the order of the Greek words
printed, the roots more distinctly ascertained, and of which it first gives a Latin translation, and then
the meanings more accurately given; but as the the Hebrew word or words for which the Greek
references are made by Hebrew letters, and relate term is used in the Seventy. Then the different
to the Rabbinical divisions of the 0. T., it is of places in which the words occur follow in the




CONCORDANCE                    552             CONCORDANCE
order of the several books and chapters. When known in this country, it will soon supersede the
the word occurs in any of the ancient Greek trans- ordinary editions and reprints of Schmid's Concordlators, Aquila, Symmachuss ot Theodotion, the ance. It is put forth under the auspices of Tauchplaces where it is found are referred to at the end nitz of Leipsic, and has reached a second edition.
of the quotations from the Sept. The words of    One of the most valuable aids for the general
the Apocrypha are placed at the end of each enu- study of the N. T. which modern times have promeration. There are two indices at the end of the duced is' The English/man's Greek Concordance of
work; one Hebrew and Chaldait, by examining the Nezw Testameznt; being an attempt at a Verwhich the Greek term used in the Septuagint for bal Connection between the Greek and the Engany Hebrew or Chaldee word is seen at once, with lish Texts. London, I839.' The work, which is
the Latin version and the place where it is found  carefully compiled and beautifully got up, takes
in the concordance, so that Tromm serves in a Schmid as its basis. The plan is to present in
measure for a Hebrew concordance; the other in- alphabetical succession every word which occurs in
dex contains a lexicon to the Hexapla of Origen, the Greek N. T. with the series of passages (quoted
and comprehends the Greek words in the frag- from the English translation) in which each such
ments of the old Greek translators published by word occurs; the word or words exhibiting the
Montfaucon.                                    Greek word under immediate consideration being
Proposals have been issued, 1854, for a new  printed in italic letters.
Concordance to the LXX., by the Rev. R. Wells    The'Enzglishmzan's Hebrew and Chaldee ConWhitford, M.A., the basis of which is to be the cordance,' by the same parties, discharges the same
text of the Complutensian Polyglott, which the duties in relation to the O. T. Both works have
same gentleman is about to edit separately, with  engaged the con amore exertions of the editors, and
critical notes.  The labours of all former scholars reflect great credit on their zeal and learning.
in this department will be consolidated, and refer-  In consequence of the revived study of the Bible
ence made to all the texts of the Septuagint of any and of the Christian fathers, as well as the greater
critical value.                               interest felt in religion and religious inquiries which
The first Greek concordance to the N. T., now  the last quarter of a century has witnessed in
exceedingly rare, is entitled Xysti Betuleii Concor- France, and especially in Paris, a new Concordtdantice Graece Novi Testamenti, Basil, I546, fol. ance to the Latin Vulgate has recently been proThe author, whose real name was Birck, was a duced:'Concordanztice Biblior. Sacr., Vulgatae
minister of the Lutheran church; he was born in  Editionis, Recensite, multoque prioribus auctiores,
1500, and died at Augsburg in 1554. A concord- emendante, accuratius denuo colligente et cum
ance to the Greek N. T., projected and partly  omnibus Bib. textibus conferente T. P. Dutripon.'
executed by Robert Stephens, and completed and  London, Nutt, Fleet Street. This work is founded
published by his son Henry (Genev. I594, fol.), is on that of Cardinal Hugo, which, though executed
too inaccurate to merit more than a passing notice. by fifty different compilers (chiefly Benedictine
The ensuing is the work which the divine should monks), is far from being either accurate or compossess-Erasmi Schmidii Novi Testamnenti 7. C. plete. The editor appears to have discharged his
Greci; hoc est, originalis ling ztce racteetov, etc. duty with great care and labour; and the printer
Vetemb. I638, fol. The author, a Lutheran      has well performed his part. The points in which
divine, was a professor of the Greek language in this edition contains improvements, in comparison
the university of Wittemberg, where he died in  with the last of those which preceded it, are
I637.  In 1717 a revised edition was published at numerous and important. It may be sufficient to
Gotha, of which a handsome reprint, in 2 vols. state that it contains 22,000 passages not to be
Svo, was issued from the Glasgow University press found in previous Concordances to the Vulgate.
in 18I9.  An abridged edition of this has been  Some of the additions, indeed, seem rather suited
printed by the Messrs. Bagster of London, being to the peculiar condition of biblical study in the
one of their' Polymicrian Series.'            Catholic communion than to the requirements of
A new and very superior edition of Schmid's the general theologian; nevertheless, the work is
ralzielov has recently been put forth by C. H. a valuable contribution to biblical literature, and
Bruder, who has improved the work so as to bring must in this country be regarded with peculiar
it into accordance with the advanced and en- pleasure, as both a result and an instrument of an
lightened views on critical and hermeneutical sub- increase of Scriptural knowledge on the part of
jects which characterize what may be termed the our Catholic brethren.  The Archbishop of Paris
scientific theology of Germany in the present day. has accepted the dedication of the Concordance to
Among the advantages of this edition, let it suffice himself; and it has been approved by most of
to specify, i. Fulness, accuracy, and correspond- the archbishops and bishops of France and Belence with Griesbach's edition; 2. Regard has beengium.
paid to the editions of Lachmann and Scholz; all  The work of Andrew Symson, Lexicon Anglothe readings of the Elzevirs, Mill, Bengel, Knapp, Grceco-Latin. N. 7T, London, i658, fol., is rather
Tittmann, Scholz, and also of Erasmus, Robert a dictionary than a concordance, and formed on
Stephens' third edition, and of Schmid himself, so bad a plan as to be of little service.  A much
are either given or pointed out.  The student is better book is A Concordance to the Greek Testapresented also with a selection of readings from  ment, with the English Version to each Woord, the
the most ancient MSS., from the interpreters of prinzcipal Hebrew roots corresponding t to  e Greek
Scripture who lived in the earlier ages of the words of the Septzagint, with short Critical Notes,
church, and the works of the ecclesiastical fathers; acnd anz Index by John Williams, LL.D., Lond.
no various reading possessing critical value is 1767, fol.
omitted. This, indeed, is a work of so much      The first concordance to the Enrlish version of
value, that no good theological library can be with- the N. T. was published without date, but cerout it; and when its worth and utility come to be tainlyl before I54o, by' Mr. Thomas Gybson,'




NCNCORDANCE                    553                CONCUBINE
being chiefly, as appears probable from the prefa- rHand- Concoirdanz fitr Religionslehrer zand alle
tory epistle to the reader, the work of the famous Freunde der- eiligen Schrift, Leipzig, I841. The
printer John Day.  It is entitled The Concordance work is more comprehensive than similar writings
of the N. T., most necessacay to be had inz the hands in the English language. It is divided into three
of all soche as desire the communnication of any  parts:-I. A full and complete register of all the
place contained ini t/e N;. T. The first English  words found in the Bible; 2. An index of the
concordance to the entire Bible was by John Mar- most important things, subjects, and ideas found
beck-A    Concordance, that is to sale, a Wor/'e in the Bible, with references to the places where
/wherein by the order of the letters of the A, B, C, they lie in the sacred volume; as, for instance,
ye smae redel fiz    y id ay worde conteipgsed in the under the head-'Lord's Supper-a meal comwhole Bible, so often as it is there expressed or men- memorative of the death of Jesus-it brings us
ztoned, Lond. I550, fol.  Till the year 1555, into intimate fellowship with Christ;-the worthy
when Robert Stephens published his concordance, participation of the same; spiritual enjoyment of
it was not customary to mark the verses in books the flesh and blood of Christ,' etc; The third part
of this sort.  At first it was thought sufficient to  gives the leading doctrines of Christianity systemaspecify the chapter with the letters a, b, c, d, as tically arranged, drawn up according to Luther's
marks to point out the beginning, middle, and   Catechism, and accompanied by Scriptural proofs.
end of each chapter. But in I545 Robert Stephens  (Orme's Bibliot/seca Biblica; Watt's Bibliotheca
divided the Bible into verses, thus preparing the  Britannica; Winer's EHanzdbuch; Rohr's OKriway for a more exact reference in concordances, tische Prediger-Bibliothek, I841, and the articles in
etc.; but Marbeck does not appear to have been  this work under the name of the authors.)-J. R. B.
under the influence of this improvement, as his
work refers merely to the chapters.  In Townley's  CONCUBINE, in a scriptural sense, means
Bib. Lit. vol. iii. p. I 8, may be found some inter-   o  second ranki  (,   or  hL' 
esting particulars respecting Marbeck's conditiona wfe of second rank 
in life, labours, and ill-treatment.            The position thus sustained did not interfere with
The following work, which appeared in the same  that of the wife, nor did it entail disgrace on her
year as the last, is a translation from the German-  who sustained it. The concubine had her own
A Briefe and a Compendious Table, in mnaner of a  place, her Own rights, and her own duties.  As a
Concordance, openyng the waye to the prisnciall general rule she was a slave in the house, and
/Histories of the zwole Bible and th/e most comon  assumed her position in obedience to the will of
articles groszndeed and conmprehended in th/e zVesze her master or mistress, without any ceremonial.
Testament and Olde, in maner as amply as doeth/  Her sons ranked below those of the wife, and
the greal Concordance of the Bible.  GathSeredand   could inherit from their father only by his will
set forth by Henry Bs7zinger, Leo Yzude, Conrade (Gen. xxi. o0; xxiv. 36; xxv. 6). The unfaithPellicane, and by the other ministers of the Czhurch  fulness of a concubine was regarded as whoredom
of Ligstrie.  Translatedfrom the Hygh Almayne   (Judg. xix. 2; 2 Sam. iii. 7, 8), but it was not
into Englysh by Walter Lynne. To which is added, punished as was that of a wife (Lev. xix. 20).
a Translation of th/e Tlhird Bokeof lachabees, 8vo  Such a case, however, as that mentioned (Judg.
1550.   Lynne, the translator, was an English  xix.), where not only is the possessor of the concuprinter, who flourished about the middle of the bine called her'husband' (ver; 3), but her father
I6th century, a scholar, author, and translator of is called his father-in-law and he his son-in-law (4,
several books.                                  5), shews how nearly the concubine approached to
Several English concordances of greater or less the wife. Hired women, such as'uxores mercenvalue were superseded by the correct and valu- arie conductae ad tempus ex pacto,' whom Amable work of Alexander Cruden, entitled A Con- mianus Marcellinus attributes to the Saracens (xiv.
plete Concordance to the Holy Scristzires of t1e 4), were unknown among the Hebrews. A conOland a Nd ew Testamsent, etc.; to which is added, cubine, though a slave, could not be sold, but, if
a Concordance to the books called Apocrypsha, her master wished to part with her, must be sent
1737, 4to.   Three editions were published by  away free (Deut. xxi. I4).  Such concubines had
the author during his life, and many have ap- Nahor (Gen. xxii. 24), Abraham (xxv. 6), Jacob
peared since his death.   The London edition    (xxxv. 22), Eliphas (xxxvi. I2), Gideon (Judg. viii.
of i8io is the best standard edition.  The work is 31), Saul (2 Sam. iii. 7), David (2 Sam. v. 13; xv.
complete, the definitions accurate, and the refer-  I6; xvi. 21), Solomon (I Kings xi 3), Caleb (I
ences correct.  Several useful editions of Cruden  Chron. ii. 46), Manasseh (ib. vii. I4), Rehoboam
have been put forth by the Messrs. Bagster, which  (2 Chron. xi. 21), Abiah (2 Chron. xiii. 2I), and
are worth far more than their cost.  The same   Belshazzar (Dan. v. 2).
publishers have issued An Alp/zabetical Index of  To judge from the conjugal histories of Abrathe Holy Scrisptsres, co-prisinZghe Names, C/arac- ham and Jacob (Gen. xvi. and xxx.), the immediate
ters, and Ssbjects, both of the Ol nd a Nd ew Testa- cause of concubinage was the barrenness of the
aent, in two different sizes, which the biblical lawful wife, who in that case introduced her maidstudent will find very serviceable.  In a'Memoir servant, of her own accord, to her husband, for
of Mr. Alexander Cruden,' prefixed to an edition  the sake of having children.  Accordingly we do
published in 1823, and since, are given some in- not read that Isaac, son of Abraham, had any
teresting but painful particulars respecting this concubine, Rebecca, his wife, not being barren.
worthy and industrious man, to vwhom the religious In process of time, however, concubinage appears
world is so deeply indebted.                    to have degenerated into a regular custom among
At a time when German theological literature is the Jews, and the institutions of Moses were dibeginning to receive some of its merited attention, rected to prevent excess and abuse in that respect,
it may not be unacceptable to mention a valuable by wholesome laws and regulations (Exod. xxi.
concordance for the German Bible B- Piblische 7-9    Deut. xxi. To-I4). To guard their adult




CONDUIT                    554             CONGREGATION
male offspring from debauchery before marriage, words, but by tiD [iln]; the versions consistparents, it appears, used to give them one of their entlymark the difference also, the LXX. invariably
female slaves as a concubine. She was then con-tranlat 
translating this phrase by 9/7 exKVlv 7too /zapruploU
sidered as one of the children of the house, and she and  t he Vulg. by taber nacupz' tesimonzli. [Alretained her rights as a concubine even after the th  en the word C   n      occurs without the
marriage of the son (Exod. xxi. 9, io). When a son 
had intercourse with the concubine of his father, [1i (as in Num. xvi. 2) it has somewhat of the
a sort of family punishment, we are informed, was ambiguity of the Latin Czria, which equally well
inflicted on him (Gen. xxxv. 22; I Chron. v. I).  signifies the Senate and the Senate Hose. In this
In the Talmud (tit. Ketuboth), the Rabbins differ passage 153 is translated by BouXv and Tempus
as to what constitutes concubinage; some regard-  Concilii; in many other passages the word is
ing as its distinguishing feature the absence of the variously rendered; but generally bears reference
betrothing  ceremonies (sponsalia), and of the  to a set time or place, e.g. in Lam. i. 15, A. V.
n:Tllnn  (libellus dotis), or portion of property  renders it assembly; but in ii. 6, place of assembly
alloted to a woman by special engagement, and to  and solemn feast; the LXX. and Vulgate are
which she was entitled on the marriage day, after equally capricious,-cKalpos and teneps standing in
the decease of the husband, or in case of repudia- Lam. i. 15 and eopTr, tabernaculun  and festivitas
tion; others, again, the absence of the latter in ii. 6].*  There is good reason to believe that,
alone. [Otho, Lex. Rabbin. Phil. p. 151; Sel- not unlike the Servian constitution of the Roman
den, 7Js Nat. et Gentt. v. 7, 8; De Szccessionibus people (Arnold's History of Rome, i. 70), the
in.; Uxor. Hebr. etc.; Michaelis, Laws of Moses, Hebrew nation from the first received a twofold
vol. i. p. 455-466].                           organisation, military as well as political. (Compare Exod. xii. 51; Num. i. 3 (and throughout);
CONDUIT.      By this word in the A. V. is Num. xxvi. 3; and I Chron. vii. 4 and 40.   See
also Lowman's Dissertation on the Civil Government
rendered the Hebrew nSin, which, from 5Ad to of the Hebrews, 159, i86, etc.) The classification
sink, to be deep (not, as Gesenius says, from I  to of the people is very clearly indicated in Josh. vii.
- T   I4-I8S. (I) The Tribe ( ADD or DnW) was divided
ascend), means primarily a trench, or place for into clans, genies, A. V.'families,' nljeO~).
water to flow in (i Kings xviii. 32, 35), and second- (2) Each Mishpachah comprised a number of
arily, a constructed aqueduct, channel, or canal. familie, A. V.'Houses,' t12. (3) Each 1no
In this latter sense it is used of a conduit on the  or'house' was made up of qualified' men,' fit for
west side of Jerusalem, which passed through the military as well as political service, being twenty
fuller's field, and conveyed water from the pool of years old and upward (Num. i. 3). The word which
Gihon, or upper pool, into the city (2 Kings xviii. describes the individual member of the body politic,
17; Is. vii. 3; xxxvi. 2); this seems at first to:21 [plur. [qnn], is very significant; for it means
have been an open channel, but it was inclosed'T 
with masonry by Hezekiah (2 Kings xx. 20  2  vir a robore dictus, (Gesenius, Thes. i. 262),'a man
with masonry by oHezekiah (2   ings xx. 20; 2
Chron. xxxii. 30; Sirac. xlviii. I7); it is believedof valour om, to be strong (rst.  ebr
to have conducted water from the existing Birket Wirlerb. i. 239; Meier Hebr. Wurz. w.-b. 251).
el-Mamilla to the existing Birket el-Hummasm, or Now it was the organic union of the twelve tribes,
Pool of Hezekiah, within the city (Robinson, i. which constituted in the highest and truest sense
483, ff.; Bertheau, Die iich. der Konige, p. 409). the  lp or 5lU1, i. e,'Congregation'-convened
This is the only aqueduct expressly mentioned in  duly for a competent purpose. (Kurtz, Hist. Old
Scripture; it is probable, however, that others ovl. Clark] ii. I63). As with the Greeks there
existed, especially one leading from the pools of was an  ra, and with the Latins a Demiutio
Solomon to the temple, and the overflow of whichCpi, so       w        s  auts   ich eie
was conveyed through the pool of Siloam, by a  Gitis, so there were sundry faults which deprived
was conveyed through the pool of Siloam, by a a home-born Israelite (nl'~K, LXX.'AvTObXSWV,
subterraneous passage in the rocky elevation Ophel,  indigen; or -, Ir eos, civs, i Deut. i.
to the' King's pool' of Nehemiah (ii. I4), called  Vulg.  ga o       d   os, cs i Deut..
o the   ing's pool of Nehemi's pool' (Bell. 14) called  6) of his privilege as a member of the national
4also by Josephus'F Solomonti of  pol (ell. otd.  assembly (See Deut. xxiii. i-8 [comp. with Neh.
4. 2) now the'Fountain of the Virgin.' Both still            Exod. xii. 7, 19; xxx. 33, 38;
exist; and both were probably originally the work  xii. I-3; Lev.  20, 2, 25, 27; vii. 4,, 1,
of Solomon (Robinson, i. 390, 498, ff.; 514, ff;1 xviii. 29;     8; xx 36,,   7, i8; xxii, 3
ff., Bohn's edition; R~ichard-  14; xviii. 29; xix. 8; xx. 3, 6, 17, i8; xxii. 3;
Maundrell, p. 456, fl., Bohn's edition; Richard-                 13  Xv. 3
xxiii. 29; Num. ix. 13; xv. 3'; xix. 20). On the
son, chraves, ii. 379; Bertheau, L. c. An/c. sec. other hand, the franchise or civitas was conferred
9; Schultz, 7Jerusalem, p. 40).-W. L. A.       (with certain exceptions, such as are mentioned in
CONEY.     rSHIAPHAN. ]                      Deut. xxiii. 3) on foreigners Do. (A. V. strangers;
LXX. zrpooriXuTCrL; Vulg. pereogrini) after they had
CONGREGATION, the supreme political body     qualified themselves by circumcision, (Exod. xii.
of the Hebrew nation, duly met in congress, is         _
designated in the original by two words of nearly  This word 1Y^   is the most fiequent original
equal frequency in the sacred writings Fl, from  equivalent of our noun'congregation.' Apart from
A'g1 to appoint, also to bring together; and,i', 5nN (tabernacle), it has a highly generic sense,
f~romL -                     *n *. at 7co(Set. including all the holy assemblies of the Jews. In
fiom  -, i. q. Kaev, to convoke (Sept. TiKX7a, this Art. we confine our description to the political
ovvaycywy7; Vulgate, Congreogatio, Catzis, Ecclesiz). institution, indicated by the other terms. For the
The phrase,'tabernacle of the Coingr'egatlioz,' how- srligious import of'Congregation' see CONVOCAever, which so frequently occurs as indicating the  TION.
place of meeting, is described by neither of these  t This is the Mosaic requirement. In later times




CONGREGATION                   555             CONGREGATION
I9; Lev. xix. 34; Deut. xxix. ii, comp. with  I8.  These four classes of men, in addition to
Is. Ivi. 6, 7). The words, which stand at the official duties, seem to have had attached to their
head of our article to express the national congre- offices the prerogative of representing their coungation, sometimes imply (I) a meeting of the whole trymen at the national convention or'Edah. We
mass of the people; sometimes (2) a congress of have not classed among these delegates either the
deputies (Jahn's Hebrew Republic, 243). (.) At first'Jethronian prefects' (Exod. xviii. 15; Deut. i.
when the entire nation dwelt in tents in their 13-15) or the seventy elders (Num. xi. I6), for
migration from Egypt to Canaan under the im- they were undoubtedly included already in one or
mediate command of the great legislator, the Con- other of the normal classes (comp. Num. xi. I6 and
gregation seems to have comprised every qualified Deut. i. 15). The members of the Congregation
Israelite, who had the right of a personal presence were convened by the ruler, or judge, or king, for
and vote in the congress. In Exod. xxxv. I, this the time being; e.g., by Moses, passim; by
ample assembly is designated, KbglW ~ Al    53,*  Joshua (xxiii. I, 2); probably by the high-priest
iame.e assembly is designfathe Sons o srael wa-a  (Judges xx. 27, 28); frequently by the kings-by.e.,ieentzreC eatn~omit o? ra       David (I Chron. xiii. 2); by Solomon (I Kings
ovvayy vi'Ip, omns trbafilorum Isael. viii. 5, etc.); by Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. xx. 4, 5);
Similarly in Num. xxvii. I9, the phrase is gPIl 92  by Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxx. 2); probably by the
all the Congreg'ationt [-raar X  -vvao'crywy, omnzis Tirshathas afterwards (see Ezra x. 8, 9, 12); and
t o], while in Lev. xvi. 7  by Judas Maccabeus (I Maccab. iii. 42-46). The
/nuzltitudo], while in Lev. xvi. 17 we have 5,np~=  place of meeting was at the door of the Tabernacle
KiW     [-rao-a o-avvayyr'IoparX, universus ccetus of the Congregation [szra]; sometimes, however,
Israel, the entire assembly of Isael].  We should some other place of celebrity was selected-as
have no difficulty in supposing that every member Shechem by Joshua (xxiv. I); Mibpea   (Judg. xx.
of the'Edah was present at such meetings as these,?; Bez by Saul; and Giga by Samuel (I Sam.
in the lifetime of Moses and before the nation Xli 8, I5).  As long as the Israelites were enwas dispersed throughout its settlements in Canaan, camped i the wilderness, the'Edahs were conwere it not thatwe occasionally find, in latertimes,veed b  the sound of silver tmpets.  From
an equally ample designation used, when it is im-Num. x. 2-4, i appears that the blowing of one
possible to believe that the nation could have as- trupet only was the signal for a  more select consembled at one place of meeting; e. g., in Josh. xxii. ventin, composed only of the heads of the Mzsh12, where'the whole congregation of the children of pnachoh and the princes of the tribes; whereas
Israel' is mentioned; and again still later, as at when both trumpets sounded the larger congregathe dedication of Solomon's temple in I Kings viii. tions met. But after the occupation of Canaan,
4; 2 Chron. i. 5   (2.) From this impossibility ofwhen this mode of summons would be clearly inef14; 2 Chron. i. 5. (2.) From this impossibility of
personal attendance in the national congregation, fectal, the Congregations seem to have been conwe should expect to find a repesentative constitu- vened by messengers (Judg. xx. I, 12; I Sam. xi.
tion provided. Accordingly, in Num. i. 16, we 7, 8). As to the powers and authority of the Conread of persons called filMln ^, not, as in gregation-it was not a legislative body:'Juris
A. V., resnownzed of the C.; but, wont to be called illius Majestatis quod in ferendis legibus est posito the C. (Michaelis, Lawzs of Moses, trans., i. 230)  tum nihil quicquam penes ilium (cotum);' ConrinIn xvi. 2, they are still more explicitly styled WM  giS, De Rep. Hebr., sec. 10, p. 246. The divine'1)2i  -   l'n)1 pp, i.e., chief  of fte C. eZho arelaw of Moses had already foreclosed all Legislacalled to the Convention [o-yrI-Xyof hoeVIs, Cgi e  tezion, properly so-called; there was only room for
pore concilii vocabuntr].  While in Exod. xxxviii. bye-laws (Sherlock, Disse^t   m. 3I7). Nor was
25 occurs the phrase PItl lp>, thzose depztced to the taxizg power within the competency of the
Israelite'Edah''the national revenues of the state
the assembly, which exactly describes delegated per- Israelte sEdahtd  the  titonal en  othe   state
sons. From Josh. xxiii. 2 and xxiv. I, it would were so settled in the tithes and other offerings,
appear that these deputies were-(I) a' The elders  and there being no soldiery in pay, all holding their
(called rtIat  kpt,'elders of the C.', in Lev. iv. estates by military service, there was no room for
5), as if deputed thereto; and'    elders of Israel,' new or occasional taxes; so that the Hebrew paror'of the people,' as if representing them andlament could have no business either to make new
nominated by them   (Deut. i. 13).  (2)'The laws, or to raise money' (Lowman, Dissert. p.
heads,' DgWN, i. e.,'The princes of the tribes' I35). But there was, for all that, a large residue
(Num. i. 4, i6); and the chiefs of the Mishpa- of authority, which sufficiently guaranteed the
chotlh, or'families' (xxvi., passim).  (3)'The nationalautonomy. (I) The Divine Law itself was
judges-;' not of course the extraordinary rulers deliberately submitted to the'Edah for acceptance
beginning with Othniel, but the  UABWj referred  or rejection (Exod. xix. 3-9, and xxiv. 3). (2)
to in Deut. xvi. I8, stationed in every great city, Their chiefs were submitted to this body on apand summoned probably as ex officio members to  pointment for its approval; e.g., Joshua (Num.
the congregation.  (4)'The officers' (Lll W, xxvii. I9); Saul (I Sam. x. 24); Saul again, on
yppa/ar-ets, nmag5istri;* whom Jahn calls genealo- the renewal of the kingdom (I Sam. xi. 15); David
gists, and Gesenius magistrates), whether central,( Sam. v. I-3); Solomon ( Chron. xxix. 22);
as in Num. xi. i6, or provincial, as in Deut. xvi. so the later kings-we take as an instance Joash (2
xv Chron. xxiii. 3). (3) The Edah seems to have
had the power of staying the execution of a king's
baptismz and oblation were added-Selden, De sentence (as in Jonathan's case, where' the rescue'
Synod-Ebr. I. 3. 38; J. Alting. Dissert. vii. 248 was not by force or violence, but by constitutional
sec. 24; Nicolai's note on Sigonius, De Repub. power [.Am carries with it the idea of authority]
Ebr. i. 6. p. 95. The privileges of the full pro-:
selyte were equal to those of the native Israelite. (I Sam. xiv. 44, 45). (4) As in our Parliament, if
[PROSELYTE.]                                 it had not actually the prerogative of making peace




CONIAH                    556             CONVOCATION
and war, it possessed the power of checking, by ia/h in the A. V. 2 Chron. xxxv. 9, though the same
disapprobation, the executive authority (See Joshua as above in the original.-J. E. R.
ix. 15; comp. with verse I8). In later times,
indeed, the prince seems to have laid questions of  C 0 N V 0 C A T I 0 N (N pDj [plur. constrsu
foreign alliance, etc., before the Congregation, 
either for deliberation or approbation, or both     from       to call; this noun, with its
(See the case of Simon Maccaboeus in I Maccab. usual adjunct, is translated in all the passages of
xiv. I8-28). (5) But in the absence of a ruler, the the Pentateuch by the adjectives  yia and KX/rTi,' Eda/i apparently decided itself on war or peace or e7ricKXTros [scil. j/uepa] in the Sept.; and in the
(Judg. xx. I, II-14; also xxi. I3-20). (6) The Vulg. by sanctus, celeberrimzus or sancta, soleimnis,
Congregation was a high court of appeal in cases of and venerabilis [scil. dies]), is an appellative word
life and death (Num. xxxv. 12, 24, 25). (7) used in nineteen out of the twenty-three times of
Capital punishment was not inflicted without the its occurrence, in apposition with the names of
cognisance of the'Ed/da, and the execution of the certain Jewish holydays. Like the Greek iravi,sentence was one of its functions (Lev. xxiv. Io- yvpt (Smith's Dictionary of G. and R. An4tiq. p.
14; Num. xv. 32-36). Lastly, the Congregation 86I), it signifies'a meeting or solemn assembly of
was consulted by Hezeliah and Josiah in their a whole people for the purpose of worshipping at
pious endeavours to restore religion (2 Chron. a common sanctuary.' The religions import of the
xxx. 2-4; xxxiv. 29). When David mentions his term is further indicated by the addition of the'praises inthe great congregation' (1i  Z n13, Ps. epithet gip, xq. d.,'Holy Convocation.' The
xxii. 26, etalibi), it is probably in reference to his phrase is applied-[I.] To the FEASTS. I. To'composition of Psalms for the use of the Israelit- tfe Sabbat/s, all which were'Holy Convocations'
ish church, and the establishment ill its full splen- (Lev. xxiii. 2, 3).  2. To the Passozer, first day
dour of the choral Levitical servic'e (Thrdpp, Ps. (Exod. xii. 16; Lev. xxiii. 7; Num. xxviii. I8).
i. 141), in all which he would require and obtain To the same, last day (Exod. xii. 16; Lev. xxiii.
the co-operatioli and sanction of the'Edah. After 8; Num. xxviii. 25). 3. To the Pentecost (Lev.
the rejection of the Theocratic constitution by Jero- xxiii. 2l). 4. To the Feast of Trumpets on the
boam, the Congregation sometimes receives a more first of Tisri, the New Year's day of the Civil
limited designation, eg., -5Wn   Hn1Vn)','All year (Lev. xxxiii. 24; Num. xxix. ).  5. To the
limited designation, e.Feast of Weeks, or First-fruits (Num. xxviii. 26).
the C. of 7erusalei' (2 Chron. xxx. 2), and  fp-   6. T   Feast of Tabernacles, first day (Lev.
1"IlT,'All the C. of 7Jdah,' traoa 4 eKK/clAa  xxiii. 35; Num. xxix. 12); To the same, last day'Ioiva (ver., 25). The phrase' C. of srael' is used  (Lev. xxiii. 36). 7. As introductory to the enuindeed twice in tlis later period (see 2 Chron. meration of these feasts (Lev. xxiii. 4); as closing
xxiv. 6, and xxx. 25); but in the former passage it (ver. 37). [2.] To the one great FAST, the Day
the expression directly refers to the original insti- of Atonement (Lev. xxiii. 27; Num. xxix. 7). To
tution of Moses, and in the latter to the company the deep solemnities of'the Holy Convocation,'
whom Hezekiah invited out of tIe neighbourinzg whether of joy, or of sorrow ['afflicting the soul,'
kinygdom to attend his passover, which the LXX. see last two reff.] one great feature was common,
well indicates by a unique translation, oi e6peevres marked by the command,'ye shall do no servile
et'Io-pacX.                                 work therein' (See all the reff.); or more fully in
In the time of our Lord the supreme assembly  Exod. xii. 16;'no manner of work shall be done
of the Jewish nation had dwindled into the compara- in them, save that which every man must eat, that
tively modern institution of the Sanhedrim (N. T., only may be done of you.' [Such as are curious
oruveoplov for ouvvaycwy7, is used in N.T. in anew and about the Rabbinical opinions of what might be
different sense. See SYNAGOGUE.) Few questions done and what not on these occasions, may find
have been more contested in Hebrew archmology  them in BHuxtorf's De Synagoga 7udaica, especially
than that, which asserts the identity of the ancient c. xix.; the joyous celebrations are described in'Edah or Congregationwith it. Rabbinical authori- c. xxi.; and the expiatory in c. xxv. xxvi. (Ugolini
ties contend for the identity-' Per Congregationein 7Tes. iv. 988-1052)].  With this. may be comIsraelis significatur Synhedrium,' says R. Solomon pared Strabo's statement, book x.-KotLvv 7-TOU
(on Lev. iv.) But the authority of the Talmudists Kai Trwv'EXXVoVw Kal Bap3dpcopv earl, rb ras lepoin such cases is very low with the learned.-Low- 7roi tas Er'T avsoes eoprTarcKs 7roLe^i-al.
man, Dissert. p. 151; Patrick on Exod. xviii. 25;  In the four passages not enumerated above, 1ipD1
Calmet, DisserZ. sur la Police des Hebreux (prefixed is unaccompanied by WyIp, and loses its specific
to his Comment. on Numbers); Bertram, de Rep. meaning.  In Num. x. 2 it is used with,lt in
Hebr., by L' Empereur; and Lightfoot, Ministerinim  construct state, q. d.,' summoning or convoking an
Tenpli (which two works are in Ugolini Theesaur,  Eda' [CONGREGATION].'  In Neh. viii., it
voll. iv. ix., and with the treatises of Cunueus and  signifies'the reading,' or public recitation of the
Sigonius contain much, but desultory, information book of the law by order of Ezra and Nehemiah
on the subject of this art.) See also COUNCIL; and certain Levites.  In Is. i. I3, it is found with
SANHEDRIM.-P. H.                             the cognate verb [Kal. Inf., used nominally, N1p
K1pD, q. d.,' the calling of assemblies']. In Is. iv.
CONIAH.     [JECONIAH.]                    5, it either bears the general meaning of a religious.CONONIAH (.; Xcwvevtas Vzat.; Xwcoveias th fassembly, or (according to Gesenius, Thes. 1233),
CONONIAH           -(._; mmXw m,/as  Yaz.; TXXtwvas  the porch of the temple, where such assembly was
Alex.; Chonenias). A Levite who had the charge held.
of' the offerings, and the tithes, and the dedicated  It is the word "'~   [A.V. congregoaton, feast
things,' by the command of King Hezekiah (2 (of the Lord)], which is always found in connecChron. xxxi. 12, 13). The name is spelt Coznan- tion with our phrase'Holy Convocation,' in Lev.




COOKING                     557                   CORD
xxiii. and Num. xxviii. xxix.-and not;I. or father or mother let him die the death' was nulliL which seems to shew, that although in AV. fied by the tradition.  It would, indeed, seem surn'hicw seems to shew, that although n.V.common  prising that such a vow as this (closely analogous
the three words are confounded in the common   to the modern profanity of imprecating curses on
rendering congregation, yet these last two bear the one's self if certain conditions be not fulfilled)
political sense, and leave the rezw'ous one to
poiticanl senseo, and leave the rethigious one tho  should be considered to involve a religious obliga3     NI, and to that which stands at the head of this tion from which the party could not be freed even
Art. [CONGREGATION. ]-P. H.                    if afterwards he repented of his rashness and sin.
COOKING.     [FOOD.]                        It appears, however, from Rabbinical authority,
that anything thus devoted was irreclaimable (GroCOOS. [Cos.]                                tius, Annotationes in Matt. xv. 5), and that even
COPPER.     [NaCHOSHETH.]                   the hasty utterance of a word implying a vow was
equivalent to a vow formally made (Lightfoot,
COPTIC VERSION. [EGYPTIAN VERSIONS.] INor. Hebr.) This, indeed, seems to be the force
CORAL.  [PENINM * RAMOTH.]       of the expression used in Mark, Kal oKe'-r dliere,
CORAL. [1PENINIM; RAMOTH.]
K. T. X.,' ye sztffr him no more to do aught for
CORBAN (tipi; N. T. Kopjpad), a Hebrew       his father or his mother.' A more striking inwd e d in   Grek         stance of the subversion of a command of God
aword employed in the Hellenstic Greek, justby the tradition of men can hardly be conceived.as the corresponding Greek word &3pov was F.         G.
employed in the Rabbinical Hebrew    (Buxtorf,
Lex. Rab. col. 579) to designate an oblation of  CORBE (Xop3e; Chorab),      Esd. v. 12.  A
any kind to God.   It occurs only once in the name answering to Zaccai in Ezra ii. 9, and
N. T. (Mark vii. II), where it is explained    Neh.vii. I4. -. E. R.
(as also by Josephus, Antiq. 1. 4, c. 4, sec. 4,
Contira Ap. 1. I, sec. 22) by the word &wpov.    CORD. This word occurs in the A. V. as the
There is some difficulty in the construction and  translation of-.   (Josh. ii; Esth.  6
exact meaning of this passage and the correspond-.; E.. 
ing one, Matt. xv. 5. The grammatical difficulty Job xxxvi. 8; xli. I. [xl. 25]; Ps. cxl. 6; Prov.
arises from the sentence being apparently incom- v. 22; Eccl. xii. 6; Is. v. 18; xxxiii. 20; Jer.
plete.  This difficulty our translators, following  xxxviii. 6, 13; Ezek. xxvii. 24; Hos. xi. 4; Mic.
Beza, solve, by supplying the words' he shall be ii. 5), a word which properly signifies a string or
free' (insons erit).  Most critics, however, regard  rope, and is elsewhere in the A. V. translated
the following verse (Matt. xv. 6, Mark vii. I2)'tacklings' (Is. xxxiii. 23),' ropes' (I Kings xx.
as the apodosis of the sentence, the Kal being re- 3I, 32),' sorrows' (Ps. xviii. 4, 5), a' line' for
dundant'more Hebrheo,' according to Grotius, measuring (Amos vii. 17, joined with 1ID, Zech.
or rather serving to indicate the conclusion (De ii. 5 [ii. I], etc.) 2.'1rlp (Job xxx. II), a word
Wette, KIirze Erkliirung des Ev. Afatt. p. 15I; properly designating that which is used to bind;
see also Winer, Gram. der N... Sprachidioms, 
sec. 66, p. 537). The more important point, how- hence wS  b A,    new cords' (Jig    xv. 7,
ever, is to ascertain the precise meaning of the  gren  iths, A. V.) it i used also for the string
expression Kopfplv (g W r) 6&poy) 6       i (  /o of a bow (Ps. xi. 2). 3. W'IyDn (Exod. xxxv. is;
SfieXi0ys.  Many interpreters, at the head of Num. iii. 37; Is. liv. 2; Jer. x. 20), also rendered
whom   stands Beza, supply eaorl after the word'string' of a bow (Ps. xxi. 12). 4. Dln (Eccl.
Koppav, and suppose that a gift of the property of iv. 12), also rendered'line' of thread (Josh. ii. 18),
the son had actually been made to the service of' thread' (Gen. xiv. 23; Judg. xvi. I2; Song iv.
God (see Olshausen, Biblischer Commentar. on   3);' line' for measuring (I Kings vii. 15).
Matt. xv. 5). The sense is then,' Whatever of 5. T:1 (Judg. xv. 3; Ps. ii. 3; xviii. 27; cxxix.
mine might benefit thee is corban, is already dedi-   rendered also'rope' (Judg. xvi., 12; Is.
cated to God, and I have therefore no power 4), e     ndeed aso' Jo xxxix.o. x. wreatIhe chains'
over it.' Others, more correctly, as we think, (. xv. 2, comp..  4).  6.     iov
supply gorw rather than  rit, and translate,'Be  (xod X. 2,    c     v.  4). 6.   Xo
it corban (that is, devoted) whatever of mine  (Johnii. 15),'ropes' (Actsxxvii. 32).
it corban (that is, devoted) whatever of mine    Besides their literal meanings, these words are
shall profit thee' (Campbell's translation, see his  sd i  is figurative acceptations in Scripture
used m  various figurative acceptations in Scripture.
note on the passage). Lightfoot (NHor. Hebr. onT                                 i Srpu.
note  te passage).  ightfoot (or.  on Thus we have the'cords of sin' (Prov. v. 22),
Matt. xv. 5) notices a formula of frequent occur-e  cords of vanity' (Is. v. i8), cords of death' and
rence in the Talmud (in the treatises Nedarim                      4, 5    ors of affliction''of hell' (Ps. Xviii. 4, 5),'cords of affliction'
and Nazir) which seems to be exactly that quoted  (Job xxxvi ),'bands of love' (Hos. xi. 4), as
by our Lord, no],3:~w 1W,' [Be it] cor- emblematical expressions of the attractive or conban, [as to] which I may be profitable to thee.' trolling power of these qualities or objects.  The
He, as well as Grotius, shews that this and similar expression'cords of a man' (Hos. xi. 4) may
formula were not used to signify that the thing  mean either' inducements such as a man would use,'
was actually devoted, but was simply intended  ore' inducements such as would avail with a man;'
to prohibit the use of it fiom the party to whom  from the contrast to the'heifer' of x. II, which
it was thus made corban, as though it were said, needs to be drawn by outward force, the latter
If I give you anything or do anything for you, seems the preferable explanation. In Job iv. 21,
may it be as though I gave you that which is de-'their cord' (A. V. excellency) means the soul or
voted to God, and may I be accounted perjured  life, with allusion to the cord of a tent, the reand sacrilegious. This view of the passage cer- moval of which causes it to collapse and fall down
tainly gives much greater force to the charge made  (Lebensfaden Hitzig, innre sehne Ewald, la corde do
by our Lord, that the command' Whoso curseth  leur tente Renan); and in Eccl. xii. 6, the same




CORE                     558                 CORINTH
fact is represented by another allusion drawn from  Of what materials cords or ropes were made
cords, the snapping asunder of the silver cord by Iamong the Hebrews we cannot certainly say,
which a lamp is suspended, so that it falls and is except that some of the articles so named were
destroyed. The'loosing of the cord' (Job xxx. composed of gold and silver threads (comp. Exod.
II), if we read l11f as in the text, will mean' the  xxviii. 4, 22, 24; xxxix. 3, 15, 17; Eccl. xii. 6).
giving licence to,' i.e., the enemies of the speaker Those in common use were probably made of flax
would throw off restraint and afflict him; or if we  or rushes (comp. oXowtvov, and the use of pDZ1,
follow the k'ri, and read'n3F9, it will mean the re- Job xli. 2); bowstrings were probably made of the
laxing of strength, i.e., God would weaken and  entrails of animals; perhaps strips of hide, or the
afflict the speaker; in the former case the meta- fibre of plants may have been used, as was the
phor is taken from reins (comp. laxare habenas) in  case among the Egyptians  (Wilkinson, Anc.
the latter from a bowzstinzg.  From the use of the  Egypt. iii. I43, 2IO).-W. L. A.
measuring line in defining property,'cord' or'line' came to be used in the sense of inJieritance  CORE (Kopi, Apocr. ro0 K., N. Test. Coie),
or defined territory (Deut. iii. 4; A. V. region; Ecclus. xlv. I8, Jude II. The Korah of the book
Josh. xvii. I4, A. V. portionz; Ps. xvi. 6; Ezek. of Numbers, the associate of Dathan and Abiram.
xlvii. 13);'to cast a cord' (Mic. ii. 5) to denote  -J. E. R.
the determining of a property.  To put ropes on  CORIANDER.      [GAD.]
the head (I Kings xx. 3 ) was a token of submission.                                           CORINTH, a Grecian city, placed on the'N~>~;",~i                    i
"-,'..n __::',
I95. Corinth.
isthmus which joins Peloponnesus (now called the  commanded the traffic by land from north to south.
Morea) to the continent of Greece. A lofty rock  An attempt made to dig through the isthmus was
rises above it, on which was the citadel, or the frustrated by the rocky nature of the soil; at one
Acrocorinthus (Livy, xlv. 28). It had two har- period, however, they had an invention for drawbours: Cenchrese, on the eastern side, about 70 ing galleys across from sea to sea on trucks. With
stadia distant; and Lecheeum, on the modern Gulf such advantages of position, Corinth was very early
of Lepanto, only I2 stadia from the city (Strabo, renowned for riches, and seems to have been made
viii. 6). Its earliest name, as given by Homer, is by nature for the capital of Greece. The numeEphyire; and mysterious legends connect it with rous colonies which she sent forth, chiefly to the
Lycia, by means of the hero Bellerophon, to whom  west and to Sicily, gave her points of attachment
a plot of ground was consecrated in front of the in many parts; and the good will, which, as a mercity, close to a cypress grove (Pausanias, ii. 2). cantile state, she carefully maintained, made her a
Owing to the great difficulty of weathering Malea, valuable link between the various Greek tribes.
the southern promontory of Greece, merchandise  The public and foreign policy of Corinth appears
passed through Corinth from sea to sea; the city to have been generally remarkable for honour and
becoming an entrepot for the goods of Asia and  justice (Herod. and Thucyd. passim); and the
Italy (Strabo, viii. 6, 20). At the same time it Isthmian games, which were celebrated there every




CORINTHIANS                   559               CORINTHIANS
other year, might have been converted into a was conveyed to him by Stephanas, Fortunatus,
national congress, if the Corinthians had been less and Achaicus (xvi. I7). Apollos, also, who sucpeaceful and more ambitious.                   ceeded the Apostle at Corinth, but who seems to
When the Achaean league was rallying the chief have been with him at the time this epistle was
powers of southern Greece, Corinth became its written (xvi. 12), may have given him information
military centre; and as the spirit of freedom was of the state of things among the Christians in that
active in that confederacy, they were certain, city. From these sources the Apostle had become
sooner or later, to give the Romans a pretence for acquainted with the painful fact that since he had
attacking them. The fatal blow fell on Corinth left Corinth (Acts xviii. I8) the church in that place
(B.C. 146), when L. Mummius, by order of the had sunk into a state of great corruption and error.
Roman Senate, barbarously destroyed that beauti- One prime source of this evil state of things, and
ful town (Cicero, Verr. i. 2I), eminent even in in itself an evil of no inferior magnitude, was the
Greece for painting, sculpture, and all working in  existence of schisms or party divisions in the church.
metal and pottery; and as the territory was given'Every one of you,' Paul tells them,'saith I am
over to the Sicyonians (Strabo, 1. c.), we must infer of Paul, and I of Apollos, and I of Cephas, and I
that the whole population was sold into slavery.  of Christ' (i. 12). This has led to the conclusion
The Corinth of which we read in the N. T. was that four great parties had arisen in the church,
quite a new city, having been rebuilt and esta- which boasted of Paul, Apollos, Peter, and Christ,
blished as a Roman colony, and peopled with freed as their respective heads. By what peculiarities of
menz from Rome (Pausanias and Strabo, zu. s.) by  sentiment these parties may be supposed to have
the dictator Caesar, a little before his assassination. been distinguished from each other, it is not diffiAlthough the soil was too rocky to be fertile, and  cult, with the exception of the last, to conjecture.
the territory very limited, Corinth again became a The existence in many of the early churches of a
great and wealthy city in a short time, especially as strong tendency towards the ingrafting of Judaism
the Roman pro-consuls made it the seat of govern- upon Christianity is a fact well known to every
ment (Acts xviii.) for southern Greece, which was reader of the N. T.; and though the church at
now called the province of Achaia.  In earlier Corinth was founded by Paul and afterwards intimes Corinth had been celebrated for the great structed by Apollos, yet it is extremely probable
wealth of its Temple of Venus, which had a gainful that as in the churches of Galatia so in those of
traffic of a most dishonourable kind with the nume- Achaia this tendency may have been strongly manirous merchants resident there-supplying them with fested, and that a party may have arisen in the
harlots under the forms of religion. The same phe- church at Corinth opposed to the liberal and spirinomena, no doubt, reappeared in the later and  tual system of Paul, and more inclined to one which
Christian age.  The little which is said in the N. aimed at fettering Christianity with the restrictions
T. seems to indicate a wealthy and luxurious com- and outward ritual of the Mosaic dispensation.
munity, prone to impurity of morals; neverthe- The leaders of this party probably came with letters
less, all Greece was so contaminated, that we may  of commendation (2 Cor. iii. I) to the Corinthian
easily overcharge the accusation against Corinth.  church, and it is possible that they may have had these
The Corinthian Church is remarkable in the from Peter; but that the party itself received any
Epistles of the Apostle Paul by the variety of countenance from that Apostle cannot be for a moits spiritual gifts, which seem for the time to have ment supposed. Rather must we believe that they
eclipsed or superseded the office of the elder or took the name of' the Apostle of the circumcision'
bishop, which in most churches became from the  as the designation of their party for the sake of
beginning so prominent.  Very soon, however, gaining greater authority to their position; at any
this peculiarity was lost, and the bishops of Corinth rate they seem to have used Peter's acknowledged
take a place co-ordinate to those of other capital place among the apostles to the disparagement of
cities. One of them, Dionysius, appears to have Paul, and hence his retort (2 Cor. xi. 5). The
exercised a great influence over many and distant vehement opposition of this party to Paul, and their
churches, in the latter part of the second century  pointed attack upon his claims to the Apostolic
(Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. iv. 23).-F. W. N.     office, would naturally lead those who had been
Paul's converts, and who probably formed the
CORINTHIANS, EPISTLES TO           THE.-     major part of the church, to rally round his pretenFIRST EPISTLE. The testimony of Christian anti- sions and the doctrines of a pure and spiritual
quity is full and unanimous in inscribing this in- Christianity which he taught. Closely allied with
spired production to the pen of the Apostle Paul this party, and in some respects only a subdivision
(Lardner's Credibility, Works, vol. ii. plur. loc.; of it, was that of Apollos.  This distinguished
Davidson, Inztrod. ii. 253, if.; Schott, Isagoge in individual was not only the friend of Paul, but had
A. 7., pp. 236, 239, sqq.), and with this the in- followed up Paul's teaching at Corinth in a conternal evidence arising from allusions, undesigned  genial spirit and to a harmonious result (iii. 5, etc.)
coincidences, style, and tone of thought, fully  Between the party, therefore, assuming his name,
accords. The onlypersonwho has been foundto cast and that ranking itself under the name of the Aposa doubt on itsgenuineness is the eccentric and extreme tle, there could be no substantial ground of diffeBruno Bauer. The epistle seems to have been oc- rence. Perhaps, as Apollos had the advantage of
casioned partly by some intelligence received by  Paul in mental polish, and especially in facility in
the Apostle concerning the Corinthian church from  public speaking (Acts xviii. 24; comp. 2 Cor. x.
the domestics of Chloe, a pious female connected Io), the sole ground on which his party may have
with that church (i. I ), and, probably, also from  preferred him  was the higher gratification he
common report (aKco6erat, v. i.); and partly by an  afforded by his addresses to their educated taste
epistle which the Corinthians themselves had ad- than was derived from the simple statements of the
dressed to the Apostle, asking advice and instruc- Apostle concerning'Christ and him crucified.'
tion on several points (vii. I), and which probably  Thus far all, though almost purely conjectural, is




CORINTHIANS                   560              CORINTHIANS
easy and probable; but in relation to the fourth  call in question the right of the latter to the apostleparty-that which said,' I am of Christ'-it has ship, and to claim for themselves, as followers of
been found extremely difficult to determine by  Peter, a closer spiritual relationship to the Saviour,
what peculiar sentiments they were distinguished. the honour of being the alone genuine and aposThe simplest hypothesis is that of Augustine (' alii tolically-designated disciples of Christ. This opiqui nolebant edlificari super Petrum, sed super nion is followed by Billroth, and has much in its
petram [dicebant] Ego autem  sum  Christi,' De favour; but the remark of Neander, that'accordverb. Domz., Serm. I3), whom Eichhorn (Eizleit. ing to it the Christ-party would be discriminated
iii. I7), Schott (Isagoge in N. 7., p. 233), Pott from the Petrine only in name, which is not in
(NV. T. Koppian. vol. v. part i., p. 25), Bleek  keeping with the relation of this party-appellation
(Einl., p. 397), and others follow, viz., that this to the preceding party-names,' has considerable
party was composed of the better sort in the weight as an objection to it. Neander himself, folchurch, who stood neutral, and declining to follow  lowed by Olshausen, supposes that the Christ-party
any mere human leader, declared themselves to be- was composed of persons'who repudiated the
long only to Christ, the common Lord and the authority of all these teachers, and independently
Leader of all. This opinion is chiefly based on of the apostles, sought to construct for themselves
I Cor. iii. 22, 23, where it is supposed the four par- a pure Christianity, out of which probably they
ties are alluded to and that of Christ alone com- cast everything that too strongly opposed their
mended.   But this seems a forced and improbable philosophical ideas as a mere foreign addition.
interpretation of that passage; the words  eteds U  From the opposition of Hellenism and Judaism and
Xprtrou being much more naturally understood as from the Helleno-philosophical tendencyat Corinth,
applying to all the Corinthians, than as describing such a party might easily have arisen.
only a part of them.  This opinion, moreover, To such the Apostles would seem to have mixed
hardly tallies with the language of the Apostle too much that was Jewish with their system, and
concerning the Christ-party, in I Cor. i. I2, and not to have presented the doctrines of Christ suffi2 Cor. x. 7, where he evidently speaks of them in ciently pure. To Christ alone, therefore, would
terms of censure, and as guilty of dividing Christ. they professedly appeal, and out of the materials
Another hypothesis is that suggested by Storr furnished them by tradition, they sought, by means
(ANzlitiaZ Historica epistoll. ad Cor. izterrelationi of their philosophic criticism, to extract what
servientes.  Opzusc. Acad., vol. ii. p. 242), and  should be the pure doctrine of Christ' (Apostol.
which has been followed, among others, by Hug  Zeilalt. s. 205; vol. i., p. 273 of Eng. Tr.) The
(fitrod., p. 524; Fosdick's Tr.), Bertholdt (Einl. reasoning of the Apostle in the Ist, 2d, I2th,
s. 3320), and Krause (Pazdi ad Cor. Epistol     3 I3th, I4th, and I5th chapters of the Ist Epistle
Grace., etc., Poloeg., p. 35), viz., that the Christ- seems clearly to indicate that some such notions as
party was one which, professing to follow James these had crept into the Church at Corinth; and,
and the other brethren of the Lord, as its heads, upon the whole, this hypothesis of Neander comclaimed to itself, in consequence of this relation- mends itself to our minds as the one which is best
ship, the title ol roo XpLoroO, by way of eminence, maintained and most probable. At the same time,
To this it has been objected, that had the party in we have serious doubts of the soundness of the
question designed, by the name they assumed, to  assumption on which all these hypotheses proceed,
express the relationship of their leader to Jesus viz., that there really were in the Corinthian church
Christ, they would have employed the words oi roo sects or parties specifically distinguished from each
Kvptov, not ol roo Xpo-rov, the former being more other by peculiarities of doctrinal sentiment. That
correctly descriptive of a personal, and the latter erroneous doctrines were entertained by individuals
of an official, relationship.  Besides, as Olshausen in the church, and that a schismatical spirit perremarls,'the party of James could not be pre- vaded it, cannot be questioned; but that these two
cisely distinguished from that of Peter; both must stood formally connected with each other may
have been composed of strenuous Jew-Christians. fairly admit of doubt.  Schisms often arise in
And, in fine, there is a total absence of all positive churches from causes which have little or nothing
grounds for this hypothesis.... The mere to do with diversities of doctrinal sentiment among
naming of' the brethren of the Lord' in I Cor. ix. the members; and that such were the schisms
5, and of James in I Cor. xv. 7, can prove nothing, which disturbed the church at Corinth appears to
as this is not in connection with any strictures on us probable, from the circumstance that the existthe Christ-party, or indeed on any party, but en- ence of these is condemned by the Apostle, withtirely incidentally; and the expression yLtvcjKetv out reference to any doctrinal errors out of which
Xpto-rbv KMar& odprKa (2 Cor. v. 16) refers to some- they might arise; whilst, on the other hand, the
thing quite different from the family-relations of doctrinal errors condemned by him are denounced
the Saviour: it is designed to contrast the purely without reference to their having led to party
human aspect of his existence with his eternal strifes. From this we are inclined to the opinion
heavenly essence' (Biblische Comment. bd. iii. abt. that the schisms arose merely from quarrels among
I, s. 457; comp. Bilroth, Comzzmentlary on ize Co- the Corinthians as to the comparative excellence of
rinthians, vol. i. p. rI, Eng. Tr.) In an able their respective teachers-those who had learned of
treatise which appeared in the Tiibingen Zeitscirift Paul boasting that he excelled all others, and the
fiur T7eologie for I831, part iv. p. 61, Baur has converts of Apollos and Peter advancing a similar
suggested that, properly speaking, there were only claim for them, whilst a fourth party haughtily retwo parties in the Corinthian church-the Pauline pudiated all subordinate teaching, and pretended
and the Petrine; and that, as that of Apollos was that they derived all their religious knowledge from
a subdivision of the former, that of Christ was a the direct teaching of Christ. The language of
subdivision of the latter.  This subdivision, he the Apostle in the first four chapters, where alone
supposes, arose from the opposition offered by the he speaks directly of these schisms, and where he
Petrine party to Paul, which led some of them to resolves their criminality not into their relation to




CORINTHIANS                   561              CORINTHIANS
false doctrine, but into their having their source in this conclusion it may be added, ist, that the
a disposition to glory in men, must be regarded as Apostle had really in this epistle given the prohibigreatly favouring this view. Comp. also 2 Cor. tion to which he refers, viz., in the verses immev. I6.                                         diately preceding that under notice; and that his
Besides the schisms and the erroneous opinions design in the verses which follow is so to explain
which had invaded the Church at Corinth, the   that prohibition as to preclude the risk of their
Apostle had learned that many immoral and dis- supposing that he meant by it anything else than
orderly practices were tolerated among them, and  that in the chzurch they should not mingle with
were in some cases defended by them. A connec- immoral persons; 2d, that it is not a little strange
tion of a grossly incestuous character had been  that the Apostle should, only in this cursory and
formed by one of the members, and gloried in by  incidental manner, refer to a circumstance so imhis brethren (v. I, 2); law-suits before heathen portant in its bearing upon the case of the Corinjudges were instituted by one Christian against thians as his having already addressed them on
another (vi. I); licentious indulgence was not so their sinful practices; and 3d, that had such an
firmly denounced and so carefully avoided as the  epistle ever existed, it may be supposed that some
purity of Christianity required (vi. 9-20); the pub- hint of its existence would have been found in the
lic meetings of the brethren were brought into dis- records of the primitive Church, which is not the
repute by the women appearing in them unveiled  case. On these grounds we strongly incline to the
(xi. 3-Io), and were disturbed by the confused and  opinion that the present is the first epistle which
disorderly manner in which the persons possessing  Paul addressed to the Corinthians (Bloomfield,
spiritual gifts chose to exercise them  (xii.-xiv.); Recensio Synopt. in loc.; Billroth's Commenwetay,
and in fine the ayacira, which were designed to be  E. T., vol. i. p. 4, note a; Lange, Apost. Zeitait.
scenes of love and union, became occasions for I. 205).
greater contention through the selfishness of the  From 2 Cor. xii. 14, and xiii. I, comp. with 2
wealthier members, who, instead of sharing in a Cor. ii. I, and xiii. 2, it has appeared to many
common meal with the poorer, brought each his that before the writing of that epistle Paul had
own repast, and partook of it by himself, often to twice visited Corinth, and that one of these visits
excess, while his needy brother was left to fast (xi. had been after the Church there had fallen into an
20-34). The judgment of the Apostle had also   evil state; for otherwise his visit could not have
been solicited by the Corinthians concerning the been described as one ev Xu7rj, and one during
comparative advantages of the married and the which God had humbled him before them. By
celibate state (vii. I-40), as well as, apparently, others this second visit to Corinth has been denied.
the duty of Christians in relation to the use for There are difficulties on both sides; but the
food, of meat which had been offered to idols (viii. balance of probability seems in favour of the affirI-I3). For the correction of these errors, the mative. The words TrpiTO TOVTO ^pXo/ac of 2 Cor.
remedying of these disorders, and the solution of xiii. I, naturally convey the idea that the Apostle
these doubts, this epistle was written by the Apos- was then purposing a third visit to Corinth; and
tie. It consists of four parts. The first (i.-iv.) is the words 7rpirov TOV7  erol/jiT s eXWJ eX0el 7-rp6s
designed to reclaim the Corinthians from schismatic i/uas are to the same effect. To this it is replied
contentions; the second (v. -vi.) is directed against that the latter passage means only,'I am a third
the immoralities of the Corinthians; the third time prepared to come,' and that, in accordance
(vii. -xiv.) contains replies to the queries addressed  with this, the former may be rendered,'This third
to Paul by the Corinthians, and strictures upon the time I am purposing to come to you;' so that it is
disorders which prevailed in their worship; and  not of a third visit, but simply of a third pzprthe fourth (xv.-xvi.) contains an elaborate defence pose to visit that Paul speaks. But this can
of the Christian doctrine of the resurrection, fol- hardly be accepted; for (I) though 9pXo/ac may
lowed in the close of the epistle by some general signify'I am coming' in the sense of'purposing
instructions, intimations, and greetings.      to come,' the whole phrase -rpl-ov TOOrO pX. cannot
From an expression of the Apostle in ch. v. 9, be rendered'this is the third time I have purposed
it has been inferred by many that the present was to come to you;' as De Wette remarks (Er/kldrzung
not the first epistle addressed by Paul to the Co- in loc.), it is only when the purpose is close on its acrinthians, but that it was preceded by one now  complishment, not of an earlier purpose, that GpXoaat
lost.  For this opinion, however, the words in  can be so used. (2) The contrast of rpirov in xiii. 
question afford a very unsatisfactory basis. They  with &erTepov in ver. 2, leads to the conclusion
are as follows:-9 ypa/ca vfivv  E 7v  r e7rroX5, that it is of a third visit, and not of a third purpose
K.. X. Now these words must be rendered either to visit, that Paul is writing; he had told them for-'I have written to you in this epistle,' or'I wrote merly when he was present with them the second
to you in that epistle;' and our choice between  time, and now when absent, in announcing a third
these two renderings will depend partly on gram- visit, he tells them again, etc. Some, it is true,
matical and partly on historical grounds. As the propose to render, as in the A. V., uds rapbv, by
aorist p-ypasa may mean either'I wrote' or' I as if present, so as to make the Apostle intimate
have written,' nothing can be concluded from it in that he had not been oftener than once before at
either way. It may be doubted, however, whe- Corinth; but it is very doubtful if ds is ever used to
ther, had the Apostle intended to refer to a former express the supposition of a case which does not
epistle, he would have used the article rSj simply, exist (I Cor. v. 3 is not a case in point, for there
without adding 7rporgpg; whilst, on the other hand, the case supposed actually did exist), and, moreover,
there are cases which clearly shew that had the as it is connected here as well with a7rbv as with
Apostle intended to refer to the present epistle, it  rapcv, if we translate it'as if,' the whole clause
was in accordance with his practice to use the arti- will read thus,'I tell you beforehand, as if I were
cle in the sense of'this' (comp. j ei7ro-roXM Col. present the second time, and were now absent,'
iv. 26, 7rv eixrt-T. I Thess. v. 27). In support of etc., which is of course as inadmissible on the
VOL. I.                                                                         20




CORINTHIANS                   562              CORINT-HIANS
ground of sense as the rendering in the A. V. is bably journeyed on his way from Corinth to Epheon critical grounds. (3) In xii. 14 the Apostle inti- sus. This latter is the traditional opinion (see the
mates his being ready to go to Corinth in connec- addition to ch. xiii. in some MSS.), and is suption with his resolution not to be burdensome to  posed to be favoured by the way in which Paul
the Christians there. Now, as it was not Paul's speaks of Ephesus (I Cor. xv. 32) as a place in
pzlpyose to visit them that could impose any burden  which he had been rather than one in which he was
on them, but his actual presence with them, there when writing this epistle.  It is, however, so
seems no fitness in such a connection in his telling  clearly incompatible with certain other statements
them of his mere repeated purpose to visit them; in the epistle (e.g., xvi. 5, 8, I9) that it must be
in order to make congruity out of this, we must pronouncec utterly untenable. Most agree in reregard him as saying,' I was not burdensome to  garding Ephesus as the place where this epistle
you when with you before, and now I have a third  was written. From the allusion to the Passover in
time formed a purpose to visit you; but when I ch. v. 7, 8, most have inferred that the epistle was
make out this visit, I will not be burdensome to written at the time of Easter; but this does not
you any more than at first, though it be a thrice- necessarily follow from the Apostle's allusion. As
purposed visit.' Surely to find all this in the few  to the year, great diversity of opinion prevails, but
words he utters is to attribute to the Apostle a some- most are agreed that it was not earlier than 56 or
what improbable breviloquence. On these grounds, later than 59. Meyer makes it 58; De Wette 58
the majority of scholars have decided for a double or59; Hug 57; Davidson 57.
visit of the Apostle to Corinth before the writing of  The subscription above referred to intimates that
the secondepistle. Onthe otherhand, such apassage this epistle was conveyed to Corinth by Stephanus,
as 2 Cor. i. 15, 16, presents a serious difficulty in  Fortunatus, Achaicus, and Timothy. As respects
the way of such a supposition. There the Apostle the last named there is evidently a mistake, for
speaks of a second benefit as to be anticipated  from ch. xvi. Io, it appears that Timothy's visiting
by the Corinthians from his visiting them; from  Corinth was a thing not certain when this letter was
which it is argued that he could only have been  finished, and from 2 Cor. viii. 17, I8, it appears
there once before, else would he have used consis- that Timothy did not visit Corinth till afterwards.
tent language, and spoken of a third benefit, and  Comp. also Acts xix. 22. As respects the others,
not a second only. To escape from this difficulty this tradition is probably correct.
various expedients have been devised, such as tak-  SECOND EPISTLE. Not long after the transing uevrepacv XpLt here = &87rXiv Xapiv (Bleek and  mission of the first epistle, the Apostle left EpheNeander, after Chrysost. and Theodoret), and sup- sus in consequence of the uproar excited against
posing the term of the Apostle's residence at Co- him  by Demetrius the silversmith, and betook
rinth (Acts xviii. I-II) divided into two parts, in  himself to Troas (Acts xix. 23, sq.)  Here he exthe interval between which he had made a short pected to meet Titus with intelligence from Corinth
excursion from Corinth and back again, so that in  of the state of things in that church. According
one sense he had twice before visited that city, to the common opinion Titus had been sent by
and, in another sense, had only once before visited  Paul to Corinth, partly to collect money in aid of
it. But these are violent expedients, too mani- the distressed Christians in Palestine, partly to obfestly devised to save a previous hypothesis to be serve the effect of the Apostle's first epistle on the
accepted. The only tenable solution seems to be  Corinthians; but Billroth, Riickert, and others,
that proposed by Meyer, who takes the &evrepa rather suppose him to have been sent before the
Xdpts, in connection with the 7rdXtiv irb MlaKe6ovita  writing of the first epistle solely for the former of
eXOeiv wrpbs vuias; he determines to visit them first these purposes, and that he remained in Corinth
before going to Macedonia, and thereby secure to till after the reception by the church there of that
them a double benefit by going from thence to  epistle, while Bleek (Szud'ien unzd KAri/tiken, Jahrg.
Macedonia, and returning to them from Macedonia  1830, s. 625; comp. Neander's Hist. of the Aposin place of going to the later place first. (See, on  tolic Age, vol. i. p. 266, E. T.) suggests that
the one side of this question, Bleek, Stzud..r/i.  Titus may have been despatched with an epistle
I830; Einleit., p. 393; Neander, Apostol. Zeitalt. now lost, and written between the first and second
i. 326, if., E. T., i. 253; on the other, David- of those still extant. This hypothesis of a'lost
son, Introd. II. 213, ff.; Lange, Apos!. Zeitalt., i. epistle' seems to be the convenient resource of the
p. I99, ff.) On the supposition of a second visit German critics for the removal of all difficulties,
made by Paul to Corinth, the question arises-Did  but in the absence of any direct evidence in its
it precede also the writing of the first epistle? On  support, it cannot, in this case, be admitted to be
this point the Acts give us no help, as the writer is worthy of consideration. Billroth's hypothesis rests
totally silent concerning this second visit of Paul to  also upon a very unstable basis, as Neander shews,
Corinth.  But we may safely infer from 2 Cor. i. by whom the common opinion is espoused and de15, i6, 23, that Paul had not been at Corinth be- fended (vol; i. 1. c.) In this expectation of meettween the writing of the first and second epistles; ing Titus at Troas, Paul was disappointed.  He
so that we must place his second visit before the accordingly went into Macedonia, where, at length,
writing of tha first epistle. When this second visit his desire was gratified, and the wished-for infortook place we can only conjecture; but Billroth's mation obtained (2 Cor. ii. 13; vii. 15, sq.)
suggestion that it was made sometime during the  The intelligence brought by Titus concerning
period of Paul's residence of three years at Ephe- the church at Corinth was on the whole favourable.
sus (Acts xx. 31), perhaps on the first reception of The censures of the former epistle had produced
unpleasant news from Corinth, is extremely pro- in their minds a godly sorrow, had awakened in
bable. Supposing the Apostle to have made this them a regard to the proper discipline of the
short visit and to have returned to Ephesus, this church, and had led to the exclusion from their
first epistle may have been written either in that fellowship of the incestuous person. This had so
city or in Macedonia, through which Paul pro- wrought on the mind of the latter that he had




CORMORANT                    563                CORNELIUS
repented of his evil courses, and shewed such con- the procurators. The religiozs position of Cortrition that the Apostle now pities him, and exhorts nelius, before his interview with Peter, has been
the church to restore him to their communion (2 the subject of much debate.  On the whole, he
Cor. ii. 6-I I; vii. 8, sj.) A cordial response had  appears to us to have been one of a class consistalso been given to the appeal that had been made  ing of Gentiles who had so far benefited by their
on behalf of the saints in Palestine (ix. 2). But contact with the Jewish people as to have become
with all these pleasing symptoms there were some convinced that theirs was the true religion, who
of a painful kind. The anti-Pauline influence in  consequently worshipped the true God, were acthe church had increased, or at least had become quainted with the Scriptures of the 0. T., most
more active; and those who were actuated by it probably in the Greek translation, and observed
had been seeking by all means to overturn the several Jewish customs, as, for instance, their
authority of the Apostle, and discredit his claims hours of prayer, or anything else that did not inas an ambassador of Christ.                    volve an act of special profession.  This class of
This intelligence led the Apostle to compose persons seems referred to in Acts xiii. 26, 43, where
his second epistle, in which the language of com- they are plainly distinguished from the Jews, though
mendation and love is mingled with that of cen- certainly mingled with them. From this class we
sure, and even of threatening.  This epistle may  regard Cornelius as having been selected of God to
be divided into three sections. In the first (i.-iii.) become the firstfruits of 1iZe Gentiles. His chathe Apostle chiefly dwells on the effects produced  racter appears suited, as much as possible, to abate
by his first epistle and the matters therewith con- the prejudices of the Jewish converts against what
nected.  In the second (iv.-ix.) he discourses on appeared to them so great an innovation.  It is
the substance and effects of the religion which he well observed by Theophylact, that Cornelius,
proclaimed, and turns from this to an appeal on  though neither a Jew nor a Christian, lived the life
behalf of the claims of the poor saints on their of a good Christian.  He was eVoje,3jS, influenced
liberality.  And in the third (x.-xiii.) he vindicates by spontaneous reverence to God. He practically
his own dignity and authority as an apostle against obeyed the restraints of religion, for he feared God,
the parties by whom these were opposed. The    and this latter part of the description is extended
divided state of feeling in the Apostle's mind will to all his family or household (x. 2).  He was
account sufficiently for the difference of tone per- liberal in alms to the Jewish people, which shewed
ceptible between the earlier and later parts of this his respect for them; and he'prayed to God alepistle, without our having recourse to the arbi- ways,' at all the hours of prayer observed by the
trary and capricious hypothesis of Semler (Dissert. Jewish nation.  Such piety, obedience, faith, and
de dzplice appendice Sp. ad Rom. Hal. 1767) and  charity, prepared him for superior attainments and
Weber (Pr-og; de nzmnero epp. ad Cor. o ectinzs con- benefits, and secured to him their bestowment
stitZenzdo, Vitem. I798) whom Paulus follows, that (Ps. xxv. 9; 1. 23; Matt. xiii. 12; Luke viii. 15;
this epistle has been extensively interpolated.  John vii. I7).
Commentaries.-On both epistles: Wolf. Mus-    The remarkable circumstances under which these
culus (Bas. I559, fol.); Aretius (Morg. 1583, benefits were conferred upon him are too plainly
fol.); Bullinger (Tig. I534-35, 2 vols. 8vo); Mo- and forcibly related in Acts x. to require much
sheim (vol. i., Flensb. 1741; vol. ii., 1762, 4to); comment.  While in prayer, at the ninth hour of
Baumgarten (Halle, 1761, 4to); Morus (Leipz. the day, he beheld, in waking vision, an angel of
1794, 8vo); Flatt (Tub. 1827, 8vo); Billroth   God, who declared that'his prayers and alms had
(Leipz. 1833, 8vo; E. T., 2 vols. I2mo, Edin. come up for a memorial before God,' and directed
8I37-38); Riickert (Leipz. I836-37, 2 vols. 8vo); him to send to Joppa for Peter, who was then
Osiander (Stuttg. 1847); Stanley (Lond. I858, 2 abiding' at the house of one Simon, a tanner.'
vols. 8vo); Kling (Vielef. I861).  On the first Cornelius sent accordingly; and when his messenepistle: Schmid (Hamb. 1704, 4to); Krause ger had nearly reached that place, Peter was pre(Francf. 1790, 8vo); Heydenreich (Marb. 1825-28, pared by the symbolical revelations of a noonday
2 vols. 8vo); Pott (in Nov. Test. Koppian., vol. ecstacy, or trance, to understand that nothing which
v. par. I., Gitt. 1826, 8vo); Peile (Lond. 848, God had cleansed was to be regarded as common
Svo).  On the second epistle: Emmerling (Lips. or unclean.
1823, 8vo); Fritzsche (Lips. 1824, 8vo); Schar-  The inquiries of the messengers from Cornelius
ling (Kopenh. 1840, 8vo). The various questions suggested to Peter the application of his vision,
of a critico-historical character touching these and he readily accompanied them to Joppa, atepistles are very fully discussed by Davidson in his tended by six Jewish brethren, and hesitated not to
Inatoduction to thze A. T., i. 208-285.-WV. L. A.  enter the house of one whom he, as a Jew, would
regard as unclean. The Apostle waived the too
CORMORAN~T.  [SALA~C~.]          fervent reverence of Cornelius, which, although
CORN. [BAR; DAGAN.Iusual in the East, was rendered by Romans only
to their gods; and mutual explanations then took
CORNELIUS.      The centurion of this name, place between him and the centurion.  After this
whose history occurs in Acts x., most probably be- the Apostle proceeded to address Cornelius and
longed to the Cornelii, a noble and distinguished  his assembled friends, and expressed his conviction
family at Rome. He is reckoned by Julian the that the Gentiles were no longer to be called unApostate as one of the few persons of distinction  clean, and stated the leading evidence and chief
who embraced Christianity. He held his com- doctrines of the Gospel. While he was discoursmand as a centurion (eicarovrcapxs) in the Italic ing, the miraculous gifts of the Holy Spirit, conband; so called fiom its consisting chiefly of Italian  trary to the order hitherto observed of being
soldiers, formed out of one of the six cohorts granted  preceded by baptism and imposition of hands, fell
to the procurators of Judaea, five of which cohorts on his Gentile auditors.  Of this fact Peter and
were stationed at Cmesarea, the usual residence of his companions were convinced, for they heard




CORNER                     564               COS OR KOS
them speak with tongues, foreign and before un- voice disqualified him  for the office.  Having
known to them, and which Peter and his corn- visited the university of Halle, and received Sempanions knew to be such by the aid of their own  ler's impression on his susceptible mind, he remiraculous gifts, and, under divine impulse, glorify turned to Ziirich, and in 1786 became professor
God as the author of the Gospel. The Jewish    in the gymnasium there.   He died September
brethren who accompanied Peter were astonished  14, I793.  He was a man of great zeal for
upon perceiving, by these indubitable indications, knowledge, insatiable in his thirst after it, and
that the Holy Spirit was poured out upon the Gen- restless in his endeavour to solve new problems.
tiles, as upon themselves at the beginning (x. 45). His theological views were in the main a developPeter, already prepared by his vision for the event, ment of Semler's.  His principal work is the
and remembering that baptism was by the cor- Kritische Geschichte des Chiliasmuzs, 1781, etc.,
mand of Jesus, associated with these miraculous 4 vols. He is also the author of Die Beleuctziong
endowments, said,'Can any man forbid water der Geschichte des jydischen suzd chlristlichenz Bibelthat these should not be baptized, who have re- kanon's, 1792, 2 vols.; Beitrige zzur Beforderuzn
ceived the Holy Ghost as well as we?' and agree- des verniilftigeiz Den/kezs in der Rezigion, 1780,
ably to the apostolic rule of committing the ad- etc., I8 Hefte; and of a German translation of
ministration of baptism to others, and, considering  the letters of Dutch divines respecting R. Simon's
that the consent of the Jewish brethren would be  critical history of the 0. T., 1779. Corrodi was
more explicit if they performed the duty, he ordered  an uncompromising opponent of mysticism and
them to baptize Cornelius and his friends, his house- orthodoxy; a strenuous advocate of rationalistic
hold, whose acceptance as members of the Christian  religion. —S. D.
church had been so abundantly testified. —J. D. F.                ) is te a    t    e of 
COS or KOS (Kc3s) is the ancient name of the
CORNER. Besides the ordinary use of this island which is now called Stanko or Stanchio, as if
word in Scripture, it is employed metaphorically's Tr& Keg, (Rawlinson's Herodotzss, iv. 87). It
for a place of obscurity (Acts xxvi. 26), or of lies off the south-west of Asia Minor, at the ensecrecy, whether for purposes of craft, or for pur- trance of the Gulf of Budsun (Ceamzicuts Sinus)
poses of safety (Prov. vii. 8, 12; Deut. xxxii. 26). which runs into Caria, between the far-projecting
It is used also to denote the points in which the peninsulas on which once stood the cities of Haliangles contained by the lines bounding the earth, carnassus (north), and Cnidus (south). The island
supposed to be a square, found their vertices;  stretches from north-east to south-west a length of
hence the phrase,' the four corners of the earth,' about twenty-one miles, while its greatest breadth is
for the whole habitable world (Is. xi. 12; Rev. not more than six miles. It (or more probably its
vii. I); and from this'the four corners' of any  chief town bearing the same name, and anciently,*
place came to denote the whole or every part of as well as now, forming an excellent anchorage at
it (Job i. I9; Jer. ix. 26; Ezek. vii. 2; Zeph. the north-east extremity of the island) is meniii. 6, A. V. towers, etc.)-W. L. A.           tioned once in the N.T. (Acts xxi. I) in St. Luke's
CORNERS OF BEARDS. [BEARD.]                  account of St. Paul's third missionary journey.
Cos, or rather  Coos,' occurs in the homeward
CORNERS OF FIELDS. [ALMS.]                  route as the point reached next after Miletus,
CORNER-STONE. The symbolical title of'chief where the great Apostle took his memorable and
corner stone' (Xi0os daKpoywvLaco) is applied to  affecting farewell of the Ephesian presbytery. It
Christ in Eph. ii. 20, and I Pet. ii. 6, which last is about forty nautical miles due south fiom Milepassage is a quotation from Is. xxviii. 16, where tus (C. and H.'s St. Pazd, Ist ed., ii. 226), and St.
the Septuagint has the same words for the Hebrew  Paul, after a favourable sail [eCbvivpolj-eavres]
fla 1t. There seems no valid reason for dis- arrived here in the evening. The ship did not protinguishing this from the stone called'the head of ceed on the voyage until'the day following' [Tr
the corner' (eeaXki? y'cvias, Matt. xxi. 42; which  6b t^s]; so that the apostle spent the night in
is the Sept. translation of l= V'1r"l in Ps. cxviii. this harbour, but whether ashore with some faith22), although some contend that the latter is the ful disciples, or on board, cannot be conjectured.
top-stone or coping. The XiOos a&Kpo-ywovaos or This island is mentioned (as'Cos') in I Maccab.'corner-stone' was a large and massive stone so xv. 23, among other insular and continental places
formed as when placed at a corner, to bind to- around, as containing Jewish residents whom the
gether two outer walls of an edifice. This pro-'Consul Lucius' [Lentulus] wished to have properly makes no part of the foundation, from which  tected.  In Josephus (Antii. xiv. IO. 15) an
it is distinguished in Jer. li. 26; though, as the edict of similarly favourable tenor towards the
edifice rests thereon, it may be so called. Some- Jews of'Cos,' is mentioned as emanating from
times it denotes those massive slabs which, being' Caius Phanius, son of Caius, imperator and conplaced towards the bottom of any wall, serve to sul, and addressed to the local magistrates.''Cos'
bind the work together, as in Is. xxviii. I6.  Of occurs thrice besides in Josephus, in Asnti. xiv. 7.
these there were often two layers, without cement 2; xvi. 2. 2, and in Warns of the sews, i. 2I. II;
or mortar (Bloomfield, Recens. Syno. on Eph. ii. from the first passage we learn that the Coan
20). This explanation will sufficiently indicate the Jews were a wealthy community in the time of
sense in which the title of'chief corner-stone' is Mithridates, who pillaged them; while the last
applied to Christ.-J. K.                       informs us that'the people of Cos' were amongst
those lucky foreigners whom the magnificent Herod
CORNET. [MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.]____                            ___________________
CORRODI, HEINRICH, a distinguished critic      * So says Scylax, Nuo-os K(is, Kal 7rwbXs Kal XLAuV
of the last century, was born July 3Ist, 1752, and  KXeto-1s, for confirmation of this by modern traveleducated by his father in Zirich. He was ordained  lers, see Conybeare and Howson's St. Pazi (Ist
as a preacher, but soon felt that his weakness of ed.) vol. ii. p. 226.




COS OR KOS                  565               COVENANT
bestowed his ample favours on, most probably to the best description of this renowned gem of the
conciliate the Jews, who seemed to be numerous  iEgean.-P. H.
there; these friendly relations continued under his AM    A 
son Herod the tetrarch, judging from one of    COSAM      A   me occurrng i the genealogy
Bockh's inscriptions (No. 2502). But this island of our Lord as given by Luke (iii. 28). It is found
is still more renowned from the abundant notices nowhere else, and nothing is known of the person
of it in classic writers.  Even in Homer's time itbearing it beyond what Luke states.-W. L. A.
was very populous (l. X, 255. 0, 28).          COSIN, JOHN, an English prelate, was born
It was originally colonized by Dorian settlers at Norwich in 1594, and died in 672. He was
from Epidaurus, who established the worship of successively master of Peterhouse (1634), dean
/Esculapius, to whom a magnificent temple was of Peterborough (1640), and bishop of Durham
dedicated at the chief town (Strabo, xiv. 653, 657; (1660). The only work he published during his
Pliny, xxix. 2. See also Miiller's Dorians, ii. I 4).life is his Scholastical Ifistoy of the Canon of Holy
Cos was one of the six cities which comprised Sc;ripture, etc., 4to Lond. 1657. This was prethe Dorian Ilexapolis (afterwards reduced to a pared during his residence in Paris, when suffering
Pentapolis), leagued as a sacred Amphictyony in exile in consequence of a vote of the House of
honour of the Triopian Apollo (Herod. i. I44).Commons in 1640; it was reprinted after his
Thucydides, who calls the capital Cos Meropis (Kv death, in 1672. It is a work of careful and accuTlv MepouriSa), mentions its destruction in his own rate scholarship. He wrote also a Letter to Dr.
time by a tremendous earthquake (B. Pel. viii. 4I).Collins on the Sabbath, dated Jan. 24, I632, which
It suffered a like fate the second time in the reign was published after his death; also a History of
of Antoninus, but it was soon afterwards rebuilt Popish Transubstantiation, Lond. 1675, 8vo. All
by that munificent prince (Pausanias, viii. 43). It his writings bear marks of solid learning, sober
was the birthplace of Apelles, Hippocrates, and and judicious thinking, and acute reasoning.Ptolemy Philadelphus (Pliny, xxxv. o1; Strabo, xiv. W. I. A.
p. 657; Ovid, deArteAm. x. 401; Theoc. xvii. 57).
Strabo, also, in the same book, commends the ex-  COTTON. [KARPAs.]
treme fertility of this beautiful island, especially in  COTTON, JOHN, B.D., was orn at Derby i
its wine, which vied with the Lesbian and Chian vin- OT and did  Bon, New Englan  in 65
I585, and died at Boston, New England, in I652.
aglso speaks Kaprof the'Ampaor, Coe (xxv.. Pliny He was educated at Cambridge, and was for some
also speaks of the C Amzphora Co&-' (xxv. i:2. 46).time minister of Boston in Lincolnshire; but havIt retains its celebrity, exporting fruits and wines toof Boston     Lincolshire; but hayEgypt and all parts of the Archipelago. Dr. Clarke ing adopted Congregationalist sentiments, he resays that it also supplies the markets of Constan- signed his living, and to escape the fury of Laud
tinople with land tortoises, which are highly emigrated to America. He was a man of learning
esteemed by Turkish epicures. There still exists and ability, a vigorous writer, and a strenuous polesteemed by Turkish epicures. There stillexists emic. His most famous controversy was with Roger
in the public square of Cos the enormous plane emc  HismostfamouscontroversywaswitRoger
tree, probably the largest in the world, supposed  Williams, regarding what the latter stigmatized as
to be 1pro   years old, which the geographers of the'Bloody Tenent of Persecution for conscience'
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries celebrated, sake,' in which, strange to say, the exiled Inde
and Dr. Clarke described.  Cos was also famous pendent contended for the right of the civil magifor produce of another kind-the extreme beauty strate to interfere in defence of the truth. Besides
of its youths (Aotencens, i. p. 5. The scene of his polemical writings, he published A brief exposione of Theocritus' Bucolics is laid in this island tion of the weole of Canticles, etc., Lond. I642; A
brief exosiion, zi   rcica  obseions     o
(Id. vii.), and the Scholiast (v. 5) states that the te  aposiion, with practical observations Lnon
poet had sojourned there for some time (Cramer's the  hole boo  of  ccesiastes, s. 8vo, Lod.
i 654;. /ractical commentary upan the Isl 2ristle
Asia Minor, ii. 241). The manufacturing skill of      ra      con the ist Epistle
its artisans in the finest textile fabrics and preciousof 7ohn, fol. Lond. I656. These are excellent
stones has been eulogised by many poets (Horace, specimens of the usual style of Puritan exposition,
Od. iv. I3; Catullus, Ixix. 4; Tibullus, ii. 3 53  but free from the prolixity which often marks the
Propertius, i. 2. 2). The clari laides mentionedworks of this school.-W. L. A.
by Horace, were probably pearls, and are called  COUCH. [BED; SEAT.]
by Catullus pelltciduli lapides. But this exquisite  COU. [
manual skill of these old islanders has not only COUNCIL. [SANHEDRIM.]
been celebrated in poetry; Aristotle also refers to  COURT. [HOUSE; TEMPLE.]
their textile fabrics (De Hist. Animal. v. I9, ed.
Du Val, 850; so Pliny, xi. 22). When Pliny says  COUTHA (KovlEd, Phuta, I Esdr. v. 32). No
that (according to the report of some) the silk name corresponding to this is to be found either in
was the produce of the native worm, he must not Ezra (ch. v.), or in Nehemiah (ch. vii.)-J. E. R.
be regarded as stating a fact. The silkworm was   VENANT.    N T.       )
not a native of Cos; the silk for the Coan loom  COVENANT (; Sept. and N. T. 
was imported from India (B1. Ugolini Sacerdot. This term is applied in Scripture to-I. Contracts
Hebr. in Thes. iv. 188; J. G. Orelli, on Horace; and alliances between men. Thus it is used of the
vol. i. p. 609). For other authorities on the paction existing between Abraham and the Amorcopious literature connected with this island, see ite chiefs (Gen. xiv. 13), and that made between
Cellarius, Geog. Antiq. ii. I6; Winer, Bibl. him and Abimelech (Gen. xxi. 32); of the alliance
Realw.-b. i. 673; Kiister, de Co insula; Sonnini, proposed by the messengers of the Gibeonites beR. n. Griechenl  o, 80, f.; Mannert, vi. 3. 243, ff.; tween them and Joshua (Josh. ix. 6); of an agreeand Dr. Howson (Art. Cos in Smith's Greek and ment between friends, such as that between David
Roman Geography) who refers to Ross's Reisen and Jonathan (I Sam. xviii. 3); of the contract
nach KIos,. s.. w. (Halle, 1852), as containing between husband and wife (Mal. ii. 14).




COVENANT                    566                COVENANT
In forming a covenant various rites were used. missio bonorum cum  conditione,' which is that
The simplest act was that of the parties joining  given by Morus (Eitom. Theol. Christ. p. I6o), is
hands, and thereby pledging faith to each other objectionable, on the ground of its implying that
(Ezek. xvii. I8, comp. I Chron. xxix. 24). From  the exercise of God's grace to man is dependent
the earliest times an oath was taken bythose entering  upon something which man has to render to God.
into the paction (Gen. xxi. 31, 32; xxvi. 28); and  We should prefer defining God's covenant with
sometimes memorial stones, or heaps of stones, man as a gracious engagement on the part of God
were set up as tokens of the mutual engagement to communicate certain unmerited favours to men,
(Gen. xxxi. 46). The parties seem also to have in connection with a particular constitution or
feasted together (Gen. xxvi. 30); and this has ap- system, through means of which these favours are
peared to some to have formed so essential a part to be enjoyed. Hence in Scripture the covenant
of the transaction, as to have given its name to it of God is called his'counsel,' his'oath,' his
(fn:, from Mitl to eat; see Lee, Lexicon in loc.)'promise' (Ps. lxxxix. 3, 4; cv. 8-;II Heb. vi.
Others, however, derive the name from another 13-20; Luke i. 68-75; Gal. iii. 15-18, etc.); and
ceremony frequently observed in the making of it is described as consisting wholly in the gracious
covenants, viz., the slaying of sacrificial victims, bestowal of blessing on men (Is. lix. 21; Jer.
and the passing of the parties between the parts of xxxi. 33, 34). Hence also the application of the
the victims laid out for this purpose (Gen. xv. 8-II; term  covenant to designate such fixed arrangeJer. xxxiv. 18, I9). The meaning of this was pro- ments, or laws of nature, as the regular succession
bably, that they appealed to the Deity, to whom  of day and night (Jer. xxxiii. 20), and such relithe victims were offered, in attestation of their sin- gious institutions as the Sabbath (Exod. xxxi. I6);
cerity, and imprecated on themselves as utter de- circumcision (Gen. xvii. 9, Io); the Levitical instistruction as had befallen the victims, should they  tute (Lev. xxvi. 15); and in general any precept or
prove unfaithful to their pledge. That there is an  ordinance of God (Jer. xxxiv. 13, 14); all such
allusion to this in the phrase commonly used to  appointments forming part of that system or ardenote the making of a covenant, rh.1 le9, lite- rangement in connection with which the blessings
rally to cut a covenant (comp. Gr. 6pKsta rsovev; of God's grace were to be enjoyed. In accordance
Lat. foedus icere, percutere, ferire), can hardly be with this is the usage of the verbs np,1, i1n, and
doubted; but that the word 11:1: itself is derived EtW  to denote the forming of a divine covenant
from this, is asserted without proof. The deriva- with man, all of which indicate the perfect sovetion from  tl, to eat, is favoured by the use of the reignty of God in the matter.
expression,'a covenant of salt' (Num. xviii. i9;  As human covenants were usually ratified by
2 Chron. xiii. 5). To say that this merely indicates sacrifices, so were the divine covenants; the design
perpetuity, is to say nothing; for all covenants are of which was to shew that without an atonement
designed to be perpetual so long as the relations of there could be no communication of blessing from
the parties last; and though salt may be the means God to man. Thus, when God made a covenant
of preserving from decay, it is not simply in itself a with Abraham, certain victims were slain and
symbol of perpetuity. The allusion is rather to the divided into halves, between which a smoking fureating of salt by the parties as a sign or token of nace and a burning lamp, the symbols of the divine
adherence to their engagement. This custom still presence, passed, to indicate the ratification of the
subsists among the Arabs, with whom no engage- promises conveyed in that covenant to Abraham;
ment is so strong as one over which the parties and here it is deserving of notice, as illustrating
have eaten salt (Rosenmiiller, Morgenland ii., No. the definition of a divine covenant above given,
299); and among the Greeks also, salt was the that the divine glory alone passed between the
symbol of alliance and friendship (Eustath. ad II. pieces; whereas had the covenant been one of
i. 449; x. 648). The physical fact at the basis of mutual stipulation, Abraham also would have perthis, is probably the antiseptic quality of salt; but formed the same ceremony (Gen. xv. I-I8; cf.
it is not of this itself that the salt is the symbol, so  Rosenmiiller, in loc.) In like manner, the Levitimuch as of the effect thence resulting: as salt pre- cal covenant was ratified by sacrifice (Exod. xxiv.
serves from decay, so shall the alliance or contract 6-8); and the Apostle expressly affirms, on this
over which it is eaten be sacredly kept permanent. ground, the necessity of the death of Christ, as the
Hence the injunction, Lev. ii. 13.            mediator of the new covenant (Heb. ix. 15). In
II. God's gracious arrangements for man's be- supporting this assertion, the writer uses the term
hoof. Among other instances of anthropomorphic  &at07K) in a way which has caused much perplexity
forms of speech employed in Scripture, is the use to interpreters. The A. V. renders the word by
of the term covenant, to designate the divine deal- testament throughout the context. But the use of
ings with mankind, or with individuals of the race. KatvO here, in contrast with 7rpd&rT, as applied to
In all such cases, the proper idea of a covenant or &aOo5K-, plainly shews that the latter is to be taken
mutual contract between parties, each of which is in the sense of covenant in ver. 15. It is also
bound to render certain benefits to the other, is plain, that in ver. 20 we must give it the same
obviously excluded, and one of a merely analogical meaning.  But can it have this meaning in ver.
nature substituted in its place. Where God is one I6 and I7? The difficulty here arises from the use
of the parties, and man the other, in a covenant, of &aLjievos in ver. 16. This word denotes proall the benefits conferred must be on the part of perly the person by whom the &SaOeK7 has been
the former, and all the obligations sustained on the made or established; it cannot mean, as some
part of the latter. Such a definition, therefore, of have proposed,'the victim.' But how can the
a divine covenant as would imply that both parties validity of a covenant be said to depend on the
are under conditions to each other is obviously in- death of him by whom it is made? For to say
correct, and incompatible with the relative position  that the Apostle's meaning is, that man in enterof the parties. Even such a definition as the fol- ing into covenant with God must give himself up
lowing:-' Fedus Dei cum hominibus est pro- to death, and that this is denoted by the sacrifice




COVENANT                    567                COVERDALE
he presents (Ebrard), is to offer what is too far- strictly speaking, ratified before the death of Christ,
fetched to be accepted. It would seem from this, the great sacrificial victim (Heb. xiii. 20), yet it
that we are shut up to the rendering'testament' was levealed to the saints who lived before his adand' testator' here. On the other hand, however, vent, and who enjoyed salvation through the retroit seems highly improbable that the author would spective power of his death (Rom. iii. 25; Heb.
employ a word in the centre of his reasoning in a ix. I5). To the more highly favoured of these God
different sense from that in which it is used through- gave specific assurances of his gracious purpose,
out the context; and besides, In what sense can it and on such occasions he was said to establish or
be said that wherever there is a testament it neces- make his covenant with them. Thus he established
sarily involves the notoriety or forensic establish- his covenant with Noah (Gen. ix. 8, 9); with
ment (pope-Oat) of the death of the testator? or Abraham (Gen. xvii. 4, 5); and with David (Ps.
that a will is rendered firm or sure ([epaia) upon  lxxxix. 3, 4). These were not distinct covenants,
dead persons or things, and is invalid so long as the so much as renewals of the promises of the evertestator lives? The will surely is as good and sure lasting covenant, coupled with certain temporal
in itself the moment it is duly signed, as it can be at favours, as types and pledges of the fulfilment of
the time of the testator's death, though it does not these promises.
take effect till then. It is difficult also to follow  The old or Sinaitic covenant was that given by
out the Apostle's reasoning here on the supposition  God to the Israelites through Moses. It respected
that he is speaking of a testament and a testator. especially the inheritance of the land of Canaan,
The passage is full of difficulty, and nothing very and the temporal blessings therewith connected;
satisfactory has yet been advanced upon it. The but it stood related to the new covenant, as emonly gleam of light that seems to offer itself comes bodying a typical representation of those great
in connection with the proposal to take aaOEilevos truths and blessings which the Christian dispensain the sense of the perlson who establishes or con- tion unfolds and conveys.
firms? It is of this the writer is speaking here;  In the system of a certain class of theologians
not of the making of the BamOaKmj, or of the pub- great importance is attached to what they have
lishing, or of the proving of it, but of the constitut- technically called' the covenant of works.' By
ing it a firm and stable thing, as is evident from  this they intend the constitution established by God
his use of Pepala and lao-x6e in the next verse. with Adam during the period of his innocence. So
Now, &tartOesOai is used in the LXX. frequently far as this phraseology is not understood to imply
as the equivalent of w1pal, which properly means that man, even in his sinless state, was competo cause to stand, or to establish or confirm; and in tent to bind Jehovah by any conditions, it cannot
this sense it is used in relation to a Bla~Kyq, Gen. be objected to. It seems also to have the sanction
ix. 7. It is also used in this relation as the of one passage of Scripture, viz., Hos. vi. 7, which
Montanus, Grotius, Castalio, Burk, Rosenmtiller,
equivalent of im'W, to constitule, or confirm, in Josh tanus, Gots, Castao, Bur  Rosenmller,
-  T'.'         f         Newcome, Hitzig, and almost all the best intervii. II. In Wisd. of Sol. xviii. 9, we read -rv rTs preters, agree in rendering thus: 6 But they like
cLI6rT7ros vor6ov &ieOevro, which can only mean, Adam have transgressed the covenant.'' they set up or established, or held valid the law  Theologians have also spoken of' the covenant
of the Deity.' Now, if this rendering be admitted, of redemption,' by which they mean an engagethe difficulty of the passage will somewhat disap- ment entered into between God the Father and
pear.  Christ, says the Apostle, has died to give God the Son from all eternity, whereby the former
effect to the first covenant, that depending on his secured to the latter a certain number of ransomed
dying;'for, where a covenant is, there is a neces- sinners, as his church or elect body, and the latter
sity that there be adduced (Oe/pesOai = adferri, pro- engaged to become their surety and substitute. By
ferri) the death of that which confirms it; [and many the propriety of this doctrine has been
this is necessary], for a covenant is firm over dead doubted; but the references to it in Scripture arc
[objects], since it is never at any time valid whilst of such a kind that it seems unreasonable to refuse
the [sacrifice] which confirms it lives.' The only to admit it. With it stand connected the subjects
difficulty left, is that which arises from the use of of election, predestination,'he special love of Christ
the masculine &aOte'evos here; but may not this be to his people, and the certain salvation of all that
accounted for by the writer having in his mind  the Father hath given him.
Christ as the confirmer of that covenant which he  Sometimes a mere human contract is called God's
had chiefly in his view here?                 covenant, in the sense of involving an appeal to
Of the divine covenants mentioned in Scripture the Almighty, who, as the Judge of the whole
the first place is due to that which is emphatically  earth, will hold both parties bound to fulfil their
styled by Jehovah,'My covenant.' This is God's engagement. Compare I Sam. xx. 8; Jer. xxxiv.
gracious engagement to confer salvation and eter- I8, I9; Ezek. xvii. I8, I9. Witsius, De (icononal glory on all who come to him through Jesus mid Federum; Russell, On th/e Old and Newz
Christ.  It is called sometimes  the everlasting  Covenants, 2d edit. I843; Kelly, The Divine Covecovenant' (Is. Iv. 3; Heb. xiii. 20), to distinguish  nants: their nalure and design, etc. Lond. i86I.)
it from those more temporary arrangements which -W. L. A.
were confined to particular individuals or classes;
and the second, or nezo, or better covenant, to dis-  COVERDALE, MYLES, is supposed to have
tinguish it from the Levitical covenant, which was been born in 1488, in the district of Coverdale, in the
first in order of time, because first ratified by sacri- parish of Coverham, near Middleton, in the North
fice, and became old, and was shewn to be inferior, Riding of Yorkshire, and to have derived his name
because on the appearance of the Christian dispen- from the district of his birth. He studied in the
sation it was superseded, and passed away (Jer. monastery of the Augustines at Cambridge, of
xxxi. 31; Gal. iv. 24; Heb. vii. 22; viii. 6-13; which the celebrated Dr. Robert Barnes was prior
ix. 15-23; xii. 24). Though this covenant was not, at that time; was admitted to priest's orders by




COVERDALE                    568              COVERDALE
John, Bishop of Chalcedon, at Norwich in 1514; stood behind the Exchange, and when this church
and took the degree of Bachelor of Canon Law at was taken down in 1840 to make room for the
Cambridge about I530. We then lose sight of New Exchange, Coverdale's remains were removed
him until I535, when he published, on the 4th of to St. Magnus, the church in which he officiated
October, his translation of the Bible. It will be towards the end of his life.
seen hereafter, that Coverdale must have been on  As to the merits of Coverdae's tanzslation of the
the Continent during this period engaged in the Bible, nothing can be more plain than this great
translation and printing of the Scriptures, and that reformer's statement on the very title-page, that he
he was admitted to the degree of D. D. at Tiibingen has'faithfully and truly translated out of Douche
whilst there. Two other editions of Coverdale's and Latin into Englishe,' and his honourable
versions appeared in I537, and the so-called acknowledgment of the'interpreters' he has folMathewe's Bible [CRANMER], which was edited   lowed, in the prologue to the Christian Readerby John Rogers in the same year, also embodies'I have had sondrye translacions, not onely in
Coverdale's version from the end of Chronicles Latyn but also of the Douche interpreters: whom
to the end of the Apocrypha, with the exception  (because of theyr synguler gyftes and speciall diliof Jonah, which is translated by Tyndale. In gence in the Bible) I have ben the more glad to
1538 Coverdale was engaged in Paris under the folowe for the most parte, accordynge as I was redirection of Cromwell, Earl of Essex, in carrying quyred.' And the most cursory comparison of his
through the press another edition of the Bible with version with the German-Swiss Bible, published by
annotations, etc., which was suddenly interrupted  Froschover in 1531 [ZURICH VERSION], will shew
by an order from the inquisition. He succeeded, that Coverdale has generally translated this version,
however, in removing the greater part of the im- and has even followed the Swiss construction and
pression, together with the type, to London, where adopted its very parentheses. Yet Whittaker in
he finished it in April I539, and it was presented his Historical and Critical inquiry into the Interto Henry VIII. by Cranmer. In 1540, when his pretation of the Hebrew Scriptures, asserts that
protector Cromwell and his friend Dr. Barnes were'if Coverdale's words have any meaning at all,
executed, Coverdale again went to Germany, took  they signify that he translated from the Hebrew'
up his abode at Bergzabern in the Duchy of Deux- (p. 50), that he mentions the Latin because if he
pouts, where, possessing a knowledge of the Ger- had openly declared that he forsook it for the
man language, he obtained a pastoral charge and original Hebrew, he would have rashly endangered
kept a school, by which he supported himself. his personal safety (p. 5I), and that he translated
After spending eight years in exile and in poverty, from  the Hebrew is evident from the fact that
Coverdale was recalled to England in I548, shortly'he has sometimes deserted all those four verafter the accession of Edward VI., when he married sions' (i. e., the Sept., Vulg., Pagninus and Luther).
Elizabeth Macheson, a person of Scotch extraction,'One instance, in Is. lvii. 5, will be given at
and was appointed, through the exertions of his length. It is so remarkable an illustration of the
fiiend Cranmer, one of the king's chaplains, and preceding observations and so highly honourable
almoner to the queen Catherine. He published a to the venerable translator, that it may be connew edition of his Bible in I550, of which a re- sidered as singly sufficient in deciding this point'
issue with a new title page appeared in I553, and  (p. 52). Whittaker then gives the different renderwas consecrated Bishop of Exeter on the 13th of ings of the Sept., Vulg., Pagn., and Luther, and
August 1551. This honourable position he did shews how Coverdale deviates from all of them.
not, however, long enjoy, as at the death of Edward  We cannot do better than give Coverdale's version
(I553) and the accession of Mary, he, together with  of this very passage, and the Swiss, in parallel
other protestant bishops, was deprived of his columns.
bishopric and imprisoned, and was only released  Coverdale's Version,  The Swiss or Zurich
through the personal intercession of the King of
Denmark with the Queen in I555, when he retired I.   e   rev      tae  Bible, Is. lvii. 5.-eI
to Denmark.    He was subsequently appointedyoure pleasure vnder the  habend  hitzen genomat   D^enak.He was subsequently appointed     s, &vnder all grene  men vnder den Eychen,
preacher to the exiles in Friesland, and thence in- okes,  all grene  men vnder den Eychen,
vited by the Duke of Deux-ponts to his former slaye the ilde ey, &   men, dlie kinen ben
charge at Bergzabern.  Three years afterwards delne o stne. vtoleyn gemetzget, vi     d in
(1558) we find him at Geneva, where he joined the                    den hiinen der velsen
exiles in the letter they addressed to their fellowexiles at Basle, Strasburg, Frankfort, etc., entreat- Nothing can be more literal, and be it remembered
ing them to submit to an amicable agreement on  that Coverdale here follows word for word the
their return home, in such matters of religion as Swiss Bible, though the Swiss deviates from the
should be agreed upon by authority, and where he Hebrew as well as from all the ancient versions.
also assisted in that translation of the Bible into Yet this is the passage which not only convinced
English which is called the Geneva version, the Whittaker that Coverdale's version is made from
New Testament of this version having appeared in the Hebrew, but which has led Anderson (AzI557. [GENEVA VERSION]. He returned from his nals, i. 564) and others to make assertions equally
second exile towards the end of I558, assisted, on  strong. Now the fact that Coverdale translated
the 17th December, with bishops Barlow, Scory, the Swiss Bible clears up two difficulties which
and Hodgkin, at the consecration of Archbishop  have hitherto been felt in connection with his
Parker, took the degree of D.D. at Cambridge in life and biblical labours, viz., to find out the
I563, was presented in I564 to the living of St. place where he was when he suddenly disapMagnus, London Bridge, which he resigned in peared between 1529 and 1535, and where the
1566, and died in February 1569, at the age of first edition of his Bible was published. Henceeighty-one. HIe was buried on the g9th of forth there can be no doubt that Coverdale was
February in St. Bartholomew's Church, which during this period with Christopher Froschover,




COW                     569                CRANMER
the celebrated patron of the English Reformers in three parts,'Sdmmztliche Gedichte,' 1782, 1783.
who were exiled in the reign of Queen Mary, and Along with Klopstock, he prepared and published
printer of protestant versions of the Bible, and a general' GeSangbuch zCum  Gebrauch in den
that his translation was printed by Froschover. Gemeinen des Hierzogthuns Schleswigholstein, Kiel,
The latter point is moreover corroborated by  I780.-S. D.
the type, which is the same as that in which     R
Froschover's Bibles are printed. The limits of the ANE    [AG        S
article preclude a more minute investigation of this  CRANMER, THOMAS, the first Protestant Archsubject. We must therefore refer to our Historical bishop of Canterbury, and'the great masterand Critical Commentary on Ecclesiastes, Longman builder of the Protestant Church of England' (Le
i861, Appendix ii., where the subject is more fully Bas), was born July 2, 1489, at Aslacton, in the
discussed.-C. D. G.                          county of Nottingham. His father, according to
COW~. [BAQAR; SHOR.]         Strype, was'a gentleman of right ancient family,
COW. [BAQAR; SbHOR.]                   whose ancestor came in with the Conqueror.' In
CRADOCK, SAMUEL, B.D., an eminent and this work it is only with his exertions for the
learned nonconformist divine, born in 1672. He translation and propagation of the Holy Scripwas educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, tures that we have to do. In this achievement
of which he became fellow, and was presented to Cranmer's name stands out in bold relief with
the college living of North Cadbury. He was one those of Wycliffe, Tyndale, Coverdale, Parker,
of the famous two thousand ejected for noncon- and many others, who wrought either by their
formity in 1662; when he retired to an estate of learning or their influence in the long labour of
his own at Wickham Brook where he died in two centuries and a half in giving to the nation
1706.  He wrote and published the following the English Bible. We propose to give a brief
works in biblical literature.  The History of the description of Cranmer's share in this great work,
Old Testament methodized according to the order an  referring for authorities to the two excellent ediseries of Time; in which the dficult passages are tions of the Martyr's Remains,* which have been
paraphrased, the seeming contradictions reconciled, published within the last thirty years. (I.) From
*the rites and customs of the Jews opened and ex- the first moment of his advancement Cranmer was
plained: To which is annexed a short History of impatient for the circulation of the Scriptures in
the Jewish affairs from the end of the Old Testa-t  vulgar tongue; andin I534 he had actually
menrt to the birth of our Saviour, folio, Lond. prevailed on the Convocation to frame an address
i683.  The Harmony of the four Evangelists and to the king beseeching him to decree that the
their Text methodized; seeming contradictions ex- Bible should be translated into English, and that
plained, etc., folio, Lond. I688.  The Apostolical the task should be assigned to such honest and
listory: also A Narration of the Times and Occa- learned men as his Highness should be pleased to
sions of the Apostolic  Epistles, together ith a brief nominate. The king consented after much perParaphrase on t'hem, Lond. 1672, folio. A brief suasion. The archbishop, in pursuance of his
Exposition of the Revelation, Lond. 1692.  All design, divided Tyndale's translation of the N. T.
these works bear the distinct stamp of their author's into nine or ten parts, which he distributed among
mind. They are serious and solid; full of well the most learned bishops of the time, requiring that
digested thought, clear in their arrangement, and each of them should send back his portion carefully
unaffected in their style. They have been greatly corrected by an appointed day. The project was
recommended by Archbishop Tillotson, Bishop  strongly resisted by Stokesley, Bishop of London,
Reynolds, and others. Dr. Doddridge says,'They and the Romish party, and eventually fell to the
are very valuable; and I think I never, on the ground; not, however, until some advance had
whole, read any one author that assisted me more been made in critical labour, which Cranmer proin what relates to the N. T.'-W. J. C.       bably turned to account afterwards in his own revision of the Great Bible (see below). But amidst
CRAMER, JOHANN ANDREAS, was born in these disappointments, he had the joy of receiving
Saxony, 29th January 1723. In 1742 he went to at his house at Ford, near Canterbury, an impresLeipzig to study theology. In 1748 he became sion of the whole Bible in English, which had been
pastor at Crellwitz, whence he was soon transferred completed under his private encouragement by two
to Quedlinburg; and in 1754 to Copenhagen, as enterprising publishers, Grafton and Whitchurch.
German court-preacherto the Danish king Frederick  It appeared in one great folio volume, known by the
V. -Here he was most highly esteemed. In I77I, title of Matthew's Bible. This name was, however,
having been deposed from his office, he went to undoubtedly fictitious. The translation seems to
Liibeck as superintendent; and in 1774 became have been mainly a reprint of that which had been
professor of theology in the university of Kiel. a year or two previously published by Coverdale
Here he lived and laboured till his death, which  and Tyndale; the printing was conducted abroad;
took place in June 1788. Cramer was a poet as the uncertainty of the place, no less than the fictiwell as a theologian, and exerted an important tiousness of the editor's name, affords proof of
influence on the development of German poetry, the perilous nature of the undertaking. Foxe and
and the improvement of the language. He pub- Strype allege Hamburgh as the place, Mr. Lewis,
lished a Poetische Ueebersetzzng der Psalmen in 4 
parts, 1755-64; Der Nordische Azfseher, 1758-60,  * I. The Remains of Thos. Cranmer, D.D.,
3 vols.; Andacht in Gebeten, Betrachtzungen usend Archbishop of Canterbury, collected and arralzged
Liedern uzeber Gott, seine Ezigenschaften zund Werke, by the Rev. Hesny Yenkyns, M.A., etc., Oxford,
2 parts, 1764-65; EvanZgelische Nachahmnzz1gen der 1833, 4 vols. 8vo.
Psahlen tDavid's nozd anderegeistliche Lieder, 1769;  2. The two large vols. of the Parker Society.
Areue geistliche Odenz und Lieder, 1775; and his edited by the Rev. John Edmund Cox, M.A.,
collected poems were finally published at Leipzig Lond. 1844-46.




CRANMER                     570                CRANMER
Marpurg, in the province of Hesse; there can be the rash judgments of them that read.' This prolittle doubt that the work was executed at some logue or preface is reprinted in Jenkyns (ii. o04German press.  It appears on comparison with   I17), and the Parker Society's vol. (Zlisc. WritTyndale's edition of I534 that the N. T. of this ings and Letters, p. II8-I25). It was an intense
Bible was substantially a reprint of that martyr's satisfaction to the noble heart of Cranmer to find
version-there are not many alterations.  The his efforts for the better understanding and circulaPentateuch is also Tyndale's, with certain small tion of the Scriptures among all sorts of people so
variations, in which Coverdale's assistance seems well appreciated.' It was wonderful,' says Strype
to have been resorted to. From Joshua to Chro- (Life of'Cranmer, vol. i., p. 9I),'to see with
nicles we have probably the translation made by what joy this book of God was received, not only
Tyndale, but left unpublished by him. The rest among the learneder sort and those that were
of the O. T. is Coverdale's, slightly revised. Some noted for lovers of the Reformation, but generally
of Tyndale's prologues and notes are retained, and  all England over by the vulgar and common
at the end of the 0. T. the letters W. T. are people; and with what greediness God's word
printed in very large letters curiously flourished. was read, and what resort to the places where the
Beneath the nominis zmbra of the title-page, reading of it was.' When the Romish party got
Thomas Matthew, Foxe (folio iii. 98) expressly the ascendancy later in Henry's reign, the king
says was concealed the honoured name of John   grew more averse to Scripture translation. On one
Rogers, the proto-martyr of the Marian persecu- occasion Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester, and his
tion, and the friend of Tyndale. In confirmation  party, proposed a new translation of the N. T.,
of the general opinion of Rogers' connection with  with the ill-concealed object of frustrating the inthe work, there is found prefixed to the Bible an fluence of the vernacular versions by publishing a
exhortation to the study of the Holy Scriptures, sort of travestie of the Latin Vulgate, nominally
with the initials J. R. appended at the close. And giving the people the Scriptures, but at the same
that Rogers assumed the name of Matthew     is time obscuring their sense in unintelligible phraseocorroborated also by the curious fact that in Mary's logy. The archbishop signally defeated this inreign he was condemned to be burnt by the name  sidious mischief by inducing the king (whose
of Rogers alias Matthew.  On receiving with so invariable protection and favour to Cranmer is the
much joy this complete work, Archbishop Cranmer best trait of his fame) to decree that all further
at once dispatched a copy to Cromwell with a let- revision of Scripture versions should be referred to
ter (Jenkyns, i. I96, 197; Parker Society, Letters, the universities. Throughout the reign of Edward
etc., p. 344), highly commending the translation  VI., Cranmer's Bible was the authorised version.
as'better than any other heretofore made,' and  Nothing like a new translation was executed. One
earnestly entreating the powerful vicegerent to use indeed was projected, but circumstances set it
his best endeavours to'obtain of his grace [the king] aside. Bucer and Fagius were invited into Enga licence that the same may be sold, and read of [by] land by Cranmer and Protector Somerset.' As
every person without danger,' etc. This letter was it had been a great while Cranmer's most earnest
dated'at Forde, the 4th day of August [I537].' desire that the Holy Bible should come abroad in
In the next year occurred the memorable event, the greatest exactness and true agreement with the
for the first time in our history, of the authoritative original text, so he laid this work upon these two
publication of the English Bible.  (Stow, Annals, learned men: First, that they should give a clear,
as quoted by Jenkyns, i. 200, note i.) II. In the plain, and succinct interpretation of the Scripture,
year 1539 appeared the first edition of The Great according to the propriety of the language; and,
Bible, a revision of Matthew's Bible.  In the secondly, illustrate difficult and obscure places,
April of the following year another edition ap- and reconcile those that seemed to be repugnant
peared, with this title, The Byble in Englishe, that to one another. And it was his will and advice,
is to saye, the content of al the Holy Scryptzre, both that to this end and purpose their public readings
ofye Olde and Newe Testmt., wit/h a prologe there- should tend. This pious and good work by the
unto made by the Reverende Father in God, Thomas, archbishop assigned to them they most gladly and
Archbishop of Caanterbury.  (Printed by Richard readily undertook.  For their more regular carryGrafton. Cum privilegio ad imprimendum solum, ing on this business, they allotted to each other, by
MDXL.)' This'prologue' seems to have been     consent, their distinct tasks.  Fagius, because his
afterwards inserted in some copies of 1539, and  talent lay in the Hebrew learning, was to underthe two editions have been often confounded. take the 0. T., and Bucer the New' (Strype's
But on a critical examination of the two, the latter Life of Cranmer, i. 28I). The archbishop's prois found to contain very different renderings; e.g., ject, however, was soon after disappointed by the
Is. lvii. is adduced as varying in its translation  illness and death of his distinguished friends.
conspicuously in the two editions. As Cranmer If he could not gratify his desire to secure the
evidently wrote the preface for the latter edition, very best translation possible in that age, Cranit is probable that the considerable revision ap- mer wisely laboured to encourage the careful
parent in this edition was the work of the arch- study of that which existed. Archbishop Cranbishop also; probably he availed himself at last of mer's various services of a literary description in
the corrections made in the old version by the connection with the progress of the Reformation
bishops to which we have already referred. A   are enumerated and described chronologically with
letter of the primate is extant (Jenkyns, i. 290; P. great accuracy, perspicuity, and a masterly knowSoc., Letters, p. 396), in which he alludes to this ledge of the subject, in Mr. Jenkyn'spreface to his
preface, which he had submitted to Cromwell that edition of Cranmer's Remzains, to which we have
he might ascertain the king's pleasure about its so often referred.  Cranmer's well-known death of
publication with the Bible; the author trusted  a martyr at the stake took place in the Broad
that,'so his Grace allowed the same, it might Street, Oxford, in front of Balliol College, March
both encourage many slow readers, and also stay  21, I556.-P. I-l




CRATES                    571                CREATION
CRATES (Kpadirs) is mentioned, 2 Maccab. iv. of the human race until a comparatively recent
29, as the governor of the Cyprians (rov er i rwv period, though the materials for such a record were
Kuvrptwv), and as left by Sostrates eparch of the everywhere to be found, and no person of comAcropolis in his place, when summoned before mon observation could fail to perceive that the reAntiochus Epiphanes.-t.                      mains of innumerable organisms, both animal and
vegetable, which had lived and died on our planet,
CREATION-the origin of the material world, were to be discovered in the rocks and stones
and of the life with which it has been adorned-  which compose its crust. But all was silent in this
has been aptly termed'the mystery of myste- vast cemetery of bygone generations of life; and
ries.' The exercise of infinite power by an infinite those valuable testimonies of pre-Adamite existences
Being must of necessity transcend all human remained an undigested and apparently chaotic
thought and experience; and, apart from revela- mass, until the persevering industry and patient
tion, we can only know that some power has been research of the geologists of these latter days reexercised by our witnessing the effect produced. duced confusion to system and order, and preMuch, nevertheless, concerning the wondrous works sented to view a consistent and intelligible record
of the creation can be reached by the mind of man. of the various phases which the globe has preThe steps by which the formation of this planet, sented, and the successive races of animals and
the stage of our existence, was built up from its plants with which it has been adorned, from the
chaotic foundations-the order in which life, in its beginning to the human era.
various forms, has been poured out upon it, and  The sciences of geology and paleontology canthe laws which have regulated the execution of the not be said to have been in existence for more than
mighty work, are items of knowledge to which the eighty years.  But they had scarcely begun to
human intellect may be guided by the lights of assume the form and lineaments of sciences, when
physical science and inductive philosophy; but the that jealousy, which has never since the days of
Bible alone furnishes us with the information that Galileo ceased to exist to some extent between the
the Almighty was the designer and architect of the religionist and the natural philosopher, began to
fair fabric, the creator of its various inhabitants; evince itself. The religionist was alarmed by
and that he has been present with, and sustaining, rumours that the rocks, under the searching eye of
his work in all its stages from the beginning. It the geologist, disclosed a state of facts which was
is plain, therefore, that in the study of the vast wholly at variance with the Mosaic detail of the
subject of the works of the creation, the man of manner and order of the creation; and the studies
science can no more reject or overlook the teach- of the geologist were, without much inquiry, conings of Scripture, when it is proved to be a demned and denounced, in no very measured terms,
divinely inspired revelation, than the religionist can as destructive of the doctrine of the divine inspiraignore the facts of science, when they have been tion of the Scriptures, and as infidel in their incepestablished by faithworthy evidence; and yet, the tion and tendency. On the other hand, the man
errors which have operated most prejudicially to of science was not slow in retorting, that if the
the development of truth, have arisen from the un- record of Moses was of divine origin, it had nothing
natural hostility which has existed between the two to apprehend from the development of facts; and
classes of inquirers-those who have been seeking that if it could not bear the test of physical truth,
it in His Word, and those who have been seeking it must give way, even though it stood on the
it in His works. In this article we shall endeavour threshold of the treasury of inspiration; for that,
to shew, not only that there is no variance between in such a crisis, the testimony of the senses with
the testimonies of these two labourers in the cause which man has been endowed for his guidance
of truth, but that, while, on the one hand, the must prevail against mere matters of faith. In
Mosaic narrative of the creation has been authenti- argument the man of science had the advantage,
cated to be of divine origin by the discoveries of but in practice he erred, by too frequently assuming
the philosopher, so, on the other, the teachings of geological facts and Scripture interpretation without
that revelation have furnished the philosopher with sufficient inquiry; and so contributed, by hastily
truths, regarding the origin of life, that science is formed conclusions, to put asunder the word and
powerless to supply.                         the works of God, which, by the decrees of OmniIt is a fact of vast moment, and of interest the science, must ever be joined together.
most profound, that the book of Genesis, the most  The contest in its early stages was carried on
ancient written record that is known to be in exist- by those religionists who construed the Mosaic
ence, opens with a history or detail of all that is days of the creation to have been six successive
pre-eminently ancient in the world, using that term  natural days of twenty-four hours each, measured
in its largest sense. It reaches back through the by the revolution of our globe on its axis; and the
unmeasured space of time to' the beginning,' when objection of the geologist was founded on the obthe heaven and the earth were called into being by vious impossibility or absurdity that the world could
the word of the Creator; and after recording in have been stocked with the various animal and
concise and simple language a progressive furnish- vegetable organisms, whose remains have been found
ing of our planet with light, and its various forms in the crust of the earth, in the brief period of the
of life, the work of the Almighty is crowned with six natural days that preceded the birth of Adam.
the creation of man, made in his own image, en- The evidence was incontrovertible, that for untold
dowed with intelligence, reason, and responsibility, ages before that event generation upon generation of
the ordained head and master of all the creatures extinct animals had lived and died upon the earth.
with which he was surrounded. With the excep-  To meet this difficulty, which threatened to blot
tion of some rude and traditional fables of heathen  out the first page of the Scriptures as an inspired
writers of antiquity, we have no reason to suppose revelation, and which was obviously subversive of
that any other record of the order and manner of the authenticity and inspiration of all Scripture, a
the creation was known to, or suggested by, any host of champions arose, who, instead of examining




CREATION                    572                CREATION
with patience, and testing with care, the alleged  dant, and sufficient to establish, as a well-ascer.
facts of geology, recklessly denied their existence, tained truth, that between the animal and vegetable
or sought to explain and account for them as wholly existences of the primeval or pre-Adamite world
inadequate, and in many instances, on false and and those of our own era, no interruption or blank
absurd principles and grounds. Some ascribed the has occurred, inasmuch as many of the existing speexistence of fossil remains to the flood in the days cies were contemporaneous with some of these that
of Noah; others, to what was termed a plastic we know to have become extinct long before man
power that existed as one of the natural laws of was an inhabitant of the globe. Thus the position
matter; and others again insisted that the various of Dr. Chalmers, which requires a complete intersystems of rocks were created by the fiat of the ruption of pre-existing organisms, falls to the ground.
Almighty with the fossil remains of animals that  To avoid this difficulty, Dr. Pye Smith, in his
had never lived, and of plants that had never Geology anzd Scrilture, suggested that the chaotic
grown, imbedded in them. These were the rea- period had been confined and limited to one partisonings of Granville Penn, Fairholm, Kirby, cular portion of the earth's surface, viz., that part
Sharon Turner, Gisborne, Taylor, Dean Cock- which God was adapting for the dwelling-place of
burne, etc.; and of them it is unnecessary to say man and the animals connected with him.  This
more, than that the progress of scientific discovery  section of the earth he designates as'a part of
has extinguished their arguments, not only without Asia lying between the Caucasian range the Casinjury to the cause of Scripture truth, but with  pian sea and Tartary, on the north, the Persian
the effect of establishing it on a surer basis.  and Indian seas on the south, and the mountain
Another class of inquirers sought to solve the ridges which run, at considerable distances, on the
difficulty by conceding the well-established facts of eastern and western flanks;' and he suggests that
geology and the geological explanations of those this region was brought by atmospheric and geolofacts, but suggesting that the imperfection of our gical causes into a condition of superficial ruin, or
knowledge of the original Hebrew, at the present some kind of general disorder. This theory left
day, was such as to preclude all certainty of a right to the geologist his unbroken series of plants and
interpretation of its meaning. This was the posi- animals in all parts of the world, with the exception of Babbage; while Baden Powell insisted that tion of this particular locality. But the explanation
the narrative of the creation is couched in the lan- was never received with favour; and was obviously
guage of mythic poetry, and was not intended to inconsistent with the language of Scripture, inasbe a historical detail of natural occurrences. It is much as the term'the earth,' in the first verse of
satisfactory to know that the necessity for argu- the first chapter of Genesis, embraces the whole oi
ments so injurious in their tendencies to the cause the terrestrial globe, and' the earth' that is, in the
of the truth and integrity of the Bible no longer next verse, described as'without form and void,'
exists; for the precision of the Mosaic phraseology  cannot be more restricted in its meaning and extent.
will be found confirmed by every step that has been  But, while the accumulation of scientific facts
taken in the development of the truths of geology.  took from the champions of the authenticity and
At an early period of this controversy, Dr. Chal- inspiration of the Mosaic record the position they
mers, whose sagacious mind and prudent foresight had so long maintained against their adversaries,
comprehended the importance of this issue be- those facts, at the same time, furnished materials
tween the facts of geology and the language of the for the foundation of an argument of a more sound
Scriptures, propounded the proposition, that'the  and satisfactory character, which operates, not
writings of Moses do not fix the antiquity of the only to rescue the Mosaic account of the creation
globe,'-that after the creation of the heavens and from the imputation of positive misrepresentation
the earth, which may have comprehended any in- (which was all that the propositions of Chalmers
terval of time and any extent of animal and vege- and Pye Smith assumed to do), but has added contable life, a chaotic period ensued, when death and  firmation to the truth of the details which are predarkness reigned upon our globe, and the earth be- sented to us in the first chapter of the Biblecame, in Scripture language,'without form and  supplying evidence that must satisfy every reflectvoid,' and all that had previously existed was, by ing mind desirous of truth, that the pen that wrote
some catastrophe, blotted out, and a new world of the biblical history of the creation must have been
light and life produced, by fiats of the Deity, in a guided by the omniscient Spirit of the most High.
period of six natural days, closing with the birth  The scheme of reconciliation of Scripture and
of Adam; and thus the world which now exists geology to which we refer, has for its foundation
was cut off from that which preceded it by a period  the assumption that the Mosaic days designate
of black chaotic disorder. The geologist had thus periods' of vast and undefined extent-that the six
ample room for the existence of all the organisms days of creation portray six long periods of time,
whose remains are found in the rocks that compose which commenced with' the beginning,' and have
the crust of the earth; and he might labour in his succeeded each other from  thence through the
investigation of the nature and order of geological various scenes depicted by Moses, up to and incluevents, without endangering the truth of the sive of the creation of man; and that the seventh
Mosaic record of the creation,                 day, on which God rested from his work of creaThe position of the learned theologian did good  tion, is still current. Against such a construction of
service throughout the years in which the science the word'day,' in the Mosaic record,' there is
of geology was attaining to its present stature and no sound critical or theological objection.' This is
state of development, and emancipating itself from  the admission of Dr. Buckland, who was one of
the errors and imperfections of the days of its in- the advocates for the natural day interpretation,
fancy. But time rolled on, and geological science, and who would undoubtedly have adopted the
in its progress to maturity, accumulated facts that word in its extended sense, if he could have reconproved the proposition of Dr. Chalmers to be ciled the order of the creation as it appeared on the
based on a fallacy; and the evidence became abun- geological record which was in existence when the




CREATION                    573                CREATION
Bridgewater Treatise was written, with the order progressive introduction of the animal and vegeof the creation recorded by Moses. Long before table creations with which it has, from time to
the question had assumed the importance and in- time, been furnished, will enable the reader to
terest which the discoveries of geology have given  satisfy himself of the harmony that exists between
to it, many well-informed philologists advocated  the word and the works of the Almighty Creator
the opinion that the Mosaic days were periods of and Governor of the world. But for the more
long duration.  Among the Jews, Josephus and   ample details of geological science, he must conPhilo, and of Christians, Whiston, Des Cartes, and  suit the following works:-Lyell's Principles of
De Luc, have so expressed themselves; while of Geology; Buckland'sB idgewater Treatise; Murchithose who have written with full knowledge of son's Siluria; Ansted's Practical Geology; Mangeological facts, we have Cuvier, Parkinson, Jame- tell's Medals of Creation; Miller's Old Red Sandson, Silliman, and Hugh Miller-all of them hold- stone; 7ukes' Manualof Geology; Page's Advanced
ing the opinion that the Mosaic days of creation  Text Book of Geology, and the several other
were successive periods of long duration.      works to which reference will be found in the
The argument against this interpretation of the foregoing books.
word' day,' derived from the language of the law-  The crust of the earth is composed of rocks,
giver in the institution of the Sabbath, has not which have been formed, some by the action of
been considered by the best biblical philologists as fire, such as granite, basalt, porphyry, and greenof weight sufficient to induce the rejection of an  stone, which are termed igneous rocks, and some
interpretation that will be found to satisfy all the by sedimentary deposit at the bottom of water,
requirements of geological science. The'learned  such as sandstone, limestone, shale, etc., which
commentators, to whose opinions we have already are known as aqueous or stratified rocks. Igneous
referred, did not estimate the objection as of a rocks were first formed; and on these, from time
serious, much less insurmountable, nature; and  to time, through the long ages of our planet's
they evidently considered the allusions made by  existence, were deposited the many successive
Moses, in the 20th chapter of Exodus, to the six layers of sedimentary stratified rocks, in which
days of creation, to have been by way of illustra- are found the fossil remains of the animals and
tion or example, and not as the enunciation of a plants which were in existence during the several
physical truth-that as God had made and fur- periods of deposition. These layers of rocks have
nished the world in six of His periods of time, and been frequently and extensively, throughout these
rested from his work, so man is to labour for his eras of their formation, broken up and distorted
six periods of time, and to rest on the seventh.  by volcanic action, and the protusion of igneous
The consistency or harmony of these two records rocks from beneath, upwards, and through them;
of the creation-that of Moses and that of the and by which the mountain ranges, in all parts of
geologist-has, in the foregoing interpretation of the earth, have been elevated, and those diversities
the word'day,' been traced and vindicated by the of land and sea which the face of our planet prelate Hugh Miller in a lecture delivered by him to sents, have been formed.
the'Young Men's Christian Association' in the   The first aspect of the globe which the investigayear 1855, and afterwards republished in  The tions of the cosmogonist have enabled us to realize,
Testimony of the Rocks, and also by Dr. M'Caus- present to view a viscid igneous ball revolving on
land in his Sermons in Stones. The former traced  its axis, and wheeling its annual course around the
the consistency between the facts of geology and  sun, its centre of attraction.  Its present oblate
the events recorded by Moses as having occurred  spheroidical form, flattened at the poles and eleon the third, fifth, and sixth days or periods of vated at the equator, is the exact form that a liquid
creation, stating, that as a geologist, he was only sphere of the size and weight of the earth, revolvcalled on to account for those three of the six ing on its axis in twenty-four hours, would assume;
days or periods, inasmuch as geological systems and the still prevailing central heat, which is indiand formations regard the remains of the three cated by the gradual increase of temperature as we
great periods of plants, reptiles, and mammals, descend in mines from the surface in the direction
and those only; and'that of the period during  of the earth's centre, reveals the igneous origin of
which light was created-of the period during   the mass. The gradual cooling down of this fiery
which a firmament was made to separate the sphere, by radiation into space, would result in the
waters from the waters-or of the period during  formation of a crust of granite or some other ignewhich the two great lights of the earth, with the ous rock on the surface; and as the cooling proother heavenly bodies, became visible from the gressed, the gases which are the constituents of
earth's surface, we need expect to find no record water, and which are kept asunder by intense heat,
in the rocks.'  But the author of the latter work  would naturally combine, and thus the crust, in
(Sermons in Stones) has proceeded further, to shew  process of time, would be covered with an ocean.
that geology confirms and establishes the truth of Thus we have all the elements requisite for the proevery statement in the record of Moses, from the duction of the first series of sedimentary rocks,
beginning down to the creation of man-the ori- which were formed out of the disturbed particles or
ginal state of the globe'without form and void'-  detritus of the igneous crust at the bottom of the
the first dawn of light-the formation of the firma- waters which encircled the globe. The lowest of
ment, and the separation of the waters below from  our sedimentary rocks, gneiss and mica schist,
the waters above it-and the first appearance of the which rest on the primordial granite, or some other
sun, moon, and stars, on the fourth day, inter- rock of igneous origin, are found, on inspection, to
mediate between the creation of the vegetable world be composed of the debris or broken particles of
on the third, and the creation of the creeping things granite, and so far the foregoing theory of their
and birds on the fifth day.                    origin is confirmed. This series of rocks has been
A succinct sketch of the state of our knowledge styled' metamorphic,' from the great change that
of the physical structure of the earth, and of the has been wrought in their structure by the action




CREATION                    57-1               CREATION
of the intense heat to which, at the time of their cooled down sufficiently to permit the orbs of
formation, they must have been exposed, and by sun, moon, and stars, to become visible to an eye
which they have been partially crystallized, and  situate at the earth's surface. This will be found
their lines of stratification obliterated. They form  to be the true explanation of the phenomenon of
a portion of that vast pile of the bottom rocks the appearance of the heavenly orbs on the fourth
which have been termed' the Cambrian,' and day.
which have been calculated to be 25,000 feet, or  The long era of the Cambrian formation was sucnearly five miles, in depth or thickness.      ceeded by another as extensive, during which the
Throughout the long ages occupied by the depo- rocks which have been denominated'the Silurian,'
sition of the mass of sediment of which these bottom  were formed, by sedimentary deposits, to the depth
rocks are composed, the temperature of the globe of 30,ooo feet.  The fossil remains of animals
must have been very high, though gradually be- throughout this formation are abundant, and discoming more cool; and the traces of animal life in close the zoology of the era to have been confined
them are extremely rare and difficult to detect and to submarine invertebrates, zoophytes, mollusks,
identify. The scanty fossil remains which have and crustaceans; and no vertebrate animal appears
been discovered by the industry and research of the until the close of the era, when the remains of
geologist, reveal no type of animal life of a higher fishes are found in the beds which lie at the top of
order than the zoophyte (a creature partly of animalthe Silurian, and just beneath those of the next
and partly of a vegetable nature), annelids or sea- formation. In the same place, the first traces of
worms, and bivalve mollusks-all of them marineland vegetation make their appearance. But the
creatures devoid of the senses of sight and hearing; animal and vegetable life of what may be properly
and with them have been found traces of fucoids or termed the Silurian era was marine invertebrate.
sea-weeds, but no land vegetation.  In fact, all Light to some extent must have pervaded the earth
that has been discovered of organic matter in these during this period; for many of the mollusks, and
rocks indicates a beginning of life at the time of al of the crustaceans, were furnished with eyes,
their formation, and a beginning of life in the some of them, as in the instance of the trilobite,
lowest and most humble of its forms.           of a peculiarly elaborate and perfect structure. It
Now, comparing this picture of the birth and   pears to be a law of nature, that anials whose
infancy of our planet with the Mosaic description  entire existence is passed in darkness, are either
wholly devoid of the organs of sight, or, if rudiof the first day, or era of the creation, we shall wolly devoid of the organs of si,  or, if  ifind a remarkabl coincidence between the revela- mentary eyes are discoverable, they are useless for
tion and the state of nature which the study of the the purposes of vision, as exemplified in the animals
rocks discloses to have prevailed at this early period  of all orders, from the mollusk to the mammals,
of our planet's existence.' The earth was without which have been discovered in the caverns of Illyria,
form  and void'- unshapen and unfurnished —a   and other caverns of South America, mentioned
conglomeration of gaseous elements, without ani-by Humboldt, in the Mammoth Caves of Kenmal or vegetable life within its chaotic precincts  tucky, in deep wells, and in depths of the sea
and such must have been the aspect of our planet where no ray of light can penetrate  From this it
in its gaseous state, and when the igneous crust follows that thee   of aperfect eye proclaims
was in process of formation, and in the early stages  he presence o  light.
of the Cambrian system, when it was nothing more  Te Mosaic record of the creation of the second
than a dark and untenanted watery waste.' And  day portrays the formation of the firmament or
the Spirit of God moved on the face of the waters,' atmosphere in language strangely accurate for one
or, the life-giving spirit of the Creator brooded (for who, like Moses, must have been ignorant, not
such, according to Gesenius, is the proper transla- merely of the nature and offices of our atmosphere,
tion of the Hebrew word r1\W^}) on the waters, but of its very existence. The Hebrew word which
~i   of te Hb-   r  -::n',has been translated'firmament' means' expanse;'
vivifying or impregnating them with life, in the and there was no other word in the language deform of those first-born submarine creatures-zoo- scriptive of that which divides the waters which
phytes, annelids, and bivalve mollusks, all of them  were above, in the clouds, from the waters which
devoid of the organs of sight, which is some evi- were below, upon the earth. The use of the exdence that, conformably to the Mosaic record, life pression, therefore, denotes their ignorance of that
was on the earth before that light had penetrated  beauteous structure which is designated by our
to the surface through the encircling vapours which  term' the atmosphere;' and yet one out of the six
were produced by the central heat acting on and  days of the creation is set apart by Moses for its
evaporating the waters of the great deep. The construction.  On that day, therefore, the elastic
rays of the sun had not struggled through the misty fluid of the atmosphere was wrapped around our
zone that was wrapped round the tepid globe; globe; and that it must have come into existence
but, by their gradual refrigeration, the vapours be- before the end of the Silurian era, is manifest from
came less dense and opaque, and when God said, the fact of vertebrate fish having sported in the' Let there be light,' there was light. Light was Silurian seas, inasmuch as animals of that descripprogressive on the face of the earth, lurid and dim; tion require the assistance of air to support their
but still it was light, such light as that which visits bodies in swimming through the waters.  Land
the earth through a dense fog. Day and night vegetation also appeared simultaneously with the
succeeded each other. Evening was and morning fish, and atmospheric air was necessary for its existwas day one (for such is the proper translation of ence.
the Hebrew phrase which has been rendered,' The  The system that succeeded the Silurian was that
evening and the morning were the first day'), in which the Devonian or Old Red Sandstone rocks
though the daylight must, at that early date of its were formed; and all geologists concur in stating,
existence, have been of a twilight nature; and long that the position in which these rocks are found
ages must have elapsed before that the heat had indicates that the era was ushered in by violent




CREATION                    575                CREATION
commotions, during which most of the principal to an earthly eye. But the veil of clouds having
mountain ranges in the world were thrown up. passed away, letting in the unclouded light of the
The fossil remains of this era, during which sedi- sun, moon, and stars, and therebyrevealing their orbs
mentary rocks, which are calculated to be about to earthly eyes, the accuracy of the Mosaic descripIo,ooo feet in thickness, were formed, present to tion of the first appearance of those heavenly bodies
our view, in addition to the previous existing orders at this time, to be from thenceforth' for signs and
of animals, vertebrate fish of the Placoid and Ganoid for seasons, and for days and years,' has been fully
species. These have been graphically described by vindicated.
Hugh Miller, in' The Old Red Sandstone,' as     In confirmation of these views, it is remarkable
cartilaginous, and clad in strong integuments of that other geological phenomena, besides that of
bone composed of enamelled plates, instead of the the absence of the season rings in the trees, indihorny scales which form the covering of the fish  cate that there was no variation of seasons on our
of the present day; and it has been suggested by  earth before the close of the carboniferous era.
Dr. Buckland, that this hard coating may have Temperature appears, up to that period, to have
formed a defence against the injurious effects of been tropical and uniform in all latitudes; for the
water of a high temperature. The first traces of fossil remains testify that the animals and plants
land vegetation have been found at the top of the that lived and grew in the carboniferous and preSilurian, where the Old Red Sandstone rests on it, ceding eras, at the equator, were of the same
a circumstance that, coupled with the remarkable species as those that lived and grew at the same
terrestrial convulsion which prevailed at the com- period in the arctic regions-and the coal-measures
mencement of the system, confirms the Mosaic are as abundant in the high latitudes as in the temdescription of the work of the third day, viz., the perate and tropical zones. These phenomena can
first appearance of dry land above the waters, and  only be accounted for by the continued prevalence
the bringing forth of grass, herbs, and trees yield- of the central heat, and the consequent neutralizaing fruit, each after its kind. The fossil remains tion of the effect of the sun's rays, the influence of
of a small reptile, which is stated to have been which now operates to produce the variety of seafound in a rock at the top of the Old Red Sand- sons. The climatal condition of the earth in those
stone, have been supposed to be the first traces of ages must have been similar to those of a vast
terrestrial life upon the globe; but Professor Owen humid hothouse shaded from the direct radiance
is of opinion, that the rock in question does not of the sun-and which would be eminently condubelong to the Old Red Sandstone formation, but cive to the production of a prolific vegetation, such
to another long subsequent-the Trias.          as that which has been stored up in our extensive
The system that succeeded the Devonian is the coal-measures.
Carboniferous, which is one of importance and in-  The zoology of this era furnishes us with the
terest to mankind, as having been the period of the first undoubted traces of terrestrial animal life, in
formation of coal, iron, and the mountain limestone the form of insects of the beetle and cockroach
-a combination of products that have contri- tribes, scorpions, and reptiles of the batrachian
buted so largely, in these latter days, to the comfort order-creatures which were adapted by nature to
and convenience of the human race. The coal- live in the dull, hazy, tepid atmosphere that overmeasures, it is well ascertained, are the produce of spread our planet before the unclouded rays of the
profuse and extensive vegetation, and the nature of sun had visited its surface.
the plants of which it has been formed, are easily  At the close of the carboniferous era, another
discoverable by a close examination of the mineral commenced, during which the system  of rocks
itself, which, on inspection, discloses them to have  which has been denominated'the Permian' sysbeen almost entirely of the cryptogamic order, and  tem, was formed, the fossil remains of which insuch as would be produced in abundance in posi- dicate that great changes must have taken place in
tions of shade, zeat, and humzidity. Ferns, cala- the physical constitution and aspect of the earth.
mites, and esquisitaceous plants preponderate, and The exuberant vegetation which had supplied the
wood of hard and ligneous tissue, which is, in a material of the coal-measures of the preceding forgreat measure, dependent on the unshaded light of mation had died away, and a vegetation of a
the sunbeam, is of rare occurrence in this forma- higher order succeeded, shewing by reasonable
tion-while season rings, which result from the evidence that the clouded atmosphere of the carimpact of the direct rays of sunlight on the tree, boniferous and previous systems had been sucare not found at all in the fossil woods of this or ceeded by a transparent atmosphere, through
the previous formation, though they appear in those which the unimpeded sunbeam had reached the
of the succeeding systems.  These phenomena    earth's surface. The animals, too, which inhabited
(among others) indicate that, throughout the car- the Permian earth disclose an advance in organic
boniferous era, the vapours that had been lifted up  life. The Saurian, or true reptile, here made its
and sustained by the atmosphere from the time of first appearance; and the earliest traces of birds
its formation, had not been penetrated by the rays present themselves in the New Red Sandstone, a
of the sun; or, more properly speaking, the clouds member of this system. The foot tracks of these
had remained unbroken between the sun and the birds, of immense magnitude, which stalked on the
earth; and at, or soon after its close, there must Permian sands and mud, are found impressed on
have been an increase of the luminous principle. the now hardened slabs of sandstone and shales of
Until the central heat had cooled down, the clouds that formation, both in Scotland and in America.
that had been formed and fed by the steaming     The Permian was succeeded by the systems of
vapours of the tepid waters of the globe, must have the Trias and Oolite, whose fossil remains attest
continued to intercept the rays of the sun; and  an advance in animal, as well as in vegetable,
until they were dissolved, as we have reason to  organization. Trees of the palm, pine, and cypress
know they were at the close of the carboniferous species were mingled with the diminished ferns,
era, the celestial bodies must have been invisible calamites, and conifers of the coal era; and with




CREATION                    576                CREATION
this improved vegetation, a higher order of insects globe; and we may add, that there is no evidence
appears to have come into existence to feed on and  of the introduction on the earth of any species of
enjoy the increasing bounties of Providence. But animal, whose progenitor was not in being before
the peculiar and most striking feature of the age the human race became inhabitants of the earth.
was the extraordinary increase, in number and  Man's pedigree is of less antiquity than that of
magnitude, of the Saurian reptiles, which then  any other known creature, though, geologically
peopled the earth. The Saurians were divisible and physically, he is at the top of the ascending
into three distinct classes- the Terrestrial, or orders or scale of created beings; for it is adDinosaurians; the Marine, or Elaniosaurians; and mitted by the most eminent and best informed
the Aerial, or Pterosaurians. They were all of geologists, that the well-attested facts of their
them  air - breathing creatures - amphibious, and  science demonstrate that the plan or law of the
more or less aquatic in their nature and habits; creation was progressive, beginning with the zooand with the birds whose tracks have appeared in phyte in the bottom rocks, and ascending through
these same systems, have been aptly described, as the succeeding formations in tle advancing forms
regards their extent both in number and size, in  of the Mollusk, Crustacean, Fish, Reptile, and
the Mosaic account of the work of the fifth day of Mammal, culminating with Man-since which no
the creation. The Hebrew    words, which are new species has been introduced on the scene,
translated in our version'the moving creature that and the Almighty Creator has been, in Scripture
hath life;' ought more properly to be rendered language, resting from his work on this the still'the reptile that hath the breath of life' (vide current Sabbath of the creation.
Gesenius on the word VOW); and the' great whales'  The length of the time which has elapsed since
our planet was a ball of liquid fire, and during
of the next verse is more correctly rendered in the which our world of light and life was elaborated
margin of our Bibles'great sea monsters;' and  in its various stages by the hands of the Almighty,
the'living creature that moveth' ought to be admits of no calculation. It is not to be reckoned
rendered the'living creature that creepeth' (vide by days or years, or any known measure of time.
Sermons in Stones, p. 199 n., 8th ed.)  With   We can only look at the vast piles of the sedimenthese corrections of the text of the A. V., it is tary rocks which have been laid down at the
obvious that the Mosaic record of the creation of bottom of the waters in that period, to the depth
the fifth day, is a record of the creation of the of fifteen miles at the lowest calculation, and ask
reptilian race of great sea monsters (Elaniosauria)  how long was the space of time occupied in the
-of the living creature that creepeth, which the formation of those masses by the slow process of
waters brought forth abundantly (Dinosauria)-  depositing grain after grain of the particles of the
and of the winged fowl (Pterosauria, or Ptero- matter of which they have been formed, and yet
dactyls and Birds). These are designated by    that is but a brief portion of duration when cornMoses as great and abundant; and the fossil re- pared with that which must have been occupied by
mains of the reptilian inhabitants of earth, ocean, the cooling down of the globe, so as to admit of
and air of the Oolite world, more especially of the existence of life upon its surface. It is suffithe Lias member of it, have revealed them to   cient f6r us to know the order of the various
have then swarmed out in such amazing numbers, physical aspects presented by our globe from the
and of such vast dimensions, that geologists have time that it was' without form and void,' and of
always dwelt on the scenes which the earth of the organisms with which it has, from time to
those days must have presented with astonishment time, been furnished. Without seeking to fix the
and wonder, and have named that era'the age of exact length of the time which each day or period
reptiles.' In all this we have a most interesting  of the creation occupied, or at what particular
confirmation of the truth and accuracy of the points of the great geological eras were their reMosaic record of the creation of the fifth day.  spective commencements and terminations, the
The Chalk or Cretaceous system succeeded that scientific evidence is clear and conclusive, that
of the Oolite, and presents little, if any, evidence each item of the Mosaic creation came into existof advance in creation. There is, however, a ence in the precise order in which it is recorded to
manifest decrease of the Saurian reptiles, which  have made its appearance in the first chapter of
reigned in such abundance in the preceding for- Genesis. Both Moses and the geologist testify
mation, and some traces of the true mammal have, that the first organisms in which the mystery of
it is said, been found in this system. At all events, life was presented were submarine, and that life on
in the next formation, the Tertiary, we have dis- the earth existed before light. Both, also, concur
tinct evidence of the existence of the mammal race in attesting the fact of the existence of submarine
of animals, including the quadruped mammifers, life long before that of land vegetation; and that
which are presented to view in the Mosaic record, land vegetation had sprung up before that the sun
as the cattle, beasts, and creeping things of the earth, had become visible from the earth's surface. They
the creation of the sixth day.                 also agree in their testimonies that the sun's unLast, and crowning work of all, Man, as the clouded ray had visited the face of our planet beMosaic record testifies, was introduced by his fore the commencement of'the age of reptiles'Creator, made in his own image, to have dominion  that this strange era of the swarming out of the
over all the creatures that he had previously giant Saurians on earth, sea, and air, preceded the
created and their descendants; and no fact is more appearance of the mammal races-and that all
conclusively established by geology, than that all were denizens of the earth before the advent of
the races of animals on the earth, from the zoo- Man to have the dominion over them.
phyte to the mammal, were in existence before    This harmony of the two records supplies us
the human race. No traces of human remains, or with evidence of the authenticity and inspiration of
of any work of art, have been found below the the book of Genesis, the importance and value of
superficial deposits, or outside coating of the which cannot be too highly estimated. By it, the




CREATION                    577                CREATION
first pages of the Bible are stamped with the seal real and accordant with scientific truths, the eviof truth, which gives us assurance that the whole dence of inspiration would perhaps have been more
canon of Scripture is of divine origin.  Moses striking to men of the present day; but to the many
was necessarily ignorant of geology and its kindred  generations of those who were ignorant of those
sciences, and yet he was the author of a written facts of science it would most probably have been
record which describes with precision and accu- rejected as absurd and fabulous.'What,' observes
racy, as far as it extends, the order in which our Hugh Miller,'would sceptics such as Hobbes and
planet was furnished with light and life. He wrote, |Hume have said of an opening chapter in Genesis
not for the purpose of instructing the Israelites in ithat would describe successive periods-first of
the science of cosmogony, but to establish a testi- mollusks, star lilies, and crustaceans, next of fishes,
mony that the universe was the work of the God  next of reptiles and birds, then of mammals, and
who had led them forth from the land of Egypt, finally of man; and that would minutely portray a
the house of their bondage; and thus to fortify period in which there were lizards bulkier than
them against the snares of idolatry in the land to  elephants, reptilian whales furnished with necks
which he was conducting them. But the omniscient slim and long as the bodies of great snakes, and
spirit of the Almighty, who dictated and directed  flying dragons, whose spread of wing greatly more
the pen of the scribe, did not permit it to record than doubled that of the largest bird? The world
a fact that was inconsistent with those physical would assuredly not receive such a revelation.'
truths that have been developed by human re- This subject will be found discussed in The Tessearch for the first time after the lapse of more timonyofthe Rocks; ThelMosaicRecordinzHarmony
than three thousand years. The Mosaic record of with the Geological; Sermons in Stones; The Genesis
the creation, in thus revealing the hidden events of of the Earlh and Man.
the past, becomes, as it were, a prophecy, the   The Scriptures do not, as already observed, fix
fulfilment of which is before our eyes, satisfactory the age of the earth, or supply any means by
and conclusive, and the corner stone of that edifice which we could calculate the length of time that
of the inspired Scriptures, which contains the has elapsed since'the beginning,' or the first apknowledge of God's will, and of his divine pur- pearance of any of the several items of the creaposes towards the children of men.             tion, with the exception of that of Adam; and as
The mode or manner of the communication of regards his birth, the biblical records have unfolded
these truths to the divine historian has been the to us that nearly six thousand years have passed
subject of much inquiry and discussion; and it has away since he became an inhabitant of the earth.
been suggested, with much apparent reason, that Facts, however, have recently come to light, on
the details of the creation presented to us by which reasonings have been founded to establish
Moses were brought to his knowledge by means of the proposition that, though the extent of the
a series of visions, in like manner as the events of human era must have been short indeed when comfuturity were disclosed to the minds of the prophets pared with the vastness of the geological ages, yet
of old, who recorded them for our instruction.  If some of the human race must have tenanted the
we analyse the record, it will be found to have earth at a time long anterior to that assigned by the
all the characteristics of a visional revelation of Bible records to have been the date of Adam's
past events; for, with exception of the divine fiats birth.  Mr. Leonard Homer's experimental rewhich he heard, Moses describes only that which  searches in Egypt, instituted with a view to ascermay have been optically presented to him-the   tain the depths of the sedimentary deposits in the
earth unformed and unfurnished-the Spirit of valley of the Nile, have brought to light relics of
God brooding on the face of the waters-the     works of art and specimens of man's handiwork,
earliest dawn of light-the elevation of the clouds such as pieces of pottery and sculpture, that tend
-the first appearance of dry land and land vege- to prove the existence of intelligent manufacturers
tation-the dissolution of the clouds above in the at a period of time that could not be less than
atmosphere, and the unveiling of the orbs of hea- eleven or twelve thousand years. But the preven-the swarming out of the Saurian reptiles-  mises from which this conclusion has been deduced
and the first appearance of the quadruped mam- are too uncertain and fallible to warrant such an
mals, and of manl; while those items of the crea- extension of the commonly received age of man.
tion which he could not have seen, such as the  The rate of accretion of sedimentary deposits of a
submarine invertebrate and vertebrate animals, and  river like the Nile is subject to so many varying
insects, are not mentioned.                    external influences, that, as a measure of time, it
It has been suggested by Hugh Miller, that there may be most fallacious, and no reliance can be
is a peculiar fitness in a revelation made by vision  placed upon it as disproving the record of Moses.
for conveying to the various generations of man  But more importance has been ascribed to the
that were to come into being throughout a long  discoveries in the gravel quarries of Abbeville and
series of ages, an account of the creation which was Amiens in the north of France, and also in Suffolk
to be received by multitudes who were to live and  in England, of flint implements, such as hatchets,
die in ignorance of the truths of physical sciences, spears, arrow-heads, and wedges of rude manufacsuch as geology and astronomy, as well as by those  ture, associated in undisturbed gravel, with the
who, at a later period, are qualified to verify the bones of extinct species of the elephant, rhinoceros,
description by the light of those sciences. The and other animals, whose remains are found in the
prophet, by describing what he had actually seen  diluvium formed by the last great geological revoluin plain and intelligible language, shocked no pre- tion. If these implements are of artificial origin,
viously existing prejudice that had been founded  they afford strong evidence that the races of men
on the apparent evidence of the senses-while, on  by whom they were manufacturered, were the conthe other hand, an enlightened age, when it had  temporaries of animals which geologists affirm
discovered the key to the description, would find it could not have existed within the Scripture term of
optically true in all its details.  H-ad it been more human life.  Nevertheless, many of those best
VOL. I.2 P




CREATION                    578                CREATION
acquainted with geological phenomena and the   are surrounded.  The constancy of the union beknowledge to be derived from   them, have not tween cause and effect, in the estimation of one
admitted that this association of a mixture of the class of minds, is never separated from the existflint implements with the extinct animal remains ence of a sustaining and omnipotent intelligent
is conclusive evidence of the co-existence in life of power, by whom it was ordained that one should
the manufacturer of the implements with those invariably follow the other; while to another class
animals-and affirm that mere juxtaposition is no  of reasoners, this consistency of Nature's law sugevidence of contemporaneity, when no remainsof gests an argument against the sustained efficient
the human frame is to be found in the same place. presence of the author of that law. As regards
The age of the diluvium, also, in which these the process by which the material world has passed
remains have been discovered, uncertain as it was through its various phases to its present aspect,
before, has been rendered still more so by the pre- there has been little or no discission arising out of
sence of these human relics in it. So that the these two modes of viewing the relations between
question remains open; and the Scripture chrono- God and his works; but the origin of life, or of the
logy of the human era, though rendered doubtful, various species of animal and vegetable organisms,
has not been conclusively displaced.           the receptacles of life, is a subject on which there
It may be, that further evidence will be forth- has been much speculation, involving the principle
coming to establish as a fact that man was an  of the continued efficient presence of the Deity with
inhabitant of the earth at a period anterior to the the onward march of vitality on our planet.
assigned date of Adam's birth; but it is satisfac-  Each animal and plant has an ancestry of its
tory to know that, even in that event, the truth of own; and relationship by descent is -admittedly
the Scripture record could be vindicated. It has that which constitutes identity of species-that is
been ably argued in a recent work, The Genesis of to say, all the animals of the world (and the same
the Earih and Man, that the existence of a pre- may be said of plants) which have descended from
Adamite race of human beings is not inconsistent the same pair of ancestors belong to the same
with the sacred narrative of the birth of Adam and  species.  That there are many apparently different
the history of his descendants. There are some species of animals now in- existence is obvious.
passages in the Bible which rather imply the exist- But the question has been mooted, whether this
ence of human beings, not the offspring of Adam, distinction of species is a reality in nature, or whesuch as the apprehension expressed by Cain of ther all animals may not be lineally descended from
violence at the hands of those amongst whom he one, or, at all events, a few original stocks. Geoshould become a fugitive when cast out from asso- logy teaches us that no animals of a higher order
ciation with his own family.  On the other hand, than zoophytes, mollusks, and crustaceans were inthere are expressions to be found in the Scriptures, habitants of our globe up to the close of the
which apparently indicate the origination of all Silurian era; that the fish then, for the first time,
mankind from Adam. The meaning and purport made its appearance, and afterwards the reptile, in
of these passages have been discussed with ability the Carboniferous era, and then the mammal, at a
in the foregoing work; and the author concludes later period, in the Tertiary.  Were the different
that the Scripture evidence is strong in favour of species of zoophytes, mollusks, and crustaceans of
the existence of a non-Adamic race both before and  the Silurian ages, and those of the succeeding and
after the flood.  From ethnology he finds that the  present eras, all of them the offspring of one pair,
varieties of the human species may be reduced to  or of different pairs of ancestors, whose descendants
two stocks, but that to reduce it to one is scarcely  had become thus varied by the operation of time
possible.  History, too, records the traditions of and the changed conditions of life? Again, were
every civilized race, that a barbarous race was ex- the various species of fishes, reptiles, and mammals,
pelled or subdued by their ancestors; and, on  descendants from their severally respective pairs of
philological grounds, he concludes that many   ancestors, or were they all of them lineal descenlanguages exhibit traces of two sources of hu- dants of the previously existing inferior orders of
man speech.  The subject is worthy of attention, animals of the Silurian and its preceding eras, and
and ought to be entertained and discussed, in a all thus related in blood to each other?  If the
spirit of candour and forbearance, by those who  various species had each their own separate first
are qualified to deal with it on philosophical and  parents and lineage, then each of those ancestors
philological principles; for on this ground the Re- must have been produced by a separate act of
ligionist may yet have to fight the battle of the creative powers, or, as it has been termed, by a
evidences of Scripture inspiration.           separate creative fiat, similar to that which kindled
The origin of the material world, or of that rocky  the first spark of life in the first living creature that
framework of the globe, the abode of man and his stirred within the precincts of our planet; and thus
associated animals and plants, can be traced back  the Creator must have been ever present with his
to a period when the now solid crust on which we work, renewing it with life in the various species
stand formed a portion of a revolving mass ofigne- of animals and plants with which it has from the
ous matter; and with the aid of geological, chemi- beginning been supplied. On the other hand,
cal, and other physical sciences, we can follow it philosophers have been found to insist that all the
through its various vicissitudes since that time, and  animals (and plants also) in the world, including
see how that, by the gradual operation of the man himself, have descended from   one simple
ascertained laws of matter, the earth has assumed  organism, and the operation of the pre-ordained
its present form and appearance. Cause and effect laws of nature, without the interference of the
are adequate to explain the process by which   Deity.
chaotic matter has become a structure that pro-  Thus, two French philosophers, De Maillet and
claims the wisdom and goodness of the Omnipo- La Marck, about the close of the last century, entent architect and builder, and a storehouse of the deavoured to establish as a true proposition, that all
manifold wonders of nature and art with which we the higher orders of animals and plants have been




CREATION                   579                CREATION
derived by the immutable laws of nature from the law, varieties of organisms as distinct as those
first born and lowest items in the scale of physical which man creates among domesticated animals and
life; and that life itself is producible by the agency plants. It must be conceded that by the principle
of caloric and electricity from dead matter. They of natural selection we can account for the origin of
also held, that all the qualities and functions of many varieties of the same species; but that is far
animals have been developed by natural instinct, short of the proposition, that an accumulation of
and a tendency to progressive improvement; and  inherited varieties may constitute a specific differthat organisation was the result of function, and ence. No facts have yet been established to warnot function of organisation. Their theory of life rant the inference, that because man can produce
therefore was that the zoophyte, which was de- varieties of species by selection among domesticated
veloped out of something still more simple, ex- animals, that he could produce, or that nature has
panded itself into a mollusk or crustacean-that the produced, by the application of the same principle,
crustacean was developed into a fish, fishes into essentially distinct species.  There has always, in
reptiles and birds, and these again into quadruped  the case of domesticated animals and plants, been
mammals, and the mammal into man.            a limit to man's power to produce varieties, in like
This theory, so dishonouring to God and degrad- manner as, in the operations of nature, the sterility
ing to man, was at once rejected as an absurdity of hybrids has raised a barrier against the multipliby the common sense of mankind. It has, how- cation of species, which cannot be passed.
ever, been revived, with a little variation, by the  Dr. Darwin believes that animals have descended
author of' The Vestiges of the Natural History of from at most only four or five progenitors, and adds,
Creation,' who has, in that work, reviewed the that analogy would lead him one step farther, viz.,
whole world of life which has been supplied by to the belief that all animals and plants have degeology and natural history, and insists that'the scended from one prototype, and that'the probavarious organic forms that are to be found upon bility is that all the organic beings that have ever
the earth are bound up in one-a fundamental lived upon the earth have descended from some one
unity pervades and embraces all, collecting them  primordial form, into which life was first breathed.'
from the humblest lichen up to the highest mam- This admits that life has been produced upon our
mifer in one system, the whole creation of which planet by one, if not more, divine creative fiats;
must have depended upon one law or decree of the and such being the case; it is more reasonable, as
Almighty, though it did not all come forth at one well as more natural, to account for the appearance
time.  The idea of a separate creation for each of distinct species from time to time by the exercise
must appear totally inadmissible;' and he argues of similar acts of divine power, than by a vain enthat'the whole train of animated beings, from the deavour to link together animals in relationship by
simplest and oldest up to the highest and most descent that are wholly dissimilar in organization,
recent, are thus to be regarded as a series of ad- and in all the habits, propensities, and instincts of
vances of the principle of development, which have their lives.
depended upon external physical circumstances, to  It is admitted that the position is not confirmed
which the resulting animals are appropriate.' And, by geological evidence, inasmuch as the many interas to the origin of vitality, he suggests that the first mediate links which must necessarily have existed bestep in the creation of life upon this planet was a tween the various species, are not found in the geolochemico-electric operation, by which simple ger- gical formations. There is no such finely graduated
minal vesicles were produced, and that the advance oganic chain revealed by geology; for the groups
from the simplest form of being to the most com- of animals, as they existed, are as distinct and well
plicated was through the medium of the ordinary  defined in those ancient records as they are at the
process of generation.                       present day. To meet this admitted difficulty Dr.
These speculations, whimsical and absurd in con- Darwin is driven to allege'the extreme imperfecception, but at the same time most mischievous in tion of the geological record,' arising, as he states,
tendency, have long since been rejected by the most'from an extremely incomplete examination of
enlightened of our philosophers, basing their argu- existing strata, and the small proportion which
ments on pure scientific principles and inductive those existing strata bear to those others which
reasoning. Professor Sedgwick, in his preface to have been deposited, and removed or swept away
the studies of the University of Cambridge, p. by denudation.' These are mere gratuitous ascxxviii, has pronounced that geology,'as a plain sumptions, put forth without foundation, to prop up
succession of monuments and facts, offers one firm  a failing theory. No well-informed geologist will
cumulative argument against the hypothesis of de- be found to admit that imperfections could exist in
velopment.' Agassiz, Cuvier, and Hugh Miller the geological record to an extent sufficient to achave been equally strong in their condemnation of count for the absence of so many forms of life, as
the theory.                                  must, if Dr. Darwin's theory be true, have been in
The discussion of this question has been recently existence at some period of the world's history.
revived by the publication of Dr. Darwin's'Origin Moreover, his suggestion that every past and
of Species.' In this work an attempt has been  present organism has descended from three or four
made to solve the mystery of the creation of life, by original forms, requires us to suppose that life must
seeking to establish the proposition that every have existed in the planet long before the deposispecies has been produced by generation from pre- tion of the Cambrian and Silurian rocks, in which
viously existing species. Dr. Darwin's hypothesis the first groups of life appear, and that the rocks in
(for it is nothing more), is, that as man, acting on which these remains were deposited have been
the principle of selectionz, causes different animals either removed or transformed.  This hypothesis
and plants to produce varieties, so in nature there not only receives no countenance from the records
is a similar power of selection, originated and car- of geology, but is contradicted by all the evidence
ried on by the struggle of life, which tends to pro- which they supply. So many startling concessions
duce and perpetuate, by the operation of a natural required to uphold this theory of the production of




CREATION                    580                 CREDNER
species by natural selection, without the direct in- its glorious hereafter to any condition that can be
tervention of the creative power of the Almighty, realized by the imagination.  At one time it was
are sufficient to justify its rejection, even if the more girded with a shoreless sea, and for ages its only indirect arguments to which we have referred were habitants were lowly submarine invertebrates, of
wanting.                                       which the highest in rank was a Crustacean. At a
To those who have dwelt on the problem of the  subsequent period, its uncultivated land, its oceans
origin of life, it must be manifest that the probabili- and its air, were tenanted through an equally long
ties are, that the subject lies beyond the confines of space of time by nothing that was higher in the
the regions of the knowledge that is attainable by  scale of animal life than Saurian reptiles, and at a
human experience, and the exercise of man's reason- later period by a higher order of quadruped maming faculties, and that it falls within the province of mals. And lastly, it became the abode of intellithat class of intelligence which can only be communi- gent man, who, unlike all that had preceded him,
cated through the medium of a divine revelation. can, from the platform ofthepresent, review the past,
To those who thus regard the matter, the Mosaic and contemplate the future; and who has, in adrecord of the creation, authenticated as it has been  dition to the beauties of nature that have increased
by the facts of science, will be found to repay the around him, encircled himself with the fair fabrics
obligation, by teaching the man of science that God  of art, and the conveniences and luxuries of civilized
did not leave His handiwork to be developed by the life. Compare this present scene with any of those
unassisted operation of pre-ordained laws; but at that preceded it on the earth's surface,-let the
every stage of the production of animal and vege- mind realize the difference, and then ask of nature's
table life' He commanded and they were created,' progressive law, the exponent of God's will, what
each of them'after his own kind,' and God saw  the future has in store for our planet? Should its
each,'and every thing that He had made, and next state be as high in comparison with the prebehold, it was very good.'                      sent as the present is high when compared with
The mind that submits to receive divine instruc- any of the pre-existing earthly scenes-should the
tion from the only source from which it can be next receptacle of the breath of life be as much
derived, will here find a solution of the difficulties above man in the scale of being as man is above
which have embarrassed philosophers in their pursuit the creatures which have tenanted the earth before
of the mysteries of the origin of life; for here is a him, how glorious will be the' new earth'-how
divine revelation that each species of the animal and  exalted the beings who will be its inhabitants!
vegetable worlds was made after its own kind, by  Mere philosophy, without the aid of revelation,
the direct interposition of the omnipotent Creator-  may conduct the human intellect thus far in its
that each was the result of a creative fiat, and was reasonings and conclusions; but it requires the
then sealed with the divine approval.  And while, divine communications to the holy men of old to
on the one hand, the man of science will discover complete the picture, and assure the man who will
nothing in the teachings of revelation that militates receive it, that though worms destroy his body, yet
against the facts which he has collected without the in his flesh shall he see his God, and with his eyes
aid of revelation, so, on the other hand, the religion- behold the glories of the world to come.
ist will find nothing in the well-established facts of  Thus, the book of nature and the book of inspirscience to cast a doubt on the well-understood reve- ation, when combined, embrace the whole history
lations of Scripture. The harmony thus found to  of organic and inorganic matter, which has exexist between the records of science and the records panded through that portion of eternal duration
of the Bible, separated as they have been by cen- which lies between the beginning of our planet and
turies of darkness from each other, is highly instruc- the end of the Sabbath of creation-the seventh
tive, and can only be accounted for by referring both  day, or period of the Mosaic narrative.  The
to the same omniscient and omnipotent author-the history of the past is authenticated by the disone and only source of everlasting truth. Both tell coveries of the present; and the inspired record of
us of works designed and executed by a combination  the future is-if we may so speak-rendered more
of wisdom, power, and goodness; and while the   sure by the analogy of the past.  God has, in His
Bible informs us that the Deity was and is present, goodness, provided for all the means of acquiring
as an efficient operating principle, at every stage of this important knowledge.  It is for man to accept
his work, the records of philosophy can supply no  and use the gracious gift in its integrity, and apply
fact or argument that is inconsistent with the revela- every part of it to guide him into the paths of true
tion. We are bound, therefore, to receive it as a wisdom-that wisdom  which leads mankind to
truth within the province of the things that are re- recognize the Creator in the several items of his
vealed. Both tell us of a progress in creation from  creation, and to ascribe their being, not to nature,
the lower to the higher orders of animal life; and  or to nature's laws-but to nature's God, and Him
while analogy, reasoning from the unvarying onward  alone.-D. M'C.
and upward march of mundane vitalities in the past
ages of our planet's existence, assures the natural  CREDNER, KARL AUG., was born at Waltersphilosopher that at some epoch in the ages to come  hausen, near Gotha.  He studied at Jena, Bresbeings of a higher order than those of Adam's race  lau, and Gottingen.  In I830 he became professor
will become inhabitants of our earth, the sacred  extraordinary of theology at Giessen, and in 1832
records have added the intelligence that' the first obtained the appointment of ordinary professor
Adam is of the earth, earthy, the second Adam is He died in 1857. His writings are numerous; the
the Lord from Heaven;' and'as we have borne   principal are-Der Propjh. oel iibersetzt u. erelidrt,
the image of the earthy, we shall also bear the  Halle, I831; BeitrAge z. einleit. in die Bibl Schr.
image of the heavenly.'                        Bd. I. Die Evv. der Petriner od. J7zden-christen,
When the mind contemplates the various scenes Halle 1832, Bd. II. Das Alttest. Urevangelium,
of which our planet has been the theatre, each in  Halle, 1838; Einleit. in das N. T., Halle, I836;
advance of the preceding, it is impossible to limit Zur Gesch. d. Kanons, Halle, 1847, new edition,




CRELL                     581                  CRETE
by Volckmar, with additions, Berl. I860; Das N. went into Gaul, and became the founder of the
T. for denkende Leser, 2 vols. Giess. I841-43. church in Vienna; but it deserves no notice, having
Credner's works are very unequal. They contain  probably no other foundation than the resemblance
the results of independent investigation, always of the names Galatia and Gallia.-J. K.
scholarly and ingenious, often original and suggestive, but not seldom also ending in conclusions un-  CRETE (Kp5r/n), one of the largest islands in
sound and untenable.   His Einleitung was left the Mediterranean, now called Candia, and by the
unfinished; his history of the Canon may be viewed  Turks Kirid. It is i60 miles long, but of very unas part of it. He contributed largely to the first equal width, varying from thirty-five to six miles.
edition of this Cyclopaedia.-W. L. A.          It is situated at the entrance of the Archipelago,
having the coast of the Morea to the south-west,
CRELL, JOHN, one of the most distinguished   that of Asia-Minor to the north-east, and that ol
Socinians of the  7th century, born at  el     Lybia to the south. Great antiquity was affected
sheun, in Francona, 1590.  In  66  h  e  rd  by the inhabitants, and it has been supposed by
the university of Altorf. After making great pro- some that the island was originally peopled from
ficiency in philological studies, he turned his at-Egypt, but this is founded on the conclusion that
tention to philosophy, especially to that of Aris-  rete was the Caphthor of Deut. ii. 23, etc., and
totle, of which the influence is very apparent in his the country of the Philistines, which seems more
theological writings. At Altorf his intimacy with than doubtful [CAPHTHOR].  Surrounded on all
Professor Soner, a physician of eminence, a secret sides by the sea, the Cetans were excellent sailors,
but active adherent of Socinus, led to his becoming and their vessels visited all the neighbouring coasts.
an anti-trinitarian.  The change in his sentiments The island was highly prosperous and full of
was not suspected till he was called upon, as a ne- people in very ancient times; this is indicated by
cessary condition of taking office, to sign the Augs- its'hundred cities' alluded to in the epithet eKaburg Confession, which, to his honour, he declined  6[u7roXs, applied to it by Homer (AI. ii. 649). The
doing. To escape the consequences which woulde island, however, lay in its having
have probably ensued, he secretly left Altorf for produced the legislator Minos, whose institutions
Poland, where he met with a cordial reception had such important influence in softening the mangi-om Count Sieninski, the wealthy and powerftil had such important influence in softening the manfrom Count Sieninski, the wealthy and powerful ners of a barbarous age, not in Crete only, but also
patron of Socinianism, through whose influence he in Greece, where these institutions were imitated.
was appointed professor of Greek at Cracow in The natives were celebrated as archers.  Their
I6I3.  After three years he was made rector, and  character was not of the most favourable descripfilled that office till 1621; he then devoted himself tion; the Cretans or Kretans being, in fact, one of
to preaching, in which he laboured for ten years the three K.'s against whose unfaithfulness the
with great assiduity, to his death in I631. His Greek proverbwas intended as acaution-Kappadosuperior talents and extensive acquirements, his un- ki rete, and  ilikia (rpla Kr7ra KaKIoa Karawearied diligence and great eloquence, justified the  K, Ka,  KP,  Kal iKXWKa). In short, the ancient
high esteem in which he was held.  His writings notices of their character fully agree with the quoconsist of extensive commentaries on the books of tation which St. Paul produces from'one of their
the N. T., various polemical treatises, likewise ethi-  poets,' in his Epistle to Titus (i. 2), who had
cal works on Aristotle and Christian morals. They  been left in charge of the Christian church in the
are contained in the third and fourth volumes ofisland:-' The Cretans are always liars (del eorat,
theBibliotheca Fratr. Polon.; Fock's Socininzsmzus eternalliars), evil beasts (KaKc& 0qplia, Angl.'brutes ),
nach seiner Stellung in der Gesammtentwickelg slow bellies' (yaorpes apyai, gorbellies, bellies
des Christlchen Geistes, etc., Kiel, 1847, p. I95.-  which take long to fill). The quotation is usually
J. E. R.                                       supposed to have been from Calimachus's Hymn
CRELL, SAMUEL, grandson of John Crell, born  on Move, 8; but Callimachus was not a Cretan, and
in I660. He studied in the gymnasium of the Re-he has only the first words of the verse, which
monstrants at Amsterdam, and settled as a preacher Jerome says he borrowed from Epimendes, who
at Konigswalde. He afterwards removed to Ber- was of Crete. Ample corroboration of the descriplin, and spent some time in the Netherlands and in tion which it gives may be seen in the commentators.
England, where he became acquainted with Sir     Crete is named in  Maccab x. 67. Bu it deIsaac Newton, Dr. Grabe, and other eminent men, rives its strongest scriptural interest from the cirby whom he was highly esteemed.  He died at a cumstances connected with St. Paul's voyage to
very advanced age, at Amsterdam, in I747. He   Italy. The vessel in which he sailed being forced
wrote several historical treatises on the ante-Nicene out of her course by contrary winds, was driven
fathers, and one on the Introduction to St. John's round the island, instead of keeping the direct
Gospel. Though in general a disciple of Socinus,course to the north of it. In doing this, the ship
in some points he inclined to the views of Armi- first made the promontory of Salmone on the
nius.  See Fock, Socinieangisrmus, etc., p. 240.-  eastern side of the island, which they passed with
J. E. R.                                       difficulty, and took shelter at a place called FairHavens, near to which was the city Lasea. But,
CRESCENS      (Kp4o-K70s), an assistant of St. after spending some time at this place, and not
Paul, and generally supposed to have been one of finding it as they supposed sufficiently secure to
the seventy disciples of Christ. It is alleged in  winter in, they resolved, contrary to the advice of
the Apostolical Constitutions (vii. 46), and by the  St. Paul (the season being far advanced), to make
fathers of the church, that he preached the gospel for Phoenice, a more commodious harbour on the
in Galatia, a fact probably deduced conjecturally  western part of the island, in attempting which
from the only text (2 Tim. iv. Io) in which his they were driven far out of their course by a furious
name occurs. There is a less ancient tradition (in  east wind called Euroclydon, and wrecked on the
Sophronius), according to which Crescens preached, island of Melita (Acts xxvii.)-J. K.




CRIMSON                    582          CRITICISM, BIBLICAL
CRIMSON. [CoLouRS.]                         derives all its aid, both in detecting the changes
CRISPUS  ),   of the Jewish syna- made in the original text, and in restoring genuine
CRISPUS (Kplroros), chief of the Jewish syna-readings.
gogue at Corinth (Acts xviii. 8), converted by St.  st. MSS. orwrittencopiesof the Bible
Paul (I Cor. i. I4). According to tradition (ConPaul (I Cor. i. 14). According to tradition Con  2d. Ancient translations into various languages.
stit. A.ost. vii. 46) he was afterwards Bishop of  3d. The writings and remains of those early
AElgina.-J. K. Kecclesiastical writers who have quoted the ScripCRITICI SACRI.'The first edition of this tures.
immense work,' says Orme (Biblioth. Bibl. p. 128),  4thly. Parallels, or repeated passages.'was printed at London by Bee, in I660, in 9    5thly. Critical conjecture.
vols. folio. It was designed to be a companion to  Such are the sources which criticism employs.
Walton's Polyglott, published shortly before. The To attain its end it must use them with skill and
editors were Bishop Pearson, John Pearson, An- discrimination. They afford wide scope for acutethony Scattergood, and Francis Gouldman.   It ness, sobriety, and learning; and long experience
was reprinted at Frankfort, under the care of is necessary that they may be used with efficiency
Gurtler, in I695, in 7 vols.  In I698 it re-ap- and success.
peared at Amsterdam, in 9 vols.; and a supple-  The present article will contain a brief historical
ment of 2 vols. more was published in 1700 and sketch of biblical criticism, or a history of the
I701; and a second supplement appeared in 2 texts of the 0. and N. T.; the condition in which
vols. fol., Amst. 1732. This collection contains they have been at different periods; the evidences
all, or most of the books of the O. T., the en- on which our knowledge of their purity or corruptire annotations of Munster, Vatablus, Castalio, tion rests, and the chief attempts that have been
Clarius, Drusius, and Grotius; brief annotatio  made to rectify or emend them. A history of
of Fagius on the Chaldaic Paraphrase of the criticism must describe the various stages and
Pentateuch, and his larger exposition of the first forms through which the texts have passed. It
four chapters of Genesis; the commentaries of will be expedient to reserve an enumeration of the
Masius on Joshua; the annotations of Codurcus on causes which gave rise to various readings to a
Job; of Pricaeus on the Psalms; and of Bayne on future article [VARIOUS READINGS]; and, on the
the Proverbs; the commentary of Forerius on present occasion, to detail the phases which the
Isaiah, that of Lively on Hosea, Joel, Amos, Hebrew and Greek texts of the 0. and N. T.
Obadiah and Jonah; of Badwell on the Apocrypha, have presented both in their unprinted and printed
and Hoeschel on Ecclesiastes, etc. On the N. T. state, in connection with the labours of scholars to
it contains the collations of Valla, with the ani- whom such texts have been an object of interesting
madversions of Revins; the annotations of Eras- attention and diligent inquiry.
mus, Vatablus, Castalio, Clarius, Zegerus, and  We shall commence with the text of the 0. T.
Grotius;on particular places and subjects of the There are four marked periods in the history of
N. T., Munster, Drusius, Scaliger, Casaubon, the Hebrew text.
Cameron, Lud. Capellus, Gualtperius, Schultetus,  I. That period in the history of t/e imprinted
and Pricaeus. There are also a number of philo- text whichi preceded t/e closing of /te canon.-Of
logical tracts and dissertations; such as John Gre- this we know nothing except what is contained in
gory's Notes and Observations, Fagius's Compari- Scripture itself. The Jews bestowed much care
son of the principal Translations of the 0. T., on their sacred books. They were accustomed to
Cartwright's Mellhifciuz m Eboticunm; Drusius on hold them in great veneration even in the darkest
the Mandrakes, Jos. Scaliger and Amama on     times of national apostacy from Jehovah.  How
Tythes; Lud. Capellus on the Vow of Jephtha often the separate books were transcribed, or with
and Corban; Pithceus De Latinis Bibliorzum In- what degree of correctness, it is impossible to tell.
terpretationibuzs; Urstius De fabrica Arcne Now; We cannot suppose that the 0. T. writings were
Rittershusius De'ure Asylorumm; Allatins De perfectly free from alterations in the earliest times.
EZngasthlynvutzo; Montanus on Jewish Antiqui- It is probable that they had been deteriorated even
ties; Bertram and Cunueus on the Hebrew Re- in the interval between their origin and the compublic; Waser on the Ancient Coins and Mea- pletion of the canon. All analogy confirms this
sures of the Hebrews, Chaldoeans, and Syrians; supposition. In favour of it reference may be
and many others of a similar description.'    made to the differences in proper names, and to
parallel sections in various books. We do not beCRITICISM, BIBLICAL.        This phrase is lieve, however, that the text had suffered mzuch
employed in two senses. Some take it to signify from the carelessness or rashness of transcribers.
not only the restoration of the text of Scripture It is necessary to examine singly and minutely all
to its original state, but the principles of inte-; parallel places that narrate the same things more
pretation. This is an extensive application.  It is or less verbally  before a conclusion be drawn
better, perhaps, to confine it to the text of the from them as to their original form and relation.
Bible. We shall limit it to those principles and They are, indeed, very perplexing in some cases.
operations which enable the reader to detect and  All the evidence they afford is presumptive. It
remove corruptions, to decide on the genuineness appears to us that the treatment which the separate
of disputed readings, and to obtain as nearly as books experienced at the hands of the early Jews
possible the original words of Scripture. Its legiti- was favourable on the whole. The Palestinian
mate object is thus to ascertain the purity or cor- JeNws cannot be accused of reckless caprice or
ruption of the text.  It judges whether an altera- officious meddling in this respect.
tion has been made in a passage; and when it    The most important thing in this part of the
discovers any change, labours to restore the primi- history is the Samaritan recension of the Pentative readings that have been displaced. There teuch [PENTATEUCH]. This edition (if so it may
are five sources from  which biblical criticism  be called) of the Pentateuch is indeed uncritical in




CRITICISM, BIBLICAL               583          CRITICISM, BIBLICAL
its character. While we freely acquit the sews of The text lying at the basis of the Peshito is subtampering with the text of the Mosaic books, the stantially the Masoretic one. Yet there are many
Samaritans cannot be so readily exonerated from  departures from it. Not a few readings better
the imputation.  As far as the latter are con- than the present Hebrew text exhibits, are sanccerned, we are compelled to believe that the tioned by the Syriac. In some cases it approaches
words of the original were not always treated by the text of the LXX.
them with sacred respect. Additions, alterations,  From  correct Palestinian copies flowed the
and transpositions, are very apparent in their copy Chaldee versions of Onkelos and Jonathan.  The
of the Pentateuch.  A close alliance between the copies which were the source of the MAasoretic text
text which lies at the basis of the Septuagint Ver- were also the basis of these paraphrases. In the
sion and that of the Samaritan Pentateuch has Hebrew column of Origen's Hexapla we find a
been always noticed.  Hence some think that they text allied to the Masoretic.  In the fourth cenflowed from a common recension. One thing is tury Jerome employed Jewish teachers of Palescertain, that the LXX. agree with the Samaritan tine. MSS. of the same land formed the basis of
in about 2000 places in opposition to the Jewish his Latin version, whose text is very nearly context.  In other books too of the 0. T, besides formable to the recension we now have.
the five books of Moses, the Seventy follow a re-  From the second century and onward an incension of the text considerably different from the creasing number of writers busied themselves with
Jewish.  Thus in Jeremiah and Daniel we find a oral explanations of the law and the systematic
different arrangement of sections, as well as diver- collection of them, afterwards called Miish/na, from
sity in single passages. The books of Job and Stlo, to repeat. It is supposed that Rabbi Judah,
Proverbs present a similar disarrangement and  urnamed te holy (died 191), wrote out the Mishna
alteration, which must be attributed in part to the for the first time. The two Gemaras subsequently
account of the Alexandrian Jews. Far different             the   is      b   wa  o  o   e
was the conduct of the Palestinian Jews in the appended to the Mishna by way of commentreatment of the sacred books. They were very make up wi th           Talmuds known as the
scrupulous in guarding the text from innovation; Babylonian and Jerusalem Tulmuds.  They bealthough it is impossible that they could have pre- long to the fifth and forth centuries respecserved it from all corruption. But the errors or t.      the  we dicern man     traces 
mistakes which had got into the 0. T. text were c     sll applied     presevation of a pure
rectified to a great extent during the tinle the books crt  Different readings in t SS. are mentioned 
text. Different readings in MSS. are mentioned;
were antranged and revissed by Ezra Nehemiah, precepts are given respecting biblical calligraphy;
and their successors.  These men endeavoured to       readings are restored. By far the most
and true readings are restored. By far the most
make the text as correct as possible. Autographs important fact which they present s certain inds
and the best copies within reach were employed  or class of critical corrections made at an earlier
for this purpose. They proceeded, therefore, in period, and which Morinus (Exercitationes Biblicc,
much the same way as a critical editor does. But, p 4) jusy cs thefra  ents or vesties of reas they were not infallible, the text of the books p. 4   ustly calls thefraere-( ts or vesc 
they collected was not perfect. All that can be  sios.  These are-(I) 1         Cor   AbCatio
affirmed with safety is, that the canonical writings 
were in a tolerably pure state about 300 years be- barznm. (3) Pzscta extraordinaria.  (4) s7 i'p
fore Christ, at the time of Simon the Just; who,
according to the later Jews, completed the canon.  I' i'lo'thib.  (5)  p ^k    K thib
By Eusebius's chronology, Simon died about 292'o ibFri.  (6) The Talmud    also  mentions
B3.C.; though Zunz makes the date 202.  We do different readings which the Masoretes call'p)
not suppose that the canon was fixed by Simon. n3l K'ri uk'thib.
Hengstenberg and Havernick are undoubtedly      The writings of Jerome afford evidence, that,
wrong in supposing the canon to have been closed in the fourth century, the Hebrew text was withabout 400 B. c. The books were in the same con- out vowel-points and even diacritic signs.
dition after 300 B.C., till the time of Christ.  The learned Jews, especially those at Tiberias,
2. Fr'om the close of the canon till the destruction where there was a famous school till the eleventh
of 7erusalem. -The state of the Hebrew text at century, continued to occupy themselves with the
the time when the Alexandrine version was made, Hebrew language and the criticism of the 0. T.
cannot be accurately determined, because of the The observations of preceding Rabbis were encondition in which the version now exists. At larged, new remarks were made, and, a vowelpresent that translation is very corrupt.  We only system  was invented, the origin of which can
possess copies of the text of the cKOLwV in its de- hardly be placed earlier than the sixth century.
teriorated state. Under existing circumstances all The name Masora has usually been applied to
that can be done is to take a certain text of the that grammatico-historical tradition, which, having
LXX. as approaching nearest to the original one, been handed down orally for some centuries, beand from it to judge of the Hebrew text when came afterwards so extensive as to require its coinfirst translated into Greek. With all the variations mittal to writing. Much of what is contained in
of the Septuagint from the Hebrew that must be the Masora also exists in the Talmud. Part of it,
attributed to transcribers, many should be taken however, is older than the Talmud, though not
as original.                                  reduced to its present form till a much later period.
3. From the downfall of the yewish state till the The various observations comprised in the Masora
final establishment of the Masorelic text. -Aquila, were at first written in separate books, of which
Symmachus, and Theodotion, though departing there are MSS. extant.    Afterwards they were
from the Masoretic text, do not disagree with it to put in the margin of the Bible MSS.
the extent of the LXX. Josephus appears to have  When we speak of the ilasoretic recension of
commonly used the Septuagint, not the Hebrew. the text, it is not meant that the Masoretes gave




CRITICISM, BIBLICAL               584          CRITICISM, BIBLICAL
a certain form to the text itself, or that they un- in Spain had comparatively small influence on the
dertook and executed a new revision. They made state of the text, because its general character had
the textiss receptus of that day the basis of their been already fixed. In their time transcribers
remarks, and gave their sentiments concerning it. allowed few departures from the Masora.
Had the text been altered in every case where    History of the printed text:-The psalter was
they recommend; had it been made conformable the first part of the Hebrew Scriptures which was
to their ideas of what it should be, it would have printed; A.D. 1477, 4to (probably at Bologna).
been appropriate to have called it the Masoretic There are three early editions, from which all others
recension. The designation, however, though not have been taken:-I. That published at Soncino,
applicable in strictness, is customary.        A.D. 1488, which was the first entire copy of the
The most important part of the Masora consists Hebrew Scriptures ever printed. The text is furof the marginal readings or _A'ris, which the nished with the points and accents, but we are
Masoretes always preferred to the textual, and the ignorant of the MSS. employed by the editor.
later Jews have commonly adopted. The K'ris 2. The second great edition was that in the Comare critical, grammatical, orthographical, explana- plutensian Polyglott, 1514-17, taken from seven
tory, and ezzhemistic. It has been a subject of MSS.  3. The third was the second Rabbinical
dispute among scholars from  what source the Bible of Bomberg, superintended by R. Jacob
Masoretes derived the K'ris. It is highly probable  Ben Chayim, Venice, 1525, 4 vols. fol. The text
that they were generally taken from MASS. and  is formed chiefly after the Masora, but Spanish
tradition, though they may have been in part the  MSS. were used. A second edition of Ben Chayoffspring of conjecture.  It is but reasonable to im's Bible was printed in I547-49, 4 vols. folio,
suppose that these scholars sometimes gave the re- being the third Rabbinical Bible issued from Bomsult of their own judgment.  In addition to the berg's press. This is more copious and correct
X'ris the Masora contains an enlargement of criti- than the preceding. The Antwerp Polyglott (1569cal remarks found in the Talmud.  Besides, the  72) has a text formed from the Complutensian
verses, words, and consonants of the different and Bombergian.
books of the Bible are counted; a task unparalleled  Among editions furnished with a critical apparain point of minute labour, though comparatively tus, that of Buxtorf, published at Basle, I619,
unprofitable. The application of the Masora in  occupies a high place. It contains the commenthe criticism of the 0. T. is difficult, because its taries of the Jewish Rabbis, Rashi, Abenesra,
text has fallen into great disorder. Some pages of Kimchi, Levi Ben Gerson, and Saadias Haggaon.
it first appeared in the Rabbinical Bible of Bom- The appendix is occupied with the Jerusalem. Tarberg superintended by Felix Pratensis.  In the gum, the great Masora corrected and amended,
second Rabbinical Bible of Bomberg, R. Jacob   and the various readings of Ben Asher and Bell
Ben Chayim bestowed considerable care on the Naphtali.   The most recent and complete Rabprinting of the Masora.                        binical Bible is the Amsterdam  edition superinAt the end of this second Rabbinical Bible there tended by Moses Ben Simeon of Frankfurt, 4 vols.
is a collection of oriental and western readings, or, fol., 1724-27.  It has various Rabbinical comnin other words, Babylonian and Palestinian, cor- mentaries not included in prior Bibles.
municated by the editor, and the result of an    The principal editions with various readings are
ancient revision of the text. The number is about those  of Seb. Miinster, Jablonski, Van der
216. Of the sources from  which the collection  Hooght, J. H. Michaelis, C. F. Houbigant, and
was drawn we are entirely ignorant. Judging by  Benjamin Kennicott.
the contents, it must be older than many observa-  Minster's edition appeared at Basle in 1536,
tions made by the Masoretes. It should probably  2 vols. 4to. The text is supposed to be founded
be referred to a period anterior to the introduction  upon that of Brescia, I494, 4to, which resolves
of the vowel system, as it contains no allusion to itself into the Soncino edition of 1488.
the vowels. It is certainly of considerable value,  Jablonski's edition was published at Berlin in
and proves that the orientalno less than the westrn  1699, 8vo, and again at the same place in I7I2,
Jews had always attended to the state of the sacred  I2mo. It is founded on the best preceding editext. In addition to this list, we meet with another tions, but chiefly the second of Leusden (i667).
in the Rabbinical Bibles of Bomberg and Buxtorf, The editor also collated various MSS. The text
and in the sixth volume of the London Polyglott, is remarkably accurate.
belonging to the eleventh century, which owes its  Van der Hooght's edition appeared at Amsterorigin to the labours of Ben Asher and Ben Naph- dam, 1705.  The text is taken from  Athias'
tali, the respective presidents of academies in (I667). The Masoretic readings are given in the
Palestine and Babylon. These readings, with a margin; and at the end are collected the various
single exception, refer to the vowels and accents. readings of the editions of Bomberg, Plantin,
The vowel system had therefore been completed  Athias, and others.
when this collection was made.                   The edition published by J. H. Michaelis in
4. From the final settlement o the Iuasoreiic text 1720, is accompanied with the readings of twentyand the departure of the learned yews from the four editions which the editor examined, besides
east, tillpart of the iblefirst appeared in print; or those of five MSS. in the library at Erfurt. There
from A.D. I040 till A.D. 1477.-The learned men is a want of accuracy in his collations.
belonging to the academies in Palestine and Baby-  In 1753, C. F. Houbigant published a new edilon were obliged by the Arabs, at the commence. tion in 4 vols. folio. The text is that of Van der
ment of the eleventh century, to leave their places Hooght, without the points. In the margin of
of abode and settle elsewhere.  They fled to the Pentateuch, the Samaritan readings are added.
Europe, especially to Spain, which country be- For it the editor collated, but hastily, twelve MSS.
came in..consequence the seat of the critical study  I-Ie has been justly blamed for his rash indulgence
of the Bible. But the studies of the learned Jews in conjectural emendation.




CRITICISM, BIBLICAL               585          CRITICISM, BIBLICAL
The first person who seemed to have a right idea in das alte Testament; Bleek's Einleitzng inz das
of what was required, and did much towards its alte Testament; and Davidson's Text of the 0. T.
accomplishment, was a learned Jew of Mantua, revised, etc., i855, 8vo.)
Salomon Norzi.   His work, containing a copious  We shall now give a brief history of the N.
critical commentary on all the 0. T. books, the T. text in its unprinted and printed form. The
fruit of many years' labour, was published after criticism of the N. T. is rich in materials, especihis death at Mantua, in I742, 4 vols. 4to. This ally in ancient MSS.  But, although the history
critical commentary was the result of much reading  of N. T. criticism records the industrious collection
and collation of MSS.                          of a large amount of materials, it is not equally
Dr. Kennicott's edition, which is the most im- abundant in well-accredited facts, such as might be
portant yet published, appeared at Oxford-the  of essential benefit in enabling us to judge of the
first volume in I776, the second in 1780. The  changes made in the text.  History is silent respectnumber of codices collated by himself and his ing the period when the two parts of the N. T.,
associates, the chief of whom was Professor Bruns viz., the eva'yyXtov and dtr6oroXos, or, in other
of Helmstadt, amounted to 694. This includes words, the four Gospels and the Pauline, and reMSS., editions of the Hebrew   Scriptures, and maining epistles, were put together, so as to form
Rabbinical works, particularly the Talmud.  In  one wzhole. About the beginning of the 3d cenaddition to his collation of MSS. and printed  tury, it is certain, that all the books of the N. T.
editions, he followed the example of various edi- which we now possess were commonly regarded
tors of the Greek Testament in having recourse to  as canonical.  The parts of the N. T. not usuRabbinical writings. The immense mass of various ally included in the collection at that time, were
readings here collected is unimportant.  It serves, the Epistle to the Hebrews, the Apocalypse,
however, to shew that, under the influence of the the Second Epistle of Peter, that of Jude, the
Masora, the Hebrew text has attained a consider- Second and Third Epistles of John. These were
able degree of uniformity in all existing MSS.  known and quoted. They were probably looked
In I784-88, John Bernard de Rossi published at upon as authentic and canonical by some persons
Parma, in 4 vols. 4to, an important supplement to in all countries where they were circulated; but
Kennicott's collection.  These various readings they had not attained to the position of the others.
were taken from 88 MSS. used by Kennicott and  They were not considered of equal authority. Alcollated anew by De Rossi, from 479 in his own  though, therefore, the canon was virtually formed
possession and Io in other hands, from  many   in the early part of the 3d century, it was notfully
editions and Samaritan MSS., and also from     and finally settled in all its parts.  Six books or
ancient versions.  In 1798 a supplemental volume epistles were not established in public estimation
appeared at Parma, in 4to, containing extracts of as sacred or inspired.  Origen did not revise the
the same kind from new sources. De Rossi's collec- text of the N. T., though it was corrupt in his
tion of various readings is superior to every other.  day.  Neither did Hesychius or Lucian, though
In 1793, Doederlein and Meisner published at Hug thought that they were the authors of recenLeipzig, 2 vols. 12mo, an edition intended in some sions.  It would rather appear from the language
measure to supply the want of the extensive colla- of Pope Gelasius that Hesychius and Lucian intions of Kennicott and De Rossi. It contains the  terpolated the Gospels. It is probable, however,
more important readings.                       that Gelasius, relying on Jerome's unfavourable
Of much greater value is the edition of Jahn, opinion of what they did, and examining no farpublished at Vienna in 4 vols. 8vo, i806. The  ther, wrote accordingly.
text is Van der Hooght's, with the exception of  At a comparatively recent period, certain internine or ten places. The value of the edition con- nal marks were observed to belong to documents
sists in the select various readings found below  containing the same text. A similarity in characeach page, with the authorities distinctly given, teristic readings was noticed.  Bengel appears to
MSS., versions, and printed editions. Only the have been the first to whom  the idea suggested
principal accents are retained in the text.    itself of dividing the materials according to the
In 1821 appeared Hamilton's codex criticus of peculiarities which he faintly perceived.  It was
the Hebrew Bible, which was the first attempt, afterwards taken up by Semler, and highly
properly so called, to form a standard text of the elaborated by Griesbach. Later editors and critics
O. T.                                          have endeavoured to improve upon Griesbach's
In I855 was published Davidson's work, en- system. The different forms of text observed by
titled The Hebrewz text of the 0. T. revised from  Semler and Griesbach they call recensions; alcritical sources; being aan attempt to present a puzrer though the appellationfamily is more appropriate.
and more correct text than the received one of Van  Perhaps the data that have been so much regarded
der Hooght, by the aid of the best existing materials, in classifying the documents containing the N. T.
etc., etc., 8vo. This author not only goes beyond  text are insufficient to establish any system. The
Hamilton's plan, but departs from it in various subject of recensions, though frequently discussed,
ways.  It is an attempt to do for the Hebrew text is not yet settled.  In the history of the znprinted
what Griesbach did for the Greek of the N. T.  text it is the chief topic which comes before the
The most accurate edition of the Masoretic text inquirer.  Reserving it for future notice [RECENis that of Theile, Leipzig 1849, 8vo (stereotype  IONS], we pass to the history of the printed text,
edition).                                      and the efforts made to emend it.
The text of Van der Hooght is now regarded as  The whole of the N. T. was first printed in the
the textes receptzs.  (See Le Long's Bibliotheca, Complutensian Polyglott, 1514, though not pubedited by Masch; Rosenmiiller's Hanzdbnch fir lished till I5.7. The first published was that of
die Literatufr der biblischen Ariik zfznd Exegese, Erasmus, at Basle, in 15I6.  Both were issued
vol. I; Davidson's Treatise on Biblical Criticism, independently of one another, and constitute the
vol.; the last edition of De Wette's Einleitzng basis of the received text. Yet the best materials




CRITICISM, BIBLICAL               586          CRITICISM, BIBLICAL
were not employed in preparing them, and on      Dr. John James Wetstein contributed, in no
both the Vulgate was allowed to exert an undue small degree, to the advancement of sacred critiinfluence. Even critical conjecture was resorted  cism by his large edition of the Greek Testament,
to by Erasmus.   No less than five impressions published at Amsterdam in 1751-52, 2 vols. folio.
were published by Erasmus, into the third of which  In I730 he had published prolegomeSna.  It was
I John v. 7 was first put. In the last two he made his desire to give a new and corrected text, but he
great use of the Complutensian Polyglott.     was compelled by circumstances to exhibit the
The third place among the early editors of the  textzs receplus.  Yet he noted, partly in the text
Greek Testament has been assigned to Robert itself, partly in the inner margin, such readings as
Stephens, whose first edition was printed at Paris, he preferred. His collection of various readings,
1546, I2mo, chiefly taken from the Complutensian, with their respective authorities, far exceeds all
and generally styled the Mirzfica edition, from the former works of the same kind in copiousness and
commencement of the preface.  His second edi- value.   He collated anew many important MSS.
tion was published in I549; the third in I550, in which had been superficially examined, gave exfolio. In this last he followed the fifth of Erasmus, tracts from many for the first time, and made use of
with which he compared fifteen MSS., and the the Philoxenian version, hitherto uncollated. For
Complutensian Polyglott.   In  I551 appeared   convenience, he marked the uncial MSS. with the
another edition, accompanied by the Vulgate and letters of the alphabet, and the cursive with numerithe Latin translation of Erasmus.  It is remark- cal letters.  His exegetical notes are chiefly exable for being the first into which the division of tracts from Greek, Latin, and Jewish writers.
verses was introduced.                        The edition of the Greek Testament under conThe next person who contributed to the criti- sideration is indispensable to every critic; and will
cism of the Greek Testament was Theodore Beza. always be reckoned a marvellous monument of inThe text of his first edition, I565, folio, was the domitable energy and unwearied diligence. The
same as that of the third of Stephens, altered in prolegomena contain a treasure of sacred learning
about fifty places, accompanied with the Vulgate, which will always be prized by the scholar. They
a Latin version of his own, and exegetical remarks. were reprinted, with valuable notes, by Semler, in
In his second edition, 1582, he had the benefit of 1764, 8vo.
the Syriac version, an Arabic one of some books,  The next scholar who is pre-eminently distinand two ancient codices, the Clermont and Cam- guished in the history of the N. T. criticism is Dr.
bridge ones.  A  third impression appeared in John James Griesbach. He enriched the materials
1589, and a fourth in 1598. The Elzevir editions collected by Wetstein with new and important
exhibit partly the text of the third of Stephens, and additions, by collating MSS., versions, and early
partly that of Beza. The first appeared at Leyden  ecclesiastical writers, particularly Origen, with great
in 1624. The second edition of 1633 proclaims its labour. The idea of recensions, recommended by
text to be the textzus receptus, which it aifterwards Bengel and Semler, he adopted, and carried out
became.  Subsequently five other editions issued with much acuteness and sagacity.  His first edifrom the same press. The editor does not appear tion appeared at IHalle in 2 vols., I774-75. The
to have consulted any Greek MSS. All his read- first three gospels were synoptically arranged; but
ings are either in Beza or Stephens.          in 1777 he published them in their natural order.
Brian Walton, the learned editor of the London The text is founded on a comparison of the copious
Polyglott, gave a more copious collection of various materials which he possessed.  Nothing was
readings in the sixth volume of that work than had  adopted from  conjecture, and nothing received
before appeared, which was further enlarged by which had not the sanction of codices as well as
Dr. Fell in his edition published at Oxford in versions.  A select number of readings is placed
1675; reprinted by Gregory in 1703, folio.    beneath the text.  In his Symbole Criticce (1785,
Dr. John Mill, encouraged and supported by   1793) he gave a full account of his collations.
Fell, gave to the world a new edition in 1707, Such was the commencement of Griesbach's literary
folio.  The text is that of Stephens' third edition. labours.
In it the editor exhibited, from Gregory's MSS.,  Between the years I782-88, C. F. Matthei puba much greater number of readings than is to be lished a new edition of the Greek Testament in 12
found in any former edition.  He revised and in- parts or vols.  His text was founded on a collation
creased the extracts formerly made from ancient of more than 1oo Moscow MSS., which he first
versions. Nor did he neglect quotations from the examined. It is accompanied with the Vulgate,
fathers.  It is said that the work contains thirty scholia, and excursus.  He avowed himself an
thousand various readings.  This important edi- enemy to the idea of recensions, despised the antion, so far superior to every preceding one, cost cient MSS. (especially cod. Bezea), and quotations
the laborious editor the toilsome study of thirty in the Fathers, while he unduly exalted his Moscow
years, and excited the prejudices of many who were MSS. His chief merit lies in the careful collation
unable to appreciate its excellence. It commenced  he made of a number of MSS. before unknown.
a new era in the criticism of the Greek Testament. A second edition appeared in Germany in 3 vols.
Ludolph Kuster reprinted Mill's Greek Testament 8vo, 1803-I807.  Several MSS. in Germanywere
at Amsterdam in 17Io, enriching it with the read- examined by the editor previously to this edition.
ings of twelve additional MSS.                   Before the completion of Matth ei's first edition,
The first real attempt to emend the lexzts re- appeared that of Alter, 1786-87, 2 vols.  The text
ceptus was made by John Albert Bengel, abbot of is that of the Vienna MS. (Griesbach, 218), with
Alpirspach.  His edition appeared at Ttibingen, which he collated 22 others in the Imperial library.
4to, 1734, to which was subjoined his'Introductio  To these he added readings from  the Coptic,
in crisin Novi Testamenti.' An apparatus criticus Slavonian, and Latin versions.
contains his collection of various readings, chiefly  In 1788, Professor Birch of Copenhagen entaken from Mill, but with important additions.  larged the province of sacred criticism  by his




CRITICISM, BIBLICAL               587          CRITICISM, BIBLICAL
splendid edition of the four Gospels in folio and  can be placed on the accuracy of the extracts
4to. The text is a reprint of Stephens' third; but which he has given for the first time.  His rethe materials appended to it are highly valuable. searches raised the texzis receptuzs higher than GriesThey consist of extracts made by himself and Mol- bach placed it. In consequence of his preferring
denhauer, in their travels, from many MSS. not the Constantinopolitan family, his text comes nearer
examined by Wetstein; and of Adler's selections the Elzevir edition than that of Griesbach.  The
from the Jerusalem-Syriac version discovered in the merits of this laborious editor are considerable.
Vatican. Birch was the first who carefully col- He greatly enlarged our critical apparatus. But
lated the Codex Vaticanzs, except in Luke and  in acuteness, sagacity, and scholarship, he is far inJohn, where he used a collation formerly made for ferior to Griesbach.  His collations appear to have
Bentley. The publication of the second volume been superficial. They are not to be depended on.
was prevented by a fire that destroyed many of Hence the text cannot command the confidence of
the materials.  In I798 he published his various Protestant critics. We cannot believe, with the
readings on the remainder of the N. T., except the editor, that the Byzantine family is equal in value
Apocalypse.  In 800o he published those relating  or authority to the Alexandrine which is confesto this book also.                             sedly more ancient; nor can we put his junior
In 1796 appeared the first volume of a new and  codices on a level with the very valuable documents
greatly-improved edition of Griesbach's New Tes- of the Oriental recension. His text is inferior to
tament; for which he made extracts from the Ar- that of Griesbach.
menian, Slavonic, Latin, Sahidic, Coptic, and other  The edition of Lachmann, though small in comversions, besides incorporating into his collection the pass, deserves to be mentioned. It was published
results of the labours of Matthaei, Alter, and Birch. in 183I, I2mo.  The editor says that he has
The second volume appeared in I806, both pub- nowhere followed his own judgment, but the usage
lished at Halle.  At the end of the second volume qf /e most anzcient Oriental churches. The text of
is a dissertation on I John v. 7. The work was Lachmann was well received, and much importreprinted at London in I809, I8Io; and again in  ance was attached to it. In 1842 appeared the first
i818. The prolegomena are exceedingly valuable. volume of an 8vo edition, and in I850 the second
This edition is indispensable to every critic and  and last, by Lachmann. The younger Buttmann
intelligent theologian.  In I805, Griesbach pub- assisted him in appending the Greek authorities.
lished a manual edition, with a selection of read- The object of Lachmann in this important work was
ings from the larger one. The text of this does not to present the text which was most general in the
always agree with the other. It presents the learned 4th century, from eastern (in his sense of the word)
critic's latest judgments, and is therefore of pecu- and western sources. The text of the small edition
liar worth. It was reprinted, but inaccurately, in is wholly based on Oriental sources, and where
1825.                                         these differ among themselves he adopts the readIn I827 many new materials having been pro- ings approved by the consent of Italian and African
cured since the date of Griesbach's last edition, it evidence. Of course his authorities are the most
was thought necessary to publish a third.  It ap- ancient, since he does not come down later than
peared, accordingly, under the superintendence of the 4th century. The Vulgate, as edited by him,
Dr. Schulz.  The first volume contains the pro- is principally takenfrom two MSS. The onlyverlegomena and Gospels. It exhibits various read- sion he takes into account is the old Latin in its two
ings from about 20 new sources, many corrections forms, that prior to Jerome, and Jerome's revised
of Griesbach's references and citations, besides con- form. The value of this edition is great, though it
siderable improvements in other respects. The was not intended to present the origial text as nearly
second volume has not been published.          as possible, but rather to exhibit the traditional
The editions of Knapp, Schott, Tittmann, Vater, text as it existed in the 4th century. tHence it was
etc., etc., are chiefly based on that of Griesbach. meant to be a contribution towards the original
Of these the most esteemed is that of Knapp, authentic text: that was all. Lachmann himself
which has passed through five editions, and is pointed out readings in it which could not have been
characterised by sound judgment, especially in the  the original ones. The tendency of the work has
punctuation and accents.                       been to raise the value of the most ancient authoriIn 1830 appeared the first volume of a large ties as testimonies for the best readings.  But
critical edition, superintended by Dr. J. Martin  Lachmann's horizon was too limited; his range
Augustus Scholz, professor at Bonn, containing  of authorities too circumscribed.  His plan rethe Gospels.  The second volume in I836, com- sembles that of Bentley, whose edition was not
pleted the work. Both are in 4to. The editor published.   It is matter of regret that the learned
spent 12 years of incessant labour in collecting  critic should speak of the opponents of his work
materials for the work; and travelled into many in language uncourteous and unbecoming (see precountries for the purpose of collating MSS.  The face to vol. i.) For strictures on his edition we
prolegomena prefixed to the first volume occupy refer to Tischendorf's isagoge to his editio critica
172 pages, and contain ample information respect- septima, p. cii. et sqq., where its imperfections
ing all the codices, versions, fathers, acts of coun- and defects are correctly represented. Itis singular
cils, etc., etc., which are used as authorities, together that some critics in England should have underwith a history of the text, and an exposition of his taken the almost unqualified laudation of Lachclassification system.  In the inner margin are mann, his railing and all.
given the general readings characteristic of the  Before the appearance of the first volume of
three great families. The total number of MSS. Lachmann's large edition, that of Tischendorf had
which he described and used is 674, of which 343  been published at Leipzig, 184I, containing a
had been collated by others, so that 331 were selected text taken from the best MSS., with the
first examined by himself, i.e., 20I of parts of variations of the leading critical editions. The
the N. T., and 121 Evangelistaria.  Little reliance! text was mainly based on ancient Alexandrine and




CR1 rICISM, BIBLICAL              588                CROCODILE
western authorities, being formed after those of tions. It has proved that there is no material
Griesbach and Lachmann, particularly the latter. corruption in the inspired records; that during
His second German edition appeared at Leipzig in the lapse of many centuries the Holy Scriptures
1849, greatly superior to the first, and professedly have been preserved in a surprising degree ot
based on ancient authorities.                  purity. The text is substantially in the same conThe most recent edition of Tischendorf is that dition as that in which it was found I700 years ago.
which he calls the seventh, completed and published  Let the plain reader take comfort to himself when
in the year 1859, 2 vols., large 8vo. Prefixed is a he reflects that the received text which he is accusLatin introduction of 278 pages, which gives a full tomed to peruse is szbstantially the same as that
account of the authorities used, the principles pur- which men of the greatest learning and the most
sued, and the chief editions published prior to his unwearied diligence have elicited from an immense
own. These prolegomena are exceedingly valuable, heap of documents.
containing information which cannot be got in    For a copious account of the various editions of
any other work. The text is formed solely from  the Greek Testament the reader is referred to Le
ancient witnesses, chiefly from Greek MSS., with- Long's Bibliotheca, edited by Masch; to Rosenout neglecting the testimonies of versions and the muller's Handbtzc fuir die Literatur der biblisc/zen
fathers.  When witnesses disagree, the first regard  Kritik und Exegese, i. pp. 278-422. Davidson's
should be paid, according to the editor, to the  Treatise on Biblical Criticism, vol. ii.; the prolegoreadings of the most ancient Greek MSS., i.e., mena of Tischendorf to his edition of 1849, and
those written from the 4th to the 9th centuries especially the introduction of the edition of 1859;
(Isagoge, pp. 27, 28).  On the whole, this is by Bleek's Eilzeitlzg in das znene Testanment, 1862;
far the best critical edition of the Greek Testament. as also to the 6th edition of De Wette's Lehrbuch
The text is generally superior to that of any other, der Einlelt. in das Neue Testament, edited by
and the authorities are clearly given in the margin  Messner and Liinemann, I860.-S. D.
both for and against the readings.  Tischendorf     OCODLE. Of the two names in the Bible
has been singularly fortunate in bringing to light   CROCODILE.  Of the two names inthe Bible
and collating a large number of uncial Greek MSS., that apply to the greater saurians, one appears to
so that he has access to more sources of evidence be general, and the other almost always to desigthan any other critic. He has neglected the colla-nate aparticularamal. Theformer, iPi, tannee,
tion of no codex which could contribute to the may be best rendered'reptile,' although the reptile
purity of the text.  Such as have this edition will intended is sometimes the crocodile. The latter,
feel the want of none else; nor can it e superseded  leviahan,' in every place but one can be
by any other till the learned editor himself sees
fit to publish a better. The indefatigable critic has rendered' crocodile,' and in some places, as in the
no rival in the field of N. T. criticism, in which he famous description in Job, must bear that meaning.
has already achieved results singularly successful.  The present article contains a description of the
In 1846 Von Muralt published a small edition  crocodile of Egypt, with the addition of some hisof the Greek Testament at Hamburg, professing  torical particulars connected with the animal. Its
to give the text of the Vatican MS. as nearly as object is to illustrate the biblical notices when
possible. This was followed in 1848 by a larger they come to be discussed under later heads [LEedition, with 115 pages of prolegomena. The text VIATHAN; TANNEEN; WHALE; see also TAN].
professes to be that of the codex Vaticanus, which
it does not, however, exhibit. The same remark
applies to the text of Buttmann's edition (1856), 
which professes principally to follow codex B, and         /
to exhibit the various readings of the received text
entire, together with all the readings of the editions
of Griesbach, Lachmann, and Tischendorf.  The                               -
work professes more than it performs, and is in- 
accurately printed. We cannot rely on it for the 
readings of B. Indeed, even in Cardinal Mai's new,,-','
work we cannot believe that the MS. has been        /"             /  / 
accurately given.' /  / 
The critically revised text, with various readings                      /
given by Alford in his testament is an eclectic one,
taken from the editions already published, and
based upon the ancient evidence of MSS., versions,       ___
and fathers. It is inferior, on the whole, to that
in Tischendorf's last edition. 
A new and critical edition of the Greek Testament, accompanied by the old Latin version, has'The crocodiles which we have to notice at prebeen begun by Dr. Tregelles, and issued in fasci- sent consist of three varieties, or perhaps species,
culi, of which the gospels have appeared, 4to. all natives of the Nile, distinguishable by the diffeThe editor aims at great accuracy in his authori- rent arrangement of the scutoe or bony studs on the
ties.  His text, however, shews defective judg- neck, and the number of rows of the same processes
ment. What can be expected of one who gives as along the back. Their general lizard-form is too
the original reading, 6,uovoyevis Oe6s (John i. 8)? well known to need particular description; but it
The operations of sacred criticism have estab-may be remarked that of the whole family of crolished the genuineness of the 0. and N. T. texts codiles, comprehending the sharp-beaked gavials
in every matter of importance. All the doctrines of India, the alligators of the west, and the crocoand duties remain unaffected by its investiga- diles properly so called, the last are supplied with




CROCODILE                   589               CROCODILE
the most vigorous instruments for swimming, both  being brought well bound to the bazaar at Cawnfrom the strength and vertical breadth of their tails, pore on the Ganges, it was purchased by the
and from the deeper webs of the fingers of their British officers on the spot, and carried further inpaws.   Although all have from thirty to forty land for the purpose of being baited.  Accordteeth in each jaw, shaped like spikes, without ingly, the ligatures, excepting those which secured
breadth so as to cut, or surface so as to admit of the muzzle, being cut asunder, the monster,
grinding, the true crocodile alone has one or more though it had been many hours exposed to the
teeth on each side in both jaws, exserted, that is, heat, and was almost suffocated with dust, fought
not closing within but outside the jaw. They have its way through an immense crowd of assailants,
no external ear beyond a follicle of skin, and the soldiers and natives, armed with staves, lances,
eyes have a position above the plane of the head, swords, and stones, and worried by numerous terthe pupils being contractile, like those of a cat, riers, hounds, and curs; overturning all in its way,
and in some having a luminous greenish tinge, till, scenting the river, it escaped to the water at a
which may have suggested the comparison of the distance of two miles, in spite of the most strenueyes of leviathan to'the eyelids of the dawn' ous opposition!'
(Job xli. Io [A. V. I8]). The upper jaw is not' With the ancient Egyptians the crocodile was a
movable, but, as well as the forehead, is ex- sacred animal, not, however, one of those revered
tremely dense and bony; the rest of the upper by the whole nation, but only locally held in
surface being covered with several rows of bosses, honour. Of old it was found in Lower as well as
or plated ridges, which on the tail are at last Upper Egypt, now it is restricted to the latter
reduced from two to one, each scale having a high  region, never descending as low as Cairo, and
horny crest, which acts as part of a great fin. Al- usually not being seen until the traveller approaches
though destitute of a real voice, crocodiles when the ThebaYis.  In hieroglyphics it bears the name
angry produce a snorting sound, something like a MSUH, literally'in the egg,' as though expressdeep growl [or rather grunt]; and occasionally ing surprise that so great an animal should issue
they open the mouth very wide, remain for a time from so small an egg. From this name the Copthus exposed facing the breeze, and, closing the tic and Arabic names take their origin.  The
jaws with a sudden snap, cause a report like the crocodile was sacred to the god SEBAK, reprefall of a trap-door. It is an awful sound, which  sented with the head of this animal and the body
we have heard more than once in the stillness of of a man, and of uncertain place in the Egyptian
the night in tropical South America; and we are mythology.  It was not only not worshipped
informed that the same phenomenon occurs on the throughout Egypt, but was as much hated in
Ganges, and on the west coast of Africa. The some as venerated in other parts of the country:
gullet of the crocodile is very wide, the tongue being  thus in the Ombite nome it was worshipped, and
completely tied to the lower jaw, and beneath it are hunted in the Apollinopolite and Tentyrite nomes.
glands exuding a musky substance.  On land the The worship of this animal is no doubt of Nigricrocodile, next to the gavial, is the most active, tian origin, like all the low nature-worship of
and in the water it is also the species that most Egypt. It is not certain that the crocodile was
readily frequents the open sea. Of the immense an emblem of the king with the Egyptians, but
number of genera which we have seen or examined, it seems probable that this was the case.'
none reached to 25 feet in length, and we believe  There is evidence that the crocodile was found
the specimen in the British Museum to be one of in Syria at the time of the Crusades. A reptile
the largest. Sheep are observed to be unmolested  of this kind has lately been discovered in the
by these animals; but where they abound no pigs Nahr-el-Kelb, the ancient Lycus.
can be kept, perhaps from their frequenting the'The exploit of Dieudonne de Bozon, knight of
muddy shores; for we have known only one in- St. John, who, when a young man, slew the dragon
stance of crocodiles being encountered in woods of Rhodes, an exploit which Schiller has celenot immediately close to the water's side: usually brated in his'Kampf mit dem Drachen,' must
they bask on sandy islands. [They rarely attack  be regarded as a combat with a crocodile, which
men, but women are sometimes seized by them: in had probably been carried northward by the reguNubia they are much more dangerous than in lar current of the eastern Mediterranean; for so
Egypt (See Sir G. Wilkinson's Modern Egypt and the picture still extant in the hareem of a Turkish
Thebes, ii., p. I27)]. As their teeth are long, but inhabitant represents the Hayawan Keber or Great
not fitted for cutting, they seize their prey, which  Beast-a picture necessarily painted anterior to the
they cannot masticate, and swallow it nearly en- expulsion of the knights in 1480.* As De Bozon
tire, or bury it beneath the waves to macerate. died Grand Master of the Order at Rhodes in I353,
Having very small excretory organs, their digestion  and the spoils of the animal long remained hung
requires, and accordingly they are found to possess, up in a church, there is not, we think, any reason
an immense biliary apparatus.  They are ovipa- to doubt the fact, though most of the recorded
rous, burying their eggs in the sand; and the circumstances may be fabulous. All the ancient
female remains in the vicinity to dig them out on  Greek and the later Mediterranean dragons, as
the day the young have broken the shell. Croco- those of Naples, Aries, etc., where they are not
diles are caught with hooks, and they seldom succeed in cutting the rope when properly prepared. in the soft parts of the body, even by a rifle-ball,
Though a ball fired point blank will penetrate be- speaking of thirteen years since when rifle-shooting
tween the scales which cover the body, the invul- was not what it is now. -R. S. P.
nerability of these great saurians is sufficiently  *' Other paintings by the same artist, said to
exemplified by the following occurrence.*  One have been Sebast. de Firenze, pupil of Cimabue,
shew that he did not represent grand masters later
- We do not remember any instance in Egypt than Gio. de Lartin, who was elected I437, and
or Nubia of a crocodile being wounded excepting  died 1454.'




CROSS                     590                  CROSS
allegorical, are no doubt derived from  croco- votees of the cross.  Among the Indians and
diles.'                                        Egyptians the cross often appears in their cere-' That crocodiles and alligators take the sea, and monies, sometimes in the shape of the letter T, at
are found on islands many leagues distant from  others in this shape +. At Susa, Ker Porter saw
other land, we have ourselves witnessed; and the a stone cut with hieroglyphics and cuneiform infact is particularly notorious at the Grand Cay- scriptions, on which in one corner was a figure of a
manas in the sea of Mexico, which is almost desti- cross, thus P-. The cross, he says, is generally
tute of fresh water. It is indeed owing to this cir- understood to be symbolical of the divinity or
cumstance that the same species may frequent all eternal life, and certainly a cross was to be seen in
the rivers of a great extent of coast, as is the case the temple of Serapis as the Egyptian emblem of
with some found in Africa, whence they spread  the future life, as may be learned in Sozomen and
to India and the Malayan islands.'-C. H. S.-   Rufinus.  Porter also states that the Egyptian
R. S. P.                                       priests urged its being found on the walls of their
The zoological portion of the article, denoted by temple of Serapis, as an argument with the vicmarks of quotation, is retained from the previous rio  army of Theodosius to save it from de~~~~editions,~ ~struction.                    From  the numerous writings on this
subject by La Croze, Jablonski, Zoega, Visconti,
CROSS. This word is derived from the Latin   Pococke, Pluche, Petit Radel, and others, the
crux.  Respecting the origin of its Greek repre-sybol of the cross appears to have been most
sentative there is some diversity of opinion. Ac-varous in its significations.   Sometimes it is the
cording to Eustathius and Hesyclhius, the Gree  Phallus, sometimes the planet Venus, or the Nilorravpbs is so called srapa, Tv er s ala <razrdv, 3 meter, or an emblem of the four elements, or the
rap   1 is els epos l'ralaaC, from its standing erect, seasons (Creuzer's Symbolik, pp. I68-9). It is not
or from its standing with its arms horizontalsing that ancient and even modern
etymologists also derive the word from lzrtLU, ton Christian writers should on this subject have indulged
etymologists also derive the word from ioT'qpt, to in some degree of refinement and mysticism. Justin
place. In its general acceptation the cross is an in some degree of refnement and mysticism  Justin
instrument of punishment, and metaphorically, Martyr(ApolZ i, sec. 72) says, The sign ofthe cross
punishment itself, as well as the pain which it in- i impressed upon the whole of nature.  There is
flicts, and generally any severe suffering or heavy hardly a handicraftsman but uses the figure of it
trial. Instead of aravpos the Greek word eaKOvo   among the implements of his industry.  It forms a
is sometimes found as equivalent to the Latin crux. part of man himself, as may be seen when he
Both are in frequent use on the part of the writers raises his hands in prayer.' In like manner Minuwho transferred the events of Roman history into tis Felix (c. 29):'Even nature itself seems to
the Greek tongue.                              have formed this figure for us. We have a natural
In its simplest form, consisting of two pieces of cross on every ship whose sails are spread, in
wood, one standing erect, the other crossing it at every yoke that man forms, in every outspreading
right angles, the cross was known at an early age of his arms in prayer. Thus is the cross found
in the history of the world. Its use as an instru- both ithe arrangements of nature and among the
ment of punishment was probably suggested by theheaten.'
shape so often taken by branches of trees, which  According to Lipsius (De Cruce, i 5-9) and
seem to have been the first crosses that were em- Gretser (De Cruce Christi vol. i. c. I) there were
ployed. It was certainly customary to hang crimi- in general two kinds of crosses:-. Crux simplex;
als on trees-arbor infelix; Cicero (Pro Rabir. 3) 2. Crux composita or compacta. The first consisted of a stake on which the criminal was fastened
appears to consider hanging on a tree and cruci- sted ofa stake onwhich the criminal was fastened
fixion as of the same import, and Seneca (Ep.  )or  whch he was. For the first k
names the cross infelix Zlinurzm, which may with no  of punishment a tree or a specially prepared stake
undue liberty be rendered'the accursed tree.' was sed, on which the criminal was bound, and
Trees are known  to have been used as crosses either left to perish, or immediately put to death.
(Tertull. Ap. cap. I6), and to every kind of hang- For ijpaisg (infixio) a long and sharpened piece
ing which bore a resemblance to crucifixion, such ofwood  e) was employed, on which the crimias that of Prometheus, Ahdromeda, etc., the name  al was put as on a spit.  Seneca describes ths kind
was commonly applied.   Among the Scythians, of execution (Consolat. ad Marc. c. 20):'I behold
Persians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, and  these crosses, not of one kind, but made differancient Germans, traces are found ofas a   the cross as by different people.  Some suspended the
anl instrument   rcs of punishment  The si  of theas criminal with his head turned towards the earth:
an instrument of punishment. The sign of the others drove a stake through his body.' This cruel
cross is found as a holy symbol among several an-others drove a stake throuh hs cru
cient nations, who may accordingly be named, in mode of execution was formerly very customary in
the language of Tertullian, crucis religiosos, de- Russ, China, Turkey and other countries, and is
not yet universally abolished by law.
Of the crux composita or compound cross there
*It has been suggested to us by M. Salzmann, were three sorts: I, crux decussata; 2, crux comFrench Consul at Rhodes, that the dragon slain by missa; 3, crux immissa. The crux decussata is also
De Bozon was the descendant of some escaped cro- called Andrew's cross, because tradition reports that
codiles that had been transported to the island in on a cross of this kind the Apostle Andrew suffered
imperial times for the games. He remarked that death. Jerome (Comment. on yerem. c. 31) dethe places at which tradition speaks of dragons scribes this cross in the following terms:-Decusadmit of this theory, or, like Aries, almost suggest sare est per medium secare velut si duse regulae
it. Certainly Col. Hamilton Smith's explanation  concurrant ad speciem literze X  qum  figura est
is inapplicable in some cases, and notably in those crucis: saying in effect that' the name indicates two
of British dragons, which, however, may be purely lines cutting each other after the manner of the
fanciful.-R. S. P.                            letter X. So Isidorus Hisp. (Orig.. I. 3) says




CROSS                    591                  CROWN
that the letter X denotes a cross and the number bit, intending thereby to verify the prophecy of
ten' (in Roman numerals).                     Zechariah (xiv. 20):' In that day shall be upon the
The crux commissa, Lipsius states, was formed bells (margin, bridles) of the horses, Holiness zunto
by putting a cross piece of wood on a perpendicular the Lord.' Treves possesses the fourth nail, which is
one, so that no part of the latter may stand above alleged to have been driven through the sufferer's
the former. This form is found in the figure T. right foot. Those who maintain the number of
Of the crux immissa, or as others prefer to term it, nails to have been more than four have had no
crux capitata, the following is given as the descrip- difficulty in finding as many nails as their hypotion:-' a cross in which the longer piece of wood  thesis in each case needed, and as many sacred
or pale stands above the shorter piece which runs places for their safe keeping.
across it near the top. It is distinguished from the  Another dispute has been agitated relative to the
preceding by the part of the longer beam which is existence of a hypopodium or tablet whereon the
the shorter or transverse, thus. This form  feet were supported. Gregory of Tours, who had
above the shorter or transverse, thus'. This form.
seen the alleged true cross, affirms that it had such
is found in paintings more frequently than any a footstool; but his dictum has been called in
other, and on a cross of this kind our Saviour is question. It is, however, doubted whether the
believed to have suffered death.              hands alone, without a prop beneath, could sustain
It is unnecessary here to do more than refer to the weight of the body, and some have supposed
the legend of the finding of the cross on which our that a kind of seat was placed, on which the sufLord suffered  the reader will find a full view of ferer may be said to have in some way sat. The
the authorities bearing on this point in Tillemont controversy is treated at length in the first of
(AMemoires Eccles. vii. 8-I6); and the whole subject the four Hypomnemata de Cruce of Bartholinus.
discussed by Baronius (Annal. Eccles. A.D. 326, [CRUCIFIXION.]-J. R. B.
No. 42-50), Jortin (Remarks ii. 238-48), Mahon,
cited by Milman (Gibbon) iv. 94), etc. That the  CROW. ['OREB].
cross was of wood is certain, but of what wood                    Crowns are often mentioned
no adequate evidence remains. No value can be   CROWN             Crowns are often mentioned
attached to the tradition that the true cross con- in Scripture, and in such a manner as in most cases
sisted of three kinds, cypress, pine, and cedar, or to indicate the circumstances under which, and the
of four kinds, cedar, cypress, palm, and olive.  persons by whom, they were worn; for crowns were.o..ex.~.. cuxless exclusively worn by sovereigns than among
Quatuor ex lignis Domini crux dicitur esse;- modern nations.  Perhaps it would be better to
Pes crucis est cedrus; corpus tenet alta cupressus;  say that the term  crown' was applied to other''alma manus retinet; titulo Ietatur oliva.   ornaments worn for the head than those exclusively
Lipsius (De Cruce iii. 13) supposes that the cross worn by royal personages, and to which modern
was made of oak, since it is likely it would be con- usage would give such distinctive names as coronet,
structed of such wood as was most abundant, and band, mitre, tiara, garland, etc.
therefore probably nearest at hand, and oak grew  The royal crown originated in the diadem, which
plentifully in Judaea.                        was a simple fillet fastened round the head and tied
According to Ambrosius (Oratio de Obitu Theo- behind.  This obviously took its rise among a
dor. p. 498), the piece which bore the title stood people who wore long hair, and used a band to
on the top of the cross of our Lord (John xix. 19- prevent it from falling over the face. The idea oc22, &erl trov oraupov; comp. Matt. xxviii. 37; Mark
xv. 26; Luke xxiii. 38): the form then would be      /\A 
somewhat thus B. But all that can with any certainty be determined as to the shape of the Saviour's 
cross is, that the prevalent form was that of the crux\ t
capitata, and that this form is generally found on/ 
coins and in the so-called monogram (Munter's
Siunbilder, 1. iv.)
Much time and trouble has been wasted in dis-                      A 
puting as to whether three or four nails were used            \\
in fastening the Lord to his cross. Nonnus affirms 
that three only were used, in which he is followed-                          -   -
by Gregory Nazianzen. The more general belief              \   l                     Ko~  A
gives four nails, an opinion which is supported at  /9 
much length and by curious arguments by Curtius,'       j _./~.,
an Augustine friar, who wrote a treatise De Clavis 
Dominicis, in the beginning of the seventeenth      /                                  \
century. Others have carried the number of nails      / A 
so high as fourteen. Of the four original nails, the  /    f      1               \
Empress Helena is reported to have thrown one                                   \o 
into the Adriatic, when furiously raging, thereby      S^
producing an instant calm. The second is said to
have been put by Constantine into either his helmet      I97. Ancient Asiatic Crowns.
or crown. This nail, however, was afterwards to
be found in a mutilated state in the church of Sta. curred of distinguishing kings by a fillet of different
Croce. In the Duomo of Milan is a third nail, colour from that usually worn; and being thus
which Eutropius affirms was driven through one of established as a regal distinction, it continued to
Jesus' hands, and which Constantine used as a be used as such even among nations who did not




CROWN                     592                  CROWN
wear the hair long, or was employed to confine the Hebrew monarchies. In Egypt and Persia there
head-dress.  We sometimes see this diadem as a are sculptures of earlier date, representing royal
simple fillet, about two inches broad, fastened round  crowns in the shape of a distinguishing tiara, cap,
the otherwise bare head, we then find it as a band of or helmet, of metal, and of cloth, or partly cloth
gold (No. 197, figs. 2, 5). In this shape it sometimes and partly metal. Such are the Egyptian crowns
forms the basis of raised ornamental work (figs. 6, 7, as represented in the above engraving (No. 198).
8, Io), in which case it becomes what we should  Fig. I is the crown of Lower, and fig. 2 that of
consider a crown; and indeed the original diadem  Upper Egypt; and when both kingdoms were
may be traced in most ancient crowns. Fig. IO is under one sovereign, the two crowns were united,
curious, not only from the simplicity of its form, as in fig 3. Such union of the crowns of different
but on account of the metallic loop to be passed  countries upon one head is matter of historical reunder the chin-a mode of securing the crown   cord. Thus when Ptolemy Philometer entered
probably adopted in war or in the chase. Then  Antioch as a conqueror, he placed on his head the
we find the diadem surrounding the head-dress or crowns of Egypt and of Asia.  This would, in
cap (figs. 3, 9, I3), and when this also is orna- fact, form three crowns, as his previous one was
mented, the diadem may be considered as having  doubtless the double crown of Upper and Lower
become a crown. The word      Ji nezer is sup- Egypt. The diadem of two or three fillets (figs.
posed to denote a diadem.  It is applied to the 3, 4, No. 197) may have been similarly significant
inscribed plate of gold in front of the high-priest's of dominion over two or three countries.  There
mitre, which was tied behind by a ribbon (Exod. are allusions to this custom in Scripture (Rev. xii.
xxix. 6; xxxix. 30), and which was doubtless 3; xix. 12). These Egyptian tiaras were worn in
something of the same kind that we see in figs. 8, war, and on occasions of state; but on ordinary
11.  This word is also employed to denote the occasions a fillet or diadem was used, affording
diadem which Saul wore in battle, and which was corroboration of a previous remark.
brought to David (2 Sam. i. io), and also that
which was used at the coronation of the young//
Joash (2 Kings xi. 12); and, as another word is      ~.~.l
applied elsewhere to the crown used in this cere- i                       F
monial, the probability is that the Hebrew kings 
wore sometimes a diadem and sometimes a crown,           -
and that the diadem only was accessible to the 
high-priest, by whom Joash was crowned, the      J       o         M|    7
crown itself being most likely in the possession of 
Athaliah. As Psalm lxxxix. was certainly composed by David, the regal use of the diadem is   A
further indicated in ver. 39.
The more general word for a crown is ntD)y 
atarah? and it is applied to crowns and head 
ornaments of different sorts, including those used 
by the kings.  When applied to their crowns, it 
appears to denote the state crown as distinguished
from the diadem.  This, the Rabbins allege, was
of gold set with jewels; such was the crown                                      /
which David took from the king of the Ammonites (2 Sam. xii. 30), and afterwards wore him-                                     t
self, as did probably his successors. Of its shape                         /S \  i
it is impossible to form any notion, unless by re- 
ference to the examples of ancient crowns con-                 z
tained in the preceding cut. These figures, how~~~~\  |~~~~~1 {~Ix99. Modern Asiatic Crowns.
It is important to observe that the mitre of the
high-priest, which is also called a crown (C1t Exod.
c_____ -,    A-: A d "'  xxxix. 30), was of similar construction, if not
shape, with the addition of the golden fillet or
/7A \\\ /  1        r I-    X         diadem.  [Comp. Bahr, Symb. d. Mos. CZut. ii.
~// \\^J                           I /  /  II]. Similar also in construction and material,
//~~/ /I r^  f ^-^ i  /        though not in form, was the ancient Persian crown,
i/y  (^ /for which there is a distinct name in the book of
Id V\]~.Esther (i. 2; ii. 17; vi. 8), viz.,'ln keter, which
198. Ancient Egyptian Crowns.      was doubtless the cidaris or citaris (Ki8apts or
KiTapts), the high cap or tiara, so often mentioned
ever, being taken mostly from coins, are not of by the Greek historians. From the descriptions
that very remote antiquity which we should desire given of it, this seems to have been a somewhat
to illustrate matters pertaining to the period of the conical cap, surrounded by a wreath or fold; and




CROWN OF THORNS                   593              CRUCIFIXION
this would suggest a resemblance to fig. 12, No. Sacr.) Free-born persons also suffered crucifixion,
197; which is in fact copied from a Parthian or but only ahumiles, those of low condition and prolater Persian coin. This one is worthy of very  vincials. Citizens could not be crucified (Cic. Verr.
particular attention, because it forms a connecting i. 5 [ii. I, 3]; Quintil. viii. 4; Suet. Galb.) This
link between the ancient and modern Oriental punishment was reserved for the greatest crimes,
crowns, the latter consisting either of a cap, with a as robbery, piracy (Sen. Ep. vii.; Cic. Petron. 71);
fold or turban, variously enriched with aigrettes, as assassination, perjury (Firmic. vi. 26); sedition,
this is; or of a stiff cap of cloth, studded with treason, and (in the case of soldiers) desertion
precious stones. It must often occur to the student (Dion, v. 52; Joseph. Antiq. xiii. 22; Apul.
of biblical antiquities that the modern usages of Asiz. 3). Its origin is ancient. In Thucydides
the East have more resemblance to the most (i. IIo) we read of Inarus, an African king, who
ancient, than have those which prevailed during was crucified by the Egyptians. The similar fate
that intermediate or classical period in which its of Polycrates, who suffered under the Persians, is
peculiar manners and institutions were subject to  detailed by Herodotus (iii. 125), who adds, in the
much extraneous influence fiom the domination of same book (I59), that no less than 3000 persons
the Greeks and Romans.   So, in the present in- were condemned to the cross by Darius, after his
stance, we are much impressed with the conviction  successful siege of Babylon. Valerius Maximus
that such head tires and caps as those represented  makes crucifixion the common military punishment
in Nos. I98 and 199, more correctly represent the of the Carthaginians. That the Greeks adopted it
regal' crowns' of the 0. T., than those figured in is plain from the cruel executions which Alexander
No. 197 (with the exception of fig. I2, and the ordered after the capture of Tyre, when 2000
simple diadems); which, however, may be taken  captives were nailed to crosses along the sea-shore
to represent the style of the crowns which pre- (Q. Curtius, iv. 4; Justin, xviii. 3). With the
vailed in and before the time of the N. T.     Romans it was used under their early monarchical
Crowns were so often used symbolically to ex- government, and was the death to which Horatius
press honour and power, that it is not always safe was adjudged for the stern and savage murder of
to infer national usages from the passages in which  his sister (Liv. i. 26), where the terms employed
they occur. Hence we would scarcely conclude shew that the punishment was not at that time
from Ezek. xxiii. 42, that crowns were worn by limited to any rank or condition.  It appears also
Jewish females, although that they wore some from the passage that scourging (veyerbato) then
ornament which might be so called is probable preceded crucifixion, as undoubtedly was custofrom other sources.  Mr. Lane (Arabian NAights, mary in later times. The column to which Jesus
i. 424) mentions that until about two centuries was fastened during this cruel infliction is stated by
ago a kind of crown was worn by Arabian females Jerome (Epist. ad Ezustach.) to have existed in
of wealth and distinction.  It was generally a his time in the portico of the holy sepulchre, and
circle of jewelled gold (the lower edge of which  to have retained marks of his blood. The Jews
was straight, and the upper fancifully heightened  received the punishment of crucifixion from the
to a mere point), surmounting the lower part of a Romans (Joseph. Antiq. xii. 14. 2; xx. 6. 2; De
dome-shaped cap, with a jewel or some other orna- Bell. _zbd. ii. 12). Though it has been a matter
ment at the summit.                            of debate, yet it appears clear that crucifixion, proIt is certain that' crowns' of this or some simi- perly so called, was not originally a lebrew
lar kind were worn at marriages (Cant. iii. I; Is. punishment (Bormitii de cruce nunz Ebrceor. supp.
lxi. so); and it would appear that at feasts and fierit).  The condemned, after having  been
public festivals'crowns of rejoicing' were custom- scourged (Liv. xxxvi. 26; Prud. Enchir. xli. I),
ary.  These were probably garlands (Wisd. ii. had to bear their cross, or at least the transverse
8; iv. 2; Ecclus. i. II). The'crowns' or gar- beam, to the place of execution (Plut. De Tard.
lands which were given to the victors in the public Dei Vizn. 9; Artemid. II, 41), which was genegames are more than once alluded to in the rally in some frequented place without the city
Epistles (I Cor. ix. 25; 2 Tim. ii. 5; iv. 8; I (Cic. Verr. v. 66). The cross itself, or the upPet. v. 4).-J. K.                              right beam, was fixed in the ground (Cic. ad Quift.
CROWN OF T S.     Fr. i. 2; Pro Rat. iv. 2).  Arrived at the spot,
CROWN OF THORNS.          [ATAD.]           the delinquent was supplied with an intoxicating
CRUCIFIXION-in Greek ava'oravpo'v; in        drink, made of myrrh and other bitter herbs (PipLatin c-ruci affigere, in crzceu agere or tollere, in ping, Exercit. Acad. Iv.), and having been stript
later times cruci figere, whence our crucifixion. of his clothing, was raised and affixed to the cross,
To describe this punishment the Jews used the by nails driven into his hands, and more rarely
L-.e.~..     iim  into his feet sometimes the feet were fastened by
general term  lrO, for crucifixion is a kind of o   ail driven throug  both (Tertull. Adv. 7ud
hanging; whence Christ in the polemical writings x.; Sen. Be Vit Beat. I;  Lactan. iv. I3). The
of the Jews is designated s'nR, the hanged one.' feet were occasionally bound to the cross by cords,
Crucifixion was a most cruel and disgraceful pun- and Xenophon asserts that it was usual among
ishment; the terms applied to it by ancient writers the Egyptians to bind in this manner not only the
are,'the most cruel and disgraceful' (Cic. Verr.feet but the hands. A small tablet (titzhts), de[ii. 5, 64]; Lactan. Instit. iv. 26);'the worst pos- claring the crime, was placed on the top of the
sible punishment' (Ulpian);'theworstpunishment cross (Sueton. Cal. 38; Dom. Io; Euseb. Hist.
in the world' (Paull. v. 17). It was the punish- Eccles. v. I). The body of the crucified person
ment chiefly of slaves; accordingly the wordfurci- rested on a sort of seat (7ryyua) (Iren. Adv. Her. ii.
er,' cross-bearer,' was a term of reproach for slaves, 42). The criminal died under the most frightful
and the punishment is termed servile supjliciunr, sufferings-so great that even amid the raging'a slave's punishment' (De InfaMi quo Chr. adfec- passions of war pity was sometimes excited. Jotics est cr. s/uzpp., in C. H. Lange's Observatt. sephus (De Bell d. v. V. I ) narrates of captives
VOL..                                                                          2 Q




CRUCIFIXION                   594              CRUCIFIXION
taken at the siege of Jerusalem, that'they were  CRUCIFIXION, DEATH BY (physically confirst whipped, and tormented with all sorts of tor- sidered), is to be attributed to the sympathetic
tures, and then crucified before the walls of the city. fever which is excited by the wounds, and aggraThe soldiers, out of the wrath and hatred they  vated by exposure to the weather, privation of
bore the Jews, nailed those they caught one after water, and the painfully constrained position of
one way and another after another, to crosses, by  the body. Traumatic fever corresponds, in inway of jest, when their multitude was so great that tensity and in character, to the local inflammation
room was wanting for the crosses, and crosses of the wound. In the first stage, while the inflamwanting for the bodies. This miserable procedure mation of the wound is characterized by heat,
made Titus greatly pity them.' Sometimes the swelling, and great pain, the fever is highly insuffering was shortened and abated by breaking  flammatory; and the sufferer complains of heat,
the legs of the criminal-crzrafracta (Cic. Phil. throbbing headache, intense thirst, restlessness,
xiii. 12). After death, among the heathens, the and anxiety. As soon as suppuration sets in, the
bodies commonly remained on the cross till they  fever somewhat abates, and gradually ceases as
wasted away, or were devoured by birds of prey  suppuration diminishes and the stage of cicatrisa(Horat. Epist. i. 16, 48; Non pasces in cruce tion approaches. But if the wound be prevented
corvos; Plaut. Mil. G/or. ii. 4, I9; Plin. IZist. from healing, and suppuration continue, the fever
Nat. xxxvi. 24). A military guard was set near assumes a hectic character, and will sooner or
the cross, to prevent the corpse from being taken  later exhaust the powers of life. When, howaway for burial (Plut. Cleomen. 39; Petron. ever, the inflammation of the wound is so intense
Satyr. iii. 6; Sen. Ep. IoI).  But among the as to produce mortification, nervous depression
Jews the dead body was customarily taken down  is the immediate consequence; and if the cause
and buried. Josephus says (De Bell.. id. v. 2), of this excessive inflammation of the wound still'the Jews used to take so much care of the burial continues, as is the case in crucifixion, the sufferer
of men that they took down those that were con- rapidly sinks. He is no longer sensible of pain,
demned and crucified, and buried them before the but his anxiety and sense of prostration are exgoing down of the sun.' In order that death    cessive; hiccup supervenes, his skin is moistened
might be hastened, and the law might not be with a cold clammy sweat, and death ensues. It
violated, the Jews were accustomed to break the is in this manner that death on the cross must
legs (John xix. 31; Casaubon, Exercilationes have taken place, in an ordinarily healthy conAntibaron. p. 537; Lipsius, De Crac. lib. iii.) stitution.  The wounds in themselves were not
There was a bare possibility in some cases of those fatal; but, as long as the nails remained in them,
who had suffered this punishment recovering after the inflammation must have increased in intensity
being taken down, under medical treatment. until it produced gangrene.     De la Condamine
Josephus thus writes (Vit. 75),' I saw many cap- witnessed the crucifixion of two women of those
tives crucified, and I remembered three of them as fanatic Jansenists called Convulsionnaires.  One
my former acquaintance.  I was very sorry at this, of them, who had been crucified thrice before,
and went with tears in my eyes to Titus; so he remained on the cross for three hours. They sufimmediately commanded them to be taken down, fered most pain from the operation of extracting
and to receive the greatest care in order to their the nails; and it was not until then that they lost
recovery; yet two of them died under the phy- more than a few drops of blood from their wounds.
sician's hands, while the third recovered.' Con- After they were taken down, they seemed to
pare Bretschneider, in the Studien u. WArit. for suffer little, and speedily recovered (Corresjpond.
1832, p. 625. The execution took place at the de Grizmm et Diderot, ii. 75). The probabilities
hands of the carnifex, or hangman, attended by a of recovery after crucifixion would of course deband of soldiers, and in Rome, under the supervi- pend on the degree of constitutional irritation
sion of the Triumviri Capitales (Tac. AZnn. xv. 60; that had been already excited. Josephus (Vita,
Lactan. iv. 26). The accounts given in the Gospels 75) relates that of three of his friends, for whom
of the execution of Jesus Christ are in entire agree- he had obtained a release from the cross, only
ment with the customs and practices of the Romans one survived.  The period at which death ocin this particular. (Tholuck, Glanbeviirdig-keit der curred was very variable, as it depended on the
Evangel. Gesctz. p. 361). The punishment con- constitution of the sufferer, as well as on the degree
tinued in the Roman empire till the time of Con- of exposure, and the state of the weather. It may,
stantine, when it was abolished through the however, be asserted that death would not take
influence of the Christian religion. Examples of place until the local inflammation had run its
it are found in the early part of the emperor's course; and though this process may be much
reign, but the reverence which, at a later period, hastened by fatigue and the alternate exposure to
he was led to feel for the cross, induced him to the rays of the sun and the cold night air, it is not
put an end to the inhuman practice.  (Aur. Vict. completed before forty-eight hours, under ordinary
C(es. 4I; Sozom. i. 8; Niceph. vii. 46; Firmic. circumstances, and in healthy constitutions; so
viii. 20). There is a classical work on the subject that we may consider thirty-six hours to be the
by Lipsius, Antwerp, 1594 and 1637.     Other earliest period at which crucifixion would occasion
valuable works, besides those which have been  death in a healthy adult.  Many of the wounded
named in this and the article CROSS, are by at Waterloo were brought into the hospitals after
Vossius, Gretser, Calixtus, Salmasius, and Kip- having lain three days on the field, and even then
ping.  Sagittarius, Bynoeus, Dilherr, etc., have sometimes recovered from severe operations. It
treated specially on the application of this punish- cannot be objected that the heat of an Eastern
ment in the case of our Lord. The more ancient climate may not have been duly considered in the
literature on the subject is detailed in Fabric, above estimate; for many cases are recorded of
Bibliogr. Antiqzar. Hamb. 1760, p. 755, sq.-   persons having survived a much longer time than
J. R. B. [CRoss.]                             is here mentioned, even as long as eight or nine




CRUDEN                    595                  CUBIT
days.  Eusebius (Hist. EccZes. iii. 8) says that ably comprehensive and faithful concordance, but
many of the martyrs in Egypt, who were crucified also, the various explanations and notices prefixed
with their heads downwards, perished by hunger. to the more curious and important words are very
This assertion, however, must not be misunder- clear and useful, and, considering the state of
stood. It was very natural to suppose that hunger biblical learning in England at that time, are highly
was the cause of death, when it was known that creditable to the author's learning. Many of his
no food had been taken, and when, as must have definitions are deeply marked by the spirit of Calhappened in lingering cases of crucifixion, the vinism. Cruden's Concordance still continues to
body was seen to be emaciated. But it has been be the most useful book of the kind, but his other
shewn above that the nails in the hands and feet works have long been forgotten. The only two
must inevitably have given rise to such a degree of worth mentioning are, A Brief Compenzdium of
inflammation as to produce mortification, and  the Bible (I750), often printed with the Concorultimately death; and it is equally certain that dance; an Index to Bishop Newton's edition of
food would not, under such circumstances, have Milton's works; and A Scripture Dictionary or
contributed to support life. Moreover, it may be Guide to the Holy Scriptures, 2vols. 8vo.-F. W.F.
added that after the first few hours, as soon as
fever had been fully excited, the sufferer would  CRUSE. Three Hebrew words are thus translose all desire for food. The want of water was a lated in the A. V., JnnS (for holding water, I
much more important privation. It must have Sam. xxvi. II, 12, 16; I Kings xix. 6;for oil,
caused the sufferer inexpressible anguish, and have xvii. 12); p':ps (for honey, I Kings xiv. 3; of
contributed in no slight degree to hasten death.                        A 
As-Sujuti, a celebrated Arabic writer, gives an earthenware, Jer. xix. I, 10, A. V. bottle); and
interesting account of a young Turk who was   i?, or nos, or nnf     (2 Kings ii. 20; xxi. 13,
crucified at Damascus A.D. 1247. It is particu- A. V. dish; 2 Chron xxxv. 13, A. V. pans; Prov.
larly mentioned that his hands and feet were xix. 24; x     15, A. V. bosom), probaly a deep
nailed, and even his arms (but not as if it was in 
any way remarkable).  He complained of intense dish; the word is from nMt to hollow; comp. the
thirst on the first day, and his sufferings were figurative use of it in Prov. with the Gr. BaO6greatly increased by his continually seeing before KoXros, and the word itself with rKcai, from o-KcrrTL.
him the waters of the Barada, on the banks of [BASON; BOWL; DISH; PITCHER.]-W. L. A.
which he was crucified. He survived two days,  CRUSIUS CHRISTIAN AUGUST, a theologian
from the noon of Friday to the noon of Sunday of the  th century, was  orn near Merseburg,
(Kosegarten, Chrestomatlia Araica, p. 63, s.- Jan.,, ad prepared in Zeiz for the univerW. A. N.Jai
sity of Leipzig, to which he repaired in I734. In
CRUDN, A  R, te s     d so   of 1744 he was chosen professor of philosophy; and
CRUDEN, ALEXANDER, the second son of in I75        ordinary professor of theology. His death
Thos. W. Cruden, one of the baillies of Aberdeen, iook pl oina  pfesr th e t olo.  s dCrsius
was born in I701. At the age of fifteen he went took place on the i8th October 1775. Cresius
was born in 170. At the age of fifteen he wentwas a learned, acute, and pious man, a strong
to Marischal College, and four years afterwardso was  nt of the Wolfian philosophy. In his time
took his degree. A disappointment in love, at- th   university of Leipzig was for the most part
tended by some peculiarly painful circumstances, tivide rsity of Leparties, the Ernstian and Cr
shortly afterwards affected his intellect, and led to  divided into former held more correct principles.
of which the former held more correct principles.
eccentricities of manner and expression which re- His chief works are, Hypomnen a ad  eoloa
mained with him through life. He lived for some                               d       i
proa~eticam, in three parts, 1764; and Begriffder
time as a private tutor, but he mainly earned his live-  ralPhetcamo,  2 part  Most of his theololihood bythe correction of books for the press, which Moraltweooiige, 2 parts,d ito  obli;  theol
caused hi, i  hs v s  pm        gical writings have passed into oblivion; and the
caused him, in his various fantastic pamphlets, two we have jus specified as the most important
two we have just specified as the most important
to assume the title of Alexander the Corrector.t. 
At one time he set up as a bookseller; but, as he 
met with little success, his eccentricities became so  CRYSTAL. There seems to be no doubt that
marked, that on two several occasions he was con- crystal is intended by the Greek word Kp6a-raXXos
fined in a lunatic asylum. This seems to have been in Rev. xxi. 11, as indeed the phrase of comparia harsh measure, as his peculiarities were very son'clear as crystal' would seem  naturally to
harmless. He used, for instance, to go about suggest. Theophrastus (54) reckons crystal among
with a sponge, effacing from walls all inscriptions the pellucid stones used for engraved seals. In
offensive to good morals, and shewing his abhor- common parlance we apply the term crystal (as
rence of Wilkes by rubbing out the number 45 the ancients apparently did) to a glass-like transwherever he found it. He died in the year I770, parent stone, commonly of a hexagonal form,
in the sixty-ninth year of his age, being found dead which, from being found in rocks, is called by
upon his knees, in a posture of prayer. Through- mineralogists rock-crystal.  It is a stone of the
out life he had been a simple-minded, earnest, in- flint family, the most refined kind of quartz. -
offensive Christian man.                     J. K. [There are three Hebrew words which have
His only claim to notice in these pages is his been supposed to mean crystal, viz., nfr, Job
admirable Concordance, of which the first edition                S. 
was published in I737, and dedicated to Queen          A V   a   S      
Caroline. As the queen died a few days after it xxviii. 18, A. V. pearls, Gesen. and Fiirst crystal;
was presented to her, Cruden obtained no reward _, Ezek. i. 22, LXX. KpvUTorXXov, A. V. crystal.
beyond the barren title of bookseller to Queen Caro- But in all of these there is doubt as to their
line. It was a work of enormous labour, and oc- having this meaning].
cupied, before it reached its complete form, many
years of the author's life. Not only is it a remark-  CUBIT. [WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.]




CUCKOW                     596                   CUP
CUCKOW. [SHACHAPH.]                         den that cultivated cummin. The Arabic name
CUCUMBERS. [KISHUIM.]                        USy kumon, is too similar to the Hebrew
CUMBERLAND, RICHARD, was born in Lon- Kammon to allow us to doubt their identity,
don in I632, and died in 1718. After spending  especially as we find it, in the Greek form  of
twenty years, first as rector of Brampton, North- K6[Itwov, employed as early as the time of Hipamptonshire, and afterwards of All-Hallows at pocrates.
Stamford, he was, in I69I, elevated to the      Notwithstanding the numerous distinct notices of
bishopric of Peterborough, a dignity which he cummin, and its difference from  caraway, it is
neither anticipated nor sought. He was a man  strange that Celsius (/. c. p. 516) should have adof research, of accurate scholarship, and exact if duced the carunz of Theophrastus and Dioscorides
not profound thinking. Besides his great work De as identical with the cuminuam. So in the translaLegibusNVatlr?, 4to, I672, of whicha translation into tion of Rosenmiller (Bib. Bot. p. 99) we have
English, with additions by John Maxwell, appeared  carurm Carvi given as the systematic name of cuin 1726, he wrote an Essay towards the Recovery of minum, making the latter the caraway plant,
the ewissh Weights and Measures, etc., 8vo, I686, which it is not. —J. F. R.
of which an abbreviation is frequently appended to CUNAEUS (VAN    DER KUN) PETER      was
editions of the A. V.; Sanchoniatzo's P/henician  born at Flessingen in 1586, and died at Leyden,
History, translated from Eiusebius de prum. Evan- where he was professor of law, in I638. Besides
gel., etc., 8vo, 1720; Orzgines Genizum Antizuis- some treatises on subjects connected with classical
simn; Attemnpts for Discovering the Times of the literature, and the famous Satyra Meniyppea (Lugd.
Planting of Nations, 8vo, 1724. These last two  Bat. 612), hewroteDe Republic  HebrorW  Lib.
publications were edited from the author's papersugd.          at. 167,, Amst. 666, of
by S. Payne, M.A., rector of Barhack. Bish    1-7;, Svo, Lugd. Bat. i6i7, I2po, Amst. i666, of
by S. Payne, M.A., rector of Barnack. ^Bishop  which a new edition, revised and augmented by
Cumberland left behind him a lofty reputation as a Niolai, appeared in 4to in  03. This work was
scholar, a thinker, and a man of piety,'blessed with translated into English, Dutch, and French; and
a mind free from every evil passion' (Payne).  for many years served as the text-book from which
W. L. A.                                      professors lectured on the political and legislative
CUMMIN     or KAMMON (f73; N. T. K6PIsOYV) part of Jewish archaeology.  It is now superseded
by more copious and correct works.-W. L. A.
is an umbelliferous plant, mentioned Is. xxviii. 25,
27; Matt. xxiii. 23, and which, like the dill and  CUP. There are three Hebrew words chiefly
the coriander, continues to be cultivated in modern, rendered cups (or bowls) in the English version.as it was in ancient times, in Eastern countries. I.  3.; LXX. TrorptLov, calix. This is the comThese are similar to, and used for many of the monest word, and is derived from D::, collegit,
same purposes as the anise and caraway, which                                   -
supply their place and are more common in Europe.Gen. xl. I; 2 Sam xii. 3; Ps. xxiii. 5. 2. np
All these plants produce fruits, commonly called LXX. 7rovora, phiale ad libandum, Exod. xxv.
seeds, which abound in essential oil of a more or less 29; Num. iv. 7. 3. Y:0; LXX. KOV6v, scyphus,
grateful flavour, and warm  stimulating nature;
hence they were employed in ancient as in mo- Hesych.), Jer. xxxvb 5. The derivation of both
dern times, both as condiments and as medicines. Hesych.), Jer. xxxv. 5 circular shape. The latterion of both
these words implies a circular shape. The latter is
So we find the Cummin mentioned by Hippo- also used of flower-cups, Exod. xxv. 31. Other
crates, and also by Dioscorides, under the name terms are,a covered vessel (i. Chron. xxvi.
of KALtvov. The latter writer distinguishes several
17; Ezra i. Io); and npp, which only occurs in
the curious phrase 5Di'p (Is. li. 17, 22)= calix
~     I~ /;/j i,poculi, or Germ. Becherkelch. The word mainly
~\\^ I/' 1~'~ ad  8used in the N. T. is 7rorT5pov.
~\ <\\ ip~ ^5^ WsL \^The cups of the Jews were no doubt generally
fL\ ^ >g:)\S  *made of earthenware or* metal, like those of other
Oriental nations ancient and modern (Layard's'~NQ X ~\\  /~. Z, v /   NVineveh, ii. 304; Wilkinson's Anc. Egypt. iii. 258;' \ ~'~  I.A  /,/_'/    Lane's Mod. Egypt. i. 205).  Of their shapes and
distinctions we know nothing, and no doubt there
was a large variety of shapes, which gave room for
individual fancy. In Esth. i. 7, the cups used in
the Persian feast are not only of silver and gold`V,  x<   [xx/?[i~             (materials used in cups from very early days, Gen.
Xl"lz/1 /)/{             xliv. 2; Num. vii. I3; I Kings x. 2I), but are all
/           At I  -X   of different patterns. That the Jewish cups were
/ X \XA<     usually circular or lotus-shaped, we may safely* We can only conjecture what kind of cup our
Lord used at the Last Supper. By an order of the
200o.                   CCouncil of Rheims the chalices used at the eucharist were only to be of gold, silver, or tin; not of
varieties, but the principal is called.aepov, or sa- glass, because it is brittle; of wood, because
tivum, which the Arabs, following Dioscorides, porous; of brass, because of its smell; or of cop-'describe under the name of k/zmoon baghee, a gar- per, because it rusts.




CUP                     597              CURCELL/EUS
infer from I Kings vii. 26; Exod. xxv. 33; and Jahn, Arch. Bibl. sec. 203). The custom of giving
the phrase Df3 ili, already referred to (Is. li. a cup of wine and myrrh to condemned criminals
I7), implies the same thing, because the word  (Otho, Lex.  abb. s. v. Mors) is alluded to in
means properly the calyx of a blossom. Such cups Matt. XXVii. 34; Mark xv. 22.
are seen in the ruins of Persepolis, etc. (Jahn, Arch.  Fally we ma notce Joseph's cup of divinBibl., E. T., sec. 352).                     tion, Gen. xliv. 5. The various attempts made by
The word'cup' is used in both Testaments in  Parkhurst and others to explain away this verse by
some curious metaphorical phrases. Such are the translating it in accordance with preconceived prejucup of salvation, Ps. cxvi. 13, which Grotius, after dices, belongs to that idle and exploded method of
Kimchi, explains as' poculum gratiarum actionis,'biblicalcriticismwhichhas so muchobscuredour
a cup of wine lifted in thanksgiving to God (cf.knowledge of Scripture   Undoubtedly it was a
Matt. xxvi. 27).  That it alludes to a paschalcup of spposed magic properties by which Joseph
libation cannot be proved; and that it was under- (deeply stained with Egyptian customs) pretended
stood by the Jews to be expressive of gratitude, to divine (oicvlzeTaT ev atrs, LXX.; in quo auguwe may see from 3 Macc. vi. 27, where the Jews rari solet, Vulg.); KVXrKOpacTEa, an attempt to
offer'cups of salvation' in token of deliverance. discover the future from the radiation of water, or
In Jer. xvi. 7, we have the term' cZp of consola- by sounds coming out of it, is a universal superstition,' which is a reference to the wine drunk at the tion, and was well known in Egypt; and, in hav-?repie7r'vca or funeral feasts of the Jews (2 Sam. ing a royal divining-cup, Joseph only imitated other
iii. 35; Prov. xxxi. 6; Joseph. de Bell.  d. ii. i  rulers. Kosvu, the word here used by the LXX.,
In5 I Cor. xi. I 6,wef    ind the well-known expresIn I Co. x. 1I6, we find the well-known expres-~occurs in Hipparchus, ap. Athen, 478, A, and is
sion,' cap of blessing' (tOrpioV TS EUoyiS) con — curiously, like the Indian kundi, a sacred Indian
trasted (v. 2I) with the' cup of devils.' The sacra-cup (Bolen on Gen., p. 403; Kalisch, p. 673).mental cup is called the cup of blessing, because of 
the blessing pronounced over it (Matt. xxvi. 27;  CUP-BEARER (LWD, properly the Hiphil
Luke xxii. 17; v. Lightfoot, Hor. Hebr. in 1.) No.: 
doubt St. Paul uses the expression with a reference part. of PJ, Hab. ii. I5; Sept. oivoXoos; poto the Jewish' cup of blessing' (an!  Y  D ),  cillatro, pincerna).  The office of cup-bearer is
the third of thefour cups drunk by the Jews at their one of great antiquity. We find several in the
Paschal feast (Schoettgen Hor. Hebr. in I Cor.; court of Pharaoh (.p~'D'WI, Gen. xl. 20), as
Jahn, Arch. Bibl. sec. 353), but it is scarcely neces- well as in the courts of Solomon (I Kings x. 5;
sary to add, that to this Jewish custom our Lord, 2 Chron. ix. 4), of Sennacherib king of Assyria
in his solemn institution of the Lord's supper, gave  (2 Kings xviii. 17, etc.), of Artaxerxes Longimanus
an infinitely nobler and diviner significance (Bux- (Neh. i. ii), and of Herod (Jos. Ant. xvi. 8. I).
torf, De Sacrd CZcen, sec. 46, p. 3I0). Indeed, of They were generally eunuchs; and there is no
itself, the Yewish custom was liable to abuse, and reason to suppose that Rabshakeh or Nehemiah
similar abuses arose even in Christian times (Au- were exceptions to the general rule, particularly as
gust. Sermz. cxxxii. de tempore; Carpzov, App. Rabshakeh (whose name, or rather title, means
Critic, p. 380, sq.) In Ps. xi. 5; xvi. 5,' the por-' chief of the cup-bearers,' rendered' der Erztion of the cz p' is a general expression for the con- schenke' by Luther) is mentioned in connection with
dition of life, either prosperous or miserable (Ps. Rabsaris,' chief of the eunuchs.' If Rabshakeh
xxiii. 5). A cup is also in Scripture the natural was (as there is some reason to believe) an apostate
type of sensual allurement (Jer. li. 7; Prov. xxiii. Jew, it will shew how largely the captive Jews
31; Rev. xvii. 4; xviii. 6).                  were employed in domestic service at ancient
But in by far the majority of passages, the cup  courts (cf. Dan. i. 4). As the cup-bearer had the
is a'cup of astonishment,'' a cup of trembling,' highly-valued privilege of access to the king's prethe full red flaming wine-cup of God's wrath and  sence, and that, too, at his most merry and unbendretributive indignation (Ps. lxxv. 8; Is. li. xvii; ing moments, the office was one of high value and
Jer. xxv. 15; Lam. iv. 21; Ezek. xxiii. 32; Zech. importance. This explains the enormous wealth
xii. 2; Rev. xvi. 19, etc.) There is, in fact, in which Nehemiah, during his term of service in the
the prophets, no more frequent or terrific image; Persian court, had been able to amass. Cupand it is repeated with pathetic force in the lan- bearers are frequently represented on the Assyrian
guage of our Lord's agony (Matt. xxvi. 39, 42;* monuments (Layard's Iinz. ii. 306). It may be
John xviii. II; Mark x. 38). God is here repre- worth observing, that when Pharaoh's butler or
sented as the master of a banquet, dealing the cup-bearer (Gen. xl. Ii), speaks of pressing grapes
madness and stupor of vengeance to guilty guests into Pharaoh's cup, this may merely belong to the
(Vitringa in Is. li. 17; Wichmannshausen De irce imagery of his dream; but, at the same time, it is
et tremoris Calice, in Thes. Nov. Theol. Philol. i. not impossible that the king, under the control of
906, sq.) The cup thus became an obvious sym- a scrupulous hierarchy, may, at some period, have
bol of Death (rror-ptov.. oa-raivet Kal rbv 0d- been forbidden to drink the juice of the grape exarov. Etym. M.); and hence the oriental phrase, cept in its unfermented state.-F. W. F.
to' taste of death,' so common in the N. T. (Matt.
xvi. 28; Mark ix. I; John viii. 52; Heb. ii. 9), in  CURCELLzEUS; STEPHEN (Etienne de Courthe rabbis (Schoettgen, Hor. Hebr. in Matt. xvi.), celles), a celebrated Swiss theologian at the time
in the Arabian poem Antar, and among the Per- of the Arminian controversy, was born at Geneva
sians (Schleusner, Lex N. T., s. v. roroTptov; in 1586 and died in I659.  He studied under
Theodore Beza and was appointed pastor of Fon-' Matt. xx. 22, singularly resembles the saying, tainebleau in 1614.  In  1621 he removed to'Ut senex eodem poculo quo ego bibi biberet.' Amiens. He refused to sign the acts of the Synod
Plaut. Casin. v. 2, 42.                       of Dort, and was compelled, in consequence, to




CURTAIN                   598                  CUSH
withdraw to Amsterdam, where he was very kindly would have been the southernmost province of his
received by Episcopius, and on his death in 1634 kingdom. In Isaiah, Cush, as above remarked, is
was appointed professor of theology. He was a frequently mentioned in connection with Egypt,
thorough Armilian, and has even been accused of and at ch. xviii. I, the phrase'rivers of Ethiopia'
holding Socinian and Antitrinitarian opinions. He  (see the same words, Zeph. iii. IO) seems to point
wrote several works on the Arminian controversy, to the White and Blue Nile, which irrigate the
which, except in relation to the history of the country probably answering to the Scripture Cush.
struggle, have no particular value now. One of If such, then, are the reasons on which we ground
his most interesting works is an edition of the N. the supposition that Cush was a country to the
T. with various readings, to which he paid con- south of Egypt corresponding to'Ethiopia,' how
siderable attention. His works were published in is it that the opinion can be entertained that the
1675 by the Elzevirs, with an account of his life by region of Cush is to be sought either in the south
Arnold Pcelemburg. —H. W.                    of the Arabian peninsula, or even, as some suppose,
CURTAIN. [TABERNACLE.]                    in a district in the neighbourhood of Mesopotamia?
In the first place, the mention of Cush as watered
CUSH, b, as the name of an individual, is by the Gihon, one of the rivers of Eden (Gen. ii.
mentioned among the sons of Ham, together with  13), has been thought to prove the existence of an
Mizraim, Phut, and Canaan (Gen. x. 6, and I Asiatic Cush. It is a sufficient answer to this that,
Chron. i. 8). Being the first-named, he may be seeing it is utterly hopeless to understand the geopresumed to have been the eldest son. The sons graphy of this passage, it cannot be held to furnish
of Cush are called Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, Raamah, any argument as to the position of Cush, more
and Sabtechah; the sons of Raamah, Sheba, and particularly, if by Gihon is intended the river Nile,
Dedan. Afterwards Nimrod is also mentioned as as some have thought. Again, in Num. xii. I,
the son of Cush. It may, however, only be meant Moses is said to have married an Ethiopian (Cushthat he was his descendant. Cush was the pro- ite) woman. From this it has been inferred that
genitor of the people known afterwards by his Zipporah, the daughter of the priest of Midian, is
name. Like Mizraim and Canaan, he also gave the person meant, and that, as thus Midian and
his name to a country as well as to a people. With  Cush appear to have been used indifferently, we
respect, however, to the situation of the particular may conclude that they were contiguous countries,
country denominated Cush, various opinions have and that, therefore, there was an Asiatic Cush.
been held. Bochart (Phaleg. iv. 2) maintained that But there is no reason whatever for supposing the
Cush was exclusively Arabian.  Michaelis and person here spoken of to have been Zipporah, for
Rosenmiiller were in favour of an African as well it is extremely improbable that Miriam and Aaron
as an Arabian Cush. The first to advance the should have reproached Moses at this time with an
suggestion that Cush was exclusively African was alliance which must have been contracted at least
Schulthess in his Paradies, p. II. He was fol- forty years before. It is far more likely either that
lowed by Gesenius, and most moderns agree with  Zipporah was by this time dead, and that Moses
him. Indeed we cannot but think that it is diffi- had married again, or that he had taken this
cult to understand how Cush should ever have been  Cushite in addition to her. Again, in Job xxviii.
supposed to be other than African; if, indeed, not 19, mention is made of the topaz of Ethiopia j1ntD
exclusively, at least in addition to one of which the t~), and we are reminded that Diodorus speaks of
locality might be fixed elsewhere. The A. V., a topaz island in the Red Sea (iii. 39); as also Pliny,
wherever it translates the word, invariably renders Nat. Hist. xxxvii. 8; and Strabo, xvi. 4, 6. But
it by'Ethiopia,' and doubtless with reason; and an island in the Red Sea, even if this is the place
there is not a single passage in the Bible in which referred to by Job, might with as much reason be
Cush cannot fairly be understood to mean Ethiopia. considered as belonging to Ethiopia or Africa as to
Ezek. xxix. 10, even mentions Syene as the border Asia and Arabia. And lastly, in 2 Chron. xxi.
of Cush according to the marginal version, which is I6, it is said, in somewhat remarkable words, that
to be preferred. Moreover, in the prophets Miz-'the Lord stirred up the spirit of the Philistines
raim and Cush are frequently named together, and of the Arabians that were near the Ethiopians,'
which they probably would not have been had thee bn t                  t to fi        i
countries themselves not been contiguous (Ps. lxviii.  whch have been thought to furnish a valid
31; Is. xi. II; xx. 4; xliii. 3; xlv. 14; Nahum  argument for the existence of an Asiatic Cush.
iii. 9). The first mention of Cush in connection But here again, we suppose the words'that were
with Mizraim, Gen. x. 6, seems to shew that there near,' or'by the side of,' to refer to the Arabians
is at least no antecedent improbability in a geo- alone, and thus surely it must be admitted that
graphical as well as ethnological affinity having they express as accurately the position of Arabia
existed between the two nations. The Lubim and with regard to Ethiopia as they could, if there had
Sukkiim, doubtless African peoples, are found been an Arabian or Asiatic Cush, have described
united with the Cushites (2 Chron. xii. 3), in the the position of it with respect to that. Niebuhr
army of Shishak (cf. also 2 Chron. xvi. 8; Jer. found in Yemen a tribe calling themselves Beni
xlvi. 9, and Dan. xi. 43), in all of which passages Chusi, and the Targum of Jonathan at Gen. x. 6,
Cush can only be supposed with violence to mean explains Cush by Arabia, so does another paraan Asiatic people.  In Is. xxxvii. 9, Tirhakah, phrast (I Chron. i. 8), but it must also be borne in
who is known to have belonged to the 25th or mind that the Targum of Jonathan at Is. xi. II
Ethiopian dynasty of Egyptian kings, is called explains Cush by India. The fact appears to be
king of Cush. In Esther i. I and viii. 9, the domi- that Cush was used in a somewhat vague way as
nion of Ahasuerus is said to have extended from  AilOio  by the classics (Hon. Od. i. 22; cf. also
India even unto Cush; and as this king, whoever Herod. vii. 69, 70); and that though Ethiopia was
he was, probably belonged to the 27th dynasty of probably the country meant by Cush, yet the peoEgyptian kings, it is likewise certain that Ethiopia ple inhabiting it may have extended themselves by




CUSHAN                    599       CUTTINGS IN THE FLESH
colonies and settlements in various other regions, mander of the Ethiopian host above mentioned;
in Arabia e.g., and elsewhere, and gained such in Jer. xxxviii. 7, Io, 12, and xxxix. I6, 13..
hold as to cause the localities where they abounded  (Ailoq,, Ethiops) is applied to Ebedmelech, the
to be recognised as Cushite, and so denominated. prophet's friend. [With which compare the avg'p
We have proof that the Himyaritic Arabs were Ai'to~l, eVvoVxos K.T.X of Acts viii. 27, and the
called by the Syrians Cushseans in the 5th century' Te ex rEthiopia ancillulam' of the Eunuchus of
(Asseman, Bib. Orient. i. 360; iii. 568).    Terence, i. 2. 85.] In the remaining passages the
The Egyptian name for Ethiopia in the inscrip- word is treated as a PROPER NAME, in A. V.
tions is Kesh; cf. also the modern Geez.  It Septuagint and Vulgate ('Cushi,' Xovut, Chusi).
may lastly be remarked that the inhabitants of the  I. In Jer. xxxvi. I4, Cushi is mentioned as the
biblical Cush were black (Jer. xiii. 23), which father of Shelemiah and great-grandfather of
would not have been the case had Cush been an Jehudi, one of the courtiers of Jehoiakim, king of
Arabian or Mesopotamian country.             Judah [JEHUDI].   2. In Zeph. i. I, Cushi apBesides W, we find ~t?.3 a Cushite, IWi'3  pears as the father of the prophet and the son of
a Cushite woman, and the plurals.W.3~ and  Gedaliah, who must not be confounded with the
governor of that name. 3. In 2 Sam. xviii. 21,
t   3Zs.-S. L.                                SWi.G (Cushi) occurs once without the article, as the
name of one of Joab's messengers, who broke the
CUSHAN (jr.3). Supposed by some to be the sad tidings of Absalom's death to David. As,
same as Cushan Rishathaim of Judg. iii. He is however, the word occurs in seven other places
mentioned by the prophet Habakkuk (iii. 7), in(xviii. 2  22, 23, 31, wice 32 twice) with the
connection with Midian, which fact is thought to article (t) descriptive of the same man, it is
lend probability to the supposition.  This fine probable that we have here not the messenger's
poem or'prayer' of the prophet recounts the mer-name, but only his natiow (So Kimchi); as if an
cies shewn by God to the chosen race throughout  Ethiopian' foreiger would have more hardihood
the more miraculous portion of their history. After t make so miseable a communication to the
speaking of the delivery of the law in ter f  el ms very  tressed king than a neighbour like Ahimaaz
similar to those in which the same event is alluded the son of Zadok, who actually faltered and failed
to (Deut. xxxiii. 2),' God came from Teman, and i his self-chosen office when the moment came
the Holy One from Mount Paran,' the prophet hasfor discharging it. (See Grotius on  Sa. xviii.
been thought to refer to the history of the Israelites 21.) P. Martyr's conceit, that the swarthiness of
under the Judges, particularizing the two deliver-the messenger induced Joab to select him because
ances of Othniel and Gideon. There appears to of the dark import of his message, can only be
be an allusion afterwards to the passage of the Red accepted as a pretty fancy. Josephus throughout
Sea, etc. (v. 8). Gesenius, however, as we think  writes the messengers name with an article, o
better, considers Cushan but another form of   ov.-P 
Cush, by which he understands Ethiopia: the    CUTHAH (nns; Sept. Xovud), a district in
LXX. also translate it AfOlioTre. Cushan Rishathaim is mentioned as a king of MesopotamiaAsia, whence Shalmaneser transplanted certain
(Aram Naharaim), who was the first oppressor of colonists into the land of Israel, which he had
the Israelites after the death of Joshua, and from  desolated (2 Kings xvii. 24-30). From the interwhose yoke, after a servitude of eight years, Oth- mixture of these colonists with the remaining
niel delivered them. See also Joseph. Ant. v. natives sprung the Samaritans, who are called
3. 2.-S. L.                                  Cuthites (Pin'l) in the Chaldee and the Talmud,
".3. ~~2. ~-=S. L.              and for the same reason a number of non-Semitic
CUSHI (WE3) occurs, in a variety of forms, no words which occur in the Samaritan dialect are
called Cuthian. The situation of the Cuthah from
less than twenty-seven times in the Hebrew Bible;  ichhese colonists came is altogether unknown.
in the majority of instances as a Gentile appellative which these colonists came is altogether unknown.
noun. -I. In Num. xii. I it occurs in the feminine Josephus places it in central Persia, and finds there
form 1nes   (A9s6ntroaa, x   thiotissa) ttwice to a river of the same name (Antiq. ix. 14. 3; x. 9.7).
form 1..n^3 (A~.  ^ } t    Rosenmuiller and others incline to seek it in the
designate Moses' wife [concerning her, see ZIP- Arabian Irak, where Abulfeda and other Arabic
PORAH], the first time with the art., the second and Persian writers place a town of this name, in
anarthrous. 2. The plural form, D.j.I3 (AIS- the tract near the Nahr-Malca, or royal canal,
OTES, Ahiopes), is found in 2 Chron. xii. 3, de- which connected the Euphrates and Tigris to the
scriptive of a part of Shishak's great army; and in south of the present Bagdad. Winerseems to prexiv. 12 (twice), 13, and xvi. 8, designating the fer the conjecture of Stephen Morin and Le Clerc,
Ethiopian army which invaded Judah in the reign ch identifies the Cuthites with the Coss  n
of Asa. In xxi. i6, it occurs as a general term of Susiana (Arrian, Indic. xl.; Plin. Hist. Nat. vi.
the Ethioypian nation [ETHIOPIA]; so also in 3; Diod. Sic. xvi. III; Mannert, i. 493). All
Zeph. ii. 2, and Dan. xi. 43; and lastly in Amos these conjectures refer essentially to the same quarix. 7, where, however, the MSS. present the word ter.-J. K.
in three various shapes, besides the Masoretic  CUTHITES.     [SAMARITANS.]
reading Dtl.l Five of Kennicott's MSS. read
CUTTING     OFF   FROM    THE   PEOPLE.
I:1tZ, eight D'.jl, and no less than twenty-one [ANATHEMA.]
B   Dteg~ 3. The masculine form (as an adjective
only) in Jer. xiii. 23 has a general sense, and is  CUTTINGS  IN  THE  FLESH.    Amongst
without the article. In all other passages, except the prohibitory laws which God gave the Israelites
one, it has the article; in 2 Chron. xiv. 9 Till'Il there was one that expressly forbad the practice
(Aiato#,  EtAlhiops) describes Zerah, the coin- embraced in those words, viz.,' Ye shall not make




CUTTINGS IN THE FLESH                600                  CYAMON
any cuttings in your flesh for the dead' (Lev. xix.  The spirit of Islam is less favourable than that
28). It is evident from this law that such a species of heathenism  to displays of this kind: yet exof self-inflicted torture obtained amongst the nations amples of them are not of rare occurrence even in
of Canaan; and it was doubtless to guard His peo- the Moslem countries of Western Asia, including
pie against the adoption of so barbarous a habit, Palestine itself. The annexed figure is copied from
in its idolatrous form, that God led Moses to  one which is represented in many of the books of
reiterate the prohibition:'They shall not make travel in Egypt and Palestine which were printed
baldness upon their heads, neither shall they shave in the seventeenth century. It is described by the
off the corner of their beards, nor make any cut- missionary Eugene Roger (La Terre Saincte, etc.,
tings in their flesh' (Lev. xxi. 5; Deut. xiv. I).  1646, p. 252) as representing'one of those calenInvesting his imaginary deities with the attributes ders or devotees whom the Arabs name Balhoaua,'
of cruelty, man has, at all times, and in all coun- and whom the simple people honour as holy martries, instituted a form of religion consisting in cruel tyrs. He appears in public with a scimitar stuck
rites and bloody ceremonies. If then we look to through the fleshy part of his side, with three heavy
the practices of the heathen world, whether of an- iron spikes thrust through the muscles of his arm,
cient or modern times, we shall find that almost and with a feather inserted into a cut in his forethe entire of their religion consisted of rites of head.  He moves about with great composure,
dteprectiion. Fear of the Divine displeasure would  and endures all these sufferings, hoping for recomseem to have. been the leading feature in their reli- pense in the Paradise of Mohammed-' Aveuglegious impressions.  The universal prevalence of ment digne de larmes (adds the monk), que ces
human sacrifices throughout the Gentile world is; miserables commencent ici une vie pleine de soufin itself, a decisive proof of the light in which the france, pour la continuer eternellement dedans les
human mind, unaided by revelation, is disposed to gehennes de l'Enfer!' Add to this the common
view the Divinity.
It was doubtless such mistaken views of the cha- 
racter of God that led the prophets of Baal (I
Kings xviii. 28) to cut their bodies with lancets,
supposing that, by mingling their own blood with
that of the offered sacrifice, their god must become 
more attentive to the voice of entreaty.  Agreeably to the inference which all this furnishes, we             I'
find Tacitus declare (Hist. i. 4),'Non esse curse
Diis securitatem nostram, sed ultionem.' In fact it 
was a current opinion amongst the ancient heathen 
that the gods were jealous of human happiness;
and in no part of the heathen world did this                   -)         -
opinion more prevail, according to Sanchoniathon's
account, than amongst the inhabitants of those                      201
very countries which surrounded that land where
God designed to place his people Israel. Hence accounts of the gashes which the Persian devotees
we see why God would lay them under the whole- inflict upon themselves in the frenzy of their love
some influence of such a prohibitory law as that and grief, during the annual mourning for Hassan
under consideration:' Ye shall not make any cut- and Hossein (Morier, Malcolm, etc.), and the curitings in your flesh for the dead.' The ancients were ous particulars in Aaron Hill's Account of the Ottovery violent in their expression of sorrow. Virgil man Empire (ch. I3), respecting the proceedings
represents the sister of Dido as tearing her face of young Turks in love:-'The most ridiculous
with her nails, and beating her breast with her and senseless method of expressing their affection
fists:-                                      is their singing certain amorous and whining songs,'Unguibus ora soror fcedans et pectora pugnis.' composed on purpose for such mad occasions, beEn. iv. 672. tween every line whereof they cut and slash their
naked arms with daggers, each endeavouring in
The present writer has seen in India the same this emulative madness to exceed the other by the
wild exhibition of grief for the departed relative or depth and number of the wounds he gives himself.'
friend.  Some of the learned think that that law  From the examples which have been produced,
of Solon's, which was transferred by the Romans we may very safely conclude that the expression
into the Twelve Tables, that women in mourning  Z cuttings in the flesh,' in these passages of Scripshould not scratch their cheeks, derived its origin ture, was designed, as already intimated, to declare
from this law of Moses (Lev. xix. 28). But how- the feeling of strong affection; as though the living
ever this opinion may be questioned, it would would say,' See how little we regard the pleasures
appear that the simple tearing of their flesh out of of life, since now the object of our affection is regrief and anguish of spirit is taken, in other parts moved from us!' We must therefore come back
of Scripture, as a mark of affection: thus (Jer. to our former position, that it was against those selfxlviii. 37),'Every head shall be bald, every beard inflicted tortures, by which the unhappy devotees
clipped, and upon all cuttings.' Again (ch. xvi. vainly thought to deprecate the wrath of their
6):' Both the great and the small shall die in the angry gods towards their deceased relatives and
land: they shall not be buried, neither shall men friends, this law of Moses was especially aimed.lament for them, nor cut themselves.' So (ch. xli. J. W. D.
5):'There came from Samaria fourscore men
having their heads shaven and their clothes rent,  CYAMON   (Kvacwjv, Chelmon, Judith vii. 3),
and having cut themselves, with offerings to the The site of this place, which is mentioned nowhere
house of the Lord.'                            else, has been supposed to be Tell lKaimln, which




CYMBALS                    601                CYRENIUS
has been identified with the Cammona of Eusebius (Acts xiii. 4), and subsequently by Barnabas and
and the Cimzana of Jerome. Dr. Robinson inge- John Mark (Acts xv. 39).   Paul sailed to the
niously suggests, that Cyamon is a translation of south of the island on his voyage to Rome (Acts
the Hebrew Pol, meaning bean or place of beans, xxvii. 4). [ELYMAS; PAPHOS; SERGIUS PAULUS;
corresponding to the Arabic Ftzleh, the name of a SALAMIS.] (Mannert, Geograpzie der Griechen znd
place which was known to the Crusaders as the Romier, vi. 2, pp. 422-454; Stanley, Sinai and
castle Faba, or in French la Feve, and which is Palestine, 115, 406, Lond. 1858; Conybeare and
exactly in the position described,'over against Es- Howson's Life and Epistles of St. Paid, 2d ed.,
draelon' (Jezreel). (LaterBiblicalResearches, II5, Lond. 1858, vol. i., pp. 164-188; Dr. R. Pococke's
339.)-J. E. R.                                Description of the East, etc., Lond. I745, vol. ii.
book iii. ch. i. pp. 2Io-235; Wilson's 7ravels inZ
Cthe Holy Lan d, Egypt, etc., Lond. I831, vol. ii. ch.
CYPRESS. [BEROSH, TIRZAH.]                 xii. pp. I74-I97.) —J. E. R.
CYRENE     (Kvpv; Ghrenna, in    modern
CYPRUS (KItrpos), the modern Kebris, one of   CYRENE     (Ivp * r; Ghirenna, in  modern
n    Arabic), a city in Libya, founded about the year
the largest islands in the Mediterranean, and next B.. 632, by a colony of Greeks from Thera (Santo Sicily in importance. It is about I40 miles in torini), a small island in t Egean Sea (Thirwall's
S da 1 1  @                          *        z     w    s   o~~~rrtorini), a small island in the /Egean Sea (Thirwall's
length, and varies in breadth from 50 to 5 miles. History of Greece, vol.  c. 12). Its name is
From its numerous headlands and promontories, it generally supposed to be derived from a fou
was called KepSTls, > erasti, or j   rnd  and generally supposed to be derived from a founwas called Kepao-Tr, ]Kerastis, or the Horned; and
rowas called xueparcats, Kerastisity,, o r  tain (but according to Justin, [list. xiii., a mounfrom its exuberant fertility, MaKapia, Macaria, or tain), called  vp,  Cyre, near its site. It was
te bl'esse~d beatan Cyprumi: Hor. Carm. iii. 26. 9)1   built on a table-land, i8oo feet above the level of
Its proximity to Asia Minor, Phmencia, and Egypt, the sea, in a region of extraordinary fertility and
and its numerous havens, made it a general rendez- beauty. It was the capital of a district, called
vous for merchants.'Corn, wine, and oil,' which from  t Cyrenaica (Barca), which extended from
are so often mentioned in the 0. T. as the choicest te  l  la    (B ba) to the Great Srti
productions of Palestine (Deut. xii. 17; i Chron.  Gulf of      th t   ort   ooa (      a
ix. 29; Neh. x. 39; Jer. xxxi. 12), were found  (G    Sidra). With its port Apollonia (Musa
Soosa), about ten miles distant, and the cities
here in the highest perfection. The forests alsoBarca Teuchira, and Hesperis, which at a later
furnished large supplies of timber for ship-building, period were named Ptolemais, Arsinoe, and Berewhich rendered the conquest of the island a favourite nice (Strabo, xvii. vo  6 ed. Tauchn.), it
project of the Egyptian kings. It was the boastformed the Cyrenaic Pentapolis. For above 18
of the Cyprians that they could build and complete years the form of government was monarchical; it
their vessels without any aid from foreign countries then became republican; and at last, the country
(Ammian. Marcell. xiv. 8, sec. 4). Among the became tributary to Egypt, under Ptolemy Soter.
mineral products were diamonds, emeralds, and  It was bequeathed to the Romans by Apon, the
other precious stones, alum, and asbestos; besides natural son of Ptolemy Physcon, aout 97..
iron, lead, zinc, with a portion of silver, and, aboveTacitus Annal. xiv. 8; Cicero De leg. Agrar.
all, copper, the far-famed evs Cypriizi. The prin- 11. I9), and was then formed into a province witlh
cipal mines were in the neighbourhood of Tamas- Crete (Strabo, xvii. 3). Strabo (quoted by Josesus (Strabo, xiv. 6, vol. iii. p. 245, ed. Tauchn.) phus, Anti. xiv. 7) says, that in Cyrene there were' In Cyproubi prima fuit nris mventio' (Plin. Nat. four classes of persons, namely, citizens, husbandFHist. xxxiv. 2).                            men, foreigners, and Jews, and that the latter enCyprus was originally peopled from  Phcenicia joyed their own customs and laws. At the com[CHITTIM]..Amasis I., king of Egypt, subdued mencement of the Christian era, the Jews of Cyrene
the whole island (Herod. ii. 82). In the time of       numerous in Jerusalem that they had a
were so numerous in Jerusalem that they had a
Herodotus the population consisted of Athenians, synagogue of their own (Acts ii. 0; vi. 9). Some
Arcadians, Phenicians, and Ethiopians (vii. 90). of the first Christian teachers were natives of Cyrene
Under the Persians and Macedonians the whole
Under the Persians ^and Macedonians the whole(Acts xi. 20; xiii. I). Simon, who was compelled
island was divided into nine petty sovereignties.  assist in  in  h  o  o h S       was a
to assist in bearing the cross of the Saviour, was a
After the death of Alexander the Great it fell toCrenian (Mat  viie    M  k xv. 2 
Cryrenlan (Matt. xxvii. 32; Mark xv. 21; Luke
the share of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus. It was xxiii. 26).
brought under the Roman dominion by Cato.      The ruins of Cyrene and the surrounding counUnder the Emperor Augustus it was at first an try have  een diligently explored within the last
imperial province, and afterwards, with Gallia Nar- few years in 1817 by Dr. Della Cella, in I82 -22
bonensis, made over to the senate (Dion Cass. liv. by Capt. Beechey, and in  826  y M. Pacho, a
iv.) When the empire was divided it fell to the French traveller.-. E. R.
share of the Byzantine emperors. Richard I. of
England conquered it in II9I, and gave it to Guy  CYRENIUS (KuvpvtoS, or, according to his
Lusignan, by whose family it was retained for Latin appellation, P. SULPITIUS QUIRINIUS), gonearly three centuries. In 1473 the republic of vernor of Syria (Luke ii. I, 2).  The mention of
Venice obtained possession of it; but in I57I it his name in connection with the census which was
was taken by Selim II., and ever since has been in progress at the time of our Lord's birth, presents
under the dominion of the Turks. The majority very serious difficulties, of which, from the want of
of the population belong to the Greek church; the adequate data, historical and critical inquiry has
archbishop resides at Leikosia. Cyprus was one not yet attained a satisfactory solution. The pasof the first places out of Palestine in which Chris- sage is as follows:-aiLr) i cd7rooypaqfi) 7rpWTr eyevero
tianity was promulgated, though at first to Jews  Tye/uove6ovros rgs Zvplas Kupmvlov, translated in
only (Acts xi. I9), by'those who were scattered  the A. V. thus:-'Now this taxing was first made
abroad' after Stephen's nartyrdom. It was visited when Cyrenius was governor of Syria.' Instead of
by Barnabas and Paul on their first missionary tour' taxing' it is now agreed that the rendering should




CYRENIUS                   602                CYRENIUS
be'enrolment, or'registration' (of which use of But although profane history does not affirm the
the word a7roypdoea-Oac many examples are ad- fact of Cyrenius having formerly been procurator of
duced by Wetstein), as it is clear from Josephus Syria, yet it does not in any way deny it, and we may
that no taxing did take place till many years after therefore safely rest upon the authority of the
this period. The whole passage, as it now stands, sacred writer for the truth of this fact, just as we do
may be properly read-' This enrolment was the for the fact of the existence of the first enrolment
first while Cyrenius was governor of Syria.'  itself.
This appears very plain, and would suggest no  2. Another explanation would read the passage
difficulty, were it not for the knowledge which we thus:-' This enrolment was made before Cyrenius
obtain from other quarters, which is to the effect-  was governor of Syria.'  The advocates of this
I. That there is no historical notice of any enrol- view suppose that Luke inserted this verse as a sort
ment at or near the time of our Lord's birth; and of parenthesis, to prevent his readers from con2. That the enrolment which actually did take founding this enrolment with the subsequent cenplace under Cyrenius was not until ten years after sus made by Cyrenius. The positive, or rather the
that event.                                  superlative, 7rpnbrn, is thus understood in the sense
The difficulty begins somewhat before the text of the comparative 7rpcrepa, and is made to govern
now cited; for it is said that'in those days there the following genitive. That both the positive and
went out a decree from Coesar Augustus that the superlative are sometimes used in place of the comwhole world should be taxed' (enrolled). But parative is doubtlessly true; but such a construcsince no historian mentions any such general enrol- tion would in the present case be very harsh, and
ment of the whole empire, and since, if it had taken very foreign to the usual simplicity of Luke.
place, it is not likely to have been mentioned in  3. Another mode of getting over the difficulty is
connection with the governor of Syria, it is now  sanctioned by the names of Calvin, Valesius, Wetusually admitted that Judaea only is meant by the stein, Hales, and others.  First, changing' aULrT
phrase rendered'the whole earth' (but more pro- into aitr they obtain the sense:-'In those days
perly'the whole land'), as in Luke xxi. 26; Acts there went forth a decree from Augustus, that the
xi. 28; and perhaps in xxi. 20. The real diffi- whole land should be enrolled; but the enrolmzent
culties are thus reduced to the two now stated. itself was first made when Cyrenius was governor
With regard to the enrolment, it may be said that of Syria.' The supposition here is that the census
it was probably not deemed of sufficient importance was commenced under Saturninus, but was not
by the Roman historians to deserve mention, being  completed till two years after, under Quirinus.
confined to a remote and comparatively unimpor- Dr. Robinson (Addit. to Calzet, in' Cyrenius')
tant province.  Nor was it, perhaps, of such a objects to this view the entire absence of any hisnature as would lead even Josephus to take notice torical basis for it. But he must at the time have
of it, if it should appear, as usually supposed, that been unmindful of Hales, who, in his Chmronology,
no trace of it can be found in his writings.  has worked out this explanation with more than
Of the remaining difficulties various solutions his usual care and success.
have been offered, and some, despairing of any  Hales reminds us that a little before the birth of
satisfactory solution, have supposed the verse in  Christ, Herod had marched an army into Arabia,
question to have been a marginal gloss which has to redress certain wrongs which he had received,
crept into the text, while others have even ventured and this proceeding had been so misrepresented to
to suggest that St. Luke must have been mistaken. Augustus that he wrote a very harsh letter to
The following explanations are, however, those Herod, the substance of which was, that'having
which are the most generally received:-hitherto treated him as a friend, he would now treat
I. Assuming, on the authority of Luke, that an en- hinz as a subject.' And when Herod sent an emrolment actually did take place at the time of our bassy to clear himself, the emperor repeatedly reLord's birth, the hypothesis proceeds to make out a fused to hear them, and so Herod was forced to
probability that Cyrenius was then joint-governor of submit to all the injuries (7rapavotias) offered to him
Syria along with Satuminus. It is knovn that a few  (Joseph. Antiq. xvi. 9). Now it may be collected
years previous to this date Volumnius had been that the chief of these injuries was the performance
joined with Saturninus as the procurator of that pro- of his threat of treating him as a subject, by the
vince, and the two, Satuminus and Volumnius, are degradation of his kingdom to a Roman province.
repeatedly spoken of together by Josephus, who For soon after Josephus incidentally mentions that
styles them equally governors of Syria (Antiq. xvi.'the whole nation of the Jews took an oath of
9, I; xvi. Io, 8). Josephus does not mention the fidelity to Coesar and the king jointly, except 6000
recall of Volumnius, but there is certainly a possi- of the Pharisees, who, through their hostility to the
bility that this had taken place before the birth of regal government, refused to take it.'  The date
Christ, and that Cyrenius, who had already distin- of this transaction is determined by its having been
guished himself, had been sent in his place. He shortly before the death of Pheroras, and coincides
would then have been under Saturninus, a'^fyezu, with the time of this decree of enrolment and of'governor' of Syria, just as Volumnius had been the birth of Christ. The oath which Josephus
before, and as Pilate was afterwards of Judea. mentions would be administered at the same time,
That he should here be mentioned as such by Luke, according to the usage of the Roman census, in
rather than Saturninus, is very naturally accounted which a return of persons, ages, and properties was
for by the fact that he returned ten years after- required to be made upon oath, under penalty of
wards as procurator or chief governor, and then  confiscation of goods, as we learn from Ulpian.
held a second and more important census for the That Cyrenius, a Roman senator and procurator,
purpose of registration and taxation, when Arche- was employed to make this enrolment, we learn
laus was deposed, and Judnea annexed to the not only from St. Luke, but by the joint testimony
Roman province of Syria. The only real objection  ofJustin Martyr, Julian the Apostate, and Eusebius;
to this solution is the silence, of all other history. and it was made while Saturninus was president of








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TOM O CRUS-Rin o Paarad-c                   (Faninan Cotes oyge n ere.




CYRIL                     603                  CYRUS
Syria (to whom it was attributed by Tertullian) in interpretation.' 2. Glaphyra in Pentateuchutm, or
the thirty-third year of Herod's reign, corresponding  Polished Discourses on the Pentateuch. This is
to the date of Christ's birth. Cyrenius; who is de- not a continuous commentary, but a series of exscribed by Tacitus as'impiger militiae et acribus pository dissertations on topics suggested by the
ministeriis,''an active soldier and rigid commis- Scripture narrative. Although each exposition,
sioner,' was well qualified for an employment so with a few exceptions, closes with the doxology, it
odious to Herod and his subjects, and probably is clear from the prefatory remarks to books i. and
came to execute the decree with an armed force. ii. that they were not oral discourses. 3. ComThe enrolment of the inhabitants,'each in his own  mentarizs in Isaiam Libb. v. 4. Commentarius
city,' was in conformity with the wary policy of the in dzodecim Prophetas minores.  5. Commentarius
Roman jurisprudence, to prevent insurrections, and  in yoannis Evangelium Libb. xii.  By the reto expedite the business, and if this precaution was searches of Cardinal Mai, several other works by
judged prudent even in Italy, much more must it Cyril have been brought to light and published in
have appeared necessary in turbulent provinces like the Bibliotheca Patrum Sanctorum Nova, Romae,
Judcaa and Galilee.                            I844-45.   Amongst these are Explanatio in
At the present juncture, however, it appears that Psalmos, containing expositions of Ps. I to  I8
the census proceeded no further than the first act, inclusive; In Pauli Epistolas qzatuor, containing
namely, of the enrolment of persons in the Roman  considerable portions of commentaries on Romans,
register.  For Herod sent his trusty minister, First and Second Corinthians, and Hebrews; and
Nicholas of Damascus, to Rome, who, by his ad- Commentarius in Lucam, consisting of fragments
dress and presents, found means to mollify and unde- gathered from twelve different catenue. More receive the emperor, so that he proceeded no further cently still the commentary on Luke has been disin the design which he had entertained. The census covered in Syriac, and published both in Syriac
was consequently at this time suspended, but it and in English by Payne Smith (Oxford 1859).
was afterwards carried into effect upon the deposal It is in the form of short sermons, which were
and banishment of Archelaus, and the settlement preached extemporaneously (see Sermons 3, 68,
of Judaea as a Roman province.  On this occasion  88). Various fragments also are given by Mai, of
the trusty Cyrenius was sent again, as president of Commentaries on Kings, Proverbs, Canticles, yereSyria, with an armed force, to confiscate the pro- miah, Baruch, Daniel, fMatthew, Acts, Galatians,
perty of Archelaus, and to complete the census for Colossians, and the Catholic Epistles.  Cyril was
the purposes of taxation.  This taxation was a unacquainted with Hebrew, and in the interpretapoll-tax of two drachmxe a-head upon males from  tion of the 0. T. follows the allegorizing method
fourteen, and females from  twelve to sixty-five of the Alexandrian School. In his commentaries
years of age, equal to about fifteenpence of our on the books of the N. T., he is commonly literal
money. This was the'tribute-money' mentioned  and practical; that on the Gospel of John is
in Matt. xvii. 24-27.  The payment of it became marked by a strong doctrinal bias.  The most
very obnoxious to the Jews, and the imposition of complete edition of his works is that published by
it occasioned the insurrection under Judas of Galilee, Migne in his Patrologic Cursus, Series Grceca.
which Gamaliel describes as having occurred'in  Paris I859, in o1 vols.-S. N.
the days of the taxing' (Acts v. 37). 
By this statement, connected with the slight   CYRUS (                K       the celebrated
emendation of the text already indicated, Hales Persian conqueror of Babylon, who promulgated the
considers that'the Evangelist is critically recon- first edict for the restoration of the Jews to their
ciled with the varying accounts of Josephus, Justin  own land (Ezra i. I, etc.) We are informed by
Martyr, and Tertullian; and an historical difficulty  Strabo that his original name was Agradates (xv.
satisfactorily solved, which has hitherto set criticism  3, p. 320, ed. Tauchn.); but he assumed that of
at defiance.' This is perhaps saying too much; Kouros, or Khouresh (whichever was the most
but the explanation is undoubtedly one of the best accurate Persian form) doubtless on ascending the
that has yet been given (Analysis of Chronology, iii. throne.  For Ctesias tells us (Photius, Epit. Ctes.
48-53; Lardner's Credibility, i. 248-329; Robin- ch. xlix.) that the word means the Sun. We may
son, Addit. to Calmet, in'Cyrenius;' Wetstein, perhaps compare it with the Hebrew D'nI kheres,
Kuinoel, and Campbell, on Luke ii. 2, etc.-J. K. which bears the same sense; and with the name of
the Egyptian deity Horzns, or Apollo.
CYRIL, BISHOP, or, as subsequently styled,     The authorities on which we have to rest for our
PATRIARCH of Alexandria, from A.D. 312 to A.D. knowledge of the life of Cyrus are chiefly three,
344 (Socrates H. E. vii. 7; Cone. Chalc. Act. iii.; First, Herodotus, who reported the tales, concernHarduin Acta. Conc., vol. ii. p. 33I). During  ing him current in Asia a century later; but sethe greater part of this period he was engaged in lected from them with the taste of a Greek epic or
a stormy controversy with Nestorius of Constan- romance writer. Secondly, Xenophon, who has
tinople and others holding the same or similar made the life of Cyrus the foundation of a philosoopinions.  Although, in consequence, involved in phical novel, written in a moral spirit, as unhistorian extensive correspondence, and a writer of cal as that of Fenelon's Telemaque.     Thirdly,
numerous theological treatises, Cyril was the author The epitome of Ctesias, preserved for us by the
of a large number of exegetical works. Of these, patriarch Photius.  Ctesias was a Greek phyuntil recently, the following only were known to sician, who stayed seventeen years at the Persian
be extant.  I. De adoratione et cultu in spirhitz et court towards the end of the reign of Darius Nothus,
verilate Libb. xvii. This is an elaborate treatise, in about B. c. 416-400. (See Bahr's Ctesias, p. 15.)
the form of dialogues, on the precepts and institu- According to Diodorus, he drew his histories from
tions of the laws of Moses, their figurative significa- the royal archives; and, in part, that may be true.
tion, and their fulfilment in the Christian economy. But a large number of the facts recorded by him
It has been described as a' treasure of allegorical would certainly never have been allowed a place in




CYRUS                     604                  CYRUS
them; and several great anachryonisms which he two armies being successively lost, which may mean
commits are mistakes of a kind which can scarcely that the war was ended in two campaigns. Yet
ever occur in books written in the form of annals. Ctesias represents Astyages as finally captured in
It would seem then that his sources of knowledge the palace of Ecbatana.  Cyrus (says Herodotus)
were not much better than those of Herodotus; but did Astyages no harm, but kept him by his side
his lengthened stay in Persia so familiarized him  to the end of his life. This is like the generosity
with Persian institutions, and multiplied his oppor- of the Perisian kings to vanquished foreigners, but
tunities of access to those sources, that, cceterispari- very unlike the conduct of fortunate usurpers, east
bus, he appears to be a better authority.  Unfortu- or west, towards a fallen superior. The tale in
nately, nothing remains to us but a mere epitome  Ctesias is more like the current imperial craft.
of his work.                                  There we read that Cyrus at first made Astyages
From these and a few subordinate authorities, ruler of the Barcanians (see Tzetzes, in Bahr's
we must endeavour to give as good a reply as we  Ctes. p. 222), and afterwards sent for him by the
can to the chief problems concerning the life of eunuch Petisacas to visit his daughter and son-inCyrus.                                        law, who were longing to see him. The eunuch,
On the parentage of Cyrus.-Herodotus and however, put him to death on the road; and
Xenophon agree that he was son of Cambyses Cyrus, indignant at the deed, gave up the murprince of Persia, and of Mandane daughter of derer to the cruel vengeance of the queen. AsAstyages, king of the Median empire.  Ctesias tyages had certainly lived long enough for the
denies that there was any relationship at all be- policy of Cyrus; who, by the Roman Cassius's test
tween Cyrus and Astyages. According to him, of Cui bono?' Who gained by it?' cannot be acwhen Cyrus had defeated and captured Astyages, counted innocent.
he adopted him  as a grandfather, and invested  The Medes were by no means made subject to
Amytis, or Amyntis, the daughter of Astyages the Persians at first. It is highly probable that, as
(whose name is in all probability only another form  Herodotus and Xenophon represent, many of the
of Mandane), with all the honours of queen dowager. noblest Medes sided with Cyrus, and during his
His object in so doing was to facilitate the submis- reign the most trusted generals of the armies were
sion of the more distant parts of the empire, which  Medes. Yet even this hardly explains the phewere not yet conquered; and he reaped excellent nomenon of a Darius the Mede, who, in the book
fruit of his policy in winning the homage of the an- of Daniel, for two years holds the government in
cient, rich, and remote province of Bactria. Ctesias Babylon, after the capture of the city by the Medes
adds, that Cyrus afterwards married Amytis. It is and Persians. Indeed, the language used concerneasy to see that the latter account is by far the ing the kingdom of Darius might be explained as
more historical, and that the story followed by  Oriental hyperbole, and Darius be supposed a
Herodotus and Xenophon is that which the cour- mere satrap of Babylon, only that Cyrus is clearly
tiers published in aid of the Persian prince's de- put forward as a successor to Darius the Mede.
signs. Yet there is no reason for doubting that, on  Many have been the attempts to reconcile this
the father's side, Cyrus belonged to the Ache- with the current Grecian accounts; but there is
menidae, the royal clan of the military tribe of the one only that has the least plausibility, viz., that
Persians.                                     which, with Xenophon, teaches that Astyages had
On the elevation of Cyrus. —It was the frequent a son still living (whom Xenophon calls Cyaxares),
practice of the Persian monarchs, and probably  and that this son is no other than Darius the
therefore of the Medes before them, to choose the Mede; to whom Cyrus, by a sort of nephew's
provincial viceroys from the royal families of the piety, conceded a nominal supremacy at Babylon.
subject nations, and thereby to leave to the van- Objections to this likewise are evident, but they
quished much both of the semblance and of the must be discussed under'Darius the Mede,' or the
reality of freedom. This will be sufficient to account book of' Daniel.'
for the first steps of Cyrus towards eminence. But  In the reign of the son of Cyrus the depression
as the Persian armies were at that time composed of the Medes probably commenced.  At his death
of ruder and braver men than the Medes-(indeed, the Magian conspiracy took place; after the defeat
to this day the men of Shiraz are proverbially  of which the Medes doubtless sunk lower still. At
braver than those of Isfahan)-the account of a later time they made a general insurrection
Xenophon is credible, that in the general wars of against the Persian power, and its suppression
the empire Cyrus won the attachment of the whole seems to have brought them to a level with Hyrarmy by his bravely; while, as Herodotus tells, canians, Bactrians, and other vassal nations which
the atrocious cruelties of Astyages may have re- spoke the tongue of Persia; for the nations of the
volted the hearts of the Median nobility.     poetical Iran had only dialectual variations of
On the transition of the empire from the fMedes to language (Strabo, xv. 2, p. 3II).
the Persians.-Xenophon's romance omits the fact  Conquests and Wars of Cyrus.-The descripthat the transference of the empire was effected by  tions given us in Ctesias, and in Plutarch's Ara civil war; nevertheless, the same writer in his taxerxes (which probably are taken from Ctesias),
Anabasis confesses it (iii. 4, 7, 12). Herodotus, concerning the Persian mode of fighting, are quite
Ctesias, Isocrates, Strabo, and, in fact, all who  Homeric in their character. No skill seems to
allude to the matter at all, agree that it was so. be needed by the general; no tactics are thought
In Xenophon (/. c.) we find the Upper Tigris to  of; he does his duty best by behaving as the
have been the seat of one campaign, where the bravest of common soldiers, and by acting the
cities of Larissa and Mespila were besieged and part of champion, like a knight in the days of
taken by Cyrus. From Strabo we learn that the chivalry. We cannot suppose that there was any
decisive battle was fought on the spot where Cyrus greater advance of the military art in the days of
afterwards built Pasargadse, in Persis, for his native  Cyrus.  It is agreed by all that he subdued the
capital. This agrees with Herodotus's account of Lydians, the Greeks of Asia Minor, and the




CYRUS                     605                  DAAH
Babylonians: we may doubtless add Susiana, impure, cruel, or otherwise immoral practice was
which must have been incorporated with his em- united to any of its ceremonies.  It is credible,
pire before he commenced his war with Babylon; therefore, that a sincere admiration of the Jewish
where also he fixed his military capital (Susa, or faith actuated the noble Persian when he exShushan), as more central for the necessities of his claimed, in the words of the book of Ezra,' Go
administration than Pasargadle. Yet the latter ye up, and build in Jerusalem the house of Jecity continued to be the more sacred and beloved hovah, God of Israel; Hre is God!'-and forced
home of the Persian court, the place of coronation the Babylonian temples to disgorge their ill-gotten
and of sepulture (Strabo, xv. 3, p. 728; and Plut. spoil. It is the more remarkable, since the
Ar/ax. init.) All Syria and Phoenicia appear to  Persians disapproved the confinement of temples.
have come over to Cyrus peaceably.            Nevertheless, impediments to the fortification of
In regard to the Persian wars, the few facts Jerusalem afterwards arose, even during the reign
from Ctesias, which the epitomator has extracted  of Cyrus (Ezra iv. 5).
as differing from Herodotus, carry with them high  Perhaps no great conqueror ever left behind
probability.  He states that, after receiving the him a fairer fame than Cyrus the Great.  His
submission of the Bactrians, Cyrus made war on mighty achievements have been borne down to
the Sacians, a Scythian (i. e., a Sclavonic) people, us on the voice of the nation which he elevated;
who seem to have dwelt, or perhaps rather roved, his evil deeds had no historian to record them.
along the Oxos, from Bokhara to Khiva; and, What is more, it was his singular honour and
that, after alternate successes in battle, he attached privilege to be the first Gentile friend to the
the whole nation to himself in faithful allegiance. people of Jehovah in the time of their sorest
Their king is called Amorges by Ctesias. They  trouble, and to restore them to the land whence
are undoubtedly the same people that Herodotus light was to break forth for the illumination of all
(vii. 64) calls Amyrgianz Sacians; and it is highly nations. To this high duty he is called by the
probable that they gave to the district of Margiana prophet (Is. xliv. 28; xlv. I), and for performing
its name. Their women fought in ranks, as sys- it he seems to be entitled'The righteous man'
tematically as the men. Strabo has cursorily told (xli. 2; xlv. 13).-F. W. N.
us of a tradition (xv. 2, p. 307) that Cyrus escaped
with but seven men through the deserts of Gedrosia, fleeing from the'Indians' - which might.
denote an unsuccessful war against Candahar, etc.,
a country which certainly was not reduced to
the Persian empire until the reign of Darius     DAAH (,I    ), the name of a species of unclean
Hystaspis.                                    bird (Lev. xi. I4). In the corresponding passage,
The closing scene of the career of Cyrus was in Deut. xiv. 13, the name is written  g1. That
battle with a people living on one or both banks of this difference has arisen from a permutation of the
the river laxartes, now the Syr-deria. Herodotus 1 and the 1 is evident; but which is the original
calls the enemy the Massagetans, who roamed form of the word is not certain.  Bochart decides
along the north bank of the river; according to for nIj, on the ground that, assuming the bird to
Ctesias it was the Derbices, who seem to have been be the kite or glede, it is more probable that it
on the south. Both may in fact have combined in would receive its name from  lWt, to fly s7siftly,
the war. In other respects the narrative of Ctesias than from  "1, to see; whilst others, presuming
is beyond comparison more credible, and more that it is the vulture, prefer the latter derivation,
agreeable with other known facts, except that he and the reading, consequently,'lNl. Thus far the
introduces the fiction of Indians with elepzhants evidence is equal, nor do the versions help us to a
aiding the enemy.  Two battles were fought on decision; for while the LXX. give in both passuccessive days, in the former of which Cyrus was
mortally wounded, but was carried off by his
people.  In the next, the Sacian cavalry and the
faithful Amorges came to support him, and the
Derbices sustained a total and bloody defeat.\                    _
Cyrus died the third day after his wound; his 
body was conveyed to Pasargadse, and buried in          \
the celebrated monument, which was broken open
by the Macedonians two centuries afterwards 
(Strabo, xv. 3; Arrian, vi. 29). The inscription,
reported by Aristobulus, an eye-witness, is this:-'0 man, I am Cyrus, who acquired the empire
for the Persians, and was king of Asia. Grudge                              \ 
me not, then, this monument.'.
Behaviour of Cyrus to the 7ews.-The kings of
Assyria and Babylon had carried the Jews into,,,
captivity, both to remove a disaffected nation from 
the frontier, and to people their new cities. By 
zldoing this work, Cyrus attached the Jews to
himself, as a garrison at an important post.  But             2C2. Milvus ater.
we may believe that a nobler motive conspired
with this. The Persian religion was primitively sages -yOra, the Vulg. has milvzs in both. The
monotheistic, and strikingly free from idolatry; so  Cod. Samar., however, reads,IN  in Deut. xiv.
little Paganz in its spirit, that, whatever of the  I3, which favours the supposition that this is the
mystical and obscure it may contain, not a single proper reading; but it still remains uncertain




DABERATH AND DABAREH                 606                  DAGON
whether, by this term, we are to understand the the expressions of Philo Byblius, Aarycv, 6s or-T
glede or the vulture. The A. V. makes it the one ZlirTv, and Actydv eTreitd  eppe Flrov Kal dporpov,
in the one passage and the other in the other. As  CKX05Ofl ZeIs'Aporptos (Sanchonialhon, ed. Orelli,
the j1W7 is distinguished from the i1r4 (Deut. xiv. pp. 26, 32, shew that he assumed the word to be
I3), and as the latter is probably one of the vulture derived from  p"1, corn.  This derivation is adgenus (comp. Is. xxxiv. I5), it is probable that the mitted by Bochart, who argues that the fields of
former belongs to the kites. It may be the lmilus the Philistines were laid waste by mice, in order
ater, the Konhich of the Arabs. This' bird has the to shew that Dagon was not the true god of agrihead, neck, and back, dark rusty grey; scapulars culture, as he was thought to be (Hieroz. ed.
bordered with rusty; wing-coverts and primaries Rosenm. i. 381); and by Beyer, who makes the
black, the last mentioned tipt with white; tail extraordinary assertion that we may conclude,
rusty grey above, white beneath; bill dark; legs from the sending of the five golden mice (to the
yellow' (C. H. S.)-W. L. A.                   God of Israel! I Sam. vi. 4), that golden mice
were offered to Dagon as an acknowledgment of
DABERATH and DABAREH (n.2!; Sept. his care in freeing their fields from mice (AdditaAac3tpidO, Aepcid, and Aefepi), a Levitical city of menta ad Selden. p. 285). Each of these arguIssachar, situated close to the south-eastern bor- ments is open to the objection that the five golden
der of Zebulun, and not far from Chisloth-Tabor piles-which were sent at the same time, and
(Josh. xxi. 28; xix. I2).  Eusebius mentions a which, if they bore any reference to Dagon, would
AapeLp& on or at Mount Tabor, which is doubtless possibly not be reconcilable with his character as
the same as Daberath (Onomast. s.v. Dabira). the god of agriculture-are here altogether disreJosephus calls it Dabaritta, and says it lay in the garded; when yet it is evident that no conclusions
great plain, on the confines of Galilee (Vita, lxii.; can be legitimately drawn from the one unless
Relandi, Pal. 737).                           they apply with equal force to the other. There
At the western base of Tabor, on the side of a are much better arguments, however, for the other
rocky ridge overlooking the plain of Esdraelon, etymology, which deduces the name from n', fish,
stands the village of Debzs ieh. There can be no  with the ending 6n (Ewald, Hebr. Gram. sec.
doubt that it marks the site, as it bears the name, 34I). This derivation is not only more in accordof the ancient Daberath.  It is small, poor, and  ance with the principles of formation (for if Dagon
filthy. It contains the bare walls of an old  comes from the root 1:1, it must belong to the
church, based on massive foundations of a still adjective formation in sec. 322, C, which does not
older date.  The situation is beautiful.  The appear so suitable for the force of a proper name),
wooded heights of Tabor rise immediately behind, but it is most decisively established by the terms
while in front Esdraelon expands like a vast sea employed in I Sam. v. 4. It is there said that
of verdure, till it touches the hills of Samaria and  Dagon fell to the earth before the ark, that his
laves the base of the distant Carmel. Daberath is head and the palms of his hands were broken off,
of some importance in a geographical point of and that'only Dagon was left to him.' If Dagon
view, as marking the boundary of Zebulun.'It is derived from  il, fish, and if the idol, as there is
turned from Sarid eastward.... unto the border of every reason to believe, had the body of a fish
Chisloth-Tabor, and then goeth out to Daberath, with the head and hands of a man, it is easy to
and goeth up to Japhia' (Josh. xix. 12). The understand why apart of the statue is there called
minute accuracy of the description is worthy of Dagon in contradistinction to the head and hands;
note. Japhia, now   Yafa, lies among the hills but not otherwise. That such was the figure of
near Nazareth; hence it is said the border'goeth the idol is asserted by Kimchi, and is admitted by
up.' It thus appears that the territory of Zebulun most modern scholars. It is also supported by the
terminated in a point near Daberath (Robinson, analogies of other fish deities among the SyroB. R. ii. 351; Maundrell, Early Travels in Pal. Arabians. Besides the ATERGATIS of the Syrians,
479; Ritter, Pal. und Syr. iii. 679).-J. L. P.  the Babylonians had a tradition, according to
Berosus (Berosi Quce supersunt, ed. Richter, p.
DAGAN     (p?).  This word which properly   48, 54), that at the very beginning of their history
means sprout or shoot (from tlr, to grow, to produce an extraordinary being, called Oannes, having the
fruit), and is rendered grain,'corn,' and some- entire body of a fish, but the head, hands, feet,
times'wheat' in the A. V., is the most general of and voice of a man, emerged from the Erythraean
the Hebrew terms representing' corn,' and is more sea, appeared in Babylonia, and taught the rude
comprehensive than any word in our language, see- inhabitants the use of letters, arts, religion, law,
ing that it probably includes not only all the pro- and agriculture; that, after long intervals between,
per corn-grains, but also various kinds of pulse and  other similar beings appeared and communicated
seeds of plants, which we never comprehend under the same precious lore in detail, and that the last
the name of' corn' or even of'grain.' p~' may, of these was called Odakon ('a28ciKwv). Selden is
therefore, be taken to represent all the commodi- persuaded that this Odakon is the Philistine god
ties which we describe by the different words corn, Dagon (De Diis Syris, p. 265). The resemblance
grain, seeds, pease, beans. Among other places between Dagon and Atergatis, or Derketo, is so
in which this word occurs, see Gen. xxvii. 28-37; great in other respects, that Selden accounts for
Num. xviii. 27; Deut. xxviii 5; Lam. ii. 12, etc. the only important difference between them-that
In the last cited passage it probably is used in the of sex-by referring to the androgynous nature of
sense of bread as made from corn.-J. K.       many heathen gods. It is certain, however, that
DA N ( p. a     ) is te n   e of the Hebrew text, the Sept., and Philo Byblius,
~DAGON (i; Sept. Aa-ycS) is the name of make Dagon masculine. The temple of Dagon
a national god of the Philistines at Gaza and  at Ashdod was destroyed by Jonathan the brother
Ashdod (Judg. xvi. 2, 23; I Sam. v. I, sq.; of Judas the Maccabee, about the year B.c. 148
I Chron. x. io). As to the meaning of the name, (I Mac. x. 84).-J. N.




DAHL                     607               DALMATIA
DAHL, JOHANN, CHR. WIL., D.D., and pro-       DAIYAH (;I). The name of an unclean bird
fessor of theology and Greek literature at Rostock, fod a g  -
i found among ruins (Deut. xiv. I3; Is. xxxiv. I5).
was born 1st September 1771, and died April i81o. Bochart concludes that it designates the black vulHe is the author of a commentary on Amos (G/itt. ture comparing 1', ink, as an allied word. Ge1795), ofa C~zestmat~a Ph~oriza,       amb.ture, omparing a1t, ink as an allied word. Ge1795),; of a Chrestomathia Pioeniana, Hamb. senius prefers rendering it kite, and tracing it to the
1800-2; and of Ocass. P1798, etc-., ad q dampro- same root as u;jT. But this word, instead of supphet. inor. loca, 1798, etc.-.                porting his conclusion, is adverse to it, for, in
Deut. xiv. I3, the ni is a dizferent bird from the
DAHLER, JOHN G., a German philologist and Deut xiv. 13, the'1Bo is a djerent bird from the
divine. He was born at Strasburg in I760, and   i; and, besides, Bochart's objection to this rendived ther ie was born at Stas burg in 1, and dering, that the kite is not a gregarious bird, and
died there iGn 1univer32. Hefirst was educated  th erefore cannot be the bird referred to in Is. xxxiv.
at other German universities.  His first work was
I5, seems fatal to it. —W. L. A.
called Exercitationes in Appianmn, and was writ-, seeW. L. A.
ten for the assistance of Schweigheuser, who was  DALMANUTHA      (AaX\favov0a). This place
preparing an edition of Appian; and it was some is only once mentioned in Scripture. Our Lord
years before he devoted himself very much to theo- was in Decapolis, on the eastern shore of the sea
logy. But, soon after 1807 he was appointed pro- of Galilee. After feeding the multitude there,
fessor of theology at Strasbourg. In addition to his'He straightway entered into a ship with his distheological knowledge he was a'man of great gene- ciples, and came into the parts of Dalmanutha'
ral learning, and, besides Greek and Latin, was (Mark. viii. 1o).  Matthew says, speaking of the
well acquainted with Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, and same event,'He came into the coasts of IMagdala'
Arabic. His theological works are, De Librorum  (xv. 39). The two places must consequently have
Paralipomenon auctoritateatqzlefidehistoricd, Stras- been near each other. The site of Magdala is
burg, I819.  [CHRONICLES.]  The Prophecies of known; it is at the little village of Mejdel, on the
Jeremiah, translated into French, Strasburg, 1825 shore of the lake, three miles north of Tiberias.
and I830.-H. W.                               Dalmanutha could not have been far distant. We
find no reference to it elsewhere, unless we adopt
DAILLE, JEAN, esteemed in his own day the the opinion of Lightfoot that it is the Greek form
greatest writer of the Reformed Church since theof Zalmon ( ), a town mentioned in the Taltime of Calvin, was born at Chatelleraut, Jan. 6, mud, and stuated close to Tiberias (Opera, ii.
1594. After studying at Poitiers and Saumur, he 4I4)
became (in 1612) tutor to the grandsons of M. du  out a mile south of Mejdel, on the road to
Plessis Mormay, and he travelled with them for
Plessis Moay, and he travelled with them for Tiberias, at the mouth of a narrow but fertile glen,
two years. He was ordained in 1623 married, is a copious fountain called Ain el-Barideh, around
and was made minister of the churc at Saumurchn it are several smaller springs, with reservoirs, and
625; in 1626 he was promoted to a church in ruins. A village evidently stood here in former
Pais, where he laboured till 1670 in which year days and this may probably be the site of Dalhe died, at the age of 77. Further particulars      a (Robinson,.. ii.396).. L. P.
respecting him, and especially his disputes with 
Des Marets and Spannheim about the ideal Uni-   DALMATIA       (AaX/uacr/a). It appears that
versalism of Amyraut, may be seen in the Abrege during Paul's second imprisonment at Rome several
de la Vie de Daille, by his son, and in the article of his old friends and companions left him. Among
about him in Bayle's Dictionary. Daille, an inde- these was Titus, who, the apostle states in his
fatigable student, published no less than twenty letter to Timothy, went into Dalmatia (2 Tim. iv.
volumes of sermons; an Apologie des Sy nodes  o). The object he had in view in going there is
d'AlenSon et de Charenton (I655), and a book De not stated; nor do we know what he did, or how
objecto cultzis religiosi, written in his 7oth year. long he remained.
Some of his volumes of sermons are expositions of  The strip of land along the deeply-indented
books of Scripture, an exercise in which he ex- eastern shore of the Adriatic was inhabited in
celled. That on the Colossians and that on the ancient times by a number of warlike tribes,
Philippians have been translated into English; among which the Dalmnate were the chief. The
the former appeared in 1672, with a preface by whole region constituted the kingdom of Illyricum.:
John Owen. A new edition was issued in 1841, It was divided into two provinces; that on the
revised and corrected by the Rev. J. Sherman, who north was called Liburnia, and that on the south
also translated the volume on Philippians. But Dalmatia. The latter extended along the coast
Daille's chef d'ceuvre was his earliest work Du from the river Titius to the borders of Macedonia
Vrai Emploi des Peres, 1631, translated into En- (Pliny, Hist. Nat. iii. 26).  About the year B.C.
glish by T. Smith, 1651. In this remarkable work, I80 the Dalmatxe revolted against the last of Illywhich was most favourably received among all rian monarchs, declared themselves free, and made
English divines, and which is well known to every Delminium their capital. A few years afterwards
theological student, he shattered by irrefragable they were attacked by the aggressive power of
arguments, the unreasonable prestige of'the Rome; and after a long and fierce struggle were
Fathers,' shewing the corruptions which crept into at length subdued by the Emperor Tiberius. In
the Christian religion after the first three centuries, the age of the apostles Dalmatia and Liburnia
and proving not only that the writings of' the were again united, and formed a province of the
Fathers' were full of forgeries, corruptions, and empire, which was usually called Illyricum, alinterpolations, but that their authority was incom- though the name Dalmatia was also sometimes
petent, and often in particular cases'their evidence applied to it. We learn from Rom. xv. I9, that
loose, their reasoning erroneous, and their inter- Paul had preached the gospel in Illyricum; and
pretations of Scripture contradictory and absurd' probably that fact may account for Titus' journey
(Bishop Warburton).-F. W. F.                 to Dalmatia. He may have gone to repress rising




DAMARIS                    608               DAMASCUS
error, or advance truth. Paul may even have sent on entering the plain flows due east across it for
him thither, though the passage in 2 Tim. iv. Io twenty miles, when it empties its waters into two
will scarcely admit of that supposition (Tacitus, lakes, or rather marshes. Both before and after
Aln. ii. 53; Conybeare and Howson, Life of St. it enters the plain a number of dams are built across
Paul, ii. 127, sy.)-J. L. P.                 the channel at different elevations, turning a part
DAMATRIS  A p),'  a wom o  A    of the abundant waters into large canals, some of
DAMARIS (zcidtapLs),  a woman of Athens,
who was led to embrace Chisianiy by the which are tunnelled through the rock along the
wpieachng of S. Pl (Acts xvii. 34).aniy bm e sup- sides of the ravine. By means of these not only is
^Apreaching of St. Paul (Acts xvii 34)'Some sup- there an unlimited supply of water conveyed to the
pose she was the wife of Dionysius the Areopagite, there an unlimited supply of water conveyed to the
who is mentioned before her; but the construction numerable fountains of the great city but the
in the Greek will not sanction this conclusion.whole surrounding plain i irrgated. The ravine
The name Damaris does not occur elsewhere, of the Abana is a real cornucopia, pouring out a
whence some suppose it a corruption of Damalrs perennial flood of fruit and flowers upon the broad
whence some suppose it a corruption of Damalis
(ikaytas), which was not aln uncommon name-1 plain. The Pharpar takes its rise high up on the
side of Hermon. After descending into the plain
burt the r and  are in Greek so constantly inter- it flows eastward across it, passing about seven
changed as to render this emendation superfluous.  miles south of the cit  but sending out several
DAMASCUS (pa a; AaacrKios). Few cities large streams which irrigate the plain'almost up to
possess greater interest for the sacred historian and the gates.  It falls into Lake Heijaneh about
t we^ nty mles sout-east of Damas cus. It may be
antiquary than Damascus.  It is the oldest ci n twenty miles south-east of Damascus.  It may be
the world. It was closely connected during cityn  right here to state that the description given of the
a long plain and rivers of Damascus in Mr. Rawlinson's
period with the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. It valuable essa on the gerapy  Mesopotamia
occupies a place of considerable prominence fromvaluable adjacent countries, i hi edo of Hpo
the time of Abraham to that of Paul; and it be-and the i5    o   ries, in hisedition of Herodotus (i. 547, Sg.7) is altogether inaccurate. The
came the seat of one of the most flourishing of'the dotus (i. 547, sq.) is altogether inaccurate. The
came the seat of one of the most flourishing ofthecanals taken from the Barada do not again unite
early Christian churches. Damascus has besides 
been a witness of the stirring events of full four with the main stream, nor does the Awaj at any
thousand years, and has in succession been ruled point join that river. The lakes into which the
by the mightiest monarchs and dynasties of the Barada and Awaj empty their waters are not the
earth.monars and                     s of t   same, nor do they ever unite. It seems strange
that Mr. Rawlinson should have embodied such
Some derive the name Damasczs from an unused
root       je, signifying'to be active,' and ex- statements in his text, while, as it appears from a
note, he had before him the results of the exploraplain it as indicating the commercial activity for tions made by the writer of this article, as comwhich the city has always been noted (Gesenius, municated to the Royal Geographical Society
Thesaurus, s. v.) The Arabic name is the same (7outrnal R. G. S. xxvi. 43, sq.)
as the ancient Hebrew,    T     Some modern     The first view of Damascus obtained by those who
approach it from the west can never be forgotten.
writers affirm that the name of. the city is  u  It is not surpassed for beauty by any landscape in' the world. The road winds through the defiles of
Shzam, or ^1   with the article. This, however, Antilibanus, then across a broad steppe or terrace,
Ib~~ 1s, ~~ bare, barren, and stony. The ridge which forms
is the proper name of Syria, though it is sometimes the supporting wall of this terrace is naked limein conversation applied to the city as a contraction stone, almost as white as snow.  Over its crest the
of the full name jA,,         given to it by all old road is carried by a deep cutting. On passing
ofteflnn', gienthis the whole plain and city of Damascus burst in
native writers.                               a moment on the view. The brilliant verdure is
I. Situatiot. -Damascus occupies the most rendered more striking by contrast with the painbeautiful site in Syria, or perhaps in all Western ful barrenness of the desert behind. The wild
Asia. At the eastern base of Antilibanus lies a gorge of the Abana is close on the right. The city
vast plain having an elevation of about 2200 feet stands on the banks of the main stream about two
above the level of the sea. It is bounded on the miles distant, and 500 feet below the pass. The
south by the river Awaj, the ancient Pharpar, modern architecture of the East does not bear close
which separates it from Iturea.  On the east a inspection, but when seen from a distance it is sinlittle group of conical hills divides it from the great gularly imposing. Tapering minarets and swelling
Arabian desert. Its form is triangular, and its domes, tipped with golden crescents, rise up in
area about 500 square miles.  Only about one- every direction from the confused mass of white
half of this is now inhabited, or indeed habitable; terraced roofs; while in some places their tops
but in richness and beauty this half is unsurpassed. gleam like diamonds amid the deep green foliage.
It owes all its advantages to its rivers. Without In the centre of the city stands the great mosque,
them it would be an arid desert; by them it has and near it are the massive towers of the castle.
been made a paradise. While one looks from the Beneath our feet lies the Merj, the Ager Damasbrow of Lebanon over that matchless scene of ver- cenzs of the early travellers-a long green meadow,
dure, he cannot but acknowledge the truth and stretching from near the mouth of the gorge to the
appropriateness of Naaman's proud exclamation-  western end of the city. The Barada winds through'Are not Abana and Pharpar, rivers of Damascus, it; and at its eastern end, on the banks of the
better than all the waters of Israel?' (2 Kings v. stream, is one of the most beautiful of the mosques.
12.) The Abana, now called Barada, descends The gardens and orchards, which have been so
through a sublime ravine from the very centre of long and so justly celebrated, encompass the whole,
Antilibanus, intersecting several parallel side ridges. sweeping along the base of the hills, and extending
The last of these it passes by a narrow gorge, and on both sides of the river more than ten miles




THE EAST GATE OF DAMASCUS.-From Sketch made on the spot by Rev. J. L. PORTER.
EDINBURGH: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK.








DAMASCUS                    609                DAMASCUS
eastward. They cover an area about thirty miles tionably be one of the first sites chosen for the
in circuit, not uniformly dense, but with open  erection of a city.  The rich plain, the abundant
glades at intervals, and villages like white specks waters, and the delicious climate could not escape
among.   Beyond this circuit are clumps of trees the notice of emigrants seeking a settlement.
and groves dotting the vast plain as far as the eye Josephus gives the following interesting quotation
can see. The varied tints of the foliage add from Nicolaus, the great historian of Damascus:greatly to the beauty of the picture. The sombre'Abraham reigned at Damascus, being a foreigner
hue of the olive, and the deep green of the walnut, who came with an army out of the land of Babyare relieved by the lighter shade of the apricot, the Ion; but after a time he removed from that country
silvery sheen of the poplar, and the russet tinge of with his people, and went into the land called
the pomegranate; while lofty cone-like cypresses Canaan.  The name of Abraham   is even still
appear at intervals, and a few palms raise up their famous in the country of Damascus, and there is
graceful heads. In early spring the blossoms of shewn a village called after him the Habitation of
the fruit-trees give another charm to the scene-  Abraham' (Antiq. i. 7. 2). The Scriptures contain
lying like foam upon that verdant sea. The gor- no direct allusion of this fact, but it is singularly
geously coloured foliage thus surrounding the confirmed by a very ancient tradition.  In the vilbright city; the smooth plain beyond, now bounded lage of Burzeh, three miles north of the city, is a
by bare hills, and now mingling with the sky on highly venerated shrine, which has been called for
the distant horizon; and the wavy atmosphere at least eight centuries the rHouse of Abraham.
quivering under a shower of sunbeams, that make  The territory of Damascus was not included in
forest, plain, and mountain tremble, give a soft- the land allotted to the Israelites, probably beness, an aerial beauty, to the whole picture, that cause it was peopled by Shemites; Canaan alone
ravishes the mind of the beholder.            was promised to Abraham (Num. xxxiv.; Gen.
The ridge from which this view is obtained cul- xii. 5-7; Josh. xiv. I-6; Joseph. Antiq. v. I.
minates on the right in the snow-capped peak of 22). The tribe of Naphtali bordered upon it on
Hermon; on the left, it stretches away till lost in the south-west and south.  During the eight
the distance. The plain at its base is as productive centuries which elapsed between Abraham and
as it is beautiful. The principal fruits of the world  David the name of Damascus is not once mengrow there luxuriantly-apples and bananas, cher- tioned in Scripture. It appears, however, to have
ries and oranges, dates, figs, grapes, quinces, continued prosperous, for when David marched
apricots, plums, and peaches, are found side by against the King of Zobah, we read that the Araside. The olive and mulberry are extensively cul- means of Damascus united with Hadadezer against
tivated; and the almond and walnut everywhere him. The Israelites were victorious,' And David
abound.   In a word, Damascus occupies one of put garrisons in Aram of Damascus (pW1)~  Dn,:1);
those sites which nature appears to have specially  and the Arameans became servants to David, and
formed for a great perennial city. Its supply of brought gifts' (2 Sam. viii. 6; Joseph. Antiq. vii.
water is unlimited, its richness has passed into a 5. 2). Josephus says that the King of Damascus
proverb, its climate is salubrious, and its beauty is was then a powerful monarch, and reigned over a
unrivalled.                                   large territory, which his descendants inherited
II. History.-The first notice of Damascus occurs for ten generations, retaining the name Hadad as
in Gen. xiv. 15. The city must then have been well the title of the dynasty.  In the time of the first
known, as it is taken as a mark to indicate the  Hadad, Rezon, a refugee from Zobah, settled in
position of another place. We read that Abraham  Damascus, and attained to great power.  From I
pursued the kings of the East from Dan'unto  Kings xi. 25 one might conclude that he had for a
Hobah, which is on the left hand of Damascus.' time superseded Hadad, but that passage may perIn the succeeding chapter (ver. 2), Abraham calls haps only mean that he became a successful
his steward'Eliezer of Damascus,' which appears general, and obtained such influence at court as
to indicate that he was descended from a Damascene to be virtual ruler. According to Josephus, he was
family. The city must consequently have existed just a powerful chief of bandits, who was permita considerable time before the age of Abraham. ted to settle in the kingdom and to attack and
Josephus states that Damascus was founded by Uz, plunder at will all the enemies of the state (Antiq.
the son of Aram, and grandson of Shem (Antiq. i. viii. 7. 6).
6. 4); and the incidental references in the Bible  The next notice of Damascus is during the reign
tend to confirm this statement. In the Ioth chapter of Asa.  When threatened by the King of Israel
of Genesis there is an account of the origin and he made a treaty with Benhadad. The latter implanting of the various nations by the posterity of mediately invaded the kingdom of Israel, pillaged
Noah. Canaan peopled tha country subsequently the border cities of Dan, Ijon, and Abel, and laid
called by his name.  His colonies were chiefly waste the whole of Naphtali (I Kings xv. I9, 20;
settled between the Mediterranean and the Jordan. Joseph. Antiq. viii. 12. 4). At this period DamasNorth of the fountain of the Jordan, they were, cus assumed the first place among the powers of
with the single exception of Hamath, confined to  Western Asia, and exercised great influence over
the west of Lebanon, afterwards known as Phoeni- the affairs of bothJudah and Israel, whose jealousies
cia. They did not occupy either the eastern slopes prevented them from uniting against a common foe.
of Lebanon, or the plain of Coelesyria.  The  Fifty years later another Benhadad invaded Israel,
regions colonized by the posterity of Shem are not and invested Samaria.  He was accompanied in
so clearly defined. Aram was one of his sons, and  this expedition by no less than thirty-two kings or
gave his name to a large district extending from  princes, and a vast army.  His insultingmessage to
Lebanon to the banks of the Tigris (ARAM), which, King Ahab, and the submissive reply of the latter,
as Josephus informs us, was peopled by his family, are striking evidences of the power of Damascus;
(Antiq. i. 6. 4). When Aram took possession of but God fought for Israel, and by the instrumennorth-eastern Syria, Damascus would unques- tality of a little band defeated their proud foes
VOL. I.                                                                         2 R




DAMASCUS                     610                DAMASCUS
(I Kings xx). A second time Benhadad tried his up with prophetic judgments yet to come.' Dafortune in the field, but with still worse success, mascus is waxed feeble, and turneth herself to flee,
his army was overthrown, and he himself taken  and fear hath seized on her..  How is the city
prisoner. The King of Israel, however, foolishly  of praise not left, the city of my joy' (xlix. 24, 25).
released him, and a few years later was slain in  The city was afterwards held in succession by the
battle by the Syrians on the heights of Gilead  Egyptians, Babylonians, and Persians. We have
(I Kings xx. 3I-43; xxii. 35). Naaman the leper no particulars of its history for a period of three
was at this time'captain of the host of the King of centuries.  Under the rule of the Persians it was
Syria' (2 Kings v. I). The romantic story of his the capital of the province of Syria, and the resiinterview with Elisha, and his cure, forms a dence of the Satrap.  When Darius, the last king
pleasant episode in the history of war and blood- of Persia, made his great effort to repress the
shed.  Under Benhadad Damascus reached the rising power, and bar the progress of Alexander of
pitch of its greatness. The kingdom now embraced  Macedon; it was in this city he deposited his family
the whole country east of the Jordan, the ridge of and treasures.  The fate of Damascus, with that
Anti-Libanus, and the valley of Coelesyria, while of all Western Asia, was decided by the battle of
the princes of Maachah, Hobah, and Mesopotamia, Issus, in which the Persian army was almost anniwere either subjects or close allies. Benhadad for hilated.  Damascus now became the capital of a
some reason concentrated all his forces against province which Alexander gave to his general,
Israel, and when defeated through the instrumen- Laomedon (Plutarch, Vit. Alexand.)  During the
tality of Elisha, he sought the prophet's life. The long wars which raged between the Selucidoe and
incidents of these campaigns, and the miraculous the Ptolemies, Damascus had no separate history;
interpositions of Elisha, constitute some of the most it sometimes fell to the one, and sometimes to the
interesting and remarkable chapters of Jewish  other.  Antioch was founded, and became their
history (2 Kings vi. vii.)                     favourite residence, and the capital of the Seleucide,
A few years later Damascus was honoured by a but when the Syrian kingdom was divided, in B.c.
visit from Elisha.  Benhadad was sick, and in his 126, Damascus was made the second capital. Its
sufferings he sought the aid of his old enemy. The  territory embraced Coelesyria, Phoenicia, and the
messenger he sent to meet the prophet was that country east of the Jordan, and it was afterwards
Hazael, whom   God had commanded Elijah to     governed in succession by four princes of the family
anoint king (I Kings xix. 15).  Elisha knew him  of Seleucus. Damascus and Antioch thus became
at once, read his character, exposed his guilty de- the seats of rival factions, and aspirants after comsigns, and drew such a harrowing sketch of his plete sovereignty (Appian, Syriac.; Joseph. Anliq.
future cruelties that Hazael cried,' Is thy servant a xiii. I3. 4, and 15. I).  The last of these, Antidog that he should do this thing?' Hazael re- ochus Dyonisus, was killed in battle against Aretas,
turned to Damascus, murdered his master, and   King of Arabia, and the Damascenes forthwith
mounted the throne (2 Kings viii., B.C. 885). Dur- elected Aretas his successor (Joseph. Antiq. xiii.
ing his reign the armies of Syria marched victorious  15. I, B.c. 84). In the year B.c. 64, the Romans,
to the borders of Egypt.  Gath was taken, and  under Pompey, invaded and captured Syria, constiJerusalem was only saved by paying a heavy ran- tuted it a province of the empire, and made Damassom (2 Kings xii. 7, sq.) After a prosperous reign  cus the seat of government (Id., xiv. 2. 3, and 4. 5).
of forty years, Hazael died, and left the kingdom  For twenty years Damascus continued to be the
to his son Benhadad (2 Kings xiii. 24).  Under the residence of the Roman procurators.  The city
new prince the power of Damascus rapidly de- prospered under their firm and equitable rule, and,
dined, and the city was taken by Jeroboam, King  even after their removal to Antioch, did not decline.
of Israel (2 Kings xiv. 28).  During the anarchy  Strabo, who flourished at this period, describes it
which followed the. death of Jeroboam, Damascus as one of the most magnificent cities of the East.
appears to have regained its independence, and  Nicolaus, the famous historian and philosopher,
some years afterwards we find Syria and Israel the friend of Herod the Great and Augustus, was
allied against Judah, and besieging Jerusalem  (2 now one of its citizens (Strabo, Geogr. xvi.; Joseph.
Kings xvi. 5). This act, however, led to the final Ant. xvi. 10. 8). But the strong arm of Rome was
overthrow of the kingdom of Damascus.   Ahaz, not sufficient to quell the fiery spirit of the Syrians.
King of Judah, sought aid from  the Assyrians. The whole country was rent into factions, and emTheir powerful monarch, Tiglath-pileser, marched  broiled by the unceasing rivalries and wars of petty
at once against Damascus, captured the city, slew  princes.  About the year A.D. 37, a family quarrel
Resin the last of the kings, and took the inhabi- led to a war between Aretas, king of Arabia, and
tants captive to Kir (2 Kings xvi. 7, sq). This was Herod Antipas. The Roman governor, Vitellius,
the first great revolution in the affairs of Damascus, was instructed to interfere in favour of the latter;
and the close of the first period of its history. The but, when he was ready to attack Aretas, who had
independence it now  lost was never regained. already driven back Herod, news arrived of the
Isaiah's prophecy was fulfilled'The kingdom shall death of the emperor Tiberius.  The government
cease from Damascus' (Is. xvii. 3; Am. i. 4, 5).  of Syria was thus thrown into confusion, and VitelDamascus remained a province ofAssyriauntilthe  lius returned to Antioch (Joseph. Ant. xviii. 5.
capture of Nineveh by the Medes (B.C. 625; Rawlin-  I-3). It appears that now Aretas, taking advanson's Herodotus, i. 4I1), when it submitted to the con- tage of the state of affairs, followed up his sucquerors.  Its wealth and commercial prosperity ap- cesses, advanced upon Damascus, and seized the
pear to have declined for a considerable period, pro- city. It was during his brief rule that Paul visited
bably on account of the ravages of Tiglath-pileser, Damascus, on his return from Arabia (Gal. i. I6,
and the captivity of the mostinfluential and enterpris-  I7).  His zeal as a missionary, and the energy
ing of its people. In the beautiful language of Jere- with which he opposed every form of idolatry, had
miah, written more than a century after its fall, a probably attracted the notice, and excited the endescription of its existing state appears to be mixed  mity of Aretas; and, consequently, when informed




DAMASCUS                     611                DAMASCUS
by the Jews that the Apostle had returned to the the Turkish authorities, they suddenly rose against
city, he was anxious to secure him, and gave orders the poor defenceless Christians, massacred about
to the governor to watch the gates day and night 6000 of them in cold blood, and left their whole
for that purpose (Acts ix. 24; 2 Cor. xi. 32. See quarter in ashes! Such is the last act in the long
Neander, Planting and Training of the Christian  history of Damascus.
Church, iii. I).                                 Damascus is still the largest city in Asiatic
The Romans adorned Damascus with many Turkey. It contained in I859 a population of
splendid buildings, the ruins of which still exist. about 150,000. Of these 6000 were Jews and
Some of them were probably designed by Apollo- I5,ooo Christians. The Christian community has
dorus, a native of the city, and one of the most since been almost exterminated, the greater portion
celebrated architects of his age, to whose genius of the males having been massacred. The Pasha
we are indebted for one of the most beautiful monu- ranks with the first officers of the empire, and the
ments of ancient Rome, the Column of Trajan    city is the head-quarters of the Syrian army. It
(Dion Cass. lxix.)  Christianity obtained a firm  has always been a great centre of commerce: in tile
footing in Damascus in the apostolic age.  It days of Tyre's glory,'Damascus was her merchant
spread so rapidly among the population, that in the in the multitude of the wares of her making, for
time of Constantine, the great temple, one of the the multitude of all riches; in the wine of Helbon
noblest buildings in Syria, was converted into a and white wool' (Ezek. xxvii. I8). It afterwards
cathedral church, and dedicated to John the Bap- became famous for its sword-blades and cutlery;
tist. When the first general council assembled at but its best workmen were carried off by Timur to
Nice, Magnus, the metropolitan of Damascus, was Ispahan. Its chief manufactures are, at present,
present with seven of his suffragans. But the Ro- silks, coarse woollen stuffs, cottons, gold and silver
man empire was now waxing feeble, and the reli- ornaments, and arms. The bazaars are stocked
gion which, by its establishment as a national in- with the products of nearly all nations-Indian
stitute, ought to have infused the germ of a new  muslins, Manchester prints, Persian carpets, Lyons'
life into the declining state, was itself losing its silks, Birmingham cutlery, Cashmere shawls, Mocha
purity and its power. Damascus felt, like other coffee, and Dutch sugar.
places, the demoralizing tendencies of a corrupt  III. Topography and antiquities.-The old city,
faith. In the beginning of the 7th century a new  the nucleus of Damascus, stands on the south bank
and terrible power appeared upon the stage of the  of the river, and is surrounded by a tottering wall,
world's history, destined, in the hands of an all- the foundations of which are Roman, and the
wise though mysterious providence, to overthrow a superstructure a patchwork of all succeeding ages.
degenerate empire and chastise an erring church. It is of an irregular oval form. Its greatest diaIn A.D. 634 Damascus opened its gates to the Mo- meter is marked by the' street called Straight,'
hammedans, and thirty years later the first caliph  which intersects it from east to west, and is about
of the Omeiades transferred the seat of his govern- a mile long. This street was anciently divided
ment to that city.  It now became for a brief into three avenues by Corinthian colonnades, and
period the capital of' a vast empire, including  at each end were triple Roman gateways, still in a
Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, Northern Africa, and great measure entire. In the old city were the
Spain (Elmacin, Hist. Sarac. xiii.) In A.D. 750  Christian and Jewish quarters, and the principal
the Omeiades were supplanted by the dynasty of buildings and bazaars. On the north, west, and
Abbas, and the court was removed to Baghdad. A  south, are extensive suburbs. The internal aspect
stormy period of four centuries now passed over of the city is not prepossessing, and great is the
the old city, without leaving a single incident disappointment of the stranger when he leaves the
worthy of special note. An attack of the crusa- delicious environs and enters the gates. Without,
ders (A.D. 1148) under the three chiefs, Baldwin, nature smiles joyously, the orchards seem to blush
Conrad, and Louis VII., might have claimed a at their own beauty, and the breeze is laden with
place here had it not been so disgraceful to the perfumes.  Within, all is different. The works of
Christian arms. It is enough to say, that the cross man shew sad signs of neglect and decay. The
never displaced the crescent on the battlements of houses are rudely built; the lanes are paved with
Damascus. The reigns of Nureddin and his more big rough stones, and partially roofed. with ragged
distinguished successor Saladin, form bright epochs mats and withered branches; long-bearded, fanatiin the city's history. Two centuries later came cal-visaged men squat in rows on dirty stalls, tellTimur, who literally swept Damascus with' the ing their beads, and mingling, with muttered
besom of destruction.'  Arab writers sometimes prayers to Allah and his prophet, curses deep and
call him el- Wahsh,' the wild beast,' and he fully terrible on all infidels. The bazaars are among the
earned that name. Never had Damascus so fear- best in the East. They are narrow covered lanes,
fully experienced the horrors of conquest.  Its with long ranges of open stalls on each side; in
wealth, its famed manufactures, and its well-filled  these their owners sit as stiff and statue-like as if
libraries, were all dissipated in a single day. It they had been placed there for show. Each trade
soon regained its opulence. A century later it fell has its own quarter. Every group in the bazaars
into the hands of the Turks, and, with the excep- would form a lively picture. All the costumes of
tion of the brief rule of Ibrahim Pasha, it has ever Asia are there, strangely grouped with panniered
since remained nominally subject to the Sultan.  donkeys, gaily caparisoned mules, and dreamyThe Mohammedan population of Damascus have looking camels. The principal khans or caravanlong been known as the greatest fanatics in the saries, are spacious buildings. They are now used
East. The steady advance of the Christian com- as stores and shops for the principal merchants.
munity in wealth and influence, during the last The great khan, Assad Pasha, is among the finest
thirty years, has tended to excite their bitter enmity. in Turkey. A noble Saracenic portal opens on a
In July i860, taking advantage of the war between  large quadrangle, ornamented with a marble founthe Druses and Maronites, and encouraged also by  tain, and covered by a series of domes supported




DAMASCUS                    612               DAMASCUS
on square pillars. Lamartine's description of it is as court,' where the master has his reception-room,
purely ideal as most of his eastern sketches. Many and to which alone male visitors are admitted.
of the mosques are fine specimens of Saracenic Another winding passage leads to the Hatrim,
architecture. Their deeply-moulded gateways are which is the principal part of the house. Here is a
very beautiful; and the interlaced stonework round  spacious court, with tesselated pavement, a marble
doors and windows is unique. They are mostly basin in the centre, jets d'eau around it, orange,
built of alternate layers of white and black stone, lemon, and citron trees, flowering shrubs, jessawith string courses of marble arranged in chaste mines and vines trained over trellis-work for shade.
patterns. But they are all badly kept, and many  The rooms all open on this court, intercommunicaof them are now ruinous.                     tion'betweenroom and room being almost unknown.
The private houses of Damascus share, with the On the south side is an open alcove, with marble
plain, the admiration of all visitors. No contrast floor and cushioned dais. The decorations of some
could be greater than that between the outside and  of the rooms is gorgeous. The walls of the older
inside. The rough mud-walls and mean doors houses are wainscotted, carved, and gilt, and the
give poor promise of taste or beauty within. The  ceilings are covered with arabesque ornaments. In
entrance is always through a narrow winding pas- the new houses painting and marble fret-work are
sage-sometimes even a stable-yard-to the'outer taking the place of arabesque and wainscotting.
203. D ma          --— cus 
203, Dtilllascus,
The principal building of Damascus is the Great for twelve centuries in possession of the enemies of
Mosque, the dome and minarets of which are seen  our faith, though during the whole of that period
in the accompanying engraving. It occupies one no Christian has ever been permitted to enter its
side of a large quadrangular court, flagged with precincts, yet over its principal door is an inscripmarble, arranged in patterns, and ornamented with tion embodying one of the grandest and most
some beautiful fountains. Within the mosque are cheering of Christian truths. It is as follows: —'H
double ranges of Corinthian columns supporting  axa    ov Xe /a3cia rcivrwv rov acvw  Kai i7
the roof, in the style of the old basilicas. The  or                   c
&,oaroreca Cov 7v rrcar'yevea Ka yevew —' ThSy kiygnwalls were once covered with Mosaic, representing om,  Crist, is  everlasting kingdom, and thy
the holy places of Islam; but this is nearly all doninion is from generation to generation' (Ps.
gone. In the centre is a spacious dome. The cx
building was anciently a temple, with a large clois-' c.
tered court, like the Temple of the Sun at Pal-  The Caste is a large quadrangular structure, with
myra. In the time of Constantine it was made a high walls and massive flaning towers. It is now
church, and dedicated to John the Baptist, whosea mere shell, the whole interior being a heap of
head was said to be deposited in a silver casket in rns. The foundations are at least as old as the
one of the crypts. In the 7th century the Mus- Roman age. It stands at the north-west angle of
lems took possession of it, and it has since remained the ancient wall.
the most venerated of their mosques. It is a sin-  The traditional Holy Places of Damascus are
gular fact, however, that though it has now been scarcely worth notice. Not one of them except




DAN                      613                   DAN
the' street called Straight,' already alluded to, has moon to stand still while Israel smote the Canaaneven probability in its favour. The house of Judas ites (Josh. x. 12), and Sorek (now Wady Surar),
is shewn, but it is not in the street called Straight the scene of some of the chief events in the life of
(Acts ix. I); and the house of Ananias is also  Samson, and the valley up which the Philistines
pointed out. It is a cellar or vault. The guides brought the ark to the fields of Bethshemesh (I
point out the place on the wall from which Saul Sam. vi. I3). The soil of the valleys and of the
was let down in a basket (Acts ix. 25), but the whole neighbouring plain, is deep and fertile, admasonry at that place is manifestly Saracenic. mirably fitted for the production of grain; while
About a mile east of the city, beside the Christian the declivities above them, and the sides of all the
cemetery, is now shewn the place of Paul's conver- glens, were carefully terraced, and though bare and
sion; but the scene was removed to that locality stony now, were once clothed with the vine and the
only about two centuries ago. Previously tradition  olive. In fact, the whole territory was rich and
located it on the west of the city, on the road pleasant; but it was'too little' for the numerous
leading to Jerusalem.                         tribe (Josh. xix. 40-48). On the east they were
The climate of Damascus is salubrious except hemmed in by Judah and Benjamin, and on the
during the months of July, August, and September. north by Ephraim.  It appears that along the
Fevers and ophthalmia are then prevalent, but whole eastern frontier the boundaries of the tribe
they are chiefly engendered by filth and unwhole- were not very definitely settled, as we find the
some food. The thermometer ranges from 80~ to same towns, in different places, assigned to both
87~ Fah. during the summer; and seldom falls be- Judah and Dan. Perhaps they were at first given
low 45~ in winter. There is usually a little snow  to Judah, but afterwards transferred to the Danites
each year. The rain commences about the middle on account of their narrow limits and great numof October, and continues at intervals till May. bers (Josh. xix. 41-44; xv. 33, 45). On the west
The rest of the year is dry and cloudless.    the warlike Philistines rendered a permanent occuA full description of Damascus, with historical pation or regular cultivation of the plain impossible.
notices, plans, and drawings, is given in the The Danites were not able to keep them in check,
writer's' Five Years in Damascus,' to which the much less to conquer and colonize their territory
reader is referred. The following works may also (Judg. i. 34). Some of the towns allotted to Dan
be consulted; Robinson's Biblical Researches; Wil- we find afterwards in possession of the Philistines,
son's Lands of the Bible; Addison's Damascus and and indeed they seem never to have been conquered
Palmyra-; and especially Pococke's DescrAiption of -such as Ekron (i Sam. v. Io), and Gibbethon (I
the East. —J. L. P.                           Kings xv. 27). Josephus' account of the boundaries
of Dan differs materially from that given in the
DAN (1t, Sept. Adc), son of Jacob and Bilhah, Bible. He says,'The lot of the Danites included
Rachel's maid. As in the case of Jacob's other all that part of the valley which lies toward the
children, the name'Dan' was given to him on sun-setting, and is bounded by Azotus (Ashdod)
account of the peculiar circumstances under which  and Dora; they had likewise all Jamnia and Gath.'
he was borne-'And Bilhah bare Jacob a son. (Anliq. xv. I. 22). This embraces, in addition to
And Rachel said, God hathjudged me (8T), and the northern section of the plain of Philistia, the
Xn'                  *"e 6ad  ^h-T  whole plain of Sharon as far north as Carmel,
hath also heard my voice, and hath given me a at whose base Dora is situated. The discrepancy
son; therefore called she his name Dan' (i.e., may be accounted for by supposing that the Danites'judging' or'judge;' Gen. xxx. 6). There is at some period may have overrun the country so
a characteristic play upon the name in Jacob's far, when the Philistines were humbled by the
blessing (Gen. xlix. I6):'Dan shall judge his powerful Ephraimites, and the still more powerful
people as one of the tribes of Israel.' Though Dan  David.
was the founder of one of the twelve tribes, we have  The limited territory of the Danites, their position
no particulars of his personal history. He had but as borderers, having strongholds in the mountains,
one son called Hushim or Shuham (Gen. xlvi. 23; and their being constantly compelled to defend
Num. xxvi. 42); yet at the exodus the tribe con- their corn-fields and pasture-lands against powerful
tained 62,700 adult males, ranking in numbers next and bitter foes, sufficiently account for their warlike
to Judah (Num. i. 39). It increased slightly in the habits, and their freebooting exploits.  Inured
wilderness; and at the census taken on entering themselves to constant danger, and exposed to the
Palestine it still held the second place among the unceasing depredations and oppressions of their
tribes (xxvi. 43). It is remarkable that so power- neighbours, we need not wonder that they became
ful a tribe always remained in a subordinate posi- somewhat loose in their morals and unscrupulous in
tion. It appears never to have attained to even a their acts. It was probably in prophetic allusion
moderate amount of influence.                 to these marked characteristics that Jacob said on
The territory allotted to the tribe of Dan was his death-bed,' Dan shall be a serpent by the way,
border land between the hill country of Judah and an adder in the path, that biteth the horse heels, so
Benjamin, and the Shephelah or plain of Philistia. that his rider shall fall backward' (Gen. xlix. 17).
It extended from the parallel of Japho or Joppa on  Samson was the most celebrated man of the
the north, to a point some distance south of Beth- tribe of Dan, and one of the most distinguished
shemesh. It embraced a large section of the plain, of Israelitish warriors. His brilliant exploits, his
including Ekron, one of the five great cities of enthusiastic patriotism, his strange and almost
the Philistines.  Its seventeen cities, however, so unaccountable moral weakness, his mournful fate,
far as can now be ascertained, appeared to have and terrible revenge, make up a tale unsurbeen chiefly grouped along the sides and base of passed for romantic interest in the regions of
the mountains. The valleys that here run far up fact or fiction. In his days the principal stronginto the Judoean ridge are rich and picturesque; hold of the Danites was on the rugged heights
isuch as Ajalon, over which Joshua commanded the of Zorah, not far distant from the town of Kir



DAN                      614                    DAN
jath-jearim; and from this the predatory bands word manifestly formed from'Dan,' by prefixing
were wont to descend through the mountain defiles a double article (Robinson, B. R. iii. 392). Some
to the plain of Philistia (Judg. xiii. 25). But even  writers, both ancient and modern, have confounded
the prowess and military skill of Samson were un- Dan with Paneas or Caesarea Philippi (Philostorgius,
able to expel the Philistines from the allotted terri- Hist. vii. 3; Theodoret in Genes.; Sanson, Geog.
tory of the tribe. After his death they resolved to  Sac. s.v.; Alford on Matt. xvi. I3). This error
seek other possessions of easier conquest. Their appears to have arisen chiefly from indefinite respies went to the northern border of Palestine. marks of Jerome in his commentary on Ezek. xlviii.
They saw there the rich plain of the upper Jordan  i8:' an... ubi hodie Paneas, quae quondam Ceround the city of Laish. It was then the granary sarea Philippi vocabatur;' and on Amos viii.,
of the merchant princes of Sidon, whose power'Dan in terminis terrae Judaicae, ztbi nunc Paneas
was chiefly concentrated in their fleets, and who  est.' It is plain from Jerome's words in the Onocould therefore make but a feeble defence of their masticon that he knew the true site of Dan; and
possessions beyond the ridge of Lebanon. An ex- therefore these notices must be understood as
pedition was fitted out at the gathering-place near meaning that Cesarea Philippi was in his days the
Zorah, and six hundred armed men marched north- principal town in the locality where Dan was situward. The incidents of their march shew what a ated, and that both were upon the border of Palesdegenerating effect their unsettled mode of life, and  tine. The Jerusalem  Targum calls it' Dan of
their intercourse with Philistia, had both upon their Cesarea,' intimating its vicinity to the latter (on
faith and their morals. They carried off by force  Gen. xiv. 14; see Reland Pal. 919-2I).
the images and the priest of Micah; and having   There is a more serious difficulty connected with
captured Laish they set up the gods and established  Dan's early history. We read in Gen. xiv. 14 that
an idolatrous worship there.  Moses' prophetic  Abraham pursued the kings'unto Dan,' and in
blessing was fulfilled to them when the tribe settled  Deut. xxxiv. I, that the Lord shewed Moses'all
down in their new possessions-' Dan is a lion's the land of Gilead unto Dan;' yet we learn from
whelp; he shall leap from Bashan' (Deut. xxxiii. Judg. xviii. that the six hundred Danites, when, as
22).                                          is stated in the previous article, they captured
It is a remarkable fact that the tribe of Dan is Laish,'called the name of the city Dan, after the
scarcely ever alluded to in the after history of name of Dan their father; howbeit the name of
Israel. There is no mention of it either in the the city was Laish at the first.'  This occurred
genealogies of 1st Chronicles, or in the list of about fifty years after the death of Moses.  Some
tribes given in the Apocalypse.  It seems pro- endeavour to remove the difficulty by affirming
bable that the portion of the tribe which remained  that the name' Dan' was interpolated in both
in the south was in time amalgamated with Judah  Genesis and Deuteronomy at a later date; but we
and Benjamin; the northern section united with the  can meet it without having recourse to such a dannorthern confederacy, and obtained somewhat more gerous expedient as correcting the sacred text from
celebrity in connection with their frontier city.  mere conjecture. Such a conjecture, too, is highly
improbable. Why should the name Dan be interDAN. A border town of northern Palestine, polated when the whole story of the capture of
well known from the phrase so often used to ex- Laish was made familiar to the Jews by the book
press the whole extent of the country-'All Israel, of Judges? It has also been suggested that there
from Dan even to Beer-sheba' (Judg. xx. I; I Sam. was another city of the same name in that locality,
iii. 20; 2 Sam. iii. io). It is occasionally em- and that it is to it and not to Laish that reference is
ployed alone in a somewhat similar meaning; made in the book of Genesis. The mention of
thus in Jer. viii. I6-'The snorting of his horses Dan-jaan in 2 Sam. xxiv. 6, appears to give some
was heard from Dan; the whole land trembled    sanction to this view. But may it not be that this
at the sound of the neighing of his strong ones' city (like Hebron and Jerusalem) had itself two
(also iv. I5). The site of this ancient town has ancient names, Laish and Dan, the former of which
been satisfactorily identified, though scarcely a had come into general use at the time of the Danite
vestige of it remains.  Josephus says that it conquest, but the latter had been better known in
stood at the'lesser' fountain of the Jordan   the days of Abraham, and the Danites revived it
in the plain of Sidon a day's journey from  in honour of their progenitor?
that city, and that the plain around it was of extra-  The capture of Laish, its occupation by the
ordinary fertility. (Anti]. i. Io. I; v. 3. I; viii. 8. Danites, and the establishment of an idolatrous
4; Bel. yud. iv. I. I). Eusebius and Jerome are worship there, have already been detailed.  It
still more explicit-'A village, foar miles distant appears that Jeroboam took advantage of the confrom Paneas, on the road leading to Tyre; it was firmed idolatry of the Danites (Judg. xviii. 30),
the boundary of Judzea (6ptov rTs'Iovlaias), and at erected a temple in their city, and set up there one
it the Jordan took its rise.'  Jerome adds —'De  of his golden calves for the benefit of those to
quo et Jordanis flumen erumpens a loco sortitus whom a pilgrimage to Jerusalem would not have
est nomen. 7or quippe peiOpov, id est, fluvium  been politic, and a pilgrimage to Bethel might
sive rivum Hebrei vocant' (Onomast. s. v. Dan).  have been irksome (i Kings xiL 28). A few years
Four miles west of Baneas, on the road to Tyre, in  afterwards Dan was plundered by Benhadad, king
the midst of a wide and rich plain, is one of the two  of Damascus, along with some other border towns
great fountains of the Jordan.  It rises at the base (xv. 20). From this period Dan appears to have
of a little truncated hill or mound, called Tell el- gradually declined. It was still a small village in
Iaddy, that is,'the hill of the Ytdge,' or' the the time of Eusebius. It is now utterly desolate.
hill of Dan."  Thus we see the old name is pre-  Tell el-Kady is cup-shaped, resembling an exserved in an Arabic translation. The name of the tinct crater, and is covered with a dense jungle of
fountain also suggests the identity, and corroborates thorns, thistles, and rank weeds. Its circumference
in part the statement of Jerome.  It is Leddanz, a is about half a mile, and its greatest elevation above




DAN-JAAN                  615                  DANCE
the plain eighty feet. There are some traces of tomed to mingle the dance with tabrets to this
old foundations, and heaps of large stones on the day. [MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.]
top and sides of the southern part of the rim, where  The character of the ancient dance was very
perhaps the citadel or a temple may have stood. different from that of ours, as appears from the
There are also ruins in the plain a short distance conduct of Miriam,'who took a timbrel in her
north of the tell. There are doubtless other re- hand, and all the women went out after her with
mains, but they are now covered with grass and timbrels and with dances.' Precisely similar is the
jungle. At the western base of the tell is the great Oriental dance of the present day, which, accomfountain, and there is a smaller one within the cup, panied of course with music, is led by the princishaded by noble oak trees.  The whole region pal person of the company, the rest imitating the
round the site of Dan was faithfully described by steps. The evolutions, as well as the songs, are
the Danite spies who were sent to seek out new  extemporaneous-not confined to a fixed rule, but
possessions for their tribe-' We have seen the varied at the pleasure of the leading dancer; and
land, and, behold, it is very good... a spa- yet they are generally executed with so much grace,
cious land... a place where there is no and the time so well kept with the simple notes of
want of anything that is in the earth." (Robinson, the music, that the group of attendants shew wonB. R. iii. 390, sq.; Bibliotleca Saccra, Feb. 1846; derful address and propriety in following the variaThomson, Thee Land anzd te Book).-J. L. P.   tions of the leader's feet. The missionary Wolff
describes a festival of some Eastern Christians,
DAN-JAAN     (iy)"iT; Sept. Aaviedv), a place where one eminent individual, who led the song as
mentioned in 2 Sam. xxiv. 6. The officers ap-well as the dance, conducted through the streets of
pointed by king David to take the census, having th ct a numerous band of people, who leaped
passed through the country east of the Jordan fromand danced in iitation of the gestures used by
south to north,'came to Dan-jaan, and about to him. When the late deputation of the Church of
Zidon.'  Dan-aan wasconsequently, on the Scotland were on their way through Palestine, their
northern border of Palestine, and the position young Arab guides, to relieve the tedium of the
indicated corresponds exactly with that of Dan or journey, sometimes commenced a native song and
Laish. There is no other reference to this place dance; one of them, advancing a little before the
either in the Bible or elsewhere. There can be rest, began the song, dancing forward as he relittle doubt that it is identical with the well-known  peated the words; when the rest, following him in
city of Dan. Jerome renders the word Dan Si-  regular order, joined in the chorus, keeping time
vestria, and the Alexandrine text of the Septuagint by a simultaneous clapping of hands. They sang
has AavLapav, from which it would appear that theseveral Araban songs, responding to one another,
reading'31 was found in some ancient copies of dancing and clapping their hands.'
the Scriptures. Gesenius says this is probably the  At a very early period, dancngwas enlisted into
true reading. J. LP.                         the service of religion among the heathen; the
dance, enlivened by vocal and instrumental music,
DANCE. The words in the original, rendered  was a usual accompaniment in all the processions
in our translation by this term, denote, properly, and festivals of the gods (Strabo, x.); and, indeed,
to leapforjoy; and this radical signification, sug- so indispensable was this species of violent merrigesting the idea of abrupt and boisterous gesticu- ment, that no ceremonialwas considered duly accomlations rather than a series of regular and tasteful plished-no triumph rightly celebrated-without
movements, seems well to comport with what we  the aid of dancing. The Hebrews. in common
may suppose to have been the primitive character with other nations, had their sacred dances, which
of the dance. On the other hand, some writers of were performed on their solemn anniversaries, and
great erudition have maintained that no allusions other occasions of commemorating some special
whatever are to be found in the 0. T. history to token of the divine goodness and favour, as means of
this kind of bodily exercise; and that in most, if drawing forth, in the liveliest manner, their expresnot in all the passages, where, in our version, sions of joy and thanksgiving. The performers
dancing is mentioned, the etymology of the Hebrew, were usually a band of females, who, in cases of
supported in some places by the strain of the con- public rejoicing, volunteered their services (Exod.
text, seems to point to some kind of musical xv. 20; Sam. xviii. 6), and who, in the case of
instrument as being intended by the inspired pen- religious observances, composed the regular chorus
men. Thus, in Exod. xv. 20, where the first of the temple (Ps. cxlix. 3; cl. 4), although there
notice is taken of dancing, i   coming, as it are not wanting instances of men also joining in
the dance on these seasons of religious festivity.
does from In,'to pierce' or'perforate,' and ap- Thus David deemed it no way derogatory to his
plied naturally enough as the name of any tube royal dignity to dance on the auspicious occasion of
that may be blown by the breath, is, according to the ark being brought up to Jerusalem. The word
them, used to describe some instrument of the used to describe his attitude is'1l1, in the repipe or flute class, as conjoined with timbrels; and duplicate form, intimating violent efforts of leapin this interpretation they are supported by the ing; and from the apparent impropriety and indeArabic and Persian versions. But this word, or cency of a man advanced in life, above all a king,
some derivative from the same root, occurs in exhibiting such freaks, with no other covering than
Exod. xxxii. I9; Judg. xxi. 2I, 23; I Sam. xviii. a linen ephod, many learned men have declared
6; Jer. xxxi. 4, I3; where dancing alone can be themselves at a loss to account for so strange a
intended. Moreover, in the Septuagint, Xop6s, a spectacle. It was, unquestionably, done as an act
dance, is employed in all the passages of the 0. T. of religious homage; and when it is remembered
just referred to, and in several others; and it is no that the ancient Asiatics were accustomed, in many
small collateral proof that this is the right interpre- of their religious festivals, to throw off their gartation, that people in eastern countries are accus- ments even to perfect nudity, as a symbol some.




DANCE                     616                 DANIEL
times of penitence, sometimes of joy, and that this, heard of; and therefore the condescension of
together with many other observances that bear the Salome, who volunteered, in honour of the annistamp of a remote antiquity, was adopted by versary of that monarch's birthday, to exhibit her
Mohamet, who has enjoined the pilgrims of Mecca handsome person as she led the mazy dance in the
to encompass the Kaaba, clothed only with the saloons of Machserus-for though she was a child
ihram, we may perhaps consider the linen ephod, at this time, as some suppose (Michaelis, lntrod.),
which David put on when he threw off his gar- she was still a princess-was felt to be a compliments and danced before the ark, to be symbolic of ment that merited the highest reward. The folly
the same objects as the ih/ram of the Mohammedans and rashness of Herod in giving her an unlimited
(see Forster's lfohammedanism  Unveiled). The promise, great as they were, have been equalled
conduct of David was imitated by the later Jews, and even surpassed by the munificence which many
and the dance incorporated among their favourite other Eastern  monarchs have lavished upon
usages as an appropriate close of the joyous occa- favourite dancers. Shah Abbas (to mention only
sion of the feast of Tabernacles.'The members one anecdote of the kind), having been on a partiof the Sanhedrim, the rulers of the synagogues, cular occasion extremely gratified with a woman
doctors of schools, and all who were eminent for who danced before him, and being at the time
rank or piety, accompanied the sacred music with  much intoxicated, made her a present of a magnifitheir voices: and leaped and danced with torches cent khan that yielded him a considerable revenue.
in their hands, for a great part of the night; while Next morning his minister reminded him of his exthe women and common people looked on. This travagant liberality, whereupon, being now cool
strange and riotous kind of festivity was kept up  and ashamed of his folly, he sent for the dancer,
till exhaustion and sleep dismissed them to their and obliged her to be contented with a sum of
homes (Buxtorf, De Synag. 7ud. cap. 21).      money (Thevenot's Trav. in Persia, p. Ioo). It
From being exclusively, or at least principally, is by no means improbable that Herod, too, was
reserved for occasions of religious worship and fes- flushed with wine; and that it was from fear he
tivity, dancing came gradually to be practised in should retract his promise, if she delayed till the
common life on any remarkable seasons of mirth  morning, that Herodias sent immediately for the
and rejoicing (Jer. xxxi. 4; Ps. xxx. I ). It has head of the Baptist.
been thought that those who perverted the exercise  It remains to notice further that the Jewish dance
from a sacred use to purposes of amusement were was performed by the sexes separately. There is
considered profane and infamous; and that Job  no evidence from sacred history that the diversion
introduces it as a distinguishing feature in the cha- was promiscuously enjoyed, except it might be at
racter of the ungodly rich, that they encouraged a the erection of the deified calf, when, in imitation
taste for dancing in their families (Job xxi. II). of the Egyptian festival of Apis, all classes of the
During the classic ages of Greece and Rome society Hebrews intermingled in the frantic revelry. In
underwent a complete revolution of sentiment on  the sacred dances, although both sexes seem to
this subject; insomuch that the Grecian poets re- have frequently borne a part in the procession or
present the gods themselves as passionately fond of chorus, they remained in distinct and separate comthe diversion (Potter's Grec. Antiq. ii. 400), and panics (Ps. lxviii. 25; Jer. xxxi. I3).-R. J.
that not only at Rome, but through all the pro-  DANIEL 
vinces of the empire, it was a favourite pastime, DANIEL          i.e. God is my   3bdge), a
resorted to not only to enliven feasts, but in the celebrated prophet in the Chaldaean and Persian
celebration of domestic joy (Matt. xiv. 6; Luke period. There are in the Bible two other persons
xv. 25).  Notwithstanding, however, the strong  of the same name: asonof David (I Chron. iii. I),
partiality cherished for this inspiriting amusement, and a Levite of the race of Ithamar (Ezra viii. 2 
it was considered beneath the dignity of persons of Neh. x. 6). The latter has been confounded with
rank and character to practise it. The well-known  the prophet in the apocryphal Addenda to the
words of Cicero, that'no one dances unless he is Septuagint (Dan. xiv. I, Sept.), where he is called
either drunk or mad,' express the prevailing sense iepels vo'aCL AavlXri vibs'AP3&a (Hieronym, Prcfat.
as to the impropriety of respectable individuals in Daniel).
taking part in it; and hence the gay circles of  Daniel was descended from one of the highest
Rome and its provinces derived all their entertain- families in Judah, if not even of royal blood (Dan.
ment, as is done in the East to this day, from the i. 3; comp. Joseph. Antiq. x. Io. I). Jerusalem
exhibitions of professional dancers.  Under the was thus probably his birthplace, though the paspatronage of the emperors, and of their luxurious sage (Dan. ix. 24) quoted in favour of that opinion,
tributaries, like Herod, the art was carried to the is considered by many commentators as not at all
utmost perfection, the favourite mode being panto- conclusive.
mime, which, like that of the modem Almehs, was  We find the lad Daniel, at the age of twelve or
often of the most licentious description. A story sixteen years, already in Babylon, whither he had
of love was chosen-generally an adventure of the been carried, together with three other Hebrew
gods-as the plan of the dance, and the address of youths of rank, Ananiah, Mishael, and Azariah,
the performer consisted in representing, by the at the first deportation of the people of Judah in
waving of his hands, the agility of his limbs, and the fourth year of Jehoiakim. He and his comthe innumerable attitudes into which he threw him- panions were obliged to enter the service of the
self, all the various passions of love, jealousy, dis- royal court of Babylon, on which occasion he
gust, that sway the human breast (see at large Lu- received the Chaldaan name of Belshatzar (i. e.,
cian's Treatise on Dancing).                  Beli princeps, princeps cui Belus favet), according
Amateur dancing in high life was, as that writer to eastern custom when a change takes place in
informs us, by no means uncommon in the volup- one's condition of life, and more especially if his
tuous times of the later emperors. But in the age personal liberty is thereby affected (comp. 2 Kings
of Herod it was exceedingly rare and almost un- xxiii. 34; xxiv. I7; Esth. ii. 7; Ezra v. I4).




DANIEL                     617                  DANIEL
In this his new career, Daniel received that chadnezzar, usually called Evil-Merodach, though
thorough polish of education which Oriental eti- passing in Daniel by his Chaldsean title and rank.
quette renders indispensable in a courtier (comp. After a reign of two years, this monarch was asiii. 6; Plat. Alcib., sec. 37), and was more espe- sassinated by his brother-in-law Neriglissar (Berosus
cially instructed'in the writing and speaking Chal- in Joseph. contra Apion. i. 20).  Shortly before
daean' (Dan. i. 4), that is, in the dialect peculiar this event Daniel was again restored to the royal
to the Chaldoeans [CHALDEE LANGUAGE]. In this favour, and became moral preacher to the king.
dialect were composed all the writings of the eccle- who overwhelmed him with honours and titles in
siastical order, containing the substance of all the  consequence of his being able to read and solve the
wisdom and learning of the time, and in the know- meaning of a sentence miraculously displayed,
ledge of which certainly but few favoured laymen  which tended to rouse the conscience of the wicked
were initiated. That Daniel had distinguished prince.
himself, and already at an early period acquired  Under the same king we see Daniel both alarmed
renown for high wisdom, piety, and strict observ- and comforted by two remarkable visions (Dan. vii.,
ance of the Mosaic law (comp. Ezek. xiv. 14-20; viii.), which disclosed to him the future course of
xxviii. 3; Dan. i. 8-i6), is too evident from pas- events, and the ultimate fate of the most powerful
sages in the truly authentic Scriptures to require  empires of the world, but in particular their relaany additional support from  the ill-warranted  tions to the kingdom of God, and its development
Apocryphal stories concerning the delivery of to the great consummation.
Susannah by the wisdom of the lad Daniel, etc. A  After the conquest of Babylon by, the united
proper opportunity of evincing both the acuteness powers of Media and Persia, Daniel seriously busied
of his mind, and his religious notions, soon pre- himself under the short reign (two years) of Darius
sented itself in the custom of the Eastern courts to the Mede or Cyaxares II. with the affairs of his
entertain the officers attached to them from the people and their possible return from exile, the
royal table (Athenoeus, iv. o1, p. I45, ed. Casaub.) term of which was fast approaching, according to
Daniel was thus exposed to the temptation of par- the prophecies of Jeremiah. In deep humility and
taking of unclean food, and of participating in the prostration of spirit, he then prayed to the Alidolatrous ceremonies attendant on heathen ban- mighty, in the name of his people, for forgiveness
quets.  His prudent proceedings, wise bearing, of their sins, and for the Divine mercy in their
and absolute refusal to comply with such customs, behalf: and the answering promises he received
were crowned with the Divine blessing, and had  far exceeded the tenor of his prayer, for the visions
the most splendid results.                     of the Seer were extended to the end of time (Dan.
After the lapse of the three years fixed for his ix.)
education, Daniel was attached to the court of   In a practical point of view, also, Daniel appeared
Nebuchadnezzar, where, by the Divine aid, he suc- at that time a highly-favoured instrument of Jehoceeded in interpreting a dream of that prince to his vah. Occupying, as he did, one of the highest
satisfaction, by which means-as Joseph of old in  posts of honour in the state, the strictness and
Egypt-he rose into high favour with the king, scrupulousness with which he fulfilled his official
and was entrusted with two important offices-  duties could not fail to rouse envy and jealousy in
the governorship of the province of Babylon, and  the breasts of his colleagues, who well knew how
the head - inspectorship of the sacerdotal caste to win the weak monarch, whom they at last in(Dan. ii.)                                     duced to issue a decree imposing certain acts, the
Considerably later in the reign of Nebuchad- performance of which, they well knew, was altonezzar, we find Daniel interpreting another dream  gether at variance with the creed of which Daniel
of the king's, to the effect that, in punishment of was a zealous professor. For his disobedience the
his pride, he was to lose, for a time, his throne, prophet suffered the penalty specified in the decree:
but to be again restored to it after his humiliation  he was thrown into a den of lions, but was miracuhad been completed (Dan. iv.) Here he displays lously saved by the mercy of God-a circumstance
not only the most touching anxiety, love, loyalty, which enhanced his reputation, and again raised
and concern for his princely benefactor, but also  him to the highest posts of honour under Darius
the energy and solemnity becoming his position, and Cyrus (Dan. vi.)
pointing out with vigour and power the only course  He had, at last, the happiness to see his most
left for the monarch to pursue for his peace and  ardent wishes accomplished-to behold his people
welfare.                                       restored to their own land. Though his advanced
Under the unworthy successors of Nebuchad- age would not allow him to be among those who
nezzar, Daniel and his deservings seem to have returned to Palestine, yet did he never for a moment
been forgotten, and he was removed from his high  cease to occupy his mind and heart with his people
posts. His situation at court appears to have been  and their concerns (Dan. x. 12.)
confined to a very inferior office (comp. Dan. viii.  In the third year of Cyrus, he had a series of
27); neither is it likely that he should have retained  visions, in which he was informed of the minutest
his rank as head inspector of the order of the details respecting the future history and sufferings
magians in a country where these were the prin- of his nation, to the period of their true redemption
cipal actors in effecting changes in the administra- through Christ, as also a consolatory notice to himtion whenever a new succession to the throne took  self to proceed calmly and peaceably to the end of
place.                                         his days, and then await patiently the resurrection
We thus lose sight of Daniel until the first and  of the dead at the end of time.
third year of King Belshazzar (Dan. v. 7, 8), gene-  From that period the accounts respecting him
rally understood to have been the last king of Ba- are vague, sometimes confused, and even strange;
bylon (called by profane writers Nabonnedus), but and we hardly need mention the various fables
who-to judge from Dan. v. II, 13, I8, 22-was, which report his death to have taken place in Pamore probably, the son and successor of Nebu- lestine, Babylon, or Susa.-H1. A. C. H.




DANIEL, BOOK OF                  618            DANIEL, BOOK OF
DANIEL, BOOK OF. This important and in       object-more than any other in the O. T.-the
many respects remarkable book, takes its name not political vicissitudes of the empires of the world.
only from the principal person in it, but also and  Nor are we less reminded of Daniel's domicile in
chiefly from him as its real author; there being no  Chaldea, by the colouring imparted to his visions,
doubt whatever that, as the book itself testifies, it by their symbols, and more especially by those
was composed by Daniel (comp. vii. I, 28; viii. 2; drawn from beasts (Dan. vii. 8), the grotesque
ix. 2). It occupies, however, but a third rank in  manner in which the figures are put together, and
the Hebrew canon; not among the Prophets, but the colossal majesty imprinted on those sketches.
in the Hagiograpiha, owing, as we think, to the  All these peculiarities belong to the individuality
correct view of the composers of the canon, that of the prophet himself, which is conspicuous even
Daniel did not exercise his prophetic office in the in the accounts he gives of the revelations imparted
more restricted and proper sense of the term'pro- to him, though that individuality is then greatly
phecy;' but stood to the theocracy in a different modified by the sanctified, exalted, and glorified
relation from those real prophets whose calling and  state of his mind.
profession consisted exclusively in declaring the  The language of the book is partly Chaldoean
messages they received, and in the communion   (ii. 4; vii. 28) and partly Hebrew. The latter is
which they held with God. These latter are termed, not unlike that of Ezekiel, though less impure and
in the ancient Hebrew idiom, Dq'g:, prophets, corrupt, and not so replete with anomalous gramin contradistinction to:tni, seers, who, though  matical forms. The Chaldoean is nowise that of
they were equally favoured with divine revela- the Chaldseans proper, but a corrupt vernacular
tions, were nevertheless not prophets by profession, dialect, a mixture of Hebrew and Aramaic, formed
a calling that claimed the entire service of a man's during the period of the exile. It resembles mostly
whole life. [CANON.]                           the Chaldaean pieces in Ezra, but differs greatly
The book of Daniel divides itself into two parts, from the dialect of the latter Targums.
historical (ch. i.-vi.) and prophetic (ch. vii.-xii.), ar-  The style is, even in the prophetic parts, more
ranged respectively in chronological order. Its prosaic than poetical, as Lowth has already obobject is by no means to give a summary historical served:'Totum Danielis Librum  e Poeticorum
account of the period of the exile or of the life of censu excludo.' The historical descriptions are
Daniel himself, since it contains only a few isolated  usually very broad and prolix in details; but the
points both as to historical facts and prophetic prophecies have a more rhetorical character, and
revelations. But the plan or tendency which so their delivery is frequently somewhat abrupt; their
consistently runs through the whole book, is of a style is descriptive, painting with the most lively
far different character; it is to shew the extraordi- colours the still fresh impression which the' vision
nary and wonderful means which the Lord made has made on the mental eye.
use of, in a period of the deepest misery, when the  The following are the essential features of the
theocracy seemed dissolved and fast approaching its prophetic tenor of the book of Daniel, while the
extinction, to afford assistance to his people, prov- visions in ch. ii. and vii., together with their difing to them that he had not entirely forsaken them, ferent symbols, may be considered as embodying
and making them sensible of the fact, that His the leading notion of the whole. The developmerciful presence still continued to dwell with  ment of the whole of the heathen power, until the
them, even without the Temple and beyond the completion and glorification of the kingdom  of
Land of Promise. In this way alone was it pos- God, appeared to the prophet in the shape of four
sible to render the time of punishment also a period  powers of the world, each successive power always
of rich blessing.  The manifestations of the Lord  surpassing the preceding in might and strength,
to that effect consisted, among others, of the won- namely, the Babylonian, Medo-Persian, Greek, and
ders recorded in this book, and the glorious pro- Roman. The kingdom of God proves itself conphecies of the seer. The book thus sets forth a queror of them all; a power which alone is everseries of miraculous tokens, by which God pro- lasting, and showing itself in its utmost glorificaclaimed amidst the heathen world, and in a period  tion in the appearance of the Messiah, as Judge
of abject degradation, that Israel was still his and Lord of the world.  Until the coming of the
people, the nation of his covenant, still marching  Messiah, the people of God have yet to go through
steadily onward to the goal marked out for them  a period of heavy trials. That period is particularly
by the Lord.                                   described, ch. viii. and xi., in the struggles of the
The wonders related in Daniel (ch. i.-vi.) are Maccabaean time, illustrative of the last and heathus mostly of a peculiar, prominent, and striking  viest combats which the kingdom of God would
character, and resemble in many respects those per- have to endure. The period until the appearance
formed of old time in Egypt. Their divine ten- of the Messiah is a fixed and sacred number:
dency was, on the one hand, to lead the heathen  seventy weeks of years (ch. ix.) After the lapse
power, which proudly fancied itself to be the con- of that period ensues the death of the Messiah;
queror of the theocracy, to the acknowledgment the expiation of the people is realised; true justice
that there was an essential difference between the is revealed, but Jerusalem  and the Temple are
world and the kingdom of God; and, on the other, in punishment given up to destruction. The true
to impress degenerate and callous Israel with the rise from this fall and corruption ensues only at
full conviction, that the power of God was still the the end of time, in the general resurrection (ch.
same as it was of old in Egypt.                xii.)
Neither do the prophecies contained in the book  The unity of the book has been disputed by
(ch. vii.-xii.) bear a less peculiar and striking cha- several critics, and more especially by Eichhorn
racter. We cannot, indeed, fail to discover in the and Bertholdt, who conceived it to have been
writer, to a very great extent, a person of vast in- written by more than one author, on account of
formation, and well-versed in the management of some contradictions which they thought they had
political affairs, these prophecies having for their discovered in it, such as in i. 21, compared with




DANIEL, BOOK OF                 Gi9           DANIEL, BOOK OF
x.; and in i. 5-I8, compared with ii. I. With re-  In the prophetic part particular objection is
gard to the first supposed contradiction, we con- taken to the apocalyptic character of the book, by
sider the meaning of i. 2I to be, that Daniel had  which it differs from all the other books of the
lived to see the first year of the reign of Cyrus, as Prophets. Not less suspicious, in their eyes, is the
a particularly memorable, and, for the exiled circumstance that all the accounts in it relating to
people, a very important year. This does by no very remote future events, and the fate of empires
means exclude the possibility of his having lived which had not then yet risen into existence, are
still longer than up to that period.         described in so positive and exact a manner, and
Respecting the second presumed contradiction, with so much circumstantial detail, even to the
the matter in ch. i. 5-I8 belongs properly to the very date of their occurrence.  Yet, as this does
co-regency of Nebuchadnezzar, which term is there not extend farther than the time of Antiochus
added to his period of government, while in ch. Epiphanes, it will naturally lead to the conclusion
ii. I his reign is counted only from the year of his of'vaticinia post eventum.'  Other objections
actual accession to the throne. These attempts to against the genuineness of the book are, that
disturb the harmony of the work are also discoun- Daniel is frequently spoken of in it in high terms
tenanced by the connecting thread which evidently of respect and honour (i. 17, I9, sq.; v. II, sq.;
runs through the whole of the book, setting the vi. 4; ix. 23; x. II, etc.); that the language, both
single parts continually in mutual relation to each  Hebrew and Chaldoean, is very corrupt, and that
other. Indeed, most critics have now given up the Greek words occurring in them (iii. 5, 7, Io)
that hypothesis, and look at the book as a closely naturally betray the book to have been written in
connected and complete work in itself.       a later age, at least the Alexandrian, when Greek
Much greater is the difference of opinion respect- words began to be introduced into Asia; that the
ing the authenticity of the book.  The oldest doctrines in the book, the Angelology (iv. 14; ix.
known opponent of it is the heathen philosopher 21; x. 13, 2I), Christology (vii. 13, sq.; xii. I, sq.),
Porphyry, in the third century of the Christian era. the ascetic discipline (i. 8, sq.), also betray a later
The greater the authority in which the book of age; that the book stands in the canon in the
Daniel was held at that time by both Jews and  Hagiographa, a proof that it had become known
Christians in their various controversies, the more only after the collection of the Prophets had been
was he anxious to dispute that authority, and he completed; a suspicion which is still more strengthdid not disdain to devote one whole book (the ened by the circumstance that the name of Daniel
twelfth)-out of the fifteen which he had composed is wanting in the book of Sirach, ch. xlix., probaagainst the Christians-to that subject alone. He bly because the book of Daniel did not then exist.
there maintains that the author of the book of  These few objections have been variously met
Daniel was a Palestine Jew of the time of Antiochus and confuted. They rest, to a great extent, partly
Epiphanes, that he wrote it in Greek, and fraudu- on historical errors, partly on the want of a sound
lently gave to past events the form of prophecies. exegesis, and lastly, on the perversion of a few pasPorphyry has been answered by Eusebius of Coe- sages in the text. Thus it has turned out that
sarea, Methodius of Tyre, and Apollinaris of Lao- several of the arguments have led to a far different
dicea. But their works, as well as that of Porphyry and even opposite result from what was originally
himself, are lost; and we know the latter only from  meant, namely, to the defence of the authenticity of
the numerous quotations and refutations in the the book. The existence, ex. gr., of a King Darius
Commentary of Jerome.                        of the Medians, mentioned in ch. vi., is a thorough
Porphyry found no successor in his views until historical fact, and the very circumstance that such
the time of the English deists, when Collins at- an insignificant prince, eclipsed as his name was
tempted to attack the authenticity of Daniel, as was by the splendour of Cyrus, and therefore unnoticed
done by Semler in Germany. After this a few  in the fabulous and historical chronicles of Persia,
critics, such as J. D. Michaelis, and Eichhorn, dis- should be known and mentioned in this book, is in
puted the authenticity *of the six first chapters. itself a proof of the high historical authority of
The learned Swiss, Corrodi, went still farther, and, Daniel.  Nor does the whole dogmatic tenor of
reviving the views of Porphyry, questioned the the book speak less in favour of its genuineness,
genuineness of the whole book. The strongest, since the dogmatic spirit of the Maccaboean period
most elaborate, and erudite attacks against the is essentially different from that which it exhibits,
book, came from the pens of Bertholdt, Bleek, De as, ex. gr., in the Christology, which forms the
Wette, Lengerke, and others. But there have substance and basis of Daniel.
also not been wanting voices in its defence, such  The following are the more important of the
as those of Liiderwald, Staiidlin, Jahn, Lack, arguments which evidence the genuineness of the
Steudel, Hengstenberg, Hdvernick, and others.  book:The arguments advanced against the genuine    I. The existence and authority of the book are
character of Daniel are more directed against the most decidedly testified by the N. T. Christ himinternal than external evidence of the work.  self refers to it (Matt. xxiv. 15), and gives himself
The wonders and prophecies recorded in it are (in virtue of the expression in Dan. vii 13) the
always the foremost stumbling-block, and much  name of Son of Man; while the Apostles reobjection is made to them. The contents of the peatedly appeal to it as an authority (ex. gr., I Cor.
historical part is declared to be fictitious, and re- vi. 2; 2 Thess. ii. 3; Heb. xi. 33, sq.) To the
plete with improbabilities-nay, even with his- objection that Christ and the writers of the N. T.
torical inaccuracies, such as the sketches regarding are here no real authority, inasmuch as they accomthe relations of the sacerdotal order, the sages and modate themselves to the Jewish notions and views,
astrologers (ii. 2; iv. 7; v. 7-I5), the mention of we reply that the genuineness of the book of
Darius the Mede (vi. I; ix. I; xi. I), and the  Daniel is so closely connected with the truth of its
regulations concerning the satraps (iii. 3; vi. 2, contents-in other words, that the autkhenticiey of
etc.)                                        the book is so immediately connected wtba its




DANIEL, BOOK OF                 620           DANIEL, BOOK OF
authority-that it is impossible to doubt the could fairly be supposed to possess. Thus, ex. gr.,
genuineness, without suspecting at the same time the description of the Chaldoean magians, and their
a wilful fraud and cheat in its contents; so that regulations, perfectly agrees with the accounts of
the accommodation in this case to national views the classics respecting them. The account of the
would be tantamount to wilfully confirming and illness and insanity of Nebuchadnezzar is confirmed
sanctioning an unpardonable fraud.           by Berosus (in Joseph. c. Apion. i. 20). The
2. The period of the exile would be altogether edict of Darius the Mede (Dan. vi.) may be satisincomprehensible without the existence of a man factorily explained from the notions peculiar to the
like Daniel, exercising great influence upon his Medo-Persian religion, and the importance atown people, and whose return to Palestine was tached in it to the king, who was considered as a
effected by means of his high station in the state, sort of incarnate deity.
as well as through the peculiar assistance of God  9. The religious views, the ardent belief in the
with which he was favoured. Without this assump- Messiah, the purity of that belief, the absence of
tion, it is impossible to explain the continued state all the notions and ceremonial practices of later
of independence of the people of God during that Judoeism, etc., the agreement of the book in these
period, or to account for the interest which Cyrus respects with the genuine prophetic books, and
took in their affairs. The exile and'its termination more especially with the prophets in and after the
are indicative of uncommon acts of God towards exile-all this testifies to the genuineness of Daniel.
highly gifted and favoured men, and the appear-  Io. The linguistic character of the book is most
ance of such a man as Daniel is described in that decisive for its authenticity. In the first instance,
book to have been, is an indispensable requisite for the language in it, by turns Hebrew and Aramoean,
the right understanding of this portion of the Jew- is particularly remarkable.  In that respect the
ish history.                                 book bears a close analogy to that of Ezra. The
3. An important hint of the existence of the author must certainly have been equally conversant
book in the time of Alexander is found in Josephus, with both languages-an attainment exactly suited to
Antiq. xi. 8, 5, according to which the prophecies a Hebrew living in the exile, but not in the least so
of Daniel had been pointed out to that king on his to an author in the Maccabmean age, when the
entrance into Jerusalem.  It is true that the fact Hebrew had long since ceased to be a living lanmay have been somewhat embellished in its details guage, and had been supplanted by the Aramean
by Josephus, yet it is historically undeniable that vernacular dialect. The Hebrew in Daniel bears,
Alexander did bestow great favours on the Jews, moreover, a very great affinity to that in the other later
a circumstance which is not easily explained with- books of the 0. T.; and has, in particular, idioms
out granting the fact recorded by Josephus to be in common with Ezekiel. The Aramaic also in
true in the main.                            the book differs materially from the prevailing
4. The first book of the Maccabees, which is dialect of the later Chaldsean paraphrastic versions
almost contemporary with the events related in it, of the 0. T., and has much more relation to the
not only pre-supposes the existence of the book of idiom of the book of Ezra.
Daniel, but actually betrays acquaintance with the  With regard to the OLD VERSIONS of the book
Alexandrian version of the same (I Maccab. i. 54; of Daniel, we must in the first place observe that
comp. Dan. ix. 27; ii. 59; comp. Dan. iii.)-a there is not extant, or even known ever to have
proof that the book must have been written long existed, any Chaldsean paraphrase (Targum) of
before that period.                          Daniel, any more than of Ezra.  The reason of
5. If the book had been written in the Mac- this lies, no doubt, in the scrupulosity of the later
cabean period, there would probably have been Jews, who believed that the Chaldoean version of
produced in that period some similar prophetic and  the two books might afterwards easily be conapocalyptic productions, composed by Palestine founded with the original texts, and thus prove inJews. Of such, however, not the slightest notice jurious to the pure preservation of the latter.
can anywhere be found, so that our book-if of There is something peculiar and remarkable in the
the Maccabsean time-thus forms an isolated Alexandrian version of the canonical book of
enigmatic phenomenon in the later Jewish litera- Daniel. Not only has it taken liberties with reture.                                        gard to single expressions and sentences, but has
6. The reception of the book into the canon is actually dared to remodel the text altogether in
also an evidence of its authenticity. In the Mac- ch. iii. -vi., either by numerous additions (as iii. 24,
cabsean age the canon had long been completed sq., the prayer of Azariah; iii. 5I, sq., the song of
and closed, but even doubting that point, it is not the Three Children), or by omissions and devialikely that, at a time when so much scrupulous ad- tions. There are, besides, two great supplements
herence was shewn towards all that was hallowed to that version-the story of Susannah (xiii.), and
by time and old usage, and when Scriptural litera- of Bel and the Dragon in Babel (xiv.)  Both
ture was already flourishing-it is not probable, we apocryphal stories were originally written in Greek,
say, that a production then recent should have been a conclusion drawn already by Porphyry from the
raised to the rank of a canonical book.      quibbles in xiii. 54, 55, 58, 59, who at the same
7. We have an important testimony for the time derided the Christians for considering those
authenticity of the book in Ezek. xiv. 14-20; stories as genuine writings of Daniel. The authenxxviii. 3.  Daniel is there represented as an un- ticity of the two stories was, however, already beusual character, as a model of justice and wisdom, fore him questioned by the fathers of the church,
to whom had been allotted superior divine insight and a very interesting discussion took place beand revelation. This sketch perfectly agrees with tween Origen and Julius Africanus regarding the
that contained in our book.                  authenticity of the story of Susannah.  Jerome
8. The book betrays such an intimate acquaint- condemns the two stories in plain terms as fables,
ance with Chaldean manners, customs, history, and as additions not belonging to the Hebrew
and religion, as none but a contemporary writer text. Some erroneously assume that, besides our




DANIEL, BOOK OF                 621 DANIEL,; APOCRYPHAL ADDITIONS
canonical text, there also existed a sort of critical Abenezra, Joseph Jacchiades; among the Protestrevision of the former in the Chaldsean language, ant theologians, Melancthon, Calvin, Martin Geier,
which the Seventy had consulted in their transla- de Dieu, Venema, Chr. Bened. Michaelis, J. D.
tion. But the mistakes in the translation, which  Michaelis. [Auberlen refers to the work of Magare brought forward in favour of that view, cannot nus Fr. Roos (I771, translated by Henderson,
stand a strict criticism, while the above-named pe- Edin. I8 I), as constituting an epoch in the inculiarities may be satisfactorily explained from the  terpretation of Daniel. In more recent times criticharacter of that translation itself.  It plainly  cal works on Daniel have appeared by Bertholdt
shews that the writers had endeavoured themselves  (I806), Rosenmiller (1832), Havernick (I832),
to furnish a collection of legends, and a peculiar Lengerke (I835), Maurer (I836), Hitzig (1850),
recast of the book, in accordance with the spirit of Auberlen (1854, translated into English I856). On
the age, and the taste of Judoeism then prevailing  the literary history and claims of the book, see, beat Alexandria.  The wonderful character of the sides the introductions, Hengstenberg, Die authenbook, and the many obscure and enigmatic ac- tie des D. etc. (I851), translated by Ryland (I847),
counts in it were the rocks on which the fanciful, Havernick, Neue. arit. Untersuchungen, fib d.
speculative, and refining minds of the Alexandrians buch. D. (I838). In English may be mentioned the
ran foul.  No book was ever more favourable to  commentaries of Willet (161o), Broughton (1611),
the intermixture of legends, disfigurations, and  Wintle (I807), and Stuart (I850), and the exmisconceptions of all sorts than Daniel, while the planations of the prophetic parts by Irving (I826),
period of the exile was generally a favourite topic Birks (1844, 846), Tregelles (I852)].-H. A. C. H.
for the fantastical embellishments of the Alexandrian Jews. In like manner may also be explained  DANIEL, APOCRYPHAL ADDITIONS TO. Bethe mutilations which the books of Esther and  sides the many minor deviations from the Hebrew,
Jeremiah have received at the hands of the Alexan- there are three principal additions in the ancient
drians, to whom hermeneutic scruples were of but versions of the Book of Daniel, given in the Apolittle moment.  The more important the book of crypha of the A. V. as three distinct pieces, under
Daniel was to the Christian church, and the more the respective titles of-I. The Song of the Three
arbitrary the remodelled Sept. version of it was, Holy Children; 2. The History of Susanna; and
the more conceivable is it why, in the old church, 3. The History of the Destruction of Bel and the
the version of Theodotion became more general Dragon, which we shall discuss seriatim.
than that of the Sept. It is true that some of the  I. THE SONG OF THE THREE HOLY CHILfathers still made use of the Alexandrian version; DREN.
but, in the time of Jerome, Theodotion was already  I. Title and Position.-This piece is generally
read in nearly all the churches, and that this cus- called The Song or Hymn of the Three Holy Chiltom had been introduced long before him, is evi- dren, because ver. 28 says, that' the three, as out
dent from  the circumstance that Jerome was of one mouth, praised, glorified, and blessed God,'
ignorant of the historical principles by which the though it ought more properly to be denominated
church was guided in adopting that version.  For The Prayer of Azarias and the Song of the Three
a long time it was believed that the version of the foly Children, inasmuch as nearly half of it is
Seventy had been lost, until it was discovered at occupied with the prayer of Azarias. Originally it
Rome in the latter half of the last century, in the was inserted in the 3d chapter of Daniel, between
codex Chisianus. It was published at Rome, 1772, the 23d and 24th ver.; but, being used liturgically
in folio, from the MS. copy of Blanchini, with a in connection with similar fragments, it was aftertranslation by P. de Magistris, which edition is, wards transposed to the end of the Psalms in the
however, very defective and incorrect, though it Codex Alexandrinus as Hymn ix. and x., under
was afterwards repeatedly republished.  The ver- the titles of' The Prayer of Azarias,' and' The
sion of Theodotion, generally published together Hymn of our Fathers.' It occupies a similar posiwith that of the Septuagint, of which it is a re- tion in many of the Greek and Latin Psalters, and
vision, is upon the whole literal and correct.  In  was most probably so placed already in the old
the present copies of Theodotion, however, are Latin version.
already found the apocryphal interpolations and  2. Design. -The design of this piece is evidently
additions of the Sept.  This is owing to the fact liturgical, being suggested by the apparent abruptthat Theodotion's version has in later times been ness of the narrative in Daniel (iii. 23), as well as
remodelled, interpolated, and falsified after that of by the supposition that these confessors, who so
the Seventy, so that it would now be altogether an  readily submitted to be thrown into a fiery furidle task to attempt to restore the original text of nace, in which they remained for some time, would
Theodotion. A very useful guide for the criticism  employ their leisure in prayer to the God whom
of the Greek versions is the Syriac Hexaplarian  they so fearlessly confessed. Accordingly, Azarias
version, published by Buggati, at Milan, in I788. is represented as praying in the furnace (2-22),
The Arabic Polyglott version is an offspring of and, in answer to this prayer, we are told the
Theodotion's, which it follows with literal exact- angel of the Lord appeared, who, notwithstanding
ness.                                         the furnace being increasingly heated, cooled the
The Syriac version in the Peshito does some air like' a moist whistling wind' (26, 27), wheregood service in explaining the words in Daniel, but upon all the three martyrs burst into a song of
is, nevertheless, not free from gross mistakes. The praise (28-68), thus affording an example of prayer
apocryphal parts it has copied from the later inter- and praise to the afflicted and delivered church,
polated Theodotion.  The Vulgate also has these which she has duly appreciated, by having used it
additions translated after Theodotion.        as a part of her service ever since the 4th century,
The most important commentators on Daniel and by its being used in the Anglican church to the
are, among the fathers, Ephrxem Syrus, Jerome, present day.
Theodoret; among the rabbins, Jarchi, Kimchi,   3. Unity, author, date, and original language.



DANIEL, APOCRYPHAL ADDITIONS 622 DANIEL, APOCRYPHAL ADDITIONS
There is hardly any connection between the prayer Susanna, is evidently derived from the Greek inof Azarias and the song of the three holy children. scription of the History of Bel and the Dragon.
The former does not even allude to the condition  III. THE HISTORY OF BEL AND THE DRAGON.
of the martyrs, and is more like what we should  i. Title and position.-This apocryphal piece,
expect from an assembly of exiled Jews on a solemn which is called by Theodotion, or in our editions
fast day than from confessors in a furnace. This of the Septuagint, BiX KaX ApdcKwv, Bel and the
want of harmony between the two parts, coupled Diragon, and in the Vulgate, The History of Bel
with the fact that ver. 14, which tells that the and the Great Serpent, has in the Septuagint the
temple and its worship no longer exist, contradicts inscription, eK 7rpoxp1reias'AljtsaKo/e vlov'I,1ov
ver. 30, 31, 6I, 62, where both are said to exist; &K Trs pvX\js Aev;, a part of the prophecy of Habakand that the same author would not have put the kzu, the son of Jesus, of the tribe of Levi, and is
prayer into the mouth of Azarias alone, shew that placed at the end of Daniel, forming in the Vulgate
the two parts proceed from different sources. Those the I4th chapter of that prophet.
who are acquainted with the multifarious stories  2. Design and nmethod.-The design of this piece
wherewith Jewish tradition has embalmed the me- is to shew the folly and absurdity of idolatry, and
mory of Scriptural characters, well know that it is to extol the God of Israel. The method adopted
almost impossible to trace the authors or dates of to effect this is both ingenious and attractive.
these sacred legends. Neither can the language  Cyrus, who was a devout worshipper of Bel,
in which they were originally written be always urged Daniel to serve this idol, and referred to the
ascertained. These legends grew with the nation, marvellous fact, that it devoured daily the enorthey accompanied the Jews into their wanderings, mous sacrifice of twelve great measures of fine
assumed the complexions, and were repeated in the flour, forty sheep, and six vessels of wine (I-6):
languages of the different localities in which the but Daniel, knowing the deception connected thereJews colonized. An apocryphal piece may, there- with, smiled at it (7); thereupon the king sumfore, have a Palestine or Babylonian origin, and moned the priests of Bel, and demanded an explayet have all the drapery of the Alexandrian school, nation from them (8-io); they, to satisfy him that
II. THE HISTORY OF SUSANNA.                 the idol does consume the sacrifice, told the monI. Title and position.-This apocryphal piece arch, that he should place it before Bel himself
has different titles. Sometimes it is called (2ovr- (I I-13). Daniel, however, had ashes strewed on
ivva) Susanna, sometimes (Aav,5X) Daniel, and the pavement of the temple, and convinced Cyrus,
sometimes (ctiKpLaL's  AaL'X) The _udg~ment of Da- by the impress of the footsteps upon the ashes,
niel. Equally uncertain is its position. The Vat. that the sumptuous feast prepared for Bel was conand Alex. MSS., and the Vet. Lat., place it before sumed in the night by the priests, their wives, and
the first chapter of Daniel, whilst the Sept., after their children, who came into the temple through
the Cod. Chisianus and Theodotion ed Complu., secret doors, and the king slew the crafty priests
put it after chap. xii.                       (14-22).  As for the Dragon, who, unlike the
2. Design.-The design of this attractive story dumb Bel, was, as Cyrus urged, a living being (23,
is to celebrate the triumph of womanly virtue over 24), Daniel poisoned it, and then exclaimed —
temptations and dangers, and to exalt the wisdom'These are the gods you worship!' (25-27). The
of Daniel in saving the life of the pious heroine. Babylonians, however, greatly enraged at the deSt. Chrysostom  rightly sets forth the beautiful stroyer of their god, demanded of Cyrus to surlesson of chastity which this story affords, when he render Daniel, whom they cast into a den wherein
says,' God permitted this trial, that he might were seven lions (28-32). But the angel of the
publish Susanna's virtue, and the others' inconti- Lord commanded the  prophet Habakkuk, in
nence; and, at the same time, by her exemplary Judsea, to go to Babylon to furnish Daniel with
conduct, give a pattern to the sex of the like reso- food, and when he pleaded ignorance of the
lution and constancy in case of temptation' (Serm. locality, the angel carried him by the hair of his
de Szsanna). The story of Susanna is therefore head through the air to the lion's den, where he
read in the Roman church on the vigil of the 4th fed and comforted Daniel (36-39). After seven
Sunday in Lent, and in the Anglican church on the days Cyrus went to the den to bewail Daniel,'and
22d of November.                              behold Daniel was sitting!' The king then com3. Character, author, date, and original lan- manded that he should be taken out and all his
guafge.-Though the form of this story, as we now  persecutors be thrown in to be instantly devoured,
have it, shews that it is greatly embellished, yet and the great Cyrus openly acknowledged the great:
there is every reason to believe that it is not wholly ness of the God of Israel (40-42). This story is read
fictitious, but based upon fact. The paranoma- in the Roman Church on Ash Wednesday, and in
sias in Daniel's examination of the elders, when he the Anglican Church on the 23d of November.
is represented as saying to the one who affirmed  3. Historical character and oriinzal lanzuage.
he saw the crime committed,'7r6 o-xivov, under a -The basis of this story is evidently derived from
mastich-tree,' the angel of God hath received sen- Dan. vi. and Ezek. viii. 3, ingeniously elaborated
tence of God, oXiCoat  e faeoov, to cut thee in two;' and embellished to effect the desired end. It is
and to the other, who asserted he saw it committed, not in the nature of such sacred legends to submit
vrob rpivov, under a holen tree,' the angel of the to the trammels of fact, or to endeavour to avoid
Lord waiteth with the sword, irplota, oe Iucaovo, to anachronisms. That Daniel, who was of the tribe
cut thee in two,' only prove that the Greek is an of Judah, should here be represented as a priest of
elaboration of an old Hebrew story, but not that the tribe of Levi; that he should here be said to
it originated with the Alexandrine translator of have destroyed the temple of Belus which was
Daniel. The Song of Solomon may have sug- pulled down by Xerxes, and that the Babylonians
gested material to the author. The opinion of should be described as worshippers of living aniEusebius, Apollinarius, and St. Jerome, that the mals, which they never were, are therefore quite in
prophelt abakkuk is the author of the History of harmony with the character of these legends.




DANIEL, APOCRYPHAL ADDITIONS               623               DANNHAUER
Their object is effect and not fact. The Greek of some observations from the tenth book of Origen's
our editions of the Septuagint is the language in  Stromata; and in despair of being able to answer
which this national story has been worked out by  the objections against their contents, the Father
the Alexandrine embellisher to exalt the God of concludes-' Quod facile solvet qui hanc historiam
Abraham before the idolatrous Greeks. Various in libro Danielis apud Hebrmeos dixerit non haberi.
fragments of it in Aramoean and Hebrew are given  Si quis autem  potuerit eam  approbare esse de
in the Midrash (Bereshith Rabba, c. 68), Josippon  Canone, tunc quzerendum est quid ei respondere
(p. 34-37, ed. Breithaupt), and in Delitzsch's work  debeamus.'
De Habacuci vitc et State, which will shew the    The literature on these apocryphal additions.Babylonian and Palestinian shape of these popular yosipon ben Gorion, ed. Breithaupt, I7Io, p. 34,
traditions.                                     etc.; Whitaker, Disputation on Scripture, the ParTHE CANONICITY OF THESE ADDITIONS.-All ker Society's ed., p. 76, etc.; Du Pin, History of
these additions are regarded as canonical by the the Canon, London, I699, pp. 14, etc., I17, etc.;
Roman Church. Both the Greek and Latin Fa- Arnald, A Critical Commentary upon the Apocrythers commonly quote them as parts of Daniel's phal Books; Zunz, Die Gottesdienstlichen Vortrdge
prophecy (comp. Irenseus, Cont. Her., iv. II, 44; der 7uden, p. I22; De Wette, Einleitung in die
St. Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, iv.; Tertzl- Bibel, 1852, P. 353, etc.; Delitzsch, De Habacuci
lian de Idol, xviii.; De Yzven. vii. ix.; St. Cyprian, vit et etate, I844; Herzfeld, Geschichte des
etc., quoted at length by Du Pin, History of the  Volkes Israel von der Zerstorung des ersten Tempels,
Canon). Against this, however, is to be urged-  etc., I847, p. 316; Graetz, Geschicthe der z7den,
I. That these Fathers regarded the Septuagint iii. p. 308; Ewald, Geschichte des Volkes Israel,
and the Latin version as containing the canonical iv. p. 557, etc.; Fritzsche, Kurzgefasstes exegetisches
books; 2. That these stories were among the many  H-andbuch zzt den Apocryphen des A. T, i. p. I I I,
popular Jewish legends which never existed in a etc.; Davidson, The Text of the Old Testament
definite form, but were shaped by the Jews into  considered, etc., p. 936, etc.; Keil, Lehrbuch der
different forms and used as parables as circum- historisch-kritischen Einleitzng, etc., I859, p. 732,
stances required, without their believing them to  etc.-C. D. G.
be true. This may be seen, not only from the
different embellishments which these stories re-  DANNAH      (-; Sept.'PevaY), a town in the
ceived in the Septuagint by Theodotion, in the  mountains of Judah (Josh. xv. 49), the site of
Midrash, and by Josippon, but also from the fact which is unknown.
that the Jewish teacher, as St. Jerome tells us,
ridiculed the idea of the three youths leisurely com-  DANNHAUER, JOHANN CONRAD (born 603,
posing metrical hymns in the fiery furnace; that died I666), a Lutheran clergyman, professor of
this Rabbi maintained that Daniel neither required  theology in the university of Strasburg.  He was
a miracle nor inspiration to detect the frauds of the  also preacher at the Cathedral Church, and excited
crafty priests of Bel, and to kill the Dragon with a considerable attention by his popular expositions
cake of pitch, but ordinary sagacity; that he re- of Scripture. He strongly opposed the projected
garded the idea of an angel carrying Habakkuk   union of the Lutheran and Reformed churches,
by the hair of his head through the air from Judea and took an active part in the controversy which
to Babylon as most preposterous, and having no  arose respecting it.  His writings are numerous,
parallel in the Hebrew  Scriptures, and that he  including various works on dogmatic and controtherefore maintained the apocryphal character of versial theology, and others belonging to the dethese portions of Daniel (Prmef. ad Danielem); 3. partment of church history.  The following are
That in consequence of their legendary character those on biblical subjects:-Idea boni interpretis,
these portions have never been admitted into the et malitiosi caluminatoris, Argentorati, I630, 1642,
Hebrew Bible, nor are they mentioned in the Jew- 8vo. Hermeneutica Sacra, sive me/hodus exponenish catalogues of their Canon (Baba Bathra 15); 4. darum sacrarum litterarum, Argent. 1654, 8vo.
That those Fathers who knew most of Hebrew, and  This is an expansion of the former work, a brief
had most intercourse with the Jews, and hence had  account of which is given by Davidson, Hfermeneuthe best means of ascertaining which books were tics, p. 683.  De Politia febrrea per varias cetates
in the Jewish Canon, rejected these additions as succincte descripta, edited by J. A. Schmidt, Helmuncanonical.  Thus St. Jerome distinctly says, stadt, I700, 4to.  Collegium disputatorizm in epis-'Apud Hebrzeos nec Susannze habet historiam, tolam    ad Romanos, published by J. F. Mayer,
nec hymnum trium puerorum, nec Belis draconisque  Greiphswald, 1708, 4to. The following exegetical
fabulas: quas nos, quia in toto orbe dispersze sunt, dissertations, written at various periods, were,
veru -  anteposito, eoque jugulante, subjecimus, with some others, collected by C. Misler, and
ne videremur apud imperitos magnam      partem  published under the title Dispztationes Theologicce,
voluminis detruncasse' (Proem ad Dan). Again, Lipsie, 1707, 4to:-De oper      e Dei hexaemeero; D)e
he says that Origen, Eusebius, Apollinarius, and  Melchisadeco; De Sceptro ehzudce; De voto ephtce;
other ecclesiastics and doctors of Greece have de- De custodia angelica; De Ch~isti Septem  verbis
dared these portions as having no authority of iovissimis; De concilio Hierosolymitano; De Galsacred Scripture,'Et miror quasdam   UelitfILol- lionismo; De gemitu creaturarum (Rom. viii. I9povs indignari mihi, quasi ego decurtaverim librum: 23); De apocalypsi mysterii apostolici; De profunquum et Origenes, et Eusebius, et Apollinarius, ditate divitiawmm  et sapientice et cognilionis; De
aliique ecclesiastici viri et doctores Grecime has, ut Domino glorice cruczfxo; De Hypopiasmo Paulino
dixi visiones non haberi apud Hebroeos fateantur, (I Cor. ix. 27); De signaculo electoruzm; De pronec se debere respondere Porphyrio pro his quze batione spiritzuum; De &aXeLt angzelica inter Minullam scripturze sancte auctoritatem prsebeant.' chaelem  archangelum et antagonistam diabolumm;
St. Jerome therefore wrote no commentary upon  De Muhammedismo in angelis Ezophrateis yoannz
these apocryphal additions, but simply collected prcemonstrato.-S. N.




DANZ                     624                   DAR
DANZ, JOHANN      ANDREAS, a well-known    demical writings are to be found in G. H. Meuschen's
Orientalist and theologian, born February I, 1654, Nov. Test. ex Talmude illustr., Lips. 1736, and in
at Sandhausen, near Gotha. The great capacities the Thes. diss. ad V. Test.-E. D.
he shewed at an early age brought him under the
notice of the then Duke of Gotha, who first sent DAPHNE (Adc<?). I. A grove in the neighhim to the Gymnasium at Gotha, and, when he bourhood of Antioch in Syria celebrated for its
had completed his course there, to the University fountains, its temple in honour of Apollo and
at Wittenberg.  Here he applied himself chiefly Diana, its oracle (Soz. v. I9), and its right of
to philosophy, philology, theology, and  the asylum.  The name was also extended to the
Oriental languages.  These latter, however, soon suburb which arose around this attractive place.
became his favourite study, and he proceeded to According to Strabo (xvi. Io66, Oxf. ed.), it was
Hamburg, where he attended the lectures of Ezra distant from Antioch 40 stadia, or about 5 miles,
Edzardi, besides having two Jewish instructors in the distance given in the Jerusalem Itinerary. The
Hebrew and Chaldee (Zohar). He afterwards re- writer of the second book of Maccabees refers to it
turned to Wittenberg, and there delivered his first (iv. 33), under the designation A. -7rpobs'Avrt6Xeta
lectures, but soon left it for Jena (I680), where he KeLuievq. Josephus commonly distinguishes it by
read the Talmud with Zarnossi, a learned convert. some similar epithet (Antiq. xiv. 15, sec. II;
A subsequent threeyears'journey, undertaken at the xvii. 2, sec. I; Bell. Jid. I. I2, sec. 5). A full
Duke's expense, brought D. to Amsterdam, where description of this far-famed spot may be read in
he applied himself chiefly to Persian, under the Gibbon (Decline and Fall, c. xxiii.), where also
guidance of La Brosse, who had been for seventeen the authorities are given.  Its site has been idenyears a missionary in Persia; and to the study of tified with the modern Beit-el-Maa, or the House
the Talmud under Jos. Athia and Dav. de Riva. of the Waters.
In 1684 we find him in London, and somewhat    2. A town or village (X(5ptov) near to the founlater at Oxford. At this latter place he read Arabic tains of the little Jordan (Josephus, Bell. _id. iv.
with the elder Pococke, and Hebrew with E. Ber- I, sec. I). Reland (Paastina, p. 263) and others
nard and Abendana, two learned Jews. In Cam- have considered this as identical with Dan, proposbridge he became acquainted with Cudworth, H. ing to read Aacvqs for AcdIv-s, and referring m supMore, Spencer, Newton, Castelli, and others equally port to Josephus, Antiq. viii. 8, sec. 4. Recent
famous.  Hearing of the arrival of a native of explorers have shewn this to be an error, and have
Arabia in London, he repaired thither again. At discovered the site of the Daphne of Josephus in
Leyden he became the disciple of Trigland, and the present Dufneh, two miles to the south of Tellafter a short time the Professorship of Oriental el-Kady, the site of Dan. (Van deVelde, Memoir,
languages was offered to him at that place.  He p. 306; Syria and Palestine, ii. 419; Robinson,
preferred, however, returning to Jena, where the Later Researches, 393; Thomson, i. 388).
degrees of Dr. and Professor of Theology were con-  3. In Num. xxxiv. II, the clause rendered in
ferred upon him (I7Io). He died at that place in the A. V.' on the east side of Ain' [AIN], and by
1727.,the LXX.'on the east to (of) the fountain,' is
Although looked upon in his own day as one of given in the Vulgate'contra fontem Daphnim.'
Although looked upon in his own day as one ofT        Daphnim is most probably a marginal
the most eminent Orientalists, we could not well, in The word Daphnim is most probably a marginal
the present state of linguistic and antiquarian studies, gloss, and may perhaps refer to No. 2. Jerome i
pass anything like the same eulogium upon him. s commentary on Ezeiel     47), refers to the
Creditable as some of his very copious productions passage in Numbers, and gives reasons for con-on almost every subject connected with the Bible,  g   tat the fontan    o Jersalem give
especially the 0. T.-may be to his zeal and in- The targums of Jonathan and of Jerusalem give
dustry, still there is very little of lasting value in  Daphne or Dophne as the equivalent of Riblah in
them. One of his chief merits lies in his having um. x. I. [          The errr into 
been the first in recent times who, in Germany Jerome and the Targums have fallen, appears to
been the first in recent times who, in Germany            either from  a confusion between
at least, endeavoured to introduce something likehae   n either   ro  a       on between
method and accuracy into Hebrew grammar. Un-Daphne on the Jordan with Daphne on the Oronmethod and accuracy into Hebrew grammar. Un- t           mistaking the fountains near to the
fortunately, however, so far from facilitating its tes, of the Orones for the fntais nar to 
study, he, by introducing a prodigious number of  t     of te  ron    thoe at its source.
subtle rules, and a terminology far-fetched and  4. A fortified town on the Pelusiac branch of
almost unintelligible, made it rather more inacces- the Nile (A, Herod. ii. 30, 17) the Tasible than it had been before.               penes of Scripture (TAHPENES); distant from
Pelusium 16 Roman miles (Itin. Ant. Iter a PeluOf the prodigious number of his writings (mostly si Memphim).-S. N.
dissertations, disputations,'programmata,' etc.),
we will mention Nzucifrangibulum Scripturre S.  DAR ('~).   This word occurs in Esth. i. 6, as
Ebreace, Jense, I686, 8vo, called in a later edition
Literator Ebrao-6Chadaics, etcl, Jens a la696, 8vo  the name of one of the stones in the pavement of
Znterpres Ebraeo-Chaldaicus, Ib. 1696, 8vo, re- the magnificent hall in which Ahasuerus feasted the
edited I755 and 1773; Aditus Syric recl6zs8ts,  princes of his empire. This would suggest that it
etc., ene,  689, 7th ed  735   must have denoted a kind of marble. Some take
etc.vo; De cra  or89,  7th  ed. 135uirendis  seytis76, it to signify Parian marble, others white marble,
8v   Decura urn re Zitarin Baptirendsms proselytorm  but nothing certain is known about it. In Arabic
De Ebreorum re miitari; Baptismusproselvtorum     
daics  issertatioro  ero  Orathe word dar signifies a large pearl. Now pearls
udaicus; Dissertatiopro Luthero; Orato de Try-, were certainly employed by the ancients in decoratphone... habita de 5lp r; de Mesu Christi coe- ing the walls of apartments in royal palaces, but
terna cuzpatri existentia; de KZrischma Ebreorum, that pearls were also used in the pavements of even
de Kpcwfaylq antediluvianorum licita, de signific- regal dining-rooms is improbable in itself, and untione nominis divini'ag, etc. Most of his aca- supported by any known example.  The Septua



DARA                     625                 DARIUS
gint refers the Hebrew word to a stone resembling  (Curt. vi. 6) both took the royal name'Artaxerpearls (rrvvlvou X10ov); by which, as J. D. xes.' The biblical persons so named areMichaelis conjectures, it intends to denote the  I.'Darius, son of Ahasuerus' (''rhashwerosh
Alabastrites of Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxvi. 7, 8), which Heb. = Vp~*Is, Khshyarsha cuneif., not as some
is a kind of alabaster with the gloss of mother-of- suppose = Kvadcipis, which is Uwakshatra, cuneif.
pearl. [ALABASTER.]                          See M. v. Niebuhr, Gesch. Assurs u. Babels, p. 36,
-~~~~~~DARA. T ~A ~RD44),'of the seed of the Medes who reigned over
~DARA. C[~DARDA.]^ the kingdom of the Chaldeans,' Dan. ix. I. This
DARCMONIM. [ADARCONIM.]'Darius the Mede took the kingdom, being 62
years old,' ib. v. 31; the first year (only) of his reign
DARDA (3m); LXX. AapdXa), mentioned as is mentioned, ix. I, xi. I, and the statement, vi. 28,
an example of conspicuous wisdom in I Kings iv. that'Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius,
3I, where we are told that Solomon'was wiser than and in the reign of Cyrus the Persian,' seems to
all men; than Ethan the Ezrahite, and Heman, represent him as immediate predecessor of Cyrus.
and Chalcol, and Darda, the sons of Mahol.' This No Darius occupying this place, nor indeed any
incidental notice is very interesting, because it gives Darius anterior to the son of Hystaspes, is found
a momentary glimpse of a literature or a tradition either in profane history, or (hitherto) on monuwhich has completely vanished.  Of an Ethan in- ments. Only, the Scholiast on Aristoph. Eccl. 602,
deed, and a Heman, we hear elsewhere (I Chron. vi. followed by Suidas, s. v. Aapetc6s, and Harpocrat,
42, 44; xv. 17-19; Ps. lxxxviii. lxxxix.; I Chron. says that the daric took its name from'another
xvi. 4; xxv. I-4); but of Chalcol and Darda we Darius, earlier than the father of Xerxes (D. Hysreceive no further information. We cannot even taspis).'* Herodotus and Ctesias, differingwidely
conjecture at what period these men, so pre-eminent in other respects, agree in making Astyages last
for wisdom, lived or wrote-for there is nothing to king of the Median dynasty, with no male heir,
support the Jewish tradition (in Seder Olam Rabba) conquered and deposed by Cyrus, first king of the
that they prophesied during the Egyptian bondage. Medo-Persian dynasty at Babylon.  Xenophon,
LThe phrase'inn ar  may mean not'sons of however, in the Cyropicdia (i. 5. 2) introduces, as
The phra   may mean not'so   son and successor of Astyages, and uncle (mother's
Mahol,' but'sons of the dance' (Sacras choreas brother) of Cyrus, a second Cyaxares, acting under
ducendi periti. Hiller. Onom.), in which case they whose orders Cyrus takes Babylon, and receives
may have been'poets,' as indeed Luther calls in marriage his daughter, unnamed, with Media
them (cf.'daughters of song,' Eccles. xii. 4). That as her portion. Josephus Antiq. x. 1. I, clearly
the four are identical with the four of the same means the Cyaxares II. of Xenophon, when he
name (curn var. lect., 1~T, Dara) mentioned as says that'Darius was the son of Astyages, but'sons (or descendants) of Zerah' (i.e., Ezrahites) known to the Greeks by a different name;' and
in I Chron. ii. 6, there can be no reasonable doubt the tatment of Aben Esra, who reports from'a
(Movers, Karit. Unters. s. 237), although Keil book of the kings of Persia' that this Darius was
argues that nothing can be proved from the mere Cyrus's father-in-law, probably rests at last on the
identity of the names (Versuch ib. d. Chron., s. supposed authority of Xenophon.  But the Cyro164). This and other points connected with the pedia, a pedagogic romance, is at best a precariname will be discussed under ETHAN.-F. W. F.  ous source of history, where unsupported or plainly
contradicted by Herodotus, Ctesias, and Berosus.
DARDAR (1''11).    This word occurs in Gen.  The question, who was'Darius the Mede?' is
iii. I8, and Hos. x. 8, in both of which passages it iseparable from that which relates to Belshazzar
is translated thistle, in the A. V., LXX., rplpoXos. who seems to be represented in the narrative (ch.
In both passages it is joined with'r, which is v.) as son of Nebuchadnezzar, and last Chaldean
either a generic name for thorns, or the name of king in Babylon, but does not appear under that
some species of thorn. [QOTS.] The dardar isname in the accounts of the Grees and native
commonly regarded as the tributus terrestris (Cel-his ans. [BELSHAZZAR.  The recent discovery
sius, Hierob. ii. 128), a prickly or thorny plant of the name Bel-sar-assur, as son and supposed co[TRIBULUS]. Bochart derives the name from the regent of Nabunita (Rawlinson and Oppert), seems
to explain the name Bel-shazzar, till then known
Arab..    circumire, which, in the oth conj., only from the narrative of Daniel.  But supmeans to round; alleging the roundness of the posing all other difficulties solved, still'Darius
seed shut up in a round capsule as the point of the Mede' as king in Babylon remains to be
analogy in the case of the tribulus.  Gesenius accounted for, and, except i the romance of
traces it to'11, to spread out like rays, from the Xenophon, we know of no Median king later
appearance of the flower; and Fiurst to C1V, in than Astyages, and his reign ended 20 or 21 years
the sense of to tear, from its effects.-W. L. A.  befre the taking of Babylon by Cyrus. On the
other hand, a taking of Babylon by a Darius is
DARICS. [ADARCONIM.]                       known to history, but he is Darius Hystaspes, a
DARIUS A  pos arayaws    Persian  Persian not a Mede (Herodot. i. 209, vii. ii), and
TDARIUS (, A-  Da a    P    n a division of the kingdom into satrapies is also on
cuneiform inscriptions) appears to be originally an record as the act of the same king (Herodot. iii. 89,
appellative, meaning'king,'' ruler' (Herbelot, if., where the number is 20, not I20 as in Dan. vi.
Biblioth. Orient., s. v. Dara.; Herodot. vi. 98, 2). As was mentioned in the art. CHRONOLOGY,
renders itby eptei/s,'coercer'). It was assumed as                -
throne-name by Ochus (= D. Nothus), son and    * Perhaps the scholiast mistook a statement pursuccessor of Artaxerxes Longimanus (Ctesias deReb. porting that the coin was older than the time of
Pers. 48. 57, Miller), in like manner as Arsaces, Darius H., and took its name, not from him, but
successor of this Darius (ibid. 53, 57) and Bessus from dara'king.'
VOL..                                                                        2 S




DARIUS                    626                 DARIUS
17, there are writers who identify'Darius the Mede Cyrus, and did not again return to Babylon: so vi.
son of Ahasuerus' with Darius son of Hystaspes the 28 is explained. The mention, Dan. viii. i, of the
Persian, and make this a cardinal point in schemes third year of Belshazzar makes a difficulty-not as
involving sweeping reforms of the chronology. v. Niebuhr puts it, because Evil-merodach has
Others briefly dispose of all difficulties by rejecting but two years in the Canon, for the actual reign
the book of Daniel from the category of authentic may very well have reached its third year, but
history, alleging that it is the product of a later from  the mention of Susa as the scene of the
age (the times of the Maccabees): viz., that vision; for Susa being Median was not subject to
though intended as a narrative of facts, it is based any Chaldean king. The explanation gravely proonly on vague traditions, and the confused accounts posed by v. Niebuhr is, that Daniel while at Susa
of Babylonian and Persian history which were in the service of Darius the Mede continued to date
current in those times; or, that put forth with no by years of Belshazzar's reign; and this, though he
deceptive purpose, and not claiming to -be history, is related to have been present in Babylon the
it freely uses historic names and popular traditions night in which Belshazzar was slain. The diffionly as a vehicle of the higher religious truths by culty is not confined to M.v. Niebuhr's scheme:
which the author wished to encourage the men of Belshazzar, whoever he was, was a Chaldean; and
his generation (Duncker Gesch. des Alterth/zms, ii. the explanation may be, that the prophet is at Susa,
609; Hitzig, kgf ex. Hdbuch, das B. Daniel; not in bodily presence, but transported in spirit to
Bunsen, in his Bibel-werk; Riietschi, art. Nebuchad- the city which was to be the metropolis of the
nezzar in Herzog's Real-Encyclopiidie. Those who Persian monarchy, the fate of which, under the emare not prepared either to revolutionize our received blem of the ram, is portrayed in the ensuing vision.
chronology, or to deny the historical character of  2.'Darius, king of Persia,' in whose second
the book of Daniel, will have recourse to other com- year the building of the Temple was resumed, and
binations framed for the purpose of meeting the completed in his sixth (Ezra iv. 5, 24; vi. 15), undifficulties. Two such schemes may be noticed.  der the prophesying of Haggai and Zechariah, is
C. K. v. Hofmann (die 70 aahre, etc., p. 44, f.) understood by most writers, ancient and modern,
identifies Belshazzar with the boy Labosordach. to be Darius son of Hystaspes, whose reign in the
His father Neriglissar, who, according to Berosus Canon extends from 521 to 485 B.C.  Scaliger,
had married a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar, occu- however, makes him Darius Nothus (424-405 B. C.),
pied the throne four years as viceroy and guardian of and this view has been recently advocated by the
his son, whose years Daniel dates from the death of late Dr. Mill, The Evangelical Accounts of the
Evil-merodach (hence the'third year,' Dan. viii. Birth andParentage of our Saviour, etc., 1842, p.
i). With Belshazzar the house of Nebuchadnezzar 153-I65, who refers for further arguments to Hotceased to reign. Then Astyages regarded himself tinger, Pentas Dissertationum, p. 107-II4. Beas heir, and Nabonned, elected by the slayers of fore we examine the grounds on which this concluBelshazzar, reigned as his vassal, but after a while sion rests, it will be convenient to consider the
sought to effect his independence by a league with  difficulties with which it is attended.
Lydia. So began the war first with Crcesus, and,  Zerubbabel son of Shealtiel, as prince of the
that finished, against Nabonned.  When Cyrus house of David, and Jeshua son of Jozadak, as
had taken Babylon (B.C. 538), Astyages assigned high-priest, headed the first colony of exiles from
it to his own younger brother, the Cyaxares II. Babylon in the first year of Cyrus (Ezra iii. 2), at
of Xenophon = Darius. So, in Dan. v. 30, vi. I, which time neither can have been less than twenty
we have an abbreviated account of what really years old. By these same two persons the work
took place. With Belshazzar, grandson of Nebu- of rebuilding the temple was resumed and comchadnezzar, that dynasty came to an end, as fore- pleted after its suspension. Now from the first
told, Jer. xxvii. 7; for Nabonned was only -TS -ri  year of Cyrus, in the biblical reckoning (536 B. c.)
CK Bav\uXWvos (Berosus). The Chaldean kingdom, to the second of Darius Nothus (423 B.C.) are 113
it is true, still continued for a while, but only as a years: so that, if he be the Darius of this history,
dependence of Media.                         both Zerubbabel and Jeshua must then have reached
Here it is assumed that the announcement, v. 28, the age of I30 years at least. This is incredi-' Thy kingdom is divided to the Medes and Per- ble, if not in itself, certainly under the entire
sians,' was fulfilled in the person of Astyages im- silence of the history and the contemporary promediately on the death of Belshazzar, but that the phets as to a fact so extraordinary. Moreover,
fulfilment is not noted. Yet surely it ought to that the work of rebuilding the temple should
have been; and so it is, if the copula in vi. I looks have been abandoned for a century and more
back to that prediction.'In that same night, Bel- is scarcely conceivable.  Its suspension  dur.
shazzar, the Chaldean king, was slain, and-as ing fifteen or sixteen years is sufficiently acDaniel had interpreted the writing on the wall- counted for by the history and the representations
Darius the Mede took the kingdom.'    M. v. of the prophets. The adversaries'weakened the
Niebuhr Gesch. Asszrrs u. Babels, 9, ff., perceives hands of the people of Judah, and troubled them
this necessary connection, and determines that in building, and hired counsellors against them to
Belshazzar is Evil-merodach, son and successor frustrate their purpose all the days of Cyrus, even
of Nebuchadnezzar; that, on his death (slain by until the reign of Darius' (Ezra iv. 4. 5). Besides
Neriglissar, his sister's husband), Astyages, who molesting the builders in their work, they preis Daniel's Darius the Mede, reigned one year at vailed by their machinations at the court of Cyrus,
Babylon, which year in the Canon is I Neriglissar; or of his viceroy, to bring it to a stand-still, by inin the following year he was conquered by Cyrus. terposing official obstacles, stopping the grants
After the fall of this Darius-Astyages, Babylon from the royal treasury (vi. 4), and the supply of
recovered its independence under Nabonned, to materials from the forest and the quarry (iii. 7).
fall under the arms of Cyrus, B.C. 538. Daniel So the people were discouraged: they said,'The
himself passed from the service of Darius to that of time is not come for the house of the Lord to be




DARIUS                     627                  DARIUS
built,' and turned to the completion of their own  Artahhshashta, and Daryawesh. By those who
houses and the tilling of their lands (Hagg. i. 3). hold this last to be Darius, son of Hystaspes,
This is intelligible on the supposition of an in- the two first are commonly supposed to be Camterval of fifteen or sixteen years, during which, byses and the impostor Smerdis, whom  Justin
there having been no decree issued to stop it, the  (i. 9) calls Oropasta, Ctesias (de reb. Pers. Io)
work was nominally in progress, only deferred, as Sphendadates, who reigned under the name of
the builders could allege at the time of its resump- Cambyses's younger brother Tany-oxarces. See
tion,'Since that time (2d of Cyrus), even until Ewald, Gesch. des V;.. iv. 8I and II8.  But
now, hath it been in building, and yet it is not nowhere on monuments is Cambyses called Khshfinished' (Ezra v. I6). But in no sense could the yarsha, or Smerdis Artakashasha: the former is
temple be said to have'been in building' through  constantly Kabujiya (Pers.), Kambudsiya (Bab.),
the entire reigns of Cambyses, Darius, Xerxes, and  Kembath (hierogl.); the latter Bart'iya (Pers.),
Artaxerxes I.: there is no testimony to the fact, nor Bardsija (Bab.) Moreover, as Artahhshashta (or
any means of accounting for it. Again, the persons - shasht) elsewhere in Ezra and Neh. is conaddressed by Haggai are'the residue of the stantly Artaxerxes, and it scarcely admits of a
people' who came from Babylon with Zerubbabel doubt that'Hhashwerosh in Esther is Xerxes, it
and Jeshua, some of whom   had seen the' first would be strange if these two names were here aphouse in its glory (ii. 2. 3), i.e., who might be plied to other quite different kings.
some 80 years old on the usual view, but on the  The true explanation of this difficulty, proposed
other must have been 170 at the least.   The long ago by a writer of our own (Mr. Howes), and
prophet further admonishes his countrymen that adopted by Dr. Hales, has been recently put forward
the blights, droughts, and mildews which year by by Bertheau in the kgf. exeget. Hdb. on Ezra, Neh.,
year disappointed their labours in the fields were and Esth., I862, p. 69-73. This writer had forthe chastisement of their want of faith in letting  merly upheld the more usual view, Beitrdge zu der
the House of God lie waste, while they dwelt in  Gesch. der Isr. p. 396; so had Vaihinger in Sludien
their'ceiled houses' (I. 4-I7); so long as they u. Kritizeen I854, p. I24, who ibid. 1857, p. 87,
had been guilty of this neglect, so long had they  abandons it for the other. See also Schultz, Cyrus
been visited with this punishment. On the one der Grosse in the Stud. u. KIrit. I853, p. 624, and
supposition, this state of things had lasted from  Bunsen, Bibelwerk. It is clear that, as in iv. 24,
twelve to fixteen years at most; on the other, we the narrative returns to the point at which it
are required to imagine that the curse had been on  stood in verse 5, in the interposed portion it either
the land for three successive generations, an entire goes back to times before Darius, for the purpose of
century.  Lastly, in the same second year of supplying omitted matter, orgoesforward to record
Darius, Zechariah distinctly intimates what length the successful machinations of the people of the
of time had elapsed from the destruction of the land under subsequent kings, Xerxes and Artaxfirst temple-' threescore and ten years' (i. 12). erxes I. But, nothing in the contents of v. 6-23
So in vii. 5 mention is made of a period of 70 intimates a reverting to an earlier time. After
years, during which the people had'fasted and  reading of Darius we naturally take for granted
mourned in the fifth and seventh month.' The that Ahasuerus and Artaxerxes are later than he.
events commemorated by those fasts were the de- It appears that the adversaries had succeeded in
struction of the temple in the fifth, and the murder hindering the building of the Temple till the second
of Gedaliah in the seventh month of the same year of Darius. In the beginning of the next reign
year.  From that year to the 2d of Darius I. are (Xerxes) they' wrote. an accusation,' the purport
almost, if not exactly, 70 years. To the corre- and issue of which are not recorded. In thefollowsponding year of Darius II. the interval is more ing reign mention is made of another letter adthan I60 years, and the mention of'those 70 dressed to Artaxerxes, its contents not specified;
years' is quite unintelligible, if that be the epoch of but a second letter to the same king is given in
Zechariah's prophesying.  Certainly, if the pro- extenso, together with the royal rescript.  It is rephecies of Haggai and Zechariah, and the first presented to the king that the Jews are building
five chapters of Ezra, are worth anything as testi- the city, and have' set up the walls thereof, and
mony,'the second year of Darius' must lie with- joined (excavated) the foundations.' The rescript
in one generation from the decree of Cyrus, and  orders that this work be made to cease. Not a
not more than 70 years from the destruction of the word is said of the Temple.  It may indeed be
first temple. The conclusion is inevitable, unless alleged that the'walls' are part of it, intended for
we are prepared to deny that the Koresh of Scrip- its defence: but with their straitened resources
ture is the Cyrus of the Greeks, and to affirm that the builders would hardly attempt more than was
Nebuchadnezzar was contemporary with Darius, essential to the fabric itself. Besides, in the reson of Hystaspes.                              presentations given by Hag. and Zech. from their
The reasons alleged on the other side may be own observation, nothing implies that quite rethus stated. I. In Ezra iv., between the edict of cently the people had been actively engaged in
Cyrus for the return of the exiles and rebuilding of the work of rebuilding either city walls or Temple,
the temple, and that of Darius for the completion  as according to these documents they had been, if
of the work after its discontinuance, two Persian  Artahhshashta be the impostor Smerdis with his
kings are named,'Hhashwerosh and Artahh- brief reign of a few months: nor, again, is it posshashta:'which the names on the Zendic monu- sible to reconcile the statement in Ezra v. I6,
ments will not permit us to apply to other kings'Since that time even until now (2 Darius) hath it
than Xerxes and his son' (Dr. Mill, u. s. I53, (the Temple) been in building, and yet it is not finnote).  The Persian history, as related by the ished,' with the assumption that the work had been
Greeks, and the Astronomical Canon, give three peremptorily stopt by command of Smerdis. But it
names in succession, Xerxes, Artaxerxes I., Darius is certain that at some time between the 7th and the
II.; Ezra, in like manner, three,'Hhashwerosh, 20th year of Artaxerxes some great reverse befel the




DARIUS                    628                 DARIUS
colonists, in consequence of which'the wall of Jeru- the chief of David's house was one removed from
salem was broken down, and the gate thereof burned  Zorobabel by at least six generations... thus
with fire,' Neh. i. 3 (for it is absurd to imagine that proving... the impossibility of the descenthis can relate to the desolation effected by Nebu- dant's ascent from Babylon being earlier than the
chadnezzar a hundred and forty years before); and  reign next to that of Darius Nothus, viz., that of
the documents under consideration shew what that Artaxerxes II.'  This argument is fetched from
reverse was. It was the result of that rescript of the Davidic genealogy, I Chron. iii. 19-22, comArtaxerxes, in virtue of which'Rehum and Shim- pared with Ezra viii. 2.  It is assumed that
shai and their companions went up to Jerusalem  Hattush in both places is the same person; now,
to the Jews,' and made them to cease by force and in the genealogy, it is alleged there are at least six
power' (Ezr. iv. 23); to cease from walling the city generations between his ancestor Zerubbabel and
(ver. 21) not from building the Temple, which was him, yet he accompanied Ezra from Babylon; of
finished long before. So far, all is plain and con- course this is impossible, if between the ascent of
sistent. But at verse 24, with the word l.:_'at Zerubbabel and that of Ezra are but 80 years (I
Cyrus to 7 Artaxerxes Longimanus). Dr. Mill (p.
that time,' prop.'at the same time,' arises the diffi- Cyrs to 7 mentions four ways of exhibiting the
culty. Were the last clause of verse 5,'until 152, note) mentions'four ways of exhibiting the
culty. Were the last clause of verse 5,'until offspring of Hananiah, son of Zerubbabel; the
the reign of Darius,' absent, the obvious import offspring of Hanaah, on  f Zerubbabel' thea  
would be, that at the time when the order fom  i  that of the common Hebrew text and our
would be, that at the btime when the lorder fom  version, which,'if intelligible, yet leaves the numrtaxerxes caused the building  of the wall to cease,  ber ofgenerations undetermined;' and three others,
the work of rebuilding the Temple ceased also, and followedby ancient interpreters, and versions, which
consequently that Darius (ver. 24) reigned after Aha-   severay, in  ain  attsh
suerus and Artaxerxes.  But as this view is beset lt, severally, in mai. Th   e present wite
and ninth fl-om Zerubbabel.  The present writer
with insuperable difficulties, in whichever way it is   n  an for departing from the  ebrew text,
taken, i.e., alike whether Darius be supposed the s ees no rean f  both d rtingible and consistent
first or the second of that name, we are forced by with the customary chronology. The genealons
the necessity of the case to conclude that ver. 24 he thinks) proceeds thus:-. Zerubbabel;2. his
refers not to what immediately precedes, but to (he thinks) proceeds thus:-I. Zerubbabel; 2. his
refers not to what immediately precedes, but tochildren Meshullam, Hanni, Shelomith (sister),
the time spoken of above, vers. 4, 5, and that chide, others; 3. the sons of this elo (sister
the whole passage from vers. 6 to 23 is digression.  and  Jeshaiah; aons  ther e pdHanniee o
Having shewn how the machinations of'the peo- Zerbbabel ends, i. e., with the two grandsons.
ple of the land' prevailed for a time to delay the Then-'the sons of Rephaiah, the sons of Arnan,
rebuilding of the Temple, the narrative breaks off the   son s of Rbadiah, the sons of Shekania
at that point to notice their subsequent, also for a      the sons of Sekania, Shemaiah; and the
while successful, plottings against the building of and  Shemaiah, Hatu S   a and five others. That
t     sons of Shemaiah, ]attush' and five others. That
the city and its walls. If the  I  can only refer is to say, the genealogist, having deduced the
to the matter immediately preceding, we must Davidic line through Solomon, and the regal
either accept the consequences, part incredible and succession down to the grandsons of Zerubbabel,
absurd, part directly opposed to statements of the proceeds to mention four other branches of the
contemporary prophets, or charge it as an error house of David, and gives a particular account
upon the redactor of this book, that he inserted of the fourth, namely, of Shemaiah, the father of
vers. 6-23 in the wrong place (so Kleinert in the that Hattush who went up from  Babylon with
Dorpat Beiztrde zu den theol. Wissensch. 1832). Ezra, and was in his generation the representative
Considered as a prolepsis, it is, as Bertheau remarks, of the Davidic house of Shekaniah.*  And so in
less striking than that which occurs in vi. 14:'and  fact the Hattush who accompanied Ezra is dethey builded and finished (the Temple, viz. in 6 scribed (according to the unquestionably true readDarius)... according to the commandment of ing of the passage, viii. 2, 3;'of the sons of
Cyrus and Darius, andArtaxerxes, king of Persia.'  David, Hattlush, of the sons of Shekaniah;' for the
2. A second reason alleged by Dr. Mill (u. s. p. last clause is out of place as prefixed to the follow165, note) is'the circumstance, that in the next ing enumeration'of the sons of Parosh,' etc.
ascent from Babylon, that of Ezra himself,.. So the LXX. read it, a7rb viav Aavl6,'ATrros c7rb
-. ta id r t  ofvitWv ZaXavia. Kal carb vliv i6pos, K.T.X.; and the
In the amplified Ezra of the LXX. (Esdras i. of apocryphal version more plainly still (i Esdras. viii.
the Apocrypha, al. Esdras iii.) the portion vers. 8. 29) K  v VlV Aavl8, Aarrobs  6 zExevIov.
-24 (vers. 6, 7 are omitted) is removed to another  3. The concluding agument on the same side is
place. The author perceived, perhaps, that it dis-derved from'the circumstance, that in the next
turbed the connection of the history relating to the  _
Temple, accordingly he sets it at ii. 15-25, imme- * So likewise Movers, iiber die biblische Chronik,
diately after the narrative of ch. i. of the canonical p. 29. Havernick, Handb. der Einleit. in das A.
Ezra. Placing the time of this Artaxerxes be- T. ii. I. 266. Herzfeld, Gesch. des V I. v on der
tween Cyrus and Darius, he finds it necessary to  Zerst/brung des ersten Tempels an, I. 379. Keil,
supply the omission of all reference to the Temple, Apolog. Versuch iiber die Bziiher der Chronik, p. 43.
therefore adds to the letter of the adversaries (ver. I7) On the other hand, Ewald, Gesch. des V.. i. 219,
the clause Kal vaov viro3acXXovTrat,'and are laying  note, makes Shekaniah son of Hananiah and father
the foundations of a temple,' and renders the first of Shemaiah, so that Hattush is fourth from Zerubclause of ver. I4 (Nv  trD~^    i5p-5l Z ~.,  babel; and so Bertheau in the kgf. exeget. Hdb. on
I Chron. iii. 21 (which view is consistent with
-np which the regular LXX. version leaves un- the usual chronology, as of course it is quite possitranslated, by eret 6 r7T KaT 7rp vabv aeve pyeLTat ble that a grandson of Zerubbabel's grandson may'since the affair of the Temple is actively carrying have been adult at the time of Ezra's mission, 80
on.'                                         years after the Ist of Cyrus).




DARIUS                    629               DARKNESS
ascent from Babylon after that of Ezra, and in the from the second year of Darius Nothus (423-22
same reign, the principal opponent of Nehemiah in B.C.), are 49I years at least. That Dr. Mill does
his work of rebuilding Jerusalem, was a man   not allege this as an argument is,'not from any
[Sanballat], who can be demonstrated to have con- doubt of its truth and cogency-but from regard to
tinued an active chief of the Samaritans till the the general principle, that history should interpret
time of Alexander the Great, and to have then  prophecy, and not be determined by it.'
founded the temple on Mount Gerizim, Joseph.   The son of Hystaspes, ninth in the succession of
Antiq. xi. 8. 2-4' (Dr. Mill, u. s.) Josephus's story the Archlemenids, as he styles himself in the Behisis that Sanballat, satrap in Samaria of Darius III., tun Inscription (comp. Herodot. vii. II), was third
had given his daughter in marriage to a brother of descendant from the younger brother of Cambyses,
the high-priest Jaddua, named Manasses, who, re- father of Cyrus. Cambyses having died without
fusing to put her away, took refuge with his father- issue, and no other son of Cyrus surviving, Darius
in-law, and became the first high-priest of the rival was hereditary successor to the throne, to which, as
Temple built on Mount Gerizim by permission of Herodotus relates, he was elected on the death of
Alexander, then engaged in the siege of Tyre. All the pretended Smerdis. In the Canon, the date
which, with the marvellous romance which follows of his' accession is 521 B.C., and the length of his
about Alexander's reception by the high-priest reign 36 years, both points confirmed by HeroJaddua, needs a better voucher than Josephus be- dotus (vii. 1-4), according to whom he died five
fore it can be accepted as history. The story about years after the battle of Marathon (therefore 485
Manasses and Sanballat, is clearly derived from  B.C.), after a reign of thirty-six years (also attested
the last recorded act of Nehemiah, his expulsion of a by an Egyptian inscription, Rosellini, Mon. Storici,
son of Joiada, and grandson of the then high-priest ii. 164). So, his second year would begin 520 B.C.
Eliashib, who was son-in-law to Sanballat the Horon- But in the biblical reckoning, followed by Haggai,
ite. It is remarkable that Josephus, in his account of Zechariah, and Ezra, the epoch must have been
Nehemiah, makes no mention of this act, and does  somewhat later. For it was not until after the
not even name Sanballat: the reason of which may  suppression of the Babylonian revolt-which, with
be, that after referring the mission of Nehemiah,  the siege of nineteen months, beginning in his first
as also of Ezra, to the reign of Xerxes, to extend  year, besides the campaign before it (see the Behisthe life of this active chief of the Samaritans from  tun inscription), must have occupied two years, that
that time to the time of Alexander, full I30 years the sovereignty of Darius was confirmed, and the
later, would have been too absurd. So is the as- records in Babylon would be accessible for the
sumption of Petermann, Art.'Samaria,' in Her- search mentioned in Ezra vi. I. Hence it is
zog's Real-Encyclop. xiii. I, p. 367, that there were  probable that the'seventy years' spoken of by
two Sanballats, one contemporary with Nehemiah, Zechariah were complete from the destruction of
the other with Alexander, and that both had   the first temple (588-518 B.C.), and that the movedaughters married into the family of the high- ment for resuming the work of rebuilding the
priest (Eliashib and Jaddua), whose husbands  temple, was stimulated by the consideration that
were therefore expelled. As to Jaddua, the fact the predicted time of'indignation' against Jerumay be, as Josephus represents it, that he salem had exactly run its course. The benefits
was still high-priest in the time of Alexander.  conferred by Darius upon the Jews are not menThe six who are named in lineal succession    tioned in his inscriptions. Of the satrapies, twenty
in Neh. xii. Io, II; Jeshua, Joiakim, Eliashib, in number, into which he formed the empire,
Joiada, Johanan, and Jaddua, will fill up the in- Palestine would be part of the fourth, including
terval of 200 years from Cyrus to Alexander. Of Syria, Phoenicia, and Cyprus. The fourth king of
these, Eliashib was still high-priest in the thirty- Persia, who should'be far richer than they all,
second year of Nehemiah's Artahhshashta, and  and by his strength through his riches should stir
later (xiii. 6. 28); it is scarcely possible that this up all against the realm of Grecia' (Dan. xi. 2),
could be Artaxerxes Mnemon, whose thirty-second  may be Darius, if the pseudo-Smerdis is reckoned,
year is removed from the Ist of Cyrus by more but the description better suits Xerxes. See Hitthan I60 years, which is far too much for a suc- zig in the KJgf exeget. Hdb. in loc.
cession of three high-priests. It does not follow  3. Darius the Persian,' incidentally mentioned
from the mention of the successors of Eliashib down  in Neh. xii. 22, is supposed by Gesenius, Lex. s.v.
to Jaddua in xii. Io, ff., that Nehemiah lived to to be Darius II. (Nothus). The mention of Jaddua
see any of them in the office of high-priest, but immediately preceding makes it more probable
only that these genealogies and lists were brought that Darius III. (Codomannus) is meant- the
down to his own times by the compiler or last king who lost his empire to Alexander the Great,
redactor of this book.                        336 B.C. He is named as'king of the Persians and
It appears, then, that there are no sufficient rea- Medes' in I Maccab. i. I.-H. B.
sons for calling in question the correctness of the
commonly-received view, that the Darius by whom  DARKNESS. In the gospels of Matt. (xxvii.
the edict of Cyrus for the rebuilding of the temple 45), Mark (xv. 33), and Luke (xxiii. 44), we read
was confirmed, was Darius Hystaspes, whereas the  that while Jesus hung upon the cross,'from the
assumption that he was Darius Nothus is attended  sixth hour there was darkness over all the land
with insuperable difficulties. The inducement to  unto the ninth hour.'  Most of the ancient comadopt this latter view is the consideration'that mentators believed that this darkness extended to
the seventy hebdomads of Dan. ix., which end in the whole world.  But their arguments are now
the destruction of Jerusalem, A.D. 71, cannot be seldom regarded as satisfactory, and their facts
begun otherwise than by an edict in the second  even less so. Of the latter the strongest is the
year of Darius Nothus' (Dr. Mill, u.s., p. I66, mention of an eclipse of the sun, which is referred
note). It is hardly necessary to remark that the  to this time by Phlegon Trallianus, and after him
fall of Jerusalem belongs to the year 70, to which  by Thallus, ap. Africanum. But even an eclipse




DARKNESS                    630                  DATHE
of the sun could not be visible to the whole world, darkness.  When it is said (Ps. xcvii. 2)' clouds
and neither of these writers names the place of the and darkness are round about Him,' the reference
eclipse. Some think it was Rome, but it is impos- is apparently to the inscrutability of the divine
sible that an eclipse could have happened from the nature and working.  The darkness which is fresixth to the ninth hour both at Rome and Jerusalem. quently (Is. xiii. 9, I; Joel ii. 31; iii. 15; Matt.
It is therefore highly probable that the statement xxiv. 29, etc.) connected with the coming of the
of Phlegon, which in the course of time has come Lord, has reference to the judgments attendant on
to be quoted as independent authority, was taken  his advent.]
from the relation of the Christians or from the
Scriptures. That the darkness could nothavepro-  DAROM (D1t8; Sept. Xta, and Aap6). This
ceeded from an eclipse of the sun is further placed  word is generally used in Scripture to denote'the
beyond all doubt by the fact that, it being then the south' (Ezek. xl. 24; Job xxxvii. 17).  Its meantime of the Passover, the moon was at the full. ing in Deut. xxxiii. 23 is doubtful. Moses in
This darkness may therefore be ascribed to an ex- blessing Naphtali says,' Possess thou the sea and
traordinary and preternatural obscuration of the  Darom.' The A. V. renders it'the west and the
solar light, which might precede and accompany  south;' the Septuagint, OaXacroav KaLi x ia; the
the earthquake which took place on the same old Latin,'mare et Africum;' and the Vulgate,
occasion; for it has been noticed that often before'mare et meridiem.' The territory of Naphtali
an earthquake such a mist arises from sulphureous lay on the north-east of Palestine. It did not
vapours as to occasion a darkness almost nocturnal touch or go near the Mediterranean; consequently
(see the authors cited in Kuinoel ad Matt. xxiv. 29,' the sea' cannot mean the Mediterranean. The
and compare Joel ii. 2; Rev. vi. 12, sq.) Such a sea of Galilee is doubtless referred to, the whole
darkness might extend over Judaea, or that division western shore of which belonged to Naphtali.
of Palestine in which Jerusalem stood, to which the The Septuagint rendering of Darom in this pasbest authorities agree that here, as in some other sage (XIPa, i.e., Africa), must be wrong. Naphtali
places, it is necessary to limit the phrase io-rav never had any connection with Africa, or with
rTv 7yiV, rendered'all the land.' [For the darkness that region on its northern frontier afterwards
that spread over Egypt, see EGYPT, PLAGUES OF.] called Darom. The word seems here to denote a
Darkness is often used symbolically in the district near Tiberias, and probably the sunny
Scriptures as opposed to light, which is the symbol plain of Gennesaret, which surpassed all the rest
of joy and safety, to express misery and adversity of Palestine in fertility (Joseph. Bell. 7ud. iii. Io.
(Job xviii. 6; Ps. cvii. Io; cxliii. 3; Is. viii. 22; 8).
ix. I; lix. 9, Io; Ezek. xxx. I8; xxxii. 7, 8;  In Ezek. xx. 46 (xxi. 2), Darom appears to be a
xxxiv. I2).'He.. that maketh the morning proper name.'Son of man set thy face toward
darkness,' in Amos iv. 13, is supposed to be an  Teman, and drop the word toward Daronz.' The
allusion to the dense black clouds and mists at- A. V. translates both words'south;' but the
tending earthquakes.'The day of darkness,' in  Septuagint more correctly OaLuLaXv and AapctJ..
Joel ii. 2, alludes to the obscurity occasioned by Instead of Aapcb/ Symmachus gives Al3a. We
the flight of locusts in compact masses. [ARBEH.] learn from Jerome and other ancient writers that
In Ezek. viii. 12, darkness is described as the ac- the plain which lies along the southern border
companiment of idolatrous rites. Darkness of the of Palestine and extends towards Egypt, was
sun, moon, and stars, is used figuratively, to denote formerly called Darom.  Thus, Jerome says,
a general darkness or deficiency in the government Duma'is a large village in Darom, that is, in the
or body politic (Is. xiii. IO; Ezek. xxxii. 7; Joel south country in the region of Eleutheropolis,
ii. o-3I). In Eph. v. II, the expression'works seventeen miles distant from that city' (Onomast.
of darkness' is applied to the heathen mysteries, s.v. Darom); and Eusebius describes Gerar as
on account of the impure actions which the initi- situated vi7rp rbv AapwluSav (Id., s.v. rTpapa). The
ated performed in them.'Outer darkness' in name appears to have been applied to the whole
Matt. viii. 12, and elsewhere, refers to the dark- plain from the Mediterranean to the Arabah, and
ness outside, in the streets, or open country, as southern shore of the Dead Sea (Reland, Pal.
contrasted with the blaze of cheerful light in the  185, sq.) In the early ages of Christianity a Greek
house, especially when a convivial party is held in  convent was erected near the coast, about seven
the night-time; and it may be observed that the miles south of Gaza, and named Daron.  During
streets in the East are utterly dark after nightfall, the crusades it was converted into a fortress, and
there being no shops with lighted windows, nor was the scene of many a hard struggle between
even public or private lamps to impart to them the the Christians and Saracens (Will. Tyr. in Gesta
light and cheerfulness to which we are accustomed. Dei per Francos, p. 988; Marinus Sanutus, pp.
This gives the more force to the contrast of the 86, 246; Bohadin Vita Saladini, p. 72, and Index'outer darkness' with the inner light.        Geog. s.v. Darounum; Robinson, B. R., ii. 38).
Darkness is used to represent the state of the  The site is now marked by a small village called
dead (Job x. 21; xvii. I3). It is also employed  Deir el-Balah,'the convent of the dates' (Handas the proper and significant emblem of ignorance bookfor S. and P., 266).-J. L. P.
(Is. ix. 2; Ix. 2; Matt. vi. 23; John iii. 9; 2 Cor. iv. D
1-6). [The' thick darkness' in which God it is said A      AMAR.
was (Exod. xx. 21), was doubtless the'thick cloud  DATHAN (J,' fontanus; Sept. AaOdv), one
upon the mount' mentioned ch. xix. I6; and the             T T             * 
upon the mount' mentioned ch. xix. 16; and the of the chiefs of Reuben who joined Korah in the'thick darkness' in which' the Lord said that Heof the chies ofReube who  ed Korah n the
woulddwell' (Kingsviii. I2)hasreferencetothe revolt against the authority of Moses and Aaron
would dwell' (I Kings viii. 12), has reference to the  (Nu  xvi. s).  AAo.
cloud upon the mercy-seat, in which he promised 
to'appear' to Aaron, and which seems to have   DATHE, JOHANN AUGUST, was born 4th July
been rather a cloud of glory and light than of 173I at Weissenfels, and died 17th March 1791 at




DATHEMA                     631               DAUGHTER
Leipsic, where he was Professor of Hebrew.  His v. p. 388), only states the truth when he deprincipal work is a translation of the 0. T. into signates it as'an elaborate and very useful work,
Latin, with philological and critical notes.  This of which later writers have not failed to avail
work, which appeared in sections between the year themselves.' Out of this large work two smaller
1781 and the year 1789, enjoys considerable repu- ones have been formed, with considerable advantation as a felicitous rendering of the Hebrew  tage in point of method and utility-I. A Perpetual
Scriptures, neither too literal nor paraphrastical; Key on the Revelation of St. Yoh l; newly modelled,
and most of the sections have passed through two abridged, and rendered plain, etc., by Peter Lancasor more editions. The notes are very brief, and ter, vicar of Bowden, Cheshire, 4to, I730. 2. A
are exclusively critical or philological. Dathe also Dictionary of Prophetic Symzbols, which was reissued an edition of Glass's Philologia Sacra,'his printed in 1842 in an 8vo volume, with a memoir
temporibus accommodata,' in which he has taken  of Daubuz and preface, by Mr. Matthew Haberliberties with the original that have by no means shon. Much commendation has been bestowed on
improved it.  He edited also Walton's Prologo- the author respecting this department of his learned
mena in Bib. Polyglotta, with a preface, Lips. labours:'There is no commentator (says the
1777; and the Syriac Psalter with the Latin trans- author of the Illustrations of Prolphecy), who can
lation of Erpenius and notes, Halle, 1768. After be compared with Daubuz for the accuracy, the
his death a collection of his Op9zscula ad Crisin et care, and the consistency with which he has exinzte5pretationem Vet. Test. spectantia was edited by plained the prophetic symbols.' From the titlethe younger Rosenmiiller, Leips. I796. Dathe was page of Daubuz's exposition, as we have tranan excellent scholar, and has done good service to scribed it, it will be at once seen that le belongs
the cause of biblical interpretation and criticism.- to the Historical or Chronological school of ApoW. L. A.                                      calyptic interpretation. As a result of his system,
Daubuz has brought together a vast amount of
DATHEMA (AtOsc/a; Alex. Acfetna), a fortress historical and antiquarian information from  all
in Gilead where the Jews took refuge from their sources which bear on the subject, so that his
enemies, and the siege of which was relieved by reader cannot fail to profit from his learning, even
Judas Maccabseus (I Maccab. v. 9, 29-34; Joseph. when he cannot accept his conclusions. A brief
Antiq. xii. 8. I).  There is a various reading, account of Daubuz's exposition (confessedly inadeAaOta, on which Ewald (Gesch. Isr. iii. 2, p. 359) quate, however) may be read in Mr. Elliott's
fixes as the proper one, and on the ground of which  Ho  Apocalyptice [2d ed.], vol. iv. pp. 457-460.
he identifies the place with the Dhami mentioned  Daubuz, whose name bears on his title-page the
by Burckhardt (Syr. p. I96). The Syr. makes it English academical degree of M.A., issaid to have
7XL.;o Romtho, i.e., Ramoth; and with this the died in the year 740 (Rose's Biog. Dictioary,
general opinion concurs.-W. L. A.vii. 26. ).-P. H.
DAUBUZ, CHARLES, was a French Protestant,     DAUGHTER. In the Scriptures the word for
born about the year I670. Like many other re     ht    (U3,  rya7mp) has more extended applifugees of his nation, his family experienced the cations than our word daughter. Besides its usual
hospitality of England on occasion of the revoca- and proper sense of-I. A  daughter born or
tion of the edict of Nantes. In due time, Daubuz adopted, we find it used to designate-2. A uterine
entered the ministry of the English Church, and  sister, niece, or any female descendant (Gen. xx.
ultimately became vicar of Brotherton, near Ferry-  2; xxiv. 48; xxviii. 6; xxxvi. 2; Num. xxv. I;
bridge, in Yorkshire. He was a man of great Deut. xxiii. I7). 3. Women as natives, residents,
learning and moderation. In the year 1706 he or professing the religion of certain places, as'the
published in an 8vo volume a work entitled Pro daughter of Zion' (Is. iii. I6);'daughters of the
testimonio Flavii yosephi de yesu Christo contra T. Philistines' (2 Sam. i. 20);' daughter of a strange
Fabrum et alios. But the work which keeps his God' (Mal. ii. 1);' daughters of men,' i. e., carname in remembrance is his commentary on the nal women (Gen. vi. 2), etc.  4. Metaphorically,
Apocalypse, entitled, A perpetual commentary on  small towns are called daughters of neighbouring
the Revelation of St. 7ohn,'wherein is contained-  large cities, metropoles, or mother cities, to which
I. The original sacred text and the English trans- they belonged, or from which they were derived,
lation, laid down and compared together; and as' Heshbon, and all the daughters [A. V. villages]
their true literal and mystical sense opened and thereof' (Num. xxi. 25); so. Tyre is called the
explained. 2. The nature of the prophetic style, daughter of Sidon (Is. xxiii. 12), as having been
and the use of symbolical and mystic terms is originally a colony from thence, and hence also the
shewed and illustrated from numerous instances town of Abel is called'a mother in Israel' (2 Sam.
drawn from Christian and Pagan antiquities, 3. xx. I9), and Gath is in one place (comp. 2 Sam.
The history of the Church of Christ in the several viii. I; I Chron. xviii. I) called Ammah, or the
great periods of its militant state here upon earth  mother town, to distinguish it from its own depenis set forth; the whole series of the more extra- dencies, or from another place called Gath. [See
ordinary events and all its more distinguished  Fiirst, H. W  B. s. i1D%.] See other instances in
epochas marked out and explained; with a pre- Num. xxi. 32; Judg. xi. 26; Josh. xv. 45, etc. 5.
liminary discourse concerning the certainty of the The people collectively of any place, the name of
principles upon which the Revelation of St. John  which is given, as' the daughter (i. e., the people)
is to be understood.' This work, which appeared  of Jerusalem hath shaken her head at thee' (Is.
in 1720 in a closely printed folio of more than a xxxvii. 22; see also Ps. xlv. 13; cxxxvii. 8; Is.
thousand pages, vies with the elder Vitringa's x. 30; Jer. xlvi. 9; Lam. iv. 22; Zech. ix. 9).
Anacrisis Apocalypseos as the most learned treatise This metaphor is illustrated by the almost universal
which has appeared on the last book of the N. T. custom of representing towns under the figure of a
Canon.   Mr. Home (Introduct., 9th ed., vol. woman. 6. The word'daughter,' followed by a




DAVENANT                    632                  DAVID
numeral, indicates a woman of the age indicated  and Ozem. The Syr. and Arab. versions give
by the numeral, as when Sarah (in the original) is another between Ozem  and David, whom they
called'the daughter of ninety years' (Gen. xvii. name Elihu; and in I Chron. xxvii. I8, mention is
17). 7. The word'daughter' is also applied to  made of Elihu'of the brethren of David.' If this
the produce of animals, trees, or plants. Thus, be not another reading for Eliab, out of which the'daughter of the she-ostrich' (supposed) for' fe- Syr. and Arab. translators devised another memmale ostrich' (Lev. xi. 16); Joseph is called'a  ber of the family of Jesse, we must increase the
fruitful bough, whose daughters (branches) run  number of David's brothers to seven, and suppose
over the wall' (Gen. xlix. 22).               the name of Elihu omitted in I Chron. ii. 15 by
The significations of the word' daughter' in its accident. Mention is made also of two sisters,
Scriptural use might be more minutely distin- Zeruiah the mother of Abishai, Joab, and Asahel,
guished, but they may all be referred to one or and Abigail the wife of Jether. If these were
other of these heads.                         daughters of Jesse they must have been among the
Respecting the condition of daughters in families, elder members of his family, for their sons were
see art. WOMEN and MARRIAGE.-J. K.            about the same age as David; but as Abigail the
younger is called the daughter of Nahash (2 Sam.
DAVENANT, JOHN, Bishop of Salisbury from    xvii. 25), it has been supposed that they were
I62I-I64I. He was educated at Queen's College, David's sisters only by the mother's side. Who
Cambridge, and held the Lady Margaret's Profes- this Nahash was is uncertain.  Some suppose him
sorship of Divinity there, from  his taking his to have been the husbandof David's mother before
doctor's degree in 1609 till 1621.  He was taken  her union with Jesse; others suggest that he is the
notice of by James I., and sent by him to the  King of the Ammonites mentioned ch. x. 2, and
Synod of Dort in I618. He held at that time a xvii. 27, whose concubine David's mother may
sort of middle view between the extreme parties, have been before her marriage with Jesse, which
not being willing to deny universal redemption; would tend to account for the friendly relations
maintaining that the salvation of some was certain, subsisting between David and that prince, though
and of all at least possible.  In a sermon, however, the enemy of Saul and Israel (locc. citt. I Sam.
which he preached before the king in 1631, he main-xi. Iff.); whilst others suppose that Nahash is the
tained the doctrines of predestination. He pub-  me of a female who was probably the second
lished the substance of his lectures as Lady Mar- wife of Jesse.. This last, though adopted by
garet's Professor in a work called Expositio Epis-Movers and Thenius, seems the least probable of
tole D. Pauli ad Colossenses; and, besides this, I. all.  The second hypothesis derives an air of
Pralectiones de duobus in Theologid controversis plausibility from the circumstance mentioned; but
Capitibus; de z7dece controversiarum, primo; de it seems utterly improbable that a woman, who
Jnstitid habituali et actali, altero; 1651, Cantab. had been the concubine of a heathen prince of the
fd.  2. Determinationes Quastionum z qarundanm  hated and proscribed race of Ammon, should ever
Theologicarum, fol. I634. 3. Animadversion upon become the wife of a respectable Israelite like
a treatise by S. Hoard, entitled' God's love to man- Jesse.  The first, though purely conjectural, seems
kind manifested by disproving hzs absolute decreefor the only hypothesis left to us; unless we adopt the
their damnation,' I64I, Camb. 8vo. The titles of dubious suggestion of Le Clerc that Nahash is
these works sufficiently indicate the scholastic another name of Jesse.
character of Davenant's mind, with which King   The youngest child is usually either the favourJames so sympathised.-H. W.                   ite or the drudge of the family; David seems to
DAVID (TT   Chron.  *  Sept. A  i  have been both. His name, signifying beloved, at
TDAVID, Chron.; S.    vS;least indicates the feeling with which his parents
New Test. Aap/3, Aaveil. The word is connected  regarded him; nor can we doubt that the ruddy,
with G'if, a friend, a lover, and means either one bright-eyed, golden-haired boy, small of form, but
who loves, or one who is beloved. The latter is the agile and vigorous, of loving and genial temperameaning commonly preferred; comp. Ar. j.    )    t ment, and with the hues of genius shedding their
fitful lustre over his soul, was the darling of his
The life of David naturally divides itself into  mother. By his elder brothers, however, he seems
four portions: —I. His early life. II. His life to have been held in small esteem; and to him was
while a servant of Saul. III. His reign over Judah  allotted the humble, almost menial, office of tendin Hebron. IV. His reign over all Israel.    ing the flocks in the fields. In those'green pasI. David's early life.-The family of which  tures,' however, to which he led his flocks, and
David was a child, descended from  Ruth, the amid the solitude to which his occupation often
Moabitess, to the record of whose history one of consigned him, and the dangers to which it often
the books of the Canon is devoted. His father exposed him, he was doubtless receiving a training
Jesse, who was the grandson of Boaz and Ruth, which fitted him for the high position hewas destined
seems to have been a small proprietor in the neigh- to occupy both as the king and as'the sweet singer'
bourhood of Bethlehem, where David was born. of Israel. Exposure to the open air and the exerHis mother's name has not been preserved, and all tion he required to put forth, knitted his joints
we know of her character is derived from two and invigorated his muscles; his encounters with
brief allusions to her in the poetry of her son, from  the lion and the bear which came prowling around
which we may gather that she was a godly woman, his folds, taught him caution, promptitude, and
whose devotion to God's service her son com- courage; and not less did the solitariness of his posimemorates as at once a token of God's favour to tion induce him to reflective meditation, while the
himself and a stimulus to him to consecrate himself influences of nature by night and by day came conto God's service (Ps. lxxxvi. 6; cxvi. I6). David stantly down upon him, at once soothing and quickwas the youngest of seven sons, the others being  ening, elevating and purifying his spirit. Whether
E!lab, Abinadab, Shammah, Nethaneel, Raddai, at this early period he had given any evidence of his




DAVID                     633                   DAVID
poetic gifts, as he had given evidence of his strength, tice in the use of armour, as to prefer, in such a
agility, and courage (I Sam. xvii. 34-36; comp. Ps. crisis, trusting to the weapons with which he was
xviii. 33, 34), is uncertain.  Those of his psalms familiar.
which have the best claim to be considered as be-  II. David's life as the Servant of Saul. -David
longing to the early part of his life, are the 1st, the had no sooner returned from his memorable con8th, the 9Ith, the 23d, and the I39th; in all of flict with the gigantic Philistine, than he was rewhich the strain and tenor of thought, and the  ceived into the family of Saul, and placed in a
character of the allusions, are such as might natu- situation of trust and authority in the kingdom.
rally come from the mind of a youth constituted  The dark and uneasy mind of the king, however,
and circumstanced as David was. There can be no  speedily was filled with jealousy and dislike when
doubt, however, that at this period he cultivated  he found how high David stood in popular estimamusic, and became a proficient,'cunning in play- tion; and under a paroxysm  of his insanity he
ing,' especially on the harp (I Sam. xvi. I8-23). made an attempt on David's life, by casting a
Whether there be any truth in the tradition em- javelin at him as he was playing the harp for his
bodied in the psalm added by the LXX. to the solace or pleasure.  He also broke his word with
Psalter, that his'hands made an organ' (6p-yavov, David by giving his eldest daughter in marriage to
which word corresponds both to the'110  and the another; he set spies upon him to entrap him
=3. of the Hebrews), and his'fingers fitted a into some ambitious utterance that might give the
psaltery,' cannot be determined.               king a handle against him; and he sent him on
David is introduced into the sacred narrative for perilous exploits in the hope of his life being forthe first time in connection with his anointing by feited thereby. But David behaved himself with
Samuel (I Sam. xvi. 1-13). There is no small exemplary prudence in the difficult position in
difficulty in reconciling this and what follows in  which he was placed, and God providentially prethis chapter with the account in the following chap- served him from  the perils to which the bad
ter of David's appearance in the camp of Saul, and  passions of the king exposed him.  He found a
his introduction to that monarch in consequence of fast and true friend also in the king's son Jonahis victory over Goliath. Both narratives appa- than, who'loved him as his own soul;' and he
rently give the account of David'sfirst introduction  drew to him the affections of Michal, Saul's second
to Saul; and yet it is not possible to combine daughter, whom the king was at length constrained
them into one. Some would transpose the latter to give him to wife. Through their connivance
part of the I6th chapter so as to follow after and aid, David made his escape from the palace,
xviii. 9 (Horsely, Bib. Crit. i. 332); but it is not after Saul had again made an attempt on his life;
easy to see what is gained by this; for if David  and as this only augmented the king's fury, who
was known to Saul, and accepted into Saul's ser- now gave orders for his assassination, David was
vice as there narrated, how could Saul send for doomed to the condition of a fugitive and exile.
him to his father's house, and receive him as a per- He first took refuge with the priest Ahimelech at
feet stranger, as narrated in xvi. 14-20?  On the Nob, by whom he was kindly received, supplied
other hand, if David came before the notice of with provisions, and furnished with the sword of
Saul under the circumstances mentioned in this Goliath, which had been entrusted as a trophy to
i6th chapter, and was received into his favour and  the safe keeping of the priest. For this Saul
service as there narrated (21-23), how could the visited Ahimelech and the town of Nob with sumscenes recorded in the I7th chapter, especially  mary and terrible vengeance, causing the massacre
those in verses 31-37, and 55-58, have occurred? of eighty-five priests, and giving up the town to
The Vatican MS of the LXX. rejects xvii. I2-3I, be sacked, and its inhabitants put to the sword.
55-58, and xviii. i-5, as spurious; and this Kenni- After this, David fled across the Philistian froncott approves as the true solution of the difficulty. tier to Aehish, king of Gath; but being detected
What gives some plausibility to this is, that ver. 32 by the servants of Achish as the conqueror of Gonaturally connects with ver. I I, and all between  liath, he was obliged to feign madness in order to
has very much the aspect of an interpolation. At escape the penalty to which that discovery exposed
the same time, it can hardly be permitted on such  him (I Sam. xviii.-xxi). Tradition assigns Psalms
grounds to reject a portion of Scripture which has 34th, 56th, 59th to this period of David's history;
all other evidence, external and internal, in its to which some add the 6th, 7th, 35th, 36th, I4oth,
favour. The old solution of the difficulty, that, as I4Ist, and i43d.
David after his first introduction to Saul did not  Having made his escape from Gath, David reabide constantly with him, but went and came be- turned to Judea, there to lead the life of an outtween Saul and his fatherfs house (xvii. I5), he may law and freebooter. His first retreat was to the
have been at home when the war with the Philis- cave Adullam; and here he was joined by some
tines broke out; and as Saul's distemper was of the  of his own relations, among whom was his nephew
nature of mania, he very probably retained no recol- Abishai (I Sam. xxvi. 6), and by a multitude of
lection of David's visits to him while under it, but persons who were in distress or in debt, or who
at each new interview regarded and spoke of him  were discontented with their condition.  Havas a stranger, is, after all, the best that has been  ing conveyed his father and mother for security
suggested, though it still leaves unexplained the fact into the land of Moab, David returned and estaof Abner's ignorance of David's person, which ap- blished himself in':the forest of Hareth,' where
pears to have been as complete as that of the king, he received some valuable reinforcements (I Chron.
and the fact of David's professing ignorance of war- xii. 16). While here he sallied forth to the delike weapons, though he had been for some time fence of Keilah, on which the Philistines had made
Saui's armour-bearer. This last difficulty may be an assault; and having routed them and delivered
alleviated by the consideration, that the statement the city, he and his band, now amounting to nearly
in xvi. 21 may be proleptica l; or David, though  6o0 men, shut themselves up within its walls.
Saul's armour-bearer, may have had so little prac- Saul, hearing this, mustered his forces, intending




DAVID                    634                   DAVID
to go to Keilah, where he expected to make an was he a mere helpless fugitive and exile, for had
easy prey of David; but the latter receiving intel- he been so we should hardly have heard of his
ligence of his intention, made his escape.  His marrying two wives, one of them a person of
next retreat was the wilderness of Ziph, where, wealth and consideration like Abigail, Nabal's
attended by a few friends, he sought safety in  widow, and both of whom seem to have accomcaves and woods, he having, as it would seem, panied him in his retreats (xxv. 39-43). Perhaps,
been constrained to disband his troops, and let if we think of him as the chief of a force usually
each go' whithersoever they could go.' Now, in  employed as a sort of armed police, sustained by
his own graphic words, he was' hunted as a part- those whose property they protected, and only
ridge on the mountains;' Saul's hatred of him in- occasionally scattered and pursued by the fitful
creasing in intensity as his attempts to lay hold of wrath of Saul, we shall arrive at a somewhat just
him were baffled. Once David was nearly caught; view of his position and course of life.
he was in the wilderness of Maon, occupying a   When David passed the second time into the
hill, which Saul, guided by the information of the  territory of Achish, it was no longer as a solitary
Ziphites, surrounded, so that David and his small fugitive, but as a military leader, with a wellband must have been taken, had not the announce- trained band of followers, and with something of
ment of an invasion of the Philistines suddenly the wealth and consequence of an eastern chief.
withdrawn Saul from his leaguer. In remory of Achish (whether the same who had received him
this occurrence the hill received the name of'The formerly, or his son, as Jewish tradition asserts, is
RocoDviios'probably be- uncertain), gave him for himself and his followers
Rock of Divisions' (np.PnDU rD), probably be- the town of Ziklag, which from that time became
cause by it Saul and David were parted from each  an appanage of the Judoean crown. Here David
other.  David, after this, went and dwelt in a resided for a year and four months, during which
stronghold at Engedi (I Sam. xxii.-xxiii.) The time he enjoyed the full confidence of Achish,
Philistines being dispersed, Saul returned to the though the means which he took to secure that
pursuit of David, and shortly after ensued the confidence were hardly such as strict regard to infirst of two interviews between the pursuer and the tegrity can justify.  He never, however, was able
pursued. This took place in one of the caves at to overcome the prejudices of the Philistian nobles;
Engedi, into which Saul had entered in obedience and these prevailed, so that Achish was compelled
to the calls of nature, ignorant that it hid in its to ask him to withdraw from the army which was
recesses David and his band (I Sam. xxiv. 1-22). mustering on the frontier to attack Saul. David,
David, though urged by his followers to seize the doubtless, not sorry that he had thus been deopportunity of destroying his pursuer, generously livered from the perplexing dilemma in which his
forbore, contenting himself with merely cutting off ambiguous position placed him, returned to Zikthe skirt of his robe, to shew how completely he had lag. Here he found that during his absence the
had him in his power.  Having followed Saul out Amalekites had made an inroad and plundered
of the cave, he shewed him this, and appealed to the the city, and carried off all the women and chilevidence it afforded of the falsity of the suspicions dren; a discovery which almost overwhelmed his
against him with which the mind of the monarch  followers with grief and vexation, and had nearly
had been poisoned. Saul was moved by this ap- led to their rising against him. Recovering from
peal, and a touching scene of reconciliation and  the first shock of the trial, however, they hastened
mutual forgiveness ensued.  That Saul was sin- after the invaders, overtook them  unexpectedly
cere in the feelings he expressed on this occasion whilst engaged in revelry, inflicted on them  a
there can be no doubt; but it was the sincerity of terrible retaliation, and rescued all the booty and
a man who was not master of himself, but the prisoners they had taken from Ziklag, as well as
slave of dark and savage passions, which were apt took from them much booty of their own. From
to sweep across his soul. Hence the truce he this David sent presents to his friends in different
made with David was speedily broken, and he was parts, and so was enabled to repay the services
again in full pursuit of him among the fastnesses rendered to him in the days of his distress. Whilst
of the wilderness.  Once again he came into he was thus employed, the battle of Gilboa was
David's power, and was treated with the same fought, in which Saul and Jonathan lost their
generosity as before, and with the same results. lives; whereby the way was opened for David's
The king, for the moment swayed by his better occupation of the throne of Israel. Intelligence
feelings, acknowledged his iniquity, and promised of this event having been brought to him, his
to refrain from the pursuit of David, his maligned  first feeling was, one of poignant grief for the fall
and generous servant; and he and David parted  of his sovereign, and the loss of his true and
with mutual expressions of regard, never again to  unfailing friend; and he bewailed their death in a
meet on earth. David, knowing how little such  chant, the pathos and solemn beauty of which has
promises were to be trusted, takes the opportunity  never been surpassed (I Sam. xxvii. xxix.-xxxi.)
to escape into the territory of the Philistines (I Sam.  III. David's Reign in Hebron.-' Immediately
xxiv.-xxvi.) To this period tradition assigns Pss. upon the death of Saul the tribe of Judah invited
liv., lvii., lxiii., and cxlii.               David to become their prince. Internal probabiliIt is not easy for us exactly to realise the condi- ties lead us to believe that this was acceptable to the
tion of David whilst hiding in the wilderness for Philistines, who, it would seem, must have had the
fear of Saul. He did not lead the life of a mere means of hindering it, if they had been disposed.
bandit or freebooter, as is evident from his conduct We are not informed why they neglected to imto Nabal, as attested by one of Nabal's servants, prove the decisive victory which they had gained
and affirmed by himself, when reproaching Nabal in Mount Gilboa. They vanish from the scene,
for his churlishness (xxv. 14-16; 34); rather did  and Abner quietly hands over the kingdom of the
he use his power for the protection of the lives eleven tribes to Ishbosheth, son of Saul. Among
and property of the occupants of the fields. Nor many conjectures which may be made, one is that




DAVID                     635                  DAVID
they despaired of keeping the whole land under miseries of royal power. He dared not proceed
subjection, since their numbers were too few to  actively against his ruthless nephew, but he vented
keep up all their garrisons; and their superiority  his abhorrence in a solemn curse on Joab and his
must have been that of weapons and discipline posterity, and followed Abner to the grave with
only. They may, therefore, have gladly acquiesced weeping. Anxious to purge himself of the guilt,
in a partition of the monarchy, foreseeing that the he ordered a public wearing of sackcloth, and refame and popularity of David would soon bring on  fused to touch food all the day. The obvious sina civil war between him and the house of Saul; cerity of his grief won the heart of all Israel. The
and as he was on excellent terms with Achish, and  feeble Ishbosheth, left alone, was unequal to the
had long been ostensibly an adherent of the Philis- government, and shortly suffered the same fate of
tine cause, it is not wonderful that during his early  assassination. David took vengeance on the murreign David was able to maintain peace with his derers, and buried Ishbosheth in Abner's tomb at
most dangerous neighbours.                    Hebron.   During this period, it is not stated' His first step, after his election, was to fix on  against what people his warlike excursions were
Hebron as the centre of his administration-an  directed; but it is distinctly alleged (2 Sam. iii. 22)
ancient city, honourable by its association with the  that his men brought in a great spoil at the very
name of Abraham, and in the middle of his own  time at which he had a truce with Abner; possitribe. [Here David was anointed king, but appa- bly it may have been won from his old enemies the
rently over the tribe of Judah only (2 Sam. ii. 4). Amalekites (I Sam. xxx.)'
To this period is referred Ps. xxvii. in the LXX.]  IV. David's Reign over all Israel.-' The death
He then strengthened himself by a marriage with  of Ishbosheth gave to David supremacy over all
Maacah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur (2 Israel. [His elevation was celebrated at Hebron
Sam. iii. 3); a petty monarch whose dominions with a great festival of three days (I Chron. xii.
were near the sources of the Jordan, and whose 39).] The kingdom was not at first a despotic,
influence at the opposite end of the land must have but a constitutional one; for it is stated,' David
added a great weight into David's scale. From  made a league with the elders of Israel in Hebron
Abigail, widow of the churlish Nabal, David seems before Jehovah; and they anointed David king
to have received a large private fortune.  Con- over Israel' (2 Sam. v. 3). This is marked out as
cerning his other wives we know nothing in parti- the era which determined the Philistines to hostility
cular; only it is mentioned that he had six sons (ver. 17), and may confirm our idea that their
by six different mothers in Hebron. The chief policy was to hinder Israel from becoming united
jealousy was between the two tribes of Benjamin  under a single king. Two victories of David over
and Judah, as Saul had belonged to the former; them follow, both near the valley of Rephaim: and
and a tournament was turned by mutual ill-will these were probably the first battles fought by
into a battle, in which Abner unwillingly slew  David after becoming king of all Israel.
young Asahel, brother of Joab. (On the synchron-'Perceiving that Hebron was no longer a suitism  of Abner and Asahel, see SAUL.)'Long    able capital, he resolved to fix his residence farwar,' after this, was carried on between' the house ther to the north.  On the very border of the tribes
of Saul and the house of David.' We may infer of Judah and Benjamin lay the town of Jebus,
that the rest of Israel took little part in the contest; which with its neighbourhood was occupied by
and although the nominal possession of the king- Jebusites, a remnant of the old Canaanitish nation
dom enabled the little tribe of Benjamin to strug- so called. In spite of the great strength of the fort
gle for some time against Judah, the skill and age of Zion, it was captured, and the Jebusites were
of Abner could not prevail against the vigour and  entirely expelled or subdued; after which David
popular fame of David. A quarrel between Ab- adopted the city as his new capital, greatly enner and Ishbosheth decided the former to bring  larged the fortifications, and gave or restored the
the kingdom over to David. The latter refused to  name of Jerusalem [JERUSALEM]. In the account
treat unless, at a preliminary proof of Abner's sin- of this siege, some have imagined the Chronicles to
cerity, Michal, daughter of Saul, was restored to  contradict the book of Samuel, but there is no real
David. The possession of such a wife was valu- incompatibility in the two narratives. Joab was,
able to one who was aspiring to the kingdom;- and it is true, already David's chief captain; but David
although David had now other wives, there is no was heartily disgusted with him, and may have
reason to question the remembrance of his first sought a pretence for superseding him, by offering
love was still very dear to him, and that affection the post to the man who should first scale the wall.
no less than policy dictated this demand. He had Joab would be animated by the desire to retain his
certainly the best right to the woman whose hand  office, at least as keenly as others by the desire to
he had won by toils and dangers; and the laws of get it; and it is therefore quite credible that he may
man still refuse to recognise any right in a second actually have been the successful hero of that siege
husband while the first lives. Michal was there- also. This being the case, it will further explain
fore taken away from the man on whom her father why David, even in the fulness of power, made no
had tyrannously bestowed her, and restored, we further effort to expel him until he had slaughtered
suppose not unwillingly, to her real husband. Absalom. After becoming master of Jerusalem,
After giving her back, Abner proceeded to win the David made a league with Hiram, king of Tyre,
elders of Israel over to David; but Joab discerned  who supplied him with skilful artificers to build a
that if this should be so brought about, Abner splendid palace at the new capital.  That the
of necessity would displace him from his post of mechanical arts should have been in a very low
chief captain.  He, therefore, seized the oppor- state among the Israelites, was to be expected;
tunity of murdering him when he was come on a since before the reign of Saul even smith's forges
peaceful embassy, and covered the atrocity by were not allowed among them by the Philistines.
pleading the duty of revenging his brother's blood. Nothing, however, could have been more profitable
This deed was perhaps David's first taste of the for the Phoenicians than the security of cultivation




DAVID                     636                  DAVID
enjoyed by the Israelites in the reigns of David and  hood and the tabernacle had been very loose. The
Solomon.   The trade between Tyre and Israel be- priests fixed their abode at Nob, when the ark was
came at once extremely lucrative to both, and the  at Kirjath-jearim, a very short distance; yet there
league between the two states was quickly very is nothing to denote that they at all interfered with
intimate.                                      Abinadab in his exclusive care of the sacred de-'Once settled in Jerusalem, David proceeded to  posit. [To this event Pss. xxix., xxx., are traditionincrease the number of his wives, perhaps in part ally referred, and Pss. xv., xxiv., lxviii., ci., and
from the same political motive that actuates other cxxxii., inferentially referred.]
Oriental monarchs, viz., in order to take hostages'When the ark entered Jerusalem in triumph,
from  the chieftains round in the least offensive  David put on a priest's ephod and danced before it.
mode. This explanation will not apply to the con- This proved the occasion of a rupture between him
cubines.  We know nothing further concerning   and his royal spouse, Michal. Accustomed to
David's family relations, than the names of eleven  see in her father's court a haughty pre-eminence
sons born in Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 14, I5), of whom  of the monarch over the priest, she could not symfour were children of Bathsheba (I Chron. iii. 5), pathize with the deeper piety which led the royal
and therefore much younger than the elder sons.  Psalmist to forget his dignity in presence of the'Jerusalem, now become the civil metropolis of ark. The words of David to her,'Jehovah chose
the nation, was next to be made its religious me before thyfather and before all his house' (2 Sam.
centre; and the king applied himself to restore  vi. 2I), sufficiently shew that David scorned to althe priestly order to its proper place in the com- low that he was in any way indebted to his connecmonwealth, to swell the ranks of attending Levites tion with the family of Saul, through her, for the
and singers, and to bring the ark to Jerusalem. royalty over all Israel to which he had now atThe priests or Aaronites must, for a long time, tained. After this event, the king, contrasting his
have had little occupation in their sacred office; cedar palace with the curtains of the tabernacle,
for the ark was at Kirjath-jearim, under the care was desirous of building a temple for the ark; such
of a private family.  Indeed, during the reign of a step, moreover, was likely to prevent any future
Saul, we find shewbread to have been set forth at change of its abode. This design, when imparted
Nob (I Sam. xxi. 4-6), by Ahimelech the priest; to the prophet Nathan, was received by him with
and it is possible that many other ceremonies were warm encouragement.  He had to learn, however,
performed by them, in spite of the absence of the  that the seemingly obvious fitness of a public meaark.  But after the dreadful massacre perpetrated  sure, did not excuse a prophet from the obligation
on the priestly order by Saul, few Aaronites are of consulting the Lord before he ventured to utter
likely to have felt at ease in their vocation. To  an authoritative opinion; for the next day he had
wear an ephod-the mark of a priest who is asking  to return to the king with an intimation that he
counsel of Jehovah-had almost become a crime; must abandon the intention of executing this great
and even after the death of Saul, it may seem that undertaking.  The design is indeed commended;
the Aaronites, like the other Israelites, remained yet as he had been a warrior from his youth, and
organized as bands of soldiers. At least Jehoiada had shed much human blood, he was pronounced
(who, according to I Chron. xxvii. 5, was high- unfit for this sacred work, which was therefore to
priest at this time, and joined David at Hebron  be reserved for the peaceful reign of his successor.
with 3700 Aaronites) was father of the celebrated  Encouraged by the Divine approbation, and by
warrior Benaiah, afterwards captain of David's the high promises which were on this occasion
body-guard; a man whose qualities were anything  given to him, David henceforth made it one of the
but priest-like: and Zadok, afterwards high-priest, great objects of his reign to gather materials and
who joined David'with twenty-two captains of support for this important undertaking, the credit
his father's house' at the same time as Jehoiada, is of which he is fairly entitled to divide with his son,
described as'a young man mighty of valour' (I by whom it was actually executed.  [SOLOMON.]
Chron. xii. 27, 28). How long Jehoiada retained'Great as might appear the advantage of estathe place of high-priest is uncertain.  It is pro- blishing the same city as the religious and civil mebable that no definite conception then existed of tropolis, the effect was, in one respect, most unforthe need of having one high-priest; and it is cer- tunate: it offended the powerful and central tribe
tain that David's affection for Abiathar, because of of Ephraim. They had been accustomed to regard
his father's fate, maintained him in chief place  Shiloh as the rightful abode of the ark. Against
through the greater part of his reign. Not until a  Kirjath-jearim  no envy was felt, especially while
later time, it would seem, was Zadok elevated to the ark and its priests were in obscurity. But
a co-ordinate position. [ABIATHAR]. Any fur- when so much honour attended it; when it became
ther remarks concerning the orders and courses of a peculiar glory to Judah and Benjamin-tribes althe PRIESTS will be better reserved for the article ready too much favoured; when a magnificent edion that subject. It is enough here to add that the fice was erected to receive it; the seeds were sown
slaughter suffered from Saul by the Aaronites of of that disaffection which ended in a rending of the
the line of Ithamar, whom Abiathar now repre- tribes apart. Nor was the argument unreasonable,
sented, naturally gave a great preponderance of that a more central spot was needed for Israel to
numbers and power to the line of Eleazar, to which  assemble at year by year.
Zadok belonged. We must also refer to the article' David's further victories are narrated in the folLEVITES for further information concerning them. lowing order-Philistines, Moab, Zobah, Edom,
The bringing of the ark from Kirjath-jearim to  Northern League stirred up by the Ammonites,
Jerusalem established the line of high-priests in  Ammon.  I. The short and dry notice concerning
direct service before it; and from this time we may  the Philistines just gives us to understand that this
presume that the ceremonies of the great day of is the era of their decisive, though not final subjuAtonement began to be observed.  Previously, it gation. Their towns were despoiled of their wealth
would appear, the connection between the priest- (2 Sam. viii., xii.), and doubtless all their arms




DAVID                     637                 DAVID
and munitions of war passed over into the service arch (2 Sam. viii. 9, IO).  We are barely in.
of the conqueror. 2. The Moabites were a pastoral formed that one division of the Israelites under
people, whose general relations with Israel appear Abishai was posted against the Ammonites; a
to have been peaceful. The slight notice of Saul's second under Joab met the confederates from the
hostilities with them (I Sam. xiv. 47) is the only north, 30,000 strong, and prevented their junction
breach recorded since the time of Eglon and Ehud. with the Ammonites.  In both places the enemy
In the book of Ruth we see them    as friendly was repelled, though, it would seem, with no decineighbours, and much more recently (I Sam. sive result. A second campaign, however, took
xxn. 3, 4) David committed his parents to the care place. The king of Zobah brought in an army of
of the king of Moab. We know no cause, except Mesopotamians, in addition to his former troops,
David's strength, which now drew his arms upon  and David found it necessary to make a levy of all
them. A people long accustomed to peace, in Israel to meet the pressing danger. A pitched
conflict with a veteran army, was struck down at battle on a great scale was then fought at Helam
once, but the fierceness of his triumph may sur- -far beyond the limits of the twelve tribes-in
prise us.  Two-thirds of the population (if we which David was victorious. He is said to have
rightly interpret the words, 2 Sam. viii. 2) were slain, according to 2 Sam. x. I8, the men of 700
put to the sword; the rest became tributary. 3. chariots, and 40,000 horsemen; or, according to
Who are meant by the Syrians of Zobah, is still a  I Chron. xix. I8, the men of 7000 chariots, and
problem [ZOBAH]. We here follow the belief that 40,000 footmen. If we had access to the courtit was a power of northern Syria, then aiming at records of Hamath, we should probably find that
extensive empire, which had not only defeated and  Toi had assembled his whole cavalry to assist
humbled the king of Hamath, but had obtained  David, and that to him was due the important serhomage beyond the Euphrates. The trans-Jordanic vice of disabling or destroying the enemy's horse.
tribes in the time of Saul had founded a little em- Such foreign aid may explain the general result,
pire for themselves by conquering their eastern  without our obtruding a miracle, for which the
neighbours, the Hagarenes; and, perhaps, occa- narrative gives us not the least warrant. The Sysionally overran the district on the side of the rians henceforth left the Ammonites to their fate,
Euphrates, which Hadadezer, king of Zobah, con- and the petty chiefs who had been in allegiance to
sidered as his own. His efforts'to recover his Hadadezer hastened to do homage to David. 6.
border at the river Euphrates' first brought him  Early in the next season Joab was sent to take veninto collision with David, perhaps by an attack  geance on the Ammonites in their own home, by
which he made on the roaming Eastern tribes. attacking their chief city, or Rabbah of Ammon.
David defeated not merely his army but that of The natural strength of their border could not
Damascus too, which came, too late, with succour; keep out veteran troops and an experienced leader;
and put Israelite garrisons into the towns of and though the siege of the city occupied many
the Damascenes. In this career of success, ne months (if, indeed, it was not prolonged into the
see, for the first time in history, the uniform supe- next year), it was at last taken. It is characteristic
riority over raw troops of a power which is always of Oriental despotism, that Joab, when the city was
fighting; whose standing army is ever gaining ex- nearly reduced, sent to invite David to command
perience and mutual confidence. 4. Another vic- the final assault in person. David gathered a large
tory, gained'in the valley of salt,' ought, perhaps, force, easily captured the royal town, and despoiled
to be read, as in I Chron. xviii. I2, and in the su- it of all its wealth. His vengeance was as much
perscription of Ps. lx.,'over the Edomites,' not more dreadful on the unfortunate inhabitants than' over the Syrians.' The difference of the Hebrew  formerly on the Moabites, as the danger in which
textual letters is very slight, tD' and,'NT. The the Ammonites had involved Israel had been more
verse which follows (2 Sam. viii. 14) seems to tell imminent. The persons captured in the city were
the result of this victory, viz., the complete subju- put to death by torture; some of them being sawed
gation and garrisoning of Edom, which, like Moab, in pieces, others chopped up with axes or mangled
was incorporated with David's empire. Immedi- with harrows, while some were smothered in brickately before this last conquest, as would appear, he kilns (2 Sam. xii. 31; I Chron. xx. 3). This
wrote the 6oth Psalm; and as that Psalm gives no severity was perhaps effectual in quelling future
hint of his achievements against the king of Zobah movements of revolt or war; for, until insurrecand the Damascenes, this is a strong ground for tions in Israel embolden them, foreign foes after
believing that those successes were not gained till this remain quiet. [To these wars Pss. lx., lxviii.,
somewhat later in time. 5. After David had be- cviii., cx., are with some certainty referred. Ps.
come master of all Israel, of the Philistine towns, xviii. may belong to this period of David's life, or
of Edom, and of Moab, while the Eastern tribes, to an earlier period, when he escaped from the
having conquered the Hagarenes, threatened the power of Saul. Pss. xx. and xxi. have also, by
Ammonites on the north, as did Moab on the south, some, been thought to belong to this period.]
the Ammonites were naturally alarmed, and called' During the campaign against Rabbah of Amin the powers of Syria to their help against a foe mon the painful and never-to-be-forgotten outrage
who was growing dangerous even to them. The of David against Bathsheba and her husband Uriah
coalition against David is described as consisting of the Hittite took place. It is principally through
the Syrians of Bethrehob and of Maacah, of this narrative that we know the tediousness of that
Zobah, and of Tob.   The last country appears siege; since the adultery with Bathsheba and the
to have been in the district of Trachonitis, the birth of at least one child took place during the
two first immediately on the north of Israel. course of it. Although on his deep contrition for
In this war, we may believe that David enjoyed this great sin he was forgiven; yet seeing that this
the important alliance of Toi, king of Hamath, sin in one so exalted and so religious had'given
who, having suffered from Hadadezer's hostility, great occasion for the enemies of the Lord to
courted the friendship of the Israelitish mon- blaspheme,' it behoved the Lord to vindicate his




DAVID                     638                  DAVID
own righteousness and his abhorrence of sin, by not unsuspecting cousin with his own hand; and
leaving the heinous crimes of his servant unpunished. David, who had used the instrumentality of Joab
The sentence that went forth against him was:-  to murder Uriah, did not dare to resent the deed.'Behold, I will raise up evil against thee out of [To this period tradition ascribes Ps. cxliii.; and to
thine own house,' in which we are furnished with it also Pss. xlii., Iv., lxix., and cix., are commonly
the key to the disasters which darkened the re- referred. It is less certain if we should place
mainder of his course. [To this sad event David  Ps. iii. and Ps. iv. among them.]
refers in Ps. li., and probably also in Ps. xxxii.]' A quarrel which took place between the men of' Of all David's sons, Absalom had naturally the Judah and those of the other tribes in bringing the
greatest pretensions, being by his mother's side king back, had encouraged a Benjamite named
grandson of Talmai, king of Geshur; while through  Sheba to raise a new insurrection, which spread
his personal beauty and winning manners he was with wonderful rapidity.' Every man of Israel,'
high in popular favour. It is evident, moreover, are the strong words of the text,'went up from
that he was the darling son of his father. When  after David, and followed Sheba, the son of
his own sister Tamar had been dishonoured by her Bichri,' a man of whom nothing besides is known.
half-brother Amnon, the eldest son of David, Ab- This strikingly shews that the more despotic
salom slew him in vengeance, but, in fear of his character which David's government had latterly
father, then fled to his grandfather at Geshur. assumed, had already gone far to exhaust the
Joab, discerning David's longings for his son, enthusiasm once kindled by his devotion and chieffected his return after three years; but the con- valry, and that his throne now too much rested on
flict in the king's mind is strikingly shewn by his the rotten foundation of mere military superiority.
allowing Absalom to dwell two full years in Jeru- Amasa was collecting troops as David's general at
salem before, he would see his face.          the time when he was treacherously assassinated by'The insurrection of Absalom against the king  his cousin, who then, with his usual energy, purwas the next important event; in the course of sued Sheba, and blockaded him in Beth-maachah
which there was shewn the general tendency of before he could collect his partisans.  Sheba's
men to look favourably on young and untried   head was cut off, and thrown over the wall; and
princes, rather than on those whom they know for so ended the new rising. Yet this was not the
better and for worse. Absalom erected his royal end of trouble; for the intestine war seems to have
standard at Hebron first, and was fully prepared  inspired the Philistines with the hope of throwing
to slay his father outright, which might probably  off the yoke. Four successive battles are recorded
have been done, if the energetic advice of Ahi- (2 Sam. xxi. 15-22), in the first of which the aged
thophel had been followed. While they delayed, David was nigh to being slain. His faithful officers
David escaped beyond the Jordan, and with all his kept him away from all future risks, and Philistia
troop met a most friendly reception, not only from  was once more, and finally, subdued.
Barzillai and Machir, wealthy chiefs of pastoral' The last commotion recorded took place when
Gilead, but from Shobi, the son of the Ammonite David's end seemed nigh, and Adonijah, one of
king Nahash, whose power he had destroyed, and his elder sons, feared that the influence of Bathwhose people he had hewed in pieces. We like- sheba might gain the kingdom for her own son
wvise learn on this occasion that the fortunes of Solomon. Adonijah's conspiracy was joined by
David had been all along attended by 600 men of Abiathar, one of the two chief priests, and by the
Gath, who now, under the command of Ittai the redoubted Joab; upon which David took the deGittite, crossed the Jordan with all their house- cisive measure of raising Solomon at once to the
holds, in spite of David's generous advice that they throne.  Of two young monarchs, the younger
would return to their own country. Strengthened  and the less known was easily preferred, when the
by the warlike eastern tribes, and surrounded by  sanction of the existing government was thrown
his experienced captains, the king no longer hesi- into his scale; and the cause of Adonijah immetated to meet Absalom iri the field. A decisive diately fell to the ground. [Ps. xcii. is traditionvictory was won at the wood of Ephraim, and   ally, and Ps. ii., on internal evidence, ascribed to
Absalom was slain by Joab in the retreat. The this period.]
old king was heart-stricken at this result, and,'Numerous indications remain to us that, howignorant of his own weakness, superseded Joab in ever eminently David was imbued with faith in
the command of the host by Amasa, Absalom's Jehovah, and however he strove to unite all Israel
captain. Perhaps Joab on the former occasion, in common worship, he still had no sympathy with
when he murdered Abner, had blinded the king the later spirit which repelled all foreigners from
by pleading revenge for the blood of Asahel; but co-operation with Jews. In his early years necesno such pretence could here avail. The king was sity made him intimate with Philistines, Moabites,
now probably brought to his determination, partly  and Ammonites: policy led him into league with
by his disgust at Joab, partly by his desire to give the Tyrians.  He himself took in marriage a
the insurgents confidence in his amnesty. If Amasa daughter of the king of Geshur: it is the less wonis the same as Amasai, David may likewise have derful that we find Uriah the Hittite (2 Sam. xi.),
retained a grateful remembrance of the cordial Gether the Ishmaelite (I Chron. ii. I7), and others,
greeting with which he had led a strong band to married to Israelitish wives. The fidelity of Ittai
his assistance at the critical period of his abode in the Gittite, and his six hundred men, has been alZiklag (I Chron. xii. I8); moreover, Amasa, ready alluded to. It would appear, on the whole,
equally with Joab, was David's nephew, their two  that in tolerating foreigners Solomon did not go
mothers, Abigail and Zeruiah, being sisters to  beyond the principles established by his father,
David by at least one parent (2 Sam. xvii. 25; though circumstances gave them a fuller developI Chron. ii. 13, I6). The unscrupulous Joab, ment.
however, was not so to be set aside. Before' It has been seen that the reign of David began.
long, catching an opportunity, he assassinated his as that of a constitutional monarch, with a league




DAVID                    639                 DAVID
between him and his people: it ends as a pure mained at Jabesh-Gilead, were at the same time
despotism, in which the monarch gives his king- removed. This must have been highly gratifying
dom  away to whomsoever he pleases, and his to a people who attached so much importance as
nominee steps at once into power without entering the Jews to the honours of the grave.
into any public engagements. The intensity of the' It has been seen that, on ole occasion (2 Sam.
despotism is strikingly shewn in the indirect and viii. 3), David fought against Hadadezer about a
cautious device by which alone Joab dared to hint district on the river Euphrates. Yet it is not to be
to the king the suitableness of recalling Absalom  imagined that he had any fixed possession of terrifrom banishment, though he believed the king tory so distant, which indeed could have had no
himself to desire it (2 Sam. xiv.) All rose neces- value to him. A warrior from his youth, he seems
sarily out of the standing army which David kept to have had little perception of the advantages of
up as an instrument of conquest and of power, by commerce, and although the land of Edom was
the side of which constitutional liberty could not long under his power, he made no effort to use its
stand. The maintenance of this large force per- ports of Eziongeber and Elath for maritime traffic.
haps was not oppressive, since rich tributes were Much less was he likely to value the trade of the
received from the surrounding nations, and the civil Euphrates, from which river he was separated by
government was not yet become very expensive.  a tedious distance of desert land, over which, with-' One more dreadful tragedy is recorded in this out the possession of superior cavalry, he could
reign-the immolation of seven sons of Saul not maintain a permanent sovereignty. No at(2 Sam. xxi.), on the occurrence of three years' bad tempt seems to have been made in David's reign to
harvests. A priestly response imputed the famine maintain horses or chariots for military purposes.
to Saul's violation of the oath of Joshua with the Even chieftains in battle, as Absalom on his fatal
Gibeonites.  It therefore became necessary to day, appear mounted only on mules.  Yet horses
satisfy this people; and they, when they were were already used in state equipages, apparently as
asked to name the satisfaction they demanded, a symbol of royalty (2 Sam. xv. I).
placed the matter on a footing of blood-revenge' That in the opening of Saul's reign the Philisby demanding that seven of Saul's descendants tines had deprived the Israelites of all the most
should be put to death, and their bodies exposed formidable arms, is well known.  It is probable
on gibbets. This demand could not have been that this may have led to a more careful practice of
withstood by David, had he been so minded; and the sling and of the bow, especially among the
it is not impossible that he the more easily acqui- southern tribes, who were more immediately
esced, since it was desirable, for the peace of his pressed by the power of the Philistines.  Such
successors, that the house of Saul should be exter- weapons cannot be kept out of the hands of rustics,
minated. This suspicion receives some confirma- and must have been essential against wild beasts.
tion from the cold injustice of David towards But from causes unknown, the Benjamites were
Mephibosheth, son of Jonathan, whom he first peculiarly celebrated as archers and slingers (Judg.
stripped of his whole patrimony, on a false and xx. I6; I Chron. viii. 40; xii. 2; 2 Chron. xiv. 8;
most improbable accusation, and afterwards, in- xvii. I7); while the pastoral tribes beyond the Jorstead of honourably redressing the injury, restored dan were naturally able to escape all attempts of
to him the half only of his estate (2 Sam. xvi. 3; the Philistines to deprive them of shield, spear, and
xix. 24-30). Such conduct intimates that he was sword.  Hence the Gadites, who came to David
too desirous of weakening the house of Saul to feel at Ziklag, are described as formidable and fullany strong inducement to exert himself to avert the armed warriors,' with faces like lions, and swift as
blow at that house, which the demand of the Gibe- mountain roes' (I Chron. xii. 8).
onites involved.  That David did not give up' The standing army which Saul had begun to
Mephibosheth to be slain by the Gibeonites is maintain was greatly enlarged by David.  An acimputed to the oath between him and Jonathan; count of this is given in I Chron. xxvii.; from
but it does not appear that their covenant was or which it would seem that 24,000 men were concould be more binding than his most explicit oath stantly maintained on service, though there was a reto Saul on the very same matter (I Sam. xxiv. lieving of guard every month. Hence twelve times
21, 22). Five of the persons thus sacrificed to the this number, or 288,oo0, were under a permanent
keen vengeance of the Gibeonites are stated in military organization, with a general for each
the common Hebrew and Greek text, and in our division in his month.  Besides this host, the
received version, to be children of Michal, David's register proceeds to recount twelve princes over
youthful spouse; and Josephus imagines that they the tribes of Israel, who may perhaps be compared
were born of her after a second divorce from  to the lord-lieutenants of English counties.  The
David. But it is certain, from I Sam. xviii. I9, enumeration of these great officers is remarkable,
that Michal is here a mistake for Merab; which being as follows:-I. of the Reubenites; 2. of the
name De Wette has introduced into his version. Simeonites; 3. of the Levites; 4. of the AaronThe description of the other bereaved mother, ites; 5. of Judah; 6. of Issachar; 7. of Zebulon;
Rizpah, the daughter of Aiah, who took her sta- 8. of Naphthali; 9. of Ephraim; Io. of Manasseh;
*tion upon the rock, and watched the bodies of her II. of Manasseh beyond the Jordan; 12. of Benjasons day and night, lest they should be devoured  min; 13. of Dan. Here the names of Gad and
by beasts of prey or torn by the birds of the air, Asher are omitted without explanation.  On the
is deeply affecting. It touched the heart of David other hand, the Levites and Aaronites are recounted,
when he heard of it. He would not allow public as though they were tribes co-ordinate with the
decency to be any farther offended to satisfy the rest, and Zadok is named as prince of the Aaronresentment of the Gibeonites, but directed the ites. It is not to be supposed that the Levites or
bodies to be taken down and honourably deposited Aaronites were wholly forbidden from civil and
in the family sepulchre, to which also the bones of military duties. It has been already remarked that
Saul and his three sons, which had till now re- Zadok (here chief of the Aaronites) was described




DAVID                    640                  DAVID
in the beginning of David's reign as'a mighty man'One of the most remarkable incidents in the
of valour' (I Chron. xii. 28), and the same appel- later period of David's career was his causing a
lation is given to the sons of Shemaiah, a Levite census to be taken of his people, and the rebuke
(xxvi. 6). Benaiah, also, now captain of David's and punishment which on that account he incurred.
body-guard, was son of the late high-priest Je- There is an apparent discrepancy in the terms in
hoiada (xxvii. 5, and xii. 27).              which the accounts of this transaction are intro-' The body-guard of David, to which allusion has duced in 2 Sam. xxiv. I, and I Chron. xxi. I. In
just been made, was an important appendage to the former we read,' The anger of the Lord was
his state, and a formidable exhibition of the actual kindled against Israel, and he moved David against
despotism under which, in fulfilment of the warn- them to say, go, number Israel and Judah.' In
ing of Samuel, Israel had now fallen. [CHERETH- the latter we find-'And Satan stood up against
ITES and PELETHITES.]                        Israel, and provoked David to number Israel.''The cabinet of David (if we may use a modern The difference is, however, more apparent than
name) is thus given (I Chron. xxvii. 32-34), with real; and without availing ourselves of the rereference to a time which preceded Absalom's re- sources of verbal criticism, it suffices to observe
volt:-I. Jonathan, David's uncle, a counsellor, that God is sometimes represented as doing what
wise man, and scribe; 2. Jehiel, son of Hachmoni, he permits to be done by others. So in the pretutor (?) to the king's sons; 3. Ahithophel, the sent case, the Lord permitted Satan to tempt
king's counsellor; 4. Hushai, the king's com- David. The Lord withdrew his supporting grace
panion; 5. after Ahithophel, Jehoiada, the son of from the king, and the great adversary prevailed
Benaiah; 6. Abiathar the priest.  It is added, against him.'and the general of the king's army was Joab.' At'There have been various opinions as to the
this period Benaiah was in the early prime of his nature of the sin involved in this transaction.
military prowess, and it is incredible that he can That in its mere outside aspect, or in its underhave had a son, Jehoiada, old enough to be the stood or avowed objects, or in both, it presented
second counsellor of the king, next to the celebrated as objectionable an aspect to contemporary opiAhithophel. If the text is here corrupt, the cor- nion, as it certainly did in the eyes of God, is
ruption is older than the time of the LXX.  How- evinced by the fact, that such a person as Joab-a
ever, De Wette has introduced Benaiah, the son of man of no very apprehensive conscience-was
ehkoiada.  We cannot look on this as certain, for shocked and alarmed at the proposition, and exBenaiah may have been the name of the father as pressed a most decided opinion as to the sin and
well as of the son of Jehoiada the high-priest. Yet danger of the measure. The common impression
as it was very rare with the Hebrews for names to seems to be, that the act of taking a census was in
recur in alternate generations, De Wette's reading itself culpable, as indicating the sinful pride of the
is at least highly probable. If so, it is striking to king in contemplating the number of his subjects;
observe that Benaiah, as captain of the life guards, and this notion had for a long time great weight in
is reckoned next to Ahithophel in rank as a coun- rendering the people in most European countries
sellor, while Joab, general of the army, scarcely averse to enumerations of the populations when
seems to have been a member of the cabinet. first such operations began to be contemplated by
Zadok was above named as prince of the Aaronites, governments.  The absurdity of this opinion is
but was not yet so closely connected with the ad- shewn by a simple reference to the fact, that under
ministration as Abiathar.                     Moses, two enumerations of the population were' Twelve royal bailiffs are recited as a part of taken by the express command of the Lord himDavid's establishment (I Chron. xxvii. 25, 3 ), self. The truth is probably, that at this time
having the following departments under their David coveted an extension of empire, contrary to
charge:-I. The treasures of gold, silver, etc.; 2. the Lord's plans for the house of Israel. Having
the magazines; 3. the tillage (wheat, etc.?); 4. permitted himself to cherish this evil design, he
the vineyards; 5. the wine-cellars; 6. the olive could not well look to the Lord for help, and
and sycamore trees; 7. the oil-cellars; 8. the therefore sought to know whether the thousands of
herds in Sharon; 9. the herds in the valleys; Io. Israel and Judah were equal to the conquests he
the camels; II. the asses; I2. the flocks. The meditated. His design doubtless was to force all
eminently prosperous state in which David left his the Israelites into military service, and engage
kingdom to Solomon appears to prove that he was them in the contests which his ambition had in
on the whole faithfully served, and that his own view; and as the people might resist this census,
excellent intentions, patriotic spirit, and devout the soldiery were employed to make it, that they
piety (measured, as it must be measured, by the might not only put down all resistance, but supstandard of those ages) really made his reign bene- press any disturbances which the general dislike to
ficial to his subjects.  If it reduced them under this proceeding might occasion.
despotism, yet it freed them from a foreign yoke,'By the results of this census, we, however, learn
and from intestine anarchy; if it involved them in the interesting fact, that'all they of Israel were a
severe wars, if it failed of uniting them permanently thousand thousand and a hundred thousand men
as a single people, in neither of these points did it that drew sword: and Judah was four hundred
make their state worse than it found them. We thousand and ten thousand.' This is the statement
must not exact of David either to reign like a con- in I Chron. xxi. 5; but the parallel text in 2 Sam.
stitutional monarch, to uphold civil liberty, or by xxiv. has a considerably different account. For
any personal piety to extract from despotism its the sake of comparison we set these accounts side
sting.  Even his most reprobate offence has no by side, together with the results of the last census
small palliation in the far worse excesses of other taken in the time of Moses-by which we may be
Oriental sovereigns, and his great superiority to his enabled to form an idea of the increase of populasuccessors justifies the high esteem in which his tion since the Israelites became a settled people.
memory was held.                             As Benjamin and Levi were not numbered on this




DAVID                    641             DAVID, CITY OF
later occasion, we render the comparison more per- ruler-the ruler fearing God-and expressed his
fect by excluding and withdrawing these tribes joyful anticipation, amid all the disappointments
from the earlier account:                     which had cast their shadow over his own paternal
Num.   2 Sam.  Chron  anticipations, of the fulfilment of God's promise
xxvi.  xxiv.  xxi.   to him in the advent of that Great King in whom
Israel, exclusive of Levi and      othe ideal of a perfectly just ruler should be fully
Benjamin................  493,55 0 8  000  realised (2 Sam. xxiii. 1-5; comp. the Targum
Judah....................  74,600 500,000 470,000 Jonath. on the passage). Before his departure, he
68     I,300,000 I,570,000 also charged his son Solomon, whom  he had
-_________ _, "destined to be his successor, how to conduct himReal Population..............2,272,6005,200,000 72800  self in the kingdom, and especially towards certain parties to whom the king owed a debt of
and giving also the results of the multiplication by retaliation or of gratitude (I Kings ii. I-9). We
four to arrive at the real population, as it is usually  cannot but notice how, in this last utterance, the
true that the men reputedly capable of bearing arms circumstances in which he was placed, and the
are not more than one-fourth the entire population. maxims of rule to which he was habituated, in-'The apparent discrepancy between the two esti- fused elements into his counsels which illustrate
mates admits of several explanations.  It seems, the still lingering imperfection of the man, while
however, most probable that the deficiency of the former utterance is full of what belongs to the
300,000 in the estimate for Israel may have been faith and hope of the saint.
produced by the earlier of the sacred writers omit-  This chequered character belongs to David all
ting the standing army of 288,ooo-increased to through his public history. That he was a man of
300,000 by the addition of a thousand men sup- ardent passions, and that he gratified these someposed to have been with each of the princes of the times with the arbitrary license of an Oriental
tribes, that is 12,000 together-the whole of which  prince, lies on the surface of the record of his
are included by the later writer. There is still a life. But men do ill to measure that heroic and
difference of 30,000 in the account for Judah; and many-stringed nature by the average standard of
this may be explained in the same manner-the  common-place humanity; and it is foolish and
writer in Samuel being presumed to exclude the wicked to dwell upon his obvious faults while no
army of observation-posted on the Philistine fron- regard is paid to the nobler features of his soul,
tier, and which appears from 2 Sam. vi. i, to have to the sublime piety in which his habitual life
been composed of 30,000 men.                  dwelt, to the intense agony with which he struggled'It appears from this that the Hebrew population  for the mastery over these fiery passions, and the
had increased nearly threefold during the 576 years mournful remorse with which he bewailed their
which had elapsed since it entered the land of occasional triumph over his better nature.  Some
Canaan. This increase is not extraordinary; but have even taken occasion fiom the sins into which
is as great as we have any reason to expect, con- David fell to sneer at the religion of which he
sidering the oppressions to which the Israelites had  appears as one of the most distinguished profesbeen subjected, and the bloody wars they had  sors; forgetting how unfair and disingenuous it is
waged. Indeed, it has been objected by some that to impute to a man's religion what his religion had
it is scarcely possible that, all circumstances con- nothing to do with, except as it caused him fresidered, the people could have been so numerous; quently and constantly to deplore it. It behoves
but, as we must necessarily be ignorant of many us, also, to consider of how much good to the
causes which may have operated to increase or church David's varied experiences, even in their
lessen the population, the statement of the sacred  least excusable forms, have been made the vehicle.
historian may, even on ordinary grounds, be safely'Though we neither excuse his acts of wickedtaken, in the absence of any reason to suspect the ness nor impute them to the temptation of God,
integrity of the text. This leads us, in conclusion, who cannot be tempted of evil, neither tempteth
to a remark which will apply to the whole life of any man, we will add that by his loss the church
David, and, indeed, to the Holy Scriptures at hath gained; and that if he had not passed
large, that the difficulties found in the narrative are through every valley of humiliation, and stumbled
only such as arise from its remote antiquity, and upon the dark mountains, we should not have had
the impossibility of our acquiring all the know- a language for the souls of the penitent, or an exledge necessary for their complete solution. Scep- pression for the dark troubles which compass the
ticism is often more credulous than the faith it soul that feareth to be deserted by its God'
despises for that alleged quality, and its proposed  (Irving, Introd. Essay to Home on the Psalms, p.
methods of unravelling the intricacies of the Bible  57). For illustrations of the history of David, see
records, frequently make confusion still more con- Delany, Historical Account of the Life and Reign
fused. The way in which recent discoveries in of David, etc., 3 vols. Lond. I741-42; Chandler,
archaeology have confirmed statements, both in  Critical History of the Life of David, etc., 2 vols.
sacred and profane history, which before were Lond. 1766; Kitto, Daily Bible Illustrations, vol.
thought to be erroneous, will make thoughtful per- iii.; Ewald, Gesch. d. Yolkes Israel, iii. 71, ff.sons hesitate before they doubt, and dispose them  W. L. A.*
to believe, that if some fact, now withheld, were
but supplied, there would be harmony where there DAVID, CITY OF. This name is applied in
is now the appearance of discord.'            Scripture to two different places.  I. In 2 Sam. v.
David reigned in Hebron seven years and a-half, we read that David having taken Jerusalem, and
and in Jerusalem thirty-three years (2 Sam. ii. I I;
v. 5).  Josephus says he died at the age of 70  * The parts of this article retained from the
(Anztiq. viii. 15. 2). His'last words' were a song former editions are indicated by the usual marks of
in which he embodied his conception of the just quotation.
VOL..                                                                         2 T




DAVID, CITY OF                 642                 DAVISON
stormed the citadel on Mount Zion,'dwelt in the  tomb of David on Zion is to this day one of the
fort, and called it the city of David' (I Chron. xi. most honoured sanctuaries of the Mohammedans;
7). After that time the castle and palace of Zion  and the square keep, called the Castle of David,
appear to have been called'the City of David,' as on the northern end of Zion, is one of the most
contradistinguished alike from Jerusalem generally, ancient and interesting relics in the Holy City.
and from Moriah and other sections of it (I Kings [JERUSALEM.]
viii. I; iii. I; 2 Chron. v. 2). In it David and  2. In Luke ii. 4 and 1, Bethlehem is called the
most of his successors on the throne were buried  City of David.  Joseph and Mary went from
(I Kings ii. 10; 2 Chron. ix. 31, etc.) Mount Nazareth'unto the city of David, which is called
Zion, or the City of David, is on the south-west Bethlehem.'  This was David's birthplace, and
side of Jerusalem, opposite Moriah, or the temple- the home of his youth. We know not at what
mount, with which it was connected by a bridge  time the little mountain village began to be called
spanning the deep valley of Tyropoean.   The by his name; but there is no trace of it in the
- -   -------—,                   -, -, -. _ - -. -_    _ _ _,  _
204. Tower of David
O. T. It appears, however, to have been pretty  during the remainder of his earthly life, which
generally used in the time of our Lord (BETHLE- was brought to its close at Cheltenham, May 6th,
HEM).-J. L. P.                                1834; he was buried in the south chancel of
Worcester Cathedral. This most amiable, highD A V I S O N, JOHN, was born at Morpeth, minded, and learned clergyman, whose memory is
Northumberland, May 28, I777. From the gram- still cherished by some surviving friends-divided
mar-school of Durham  he proceeded to Christ his well-spent time in parochial duty and the purChurch, Oxford, in I794, at the age of I7; be- suit of sacred learning.  Iis treatise on Prophecy
came Craven Scholar in 1798, in which year he has been frequently republished, and will not soon
also graduated B.A.; Fellow of Oriel in  800o; be forgotten; it combines an unusual elegance of
M.A. in I80o. Between the years I8Io and 18I7  style with great perspicuity of treatment. The
he became tutor of his college, public examiner, uninterrupted approval which has been accorded
preacher at Whitehall, and occasionally served in to this work for nearly forty years more than conother university offices. In 18I8 he took his firms the favourable reception with which it was
B.D. degree. It was at this period of his life that originally welcomed.  To learning and a large
he preached and published his chief and much- view of his subject the author adds the grace
valued work, entitled, Discourses on Prophecy, in  of eloquence and feeling. With a gentle though
zhich are considered its structure, use, and inspira- irresistible persuasion he carries his reader to the
lion; being the substance of twelve sermonspreached  height of his grand argument.
in the chapel of Lincoln's Inn, in the lecture  Since Davison's death, his Remains and occafounded by the Right Rev. Williamz  Warburlon, sional Publications, have been published, compris-.Bishop of Gloucester. In 1826 he was made pre- ing thirteen miscellaneous pieces. They are more
bendary of Worcester, and soon afterwards rector or less all characterised by the writer's great
of Upton-upon-Severn, for which he resigned his ability in style and argument. One only belongs
former preferment in the north.  Between Upton  to the subject of our work-it is the first in the
and Worcester Mr. Davison divided his residence, vol., containing 176 pages of it, and is entitled, An1




DAY                     643                   DAY
inquiry into the origin and intent of primitive the case, the lawgiver could not have designated
sacrfce, and the Scripture evidence respecting it, those very evenings which he wished to belong
etc. The claims of true Natural Religion are well ritually to the following (I5th, ioth) day, as the
vindicated in this treatise. Exception has been evenings of the previous (I4th, 9th) day (Lev.. c.)
taken to the main drift of Davison's argument Further, that in common biblical phraseology, the
(See Fairbairn's Typology, pp. 442, 443). With- day is frequently mentioned before the night (Ps.
out wishing to express an opinion of it, one way or i. 2, etc.); and that of the fast days mentioned in
the other, it may be right to observe that the Zech. viii. I9, one only begins with the previous
author's argument is clearly misunderstood by evening. Finally-not to mention other objecthose who represent it as disputing altogether the tions-it has been alleged, that even in ritual
Divine origin of all sacrifice.  Its conclusions points, the Bible occasionally reckons the night as
amount to this; that sacrifices, eucharistical and following, not as preceding, the day (Lev. vii. 15).
penitential, might be, and probably were, of There seems, in fact, no other way of reconciling
human origin, though presently sanctioned by these apparent inconsistencies, than to assume (cf.
Divine approbation; but that the idea of expiatory  Mishnah Chulin, v. 6) that no general rule had
sacrifice was clearly supernatural. (See Preface to ever been laid down with respect to the commenceRemaiins, p. I3).-P. H.                      ment of the civil day, and that ritually, on certain
distinct occasions, the natural day followed the
DAY, HIeb. aBi (Qin, ten, c'; cf. tl, night, on others, the night followed the day. It.A'"        might very naturally be supposed, that if the Hehot springs), a term denoting both the space of brews ever had a mode of reckoning uniform for
time during which the sun is above the horizons or all purposes, they must have changed it from time
the natural day (Syr. WQ}Q71); and the cycle of to time (without, however, altering their holy seasons), accommodating it to the customs of the
twenty-four hours, during which the sun apparently peoples among whom they happened to be thrown
performs one entire circuit round the earth, or the in various epochs; and that from these conflicting
civil day (Syr.  O     s; Pers. jjL,. ).  This usages, ambiguities and uncertainties necessarily
~Lr.'j ^followed. Thus, a Hebrew letter written in the
latter, for which the Bible also uses the com- night between Saturday to Sunday, would, even in
pounds'Np13 7'3) (Dan. viii. 14) and vvXhselpov our time, be dated either P.'?/ (conclusion of Sab(2 Cor. xi. 25), seems to have been universally bath) or' 
adopted from the remotest ages as a measure ofba   or i          (eve ofthe fst day)
time; the special point, however, at which its com- The earliest biblcal divisions of the natural day,
mencement was fixed by different nations, varied which ritually commenced with the early dawn
between morning, noon, evening, and midnight (when white can be distinguished from blue or
(Pliny, Hist. Nat. ii. 79; Censorin. xxiii.) With  green, adogfromawolf, etc.-Talm. B. Berachoth,
those who, like the Babylonians and Persians, 8 b.), and which ended when three stars became
counted by solar epochs, the civil or calendar day visible, are morning, evening (Gen. i. ), and noon
generally lay between sunrise and sunrise while (Gen. xliii. I6). Besides these, we find a greater
with others, to whom the moon was the standard  variety of terms in the 0. T., amounting to seven
of reckoning, the sunset was the signal for the end or eight, and supposed to designate certain distinct
of one, and the beginning of another such day  subdivisions of time-somewhat like the different
This was the case, among others, with the Atheni-'day-seasons' of the Arabs. But on closer inspecans, Gauls, Germans, and with many Eastern tion, several of these terms, so far from expressing
nations; some of whom, as the Arabs, still con- distict and successive periods of time, prove to be
tinue this mode of reckoning, and count their time either altogether synonymous, or to beused so inby nights: a custom which may likewise be found discriintely, hat the difference between them,
in the Roman and Salic Laws, and which is trace-f there e any,    appreciable. The follow
able even in our own terms, fortnight, se'nnight. ing occur:
The less obvious starting points of noon and mid-  W) (jW, to blow): the cool wind that precedes
night, the former adopted by the Etruscans, Um-   the s
bjians, etc., the latter by the Roman priests,      sun r   ise, and accompanies an l. T herefre
Egyptians (see, however, Lepsius, Chronol. p       usedt (=as da   (Jb vii. i4 Sa. Therefore
130), and others, were chosen either as the cul-       as da (Job iv.  4; I    Sam. xxx. 7);
minating points, as it were, of light and darkness,  etc)                       (Is v 
or for astronomical purposes (Ideler, Hb. d. Chron.
i. 29, 80, Ioo, ff.; cf. Tacit. Germ. II; Caes. Bell.  r    (       p)  from onl   1p  to
Gall. vi. i8; Isid. Oriz. v. 20; Macrob.. Sat. xxxiii.,.            ing (Ge
etc.)                                             cleave, break forth: aurora, morning (Gen.
To the Hebrews, the moon had distinctly been    xix I5; 2 Sam. xxii. 4).
pointed out as the regulator of time (Ps. civ. 19).  nVT t i  heat of te day (Gen. xviii. i)
The Mosaic cosmogony invariably mentions the       q.nl li)., standstill of the day t- n,
night as the first portion of the civil day (Gen.        ts (Gen. xliii. 6): all these three re
i. 5, ff.) It was, moreover, expressly enjoined,  tes    r non, idthat the celebration of certain festivals was to begin with the night (Lev. xxiii. 5, 32), a rule which,!  ( s), from ZI, to mix (colours, obby the traditional law, was extended to all Sabbath. 
and Feast Days. Nevertheless, it has always been  jects): evening (Judg. xix. 9). Hence  ^t,
a moot point whether the Hebrews, at all times, and  west. The term   - Tl1 i (Exod. xli. 6,
in all respects, began their calendar or civil day with  etc.),'between the two evenings' (cf.'twithe night. It has been argued, that if this had been  light,' B 4Y,'rnVWr), has given rise to a




DAY                     644                DAYSMAN
dispute between the Karaites and the Rab- (Ps. xxxvii. I3), of divine judgment (Joel i. 15;
banites, the former holding it to mean the Matt. vii. 22), a feast-day or birth-day (Hos. vii. 5;
time between sunset and midnight, while Job iii. I), and pluraliter in the sense of a full
the latter place it between the 9th and number of days, f i., of a month (Gen. xxix. 14),
IIth hours (= our 3 and 5 P.M.)  A pas- a year (Is. xxxii. Io). On some other acceptations
sage of Josephus (yew. Wars, vi. 9. 3) of the word-commnon to most languages-it is unfavours the latter opinion.  [/ WDwt2   l, necessary to enlarge.
twilight, and'11, eve or nzight, are first used  The days of the week had no special names as
in the Mishnak.]                         they had with the Romans, and, perhaps, with the
1nin (nfi, to divide into two parts), midnight. Egyptians; but were designated according to their
[In later Hebrew, also mid-day.  Cf. Pesach. numerical order in relation to the Sabbath.-E. D.
[In later Hebrew, also mid-day.  Cf. Pesach.
iv. I. 5. 6].                              DAYSMAN is a word which occurs but once
Another hitherto undecided point is the number in the A. V. of the Scriptures, in Job ix. 33; it is
of the Hebrew night-watches (n11DOWN) anterior more remarkable from its structure and derivation
to the time of Christ. We find different opinions as an English word, than from any doubt of the
on this subject as early as the Talmud (Berach. 3 meaning ofthe original Hbrew term, which it reb, etc.); some assuming three, others four. The presents. This term is nadi, the Hiphil participle
O. T. mentions expressly:-                   of the verb rn, which is not found in Kal, and
n.iVw     tia'S, head, first, of the watches (Lam. but thrice in Niphal, and once in Ifophal and in
ii 9).                                  Il'ithpael, whereas it occurs more than fifty times;lhifn mit       nw, middle watch (Judg. vii. I9), in Hihil.  The primitive meaning of the word
T:.:-                             (according to Gesenius, Thes. 592), is'to be clear
which, according to those who affirm that  manifest   and in Hyhil'to make manifest,'
there were always four, means the middle of also'to convince, to confute, to reprove, or rethose three watches which fell in the time of buke;' by these last two words the word is rencomplete night.                          dered in nearly every passage of A. V., including
i'.ln'K, morning watch (Exod. xiv. 24).    the ten instances of the Hiphil participle tnID.
It is not easy to conjecture why in Job ix. 33 alone
In the N. T. four night-watches (probably adop- the translators resorted to the not then common
ted from the Greeks and Romans) are mentioned  word  ysman. The marginal rendering umpire
(Mark xiii. 35):seems to best convey the meaning of Job in the'0P, the late watch, lasting from sunset to the passage,'some one to compose our differences,
third hour of the night, including the evening  and command silence when either of us exceeds
dawn; also called 6lia &pa, even-tide (Mark  our bounds' (Patrick, in loc.)  First's term,
xi. II), or simply beta, evening (John xx. 19). Schiedsmann (H. wwrterb. i. 509), very well exMeoovvKrTov, midnight, from the third hour to  presses this idea of authoritative arbitration.  As
midnight.                                to the old English noun Daysman, Johnson's'AXerKopofWcovlas, cock-crowing, from midnight to  definition, surety, is hardly borne out by his solithe third hour after midnight. Ended with tary quotation from  Spenser, Faerie Queene, ii.
the second cock-crowing.                 8:Ipwt, early, from the ninth hour of the night'To whom Cymochles said; For what art thou,
to the twelfth, including the morning dawn  That mak'st thyself his dayesman, to prolong
or twilight. Also called 7rpwa, morning-tide  The vengeance prest;'
or morning (John xviii. 28).
arbitrator or umpire would better express the
Of the other divisions of the natural day into sense. In Holland's old translation of Livius (p.
four quadrants (Neh. ix. 3), or into twelve hours, 137), Dayesmen and Umpiers are used as synonyvarying, according to the length of the day (in mes. In the Bible of I55I, I Sam. ii. 25 is thus
Palestine, from 9 hrs. 84 min. to I4 hrs. I2 min.), we translated;' If one man synne agaynst another,
cannot treat here. [DIAL; HOURS.] Suffice it to  dayseman (A. V.'the judge') may make hys
say, that the Chaldee word nrlP (Nl.W) (Dan. iii. peace; but yf a man sinne agaynst the Lord, who
6, 15; iv. 16) which at a later period is used for can be hys dayseman (A. V.,'who shall intreat
hour, in the 0. T. signifies merely moment-a  for him')?  The Hebrew here comes from the
meaning which it has retained along with the later       i     first i    e       ts 
one; and that in the N. T. the word hour is oftenverb 7_; in the first instance occurs its Pie,
used for a whole watch (Matt. xxv. 13, etc.) That, which has elsewhere the signification of executing
moreover, even after the division of the day into judgment, and in the second instance its Hithpael,
distinct hours had been fully established for gene- which has (throughout its numerous occurrences),
ral purposes, it had little influence upon the ritual the sense of praying or intreating. A comparison
times, would follow from the Talmud (B. Bera- of the use of the word in this older translation
choth, 27. b). There the curious incident is re- with its obvious meaning in our A. V. seems to
corded, that the Jews had, on one occasion, shew that in the interval it had shifted its earlier
entered the synagogue for the purpose of reading meaning of mediator or advocate, to the stronger
the evening prayers for the termination of the Sab- sense of arbiter, umpire, or jz.ude. Dr. Richardbath, some hours before sunset, and only became son (Dictionary [Ist ed.], p. 488) accounts (after
aware of their error when, on leaving the syna- Minshew) for the origin of the word Daysman by
gogue, they perceived the sun, which had in'the attributing to the first element of it the technical
meantime broken through the clouds.           sense of a set or appointed time (for appearing beThe word Day is further used in the Bible in the fore court, etc.), like the Latin phrases Status
general sense of time (Gen. xlvii. 8), of misfortune dies; dictus dies; diem conslituere, etc. (See Dic



DEACON                     645                  DEACON
tionary of G. and L. Antiqq., s.v. Dies, or White self (Rom. xv. 8); as well as service in temporal
and Riddle's Latin Dictionary, p. 506, c. 3). In  matters. Nor can much weight be attached to
German, Tag is sometimes similarly used; and so patristic testimony on this head; because we have
is Tagen, as a legal phrase, to appoint a day for no clear declaration in favour of the position astrial; eine Tache tagen =to institute legal proceed- sumed earlier than that of the 6th General Council
ings (Hilpert's Lex. s.v.) Exactly similar is the  (in Trullo), held A.D. 680; all the earlier witnesses
Dutch phrase, Dagh vcerden = diem dicere; and  speak of the diaconate in connection with spiritual
the verb Daghen citare, to summon.'And thus,' services, or the rites of the Church. If, moreover,
says Richardson,'Dayesman means he who fixes this was the institution of a permanent office in the
the day, and is present, or else sits as judge, Church, it seems somewhat strange that it should
arbiter, or umpire, on the day appointed.' He  disappear entirely from the history of the Church for
adds,'In St. Paul, I Cor. iv. 3, Wyclif's transla- many years, and come up again, for the first time,
tion' of mzanny's dai' [A. V. mzan's judgment], is in the form of an incidental notice in an epistle writliteral from the Latin Vulgate,'ab humano die.' ten in the latter half of the first century. Taking
The Greek is vtro cav-pcow7rtvs Piappas; and this Mr. the narrative in the Acts in its connection with
Parkhurst observes [and most commentators be- the history of which it forms a part, the appointsides] is spoken in opposition to the coming of the ment of the seven brethren has all the appearance
Lord in verse 5, and also to X 7ujtepa, the day, i.e., of a temporary expedient to meet a peculiar emerthe day of the Lord, in the preceding ch., ver. gency.  Hitherto the Apostles had managed the
15, where the Vulgate renders X    pcupa,' dies expenditure of the funds collected for the aid of the
Donzini.' See Stanley and Alford, on I Cor. iv. poor in the church; but when the Hellenists com3.-P. H.                                       plained to the Hebrews (irpbs rots'E/palovs, not
against the Hebrews), i.e., the resident Jews by
DEACON     (AtciKovos), the designation of an  whom the supply was of necessity chiefly furnished,
office-bearer in the apostolic churches (Phil. i. I; that their widows were neglected in the daily disI Tim. iii. 8-13). Respecting this office certain tribution, the Apostles suggested an arrangement
questions require to be considered.            by which what they, from the pressure of other
I. Did it correspond to that of the In chazan  duties, could do only imperfectly, might be done
in the Jewish Synagogue, the VTrqppd4Tr  of the N. efficiently and for the satisfaction of all. The
T. (Luke iv. 20; John vii. 32)? That it did, is emergency, however, was itself the result of special
the opinion of Vitringa (De Syn. Vet., p. 895, ff.; circumstances, and consequently the arrangement
Bernard's Condensed Tr., p. 87, ff.); whose prin- by which it was to be met could not possess the
ciple, that the order of the Christian churches was character of a permanent institute.  Whilst it,
constructed on the model of the synagogues, led  however, passed away with the circumstances
him to press the analogy between the two in every  which gave it birth, we believe there was this of
possible way. But for this opinion there is no solid  permanency in it, that it established the principle
support. Vitringa's main principle is itself un- that it was not fit that they who are entrusted
sound; for nothing can be more evident than that with the ministry of the word should also be burthe Apostles proceeded upon no pre-arranged    dened with the ministry of tables or the managescheme of church policy, but instituted offices and  ment of the temporal affairs of the church.
appointed usages just as circumstances required;  3. What were the special duties of the deacon's
and as respects the deacon's office, it cannot be office? On this head want of information preshewn that one of the duties pertaining to the office eludes our arriving at any very satisfactory concluof chazan in the synagogue belonged to it. As sion. It is easy to say that the duty of the deacon
Hartmann remarks (Enge Teerbind. des A. T. mil was to manage the temporal affairs of the church,
d. A., p. 281), the chazan was a mere servant whilst its spiritual affairs were in the hands of the
whose functions resembled those of our sexton or Apostles and presbyters; but when some evidence
church officer.                                of this is asked, none can be presented that pos2. Have we in Acts vi. I-6 an account of the in- sesses the least weight.  When it is considered
stitution of the deacon's office in the Church? In  that the qualifications required for a deacon, acthat passage we read of the appointment of seven  cording to the Apostle's specification, are almost
men in the church at Jerusalem to attend to the as high as those required for a bishop (I Tim. iii.),
due distribution, of the provision made for the sus- we can hardly believe that the duties of the former
tenance of the widows belonging to the church: were confined to, or chiefly occupied with, mere
were these men deacons in the sense in which that temporal affairs; while the latter had the spirititle was used in later years? That they were is tual wholly for his sphere. It may be asked also,
very generally assumed; but it is not easy to dis- if the deacon's office were conversant solely with
cover any solid ground on which the assumption  the temporal affairs of the church, how was he, in
may be rested. Nothing can be drawn from the   conducting it, especially to acquire'great boldness
meaning of the word /&aKovia as applied to their in the faith?' Is this at all a consequence of keepfunctions (ver. I), or the word &BdKovos, as if this ing a church's accounts correctly, or dispensing a
title had been originally derived from such a' serv- church's charity wisely?
ing of tables' as is here referred to; because these  4. But if the office of the deacon was spiritual,
words are used in the N. T. with the utmost lati- we must ask, In what respect did it differ from
tude of meaning, so as to include every kind of ser- that of the presbyter? That the deacon and presvice rendered to the church or cause of God on  byter were different follows necessarily from  the
earth-the service of presbyters (2 Cor. xi. 23; identification of the latter with the bishop [BISHOP],
Ephes. vi. 21; Col. i. 7, etc.), of evangelists (I from whom the deacon is expressly distinguished
Thess. iii. 2), of apostles (Acts xx. 24; xxi. 19; in both the passages where his office is mentioned.
Rom. xi. 13; 2 Cor. vi. 4, etc.), of prophets (i It seems also clear that the office of deacon was a
Peter i. 12), of angels (Heb, i. I4), of Christ him- subordinate one, and constituted the lowest step in




DEACON                     646                  DEATH
the official gradation; for if it were not so, what are such as fit their possessor for the highest offices
force would there be in the Apostle's statement, in the Church.-W. L. A.
that they that have used the office of a deacon well
purchase for themselves a good degree (3aO6bv    DEACONNESS (AlaK6vLoa; xKcovo). That
eIavols KEZ\OV'repTroiovvra  gradum ab humilitatein the early Church there were females who were
Eavuro~s KaXbp,reptrotourat, gradum ab humilitate
diaconize ad majora munera in ecclesia,' Bengel)?  officially set apart for certain duties under the title
It is evident also that their office did not requireof deaconesses seems beyond doubt (see Bigham,
them to be public teachers of the church; for, Bk. II., ch. xxii.); but whether such were found
whilst the bishop is required to be iaaKtKOs, allc in the churches of the apostolic age is very doubtthat is required of the deacon in respect of Chris- ful. The grounds for the affirmative are extremely
slender. Phoebe is called &/6'Kovos of the church
tian doctrine is, that he should  hold the mysteryslender  Phebe is called     of the church
of the faith in a pure conscience.' Beyond this at Cenchree; and Paul specifies certain qualificathe N. T. does not enable us to go; but we learn tions which were to be required before a widow
from authentic sources what the duties of the dea-was taken into the number (as is alleged) of deacon in the post-apostolic church were.  He had to  connesses.  On such evidence nothing can be
assist the presbyter or bishop in the administration  built. The former passage proves nothing as to
of the Lord's Supper by conveying the eucharistic any offcia status held by Phcebe in the church;
elements to the communicants (Justin Mart., for aught the word teaches she may have been the
Apol. 7., sec. 65, ed. Otto); to receive the offer- door-keeper or cleaner of the place where the
ings of the people, and announce the names of those church assembled. The latter passage is made to
who offered (Cyprian, Ep. xvi. [al. ix., x., xiv], bear on the subject only by assumng the thing to
sec. 2; Jerome, Comment. in Ezek. xviii., p. 537);be proved  not a word does aul say in it of deato take care of the utensils of the altar (Augustn, connesses; he says certain widows are not to be
Qu s. V et N. t ); in some churches, though   received'into the number,' without saying of what.
not in all, the deacons read the Gospel (Jerome,The  ntext can alone determine tht, and as h
Ep. lvii. ad Sabizn.); in some they were permitted  is speaking there of who are to receive pecuniary
to baptise (Tertull. De Bat., c. xvii.; Jerome, aid from the Church, the conclusion to which we
Dial. cont. Lucif. 6. 4), and in later times other arenaturally led is, that'the number' to which he
functions were allotted to them  (See Bingham  refers is the number of those who were to be so
Antiq. Bk. II., ch. xx.) Whether the deaconwas aided. To assume in the face of this that'the
allowed to preach in the church is a doubtfulnumber' referred to is the number of office-bearers
point; it is probable that bishops might and did  of a certain class in the Church is illegitimate; and
occasionally grant permission for this, but that, asto make this assumption for the purpose of proving
a. rule, it was not permitted.  If we reflect on the t  ch an office existed  the Church, is to set
Apostolic age the light thus derived from the ages a   logic at defiance. To these arguments some
following it, we shall be led to regard the deacon  dd  e reference in Tim. iii. I, etc., to yivatKes,
as a spiritual officer subordinate to the presbyter, and in Titus. 3 to rpeaserints, as intimating the
appointed to assist him in several of his duties, and  exstence of deaconnesses in the Church; but in the
having a general care of the outward conduct of the  ormer case the  rties referred to are probably, as
service; eligible to the dignity of presbyter, butthe A. V. gives it, the wives of the deacons; ithe
only in case of his so commending himself in    tter they are undoubtedly simply'old women.'
office of deacon as to procure for himself such ad- In certain states of society and public feeling, it
vancement.                                     may be quite proper to appoint females to discharge
5. The qualifications required for the office of certain functions in the Church which properly bedeacon are specified by the Apostle in I Tim. iii.long to males; but that any institution to this
8-I2.  It is enacted that deacons shall be grave, effect was made by the Apostles is wholly without
o-euvot, venerable, respected in all the relations of prof.-W. L. A.
life; not 6X67yot, not thinking one thing and saying  DEAD SEA. [SA.]
another, saying one thing to one man, and another
to another, but sincere, truthful, and onefold; not  DEARTH.  [FAMINE.]
addicted to wine; not alaXpoKep&e6s, which some
interpret'getting their livelihood by unlawful  DEATH. Of the Scriptural representations,
means,' but which rather signifies,'using their names, and modes of speech respecting death, may
office or influence for the sake of gain,' as did those be noticed the following:of whom Titus writes (i. I I); holding the mystery  (a). One of the most common in the 0. T. is,
of the faith (the truth of God revealed to and em- to return to the dust, or to the earth.  Hence the
braced by faith) in a pure conscience; men who phrase, the dust of death. It is founded on the
had been proved, and whose character was esta- description Gen. ii. 7, and iii. I9, and denotes the
blished as that of men without reproach; the hus- dissolution and destruction of the body. Hence
bands of one wife, ruling their children and their the sentiment in Eccles. xii. 7,-' The dust shall
own houses well. These qualifications evidently return to the earth as it was, the spirit unto God,
who gave it.'
* The exegesis which explains  aOBAvB here of  (b). A withdrawing, exhalation, or removal of
an increase of piety or of spiritual knowledge, has the breath of life (Ps. civ. 29).  Hence the cornall the appearance of being one gratuitously as- mon terms dc/ieC, rrap&owKE TrO'rveEag, reddidit anisumed for the sake of avoiding an unwelcome con- mnam, eirvevuoe, exspiravit, etc.
clusion. The word PaC/bis is constantly used by  (c). A removal from the body, a being absent
the Fathers in a technical sense to designate an from the body, a departure from  it, etc. This
ecclesiastical grade (See Suicer in verb.): can an  description is founded on the comparison of the
instance be adduced from any source of its being body with a tent or lodgment in which the soul
applied to progress in piety or knowledge?     dwells during this life. Death destroys this tent




DEBIR                    647                DEBORAH
or house, and commands us to travel on (Job   city is clearly indicated in Josh. xv. 49, 50. It lay
iv. 21; Is. xxxviii. 12; Ps. xxxix. 13). Whence near Anab and Eshtemoh, the ruins of which,
Paul says (2 Cor. v. I)'our earthly house of this still bearing the ancient names, are seen in the
tabernacle' will be destroyed; and Peter calls mountains about seven miles south of Hebron.
death'.a putting off of this tabernacle' (2 Peter Debir was assigned out of Judah to the priests
i. I3, I4). Classical writers speak of the soul in the (Josh. xxi. 5); and we hear no more of it in
same manner, as KaTCa-K-vouv e 7'r r^JCrUarc. They history. The attempts hitherto made to identify it
call the body o(KxVOS. So Hippocrates and AEs- have not been successful.
chines. Compare 2 Cor. v. 8, 9 —K&/,io-aa l K   The names of this city have given rise to both
roV ocbuaros.                                 discussion and speculation.  Previous to the Israel(d). Paul likewise uses the term  Keoe-Oat, in itish conquest it was called both Kirjath-sepher,
reference to death (2 Cor. v. 3, 4); because the'town of the book' (Josh. xv. 15), and Kirjathbody is represented as the garment of the soul, as sannah (xv. 49), the true meaning of which seems
Plato calls it. The soul, therefore, as long as it to be'town of the law' —g1D being a Phoenician
is in the body, is clothed; and as soon as it is                               4"
disembodied is naked.                         word, and equivalent to the Arabic aja.. In the
(e). The terms which denote sleep are applied 
frequently in the Bible, as everywhere else, to Targum it is rendered 7r6Mv,'urbs archivorum;'
death (Ps. lxxvi. 5; Jer. li. 39; John xi. 13, s.)nd im the Septuagint  6Xv  pactiW   (Bochart,
Nor is this language used exclusively for the death  OP. i. 77I). This name supplies some evidence
of the pious, as some pretend, though this is its that the Canaanites were acquainted with writing
prevailing use. Homer calls sleep and death twin-and books. The town probably contained a noted
brothers (Iliad, xvi. 672). The terms also which  school, or was the site of an oracle, and the resisignify to lie down, to rest (e. g., =1I, occumbere), dence ofsomelearnedpriests. Ifthisbeadmtted,
also denote death.                            then it is easy to account for the Hebrew name
(f). Death is frequently compared with and Debir, which Jerome renders'oraculum,' from
named from a departure, a going away. Hence   li','to speak.' The same term was used to
the verbs eundi, abeundi, discedendi, signify to diedenote the adyt  of Solomon's temple
(Job x. 21; Ps. xxxix. 4). The case is the same  2.A place on the northern borderof Judah, in
with bwci-y)  and ropebosacU in the N. T. (Matt. or close to the great valley of the Jordan, and conxxvi. 24), and even among the classics. In this sequently not far distant from Jericho.  It is only
connection we may mention the terms dvaXdbev and mentioned in Josh. xv. 7; and its site has not been
civavs (Phil. i. 23; 2 Tim. iv. 6), which do not identified. De Saulcy and Van de Velde mark a
mean dissolution, but discessus (cf. Luke xii. 36). Wady Daor on ther maps as falling into the
Vid. Wetstein on Phil. i.                     north-western corner of the Dead Sea; but its conVid. Wetstein oil Phil. i.                    nection with Debir is doubtful.
Death, when personified, is described as a rulernecton wth Debr  dobtfu
and tyrant, having vast power and a great king-  3. A town east of the Jordan, on the northern
dom, over which he reigns.  But the ancients also boundary of Gad, and near Mahanaim (Josh. xiii.
represented it under some figures which are not26). It may be questioned whether the real name
common among us. We represent it as a man     of the town is Lidbir or Debir, as the use of ~ to
with a scythe, or as a skeleton, etc.; but the Jews, indicate the construct state is very remarkable in
before the exile, frequently represented death as a Joshua. The site is unknown (Keil, Comm. on
hunter, who lays snares for men (Ps. xviii. 5, 6; 7oshua, in loc.)-J. L. P.
xci. 3). After the exile, they represented him as  DEBORAH, a  ee).  This insect hea man, or sometimes as an angel (the angel of   DEBORAH      (, a  e). Ts     sect beDeath), with a cup of poison which he reaches to longs to the family apidze, order hymenoptera,
men. From this representation appears to have species apis melliica, commonly called the honeyarisen the phrase which occurs in the N. T., to  bee, because this species has often yielded honey
taste death (Matt. xvi. 28; Heb. ii. 9), which, to man. The bee is one of the most generally
however, in common speech, signifies merely to  diffused creatures on the globe, being found in
die, without reminding one of the origin of the every region.  Its instincts, its industry, and
phrase. The case is the same with the phrase to the valuable product of its labours, have obsee death (Ps. lxxxix. 48; Luke ii. 26). See Knapp's tained for it universal attention from the remotest
Christian Theology, by Dr. Leonard Wood. -J. K. times. No nation upon earth has had so many
historians as this insect. The naturalist, agriculDEBIR (-'tm:1 and'~~; Sept. Aap dp). I. One gturist, and politician, have been led by a regard to
of the ancient royal cities of the Canaanites, cap- science or interest to study its habits.  Cicero and
tured by Joshua during his first great campaign, Pliny refer to one philosopher (Aristomachus) who
along with Hebron and others (Josh. x. 33-39). devoted sixty years to it; and another (Philiscus)
It was inhabited by the Anakim, who appear to is said to have retired to the desert to pursue his inhave re-occupied the city after Joshua's conquest, quiries, and to have obtained, in consequence, the
and to have been finally expelled and exterminated name of Agrius. [But what alone concerns us here
by Othniel, whose valour on the occasion won for is the place occupied by this insect in the Bible].
him the daughter of Caleb (xv. 13-17). An inci-  In proceeding to notice the principal passages of
dental remark of the bride is worthy of note, as Scripture in which the bee is mentioned, we first
shewing the topographical accuracy of the sacred pause at Deut. i. 44, where Moses alludes to the
writer. She said to her father,' Give me a bless- irresistible vengeance with which bees pursue their
ing, for thou hast given me a south land; give me enemies:'The Amorites came out against you
also springs of water' (Judg. i. 11-15). The whole and chased you as bees do, and destroyed you in
region about Debir is dry and parched, and foun- Seir unto Hormah.' The powerlessness of man
tains are extremely rare. The situation of the under the united attacks of these insects is well




DEBORAH                    648                 DEBORAH
attested. Even in this country the stings of two  frequently in the 0. T., means to whistle, to pipe,
exasperated hives have been known to kill a horse and thence to collect or gather by such means, but
in a few minutes.                             never to hist or set on. As for the custom asThe reference to the bee contained in Judg. sumed in the common interpretation, it is abunxiv. 8, has attracted the notice of most readers. dantly proved by ancient testimony. (See Aelian.
It is related in the 5th and 6th verses that Sam- Animal, v. 3; Cyril iin yes. v. 26; Varro, De Re
son, aided by supernatural strength, rent a young Rust. iii. 16; Plin., H. N. ii. 22; Virg., Georg.
lion, that warred against him, as he would have iv. 64.)]
rent a kid, and that'after a time,' as he returned  It may be remarked that in the Sept. version
to take his zife, he turned aside to see the carcase there is an allusion to the bee, immediately after
of the lion,'and, behold, there was a swarm of that of the ant (Prov. vi. 8), which may be thus
bees and honey in the carcase of the lion.' It has rendered' Or go to the bee, and learn how inbeen hastily concluded that this narrative favours dustrious she is, and what a magnificent work she
the mistaken notion of the ancients, possibly produces; whose labours kings and common peoderived from misunderstanding this very account, pie use for their health.  And she is desired and
that bees might be engendered in the dead bodies praised by all. And though weak in strength, yet
of animals (Virgil, Georg. iv.); and ancient au- prizing wisdom, she prevails.' This passage is
thors are quoted to testify to the aversion of bees not now found in any Hebrew copy, and Jerome
to flesh, unpleasant smells, and filthy places. But informs us that it was wanting in his time. Neither
it may readily be perceived that it is not said that is it contained in any other version except the
the bees were bredin the body of the lion. Again, Arabic. It is nevertheless quoted by many anthe frequently recurring phrase,'after a time,' cient writers, as Clem. Alex. Strom. lib. i.; Oriliterally'after days,' introduced into the text, gen, in Nzum. Honz. 27, and in Isai. Honz. 2;
proves that at least sufficient time had elapsed for Basil, Hexameron, Horm. 8; Ambrose, v. 21;
all the flesh of the animal to have been removed Jerome, in Ezek. iii.; Theodoret, De Providentia,
by birds and beasts of prey, ants, etc. The Syriac  Orat. 5; Antiochus, Abbas Sabbme, Homn. 36;
version translates'the bony carcase.' The learned  and John Damascenus, ii. 89. It would seem proBochart remarks that the Hebrew phrase sometimes bable that it was in the copy used by the Greek
signifies a whole year, and in this passage it would translators. The ant and the bee are mentioned toseem likely to have this meaning, because such was gether by many writers because of their similar habits
the length of time which usually elapsed between  of industry and economy.-J. F. D.
espousal and marriage (see ver. 7). He refers to
Gen. iv. 3; xxiv. 55; Lev. xxv. 29, 30; Judg.    DEBORAH      (;liT; Sept. Aeppqpa; Deut.
xi. 4;comp. with ver. 40;  I Sam. i. 3; comp.;
xi. 4; comp. with ver. 40; I Sam. i. 3; co.   i. 44; Judg. xiv. 8; Ps. cxviii. 12; Is. vii. I8).
with vers. 7, 20; and I Sam. ii. I9; and I Sam. I The nurse of Rebekah, whom    she accomxxvii. 7. The circumstance that' honey' was panied to the land of Canaan; she died near
found in the carcase as well as bees, shews that Bethel, and was buried under an oak, which, for
sufficient time had elapsed since their possession of that reason, was thenceforth called Allonbachuth —
it, for all the flesh to be removed. Nor is such'the oak of weeping' (Gen. xxxv. 8). [At the
an abode for bees, probably in the skull or thorax, time of her death Deborah was with Jacob whilst
more unsuitable than a hollow in a rock, or in a on his return from  Padanaram.  This has been
tree, or in the ground, in which we know they variously accounted for by conjecture; some supoften reside, or those clay nests which they build  posing that Rebekah had sent her to fetch Jacob
for themselves in Brazil. Nor is the fact without back, according to her promise (xxvii. 45); others,
parallel.  Herodotus (v. 114) relates that a swarm  that Rebekah being dead, Deborah had returned
of bees took up their abode in the skull of one home, and was now again journeyingback with the
Silius, an ancient invader of Cyprus, which they son of her former mistress; and others, that she met
filled with honeycombs, after the inhabitants had Jacob on his way with tidings of his mother's
suspended it over the gate of their city. A similar death, and that thus a double significancy was
story is told by Aldrovandus (De Insects, lib. I. given to the name assigned to the tree under which
p. I o) of some bees that inhabited and built their  he was buried. This last is supported by Jewish
combs in a human skeleton in a tomb in a churchtradition, and seems the most probable.]
at Verona..'2. A prophetess, wife of Lapidoth. She dwelt,
The phrase in Ps. cxvini. 12,'They compassed  probably, in a tent, under a well-known palm-tree
me about like bees,' will be readily understood bybetween Ramah and Bethel, where she judged.'.. 11   1between Ramah and Bethel, where she judged
those who know the manner in which bees attack  Israel (Judg. iv. 4, 5.) This probably means that
the object of their fury.                     she was the organ of communication between God
The only remaining passage is Is. vii. 18,'The  d his people, and probably on account of the
Lord shall hiss for the fly that is in the uttermost influence and authority of her character, was acparts of the river of Egypt, and for the bee that iscounted in some sort as the head of the nation, to
in the land of Assyria.' [It is commonly supposed whom questions of doubt and difficulty were rethat there is an allusion here to the use of sharp or ferred for decision.  In her triumphal song she
musical sounds to induce bees to hive, and even, as sa
it would appear, to induce them forth of their hives
to the fields, or back from the fields to their hives.'In the days of Shamgar, son of Anath,
Lowth translates the verb by' hist;' and this has  In the days of Jael the ways lay desert,
been understood, in the sense in which we speak of  And high-way travellers went in winding byhisting on a dog, to mean that God would rouse up   paths.
the enemies of Israel, here represented as bees, and  Leaders failed in Israel, they failed,
set them on them to sting and destroy them. The  Until that I Deborah arose,
objection to this is, that the verb piW, which occurs  That I arose, a mother in Israel.'




DEBTOR                    649              DECALOGUE
From the further intimations which that song written on two stone slabs (Exod. xxxi. I8), which,
contains, and from other circumstances, the people having been broken by Moses (xxxii. I9), were rewould appear to have sunk into a state of total dis- newed by God (xxxiv. I, etc.)  They are said
couragement under the oppression of the Canaan- (Deut. ix. Io) to have been written by the finger of
ites, so that it was difficult to rouse them from  God, an expression which always implies an immetheir despondency, and to induce them to make diate act of the Deity. The decalogue is five times
any exertion to burst the fetters of their bondage. alluded to in the N. T., there called'VroX&c, cornFrom  the gratitude which Deborah expresses mandments, but only the latter precepts are specitowards the people for the effort which they finally fically cited, which refer to our duties to each other
made, we are warranted in drawing the conclusion  (Matt. xix. I8, I9, etc.; Mark x. 19-; Luke xviii.
that she had long endeavoured to instigate them  20; Rom. xiii. 9; vii. 7, 8; Matt. v.; I Tim. i.
to this step in vain. At length she summoned 9, Io). Those which refer to God are supposed by
Barak, the son of Abinoam, from Kadesh, a city some to be omitted, from the circumstance of their
of Naphthali, on a mountain not far from Hazor, containing precepts for ceremonial observances
and made known to him the will of God that he (Jeremy Taylor's Life of Christ, and Ductor Dubishould undertake an enterprise for the deliverance tan.; Rosenmiiller's Scholia in Exod.) [LAW].
of his country; but such was his disheartened state  The circumstance of these precepts being called
of feeling, and at the same time such his confidence the ten words has doubtless led to the belief that
in the superior character and authority of Deborah, the two tables contained ten distinct precepts, five
that he assented to go only on the condition that in each table, while some have supposed that they
she would accompany him.  To this she at length were called by this name to denote their perfection,
consented. They then repaired together to Kedesh, ten being considered the most perfect of numbers
and collected there-in the immediate vicinity of [^ EKas'rcavr-eXela... apLOt6bu rdXetov, Philo,
Hazor, the capital of the dominant power-ten De Septen., c. 9]. Philo divides them into two
thousand men, with whom they marched south- pentads, the first pentad ending with Exod. xx. 12,
ward, and encamped on Mount Tabor.   Sisera,'Honour thy father and thy mother,' etc., or the
the general of Jabin, king of Hazor, who was at fifth commandment of the Greek, Reformed, and
the head of the Canaanitish confederacy, immedi- Anglican churches, while the more general opinion
ately collected an army, pursued them, and en- among Christians is that the first table contained
camped in face of them in the great plain of our duty to God, ending with the law to keep the
Esdraelon. Encouraged by Deborah, Barak boldly Sabbath holy, and the second our duty to our
descended from Tabor into the plain with his ten neighbour [Philo, De Decalogo]. As they are not
thousand men to give battle to the far superior numerically divided in the Scriptures, so that we
host of Sisera which was rendered the more formid- cannot positively say which is the first, which the
able to the Israelites by nine hundred chariots of second, etc., it may not prove uninteresting to the
iron.  The Canaanites were beaten, and Barak  student in biblical literature if we here give a brief
pursued them northward to Harosheth.  Sisera account of the different modes of dividing them
himself being hotly pursued, alighted from his which have prevailed among Jews and Christians.
chariot, and escaped on foot to the tent of Heber These may be classed as the Talmudical, the
the Kenite, by whose wife he was slain. This Origenian, and the two Masoretic divisions.
great victory (dated about B.C. I296), which seems  I. The Talmudical (Makkoth, xxiv. a). Accordto have been followed up, broke the power of the ing to this division, which is also that of the modern
native princes, and secured to the Israelites a re-Jews, the first commandment consists of the words
pose of forty years' duration. During part of this' I am the Lord thy God, who brought thee out of
time Deborah probably continued to exercise her the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage'
former authority, but nothing more of her history (Exod. xx. 2; Deut. v. 6); the second (Exod. xx.
is known.                                    3), Thou shalt have none other Gods beside me;
The song of triumph which was composed in thou shalt not make to thyself any graven image,'
consequence of the great victory over Sisera, is said etc., to ver. 6; the third,'Thou shalt not take
to have been'sung by Deborah and Barak.' It is God's name in vain,' etc.; the fourth,'Remember
usually regarded as the composition of Deborah, to keep holy the Sabbath-day,' etc.; the fifth,
and was probably indited by her to be sung on the' Honour thy father and thy mother,' etc.; the
return of Barak and his warriors from the pursuit. sixth,'Thou shalt not kill;' the seventh,' Thou
Of this peculiarly fine specimen of the earlier shalt not commit adultery;' the eighth,'Thou
Hebrew poetry there is an excellent translation by shalt not steal;' the ninth,'Thou shalt not bear.
Dr. Robinson in the Ist vol. of the American Bibli- false witness,' etc.; and the tenth,'Thou shalt
cal Repository, from the introductory matter to not covet,' etc., to the end. This division is also
which this notice of Deborah is chiefly taken.- supported by the Targum of the Pseudo-Jonathan,
J. K.                                        a work of the sixth century, by Aben Esra, in his
[3. The mother of Tobiel, the father of Tobit, Commentary, and by Maimonides (SepherHamziza woman of Naphthali (Tob. i. 8). In the A. V. voth). It has been also maintained by the learned
this name is spelt Debora.]                  Lutheran Peter Martyr (Loci Communes, Basle,
D580, loc. I4, p. 684). That this was a very early
DEBTOR. [LOAN.]                            mode of dividing the decalogue is further evident
RDECAL~OnGUE p (n-F nj jC-Oj  Sept.; oel ieK  from a passage in Cyril of Alexandria's treatise
DECALOGUE  (;  Sept. o-  V  Ca against Julian, from whom he quotes the following
X6oyot and rT, 8Ka )jthara; Vulg. decem verba, the invective:-' That decalogue, the law of Moses,
ten words. Exod. xxxiv. 28; Deut. iv. 13; x. 4). is a wonderful thing, thou shalt not steal, thou
This is the name most usually given by the Greek shalt not kill, thou shalt not bear false witness; but
Fathers to the law of the two tables, given by God let each of the precepts which he asserts to have
to Moses on Mount Sinai.  The decalogue was been given by God himself be written cown in the




DECALOGUE                    650               DECALOGUE
identical words,'I am the Lord thy God who   effect in his Commentary on Ephesians.  (Ambrought thee out of the land of Egypt;' the second brosii, Opera, vol. ii. Paris edition; Append. pp.
follows,'Thou shalt have no strange gods beside 248, 249.)
me; thou shalt not make to thyself an idol.' He  To these testimonies from the fathers may be
adds the reason,'for I, the Lord thy God, am a added that of Clemens Alexandrinus (Stromzata, vi.
jealous God, visiting the sins of the fathers upon  p. 809); but this writer is so confused and contrathe children.''Thou shalt not take the name of dictory in reference to the subject, that some have
the Lord thy God in vain. Remember the Sab- supposed the text to have been corrupted.
bath day. Honour thy father and thy mother.     But the strongest evidence in favour of the
Thou shalt not commit adultery.  Thou shalt not Origenian division is that of the learned Jews
steal. Thou shalt not bear false witness. Thou  Philo and Josephus, who speak of it as the reshalt not covet thy neighbour's goods.' What ceived division of the Jewish Church. Philo, after
nation is there, by the gods, if you take away these mentioning the division into two pentads already
two,'Thou shalt not adore other gods,' and' Re- referred to, proceeds:-' The first pentad is of
member the Sabbath,' which does not think all the a higher character than the second; it treats of
others are to be kept, and which does not punish the monarchy whereby the whole world is gomore or less severely those who violate them?'  verned, of statues and images ({odvwv Kal &yaX2. The next division is the Origenian, or that  dci-rwv), and of all corrupt representations in geneapproved by Origen, and is that in use in the Greek  ral (adLtapvAidrov); of not taking the name of God
and in all the Reformed Churches, except the in vain; of the religious observance of the seventh
Lutheran.                                     day as a day of holy rest; of honouring both
Although Origen was acquainted with the differ- parents. So that one table begins with God the
ing opinions which existed in his time in regard to father and ruler of all things, and ends with
this subject, it is evident from his own words that parents who emulate him in perpetuating the huhe knew nothing of that division by which the man race. But the other pentad contains those
number ten is completed, by making the prohibi- commandments which forbid adultery, murder,
tion against coveting either the house or the wife a theft, false-witness, concupiscence' (De Decalogo,
distinct commandment. In his eighth Homily on  lib. i.) The first precept, he afterwards observes,
Genesis, after citing the words'I am the Lord thy  enjoins the belief and reverent worship of one
God, who brought thee out of the land of Egypt,' supreme God, in opposition to those who worship
he adds,'this is not a part of the commandment.' the sun and moon, etc. And after condemning
The first commandment is'Thou shalt have no  the arts of sculpture and painting, as taking off
other Gods but me,' and then follows'Thou shalt the mind from admiring the natural beauty of the
not make an idol.' These together are thought by  universe, he adds:'As I have said a good deal
some to make one commandment, but in this case of the second commandment, I shall now proceed
the number ten will not be complete —where then  to the next,'Thou shalt not take the name of God
will be the truth of the decalogue? But if it be in vain.'.... The fourth commandment redivided as we have done in the last sentence, the spects the sabbath day, to be devoted to rest, the
full number will be evident.  The first command- study of wisdom, and the contemplation of nature,
ment therefore is,'Thou shalt have no other Gods with a revision of our lives during the past week,
but me,' and the second,' Thou shalt not make to in order to the correction of our transgressions:
thyself an idol, nor a likeness,' etc. Origen pro- the fifth speaks of honouring parents. Here ends
ceeds to make a distinction between gods, idols, the first, or more divine pentad. The second
and likenesses. Of gods, he says,'It is written  pentad begins with the precept respecting adulthere are gods many and lords many' (I Cor. viii. tery; its second precept is against murder; its
5),; but of idols,'an idol is nothing;' an image, third against stealing, the next against false-withe says, of a quadruped, serpent, or bird, in metal, ness, the last against coveting' (lib. ii.) This
wood, or stone, set up to be worshipped is not an  division seems to have been followed by Irenseus:
idol, but a likeness. A picture made with the same'In quinque libris, etc., unaquaeque tabula quam
view.comes under the same denomination. But an  accepit a Deo proecepta habet quinque.' And
idol is a representation of what does not exist, such Josephus is, if possible, still more clear than Philo.
as the figure of a man with two faces, or with the'The first commandment teaches us that there is
head of a dog, etc. The likeness must be of but one God, and that we ought to worship him
something exisiting in heaven, or in earth, or in the only; the second commands us not to make the
water. It is not easy to decide on the meaning of image of any living creature, to worship it; the'things in heaven,' unless it refers to the sun, moon, third, that we must not swear by God in a false
or stars. The design of Moses he conceives to have matter; the fourth, that we must keep the seventh
been to forbid Egyptian idolatry, such as that of day, by resting from all sorts of work; the fifth,
Hecate or other fancied demons.-Opera, vol. ii. that we must honour out parents; the sixth, that
p. I56, De la Rue's ed.                       we must abstain from murder; the seventh, that
The Pseudo-Atlanasius, or the author of the we must not commit adultery; the eighth, that we
Synopsis Scripture, who is the oracle of the Greek  must not be guilty of theft; the ninth, that we
church, divides the commandments in the same must not bear false-witness; the tenth, that we
manner. (Athanasii, Opera, fol. Paris, 698.)  must not admit the desire of that which is
Gregory Nazianzen, in one of his poems, in- another's' (Antiq. iii. 5. 5, Whiston's translation).
scribed'The Decalogue of Moses,' adopts the    This division, which appears to have been forsame division. (Opera, ed. Caillaud, Paris, 1840). gotten in the Western Church, was revived by
Jerome took the same view with Origen; see Calvin in I536, and is also received by that sechis Cozmmentary on Ephesians vi. (Hieronymi, tion of the Lutherans who followed Bucer, called
Opera, vol. iv. Paris, I693.)                 the Tetrapolitans. It is adopted by Calmet (DicThe Pseudo-Ambrose also writes to the same tionary of the Bible, French ed., art. Loi.) It is




DECALOGUE                    651               DECALOGUE
supported by Zonaras, Nicephorus, and Petrus tomed to give the decalogue very generally in an
Mogislaus among the Greeks, and is that followed  abridged form; thus the first commandment in the
in the present Russian Church, as well as by the Lutheran shorter catechism is simply,' Thou shalt
Greeks in general (see the catechism published by have no other gods but me;' the second,'Thou
order of Peter the Great, by Archbishop Resen- shalt not take the name of thy God in vain;' the
sky, London, I753). It is at the same time main- third,'Thou shalt sanctify the sabbath day' (Feyertained in this catechism that it is not forbidden to tag). A similar practice is followed by the Roman
bow before the representations of the saints. This Catholics, although they, as well as the Lutherans,
division, which appeared in the Bishops' Book in in their larger catechisms (as the Douay) give them
I537, was adopted by the Anglican Church at the at full length. This practice has given rise to the
Reformation (I548), substituting seventh for sab- charge made against those denominations of leavbath day in her formularies. The same division ing out the second commandment, whereas it
was published with approbation by Bonar in his would have been more correct to say that they
Homilies in 1555.                              had mutilated the first, or at least that the form
3. We shall next proceed to describe the to in which they give it has the effect of concealing a
iMasoretic divisions. The first is that in Exodus. most important part of it from such as had only
We call it the Masoretic division, inasmuch as the access to their shorter catechisms.
commandments in the greater number of manu-      The last division is the second Masoretic, or that
scripts and printed editions are separated by a n or of Deuteronomy, sometimes called the AugusD, which mark the divisions between the smaller tinian. This division differs from the former simply
sections in the Hebrew. According to this ar- in placing the precept'Thou shalt not covet thy
rangement, the two first commandments (accord- neighbour's wife' before'Thou shalt not covet
ing to the Origenian or Greek division), that is, thy neighbour's house,' etc.; and for this transthe commandment concerning the worship of one position it has the authority of Deut. v. 21. The
God, and that concerning images, make but one; authority of the Masorites cannot, however, be ot
the second is,'Thou shalt not take the name of sufficient force to supersede the earlier traditions
the Lord thy God in vain,' and so on until we of Philo and Josephus.
arrive at the two last, the former of which is,  This division was that approved by Augustin,'Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's house,' and who thus expresses himself on the subject-'To me
the last or tenth,'Thou shalt not covet thy neigh- it seems more congruous to divide them into three
hour's wife, nor his servant,' etc., to the end. and seven, inasmuch as to those who diligently
This was the division approved by Luther, and it look into the matteri those which appertain to
has been ever since his time received by the Lu- God seem to insinuate the Trinity. And, indeed,
theran Church. The correctness of this division the command,'Thou shalt have no other gods
has been at all times maintained by the most but me' is more perfectly explained when images
learned Lutherans, not only from its agreement are forbidden to be worshipped. Besides, the sin
with the Hebrew Bibles, but from  the internal of coveting another man's wife differs so much
structure of the commandments, especially from  from coveting his house, that to the house was
the fact of the two first commandments (according joined his field, his servant, his maid, his ox, his
to Origen's division) forming but one subject. If ass, his cattle, and all that is his. But it seems to
these form but one commandment, the necessity divide the coveting of the house from the coveting
of dividing the precept,'thou shalt not covet,' of the wife, when each begins thus:'thtozj s/halt not
etc., into two is obvious. (For a learned defence covet thy neighbour's wife, thou shalt not covet thy
of this division, see Pfeiffer, Operca, vol. i. loc. 96, neighbour's house,' to which it then begins to add
p. I25). Pfeiffer considers the accentuation also the rest. For, when he had said,'thou shalt not
of the Hebrew as equally decisive in favour of this covet thy neighbour's wife, he did not add the rest
division, notwithstanding the opposite view is taken  to this, saying, nor his house, nor his field, nor his
by many others, including the learned Buxtorf. servant, etc., but these seem plainly to be united,
This division is also followed in the Trent cate- which appear to be contained in one precept, and
chism, and may therefore be called the Roman   distinct from that wherein the wife is named. But
Catholic division.  The churches of this com- when it is said,'thou shalt have no other gods
munion have not, however, been consistent in fol- but me,' there appears a more diligent following
lowing uniformly the Tridentine division, having up of this in what is subjoined. For to what perrevived, as in this country, the second Masoretic tains,'thou shalt not make an idol, nor a likedivision, to which we shall presently allude. In  ness; thou shalt not adore nor serve them,' unless
the Trent catechism the first commandment is, to that which had been said,' thou shalt have none'Ego sum Dominus Deus tuus, qui eduxi:te de other gods but me.' The division of Augustin
terra _.Egypti, de domo servitutis; non: habebis was followed by Bede and Peter Lombard.
Deos alienos coram me.   Non facies tibi sculp-  The learned Sonntag has entirely followed Autile,' etc.'Ego sum Dominus Deus tuus, fortis, gustin's view of this subject, and has written a
zelotes,' etc., to'proecepta mea.' The two last dissertation in vindication of this division in the
commandments (according to the Roman division)  Theologische Studien zendKrEritiken, Hamburg, I836are, however, in the same catechism, combined in 37; to which there has been a reply in the same
one, thus:'Non concupisces domum proximi tui; miscellany from Ziillig, in vindication of what he
nec desiderabis uxorem  ejus, non servum, non terms the Calvinistic division, or that of Origen,
ancillam, non bovem, non asinum, nec omnia que which is followed by a rejoinder from Sonntag.
illius sunt. In his duobus proeceptis,' etc. It had  Sonntag is so convinced of the necessity of that
appeared in the same form in England, in Mar- order of the words, according to which the preshall's and Bishop Hilsey's Primlers, I534, and cept against coveting the wife precedes (as in
1539.                                         Deuteronomy) that against coveting the house,
Those who follow this division have been accus- etc., that he puts down the order of the words Ai




DECAPOLIS                    652               DECAPOLIS
Exodus as an oversight. The order in the Sep- And he departed, and began to publish in Decatuagint version in Exodus agrees with that in Deu- polis how great things Jesus had done for him.'
teronomy.  The Greek church follows this order.  Another incidental reference by Mark has occaSonntag conceives that the Mosaic division of the sioned some difficulty regarding the situation of
decalogue was lost in the period between the exile Decapolis, and given rise to views at variance with
and the birth of Christ.-W. W.                 the statements of Pliny, Josephus, and Eusebius.
It is said of Jesus that'departing from the coasts
DECAPOLIS (AeKctdoXts).     A district lying of Tyre and Sidon, he came unto the Sea of Galichiefly on the east side of the Upper Jordan and lee, through the midst of the coasts of Decapolis'
the Sea of Tiberias, but also including a small (Mark vii. 3I). From this it has been supposed
portion of southern Galilee around Scythopolis. that a large part of Decapolis must have lain on
It received its name, as Pliny says, from the num- the west of the Jordan, and between Tyre and
ber of leading cities it contained (e6ca,' ten'); Tiberias.  Brocardus, a writer of the I3th cenbut why these cities should have been grouped to- tury, describes it as follows:-' Regionis Decapogether has not been definitely explained by any leos fines sunt mare Galilkene ab oriente, et Sidon
ancient writer.  The name Decapolis does. not magna ab occidente, et haec est latitudo ejus. In
appear to be older than the Roman conquest of longitudine vero incipit a civitate Tyberiadis, et
Syria; and probably these cities were endowed vergit per littus maris aquilonare usque ad Damaswith peculiar privileges by the Roman Senate, cum. Dicitur autem Decapolis a decem principaand permitted to elect their own rulers, and ad- libus ejus civitatibus, quarum nomina sunt haec,
minister their own laws. Lightfoot states, mainly Tyberias, Sephet, Cedes Nephtalim, Assor, Coeon the authority of Jewish Rabbins, that their sarea Philippi, Capernaum, Jonitera, Bethsaida,
principal inhabitants were Gentiles, and that they  Corazaim, et Bethsan' (Brocardi Monachi Descripwere not subject to the Jewish taxes (Joseph. tio Terre Sancto, in Le Clerc's edition of EuseVita, lxxiv. 2; Lightfoot, Opp. ii. 417, sq.) The bius' Onomasticon, p. I75).  Adrichomius gives
boundaries of Decapolis cannot now   be fixed an account substantially the same (Theatrum Terwith any approach to accuracy; indeed it is ques- re Sanctce).  But there is no authority for these
tionable whether as a province it ever had any theories. They appear to be pure suppositions,
fixed boundaries. The name seems to have been  invented to escape an apparent difficulty (See
applied indefinitely to a wide region surrounding  Lightfoot, Opp. ii. 417, sq.) In reality, however,'ten cities;' and ancient geographers do not even  there is no difficulty in the case. In Mark vii. 3 
agree as to what cities these were. Perhaps we the best MSS. read CeeXkcQv &K rwv obplcv Tpou
may account for this by supposing that the name iXOev 1&, MZi&Svos els rirv OdcXaao-av rTS PaXiXatas,
was originally applied to only ten cities, but in  cv'& iLdov K.r. X.; instead of eteXOCv &K TWv bpiwv
the course of time others had conferred upon   Tdpov Ka i 2'&'vos XOe 7rpbs ri'v OaXaoArav K.r.X.;
them  the same privileges, and were therefore  and this reading is now adopted by all critics of
called by the same name. Pliny, while admit- eminence. The reading of the Textus Receptus
ting that'non omnes eadem   observant,' gives was probably invented to avoid the unlikelihood
them  as follows:-Damascus, Philadelphia, Ra- of the long detour && ZLS&ioos. Our Lord traphane, Scythopolis, Gadara, Hippo, Dion, Pella, velled from Tyre northward to Sidon; then he
Galasa (Gerasa), and Canatha; he adds,'The    appears to have crossed Lebanon by the great
tetrarchies lie between and around these cities...  road to Coesarea Philippi; and from  thence he
namely, Trachonitis, Panias, Abila, etc. (Hist. descended through Decapolis to the eastern shore
Nat. v. I6). These cities are scattered over a of the lake, where he fed the multitude (cf. Matt.
very wide region. If Raphane be, as many sup- xv. 29-38; and Mark viii. I-9). This view brings
pose, the same as Raphanaea of Josephus, it lay  out the full meaning of the sacred text, and is in
near Hamath (Joseph. Bell..t/d. vii. 5. I); and  entire accordance with the geography of the
from thence to Philadelphia on the south is above country.
two hundred miles; and from Scythopolis on the   It thus appears that'the region of Decapolis'
west to Canatha on the east is about sixty. Jo- lay east of the Jordan, with the exception of the
sephus does not enumerate the cities of Decapolis; little territory of Scythopolis close to the western
but it would seem that he excludes Damascus bank, at the southern end of the Sea of Galilee.
from the number, since he calls Scythopolis the  In addition to Damascus and Scythopolis, whose
largest of them (Bell. yud. iii. 9. 7). Cellarius sites are well known, its chief towns were-Gadara,
thinks Czesarea Philippi and Gergasa ought to be about six miles south-east of the lake; Pella, on
substituted in Pliny's list for Damascus and Ra- the side of the range of Gilead, opposite Scythophane. Pliny is undoubtedly the only author who  polis; Philadelphia, the ancient Rabboth-Amextends Decapolis so far north. Ptolemy appears mon; Gerasa, whose ruins are the most magnifito include Decapolis in the southern part of cent in all Palestine; and Canatha, the Kenath of
Coelesyria (Geogr. v. I5); and with this agree the the Bible, situated eastward among the mountains
statements of Eusebius and Jerome. The former of Bashan. Decapolis was not strictly a province
says -  lUrl e'o-rlv X &7rl Hepaci KtcLYev afid t rv like Galilee, Peroea, or Trachonitis. It was rather
"Ir7rov Kal II XXav Kal Pra&pav-thus placing the an assemblage of little principalities, classed toDecapolis chiefly, if not wholly, east of Jordan  gether, not because of their geographical position,
(Onomast. s.v.) An incidental notice in Mark v. but because they enjoyed the same privileges,
20 confirms this view. When our Lord cured the somewhat after the manner of the Hanse Towns
man possessed with devils at Gadara, on the east- in Germany. At least six of the great cities of
ern coast of the sea of Tiberias, he would not the Decapolis are now ruined and desolate; and
permit him to accompany him across the lake, the others, with the single exception of Damascus,
but said,' Go home to thy fiiends, and tell them  are represented by poor miserable villages.how great things the Lord hath done for thee. J. L. P.




DEDAN                     653     DEDICATION, FEAST OF THE
DEDAN (1l1t; Sept. AcaLav). Two persons of worship, after the three years' profanation by Anthis name are mentioned in Scripture; I. The sontiochus Epiphanes, the record of which is given in
of Raamah, the son of Cush (Gen. x. 7); 2. The  Maccab. iv. 52-59. The Jews to thepresent
second son of Jokshan, Abraham's son by Keturah  day call this feast simply men1 Chanuca = dedica(Gen. xxv. 3).  Both were founders of tribes,                    ch SJohn c     d it (- 
afterwards repeatedly named in Scripture; and     the name by  hi   St. John called it ( yGesenius, Winer, and others, are of opinion that KcWat, x. 22), and which is also retained in the
these were not really different tribes, but the same Vulgate, i.e., Encarnia.  In I Maccab. iv. 56 and
tribe derived, according to different traditions, from  59, however, it is also called o eivKaLvtou6s TO
different progenitors. It seems better, however,  vtar pov, the dedication of the altar, because the
to adhere to the usual view, by which they are dis-old and profaned altar was pulled down and a new
tinguished from each otherone built and dedicated to the Lord.
tinguished from each other.
Of the descendants of the Cushite Dedan, very  The mode in which this festival was and still is
little is known. It is supposed that they settled  celebrated.-During the eight days of festivity, the
in southern Arabia, near the Persian Gulf; but Jews assembled in the Temple or in the synathe existence in this quarter of a place called  gogues of the places wherein they resided (Rosh
Dadan or Dadena, is the chief ground for this Ha-Shana, 18. 2), carrying branches of trees and
conclusion.                                   palms in their hands, and sang psalms to the God
The descendants of the Abrahamite Jokshan   of their salvation. No fast or mourning on acseem to have lived in the neighbourhood of Idu- count of any calamity or bereavement was permoea; for the prophet Jeremiah (xlix. 8) calls on mitted to commence during the festival (Mishna,
them to consult their safety, because the calamity Thaanith, ii. 10; Moed Katon, iii. 9); the temple
of the sons of Esau, i. e., the IdumGeans, was at and all private houses were lighted up within and
hand. The same prophet (xxv. 23) connects them  without by lanterns and torches every evening
with Thema and Buz, two other tribes of Arabia during the eight days, in token of this joy (I
Petrea, or Arabia Deserta, as does Ezekiel (xxv. Maccab. iv. 52-59; 2 Maccab. x. 6, etc.; Mishna,
I3) with Theman, a district of Edom. It is not Baba Kama, v. 6), for which reasons Josephus
always clear when the name occurs which of thealso calls it c ra, Xv^v opaIcace-L, the Feast of
two Dedans is intended; but it is probably the Lghts (comp. Antiq. xii. 7. 7, with   Cont.
Cushite tribe, which is described as addicted to Apion. ii. 39). When Mr. Clark remarks that
commerce, or rather, perhaps, engaged in the' neither the books of Maccabees, the Mishna, nor
carrying-trade.  Its'travelling companies,' or Josephus, mention this custom' (Smith's Dictionary
caravans, are mentioned by Isaiah (xxi. 13); in of the Bible, s. v.), we can only express our surEzekiel (xxvii. 20), the Dedanites are described as pise, and refer to the passages here cited. Maisupplying the markets of Tyre with flowing riding- monides, in discoursing upon this subject, distinctly
cloths: and elsewhere (xxxviii. 13) the same pro-  dcares that'the lighting up of the lamps is a
phet names them  along with the merchants of commandment from the scribes.' The injunction
Tarshish.-J. K.                               respecting the lighting of these lamps, which the
Jews observe to the present day, cannot be given
DEDICATION, a religious ceremony, whereby better than in the words of Maimonides.' The
anything is dedicated or consecrated to the service order is,' says he,'that every house should light
of God; and it appears to have originated in the one light, whether the inmates thereof be many or
desire to commence, with peculiar solemnity, the only one. He, however, who honours the inpractical use and application of whatever had been junction has as many lights as there are inmates in
set apart to the divine service. Thus Moses dedi- the house, he has a light for every man and
cated the Tabernacle in the Wilderness (Exod. xl.; woman. And he who respects it still more adds a
Num. vii.); Solomon his temple (I Kings viii.); light for every individual every night, so that if a
the returned exiles theirs (Ez. vi. I6, 17); Herod  house wherein are ten inmates began with ten
his (Joseph. Antiq. xv. II. 6). The Maccabees lights, it would end with eighty' (Mishna 7Thora
having cleansed the temple from  its pollutions Hilchoth Megilla Ve-Chanuca, sec. iv. p. 326, b).
under Antiochus Epiphanes, again dedicated the These lamps must be lighted immediately after
altar (I Maccab. iv. 52-59), and an annual festival sunset by the head of the family, who pronounces
was established in commemoration of the event the three following benedictions:-I.'Blessed art
(See next art.)                               thou, Lord our God, King of the world, who hast
Not only were sacred places thus dedicated; but sanctified us with thy commandments, and ensome kind of dedicatory solemnity was observed joined upon us to light the lamps of the Feast of
with respect to cities, walls, gates, and even pri- the Dedication.' 2.'Blessed art thou, Lord our
vate houses (Deut. xx. 5; Ps. xxx. title; Neh. God, King of the world, who hast done wonders
xii. 27). We may trace the continuance of these for our forefathers in those days about this time;'
usages in the custom of consecrating or dedicating  and 3.' Blessed art thou, Lord our God, King of
churches and chapels; and in the ceremonies con- the world, who hast preserved us in life and health,
nected with the'opening' of roads, markets, and hast permitted us to see this day!' The third
bridges, etc., and with the launching of ships.-  benediction, however, is only pronounced on the
J. K.                                         first day of this festival. The practice of illumination in connection with this festival is, as we have
DEDICATION, FEAST OF THE. This festival seen, of very old date, and was most probably
was instituted by Judas Maccaboeus, B.C. 164, to suggested by the fact that'the lamps which were
be celebrated annually by all the Jews for eight upon the candlestick' were lighted by the people
days, commencing on the 25th of Chislev =parts at the restoration of the temple service (I Maccab.
of November and December, in commemoration    iv. 50, 51), as well as by the natural feeling existof the purification of the Temple and the temple ing among most nations to have illuminations on




DEDICATION, FEAST OF THE              654                DELILAH
occasions of great joy. The Egyptians also had Bartolocci, Bibliotheca Magna, i. 382, etc.; Mida similar festival (comp. Herod. ii. 62). Midrash- rash Le-Chanuca, and Midrash Achar Le-Chanuim of very great antiquity, however, give another ca, published by Dr. Adolph Jellinek in Beth
reason for this custom of lighting lamps. They Ha-Midrash, Leipzig, 1853, i. p. 132, etc. This
tell us that'when the Maccabees went into the volume also contains (p. 142, etc.) a reprint of
temple after vanquishing the enemy, and wanted Megillath Antiochus. See also the volumes quoted
to light the candlestick, they could not find any in this article.-C. D. G.
oil, except one vial, and it was sealed with the
ring of the high-priest, which assured them that it DEE. [A
was not polluted, but it was just enough to light  DEER. [JACHMUR.]
one day. Whereupon God, whose glory dwelleth
in the heavens, blessed it, so that they were able  DEFILEMENT. [POLLUTION.]
to feed the lamps therewith for eight days. Where-  DEGREES, PSALMS OF. [PSALMS.]
fore the Maccabees and all the people, like one
man, have ordained that these eight days should  DEHAVITES (N1.i; Sept. Aavaot). One of
henceforth be days of joy and rejoicing, like the the tribes which Asnapper, the Persian king or
festivals ordained in the law, and that lamps should tra  brought from the east, and estabshed as
be lighted on those days, to make known the colonists in the cities of Samaria (Ezra, iv. 9).
wondrous works which the God of the heavens The name is supposed to be derived from the
hath wrought for them' (Megillath Antiochus, p.
145, ed. Jellinek; Talmud, Sabbath, 21, ). Now, Persian  l,'a village;' Dehavites will therewhatever we may think about the embellishments
of this story, it is not at all unlikely that a vial of fore be equivalent to the Lati'Rustici.' The
oil was actually discovered in the temple just at a are mentioned by Herodotus as one of the four
time when it was most wanted, and that this is one great nomad tribes of Persia; he calls the  o
of the reasons why the lighting of lamps has been  (i. 125). They were powerful and warlike, origiinstituted.                                  nally inhabiting the high plains and mountains east
At every morning prayer during the whole of of the Caspian sea, and north of Bactriana, but
At every morning prayer during the whole of
this festival, a portion of the 7th ch. of Numbers is subsequently scattered through various countries
read in the synagogue by the prelector, in accord- (trabo, xi PP 352, 355, ed. Casaub. 1587).
ance with a very old custom (Mishna, Megilla, iii. Their love of war and plunder induced them to
6); thus, on.the first day Num. vii. I-I7 is read serve as mercenaries under various princes (Arrian,
6); thus, on -the first day Num iI17sredi.II;.      12); and their valour has immortalised
after the regular lesson of the Pentateuch, if it is a ii.; v. 2); and their valur has immortalised
Sabbath, and the Haftorah, or the portion from  them in the pages of Virgil, as' indomiti Dahe'
Sabbath, and the Haftorah, or the portion from  (n. viii. 728)  A band of them had doubtless
the Prophets, is Zech. ii.; on the second, Num. (n. e. 728). A    of the Persian mo h dou l
vii. I8-23 is read, beginning with'On the second entered the service of the Persian monarch, folday,' etc., and the same Haftorah; on the third lowed him to Palestine, and received for their
day, Num. vii. 24-29, and the same Haftorah, and  wad grants of land in Samaria (Stephanus
so on. Connected with this festival is the celebra-Byznt, s. v.; Ritter, Erdkunde, I. 668; Rawlintion of the exploits performed by Judith upon      erodotus i. 425).   L. P
Holophernes, because, as some suppose, she was  DEKAR, prop. DEQER ('I; Sept. AaKap),
of the stock of the Maccabees [JUDITH]. Hence              "               n
some of the Midrashim which give the history ofthe father ofone of olomons officers who proJudas Maccabaeus mix up with it the history of vided victual for his household, and whose province
Judith. The Karaites do not observe this festival lay in the western part of the hill country of Judah
because it is an uninspired ordinance. There are (I Kings iv. 9).-t.
four other dedications of the temple recorded. DELAIAH (n4, more fully      = 7ak is
I. The dedication of the Solomonic Temple                 TT:             TT 
(I Kings viii.), which took place in the seventh deliverer (Fiirst), or whom Jehovah hath freed (Gemonth, or in the autumn.                     sen.); Sept. AaXaca, AatXaas). Five persons of
2. The dedication at the time of Hezekiah, when this name are mentioned in Scripture:-I. One of
the temple was purified from  the abominations the sons of Elioenei, of the seed of David (I Chron.
which his father Ahaz introduced into it (2 Chron. iii. 24, A. V. Dalaiah). 2. A priest, the leader
xxix.)                                       of the twenty-third course of priests in the time of
3. The dedication of Zerubbabel's Temple, built David (I Chron. xxiv. I8, Sept. Vat.'AaXXal).
after the captivity (Ezra vi. I6), which took place 3. The son of Shemaiah, one of'the princes' or
in the month Adar, in the spring. And        officers of state in the court of Jehoiakim (Jer.
4. The dedication of Herod's Temple (Joseph. xxxvi. I2, 25). 4. The son of Mehetabeel, and
Antiq. xv. 2. b).  Some of the Fathers have father of Shemaiah, associated with Nehemiah in
therefore thought that Jesus is said to have gone to the rebuilding of Jerusalem (Neh. vi. Io). 5. The
the celebration commemorative of the dedication head of'the children of Delaiah' who returned
of Solomon's Temple or of Zerubbabel's. The with Zerubbabel from Babylon (Ez. ii. 6o; Neh.
fact, however, that there was no annual Jfstival to vii. 62).-W. L. A.
commemorate these dedications, and that the Evan-  DE LAH            uchess, unhaL.py, or,
gelist St. John distinctly says that it was in the  DELILAH  (ckess,          nhay, or,
winter, establishes it beyond doubt that our Lord like  languishing, lustful; Sept. ALXLOCL),
went to the Feast of the Dedication instituted by 
Judas Maccabaeus.                            a courtezan, whose residence was in the vale of
LITERATURE. Maimonides, Mishna Thora or Sorek, by whom Samson was inveigled into reveal7ad fa-Chazaca; Hilchoth Megilla Ve-Chanuca, ing the secret of his strength, and the means by
sections 3'and 4; Megillath Antiochus, printed in which,he might be overcome. To this she was




DELUGE                    655                DELUGE
bribed by the lords of the Philistines, who gave The narrative in the Book of Genesis then goes on
her each the large sum of IIoo pieces of silver with to shew how the waters gradually abated until, in
this view. She was probably a Philistine; and the seventh month, the ark rested upon the mounone who used her personal charms for political tains of Ararat, and at last, within a few days of a
ends (Joseph. Antiq. v. 8. II). Milton, in his year from the time when the deluge began, the
Samson Agonistes, following the opinion of several land was once more dry, and Noah descended from
of the Fathers, represents her as Samson's wife; the ark, bringing with him the various creatures
but this is on many grounds improbable. For one that had been his companions on the deep. The
thing, as Patrick remarks (in loc.), she could hardly command once again came forth to all flesh,'Be
have secreted soldiers in the house had it belonged fruitful and multiply upon the earth;' a new and
to Samson, and been under the charge of his ser- everlasting covenant was established by God with
vants. [SAMSON.]-W. L. A.                   the earth which He had made, and in all future
ages, so long as sun and moon should endure, the
DELUGE.. The sacred historian informs us rainbow in the clouds was to stand as at once a
that in the ninth generation from Adam, when the memorial of the Lord's vengeance upon sin, and a
race of man had greatly multiplied on the face of pledge that he would no more destroy the world
the earth, wickedness of every kind had fearfully by a flood of waters.
increased, that every imagination of the thoughts of  The memory of this great catastrophe has been
the human heart was only evil continually, that the preserved among many nations, both in the old and
earth was filled with violence, and that to such a the new world. The details of the story vary indegree of depravity had the whole race come, that deed in different countries, and have commonly.'it repented the Lord that he had made man on more or less of a local colouring. Such a circumthe earth, and it grieved him at his heart.' We stance, however, is only what might have been
are further told, in graphic and impressive lan- looked for, and affords no real ground for the beguage, that the Creator determined to purge the lief that there must have been many local deluges
earth from the presence of the creature whom He to which alone these somewhat discordant tradihad made.' I will destroy man whom I have tions can refer. One primitive story could not fail
created from the face of the earth; both man and to receive many additions and alterations as it
beast, and the creeping thing, and the fowls of the passed into different climates, and was handed
air; for it repenteth me that I have made them.'  down from generation to generation by men who
In the midst of a world of crime and guilt there had lost all memory of the original locality of the
was however one household, that of Noah, in event. The best known of all the traditions next
which the fear of God still remained.'Noah was to the narrative of the Bible, is the old Greek
a just man and perfect in his generations, and legend of Deucalion and Pyrrha. According to
walked with God. And Noah found grace in the this version, mankind, for their impiety, were
eyes of the Lord.' He was commanded to make doomed to destruction. The waters accordingly
an ark of gopher wood, three hundred cubits long, broke from the earth accompanied by violent rains
fifty broad, and thirty high. [ARK.] Into this from heaven. In a short time the world was
large vessel he was to collect a pair of'every liv- whelmed in the floods, and every human being
ing thing of all flesh,' fowls, cattle, and creeping perished save Deucalion and his wife, with his sons
things after their kind, along with a suitable and their wives. They escaped in a large vessel,
amount of food. He was to enter it himself, tak- in which they had previously placed pairs of every
ing with him his wife, and his three sons with their kind of animal. While in the ark Deucalion sent
wives, but with no other human company. The forth a dove, which in a little time returned. On
reason of these preparations was made known in being let free a second time, it came not back, or,
the solemn decree-' Behold I, even I, do bring a as another version has it, it alighted again on the
flood of waters upon the earth to destroy all flesh, ark with mud-stained claws, whence Deucalion inwherein is the breath of life, from under heaven; ferred that the subsidence of the waters had
and everything that is in the earth shall die.' The begun.
ark thus commissioned was slowly prepared by  The Hindus have a tradition of the Deluge,
Noah. At length, in the six hundredth year of his which in its details bear a close resemblance to the
age, he finished his task, and after having collected Bible narrative. It represents the god Vishnu as
in the various chambers of his huge vessel speci- visiting a pious prince named Satyavratu, and warnmens of the different tribes of terrestrial animals, ing him to prepare for a great flood that was about
along with a store of their appropriate food, he to destroy the earth. A capacious vessel was
entered himself with his family. Seven days after- miraculously prepared into which the prince enwards' the fountains of the great deep were broken tered, with his sons and their wives, pairs of all
up, and the windows of heaven were opened; and kinds of animals, and an abundant supply of vegethe rain was upon the earth forty days and forty table food.
nights.' The ark floated on the surface of the  The Chinese legend of the Deluge has little in
waters, and the flood increased continually until it common with the Mosaic account, save in the facts
had risen 15 cubits above the highest mountains, that the mountains were all covered and the people'and all the high hills that were under the whole perished.
heaven were covered.' As the necessary result of  The sacred books of the Parsees refer to a flood
this total change of physical conditions, the inhabi- of waters that deluged the earth, and washed away
tants of the land utterly perished;'every living all the wickedness and impurity that had been
substance was destroyed which was upon the face brought about by Ahriman, the Evil One.
of the ground, both man and cattle and the creep-  The version given by Berosus, the Chaldean,
ing things, and the fowl of the heaven, they were records that among the Antediluvians (who were
destroyed from the earth, and Noah only remained all giants) there was but one, named Noa, who
alive, and they that were with him in the ark.' reverenced the gods, and that he, foreseeing a




DELUGE                    656                 DELUGE
deluge, built a large vessel, in which he saved him- That design was plainly not to destroy and reself and his three sons, Sem, Japet, Chem, with model the surface of the earth. Although the
their wives.                                 inferior animals were involved in a like fate with
There is an Assyrian tradition which has also the human race, it was not for their destruction
preserved very faithfully the original details of the that the great catastrophe came. The wickedness
Deluge. According to this version the god Chro- of man had evoked the Divine anger; to sweep
mus appeared to Xithurus, tenth king of Babylon, him and his crimes, therefore, from the face of the
and warned him of a flood that would shortly anni- earth, the fountains of the great deep were broken
hilate mankind. The king built a vessel of huge up, and the windows of heaven were opened.
dimensions, stored it with all things needful for the Hence, we may reasonably infer, that no greater
sustenance of life, together with every variety of devastation would be permitted than was unavoidbird and beast. Into this vessel he entered, tak- able to secure the destruction of the human family.
ing with him his family and friends. The deluge  Against the first opinion there is, accordingly,
began, and the ark floated away until after the this preliminary objection, that either it takes for
episode of the freeing of the birds, and their sub- granted that the whole world was peopled in the
sequent return. The vessel stranded on the moun- days of Noah, or it represents as involved in
tains of Armenia.                            ruin large tracts of land, fair and fertile, though
In the wild Scandinavian Edda the earth is uninhabited by man.   For the first alternative
allegorized as the great giant Ymir, whose bones there is no evidence in Scripture.  Indeed, the
and flesh are represented by the rocks and soil. whole narrative of the preparation of the ark and
This giant was killed by the Gods, and his blood Noah's intercourse with his fellow-men, leads us
(the ocean) poured forth in such a flood that it to infer that the population of the globe at the
drowned all the lesser giants-his offspring-save time was not so extensive but that the warnings
one, who saved himself and his wife by escaping of the patriarch could be everywhere heard and
in time to his ship.                         known. It would have been a vain task if his
In the new world, also, the memory of this single voice had been required to sound in all
great event is still preserved among many of the lands. The second alternative is equally adverse
tribes.  The Indians of Peru, Brazil, and Terra to the opinion of the universality of the deluge, for
Firma retained it. According to Humboldt, it it necessitates our belief in the destruction of large
was still fresh among all the tribes of the Orinoco. portions of the earth's surface where man had
He mentions that the Tamanacs believe that from  never been, and which could not, therefore, have
a great flood which devastated the world, only one become tainted and defiled by sin-a view that is
man and woman escaped by betaking themselves opposed to the known modes of God's dealings
to a lofty mountain, and that the earth was with his creatures. But against the idea of a genepeopled anew from the seeds of a certain tree ral flood over the whole globe simultaneously,
which the two survivors cast behind them. In  many arguments of much greater force may be
Cuba there used to be a legend of an old man who, brought forward. These are derived from a conknowing a deluge was about to overtake mankind, sideration of the laws by which the present
prepared a great ship, into which he entered, economy of nature is regulated. If it be objected
taking with him his family and abundance of to these arguments that the deluge was a miracle,
animals. While the flood continued he sent out a and must, accordingly, be judged apart from the
crow, which delayed its return to feed on the float- operation of law, it is sufficient to reply that,
ing carcases, but afterwards came back with a whether a miracle or not, it was brought about by
green branch. The race which preserved this the ordinary agencies of nature;'the fountains of
tradition has been long extinct.  The Mexicans the deep were broken up;' that is, the land was
held that a deluge destroyed all living things, depressed and the sea rolled over it;'the windows
except a man and his wife, who saved themselves of heaven were opened,' in other words, a conin the hollow trunk of a tree. Some curious stant and heavy rain was sent upon the earth; and
Mexican paintings of this catastrophe still exist. again, when the waters were to be dried off the
The North American Indians say that the father land, a wind was made to blow upon them. In
of all their tribes, with his family, and pairs of all short, from the beginning to the end of the narrathe animals, made his escape on a raft which he tive in Genesis, we meet with no setting aside of
had made in anticipation of a mighty deluge, fore- the laws of nature. Everything is done in strict
told to him in a dream.                      accordance with those laws, as if to teach a truth
Thus we see that the records of this great judg- which is very apt to be forgotten in the present
ment have been preserved by man how far soever day, that what we call the laws of nature is only
he may have wandered from those plains of Ararat the constant mode in which the Creator acts, and
whence the race began its second dispersion. The that by the operation of these laws, directed as he
occurrence of these traditions over all the world, sees fit, he works out his purposes in creation.
however, does not prove that the deluge was uni-  Astronomy, geology, and zoology each furnish
versal; for, of course, we should then have to evidence against the universality of any flood over
believe that there must have been many Noahs. this earth.
But it may indicate that all the tribes of mankind  The astronomical difficulties are indeed insuperhave had a community of origin.              able. Granting, for an instant, that from some
With regard to the extent of the deluge, two unknown source a vast body of water was introopinions have been entertained, one that it was duced on the surface of our planet, we are led to
general over the whole globe; the other, that it ask what would be the result? It can be shewn
was partial, affecting only those regions over which that there was no general collapse of the earth's
the human race had extended. In all inquiries crust, and the water must therefore have risen five
into this subject, it is well to bear in mind the miles above the sea-level, so as to cover the top of
design to be fulfilled by the'flood of waters.' the highest mountain. The effect of this would




DELUGE                    657                 DELUGE
be to increase the equatorial diameter of the earth among rocks at all, but these are only local.
by some ten or twelve miles. The orbit round What is wanting in one place is often made up in
the sun would consequently be altered. The in- another, and though even at the best the record is
fluence of its attraction on the planets would be full of imperfections, the geologist can confidently
increased, and thus the element of disorder would affirm that its whole tenor goes to disprove any
reach to the remotest regions of space. But let universal catastrophe, and to shew that the extincus suppose that a change of this kind was per- tion of successive races of plants and animals has
mitted to extend though the universe, what is the been imperceptibly effected during immensely pronext step in this series of impossible suppositions? tracted periods of time.
After a period of less than a year the waters  Another geological argument has often been adassuage, and the earth is once more as it used to duced as bearing strongly against a general deluge.
be. Here, again, another change must have ex- In Auvergne, and other districts of central France,
tended through the firmament. The old relations there occurs a series of volcanos which have not
of the heavenly bodies are re-established, and the been in action within the historical period. From
orbits continue as they were before the flood. the association of the remains of long extinct
Thus we must suppose a serious alteration to have animals among the products of these volcanos, it
disturbed every celestial body throughout the has been inferred that the era of eruption must be
whole universe, to have lasted while our earth assigned to a time long anterior to the appearance
performed some three hundred revolutions on its of man. Yet these volcanic cones are in many
axis, and then to have ceased by the return of instances as perfect as when they were first thrown
everything to the original condition. And this up.  The writer of this article has climbed their
stupendous system of aberration had for its object sides and descended into their craters, and can bear
the destruction of a race of creatures inhabiting a testimony to the fact that they consist of dust and
mere speck among the planetary systems! No  cinders still so loosely aggregated that the traveller
one will pretend that this hypothesis has any sometimes sinks over the ankle in volcanic debris.
shadow of probability.                       Such light material has assuredly been exposed to
Many years have not elapsed since it was be- the action of no large body of water, which would
lieved that the revelations of geology tended in a have swept it at once away.  And hence, since
very marked manner to confirm the commonly re- these volcanos belong to a period earlier than that
ceived view of the deluge. Over the greater part of man, the deluge cannot have extended over
of Great Britain and Ireland, and throughout cen- central France.
tral and northern Europe, as well as North America,  But perhaps the most startling of all the diffithere exists immediately under the vegetable soil a culties in the way of the belief in a universal deluge,
deposit of clay, sand, or gravel, often very tumul- are presented to us in the researches of the zoologist.
tuously arranged. This deposit, in the infancy of From him we learn that, even taking the cubit by
geological science, was set down as the product of which the ark was measured to have been of the
some great rush of waters, and as it was plainly longest, the ark was totally inadequate to contain
one of the most recent formations of the globe, it the animals even of a single continent. It would
came to be regarded as beyond question the result occupy too much space to enter here into the deof that old deluge by which the human race had tails of this part of the subject. We refer the
been destroyed. It received accordingly the name reader to one of the lectures in Hugh Miller's
diluvium, and from its very general occurrence in'Testimony of the Rocks,' where the subject
both hemispheres, it was held to be a confirmation is treated with the vigour and picturesqueness so
of the Bible narrative of the flood that covered'all characteristic of that lamented writer. Sir Walter
the high hills that were under the whole heaven.' Raleigh thought he had exhausted the capabilities
But the identification proved too hasty. A more of the ark, when, after calculating the amount of
careful examination of the diluvium shewed that it space that would be occupied by the animals known
belonged to many different periods, and had to a to himself at the time, he concluded that'all these
considerable extent resulted from local causes, act- two hundred and eighty beasts might be kept in
ing over limited areas. It was ascertained, how- one storey or room of the ark, in their several
ever, that one kind of diluvium having a wide cabins, their meat in the second, the birds and
diffusion over the northern parts of Europe and their provisions in the third, with space to spare for
America, must have been produced by one great Noah and his family, and all their necessaries.'
cause acting in the same geological period. The  Since Raleigh's time, however, the known number
agency which gave rise to this'drift' was never- of terrestrial animals has been enormously intheless shewn to be not a rush of water, but ice creased. Of mammalia alone there are now known
coming from the north, either in the form of a between  600o and 7oo0 species. To these must
glacier or as icebergs, and bearing with it enormous be added upwards of 6000 birds, 650 reptiles, and
quantities of sand, mud, and stones. Thus the 550,000 insects, all of which would require room
last hope of sustaining the doctrine of a universal and a provision of food in the ark. It is needless
deluge by an appeal to geological facts fell to the to remark, that no vessel ever fashioned by man
ground. Not only does geology afford no evidence could have accommodated a tithe of these inmates.
in favour of such a doctrine, but it tends to support  But over and above the impossibility of constructthe opposite view. The notion of a simultaneous ing a vessel large enough to contain all the species
and universal desolation of the globe finds no of terrestrial animals that inhabit the globe, it
countenance among those stony records in which would have been equally impossible in the days of
the primeval history of our planet is graven, as Noah, just as it would be utterly impossible in our
with a pen of iron in the rock for ever. There are own day, to collect all these creatures alive into one
indeed many gaps in the chronicle, many passages corner of the earth. No one needs to be informed
that have been blotted out in whole or in part, and that the animal tribes are not all represented in any
some pages that seem never to have been inscribed one country, that certain races are confined to high
VOL. I                                                                       2 U




DELUGE                     658                 DELUGE
latitudes, that others roam among the temperate here. In addition to what has just been said, it
zones, while others are found only between the may be remarked further, that these provinces have
tropics. Nor is it necessary to do more than allude a geological as well as a zoological significance.
to the fact that there is a similar grouping on all Laying aside as utterly impossible the idea of the
high land, altitude above the sea being thus repre- representation in the ark of every terrestrial species,
sentative of recession from the equator, so that the we may obtain some confirmatory evidence that the
bald head of a lofty mountain may be white with the existing races of plants and animals have never
snows of an eternal winter, its shoulders clad with  been interrupted by a general catastrophe.  A
the spring-like vegetation of the temperate latitudes, careful study of these provinces shews that some
while its feet lie rich in the glories of a tropical are older than others, just as some parts of the
summer. But besides this arrangement, according  earth's surface are geologically older than other
to climate and temperature, there is a still further parts. In certain cases a province is found to consubdivision into provinces, and these again into tain within itself the relic of an older province
generic and specific centres. Thus, while each zone which once occupied the same spot. In the proof latitude has its peculiar facies of animal and  founder depths of the maritime lochs that indent
vegetable life, it contains so many distinct and in- the western coast of Scotland, there exist little
dependent areas, in which the animals and plants groups of shell fish which are not now found alive
are to a large extent generically or specifically in the shallower parts. Yet they once lived even
different from  those of contiguous areas.  The in the shallower water, and their remains are now
evidence of these localized groups of organisms found fossil along the shores of the Firth of Clyde
points in part to old geological changes of sea and elsewhere. They have become gradually exand land, and possibly to other causes which are tinct in the upper part of the sea, owing probably
still far from being understood.  Professor Edward to a change of climate, and are now confined to
Forbes treated them as centres of creation, that is, the very deepest zones. These and other facts of
distinct areas in which groups of plants and animals the same kind point to slow and gradual changes
had been created, and from which, as a common  unbroken by any great cataclysmal event. Among
centre, they had gradually radiated, so as to en- plants, too, similar phenomena abound. It should
croach more or less upon the neighbouring areas. not be lost sight of, that, had the whole earth
Hence, to collect specimens of all the species of been covered for a year by a sheet of water, the
terrestrial creatures inhabiting the earth, it would  greater part of our terrestrial plants must have
be necessary not only to visit each parallel of lati- perished. On the disappearance of the flood there
tude on both sides of the equator, but to explore would hence require to be a new creation, or
the whole extent of each parallel, so as to leave out rather re-creation, all over the world-a supposinone of the separate provinces. With all the appli- tion for which there is no evidence either in Scripances of modern civilization, and all the labours of ture or nature, and which is opposed to all that we
explorers in the cause of science throughout every know of the method of the Divine working. Plants
part of the world,the task of ascertaining the extent are grouped, like animals, in greater and lesser proof the animal kingdom is probably still far from  vinces; and these, too, differ greatly from each
being accomplished.  Not a year passes away with- other in antiquity.  Some assemblages of plants
out witnessing new names added to the lists of the have spread over wide districts, and either extirpated
zoologist.  Surely no one will pretend that what those which had previously occupied the ground or
has not yet been achieved by hundreds of labourers driven them into sheltered corners. In Great Briduring many centuries could have been performed  tain and Ireland, for instance, there are five disby one of the patriarchs during a few years. It tinct groups of plants which have also correspondwas of course necessary that the animals should be ing suites of animals. The successive migrations
brought alive. But this, owing to their climatal of these groups can still be traced, leading us to a
susceptibilities, was in the case of many species im- knowledge of certain vast changes which have
possible, and even with regard to those which  taken place among the British islands within a
might have- survived the journey, the difficulties of comparatively recent geological period. England
their transport must have been altogether insuper- was still united to the Continent when the oldest
able.  Noah, moreover, was busy with his great group of plants began to flourish. The northern
vessel, and continued to be'a preacher of repent- half of the island, with the whole of Scotland, was
ance' to his fellow-men-occupations which ad- submerged beneath the sea, and again elevated
mitted of no peregrinations to the ends of the earth  before the great mass of the British plants crept
in search of inmates for the ark.  It is indeed be- westward across the plains that united the islands
yond our power to follow up the train of impossi- with the Continent. And it was after the whole of
bilities which such a notion implies. We fear, with  our present groups of plants and animals had bethe learned and amiable Dr. J. Pye Smith, that the  come fixed in their existing habitats that the
idea of a collection of all the terrestrial animals of isthmus was broken through by the waves and
the globe brought by Noah to the ark cannot be Britain became an island. These changes could
entertained,'without bringing up the idea of mira- not have been brought about save during the lapse
cles more stupendous than any that are recorded  of a protracted series of ages. They give evidence
in Scripture, even what appear appalling in com- of no sudden break, no temporary annihilation and
parison; the great decisive miracle of Christianity subsequent creation, such as the idea of a general
-the resurrection of the Lord Jesus-sinks down  flood would require, but, on the contrary, shew very
before it.'                                    clearly that the present races of plants and animals
The existence of distinct provinces of plants and  have gone on in unbroken succession from a time
animals is a fact full of the deepest interest, and  that long preceded the advent of man.
opens out many wide fields of inquiry.  Its bear-  2. We are thus compelled to adopt the opinion
ing on the question of the deluge is of course that that the deluge was a local event confined to one
phase which more especially requires to be noticed part of the earth's surface, and that it was' uni



DELUS                    659                  DEMON
versal' only inasmuch as it effected the destruction which his history connects him with the Jews are
of the whole human race, the family of Noah   alone of interest in this work, and these points bealone excepted. Against this opinion no objec- long to the history of the Maccabees [see art.
tions of any weight can be urged. It is borne out MACCABEES]. To his time belong the latter end
by the evidence to be derived from a study of the of the government of Judas in Israel and the bephenomena of nature; and it is not at variance ginning of that of Jonathan.  He acted oppreswith any statement in Holy Scripture. The uni- sively and unjustly towards them; but, when a
versality of the language in which Moses describes rival arose in the person of Alexander Balas, he
the extent of the deluge-' all the high hills that bade so high for the support of Jonathan as to
were under the whole heaven were covered'-has create a doubt of his sincerity; for which cause, as
indeed been regarded as a testimony to the univer- well as from resentment at the injuries he had insality of the catastrophe. But such general ex- flicted on them, the Jews espoused the cause of
pressions are of frequent occurrence in the sacred Balas, to whose success they in no slight degree
writings to denote a tract of country which, though  contributed. [ALEXANDER BALAS.]
large relatively to its inhabitants, yet formed only  2. DEMETRIUS NICATOR, or NICANOR, son of
a very small portion of the earth's surface. No  the preceding, but who was excluded from the
authentic traces of the action of the flood have yet throne till B.. 146, by the success of Alexander
been detected in the East, where the area of sub- Balas, and then recovered it chiefly by the assist.
mersion was probably situated. Nor indeed is it ance of his father-in-law Ptolemy Philometor.  He
likely that any such traces will ever be found. at first treated the Jews well, but eventually gave
They might confirm our faith, but they are by no  them so much cause for dissatisfaction that they
means necessary, for the fact of the former destruc- readily espoused the cause of Antiochus Theos, son
tion of the human race is made known to us in the of Alexander Balas. Demetrius underwent many
sacred volume, and has been handed down by tra- vicissitudes, and passed several years (B.C. 141-135)
dition in almost every nation of the earth, even the in captivity among the Parthians, from which he
most barbarous and the farthest removed from the eventually returned and recovered his throne, which
early cradle of the human race.               he continued to occupy till B.C. 126, when he was
By admitting that the deluge affected only a defeated in battle by the pretender Alexander Zelimited portion of the earth's surface, we bring the bina, and afterwards slain at Tyre, whither he had
narrative of Moses into harmony with the laws of fled. [MACCABEES.]
nature as these have been made known by the on-  3. A silversmith at Ephesus, who, being alarmed
ward progress of science; we rescue it from a at the progress of the Gospel under the preaching
hopeless series of difficulties such as only a student of Paul, assembled his fellow-craftsmen, and excited
of nature can thoroughly realize, but at the very a tumult by haranguing them on the danger that
thought of which he stands appalled; and we re- threatened the worship of the great goddess Diana,
move all ground for charging this portion of the and consequently their own craft as silversmiths.
Bible with grave contradictions, inconceivable mira- Their employment was to make'silver shrines for
cles, and even physical impossibilities. -A. G.  Diana' (Acts xix. 24); and it is now generally
agreed that these'shrines' (vaovs) were silver
DELUS (mentioned only n I Maccab. xv. 23), models of the temple, or of its adytum or chapel,
a small island in the /Egean Sea, one of the group  in which perhaps a little image of the goddess
called the Cyclades. It is celebrated as the birth-  w  p           e                   b
place of Apollo, and as one of the chief seats oforeigners, who either could not perform their dehis worship in the earliest historical times. It was  oions a  he temple itself or who, after having
rotions at the temple itself, or who, after having
the religious centre of the Ionians of both Europe done so, carried them away as memorials or for
and Asia (Grote, Hist. of Greece, iii. 222).-S. N. purposes of worship.  The continual resort of
DEMAS (Ayuras), a Thessalonian Christian, who  foreigners to Ephesus from all parts, on account of
was for a time associated with St. Paul, but whothe singular veneration in which the image of the
afterwards abandoned him at Rome, either from  goddess was held [ARTEMIS], must have rendered
being discouraged by the hardships and perils of this manufacture very profitable, and sufficiently
the service, or in pursuit of temporal advantages explains the anxiety of Demetrius and his fellow(Col. iv. 14; Philem. 24; 2 Tim. iv. Io). The craftsmen.
usual unfavourable sense attached to the last text  4. A Christian, mentioned with commendation
seems the just one.-J. K.                     in 3 John I2. From the connection of St. John
with Ephesus at the time the Epistle was written,
DEMETRIUS (Apriyrpcos), a man's name, de- some have supposed that this Demetrius is the
noting a votary' of Ceres, and very common among same as the preceding, and that he had been
the Greeks. The persons of this name mentioned  converted to Christianity.  But this is a mere
in the history of the Maccabees, and in the N. conjecture, rendered the more uncertain by the
T., are:-                                    commonness of the name. —J. K.
I. DEMETRIUS SOTER, king of Syria. He was
son of Seleucus IV., surnamed Philopator; but,  DEMON (8atjs&,vov, sometimes 6adiov). These
being an hostage at Rome at the time of his words are used as synonymous both by profane and
father's death, his uncle, the notorious Antiochus sacred writers. The etymologies they respectively
Epiphanes, assumed the crown of Syria, and re- assign to them, all point to some supposed charactained it eleven years. After him it was held two teristic of those inztellient beings to whom  the
years by his son Antiochus Eupator, who was put words are applied.  For example, Plato, in his
to death in B.C. 162 by Demetrius, who then   Cratylzs (vol. i. p. 398, ed. Serran.), derives the
arrived in Syria and secured the royal heritage word from 6at/zLv,'knowing,' in allusion to the
from which he had so long been excluded. He superior intelligence, and consequent efficiency,
reigned twelve years B.C. 162-150. The points in ascribed to demons; Eusebius (Prep. Evang. iv. 5),




DEMON                     660                 DEMON
from &eLFaivw,' to be terrified;' others, as Proclus to the dignity of demons, and subsequently to that
(in Hesiod.), from 6aew,'to distribute,' because of gods (Plutarch, De Defect. Orac.) Plato (Cratydemons were supposed to assign the lots or des- /us, p. 398, tom. i. edit. Serran.) says,'the poets
tinies of mankind.                            speak excellently who affirm that when good men
I. The words in question are used by heathen die they attain great honour and dignity, and bewriters with great latitude, being applied by them  come demons.' It is also admitted that Jam-I. to every order of beings superior to man, in- blichus, Hierocles, and Simplicius, use the words
cluding even the Highest; Aristotle applies baM- angels and demons indiscriminately. Philo (De
/6Lvov to the Divinity, Providence (Rhet. ii. 23); Gzgantibus) says that souls, demons, and angels,
2. to any particular divinity (I1. i. 222; iii. 399; are only different names that imply one and the
and in Il. xvii. 98, 99, compared with o04, SaioLtv same substance; and he affirms (De Somn.) that
0eos are used as interchangeable words); 3. to the Moses calls those angels whom the philosophers
inferior divinities, as in the phrase  eol cal K  at- call demons. It was also believed that the souls
C/oves; 4. to a class of beings between gods and of bad men became evil demons (Chalcid. in Platon.
men: minores diis et majores hominibus (Liv.  Tim. cap. I35, p. 330). Accordingly, &afL6vtos
viii. 20; Adam, Rom. Antiq. p. 287). Of these often occurs in ancient authors as a term of relatter some were habitually benevolent, and others proach. The other kind of demons were of more
malignant. The word demon, by itself, occurs noble origin than the human race, having never
usually in a good sense in heathen writers; the inhabited human bodies (Plato, Tim. pp. 41, 42,
evil are distinguished as /aixaoves KaKol or 7rovppot. 69, 71, 75; Apuleius, De Deo Socratis, p. 690).
To the former class belong the tutelary genii of  3. Those demons who had once been souls of
cities, and the guardian spirits of individuals, as men were the objects of immediate worship among
the demon of Socrates. 5. By an easy metonymy the heathens (Deut. xxvi. 14; Ps. cvi. 28; Is.
it is used to denote fortune, chance, fate. In the viii. I9), and it is in contradistinction to these that
Septuagint the word, though comparatively of rare Jehovah is so frequently called'the living God'
occurrence, is used in a very diversified and in- (Deut. v. 26, etc. etc.; Farmer's Essay on the Dedefinite manner: Deut. xxxii. 17,'T1, &tLL6tVLO; moniacs, passim).
Ps. xc. 6, t   ap, aij6vrLov, where it seems to mean  4. The heathens held that some demons were
a pestilential blast (comp. Is. xxviii. 2, Heb.); malignant by nature, and not merely so when proPs. xcv. 5, <8k585,  oaurrlor, which Symmachus yovoked and offended. Plutarch says,'it is a very
renders xv. reapKTot, and Aquila, fwhtXao -ar; Is. ancient opinion that there are certain wicked and
xiii.renders Y2I  pro, and6 Aquila, lrp^TAro; Is. malignant demons, who envy good men, and enxiii. 21, I",   6aeY6vtor Aquilavs Is. xvI, 1S;  deavour to hinder them in the pursuit of virtue,
xxxiv. 14, which    seems  explained by rIX  il the lest they should be partakers of greater happiness
^6ylosbso, which seems explained by 7r6x- in the than they enjoy' (Plut. Dion. p. 958, tom. i. edit.
latter part of the verse; Vulg. foutzna. In the                          p      t
latter part of the verse; Vulg. fotuna. In the Paris, i624). On this passage Bishop Newton
book of Tobit (iii. 8), we meet with r.ovp'v 6a~- remarks,'This was the opinion of all the later
A6Lvaov. Since no distinct ideas of the ancient Jew- philosophers, and Plutarch undeniably affirms it of
ish doctrines concerning demons can be obtained         an    t      Di. on te Pr
from the Septuagint, we next have recourse to the  hend. 1826, pa 47)on  Pythagoras held that cer
heathens, and from their writings, owing to the t  demons     d  s to      ad cattle (Dio
lniversal prevalence of belief in demons, ample in- tain demons sent diseases to men and cattle (Diog.
universal prevalence of belief in demons, ample in- aer  Vit. Pythag. p. 514, ed. Amste) Zaeformation may be obtained.   The following is cus, in his preface to his Laws Amud Stobeeum
offered as a summary of their opinions:-     Serm. xlii.), supposes that an evil demon might be
I. Demons, in the theology of the Gentiles, are present with a witness to influence him to injustice.
middle beings, between gods and mortals. This   In later times Josephus uses the word demon
is the judgment of Plato, which will be considered  always in a bad sense (De Bell. yud. vii. 6. 3).decisive-irav Tob atyL6viov Uera t 6 erl OeoO rea Kal J. F. D. [He held that they were the spirits of
OV770V:' Every demon is a middle being between wicked men (r& ybp KaXo6taeva baml6rta rovxpwv
God and mortal.'   He thus explains what he ea-rT avOp67rrov 7rve6,uara)].
means by a middle being —Oes bcivOpcbrr oi/ ly-  [II. We come now to the statements of the
vvTra, ci& && 5 a a tovov *roiraod?irw r   61 Xela Kal X N. T. on the subject of demons. Here this word
otdXeKTros Ors nerpbs avOpc6rovs:' God is not ap- is always used in a bad sense, when the writers
proached. immediately by man, but all the com- speak as from themselves, and in their own sense
merce and intercourse between gods and men are of it (Farmer, Essay, etc.) The substance of what
performed by the mediation of demons.'   He they teach may be presented as follows:enters into further particulars-To 6a/tu6vt6v e'tv  I. As to their nature, they are 7rvelzara (comp.
ept7rvevov Kae 6ta7roppOtevov Oeos ra trap' dvOpiotrwv, Matt. viii. 16; x. I; xii. 43-45; Mark ix. 20;
Kal dvOpc&rots rs& 7rapa& Oewv, rCwv 1ev tas e-o-errs Luke x. 20; etc.)  Hence there is ascribed to
Kal Ovalas, rv  TO b ras e7rtrTCeis re Katl iAota&s rT  them intelligence and will (Mark i. 24; Luke
Ouvffa-:'Demons are reporters and carriers from  iv. 34; James ii. 19; iii. 14), as well as great
men to the gods, and again from the gods to men, power (Matt. viii. 28-32; Mark ix. 26; Eph.
of the supplications and prayers of the one, and of vi. 12). Whether they are to be reckoned as bethe injunctions and rewards of devotion from the longing to the class, and as fallen from the original
other' (Plato, Sympos. pp. 202, 203, tom. iii. ed. condition, of the angels, does not clearly appear
Serran.)' And this,' says the learned Mede, from any statement of Scripture. As the messen-'was the cecumenical philosophy of the apostles' gers and agents of Satan, they may be either the
times, and of the times long before them.'    one or the other; but the probability seems to be,
2. Demons were of two kinds; the one were the that they belong to the same class as himself. He
souls of good men, which upon their departure fiom  is called the Prince of the Demons; the demons
the body were called heroes, were afterwards raised  whom  our Lord cast out are collectively called




DEMONIACS                    661               DEMONIACS
Satan (Matt. xii. 24-29; Luke xiii. I6); and the time of our Lord and his. Apostles, has been called
phrase 7rvey6/ara aKdcapra, which is applied to them  in question.  On the one hand it is urged that the
(Matt. x. I; Mark iii. II; vi. 7, etc.) is applied  details of the evangelical history afford decisive
also to fallen angels (Rev. xvi. 13; xviii. 2), and evidence of the truth and reality of demoniacal
even in the singular to Satan himself (Mark. iii. possessions in the sense already explained, at least
30; comp. 22).   These considerations we think  during the commencement of Christianity; on the
render it probable that the 6aciovtta of the N. T. other hand, it is contended that the accounts in
belong to the number of those angels'who kept question may all be understood as the phenomena
not their first estate.'  By St. Paul also they are of certain diseases, particularly hypochondria, inidentified with the idols of the heathen (I Cor. x. sanity, and epilepsy; that the sacred writers used
20, 21), whom the Jews regarded as evil spirits.  the popular language in reference to the subject,
2. As to character, demons are described as 7rv- but that they themselves understood no more than
Wtpa, aKOapcra (Matt. xii. 45; x. I, etc.) as belong- that the persons were the subjects of ordinary
ing to the kingdom of darkness, and used by Satan  diseases. Here issue is joined, and it is to the
for his wicked designs (Matt. ix. 34; xxv. 41; Eph. evidence in this cause that our attention will now
vi. 12).                                       be directed.
3. As to their abode, they are represented as  Those who contend that the demoniacs were' reserved in everlasting chains under darkness unto really possessed by an evil spirit, urge the followthe judgment of the great day' (Jude 6; comp. 2 ing considerations:Pet. ii. 4). They are said also to be. in the abyss  I. The demoniacs express themselves in a way
(Luke viii. 31; comp. Rev. ix. I-II, [ABYSS]). unusual for hypochondriacal, insane, or epileptic
Such descriptions, however, can be understood as persons (Matt. viii. 29; Mark i. 24); they posintimating nothing more than their being in a state sessed supernatural strength (Mark v. 4); they adof punishment, and under control; for the activity jure Jesus not to torment them; they answer the
which is ascribed to them is incompatible with the questions proposed to them in a rational manner;
idea of their being in a state of coznfnement; and, they are distinctly said to have'come out of' men
besides, such passages as Eph. ii. 2, vi. 12, would  and to have'entered into swine,' and that conselead to the conclusion that a sphere of extended  quently the whole herd, amounting to about two
physical freedom is assigned to these fallen spirits. thousand, ran violently down a precipice into the
III. The Fathers frequently refer to demons in sea (Matt. viii. 32; Mark v. 13). The supposition
their writings.  By some they are represented as which has been maintained by Lardner, among
angels who, originally created holy, fell into rebel- others, that the swine were driven into the sea by
lion and sin (Joan. Damasc. Expos. Fidei, II. 4), the demoniacs, is irreconcilable with the language
whilst others represent them as the fruit of the in- of the narrative, being also highly improbable in
tercourse of angels with women (Justin M. Apol. itself: madmen do not act in concert, and rarely
lI. 5), and others that they are souls of the giants pursue the same train of maniacal reasoning.
whom the daughters of men bore to devils (Pseudo-  2. No mental diseases are predicated of the
Clementin. viii. I8). They also teach that they are dumb (Matt. ix. 32), or of the blind and dumb
ao-aTra, yet not in such a sense as to be absolutely (Matt. xii. 22). Do such diseases ever produce
impassable, but as -Kt d6vra (Clem. Alex. p. 79I; blindness?
comp. Chrysost. Homr. cxxv., Theodoret, in yes.  3. It is admitted that the symptoms of the youth
xiii.) They all describe them as evil, as deceiving  described Matt. xvii. 5; Mark ix. 17; Luke ix.
and destroying men, as being the object of wor- 39, coincide precisely with those of epilepsy, but
ship to the heathen, and as employed by God to they are attributed to the agency of the demon in
punish the wicked (Origen, Cont. Cel. v. 234; viii. that very account.
p. 399, etc.) See the passages collected in Suicer,  4. The damsel at Philippi is said to have been
Thes. s. v. 8alltwv, and in Usteri, Paulin. Lebrbe- possessed with a spirit of divination, which was.grije, Anh. iii. p. 421, ff., 5th ed.; comp. also on the means of obtaining much gain to her masters,
the whole subject Anh. ii., and Winzer De De- and to have understood the divine commission of
monologia in N.:. libris, etc., conmentt. v. Paul and his companions (Acts xvi. 17). Is this
NViteb. et Lips. I812-22.-W. L. A.]            to be ascribed merely to an aberration of mind?
5. The demoniacs themselves confess that they
DEMONIACS (6afLovitwfLevot), demonized per- were possessed with demons (Mark v. 9); the same
sons in the N. T. are those who were supposed to is asserted of them by their relatives (Matt. xv. 22).
have a demon or demons occupying them, suspend- The Apostles and Evangelists assert that persons
ing the faculties of their minds, and governing the possessed with demons were brought unto Jesus
members of their bodies, so that what was said and  (Matt. iv. 24; Mark i. 32), or met him (Luke viii.
done by the demoniacs was ascribed to the in-dwel- 27).  Jesus commands them  not to make him
ling demon. Plato (apzd Clem. Alex. Strom. i. known as the Messiah (Mark i. 34, margin); re405, Oxon.) affirms that'demoniacs do not use buked them (Matt. xvii. 18). The Evangelists detheir own dialect or tongue, but that of the demons dare that the demons departed from their victims
who have entered into them.' Lucian says,'the at his command (Matt. xvii. 18; Mark ix. 25, 26;
patient is silent, the demon returns the answer to  Luke iv. 35; xi. 14); and Jesus himself asserts it
the question asked.' Apollonius thus addresses a (Luke xiii. 32).
youth supposed to be possessed:-' I am treated  6. The writers of the N. T. make distinctions
contumeliously by the demon, and not by thee' between the diseased and the demoniacs (Mark i.
(comp. Matt. viii. 28 and 31; Mark v. 2; ix. 12; 32; Luke vi. 17, i8); and Jesus himself does so
Luke viii. 27, 32).                            (Matt. x. 8, etc.)
The correctness of the opinion respecting those  7. The demoniacs knew Jesus to be the Son of
who are called eatlovio6Ltevo t in the N. T., which  God (Matt. viii. 29; Mark i. 24; v. 7), and the
prevailed among the Jews and other nations in the  Christ (Luke iv. 41).




DEMONIACS                    662               DEMONIACS
8. Jesus addresses the demons (Matt. viii. 32; with certain peculiar and express doctrines of Christ
Mark v. 18; ix. 25; Luke iv. 35); so does Paul and his Apostles.
(Acts xvi. I8). Jesus bids them be silent (Mark i.  With regard to the symptoms related of the de25); to depart, and enter no more into the person  moniacs, it is urged that such persons as were
(Mark ix. 25).                                called demoniacs in other countries, and who seem
9. In Luke x. the seventy are related to have to have laboured under precisely the same sympreturned to Jesus, saying,'Lord, even the demons toms, are recorded to have been cured by the use
are subject to us through thy name;' and Jesus re- of medicines.  Helleboro quoque purgatur lymplies, ver. I8,'I beheld Satan, as lightning, fall phaticus error (Seren. Sammon. c. 27, v. 507),
from heaven.''Insane delusion is remedied by hellebore.' JoseIo. When Jesus was accused by the Pharisees of phus and the Jewish physicians speak of medicines
casting out demons by Beelzebub, the prince of composed of stones, roots, and herbs, being useful
the demons, he argued that there could be no dis- to demoniacs (Gittei, f. 67).  The cure of diseases
cord among demoniacal beings (Matt. xii. 25, etc.) by such methods is intelligible, but is it rational to
I I. Jesus makes certain gratuitous observations believe that the spirits of dead men were dislodged
respecting demons (see Matt. xii. 43, 44); which  from  human bodies by medical prescriptions?
seem like facts in their natural history. In regard  Maimonides (in Sabat. ii. 5) says,'all kinds of
to the demon cast out of the youth, which the diseases which are called melancholy they call an
disciples could not cast out, he says,'this kind (i.e., evil spirit' (comp. Matt. xi. 18; John vii. 20;
of demons) goeth not out but by prayer and fasting.' x. 20).
Can these words be understood otherwise than as  I. With regard to the two demoniacs at Gadara
revealing a real and particular fact respecting the  (or one, according to Mark and Luke), it is connature of demons (Matt. xvii. 21)?            cluded that they were madmen, who fancied that
12. The woman which had a spirit of infirmity, there were within them innumerable spirits of dead
and was bowed together (Luke xiii. II), is, by our men.  Accordingly they dwelt among the tombs,
Lord himself, said to have been bound by Satan  about which the souls of the dead were believed to
(ver. I6). In the same way St. Peter speaks of all hover, went naked, were ungovernable, cried aloud,
the persons who were healed by Jesus as being  attacked passengers, beat themselves, and had in'oppressed of the devil' (Acts x. 38).        their phrensy broken every chain by which they had
13. It is further pleaded that it sinks the im- been bound.  Strength almost superhuman is a
portance and dignity of our Saviour's miracles to  common attendant of insanity.  The subject is
suppose that when he is said to have cast out illustrated by Wetstein, in extracts from  Greek
devils, all that is meant is that he healed diseases.  medical writers.  P..Egineta, Actuarius, Cselius
To these arguments the opponents of the theory  Aurelianus, also tell that such persons fancied
of real demoniacal possessions reply, generally, themselves to be gods, demons, wolves, dogs, etc.,
that there can be no doubt that it was the general hence the disorder was sometimes called Xveavsppbelief of the Jewish nation, with the exception of 7ria, or KvvavOpcowra. Their question,'Art thou
the Sadducees, and of most other nations, that the come to torment us?' refers to the cruel treatment
spirits of dead men, especially of those who had  of the insane in those times, and which they had
lived evil lives, and died by violent deaths, were no doubt shared in the endeavours of men to
permitted to enter the bodies of men, and to pro-.' tame' them.  Both Mark, and Luke the physiduce the effects ascribed to them in the popular cian, describe the demoniac as vooppovovvra, in
creed; but thefact and real state of the case was,'his right mind,' when healed, which implies prethat those who were considered to be possessedwere vious insanity (see also Matt. xii. 22; xv. 28; xvii.
afflicted with some peculiar diseases of mind or I8; Luke vii. 21; viii. 2; ix. 42). It is true that
body, which, their true causes not being generally these demoniacs address Jesus as the Son of God,
understood, were, as is usual in such cases, ascribed but they might have heard in their lucid intervals,
to supernatural powers, and that Jesus and his that Jesus, whose fame was already diffused
Apostles, wishing of course to be understood by  throughout Syria, was regarded by the people as
their contemporaries, and owing to other reasons the Messiah.  They shew their insanity,'their
which can be pointed out, were under the necessity shapin  fancies,' by imagining they were demons
of expressing themselves in popular language, and  without number, and by requesting permission to
of seeming to admit, or at least of not denying, its enter the swine. Would actual demons choose
correctness.  They further plead that the fact, such an habitation?  They speak and answer inadmitted on all hands, that the demon so actuated  deed in a rational manner, but, agreeably to Locke's
the possessed, as that whatever they did was not to  definition of madmen,' they reason right on false
be distinguished from  his agency, reduces the principles, and taking their fancies for realities,
question, so far as phenomena are concerned, to one make right deductions from  them' (Essay  on
simple inquiry, namely, whether these phenomena Human Understanding, chap. ii. 11. I3). It is
are such as can be accounted for without resorting  true that Jesus commands the unclean spirit (so
to supernatural agency.  They assert that the called because believed to be the spirit of a dead
symptoms predicated of demoniacs correspond with  man), but he does this merely to excite the attenthe ordinary symptoms of disease, and especially of tion of the people, and to give them full opporhypochondria, insanity, and epilepsy; that the tunity to observe the miracle. It is not necessary
sacred writers themselves give intimations, as plain to suppose that the madmen drove the swine, but
as could be expected under their circumstances, merely that, in keeping with all the circuzmstances,
that they employed popular language; that conse- the insanity of the demoniacs was transferred to
quently they are not to be considered as teaching  them as the leprosy of Naaman was transferred to
doctrines, or asserting facts, when they use such  Gehazi, for the purpose of illustrating the miraculanguage; and that the doctrine of the agency of lous power of Christ, and though this was a punideparted spirits on the bodies of men is inconsistent I tve miracle, it might serve the good purpose of




DEMONIACS                    663                DEMONIACS
discouraging the expectation of temporal benefits the phrase KaraCvvasTeorvovosLvs birb roo & ap6Xov,
from him. If the demoniac is represented as wor- many of whom were not described by the Evangeshipping Jesus, it should be remembered that the lists as subjects of demoniacal possession, which is
insane often shew great respect to particular per- urged as a striking instance of the zisus lozqendi.
sons.                                          Sometimes the specification of the demoniacs is
2. The men who were dumb, and both blind     omitted in the general recitals of miraculous cures
and dumb, are not said to have been disordered in (Matt. xi. 5), and this, too, on the important occatheir intellects any more than the blind man in sion of our Lord sending to John the Baptist an
John ix. The disease in their organs was popularly  account of the miraculous evidence attending his
ascribed to the influence of demons.  It is observ- preaching (Matt. xi. 5). Does not this look as if
able that in the parallel passage (Matt. ix. 32), the they were considered as included under the sick?
evangelist says the man was dumb.                7. It cannot be proved that all the demoniacs
3. The symptoms of epilepsy in the youth de- knew Jesus to be the Messiah.
scribed Matt. xvii. I5, are too evident not to be  8. It is admitted that Jesus addresses the deacknowledged. If the opinion of relatives is to be mons, but then it may be said that his doing so
pressed, it should be noticed that in this case the has reference partly to the persons themselves in
father says his'son is lunatic.' It was most pro- whom demons were supposed to be, and partly to
bably a case of combined epilepsy and lunacy, the bystanders; for the same reason that he rewhich has been common in all ages.   Epilepsy  buked the winds in an audible voice, as also the
was ascribed to the influence of the moon in fever. It is also remarkable that in the case of the
those times. The literal interpretation of popular demoniac (Mark v. 9), it is said-Kal eir-p7ra
language would therefore require us to believe avrbv, the man, ri GOL 6vofsa, not a-irb, the b5tc/6that he was'moonstruck,' as well as a demoniac. vtLo. The same words occur in Luke viii. 30.
A curious instance of the influence of popular   9. With regard to our Lord's reply to the
modes of speech, even on those who are conscious seventy, it will not be urged that it was intended
of its incorrectness, is offered in the case of Hippo- of a local fall of Satan from heaven, unless it may
crates, who, though he wrote a book to prove that be supposed to allude to his primeval expulsion;
epilepsy is not a sacred malady, i.e., influenced by but this sense is scarcely relevant to the occasion.
some divinity, is nevertheless in the habit of apply- If, then, the literal sense be necessarily departed
ing to it that very appellation.  In the same way a from, a choice must be made out of the various
learned physician still speaks of lunacy, St. An- figurative interpretations of which the words adthony's fire; and persons of education speak of the mit; and taking the word Satan here in its generising and setting of the sun, falling stars, as we all ric sense, of whatever is inimical or opposed to the
use phrases derived from the rites and religion of Gospel, Jesus may be understood to say, I foresaw
the Gentiles.                                  the glorious results of your mission in the triumphs
4. The damsel at Philippi is said (Acts xvi. I6) which would attend it over the most formidable
by Luke to have been possessed with a rveJcsca obstacles. Heaven is often used in the sense of
Ib60covos, a spirit of Apollo. It was her fixed idea. political horizon (Is. xiv. 12, 13; Matt. xxiv. 29).
The gift of divination is saidby Cicero to have been  To be cast from heaven to hell is a phrase for
ascribed to Apollo (De Divinat. i. 5). Insane per- total downfall (Luke x. 15; Rev. xii. 7-9). Cicero
sons, pretending to prophesy under the influence of says to Mark Antony, You have hurled your colApollo, would be likely to gain money from the leagues down from heaven. Satan is here used
credulous. A belief among the common people tropically.   Our Lord does not, therefore, assert
that the ravings of insanity were sacred, was not the real operation of demons.
confined to Egypt. The larvati, the lymphatici,  IO. In the refutation of the charge that he cast
the cerriti of the Romans, signify possessed per- out demons by Beelzebub, the prince of the desons. The apostle who taught that an'idol is mons, he simply argues with the Pharisees upon
nothing in the world,' did not believe in the reality their own principles, and'judges them  out of
of her soothsaying.  Many demoniacs are men- their own mouth,' without assuming the truth of
tioned, the peculiar symptoms of whose diseases are those principles.
not stated, as Mary Magdalene (Mark xvi. 9), out  II. The facts he seems to assert respecting the
of whom Jesus cast seven demons, i. e., restored  wandering of demons through dry places (Matt.
from an inveterate insanity (seven being the Jewish  xii. 43), were already admitted in the popular
number of perfection), supposed to be caused by  creed of the Jews.  They believed that demons
the united agency of seven spirits of the dead. wandered in desolate places (Baruch iv. 35).
Yet she is said to have been healed (Luke viii. 2).  Upon these ideas he founds a parable or simili5. If Jesus forbade the demoniacs to say he was tude, without involving an opinion of their accuthe Christ, it was because the declaration of such  racy, to describe'the end of this generation.'
persons on the subject would do more harm than  The observations respecting prayer and fasting
good. If he rebuked them he also rebuked the seem to have relation to that faith in God which
wind (Matt. viii. 26), and the fever (Luke iv. 39). he exhorts his apostles to obtain. Prayer and
If it be said of them, they departed, so it is also fasting would serve to enable them to perceive
said of the leprosy (Mark i. 42).             the divine suggestion which accompanied every
6. It may be questioned whether the writers of miracle, and which the apostles had not perceived
the N. T. make a distinction between the diseased  upon this occasion, though given them, because
and those possessed of demons, or whether they  their animal nature had not been sufficiently subspecify the demoniacs by themselves, as they dued.
specify the lunatics (Matt. iv. 24), merely as a  I2. The application of the term Satan to the
distinct and peculiar class of the sick. It is, how- case of the woman who had a spirit of infirmity,
ever, most important to observe that St. Peter is plainly an argumestntum ad hominem. It is inincludes' all' who were healed by Jesus, under tended to heighten the antithesis between the loos



DEMONIACS                    664                 DEPOSIT
ingl of an ox from his stall, and loosing the daugh-  DENARIUS (isvdpcov), the principal silver
ter of Abraham whom Satan, as they beliezed, had  coin of the Romans, which took its name from
bound eighteen years.                         having been originally equal to ten ases. It was
13. The objection taken from  the supposed  in later times (after B.C. 217) current also among
consequence of explaining the casting out of de- the Jews, and is the coin which is called'a penny'
mons to signify no more than the cure of diseases, in the A. V. The denarii were first coined in B.c.
that it tends to lower the dignity of the Saviour's 269, or four years after the first Punic war, and the
miracles, depends upon the reader's complexion of more ancient specimens are much heavier than
mind, our prior knowledge of the relative dignity those of later date. Those coined in the early
of miracles, and some other things, perhaps, of period of the commonwealth have the average
which we are not competent judges.            weight of 60 grains, and those coined under the
It remains to be observed, that the theory of empire of 52 5 grains.  With some allowance for
demoniacal possessions is opposed to the known alloy, the former would be worth 8'6245 pence, or
and express doctrines of Christ and his Apostles. 81d., and the latter, 7'5 pence, or 7id. It has
They teach us that the spirits of the dead enter a been supposed, however, that the reduction of
state corresponding to their character, no more to
return to this world (Luke xvi. 22, etc.; xxiii.
43; 2 Cor. v. I; Phil. i. 21). With regard to
the fallen angels, the representations of their con- 
finemrent are totally opposed to the notion of their 
wandering about the world and tormenting its in-               <....      - _
habitants (2 Pet. ii. 4; Jude, ver. 6). If it be                 \ 
said that Jesus did not correct the popular opinion,  -              w    2dk-.Ll
still he nowhere denies that the phenomena in 
question arose fiom diseases only. He took no                     205.
side; it was not his province. It was not necessary to attack the misconception in a formal man- weight did not take place till the time of Nero;
ner; it would be supplanted whenever his doc- and in that case the denarii mentioned in the Gostrine respecting the state of the dead was embraced. pels must have been of the former weight and
To have done so would have engaged our Lord in  value, although 71d. is the usual computation. A
prolix arguments with a people in whom   the  denarius was the day-wages of a labourer in Palesnotion was so deeply rooted, and have led him  tine (Matt. xx. 2, 9, 13); and the daily pay of a
away too much from the purposes of his ministry. Roman soldier was less (Tacit. Ann. i. I7). In'It was one of the many things he had to say, but the time of Christ the denarius bore the image of
they could not then bear them.'  It is finally the emperor (Mat. xxii. 21; Mark xii. I6), but
urged that the antidemoniacal theory does not formerly it was impressed with the symbols of the
detract from the divine authority of the Saviour, republic.-J. K.
the reality of his miracles, or the integrity of the DEPOSIT is a term of the civil law (deposi
historians. Sub judice lis est. (Jahn's Biblisches                                positio),
historians. S*b Winuice Bibisct.es. (JahswBrterbsc, which Sir W. Jones (7he law of Bailnents, Works,
Archdtologie;' Moses Bii S'ches  feaelcrt -ofAn-r viii. 448) defines as'a bailment (or delivery of
art.' Besessene;' Moses Stuart's Sketches of An- goods  trust) to be kept for the bailor without a
ge/o/aogy in Bibliolheca Sacra, London and New  goods m trust) to be kept for the bailor without a
gelology in Bzbli84 hec SF. ac, London and New recompense; on a contract expressed or implied,
York, 1843).-J. F. D. [ExoacIsM.]     _      that the trust shall be duly executed, and the goods,~* [r~Thlis  e rain  u    f     re-delivered as soon as the time or use for which
[This article has been retained unaltered from  they were bailed shall have elapsed or be perthe preceding editions, because it gives a fair and  formed.' The party who makes the deposit is
fulr statement of the antagonist opinions, with  called in the civil law deone  or deposit  i
their respective reasons.  The editor, however,. Jones; nd he     o receives the procannot reissue it without calling attention to the  y  i      sris       he w o    eosit 
fact that the second view can be made to harperty is called depositarius. The law of deposit is
fact that the second view can be made to har-            Instes, iii. tit. xiv. 3. (See Sandars,
monise with the statements of the sacred writers, s428, or Vinnii  siiitit.tiones, by Heineccius, 
confessedly, only by the supposition that our Lord 607.) Comp. I sti  iv. tit. vi. 17, 23. (See Sanand his Apostles accommodated themselves to   dar                   Vii,. S, 8
Jewish prejudice to such an extent as to utter  A dposit., 5 Athenian law, was called 8rapaawhat was positively untrue. This admission is  e7,   (Ierod. vi. 86; Demosthenes, pro Phor.
fatal to the view in question; for on the lowest Orator. Attic. Bekker, Oxon. vi. 1042). Comp.
grounds on which our Lord and his Apostles can  the A6tos rpamrwctiK'r of Isocrates (Or. Attici,
be placed, they must at least be regarded as honest Bekker, Oxon. ii. 515-533).
men. Now, though honest speech does not require that words should be used always and only
in their etymological sense, it does require that bell, Prel. Diss. vi. I, 1o). If, consequently, they
they shall not be used so to affirm  what the did not hold this belief, they spoke not as honest
speaker knows to be false. Whilst, therefore, our men. We do not see how this conclusion is to be
Lord and his apostles might use the word bau- avoided; and as it is a conclusion from which
/Lovle-Ocit, or the phrase bCatuIo6ov' etv, as a popu- every Christian mind will shrink, we find in it the
lar description of certain diseases, without giving in  condemnation of the opinion that demoniac posto the belief which lay at the source of such a session was only a species of disease. The other
mode of expression, they could not speak of de- view is not without its difficulties; but better have
mons entering into a man or being cast out of a difficulties burdening our opinion than resort to an
man without pledging themselves to the belief of expedient which lands us in conclusions fatal to
an actual possession of the man by demons (Camp- Christianity itself.]




DEPOSIT                    665                 DEPOSIT
The Hebrew law of Deposit is contained in Exodus inevitable, compensation is necessary (Rosenmiiller
xxii. 7-I3, and will be found to receive consider  in loc.)  Sir W. Jones supposes that a distinction
able illustration from the above-mentioned passages, was made, in cases of theft, between stealing by
especially of the Roman law. The deposits speci-day and stealing by night; and referring to Gen..
fled by the lawgiver in these verses are-money, xxxi. 39, says:'If cattle were bailed and stolen
household stuff, raiment, oxen, asses, sheep, and other by day, the depositary was bound to make restitucattle. Dr. Kalisch's analysis of this law is worth tion to the owner; the reason seeming to be, that
quoting:-' If inanimate objects were by cunning  when cattle are delivered to be kept, the bailee is
or violence wrested from the depositary, he was not rather a mandatary than a depositary, and is consebound to make restitution to the proprietor (ver. quently obliged to use a degree of diligence ade11); but if animals, as oxen, asses, or sheep, were quate to the charge: sheep, however, can hardly
intrusted to his care, he was responsible for theft be stolen in the day-time without some neglect of
(ver. 12), but not for such accidents as the death of the shepherd; and we find that when Jacob, who
an animal, or its abduction by robbers, or lacera- was (for a long time at least) a bailee [or deposition'i by a wild beast (ver. I3). But if it is found  tary] of a different sort, inasmuch as he had a
that he had in any way intended to act fraudu- rezward ['the paid guardian' of Rashi], lost any of
lently to the proprietor, he was compelled to restore the beasts entrusted to his care, Laban made him
to him the twofold value of the deposit (ver. 7, 9). answer for them,. whether stolen by day or stolen by
All these disputes were decided by the competent night' (Law of Bailnents, p. 367).
judge, by means of adjuration' (Kalisch, Exodus,  To this law of Exod. xxii. we must append Lev.
p. 419). The law, indeed, does not expressly  vi. 2-7, as a complementary provision characteristic
mention the oath, but only says (ver. 9),'He shall of the Theocratic constitution of the Jewish state.
come before the gods [judges Qr1i5' ], whether Michaelis, as is frequent with him, misses the pro[-~  ]  he has not laid hold. of V.g T  hous  found idea of the relation between the Hebrew
1''   n he has not laid hold of his neighbour's....
heha otla fhis.   subject and his Divine King, when he, with an
property;' but the phrase NK-Mg, whether not, is imperfect eulogy which takes in but a portion of
elsewhere so notoriously the usual formula of an the conception, speaks of'that admirable contrivoath among the Hebrews, that we can scarcely ance of legislative wisdom for keeing the conscience
understand it otherwise than in reference to an oath, of thepeejured on the rack (!), and thus leading him
more especially as the oath is expressly mentioned  to repentance.' In this latter passage of Moses we
in verse 1; and in most cases no other proof of find a Hebrew designation for deposit, which we
his not having retained his neighbour's property  do not discover in the former passage out of
could possibly be had but an oath (Michaelis, Exodus; it is li13S, A. V. That which was deLaws of Moses, ii. 373, 374). The Septuagint and 
the Vulgate actually add, Kal duetrac, et jurabit, to  ivered  oeep Sept. irapaS K; Vulg Dethis formula of oath.+  Josephus, in Antiq. iv. positum. With respect to the form of the Greek
8. 36, treats of this law, and makes the deposi-word, Moeris (in Wetstein on I Tim. vi. 20, and
tary go e7rl ro1s rr Kptids, before the seZven jugesSchleusner, O. T. Lexicon, s. v.) says it is late
as was customary in his own age (Kalisch).     ellenic, while rapaKarcaSiKo is Attic. Another
Rashi, expressing the general suffrage of thesort of  stinction is alleged by Thomas Magister
Rabbinical doctors, makes a distinction between  (see the passage in Wetstein, u antea), that rapathe passage contained in verses 7-9, and that in-?iK[qV is the word found in Herodotus, and rapacluded in verses Io-I3. The former passage is Kara!i Kl in the Athenian Thucydides. There is
supposed to treat of a gratuitous depositary; the probably some truth in these statements but the
latter is said to be descriptive of a paid guardian.discrepancies of MSS. and editors render it imposChaskuni alleges as a reason, that as in the care of sible to vouch for them wholly.  It is certain that
inanimate deposits no trouble or expense is in- former editors read arapaKacas5Kq, in Josephus,
volved, remuneration cannot well be claimed; Philo, LXX., and the N. T., contrary to the rule of
whereas in the keep of animals, expense beingMoers (see Ginfield's IVo. Test. E  Heenistica,
p. 1146); but it is equally certain that the tendency
of recent editors, under the direction of a more
$ The I3th verse runs-' If it be torn in pieces, careful criticism, is to replace the longer word by
then let him bring itfor witness,' etc. Bring what?  rapa.PS'K (see Tischendorf's LXX., e.g., in 2 Macc.
Moses does not say.   The Jerusalem Targum,iii. Io, 15; and his N. T., last edition, in I Tim.
however, explains by a limb of the lacerated animal vi. 20; 2 Tim. i. 12, 14).
as a witness; the most natural proof to be had,  The obligation to return a deposit faithfully was
says Michaelis.  This may illustrate Amos iii. I2. in very early times held sacred by the Greeks, and
+ In the Mischna, Baba Kama (Surenhusius, iv. indeed all civilised nations. A most prominent
88), a form of adjuration is given [If 1,:12 p  uli]; illustration occurs in the beautiful story of the' Where is my deposited property? The answer is, Spartan Glaucus (Herod. vi. 86). We can only
It is stolen. The proprietor says, I adjure thee. give the striking moral with which the story ends:
The other answers, Amen. But witnesses prove  Oirwc a&ya'-bv fyxSo &avoesoa-a 7repl 7rapaiKcys &\XXo
that he has stolen the deposit. He is fined twice ye, ~ c7raTrebvTrwo aroao&ivait;' It is a good thing,
the value; or else, if he voluntarily confesses, he therefore, when a pledge has been left with one,
restores the deposit with a fine of an extra fifth' not even in thought to doubt about restoring it.'
[See Levit. vi. 5]. In a subsequent section of the The story of Glaucus is alluded to by Plutarch
Mischna, Baba M/etsia (Surenhusius, iv. 117), the (ii. 556 D); Pausanias (ii. 18, 2); Juvenal (xiii.
Mosaic provision is much refined, in true Rabbini- 199-208); Clemens Alex. (Strom. vi. 749); Dio
cal style, by prescribing a fooufold and even a Chrysostom (Or. lxiv. p. 640), and other writers
fivefold fine for killing and selling, in addition to (see Rawlinson's Ilerod. iv. 477, note). The moral
stealing, an animal.                          drawn by Juvenal —




DERBE                     666                  DEROR'Nam scelus intra se taciturn qui cogitat ullum,  poste direcon, having first passed through Lystra.
Facti crimen habet'                         It is evident from these incidental references that
is conceived in so pure and elevated a strain, tran- the two towns were not far distant from each other 
scending the simple light of nature, as to raise theDee lying nearer to the border of Cilicia. Acsuggestion that the author was indebted to the true  ordingto Strabo (Geogr. xi. p. 392, ed. Casaubon),
light (John i. 9) which had now begun to glimmer Derbe was in Isauria. but on the confines of Cap
through the Roman world (Stocker's 7uvenal, p. padocia and Lycaonia; and Sephen of Byzantium
427; and Lubin's note, in loco, Varior. ed. p. I 27).  s  it was fpobpo'Irapi   Kdi Xru^.  It was
A fine application of the universal law of fidelity probably a fort' erected to guard the mountain
in deposits is made by an Arabian poet contempo- pass but it could never have been a Xuv. It has
rary with Justinian, who remarks'that life and  been suggested that this word is an error for \ ruvo;
wealth are only deposited with us by our Maker;and near the siteof Derbe there is a small lake.'
and, like all other deposits, must in due time be Hamilton has attempted to identify Derbe with
restored' (Sir W. Jones, Wdorks, viii. 379). This Divle, a small village in a wild valley among the
principle our Lord has, by an incidental remark in mountains; but it seems to be too far from the
ancient road. It is uncertain whether Lystra or
his teaching, made sacred by his recognition of it.ancient road. It is uncertai whether Lystra or
(Luke xvi. 12, Es' iv r ci\\orpi^ Tarot OK ~eeVEe, Derbe was the birthplace of Timothy; the former
K. r. X.) The inviolability of this trust illustrates seems to bethe more likely from Acts xvi., 2.
Zthe force of t. Paul's language in I Tim. vi. 20,Derbe was the home of another of Paul's favoured
Zthe force of t. Paul's language in I Tim. vi. 20,  companions, Gaius (Acts xx.  A full account of
and 2 Tim. i. 14, where he describes the gospel as acompanions Gais (Acts xx. 4). A full account of
sacred deposit (7rapa-rKq), which he urges Timothy Derbe, Lystra, and the surrounding country is
to preserve and keep; and again, in 2 Tim. i. I2, give  n Conybeare and Howson's Life ofSt. Pau,
where he beautifully applies the same word 7rap- i. 2II 296, seq.  Consult also Hamilton's Researches ht. Asia J/fidcor, Journal of Geogr. Society,
DKr)- to his own complex self (his body, soul, andseares  As    or, Journal of Geogr. Society,
spirit), which he commends to the safe keeping of vi. I37, se. J. L. P.
God (Alford, in loc., who quotes a similar use of  DERESER, THADDAEUS ANTON, a learned
rrapa'i~Krl in Josephus, Bell. t*td. iii. I8. 5; Philo, Roman Catholic priest, was born at Fahr in I755.
Quis rerum, etc., p. 499; and Hermas, Pastor, ii. Having completed his studies at Wirzburg and
3; see also Conybeare and Howson, v. ii. (Ist ed.) Heidelberg, he taught philosophy and theology in
p. 493. For a less tenable application of the the latter place. In 1783 he became professor of
phrase see Ellicott, in loco). The same sacredness the oriental languages and the interpretation of
of charge involved in deposits induced the ancients Holy Scripture in the University of Bonn. While
to lay them up in tenmples, which thus were used as here he published various works which shewed a
banks in many recorded instances; e.g. the temple free tendency. In I791 he became professor in
of Apollo at Delphi; Jupiter at Olympia (Meier, Strasburg, superior of the Episcopal Seminary, and
Att. Proc. pp. 512-515, quoted in Zmith's Dicty. of preacher in the Domkirche. In 1796 he lived in
Antiqq.); also the temple of Castor at Rome retirement at Mannheim, but returned to Heidel(Juvenal, xiv. 260); the temple of Peace at Rome berg, I797, as professor; and went to the Catholic
(Herodianus, lib. i); the temple of Diana at University of Freiburg, i806, as professor of DogEphesus (Plautus, in Bacch. ii. 3. 73); and the matik. In I8Io he was pastor at Carlsruhe, where
temple of Saturn at Rome (Macrobius, i. 8), with  he remained till he was ordered, as a sort of exile,
others. This usage was adopted even at Jerusalem, away to Constance to teach the ancient languages
where a large amount of wealth ('which did not 1there. This, however, he refused to do, and went
pertain to the account of the sacrzfices,' but was in to Switzerland, where he became professor in the
fact private property), was consigned to the safe Lyceum at Lucerne. In I814 he received his discustody of the temple (see 2 Maccab. iii., in the missal, went to Heidelberg, and was called by the
15th verse of which express reference is made to  Prussian government as professor to Breslau, as
the Mosaic provision about deposits, in Exod. xxii. professor of Dogmatik and Bible exegesis, I8I5.
7, etc.) —P. H.                               His death took place there in 1827. Dereser was
DERBE (Apepp3r). A town of Lycaonia (Acts a very liberal-minded theologian in the Catholic
xiv. 6), in Asia Minor, situated on the great road  Church. On that account he had a restless life.
from Tarsus to Iconium, and apparently about Bigotry and intolerance drew him into controvereighty miles north-west of the former. This road, sies. Persecution followed his steps. He transtraces of which still remain, is carried from Cilicia lated part of the 0. T. in the work begun by
through the Taurus range by a difficult pass called  Brentano who only did the N. T., I790, etc., three
the'Cilician Gates;' it then enters the extensive vols. 8vo. [BRENTANO.] Dereser and Scholz conupland plain of Lycaonia, which stretches away on tinued it, four parts, Frankfurt, 1797-I833, or 13
the north-west to Iconium. Near the opening of vols. 8vo. He is also the author of a large devothe pass into the plain Derbe must have stood, but tional work (Erbauungsbuch), for all days of the
its exact site has not as yet been satisfactorily identi- church year, Heidelberg, ISo, 4 vols. 8vo.)-S.D.
fled. About twenty miles westward of this pass  DEROR (Wj), the name of a bird remarkable
the mountain of Kara-dagh-a black volcanic cone
-rises up from the midst of the plain; at its basefor its swift fligt (Prov. xxvi. 2) and which built
and on its sides are extensive ruins, supposed to be  ts nest in temples (Ps. lxxxiv. 4). The older
those of Lystra.  The ancient road runs past the versions make it the turtle dove in the latter pasruins, and across the plain to Iconium. This was sae (LXX. rpvyigv; Vulg. turtr; Targ. and
the route followed by Paul on his missionary  Syr.       ); whilst in the former some render
journey, as recorded in Acts xv. and xvi., w hen t sparrow (LXX. roipovOol; Vulg. passer), and
came from Cilicia'to Derbe and Lystra.' On a oters simply flying fowl (Targ. inn, Wn), or
previous occasion he reached Derbe from the op- j winged animal (Zyr.    L 2-.).       The




DESERT                    667                 DESSAU
A. V. makes it'swallow' in both passages. This N. T. are gpyluos and ep/jLta. John preached in
seems the correcter reading; the bird is probably the'wilderness,' and our Lord fed the multitudes
the DZururi of Alexandria, mentioned by Forskaal, in the'wilderness' (Matt. iii. 3; xv. 33; Luke
the swift or black martin, as known to us. The xv. 4, etc.; Stanley, S. and P. 48I).
rapid gyrating flight of this bird corresponds to       (Sept.    os, etc.),  or     This
the etymological meaning of the word, from  S1,: t 
tofy in circles (Gesen).-W. L. A.           word is translated'desert' in Ps. cii. 6. Its real
meaning is'a desolation,' or' desolate place,' and
DESERT. This word is employed in the A. V. also'a dry or parched place.' From the same
of the Bible to represent no less than four distinct root comes the name of the mountain Horeb.
Hebrew words; and even in the rendering of these Chorbah is generally applied to what has been
it is not employed uniformly. The same Hebrew  rendered desolate by war or neglect: thus in Is.
term is sometimes translated'wilderness,' some- lxi. 4,'They shall build the old wastes' (Lev. xxvi.
times: desert,' and once'south.' In one place we 33; etc.) The word is employed in Job. iii. 14 to
find a Hebrew term treated as a proper name, and denote buildings which speedily fall to ruin. The
in another translated as an appellative. This gives only passage in which it is made to express'a
rise to considerable indefiniteness in many passages natural waste,' or'wilderness,' is Is. xlviii. 21,
of Scripture, and creates confusion in attempts at where it means the wilderness of Sinai.
interpretation. But besides all this, the ordinary
meaning attached to the English word'desert,' is  I    (Sept. i vvpos, and  plo),'wastenot that which can be legitimately attached to ally ness,' from  W,' to be laid waste.' In the A. V.
of the Hebrew words it is employed to represent. it is sometimes given as a proper name: thus in
We usually apply it to'a sterile sandy plain, with- Num. xxi. 20,'The top of Pisgah, which looketh
out inhabitants, without water, and without vege- toward Yeshimzon.' In this place, however, it aptation'-such for example as the desert of Sahara. pears to signify the wilderness of Arabia. In
No such region was known to the sacred writers; I Sam. xxiii. I9, and xxvi. I, it evidently means
no such region is once referred to in Scripture. It the wilderness of Judah; while in the following
will consequently be necessary to explain in this poetical passages it is applied to the wilderness of
article the several words which our translators have Sinai-Deut. xxxii. Io; Ps. lxviii. 7; xxviii. 40;
rendered' desert.'                          cvi. I4. It would appear from the reference in
I. E-IT (Sept. 9p0.,os, and dvvposy), M1idbar. Deuteronomy-'waste, howling wilderness,' that
I  LT:  et* l- ps  n         Xrs ) r 11  a. rthis word was intended to be more expressive of
This word is of very frequent occurrence, and is utter wasteness than any of the others. In the
usually rendered'wilderness' (Gen. xiv. 6; etc.), A. V. it is rendered by the words'wilderness,'
though in some places'desert' (Exod. iii. I; v. I;' desert,' and'solitary.'
etc.), and in Ps. lxxv. 6,'south.' It is derived       (.   papa and   vc) Aaba
from the root'L.,'to lead to pasture;' and it'     
T'desert,' from 31','to be dry or sterile.' This
means a wide open tract used as a pasture land: term is employed to denote any dry or sterile
thus, in Joel ii. 22,'The pastures of the desert do,  as in ob. xxiv. 5, and Is. xl. 3. It is thus
flourish.' It is the name most commonly applied ued however, only in poetry, and is equivalent to
to the country lying between Palestine and Egypt, Midar, to which it is the poetic parallel in Is.
including the peninsula of Sinai, through which the  xxv. I:'The wilderness (Midbar) shall be glad
Israelites wandered (Gen. xxi. 14, 2I; Exod. iv. 27; for them; and the desert (Arabah) shall rejoice,
xix. 2; Josh. i. 6; etc.) Now, the peninsula of etc.;' also in xli. 19. Midbar may be regarded as
Sinai is a mountainous region; in early spring its describing a region in relation to its use by manscanty soil produces grass and green herbs, and a pastoral region; Arabah, in relation to its phywith the exception of one little plain on the north sical qualities-a wilderness (Stanley, S. and P.
side of the great mountain chain, there is no sand  ).  But in the vast majority of cases in which
whatever. This plain is distinguished by the name, it occurs  the Bible, Arabah is the specific name
Debbeter-Ramlehi,'plainofsand' (Robinson, B. R  given either to the whole, or a part of the deep
i. 77; Stanley, S. and P. 9; Porter, Hnsdbookfor valley extending from Tiberias to the Gulf of AkaS. andP., 2, sa.) On the other hand, in this whole  bah. With the article NII, it denotes, in the
region streams of water are not found except ind thistorical portions of Scripture, the whole of the
winter, and after heavy rain; fountains are very valley, or at least that pat of it included in the
rare; and there are no settled inhabitants. Mid- territory of the Israelites (Deut. i. 7; iii. 17; Josh.
bar is also used to denote the wilderness of Arabia;   I etc.) when the word is applied to othe
but generally with the article rneso,'the desert' districts, or to distinct sections of the valley, the
(I Kings ix. i8). The wilderness of Arabia is not article is omitted, and the plural number is used.
sandy; it is a vast undulating plain, parched and Thus we find'the plains of Moab' (rniV), Num.
barren during summer and autumn, but in winter x   w tc.);  theplains ofJericho (Josh. iv. 3);
xxii. x; etc.);'tre blainzs of Jericho' (Josh. iv. i,);
and early spring yielding good pasture to the flocks' the  s of the wilderness' (2 Sam. xvi. I).
of the Bedawin that roam. over it. The Midbar of The Dead Sea is called'the Sea of the pai n' 
z7dah is the bleak mountainous region lying along     The southern section of this sterile valley
the western shore of the Dead Sea, where David  s ill    retains its ancent nae, el-Arabhi ( vaobison,
fed his father's flocks, and hid from Saul (I Sam. sti retains it i. 186; Stanley, S. aa d P. 84).
xvii. 28; xxvi. 2, sq) The meaning of Midbar is  ARABAH... 
thus a district without settled inhabitants, without [RAAH]-. L. P
streams of water, but adapted for pasturage. It is  DESSAU  (Ae-oao6), a village of Judah (2
the country of nomads, as distinguished from that Maccab. xiv. I6), conjecturally identified by
of the agricultural and settled people (Is. xxxv. I; Ewald with Adasa, mentioned in I Maccab. vii.
1. 2; Jer. iv. iI). The Greek equivalents in the 40 (Gesck. iv. 368, note). —.




DEZ VOEUX                    668            DEUTERONOMY
DEZ VOEUX (A. V.), author of a work of now on the point of being accomplished.. Fully
some note, entitled A Philosophical and Criticalaware of the tendencies of the people, and foreseeEssay on Ecclesiastes; wherein the author's design  ing their alienations, Moses conjures them most
is stated; his doctrine vindicated; his method ex- impressively to hold fast the commands of the
plained in an analytical paraphrase annexed to a Lord, and not to forget his revelations, lest curses
new version of the text from the Hebrew, etc., 4to. should befall them instead of blessings (ch. i.-iv.)
Lond. 1760.   This work is an elaborate and The Lawgiver then expatiates on the spirit of the
learned production, and contains much that is law, and its reception into the hearts of men, both
worthy of consideration. But the author sacri- in a positive and negative way. Fear, he says, is
fices too much to his preconceived theory of the the primary effect of the law, as also its aim. As
philosophical design of the book, and is too apt to Israel had once listened to the announcement of
force meanings on the sacred writer by critical the fundamental laws of the theocracy with a
emendation and ingenious speculation. The want sacred fear, in like manner should man also reof due arrangement also stands in the way of the ceive, through the whole system of the law, a
student reaping full advantage from his farrago of lively and awful impression of the holiness and
notes. The author was a clergyman of the Church  majesty of God (ch. v.) But as the essence and
of England, and chaplain to a regiment, but be- sum of the law is love to Jehovah, the only and
yond this we have not been able to gather any in- true God, man shall by the law be reminded of the
formation concerning him. His work was trans- Divine mercy, so variously manifested in deeds;
lated into German by Bamberger, 4to. Halle, and this reflection is calculated to rouse in man's
1764.-W. L. A.                                heart love for God. This love is the only and
DEUEf~ L Kl?  et'ao ltrue source from which proper respect and obediDEUEL ({^..,; Sept.'Paryov^X), the fatherence to the law can proceed (ch. vi.)
of Eliasaph, one of the captains or princes of the  There were, however, two tempting deviations,
children of Gad (Num. i. 14; vii. 42, 47; x. 20). in following which the people were sure to be led
In ii. 14 he is called Reuel, by a change of the I  astray. The law, in its strict rigour, was but too
into; but which of these is the correct reading apt to tempt them to desert Jehovah, and to yield
it is impossible to determine. The LXX. always to idolatry (the very approval of which even in
give the word with an R, and in Num. ii. 4, thought polluted the heart), by discontinuing to
Onkelos; the Syr. and Pers. Verss. give it the bear the heavy yoke of the law. Hence the most
same. But the Samar., Vulg., Jonath., and Arab. impressive warnings against Canaan's inhabitants
V. read I, and this several codices of the He- and idols; and hence the declarations that Israel,
brew give. -W. L. A.                          in placing themselves on a par with the heathens,
should have to endure an equal fate with them,
DEUTERONOMY (Aevrepovoutov), the Greek and be repulsed from the presence of Jehovah (ch.
name given by the Alexandrian Jews to the fifthvii. viii.)
book of Moses (a corresponding name,    19O3    The other, not less dangerous, deviation is that
mnlri, is, however, also found with the Rabbins), of self-justification-the proud fancy that all the
by which the general tenor of the book is very favours Jehovah had shewn to his people were
well characterised.  It comprises that series of ad- merely in consequence of their own deservings.
dresses which the Lawgiver delivered (orally and Therefore Jehovah tells them  that it was not
by writing, i. 5; xxviii. 58, etc.) to assembled through their own worthiness and purity of heart
Israel in the second month of the fortieth year of that they inherited the land of the heathens. It
their wandering through the desert, when the se- was only through his free favour; for their sins
cond generation was about to cross the Jordan, bore too strong and constant testimony how little
and when the parting hour of Moses had nearly they ought to take credit to themselves for it (ch.
arrived. The book of Deuteronomy contains an ix.)
account of the sublime and dignified manner in  The history of the people, before and after the
which Moses terminated that work, the accom- exile, shews these two deviations in their fullest
plishment of which was his peculiar mission. It bearings. Idolatry we find to have been the besetforms a sacred legacy which he here bequeathed  ting sin before that period, and presumptuous pride
to his people; and very different from those laws of heart after it; a proof how intimately acquaintwhich he had announced to them at Sinai. The ed the Lawgiver was with the character and disobjective form  of the law is less conspicuous, position of his people, and how necessary therefore
and the subjectivity (individuality) of the Law- those warnings had been.
giver, and his peculiar relation to his people,  Therefore, adds Moses, turn to that which Jestands out more prominently. A thoroughly sub- hovah, in giving you the tables of the law, and
lime and prophetic spirit pervades all these speeches establishing the Tabernacle and priesthood, has
from beginning to end. The thoughts of the man intimated as a significant symbol,'to circumcise
of God are entirely taken up with the inward con- the foreskin of your heart,' and to cherish hlve
cerns of his people, their relations, future fate, and in your inward soul.  Think of Jehovah, the just
eventful vicissitudes. The Lawgiver here stands and merciful, whose blessing and curses shall be
amidst Israel, warning and consoling, command- set before your eyes as a lasting monument upon
ing and exhorting, surveying and proclaiming the the mounts Ebal and Gerizim (ch. x. xi.)
future with marvellous discernment.             The mention of that fact leads the Lawgiver to
The speeches begin with the enumeration of the the domestic and practical life of the people when
wonderful dealings of God with the chosen people  domesticated in their true home, the Land of Proin the early period of their existence.  Moses mise; which he further regulates by a fixed and
clearly proves to them the punishment of unbelief, solid rule, by new laws, which for this, their new
the obduracy of Israel, and the faithfulness of Je- design and purport, form a sort of complement to
hovah with regard to his promises, which were the laws already given.  There, in the land of




DEUTERONOMY                   669             DEUTERONOMY
their forefathers, Jehovah will appoint one fixed  The blessings and curses of Jehovah, the two
place for his lasting sanctuary, when every other opposite extremes which were to be impressed
place dedicated to the worship of idols is to be de- upon the minds of the people at their entrance into
stroyed. At that chosen spot alone are the sacri- Canaan, and which have hitherto been spoken of
fices to be killed, while cattle in general, which  only in general terms, are now set forth in their
are not destined for sacred purposes, but merely fullest detail, picturing in the most lively colours
for food, may be slaughtered at all places accord- the delightful abundance of rich blessings on the
ing to convenience-a regulation which still leaves one hand, and the awful visitations of Heaven's
in full force the previous laws concerning the eat- wrath on the other.  The prophetic speeches
ing of blood, and the share of Jehovah in slaugh- visibly and gradually increase in energy and enthutered cattle. This sanctuary was to be considered  siasm, until the perspective of the remotest future
as the central point for all sacred objects. The of the people of God lies open to the eye of the
whole land was, by means of the sanctuary esta- inspired Lawgiver in all its chequered details, when
blished in the midst of it, consecrated and dedi- his words resolve themselves into a flight of poeticated to Jehovah. This consecration was incom- cal ecstasy, into the strains of a splendid triumphal
patible with any defilement whatsoever. On that song in which the tone of grief and lamentation is
account the Canaanites must be exterminated, and as heart-rending as the announcement of divine
all idolatrous abominations destroyed, since no- salvation therein is jubilant (ch. xxvii. xxviii).
thing ought to be added to or taken from the laws The history of the law concludes with a supplement
of God (ch. xii.) For the same reason (i.e., for concerning him who was deemed worthy by the
the sake of the holiness of the land, diffused from  Lord to transmit his law to Israel (ch. xxxiv.)
the sacred centre), no false prophets or sooth-  Thus much regarding the contents and connecsayers are to be tolerated, as they may turn the tion of the book of Deuteronomy.
minds of the people from the law, by establishing  The critics who have tried to shew that the
a different one, and therefore even a whole town  Pentateuch is composed of miscellaneous docugiven to the worship of idols must be demolished ments and by various authors, have more difficulty
by force of arms (ch. xiii.)  Neither, in like man- in applying their theory to this book than to any
ner, must the heathen customs of mourning be other of the series. [PENTATEUCH.] Indeed the
imitated, or unclean beasts eaten; but the people most sceptical critics admit that, with the exception
must always remain true to the pr'evious laws con- of a few interpolations (comp. for instance, De
cerning food, etc., and shew their real attachment Wette, Introd. sec. I54, sq.), the whole of this
to Jehovah and his religion by willingly paying the book was moulded, as it were, in one single cast.
tithe as ordained by the law (ch. xiv.) To the  The date, however, of the composition of Deusame end likewise shall the regulations concerning  teronomy, as well as its authienticity, has given rise
the years of release and the festivals of Jehovah to a far greater variety of opinion, more especially
(to be solemnised in the place of the new-chosen among those who are opposed to the authorship of
Sanctuary) be most scrupulously observed (ch. xv. Moses. The older critics, such as De Wette,
xvi.) Only znzblemished sacrifices shall be offered, Gesenius, etc., considered Deuteronomy as the
for all idol-worshippers must irrevocably be put latestproduction of all the books of the Pentateuch;
to death by stoning. For the execution of due while the more recent critics, such as Von Bohlen,
punishment, honest judges must govern the nation, Vatke, George, etc., have come to just the conwhile the highest tribunal shall exist in the place trary opinion, and declare it to be the earliest of
chosen for the Sanctuary, consisting of the priests the Mosaic writings. The whole of their disputes
and judges of the land. If a king be given by on this head turn chiefly on the prophetic character
God to the people, he shall first of all accommo- of Deuteronomy. Some find that this peculiar
date himself to the laws of God, and not lead a feature characterizes the book as contemporary
heathen life. Next to the regal and judicial digni- with the later prophets, and that it contains reflecties, the ecclesiastical power shall exist in its full tions on the law, as on a thing long in existence:
right; and again, next to it, the prophetic order others, however, are of a quite contrary opinion,
(ch. xvii. xviii.)  Of all these institutions, the and discover in this subjective character, so preduties of the judicial power are most clearly de- dominant in Deuteronomy, the very proof of its
fined; for Jehovah does as little suffer that in his prior and early composition; and they consider,
land the right of the innocent shall be turned moreover, that the prophetic enunciations contained
aside, as that indulgence shall be shewn to the in it were afterwards developed into objective, rigid,
evil-doer (ch. xix.) The exposition of the civil and matter-of-fact laws, such as we find them in
law is followed by that of the martial law, which  Exodus and Numbers. For this reason, they add,
has some bearing upon the then impending war is the legislative tone in Deuteronomy more simple
with Canaan, as the most important war and re- than in the other books, embracing merely the
presenting that with the heathen nations in gene- incipient elements and suggestive notes of a comral (ch. xx.) These are again followed by a series plete code of law.
of laws in reference to the preceding, and refer-  A very strong proof of the genuineness of the
ring chiefly to hard cases in the judicial courts, by book lies in its relation to the later writings of the
which Moses obviously designed to exhibit the prophets.  Of all the books of the Pentateuch,
whole of the civil life of his people in its strict Deuteronomy has been made most use of by the
application to the theocratic system of law and prophets, simply because it is best calculated to
right. Therefore the form of prayer to be spoken serve as a model for prophetic declarations, as also
at the offering up of the firstlings and tithe-the  because of the inward harmony that exists between
theocratic confession of faith —by which every Is- the prophSecies and the laws upon which they are.raelite acknowledges in person that he is what God based.
has enjoined and called him to be, forms a beautiful  Deuteronomy exercised a most decisive and reconclusion of the whole legislation (ch. xxi.-xxvi).  markable influence more especially on Jeremiah,




DEUTERONOMY                   670             DEUTERONOMY
owing not only to his priestly character, but also (xiii. xvii. xviii.), to the different modes of idoland chiefly to the peculiar circumstances of his worship (iv. I9; xvii. 3), and to the exile (xxviii.
time, so admirably suited to illustrate the threats sq.) In suggesting these critical points, however,
and warnings contained in that book, in the they do not consider that all these subjects are most
strongest light of sacred and immutable truth, closely and intimately connected with the spirit
Deuteronomy was a book altogether written for and principles of the law itself, and that all these
the times of Jeremiah, who could therefore do regulations and prophecies appear here in Deuternothing better than resume the old text, and bring onomy, as necessary finishing-points to the Law,
it home impressively to the people. The influence so indispensable for the better consolidation of the
which the spirit of Deuteronomy thus exercised I subsequent and later relations of the theocracy.
on that prophet, extended even to the adoption,  More anachronisms are said to be
on his part, of a considerable number of its ex-  I. The dwelling places of Jair mentioned m
pressions and phraseological terms.  These lin- I Deut. iii. 14, sq. (compare Judg. x. 3, sq.) We
guistical coincidences have been most erroneously consider, however, that the men mentioned in the
accounted for by some, by assuming the contem- two passages are evidently different persons, though
porary origin of both books, while others (Von of the same name. Nor is it difficult to prove
Bohlen) have gone so far in their speculations as from other sources, that there really existed at the
even to allot to Jeremiah a share in the composi- time of Moses a man by name Jair.
tion, or rather interpolation, of Deuteronomy. Such  2. The notice (iii. I i) concerning king Og,
views betray total ignorance of the peculiar and which looks more like a note of a subsequent
strictly defined character of Deuteronomy, so dif- writer in corroboration of the story told in the
ferent in many respects, even as regards the style chapter. But this hypothesis falls to the ground
and language, from the book of Jeremiah, though  when we consider that Moses did not write for his
it cannot be denied that no prophet ever adhered  contemporaries merely, but also for late posterity.
more closely to the prototypes of the earlier periods,  The book contains, moreover, not a small numor ever repeated more frequently the earlier enun- ber of plain, though indirect traces, indicative of
ciations, than did Jeremiah.                 its Mosaic origin. We thus find in it:
Among.the arguments advanced against the     I. Numerous notices concerning nations with
authenticity of Deuteronomy, are:            whom the Israelites had then come in contact,
I. The contradictions said to exist between this but who, after the Mosaic period, entirely disapand the other books of Moses;                peared from the pages of history: such are the
2. Certain anachronisms committed by the author. accounts of the residences of the kings of Bashan
These contradictions are more especially alleged  (i. 4).
to exist in the festival laws, where but arbitrary  2. The appellation of'mountain of the Amoand unwarranted views are mostly entertained by rites,' used throughout the whole book (i. 7, I9,
such critics with regard to the nature and original 20, 44), while even in the book of Joshua, soon
meaning of the festivals, which they identify alto- after the conquest of the land, the name is already
gether with natural or season festivals, and without I exchanged for'mountains of Judah' (Josh. xi.
lending to them a more spiritual character and  I6, 21).
signification.                                 3. The observation (ii. Io), that the Emim had
3. That the Sinai of the other books is always formerly dwelt in the plain of Moab: they were a
called Horeb in Deuteronomy.-They forget, how- great people, equal to the Anakim. This obserever, that Horeb is the general name of the whole vation quite accords with Genesis xiv. 5.
mountain, while Sinai is the special name of a  4. A detailed account (ii. 12) concerning.the
particular part of it. This distinction is, indeed, Horim and their relations to the Edomites.
most scrupulously observed everywhere in the   5. An account of the Zamzummim (ii. 20, 2I),
Pentateuch.                                  one of the earliest races of Canaan, though men4. That Priests and Levites are used as synony- tioned nowhere else.
mous terms in Deuteronomy (on account of the   6. A very circumstantial account of the Reexpression 2lP iD~n3); while, in the other phaiim (iii. 3, sq.), with whose concerns the author
books of the Pentateuch, they are used as terms seems to have been well acquainted.
distinct from each other.-By that expression, how-  The stand-point also of the author of Deuterever, can only be meant the Levitical priests, i.e. onomy is altogether m the Mosaic time, and had
the only legitimate priests; this meaning is borne I it been assumed and fictitious, there must necesout by Deuteronomy xviii. 3-8, where a clear dis- sarily have been moments when the spurious author
tinction is made between Priests and Levites.  would have been off his guard, and unmindful of
5. That in Deuteronomy i. 44, are mentioned  the part he had to play. But no discrepancies of
the Amorites instead of the Amalekites as in Num. this kind can be traced; and this is in itself an
xiv. 45.-Here also they have forgotten to notice' evidence of the genuineness of the book.
that, in the sequel of the very passage alluded to  A great number of other passages force us likein Deuteronomy, both the Amorites and Almalekites wise to the conclusion, that the whole of Deuterare mentioned.                               onomy originated in the time of Moses. Such are
6. That the cause of the punishment of Moses the passages where
is differently stated in Num. xxvii. 14, and Deut.  I. A comparison is drawn between Canaan and
iii. 26.-To this objection we reply, that both the Egypt (xi. Io, sq.), with the latter of which the
guilt and punishment of Moses are described in author seems thoroughly acquainted.
both books as originating with the people; comp.  2. Detailed descriptions are given of the fertility
also Deut. xxxii. 51, etc.                   and productions of Canaan (viii. 7, sq.)
Among the anachronisms in Deuteronomy are    3. Regulations are given relating to the conreckoned the allusions made in it to the Temple quest of Canaan (xii. I, sq.; xx. i, sq.), which
(xii. xvi. I sqq.), to the royal and prophetic powers cannot be understood otherwise than by assuming




DEVIL                    671                DEYLING
that they had been framed in the Mosaic time,  DEW. In Palestine the dews fall copiously at
since they could be of no use after that period.  night, in spring and autumn, but scarcely any dew
Besides whole pieces and chapters in Deutero- falls during the summer months-from the middle
nomy, such as xxxii. xxxiii., betray in form, lan- of May to the middle of August. It continues,
guage, and tenor, a very early period in Hebrew  however, to fall for some time after the rains of spring
literature. Nor are the laws and regulations in have ceased, and begins to fall before the rains of
Deuteronomy less decisive of the authenticity of the autumn commence, and we may from this gather
book. We are struck with the most remarkable the sense in which the Scriptural references to dew
phenomenon, that many laws from the previous are to be understood. Without the dews continubooks are here partly repeated and impressed with ing to fall after the rains have ceased, and commore energy, partly modified, and partly altoge- mencing before the rains return, the season of
ther abolished, according to the contingencies of actual drought, and the parched appearance of
the time, or as the new aspect of circumstances the country, would be of much longer duration
among the Jews rendered such steps necessary than they really are. The partial refreshment thus
(comp. e.g. Deut. xv. 17 with Exod. xxi. 6; Deut. afforded to the ground at the end of a summer withxii. with Lev. xvii). Such pretensions to raise, or out dews or rains is of great value in Western Asia,
even to oppose his own private opinions to the| and would alone explain all the Oriental referauthority of divine law, are found in no author ofI ences to the effects of dew. This explanation is ot
the subsequent periods, since the whole of the  farther interest as indicating the times of the year
sacred literature of the later times is, on the con- I to which the Scriptural notices of dew refer; for as
trary, rather the echo than otherwse of the Penta  it does not, in any perceptible degree, fall in sumteuch, and is altogether founded on it. Add to mer, and as few would think of mentioning it in
this the fact, that the law itself forbids most im- the season of rain, we may take all such notices
pressively to add to, or take anything from it, a to refer to the months of April, May, part of Auprohibition which is repeated even in Deuteronomy gust, and September.-J. K.
(comp. iv. 2; xiii. I); and it is but too evident, DEXIOLABOS (&{EoXcios). This is the Greek
that, if the opinion of the critics be correct, that word rendered'searmen in the A. V of Acts
this book contains nothing more than a gradual         It  uncertain what kind of soldiers is
development.of the law-it cl s to o i wt.  xxiii. 23. It is uncertain what kind of soldiers is
development of the law-it clashes too often wit  denoted by it. It strictly signifies one who takes
its own principles, and pronounces thus its own with the gh  hand  Hence it has been conjec
sentence of condemnatioan.Xl                  with the right hand.  Hence it has been conjecsentence of condemnation..       tured [Meursius in Glossar. ] that it denotes officers
The part of Deuteronomy (xxxiv.) respecting the t erored te sae untions int dente  s ces
who performed the same functions in the camp as
death of Moses requires a particular explanation. lictors did in the c ing appointed to appreThat the whole of this section is to be regarded as   malefactors, and to guard cminals when led
T.,,        ~,,. hend malefactors, and to guard criminals when led
a piece altogether apart from what precedes it, or to execution, and called 5eoXdiot, from taking
as a supplement from another writer, has already with the rigt hand the prisoner. This explaabeen maintained by the older theologians (comp. tio ishowever, deduced from the etymology of
ex. gr. Carpzov, Introd. in libr. V. T. i. p. I37); the wod,     to the ojection arising f
n   o   by * A r   1 r  2the word, and is open to the objection arising from
and this opinion is confirmed not only by the  the improbability that such a number of military
tents of the chapter, but also by the express decla- lictors would be on duty with the forces of the triration of the book itself on that event and itshem at a time could be ready
xxxi. contains the conclusion  bune, as that 200 of them at a time could be ready
relations; for chaptexxxi containse concluson  to depart with one prisoner.  Others understand
of the work, where Moses describes himself as tle the word as denoting the guard of the tribune [ut
author of the previous contents, as also of the Song thisis open to the same objection; we can hardly sup(ch. xxxii.), and the blessings (ch. xxxiii.) belong- p   the commander ofa cohort to have had so large
ing to it. All that follows is, consequently, not  bodyguard as to be able to spare 200 men from it
from Moses, the work being completed and con- on such an errand. The only other writer who
eluded with chapter xxxiii.  There is anotheruses the word is Constant. Porphyr  eat i i),
uses the word is Constant. Porphyr {Thereat. i. I),
circumstance which favours this opinion, namely,    im the &emoXdpot are distinguished from the
the close connection that exists between the last          p        In Acts they are distinbeginning.of archers and the peltaste.  In Acts they are distinsection of Deuteronomy and the b      g   of guished from the soldiers and the horsemen. We
Joshua (comp. Deut. xxxiv. 9 with Josh. i. I  may infer from this that they were a kind of
where also the term l'I, in the latter passage, infantry and light-armed, of te class  orai or
must not be overlooked) plainly shews that ch.  elites; perhaps, as Meyer suggests, Jaculatoresor
xxxiv. of Deuteronomy is intended to serve as a   itr(Cmmnt i. d. N.. i lc.    Our
poi of erasiio to the book of Joshua, and thaFundilores (Comment. iib. d. iv. T. in loc.)] Our
point of transition o the b  Joshua and that vin'spearmen' seems to have been derived
it was written by the same author as the latter               lancearii.
from the Vulgate' lancearii.'
The correct view of this chapter, therefore, is to
consider it as a real suppflement, but by no means  DEYLING, SOLOMON (I677-I755), a learned
as an interpolation (such as some critics erroneously Lutheran divine, professor of theology in the Unisuppose to exist in the Pentateuch in general). To  versity of Leipzig. His contributions to biblical
apply to it the term interpolation would be as science were numerous, and have had a considerwrong as to give that appellation ex. gr. to the 8th able reputation amongst continental scholars. His
book of Cmesar's work,'De Bello Gallico,' simply most important work bears the title, Observationes
because it was equally written by an unknown Sacre, in quibus multa Scripture Veteris et Novi
author, for the very purpose of serving as a szpple- Testamenti dubia vexata solvuntur, loca difiociliora
ment to the previous books. [PENTATEUCH. ]-  ex anliquitate et variz doctrines adparatu illustranH. A. C. H.,'fr, atque ab audaci recentiorzm criticofrnm depravzDEVIL. [DEMON; SATAN.] -         tione solide vindicantur. It consists of three parts,
DEVIL.    [D)EMON; SATAN.]
published respectively in the years I708, I711,
DEVILS, CASTING OUT OF. [EXORCISM.]        1715. Other and enlarged editions were subse



DIADEM                    672                   DIAL
quently issued by the author; the latest of which his house' (1lAntiq. x. 2. I). The Chaldee renders
were a fourth edition of Part I. in I735, a fourth the passage in Kings, PV 12N1K,' hour-stone,' and
of Part II. in 1736, and a third of Part III. in gives the same meaning to'the stairs' (2 Kings
1739, all in 4to. The contents of the work are in ix. I3), and renders Isa. xxxviii. 8 NV [:9
the form of dissertations on difficult passages in bI', by'the shadow of the stone of hours,'
the 0. and N. T., Hebrew and Greek scriptural Symmachus most certainly understood a sun-dial:
terms, biblical' antiquities, and various objections o-rpedw T  J o-v rKlav r ypauLc/qsv X KaTIr/' ev WpoXo-yit
urged by Spinoza, Hobbes, and other writers. "AXa','I will cause to return the shadow of the
Two other volumes of a similar kind were pub- degrees which (shadow) is gone down on the dial of
blished by Deyling.  The one bears the title, Ahaz:' and so Jerome renders it Horologium. On
Observationes Miscellanee, in quibus res varii argu- the whole, the dial of Ahaz seems to have been a
menti ex theologia, historia, et antiquitate sacra eno- distinct contrivance, rather than any part of a
datetractantur, oracula utriusquefederis dzficiliora house. It would also seem probable, from the
et loci patrum illustrantur, et a dissentienliumn im- circumstances, that it was of such a size, and so
primis recentiorum depravatione solide vindicantur, placed, that Hezekiah, now convalescent (Isa.
Lips. 1736, 4to; and may be regarded as forming xxxviii. 21, 23), but not perfectly recovered, could
a fourth part of the preceding work, since, of the witness the miracle from his chamber or pavilion:
twenty-eight dissertations contained in it, the first  hall, te or tis shado,' etc. May it not
seven only are upon questions of church history, have been situate'in the middle court' mentioned
the remaining twenty-one are devoted to Scrip-   ings xx 4?  The cut given below (No.  6)
tural exegesis. The other volume was entitledpresents a dial discovered in Hindostan, near
Observationntu   Sacraru. n pars qiznta, etc. Lips. Delhi, the ancient capital of the Mogul empire,
1748, 4to.-S. N.                             whose construction would well suit the circum-DITADEM~. [~CROWN.]            stances recorded of the dial of Ahaz. It seems to
have answered the double purpose of an observatory
DIAL. The invention of the sun-dial belongs and a dial-a rectangled triangle, whose hypomost probably to the Babylonians. Herodotus thenuse is a staircase, apparently parallel to the
affirms, that the Greeks derived from them the axis of the earth, and bisects a zone or coping of a
pole (supposed to mean the dial-plate), the gnomon, wall, which wall connects the two terminating
and the division of day into twelve parts (ii. towers right and left. The coping itself is of a
o09).  Vitruvius also ascribes the most ancient
form of the dial, called. hemicycle, to Berosus the
Chaldsean (ix. 9), though he probably means no
more than that he introduced it into Greece.                      Q 
Certainly those Greeks to whom Vitruvius acribes  \                        r 
inventions or improvements in dialling, can all be               i                 F-,.
proved to have had communication, more or less                   I              /  i!
remote, with the Chaldseans. The first mention/ )                                  l 
in Scripture of'the hour,' is made by Daniel, at  / \ 
Babylon (ch. iii. 6). The Greeks used the dial be-  -\ j —,'
fore the Romans; and with regard to the Egyp-      (.
tians'there are no indications in the Sculptures to  i.''.. 
prove the epoch when the dial was first known in    p i,  a..>- x'.
Egypt' (Wilkinson, Anc. Egyptians, vol. iii. p.  E? 
342). The circumstances connected with the dial,..
of Ahaz (2 Kings xx. I I; Isa. xxxviii. 8), which is             206.
perhaps the earliest of which we have any clear
mention, entirely concur with the derivation of gno- circular form, and accurately'graduated to mark,
monies from the Babylonians. Ahaz had formed         f 
monics fm the Babylonians. Ahaz ad formed  by the shadow of the gnomon above, the sun's proan alliance with Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria (2  b e and after noo; for when the sun is
Eings xvi. 7, 9): he was a man of taste, and was gress before and after noon; for when the sun is
Kings xvi. 7, 9): he was a man of taste, and was in his zenith e shines directly on the staircase, and
in his zenith he shines directly on the staircase, andl
ready to adopt foreign improvements, as appears the shadow falls beyond the coping. A at surfac
from his admiration of the altar at Damascus, and his the  sticase ad a gnoon ited the
introduction of a copy of it into Jerusalem (2 Kings  uilding for the purpose  an  observatory. Acxvi. io).'The princes of Babylon sent unto him uilding for the purpose of a observatory. Acto inquire of the wonder that was done in the land' cording to te k aws of ractio, a  d or
(2 Chron. xxxii. 3i). Hence the dial also, which body of air of different density from the common
(2 Chron. xxxii. 31). Hence the dial also, which   ^     interposed between the gnomon and
was called after his name, was probably an impor- atmosphee interposed  between  the gnomo  and
tation from Babylon. Different conjectures have the coping of the dial-plate below, would, if the
been formed respecting the construction'of this te sdow to re cede fro  the perpendicular
instrument. The difficulty is to understand what height of the staircase, and of course to re-ascend
is meant by the fnlK nn1n,'the degrees or steps the steps on the coping, by which it had beof Ahaz.' They may mean lines or figures on a fore noon gone down; and if the cloud were rarer,
dial-plate, or on a pavement, or the steps to the a contrary effect would take place.  (See Bishop
palace of Ahaz, or some steps or staircase he had  Stock's Translation of Isaiah, Bath, 1803, p.
erected elsewhere (vid. Carpzov, Apparat. His- IO9.)  Such a building might also be called'a
toric. Crit. Lips. 1748, p. 352, etc.) The Sept. house.' It agrees also with Adam Clarke's suppoin Isaiah reads ava3pa6obs TO Ot'KOU TOrO r-arpo  sition, that'the stairs' were really'a dial,' and
-ov,' the steps or stairs of the house of thy probably this very dial, on which, as being in the
father.' Josephus also says,'steps or degrees in most public place, or rather on the platorm on




DIAMOND                    673                  DICK
the top of which they set Jehu, while they proclaim- erroneously written for 1, and that Riblah, near
ed him king by sound of trumpet' (Commentary  Hamath, is referred to. It has been attempted to
on 2 Kings ix. I3).  Bishop Stock's speculation render this theory probable by giving a peculiar
that the retrogression of the shadow might be interpretation to Ezek. vi. I4, the only passage in
effected by refraction, is supported by a natural which the word occurs. In the A. V. we read,
phenomenon of the kind on record. On the 27th of' I will make the land desolate, yea, more desolate
March I703, P. Romauld, prior of the cloister of than the wilderness toward Diblath.' The Hebrew
Metz, made the observation that, owing to such a would bear another rendering,' I will make the
refraction of the solar rays in the higher regions of land desolate... from the wilderness to Dibthe atmosphere, in connection with the appearance  a' (            The'wilderness,' it is
of a cloud, the shadow on his dial deviated an hour said, means the'souh, and Dibla, or Rbl
and a half (Rosenmuller).  The -phenomenon on which is the supposed true reading, the extreme
the dial of Ahaz, however, was doubtless of a'north,' and thus the whole land is indicated.
miraculous nature, even should such a medium of But in no other part of Scripture have we such a
the miracle be admitted; nothing less than a divine fom o expression, and it would be contrary to
commuicatincoudhae e.abe Iform of expression, and it would be contrary to
communication could have enabled Isaiah to pre- sound criticism first to invent a reading, and then
dict its occurrence at that time and place; besides, to base upon it an unexampled mode of interpretahe gave the king his own choice whether the tion. The Sept. renders a7rb r3s epuov Ae/3Xal,
shadow should advance or retire ten degrees. and the Syriac and Vulgate agree with it. We
There seems, however to be no necessity for seek- prefer to regard Diblath as a district on the eastern
ing any medium for this miracle, and certainly no border of Moab, adjoining the desert, in which
necessity for supposing any actual interference with were situated Almon-Diblathaim (Num. xxxiii. 46),
the revolution of the earth, or the position of the and Beth-Diblathaim (Jer. xlviii. 22). According
sun. In the more distinct and ample account of to Jerome these lay not far from Medaba, which is
it in 2 Kings, it is simply said that the Lord, at the a few miles south-east of Heshbon (Onomast. s. v.
prayer of Isaiah, brought the shadow ten degrees  assa).-J. L. P.
backward.  The words _W'     1'I3 Fl rbw'v\                             \
in Is. xxxviii. 8,'And the sun went back ten de- DIBON (1; Sept. Aaqd)  an ancient town
grees,' are wanting in three of Dr. Kennicott's on the eastern border of Moab, situated on the
MSS., and originally in two of De Rosi's; and plateau about three miles north of the river Arnon.
the words'The shadow of the degrees which is It was one of the stations of the Israelites (Nim.
gone down in the sun-dial of Ahaz' are more cor- xxxiv. 45). The Gadites rebuilt and occupied it
rectly rendered on the margin degrees'by or with temporarily (xxxii. 34), hence probably its name
the sun,' i.e., by means of the progress of the sun. Dibon-Gad. It was eventually allotted to the tribe
The first o6 htos in this verse is omitted in MS. of Reuben (Josh. xiii. 9, 17). On the decline of
Pachom of the Sept. Even if the mention of the the Jewish power the Moabites again seized the
sun be retained, as in Ecclus. xlviii. 23, it is only place, and both Isaiah and Jeremiah mention it
fair to understand the words in their popular sense, among their towns (Is. xv. 2; Jer. xlviii. 18).
the solar rays, or such a recession of the shadow as Jerome and Eusebius make two Dibons, one in the
would have been occasioned by an actual recession wilderness where the Israelites encamped, and the
of the sun.  Adopting the present state of the other in Moab (Onomast. s. v. Debon). This is
text, it is observable that what is called the sun in evidently an error, as may be seen by an examinaone part of the verse is called the shadow in the tion of the position assigned to the town in Num.
other. It is certainly as philosophical to speak of xxxiv. 45. Both these writers state that Dibon of
the sun returning, as it is of his setting and rising. Moab was in their day a large village near the
Thus the miracle, from all the accounts of it, might Arnon. Its ruins, still retaining the ancient name
consist only of the retrogression of the shadow ten Diban, were visited by Seetzen, and Irby and
degrees, by a simple act of Almighty power, with- Mangles. The latter travellers describe them as of
out any medium, or at most by that of refracting considerable extent, but presenting nothing of
those rays only which fell upon the dial. It is not interest (Travels, p. 462).
said that any time was lost to the inhabitants of  In Is. xv. 9, Dimon of Moab is mentioned, and
the world at large; it was not even observed by it appears to be another form of Dibon. Jerome
the astronomers of Babylon, for the deputation says that in his day both names were applied to
came to inquire concerning the wonder that was the village, and the form Dimon may have been
done in the land.  It was temporary, local, and used by the prophet in this passage in allusion to
confined to the observation of Hezekiah and his the word dam ({I)'blood' following (Reland.
court, being designed chiefly for the satisfaction of Pal. p. 735.)
that monarch. It is remarkable thatno instrument  2. A town in the tribe of Judah, called also
for keeping time is mentioned in the Scripture be- DIMONAH. It was occupied by the Jews after the
fore the dial of Ahaz, B.C. 700; nor does it appear captivity (Neh. xi. 25). -J. L P.
that the Jews generally, even after his period, divided their day into hours. The dial of Ahaz was  DIBRI (CI., derived by Gesenius from']T,
probably an object only of curious recreation, or a word, and meaning perhaps eloquent; by Ftirst
served at most to regulate the occupations of the 
palace.-J. F. D.                           from':1, pasture, and meaning onefrom thefields),
DIAMOND. [YAHALOM; SHAMIR.]                the father of Shelomith, whose son was stoned to
DIANA   ARTEdeath for blaspheming the name of the Lord (Lev.
DIANA. [ARTEMIS.]                          xxiv. IO-14). —.
DIBLATH (r1'T,'towards Diblath;' Sept.      DICK, JOHN, D.D., a Presbyterian clergyman,
Ae3XaaO).   Gesenius says that I has been here was bornatAberdeen Ioth Oct. 1764. He studied
VOL. I.                                                                       2 X




DICKINSON                   674                DIDRACHM
at the university of that city, where he had for his i ng in practical reflections, and bearing closely
fellow-students and friends Sir James Macintosh  at times on Christian experience.  His work on
and Dr. Charles Burney. His theological studies the Epistle to the Hebrews was his earliest comwere prosecuted at Selkirk under the tuition of Dr. mentary on Scripture, and the observations on
Lawson. He became minister, first at Slateford, successive passages into which it is divided, are
near Edinburgh, and afterwards at Glasgow, of occasionally vague and irrelevant, while the sumcongregations both connected with the Associate mary prefixed to each chapter scarcely traces with
Synod. His first appearance as an author was in  precision the steps of the argument contained in it.
800oo, when he published his Essay on Inspiration, But his expository works on the whole are valua work which has since passed through several edi- able. His strong grasp of the system of divine
tions. In I820 he succeeded Dr. Lawson in the truth enables him to thread his way among textual
divinity chair, retaining along with this his chargedifficulties with considerable success. The savour
in Glasgow; and when the union took place be- of evangelical feeling pervades all he writes. We
tween the two principal branches of the Secession, can understand as we read his works, how perhe became professor of theology to the United Se- plexed and anxious consciences could turn to him
cession Church.  In I805 he issued two volumes for relief and guidance, while he laboured as a pasof Lectures on the Acts of the Apostles, which after- tor in Irvine. Nor does Mr. Orme speak too
wards appeared in one volume; in these are given  strongly when he affirms that'none of the puria superior specimen of a style of public instruction  tanical expositors of the period during which Mr.
much esteemed in Scotland, that by means of ex- Dickson lived is superior to him, and in distinctness
pository lectures on Scripture.  The degree of of method and language, and point and condenD.D. was conferred on him in I815 by the Uni- sation of sentiment, he is equal to any of them.'
versity of Princeton, U. S. Immediately after his His commentary on the Psalms was republished in
death his theological lectures were published in  1754, and again in i834.-W. H. G.
4 vols. 8vo, I834.-W. L. A.                     DIDRACHM      (3l0paXlov), a silver coin equal to
DICKINSON, EDMUND, M.D. (I626-I707), two drachmre, and rendered in the English version
an English physician, whose only claim to a place of the N. T. by the word tribute. The Septuagint
amongst biblical writers rests upon a small work  renders the Hebrew  shekel of the 0. T. by
or tractate entitled, Delphi Phoenicizantes, sive didrachma. Hence a great difficulty has arisen,
7Tractalts in Vquo Grcos quicquid apud Delphos for the extant shekels, which are of the Maccabean
celebre erat, etc., a yosuc historia scriplisque sacris period, have the weight of Ptolemaic tetradrachms.
effixisse rationibus hand inconcinnis ostenditur: How are we to account for the half of a tetraczum Diatriba de Noe in Italiam  adventu, nec- drachm being called the half of a didrachm?
non de origine Druidum, Oxon. 1655, small 8vo.  The late Colonel Leake, in speaking of the shekel,
Anthony Wood not obscurely intimates that the says,' This weight appears to have been the same
real author of this work was Henry Jacob, son of as the Egyptian unit of weight, for we learn from
the celebrated Independent of that name; and he Horapollo that the Movis, or unit, which they
relates in a circumstantial manner how Jacob's held to be the basis of all numeration, was equal
papers were appropriated by the subsequent occu- to two drachmme (i. I I), and i66paXtov is employed
pier of his rooms at Merton College. It is right synonymously with o-KXos* for the Hebrew word
to add that Wood does not explicitly charge Dick- shekel by the Greek Septuagint, consequently the
inson with this literary theft (Athene Oxon. vol. ii. shekel and didrachmon were of the same weight.'
p. 60o; comp. with p. 946). —S. N.              If the didrachm  were the Egyptian unit of
DICKSON, DAVID.      This Scottish expositor weight, the so-called Ptolemaic tetradrachm would
was born in I583. Ordained in I6I8, he continuedbe in Egypt at least a didrachm, andnot a tetraminister of Irvine for twenty-three years.  He  achm.
preached the Gospel with remarkable power, so    He then argues that'though some commentathat many from distant parts of the country came tors think the translators meant a idrachmon of
to reside in Irvine, merely to enjoy the benefit ofthe Grco-Egyptian scale, weighing about 
his ministry. He became professor of divinity in  grains, yet it is hardly credible that atipaXgov
the University of Glasgow in I64I, and about i650  should have been thus employed without any diswas translated to the same chair in the University tinguishg epithet, at a time when the Ptolemaic
of Edinburgh. He died in 1662.                scale was yet of recent origin, especially as the
Besides other works of a theological character, word didrachmon had for ages been applied to a
Dickson is the author of A short explanation of the  lver piece of money of about 30 grains, in the
Epistle of Paul o tthe Hebrews, Aberdeen, i635, currency of all cities which follow the Attic or
I2mo; A brief explanation of the Psalms, London, Corinthian standard, as well as in the silver money
I645-i654, 3 vols. I2mo; Expositio Alnalytica  of Alexander the Great, and his successors.' He
Omni.um Epistolarum, Glasg., i645, 4t; A brief then goes on to say that'in all these currencies,
exposition of the Gospel according to 4Matthew, Lond., as well as in those of Lydia and Persia, the stater
i651, I2mo; and An Exposition ofall the Epistles, was an Attic didrachmon, or at least with no
Lond., 1659, fol. According to a note of Dr. greater difference of standard than occurs among
Gillies in his Historical Collections, i. 296, he was modern nations using a denomination of weight
perhaps'the  principal mover of that concert or measure common to all, and hence the word
among several worthy ministers of the Scots GispaX/uov was at length employed as a measure
church for publishing short, plain, and practical of weight without any reference to its origin i the
expositions upon the whole Bible.' Mr. Dickson  Attic drachma.  Thus we find the drachma of
executed his portion of the task very creditably.
THis exposition of the psalms is, on the whole,  * For the distinction between a'tK\Xo and alythe best of hisproductions-clear, sensible, abound- Xos, see article DRACHM, note.




DIDYMUS                    675                DIKLAH
gold described as equivalent to ten didrachma Arian party, he did not escape the suspicion of
(Hesychius in 6paX/%), and the half shekel of the heresy; and was condemned after his death at the
Pentateuch translated by the Septuagint ro iju/cuv second Nicene Council, for Origenism. Most of
-roo 86ppdXiov.  There can be little doubt, there- his works, consisting of commentaries or scholia
fore, that the Attic and not the Grasco-Egyptian  on the Bible, and polemical writings against the
didrachmon was intended by them.'            Arians, Manicheans, and others, are now lost.
As regards the half shekel of silver paid to the A short explanation of the seven canonical epistles
Lord by every male of the children of Israel as a is extant, which was translated into Latin by
ransom for his soul (Exod. xxx. 13, 15), Colonel Epiphanius Scholasticus. Liicke has partially reLeake says'That it had nothing in common with stored the original text of this by Matthaei's scholia.
the tribute paid by the Jews to the Roman Emperor. His treatise on the Holy Spirit in Jerome's Latin
The tribute was a denarius, in the English version was published separately at Cologne, in 1531;
a penny (Matt. xxii. 17; Luke xx. 24); the duty and at Helmstadt, I6II. Three books on the
to the temple was a didrachmon, two of which Trinity were discovered by Mingarelli, and pubmade a stater. It appears then that the half shekel lished by his brother (Bonon, 1769). The Greek
of ransom had in the time of our Saviour been con- work against the Manicheans was published by
verted into the payment of a didrachmon to the Combefis.-S. D.
temple, and two of their didrachma formed a
stater of the Jewish currency.' He then suggests  DIETENBERGER, JOHANN, a Dominican
that the stater was evidently the extant' Shekel monk, and prfessor of theology at Mayence,
Israel,' which was a tetradrachm of the Ptolemaic where he died in I537. He translated the Scripscale, though generally below the standard weight,tures into German-'B a beideA. undN. 7 n
like most of the extant specimens of the Ptolemies;  erdesch, fol. Meynz, 534; ibid. i617, 8vo and
and that the didrachmon paid to the temple'wasoften since. In the 0. T. he borrows largely from
and that the didrachmon paid to the temple was
therefore of the same monetary scale.'Thus,' says Luther, in the Apocrypha he follows Leo Judah
he,'the duty to the temple was converted fromalmostword for word, and i the N  T Emser 
the half of an Attic to the whole of a Ptolemaicsothat hehas contributed but little of his own,
didrachmon, and the tax was nominally raised in and that chiefly from the Vulgate. His style is
the proportion of about 105 to 65; but probably rough and stiff; and he speaks contemptuously
the value of silver had fallen as much in the two  of the'falsche Bibel' of the heretics, whom yet
preceding centuries.  It was natural that the Jews he unceremoniously copies (Fritzsche in Herzog's
should have revived the old name Shekel, and ap-Cyclo- iii. 345) —W. L. A.
plied it to their Stater, and equally so that they  DIEU, Louis DE, a Dutch Protestant divine,
should have adopted the scale of the neighbouring born at Flushing, 1590. He studied under his
opulent and powerful kingdom, the money of which  uncle, Daniel Colonio, Professor in the Walloon
they must have long been in the habit of employ- College at Leyden, till he was old enough to enter
ing.' (Appendix, lNunismata Hellenica, pp. 2, 3.) on the ministry, when he became pastor to the
We have here a tolerably satisfactory account of French church at Flushing. Here he remained two
this difficult question. We learn that the Egyptian years, and attracted by his preaching the notice of
unit was a didrachm, and the suggestion is made Prince Maurice of Orange, who would have made
that the Septuagint intended the Attic, and not the him court-preacher at the Hague, an office, howGrQco-Egyptian weight. Assuming this to be true, ever, which, together with that of a professor at
the didrachm of the Septuagint would be a shekel, Utrecht, he preferred to decline. In I619, he went
and the didrachm of the N. T. a half shekel. The to Leyden to assist his uncle in the Walloon Colword didrachm, however, was the common term  lege, where he continued till his death in 1642.
employed by the Jews for the shekel, and was not He was eminent for his skill in Hebrew and the
necessarily a piece of money, there being few, if any, kindred languages, as also in Persian, and pubAttic didrachms current at the time of our Lord. lished the Apocalypse in Hebrew and Syriac, with
This last observation, as Mr. Poole has suggested a Latin version and notes, Leyden, I627, 4to. He
to the writer, is corroborated in the account of also wrote commentaries on the 0. T., the four
the miracle of the tribute-money, where St. Peter Evangelists, the Acts, and the Epistles. Those on
finds in the fish a stater, which he paid for our the 0. T. and the Catholic Epistles were published
Lord and himself (Matt. xvii. 24-27). The stater together after his death, under the title of Critica
of silver is a tetradrachm; the tetradrachm of that Sacra, at Amsterdam, fol. I693.-S. L.
period current in Palestine had the same weight as 
the shekels. After the destruction of the temple,  DIE (AtK), the heathen goddess of justice;
Vespasian ordered the Jews to pay tribute yearly  described as the daughter of Zeus and Themis
to the capitol; the sum consisted of two drachm  (Hesiod, 0p. 266; Tkeog. 902). The punishment
(Joseph. Bell.,ild. vii. 6. 6).-F. W. M.    of murderers is particularly ascribed to her; and
therefore, besides being the goddess of punishment
DIDYMUS (AIveuosg, a twin), a surname of the in a general sense, she is often to be considered the
Apostle Thomas, denoting that he was a twin; and, same as Nemesis or Vengeance. The word occurs
if translated, he would be called'Thomas the in Acts xxviii. 4, and is there rendered'vengeance,'
Twin' (John xi. i6). [THOMAS.]               appella4ively.
DIDYMUS, the blind, a learned monk, was      DIKLAH     (;  Sept. Ae; hename of
born at Alexandria, A.D. 308. By extraordinary   ILAH (; Sept.        the name of
diligence and a retentive memory he became one a son of Joktan, of the tribe or nation which deof the most learned men of his day. He was pre- scended from him, and of their territory (Gen. x.
sident of the catechetical school of Alexandria, and 27, 31). As the name in Aramaic signifies a palm
died A.D. 395, after having taught in it for upwards tree, it has been supposed that the country eolonof fifty years. Though a violent opponent of the ized by the tribe must have abounded in palms.




DILEAN                    676               DINHABAH
This, however, is not necessary, as other circum- yond this these works have no value.  The
stances of which we are ignorant may have given author's judgment cannot be relied on, and his
rise to the name. That section of Arabia which principles of textual criticism are quite unsound.
extends from the border of Edom along the coast A critic who gravely proposes to read nZ: for 1,12,
of the Red Sea to Medina, was anciently called by  (Gen. i. I), because he conceives the former may
the Syrians Dakalah, from its palm groves. Boch- be the origin of the Greek Xiaos, and thus' applies
art says, and apparently with truth, that this well to the subject,' will find few to listen to him
cannot be the Diklah of the Bible, because it was in the present day. -W. L. A.
inhabited by Cushites, afterwards termed Scenites  DIMONAH; Sept.'P      Alex Aor Saracens, and not by Joktanites. He would; Alex. Aidentify Diklah with the district of the Mincei,  xuwva), a border city of Judah towards Idumea
which was also rich in palms, situated in the pro- (Josh. xv. 22), supposed to be the same as Dibon,
vince of Arabia-Felix, now called Yemen (Pliny, which was also called Dimon ('usque hodia indifH. N., vi. 28). The Bedawin retain the name of ferenter et Dimon et Dibon hoc oppidulum diciJoktan, or as they name him Kachtan in their tra- tur'-Hieron.)
ditional history (D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orien-  DNA.,     htr of 
tale, s. v. Arabs), and call him'the father of Ye-  INA  T                       ofcob
men.' And there is still an Arab tribe in that by Leah (Gen. xxx. 2I), and therefore full sister
region called Duklai, which is probably descended of Simeon and Levi. While Jacob's camp was
from Diklah, as the Arabs have always been as in the neighbourhood of Shechem, Dinah was seconservative in family names and genealogies as duced by Shechem, the son of Hamor, the Hivite
the Jews themselves (Forster's Geog. of Arabia, chief or head-man of the town. Partly from dread
i. II5, I47). It seems probable, therefore, that of the consequences of his misconduct, and partly,
the Diklaites settled in Yemen, and occupied a it would seem out of love for the damsel, he soliportion of it a little to the east of the Hejaz cited a marriage with her, leaving the'marriage
(Bochart, Opp. i. II8, sq.; Burckhardt, Travels price' (see MARRIAGE) to be fixed by her family.
in Arabia).-J. L. P.                         To this Dinah's brothers would only consent on the
LDLEAN QV;St;Ae.further condition that all the inhabitants of the
DILEAN (tT1'; Sept. AaXa3; Alex. AiaXacv), place should be circumcised.  Even this was
a city of Judah in the plain country (Josh. xv. 38). yielded, and Simeon and Levi took a most barbarThe word means'place of cucumbers,' which ous advantage of the compliance by falling upon
doubtless grew abundantly in that fertile district. the town on the third day, when the people were
It has not been identified, except conjecturally by disabled by the effects of the operation, and slew
Van de Velde with Tina or Tima.t.            them all (Gen. xxxiv). For this act of truly OrienDILHER, JoH. Mic., bn at Th, in tal vindictiveness no excuse can be offered, and
thDILHERRenberg disic, 4bo   at Themiar, inJacob himself repeatedly alludes to it with abhorthe Herrenberg district, i4th Oct. I604, was suc-  e and regret n xxv   0  xlix   7   T
cessively professor of rhetoric and history, and of rence and regret (Gen. xxxiv. 30; xlix. 5-7). To
theology at Jena, and of theology at Ntirnberg, understand the act at all, however, it is necessary
where also he was first preacher at St. Sebald's to remember that any stain upon the honour of a
Church. He published Ecloge Sacra NV T. S.sr. sister, and especially of an only sister, is even at
Chrch. eet L   lat., d c bs 15hilEol., Sb Jrs cemnitntar this day considered as an insupportable disgrace,
Gr et Lat., cum obss. izahslolq, uibu pramiteutur and inexpiable offence, among all the nomade tribes
RZudimenta Gram. Syr., i638; best edit., Halle,
i646,-a valuable work, of which Hoffman says of Western Asia. If the woman be single, her
Ii Hoffman says  brothers more than her father, if she be married,
(Gram. Syr. p. 50):-' Concinnata est hec insti- her brothers more than her husband, are aggried,
tutio util~issima secundum Amirme et L. de Dieu
tuto utillissima secundum. Amire et L. de Dieu and are considered bound to avenge the wrong.
praecepta;' Lizbrzi iii. electorumnin qtcbus ritum  Hence the active vengeance of Dinah's full brothers,
tamn sac. quamprof. farrafro continelur, etc., Niirnb.
ta. quamrof farrago contneur, et. and the comparative passiveness of her father in
1644. Dilherr was a sound scholar, and all he these transactions.  Of Dinah's subsequent lot
has written is valuable. He died 3d April I669.-  nothing is known.-J. K.
W. L. A.
DIMNAH     (mT1Y?; Sept. [Alex.] Adcuva), a  DINAITES (W" 1; Sept. Actva?ot), one of the
~*.  rT:^' *r  r *7 *L i  / T i. tribes which Asnapper brought and placed in the
Levitical city of the tribe of Zebulon (Josh. xxi. cities of Samaria after the deportation of the Is35). It is conjecturally identified by Van de Velde l elites by Shalmanezer, king of Asyria (E. iv.
with el Damon, a village S. S. E. from Acco     ites by Shalmanezer, king of Assyria (Ez. v.
(ii. 2a v              e S 6).S. E. fm       9). In the Apocryphal 3d Book of Esdras(ii. I7)
the word is translated by Kpirat, which is evidently
DIMOCK, HENRY, M.A., a clergyman of the a mistake. Ewald (Gesch. des Volkes Isrl. iii. 375)
Church of England; rector of St. Edmund the suggests that the name may be derived from the
King and St. Nicolas Acor's, London, and for- Median city Deinaver;' Geographis Dennani,'
merly fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford, is the says Junius (ap. Poli. Synops. in loc.), a statement
author of two works on the text of Scripture:-  we must leave to those who can discover its meanNotes on the Books of Psalms and Proverbs, 4to, ing, there being but one Denna known to geoGloucester, I79I; Critical and explanatory notes graphers, and that an obscure town in Africa
on Genesis, Exodus, Isaiah, Yeremiah, Ezekiel, (Plin. Hist. Nat. vi. 35).-W. L. A.
Daniel, and the Minor Prophets, together with some 
Dissertations on d-ifcultpassages of Scripzture, etc.,  DINHABAH (?; Sept. evvacd). Gese4to, Lond. I804. These notes are principally of nius suggests that this word may be compounded
a critical kind. The industry and care of the of 1'master' ( ='place of'), and r:lu'plunauthor are praiseworthy, and his collections may der,' and it may thus signify'den of thieves.' It
save the critical enquirer some trouble; but be- is mentioned only in Gen. xxxvi. 32, and I Chron.




DIODATI                    677               DIONYSIUS
i. 43, as the native place of Bela, a king of Edom.  DIONYSIUS THE AREOPAGITE, and
Probably the name of his city may have been ex- PSEUDO-DIONYSIUS. The name of'Dionypressive of the character of his people. The site sius the Areopagite' enlivens the scanty acof the city is unknown; it is not even clear from  count of success which attended the visit of Paul
Scripture whether it was in Edom. Eusebius calls to Athens (Acts xvii. 34).  Nothing further is
it Aava/3a, and Jerome Damnaba; and they both related of him in the N. T., but ecclesiastical
state that in their day there was a village of that historians record some particulars concerning his
name eight miles from Areopolis, on the road to career, both before and after his conversion.
Arnon (Onomast. s. v.)-J. L. P.               Suidas recounts that he was an Athenian by
birth, and eminent for his literary attainments;
DIODATI, DOMINICO, born at Naples 1731, that he studied first at Athens and afterwards at
studied under the most distinguished men of his Heliopolis in Egypt; and that, while in the latter
day, and, in 1767, published the work for which  city, he beheld that remarkable eclipse of the
he is chiefly famous, viz., De Christo Grcece loquente sun, as he terms it, which took place at the
exercitatio qua ostenditur Grcecam linguam cum  death of Christ, and exclaimed to his friend ApolJudcis turn ipsi Christo et Apostolis nativam ac lophanes, 4i r6 Oetov 7rctio-X, fi rp 7raQXbvrL o-U/vernaculam fuisse, in which he sought to prove 7raoXet,'Either the divinity suffers, or sympathises
that Greek was the spoken language in Palestine with some sufferer.' He further details, that after
for two hundred years before our era, and that the Dionysius returned to Athens, he was admitted
original text of the N. T. was Greek and not He- into the Areopagus; and, having embraced Chrisbrew; of this a new edition appeared, with a pre- tianity about A.D. 50, was constituted Bishop of
face by 0. T. Dobbin, LL.B., Lond. I843. In   Athens by the Apostle Paul himself. Syncellus
token of her estimation of this work, the Empress and Nicephorus both record the last particular.
Catharine sent him a gold medal and a costly Aristides, an Athenian philosopher, asserts that he
copy of the Russian codex at St. Petersburg suffered martyrdom-a fact generally admitted by
printed in four languages. The academy of La historians; but the precise period of his death,
Crusca also enrolled him among its members. He whether under Trajan or Adrian, or, which is most
died at Naples in the beginning of the present cen- likely, under Domitian, they do not determine.
tury.-S. L.                                   Whatever credit may be given to these traditions,
the name of Dionysius is certainly interesting in a
DIODATI, GIOVANNI, a famous theologian of literary point of view, owing to an attempt made
the Reformed Church. His family, originally of by some writer, in after times, to personate the
Lucca, had settled at Geneva, where he was born Areopagite; and who contrived to pass his pro1576. He became professor of Hebrew there at 2I, ductions on the Christian world as of the Apostolic
and succeeded Beza as professor of theology, I609. age, and thereby greatly influenced the spirit both
He was a rigid and uncompromising Calvinist. of the Eastern and Western Churches.    Daille
He is chiefly celebrated for his translation of the  (de Scriptis Dionysii Areopaggit, Genevas, I666)
Bible into Italian, which was published in folio, places this Pseudo-Dionysius A.D. 420; Pearson,
1603, and again with notes, 1607. It is, however, in the latter times of Eusebius Caesariensis (Vindic.
rather a paraphrase than a translation. He also par. i. c. Io, in fine). Others have conjectured
undertook a French translation of the Bible, which that these productions were written about A.D.
met with considerable opposition from the clergy 360, but not compiled till the fifth or nearly the
at Geneva, though it appeared complete with short sixth century. There have been some persons
notes, I644. While travelling in Italy he became who have contended that they are the real works
acquainted at Venice with Sarpi and Fulgenzio, of the Areopagite.  Among these are Claude
both antagonists of the court of Rome, and they David, a Maurist monk, in 1702; Bernard of
appear to have entertained the idea of attempting  Sept Fonds, under the name of Adrian, in 708;
a religious reform in Italy, which the greater fore- and F. Honoratus, of St. Mary, a Carmelite
sight of Sarpi, however, prevented them from carry- friar, in I720.  The first uncontroverted occaing out. Diodati's theological studies were based sion on which these suppositious writings are
on a sound knowledge of the biblical languages, referred to, is in the conference between the
and zealous investigations in the sacred Scriptures. Severians (a sect of Eutychians) and the Catholics,
He published Les Pseaumes mis en rimes Francaises, held in the emperor Justinian's palace, A.D. 532,
I646; Cento Salmi di Davidi tradotte in rime vul- in which they are quoted by the heretical party.
gare, I683. He also translated into French Sarpi's Maximus, and other writers in the following ages,
History of the Council of Trent. Diodati was sent refer to them frequently. Different opinions have
by the clergy of Geneva on several missions to the been held as to the real author of these producreformed churches of France and Holland. He tions. They were ascribed at an early period to
was present at the Synod of Dort, I618 and    Apollinaris, Bishop of Laodicea in the fourth cenI619, and was one of the six divines appointed tury-an opinion to which the learned Cave into draw up the acts of that assembly.    He dines, though he thinks that Apollinaris, the son,
fully concurred in the condemnation of the Re- may have been the author. He remarks that the
monstrants or the Arminian party. His other peculiar acquirements and turn of mind of Apolliworks are-Annotationes in Biblia, Geneva, fol., naris, the father, as described by Socrates and SoI607, which were translated into English and pub- zomen, would have well qualified him to have
lished in London the following year; and sundry written the Areopagitica.  There have not been
treatises, De Fictitio Pontificiorum Purgatorio; De wanting instances in which suppositions works were
Antichristo; De Ecclesia, etc. He became pastor fathered upon great names by disciples of the
or parish minister at Geneva i608, and died there Apollinarian school (Leontius, Lib de Sect. act. viii.
1649, having retired from his professorship a few  p. 527).
years before.-S. L.                             The resemblance between the Areopagitica and




DIONYSIUS                    678        DISEASES OF TIE JEWS
the writings of Proclus and Plotinus is so obvious where he erected a gymnasium, or'place of exeras to afford great probability that the Pseudo-Dio- cise, and for the training up of youth in the fashions
nysius did not write much earlier than the filth  of the heathens' (2 Maccab. iv. 9). He also incentury (Cave's Hist. Literar. Colonize, 1720, p. duced even the priests to neglect their sacrifices,
142, 143; Lardner's Works, vol. vii. p. 37I, ed. and hasten'to be partakers of the unlawful allow1788; Fabric. Bib. Bibliog.; Herzog, End. s. v.) ance in the place of exercise, after the game of
-J. F. D.                                      discus called them forth' (2 Maccab. iv. 14). The
D I 0 N Y S I U S CARTHUSIANUS, a learned    discus was a circular plate of stone or metal made
Belgian monk, born about the close of the i4th for throwing to a distance, as an exercise of strength
century at Ryckel, a small town in the neighbour- and dexterity. In the British Museum there s an
hood of Looz, a few miles N. W. of Liege, whence excellent statue of a discobolus, or thrower of the
hood of Looz, a few miles N.W. of Liege, whence discus representing
he is sometimes called Dionysius a Ryckel, and  discus, representing the position in which the dissometimes Denis lDe DLeeuwis.   He passed 48   cus was thrown. This is doubtless a copy of the
sometimes life in    Leeuwis. C He passed 48 famous work of Myron mentioned by Quintilian
years of his life in the Carthusian monastery at (  3), and Lucian  (P psed, Ddot. ed., p.
Ruremonde, and by his contemplative habits won  (ii  There a re no less than eight cop, Didot ed, p
for'himself the title of Doctor Ecstaticus.  He t  ist of which the best are the one in the Villa
for himself the title of Doctor Ecstaticus. He 585). There are no less than eight copies known
d ied  in  I, A beind  hi  m s     olargeato exist, of which the best are the one in the Villa
died in 1471, leaving behind him so large a num- Massimi at Rome, and the one of the Towneley
ber of works that it has been said of him,'tot ac Galle  al y mentioned.  he Massimi sue
tantasc u r o o  o   uu p  e Au-Gallery already mentioned.    The Massimi statue
gtani    num apud Latinos parem hablorum preterm u-  better agrees with Lucian's description; it is also
gustinum apud Latinos parem habuerit neminem' doubtful whether the head really belongs to the
(Trithemius quoted by Cave, JHrt tii. ~  I66).doubtful whether the head really belongs to the
(Trithemius quoted by Cave, Hist. Lit. ii. 166). one in the British Museum (Towneley Gallery, by
His most important biblical work is a commentary Sir H. Ellis, K.H., vol. i., pp. 239, 24, where t
on the entire Scriptures, to the publication of  ir engraved). (See Dr. Smith's Grk. and Rom.
which, some sixty years after his death, the mem-is engraved). (See Dr. Smith's Grk. and Rom.
An/z~. s. v. Discus and Pefztatzholz.  By metaphor
bers of his order were instigated by the spread of. s. v. Discus and Penaln.)  By metaphor
tbe reof hs ord trine. Tr e  sti t  t publishted othe word discus, among other things, signified a
the reformed doctrines.  The part first published flat round plate, whence the word dish. The word
was that which included the four gospels, and bore rrlva, occurring in Matt. xiv. 8, 11, and Mark vi.
the title Euzarratzones pz ace eruditce zn Quatuor 25 28, is translated in the English by charger, and
Evangelistas, Colon. 1531, fol. The other parts in the Vulgate by discus-F. W. M.
speedily followed under corresponding titles, the
whole forming Io folio volumes. Several subse-  DISEASES OF THE JEWS. The most prequent editions were published at Cologne, and the valent diseases of the East are cutaneous diseases,
work was reprinted at Paris two or three times,  alignant fevers, dysentery, and ophthalmia.  Of
and in various forms.  It has been described as
and in various dforms.  It has bee  esc rbeis the first of these the most remarkable are leprosy
a prodigy of erudition.  R. Simon states (Hist. and elephantiasis. [LEPROSY.] To the same class
Critique de N. T7., 487) that it is almost entirely also belongs the singular disease called the mal
composed of what Ryckel had read inthe Fathers d'Aleppo, which is confined to Aleppo, Bagdad,
and m the authors who preceded him. It is not, Aintab, and the villages on the Segour and Kohowever, a Catena, but a continuous commentary. wick. It consists in an erution of one or more
-.~~~~~~-S. N.  ~small red tubercles, which give no uneasiness at
DIONYSUS.      [BAccHus.]                   first, but, after a few weeks, become prurient, disDIOTREPHES (Atorpe60S, 7ove-nourished), a charge a little moisture, and sometimes ulcerate.
person who seems to have been one of the false  ts duration is from a few months to a year. It
does not affect the general health at all, and is
teachers condemned by St. John in his third epistle. does not affect the genea health a all, and is
He appears to have been a presbyter or deacon-   y dreaded on account of the scars it leaves.
probably the former. He refused to receive the  loreigners who have visited Aleppo have someletter sent by John, thereby declining to submit times been affected by it several years after their
to his directions or acknowledge his authority return to their own country. It is a remarkable
(3 John 9)                                  y fact that dogs and cats are likewise attacked by it
(John 9).~                            (Rimssell's Nat. Hist. of Al/eppo, ii. 299). The
DISCERNING      OF SPIRITS.      [SPIRITUAL Egyptians are subject to an eruption of red spots
GIFTs. ]                                       and pimples, which cause a troublesome smarting.
DISCIPLE (taOTp?5s), a scholar or follower of The eruption returns every year towards the end of
any teacher, in the general sense.  It is hence June or beginning of July, and is on that account
applied in the gospels not only to the followers attributed to the rising of the Nile (Volney, i. 231).
of Christ, but to those of John the Baptist (Matt. Malignant fevers are very frequent, and of this class
ix. I4, etc.), and of the Pharisees (Matt. xxii. 16). is the great scourge of the East, the plague, which
Although used of the followers of Christ generally, surpasses all others in virulence and contagiousness.
it is applied in a special manner to the twelve [PLAGUE.] The Egyptian ophthalmia is prevalent
apostles (Matt. x. I; xi. I; xx. 17; Luke ix. I). throughout Egypt and Syria, and is the cause of
After the death of Christ the word took the wider blindness being so frequent in those countries.
sense of a believer, or Christian; i. e., a follower [BLINDNESS.]  Of inflammatory diseases in geneof Jesus Christ.                              ral, Dr. Russell (. c.) says that at Aleppo he has
not found them more frequent, nor more rapid in
DISCUS (Sl^cos), one of the exercises in the their course than in Great Britain. Epilepsy and
Grecian gymnasia, being included in the 7TrvraOXov, diseases of the mind are commonly met with.
which was introduced in the I8th Olympiad (B.c. Melancholy monomaniacs are regarded as sacred
708).  The profligate high-priest Jason, in the persons in Egypt, and are held in the highest
reign of Antiochus IV., surnamed Epiphanes (B.c. veneration by all Mahometans (Prosper Alpinus,
175-164) introduced public games at Jerusalem, De Med. Egypt. p. 58).




DISEASES OF THE JEWS               679                 DISHON
Diseases are not unfrequently alluded to in the state of the constitution, and must not be attributed
O. T.; but, as no description is given of them, to uncleanliness. Alibert mentions the case of a
except in one or two instances, it is for the most person who, as soon as these animals had been
part impossible even to hazard a conjecture con- destroyed, fell into a typhoid state, and shortly
cerning their nature. The issue mentioned in Lev. after died. The question of demoniacal possession,
xv. 2 cannot refer to gonorrhcea virulenta, as has so often mentioned in the N. T., has been conbeen supposed by Michaelis and Hebenstreit sidered under another head [DEMONIACS], and
(Winer, s. v. Krankheiten); for the person who need not be re-opened in this place [PHYSICIAN].
exposed himself to infection in the various ways -W. A. N.
mentioned was only unclean until the evening,  D         Di
which is far too short a time to allow of its being DISH  Dfferent Hebrew words are thus transascertained whether he had escaped contagion or lated in the A. V.: I.  D (aug. of ID- = ID),
not. Either, then, the law of purification had no                  Exod. xxv. 29; Num.
reference whatever to the contagiousness of the J  
disease (which is hardly admissible), or the disease vii. I3, 84, 85; 3. lniMS  (a deep dish, from
alluded to was really not contagious. Jehoram's    to deen or  ll),     ings xxi. 13; rendisease is probably referable to chronic dysentery, deredj ns in 2 Chron. xxv. 13.  Various kinds of
which sometimes occasions an exudation of fibrinedishes are mentioned in Scripture  but it is impos
rrom  1~e i r  *os  ra te *n. Te ~ dishes are mentioned in Scripture; but it is imposfrom the inner coats of the intestines. The fluid                               particular
fibrine thus exuded coagulates into a continuous 
tubular membrane, of the same shape as the intestine itself, and as such is expelled. This form of.
the disease has been noticed by Dr. Good under
the name of diarrhoea tubularis (Study of Med. i.
287). A precisely similar formation of false membranes, as they are termed, takes place in the wind-, ~         ~
pipe in severe cases of croup.
Hezekiah suffered, according to our version, 
from a boil. The term here used, int'W, means
literally inflammation; but we have no means of                  207.
identifying it with what we call boil. The same
may be said of the plague of boils and blains, and forms than may be suggested by those of ancient
of the names of diseases mentioned in the 28th  Egypt and of the modem East, which have much
chapter of Deuteronomy, such as pestilence, con- resemblance to each other. The sites of such ansumption, fever, botch of Egypt, itch, scab. The cient towns as were built of sun-dried bricks are
case of Job, in which the term translated boil also usually covered with broken potsherds, some of
occurs, demands a separate notice. [JOB.] Nebu- them large enough to indicate the form of the
chadnezzar's disease was a species of melancholy entire vessel.  These are remarkably similar to
monomania, called by authors zoanthropia, or more those in modern use, and are for the most part
commonly lycanthropia, because the transforma- made of a rather coarse earthenware, covered with
tion into a wolf was the most ordinary illusion. a compact and strong glaze, with bright colours,
Esquirol considers it to have originated in the an- mostly green, blue, or yellow. Dishes and other
cient custom of sacrificing animals. But whatever vessels of copper, coarsely but thickly tinned, are
effect this practice might have had at the time, the now much used in the East; but how far this may
cases recorded are independent of any such influ- have been anciently the case we have not the
ence; and it really does not seem necessary to  means of knowing. The cut (No. 208) repretrace this particular hallucination to a remote his- sents a slave bringing dishes to table; the dishes
torical cause. when we remember that the ima- have covers, and the manner in which they are
ginary transformations into inanimate objects, such  carried on the reverted hand is the mode still used
as glass, butter, etc., which are of every-day occurrence, are equally irreconcilable with the natural,
instincts of the mind. The same author relates
that a nobleman of the court of Louis XIV.
was in the habit of frequently putting his head out
of a window, in order to satisfy the urgent desire 
he had to bark. Calmet informs us that the nuns
of a German convent were transformed into cats,                       /
and went mewing over the whole house at a fixed
hour of the day (Esquirol, Maladies Mentales, i.
522). Antiochus and Herod died, like Sylla, from 
phthiriasis, a disease which was well known to the
ancients. Plutarch, in his Life of Sylla, mentions                208.
several names of persons who had died from it,
amongst whom are Pherecydes the philosopher, by Eastern servants. The specimens in the other
Alcman the poet, and Mutius the lawyer. M. cut (No. 207) are modern Oriental, and speak for
Alibert was consulted by a celebrated French aca- themselves.
demician, who complained that his enemies even
pursued him into the academy, and almost carried  DISHON  (il i; Sept. 7rpyapyos; A. V.
off his pen (Dermatoses, i. 585). Nothing isknown Pygarg, Deut. xiv. 5).  Under this name the
respecting the immediate causes of this malady; Oryx addax may have been known to the Hebut there is no doubt that it depends on the general brews. It is three feet seven inches at the shoul



DISPERSION OF NATIONS                680            DISPERSION, THE
der, has the same structure as others of the same  of the Persian empire, preferring the new homes
group, but is somewhat higher at the croup: it in which they enjoyed all the privileges of nativehas a coarse beard under the gullet, a black scalp  born subjects, and where they had in many cases
and forehead, divided from the eyes and nose by a acquired wealth and honours, to the dangers
white bar on each side, passing along the brows and. difficulties of a recolonization of their forand down the face to the cheek, and connected mer country. But while, by the hands of the despised minority who had bravely gone forth, was
to be recreated not only the temple, the visible
centre of Judaism, but also the still more imposing and important edifice of the Jewish law and
-'^ LF' 3 ~Jewish culture, to the much lavger section which
remained behind and gradually diffused itself over
the whole of the then known world,- it was given
to participate in the intellectual life and the progress in civilization of all the nations with whom
(( (I',,,, //,'2 fl~~i'!':their lot was cast. To the dispersion is thus due,\ \"7l/?"  A/X'^ |'the cosmopolitan element in Judaism which has
Y|~/'|'~ Y, ^' f~'~~added so vastly not only to its own strength and
X, ll"~' f Js  ~~ I f~\~  durability, but also, geographically at least, to the
rapid spread of Christianity. So far, however,
from the dispersion paving the way for the new
jil  v~\>~ y/ \\\          faith by relaxing the rigour of Jewishlaw, written
or oral-as has been assumed by some-one of the
___\v^~~~^^-'~ ('I  vstrongest ties by which these voluntary exiles were
_~~ —T_2..~ —^^-*  ^'-bound to Palestine and Jerusalem consisted in the
very regulations and decisions on all ritual and
209.                     legal points which they received from the supreme
with one another between the eyes. The general religious authorities, either brought back by their
colour of the fur is white, with the head, neck, and  own delegates, or transmitted to them by special
shoulders more or less liver-colour grey; but it is messengers from the Central Court the Synedistinguished mostly from the others by the horns, drium (Acts xxviii. 2). Generally, it might be
which in structure and length assimilate with those said of the whole diaspora, as Philo (c. Ilace.
of the other species, but in shape assume the spiral sec. 7) said of that of Egypt: that while they
flexures of the Indian antelope.  The animal is looked upon the country in which they had been
figured on Egyptian monuments, and may be born and bred as their home, still they never
the pygarg or dishon, uniting the characters of a ceased, so long as the temple stood, to consider
white rump with strepsicerotine horns, and even. Jerusalem  as the spiritual metropolis to which
those which Dr. Shaw ascribes to his'lidme.'-their eyes and hearts were directed. Many were
C. H. S.                                       the pilgrimages undertaken thither from their fardistant lands (Acts ii. 5, 9-II; Joseph. Bell. 7ud.
DISPERSION     OF NATIONS.       [NATIONS, vi. 9. 3, etc.)  The Talmud, ier-. lAg. iii. 75
DISPERSION OF.]                                (cf. Tos. Meg. c. 2), speaks of no less than 380
synagogues in Jerusalem, besides the temple, all
DISPERSION, THE (of the Jews), Aiaaoropd belonging to different communities of the dispersion
(2 Maccab. i. 27; Jam. i. I; I Pet. i. I; John vii. (cf. also Acts vi. 9). Abundant and far exceeding
35; Joseph. Arnti. xii. I. 3, etc.; LXX.  for  A  the normal tax of half a shekel (Shek. vii. 4), were
T  the gifts they sent regularly for the support of the
ia [rSl], which it also renders airouKta, [LEToLKsea, holy place (gold instead of silver and copper, Tos.
IT..                Shek. c. 2), and still more liberal were the moneaiXcawoi,-aiX-aciXw7dX-ros) is the collective name tary equivalents for sacrifices, propitiatory offerings
given to all those descendants of the twelve tribes  rpa, Phio], for vowstc, which flowed from
(Jam. i. I; r* STY.C&Kdov\op Acts xxvi. 7) who IXr[xpa, Philo], for vows, etc., which flowed from
(Jam. wi.; rb heKofinsoY, Acts sxxvi. 7) who  all countries into the sacred treasury.  The Synelived without the confines of Palestine (9, i drium again regulated the year, with all its subCor. v. 13, etc., Y   l Wolrln, 1:l'11*, Mishna, divisions, throughout the wide circle of the disTalmud) during the time of the second temple. persion; the fact that the commencement of the
The number of exiles, mostly of the tribe of new month had been officially recognised being
Judah and Benjamin (Ezra i. 5, etc.), who availed  announced either by beacon-fires to the adjoining
themselves of the permission of Cyrus to return  countries, or by messengers to places more refiom their captivity in Babylon to the land of their mote. That, in general, there existed, as far as
fathers, scarcely exceeded, if indeed it reached, circumstances permitted, an uninterrupted interthe number of 59,0oo  [the total stated both in  course between the Jews abroad and those in
Ezra and Nehemiah is, exclusive of the slaves, Palestine, cannot be doubted. Probably, owing
42,360; but the sum of the items given-with    to this very connection, two foreign academies only
slight differences-in both documents, falls short seem to have existed during the time of the second
of 30,000].  Old Jewish authorities see in this temple; the youth of the dispersion naturally
surplus Israelites of the ten tribes (cf. Seder Olam  preferring to resort to the fountain-head of learnRabbah, ch. 29), and among these few but the ing and religious instruction in the Holy City.
lowest and humblest, or such as had yielded to  The final destruction of the temple and Jerusalem
force, were to be found (cf. Mishna ]'idshzin  was thus a blow hardly less sensibly felt by the disiv. I.; Getm. lxxi. i). The great bulk of the persion than by their brethren of Jerusalem themnation remained scattered over the wide dominions selves. From that time forward no visible centre




DISPERSION, TIlE                681            DISPERSION, THE
bound the widely-scattered members of the Jewish  persion was not without an influence on the deve.
nation together; nothing remained to them but lopment of the Zoroastrian religion (cf. Anquetil,
common memories, common hopes, and a com- Spiegel, Intr. to Zendavesta), which in its turn again
mon faith.                                     influenced Judaism (and, at a later stage, GnostiForemost in the two or three chief groups into  cism), can hardly be doubted; at the same time, it
which the dispersion has been divided, stands the was Babylon, which, after the final destruction of
Babylonian ({rlp EqpcariPv, Joseph. Anftiq. xv. 3. the temple, by its numerous and far-famed acaI), embracing all the Jews of the Persian empire, demies, became for a long time the spiritual centre
into every part of which (Esth. iii. 8)-Babylo- of the Jewish race, and was the seat of the Prince
nia, Media, Persia, Lusiana, Mesopotamia, Assy- of the diaspora (Resh Gelutha).
ria, etc.-they penetrated.  The Jews of Baby-    The second great and pre-eminently important
lonia proper prided themselves on the exceptional group of the dispersion we find in Egypt. Of the
purity of their lineage-a boast uniformly recog- original immigrations from Palestine (cf. Zech. x.
nised throughout the nation. What Judaea, it I ), and of those which took place in the times of
was said, was with respect to the dispersion of other the last kings of Judah (Jer. xli. 17, 42), we have
countries-as pure flour to dough-that, Babylonia no more certain traces than of those under Artaxwas to Judoea (Jer. Kid. vi. I). Herod pretended  erxes Ochus (Joseph. Ap. I, etc.) It was only
to have sprung from Babylonian ancestors (Joseph. after Alexander the Great, who first settled 8ooo
Antiq. xiv. I. 3), and also bestowed the high- Jewish soldiers in the Thebais, and peopled a third
priesthood upon a man from Babylon (Joseph. of his newly-founded city Alexandria with Jews,
Antiq. xv. 2. 4). In the messages sent by the and Ptolemoeus, the son of Lagius, after him, who
Synedrium to the whole dispersion, Babylonia re- increased the number of Egyptian Jews by fresh
ceived the precedence (Synh. II); although it re- importations from Palestine, that the Egyptian
mained a standing reproach against the Babylo- dispersion began to spread over the whole country,
nians that they had held aloof from the national from the Lybian desert in the north to the bouncause when their brethren returned to Palestine, daries of Ethiopia in the south (Philo c. Fl. ii. 523),
and thus had caused the weakness of the Jewish  over the Cyrenaica and parts of Lybia (Joseph. Anstate (Joma 9); as indeed living in Palestine under tiq. xvi. 7. 2), and along the borders of the African
any circumstances is enumerated among the (613) coast of the Mediterranean. They enjoyed equal
Jewish ordinances (Nachmanides Comm. to Mai- rights with their fellow-subjects, both Egyptian and
monides' Sefer Hammizwoth). The very territory  Greek [i-o7roXtreta] (Joseph. Ap. ii. 4, etc.), and
of Babylonia was, for certain ritual purposes, con- were admitted to the highest offices and dignities.
sidered to be as pure as Palestine itself. Very The free development which was there allowed
little is known of the history of the Babylonian  them enabled them to reach, under Greek auspices,
diaspora; but there is no reason to suppose that the highest eminence in science and art. Their
its condition was, under Persian as well as under artists and workmen were sent for to distant counSeleucidian and Parthian rule, at most times other tries, as once the Phoenicians had been (Joma 3. 8,
than flourishing and prosperous; such as we find a.; Erach. Io, b.) In Greek strategy and Greek
that it was when it offered Hyrcanus'honours not statesmanship, Greek learning and Greek refineinferior to those of a king' (Joseph. Antiq. xv. ment, they were ready disciples.  From the num2. 2). Of Alexander the Great, Josephus records ber of Judseo-Greek fragments, historical, didactic,
expressely that he confirmed the former privileges epic, etc. (by Demetrios, Malchos, Eupolemos,
of the Jews in Babylonia (Joseph. Antiq. xi. 8. 5), Artapan, Aristseos, Jason, Ezechielos, Philo the
notwithstanding their firm refusal to assist in re- Elder, Theodot, etc.; collected in Miller, Frafgm.
building the Temple of Belus at Babylon (Hecat. Hist. Grcec. iii. 207-230), which have survived, we
ap. Joseph. c. Ap. I. 22). Two great cities, Nisibis may easily conclude what an immense literature
in Mesopotamia, and Nehardea on the Euphrates, this Egyptian dispersion must have possessed. To
where the moneys intended for transmission to them is owing likewise the Greek translation of the
Jerusalem were deposited (Joseph. xviii. 9. I, 3, 4, Bible known as the Septuagint, which, in its turn,
etc.), as was the case also at Apameain Asia Minor, while it estranged the people more and more from
Laodicea in Phrygia, Pergamus and Adramythium  the language of their fathers, the Hebrew, gave
in AEolis-seem to have been entirely their own, rise to a vast pseudo-epigraphical and apocryphal
and for a number of years they appear even to have literature (Orphica, Sybillines, Pseudophoclea;
enjoyed the undisputed possession of a whole prin- poems by Linus, Homer, Hesiod; additions to
cipality (1. c. 5). Great calamities, however, be- Esther, Ezra, the Maccabees, Book of Wisdom,
fell them, both about this time under Mithridates Baruch, Jeremiah, Susannah, etc.) Most momen(1. c. 9), and later under Caligula, through the tous of all, however, was that peculiar Grsecojealousy of the Greeks and Syrians; and at both Jewish philosophy, which sprang from a mixture of
of these epochs they emigrated in large numbers. Hellenism and Orientalism, and which played such
Whether they had in those times, as was after- a prominent part in the early history of Christianity.
wards the case, a universally recognised Ethnarch  The administrative government of this Egyptian or
at their head, is open to doubt, although Seder rather African dispersion, which, no less than all
Olam Sutta enumerates the names of fifteen gene- other branches, for all religious purposes looked to
rations of such, down to the third century. The Jerusalem as the head, was, at the time of Christ,
ties which linked Babylonia to Palestine were in the hands ofa Gerousia (Succah. 5I, b.; Philo c.
perhaps closer than in the case of any other por- Fl. ii. 5, 28), consisting of seventy members and an
tion of the dispersion; both on account of their Ethnarch (Alabarch), chosen from their own body,
greater proximity, which enabled them to com- of priestly lineage. These sat at Alexandria, where
municate by beacons [Beth-Biltin being the last two of the five divisions of the city, situated on the
station on the frontiers; Rosh Hash. 2, 7], and  Delta (the site best adapted for navigation and comof their common Aramaic idiom.   That this dis- mercial purposes), were occupied exclusivelybyJews




DISPERSION, THE                 682                DIVINATION
(Joseph. Antiq. xiv. 7. 2). Of the splendour of the and in time formed, by the addition to their numAlexandrine temple, there is a glowing account in  ber of fresh immigrants from Asia and Greece,
rerus. Suk. Io. b., and when, in consequence of the a large and highly influential community, which
Syrian oppression in Palestine, Onias, the son of occupied chiefly the Transtiberine portion of the
the last high-priest of the line of Joshua, had fled  city, together with an island in the Tiber. Their
to Egypt, where Ptolemy Philometor gave him an  prosperity grew with their numbers, and suffered
extensive district near Heliopolis: a new temple but short interruptions under Tiberius (Suet. in
(Beth Chonjo) had arisen at Leontopolis (Joseph.  Tib. c. 36). [The expulsion under Claudius (Suet.
Antiq. xiii. 3. 2, f), I80 B.C., which bade fair to in Cl. 25) and Caligula (Joseph. Antiq. xviii. 6)
rival the temple ofJerusalem. Such, indeed, was the is contradicted (Dio. Cass. 60. 6; Orosius 7. 6.)]
influence of the Jews in Egypt, whom Philo (c. Fl. They built numerous synagogues, founded schools
6) in his time estimates at a million, that this new  (even a-short-lived-academy), made proselytes,
temple was treated with consideration even by the and enjoyed the full privileges of Roman citizens.
Synedrium (Menach. o09, a.) Their condition, it In the decrees they are styled 7roXtrat Pcowatwv,
may easily be inferred, was flourishing both under 7roX/7r-cu t7 epot'IovUnaot, Joseph. Antiq. xiv. Io.
the Seleucidian and Roman sway, but under The connection between the Roman dispersion and
Caligula, and still more under Nero (Joseph. Bell. Palestine was very close, especially so long as the
Yud. ii. I8. 7), they, like their brethren in other parts young princes of the Herodian house were, in a
of the Roman empire, suffered greatly from sudden  manner, obliged to live in Rome. There is no doubt
outbursts of the populace, prompted and counte- that to the influence of this powerful body, whose
nanced, in some instances, by their rulers. From  number, origin, strange rites and customs, attracted
Egypt the diaspora spread southwards to Abyssinia, no small share of public notice (Tacitus, Sueton.
where some remnants of it still exist under the  Cicero, Juven. Horace, Martial, Justin. etc. etc.,
name of the Falasha, and in all likelihood east- passim), and to their access to the Imperial Court
wards to Arabia (Mishna, Shab. 6. 6), where we was due the amelioration of the condition of the
find a Jewish kingdom   (Yemen) in the south Jewish people throughout every country to which
(Tabari ap. Silv. de Sacy Mem. de ~Acad. d. Inscr. the sway of Rome extended. It was also through
T., 78), and a large Jewish settlement (Chaibar) in  Rome chiefly, both before, and still more after,
Hedjas in the north.                          the final destruction of Jerusalem, that the stream
Another principal section of the dispersion we find  of Jewish emigration was poured over the greater
in Syria, whither they had been brought chiefly by part of Europe. Of the world-wide influence of
Sileucus Nicator or Nicanor (Anliq. vii. 3. I), the Jewish dispersion on Christianity, which adwhen the battle of Ipsos (30I B.C.) had put him in  dressed itself first of all to the former as a body
possession of the countries of Syria Proper, Baby- (Acts xiii. 46; ii. 9, I), farther mention will be
lonia, Mesopotamia, Persia, Phoenicia, Palestine, found under the special article JEWS. See also
etc.  Under his and his successors' fostering rule EXILE; ALEXANDRIA; ROME.-E. D.
they reached the highest degree of prosperity (1. c.),
principally at Antioch on the Orontes, and Seleu-  DIVINATION, or the art of forecasting the
cia on the Tigris, and other great cities founded  future and discovering the unknown, has been reby Seleucus; and the privileges which this king  sorted to by all nations, under all degrees of relihad bestowed upon them were constantly con- gious gift and civilisation, with remarkable perfirmed up to the time of Josephus (Antiq. xii. 3. i). tinacity. The curiosity of mankind has devised
Antiochus Epiphanes, or Epimanes, as he was numberless methods of accomplishing the art. By
called, seems to have been the only Syrian potentate a perversion and exaggeration of the sublime faith
by whom the Syrian dispersion was persecuted; and  which sees God everywhere, men have laid- everyit was no doubt under his reign that they, in order thing, with greater or less ingenuity, under contrito escape from his cruelty, began to emigrate in all bution, as means of eliciting a divine answer to
directions-to Armenia, Cappadocia (Helena, the every question of their insatiable curiosity; e.g.,
Tewish Queen of Adiabone, Joseph. Antiq. xx. 2), the portents of sky, and sea, and earth (PluCyprus, and over the whole of Asia Minor; tarch, de Sus5erstit.; Homer and Virgil, passim);
Phrygia and Lydia alone possessed Jewish colonies the mysteries of the grave (veKponuavTela and aoKLOof a previous date, planted there by Antiochus the,tavrela); the wonders of sleep and dreams (emanaGreek (Joseph. Anliq. xii. 3. 4). Hence theydis- tions as they were thought to be from the gods)
persed themselves throughout the islands of the  (comp. Iliad, i. 63; Hecuba, 70; 4Eneid, v. 838;
AEgean, to Macedonia, to Greece, where they in- Homer, Hymn. in Mercur. 14, etc.); the phenohabited chiefly the seaports and the marts of trade mena of victims sacrificed (in which the deities
and commerce.                                  were supposed to be specially interested and near
Although, to use the words of Josephus (Antiq. at hand; comp. the facts of the lepo/iavreta in
xiv. 7. 2), the habitable globe was so full of Jews Potter's Gr. Antiqq. ii. 14); the motions and
that there was scarcely a corner of the Roman em- appearances of the animal creation (such as the
pire where they might not be found-a statement flight of birds-a copious source of superstition in
fully confirmed by the number of Roman decrees the 6pviooa-Korla of the Greeks and the Augurium
issued to various parts of the empire for their pro- of the Latins-and the aspect of beasts); and the
tection (Joseph. Antiq. xiv. Io, seqq.)-there is yet prodigies of inanimate nature (such as the dv6ita
no absolute proof of their having acquired any fixed  r6gsuoXa, omens of the way, upon which whole
settlements in the metropolis itself, anterior to the books are said to have been written; the K\Xqtime of Pompey, who, after the taking of Jerusa- 6oves, ominous voices; and the long list of magic
lem, carried back with him many Jewish captives arts, which the reader may find in Hoffmann's
and prisoners to Rome (Joseph., 63 B.C.) These Lexicon, ii. 87; Potter, ii. I8, and Occull Sciences
being generally either allowed to retire fiom the in Encycl. Metropol. Part v., which contains
service or ransomed, remained there as Libertini, some thirty names compounded of zavrecia, all




DIVINATION                   683               DIVINATION
branches of the magic art). Nor have these expe- the very functions which led to all the evils he
dients of superstition been confined to one age or deplored:'Est profecto divinatio, qua multis
a single nation. The meteoric portents, for in- locis, rebus, temporibus apparet.... multa
stance, which were used to excite the surprise and  enim aruspices, multa augures provident, multa
fear of the old Greeks and Romans, are still em- oraculis providentur, multa vaticinatimibus, multa
ployed among the barbarians of Africa (comp. the somniis, multa portentis' ()e Nat. Deor. ii. 65).
2Muansa of the Wanika; Dr. Krapf's Missionary  In this respect how remarkable is the contrast
Travels in E. Africa, p. I65, etc.); and if the  afforded in the inspired words of the Hebrew lawancients read fearful signs in the faces of animals: giver!'There shall not be found among you
Obsccenique canes, importunoeque volucres    any one.... that useth divination, or an obSigna dabant;         Georgic i. 469, 470.   server of times, or an enchanter, or a witch, or a
charmer, or a consulter with familiar spirits, or a
the savage Bakwains indicate the presence of the wizard, or a necromancer; for all that do these
terrible alligator with their boleo ki bo ('there is things are an abomination to the LORD' (Deut.
sin'), as if the sight of it would give their eyes xviii. Io-I2). Not that the desire to know the
some physical evil (see Dr. Livingstone's Mission- future, so natural to man, was wrong in itself;
ary Travels in S. Africa, p. 255). The manifold rather it was an instinct to be satisfied.  Only the
processes of the divining art were summed up by  satisfaction was to be prescribed by God himself:
the logical Greeks and Romans into two great'The LORD thy God will raise up unto thee a
classes, one of which they called TreXvos, aitaKc- Prophel from the midst of thee, of thy brethren,
ros, naturalis; i.e., unartificial, as not being at- like unto me; unto him ye shall hearken' (Ibid.
tained by any rules or observations, but inspired  v. I5).  Here is the impassable limit between
into the diviner or cbAvrLs by a power external to  human capacity and Divine gift. The unerring
himself; the other species was TeXiVK] or artficial; solution of the future was never put within the
because it was not obtained by immediate inspira- attainment of man's unaided intellect; God retion, but was the effect of observation and saga- served it as his own prerogative.  Cicero stated
city, or depended chiefly on human art (Potter, ii. the problem clearly enough-' Si unum aliquid ita
7; Bacon, De Auzgment. Scient. iv. 3-Ellis and  sit praedictum praesensumque, ut quum evenerit,
Spedding, iv. 399). This division is Plato's, who  ita cadat ut praedictum, neque in eo quidquam
is followed in it by Aristotle, Cicero, and Plutarch. casu et fortuito factum esse appareat' (De Divin.
Cicero, in his definition, consistently embraces i. 65); but he failed to discover anywhere a trustboth kinds of Divination, calling it'a presaging  worthy solution, because it was not given him to
and knowledge of things to happen'-prcesensio et search within the precincts of inspiration. With
scientia rerun futurarum (De Divinatione, i. I, heavy heart he ends his still beautiful treatise with
I; in the De Aat. )Deorun, ii. 65, he employs the these striking words:'Ut vere loquamur, superword prcedictio). Plato's definition as e7rto-rOax  stitio fusa per gentes oppressit omnium fere aniTrpOO'XT\rtKi 7rpaders, tvev irosoeiews,' the science mos, atque hominum  imbecillitatem  occupavit.
which is presignificant of any event, but without The truth must be confessed, the superstition
the demonstration of reason,' seems to exclude the which has spread through the nations has well
whole of the TreXK or artificial kind of divination. nigh oppressed the minds of all, and has laid
There were many reasons why men of higher and  firm hold on the feebleness of mankind' (De Divin.
purer intellects, like Plato, should look only to sub finem). Lord Bacon well explains the radical
the divine side of the predictive art; its human  defect of divination in his Essay on Sujperstition
side was miserably disfigured with the most grovel- (xviith. Whateley, p. I54), where he describes it as
ling artifice and superstition.  Cicero labours to'the taking an aim at Divine matters by human,
clear away the evils with which this'grand and  which cannot but breed mixture of imaginations.'
wholesome subject-magnifica quidem res et salu- The history of divination presents a uniform result
taris,' was overlaid, and refers the entire power everywhere. The human mind revelling in superand origin of divination, even in its technical stitious imaginations loses the ballast of purity,
aspect, to the gods; he expresses his own belief probity, and piety.
in it, thus purified of its dross ('hoc non dubitans  Of the many instances of divination which ocdixerim...  esse certe divinationem,' De Divin. cur in Holy Scripture, some must be taken in a
i. 55), and asserts for it a universal reception good sense. These have accordingly been classed
among men;'It is derived,' he says,'from the by J. Christopher Wichmannshausen (Dissert. de
age of heroes, and is not only entertained by the Divinat. Babyl.) as truly'Divine.' It will be
Romans, but confirmed by the consent of all convenient to consider them first. (I.) The class
nations.'* Elevated, however, as were the great which meets our view at the outset is designated in
Roman's views of divination, his field of vision  Greek KX-qpoLavreTia, divination by lot. This mode
was too circumscribed for him to exclude from it of decision was used by the Hebrews in matters of
extreme importance, and always with solemnity
* Cicero's statement of the origin of the various and religious preparation (Josh. vii. 13). The
branches of divination in diferent nation  (es          (Debylo,,.          N.
Divin. i. I, 2) may be compared with the stillland was divided by lot (>l, K\Xpo, sors); Num.
more copious distribution given by Gregory Na- xxvi. 55, 56; Josh. xiv. 2).  Achan's guilt was
zienzen (Works, ed. Bened. ii. I37). See also  detected by lot (Josh. vii. 16-I9).  Saul was
Pliny, Nat. Hist. vii. 56. Long previously Hero- elected king by lot (I Sam. x. 20, 21). And,
dotus (ii. 82) had said:'The Egyptians discovered  more remarkable still, St. Matthias was chosen
more prognostics (r paca) than all the rest of man- to the vacant apostleship by solemn lot, and invokind besides..... and with respect to divina- cation of God to guide the decision (Acts i. 26).
tion (sAavTtiK) they hold that it is a gift which no  This solemnity and reverence it is which gives
mortal possesses, but only certain of the gods.'  force to such passages as Prov. xvi. 33; xviii. I8.




DIVINATION                  684               DIVINATION
(See S. Augustin, de Doctr. Christ. i. 28; Thom. most eminent perversion and imitation of it;)
Aquin. ii. 2, qu. 95, art. 8). (2.) Under this pro- and was often accompanied with symbolical action
cess of -Iij or lot, were appointed the interesting  (2 ings xiii. 17; Jer. i. 63, 64).  We may,T      i      i                      learn the importance of the place it was designed
ordinances of the scape-goat and the goat of the to occupy in the Theocracy as a means of divisin-offering for the people (Lev. xvi. 8-Io). (3.') nation, by the express contrast drawn between
Some instances of what the Greeks technically it, on the one hand, and the divinations of
called 6vetpoluavreta, require a place in our cate- idolatry on the other. Comp. v. 14 with v. 15,
gory of heavenly divination. The interpretation  of Deut. xviii. (See Michaelis' Laws of Moses,
of Pharaoh's dreams by the divinely-gifted Joseph  Art. xxxvi.) Under this head of Prophecy we
(Gen. xli. 25-32); and the retracing and interpre-must of course include the  n')n RIo, as the Jews
tation of those of Nebuchadnezzar by the inspired                     v 
prophet (Dan. ii. 27, etc., and again iv. I9-28), ascall t  Inspiraton of the Holy Sirit (comp.
opposed to the diviners of false dreams in Zech. x. Nicene Creed,'Who spake by the Prophets.)
2, are very prominent cases in point; and stillThe Scriptures of the 0. T. are most suitably
more, the dreams themselves divinely sent [as those called' oacles,' A a  eov in the N. T.  (See
in Gen. xx. 6; Judg. vii. I5; I Kings iii. 5; so Acts v. 3; Rom. iii. 2  Heb.s of divin  et
those in Matt. i. 20; ii. I2, 13, 19, 22], must be iv. II.)  Such are the chief modes of divine cornregarded as instances of divination in a good sense, muication to men or inspired divination: they
a heavenly oveipotav-reia (comp. Mohammed's di are referred to in Heb. i. i, rvps Kc  oXuta;'Good dreams are from God;'' Good dreams  1pb6   7rac 0 eos XaXioasTols raTpaci-. The
are one of the great parts of prophecy.' Lane's antithesis points to the Son of God as the Ultimate
Arab. JNigehts, i. 68). This is clear from Num. xi. Oracle [the Logos of St. John], the fulfiller of the
6 (where dreams [to the sleeping] and visions [to promise, which Moses gave when he prohibited all
the awake] are expressly mentioned as correla- spurious divination.  (9.) Before we close our
tive divinations authorised by God), compared notice of divination in a good sense we must adwith I Sam. xxviii. 6. In this latter ver. there duce two instances of the word. Of the
occur two other means of divination, which we thirty-one occurrences of this expressive term in
occur two other means of divination, which we
mention under the next two heads. (4.) The the 0. T., no less than twenty-nine bear an evil
Urim  and Thummim (Num. xxvii. 27), which meaning. In Prov. xvi. IO, and Is. iii. 2, we
seem to have had the same relation in true divina-claim for it a good sense. In the former of these
tion, which the Teraphim had in the idolatrous passages the noun  DIr (LXX. avTreov; Vilg.
system. (See Hos. iii. 4, and URIM and THUM- Divinatio), is rendered in A. V. A divine sentence
-) (5-) The. Bath 2 -  ol  (ip r   ri, or direct [Marg. Divination]; and denotes'sagacitas quaMIM) () Te     is divinantium' (Poli Synops. in loc. Melancvocal communication) which God vouchsafed espe- thon, as quoted by Bishop Patrick in loc., refers
cially to Moses (See Deut. xxxiv. Io). Various to the acute wisdom of Solomon, in his celebrated
concomitants of revelation were employed by the judgment, and of Gonzaga, in his sentence on the
Deity; as the Rod-Serjpent (Exod. iv. 3); the governor of Milan, as instances of this:)p; we
Leprous-Hand (ver. 4); the Burning Bzsh (iii. 4); might add the case supposed by Solomon himthe Plagues (vii.-xii.); the Cloud (xvi. o1, II); self of the sagacious poor man who successfully debut most instances are without phenomena (Deut. fended the city against the mighty invader, Eccl.
iv. 15; I Kings xix. 12, 13, 15, and perhaps ix. 15). In Is. iii. 2, the word occurs in the Pod
Matt. iii. I3). This, the true Bath-Kol, must not form, D1p (Troxaro-5s; ariolus), and is rightly
be confounded with the fabulous one of the Rab-rendered  A. V.         the company in which
bis, which Dr. Lightfoot calls'a fiction of their the term is found requires for it a good significaown brain to bring their doctors and their doc- tion    -
trines into credit' (Harm. Gosp.; Works iii. I32);
nor yet with the wrapar-ip-qois X6ywv, the human  We now  proceed to enumerate the phrases
voice (referred to in Smith's Bibl. Dict. Divina-which mdicate theforbidden cases of Diviation.
tion [7]). See BATH-KOL.   (6.) The Oracles; Allusion has already been made in the commencefirst, of the Ark of the Testimony or Covenant ment of this art. to Deut. xviii. 10-12. As these
(3t1131 lht), described in Exod. xxv. 22, and  verses contain the most formal notice of the sub_. T~  -:'[, decie' Exd     x.2,a       ject, we will first take the seven or eight kinds of
Kings vi. 16-31 (Cfr. Ps. xxviii. 2); secondly, of diviners there denounced in the order in which
the Tabernacle of the Congregation or Testimony they are mentioned. (I). At the very outset we
C(r ~nn ), ~described in Exod. xxix. 42, 43. encounter in the phrase  DDpi  ip (LXX. /av[In the account of the Temple, both in x Kings Tev76evos /avrTeiav; Vulg. Qui ariolos sciscitatur),
vi., and 2 Chron., the word V:r is used fifteen the same word which we have just noticed in a
good sense. The verb    =1'), like the Arabic
times to designate the'Oracle;' i.e., the Holy od sense  The verb        like the Arabic
of Holies (see I Kings vi. i6), in which was       primarily signified to cleave or divide
placed the Ark of the Covenant (ver. I9); whose  s
golden cover, called the Mercy-seat, waebr. Ww.buch, 344; Furst, Hebr. Woractual situs oraculi.] (7.) The Angelic Voice, ter. ii. 322; Hottinger, Lexicon  epagl. 44  ),
n    ZS' V(e.g., Gen. xxii. 5; Judg. xiii. 3, I3). thence it acquired the sense of deciding and deter() The Pryheticnsti   se B   or   mining; and became a generic phrase for various
(8.) The Prophetic Institution ns.~, see Buxtorf, sof divination  abbi David de Pomis says:
T:.            kinds of divination. Rabbi David de Pomis says:
Lex. Rabb., s. v.  This was the most illustri- -' It is a word of large signification, embracing
ous and perfect means of holy divination (as the many specific senses, such as yeo/eavretla, veKpooracular system in the heathen world was the btavrela, ovotavTrea, Xetpocvrela, and others.'




DIVINATION                   685               DIVINATION
Maimonides (in his treatise 8331I nFlt 1111  lr  commonly used. This superstition became so rife'13, cap. xi. sec. 6), includes besides these that it was necessary to denounce itfrom the pulpit
methods yao-rpoauavreia, XLtoLzavreia, and KaTror- as forbidden by the divine precept-' Thou shalt
Tpoaiavreia; and Raschi (on Deut. xviii. Io) makes not tempt the Lord thy God.' The Moslems con2jDp mainly concerned with the process of pa/g- sult the Koran in similar manner, but they take
oo/LavTela.  Amid the uncertainty arising from  their answer from the seventh line of the right-hand
this generic sense of the word, the LXX. has page.    (See Occult Sciences, 332.) Another origin
rendered it by the general phrase AcavTer6ecSat for MlD1t is found by some in the noun tip the eye,
/zavreatv,; wherein it is followed by the Tar-    I
lvagumv    wherein it is followed by the Tar-c which root occurs once only (I Sam. xviii. 9) as a
gum   of Jonathan as well as sby the Syri ac   verb,'Saul eyed David.' This derivation would
and Arabic versions.  (J. Clodius, Dissert. de point tofascination, the Greek Baoicala and the
point tofascination, the Greek BaGKavia and the
DMasg    gitar. 54.)  T; and Wichmannshausen, Latinfascinum. Vossius derives these words from
Dissert. i. 4.)  The word is used of Balaam           i      to killith the eyes. Pliny [Holland's
(Josh. xiii. 22); of the Philistine soothsayers  ctat Kiavecv to killzoitlz the eyes. Pliny [Holland's
(joSa. Xvi. 22)  of the PHebrew fse psoothsys trans., i. I55] says:'Such like these are among
(I Sam. ii. 2)   of the Hebrew false prophets the Triballians and Illyrians, who with their very
(Micah iii. 3, 6, 7, rI, and in other passages), eiesht can witch (effascinent)' yea, and kill those
without specifying any mode of divination.  Wewhom they lookewistly upon any longtime.' (fr
therefore regard this as a general phrase introduc- Aul. Gell. ix. 4, 8; Plutarch, Sympos. v. 7.)
tory to the seven particular ones which follow.
tory to the seven particular ones which rfollowi  Reginald Scot speaks of certain Irish witches as
[The absence of the copulative', which is prefixed  eyeiers'(Disco   of  itchcf, iii. 15) Whole
to every other word but 13'1Y" confirms this viewl ]'eyebiters' (Discovery of 4'ccrafi, iii. I5). Whole
to every other word but Jlfln confirms this view.] treatises have been written on this subject, such as
(a) WJilO. This word is variously derived and ex- the De Fascino by the Italian Vairus in  589; the
plained.  In our A.V. it is, in six out of ten times  Opusculum de Fascino by Gutierrez, a Spaniard, in
of its occurrence as a verb or part. poel. rendered  I563, and the T7ractatus deFascinatione in I675 by'observer of times,' comp. Luther, Tagewe hler (as a German physician called Frommann.  (See also
iffrom jptyijempusstatutum. Fuller, Aisc.SS. i.I6, Shaw, 7Trav. p. 212.) In Martin's Description of
W. Isles of Scotland'Molluka beans' are mentioned
after Raschi.) The idea is-the assigning certain  as amulets against fascination. Dallaway (Account
times to things, and distinguishing by astrology  of Constantinple as quoted in Occut Scieces, 2o)
lucky from unlucky days-and even months (as ss tat       othing can exceed the superstition of
says that' nothing can exceed the superstition of
when Ovid [Fasti] says; Mense malumn miao nu- the Turks respecting the evil eye of an enemy or
bere vulgus ait) and years (Maimonides, Havoda  infidel. Passages from the Koran are painted on the
Sara, cap. r9; Spencer, De Leg. HIebr. i. 387). Iti outside of houses, etc. etc., to divert the sinister infiuis not necessary to refer Gal. iv.  to this supersti- ence.' Hottinger (quoted by Nicolai, on Sigonius,
tion; the Mosaic institution of sacred seasons is        f  defines           as    a   o
v. 9, note f.) defines D4I4.V?~18N as what would
itself there prohibited, as being abrogated to Chris- now be ce  mesmerist, quivelocitate manuum
tians (Selden, De Ann. Civil. Vet. 7ud. c. 2i, and
tians (Selden, De Ann. Civil. etv. er d. c. 21, and  ita fascinat spectatorem ut existimet magna solertia
Alford inlooc.)  The LXX. version by the verb  eum efficere miracula,' and accounts for the prohiand part. tX-Sov1Pco-cS-a  (in four places) and the bition in Deut. xviii. Io-' qud facile homines cum
noun KtXSovIo-x6s (in two others) refers to divina- veris confundant miraculis adeoque ad Atheismum
tion by words and voices [Suidas: KiviSyto,  a   m steris confundant.' mraculs, ader oque ad Atheismum
ta -r~v Xoy 7raparpets]. Festus derives omen  viam sternant.' But the derivation of 1~]1}9 which
&itself, q i v oremparnbecus]. Festus derives  omen  finds most favour with modern authorities deduces
itself, quasi oremen, because it proceeds from  e  the word from iap a cloud, so that the diviner would
mouth, quiafit ab ore. Words of ill omen (6vu —
~/qlact, which Horace calls matl ominata verba and ply his art by watching clouds, thunders, lightnings
Plautus obscoenata [prob. obscmevata]) were ex- (Meier, Hebr. Wurzel, w. b. v. 6, p. 92; Fiirst, H.
changed for bona nomina, as when Cicero re- Worterb. ii. 167, who, however finds room for all
ported to the Senate the execution of Lentulus and  the derivations; and Gesenius, s. v., PlV, leans to
others by the word'vixerunt,' they have ceased to the figurative sense of to cloud, viz., to use covert arts).
live, instead of'mortui sunt,' they are dead. So  Rosenmiiller, Scholia in Levit. xix. 26, follows
Leotychides embraced the omen of Hegesistratus Aben Esra, who thinks this diviner obtained his
(Herodot. xi. 91). Hebrew instances of this ob- omensfrom observation of the clouds. The notion
serving of words occur in Gen. xxiv. 14, and I Sam. that the terms DI? east,'hn  west, tll south,
xiv. 9, Io, where a divine interposition occurred;   north, were derived from the position of the
in   ings xx. 33, the catching at the word of th       north werederived from the      of the
king of Israel was rather a human instinct than a Planetarius as he faced the east, taking his celes7raparjpptsr in its proper [superstitious] sense. tial observations (Goodwin's Moses and Aaron, iv.
Akin to and arising from this observance of verbal Io) is rejected by his annotator Carpzov as a.putida
omens, arose the Sortes Homericce, Virgilianc, Bib- hariolatio / Jeremiah (x. 2) clearly refers to this
licce, etc. The elevation of Severus is said to have divination, which had its counterpart in Greek and
been foretold by his opening at Virgil's line, Tu  Latin literature (e.g., in Iliad ii., Nestor says'Ao-rregere imperio populos, Romane, memento.  Most pcTrrov nrl dei evact riCa r -ara abciavcov, rightremarkable were the responses which it is said  hand flashes being lucky.  (See also Odyssey
Charles I. and Lord Falkland, obtained, when   I. 304.) Diodorus Siculus (vol. iii. p. 340, ed.
they consulted their Virgils before the civil war. Bipont.) mentions the KepavvooKo7ria, and the as iv
The former opened /neid iv. where Dido predicts ros Kepavvos W&ovrnelat of the Etrurians.  (Comp.
a violent death to AEneas, while the latter chanced'fulguratores-hi fulgurum inspectores,' Cato de
upon   Eneid xi., at Evander's lamentation over Mor. Claud. Neron; Nonius lxiii. 2I; Cicero de
his son.  According to Nicephorus Gregoras the Div. ii. 53. [In Orelli 230If, fuguriator.]  Pliny,
Psalter was the best book for the Sortes Biblice, in ii. 43, treats of the physical, and in ii. 54 of the
but Cedrenus informs us, that the N. T. was more oricular qualities of thunder, lightning, etc.; as




DIVINATION                    686               DIVINATION
does L. A. Seneca in Natur. Qucest. ii. 41. Statius Syriac and Arabic versions favour this view [= aumentions the winds for purposes of divination  gurari ab animali alato]. Birds in their flight over
(Thebaid. iii. 512-538). See Humboldt, Kosmos, the earth were supposed to observe men's secret
ii. 135, for the probable scientfic adaptations by  actions, and to be cognisant of accidents, etc. [Cfr.
the Etrurians of their divining arts.) To this class Eccl. x. 20].  Aristophanes (Birds) says, oboels
must we refer'the astrologers' (3DV 4'3:1i here ot6e rbv rlqaavpbv Toy e'4oiv, -7rXv et s rL dp' 6pvis, none
only found);'the star-gazers or rather star-prophets'but some bird pehaps knows of my treasure: so that
(82 1 MannPI) i and~i'te mthe birds assume prerogatives of deity; #o-iev 6'
(n4    3.2  hn); and'the monthly prognostica-,,                             ow
T   -b/xv "A.Co _v, AeXq ol, Aowbvrl, <o6foos'AqrbXk&v, we
cators,' or rather they that make known at the new- are as good as oracles and gods to you, etc. The
moons        -7what  il hppen to thee w(ilnn h7:thlto  notes, the fight, and thefeeding of birds were the
s~   to t     7:-.  main phenomena.   [Augur, ab avium garritu;:]5.I&2'9JD.- See Rosenmiiller in loc.) which  auspex auspicium ab avibus speciendis; Bochart, ed.
are all mentioned in the sublime challenge of God  Leusd. ii. I9.]  Homer is full of this divination, 1.
to the Chaldee sorcerers, in Isa. xlvii. 13. Astro- c. 310; Od. 6. i60, et passim. So the Latin
iogy retained a long hold even on the minds of classics, see Servius, Virg.  n. iii. 361 ('aves
astronomers; e.g., Stoffler from its evaluation pre-oscines, prepetes'); also Cicero, Fam. vi. 6, 13;
dicted a deluge for 1524; Cardan his own DeDivin. ii. 72, etc., and Liv. x. 40 (tripudium
death: Wallenstein was a great amateur of astro-solistimum).  For qualities of various birds, see
logy; Tycho Brahe studied and practised it; so  Potter, xv. and Occult Sciences 142, I43.  This
did Morinus; Kepler supposed that the planets by  divination was much in vogue in the East also; so
their configurations exercised certain influences over Cicero (de Div.)'Arabes avium significationibus
sublunary nature; Lord Bacon, moreover, thought plurimum  obtemperant.'  So Philostratus (Vit.
that astrology needed only to be reformed, not re- Apollon. i. 14) speaks of this, as rov'Apdpto
jected. (Arago, Pop. Astron. [by Smyth and Grant] -p67rov. Porphyrius. (De Abstin. Anial, iii.) says
ii. 8; Brewster, Martyrs of Science, 150, 211.)  "Apaces KOpaKV aKO6ovLt. Rabbinical doctors dis(b.) The next word in our list (Deut. xviii. Io) is cover augzty among king Solomon's attainments,
3DO'an Enchanter,' (LXX. oicvti1utevos. Vulg. in such passages as Eccl. x. 20, and I Kings iv. 30.
Qui observat auguria).  In Gen. xliv. 5, 15, this Rashi comments 3.Vin llvi1 D~n, learned in the
somewhat general word is used of divining by the tongue of birds; So Kimchi and the Midbar Rabba,
cup; the Greek Kv\XKooavTrla. Primitivelythiswas xix. The root tUn: has the primary sense of a
the drinking cup which contained the libation to low hissing, whispering sound; from this arises the
the gods (Potter). This divination prevailed more in derivative Einf a serpent, of frequent occurrence in
the East and in Egypt. The LXX. KObvV, used to' TT 
designate Joseph's cup, resembles both the Arabic. T. Gesenius, Thes. 875; Lex, by Robinson,
665, and Fiirst, Hebr. Worterb. 31, prefer to de-,  = and the Hindu kundi, sacred chalicerive from the primary sense [q. d. divinare vel
augurari as general terms]; but Bochart, ii.
(Schleusner,Lex.V.T. s.v.; Kitto,Bb.Els.i. 424). 21, 22, peremptorily derives from  the secondOne of the Assyrian kings, in the sculptures from  ary sense of te serpnt and discovers in this tlnJ
Nimroud, holds a divining cup in his right hand... 
The famous cup of Djemscheedwhich is the constant the divination called 6fqtoiavrela.  Fiirst admits
theme of the poetry and mythology of Persia, was this as'tolerable' (nicht unpassend).  Classical
said to have been discovered full of the elixir of im- instances of Ophiomancy occur in Iliad B. 308;
mortality, while digging to lay the foundation of Per-  Eneid, v. 84; Cicero, De Div. i. 8, 36; Valer.
sepolis. Itpossessed theproperty of representing the  Maxim. i. 6, 8; Terent. Phorm. iv. 4, 26; Clem.
whole world in its concavity, and all things good and  Alex. Strom. vii.; Horat. Carm. iii. 27, 5. [Acbad then going on it. Homer describes Nestor's cup  cording to Hesychius, s. v. olov6b, and Suidas, s. v.
in similar manner; and Alexander the Great had a OwiLtrLKt, omens from serpents as well as from
mystic cup of a like kind. In the storming of Ser- birds formed a usual branch of the augur's art;
ingapatam the unfortunate Tippoo Saib retired to hence probably the general phrase employed in the
gaze on his divining cup; after standing a while LXX. and other versions.] Serpent-charming, reabsorbed, he returned to the fight and soon fell. ferred to in Psalm lviii. 5, and Jer. viii. 17, is a
The'great magitien' Merlin's cup is described  part of this divination.  Frequent mention of this
(Spenser's Eaerie Queene, iii. 2. 19)'Like to the art also occurs in both ancient and modern writers.
world itsefe, it seem'd a world ofglas.' In Nor- (See Kalisch on Exod. vii. 12, who [after Winer,
den's Travels in Egypt, and Capt. Cook's voyages, R-w-buch, ii. 719] refers to ~Elian, Hist. Anitm. xvii.
the use of divining cups in modern Nubia and at 5; Sil. Italic. iii. 300; Strabo, xii. 814; Gellius,
Tongataboo, one of the Friendly Islands, is men- Noct. Attic. xvi. I I; Shaw, Travels, 354; Niebuhr,
tioned. The orientals ascribe much of Solomon's  Travels, i. 189; Bochart. Hieroz. iii. 162; Descripwisdom to his possession of a sacred cup, a Giam- tion de'Egypte, viii. o08; xviii. I, 333. [In I. 159
schid, or vase ofthe sun.  (D'Herbelot, s. v. Giam; there is a description of the feats of some Cairo
Occult Sciences, 317.) The supposed virtues of the jugglers with the serpent Haje]; Quatremere, Metm.
divining cup in the East probably suggested the sur'Egypte, i. 202; Minutoli, Travels, 226;
language of, e.g., Psalm xvi. 5-'The Lord is the  Hengstenberg, Mros. and Egypt, 97-103; Lane,
portion of my cup;' xxiii. 5-' My cup runneth  Mod. Egypt, ii. 230). The serpent was the symbol
over,' etc. (Bonomi's Nineveh, etc., p. 306.) But of health and healing (Anguis Aesculapius, Plin.
the versions of the LXX. and Vulgate give quite a xxiv. 4. 22); Moses' brazen serpent (Numb. xxi. 9),
different turn to our ~n/B,  and point to that part which was oi/upjoXov awrflpias (Wisdom  xvi. 6,
of the augurial art which consisted of omens from  comp. John iii. 14), was at length made an object
birds [pvidoLavretla, olwvcowj6s, OpviOocKOTtrLKi]. The  of idolatrous worship. Hezekiah, to destroy the




DIVINATION                   687                DIVINATION
charm, reduced its name to its mere material Virg.    f En. iv. 489.  Vertere sidera retro, noctur(in.3nn tn1= 1rn n3), 2 Kings xviii. 4.        nosque ciet Manes, etc.; Ovid, Metam. xii. 263,
c.): AWES (LXX.% ap: agcbs; *Vulg. Maleficzs). Deduxisse canendo cornua Iunae; Horat. Epod. v.
c.). (L"- XX  clcl' cK45, Quac sidera... lunamrque cclo deripit; Tibull.
This word has always a bad sense in 0. T. in the i. 2, 42, Hanc ego de ccla ducentem sidera vidi
twelve instances in which the verb [always Piel] and  [magico saga miniszerio.] So Shakespere's magithe noun are used. The Syriac, however,   D    d.L cian, Prospero, says (Tempest, V. I), By whose aid
have bedimmed the noon-tide sun; and (ibid.)
(kasap), bears the good sense of prayer and public Caliban's mother was a witch and one so strong she
ervice to God,   so-ts, XeTrovpyia in Acts iv. 31;could control the moon; so again Milton, While
xiii. 2. The Arabic,   " 6   (kashaf) suggests the labouring moon eclipses at their charms.  In
Exod. xxii. 18, the feminine nag~  is translated
the meaning of the missing Kal ='to reveal.'..      
In Exod. vii. II this word describes (in plur.) the a witc in A. V. In the Theocratic system, where
magicians of Pharaoh, who are also there called women as well as men were endued with supertnDn sages, and in vii. 22 (Cfr. Gen. xli. 8, 24), natural gifts (such as Deborah, Hannah, Huldah),
~T*-:',              -..-      female pretenders were to be found-indeed, ac13tnm, the lepoypa ltarets (Clem. Al. vi. 633), cording to Maimonides (Moreh Nev. iii. 37), and
or sacredscribes of Egypt. This latter title identifies Babyl. Gemara (Sanhed [Ugol. Thes. xxv. 776]),
these with the Magi, or sacerdotes, of the Chaldean  more rife even than males. Their divination is recourt (see Dan. ii. 1o, 27). The prophet was ferred to in Ezek. iii. 23, and described ver
himself made by the king of Babylon, Br4iin n1, 17-22 (Cfr. H. G. Triumphii Dissert. de pulvillis et'master of te mgicia' (D.         e  ats  eplis prophetiss [in Thes. Nov. suppl. ad Crit.
master of the magicians (Dan. v. i). Th a Sacr. i. 972], and Ephrem Syrus, in Rosenmiiller,
of these diviners [Dznn?, Exod. vii. II, 1t?, ver. in oc., who supposes the'pillows' to be amulets
22], which enabled them   to withstand Moses,        D   for divination fitted to their sleeves)
were doubtless imposing, though so inferior to
the miracles by which they were ultimately foiled  (d.) The next phrase in the Mosaic catalogue of
(viii. I9), and their gods confounded (xii. 12). The forbidden divination is (Deut. xviii. II),'3n -"h,
conjecture of Aben Esra, that it was'their skill in 
the secrets of physical science' (quoted in Carpzov,  a charmer  (LXX.  irdaefwv e'raot6fv; Vulg.
Apparatzs, 543), such as is attributed to the Incantator).  The root of these words denotes
Etrurian fidguratores by Humboldt (Kosmos, 1. c.), binding, or joizing together.  Gesenius (by Robinwhich enabled them to sustain their impious contest, son, p. 293) refers to a species of magic which was
is not unreasonable. The names of two of these practised by bing magic     nots (Cfr. Gordian
Chartummim [or nt. ] are given by St. Paul,      ot)  Carpzov, Aparatus, 544, quotes Rabbini: -?]                      cal authority, and Bochart (Heroz. ii. 3, 6), for a
2 Tim. iii. 8. (For Talmudic traditions about kind of divination which drew together noxious
these, see Buxtorf, Lex. Ch. Tal. 945; Cfr. Pliny, creatures (serpentes and scorpiones) for purposes
Hist. Nat. xxx. I, who associates yamnes and   of sorcery; and in Ps. lviii. 6, the very phrase
yotapes with Moses as e/ews; Apuleius, Apol. o8 before us is applied to serpent charmers. (See
[ed. Casaub. ], who mentions Moses, Yannes, etc., as above under (b)).  Gaulmin (in Carpzov) meninter magos celebrati; Numenius Pythag. in Euseb. tions &eau6os Oewv, as if the very gods might be
Prep. Evang. ix. 8, who mentions'Iavvs Kal bound by magic arts. The LXX. version suggests'IalSpips'Acy6trrot and Moo-acos 6'Iovuaios. The  our spell-bound.'Spell is a kind of incantation
Moslems call these magicians Sadur and Gadur; per sermones vel verba,' says Somner. Hence the
D'Herbelot, s. v. Mousa; and Sale, Koran, 237; frequent allusions to such a charm in poetry. The
Schoettgen, for. Hebr. 893; Rosenmiiller, on   refrain in the chorus of the Furies ({Eschyl. Eumen.
Exod. 1. c.) The N. T. gives us the names of 296, 318, 327), Vi vos e'Eptvdwv &Gacpos fpevwv,
other diviners also-in this respect differing observ- dp06pcrosK, auovA [a spell-blight] 3p6bTts, is imitated
ably from the reserve of the 0. T. —e.g. of Simon  by Byron (Manfred, i. I)Magus (Acts viii. 9, uacye6&uv); of Barjesus or'Lo! the spell now worksaround thee,
Elymas (Acts xiii. 6, 8, 6o cryos); the sons of Sceva  Lo  the clankless cin at ound thee,
(Acts xix. 13, 14, eoapKTrai). We have alluded       nd the clankless chain hath bound thee,
to the supposed scientific basis of the arts of these  Oerthy heart and brain together
nLVDW:)3, or Hadn, or n:DWOn'n (for the identity of  Hath the word been passed-now wither!'
~2~,      or 1tfl1T, or  ~Y~1 (for the identity of
these see Kalisch, on -Exod. p. II4; and Keil and  So Milton (Comus, 852),' She can unlock the
Delitzsch's Bibl. Commentar. i. 357); by Umbreit, clasping charm  and thaw the numming spell;'
on Job, and Deyling (Observss. s. iii.  29), the Jonson's witch (in the Sad Shepherd), is said'to
words Vi w"l?,'the blackness of the day,' in rivet charms;' and Beaum. and Fletcher (The
Job iii. 5, aretaken to mean certain incanations oyal Subject, ii. 2),  What strange spells these
which darken the day,' practised by magicians rbngshave!'     This last quotation directs us to the
(whom Winer, ii. 719, thinks indicated in the 8thbest explanation of divination by nn. Its idea is
verse by the words  -  N,~'that curse the day,' binding together; the ring has always been reverse by the w s l?,' t ce te d,' garded as the symbol of such conjunction [cfr.
and) who were able, as the superstitious imagined, wedding-ring, in marriage service of Church of
to change the brightest day into the darkest mid- England.] In the phenomena of 6aKrvXouavreta,
night. Popular ignorance has always connected  or divination by ring (see Potter, ii. I8; Occult
magic power with scientific skill. The foretelling  Sciences, 37-40, 343), we have the most exact illusof the rise and setting of sun, moon, and stars, tration of the subject before us. Josephus (Antiq.
and the prediction of eclipses, used to invest astro- viii. 2. 6), among the attributes of king Solomon's
nomers of old with a marvellous reputation (hence  wisdom, ascribes to him much magical skill, and




DIVINATION                    688              DIVINATION
with the rest, Tr'j   KClTa r-Wv  catUl6vwv rEXvv,' ventriloquus vates ipse'] (Deut. xviii. II).  SeTr&ods re [cfr. our Sept. word] as 7raplryopecrca condly, 3:N, when governed by the particle 3,
7d voo'-bT~cra Kal rp67rous ktopK6:'w~,, and goes on
Ti POcr-4/IrCI. eac rp6-sovs i~opKcaecn, and goes on  refers not to the votes, or professional consulter,
to specify an instance of exorcism by virtue of ret to the pero  who requests his aid: thus
but to the person who requests his aid: thus,
Solomon's magic ring, 7rpoo-'epov raZs tS p   TOo 
caLuoLpoviofevov ro'v OaKT7-XtO, K. T. X. D'Herbelot while 31I  V,' is said of the diviner, loc. cit.,
(s. v. Giam, already quoted), calls Djemscheed  ZiN       " (with the particle) is applied to King
the Solomon of Persia, and according to Minutoli  T
(Reise, 83), Solomon is ordinarily regarded in Mos- Saul, who sought the familiar spirit by the aid of
lem countries as the great master of divination (see the vates, or pythonissa (I Chron. x. I3).' Idem
Winer, s. v. Zauberei).                        discrimen,' says Bottcher,'est etiam apud Tar(e)  L'a consultr wh f      r s*     gumistas et Talmudicos.' (Compare I Sam. xxviii.
(e.):21 N,' a consulter with familiar spirits' 8,'Divine to me, D3:, by the familiar spirit.')
(LXX. eyyao-rpltv0osr; Vulg. Qui Pythones con- Thirdly, r15:i, in the plural, is used in a concrete
suht).  Most writers treat this class of diviners sense, to indicate the ventriloquists or diviners
as necromancers; so Gesenius, Thes. i. 34; and themselves, and not'the familiar spirits' which
so the author of the art. Divination, in Smith's were supposed to actuate them.  (De Inferis.
Bibl. Dict. [5.]  But whatever be the close p. I0, sec. 205, where the learned writer adduces
connection of the two as deducible from other similar cases of metonymy from other languages:
passages, it is impossible to suppose that in  as yao-7rpes d&pya,'slow-belies,' Tit. i. 12; so our
Deut. xviii. II, i i'S    is synonymous with' Wits about town;' the German'Witzkipfe,'
t-inntA   is<x*wk.Thywudn ocpy' Dickbauche,' etc.) By this canon we discover.l.D.  %? 1. They would not occupy two  the general accuracy of our A. V. in such passages
distinct and not consecutive places in the list. s Le                              rendered,
Sound criticism requires that the two phrases should 
be kept separate.  Biottcher, De Inferis, carefully' Them that have familiar spirits.' Comp. Lev.
distinguishes between thetwo expressions. In page xx. 6; I Sam. xxviii. 3, 9; 2 Kings xxiii. 24 
io8 he lays down these positions;'21N in necro- Is. viii. I9; xix. 3.  In Is. xxix. 4, the same conmantia positum proprie non necromantem ipsum   crete rendering is applied to 3[i in the singuneque spectrum aut daemonem, sed ventrologui lar, contrary to BBttcher's first and third canons,
quiddam utri simile dictum fuisse;' and then,'in  but this rendering is inferior to what Bottcher
necromantia ventriloquos non peculiariter sed po- would suggest, viz.:-' Thy voice shall be as of
tissimum  versari solitos fuisse.'  Bottcher iden- a familiar spirit, out of the ground,' etc. This
tifies the 31n, which occurs in the plural in Job  is the only passage where the accuracy of our
xxxii. I9 (in its primary sense of a leathern bottle, version, thus tested, seems to be at fault; it conor waterskin), with the noun of the same form  trasts strikingly with the LXX. in this point, which
which is found in so many other passages with a maintains no distinction between the sing. and the
different meaning.  In these, the LXX. has in- plur. of this word, other than the mechanical one
variably used iyyoa-rpi/juvos, as the best ren- of putting 7yyacTrplWvuos   for 39N, and?yyaadering. This version connects our phrase with  rp/ixVoL for nlti. The Vulgate is more cautious,
ventriloquism, as a branch of the divining art.*  e.g., it renders most of the plurals magi, rightly;
(For the supposed connection between the primary  but is, on the whole, inferior to A. V. in its acand secondary senses of 32l, see Gesenius in   curacy, for it translates both the sing. 3jN of
Thes. i., and Lex. by Robinson, p. 20, also Bott- 
cher, p. 107.  The analogy is also in close concher, p. I7.  The analogy is also in close con- 2 Kings xxi. 6, and the plur. rlti  of 2 Kings
sistency with the words of Job, 1. c., especially inxxl. 24, by the same word, Pythones, and simithe Vulgate:' En venter mezs quasi mustum    larly Is. viii. I9, and xix. 3. (For a description of
absque spiraculo'-Umbreit, in loc.)   Having   the Delphian, Pythia, or Pythonissa, and why vensettled the sense of the word, Bittcher goes on to  ilouist faculties were attributed to her [whence
draw a noticeable distinction in certain phrasesone of her designations, iyyaarpEiwos], see Potwhere it occurs. First, 321  in the singular num- ter's Antiq. c. ix. A vast amount of information
her designates the familiar spirit (i.e., what he touching the Hebrew yacrrpogavTrea, and its concalls murmelbauch, venter fremens [in a correct nection with the witch of Endor, is contained in
sense]; or murmelwesen, demnon fremens [in a the treatises of Leo Allatius, and Eustathius Ansuperstitious sense]). Hence we have such phrases tiochen., De Engastrizytho; and the Samuel redivivus of Michael Rothard, all reprinted in Critici
as 3, nFp1, mistress [or owner] of a familiar Sacri, viii. 303-458. Seealso St. Chrysostom, Opera
spiritt (i Sam. xxviii. 7); 3lN $t&, a consulter [ed. Bened.], vol. vii. p. 445.) Aconcise statement
orqsio (.. 7);a.N.am, arsz e is contained in Bottcher's work, pp. 1-11I5. The
or questioner ofafamiliarspirit [i. e., says Bittcher, idenlity of:15  and nits with Necromancy, con* B6ttcher, p. 1o, sec. 221, reasonably objects certain damsel possessed with a spirit of divinato the translation of De Wette, who (' ut in ceteris tion,comes as nea as possibleto the  of
fere Gesenium secutus') invariably makes  syno- on comes as near as possibleto the  n     of
nymous with necromancy, or necromancer ['Tod- I Sam. xxviii. 7, which the Vulg. renders mutlier
tenbeschworung,' or Todtenbeschwirer], and who  pythonem habens. See the learned note of Wetin this is in direct opposition to the LXX. in every  stein (Nov. Test. Grcec. ii. 555), in which quotapassage. The Vulg. varies between Pytho, Pyth- tions from the Talmud and Jewish doctors, as well
ones, Pythonicus spiritus, and Magi.           as from Christian and Pagan writers, are adduced
t This expression occurs in Acts xvi. i6, where in proof of the wide-spread usage of the word
St. Luke's,raclttia'Y c s t Xovea 7rveOtra JIi-wovos,'a UI I5ov (Python), in the sense of which we treat.




DIVINATION                   689               DIVINATION
trary to Bottcher's view, is maintained in D. Millii ucavrela, or (as they preferred to write it) veKvoLuavDissertatio, especially in chap. vi., whom Gesenius reta of the Greeks. This was a divination in which
follows, in Thes. s. v. Aja. See the Dissertatio in  answers were given by the dead. It was someUgol. Thes. xxiii. 517-528. For ancient Jewish times performed by the magical use of a bone, or
opinions on the apparition of Samuel to Saul, see vein of a dead body, or by pouring warm blood
Josephus, vi. I4. 2, and Whiston's note in loc., into a corpse, as if to renew life in it (Lucan, Phar.
and Ecclesiasticus xlvi. 20. On this subject, the vi. 750); sometimes they used to raise the ghosts
second letter of Sir W. Scott,' On Demonology of deceased persons by various ceremonies and
and Witchcraft,' with the note in the appendix of invocations.  Ulysses, in Odyss., book ix., having
the volume, is well worthy of perusal. Whatever sacrificed black sheep in a ditch, and poured forth
reality God may have permitted to this remarkable libations, invites the ghosts, especially that of Tircase of divination, the resort to it by Saul was most esias, to drink of the blood, after which they beoffensive to the Divine Being; the king's rejection come willing to answer his questions.  (Comp. the
is partly ascribed to it in I Chron. x. 13: somewhat evocation of the shades of Darius, for counsel, after
similar is the reason assigned for God's vengeance the defeat at Salamis, in the Persae of AEschylus,
on Manasseh (2 Kings xxi. 1. See the remark- 630-634,'AXXa X6obvtoL altoves ayvoi, I'r re Kal
able canons, 6I and 65, of the Trullan [Quinisex-'Epti, pao-iXe r' vpw, rar' vpwvepre XV'XiTV es
tuzm] Council; Beveregii Synod. i. 227, 235).  (sc * K. T. X. This evocation of spirits was called
(f) ]3I}.1, from )t%, to know, is uniformly render-  7vXayw7^la; the offerings to the dead on this occa-T                           sion were mild and unbloody-but Gregory Nazied in A. V. by' Wizard,' akin to' wise' and to the anzen (in Orat. II. contra tdlian.) speaks also of
Germanverb'wissen' (old German Wizan), toknow. rv davaretvoiyevwv 7rapivOwv re Kal 7rat&Zv e&rl
[LXX. in four places, Oyvo-S-r, a knozingone; Vulg. fvxayc^Jytg-' virgins and boys slaughtered at the
Ariolus, most frequently.] This Hebrew noun oc- evocation of ghosts.' From Is. lxv. 4, it would
curs eleven times, and in every instance is coupled appear that the ancient Jews increased the sin of
with 312; we may thus regard it as indicating a their superstition by using unclean offerings on
usual concomitant (perhaps of cleverness and dex- such occasions:'They remain among the graves,
terity) with ventriloquism: this view is confirmed
by the LXX., eyyaa-rpicLvnos, as the rendering ofand lodge in the monuments [., they spend the't1 in Is. xix. 3, a verse which proves the Egyp- night in these adyza]; such were the favourite
haunts of the necromancers:'they eat swine's
tian arts of divination were substantially the same flesh;' an idolatrous practice (comp. Ovid, Fasi,
as the Hebrew in that age (comp. Bottcher, p. I5, i 349  Horace, Satir. ii. 3. I64; Varro, de Re
sec. 23 I; and see Rawlinson's note on Herod. ii. 83, rust ii. 4);' and broth of abominable things is in
in explanation of a seeming discrepancy between their vessels.' (We are reminded of the celebrated
the prophet and the historian). In another pas- witch scenes in Shakspere, Macbeth, i. 3; iii. 5;
sage of Isaiah [viii. I9], there occurs a good de- and especially iv. I.) Rosenmiiller, in oc., refers,
scription of the  l.)..'1'j, in the two epithets, for a like incantation, to Marco Polo, Travels in
e si  of the  pp the East, iii. 24; and Sir J. F. Davis, in his China
*Pn,_,      expressive of the chirp-ig, pzpnng [last ed.] ii. 73, mentions certain magic spells pracsounds of young birds; and.Pl31, applied to tised by the Taou sect,'with the blood of swine,
the cooing of the dove, in xxxviii. 14. (With the heep, dogs, and other impure things.' A curious
former of these, compare Horace, Sat. i. 8. 40, case of necromancy also occurs in the story of the' Loquentes umbrae resonarent triste et acutumz;' philosopher Chuang-tsze and his wife, in the same
and with the latter, Virgil, zEn. iii. 39,' Gemitus Vol., pp. 87, 88. In the I5th chap. of Sketches of
lacrymabilis imo auditur tumulo.' So in Homer, Imposture, etc. [in the Family Library],'on SepulII. V/. IOI, the shade of Patroclus departs with  chral and perpetual lamps,' may be found an inwhat Shakspere, Hamlet, i. i, calls a'squeak and teresting account of the reasons which induced the
gibber,''T`xero rerpiyvta. An unexpected illustra- Egyptians to bestow so great attention on their
tion of these arts may be met with in Capt. Lyons' dead; one of them, quoted from Kircher's Hist. of
Private 7ournal, p. 358, where he describes the Egyptian Antiqq., rests on the opinion,'that the
feats of the Esquimaux ventriloquist Toolemak of souls of the deceased tarry with their bodies in the
Igloolik. Comp. the curious account of a modern grave.' This, added to the conception of the more
necromancy left us by Benvenuto Cellini; both of enlarged knowledge of the dead, lay at the foundathese are narrated in Sir D. Brewster's Letters on tion of necromancy. The earliest historical tale of
Natural Magic, pp. 68-75, and 176-I78.) The this sort of divination which we recollect, is related
LXX. version, much more inexact than the Eng- by Herodotus concerning Periander of Corinth, and
his wife Melissa, whose spirit he consulted for inforlish, renders the;1T. of Deut. xviii. i I by repa- mation about a hidden treasure (v. 92). In one of
7raKOTos; what the prodigies were, which, accord- the most interesting dialogues of Lucian, the'Mening to the extravagant belief of the Rabbinical ip5pus,' or' ecyomanteia,' a very good description
writers, were used by these diviners, are described is given of various necromantic ceremonies.  (For
by Carpzov, Apparatus, 545, 546, where, among an abstract, see Occult Sciences, by Smedley, etc.,
others, are adduced the bird jiddoa and the mon- pp. 183, i85.) In Tertullian's treatise, De Anima,
ster Jaddua, to account for the origin of our term.  occurs a remarkable passage on necromancy, at
(g.) The last designation used by Moses in the the conclusion of which he says,'If certain souls
great passage before us, Deut. xviii. o1, Il, is have been recalled into their bodies by the power
kn      tP7 En  [LXX. T  repwr7CV ToV S pos  of God as manifest proofs of His prerogative, that
~.D~'?   g.. [LXX.,  &re      ro_.s, veK poS; is no argument that a similar power should be conVulg. Qui qutrit a mortuis veritatem].  This ferred on audacious magicians, fallacious dreamers,
points to the famous art of Necromancy, the veKpo- and licentious poets' (c. 56, 57). We may obVOL. T.                                                                        2Y




DIVINATION                  690               DIVINATION
serve, in concluding this subject, that in confining the second prohibited it; but the third being drawn
(with Bottcher) necromancyproperto the last phrase required that the arrows should again be mixed
on Moses' list, Anon-,   n   we have the au- and again drawn until a decisive answer was obo Mose. l,.-,   tained (Pocock's Spec. Arab, 324, etc.; Gesenius,
thority of A. V., which limits the word necro-  Thes. 1224; Sale's Zoran, Prelim. Disc. go;
mancer (an arae Xe~y6tevov in our Bible) to this Clodius, Diss de Mag. Sagitt. iii. 2). This peXophrase. So much for the great passage on divina- tgavrela of the king of Babylon must not be contion contained in Deut. xviii. Io, II. We saw  founded with the PeXopoXia of Jonathan, the affecthe seven species, comprising that list, were intro- tionate expedient of his secret warning to David,
duced by the general phrase:D. D p. D) p-  I Sam. xx. 20, etc., in which, though there were
We next find this same general phrase introduc- te arrows, there was no uncertai divination,
tory to another but much shorter catalogue; for (2.) but an understood sign. Again, in the shooting
In the remarkable passage of Ezek. xxi. 21, or 26 of arrows by Joash, king of Israel, at the command
in Hebrew Bible, we have the three famous divina- of the dying prophet (2 Kings xiii. I7, 8), there
tions of the king of Babylon. The prophet repre- is in the three arrows only an accidental, not a real
sents the monarch as standing'at the parting of resemblance; moreover, we have in this action not
the way, at the head of the two ways, to use divi- an unauthorised superstition, but a symbolical
atio' *       (a) Hr                   prophecy (comp. the symbol with Virgil,:En. ix.
nation (D.D..  D ). (a.) He made his arrows 52,'En, ait, etjaculum attorquens emittit in auras;
bright' [or rather, he shook and mingled themz to- Princiium pugnca).
getaher, Vulg. commiscens sagittas,  4sV   ip];  (b.)' He consulteth with images,'  i1.3 5NW
gethe,; Vulg. eommiscens sagittas, ='  Iu'g 5p]
each arrow having inscribed on it the name of (LXX. e rEpwTr'O el v i 7TOls Y7XVroS; Vul g  insome town to be assaulted. From the quiver the  errogavit ido), literally, as in the margz, de
arrows were drawn one by one; and the city which consulted with Teraphzm. We postpone the dewas written on the first arrow drawn out was the scrption of these household gods of the Shemitic
first to be beleaguered' (St. Jerome, in. loc.)' In nations [TERAPHIM], which are often mentioned
this instance Jerusalem was the ill-fated object of   T  from the tme of           Laban
this divination, as we learn from the next verse, (Gen. xxxi. I   to this of the Chaldee Nebuwherethedivination        s     s' chadnezzar (see Aug. Pfeiffer, De Teraphim, in
where the divination for ~. (.ER..DO ) signifies Ugolini Thes. xxiii. 566); who, unnecessarily inthe arrow bearing the inscription of the doomed deed, suggests, on grammatical grounds, that the
capital, as it first emerged from the divining quiver. king of Babylon may have used these three divinaWe have here a case of the peXoavTreia. This tions of the Athnach clause previous to his leaving
superstition, which is prohibited in the Koran home. Dr. Fairbairn [on Ezek. xxi. 2I], says,
(chap. iii. 39; v. 4), was much practised by the'This is the only passage where the use of teraphim
idolatrous Arabs. Their arrows, which were con- is expressly ascribed to a heathen.'
suited before anything of moment was undertaken,  (c.)' He looked in the liver,'. _13' M fiC   (LXX.
as when a man was about to marry, or undertake                               - 
a journey, or the like, used to be without heads or KaTacKo7rcaoact; Alex. 7rero0Kogrc-dioat; Vulg.
feathers, and were kept in the temple of some idol. Exta conslit). Here we have a case of a wellSeven such arrows were kept at the temple of knownbranchofthextspicim (or art of the HaMecca, but in divination they generally used but spices), practised in Rome by the Etrurian sooth^        sayers, and much referred to in both Greek and
three.* On one of these was written       t -Latin authors. Cicero, deDivini. ii. 5, mentions the
importance of the liver in divination of this kind;
my Lord hath bidden me; on the second was in- hence thisbranch was called 17raTooCo7ria (Herodian..W,. viii. 3. 17). See also Pliny, xi. 37; Ovid, Metam.
scribed  j L j, my Lord hath fo obidden me; xv. I36. Arrian (Anabas. vii. i8) mentions an
>-^~.~. LJ yt     ~         evil prognostication in reference to the deaths of
whilst the third was Ai, blank. If the first was Alexander and Hephastion; and Suetonius (Aug.
xcv. 2, a happy one; victimnarum omizum jecinora
drawn, it gave the god's sanction to the enterprise; xcv. 2,a intri onse;s ab ima bra).  Stoabo also,
replicata intrinsecks ab ima fibra). Strabo also,
Book II, p. 232 [ed. Casaub.], mentions this
-a Not always; Della Valla says (p. 276),'I saw Book III., p. 232 [ed. Casaub.], mentions this
Not always; Della Valla says (p. 276),'I saw  divination as practised by the Lusitani: not only
at Aleppo a Mohametan who caused two persons animals offered in sacrifice, but captives in wa
to sit on the ground opposite each other, and gave funished these barbarians with rw o7rXcyXv [viro
them four arrows into their hands, which both of                         still me he
them held with their points downward,' etc. The roe epocro- d atiTevo Tac]. A still more hideous
mode of divination is mentioned of the ancient
two arrows in the right hand of the Assyrian king Britos, who would cut down at a blow of the
(sculptured on one of the large slabs brought fromsword one of their human sacrifices, in order to
Nimroud), are conjectured to be proofs that divina- observe the posture of his fall, his convulsions, flow
tion by arrows was practised in ancient Nineveh. of the blood, etc., etc., and so gather their predicThe king is represented as attended by two diviniThe king i represented as attended by two d ions according to the rule of their ancestors. This
ties with fir-cone and basket; and therefore is in a is the only nstance mentioned in Scripture of
religious and not a martial occupation (Bonomi, this superstition. (3) The generic word.s is
Nineveh and its palaces, 3d edit. p. 306). Three  ce mre rendered specific in i Sam. xxviii. 8,
suitors of an Eastern princess decided their claims whee Saul requests the witch of Endor'to divine
by shooting each an arrow inscribed with his own to h, by  fa    r spirit. But we have
name. The most distant arrow indicated the name 
of the successful competitor (Roberts' Orient. Illust. already considered this phrase under Deut. xviii.
p. 491).                                     IO, I2 (See above, I. e).




DIVINATION                   691               DIVINATION
What remains for us to do, is to collect the have also connected it with the Persian Sophi.
other terms of divination which lie scattered  Such a derivation would rather point to occult arts
in various passages. (4.) The first of these terms and cabalistic divination. (7.) n.n..n [See above,
is  In1.   This word occurs in Is. xix. 3, in I. c.] The expression used by Daniel in i. 20a passage descriptive of the idolatry and super-.DW  rin.tnnon  is an asyndeton, for other
stition of Egypt. It is derived by Gesenius andplaces prove tsecond to be a different class from
places prove the second to be a different class from
Meier from a root  o Arab.  which  the first; see ii. 2, IO. The close conjunction of
Meier from a root LODN, akin to Arab. ^, which
- t   in t                  the 4)!e3W  with the Chartummim indicates their
signifies to utter a dull murmuring sound. Meier participation of the qualities of the latter, the iepodefines our noun by'Die Lispelnden,' zmur- 7ypaLares of both Egypt and Babylon, over whom
murers or lispers.  If so, we have here a class Daniel was appointed Rab or Master. In the
of the ventriloquists already described.  But the learned Dissertatio D. Millii de Chartummim
LXX. gives another turn to the word: rendering by aliisve orientalium magis [Ugolini Thes. xxiii. 529dydXyara; as if, after n4f i, gods, it meant 538] nearly all the accomplishments of the divinr  a r, * s - t  ing art are attributed to this infliential caste,
their shrines.  Herodotus (ii. 83) tells us the  beginning with the genethliac mysteries.  The
Egyptians possessed many oracles besides that of horoscope, which was much in use by the yeves'Latona at Buto, which was most esteemed of all. XtaKx6, brings us back to astrology, which (though
He adds, that'the mode of delivering the oracles not implied in the designation DnK)R) was no
(at Lavmri'at) varied at the different shrines.' doubt a part of their wisdom. Gesenius, in Thes.
These oracular officials were probably the Dt.-N1  and Lex., derives the word from'7,'a graving
of Isaiah.  (5.) The 6th verse of chap. ii. of this tool,' and (on the authority of Creuzer, Symbolik.
prophet, in giving a reason why God forsook his u. IVythologie, i. 245; and Jablonski, Proleg. in
people, the house of Jacob, charges them  with  Panth. Egyypt., p. 9I, etc.) connects the arts of
being'soothsayers,' n4.   This word is substan- the Chartummien with the sacred hieroglyphical
writings. Not less probably, from such a derivatially the same as that which we considered above, tion, these diviners might be connected with the sysunder (x a): we have here the additional informa- tem of talismans, so rife in the East, and in Egypt
tion that this species of divination was copied by.,
the Jews from'the Philistines;' their proneness toin ancient times. The talisman [Arab.
follow the idolatrous practices of their various 
neighbours was in direct defiance of God's injunc-           is defined in Freytag, Lex. Arab.
tions to them, and contributed more than anything s v  64) to be a magical image upon which,
to their ruin.  (6.) In Dan. ii. 2, four classes of undr  certain horoscope, are engraved mystic
diviners are mentioned; two were described above, characters, as charms against enchantment or
in (I c); of the others, _CS~ (Chald. W., in fascination.' Talismans, among other uses, are
Dan. ii. 27) is probably allied by derivation with  buried with treasures, to prevent them from being
the word ew_,  which we have already described  discovered.  Thus this divination appears as a
[Meier *says'=tWS=~']. The noun;5I3M (a counterpart against another species (in rhabdo- T   -.. TT-            mancy) which was used for the discovery of treaquiver), from the same root, suggests the notion of sure. Equally varied are the gifts ascribed to the
concealment and covering. This, the probable mean- Chartummim in the translations of the LXX. and
ing of our term, suits very well with the idea of divi- the Vulgate. In eleven of the fifteen occurrences
nation, though it ill accords with the A. V., which  of the word (all descriptive of the magicians of
in all the eight " passages in Daniel, where it is Egypt and Babylon), Ceraot6s and Incantator are
found, renders it astrologers.  Divination by the used; iapc/aK6s and Veneficus in two; and in the
stars is not implied in the original. The LXX. in  remaining two e^yryTrs and Znterpre.  (8.)
every place except one [and that is doubtful, see  tI - (LXX. Xa\aoti; Vulg. Chaldci). Here,
Trommii Concord. ii. I], translates,VXB by,yos,ro, 
and the Vulg. generally by magus. This suggests says Cicro         i,  e          hae a cas'o
the association of the tVN with the/zcobr6_'                           tis vocabulo nominai:r
the association of the lD!3WF   with the,~YOL ciro  named, not from their art, but from their nation'' on ex artis, sed exgent vcbo nomiati.'
va-roXdv of St. Matthew ii. I.  (Dutripon, Con-. B. Scr ) Th, a   d to th  ft And only a section of the nation, the learned caste;
cothat            is generally coule, d with the Char-'the dominant race,' says Ernest Renan,'which
that nDP.2  is generally coupled with the Char-                              mnoty, as the
tusmmim and the Chaldeans, probably influenced  gave their name, though only a minority, as the
tummim and the Chaldeans, probably influenced         l
our translators in their choice of the English word. t  Turks elsewhere, to the mass of the population,
The original,  however, is much less specific.        Semitiques, pp. 67, 68). They are menThe original, however, is much less specific. which differed from them in descent' (Hzistoiredes
Some philologists have imagined the word -o   langues Smitiques, pp. 67, 68). They are menis no other than  hV awith the aleph dropped, and  tioned by Herodotus (i. 18) as a Sacerdotal caste.
is no other than ~IPJ with the aleph dropped, and  ^  L,.notices their devotion to astrology, and
Cicero, 1. c.,notices their devotion to astrology, and
— In ------— ~ —Here' -          their working out a science by which could be
gram's  ngsman  Hebrew and Cha predicted what was to happen to each individual,
dee Concordance, s. v. OW_, only six occurrences and to what fate he was born.' Diodorus Siculus,
of the word are given; Daniel i. 20; and ii. 2, after Ctesias, assigns the same office at Babylon to
should be added.  Flaws of this kind are quite the Chaldaeans as the priests bore in Egypt (Hist.
unusual in that very valuable and generally accu- ii. 29). Juvenal (Sat. vi. 552) and Horace (Carm.
rate and elaborate work.                      i. xi., nec Babylonios tentdris numeros) refer to the
t Saadias, Kimchi, and other authorities justify  Chaldaan divination. The prophet Isaiah (xlvii.
this version by rendering the word by astronomical 12, 13) mentions several details of it, in terms
terms. See Rosenmiiller, in loco.             which we have already described.   (How the




DIVINATION                   692               DIVINATION
same appellation, QsW3, came to designate both  (Germ. x.) describes a similar prognostication
the  ziitary and the learned classes of Babylon  among the Germans. Theophylact, after Cyril,
[comp. 2 Kings xxiv. 5, IO, etc., with Dan. ii. 2]; on this passage of Hosea, mentions the use of two
and how conflicting are the views of the modern rods, set upright, with enchantments and muttering
learned as to the origin of the Chaldans, seeof verses.'The rods,' says he,'falling through
Renan e. c., and Sir H. Rawlinson, in note ofthe influence of demons, suggested answers to inRawlinson's Herod., vol. i. p. 319.  See also  quirers, according as they fell to the right or to the
CHALDANS, P. 467 of this work.) (9.) One      left, forward or backward.' Staves were somename more (occurring in Dan. ii. 27; iv. 4.; and  times carried about as the shrines of deities; deiuv. 7, II) remains to be noticed descriptive of the  brm dicebant fustem decorticatum, says Festus.
savans of rBabylon-t b[LXX. craapcrv6c; Vulg. o DeTihbullus (I. eleg. xi. I5) refers to these'lignei
savans ofBabylon-p-ltB [LXX. ra6ap-q; Vulg.&;
~: T               Vug   Dii,' and says
aruspices].  Gesenius and Rosenmiiller agree in
deriving this Gword from  tos divide, ct  etc.' Sed patrii servate Lares; aluistis et iidem,
deriving thiso d fm, t i, ct u, etc.;  Cursarem vestros cum tener ante pedes.
but differ in the application of the idea-the former  Neu pudeat prisco vos esse e stipitefactos
making it mean the heavens divided into astrolo-    Sic veteris sedes incoluistis avi.'
gical sections, of which he gives a diagram in his
Comment. on Isaiah, iii. 555; the latter (Schol. inI allusion to the same superstition, Clement of
Daniel, 1I. cc.) supposing it to refer to the division  Alexander, Strom. i. 151, mentions certain tubes as
and inspection of the entrails of victims by arus- te shrines of deities, Klovas hrravres ol iraXacol ejpov
pices: both these kinds of divination have been  TOTOUI s r a  pp.ara rov eov(comp.Euseb.Praep.
described above. Winer (Realw.-b. s. vv.' Sterne,' Evang. i. 9). We mentioned, under Talismans,'Sternkunde') refers to Josephus (Bell. fud. vi. 5. 3)the concealment of treasure by divination; by other
for astronomical portents such as the Gozrin wouldprocesses of the same were treasures dzscovered.
interpret (see also St. August. De Doctr. Christ. Sir J. Chardin says it is common in India for
ii. 32, etc.) St. Jerome in his Commentary in loc., diviners to accompany conquerors, to point out
defends his own version, Aruspices, by the authority  where treasures may be found; and he adduces a
of Symmachus. The Sept. and Theodotion trans-case at Surat; when Siragi went thither, he made
late the word raapqvo6s as if it were a proper his soothsayers use divining rods, struck on the
noun, like 3^W, XaX8a-to.                      ground, or on walls, etc. Harmer (ii. 282) supposes a reference to such a practice may be implied
We have at last exhausted the long vocabu- in Is. xlv. 3 (see St.Chrysostom, O9era [ed. Bened.]
lary of the terms of divination mentioned in thevol. xi. pp. 5I8, 824).  Sir J. F. Davis, China, i.
0. T. and N. T., with the exception of the     I01, mentions a Chinese'mode of divination by
phrases which occur in Hosea iv. 12.   These certain pieces of wood, in shape the longitudinal secwill suitably bring up the rear of our catalogue. tions of a flattish oval. These are thrown by pairs,
(Io.) The verse runs-' My people ask counsel and as they turn up, a judgment is formed of a future
at their stocks' (or wood    j   t3.2);' And  event by consulting the interpretation afforded by
their sff declareth unto  em'(   The a Sibylline volume, hung up in the nearest temple.
theirstaff declareth unto them'. ThoseCaptain Burton, in his Eastern Africa, mentions
who hold that two separate prognostications are some not dissimilar practices of divination; nor
here referred to, generally make the former a are these'fooleries of faith,' as he calls them, unconsultation of wooden idols, or teraphim, which known among ourselves. Even now, as the writer
has been already treated under 2 b (see Rosenmiiller is credibly informed, miners in the south-west of
and Pocock, in loc.) Jeremiah reproaches the   England walk with their dowsing stick in hand
Jews for' saying to a stock (rp) my Father' (ii. over suspected spots; a motion of this divining
27); and Hab,'Woe unto him that saith to rod is in their view an infallible sign of a lode.
27);and eHabwak  e(kuki. untohm th atsath to  Rudolf Salchlin has written a treatise on this
the wood () awake' (ii. i).  But Pocock (on.curious subject: Idolomantia et Rhabdomantia antiHosea iv. 12) gives reasons for supposing that only christiana, sive Dissertatio historico-theologia ad
one sort of superstition is meant in this verse-such  Hos. iv. 12 (Berne, I715). A good deal of inforas the Greeks called pap&o/xcavEreia, divination by mation may be obtained in Jacobi Lydii Syntag.
staves or rods. Many kinds of this are on record, Sacr. de re Militari, c. 3 (Ugolini, Thes. xxvii.
Maimonides (Pracept. neg. 31) mentions the prac- 142-146), and in Del Rio, Disquis. Magic., lib. iv.,
tice of'taking a staff and striking the ground with  cap. 2, qusest. 3, sect. i, subfin.; sect. 3, sub init.
it, and making horrid noises, while the diviners  In this article it has been our purpose to confine
would stand in a reverie, intently looking on the ourselves to the varied facts of this elaborate subground, till they became like men struck with epi- ject. It would have exceeded both our object and
leptic fits;-when reduced to this phrenzy they  our space to have entered on the inquiry with
would utter their prophecy.' The learned Rabbi which its treatment has been so largely encumsays he saw such a case himself in Barbary. Chas- bered-as to the reality of profane divination. If
kuni (quoted by Drusius on Deut. xviii. 0o) we reject, indeed, ninety-nine-hundredths of readduces another method by which'the diviner corded cases from the category of credible things,
measures his staff with his finger or his hand: one we should not, by allowing the possibility that the
time he says I will go; another time, I will not go; small residue of instances were true and real (such
then if it happens at the end of the staff to be, I as the achievements of Jannes and Jambres before
will not go, he goes not.' Rabbi Moses Mikkotzi Pharaoh, and the apparition of Saul by the agency
(in Pocock, 1. c.) mentions a divination by a piece of the witch of Endor), impeach one attribute of
of stick, peeled on one side, which, thrown afar out the Almighty.  In no instance do we suppose His
of the hand, decided a doubt, according as the previous permission was refused; and in no instance
peeled or unpeeled side fell uppermost. Tacitus do we find his subsequent approbation was ac



DIVORCE                    693                DOCHAN
corded (in I Sam. xv. 23, the sin of divinalion, the species, to slaughter and animal food. To a
t:Dp-iln~ n, is denounced as the climax of rebellion sullen and ferocious disposition it joins immense
against God) *; while in all instances we believe strength, little vulnerability, considerable sagacity,
against God); while in all instances we believe s         o
that His power and wisdom were vindicated (see and the power of climbing trees   The bown bear
the crowning example, Exod. vii. i8, 9).  In  Ursus arctos, is the most sanguinary of the species
the crowning example, Exod. v.of the Old Continent, and Ursus Syriacus, or the
considering the events of Scripture history, we  of t Palestine, is one very nearly allied to it,
dismiss a priori conceptions, and form our judg- bear of Palestine, is one very nearly allied to t,
ment on the ground and testimony of holy writ
alone. In coming to a conclusion on the broad
question ot the literal truth of the phenomena of
profane divination which are recorded in the Bible,
we cannot but derive much assistance from such' 
passages as I Kings xx. 20-22; Job ii. 3-7; Rev.                              ii
xii. I2, and xx. 3; for they clear the way, by re- 
vealing to us the mystery that God is pleased to,
permit, under his own limitation, the agency of the. 
power of evil. To what extent and in what man- 
ner this agency was at any time exerted, we learn!,S
from the sacred narrative itself. (For an interesting
disquisition on the theology of the subject, see
Andr. Riveti, Explicatio Decalogi, in sectt. De
mzagicis arlibuzs; De divinationum variis generibus;      u <I
De Astrol. judiciarid; An Dcemon inlerrogari 
possit de iis quce facultatem ejus non excedunt?. Ursus Syriacus.
[Opp. Roterodami, I65I, tom. i. pp. 1244, sqq.]; differing only in its stature being proportionably
for details of the several branches of this extensive lower and longer, the head and tail more prolonged,
subject, the reader is referred to the numerous and the colour a dull buff or light bay, often
works mentioned passim in the article.)-P. H.  clouded, like the Pyrenaean variety, with darker
DIVORCE. [MARRIAGE.]                 brown. On the back there is a ridge of long semierect hairs running from the neck to the tail. It is
DIZAHAB (:ll'1i; Sept. KaraXpioea). The yet found in the elevated woody parts of Lebanon.
-T'                          In the time of the first crusades these beasts were
passage in which this word occurs was long re-    numerous and of considerable ferocity; for
still numerous and of considerable ferocity; for
garded as one of the most difficult, in a geographicalduring the siege of Antioch, Godfrey of Bouillon
point of view, in the Bible:'These be the words according to Math. Paris, slew one in defence of a
which Moses spake unto all Israel on this side Jor- poor woodcutter, and was himself dangerously
dan, in the wilderness, in the plain over against the wounded in te enconter.-C. H. S.
Red Sea, between Paran, and Tophel, and Laban,
and Hazeroth, and Dizahab' (Deut. i. I). The    DOCHAN     (nhI; Arab..kA,    dukhan), a
object of the sacred writer is to point out definitely
where Moses spake. It was' in the plain,' that
is, as the Hebrew has it, the Arabah. This Arabah
lay'over against' ()10 the Red Sea; it began at 
the Red Sea and ran from it northward. It lay 
between Paran on the west, and Tophel, a town
of Edom, on the east.  Three other places are
named along its borders, the last of which is 
Dizahab. The word means'possessor (or place)'. \
of gold,' and was probably at or near gold fields.
There is a place called Dahab ('gold') on the                           //   X
western shore of the Aelanitic Gulf, which Robin-  \& 
son, Gesenius, and others, would identify with\                       / 
Dizahab, but it is too far south (Robinson, B. R.
ii. 187; Wilson, Lands of lizeBible, i. 235; Burck-          \
hardt, Travels in Syria, 523).-J. L. P.<                           /
DOB (ll.'i; Sept. dpKros), in Arabic dub, in
Persic deeb and dob, is noticed in I Sam. xvii. 34, 
36, 37; 2 Sam. xvii. 8; 2 Kings ii. 24; Prov.;Xvii. 12; xxviii. 15; Is. xi. 7; Lam. iii. o; Hos.
xiii. 8; Amos, v. I9, etc. Although the moderns
have denied the existence of bears in Syria and
Africa, there cannot be a doubt of the fact, and of
a species of the genus Ursus being meant in the                     //
Hebrew texts above noted. David defended his
flock from the attacks of a bear (I Sam. xvii. 34, 35,            (
36), and bears destroyed the children who mocked/ 
the prophet (2 Kings ii. 24). The genus Ursus is               I 
the largest of all the plantigrade carnassiers, and     1..
with the faculty of subsisting on fruit or honey
unites a greater or less propensity, according to species of millet (Ezek. iv. 9). It is believed by




DOCUS                     694              DODDRIDGE
some to be the common millet, the Panicum    that the notes which are ascribed to Iocke do not
miliaceziim, but others take it to be the durra, belong to him, but to Dr. Cudworth' (Bibliotz. Bibl.
or'Turkish millet,' of which considerable quanti- p. I52). [COKE.]
ties are imported into this country to be used
in the feeding of cattle, if not also for human  DODDRIDGE, PHILIP, D.D., born in Lonfood (Encycl. Brit. xv. 17). In Arabia, Niebuhr don, where his father was an oilman, 1702; died
found it in use among the people for food, but at Lisbon, whither he had gone for the recovery of
speaks of the bread produced from it as of very in- his health, in I75I, a fortnight after his arrival
ferior quality (Descript. de l'Arabie, i. 216). It is there.  He belonged to the old dissenters of
described as growing from four to five ells in  England, or those who adhered to the clergy
height, and as producing grain of an oval shape ejected from the Church by the act of uniformity,
like rice, and brown colour. It grows also in which was passed in 1662, and prescribed the
Egypt (comp. Plin. Hist. Nat. xxvii. Io; Rosen- terms of ministerial conformity.  These persons
miller, Bib. Bot., p. 83, E. T.; Winer, Real were both numerous and powerful, and at length
W: B. s. v. Moorhirsen).-W. L. A.             succeeded, though not till after the revolution, in
DOCUS (AK, Vulg. Dockh), a small fortress getting their worship protected by law under the
eaDOCS (icho, in l wich Simon Maccabforreus s Act of Toleration in I689. Doddridge passed his
near Jericho,  which Simon Maccabeus wasearliest years in London, but was afterwards for a
treacherously murdered by his son-in-law Ptolemy time at t Albans, under the care of a minister
(I Maccab. xvi. IS). Josephus calls it Aatycv time at St. Albans, under the care of a minister
( MaccabXi. xvi. I1*5)  Josephus calls it A.ay  named Clarke, who, upon the death of the elder
(Anti. xiii. 8. I; Bell. ud. i. 2. 3).  Traces Doddridge, seems to have acted like a parent to
of ancient substructions, discovered by Robinson- D     sem    t hv    a    lk aat by
of ancient substructions, discovered by Robinson  Philip, for whose support little had been left by
near to the fountain of Dk, between Jericho and his father. While yet young Doddridge gave eviBethel, are supposed to mark the site of the deuces of predilections for the ministry, and was
ancient castle (Bib. Res. ii. 309).-S. N.^ entered at a dissenting school kept at Kibworth in
DODAI.    [DODo, 2.]                        Leicestershire, by one Mr. John Jennings, the son
of a clergyman, who had suffered by the Act of
DODANIM      (Y1tn; Sept. P6&oi), the de- I662. At this place he commenced his ministry in
scendants of the fourth son of Javan (Gen. x. 4) 722, Jennings having left it, and dying in the folBochart and other commentatorson the ethno- lowing year. The academy over which he pregraphical sketch in Gen. x. suppose that the first sided thus being left without a head, Doddridge
settlements of the Dodanim were in the south-west began to be regarded as a person eminently qualipart of Asia Minor; where the country called byfied to carry it on  Hecontinued, however, to
the Greeks Doris, with the neighbouring isle of preach at Kibworth and Market Harborough, and
Rhodes, are conceived to exhibit traces of this to prosecute his theological studies, and did not
origin, the Hebrew letters'1 (d) and'I (r) being, openhis academy till 1729. It soon became celefrom their similarity, often transposed.  In fact  brated, and was the nursery of many of the old dissome copies have the -, and read Rodanim (as in senters of the eighteenth century. He first estabthe margin of the Auth. Vers.), and the Septuagint lished it at Market Harborough, and subsequently
gives the same reading both in Gen. x. 4, and  removed to Northampton upon being chosen
Chron. i. 7, where it has  o. It is further sup- minister of a large congregation in that town.
Chron. i. 7, where it has'P66tot.It is further sup- Here he continued till his death, discharging the
posed that settlers of this family may be traced inHere he continued till his death, discharging the
Thessaly and Epirus, where the name is traced in  duties of pastor and head of the academy for
the city of Dodona and in the country of Doris. the education of ministers. Doddridge was very
But there seems much of uncertainty in all theseanxous to waken his countryme  todeeer earingenious speculations.-J. I.                 nestness and piety. With this aim he wrote his
celebrated and excellent work, The Rise and ProDODD, WILLIAM, a clergyman of the Church gress of Religion in the Soul, and also his equally
of England, who, after being for many years one valuable Family Expositor, which consists of the
of the most popular preachers of the day, was N. T., the gospels being arranged in harmony,
induced, in order to relieve himself from debts with a paraphrase, critical notes, and reflections,
which his extravagant habits had contracted, to  or, as he calls them, improvements of each section,
forge a bond in the name of Lord Chesterfield, into which the whole is divided. This has been
who had once been his pupil, and was executed for often printed, and is a monument at once of his
the crime at Tyburn in I777. He was born in learning and piety. The notes are original, and
1729. His father was a clergyman, and he was selected from various authors. The course of his
educated at Cambridge. Dodd was a most indus- educational lectures was published after his death,
trious writer and preacher, and published many  and is esteemed as a text-book of divinity (espevolumes of sermons and commentaries, but none of cially the later edition of Dr. Kippis, 2 vols. 8vo).
any particular value, all of that peculiar style of It contains a body of valuable references to various
theology and religion which prevailed in the middle writers on subjects connected with divinity. Dodof the last century, which had none of the vigour dridge also wrote the life of Colonel James Garof our elder divines, and was without any origi- diner,, and was the author of several beautiful
nality and freshness. Of his commentary Orme hymns. He lived and died universally respected,
says,' This is mostly a compilation, the chief value and was admired even beyond the pale of his own
of which consists in notes furnished from the origi- community for his calm and placid piety. He innal papers of John Locke, Dr. Waterland, Lord  structed his pupils with the freedom and tenderness
Clarendon, Gilbert West, and some others.  Great of a father, and never desired that they should
use is made of some of the printed and long esta- blindly follow his sentiments, but encouraged them
blished commentaries on Scripture, such as Calmet, to judge for themselves. He would check any
Houbigant, and Doddridge.... It is a curious fact appearance of bigotry, and endeavour to shew them




DODO                     695                  DOR
all that could be said in support of the principles table (I Sam. xxi. 7). Of this he failed not to
which they disliked. His works have been trans- inform the king, who, regardless of the explanation
lated into French, German, and Dutch.-S. L.  offered by Ahimelech, and finding that the chiefs
__DODO (i', according to Fiirst, contracted  censured him, and hesitated to lay their hands upon
fDODO aT" accord ing to Firist, contracted aa person so sacred, commanded Doeg to slay him
from    T=    Jah is Triend; LXX. Aov   and and his priests-a task which was executed with
Aw&ode). I.' A man of Issachar,' whose grandson equal readiness and cruelty by the Edomite (I Sam.
Tola was one of the Judges of Israel' (Judg. x. I). xxii. i8, sqq.)-J. K.
2.'The Ahohite,' one of David's three mighty  DOG. [KELEB.]
men (2 Sam. xxiii. 9; I Chron. xi. 12). This is
believed to be the same person who is called Dodai  DOORS. [GATES.]
in I Chron. xxvii. 4, where the words t! C i,. DOPHKAH, an encampment of the Israelites
in the Wilderness. [WANDERING, THE.]'Eleazar, son of,' are supposed to be omitted. In   the Wilderness. [WANDERING, THE.]
2 Sam. xxiii. 9, the K'tib is 4'VT, Dodai. 3.'The  DOR (fi., and'1t; Sept. Afpa), an ancient
Bethlehemite,' the father of Elhanan, who was one royal city of the Canaanites (Josh. xii. 23), situated
of the thirty of'the valiant men of the armies' of on the coast of the Mediterranean (I Maccab. xv.
David (2 Sam. xxiii. 24; I Chron. xi. 26). The  ii), fourteen miles south of the promontory of
name Dodo is the same as Dodavah (        2'T1i, 2 Carmel, and seven north of Caesarea. Its king
Chron. xx. 37).-W. L. A.                     joined the great confederacy under Jabin, and was,
DODSON, MICHAEL (1732-99), an English bar-with the others, defeated by Joshua at the waters
of Merom.  But though the Israelites were victoririster and biblical scholar of the Unitarian school.of Merom. Butthouh the  teswere victo
He was the treasurer and active supporter of the ous on the field, they could not obtain possession
society for promoting the knowledge of the Scrip- of the strong city (Josh. xvii 12; Judg. i. 27). The
society for promoting the knowledge of the Scrip- district of which Dor was capital appears to have
tures; and contributed several papers to its publi-  iic   o   f which Dor was capital appears to have
cation, entitled'Commentaries and Essays.' These, been within the allotted territory of Asher (Reland,
revised and expanded, were subsequently published Pal 539), but was assigned to Manasseh (Josh.
under the title, A Ne  7Translation of Isaiah, with xvii. I ). The Israelites never expelled the old
MVotes, supplementary to those of Dr. Lowth, late inhabitants, though they seem to have made them
Bis^hof of Lodon, ^and contining rezarks on many pay tribute in the days of Solomon (I Kings iv. I ).
Bparts ofhis Transation and Notes, by a Layman, After this period Dor is not mentioned in Bible
parts of his Translation and Notes, by a Layman, h.
Lond. 1790, 8vo. The freedom of his censures history.
upon Lowth led to a defence of the bishop in   In Scripture we read of'the borders of Dort
~~~~upon Lowth~~~~ thle coast of Dor,' and'tnhe region of Dor;' the
a pamphlet, entitled, Short Remarks on a New                          beng thus variously
same Hebrew word,, bsr
Translation of Isaiah, by John Sturges, LL.D.; same Hebrew word, X iD, being thus variously
and to this, Dodson replied in A Letter to the Re. translated (Josh. xi. 2; xii. 23; I Kings iv. II).
Dr. Sturges.' A good deal of acuteness and can- Inthe Sept. it is treated as one name, Naes ip
dour are displayed in the pamphlets on both sides.'  nerRoseniler  a   others, ao mke
[ORME.]-S.~N.  ~Napheth-dor the real name of the city. This,
[ORME. ]-S. N.                               however, is an error, as may be seen from Josh.
DOEDERLEIN, JOHANN CHRISTOPH, a Ger- xii. 23, where'Dor' is distinguished from' the
man theologian, was born at Windsheim in Fran- coast (Napheth) of Dor.' Napheth signifies an
conia, 20th January 1745. In 1764 he repaired elevated tract, and hence'a coast' as being eleto the University of Altorf; and in 1767 became vated above the water. Dor stood on a rocky
deacon in his native city, where he devoted his promontory, behind which lies a beautiful and ferleisure hours to the study of the Fathers. In I772 tile plain, extending southward to Sharon, and
he was appointed theological professor at Altorf; northward to Carmel. Along its eastern side runs
and in 1782 professor of theology at Jena. He a line of wooded hills, completely enclosing it. This
died here 2d December 1792.    He published plain is undoubtedly the'coast or region of Dor,'
Cur criticea et exegetic e; esaias; Spriiche Salo- which is rightly rendered by Symmachus 7rapaXia
mo's; Institutio theologies Christianae; Theologische Awpa (Reland, Pal. 738).
Bibliothek 1780, etc. etc.  Doederlein had an  InJosh. xvii. 11, Dor and Endor (*-t ) are
important influence in his day; and contributed 
much to that freer theology which gradually passed mentioned together. Bertheau (Comm. on Josh.)
into rationalism.  He formed no inconsiderable and Stanley (S. and P.), following the Vatican
link in the, chain of transition from strict ortho-Codex of the Sept., state that Endor is interdoxy to moderatism. He was a very accomplished polated; and Stanley adds,'from this, Napheth
man, to whom almost all branches of theology were would appear to be a local word applied to the
familiar; an excellent teacher and preacher. His plains at the foot of Carmel, much as Ciccar and
Isaiah, translated into Latin with notes, was his Geliloth were to the Jordan valley.' But we have
chief exegetical work, which passed through three no authority here for questioning the integrity of
editions, I775, I789, 3d edition; but it is almost the sacred text, and consequently the theory about
forgotten now.-S. D.                         Napheth must be rejected. The'three countries,
DOEG (-aN     Sept.. /AXhK), an Edomite, and  or rather'triple district' ('ii  rJiS3W), includes.DOEG..T; Sept. Aor), an Edomite, and Endor, Taanach, and Megiddo, and has no conchief overseer of King Saul's flocks, which is an nection with Carmel (see Keil on Josh. xvii. 1).
important trust in Oriental courts. At Nob he  Dor was one of the Phoenician strongholds, and
was witness of the assistance which the high-priest seats of commerce. On its rocky coast the murex
Ahimelech seemed to afford to the fugitive David, abounded (Stephanus, EOVtLK; Reland, Pal. 739).
by furnishing him with the sword of Goliath, and It was still a flourishing town in the Roman age;
by supplying him with bread even from the sacred and afterwards became the seat of a bishop. It is




DORCAS                     696                 DOTHAN
now represented by a little fishing village, consist- Rostochii, 1697, 4to. Of the authenticity of this
ing of some thirty houses. The houses are modern, work some doubt is intimated in the preface by the
but the materials are manifestly ancient.  North of editor J. N. Quistorpius.-S. N.
the village is a rocky promontory, covered for a DOR     MENES (               the father of
space of half a mile with ruins and rubbish. This  D    Macron (2 Macc. x. ), the fte o
was the site of the old city. The most conspicu- Ptolemy Macron (2 Maccab. x. 12), mentioned
ous object is a tall fragment of a tower, which forms I Maccab. iii. 3   2 Maccab. if 45it Aiobably
the landmark of TantAra, for such is the modern   same wh o had fought Calosyria; see Polyb.
name. It is visible along the whole coast from  Great when he acked Cce lo     )-sy;  se  A.
Coesarea to Carmel. The writer visited some rock-  6  (Gmm    xeloc.W. L. A.
tombs, and an excavation resembling a small      DOSITHEUS (Aoo-leos), a priest and Levite,
theatre. The harbour was on the south side of the who, according to the Apocryphal additions to the
promontory, and was sheltered by two or three Book of Esther (LXX., c. x. infin.; Vulg. c. xi.
small islands.-J. L. P.                        v. I), carried into Egypt the letter of Mordecai
~DORCAS.  [TABITHA.]  ~respecting the feast of Purim.-S. N.
DORCAS. [TABITHA.]
DORCAS.~ [TSEBI.]                  DOSITHEUS      (Awao-eos).  I. One of the
~DORCAS. C[T~SEB~I.]             generals of Judas Maccabaeus (2 Maccab. xii. 19,
DORSCHEUS, JOANNES GEORGIUS (DORSCHE, 24). 2. A horse soldier in the army of Judas MacJ. G.), one of the most distinguished Lutheran  cabzeus, of the company of Bacenor (2 Maccab.
theologians of the sixteenth century. He was born  xii. 35). 3. A renegade Jew in the camp oI
at Strasburg, Nov. 19, 1597. After the comple- Ptolemy Philopator (3 Maccab. i. 3).-S. N.
tion of his preparatory studies, he entered upon the OTHAN        and    T   
work of the Christian ministry as pastor at Ensis-  DOTHAN  (L.n, and jn';   Sept. Acowae).
heim, in the year 1622. In 1627, he was called to  Dothan is only twice mentioned in Scripture, and
the chair of theology in the university of Strasburg, yet there are few Bible cities round which so much
and in 1654 to a similar post in the university of of romantic interest clings. Joseph was sent from
Rostock. He died Dec. 25, 1659.  Of his nume- Hebron by his father to visit his brethren, then
rous works, those which were published during his supposed to be pasturing their flocks on Jacob's
lifetime belong, for the most part, to polemical property at Shechem. On reaching the plain of
theology. His biblical writings are, with scarcely  Shechem, he was told they had gone to Dothan;
an exception, posthumous works; and the num- he followed, and found them there (Gen. xxxvii.
ber of these, with the dates of their publication, I4-I7).  Among the wooded hills of Ephraim,
some of them many years after his death, may be about 14 miles north of Shechem, is a beautiful
not unfairly taken as evidence of the great extent little plain, carpeted with green grass. On its
of his influence and reputation. The following are southern side is a large mound or tell covered with
the most important of them:-I. Biblia numerata; ruins. This is the site of Dothan, And it is still
seu index specialis in vetus et novucm testamentum ad called by its ancient name. At the base of the tell
singdla omniurn librorum capita el commata, Fran- is a fountain; and probably beside it Joseph's
cofurti, 1674, fol. This was edited by J. Gramb- brethren were grouped when they saw him in the
sius, and may be described as a work giving, in- distance approaching from the direction of Shestead of annotations on the text of Scripture, refer- chem. Near it, too, are some deep wells or cisences to passages in various authors, principally the terns, into one or other of which, doubtless,
Fathers, which elucidate the verse or paragraph. Joseph was let down. The word inTI (and its
2. Ad enlheas 7esaie prop5hetias, earumque singula  contracted form, In"), is dual of the Chaldee
capita analysis ex operose collatispene multis optimis- 1n','a well' or'cistern.' Close by Dothan runs
que lam ebrceis quam Christianis interpretibus, adeo the great road from  Bethshean and Northern
ut commentarii vicem praestare possit, p5rmissa  Gilead to Egypt; and along this the Ishmaelites
ubique apodixi poenitentiam  ztrgente instit/ta, travelled (Gen. xxxvii. 25).
Hamb. 1703, 4t. 3. In quator evangelistascon-    Dothan was the scene of another remarkable
mentarius, per solidam apodixin analysin, exegesin, episode in Israelitish history. When the Syrian
harmoniam item acparallelismum verum sensum ex- army under Benhadad invaded Samaria, Elisha the
hibens, falsum refutans, Hamb. 1706, 4to. This is Prophet was living at Dothan, and gave full inforthe most valuable of his exegetical works, and is mation to his countrymen of the designs and tactics
edited from notes of his academical prelections of the enemy. The Syrian king knew this and
found amongst his papers.   Buddzeus (Isagoge, determined to capture him.   Accordingly one
1472) thus characterises it:'Nervose breviter que morning the people of Dothan found their village
auctor multa complexus est, talia que simul sub- surrounded by the chariots and horsemen of Benministrat quae apud alios inter longas verborum  hadad.  Elisha's servant cried in dismay,'Alas,
ambages frustra requiras.' Prefixed to the com- my master! how shall we do?'' Fear not,' was
mentary is a preface by the editor, J. F. Fechtius, the reply,' for they that be with us are more than
in which the life and writings of Dorscheus are re- they that be with them.' Still the servant doubted
viewed atlength. 4. Zn epistolam Paulli adEbreos and trembled; but Elisha prayed, and the Lord
commentarius, Francof. et Lips., 1717, 4to. This opened the eyes of the young man;'and he saw;
also appears to have been derived from notes of his and, behold, the hill was full of horses and chariots
lectures; the latter part, from the middle of chap. of fire round about Elisha.' Again he prayed, and
x. to the end of the epistle, is by Christopher the Syrians were smitten with'confusion of sight,'
Pfaff. 5. Fragmentum  commentarii in epistolam  and were then led away to Samaria (2 Kings vi.
7Z/dc, Francof. et Lips., 1700, 4to, along with  8-23).
which is given the commentary of B. H. Gebhard   Dothan is mentioned several times in the Book
on Jude. 6. ZqrTlaura in epistolas i. et ii. yoannis, of Judith in connection with the fortress of Bethu



DOUGHTY                    697              DOVES' DUNG
lia (iii. I I; vii. 3). In the time of Eusebius it was number of pigeon-houses in Persia. Mr. Edwards,
still inhabited, and he gives its exact position, in as cited by Dr. Harries, remarks that it is not
the twelfth mile (Roman) from Samaria (Onomast. likely they had much ground to cultivate in so
s. v. Dolhaim). From that period until within the populous a city for gardens; and is disposed,
last few years its site has remained unknown. A  therefore, to understand it as meaning the offals
comparatively late tradition located it north of the or refuse of all sorts of grain, which was wont to
Lake of Tiberias, and pointed out the well there in be given to pigeons, etc. Dr. Harris, however,
which Joseph was put. The discovery of the true observes that the stress of the famine might have
site was made in 1852, by Dr. Robinson and M. been so great as to have compelled the poor
Van de Velde. They both came upon it by acci- among the besieged in Samaria to devour either
dent, and at once identified it (Robinson, B. R., the intestines of the doves, after the more wealthy
iii. 122, 338; Van de Velde, i. 365; Reland, Pal. had eaten the bodies, or, as it might perhaps.be
739).-J. L. P.                                rendered, the crops; and reference has been made
in the Edinb. Christian Instructor, No. 122, to an
DOUGHTY, JOHN, D.D. (DOUGTAEUS), was abridged Chronicle of the History of England, in
born in I598 at Martley, near Worcester, and died which it is said that in the famine which laid Engat Westminster, 25th Dec. 1672. He was edu- land waste in I3I6 the poor ate pigeons' dung.
cated at Oxford, and was rector of Lapworth in But these explanations are not more satisfactory
Warwickshire at the time of the breaking out of than the older ones.
the war between Charles I. and the Parliament.
After the restoration he was made a prebendary of                        <
Westminster and rector of Cheam in Surrey. He
is best known by his Analecta Sacra; sive excursus
fphilologici supier diversis SS. locis, etc., Lond.                         A
i658-60. A second edition appeared at Amsterdam in 1684, to which the annotations of Knatchbul are appended. His illustrations of Scripture 
are chiefly drawn from the usages, etc., of heathen 
antiquity. Orme says he'is more successful in elucidating the Old than the New Covenant Scriptures' (Bib. Bib. 156).-W. L. A. 
DOVE. [YONEH.]
DOVES' DUNG.       This expression occurs in 
2 Kings vi. 25, as a literal translation of  V'li'n If
chirionim or charei-yonimn, which in the margin      ( 
is written    21VII dib-yonim, both meaning the
same thing; and it is curious that in the Arabic
there are two words very similar to these, J_ \.
khureh, and J.. zabil, which also signify the            2I2. Ornithogalum umbellatun.
same thing, that is, the dung of animals. In the  Bochart, however, has shewn (Hierozoicon, ii.
above compounds, khir and dib being prefixed to 37) that the term'pigeons' dung' was applied by
vonirm, the plural form for doves, the literal mean- the Arabs to different vegetable substances. He
ing is as above translated. By many the expres- quotes Avicenna as applying the term stercus cosion is considered to signify literally the dung of lumbarum to two different plants or substances.
pigeons, as in the passage of 2 Kings vi. 25: One of these is described by Avicenna and other'And there was a great famine in Samaria, and Arab authors, under the names kuz-kunden and
behold they besieged it, until an ass's head was joug-kundem, as a light substance like moss. Sesold for threescore pieces of silver, and the fourth  condly, this name was given to the ashnan or
part of a cab of doves' dung for four pieces of usnan, which appears to be a fleshy-leaved plant,
silver.' Different opinions, however, have been  that, like the salsolas, salicornias, or mesembryanentertained respecting the meaning of the words themnums, when burnt, yields alkali in its ashes.
which are the subject of this article, namely, whe- From this Bochart has been led to consider it as
ther they should be taken literally, or as a figura- identical with another plant, which occurs under
tive name of some vegetable substance.  The the name of kali both in the Hebrew and Arabic
strongest point in favour of the former view is languages, and which was one of the pulses used
that all ancient Jewish writers have understood  in ancient times, as at the present day, as an article
the term literally.  Taking it, however, in this of diet [KALI]. With reference to this grain it
sense, various explanations have been given of the has been observed that' large quantities of it are
use to which the doves' dung was applied. Some parched and dried, and stored in magazines at
of the rabbins were ot opinion that the doves' Cairo and Damascus.  It is much used during
dung was used for fuel, and Josephus, that it was journeys, and particularly by the great pilgrimpurchased for its salt. Mr. Harmer has suggested  caravan to Mecca; and if this conjecture be corthat it might have been a valuable article, as being rect it may be supposed to have been among the
of great use for quickening the growth of esculent provisions stored up in the besieged city, and sold
plants, particularly melons; and he shews, what at the extravagant price mentioned in the text'
is well known, that the Persians live much on  (Pict. Bible). The late Lady Callcott, in her
melons in the summer months, and use pigeons' Scripyure Herbal, 1842, adduces the ornithogalum
dung in raising them. All travellers describe the umbellatum, or common Star of Bethlehem, as




DOWRY                     698                  D'OYLY
the'doves' dung' of Scripture, and assigns this, his B.A. degree in I8oo.  In February I8oi he
as well as'birds' milk,' as two of its vernacular was elected to a fellowship of his college. After
names, and infers that the pigeons' dung which holding the office of moderator for three years in
has been mentioned above as being eaten in Eng- rotation, and that of public mathematical examiner
land in the famine of 1316 was the roots of this for two, and performing the duties of a select
plant. It is a native of this country, and also of preacher during the years I809, I8IO, 1811; he
Taurus, Caucasus, and Northern Africa. Dios- became, in the November of the last-mentioned
corides states that its bulbs were sometimes cooked  year, Christian advocate of the University, being
with bread, in the same way as the melanthium, already B.D. In this capacity he published some
and also that it was eaten both raw and roasted. useful writings suitable to his office, but not for
The roots were also commonly eaten in Italy enumeration in this work.   He also contributed
and other southern countries at an early period. some valuable articles to early numbers of the
Sprengel (in Dioscor. ii. 47I), with reference to  Quarterly Reviez, among which may be menthe above passage of Dioscorides on opvt6O^yaov, tioned a review of the Socinian version of the N.
says,' Ebraice dicta fuit planta tn1l'n11, stercus T., and an examination of Dr. Herbert Marsh's
columzbinum (2 Reg. vi. 25), ob floris albidum cum  Lectures on COiticism and Interpretation.  Two
herbaceo mixtum colorem, sicut in stercore plera- more of his contributions to the Quarterly are interrumque avium herbivorarum ea mixtio observatur. esting to students of Hebrew criticism, viz., two
Est enim ornithogalum umbellazum, quod per om- elaborate articles on'Bellany's Translation of the
nem orientem proveniens, bulbos habet edules, Bible.' In them the proposed version is carefully
licet a pauperibus duntaxat petantur.  Haec Lin- examined, and the unsoundness of the suggested
nmei expositio biblici loci multi plus valet, quam  deviations from our A. V. exposed in a moderate
septem et quod excedit eyr^y/oes, quas Bochartus but masterly manner. In I813, Mr. D'Oyly was
enumerat.'                                    appointed domestic chaplain to the Archbishop of
Having seen that the name of pigeons' dung  Canterbury, Dr. Manners. Sutton. He had held
has been, and probably still is, applied by the the situation of chaplain a very short time when the
Arabs to different vegetable substances, we are idea was entertained among the leading members
not disposed to adopt the literal meaning of the of the S.P.C.K. of a work which served eventually
term, as doves' dung, being devoid of nutriment, more than any other to gain for Mr. D'Oyly's name
was not likely to have served as food, even during  celebrity in the church, i.e., the well-known Comnthe famine, especially as we find that an ass's head mentary on the Bible.  The undertaking (which
was sold for sixty pieces of silver. Now if any was first suggested, it is said, by Dr. Cleaver,
asses remained for sale, or ass-loads of corn, as Bishop of St. Asaph), was eventually entrusted to
the expression has been interpreted, there is no Dr. Mant, afterwards Bishop of Down, Connor,
reason for supposing that other substances may and Dromore, and Mr. D'Oyly-both chaplains
not have remained stored up in secret for those of the Archbishop. The execution of his share of
who had money to buy. But it is not easy to say this useful work occupied the greater part of Mr.
what vegetable substance, serving as an article of D'Oyly's time for the next three years. In the
diet, is alluded to by the name of'doves' dung.' year I815, he was presented to the Vicarage of
If the besieged had communication with the ex- Hernhill, near Feversham, in Kent, which, howterior, or even if any of their body could have dug  ever, he shortly afterwards resigned on being colin the neighbourhood of the walls for the kind of lated by his former patron the Archbishop to the' earth-nut' offered by the bulbs of the ornithoga- rectory of Buxted, with the chapelry of Uckfield.
lum, or Star of Bethlehem, which is said to be Towards the close of the year 1820 he was apabundant in the neighbourhood of Samaria, there pointed by the same patron to the rectory of Lamdoes not appear any good reason why it should beth, Surrey, and to that of Sundridge, Kent-prenot be the substance alluded to. But it does not ferment which he retained to the end of his life.
appear so likely to have been stored up; and we In the management of this most important cure
have been unable to discover any reference in the Dr. D'Oyly (for he had proceeded to the highest
Arab authors to such a plant, under the name of academical degree at Cambridge on this last prostercus columbarum.  Pulse was as likely to have motion, for which he also resigned his other appointbeen stored up in ancient times as at the present ments) secured in London general respect as'an
day; and it may, therefore, as shewn by Bochart, exemplary and diligent clergyman, a distinguished
have been one of the substances to which the scholar, and an honourable man.'   His active
name was applied by the Arabs, and have been  duties did not quench his literary energy.  Besides
known to the Hebrews also by a similar name some volumes of excellent sermons, he published an
[KALI].-J. F. R.                              interesting work, the Life of Archbishop Sancroft.
DOWRY. [MATRRIAGE.]                         In I827 he became instrumental in the foundation
of King's College, London.  His life of usefulness
D'OYLY, GEORGE, D.D., was born October 3, was closed January 8, I846, in his 67th year. The
1778, in London. He was the fourth son of the title-page of his chief work explains its character;
Ven. Matthias D'Oyly, Archdeacon of Lewes,'THE HOLY BIBLE, according to the A. V., with
Sussex, and member of a family which traces its notes explanatory and practical; taken principally
lineal descent from the D'Ouillys of Ouilly in from the most eminent writers of the United Church
Normandy, who helped to swell the ranks with of England and Ireland, together with appropriate
whose aid William conquered this country.  In introductions, tables, indexes, maps, and plans1796, Mr. D'Oyly proceeded to the University of prepared and arranged by the Rev. George D'Oyly,
Cambridge, and became a member of Bene't, or D.D., and the Right Rev. Richard Mant, Bishop
Corpus Christi College.  The result of his hard of Down and Connor.' This work, which was at
study was his attainment of the high place of second  first published in 3 volumes 4to, has been often
wrangler and second Smith's prizeman previous to reprinted for popular use by the S.P.C.K. (with




DRACHM                     699                 DREAMS
the text, in 3 volumes imperial 8vo, without the is 94 +  o3 of a farthing, or may be called tenpence.
text, in 2 volumes).'This work,' says Mr. Hart- The drachms mentioned in 2 Maccabees are most
well Horne (Introduction [9th ed.] vol. v. p. 302), likely of the Seleucidse, and therefore of the Attic'professes to communicate only the results of the standard. The later Attic drachm is worth l.-:
critical inquiries of learned men, without giving a of a shilling, or 9'II pence, which is 9 +  of a
detailed exposition of the inquiries themselves. farthing. From this the value of the latest or N.
These results, however, are selected with great T. drachm may therefore have been about eightjudgment, so that the reader who may consult them  pence. This value is of course merely nominal,
on difficult passages will rarely be disappointed. for the real value of money was far greater in the
Of the labour attending this publication some idea time of our Lord than at present. The ten pieces
may be formed, when it is stated that the works of of silver (6paXCuiAs &Ka) mentioned in Luke xv. 8,
upwards of I60 authors have been consulted for it, are most likely denarii, for the Attic drachm and
amounting to several hundred volumes.... the denarius were at that time identical, and the
The imperial 8vo edition is perhaps the cheapest latter had almost, if not altogether, superseded the
commentary in the English language. The reprint former.  This accounts for the remark of Joseat New York, which is very neatly executed in 2 phus, -iKXos*....'ArTK&S d'XETc  6pcXlarge 4to volumes [anznis I818-20], was edited by  as re'io-apas (Antiq. bd. iii. 8. 2). At this same
the Right Rev. John Henry Hobart, D.D., Bishop period the denarius was almost equal to the quarter
of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the State of of a Maccabean shekel. Josephus is then speakNew York, who greatly enhanced the value of this ing of four of the current Attic drachms, to which
work by numerous additional notes, selected from  four Ptolemaic drachms of the shekel, and four
the writings of upwards of 30 of the most eminent denarii of his time, were equal.
divines (not noticed by Drs. D'Oyly and Mant),   There are also pieces struck at Ephesus a little
whose names are a sufficient pledge for the value of earlier than the time of Josephus, with the inscripthe annotations taken from their writings...  tions APAXMH and AIAPAXMON, having the
Many other notes are likewiseselected from several weight of a denarius and of two denarii. The
of the authors cited by Dr. D'Oyly and Bishop  thirty pieces of silver mentioned in Zech. xi.
Mant. Bishop Hobart's additional notes are two- I2 are probably shekels, while those mentioned in
fold-I. Critical and explanatory; 2. Practical. Matt. xxvi. I5; xxvii. 3, 9, as also the fifty
The latter are very numerous, and are calculated thousand pieces in Acts xix. I9, are most likely
greatly to increase the value of this commentary as denarii, if these latter are not drachmse of account.
a FAMILY BIBLE.'   We are indebted for the bio- In all these cases the word'ApyTpov is employed.
graphical details of this article to the Memoir of -F. W. M.
George D'Oyly, D. D., F.R. S. etc., by his son, pre-  RA      TA
fixed to two volumes of Sermons, etc., which were  DR    N.  [
published in the year I847.-P. H.                DRAM. [ADARCONIM.]
DRACHM      (5paXiuk, drachma), a principal sil-  DREAMS.  Of all the subjects upon which the
ver coin of the Greeks, which became current mind of man has speculated, there is perhaps none
among the Jews after the exile (2 Maccab. iv. 9; which has more perplexed than that of dreaming
x. 20; xii. 43; Luke xv. 8, 9).* It is of various but whatever may be the difficulties attending the
weights, according to the use of the different talents. subject, we know that it has formed a channel
i. The drachm of the Ptolemaic or Alexandrian  trough which Jehovah was pleased in former
talent weighed about 58 grains, but fell gradually   t o reveal His character and disensations to
to a much lower rate. This was the drachm used  His        reveal H  charater successivedispens t
inl ThraceHand Macedon before the time of Alex-  s people. Under the three successive dispensain Thrace and Macedon before the time of Alex- tions we find this channel of communication with
ander the Great. It was restored in the coinage man adopted.  It was doubtless in this way that
of the kings of Egypt, and weighed about 55 God appeared to the father of the faithful, ordering
grains. This talent was used in Egypt, and at him to forsake country, kindred, and his father's
Tyre, Sidon, and Berytus.                      house, and to go into the land that he would shew
2. The drachm of the later Phoenician or Persian                 command Abraham paid a
talent weighed about 58 to 59 grains. This talent    oedience    t   as              pr
*m   -  r  *   ready obedience.  It was by a similar prompt
in Palestine merged into the talent of Egypt during oedience to the admonition conveyed to him in a
the sway of the Ptolemies. Itwasused at Arads, dream that Abimelech (Gen. xx. 3), himself, and
and by the Persians. of theAtttae             Abraham, too, were saved from the evil conse3' The drachm of the Attic talent, which became quences of his meditated act.
almost universal after Alexander, weighed about                            banished from his
66-7 grains. Inqs laters times (about B. C. 27) it  When Jacob was, as it were, banished from his
66-7 grains. In later times (about B. C. 27) it
weighed only 6I-3 grains, and thus became very    In Xenophon (Anab. i. 5, 6) there is a coin
nearly equal to the Roman denarius, the average described as equal to 7  Attic oboli. The name
weight of which was 60 grains. Under the earlier 
eperrs it fell as lowis 2GyXos. The obolus weighed about I I'25 grains,
emperors it fell as low as 55 graints.t, and 84 grains is the full weight of the silver Darics.
With the drachm    of the Eginetan talent, This does not in any way agree with the shekel of the
which weighed about 96 grains, we have nothing  Septuagint, equal to an Attic didrachmon, nor with
to do, as the first three talents only were known                called te Shekel, and thereto the Jews. Each of our shillings contains 80 7  foe we must conclude that the word h os, athough
grains of alloy. The earliest Attic drachm is there-  e se as the IX  th  Septuagint, and defolre wort So lof a hillng or9 9I ence   hichthe same as the nK9Xos of the Septuagint, and defore worth    of a shilling, or 99  pence, which  rived from Shekel, was applied by the Greeks of
Asia to this peculiar coin, as being the principal
* In the former two passages the Vulgate has silver currency of Persia. (Cf. Leake, Appendix,
didrachma.                                      Vlum. Hell. p. 2.)




DREAMS                     700                  DRESS
father's house, in order to avoid the effects of his with child, he was turned from his purpose by a
brother's implacable rage, he came to a place called dream, in which an angel made the truth of the
Luz (Gen. xxviii. I9), and, whilst there, sleeping matter known to him (Matt. i. 20). And in the
under the canopy of heaven, he had communication following chapter it is stated that God in a dream
by dream, not only with angels, but with God also. warned the wise men not to return to Herod.
In Gen. xxxi. Io, Jacob informs his wives that it Moreover, in verses 13 and 19, Joseph is instructed
was God who saw how Laban oppressed him-      to flee into and return from Egypt with the child
who had directed him to take the speckled, etc., Jesus. Whether the dream of Pilate's wife was a
cattle for his wages, and had ordered him to return  divine intimation we cannot tell.
home. He obeyed; and when Laban, designing      That divine dreams, which actually were imto do Jacob some harm (Gen. xxxi. 24), pursued, parted to God's servants, should be imitated in
and after seven days overtook him, God, by a fictitious representation by ancient and modern
dream, prevented the meditated evil.          writers, was consistent no less with the general obJoseph, whilst yet a child, had dreams predic- jects of superstition and imposture than with those
tive of his future advancement (Gen. xxxvii. 6-II). of literature. Hence divine dreams became the
These dreams are one, and were repeated under constant appendages of the heathen mythology,
different forms, in order, it would seem, to express and accounts, real and fictitious, of communications
the certainty of the thing they predicted. How  in vision were interwoven in every production.
they formed the first link in an extended chain of Information which was superior to the vulgar phiGod's providential dealings the sacred record fully losophy of the time intimated its discoveries as
informs us. In the course of time, by being able suggestions imparted by inspiration. If a warning
to give an accurate interpretation of three predictive was to be conveyed, what so affecting as the addreams, Joseph was raised from the prison to a par- monition of a departed friend! Such machinery
ticipation with King Pharaoh in the government of was particularly adapted to works of imagination,
Egypt! That the same divine mode of communi- and the poems of antiquity, as well as those of
eating with man was continued under the Mosaic modern times, were frequently decorated with its
dispensation is evident from an express word of pro- ornaments.
mise (Num. xii. 6),'If there be a prophet amongyou,  We inquire not how far God may have revealed
I the Lord will make myself known unto him in a himself to man beyond what Holy Scripture records.
vision, and will speak to him in a dream.' When  Some of the dreams, both of ancient and modern
Gideon warred with the Amalekites, and was times, which lay claim to a divine character, are
alarmed at their vast multitudes, he was encouraged  certainly striking, and may, for aught we know,
to do God's will by overhearing one of them relate have had, and may still have, a collateral bearing
his dream, and another giving the interpretation  on the development of God's purposes. [DIVINA(Judg. vii.) When the spirit of Samuel (whom the TION.]-J. W. D.
witch pretended to raise up) asked Saul,'Why   D          T    s     
hast thou disquieted me to bring me up?' Saul DRESS The subject of the costume of the
answered,'I am sore distressed; for the Philistines ancent Hebrews is involved in much obscurity and
make war against me, and God is departed from  doubt. Sculptured monuments and coins afford us
me, and answers me no more, neither by prophets, all needful information respecting the dress of the
nor by dreams: therefore I have called thee that ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks,
thou mayest make known to me what I shall do.' and Romans; and even the garb worn by the barAgain, it was in a dream that God was pleased to barous nations is perpetuated in the monuments of
grant Solomon a promise of wisdom and under- their antagonists and conquerors. But the ancient
standing (I Kings iii. 5, etc.) Job says (xxxiii. 4) Hebrews have left no monuments, no figures of'God speaketh once, yea twice, yet man perceiveth themselves; and the few figures which have been
it not. In a dream, in a vision of the night, when  supposed to represent Jews in the monuments of
deep sleep falleth upon men, in slumbering upon  Egypt and Persia are so uncertain, that their
the bed, then he openeth the ears of men and  authority remains to be established before we can
sealeth their instruction.' In order to guard against  ely upon the information which they convey.
imposition, Moses pronounced a penalty against There are, however, many allusions to dress in the
dreams which were invented and wickedly made Scriptures, and these form the only source of our
use of, for the promotion of idolatry (Deut. xiii. positive information. They are often, indeed, obI-5).  Thus Zachariah (x. 2) complains,'The scure, and of uncertain interpretation; but they are
idols have spoken vanity, and the diviners have invaluable in so far as they enable us to compare
spoken a lie, and have told false dreams; they com- and verify the information derivable from  other
fort in vain.' And so Jeremiah (xxiii. 25),'I have sources. These sources areheard what the prophets said that prophesy lies in  I. The costume of neighbouring ancient nations,
my name, saying, I have dreamed, I have dreamed,' as represented in their monuments.
etc. Yet this abuse did not alter God's plan in the  2. The alleged costume of Jews as represented
right use of them, for in the 28th verse of the same in the same monuments.
chapter it is said,'The prophet that hath a dream,  3. The present costumes (which are known to
and he that hath my word, let him speak my word be ancient) of Syria and Arabia.
faithfully. What is the chaff to the wheat? saith  4. Tradition.
the Lord.'                                      I. The range of inquiry into monumental cosThe knowledge of visions and dreams is reckon- tume is very limited. It is a common mistake to
ed amongst the principal gifts and graces sometimes talk of'Oriental costume' as if it were a uniform
bestowed by God upon them that fear him (Dan. i. thing, whereas, in fact, the costumes of the Asiatic
I7; v. II-14).                               nations differ far more from one another than do
In the N. T. we read that when Joseph designed the costumes of the different nations of Europe.
to put Mary away because he perceived her to be And that this was the case anciently, is shewn by




DRESS                     701                   DRESS
the monuments, wherein the costumes of Egyptians, the conjecture. The annexed cut shews the variety
Babylonians, Persians, Medes, Syrians, and Greeks of costume which this scene displays. All the men
differ as much from one another as do the costumes wear sandals.  Some of them are clad only in a
of the modern Syrians, Egyptians, Arabs, Turks, short tunic or shirt, with close sleeves (fig. 3);
and Persians. It is therefore useless to examine others wear over this a kind of sleeveless plaid or
the monumental costume of any nation remote from  mantle, thrown over the left shoulder, and passing
Palestine, for the purpose of ascertaining the cos- under the right arm (fig. 2).  It is of a striped and
tume of the ancient Hebrews. Syria, Arabia, and  curiously figured pattern, and looks exceedingly
Egypt are the only countries where monuments like the fine grass woven cloth of the South Sea.
would be likely to afford any useful information: Others have, instead of this, afringed skirt of the
but Arabia has left no monumental figures, and  same material (fig. I). All the figures are bareSyria none of sufficiently ancient date; and it is left headed, and wear beards, which are circumstances
for Egypt to supply all the information likely to favourable to the identification. The fringed skirt
be of use. The extent and value of this informa- of fig. I is certainly a remarkable circumstance.
tion, for the particular purpose, we believe to be far
less than is usually represented. That we are not
disposed to undervalue the information derivable 
from the Egyptian monuments for the purpose of       i
illustrating biblical history and antiquities, the 
pages of the present work will sufficiently evince;
and its editor may indeed claim to be the first in
this country to work this mine of materials for
biblical illustration.  But the rage for this kind of
illustration has been carried to such preposterous
lengths, and is so likely in its further progress to
confuse our notions of the real position which the
Hebrews occupied, that it may not be an unwhole-    >                         i  -
some caution to remind our readers that the Egyp-                   213.
tians and the Hebrews were an exceedingly different people-as different in every respect as can well Moses directed that the people should wear a fringe
be conceived; and that the climates which they in- at the hem of their garments (Numb. xv. 38), and
habited were so very different as to necessitate a the probability is that this command merely pergreater difference of food and dress than might be petuated a more ancient usage.
pre-supposed of countries so near to each other.  (b.) This fringe re-appears, much enlarged, in the
This consideration appears to us to render of little other Egyptian sculpture in which Jews are supvalue the very ingenious illustrations of Jewish cos- posed to be represented. These are in a tomb distume which have been deduced from this source. covered by Belzoni, in the valley of Bab-el-Melook,
It is true that the Jewish nation was cradled in  near Thebes.  There are captives of different
Egypt, and this circumstance may have had some nations, and among them four figures, supposed to
influence on ceremonial dresses, and the orna- represent Jews.  The scene is imagined to comments of women; but we do not find that nations
circumstanced as the Jews were, readily adopt the 
costumes of other nations, especially when their
residence in Egypt was always regarded by them
as temporary, and when their raiment was of home
manufacture, spun and woven by the women from
the produce of their flocks (Exod. xxxv. 25).  We  J 
find also that, immediately after leaving Egypt, the
principal article of dress among the Hebrews was 
some ample woollen garment, fit to sleep in (Exod. 
xxii. 27), to which nothing similar is to be seen
among the costumes of Egypt.
2. With respect to the supposed representation                    2I4.
of Jews in ancient monuments, if any authentic
examples could be found, even of a single figure, memorate the triumphs of Pharaoh-Necho in that
in the ancient costume, it would afford much satis- war in which the Jews were defeated at Megiddo,
faction, as tending to elucidate many passages of and their king Josiah slain (2 Chron. xxxv. xxxvi.)
Scripture which cannot at present be with cer- It will be seen that the dress of these figures differs
tainty explained. The sculptures and paintings little, excepting in the length of the fringe, from
supposed to represent ancient Hebrews are con- that of the skirted figure in the earlier painting;
tained in-                                     and so far this is a corroborative circumstance in
(a.) A painting at Beni Hassan, representing the favour of both. The band round the head is the
arrival of some foreigners in Egypt, and supposed  other principal difference. These figures are manito figure the arrival of Joseph's brethren in that festly in what we would call undress, and the comcountry. The accessories of the scene, the physi- parison being made with the similar undress figures
ognomies of the persons, and the time to which the in the earlier scene, the resemblance is greater than
picture relates, are certainly in unison with that might be expected from the distance of time and
event, but other circumstances are against the difference of manners. The internal evidence is
notion.  Sir J. G. Wilkinson speaks hesitatingly so far good; and if the external evidence were
on the subject, and, until some greater certainty is equally strong, there would not be much ground
obtained, we may admit the possible correctness of for hesitation.




DRESS                    702                  DRESS
(c.) The inscription and sculpture on the rock of pede the chariots of the Egyptian invaders.  The
Behistun were once presumed to have some refer- dresses are similar to each other, and this similarity
ence to the history of the Hebrews, but, according  strengthens the probability that the dress of the
to Col. Rawlinson, they record the personal history Jews was not very different; and it is also observof Darius the son of Hystaspes. A number of cap- able that it is similar to the full dress of some of
tives are represented strung, together by the neck, the figures in the sculpture at Behistun; the figures
and brought before some king and conqueror. Sir are bearded, and the cap, or head-dress, is bound
R. K. Porter was led to fancy that the sculpture round with a fillet. The figures are arrayed in a
commemorates the subjugation and deportation of long gown reaching to the ankles, and confined
the ten tribes by Shalmanezer, king of Assyria (2 around the waist by a girdle, and the shoulders are
Kings xvii. 6).  The reasons which he assigns covered by a cape, which appears to have been
for this conclusion are of little weight, and not common to several nations of Asia.  At first view
worth examination. But the single fact that the it would seem that this dress is different from those
figures are arrayed in a costume similar to the already figured.  But in all probability this more
ancient and present garb of the people of Syria and spacious robe is merely an outer garment, covering
Lebanon, inclines us to think that the figures really that inner dress which is shewn in the figures that
do represent the costume of nations west of the seem more scantily arrayed.
Euphrates, including probably that of the Jews and  Such is the amount of the information to be detheir near neighbours. The dress here shewn is a rived from ancient monuments.
2I5I
shirt or tunic confined around thewaist by astrap  \I                        /
or girdle; while others have a longer and larger 
robe, furnished with a spacious cape or hood, and
probably worn over the other.
There is no reason to think that the dress of the 
Jews was in any important respect different from 
that of the other inhabitants of the same and immediately bordering countries. It would therefore be.
satisfactory, and would enable us to judge better of2I7.
the figures which have been noticed, if we had re-  That to be obtained fom tdition is embodied
presentations of Canaanites, Phcenicians, Syrians, -  In the desses o f m onks and pilgrims, which
Moabites, etc., by the Egyptian artists, who were  n  e dresses of onks and pilgrims, which
so exact in discriminating, even to caricature, the ma be traced to an ancient date, and which are
peculiarities of nations. At p. 227 thereia  an intended imitation of the dresses supposed to
At p. 227 there is a sup- have been worn by the first disciples and apostles
posed figure of a Canaanite warrior from this source.h n won by he irt icie       apsts
The dress being military, does not afford much  b  hst.  2. The garb conventionally assigned
room for comparison in the present instance, but y painters to Scriptural characters, which were
we at once recognize in it most of the articles equally intended to embody the dress of the aposwhich formed the military dress of the Hebrews. tolical period, and is corrected in some degree by
The following figures (No. 216), however, convey the notons of Oriental costume which were colmore information, as they appear to represent the lected during the Crusades.
inhabitants of Syria and Lebanon.  The evidence  To judge of the value of these costumes, we
for the last (fig. 2) is as conclusive as can be ob- must compare them, first, withem, first, withe scanty matetained, for not only is there the name Lebanon rials already produced, and then with the mode
(m being constantly interchanged with b), but the costumes of Syria and Arabia. The result of this
examination will probably be that these traditional
garbs are by no means bad reminiscences of Hebrew costume; and that the dresses which the
painters have introduced into Scriptural subjects
are far more near to correctness than it has latterly
been the fashion to suppose. It is perhaps as
nearly as possible a just medium between the eccle"   ~/  t~ 2  /  jsiastical tradition and the practical observation.
2         No dress more suitable to the dignity of the sub{T f~  \  {~ \              ~jects could possibly be devised; and, sanctioned as
it has been by long use, and rendered venerable by
X  J-~___3  ^ —^Scriptural associations, we should be reluctant to
{ \______ -  LJyA\_    see it exchanged for the existing Oriental cos216.                     tumes, which the French artists have begun to
prefer. But this is only with regard to pictorial
persons thus attired are represented as inhabiting a associations and effects; for, in an inquiry into the
mountainous country, and felling fir-trees to im- costume actally worn by the Israelites, modern




DRESS                    703                  DRESS
sources of illustration must'be by no means over- while it agrees more than any other with the matelooked. And to that source of illustration we now  rials supplied by antiquity and by tradition. 3.
turn.                                         That the dress which the Arabian garbs gradually
The value of the modern Oriental costumes for superseded in Syria and Palestine was not the same
the purposes of Scriptural illustration arise from  as that of Scriptural times, excepting, perhaps,
the fact that the dress, like the usages, of the among the peasantry, whose dress appears to have
people is understood to be the same, or nearly the then differed little from that of the Arabian consame, which was used in very ancient times. Of querors. The Jews had for above five centuries
the fact itself, nakedly taken, there is not the ceased to be inhabitants of Palestine; and it is
least room for doubt. But this must be under- certain that during the intermediate period the
dress of the upper classes-the military and the
|.^1 ~ AidoR-~townspeople-had become assimilated to that of
I ",( fi;                   w ^the Greeks of the Eastern empire. Arabia had
"'':^'^ >        meanwhile been subjected to no such influences,
i[ l ii!/ ii  i' K                        and the dress which it brought into Syria may be
i/i         "0i       g!             CY t/'^ ^U^'t'^regarded as a restoration of the more ancient cos* iJ   >il x~?-l \ }}       s''tume, rather than (as it was in many countries) the
l'1~(.,W,, 7'  l    /' \~~.. $i!~,     It is to be observed, however, that there are two
I a\2/rj/^\  1 i1 |        \T \0 K  very different sorts of dresses among the Arabians.
1 o/ / <<\ -^IIl \!  3    One is that of the Bedouin tribes, and the other
llI/^^^\      I   /' \ 1  \      l ~that of the inhabitants of towns. The distinction
s\y/ ^^ 7^   | /  i l 8  i 1 \  between these is seldom clearly understood, or cor1s ~/l \\C  1>                  0~; (^X^:rectly stated; but is of the utmost importance for!1 X  Ui V \ I1\ 9  /__I \'\ the purpose of the present notice. Instead there"- /  I'\ 4, if _  VU s \ /    fCore of speaking of the Arabian costume as one
Al  j- -   thing, we must regard it as two things-the desert
costue, and the town costume.'If, then, our views of Hebrew costume were
218.                      based on the actual costume of the Arabians, we
should be led to conclude that the desert costume
stood with some limitations. The dress of the represented that which was worn during the patriTurks is distinctive and peculiar to themselves, archal period, and until the Israelites had been
and has no connection with the aboriginal cos- some time settled in Canaan; and the town costumes of Western Asia. The dress of the Persians tume that which was adopted from their neighbours
has also been changed almost within the memory when they became a settled people.
of man, that of the ruling Tartar tribe having  This is a subject which, more than any other, rebeen almost invariably adopted; so that the pre- quires the aid of pictorial illustration to render the
sent costume is altogether different from that which  details intelligible.  Having provided ourselves
is figured by Sir Thomas Herbert, Chardin, Le with these, our further observations will most adBruyn, Niebuhr, and other travellers of the seven- vantageously take the form of explanations of them,
teenth and eighteenth centuries.  But with the and of comments upon them.
exceptions of the foreign Turkish costume, and the  Under the notion that the desert costume belongs
modifications thereof, and with certain local excep- to the patriarchal period, the precedence is here
tions, chiefly in mountainous regions, it may be given to it. Only the outer articles of dress are
said that there is one prevailing costume in all the distinctive, those which are worn underneath being
countries of Asia between the Tigris and Mediter- similar to other articles worn by the town and
ranean, and throughout Northern Africa, from the peasant classes, and which as such will be hereafter
Nile to Morocco and the banks of the Senegal. noticed.
This costume is substantially Arabian, and owes  The annexed cut (No. 219) represents, in fig. 2,
its extension to the wide conquests of the Arabians a Bedouin, or desert Arab, in the dress usually
under the first caliphs; and it is through the worn in Asia; and fig. I represents a townsman
Arabians-the least changed of ancient nations, and in a cloak of the same kind, adopted from the
almost the only one which has remained as a nation  Arabs, and worn very extensively as an outermost
from ancient times-that the antiquity of this cos- covering in all the countries from the Oxus (for
tume may be proved. This is undoubtedly the even the Persians use it) to the Mediterranean.
most ancient costume of Western Asia, and while The distinctive head dress of the Bedouin, and
one set of proofs would carry it up to Scriptural which has not been adopted by any other nation,
times, another set of strong probabilities and satis- or even by the Arabian townsmen, is a kerchief
factory analogies will take it back to the most re- (keffeh) folded triangularly, and thrown over the
mote periods of Scriptural history, and will suggest head so as to fall down over the neck and shoulders,
that the dress of the Jews themselves was very and bound to the head by a band of twisted wool
similar, without being strictly identical.    or camel's hair. We forbear at the moment from
It would be a pleasant task to trace out these inquiring whether this was or was not in use among
lines of proof and analogy. This cannot here be the ancient Hebrews. The cloak is called an abba.
done; but it may be proper to remark-i. That It is made of wool and hair, and of various degrees
the usages of the Arabians in Syria and Palestine of fineness. It is sometimes entirely black, or enare more in agreement with those of Scripture than tirely white, but is more usually marked with
those of any other inhabitants of those countries. broad stripes, the colours of which (never more
2. That their costume throws more light on the than two, one of which is always white) are disScriptural intimations than any other now existing, tinctive of the tribe by which it is worn. The




DRESS                    704                  DRESS
cloak is altogether shapeless, being like a square the abba respectively, is indicated by the direction
sack, with an opening in front, and with slits at the of their importation into Egypt. The hykes are
sides to let out the arms. The Arab who wears it imported from the west (i.e., from North Africa),
by day, sleeps in it by night, as does often the and the abbas from Syria. The close resemblance
peasant by whom it has been adopted; and in all of the above group of real costume to those in
probability this was the garment similarly used by which the traditionary ecclesiastical and traditionthe ancient Hebrews, and which a benevolent law, ary artistical costumes are displayed, must be obvidelivered while Israel was still in the desert, for- ous to the most cursory observer. It may also be
bade to be kept in pledge beyond the day, that the noticed that the hyke is not without some repoor might not be without a covering at night semblance, as to the manner in which it was worn,
(Exod. xxii. 27). This article of dress appears to to the outer garment of one of the figures in the
have been little known to biblical illustrators, although it is the principal and most common outer-              m        
most garment in Western Asia.   This singular                   2                3
-//^iN -   -J i  8 Egyptian family, supposed to represent the arrival
of Joseph's brethren in Egypt (No. 220, fig. I).
We now turn to the costumes which are seen in
2I9.                     the towns and villages of south-western Asia.
In the Scriptures drawers are only mentioned in
neglect has arisen from their information being the injunction that the high-priest should wear
chiefly derived from Shaw and others, who describe them (Exod. xxviii. 42), which seems to shew that
the costume of the Arab tribes or Moors of North- they were not generally in use; nor have we any
ern Africa, where the outer garment is more gene- evidence that they ever became common. Drawers
rally the bournoos (No. 219, fig. 3), a woollen cloak, descending to the middle of the thighs were worn
not unlike the abba, but furnished with a hood, and by the ancient Egyptians, and workmen often laid
which is sometimes strangely confounded even by aside all the rest of their dress when occupied in
well-informed persons with a totally different outer their labours. As far as this part of dress was used
garment worn in the same regions, usually called at all by the Hebrews, it was doubtless either like
the hyke, but which is also, according to its mate- this, or similar to those which are now worn in
rials, quality, or colour, distinguished by various Western Asia by all, except some among the poorer
other names; and writers have produced some con- peasantry, and by many of the Bedouin Arabs.
fusion by not observing that these names refer to an
article of raiment which under all these names is essentially the same. Regardless of these minute dis-                 2 
tinctions, this part of dress may be described as a
large woollen blanket, either white or brown, andi                            y
in summer a cotton sheet (usually blue or white, or
both colours together). Putting one corner before
over the left shoulder, the wearer brings it behind,| [                    ti\ 
and then under the right arm, and so over the             \ 
body, throwing it behind over the left shoulder, and\ 
leaving the right arm free for action. This very 
picturesque mode of wearing the hyke is shewn in                                \
fig. 2 (No. 220). Another mode of wearing it is
shewn in fig. 3. It is sometimes thrown over the               i
head as a protection from the sun or wind (fig. I), 
and calls to mind the various passages of Scripture - --  -- 
in which persons are described as covering their      I
heads with their mantles (2 Sam. xv. 30; I Kings
xix. 13; Esther vi. I2). This article of dress, ori-. ^ ---- -
ginally borrowed from the nomades, is known in                    221.
Arabia, and extends westward to the shores of the
Atlantic, being most extensively used by all classes They are of linen or cotton, of ample breadth, tied
of the population. The seat of this dress, and of around the body by a running string, or band, and




DRESS                    705                  DRESS
always worn next the skin, not over the shirt as in course impossible to discriminate these precisely;
Europe.                                       but in this matter we cannot be far wrong in trustIt will be asked, when the poor Israelite had ing to the analogy of existing usages.
pawned his outer-garment'wherein he slept,' what  In all the annexed figures (No. 223), representdress was left to him? The answer is probably
supplied by the annexed engraving (No. 221),,
which represents slightly different garments of   I ^          2         3 
cotton, or woollen frocks or shirts, which often, in                              4
warm weather, form the sole dress of the Bedouin  /  ia 
peasants, and the lower class of townspeople. To
this the abba or hyke is the proper outer robe (as            I 
in fig. I, No. 220), but is usually, in summer, dispensed with in the day-time, and in the ordinary       l
pursuits and occupations of life. It is sometimes                             1
(as in No. 221, fig. 2),vorn without, but more
usually with, a girdle; and it will be seen that the           \ l,         t  i
shorter specimens are not unlike the dress of one                           I 
of the figures (fig. 3, No. 213) in the earliest of the |  | 
Egyptian subjects which have beon produced. The 
shirt worn by the superior clazses is of the same                                   l i
shape, but of finer materials. This is shewn in the 
figure below (No. 222), which represents a gentle-  -- 
man as just risen from bed. If we call this a shirt, 
the Hebrews doubtless had it-the sole dress (ex — 
cepting the cloak) of the poor, and the inner robe                223.
of the rich. Such, probably, were the'sheets'
(translated'shirts' in some versions), of which ing persons of the superior class, we observe the
Samson despoiled thirty Philistines to pay the for- shirt covered by a striped (sometimes figured) gown
feit of his riddle (Judg. xiv. 13, 19). It is shewn or caftan, of mingled silk and cotton. It descends
to the ankles, with long sleeves, extending a few
aK^~~           ^~inches beyond the fingers' ends, but divided from a
tKog/^-~ (point a little above the wrist, so that the hand is
^*^W.*e %         generally exposed, though it may be concealed by
/!' lll ^\      the sleeve when necessary; for it is customary to
cover the hands in the presence of a person of high
/i -'7               rank. It is very common, especially in winter, for
6Sl  EI                    persons to sleep without removing this gown, but
only unloosing the girdle by which it is bound. It
is not unusual within doors to see persons without
any article of dress outside this; but it is considered
^i,1.1  1     1ldecidedly as an undress, and no respectable per-..l) /{| | |l      son is beheld out of doors, or receives or pays
(       jy'i' fi|  /!  1|1iil-visits, without an outer covering. Hence persons
-"Sg- -     clad in this alone are said to be'naked' in ScripI 5 //J_<^^^m~ jture-that is, not in the usual complete dress; for
_ —_ ~ /      there can be no manner of doubt that this, or some~_~~)tw-~~       ~thing like this, is the n1'lT:, keloneth, of the Scrip222.                     ture (Exod. xxviii. 40; Job xxx. 18; Is. xxii. 2I,
from the Talmud, indeed that the Herews of later etc.) A similar robe is worn by the women, as
was also the case among the Israelites (2 Sam.
days had a shirt called p1in chalziq, which it would xiii. 18, I9; Cant. v. 3). It is in the bosom of
appear was often of wool (Lightfoot, Hor. Heb. on this robe that various articles are carried, and hence
Luke ix. 3), and which is described as the ordinary the Scriptural expression of giving things'into the
inner-garment, the outer being the cloak or mantle. bosom.'
This shews that the shirt or frock was, as in modern  The girdle worn over this, around the waist, is
usage, the ordinary dress of the Jews, to which a usually a coloured shawl, or long piece of figured
mantle (abba, hyke, or bournoos) was the outer white muslin. The girdle of the poorer classes is
covering.                                     of coarse stuff, and often of leather, with clasps.
The Talmud enumerates eighteen several gar- This leathern girdle is also much used by the Arabs,
ments which formed the clothing of the Jews from  and by persons of condition when equipped for a
head to foot (T. Hieros. Sabb. fol. 15; T. Bab. journey. It is sometimes ornamented with workSabb. fol. I20), mentioning, however, two sandals, ings in coloured worsted, or silk, or with metal
two buskins, etc. This shews, at least, one thing, studs, shells, beads, etc. Both kinds of girdles
that they were not more sparingly clad than the were certainly in use among the Hebrews (2 Kings
modern Orientals. This being the case, we may i. 8; Matt. iii. 4; Mark i. 6; comp. Jer. xiii. I).
be sure that although persons of the humbler It is known to all readers of Scripture how often
classes were content with the shirt and the mantle, the'girdle' and the act of'girding the loins' is
the wealthier people had other robes between these mentioned. It seems from 2 Sam. xx. 8 (comp.
two, and forming a complete dress without the also the Syrian figure, No. 216, fig. i), that it was
mantle, which with them was probably confined to usual to wear a knife or poniard in the girdle.
out-of-door wear, or ceremonial use.  It is of This custom is still general, and denotes not any
VOL..                                                                        2 Z




DRESS                    706                 DRUSIUS
deadly disposition, but the want of clasp-knives. each shoulder, and cross behind, where they are
Men of literary vocations replace it by an inkhorn, tied in a knot. This custom is particularly affected
as was also the case among the Israelites (Ezek. by servants and workmen, who have constant occaix. 2).
Over the gown is worn either the short-sleeved
oibbe/z (fig. 3), which is a long coat of woollen                               2
cloth; or the long-sleeved benish (fig. 2), which is                            2
also of woollen cloth, and may be worn either over 
or instead of the other. The benish is, by reason 
of its long sleeves (with which the hands may be 
covered), the robe of ceremony, and is worn in the 
presence of superiors and persons of rank. Over 
one or both of these robes may be worn the abba,
bournoos, or hyke, in any of the modes already,' /
indicated. Aged persons often wrap up the head 
and shoulders with the latter, in the manner shewn
in fig. 4.                                                              X 
This same hyke or wrapper is usually taken by 
persons going on a journey, for the purpose of      ___
being used in the same manner as a protection 
from the sun or wind. This is shewn in the an-                     225.
nexed cut, representing a group of persons equipped
for travel. The robe is here more succinct'and  sion for baring the arm; but others, whose occacompact, and the firm manner in which the whole sions are more incidental, and who are, therefore,
dress is girded up about the loins calls to mind the unprovided with the necessary cords, draw up the
passages of Scripture in which the action of gird- sleeves and tie them together behind between the
ing up the loins' for a journey is mentioned.  shoulders (fig. 2).
From this it is also seen that travellers usually  For the dress of females we must refer to the
wear a sword, and the manner in which it is worn  article WOMEN.  Certain parts of dress, also,
is correctly shewn. It would also appear that the  admit of separate consideration, such as the headJews had swords for such occasional uses (Matt. dress [TURBAN], and the dress of the feet [SANxxvi. 51; Luke xxii. 36).                    DALS].-J. K.
DRINK, STRONG.       [SHECHAR.]
DROMEDARY. [CAMEL.],I  i~~~              DRUSILLA (Aposo-XXa), youngest daughter of
i Aft,_S-Herod Agrippa I. She was much celebrated for
K /,fi' -.xher beauty, and was betrothed to Epiphanes, prince
of Commagene; but was afterwards married to
=L I. _         a    \\' <^.       Azizas, king of Emesa, whom the procurator Felix
-'-,~i,^),\           Byl l\\      induced her to abandon, in order to live with him.
\i I ^^~ ^AT \      f.\      She is mentioned in Acts xxiv. 24 (comp. Joseph.
/-^ X   \    ~1W /i^ y'   \~ll  Antiq. xix. 9. I; xx. 7. I, 2).-J. K.
Xi''! (w[X         DRUSIUS, JOHANNES, a celebrated oriental
l\<.;C l  li 1   and exegetical scholar, was born at Oudenarde,
I I- Ii FM)   3jISMlEast Flanders, 28th June I55o. At the age of
l, Is  l )JDfjuPgljten he was sent by his father to Ghent, to study
_ l  ~  l l.7-./  i  ^ Greek and Latin.   Three years afterwards he
went to Louvain. In I567 his father was obliged
___ X.I  _ -_ jct AJ)  {\,     to take refuge in England in consequence of his
religion; and the son followed him thither. Here
i V1 /'i       Drusius met with an excellent teacher of Hebrew,
_.^   A    t;-~ ---— who treated him kindly and took him to Cam_ -,~^^^ A^     bridge with him. When le Chevalier returned to
_.........- his native land, Drusius remained at Cambridge
for a time, whence he went back to London. In
224.                      1572 he became professor of the oriental languages
in Oxford, and after remaining there four years
The necessity of baring the arm for any kind of went to Louvain to study jurisprudence, which
exertion must be evident from the manner in which  place he soon left for London. In 1576 he reit is encumbered in all the dresses we have pro- turned to his native land. In I577 he became
duced. This action is often mentioned in Scrip- professor of the oriental languages at Leyden. In
ture, which alone proves that the arm was in ordi- 1585 he went to Franeker as professor of Hebrew,
nary circumstances similarly encumbered by the and died there, I616. Drusius was a very able
dress. For ordinary purposes a hasty tucking up  scholar, as well as an upright and conscientious
of the sleeve of the right arm suffices; but for a man. But his times were stormy. Theological
continued action special contrivances are necessary. disputes and acrimony prevailed.  Peace-loving
These are curious, as will be seen by the cut (No. as he was he had many enemies, who embittered
225). The full sleeves of the shirt are sometimes and disturbed the last sixteen years of his life.
drawn up by means of cords, which pass round   His fame was deservedly great, and attracted num



DUBNO                     707                DUDAIM
bers of young Protestants from most countries in that he would bring forth things new and old; and
Europe to hear his lectures. His principal work  he fully realized all such expectations.  His Heis his Annotations on the difficult parts of the 0. brew style is truly classical.  Shortly after his
T., which the States-General commissioned him  separation from  Mendelssohn, Dubno went to
to write, and for which they agreed to pay him an Amsterdam, where he died June 23, I813.annual sum, and to release him from the duties of C. D. G.
his professorship by providing a substitute. He
died before the work was completed.   Indeed    DUDAIM    (I?!PI). This word, in its plural
but a small portion was published in his life- form, only occurs in two places of Scripture,
time.  Commentarzi adloca difficiiora Pentateuchi Genesis xxx. I4-16, and Canticles vii. I3, in both
appeared at Franeker, I617, 4to; On Joshua, of which it is rendered by mandrakes. From the
Judges, and Samuel, I618, 4to; on the twelve above passages it is evident that the dudaim were
minor prophets, 1627; and on Job, I636. They  collected in the fields, that they were fit for gatherare all printed in the Critici Sacrz. He is also the  ing in the wheat harvest in Mesopotamia, where
author of A1phabetzl m Ebraiczm velns. Interp. exthe first occurrence took place; that they were
Hieronymo et Ensebio, etc., I587; Veterum inter- found in Palestine; that they or the plants which
pretnm  Gracorum  in totum vetis Testamentnm  yielded them diffused an odour, which Michaelis
fra6gmenta, I662, 4to; Annotationum  in totnm  paraphrases,'Jam  et somnifero odore, venerus
7esn Christi Testamentnm, sive preteritorum libri mandragoras;' and that they were supposed to be
decem, 4to, 1612; Ecclesiasticus Grace et Latine, possessed of aphrodisaic powers, or of assisting in
4to, I6oo; Liber Hasmnonaorum Grece et Latine, producing conception.
600o, 4to.-S. D.                                From this it is manifest that there is little to
DUBNO, SOLOMON B. YOEL.        This distin- guide us in determining what plant is alluded to at
guished poet, geographer, grammarian, and co-such early periods, especially as no similar name
mentator was born October I2, 1738, at Dubno, has been recognised in any of the cognate languages.
whence he derived his name.  Attracted by the Hence great diversities of opinion have been engreat reformation in Judeism  and in Hebrew   tertained respecting the plant and produce inliterature which had just then commenced in Ger- tended by the name dudaimz.  These Dr. Harris
many, under the leadership of the immortal Men- has thus summed up: (Interpreters have wasted
delssohn, Dubno left his native place early in life much time and pains  endeavouring to ascertain
for the birthplace of modern Judceism. Being a what is intended by the Hebrew word dudaim.
thorough master of the Massora, he betook himself Some translate it by'violet,' others'lilies,''jasat the age of 26 to the editing of a work on the
accents of Job, Proverbs, and the Psalms, written         -
by Solomon ben Moses, who, because he was successively chief Rabbi of Chelm, Lemberg, and. 
Salonika, is also called Salomo Chelmo, or Salomo''~'"-      A   l   -.
Lemberger, which Dubno published with notes in  i-                \ 
1765, under the title of W32' "31^, Portre _7ucun- l
ditatis, in Frankfort-on-the-Oder, of which a second  7 
edition appeared in I777.  The great object of  /.A      -   -.
promoting biblical literature, which both he and:-':   >-'
Mendelssohn had at heart, soon drew these two'R.       \    ( 
literati together, and in 1768 we find Dubno living    l             A      K ls
in the house of Mendelssohn, and writing a Com-                          {j 
mentary on the Pentateuch, which his colleague    ()                              x
was translating.  Ie, however, only wrote the
nDl.Wl FneN'I~D I'sInD, Commentary on
Genesis and Exodus, which was published in Berlin 
1781-1783, then again in Vienna I79I, 1806, etc.;
as he took some offence, and withdrew from the
work, which obliged Mendelssohn to solicit the help                    f\
of Hartwig, Weseley, Aaron Jaraslaw, and H. Hom-                    i 
berg, who finished the commentaryon the remaining
portions of the Pentateuch [MENDELSSOHN]. About
this time Dubno also wrote WS'ID lr' inltp,                    A 
a LMassoretic Commentary on Genesis and Exodus,
which was printed with Mendelssohn's translation               I-...
in 1831-33, and afterwards published the Geography\
of the Bible. His commentaries are distinguished                      \
for their brevity and good sense; they abound in
valuable linguistic remarks, Massoretic explana-          226. Atropa Mandragora.
tions, and geographical information, as may be seen
by a casual reference to any page.  It was to be mins,'' truffles or mushrooms;' and some think
expected that with his vast erudition, great inde- that the word means'flowers,' or'fine flowers.'
pendence of thought, and with a biblical library  Bochart, Calmet, and Sir Thomas Browne suppose
in his possession such as hardly ever fell to the lot the citron intended; Celsius is persuaded that it is
of a private student in those days (he had Io6 MSS., the fruit of the lote-Iree; Hiller that cherries are
and 2076 printed books, as may be seen from the spoken of; and Ludolf maintains that it is the
catalogue of his books printed in Amsterdam I814), fruit which the Syrians call'mauz' (that is the




DUDAIM                    708              DUKHIPHATH
plantain), resembling in figure and taste the Indian  exceedingly ruddy, and of a most agreeable odour;
fig; but the generality of interpreters and com- our guide thought us fools for suspecting it to be
mentators understand mandrakes, a species of unwholesome.    He ate it freely himself, and it is
melon, by dadaim.' Here, however, the author generally valued by the inhabitants as exhilarating
has confounded the melon' cutcumis dudaimz' with their spirits and a provocative to venery.' Maunthe mandrake or mandragora, adopted by the drell was informed by the chief priest of the
generality of authors. The grounds upon which  Samaritans that it was still noted for its genial
the mandragora has been preferred are, first,'The virtue. Hasselquist also seems inclined to consider
most ancient Greek translator interprets the Hebrew  it the dudaim, for, when at Nazareth, he says,
name in Gen. xxx. I4, by mandrake apples (,uiXa'what I found most remarkable in their villages
lcavppayop 3v); and in the Song of Solomon, by  was the great quantity of mandrakes that grew in
mandrakes, ol Luavppay6pat. Saadia's Onkelos and  a vale below it. The fruit was now (May 16) ripe.
the Syriac version agree with the Greek translators. From the season in which this mandrake blossoms
The first of these puts     laffach; the two  and ripens its fruit, one might form a conjecture
that it is Rachel's dudaim. These were brought
latter 1tnhV1  yabruchin; which names denote her in the wheat harvest, which in Galilee is in the
the same plant' (Rosenmiiller, Bib. Bot. p. I30,month of May, about this time, and the mandrake
and note). The earliest notice of -cavapayopas is was now in fruit.'
by Hippocrates,. and the next by Theophrastus   Considering therefore that the earliest translators
(Hist. Plant. vi. 2). Both of these C. Sprengel have given mandragora and Yabrokhim  as the
(Hist. Rei Herb. i. 38, 82) supposes, intend atropasynonymous names for dudaim, and that the root
mandragora. Dioscorides notices three kinds: I.and fruits of aro   mandragora have, from early
the female, which is supposed to be the mandragora times, been supposed to be possessed of the same
anutunalis of Berloton; 2. the male, mandragora properties which are ascribed to the dzudaim, there
vernalis of th     otanithe same              does not  appear to us anist (these two are, how-which has
ever, usually accounted varieties of atropa mandra-been yet adduced better entitled than it to stand
gora); 3. a kind called morion.  It has been  for the dudaim. But there does not exist sufficient
inferred that this may be the same as the mandra- collateral proof to confirm the selection by the
gora of Theophrastus, which, by some authors, has Greek translator of the mandragora as the dudaim,
been supposed to be atropa belladonna. To all of in preference to some other plants, which might be
these Dioscorides ascribes narcotic properties, and dduced, and to wich similar properties have fom
says of the first, that it is also called Circaca, because ancient times been ascribed.-J. F. R.
it appears to be a root which promotes venery.  DUKE. This word is from the Latin dux,'a
Pythagoras named the mandragora anthropomor- captain or leader,' from duco,'to lead.' It thus
phon, and Theophrastus, among other qualities, corresponds with tolerable exactness to the Hebrew
mentions its soporific powers, and also its tendency   all,, from         to'lead,''gude.'
to excite to love. Its fruits were called apples of TS    alluh, from  5s alap, to  ed,' gide.'
love, and Venus herself Mandragorites. But it is Ths word, allzc t, is usually rendered by'prince'
not easy to decide whether the above all refer toor'chief;' but by'duke' in Gen. xxxvi. I5-30,
the same plant or plants.                     where we find'dukes of Edom.' The translator
Persian authors on materia medica give man- was doubtless seduced by the identity of signification into the use of a modern title.-J. K.
dragoras as a synonyme for *.. yebrookh, or                                a   u        i!9-~..   X      DUKHIPHATH       (BD:.), an unclean bird
yabrooz, which is said to be the root of a plant of (Lev. xi. I9; Deut. xiv. I8). As the word does not
which the fruit is called. loofah. This, there occur except in these two passages, our means ot
identifying the bird whose name it is with any
is little doubt, must be the above atroa mandra- known species are very slender. The LXX. rengora, as the Arabs usually refer only to the plants dering is birop, the Vulg. zhpupa, and with these the
of Dioscorides, and, on this occasion, they quote Arab. agrees. The Targum makes it the Tetrao
him as well as Galen, and ascribe narcotic proper- Urogallus, or mountain-cock, a species of grouse.
ties to both the root and the fruit. D'Herbelot, There is no probability that it is the Lapwing,
under the article'Abrousanam,' details some of which is the rendering in the A. V. Bochart
the superstitious opinions respecting this plant, argues in favour of the rendering of the ancient
which originated in the East, but which continued versions, and with him most subsequent enquirers
for a long time to be retailed by authors in Europe. have agreed. According to him, the word is a
By the Arabs it is said to be called tufah-al- compound of 5'] or'11, cock, and  g3', rock; so
shieitan, or devil's apple; If we look to the works that the word means gallus rupis, or gallus monof more modem authors, we find a continuance of tanus; and he compares, in support of this, the exthe same statements. Thus Mariti, in his Travels planation of Hesychius, who calls the &roI cXeK(vol. ii. p. 195), says that the Arabs called the rpy6va dyptov, and the fact that AEschylus speaks
mandrake plant yabrochak, which is, no doubt, of it as rreTpaov 6pvtv (Frag. Incert. 23. 3). To
the same name as given above.'At the village of this etymology Gesenius inclines (Thes. in voc.);
St. John in the mountains, about six miles south- but Fiirst remarks that'the word is not yet suffiwest from Jerusalem, this plant is found at present, ciently explained, and the root may be Pp^, to
as well as in Tuscany. It grows low, like lettuce, bruise, to tear' (H. W. B., in voc.)
to which its leaves have a strong resemblance,' The hoopoe is not uncommon in Palestine at
except that they have a dark green colour. The this day, and was from remote ages a bird of
flowers are purple, and the root is for the most mystery. The summit of the augural rod is said
part forked. The fruit, when ripe, in the beginning to have been carved in the form of an hoopoe's
of May, is of the size and colour of a small apple, head; and one of the kind is still used by Indian




DULCIMER                   709                 DUNASH
gosseins, and even Armenian bishops, attention belly.' A tradition is found in Arab writers, and
being no doubt drawn to the bird by its peculiarly is preserved orally among the Bedawin, that it was
arranged black and white bars upon a delicate founded by Dumah, the son of Ishmael (Wallin in
vinous fawn-colour, and further embellished with a yournal of Geographical Society, vol. xxiv. I39,
beautiful fan-shaped crest of the same colour, tip- sq.) The town stands in a circular valley three
ped with white and black. Its appellations in all miles in diameter, and is surrounded by a ridge of
languages appear to be either imitations of the sandstone hills, which rise above it to the height of
bird's voice, or indications of its filthy habits; 500 ft. It contains a population of about 3000,
which, however, modern ornithologists deny, or do composed of emigrants from Syria, and settlers
not notice. In Egypt these birds are numerous; from several tribes of Bedawin. Almost the only
forming, probably, two species, the one perma- trace of antiquity appears to be the remains of a
nently resident about human habitations, the other castle, built of massive stones. The gardens and
migratory, and the same that visits Europe. The orchards which fill the valley are very productive.
latter wades in the mud when the Nile has sub- There can be little doubt that this is the Dumah o
sided, and seeks for worms and insects; and the the Bible. It is called Dumat el-Jandal to distinguish it from a Dumah in Irak, and another in the
plain of Damascus.
2. A town in the mountains of Judah. In the
4~~? ^Sept., Syr., and Vul. it is written Ruma ('Povuid).
1) I~ | s]~~Eusebius describes it as a large village in Darom,
/   k                                belonging to the territory of Eleutheropolis, and
seventeen miles from that city; but he does not say
in what direction. Van de Velde would identify it
X\.N^^ If^^^^^^^with a small village called Daumah about five
miles south by west of Hebron; this, however,
would not agree with Eusebius, and requires confirmation.-J. L. P.
I                   |.' -.  ~   DUNASH = ADONIM BEN LABRAT or LIBRAT
(L —B,( ) HA-LEVI, who is called by the GermanoFrench writers (e. g. Rashi, Cara, etc.) Dunash,
227. Hoopoe.                 and by the Italian school (e. g., Ibn Ezra, Kimchi,
etc.), is denominated R. Adonim, was one of the
former is known to rear its young so much irm-etc.), is denominated R. donim, was one of the
mersed in the shards and fragments of beetles, earliest Jewish philologists, whose writings greatly
mersed in the shards and fragments of beetles,
etc., as to cause a disagreeable smell about its ifluenced  he develme  of Hebrew lexiconest, which is always in holes or in hollow trees. graphy and biblical exegesis.  e  was born in
Though an unclean bird in the Hebrewlaw, the Bagdad about 920 A.D., lived at Fez, and died
common migratory hoopoe is eaten in Egypt, andabout 980. This profod Hebrat and charmsometimes also in Italy; but the stationary species ing poet was the first who introduced the Arabic
is considered inedible. It is unnecessary to givemetre mto the modern Hebrew poetry in Spain and
further description of a bird so well known as theamong the Rabbinists, and was so highly esteemed
further description of a bird so well known as the for his great knowledge that he was appointed
hoopoe, which, though not common, is neverthe- teacher of a large number of young men when
less an annual visitant of England, arriving soon              n   e              en   en
after the cuckoo.'-[C. H. S.] W. L. A.       only thirty years of age.  Being independent
in circumstances, he prosecuted his lingual and
DULCIMER. [MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.]           biblical researches, and published the results withDUMAH     (n1i t; Sept. Aovuid,'Iov/ud). A  out fearing or caring how they would be regarded,~T'S r'''       by his co-religionists. Dunash's important contrison of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 14; I Chron. i. 30). butions to lexicography and exegesis are contained
It is probable that he was the founder of a tribe of in his polemical works which he wrote both
Ishmaelite Arabs which had its head quarters in against Saadia Gaon [SAADIA] and Menachem ben
the district called Dumah [DUMAH], where may  Saruk. [MENACHEM.] Though he was a friend,
have been a town of which he was the founder, or and had most probably also been a pupil of Saadia,
which was so named in honour of him by his Dunash wrote elaborate and severe strictures on
posterity.                                   his grammatical and exegetical works which the
DUMAH (T71n; * Sept.'o'tuata). The name unsparing critic put forth in a volume entitled  itD
DUMAH T (;r11 Sep.I3InI the book of animadversions. This book
of the country colonized by the posterity of Dumah, has become a prey to time, but the celebrated Ibn
the son of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 14-I6). No indica- Ezra, who espoused the cause and became the
tion is given either in Genesis or Chronicles (I champion of Saadia, has preserved parts of it in
Chron. i. 30) of its position. In Is. xxi. I, Dumah his work called 1n  lw), which, in their present
is mentioned in such a way as to shew that it was form, consist of one hundred and sixty-one numclosely connected in its position and in its doom  bers or articles, and contain strictures on Saadia's
with Seir or Edom. There is no other reference grammatical as well as exegetical productions.
to it in Scripture or in ancient authors.    Dunash's criticisms are full of valuable matter, and
In the midst of the Arabian desert, about 240 shew  that he understood more thoroughly the
geographical miles due east of Petra, is an ancient science of grammar, and had a better idea of the
town, to which all Arab geographers give the name formation of the verb than Saadia.
Dumah or Daumah (I<) )      though it is now,  Dunash's second work is also of a polemical
Du)O                     toghi'  o,  nature and consists of a minute examination of
from the peculiarity of its site, called el-7auf,' the Menachem ben Saruk's Hebrew Lexicon. It con



DUNASH                    710                  DUNG
sists of one hundred and sixty articles, in which  contributed to the development of Hebrew lexicohe criticises Menachem's lexicon in alphabetical graphy, as is evident from the fact that he is quoted
order, and every article concludes with some terse by the first expositors. He was the first who mainremark or saying in rhyme. These articles extend tained that the Hebrew language has diminutives
over nearly the whole field of grammar and Bibli- which are effected by the terminations ji and \l' adcal exegesis, and contain very important contribu- ducing as an instance lB'nt, 2 Sam. xiii. 20.
tions to Hebrew lexicography and to the exposition            r 
of thi1~ 0. -T.  Dunely    l     Ewald in his Hebrew grammar, c. I67, espouses
of thb 0. T. Dunash, I. Properly distinguishes this opinion, whilst Ibn Ezra, who quotes Dunash's
between adverbs (tJt[O  nlO) and verbs, and interpretation of Eccl. xii. 5, disputes altogether
says that the former are unalterable, and no verbs the existence of diminutives in Hebrew. Another
can be formed from them. (Comp. art. iTf, l   of Dunash's interpretations is quoted by Ibn Ezra
1il'nl). 2. He gives grammatical rules how to  on Gen. xxxviii. 9. Comp. Dukes, Literarlische
distinguish the servile letters of verbs from nouns Mitheilungen u. s. w., Stuttgart, I844, p. II6;
of a similar form (comp. art. p1t31). 3. He points Munk, Notice sur Aboulialid, p. 43-60; Graetz,
out the proper construction of some verbs (comp. Geschichte, v. p. 350.-C. D. G.
art. r;YI). 4. He shews how the Chaldee and
Arabic may be advantageously used in the explana- DUNCAN, ROBERT, bor 1699, and ordained
tion of Hebrew words (comp. art. %n5D, lnU1 minister of the parish of Tillicoultry 1728, where he
nW1). 5. In more than four and twenty different ed  the following year. His Exosition of the
verses his explanations depart from the present Epzslae to the ebrefs was published m 1731. It
is a simple but useful work, consisting of a running
Masoretic text, and it must be confessed that hiss a imple but u l work   onsisting of a running
explanations yield a better sense (comp. Unn^ n comment, never at any great length, on the whole
50, 6; 59; 81: Ibn Ezra's )ens  l nW   o17-II7; epistle, verse by verse. He follows very much in
120, 122). The influence which Dunash exercisedt  wake of Owen, and may be sad to possess
over grammarians and expositors of the Bible may  three excellences as a commentator;-his views
be seen from the fact that he is constantly quoted  are sound and judicious, his diction is perspicuous
by the principal lexicographers and commentators and correct, and the comment, in respect of amount,
of both the Germano-French (comp. Rashi Exod. is well-proportioned to the importance of the pasxxviii. 28; Num. xi. 8; Is. xxvii. I I; Eccl. xii. I, sages expounded.-W. H. G.
etc.; Joseph Cara on Hos. ii. 9; viii. 6; xiii. 7,  DUNG. [This word represents severalwords in
etc.) and Spanish schools (comp. Ibn Ezra on Ps.                 and 
ix. I; xlii. 5, etc.; Kimchi, Lex. under'lo, pD, the original-.  and    properly a ball or:IX, nI). That which has survived of Dunash's roll of dung, from i.5, to roll; used of a heap of
work against Saadia is contained in 2Ibn Ezra's lw,. /work against Saadia is contained in Ibn Ezra's lW  dung (i Kings xiv. Io); of dung generally (Zeph.
n2F published with a critical commentary and in- 
troduction by Lippman, and preface by Jost. i I7); of the human excrement specially (Job
Frankfort-on-M., 1843. His work against Mena- xx. 7; Ez. iv. 12).  2. n., used properly of
chem ben Saruk entitled tn31': i21p 1 W nfnln t  1Dmanure (2 Kings ix. 37; Ps. lxxxiii. i; Jer.
has been published, with notes by H. Filipowski, viii. 2; ix. 22). 3. Dt1M, used only in the pluthe editor, as well as remarks by Leopold Dukes                                  (   in
b o the H wAntiquarian So-'ral, and only of the human excrement (2 Kings
and R. Kircheim, by the Hebrew Antiquaan           27; I.    xxvi. 2)   4., properly
ciety, London and Edinburgh, 1855.    Comp.                                           r
Dukes, Literarische Mittheilungen ueber die aelles- sweepings (Sept. Ko7rpia, Is. v. 25).  5. V,il,
ten hebraischen Exegeten Grammatiker und Lexico- used only of the unvoided dung of the sacrifices
graphen, Stuttgart, 1844, P. 149, etc.; Steinschnei- (Exod. xxix. 14; Lev. iv. II; viii. 17; Num.
der, Catalogus Librorum Hebreorum in Bibliotheca xix. 5; Mal. ii. 3). 6. DW:3EY, used only in the
Bodleiana, col. 897, etc.; Pinker, Lickute Ziadmoniot, p. 66, and notes, p. 157, etc. Graetz, plural from lY, to thrust out; used of cow's dung
Geschichte der?uden, v. 377, etc.-C. D. G.  (Ez. iv. I5)  7. XK6paXa (Phil. iii. 8), properly
refise (see Gataker, Advers. Miscell. ch. 43). The
DUNASH = ADONIM BEN. TAMIM, the Baby- third of these terms seems to have become offensive
lonian, was born at Irak about 900 A.D., and died to the Jews, as in the places where it occurs, there
about 960. He was educated when a youth at is a K'ri substituting a more refined expression.]
Kairwan, by the celebrated Isaac Israeli, who in-  Among the Israelites, as with the modern Oristructed him in metaphysics, medicine, and philo- entals, dung was used both for manure and for
logy. He distinguished himself in his studies at fuel. In a district where wood is scarce, dung is
such an early period that he was enabled to write so valuable for the latter purpose, that little of it
a very elaborate critique on Saadia's works at the is spared for the former.
age of twenty. Dunash even became master of     [In preparing the dung for manure, it was colthe whole cycle of sciences of that day, and was the lected in heaps, and straw seems to have been
representative of Jewish literature in the Fatimite trodden amongst the more liquid portions of it for
dominion. He wrote works on medicine, astro- the purpose of absorbing the liquid (Is. xxv. Io,
nomy, and on the Indian arithmetic which had where ri~Tn1   c1t means,'in the water of (i.e.,
then just been introduced, as well as treatises on flowing from) the dung heap'). Heaps of manure
Hebrew grammar, in which he traced the analogies seem also to have been formed outside the gate of
between the Hebrew and Arabic linguistic pheno- the town or city (comp. the dung-gate of Jerusamena, and a commentary on the Book of Creation, lem, Neh. ii. 13), composed probably of the
as Saadia's work on it did not satisfy him. Though  sweepings of the streets, and the refuse of the
his grammatical and exegeticalworks are still buried houses.] Some of the regulations connected with
somewhere, yet there is no doubt that he greatly this use of dung we learn from the Talmud. The




DUNGEON                    711                 DURHAM
heaping up of a dunghill in a public place exposed 8vo, I688, et sqq.; reprinted in 2I vols. 4to.
the owner to the repair of any damage it might To this may be added a continuation by Gouget,
occasion, and any one was at liberty to take it containing the I8th century, 3 vols. 8vo. The
away (Bava-kama, i. 3. 3). Another regulation plan of this work is excellent, and the author's
forbade the accumulation of the dung-hill to be judgments generally just and impartial. Mistakes
removed, in the seventh or sabbatic year, to the and marks of haste are numerous.  In biblical
vicinity of any ground under culture (Sabb. iii. I), literature he produced Liberpsalmorum, cum notis
which was equivalent to an interdiction of the use quibus eorum sensus litteralis exprimitur, I691,
of manure in that year; and this must have occa- 8vo; Le livre de psaumes traduits selon l'hebreu,
sioned some increase of labour in the year ensuing. I69I and I7o1, I2mo; Notce in Pentateuchunz,
The use of dung for fuel is collected incidentally  I70I, 8vo.  He published many other works,
from the passage in which the prophet Ezekiel, theological and not theological; and edited the
being commanded, as a symbolical action, to bake writings of Gerson, Chancellor of Paris, as well as
his bread with human dung, excuses himself from  those of Optatus of Milevi.-S. D.
the use of an unclean thing, and is permitted to  D A         Se. A             in 
employ cows' dung instead (Ezek. iv. 12-15).   DURA            e     e     a          the
This shews that the dung of animals, at least of province of Babylon where Nebuchadnezzar set up
clean animals, was usual, and that no ideas of his golden image (Dan. iii. I). The word means
ceremonial uncleanness were attached to its em-'a plain' or' circuit'; and it would seem from the
ployment for this purpose. The use of cow-dung narrative in Daniel that it was not far distant from
for fuel is known to our own villagers, who, at Babylon. There is a spacious plain still called
least in the west of England, prefer it in baking Dura on the left bank of the Tigris, about 70 geotheir bread'under the crock,' on account of the graphical miles north of Bagdad; but, as it is at
long-continued and equable heat which it main- least 120 miles distant from  Babylon, it could
tains. It is there also not unusual in a summer scarcely be that referred to in the Scriptures.
evening to see aged people traversing the green Another Dura is mentioned by Polybius (v. 48) as
lanes with baskets to collect the cakes of cow- situated on the Euphrates, near the mouth of the
dung which have dried upon the road. This helps river Chaboras, but it is also too far distant. The
out the ordinary fire of wood, and makes it burn true site of Dura must be sought in the neighbourlonger. In many thinly-wooded parts of south- hood of Babylon (Layard, Nineveh and Babylon
western Asia the dung of cows, camels, horses, 469, sq.)-J. L. P.
asses, whichever may happen to be the most com-  DURELL, DAVID. An Englishdivine, born
mon, is collected with great zeal and diligence i  8, in Jersey. He was eduted at   orn
from the streets and highways, chiefly by young a in  17728, in  e    cial o Hertd at Oxfor
girls. They also hover on the skirts of the en- ad in 757 became principal of Hertford College.
campments of travellers, and there are often amus-He blsed  I7    a w    c     T    ere
ing scrambles among them for the droppings of the  extof te parale propecs of Jacb ad Moses
cattle. The dung is mixed up with chopped straw, reating to the twelv tribes, with a translation and
and made into cakes, which are stuck up by their notes, and te various readings of near 40 MSS.
own adhesiveness against the walls of the cottages,To which are added-I. The Samaritan Arabic
or are laid upon the declivity of a hill, until suffi- version f  tose assages, andartofanother Arabic
ciently dried. It is not unusual to see a whole which have been ad efrom te prmarian text, net  f
wh-ich have beenA beSbt2e printed. 2. t map of the
village with its walls thus garnished, which has a                             map of the
singular and not very agreeable appearance to a land  f promise. 3. An appendix, containingfour
European traveller. Towards the end of autumn, dissertations on points connected with the subjects oJ
these prophecies. Oxford, 4to. In I772, he pubthe result of the summer collection of fuel for win- tlihed another work ofoidr, lto. In,  he cad
ter is shewn in large conical heaps or stacks of dried  rished another work of consrabl of  larnioal, call
dung upon the top of every cottage. The usages clesias em, arn s on ties. Oxford b, Pa In the pefesiasiesui, anndcCanties.  Oxford,l to.  In the  preof the Jews in this matter were probably similar in  ace o this w   he argues for a  new translation o
Kind,~ although the extent to which they prevailed face to this work he argues for a new translation of
kind, although the extent to which they prevailed the Bible. He died in 1775.-H. W.
catnnoh now be etim. ws Ka       the Bible. He died in I775. H. W.
cannot now be estimated.-J. K.
DURHAM, JAMES, born 1622, ordained to the
DUNGEON. [PRISON.]                         ministry in Blackfriar's Church, Glasgow, i647,
DUPIN, Louis ELLIES, a distinguished French and appointed professor of divinity in the university
writer, was born on the I7th June I657, at Paris. of the same city in i650. He could not enter on
After studying in the College of Harcourt at a the discharge of this office, however, as he had to
very early age, he entered the Sorbonne with a attend the king in the capacity of royal chaplain.
view to the ecclesiastical profession; devoted him- Ultimately he was settled as one of the ministers of
self there to the study of the ecclesiastical writers Glasgow, where he died in i658.
of antiquity, and became lecturer on moral philo-  Though cut off by death after so brief a course
sophy in the University of Paris. His life was a on earth, Durham has left several works behind
troubled one. He died at Paris, June 6th, I7I9, him which amply vindicate the esteem in which he
at the age of 62. Dupin was a good theologian, was held as a divine. His expository works area laborious and learned writer.  His spirit was An exposition of the book of ob, I659, I2mo; Clagood and moderate in religious matters; his vis Can/ici, oran exposition of the Song of Solomon,
sentiments in advance of his church. But he had  i669, 4to; A commentary on the book of Revelation,
a flexibility in retracting obnoxious sentiments i660, 4to; The law unsealed, or an exposition of the
which cannot be justified. His principal work is Ten Commandments, I675, 4to; and to these may
Vouvelle Bibliotheque des auteurs ecclesiastiques, be added, Christ Crucifed, or the marrow of the
contenant l'historie de- leur vie, le catalogue, la  Gospel evidently setforth in 72 sermons on Is. liii.,
critique, la chronologie de leurs ouvrages, 43 vols. I683. The last work was republished in 1792,




DUST                     712               EAR-RINGS
with a strong recommendation prefixed to it by  assurance of paying the remainder, part of the price
various divines, among whom appear such well- of anything paid beforehand to confirm the bargain
known names as Ridgeley, Watts, Wilcox, and   between buyer and seller, part of a servant's wages
Bradbury.   On the principle of interpretation  paid at the time of hiring for the purpose of ratifying
adopted, no commentary on the Song of Solomon  the engagement on both sides. The idea that the
yet exceeds in value that of Durham. The preli- earnest is either to be returned upon the fulfilment
minary discussion on the nature and scope of the of the engagement, or to be considered as part of
book is shrewd and sensible, while the exposition  the stipulation, is also included. The word is used
itself is characterized at once by sobriety of tone three times in the N. T., but always in a figurative
and depth of evangelical feeling. The allegory is sense; in the first (2 Cor. i. 22), it is applied to the
pursued to the utmost minuteness of the figure, but gfts of the Holy Spirit, which God bestowed upon
the whole is briefly given, and the spiritual instruc- the apostles, and by which He might be said to have
tion of the reader is not sacrificed to the enforce- hired them to be the servants of his Son, and which
ment of a mere conceit. In the commentary on were the earnest, assurance, and commencement
the Revelation, the details of the interpretation  of those far superior blessings which He would beare loosely stated, but a great amount of practi- stow on them in the life to come as the wages of
cal instruction is elicited from every part of the theirfaithful services; in the two latter (2 Cor. v.
book. Generally, under the seals he treats of 5; Eph. i. I3, I4), it is applied to the gifts bethe early persecutions to which the church of stowed on Christians generally, upon whom, after
Christ was subjected; under the trumpets he finds baptism, the Apostles had laid their hands, and
the early heresies which corrupted the simplicity of which were to them an earnest of obtaining an
the faith, and which reached their consummation in heavenly habitation and inheritance, upon the supthe great antichristian apostacy of Rome; and un- position of their fidelity.  This use of the term
der the vials he holds that the downfall of the finely illustrates the augmented powers and addiRomish antichrist is predicted. Passages of con- tional capacities promised in a future state. Jerome,
siderable power occur in the writings of this author, in his comment on the second passage exclaims, Si
and though some of his works have been more than arrhabo tantus, quanta erit possessio;' If the
once republished, it may be questioned if Durham  earnest was so great, how great must be the poshas been appreciated to the extent he deserves. session.' See Kypke, Macknight, and Middleton
Dr. Owen speaks in warm terms of his Law un- on these passages. Le Moyne, Not. ad Var. Sacr.,
sealed as'a complete Christian directory in our pp. 460-80.-J. F. D.
walking before God in all the duties of obedience.' EAR-RINGS. No custom is more ancient or
~-~~W. r~H~. uG.                 universal than that of wearing ear-rings, from which
DUST. For storms of dust, etc., see STORM; it would appear to be a very natural idea to attach
for throwing dust on the head, see MOURNING.  such an ornament to the pendulous lobe of the
ear. There are two words in Hebrew denoting
ear-rings, viz., 4.Vl agil, which is applied to any
kind of ring, particularly to ear-rings (Num. xxxi.
E.                       50; Ezek. xvi. 12). The name implies roundness,
and it is a fact that nearly all the ancient ear-rings
EAGLE. [NESHER.]                            exhibited in the sculptures of Egypt and Persepolis
are of a circular shape.  The other word is ntB
EARING    (wnf; Sept. aporplaats), the time nezem, and, as this word is also applied to a noseof ploughing (Gen. xlv. 6; Ex. xxxiv. 2I). The jewel, we may suppose that it was a kind of earverb to ear (Vtnh) is also used (I Sam. viii. I2; ring, different from the round'agil,' and more
Deut. xxi. 4; Is. xxx. 24). So Shakespeare says similar to the nose-jewel.  It most certainly de-'to ear the land that has some hopes to grow' notes an ear-ring in Gen. xxxv. 4, but in Gen. xxiv.
(Richard 1I. iii. 2).  The root ar is one of wide 47; Prov. xi. 22; Is. iii. 21, it signifies a noseuse in all the Indo-European languages (see Miller, jewel, and it is doubtful which of the two is inScience of Language, p. 239). It may be doubted, tended in Judg. viii. 24, 25; Job xlii. II. Earhowever, whether the Semitic n' has the slightest rings of certain kinds were anciently, and are still
affinity with this.-W. L. A.                  in the East instruments or appendages of idolatry
EARNEST.'Aav is e    y the Hebrew  and superstition, being regarded as talismans and
EARNEST  pa^is evidently 1- 1 amulets.  Such probably were the ear-rings of
13mn in Greek characters. With a slight altera-   es.          o        r     the e rng
iT2 in Greek characters. With a slight altera- Jacob's family, which he buried with the strange
tion in the letters, but with none whatever in the gods at Bethel (Gen. xxxv. 4).
sense, it becomes the Latin arrhabo, contr. arrha;  No conclusion can be formed as to the shape of
French arres; English earles and earnest. These the Hebrew ear-rings, except from the signification
three words occur in the Hebrew, Septuagint, and  of the words employed, and from the analogy of
Vulgate in Gen. xxxviii. 17, I8, and in ver. 20, similar ornaments in ancient sculpture.  Those
with the exception that the Vulgate there changes worn by the Egyptian ladies were large, round,
it to pignus. The use of these words in this pas- single hoops of gold, from one inch and a half to
sage clearly illustrates their general import, which  two inches and one-third in diameter, and frequentis, that of an earnest or pledge, given and received, ly of still greater size, or made of six single rings
to assure the fulfilment of an engagement. Hesy- soldered together. Such, probably, was the round
chius explains appa/Pbv by 7rp66ota, somewhat'agil' of the Hebrews. Among persons of high
given beforehand.  This idea attaches to all the or royal rank the ornament was sometimes in the
particular applications of the word, as anything  shape of an asp, whose body was of gold, set with
given by way of warrant or security for the per- precious stones [AMULETS].  Silver ear-rings have
formance of a promise, part of a debt paid as an  also teen found at Thebes, either plain hoops like




EARTH                     713              EARTHQUAKE
the ear-rings of gold, or simple studs.  The require to be discriminated.  I.'The earth' demodern Oriental ear-rings are more usually jewel- notes'the inhabitants of the earth' (Gen. vi. I;
led drops or pendents than circlets of gold. But xi. I). 2. Heathen countries, as distinguished from
the writer has seen a small round plate of silver or the land of Israel, especially during the theocracy;
gold suspended from a small ring inserted into the i.e., all the rest of the world excepting Israel (2
ear. This circular plate (about the size of a half- Kings xviii. 25; 2 Chron. xiii. 9, etc.) 3. In the
penny) is either marked with fanciful figures or set N. T. especially,'the earth' appears in the A. V.
with small stones.  It is the same kind of thing as applied to the land of Judaea. As in many of
which, in that country (Mesopotamia), is worn as these passages it might seem as if the habitable
a nose-jewel, and in it we perhaps find the Hebrew  globe were intended, the use of so ambiguous a
ear-ring, which is denoted by the same word that term as'the earth' should have been avoided, and
describes a nose-jewel.                       the original rendered by'the land,' as in Lev.
The use of ear-rings appears to have been con- xxv. 23; Is. x. 23, and elsewhere. This is the
fined to the women among the Hebrews. That sense which the original bears in Matt. xxiii. 35;
they were not worn by men is implied in Judg. xxvii. 45; Mark xv. 33; Luke iv. 25; xxi. 23;
Rom. ix. 28; James v. I7. For the cosmological.-f/-                          N-        uses of the term, see GEOGRAPHY.
EARTHENWARE. [POTTERY.]
1AIW          V  V     AI    7 X (         EARTHQUAKE (_y3). There is good rea— I 1-^'- son for holding that earthquakes are closely con""1`il~~~~~ \nected with volcanic agency. Both probably spring
from the same cause; and may be regarded as one
mighty influence operating to somewhat dissimilar
~/~,/// 7-~;..  \t           results. Volcanic agency, therefore, is an indica@W At Gi^?*  I  fl(~ ~I tion of earthquakes, and traces of the first may be, <i.   Q  a (  T  taken as indications of the existence (either present
_/  Id:>       L  " —- ~               or past, actual or possible) of the latter.
Syria and Palestine abound in volcanic appearf/~~~ —-s^~~~~ _ances. Between the river Jordan and Damascus
A/^^==-^    EP    /'~  <3c 5         lies a volcanic tract. The entire country about the
)| At^^  \  (Dead Sea presents indubitable tokens of volcanic
/-.. A:/,, i y^(jagency. Accordingly these countries have not un/7;a  4~ X          r;      ~I!? w     frequently been subject to earthquakes. The first
visitation of the kind, recorded to have happened
to Palestine, was in the reign of Ahab (B.C. 918228.                      897), when Elijah (I Kings xix. 1, 12) was
directed to go forth and stand upon the mountain
viii. 24, where gold ear-rings are mentioned as dis- before Jehovah:'and behold Jehovah passed by,
tinctive of the Ishmaelite tribes.*  The men of and a great and strong wind rent the mountains,
Egypt also abstained from the use of ear-rings; and brake in pieces the rocks before Jehovah; but
but how extensively they were worn by men in Jehovah was not in the wind; and after the wind
other nations is shewn by the annexed group of an earthquake; but Jehovah was not in the earthheads of different foreigners, collected from the  quake: and after the earthquake, a fire; but JeEgyptian monuments.    By this also the usual hovah was not in the fire; and after the fire a still
forms of the most ancient ornaments of this de- small voice.' A terrible earthquake took place' in
scription are sufficiently displayed.-J. K.   the days of Uzziah, king of Judah' (B.c. 8II-759),
which Josephus (Antiq. ix. 10. 4) says,' shook the
EARTH. There are two words in Hebrew ground, and a rent was made in the Temple, so
which are translated sometimes by earth, and  that the rays of the sun shone through it, which,
sometimes by land. These are r'n eretz, and   falling upon the king's face, struck him with the
nDUt adamah, both of which are rendered by leprosy,' a punishment which the historian ascribes
y7t in the Septuagint, and by'earth,''land,' tothewrath of God consequent on Uzziah's usurpa-' ground,' in the A. V. The word adama, how- tion of the priest's office. That this earthquake
ever, is applied chiefly to the very substance of the was of an awful character, may be learnt from the
earth, as soil, ground, clay, although sometimes fact that Zechariah (xiv. 5) thus speaks respecting
denoting a region, land, or country; whereas eretz it-' Ye shall flee as ye fled from before the earthmore generally denotes the surface of the earth, quake in the days of Uzziah, king of udah:' and
and is hence, in the earlier parts of the Bible, op- also that it appears from Amos (i. ) that the event
posed to n5^W shamayim,'the heavens.'        was so striking, and left such deep impressions on
Besides the ordinary senses of the word or words men's minds, that it became a sort of epoch from
rendered  earth' in our translation-namely, as de- which to date and reckon; the prophet's words are
noting mould, the surface of the earth, and the ter-  two years before the earthquake.'
restrial globe-there are others in Scripture which  That earthquaes were among the extraordinary
phenomena of Palestine in ancient times is shewn
* [The statement here referred to, however, is in their being an element in the poetical imagery of
not conclusive on this point, for it may have been  the Hebrews, and a source of religious admonition
the golden ear-ring, and not the mere ornament and devout emotion. In Ps. xviii. 7, we read,
itself, that distinguished the Ishmaelites; see Ber-' Then the earth shook and trembled; the foundatheau in loc.]                                tions also of the hills moved and were shaken, be



EARTHQUAKE                    714                   EAST
cause he was wroth' (comp. Hab. iii. 6; Nab. i. ciples of Geology, i. 400) enumerates sudden gusts
5; Is. v. 25). It was not an unnatural transition  of wind, interrupted by dead calms, evolution of
that any signal display of the will, sovereignty, or electric matter, or of inflammable gas, from the soil,
goodness of Providence, should be foretold in con- with sulphureous and mephitic vapours; a reddennection with, and accompanied as by other signs in ing of the sun's disk and a haziness in the air often
the heavens above or on the earth below, so by  continued for months (Joel ii. 30, 3I).
earthquakes and their fearful concomitants (see  An earthquake devastated Judaea some years (31)
Joel ii. 28; Matt. xxiv. 7, 29). The only earth- before the birth of our Lord, at the time of the
quake mentioned in the N. T. is that which hap- battle of Actium, which Josephus (Antiq. xv. 52)
pened at the crucifixion of the Saviour of mankind  reports was such'as had not happened at any
(Matt. xxvii. 50, 5I; Luke xxiii. 44, 45; Mark xv. other time, which brought great destruction upon
33). This darkness has been misunderstood, and  the cattle in that country.  About ten thousand
then turned to the prejudice of Christianity [DARK- men also perished by the fall of houses.' Jerome
NESS]. The obscuration was obviously an atten- writes of an earthquake which, in the time of his
dant on the earthquake.  Earthquakes are not sel- childhood (about A.D. 315), destroyed Rabbath
dom attended by accompaniments which obscure Moab (Jerome on Is. xv.) The writers of the
the light of day during (as in this case from the middle ages also speak of earthquakes in Palestine,
sixth to the ninth hour, that is, from twelve o'clock  stating that they were not only formidable, but freat noon to three o'clock P.M.) several hours. If quent. In 1834 an earthquake shook Jerusalem,
this is the fact, then the record is consistent with  and injured the chapel of the nativity at Bethlehem.
natural phenomena, and the darkness which sceptics As late as the year 1836 (Jan. I) Jerusalem and its
have pleaded against speaks actually in favour of vicinity were visited by severe shocks of earththe credibility of the Gospel.  Now it is well quake, yet the city remains without serious injury
known to naturalists that such obscurations are by from these subterranean causes.-J. R. B.
no means uncommon. It may be enough to give
the following instances. A very remarkable vol-  EAST. This is the rendering in the A. V. of two
canic eruption took place on the I9th of January  Hebrew words MtrI and 1111, and of the Greek
I835, in the volcano of Cosegiina, situated in the  varoXV avaroXal. 
Bay of Fonseca (usually called the Coast of Con-  I. aro  properly denotes the sun-rising, from
chagua), in Central America. The eruption was Mtl'. It is used tropically for the east indefinitely
preceded by a rumbling noise, accompanied by a  (Ps. iii. I2; Dan. viii. 9; Am. viii. 12, etc.); also
column of smoke which issued from the mountain, definitely, for some place in relation to others, thus
increasing until it assumed the form and appearance -' The land of the east,' i.e., the country lying to
of a large dense cloud, which, when viewed at the the east of Syria, the Elymais (Zech. viii. 7);'the
distance of thirty miles, appeared like an immense east ot Jericho' (Josh. iv. 19);'the east gate' (Neh.
plume of feathers, rising with considerable velocity,  and adverbially'eastward (i Chron. vii.
and expanding in every direction. In the course of 28  i. 24, etc.) Sometimes the full expression
the two following days several shocks of earth- ty I is used (indefinitely, Is. xli. 25; definitely,
quakes were felt; the morning of the 22d rose fine Judg. xi. 18).
and clear, but a dense cloud of a pyramidal form  2. MIp properly means what is infront of, before
was observed in the direction of the volcano. This  comp. Ps c x. 5; Is. ix.     ). As the
gradually ascended, and by eleven o'clock A.M.it  C    PS,  XXi  5   S. 1X. II [12]). As the
gradually ascended, and by eleven o'clock A.M. it Hebrews, in pointing out the quarters, looked tohad spread over the whole firmament, entirely ob-wards the east, Dp came to signify the east,
scuring the light of day, the darkness equalling in as  beind, the west, and ts, the right hand,
intensity that of the most clouded night: this dark- the south. In this sense it is used (a) indefinitely,
ness continued with little intermission for three Gen xi. 2; iii. I, etc.; (b) relatively, Num.
days; during the whole time a fine black powder xxxiv. I, etc.; (c) definitely, to denote the regions
continued to fall.  This darkness extended over lying to the east of Palestine (Gen. xxix.; Num.
half of Central America. The convulsion was such  xxiiiy; totheIast o   sometimes in the full form,
as to change the outline of the coast, turn the'rna (Gen. xxv. 6), the inhabitants of which are
course of a river, and form two new islands. Pre- denominated DIp  [BENEI KEDEM]. In Is.
cisely analogous phenomena were exhibited on oc-., the house ofacob is said to be  replenished
casions of earthquakes that took place at Cartago,,   
in Central America, when there prevailed a dense from the east' (nipjD'1]D), which some explain
black fog, which lasted for three days (Recreations as referring to witchcraft, or the arts of divination
in Physical Geography, p. 382).               practised in the East, while others, with greater
In the case of the volcanic eruption which over- probability, understand it of the men of the East,
whelmed Herculaneum and Pompeii (A.D. 79), we the diviners and soothsayers who came from the
learn from the younger Pliny that a dense column  east.  There seems no reason for altering the
of vapour was first seen rising vertically from Vesu- reading to DDpD, as suggested by Brentius.
vius, and then spreading itself out laterally, so that  3.'AvaroX?. This word usually occurs in the
its upper portion resembled the head, and its lower plural, and without the article. When, therefore,
the trunk of a pine. This black cloud was pierced we read, as in Matt. ii. I, 2, that'/uc^yot dcirb dvaoccasionally by flashes of fire as vivid as lightning, roX\v came to Jerusalem saying we have seen his
succeeded by darkness more profound than night, star &v o advaroX\,' we are led to suspect some
and ashes fell even at Misenum. These appear- special reason for such a variation. The former
ances agree perfectly with those witnessed in more phrase is naturally rendered as equivalent to Orirecent eruptions, especially those of Monte Nuovo  ental Magi, and the indefinite expression is to
in 1538, and Vesuvius in 1822. Indeed earth- be explained by reference to the use of b1p in
quakes appear to exert a very marked influence on  the 0. T. The latter phrase offers greater diffiour atmosphere: among other effects Lyell (Prin- culty. If it be taken=' in the east,' the questions




EAST WIND                   715                   EBAL
arise, why the singular and not the customary plural fully explored as Gerizim. It does not possess so
should be used? why the article should be added? much of interest for the traveller or the antiquary.
and why the wise men should have seen the star in Bartlett went up it from Nabulus, and passed the
the east when the place where the child was lay to small wely, or tomb, of Sitty Salamiyeh, from
the west of their locality (for that e v r acvaroXj re- which the mountain takes one of its modern
lates to the star and not the wise men themselves, names, 7ebel Salamyeh.  He says,'I reached
seems too obvious to be questioned). Pressed by the summit, and ranged for more than a mile
the difficulties thus suggested, the majority of re- over its rugged surface without encountering a
cent interpreters take pv ri- avaroXr literally=in its living soul, or even a solitary flock. There were
rise, and trace a correspondence of this with the traces of old habitations, but I could discover
TEX0es of the preceding clause: theyenquired forthe nothing which afforded any sort of evidence that
child, whom they knewto be born, because they had Ebal, like Gerizim, had been a site of importance.
seen the rising of his star, the signal of his birth. The prospect was very fine-the hills of Gilead
Alford objects to this, that for such a meaning we beyond Jordan, Gerizim with its ruins, the vale of
should expect auroD, if not in ver. 2, certainly in Nabulus melting into the plains of the sea-coast;
ver. 9; but the construction falls under the case and the dim blue Mediterranean stretching lazily
where the article, by indicating something closely away, till lost in a distant cloud' (Walks about
associated with the subject, supersedes the use of yerusalem, p. 251).  The writer of this article
the demonstrative pronoun.-W. L. A.          ascended Gerizim twice, and spent many hours
TEAST WTIND. [WIND.]                        on its summit. He directed special attention to
the appearance of Ebal, and examined its sides
EASTER (-rdcr-a), Acts xii. 4. [PASSOVER; and summit minutely by the aid of a telescope.
FESTIVALS OF THE JEWS].                      It presented nothing worthy of special note. Some
EBAL (P,; Sept. apa\).      In the m  t of have imagined that because the curses were proEBAL ~(>?; Sept. -  a-ccX). In the midst of nounced upon Ebal, that mountain should bear
the mountains of Samaria lies the beautiful upland some marks of them in its greater barrenness;
plain of Mukhna. The ridge which shuts it in on and some travellers have even thought that they
the west is steep and rocky, and towards its north- could perceive the barrenness of Ebal as comern end is. cleft asunder at right angles to its course pared with Gerizim (Benjamin of Tudela, and
by the picturesque vale of Shechem. On each   Maundrell, in Early Travels in Palestine, pp. 82,
side of the opening of the vale the ridge rises 433; Wilson, Lands of the Bible, ii. 71); but
several hundred feet, thus forming two distinct there is no ground for any such expectation; and
peaks, overtopping all the neighbouring summits. assuredly the closest scrutiny has failed to detect
That on the south is Gerizim, and that on the any difference in the quality of the soil or general
north Ebal.  They are not isolated mountains, physical aspect of the two mountains. In the
but culminating points of a chain. Their declivi- cliffs along the base of Ebal are a number of
ties facing the vale bear a singular resemblance to ancient rock tombs.  This was, doubtless, the
each other. They are equally rugged and bare; necropolis of Shechem (Robinson, iii. 131; Van
the limestone strata here and there project, form- de Velde, ii. 290).
ing bold bluffs and precipices; but the greater  The first reference to Ebal in Scripture is where
portion of the slopes, though steep, are formed Moses gives the charge to the Israelites regarding
into terraces, partly natural and partly artificial. the reading of the Law in solemn assembly upon
For this reason both mountains appear more bar- their entrance into Canaan-' Thou shalt put the
ren from below than they are in reality, the rude blessing upon Mount Gerizim and the curse upon
and naked supporting walls of the terraces being Mount Ebal' (Deut. xi. 29). The position of the
then alone visible. The soil, though scanty, is mountains is then defined:'Are they not on the
rich, and, to a large extent, is still cultivated. In other side Jordan, by the way where the sun goeth
the bottom of the vale are olive groves; and a down, in the land of the Canaanites, which dwell
few straggling trees extend some distance up the in the champaign over against Gilgal, beside the
sides. The broad summits and upper slopes have plains of Moreh?' This passage is not very deno trees, yet they are not entirely bare.  The finite, and has given rise to considerable difference
steeper banks are here and there scantily clothed  of opinion. It has been thought that the Ebal
with dwarf shrubbery; while in spring and early and Gerizim  here referred to must have been
summer rank grass, brambles, and thistles, inter- situated'in the Arabah opposite Gilgal,' as it is
mixed with myriads of bright wild flowers-ane- in Hebrew                  SoEusebius and
mones, convolvolus, tulips, and poppies-spring J  e a           latter says,' Sunt autem juxup among the rocks and stones. The summits of JHierichum duo monoes vicim.  contrse invicem
b~oth Ebal and Gerizim are distinctly marked * ta Hierichum duo montes vicini contra se invicem
both Ebal and Gerizim are distinctly marked; 
their sides towards the vale and the plain of respicientes, e quibus unus Garizim, alter Gebal
Mukhna are steep and often precipitous ut dicitur. Porro Samaritani arbitrantur hos duos
Mukhna are steep and often precipitous; butNeapolim                ese, sed vehemeter  erthe western slopes are very gradual, leaving sec- on   ut      im  ee sed    enter e
tions of high table-land, which, though stony, is rant; plurimum enim inter se distant, nec possunt
invicem benedicentium seu maledicentium inter se
cultivated. The elevation of the sister peaks is invicem benediceiu Scriptura commemorat' iOnoabout equal. To the writer, Gerizim seemed to aud    voces, qd Scriptura   me nts regardin
be a little higher than Eba  others, however  mast. s. v. Gebal). The latter arguments regarding
be a little higher than Ebal; others, however,                mountains from each other are
have thought differently.  The height of Ebal the distance of the mountains from each other are
have thought differently.  The height of Ebal
has never been measured'; that of Gerizim, ac- of no weight, as the tribes were ranged, not on
cording tobarometrical measurement, is 2700 feet, the summits, but on the lower slopes; and that
and about go9 feet above the vale of Shechem  Ebal and Gerizim are actually meant is proved by
(Van de Velde,  emoir,              Shechem  the last clause of the verse, where it is said they
(V al has not been so often ascended nor so ae'beside them plains (or eebints, 5   ) of
Ebal has not been so often ascended nor soare'beside the plains (or lerebinths, WS) of




EBAL                     716             ECCLESIASTES
Moreh;' which we know, from Gen. xii. 6, was tina und Syrien; Olin, Travels in the Holy Land;
at Shechem.  The mention of Gilgal and Ara- Handbookfor Syria and Palestine; Wilson, Lands
bah is connected with the whole territory of the of the Bible.-J. L. P.
Canaanites, and not with the immediate situation
of these mountains. It is farther argued that in  EBED (1<.). This word, which properly deJosh. viii. 30-33, where the fulfilment of the com- signates a servant who is the property of his
mand is narrated, there is no reference to any master, is used frequently in Scripture as the first
journey of the people from Gilgal, where they part of proper names, of which the latter part
had established their camp, to Shechem. This is describes some person who is the object of revertrue; but then it must be remembered that only ence or worship.  Hence in such combinations
the leading events are detailed.             1Ig  has the sense of worshipper or devotee. It is
The selection of this spot for one of the most thus combined in such words as Abednego, worsolemn assemblies of the Israelites was not with- shipper of Nego (Nebo); Ebedmelech, devotee of
out a reason. When Abraham first entered Canaan Molech; Abdeel, worshipper of God; Abdi, and (in
he encamped on the plain of Moreh, and there the form  f11Y) Obadiah, worshiper of yah, etc.
the Lord appeared to him, and he built an altar Ebed, Obed, and Abdon occur as proper names,
(Gen. xii. 6, sq.)  When Jacob returned from  without any addition (Judg. ix. 26; Ezra viii. 6;
Haran, this also was his first resting-place in Ruth iv. 17; I Chron. ii. 37; Judg. xii. 13; I
Canaan; and here he bought'a parcel of a field  Chron. viii. 23, etc.)-W. L. A...... and erected an altar, and called it El-  EBEDMELECH          -t 
Elohe-Israel' (xxxiii. 18-20). It is not strange, EBEDMELECH       (         worshi5er of
therefore, that the same spot should have been IMelech or Molech; Sept.'Ap/SeADXe), a servant
selected for the first great national assembly of of King Zedekiah, through whose intervention
the Israelites, and the renewal of their covenant Jeremiah was delivered from the dungeon into
with the Lord, on their taking possession of the which he had been cast (Jer. xxxviii. 7, ff.), and
land.  The exact scene was doubtless near the who, for his piety, was assured of deliverance
mouth of the vale of Shechem, immediately be- when the judgments of God came on the Jewish
low the highest peaks of both mountains. The state (xxxix. I5-I8). He was an eunuch and a
vale is here about 200 yards wide; and the roots Cushite; and had probably the charge of the
of the mountains, though steep, are not precipi- king's harem (comp. xxxviii. 22, 23), an office
tous.  The ark, with the attendant priests and which would give him the privilege of free private
Levites, was placed in the centre of the vale. Six access to the king. His name may have refertribes were ranged along the lower slopes of Ebal ence simply to this =servant of the king.-W. L.A.
on the one side, and six along the corresponding  EBEN-EZEL (i, stone of dear
slopes of Gerizim upon the other. Every indivi- EBEN-EZEL (            stone of darure
dual of that vast assemblage could thus both hear an old stone of testimonial, mentioned in I Sam.
and see all that passed. Each command was read xx. I9. The circumstance which it commemorated'with a loud voice' by the Levites, with its an- is not known.
nexed blessing and curse; to the blessing the  EBEN-EZER,     s    
tribes ranged on Gerizim responded'Amen;' and EBEN-EZER     (          stone of hel), the
to the curse the tribes ranged on Ebal responded name given to a stone which Samuel set up be-' Amen.' The whole scene must have been singu- tween Mizpeh and Shen, in witness of the divine
larly grand and impressive (Deut. xxvii. II, sq.)  assistance obtained against the Philistines (I Sam.
Moses also commanded the Israelites to'set up vii. 12).
great stones' on Mount Ebal,' and plaster them  EBER. [HEBE
with plaster; and write upon them all the words
of this law;' and also to build an altar there, and  EBIASAPH. [ABIASAPI.]
offer burnt-offerings (Deut. xxvii. I, sq.) Joshua
(viii. 30) relates how the command was obeyed;  EBODA, one of the stations of the Israelites in
and it seems from his words that the altar was not the wilderness. [WANDERING, THE.]
on the summit of the mount, but at the place   EBON.      HA
of the assembly. In this passage the Samaritan  EONY        [   N
Pentateuch reads Gerizim instead of Ebal. All  EBRONAH, prop. ABRONAH (l1.:;
critics of eminence, with the exception of Kenni-    oci, a     in of te 
cott, regard this as a corruption of the Sacred  Sept. h  v), a station of the Israelits between
the' 11,  *i  i- Jotbathah and Ezion-gaber (Num. xxxiii. 34, 35).
text; and when it is considered that the invariable This Ezon-gaber, Knobel thinks, cannt be 
n He w    ad aciet vsio, This EzIon-gaber, Knobel thinks, cannot be the
reading in Hebrew MSS. and ancient versions, port of that name at the head of the Elanitic
both in this passage and the corresponding one inport of that name at the headof the Elanitic
both in this passage and the corresponding one in gulf,. for, as the next station mentioned is Kadesh,
Josh. viii. 30, is'Ebal,' it seems strange that any  this was too far from the north end of the gulf to
scholar would for a moment doubt its correctness. be reached in one march (Exeet.  ob. in  c.Kennicott takes an opposite view, maintaining thebe reached  one march  etob
integrity of the Samaritan reading, and arguing  ECBATANA. [ACHMETHA.]
the point at great length; but his arguments are  ECCLESIASTES, THE BOOK OF, one of the
neither sound nor pertinent (Dissertations on the ECCLESIASTES, THE BOOK O, one othe
1Hebrew Text, ii. 20, A.) The Samaritans had a three canonical volumes, the other two being ProHebrew Text, ii. 20, sq.) The Samaritans had a
strong reason for corrupting the text, seeing that verbs and the Song of Songs, which have come
Gerizim was their sanctuary; and they desired to  down to us bytradon as the production of Solomake it not merely the mountain of blessing, butmon the sonof Davd.
the place of the altar and the inscribed Law.  I The Title of e Book and its Signiftcation.In addition to the works above referred to, the This book is called in Hebrew n'np, Coheleth, after
reader may consult with advantage, Ritter, Paids- its hero, who calls himself by this name.  The




ECCLESIASTES                   717              ECCLESIASTES
name occurs seven times in this book, three times nated in Hebrew byfeminine and abstract nouns,in the beginning (i. I, 2, 12), three times at the is to be uged-. The verb    does not at all
end (xii. 8, 9, o1), and once in the middle of it (vii.  to be  ed. The verb  does not at all
27), and is an appellative, as is evident from the  include the idea of preaching.  2. It ascribes
fact that it has the article in xii. 8, and more espe- to Solomon the office of preacher which is nocially from its being construed with afeminine verb  where mentioned in the Bible, it is too modern a
in vii. 27.                                    title, and is quite inconsistent with the contents
The signification of nl p will best be seen from  of the book. 3. It destroys the connection between
an analysis of its form, and the meaning of its root. the design of the book, and the import of this symIt is participle feminine Kal, from 5ip kindred  bolic name. Moreover, a. Coheleth is neither a
L-'   T    name of rank nor of office, but simply describes the
with 5p, Greek KaXVo, Latin calo, and our English  act of gathering the people together, and can,
word call, which primarily signifies to call, then to call therefore, not come within the rule which the adtogether, collect, to assemble, and is INVARIABLY used  vocates of the rendering preacher or Ecclesiastes are
for assembling or gathering people, especially for obliged to urge. b. The construction of the femireligious worship, as may be seen from the follow- nine verb with it in vii. 27, is utterly incompatible
ing references to the passages where the verb oc- with this view. c. Abstracts are never formed
curs-Ex. xxii. I; xxv. I; Lev. viii. 3, 4; from the active participle; and d. There is not a
Num. i. I8; viii. 9; x. 7; xvi. 3, I9; xvii. 7; single instance to be found where a concrete isfirst
xx. 2, 8, IO; Deut. iv. Io; xxi. 12, 28; Josh. made an abstract, and then again taken in apersonal
xviii. I; xxii. I2; Judg. xx. I; 2 Sam. xx. 4; sense. The other explanations of Coheleth, viz.,
I Kings viii. I, 2; xii. 2I; I Chron. xiii. 5; xv.  Gatherer or Acquirer of wisdom, and Solomon is
3; xxviii. I; 2 Chron. v. 2, 3; xi. I; xx. 26; called by this name because he gathered much wisEsth. vii. II; ix. 2, 15, i6, 18; Jer. xxvi. 9; dom (Rashi, Rashbam, etc.); Collector, Coompiler,
Ezek. xxxviii. 7, 13; Job xi. Io. So also its de- because he collected in this book divers experience,
rivatives, W5e'l), -6lNpQ, ttl ^D and ninpwitrout views, and maxims, for the good of mankind (GroTT T?.~   * *..:-.- *T-tius, Mayer, Mendelssohn, etc.); Eclectic, eKXeKexception, denote assemblies or gatherings of people. TrK6, a name given to him by his father because of
Accordingly rn1%   signifies a collectress or assem-his skill in selecting and purifying from the systems
*o n v.      signifie eof different philosophers the amassed sentiments in
bleress of people into the presence of God, a female this book (Rosenthal); Accumulated wisdom, and
gatherer of the community to God. That Solomon  this appellation is given to him because wisdom
is meant by this designation is evident from the was accumulated in him (Ibn Ezra); The IRe-united,
fact that he was the only son of David who was the Gathered Soul, and it describes his re-admission
king of Israel in Jerusalem (vide i. I, 12). He has into the church in consequence of his repentance
this feminine and symbolic appellation because he  (Cartwright, Bishop, Reynolds, Granger, etc.);
personifies wisdom (comp. vii. 27) who appears her-  The Penitent, and describes the contrite state of his
self in Prov. I, 0o; viii. I, etc., as Coheleth, or the heart for his apostacy(Coccejus, Schulten, etc.); An
female gatherer of the people; and because it is assembly, an academy; and the first verse is to be
both descriptive of the design of the book and con- translated'The sayings of the academy of the son
nects Solomon's labours here with his work re- of David' (Doderlein, Nachtigal, etc.); An old
corded in I Kings viii. Solomon, who in I Kings man; and Solomon indicates by the name Coheviii. is described as gathering (i)s the people toleth his weakness of mind when, yielding to his
wives, he worshipped idols (Simonis, Lex. Heb. s.v.
hold communion with the Most High in the place Schmidt, etc.); Exclaiming voice, analogous to the
which he erected for this purpose, is here again re- title assumed by John the Baptist; and the words
presented as the gatherer (nonp) of the far-off oftheinscription ought to be rendered,'The words
presentv v v  a     ter', )of the voice of one exclaiming' (de Dieu); Sophist,
people to God. It must, however, be borne in   according to the primitive signification of the word,
mind that though Solomon is animated by and re- which implied a combination of philosophy and rhepresents wisdom, he does not lose his individuality. toric (Desvceux); Philosopher or Moralist (Spohn,
Hence he sometimes describes his own experience  Gaab, etc.); The departed spirit of Solomon intro(comp. i. I6, 17; ii. 9, 12; vii. 23, etc.), and  duced as speaking throughout this book in the
sometimes utters the words of Wisdom, whose form of a shadow (Augusti, Einleit in d. A. T., p.
organ he is: just as the apostles are sometimes the  240); and Coheleth is the feminine gender, beorgans of the Holy Ghost (comp. Acts xv. 28).  cause it refers to'=l the intellectual soul, which is
Againsr t the common rendering of  5nPi  by  understood (Rashi, Rashbam, Ewald, etc.), it is to
Against the common rendering of'       by shew the great excellency of the preacher, or his
preacher or Ecclesiastes,-which is derived from  she the great excellency of the preacher, or his
Mid, where we are told that S n obtaned  charming style which this gender indicates (Lorithis title because his discourses were delivered be- nus, Zirkel, etc.), because a preacher travails, as it
this title because his discourses were delivered be-wrle   m   er,    h     r       t      i
were, like a mother, in the spiritual birth of his
fore the congregation (p1j:l pl'1 ), hence the  children, and has tender and motherly affection for
Sept. eXKKX\7oacri-r7s, the Vulg. ecclesiastes; St. Je- his people, a similar expression being found in
rome's explanation eKKXX-lctacLTs  GrCeco sermone ap- Gal. iv. 19 (Pineda, Mayer, etc.), it is to describe
bellatur qui cetum, i.e., ecclesiam congregat (Con- the infirmity of Solomon, who appears here as worn
ment. in loco), Luther, Coverdale, the Geneva out by old age (Mercer, Simonis, etc.); it is used
Bible, the Bishops' Bible, the A. V., and many in a neuter sense, because departed spirits have no
modern commentators, and which is supported by  specific gender (Augusti), the termination n is not
Desvceux, Gesenius, Knobel, Herzfeld, Stuart, etc., at all feminine, but, as in Arabic, is used as an
who account for the feminine gender by saying that auxesis, etc., etc., etc., we believe that the simple
persons holding certain ranks and offices are desig- enumeration of these views will tend to shew the




ECCLESIASTES                  718             ECCLESIASTES
soundness of the interpretation we defend, and at both his life and the wealth which, though acthe same time indicate the history of the interpreta- quired by industry and wisdom, he must leave to
tion of this book.                           another, who may be a reckless fool (17-21), con2. Design and Method of the Book.-The design vincing him that man has nothing from his toil
of this book, as has already been remarked, being but wearisome days and sleepless nights (22, 23);
indicated by the symbolic title of its hero, is to that there is, therefore, nothing left for him but
gather together God's people, who were distracted to enjoy himself (24, a); yet this, too, he found
and led astray by the inexplicable difficulties in the was not in the power of man (24 b-25). God
moral government of the world, into the community gives this power to the righteous, and withholds it
of the Lord, by shewing them that the only true from the wicked, and it is after all but transitory
wisdom under these perplexing circumstances is to (26). Thus Coheleth concludes the first portion
enjoy our lot in this life in resignation to the deal- of his disquisition, by shewing that wisdom, knowings of Providence, and in the service of the Most ledge, and enjoyment of earthly blessings, which
High, and to look forward to a future state of re- are the best things for short-lived man, cannot
tribution, when all the present mysteries shall be calm the distracted mind which dwells upon the
solved, and when the righteous Judge shall render problem that whilst the objects of nature depart
to every man acording to his deeds.          and retrace their course again, man vanishes and
The method adopted by the sacred writer is is for ever forgotten.
most striking and effective. Solomon is repre-  (c.) THE SECOND SECTION (iii. I.-v. I9) desented as recounting his perplexities arising from  scribes the inability of industry to avert this doom.
these unfathomable dealings in the moral govern- All the events of life are immutablyfixed (iii. I-8),
ment of God, telling us how he had vainly striven hence the fruitlessness of labour (9). God has,
to divert the longings of his soul by various experi- indeed, prescribed bounds to man's employment
ments, and the conclusion at which he ultimately in harmony with this fixed order of things, but
arrived.                                     man, through his ignorance, often mistakes it (Io,
3. Division and Contents of the Book.-The bookI I); thus again shewing that there is nothing
consists of a Prologue, four sections, and an'Epi- left for man but the enjoyment of the things of
logue. The prologue and epilogue are distinguished this world in his possession, and that even this is
by their beginning with the same phrase (i. I; a gift of God (12, I3). The cause of this immuxii. 8), ending with two marked sentences (i. II; table arrangement in the events of this life is that
xii. 14), and embodying the grand problem and man may fear God, and feel that it is he who
solution proposed by the sacred writer, whilst the orders all things (14, 15). The apparent success
four sections are indicated by the recurrence of of wickedness does not militate against this concluthe same formula, giving the result of each effort sion (17); but even if, as affirmed, all terminates
to satisfy the cravings of the soul (ii. 26; v. I9; here, and man and beast have the same destiny
and viii. 15).                                (I8-2I), this shews all the more clearly that there
(a.) THE PROLOGUE (i. 2-II) gives the theme is nothing left for man but to enjoy life, since this
or problem of the disquisition.  Assuming that is his only portion (22). The state of suffering
there is no hereafter in the face of the condition of (iv. I), however, according to this view, becomes
mankind, Coheleth declares that all human efforts desperate, and death, and not to have been born
to satisfy the cravings of the soul are utterly vain at all, are preferable to life (2, 3). The exertions
(2, 3), that conscious man is more deplorable than made despite the prescribed order of things often
unconscious nature: he must speedily quit this life arise from jealousy (4), and fail in their end (5,
whilst the earth abides for ever; (4), the objects of 6), or are prompted by avarice (7, 8) and denature depart, and retrace their course again, but feat themselves (9-I6). Since all things are thus
man vanishes and is for ever forgotten (5-II).  under the control of an omnipotent God, we
(b.) THE FIRST SECTION (i. I2.-ii. 26) recounts ought to serve him acceptably (I7-v. 6), trust to
how Coheleth, under these desponding circum- his protection under oppression (7, 8), remember
stances, with all the resources of a monarch at his that the rich oppressor, after all, has not even the
command (12), applied himself assiduously to dis- comforts of the poor labourer (9-I I), and that he
cover, by the aid of wisdom, the nature of earthly often brings misery upon his children and himself
pursuits (I3), and found that they were all fruit- (12-I6). Having thus shewn that all things are
less (14), since they could not rectify destinies immutably fixed (iii. 1-22), and that the mistaken
(I5), Reflecting, therefore, upon the large amount exertions made by men to alter their destinies arise.
of wisdom he had acquired (16), he came to the from impure motives, and defeat themselves (iv. I;
conclusion that it is all useless (I7), since the ac- v. 16), Coheleth again concludes this section by
cumulation of it only increased his sorrow and reiterating that in the face of this mournful probpain (I8). He then resolved to try pleasure, to lem there is nothing left for man but to enjoy the
see whether it would satisfy the longings of his few years of his existence, this being the gift of
aching soul, but found that this, too, was vain God (I7-I9).
(ii. I), and hence denounced it (2), for after he  (d.) THE THIRD SECTION (vi. I-viii. 15) shews
had procured every imaginable pleasure (3-Io) he the impotency of wealth to secure lasting happifound that it was utterly insufficient to impart last- ness in the face of this melancholy problem (vi.
ing good (II). Whereupon he compared wisdom   I-9), since the rich man can neither overrule the
with pleasure, the two experiments he had made, order of Providence (Io), nor know what will conand though he saw the former had a decided ad- duce to his well-being (II, 12), as well as the
vantage over the latter (I3, 14 a), yet he also saw  utter illusiveness of prudence, or what is generally
that it does not exempt its possessor from death called the common sense view of life. Coheleth
and oblivion, but that the wise man and the fool thought that to live so as to leave a good name
must both die alike and be forgotten (I4 b-I6). (vii. I-I4), to listen to merited rebuke (5-9), not
This melancholy consideration made him  hate to indulge in a repining spirit, but to submit to




ECCLESIASTES                 719              ECCLESIASTES
God's Providence (0I-I4), to be temperate in re- 4. Author, date, andform of the Book.-That
ligious matters (15-20), not to pry into everybody's the symbolic Coheleth, to whom the words of this
opinions (21, 22), such being the lessons of pru- book are ascribed, is intended for Solomon, is evidence or common sense, as higher wisdom is un- dent from the fact that he was the only son of
attainable (23, 24); to submit to the powers that David who was king over Israel. This is morebe, even under oppression, believing that the over corroborated by the unquestionable allusions
mightiest tyrant will ultimately be punished- (viii. made throughout the book to particular circumI-9), and that, though retribution is sometimes stances connected with the life of this great monarch.
withheld (Io), which, indeed, is the cause of in- Comp. chap. i. I6, etc., with I Kings iii. I2; chap.
creased wickedness (I ), yet that God will event- ii. 4-I1 with I Kings v. 27-32; vii. I-8; ix. 7-I9;
ually administer rewards and punishments (12, 13); x. 14-29; chap. vii. 20 with I Kings viii. 46; chap.
that this would satisfy him during the few years vii. 28 with I Kings xi. I-8; chap. xii. 9 with I
of his life. But as this did not account for the Kings iv. 32. But this by no means declares that
melancholy fact that the fortunes of the righteous Solomon was the real author of the book, it may
and the wicked are often reversed all their lifetime, simply denote personated authorship. This wellthis common sense view of life, too, proved vain known form of personated authorship, which was
(I4), and Coheleth therefore recurs to his repeated used by Plato, Cicero, and other Greek and Roman
conclusion that there is nothing left for man in the writers as a legitimate mode of expressing different
face of this mournful problem, that whilst the ob- opinions, or the quasi-dramatic representation of
jects of nature depart and retrace their course character employed by some of the best writers of
again, man vanishes and is for ever forgotten, but this day without any animus decipiendi, may have
to enjoy the things of this life (I5).       been used by the inspired writer, since other figures
e. THE FOURTH SECTION (viii. I6-xii. 7) gives of speech, involving the same principle, are ema resume of the investigations contained in the ployed both in the 0. T. and N. T. The fact that
foregoing three sections, and states the final con- the concurrent voice of tradition declares against
elusion at which Coheleth arrived. Having found this figure of speech as applied to this book, and
that it is impossible to fathom the work of God by speaks for the Solomonic authorship, does not dewisdom (viii. I6, I7), that even the righteous and cide the question. It is now acknowledged by all
the wise are subject to this inscrutable providence, expositors of note that tradition has no power to
just as the wicked (ix. I, 2); that all must alike determine points of criticism.  Clement of Alexdie, and be forgotten (3-5), and that they have no andria, Origen, Tertullian, Cyprian, Athanasius,
more participation in what takes place here (6); Cyril, Epiphanius, Eusebius, Augustine, Isidore,
that we are therefore to indulge in pleasures here etc., have handed down the Book of Wisdom as
whilst we can, since there is no hereafter (7-1o); the inspired work of Solomon, the third council of
that success does not always attend the strong and  Carthage in 397, the council of Sardica in 347, of
the skilful (11-12); and that wisdom, though de- Constantinople, in Trullo, in 629, the eleventh of
cidedly advantageous in many respects, is often Toledo in 675, that of Florence in 1438, and the
despised add contravened by folly (I3-x. 3); that fourth session of the council of Trent declared it
we are to be patient under sufferings from rulers canonical [WISDOM OF SOLOMON]; most of the
(4), who, by virtue of their power, frequently per- Fathers also declared that Ecclesiasticus was an
vert the order of things (5-7), since violent opposi- inspiredwork of Solomon [ECCLESIASTICUS], yet all
tion may only tend to increase our sufferings (8-I I); Protestant expositors, and even some Catholic
that the exercise of prudence in the affairs of life critics reject the traditional opinion, and maintain
will be more advantageous than folly (12-20); that that these works are neither Solomonic nor canoniwe are to be charitable, though the recipients of cal. Internal evidence alone must determine the
our benevolence appear ungrateful, since they may, question of authorship, which is of a purely critical
after all, requite us (xi. I, 2); that we are always nature. Now, the following objections are urged
to be at work, since we know not which of our against the Solomonic and for the personated
efforts may prove successful (3-6), and thus make authorship of this book:-I. All the other reputed
life as agreeable as we can (7), for we must always writings of Solomon have his name in the inscripbear in mind that this is the only scene of enjoy- tion (comp. Prov. i. I; Song of Songs i. I; Ps.
ment, that the future is all vanity (8); but as this, lxxii., lxxvii.), whereas in this book the name of
too, did not satisfy the cravings of the soul, Coheleth  Solomon is studiously avoided, thus shewing that
at last came to the conclusion that enjoyment of it does not claim him as its actual author. 2. The
this life, together with the belief in a future judg- symbolic and impersonal name Coheleth shews that
ment, will secure real happiness for man (9, Io), Solomon is simply introduced in an ideal sense, as
and that we are therefore to live from our early the representative of wisdom. 3. This is indicated
youth in the fear of God and of a final judgment, by the sacred writer himself, who represents Solowhen all that is perplexing now shall be rectified mon as belonging to the past, inasmuch as he makes
(xii. 1-7)                                   this great monarch say,'Iwas (Sl'I, ) king,' but had
THE EPILOGUE (xii. 8-14) gives the solution'    T
of the problem contained in the prologue.  All long ago ceased to be king when this was written.
human efforts to obtain real happiness in the face That this is intended by the prsterite has been
of the assumption therein stated are vain (xii. 8); acknowledged from time immemorial (comp. Midthis is the experience of the wisest and most pains- rash Rabba, Midrash Jalkut in loco; Talmud,
taking Coheleth (9, Io); the sacred writings alone Gittin, 68 b; the Chaldee paraphrase, i. 12; Midare the way to it (II, I2); there is a righteous rash, Maase, Bi-Shloma, Ha-Melech, ed. Jellinek
Judge who marks, and will, in the great day of in Beth Ha-Midrash, ii. p. 35; Rashi on i. 12).
judgment, judge everything we do; we must there- 4. This is moreover corroborated by various statefore fear him, and keep his commandments (I3, ments in the book, which would otherwise be irreI4).                                         concilable, e.g., Coheleth comparing himself with




ECCLESIASTES                  720             ECCLESIASTES
a long succession of kings who reigned over Israel following table will shew the different periods to
in Jerusalem (i. 16, ii. 7); the term king in yeru- which it has been assignedsalem (ibid.) shewing that at the time when this was                                B.C.
written there was a royal residence in Samaria; the  Nachtigal, between Solomon and Jererecommendation to individuals not to attempt to  miah...                975-588
resent the oppression of a tyrannical ruler, but to  Schmidt, Jahn, etc., between Manasseh
wait for a general revolt (viii. 2-9); a doctrine which  and Zedekiah.          699-588
a monarch like Solomon is not likely to propound;  Grotius, Kaiser, Eichhorn, etc., shortly
the description of a royal spendthrift, and of the  after the exile..         536-500
misery he inflicts upon the land (x. I6-I9), which  Umbreit, the Persian period.  538-333
Solomon would not give unless he intended to   Van der Hardt, in the reign of Xerxes
write a satire upon himself.  5. The state of    II. and Darius...        464-404
oppression, sufferings, and misery depicted in this  Rosenmiiller, between Nehemiah and
book (iv. I-4; v. 7; viii. I-4, 10, II; x. 5-7, 20,  Alexander the Great...  450-333
etc.), cannot be reconciled with the age of Solo-  Hengstenberg, Stuart, Keil..  433
mon, and unquestionably shews that the Jews    Ewald, a century before Alexander the
were then groaning under the grinding tyranny    Great..                     430
of Persia. 6. The fact that Coheleth is repre-  Gerlach, about the year..    400
sented as indulging in sensual enjoyments, and  De Wette, Knobel, etc., at the end of
acquiring riches and fame in order to ascertain  the Persian and the beginning of the
what is good for the children of men (ii. 3-9; iii.  Macedonian period...   350-300
I2, 22, etc.), making philosophical experiments to  Bergst, during Alexander's sojourn in
discover the summum bonum, is utterly at variance  Palestine...        333
with the conduct of the historical Solomon, and is  Bertholdt, between Alexander and Ant.
an idea of a much later period. 7. The admoni-    Epiphanes                       333-64
tion not to seek divine things in the profane books  Zirkel, the Syrian period    312-64
of the philosophers (xii. 12), shews that this book  Hitzig, about the year... 204
was written when the speculation of Greece and  Nachtigal, the time of the Book of
Alexandria had found their way into Palestine. 8.  Wisdom....    50
The doctrine of a future bar of judgment, whereby
Coheleth solves the grand problem of this book  We believe that the language and complexion of
when compared with the vague and dim intima- the book would fully justify us in regarding it as
tions respecting a future state in the pre-exile por- the latest composition in the 0. T. canon.
tions of the 0. T., most unquestionably proves that  The form of the book is poetico-didactic, without
it is a post-exile production. 9. The strongest argu- the sublimity of the beautiful parallelism  and
ment, however, against the Solomonic authorship rhythm which characterise the older poetic effuof this book is its vitiated language and style. To  sions of the inspired writings.  The absence of
quote examples would be to quote the whole book, vigour and charm is manifest even in the grandest
as it is written throughout in the Rabbinic lan- portion of this book (xii. 1-7), where the sacred
guage which developed itself long after the Baby- writer rises infinitely above his level.
lonish captivity. So convincing is this fact, that not  5. Canonicity of the Book and its position.-The
only have Grotius, J. D. Michaelis, Eichhorn, earliest catalogues which the Jews have transmitted
Doderlein, Spohn, Jahn, J. E. C. Schmidt, Nach- to us of their sacred writings give this book as
tigal, Kaiser, Rosenmiiller, Ewald, Knobel, Gese- forming part of the canon (Mishna, 7adaim, iii. 5;
nius, De  Wette, Noyes, Hitzig, Heiligstedt, Talmud, Baba Bathra, I4). All the ancient verDavidson, Meier, etc., relinquished the Solomonic sions, therefore-viz., the Septuagint, which was
authorship, but even such unquestionably orthodox made before the Christian era; the versions of
writers as Umbreit, Hengstenberg, Gerlach, Vaihin- Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, which beger, Stuart, Keil, Elster, etc., declare most em- long to the second century of Christianity, as well
phatically that the book was written after the Baby- as the catalogue of Melito, Bishop of Sardis (fl. 170
lonish captivity; and there is hardly a chief Rabbi A.D.)-include Coheleth. It is true that its inor a literary Jew to be found who would have the spiration was questioned at a very early period
courage to maintain that Solomon wrote Coheleth. in the Jewish church. Thus, when the.Mishna,
Dr. Herzfeld, chief rabbi of Brunswick, Dr. amongst other things, declared that both the Song
Philippson, chief rabbi of Magdeburg; Dr. Geiger, of Songs and Coheleth are canonical, this as usual
rabbi of Breslau; Dr. Zunz, Professor Luzzatto, called forth a division of opinion.' R. Jehudah
Krochmal, Steinschneider, Jost, Graetz, Fiirst, and said the Song of Songs is canonical, but Coheleth
a host of others, affirm that this book is one of the is disputed; R. Josi affirmed that Coheleth is not
latest productions in the 0. T. canon. And be it canonical, and the Song of Songs is disputed;
remembered that these are men to whom the He- whilst R. Simon remarked that Coheleth is one of
brew is almost vernacular, and that some of them  those points upon which the school of Shammai is
write better Hebrew, and in a purer style, than that more heterodox, and the school of Hillel more
of Coheleth.                                  orthodox, whereupon R. Simon b. Assai declared:
The date cannot be definitely settled, inasmuch  I have received it from the mouth of the seventyas the complexion of the book, and the state of two elders, on the day when R. Eliezer was insociety indicated therein, might be made to har- ducted Patriarch, that both the Song of Songs and
monize with almost any period of the Jewish his- Coheleth are canonical' (7adaim, iii. 5). In the
tory after the return from Babylon to the advent of Thosseftha (ibid., c. ii., cited in the Bab. Megilla,
Christ. Hence, though most scholars, as we have 7, a) is added,'Simon b. Menassiah said the Song
seen, agree that it is a post-exile production, yet of Songs is written by the inspiration of the Holy
they differ in their opinion as to its real age. The Ghost; but Coheleth emanates from Solomon's own




ECCLESIASTES                 721              ECCLESIASTES
wisdom.' A bolder remark is to be found in the versions derived their deviations from the text.
Babyl. Talmud (Sabbath. 30, a), where a Talmu- From St. Jerome down to the time of the Refordist apostrophises Solomon with respect to Cohe- mation, nothing is to be found in the Christian
leth-' Where is thy wisdom, where thy prudence? Church of any value to the elucidation of this
Not enough that thy words contradict those of thy book. The Jews, however, both in the East and in
father David, but they also contradict each other!' Europe, were busily engaged during this time in
These apparent contradictions are then explained  explaining the word of God; and as results of
and reconciled in the Hagadic manner; and it is these labours we have the Commentary of the imadded-'The sages wanted to declare Coheleth  mortal Rashi (1040-II05 A.D.), the founder of the.apocryphal, because its statements contradict each  Germano-French school of interpreters (in the
other; but they abstained from doing it, because Rabbinic Bibles); the elegant exposition of this
it begins and ends with the words of the law' book by the cultivated and far-seeing Rashbam
(comp. also Midrash Vayikra Rabba, c. xxviii., (IO85-1155), edited by Dr. Adolph Jellinek, Leipand St. Jerome, Comment. xii. 13, who relates the zig, I855; the thoroughly grammatical commensame thing in the name of a Jewish rabbi). Again, tary by the erudite Ibn Ezra (1092-II67 A.D.),
in the Mishna (Edaijoth, v. 3), R. Ismael, or, ac- given in the Rabbinic Bibles; and a host of others,
cording to another reading, R. Simon, mentions some still unpublished, and dispersed through the
Coheleth as one of those things upon which the public libraries of Europe, and some published,
school of Shammai are more heterodox, and the but not of sufficient importance to be enumerated.
school of Hillel more orthodox, inasmuch as the With the Reformation, we have the revival of
former regard this book as not belonging to the biblical literature, and as its result Luther's excelcanon, whilst the latter maintain its canonicity lent Latin commentary on this book (Wurtenberg,
(N//m111 w1an   fD ni stsril n nN   K Nnu 1532), which was so highly regarded that it was
V  11 1pN8 Nntnn-^ ) ^ )translated the following year into German by the
Now, in examining these discussions, it will be reformer's friend Justus Jonas (Wurtenberg, I533).
seen that, so far from impairing the canonicity of This was followed by Melanchthon's valuable comseen that, so far from impairing the canonicity ofm   (Wurtenberg, 1556). In our own country
this book, they shew, beyond all doubt-I. That  entary (Wurterberg, I556).  I un country
Coheleth was included in the canon from a very mans for their biblica knowledge, and the first
early period, inasmuch as the whole question hinges m ans or their ical nolee an  te  rt
upon retaining it among the number of sacred  c  translation of csiastes in the Eglish language
books. 2. That the objections to its canonicity              Luthers    e, r 573); we  hen
were based upon difficulties which arose from the  Daye dwellyng ouer Atdersgate, 573); we the
were based upon difficulties which arose from the have the more independent but less valuable transancient mode of trying to find some heavenly les- lton o Eceles s, with an introduction by the
sons in every detached sentence of the Bible, with- far famed Hebraist' Hugh Broughton'for the
out due regard to the position which every such fruction of Prince Hugh Broughton,' (for th
apparently heterodox sentence occupies in the  ntton o       n      r     r    e 
And now the Roman Catholics were fairly roused
whole argument —a proceeding which has no weight      the Roman Catholics were faily roused
witho us. 3. That these obection s hase been so by the Protestant zeal for elucidating the Bible,
iths  3. That these o bjections themselves, and the result of it was the unparalleled commentary
satisfactorily answered by the Rabbins themselves, of the Jesit Pineda (Antwerpise, 1620). In this
that, when the apparent contradictions of the  ot elaborate work  Pineda gives a thorough
Book of Proverbs were urged against retaining it most elaborate work, Pineda gives a thoroug
Book of Proverbs were urged against retaining it digest of all that the Fathers and others have said
in the canon, Coheleth was adduced as a warning against         accepting contradictioned as too rashly upon each verse, nine different versions in nine
(Sabbath 30, b); and 4. That the cavilling school parallel columns at the end of each chapter-viz.,
(of Shammat, )o apersisted in regarding this book the Vulg., the Venice version, that of our countryman
of Shammai, who persisted in regarding this bookR ert Shirwode
as uncanonical, were looked upon as lax in their Robert Shirwode (I523), translations of the Sept.,
ntoas uncanontistcal, were looked un as lax  Syriac, Arabic, the Brylinger version (1582), and
notions upon this point as they were on several o versions of the Chaldee Paraphrase, the one
other questions.                             two versions of the Chaldee Paraphrase, the one
other luest ions. he fourh of te             by Zomara from the Complutensian Bible, and the
Coheleth is the fourth of the fiv  Megill   or other by Peter Costus, published in 1554; and a
books (rnDn  n Wnl) which are annually read in the catena of the Greek Fathers. This work is indissynagogue at five appointed seasons. Its occupy- pensable to the historico-critical expositor. Passing the fourth position in the present arrangement ing over a number of minor works, we come to
of the Hebrew canon, is owing to the fact that the commentary of Grotius (1644), which gave a
the Feast of Tabernacles, on which it is read, is new tone to the interpretation of Ecclesiastes. This
the fourth of these occasions.               was followed by the excellent commentary on
6. Literature on the Book.-Of primary import- Ecclesiastes by Bishop Reynolds, in what is called
ance to the literary history of this book are the'the Assembly's Annotations,' and afterwards reancient versions-viz,, the Sept., the fragments of printed separately (London, I669). It is imposAquila, Theodotion, and Symmachus, the Vul- sible to enumerate in our brief space the comgate, St. Jerome's translation and commentary mentaries on this book which now began to issue
(Opp. tom. ii.) The long neglected Syriac version from the press.  The most important for the
in Walton's Polyglot, and separately published by biblical student are the commentaries of Desvoeux
the Bible Society, is the best of all, and is of ines- (London, 1760); Mendelssohn, translated by Prestimable value for the interpretation of this book; ton (Cambridge, 1853); Rosenmiiller (Scholia in
the translator often reproducing in his version the  Vet. Test., p. 9, vol. ii.); Knobel (Leipzig,
very roots, and following the order of the original 1836); Herzfeld (Brunswick, 1838); Ewald (GitHebrew. The Chaldee Paraphrase, too, is very tingen, I837); Noyes (Boston and London, 1846);
valuable, inasmuch as it embodies the Hagadic Cahen (La Bible, tom. xvi., Paris, I848); Hitzig
mode in which this book was interpreted, and thus (Exeget. Handb. vii., Leipzig, I847); Heiligstedt s
furnishes us with the sources whence the ancient continuation of Maurer (Leipzig, 1848); Stuart
VOL. I.                                                                      3 A




ECCLESIASTIC US                722             ECCLESIASTICUS
(New York, I85I); Philippson (Die Israelitische life, and in his great anxiety not to omit any useful
Bibel, vol. iii., Leipzig, 1854); Elster (Gottingen, lesson which he has gathered, he passes on, after
I855); Vaihinger (Stuttgart, I858); and Heng- the manner of an Eastern logic, from the nature of
stenberg, translated into English in Clark's Foreign  heavenly wisdom  to her godly teachings, from
Theological Lib. (Edinburgh, I860).   For a temptation in its varied forms to filial duties; he
further analysis of these commentaries, as well as discloses before the eyes of his readers the inward
for a more extensive treatment upon the points workings of the heart and mind, he depicts all the
handled in this article, we must refer to our His- passions and aspirations, all the virtues and vices,
torical and Critical Commentary on Ecclesiastes all the duties towards God and man in proverbs
(Longman, I86I).-C. D. G.                     and apothegms, in sayings which have been the
ECCLESIASTICUS one of the most important property of the nation for ages, and in maxims and
tECCLESIASTICUS one Aof the most iportant parables of his own creation, with a rapidity and
and most esteemed of the Apocryphal books of the suddenness of transition which even an Eastern
u0 -*-.-.. —      -.. --         mind finds it at times difficult to follow. Add to
I. The title of the Book.-The original Hebrew  this that the original Hebrew is lost, that the Greek
title of this book, according to the authority of the translation is very obscure, that it has been mutiJewish writings, and St. Jerome (vide infra, sec. 3) lated for dogmatic purposes, and that some sections
was U4WD Proverbs, or more fully 1l V)J   sW2n  are transposed beyond the hope of readjustment,
PRID the Proverbs of Jesus, son of Sira, which was and the difficulty of displaying satisfactorily the
abbreviated according to a very common practice, method or plan of this book will at once be appainto KtO p:1 Ben Sira, p~D Sirach, which we find rent, and the differences of opinion respecting it
in a few later writers, evidently originated from a will be no matter of surprise. Believing Fritzsche's
desire to imitate the Greek 2tpcdX. Hence all the development of the plan of Ben Sira to be the
quotations made from this book in the Talmud and most satisfactory we have no hesitation in adopting
Midrashim are under these titles. (Comp. Mishna, it. The book, according to this painstaking and
ladaim, iii. 15; Chagiga, 15; Midrash Rabba, 6, learned critic, is divisible into seven parts or sections,
b.; Tanchuma, 69, a, etc. etc.) The Greek MSS. as follows:and Fathers, however, as well as the prologue to  Section I., comprising chaps. i.-xvi. 21, dethis book, and the printed editions of the Sept., de-  scribes the nature of wisdom, gives encoursignate it 2Sofa'Iro-o0 vloOv Z (et, 7) paX, The wis-  agements to submit to it, as well as direcdorn of Jesus, the son of Sirach, or by way of ab-  tions for conducting ourselves in harmony
breviation, 2;opoa Xpax, The wisdom of Sirach, or  with its teachings.
aoola ] rravdpeTos, or simply  l7ravapsros, The  II. —xvi. 22-xxiii. I7-shews God in the creabook of all virtues, because of the excellency and  tion, the position man occupies with regard
diversity of the wisdom it propounds, with which    to his Maker, gives directions how he is to,he Syrc I-^. * b~  A~ \conduct himself under different circumthe Syriac I  ^D  | LQ   agrees. The   stances, and how to avoid sin.
name Ecclesiasticus, by which it has been called in  III.-xxiv. I-xxx. 24, xxxiii. I2-xxxvi. I6a, xxx.
the Latin Church ever since the second half of the  25-27-describes wisdom and the law, and
fourth century, and which has been retained in      the writer's position to the former, gives
many versions of the Reformers (e.g., the Zurich    proverbs, maxims, and admonitions about
Bible, Coverdale, the Geneva version, the Bishops'  the conduct of men in a social point of
Bible, and the auth. version) is derived from the   view.
old Latin version, adopted by St. Jerome in the  IV.-xxx. 28-xxxiii. II, xxxvi. I6b-22-describes
Vulg., and is explained to mean church-reading      the wise and just conduct of men; the Lord
book. The appellation libri ecclesiastici was given  and his people.
by the ancients to those books which were read in  V.-xxxvi. 23-xxxix. II-instructions and adthe churches for edification, to distinguish them   monitions about social matters.
from libri canonici; and as this book was especi-  VI.-xxxix. I2-xlii. I4-God's creation, and the
ally esteemed and read more generally for ecclesi-  position man occupies with regard to it.
astical purposes, it was KaT' 6eoxiv called Ecclesias-  VII.-xlii. I5-1. 26-the praise of the Lord, how
ticus. Calmet, however, is of opinion (Preface)     He had glorified himself in the works of nathat this name was given to it because of its resem-  ture, and in the celebrated ancestors of the
blance to Ecclesiastes. But as this title is very   Jewish people.
vague it is rightly rejected by Luther, and almost Whereupon follows an epilogue, chap. 1. 27-29, in
all modern critics.                           which the author gives his name, and declares
2. The Design and Method of the Book.-The de- those happy who will ponder over the contents of
sign of this book is to propound the true nature of this book, and act according to it; as well as an
wisdom, and to set forth the religious and social appendix, chap.. i. 1-30, praising the Lord for deduties which she teaches us to follow through all liverance from danger, describing how the writer
the varied stages and vicissitudes of this life; thus has successfully followed the paths of wisdom from
teaching the practical end of man's existence by re- his very youth, and calling upon the uneducated
viewing life in all its different bearings and aspects. to get the precious treasures of wisdom.
In addition to the fact that no Palestinian pro-  3. The unity of the Book.-The peculiar difficulduction, whether inspired or uninspired, can be ties connected both with the plan of the book, and
reduced to a logically developed treatise according  the present deranged condition of its text pointed
to Aristotelian rules, there are difficulties in tracing  out in the preceding section, will have prepared the
the plan of this book, arising from the peculiar cir- reader for the assertions made by some that there is
cumstances of the author as well as from the work  no unity at all in the composition of this book, and
itself. Ben Sira brings to the execution of his plan that it is in fact a compilation of divers national
the varied experience of a studious and practical sayings, from various sources, belonging to different




ECCLESIASTICUS                  723             ECCLESIASTICUS
ages. Encouragement is sought for these assertions ascribed by the Latin Church to Solomon, notfrom the statement in the spurious prologue of this withstanding this plain declaration of the book
book o0 IO6vov ra  e  v ir Vrpwo -rv irpb autro o-VvreTv  itself, the discreditable terms in which Solomon is
aiv8pWv acrraopOyfca ra orvv'jycyev,'XX&L KCa atr6s OtcMi  spoken of, the reference to Solomon's successors,
-rva cdrerocyctaro, as well as from the remark of to prophets and other great men who lived before
St. Jerome: Quorum priorem [7ravaperov Jesu filii and after the Babylonish captivity, the mention of
Sirach librum] Hebraicum reperi, non Ecclesiasti- the twelve minor prophets (xlix. io), the citation
cum ut apud Latinos, sed Parabolas prnenotatum, cui from the prophet Malachi (comp. xlviii. o0, with
juncti erant Ecclesiastes et Canticum Canticorum, Mal. iv. 6), and the description of the high-priest
ut similitudinem Salomonis] non solum librorum  Simon (chap. 1.), only shews what the Fathers can
numero, sed etiam materiarum genere cosequaret do.
(Prcef. in Libr. Solom.), which seems to imply that  The age of the book has been, and still is, a subthe Book of Ben Sira was intended to answer to ject of great controversy. The life-like description
all the three reputed works of Solomon. So also  of the high-priest Simon contained in chap. 1.,
Luther.  Eichhorn can see in it three different which indicates that the writer had seen this high
books: thefirst book consists of chaps. i.-xxiii., functionary officiate in the temple, would have been
comprising desultory remarks upon life and morals, sufficient to determine beyond dispute the date of
and is divisible into two sections, viz., a, i.-ix., and  this book, but for the fact that there were two highb, x. -xxiii.; the second book comprises xxiv.-xlii. 14, priests of the same name, viz., Simon, son of Onias,
begins with a vivid description of wisdom, where- surnamed the /'st, or thePious, who lived about 370
upon follow iremarks and maxims without any 300 B.C. [SIMON THE PIOUS]; and Simon II., son
order; and the third book comprising xlii. I5-1. 24, of Onias, who lived in the reign of Ptolemy Philois the only portion of Sirach carefully worked out, pator, 217-I95 B.C. (3 Maccab. i. 2). Some interand contains praise of God and the noble ancestors preters, therefore, are of opinion that Simon I. is
of the Hebrews (Einleitzung in d. Ap. 50, etc.) described by Ben Sira, whilst others think that
Ewald again assures us that Ben Sira made two  Simon II. is intended. The lives and acts of these
older works on Proverbs the basis of his book, so two pontiffs, however, as well as the esteem in which
that his merit chiefly consists in arranging those theywere respectivelyheldby theepeople, as recorded
works and supplementing them. The first of these in their national literature, must shew to which of
two books originated in the fourth century before these two high-priests the description of Ben Sira is
Christ, extends from chap. i. to xvi. 2I, and con- applicable. I. The encomiums shew beyond doubt
tains the most simple proverbs, written with great that one of Israel's most renowned high-priests is
calmness. The second book originated in the third  described; whereas Simon II. was so little distincentury before Christ, extends from  xvi. 22 to  guished that Josephus cannot relate a single good
xxxvi. 22, and displays the excitement of passions thing about him. 2. Ben Sira characterises him
as well as some penetrating observations, and has as the deliverer of his peojle from  destruction;
been greatly misplaced in its parts, which Ewald  whereas in the time of Simon II. no deliverance of
rearranges. The third book, which is the genuine either the people or the temple was necessary. 3.
work of Ben Sira, extends from xxxvi. 23 to li. 30, In the time of Simon II., Hellenism, the great
with the exception of the song of praise contained  enemy of Judaism, which was represented by the
in xxxix. 12-35 which belongs to the author of the  sons of Tobias, had made great progress; and if
second work (Geschichte d. V. Isr. iv. p. 300, etc.; Ben Sira had written about this time, we should
7ahrb. iii., p. 131, etc.)  These must suffice as have had some censures from  this pious poet
specimens of the opinions entertained by some re- of these thoughtless and godless innovations;
specting the unity of this book. Against this, how- whereas there is no allusion to these throughout
ever, is to be urged —. That the difference in form  the whole of this book. This appears surpassing
and contents of some of the constituent parts by no  strange, when it is borne in mind that Simon II.
means precludes the unity of the whole, seeing that himself sided with these faithless sons of Tobias, as
the writer brought to the illustration of his design Josephus distinctly declares (Antiq. xii. 4. i). 4.
the experience of a long life, spent both in study  It is utterly impossible that such a man as Simon
and travelling. 2. That this is evidently the work  II. should be described in such extraordinary
of the author's life, and was written by him at dif- terms in the catalogue of national benefactors; and
ferent periods. 3. That the same design and spirit that Simon I., the personification of goodness,
pervade the whole, as shewn in the foregoing sec- nobility, and grandeur, whom the nation crowned
tion; and, 4. That the abruptness of some portions with the title, the J7st, the Piozus, should be passed
of it is to be traced to the Eastern style of com- over with silence; and 5. No Jew, on reading so
position, and more especially to the present de- sublime a description of the high-priest, would ever
ranged state of the Greek translation.        think, with his national traditions before him, of
4. The Author and Date of the Book. -This is applying it to any one else but the Simon, unless he
the only apocryphal book the author of which is were distinctly told that it was intended for another
known. The writer tells us himself that his name  Simon.  These considerations, therefore, shew
is 7esus ('Irfo-os, WS  WiV,4t  i.e., 7eshua), the son  that Ben Sira's life-like description refers to Simon
-::                    I., and that the author was his contemporary.
of Sirach, and that he is of Jerusalem (1. 27). So  Now, as Simon I. died about 300 B.C., Ben Sira
that we have here the production of a Palestinian  must have written his work about 290-280, as chap.
Jew. This is also corroborated by the whole com- 1. implies that this high-priest-was dead.  See.
plexion of the work. We cannot pause to discuss also infra, sec. 8.
the various speculations advanced about the per-  5. The Original Language of the Book.-The
sonal character, acquirements and position of the  translator of this book into Greek most distinctly
author, for these we must refer to the article 7esus declares, in his preface, that it was written in
son of Sirach. That the book should have been  Hebrew, and St. Jerome assures us that he had




ECCLESIASTICUS                 724            ECCLESIASTICUS
seen the Hebrew  original (vide szpra, sec. 3). who has added some corrections of his own, and
That, by the term E]pa'(crt, is meant Htebrew, and who also gives a translation of chap. 1.
not Aramean, is evident from the numerous quota-  6. The Greek and other translations of this book.
tions made from this book both in the Talmud and -The Greek translation of this book, incorporated
the Midrashim-comp.                          in the Sept., was made by the grandson of the
author (6 7rcdir7ros Fiov'Io-os), who tells us that he
Ben Sira.      Talmud and Midrashim.   came from Palestine into Egypt in his thirty-eighth
Chap. iii. 20..  (Chagiga, 3; BereshithRab. year,'in the reign of Euergetes' (ev rP3 6'yB6O Kal
Io.)                    TptaKoT't gret 6rTL  rTOO EMep-yrov paat'Xews). But
vi. 10.    Sanhed. Io, Ioo; Jebamoth, there were two kings who have borne this name63, b; Erub., 65, a.    Euergetes I., son and successor of Ptolemy II.,
vii. 34..  Derech Eretz, 19, c. 4.  Philadelphus, B.C. 247-222; and Euergetes II.,
ix. 8..   Sanhed. Ioo, b; Jebamoth, i. e., Ptolemy VII., known by the nickname Phys63.                     con, the brother of Ptolemy VI. B.C. 145-116;
ix. I2 (Syriac) Aboth, i. 5.           and the question is, which of these two is meant?
xi. I.. Jer. Berach. 29, a; Nazir, Now, Ben Sira, as we have seen, wrote about
I8, a; Beresh. Rab. 78, b. 290-280 B.C., when an old man, and if we take
xi. 27..  Sanhed. Ioo.              6 7rdTrros pov to mean great-grandfather, a sense
xiii. I5..  Baba Kama, 92, b.        which it frequently has, and that the translator was
xiii. 25..  Bereshith Rabba, 82.     born after the death of his illustrious ancestor, his
xiii. 31..  Bereshith Rabba, 64, b.  arrival in Egypt in his thirty-eighth year would be
xiv. II..   Erubin, 54, a.            circa 230 B.C., i.e., in the reign of Euergetes I.
xiv. 17..  Erubin, 71.               The date of the author of this book, therefore,
xv. 8..   Pesachim, 66; Erubin, 55, a. shews which Euergetes the translator meant.
xviii. 23..  Tanchuma Vajikra, 41, b.   The present state of this translation, however,
xxv. 3, 4.  Pesachim, I 13.          is very deplorable; the text as well as the MSS.
xxv. 13..  Sabbath, II, a.           are greatly disfigured by numerous interpolations,
xxvi I..  Sanhed. Ioo; Jebamoth, omissions, and transpositions.   The Old Latin
63, b.                  version which St. Jerome adopted in the Vulgate
xxvi. 20..  Nida, 70.                 without correcting it, was made from this Greek
xxvii. 9..  Baba Kama, 92, b.        translation, and besides being barbarous in style,
xxviii. 14.  Vajikra Rab. 153, a.     is also greatly mutilated, and in many instances
xxx. 21..  Sanded. Ioo, b.           cannot be harmonized with its original.  The
xxx. 25..  Jebamoth, 63, b.          Syriac alone is made direct from the Hebrew, and
xxxviii. I.  J. Sanded. 44; J. Taanith, contains a quotation made by Jose ben Jochanan
9, a; Shemoth. R. Io6, b. about 150 B.C. (comp. Aboth. i. 5 with Ben Sira
xxxviii. 4, 8  Beresh. Rab. 8, a; Jalkut ix. 12), which the secondary versions have not, beJob, I48.               cause it was dropped from the Greek. Notwithxxxviii. 16-23 Moed Katon, 27.         standing the ill treatment, and the changes which
xl. 28..Betza. 32, b; Jalkut Job, this version has been subjected to, it is still one of
149.                   the best auxiliaries for the restoration of the old text.
xlii. 9, Io.  Sanhedrin, Ioo, b.     The Arabic seems to have been made from the
Syriac; whilst the old English version of CoverAlmost all of these quotations are in Hebrew, dale, as usual, follows the Zurich Bible and the
though the works in which they are found are in Vulgate [COVERDALE], the Bishops' Bible again
Aramean; thus shewing beyond doubt that the copies Coverdale; the Geneva version, as is often
book of Ben Sira was written in genuine Hebrew. the case, departs from the other English version
Besides, some of the blunders in the Greek can for the better. The present A. V. chiefly follows
only be accounted for from the fact that the the Complutensian edition of the Greek and the
original was Hebrew.  Thus, for example, in Latin Vulgate.
xxiv. 25, we read,'He maketh knowledge to      8. The Canonicity of the Book.-Though this
come forth as light, as Gihon in the days of vint- book has been quoted in the Jewish Church as
age,' where the parallelism TrcpV = hrp. (Gen. ii. early as 15o and 100 B.C., by Jose b. Jochanan
13), whereby the Nile was designated in later (Aboth. i. 5), and Simon b. Shetach (Jer. Nazir.
times, which the Sept. also understands by  terv. 3), and references to it are dispersed through
~times~, wh.ich~ t p o s b     the Talmud and Midrashim (vide sup. sec. 5), yet
(Jer. ii. 18), shews that ods 0c6s in the first hemis- the Talmud and Midrashim declare most distinctly
tich, originated from the translator's mistaking the that it is not canonical. Thus Thos. Jadaim, c.
Hebrew "lli, like a stream, for "I: k, like light. ii. says, INan~0  D1J  Q^.D EN PbtD''1D
Comp. also xlix. 9, which is most unintelligible in  y, 
the Greek, through the translator's mistaking the  nI D P            1, thebook of Ben Sir,
Hebrew D.Vt for VIEM. Bishop Lowth, indeed, and all the books written from its time and afterwent so far as to assert that the translator' seems wards, are not canonica. We also learn from this
to have numbered the words, and exactly to have remark that Ben Sira is the oldest of all apocryphal
preserved their order, so that, were it literally andbooks, thus confirming the date assigned to it in
accurately to be retranslated, I have very little sec. 4. Again, the declaration made by R. Akiba,
doubt that, for the most part, the original dic-that he who studies uncanonical books will have
tion would be recovered.' The learned prelate n  ortion in the world to come (DSa.Pt'.
has actually retranslated chap. xxiv. into Hebrew  is explained by the Jer. Tal m isn  Sn hed.x.I)
(Hebrew Poet. Lect. xxiv. Oxford ed., 1821, P.is explaed by theJer.Talmud to mean D I
254). This retranslation is also printed by Fritzsche,  1I p11 ~  In1, the books of Ben Sira and Ben




ECDIPPA                    725                   EDEN
Laanah. So also the Midrash on Coheleth xii. and bitter in the extreme. The work is a beautiful
12, remarks, C":D NJl ~ 1 A nt: Dbang   H l  ^ ^:t:   specimen of early printing, and is now very rare.71)l NP11D  11 p;D MnIpl 4D=D  Nli7, nD;1 1Pf  D W.LD A
L^^~..      ~~. 7.ECKERMANN, JACOB CHRIST. RUD, D.D.
NArn p, whosoever introduces into his house more and professor of theology and church law at Kiel,
than the 24 books (i.e., the Sacred Scriptures, see was bor 6th Sept. 1754, and died 6th May 1836.
Art. CANON), as, for instance, the books of Ben  He was the author of a commentary of some note
Sira and Ben Tzglah, brings confusion into his on the N. T., under the title of Erkidrung aller
house. Accordingly, Ben Sira is not included in  dunkein Stellen des N. T., 3 vols. 8vo, Kiel, I806the Canon of Melito, Origen, Cyril, Laodicea, 8. He published also a metrical translation of
Hilary, Rufinus, etc.; and though St. Augustine, Joel with a commentary Leipz. 186. His mis
like the Talmud and the Midrashim, constantly  cellaneous writings have been collected in 6 vols.
quotes it, yet he also, like the ancient Jewish  8vo of Theolog. Beitraie, Altona, 1790-99, and in
authorities, distinctly says that it is not in the two additional vols. of Vermischte Schriften, Ibid.
Hebrew Canon (De Civit. xviii. 20). So also St. 1799,.-W. L. A.
Jerome (Prol. in Lib. Solom.)                                  L
9. The Literature on this Book.- Camerarius,   ECLIPSE. It has been supposed that such
Sententic et Sapientice Siriacidce, Lips. 1570; De expressions as'I will cause the sun to go down at
Rossi, Meor Enaim, Imre Bina, c. ii. p. 29     noon, and I will darken the earth in the clear
Bartolocci, Bibliotheca Magna Rabbinica, i. p. 678, day' (Am. viii. 9; comp. Jer. xv. 9),'And it
etc.; Drusius, Ecclesiasticus, etc., Franck. I596; shall come to pass in that day that the light shall
Linde, Glaubens-und-Sittenlehre Yesu des Sohns not be clear nor dark' (Zech. xiv. 6),'The sun
Sirach, Leipz. 1782, 2d ed. 1795; also by the and the moon shall be dark' (Joelii. io; iii. 15),
same author, Sententice 7esu Sir. Grac. textum ad  contain allusions to eclipses of the sun and moon.
fidem Codd. et Verss. emend. illust., Gedani, I795; This is possible, and in some of the instances
Eichhorn, Einleitung in d. Apokr. Schriften d. A. probable.  The passages, however, are highly
T., p. 28, etc.; Ben Zeb, Choshmeth?eshua Ben  figurative, and the language they present may
Sira, last edition, Vienna, 844; Arnald, Critical  imply be used to convey vigorously the sentiment
Commentary upon the Aocryphal Books, etc.; of the prophet without having been suggested by any
Zunz, Gottesdienslichen Vorlesungen, p. oo, etc.; physical phenomenon.  All-attempts to refer the
Delitzsch, Zur Geschichte der jiidischen Poesie  allusions in these passages to eclipses historically
Leipz. 1836, pp. 20, 204, etc.; Duke's Rabbinische recorded are futile. The darkness at the crucifixion
Blumenlese, Leipzig, 1844, pp. 24-32, 67-84; has often been ascribed to an eclipse, but without
Bretschneider, Liber J7esu Siracide, Grace, adfidem  reason. [DARKNESS; EARTHQUAKE. ]-W. L. A.
Codd. et Verss. emend. et Perpet. Comm. illust.,  D       a word supplied in the A V. (osh.
Ratisbonoe,  80o6; Ewald, Geschichte d. Volkes. (o
Israel., iv. 298, etc.; Jahrbuch, iii. 125, etc.; xxii. 24), on the authority of the Arab. and Syr.
Davidson, The Text of the Old Testament Con- versions, but which does not appear in the Hebrew
sidered, p. 1024, etc.; Geiger, Zeitschrift der text except in a few codices, in most of which it
Deutschen MorgenZandischen Gesellschaft, xii. 536, precedes nT^S, and in one follows it with the
etc.; and especially the very masterly commentary  omission of the second'13, evident indications of a
of Fritzsche, Kurzgefasstes Exeg. Handbuch z. d. mere connection.  The LXX. and the Chald.
Apokryphen des Alten Testamentes, part. v., Leipzig, accord with the received text of the Heb., and the
1859.  See also articles JESUS THE SON    OF  Vulg. is not decided. The passage may be renSIRACH, and SIMON.-C. D. G.                    dered,' The sons of Reuben and the sons of Gad
ECDIPPA.     [ACHZIB.]                       called the altar, A witness is this between us that
Jehovah is God,' i. e., they inscribed this on it; or
ECK, JOHN, properly JOHANN MAIER VON         it may be rendered,'gave a name to it, for (said
ECK, was born at Eck, a village of Suabia, I3th they) it is a witness,' etc. (comp. Knobel and
Nov. 1486, and died at Ingoldstadt, where he was Maurer in loc.)-W. L. A.
professor of theology, 8th Feb. I543. The keen
antagonist of Luther on the field of polemical   EDAR, TOWER OF ('1f 13    ", Sept., Cod.
theology, he sought to rival him also in the de- Alex., 7r6pyos raop), a place at which Jacob first
partment of biblical literature. He issued a trans- pitched his tent after the death of Rachel (Gen.
lation of the Bible,'nach dem Texte in der Heil. xxxv 2I). It seems to have been near Bethlehem;
Kirchegebraucht, aufhochdeutsch verdolmetscht,' Jerome says (De locc. Heb. s. v. Bethlehem) it
Ingoldst. 1537, fol., of which he executed the 0.was distant from that place about Iooo paces. He
T. and Emser the N. T. To this work not much   says it means turris gregis, and finds in the name a
value is attached. Eck follows the Vulgate, and  prophetic anticipation of the announcement to the
sometimes borrows from Luther. He was, how- shepherds of the birth of Christ. It may have
ever, a respectable Hebrew scholar, and but for beenthe place called afterwards Eder.-W. L. A.
party reasons might have translated the 0. T.
from the original.  One of his earlier works is a  EDEN (";1). [PARADISE]
Translation of and Commentary on the Prophet     EDEN         Sept                mentioned
Haggai, in which the Hebrew and Greek texts      E    N  (.'Eb), a place mentioned
are inserted, Salingiaci, 1538. In the dedication  along with Haran, and Canneh, and Sheba, as
of this work he says of himself,'plus viginti annis supplying Tyre with cloths and embroidered garin lingua sancta sum versatus.' The book is of no ments (Ezek. xxvii. 23). It is supposed to be the
great value, but it gives one the impression that its place now called Aden, on the southern coast of
author was a man of considerable learning as well Arabia, where Haran and Canneh also were.
as polemical power. The pervading spirit is bigoted  [BETHEDEN. ]-t




EDOM                     726               EDUCATION
EDOM. [ESAU.]                               rise to the error which has since been propagated.
EDOMITES. [IDUMEA.]                            The ruins of Edhra are among the most extenEDREI 0(V11; Sept.'Eiaelv), one o\ f the sive in Hauran. The site is a strange one. It is
EDREI   Set.                      a rocky promontory projecting from the Lejah
ancient capitals of Bashan, and the residence of Og, (TRACHONITIS), having an elevation of some thirty
the last of its giant kings (Deut. i. 4; Josh. xii. 4). feet above the plain which spreads out beyond it
Beside it Og assembled his forces to oppose the smooth as a sea, and of unrivalled fertility. The
Israelites, and there his army was defeated, and he ruins are nearly three miles in circuit, and have a
himself slain (Deut. iii. I). Edrei, with the other strange wild look, rising up in black shattered
cities of Bashan then fell into the hands of the masses, from the midst of black rocks. A number
Israelites (ver. Io), and was allotted to the half of the ancient houses still remain, though half
tribe of Manasseh (Josh. xiii. I2, 3 ). It is doubt- buried beneath heaps of more modern ruins. Their
ful whether it was ever occupied by the conquerors, walls, roofs, and doors are all of stone; they are
at least for any lengthened period, as there is not a low, massive, and simple in plan; and they bear
single reference to it in their subsequent history. the marks of the most remote antiquity. Some of
Its singular position may probably account for them are doubtless as old as the time of the Rethis.                                         phaim; and they are thus specimens of primeval
There are two ancient towns in Bashan which  architecture such as no other country could pronow claim the honour of being the representatives duce. At a later period Edhra was adorned with
I (_ 5     many public edifices, now mostly in ruins.  A
of Edrei. The one is called Edhra (jtJl), and  large church still stands at the northern end of the
town. A Greek inscription over the door informs
is situated on the south-west angle of the rocky us that it was originally a heathen temple, was condistrict of Lejah, the Argob of the Hebrews, verted into a church, and dedicated to St. George
and the Trachonitis of the Greeks. The other is in A.D. 516.  There are the walls of another
called Dera (^1,a)\  and stands in a shallow  church of St. Elias; and, in the centre of the
C\aJJ ~ (,naisltown, a cloistered quadrangle, which appears to
wady in the open plain of Hauran, about fourteen  have been at first attached to aforum, and aftermiles south of Edhra. Most modem geographers wards to a cathedral. On the public buildings and
have assumed, apparently without much investiga- private houses are many Greek inscriptions. Some
tion, that Dera marks the real site of Edrei (Reland, were copied by Burckhardt, and some by the
Pal., p. 547; Ritter, Pal. und Syr. ii. 834; writer of this article. These shew that Edhra was
Burckhardt and Leake, in Travels in Syria, pp. 12, a most important place from the time of the Roman
and 241). The writer has been led to form a conquest; and that it, and not Dera, was the episdifferent opinion, and it may be necessary to state copal city referred to by Epiphanius, and in the
the grounds for it.                           Notilie Ecclesiasticce, as ranking next to Bostra
I. The name Edrei, which signifies'strength,' (Reland, Pal. pp. 219, 223, 548; St. Paul's
and the fact that it was the capital of an ancient Geogr. Sac. p. 295). It was still a strong place at
and warlike nation, naturally lead to the belief that the time of the Crusades (Gesla Dei per Francos,
it was a very strong city. Ancient cities were al- pp. 895, 896, Io3I); and was one of the capitals
ways, when possible, built on the tops of hills, or of Hauran in the days of Abulfeda (Tabula Syr.,
in rocky fastnesses, so as to be easily defended. p. 97). When visited by the writer in 1854 it
Edhra stands on a ridge of jagged rocks, and is so contained about fifty families, a few of which were
encompassed with cliffs and defiles as to be almost Christian, and worshipped in the old church of St.
inaccessible.  Dera, on the contrary, is in the open  George. An account of the ruins will be found in
plain, and has no traces of old fortifications (G. the writer's Damascus, ii. 219; Handbook for S.
Robinson, Travels in Palestine, ii. I68).     and P. 532; Burckhardt's Syria, 57 sq.; Ritter,
2. Dera has neither well nor fountain to attract ut suzra.
ancient colonists to an undefended site. Its supply  2. A town in the mountains of Naphtali, near
of water was brought by an aqueduct from a great Kedesh (Josh. xix. 37). About three miles south
distance (Ritter, Pal. und Syr. ii. 834).     of the ruins of Kedesh is a conical hill called
3. The ruins of Edhra are more ancient, more Khuraibeh,'the ruin, which was anciently occuimportant, and much more extensive than those of pied by a small fortified town. This may perhaps
Dera.  None of the buildings, in the latter seem  mark the site of Edrei. (Handbookfor S. and P.
older than the Roman period (Dr. Smith in Robin- 442.)-J. L. P.
son's B. R. iii. app. 152, Ist ed.)
The identification of Dera and Edrei can be   EDUCATION. As this subject is intimately
traced back to Eusebius.  He says Edrei is now  connected with the question of schools and mode of
called Adara ('Agapa), and is a noted city of instruction, which cannot be well dealt with sepaArabia, twenty-four miles from Bostra (Onomast. rately, we propose to discuss historically these three
s. v. Esdrai).  In another place he gives the dis- topics in the present article.
tance at twenty-five miles (Id. s. v. Astaroth).  I. Education from the Exodus of Egfypt to the
Adara is laid down in the Peutinger Tables as here  Return from Babylon. Being under a theocracy,
indicated (Reland, Pal.) There can be no doubt and engaged almost exclusively in pastoral and agrithat the city thus referred to is the modern Dera; cultural pursuits, it was most important that the Hebut the statement of Eusebius is not sufficient to  brews, in the early stages of their existence, should
counterbalance the other evidence in favour of educate their youth in a pre-eminently religious,
Edhra. Dera was probably better known to him  practical, and simple manner. The parents upon
as lying on a great road leading to the metropolis whom the education of the children at first devolved,
of the province; and the similarity in name gave were therefore strictly enjoined to instruct their off



EDUCATION                   727                EDUCATION
spring in the precepts of the Law, in the fear of xxxi. 10, etc.; the Lament.) which were intended
God (Deut. iv. 9, Io; xxxi. 13; xxxii. 46), and in to assist the memory and mark the gradation of
the symbols which represented the dealings of Pro-         stit n of      fr       (er. 
vidence with their nation in past days, and which deas the substitution of  for   (Jer. xxv.
were evidently designed to excite the curiosity of 26; li. 4), Stp:1 for 1I'W3 (ibid. li. I), by taking
the children, and to elicit inquiry; thus furnishing the letters of the alphabet in their reverse order,
the parents with pictorial illustrations to facilitate would have been utterly useless and most unintellithe education of those committed to their care gible had not the people for whom they were in(Exod. xii. 26, 27; xiii. 8, 14, 15; Dent. vi. 8, 9, tended been able to read. If we bear in mind that
20, etc.) This work of education was not to be the understanding of the sacred oracles was not the
put off for certain occasions, but was to be prose- peculiar prerogative of the priestly caste, but was
cuted at all times; no opportunity was to be lost, enjoined upon every Israelite, it becomes self-evithe father was enjoined in sitting down with his dent that the knowledge of reading and writing
family at the. table, at home, abroad, before re- which, as we have seen, is so inseparable from the
tiring in the evening, and after getting up in the understanding of the Scriptures, must have formed
morning, to train his children in the nurture and ad- a prominent part in the education of children whose
monition of the Lord (Deut. vi. 7). The law of sole training was the understanding of the ScripGod powerfully supported the authority of parents tures. For the same reason arithmetic must have
in this task by the injunction of filial obedience been taught; as the days of the week, the months,
contained in the Decalogue, as well as by the the festivals, etc., were not designated by proper
heavy punishment inflicted upon refractory children names, but by numerals. The numbers occurring
(Exod. xx. 12; xxi..15; Lev. xx. 9; Deut. xxi. in the 0. T. reach to hundreds of thousands, and
18-2I). Still the rigour of parental authority was we have, moreover, instances of addition (Num. i.
not to be the sole operative power in the education  22, etc.; xxvi. 7, etc.), subtraction (Lev. xxv. 27;
of children. Parents are reminded that their ex- xxviii. I8; Num. iii. 19, 43 with 46), multiplication
ample may lead their children to happiness or (Lev. v. 8; xxvii. I6-.8; Num. iii. 46-50) and
misery (Exod. xx. 5, 6; Dent. iv. IO; v. 9; xxx. division (Lev. xxv. 27-50). In fact, every art or
19; xxxii. 46, 47). The force of example in the science which occurs or is alluded to in the 0. T.,
education of children is most beautifully described  and upon the understanding of which depended the
in the praise of a royal mother who, with' the law  understanding of the Scriptures, must to some exof love upon her tongue,' instilled noble sentiments tent have formed a part of the strictly religious
into the heart of her children (Prov. xxxi. 1-9, Jewish education.
25); and such loving words are represented as   We have already seen that the education of the
producing an indelible impression in the picture of children devolved upon the parents. They were
a son who, with pious gratitude, dwells upon the  the teachers in ordinary cases. This natural duty
wholesome lessons which his father imparted to  must have been a pleasant task, a welcome occuhim in early youth (ibid. iv. 3, etc.) Parents are, pation, and a pastime to a people who led a rural
moreover, advised not to adopt the same indiscri- life, and whose Sabbaths and festivals freed them
minate process of teaching with all children, but to from labour a sixth part of the year [FESTIVALS].
adapt their instruction to every youth  l a St,  In these leisure hours the parents who were strictly
adap syouth    forbidden to engage in any secular work were in
according to his age and inclination, so that he constant contact with their children; and the many
may abide thereby (ibid. xxi. 6).             symbols, rites, and ceremonies on those occasions
That reading and waiting must have formed part were used by them as so many illustrated narratives
of education from the very settlement in Palestine is of the dealings of God. We need, therefore, not
evident from the fact that the Israelites were com- wonder that the name school does not occur in the
manded to write the precepts of the law upon the Bible previous to the Babylonish captivity,* bedoor-posts and gates of their respective houses fore the Jews were entangled in foreign affairs, be[MEZUZA], in order to be continually reminded of fore commercial transactions with other nations and
their obligations to their Creator (Deut. vi. 9; xx. other matters had taken so many of the people
20); they were, moreover, enjoined to write the away from their homes and deprived their children
injunctions upon great stones (2ID1 12)'very  of their natural teachers.
plainly,' immediately upon their crossing the Jor-  But though there were no national or elementary
dan (Deut. xxvii. 2-8) so that they might easily be schools before the exile, there weie cases in which
read by every Israelite. Now these admonitions professional teachers had to be restorted to; e.g.,
unquestionably presuppose that the people at large when the high position or official duties of the
could read plain writing; that the deciphering of parents rendered parental teaching impossible, or
these memorials was a religious duty, and that it when the parents were in any way incapacitated,
must therefore have formed an essential part in the when the child's abilities to learn surpassed the
strictly religious education of children. Besides, the father's capabilities to teach, or where the son was
manner in which some parts of the sacred oracles preparing himself for a vocation different from that
were written clearly indicates that the inspired of his father. For such exceptional cases teachers
writers reckoned upon the ability of the people to  existed from a very early period. Bating the proread. Thus, the frequent play upon words, as for per name 11ll, Enoch, which denotes teacher, and
instance, in Gen. vi. 8, where'Noah found favour,' is obtained by a transposition of the letters
vourit'tnTG^                 ^    ^^, * The traditional opinion that by 4           n=11) Piy,
in the name.    into w; Gen. xxxvoain. 7, where  2 Sam. xxiii. 8, is meant a sort of academy (the'Er  -.. was wicked,' is obtained by a trans- Midrash, the Chaldee Paraphrase, Kimchi, etc.), or
position of the letters in the name'Iy into /1; the
alphabetical portions of the 0. T. (Ps. ix., x., that 13ie'7, Prov. viii, 34, denotes  VItln1l  3ly
XXV., xxxiv. xxxv., cxi., cxii., Cx ix., i. cxlv.; Prov. (vide Rashi in loco) is purely gratuitous.




EDUCATION                    728               EDUCATION
occurs already in Gen. iv. 17, and Enoch ii., the B.C., has the merit of having introduced superior
son of Jared (Gen. v. 21) whom tradition celebrates schools into every large provincial town, and oras the teacher of several sciences [ENOCH], we dained that all the youths from the age of sixteen
find that Bezaleel and Aholiab were qualified by should visit them  (Kethuboth, Jer. viii. II), inGod as teachers l(     r a  iljll) in certain depart- troducing Government education.  So popular did
ments; the Psalmist speaks of his having had many  these schools become, that whilst in te pre-exile
period the very name of schools did not exist, we
teachers (i~tl'I 41-7  hD, cxix. 99); both    now find in a very short time no less than eleven
teachers and pupils are mentioned in connection different expressions for school, eg.,
with the Temple choir (i Chron. xv. 22; xxv. 8), 
and the prophets who, by virtue of their superior tXo-os, or DDvS -= i\e6s (Midrash Coh. 91);
piety, high attainments, large acquaintance with  S31    or   D  = -xv      (Midrash Shir Hathe political affairs of the world, delivered public sir, 15, a);        or more frequently
lectures on the festivals (2 Kings iv. 22, 23) in- si,  a; (Jebam. 24, b; Aboth. v. 4); rnl
structed young men who aspired to a better educa-                            th. v. ) 
tion in order to fit themselves for public service tl, house of learning (Jonath. Exod. xxxiii.
(I Sam. x. 5, IO, etc.; 2 Kings ii. 3, etc.; iv. 38, 7);'DI 1 n31, the house of books (Midrash Echa,
etc.; vi. I, etc.)  As for the so-called school of 70, b); "1l"D nR1, the house of the teacher (ibid.
prophets, no such term occurs in the 0. T.     77, b); 12 no1:, the house of the master (Baba
2. Education from the return from Babylon to Bathra, 21, a); -?lln  t, the house of instructhe close of the Talmud.-A new epoch in the tion (Gittin, 58, a);,1flW, or fnz?1D, the seat,
education of the Jews began with their return i.e., where the disciples sat at the feet of their
from Babylon. In the captivity, the exiled Jews master; Q:l:, the vineyard (Rashi on Jebam.
had to a great extent forgotten their vernacular 42, b); and NSCD, an array, where the disciples
Hebrew, and they became incompetent to under- were arrayed according to their seniority and acstand their sacred oracles. Ezra, the restorer of quirements (Chulin, 173, b). The etymologies of
the Law, as he is called, found it therefore neces- some of these words, and the signification of the
sary, immediately on their return to Jerusalem, to others, give us, in a very striking manner, the
gather around him those who were skilled in the progressive history of Jewish education, and tell
Law, and with their assistance trained a number of us what foreign elements were introduced into
public teachers. The less distinguished of these Jewish pedagogy.  Some idea may be formed of
teachers went into the provincial towns of Judaea, the deep root juvenile education had struck in the
gathered disciples, and formed synagogues; whilst hearts of the Jews from the following declaration
the more accomplished of them remained in Jeru- in the Talmud:-' The world is preserved by the
salem, became members of the Great Synagogue, breath of the children in the schools.'' A town
and collected large numbers of young men, whom  in which there is no school must perish.'' Jeruthey instructed in all things appertaining to the salem  was destroyed because the education of
Law, in the prophets, and in the sayings of the children was neglected' (Sabbath II9, 6).
sages of old (Ecclus. ii. 9- I; Mishna, Aboth. i. I).  As the national education of this period is that
Scrolls were given to children, upon which were which the apostles and the first disciples of Christ
written passages of Scripture, such as Shema (i. e., received, and as this must be of the utmost imDeut. vi. 4), or the Hallel (i. e., Ps. cxiv.-cxviii., portance and interest to Christians of the present
cxxxvi.), the history of the creation to the deluge day, we shall now briefly state what the Talmud
(Gen. i.-viii. I), or Lev. i. I8 (comp. Jer. Me- and the Midrashim consider to constitute the progilla, iii. I; Gittin, 60, a; Soferim, v. 9). The per education of a respectable Jew, and give their
course of study pursued in the metropolis was notions of schools and the mode of instruction.
more extensive (Prolog. to Ecclus., and Ecclus. We must begin with the schools. A school or
xxxviii. 24, etc.; xxxix. I, etc.), that of provincial teacher was required for every five and twenty
towns more limited, whilst the education of the children; when a community had only forty chilsmall and more remote places or villages almost dren they might have one master and an assistant
exclusively depended upon what the inhabitants (Baba Bathra, 21, a). Schools must neither be
learned when they came up to Jerusalem to cele- established in the most densely crowded parts of
brate the festivals, and was therefore very insig- the town (Pesachim, II2, a), nor near a river
nificant.  Hence the phrase,'~Nti  CQl, country which has to be crossed by an insecure bridge
people, came to denote the uneducated, the illiter- (Baba Bathra, 21), so as not to endanger the
ate; just as paganus, or pagan, a countryman or health or lives of the children. The proper age
villager, is for a similar reason used for heathen; for a boy to go to school is six years (Kethuboth,
whilst urbanus, urbane, or an inhabitant of a city, 5, a); before that time the father must instruct
denotes an educated man.                       his son. Thus it is related, that R. Chija b.
The schools now began to increase in import- Abba would never eat his breakfast before he had
ance, and the intercourse of the Jews with the repeated with his son the lesson which he gave him
Babylonians, the Persians, and the Greeks, widened on the previous day, and taught him at least one
their notions of education, and made them study new verse (Kiddush, 30, a). At the age of five a
foreign languages and literature, and Hebraize boy had to study the Bible, at ten the Mishna, and
their philosophy (Eccl. xii. 12).  The Essenes, at fifteen the Talmud (Aboth. v. 21). Great care
who found it necessary to separate themselves from  was taken that the books from which instruction
the nation because of their foreign innovations was imparted should be correctly written (Pesachim,
[ESSENES], also devoted themselves to the educa- II2, a), and that the lessons taught, especially from
tion of the children; but their instruction was con- the Bible, should be in harmony with the capacifined to the divine law and to morals (Joseph. ties and inclinations of the children (Aboda Zara,
BW4e. fud. xi. 8. I2).  Simon b. Shetach, 80   I9, a; Berach. 63, a), practical (Kiddush. 40, b),




EDUCATION                    729               EDUCATION
few at a time, but weighty (Vajikra Rabba, ciii.)  JOSE b. Joeser ofZereda, and      B. C.
The parents never ceased to watch that their chil-  a  Jose b. Jochanan of Jerusalem, the
dren should be in the class at the proper time.     first pair (nItt)   -       -  - I70-140
We are told that Rabba b. Huna never partook of  b JEHOSHUAH b. Perachja, and
his breakfast till he had taken his son to school  NATAI of Arabela     -    -   - I40-110
(Kiddush. 30, a). Josephus therefore did not at   SIMON b. Shetach, their pupil, and
all exaggerate, when, writing against Apion, he  c JEHUDAH b. Tabai     -      - -II-65
said,'our principal care of all is, to educate our  d  SHEMAJA, and
children' (Cont. Apion, i. I2).                   ABTALION* --                       65-30
Besides these elementary schools, which were    HILLEL I., the Great, the Babychiefly intended for popular education, there were  lonian, in whose family the Presialso superior colleges, at first confined to Jerusalem,  dency became hereditary for fifteen
under the management of the presidents and vice-    generations (A.D. IO-415). He was
presidents of the Sanhedrin, the Sopherim, or       first with MENACHEM, and then'scribes,' and'doctors,' as they are called in the  with SHAMMAI, who founded a
N. T., and members of the Sanhedrin, who made       separate school  -    - B.C. 30-I0 A.D.
it one of their principal objects to train young men  The former was designated the
destined to become the teachers and judges of       school of Hillel, which had eighty
Israel, and the bearers of'the traditions of the   disciples, called (55"Fi n  crt)
fathers' (Aboth. i. I). Gradually these academies   te elders of the house of Hillel,
were multiplied in the metropolis, and spread over  amongst whom were Jonathan ben
all the countries where the Jews resided. Akbara,   Uziel the Targumist, Dossa b.
Lydda, Ushach, Sepphoris, Tiberias, Iabne, Nares,   Harchinas, Jonathan his brother
Nahardea, Machuza, Selki, Shakan-Zib (El-Sib),      and Jochanan b. Zakkai; wilst
Pumbadita, Sora, and Alexandria, in the process     the latter was denominated the
of time became distinguished for their seats of     school of Shammai, the immediate
learning. The following are the presidents and      disciples or elders of which (Opt
vice-presidents of the colleges, who were the de-     W n 1) were Baba b. Buta,
positories of the traditions of the fathers, and the  Dotai of Stome, and Zadok, the
supreme arbiters in the sphere of morals and edu-   originator of the Zealots.        A. D.
cation, together with the most distinguished mas-  SIMON b. Hillel I.        -    -   10-30
ters and disciples under each presidency, both in  GAMALIEL I. b. Simon I., called HaPalestine and Babylon, to the close of the Talmud,  Zaken   e elder, the teacher of the
in their chronological order:                       apostle Paul   -    -    -    -  30-50
THE TANAIM EPOCH.                      B.C.       SIMON II. b. Gamaliel I.   -    -  50-70
SIMON the Just or Pious    -   -    -300      JOCHANAN b. Zakkai, + founder of the
ANTIGONUS of Soho     -    -   - 200-170        school of Jabne or Jamina.    -  68-80
PALESTINE.                                     BABYLON.
GAMALIEL II. of Jabne b. Simon II.            Nahardea, the centre of learning since
and Eleazar b. Azzariah, who was for          the Babylonian exile, and the seat
a little time president in the place of       of the Rector-General of all the
Gamaliel.  Here are to be mentioned           Babylonian colleges.  It was deEliezer b. Hyrkanus, brother-in-law           stroyed through the adventurer Papa
of Gamaliel, and founder of the school        b. Nazar, in the year 259 A.D.
at Lydda, which continued the only
seat of learning in Southern Judaea for
several centuries; Josuah b. Chananja,
who established a school at Bekiin,
in the valley between Jabne and
Lydda; Ismael b. Eliesa, the founder
of the school known by the name BeR. Ismael; Aquila, the translator of
the Bible, R. Ilai, R. Chalifta, Bar-  A.D.
Cochba, the false Messiah...   8o-II6
SIMON II., b. Gamaliel II., and R. Na-        R. Chanina, nephew of R. Josuah,
than, vice-president, author of the           formed a college in Nachor-Pacor,
Mishna or Tosiffta, which goes by his        in the neighbourhood of Nahardea,
name, and of a commentary on Aboth.           of which he became president; and
* Graetz is of opinion that Shammai and Abta- four presidents-viz., Hillel I., Simon I., Gamaliel
lion had the presidency only to B.c. 37; that I., and Simon II.; and also exerted himself in
between this year and Hillel's becoming president behalf of the deposed president Gamaliel II., in
six years and six months intervened, and that the  whose place R. Jochanan was elected, and offiBene Bethrce (:2n1'~3), which he does not take  ciated a few years, but whose reinstalment he at
to be patronymic, but regards as gentilic, denoting  last brought about, so that he was actually the
inhabitants of Bethyra, were presidents (comp. contemporary offive presidents.
Frankel, Monatschrift, 1852, p. 112, etc.)      + A town near the coast of the Mediterranean Sea,
t He lived upwards of a hundred years, survived between Joppa and the once Philistian town Ashdod.




EDUCATION                     730                EDUCATION
PALESTINE-Contiizzed.                            BABYLON- Continzued.
The distinguished men of this pre-     A.D.      R. Nechanja or Achija was vice-pre-    A.D.
sidency are, R. Judah b. Ilai of                 sident...                        38-140
Ushah; R. Jose b. Chalafta, of Sepphoris, author of the history called
Seder Olam; R. Jochanan, of Alexandria; R. Simon b. Jochai of Galilee,
the reputed originator of the Kabala,
and author of the far-famed Zohar..  140-163
TEHUDAH I., the Holy, Ha-Nasi, b.                R. Shila was the Rector-General at
Simon III., editor of the Mishna, and            Nahardea; R. Nathan, the last
called Rabbi.   His celebrated dis-              Tana, and R. Chija, were both educiples, who also became heads of                 cated here. Abba Areka, who also
schools, were called semi- Tanaim, and           was a student here, and afterwards
perfected  their master's work, the              went to Palestine to finish his studies
Mishna; these were R. Janai, whose               under Jehudah I., brought with him
school was at Akbara; R. Chija                   on his first return to Babylon (189
Achija, Ushaja the elder, surnamed               A.D.) the complete Mishna of his'the father of the Mishna;' and Abba             master...          circa    140-190
Areka, surnamed Rab, the founder of
the school at Pumbadita..   63-I93
GAMALIEL III. b. Jehudah I., in whose            Samuel the astronomer, also called
presidency the college was transferred           Mar-Samuel, Arioch, and Jarchini,
from Jabne to Tiberias...   193-220    succeeded R. Shila as rector of the
college at Nahardea.                  190-247
THE AMORAIM EPOCH.
JEHUDAH II. b. Simon III., also called           ABBA AREKA, surnamed Rab, having
Rabbi, the teacher of Origen. The                returned to his native place a second
teachers of this period were, R. Cha-            time, founded a school at Sora,
ninah, the most distinguished disciple           which maintained its celebrity for
of Jehudah I., who founded a school at           nearly 800 years, and which attracted
Sepphoris; R. Simlai, the celebrated             about I200 students in the lifetime
Haggadist, who reduced the law of                of its founder.  He was the presiMoses to 613 commandments (a'FT                  dent of it twenty-eight years.       219-247
r1VX); R. Jose of Maon; R. Chag-               SAMUEL JARCHINI, rector of the college
gai, R. Jehudah b. Nachmani, etc..  220-270     at Nahardea, is elected rector-general
of all the schools in Babylon..   247-257
R. HANA became rector-general; he
had only 800 students, as, during his
rectorate, R. Jehudah b. Jecheskel
founded a school at Pumbadita, and
R. Chasda founded another school
at Sora, which attracted many of his
disciples.  Nahardea is destroyed
(259); the students emigrate into
the neighbourhood of the Tigris, and
found a school.....    257-297
Tiberias.    A.D.                 Sora.       A.D.             PUMBADITA.
GAMALIEL IV. b.JehudahII. 270-300  CHASDA of Kafri, founder of  R. JEHUDAH b. Jesheskel,
this school, is rector..  293-309  founder of the school at
Pumbadita, is elected rector-general of all the colleges, and officiates two
years..              297-299
HILLEL II. b. Gamaliel IV.                                       CHASDA of Kafri, founder and
introduced the new calen-                                       rector of the school at Sora,
dar, and is said by Epipha-                                     is elected rector-general.  299-309
nius to have embracedChris-    RABBA b. Huna, succeeded        RABBA b. Nachmani, who suctianity. The distinguished       Chasdi to the rectory, and     ceeded Chasda, revived the
teachers of this period were    when he died the college         college to such a degree
R. Jona, R. Jose, and Tan-       was without a rector for        that he obtained 200oo stuchuma, b. Abba, the re-         nearly 50 years..    309-320   dents..             309-330
nowned  Haggadist, and                                         JOSEPH b. Chija the blind.
reputed author of the Mid-                                       He translated the prophets
rash Tanchuma..  330-365                                    of the 0. T. into Chaldee. 330-333
ABAJI b. Cajlil, surnamed
Nachmani, the nephew of
Rabba, succeeded R. Joseph the blind...  333-338
RABBA b. Joseph, b. Chama,
who founded the school at
Machuza, was elected rector
after Abaji...     338-352
NACHMAN b. Isac held the
rectorate four years..  352-356




EDUCATION                     731                 EDUCATION
Tiberias-Continued.              Sora-Contzined.              PUMBADITA —Continued.
GAMALIEL V. b. Hillel II.  A.D.  ASHI b. Simai, surnamed  A.D.  R. CHAMA of Nahardea,    A. ).
The teachers of this period     Rabban (our teacher), re-       Nachmani's successor, held
were R. Jeremiah, R. Jacob      suscitated the college of       the rectorate 19 years..356-377
b. Abun, etc. etc..  365-385   Sora, and was its rector 52   R. ZEBID b. Ushaja.     377-385
JEHUDAH IV. b. Gamaliel V. 385-400  years, during which time    R. DIMIi b. Chanina of Naseven rectors died in Pum-      hardea...      385-388
badita. Ashi immortalized     RAFREM b. Papa...  388-400
Gamaliel the last (;OI91)         his name by collecting the    R. KAHANA. The celebratb. Jehudah IV...400-425     Babylonian Talmud.  372-417   ed men of this period were
Mar-Sutra, Fluna b. Nathon, etc...    400-411
MAR-SUTRA..            4:1-414
R. ASHA b. Raba...   414-4I9
R. Gebiha of Be-Katil..  49-433
R. JEMAR, or Mlar-7emzar,
contracted Maremar, succeeded R. Ashi as rector of
the college, and officiated
about 5 years...  427-432
R. IDI b. Abin, a disciple of
R. Ashi, officiated as rector
for 20 years....432-452  REFRE II....  433-443
R. NACHMAN b. Huna..   452-455  R. RECHAMAI...    443-456
MAR bar R. Ashi, who continued collecting the Talmud, which his father began.                  455-468  R. SAMA b. Raba..     456-471
RABBA TUSFAN. Sora, where
one of the oldest Jewish
universities stood, was now
destroyed by the Persian      R. Jos....  471-520
king Firuz....  468-474  R. Samuel b. Abahu.
RABINA II., who, with R.
Jose and his colleagues,
completed the Talmud..  468-540
At first the organization of these schools or them,'What is the best thing for man to possess?'
colleges was very simple.    Besides the presi-  One replied,'a kind nature;' another,'a good
dent or rector, who was the chief teacher, and   companion;' another,'a good neighbour;' anan assistant, there were no offices or ranks.    other,'the power toforeseeconsequences;' whilst
Gradually, however, superior and    subordinate  R. Eleazer said,'a good heart.' Whereupon R.
ranks involuntarily developed  themselves, and   Jochanan remarked,' I prefer R. Eleazer's answer
ultimately assumed the following form.     The   to yours, for in it all your answers are comprecollege which met during certain months of the   hended' (Aboth. ii. 9). Who is not renminded
year, and was generally called  ietlhiba (K-1D), thereby of the questions put by the Saviour to his
seat of learning, was presided over by the chief disciples in Mark viii. 27-30?
Rabbi, who was called Resh-MethJiba (Sonpe Vtl'),  Allegories, riddles, stories, etc., formed another
and was elected by the school. Next to this Resh- channel whereby instruction was communicated in
Methiba or rector came the Resh-Kalla (VEy      these schools.  The oppressive heat of the Eastern
i3), tze ci ef of lte assembly, whose office it was  climate, which was especially felt in the crowded
to expound or simplify to the students during the  college, where, as we have seen, I200 disciples
first three weeks of the session the theme upon  were sometimes present, tended to make the stuwhich the rector had determined to lecture. In   dents drowsy when a hard subject was discussed
later times there were seven Rashze-Kalloth (S i The wise teacher, therefore, when he perceived
that the attention began to fag, at once intront3), such interpreters composed of the associ- duced a merry anecdote, or a monstrous story, or
ates (Q^n) and members of the Sanhedrin, vary- propounded a ludicrous riddle, which immediately
ing in rank.  The president or teacher occupied  aroused the disciples, and enabled the master to
a raised seat, the interpreters sat next to the rector go on with his theme.  Hence the abundance of
on lower seats, whilst the disciples sat below them, both sublime and ridiculous parables and stories
at tie feet of their teachers (Acts xii. 3).     dispersed throughout the Talmud and MidrashThe mode or manner in which instruction was im, which record these lectures; and hence also
communicated was chiefly catechetical.  After the  the parabolic mode of teaching adopted by our
master had delivered his dicta or theme, the disci- Saviour.
ples in turn asked different questions (Luke ii. 46),  The extent of instruction, or what constituted
which he frequently answered by parables or coun- education in these schools, can hardly be defined.
ter questions, a line of conduct also pursued by  An unbiassed reader will see from a most cursory
Christ in accordance with the custom of the time  glance at any of the discussions recorded in the
(comp. Matt. xxii. I7-22; Luke xx. 2-4, etc.)   Talmud, that all manner of subjects were brought
Sometimes the teacher introduced the subject by  forward in these colleges.  Theology, philosophy,
simply asking a question connected with the theme jurisprudence, astronomy,  astrology, medicine,
he proposed to propound, the replies given by the  botany, geography, arithmetic, architecture, were
different disciples constituted the discussion, which  all themes which alternately occupied the attention
the master at last terminated by declaring which of of masters and disciples. In fact the Talmud,
the answers was the most appropriate.     Thus which has preserved the topics discussed in the
R. Jochanan b. Zakkai (B.C. 30) on one occa- colleges, is an encyclopaedia of all the sciences of
sion wanted to inform his disciples what was the  that time, and shews that in many departments of
most desirable thing for man to get; he then asked  science these Jewish teachers have anticipated




EDUCATION                   732                EDWARDS
modem discoveries. It would require far more owing to the position which women occupied in
space than the limits of this article allow to quote the East, yet it must not be supposed that it was
instances in confirmation of this; we can, there- altogether neglected. The fact that mothers had
fore, only. refer the reader to the treatises quoted  to take part in the education of their children
below.                                       would, of itself, shew that their own education
Besides the abstruse theological and scientific must have been attended to. We are, however,
subjects, etiquette occupied a prominent part in the not confined to this inference. The 3Ist chapter
lectures of the college, and was regarded as form- of Proverbs gives us a description of what was the
ing an essential part of education.  The most education of a woman and a housewife in the 0.
minute directions are given as to the behaviour of T. In the Talmud we find the daughters of R.
students towards their parents, their teachers, their Samuel were even first-rate students of the Halacha
superiors in age or rank. Every one met in the  (Kethuboth, 23, a; Jer. ibid. ii. 6). R. Jochanan
street must be saluted (Aboth. iv. Io); not to b. Napucha not only urges the study of Greek as
respond to a salutation is characterised as commit- a necessary part of a man's education, but recomting a robbery (Berach. 6, b). An ordinary man mends it also for women as a desirable accomis to be saluted with the words,'Peace be with  plishment (Jerusal. Sota, towards the end). To
thee;' a teacher,'Peace be with thee, my teacher shew the desirableness of uniting with Hebrew the
and my master!' (Rashi Berach. 27, b); and a study of Greek, this celebrated rabbi, in accordking,'Peace be with thee, my king! peace!' ance with the ancient practice, illustrates it by a
(Gittin, 62, a).  Salutations in the house of prayer passage of Scripture (Gen. ix. 23): — Because the
are not allowed (Derech Eretz, IO). One must two sons of Noah, Shem and Japheth, unitedly
rise before a learned man (Kethuboth, 103, b), and covered the nakedness of their father with one garbefore the hoary head, even if he be a non-Israelite ment; Shem (representing the Jews) obtained the
(Kiddush, 33, b). When three persons walk toge- fringed garment, the Talith; Japheth (representing
ther, the superior is to walk in the middle (Erub. the Greeks) got the philosopher's garment, i.e.,
54, b); the teacher must always be on the right of Pallium,' which ought to be united again (Midrash
the pupil in walking (Joma, 37, a). One must not Rabba, Gen. xxxvi.) Heme R. Abuha was not
leave a friend without asking his permission (Derech only himself a consummate Greek scholar, but had
Eretz, 2); when leaving one's teacher, the disciple his daughter instructedin this classicallanguage, since
must say,'I am dismissed;' whereupon the re- he regarded it as necessary to a good female educasponse is,' Depart in peace' (Berach. 64, a). tion, and quoted R. Jochanan as an authority upon
Never enter a house suddenly and without notice this subject (Jerusal. Sabbath, iii. I; Sota, to(Keth. 62, b); nor sit down before the superior wards the end).
has seated himself (Jerusal. Keth. 25); nor lean in  Literature. -The best literature upon this subject
the company of superiors (Derech Eretz, sec. vi.) is the Talmud and Midrashim, but, as these are' Seven things are seen in the conduct of an edu- not generally accessible, we must mention the mascated man, and seven in the behaviour of an un- terly works of Zunz, Die Gottesdienstlichen Vor.
educated person.  I. An educated man will be trge der   uden, Berlin, I832; Frankel, Der
quiet in the presence of one more educated than  Gerichtliche Beweis, Berlin, 1846; Monatschrift, i.
himself; 2. Will not interrupt any one speaking; 509, etc.; Wunderbar, Biblisch- Talmudische Medi3. Will not give a hasty reply; 4. Will ask ap- cin, Riga und Leipzig, I85o-6o; Lewysohn, Die
propriate questions; 5. Will give suitable answers; Zoologie des Talmuds, Frankfurt-am-Main, i858;
6. Will answer the first thing first, and the last Graetz, Geschichteder uden, vols. iii. and iv.; Benthing last; and 7. Will candidly say when he  Chananja, vol. i. 417, 460, 512; vol. ii. 66, 167,
does not know anything. The reverse of these 210, 258; vol. iii. 539.-C. D. G.
things will be seen in the uneducated' (Aboth.
v. IO).                                         EDWARDS, JOHN (I637-I716). He was of
Another most essential part of education was the St. John's College, Cambridge, and became minislearning of a trade. Thus R. Gamaliel declares, ter of Trinity Church in that city in 1664, and
Ln,-^l  ^man: ^ne     o ^1s? 1;l^t C A Y   wn Lr ^ vicar of St. Peter's, Colchester, in I676. He was, learning, no matter of what kind, if naccom- a most voluminous writer. Of his biblical works,
iW, learning, no mat/er of what kind, if unaccomn- the following are the most valuable: —Discourse conpanied by a trade, ends in nothing and leads to sin      are the m   valuable   scose co
(Aboth. ii. 2).  R. Judah b. Ilai, called'the cerningthe authority,stile, andjerfction ofthe books
wise,'' the first orator,' had a trade, and used to f the 0. and N.  ith a contiued llustration
say,'labour honours the labourer' (Nedarim, 49, of dffclt texts, 3 vols. 8vo, Lond. 1693; Enquiry
~~~~say,'lburhnor teT,4,into Four Remarkable Texts of the N. 2, Camb.
b). R. Ismael, the great astronomer and powerful  i69  Furter    r   to Remarkable Texts of
opponent of Gamaliel II., was a needle-maker (Jer. I6;the 0. andF, Lond. i 6; emarxaberexts f
Berach. iv. I); R. Jose b. Chalafta of Sepphoris tze. andN S., Lond. I69; Exercitations
was a tanner (Sabbath, 49, b). These Rabbins, Crztcal Phziosophical, Hisorecal, Theolog.ca2,  on
like the Apostle Paul, gloried in the fact that they seral Im tanl Edwaces ofwitihe   andthe  Lond.
could maintain themselves, and teach independently  I702m   In acll  dwards wvor ing   there are the
of payment, and hence took a pride in their respec- be no ordinary scholar, says Orme (Bibl. Bib.
tive trades which were attached to their names,
viz., Rabbi wochanran, the shoetmaker QNsa   p. I63),'who does not find instruction in them.'
9'15bDM); Rabbi Simon, the weaver (1~1W )tW"~);
Rabbi yoseph, the carpenter ('1 DI':).  This  EDWARDS, THOMAS, was born at Coventry
will account for the apparent anomaly that the in 1729, and died at Nuneaton, of which he was
apostle Paul, a thorough student, should have been vicar, in Dec. 1785. He wrote Prologomena in
a tent-maker.                                Libros V. T. poeticos, Cantab. 1762, in which he
Though female education was necessarily limited, defended Hare's views of Hebrew versification,




EGHEL                     733                   EGOZ
sometimes with ingenuity, but seldom satisfactorily  EGLON ('i].; Sept.'EyXd/u), one of the fine
(Orme).  He is the author also of a Translalion. 
of the Psalms, Lond. I755, and of a Dissertation  Canaanitish towns which formed the confederacy
designed to shew that the various readings in the  against the Gibeonites, under the king of Jerntexts of Scripture do not affect its divine authority.  alem (Josh. x. 3).  It lay in the Shephelah or
Cantab. 1798.-W. L. A.                        plain of Philistia, near Lachish (xv. 33, 39). After
the victory at Gibeon, and the death of the five
EGHEL ((lt), the proper Hebrew name for kings at Makkedah, Joshua captured in succession
Lachish, Eglon, and other cities, along the southcalf, of which the feminine is Egk' lah, usually ern border of Palestine (x. 34, sq.) In the Vatican
rendered heifer in the A. V. (Gen. xv. 9; Deut. text of the Septuagint the name Eglon is not found,
xxi. 3, 4, 6; Judg. xiv. I8; I Sam. xvi. 2; Jer.'OoXXb&. being mostly substituted for it.  The
1.; Hos. x. i ), sometimes young cow (Is. vii. Alexandrine codex reads EyXdu in Josh. xii. I2,
2I). The Eghel is called.ip... (Lev. ix. 2;  and xv. 39; and'05oXX&o elsewhere. Eusebius'young calf,' A. V.)   Maimonides says that and Jerome affirm that the two places were identical (Onozast. s. v. Eglon); but a comparison of'wherever l2) is used, it denotes a bull of a year Josh. xv. 35 and 39 proves that this is an error.
old' (De Sacrif. c. I, sec. xiv., quoted by Bochart, The error probably originated in the careless manHieroz. ii. 28); but as the feminine is used to de- ner in which the translators or copyists of the Sepnote an animal three years old (Gen. xv. 9), and  tuagint wrote the proper names.
one fit for putting to the plough (Judg. xiv. i8), it  On the road from Eleutheropolis to Gaza, nine
is probable that Eghel had also the same extent of miles from the former and twelve from the latter,
application.  In the cases, however, where it is are the ruins of Ajlan, which mark the site of the
actually used in the Bible, it is always the young ancient Eglon. The site is now completely decalf that is intended. Various derivations of the solate. The ruins are mere shapeless heaps of
word     have been suggested. Bochart derives it rubbish, strewn over a low, white mound. The
absence of more imposing remains is easily acfrom.Y,'rotundus quia proe caeteris pecudibus counted for. The private houses, like those of
formae est maxime teretis proecipue cum saginatur;' Damascus, were built of sun-dried bricks; and the
Lmons.r s.t~~ ttemples and fortifications of the soft calcareous
Simonis traces it to, in the sense of spring, leastone of the district, which soon crumbles away.
bound (comp. Ps. xxix. 6), and of this Fiirst ap- A large mound of rubbish, strewn with stones and
proves (H. W. B., in loc.); Gesenius prefers de- pieces of pottery, is all we can now expect to mark
riving it from a word retained in the Ethiopic, de- the sites of an ancient city in this plain.  (Robinnoting ftlus, embryo, hence the young of animals; son, B. R. ii. 49; Thomson, The Land and the
and others deduce it from ~l, in the sense of to Book, 563.)-   L. P.
break through, hence to be born, hence that which
is born. For calf-worship, see MOSCHOLATRY.-    EGOZ ( V.). This word occurs in the Song of
W. L. A.                                      Solomon, vi. I I,'I went into the garden of nuts,'
EGLAH    (rT^T ), one of David's wives, mother where probably'walnuts' are intended. The HeT:.                             brew name is evidently the same as the Persian
of Ithream.  She was with David in Hebron (2
Sam. iii. 5; I Chron. iii. 3).                j  gowz, which has been converted by the Arabs
EGLAIM    (M:~; Sept.'AyaXe[cM). A place intoj.- jowz, by a process common in the case of
named only in Is. xv. 8, where it is referred to as  yother words beginning with the interchangeon the boundary of Moab. It is supposed by able lettersgafand jz. In both languages these
some (Hitzig, Knobel, etc.) to be the same as En- words, wen they stand alone, signify the walnut
Eglaim    (Ezek. xlvii. IO).  Gesenius and Von  nz-b beingthewalnut-tree: whenused in comgouz-bun being the walnut-tree: when used in comRaumer follow the Onomasticon in identifying it position they may signify the nut of any other tree;
with Agallim, a place eight Roman miles to the -thus jouz-i-boa is the nutmeg, jouz-i-hindi is the
south of Areopolis, and probably that mentioned  Indian or cocoa-nut, etc.  So the Greeks emIndian or cocoa-nut, etc.  So the Greeks emby Josephus under the name of "A'yaXXa (Antiq. ployed Kdpvov, and the Romans nux, to denote the
xiv. I. 4); but this lies too far within the boun- walnut; which last remains in modem languages,
daries of Moab to answer the conditions of the as Ital. noce, Fr. noix, Span. nuez, and Ger. nusz.
passage in Isaiah. En-Eglaim, at the southern  The walnut was, however, also called Kcpvov
extremity of the Dead Sea, would be on the border,carXcK6v (Diosc. i. 179), royal nut, and also
of Moab.-W. L. A.                             IIepalK6v, or Persian, from having been so highly
EGON (IT*Ly; Sept.E        akingof Moab, *  esteemed, and from having been introduced into
EGLON (1p5;t Sept.'Ey\Xc), a king of Moab, Greece from Persia: the name juglans has been
who, assisted by the Ammonites and Amalekites, derived from Jovis, glans.  That the walnut was
subdued the Israelites beyond the Jordan, and the highly esteemed in the East we learn from Abulsouthern tribes on this side the river, and made pharagius, who states that Al Mahadi, the third
Jericho the seat, or one of the seats, of his govern- caliph of the Abassides,'sub juglande sub qua
ment. This subjection to a power always present sedere solebat, sepultus est.' That it is found in
must have been more galling to the Israelites than  Syria has been recorded by several travellers.
any they had previously suffered. It lasted eighteen  Thevenot found it in the neighbourhood of Mount
years, when (B.C. I428) they were delivered, through  Sinai, and Belon says of a village not far from
the instrumentality of Ehud, who slew the Moab- Lebanon, that it was'bien ombrage d'ormeaux et
itish king (Judg. iii. I2-30).-J. K.          de noyers.' That it was planted at an early period




EGYPT                    734                  EGYPT
is well known, and might be easily proved from a of Ham; and in Ps. cv. 24, Egypt is called'9
variety of sources.                           n,'the land of Ham.' In Ps. lxxviii. 51, menThe walnut, or jziglans reoia of botanists, be-'
longs to the natural family of juglandeae, of which  tion is made of'the tents of Ham;' and from this
the species are found in North America and in patriarch may be derived the hieroglyphic name of
Northern Asia. The walnut itself extends from  Egypt KEM, with which also are to be compared
Greece and Asia Minor over Lebanon and Persia, the Coptic forms X&A2kQ XHtR,.  I in the
probably all along the Hindoo Khoosh to the Hi- 
malayas, and is abundant in Cashmere (Him. Bol. Memphitic dialect; Kfl.C, KHl.H     in the
p. 342). The walnut-tree is well known as a lofty,
wide-spreading tree, affording a grateful shade, and Theban; and KIHJLI in the Bashmuric. This
of which the leaves have an agreeable odour when name of Egypt,' Chemi,' is possibly the origin of
alcheyny, chemistry. But it must also be observed,
that in the ancient Egyptian language Kem  or
~/fl^-,         Khem signifies a dark red colour generally, and
the chief character with which it is written is
the tail of the crocodile, which varies from a slaty
^  \\Y/'  l     to a reddish brown.  The Arabic term for the
\^  ^  T,>                  country, which is in use at the present day, is  s
Ado\ &'  V^^        rnsmisr, which, according to some, means'red mud.'
~ S_-^)<  \ j  //T^     Gesenius mentions a derivation of Mizraim from
the Coptic JUi.eTOCpO, or'kingdom,' which
some have proposed with small probability. For
x-* ~^5Ai'7U7 T A            T0yvwrros, he suggests the Sanskrit agupta, zzni^*>;-^^'Kisl ltuzs, with as little. Better is that given by Mr.
PRO-..   ~~;~~ ~* _.\ \Poole-viz., atla'y7rTos, the latter being a
proper name perhaps equivalent to Coptos, the
^P t^/O ~Coptic KeCrTO, and Arabic'., a town in
Upper Egypt. In hieroglyphics, Coptos is Kebthor, etc. It is singular that among the sons of Miz.
~~~j I~          ~raim are mentioned the Caphtorim, and in Jer. xlvii.
4, lt'a4-'"S, the habitation or country of Caphtor,
which is very near Ayv7rros. Upper Egypt, it is
supposed, was also known in Scripture by the name
229 Walnut-Juglans regia.         of Pathros (Jer. xliv. 15); in reality, Pathros and
bruised. It seems formerlyCaphtor were two districts, both probably of Upper
bruised. It seems formerly to have been thought Egypt. Rahab,  1, also, is supposed to be a
unwholesome to sit under its shade, but this ap- yp.   ab  l    a  so,   supposed to be a
pears to be to s    de  flowers begin to open name of Egypt in the Bible; if so, it perhaps occurs
pears to be incorrect. The flowers begin to open as early as Job, xxvi. 12. According to M. Jacotin,
in April, and the fruit is ripe in September and Eypt contais 1,20 suare geograpical miles,
October. The tree is much esteemed for the ex-Egyp contams I     5200 square geographical miles
cellence of its wood; and the kernel of the nut is of which not more than 9582 are ever watered or
cellence of its wood; and the kernel of the nut is fertilized by the Nile, and of these only about 5626
valued not only as an article of diet, but for the oilfertlzed y t  Nile, and of these only about 5626
are under cultivation. * The country lies between
which it yields. Being thus known to, and highly 3  7/ and 240 u'N. lat., and 270 13' and 3etee 
valued by, the Greeks in early times, it is more3   and    t I N. t t. and 27~ i3/ and 34~ 26
than probable that, if not indigenous in Syria, it we find that the boundaries on the E. and S. were
was introduced there at a still earlier period, and considered to be bigdol and Sne according to
that therefore it may be alluded to in the above  d        e   igd   n     ne acord
passage, more especially as Solomon has said,!' Ithe marginal rendering, which is to be preferred.
passage, more especially as Solomon has said,'I In the earliest times the natural division of the
made me gardens and orchards, and planted trees       r   t   e  te natra dvon o te
in them of all kind of fruits' (Eccles. ii. 5).-  country obtained-Upper Egypt, commenced above
iJ   Ft. e R. a  kn of f is  (E c s  ii      M em phis,  comprising   the  narrow   valley  as  far
as the first cataract. Lower Egypt was the plain
EGYPT.-The name by which Egypt is com- containing the Delta, the cultivated land on either
monly known in the Bible appears in a dual form, side of it, and the few miles intervening between
r~".~~D, perh~aps with reference  to the two great1  9             es. intervening between
So, perhaps with reference to the two great, the point of the Delta and Memphis. The comdmencement of the Delta was not anciently so far
divisions of the country into Upper and Lower; north of Memphis as it is at present n6rth of its
or the part through which the Nile flows in one sit  oig t the deposits  resent  rth in 
undivided stream, and that which is comprehended centuiesg to the depos of the  river in man y
within the two branches it assumes a little belowcentures d the decay of the Peusiac Branch, now
Cairo. The word A      occurring 2 Kings xix. 24, 1only a canal. Egypt, according to Ptolemy, was
The word If, occurring2  2,  divided into 44 nomes; according to Pliny, into
and Is. xxxvii. 25, which some render'Egypt,' is 46. There is no reference to these in the Bible;
better translated, as by the A. V.,' besieged places.'
Nowhere is this word rendered by the A. V.'Egypt;' perhaps, however, in Is. xix. 6, and  * Description de Z'Egypte, 2e edit., tom. xviii. 2.,
Micah vii. 12, it may have that meaning. In  p. lo0, seq.; calculated by Mr. Poole, Enc. Brit.,
Gen. x. 6, Mizraim is mentioned among the. sons art. Egypt.




l |.' _ _ __ 61 ~~~3 v' 34; 1
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EGYPT                    735                  EGYPT
but in Is. xix. 2, the,XX. render j1:1tD by probably the Coptic I&.p0.  In Jer. ii. I8, the
v6/Aos; at that time, however, there was probably 
more than one kingdom.   At the time of the Nile s called Tn^T   which is derved from  w,
earlier Czesars, the country was divided into the to be black, and means turbid or black. The
Delta, Heptanomis, and Theba's. Of these, the  o             have been thought also to mean
IIeptanomis extended from the point of the Deltawords 
to the Thebaica Phylace, and the Thebai's from  the Nile, in which case ln: will be a proper name,
thence to the first cataract.  About 400 A.D., and the phrase will be'.the Nile of Egypt.' It
Egypt was divided into four provinces, Augustam- seems unlikely, however, that the Nile should be
nica Prima and Secunda, and -Egyptus Prima and                     
Secunda. The Heptanomis was called Arcadia,so specified, and if [1 is not a proper name, the
from the emperor Arcadius, and Upper Egypt was words will read, the'brook or torrent of Egypt,'
divided into Upper and Lower Thebais.   The supposed to be a mountain stream, usually dry,
general appearance of Egypt is remarkably uni-on the borers of Egypt and Palestine, near the
form.  The Delta is a richly cultivated plain, modem El-Areesh (Numb. xxxiv. 5; Josh. xiii. 3,
varied only by the mounds of ancient cities and etc.) Some have thought that 511 is the origin of
occasional groves of palms. Other trees are sel-the word Nile; others have been anxious to find
dom met with. The valley in Upper Egypt isit in the Sanskrit Nl'a, which means dark blue
also richly cultivated. It is, however, very narrow, The Indus is called Nil ab, or'the blue river';'
and shut in by low hills, rarely higher than 300 the Sutlej also is known as'the blue river.' It
feet, which have the appearance of cliffs from the is to be observed that the Low Nile was painted
river, and are not often steep. They, in fact, form  blue by the ancient Egyptians.  The river is
the border of the desert on either side, and the turbid'and reddish throughout the year, and turns
valley seems to have been, as it were, cut out of a green about the time when the signs of rising
table-land of rock. The valley is rarely more than  commence, but not long after becomes red and
twelve miles across.  The bright green of the    turb. Te      ot     or i          sea
fields, the reddish brown or dull green colour of                    word is,'sea,
the great river, the tints of the bare yellow rocks, which corresponds to the Arab name for it, bahr,
and the deep blue of the sky, always form a plea- properly, sea; thus Nahum iii. 3,'Populous No
sant view, and often one of great beauty. The  (Thebes), whose rampart was the sea.' The hieroclimate is very equable, and to those who can bear glyphic name is Hapi, abyss, or Hapi-mou, abyss of
great heat, also healthy; indeed, in the opinion of waters. At Khartoom, I60 miles north of Sennar,.
some, the climate of Egypt is one of the finest in the Nile becomes divided into two rivers, called
the world (Cf. allusions to Egypt in Gen. xiii. Io; Bahr el-Abiad, and Bahr el-Azrak, or the white
Deut. xi. Io; ii; Zech. xiv. I8). There are, and blue river, the former flowing from the west,
however, unwholesome tracts of salt marsh which the latter from the east.  The blue river is the
are to be avoided. Rain seldom falls except on smaller of these, but it possesses the same fertilizthe coast of the Mediterranean.  At Thebes a ing qualities as the Nile, and is of the same colour.
storm will occur, perhaps, not oftener than once The sources of this river were discovered by Bruce;
in four years. The rock-formations of the valley of' those of the white river are still undiscovered.
the Nile are limestone until a little above Thebes, There is good reason to suppose that it flows from
where sandstone prevails. At the first cataract mountains south of the Equator. Most ancient
the peculiar red granite, anciently known by the writers mention seven mouths of the Nile; beginname of syenite, from Syene, bursts through the ning from the east-I, Pelusiac or Bubastite; 2,
sandstone in the bed of the Nile, forming numer- Saitic or Tanitic; 3, Mendesian; 4, Bucolic or
ous islands, and causing the rapids. From the Phatmetic (now of Damietta); 5, Sebennytic; 6,
time at which the great Pyramid was built to the Bolbitine (now of Rosetta); 7, Canopic or HePersian invasion, or a period, according to mode- racleotic, cf.'He shall smite it in the seven
rate chronology, of nearly 2000 years, Egypt was streams' (Is. xi. I5), if the Nile be meant: two
more densely populated and more extensively cul- streams only are now navigable throughout their
tivated than at the present day.  Under the extent, and these Herodotus says were originally
Romans, even, it was one of their most productive canals. Some speak of even more than seven.
provinces, and the granary of the world. For the  Chronology.-It is quite impossible to give anytwo regions of Egypt there were two different thing more than a very summary account of Egyptian
crowns-that of Upper Egypt was white; that of chronology and history here, and yet it is equally
Lower Egypt, red; together, they composed what difficult to pass it by without notice of any kind.
was called the Pschent. The sovereign of Upper It appears that from very early times the Egyptians
Egypt was called Suten, king; of Lower Egypt, were in the habit of dividing the year into three
Shebt or bee; as ruling over the whole country he seasons, each containing four months. It has been
was called Suten-shebt. Upper Egypt appears to supposed that they had a tropical year from this
have ranked before Lower Egypt, and in the division, which evidently follows natural phenoPschent the crown of the former is uppermost. mena. The Egyptians had what is called the
The first sign in the hieroglyph which is read vague year, which consisted of 12 months of 30
Suten, is a bent reed, which perhaps suggested the days, or 360 days, to which they added after the
comparison of Pharaoh to a broken reed in Scrip- twelfth month five epagomense or intercalary days.
ture.                                        This year was in use as early as about 1500 B.C.,
The Nile.-Three terms are applied to the Nile and was not abandoned till it was made a Jul.ian
in Scripture. It is called Q ~ 1 inl, or,' the river year by Augustus, B.C. 24. Another year used by
of Egp' (Gen. xv. 8 etc.' The word  orthe ancient Egyptians for astronomical and reo gy   (en. xv, e),  ligious purposes, was called the Canicular or Sothic'1T, is applied to it Ex. ii. 3, etc.  This is year. It began on the 20th July, or the day of the




EGYPT                    736                   EGYPT
heliacal rising of Sothis or Sirius, i.e., when  Egypt, and far more corroboration has thus been
Sothis rose about one hour before the sun, and  afforded than could have been anticipated. Still
consisted of 365i days. Various cycles of time there remained the chronological difficulty of the
were in use among the Egyptians. It is supposed thirty dynasties to be explained: owing, however,
that they had a tropical cycle of I500 years, or to the ingenuity of Mr. Lane and his nephew, Mr.
thereabouts, but as to its commencement great Stuart Poole, much has been done to remove
difference of opinion obtains. The Sothic cycle it.  A suggestion, first made some thirty years
was a period of 1460 Sothic or Julian, and 146I ago by Mr. Lane and adopted and worked out by
Vague years, and its commencement was marked his nephew, has shewn us that many of these
by an heliacal rising of Sothis on the first day of dynasties were not successive but contemporaneous.
the Vague year. A cycle of this kind was known  In numerous instances the kings of Manetho did
to have commenced July 20, 1322 B.C., when it is not succeed one another, but ruled together over
probable the period was instituted.           different parts of Egypt. Thus, while one dynasty
History. —All that we knew of Egyptian history  was ruling at Memphis, another would be flourishprior to the Persian invasion was (until the hiero- ing at Thebes. This contemporaneousness applies
glyphics were deciphered) contained in the frag- mainly to the first seventeen dynasties. Under the
ments of Manetho, which have survived the ravages eighteenth dynasty, Egypt was an undivided kingof time. Manetho was an Egyptian priest of the  dom, and nearly all of the subsequent dynasties
age of Ptolemy Lagus, who wrote a work on the were consecutive. It may be well to mention here
history of Egypt, and is said to have pointed out another theory of arrangement which has been
and corrected many errors in the narrative of Hero- adopted by Bunsen and his followers, who formed
dotus. Fragments of this work have been pre- their system of chronology upon a date preserved
served by Julius Africanus and Eusebius, but little by Syncellus, and attributed by him to Manetho,
more is contained in them than the names of var- but, in all probability, the invention of some perous kings who are arranged in thirty or thirty-one son bearing his name, and called the Pseudo-Manedynasties, extending from the first mortal sovereign  tho. This date ascribes a duration of 3555 years
of Egypt till the subjugation of the country by  to the thirty dynasties, and Bunsen lends himself
Darius Ochus or the conquest by Alexander.* It entirely to the scheme of chronology which he
may readily be imagined that so many dynasties of bases on this number, and which necessarily claims
kings must have required a very prolonged series of for the Egyptian monarchy a very high antiquity.
years in which to flourish, and it was this fact that The date of Menes, the first king therefore, accordso long caused the fragments of Manetho to be re- ing to Bunsen, is earlier by several centuries than
ceived with discredit by scholars.  Late years, that which we are disposed to prefer as more conhowever, have put us in possession of so many re- sistent with the Bible narrative, and less opposed
suits obtained from the monuments that we are to abstract probability. Dr. Lepsius, indeed, deable to form a better judgment of the trustworthi- mands a considerably higher epoch than even
ness of Manetho. And in proportion as we have Bunsen himself.  This extravagant chronology,
become acquainted with these results, has our however, seems to be contradicted by positive
respect for the native historian increased. It is monumental evidence. The scheme of dynasties,
certain that very many of the names preserved  according to the arrangement of Mr. Poole, is as
by him have been found on the monuments of follows:I. Thinites
2717 Menes. III. Memphites.
2650
II. 2470    IV. 2440 V. Elephantinites.
2440
VI. 2200        IX. Hermonthites.   XI. Diospolites.
2200                2200                      Shepherds.
VII. 1800                           XII. 2080     XIV. Xoites.    XV. and XVI.
VIII. I800                          XIII. 1920          2080           2080
X. 1750                                         XVII.
XVIII. 1525                         T68o
Menes, the first mortal king of Egypt, according to  now rises.' Upon this Mr. Poole remarks:'It is
Manetho, Herodotus, Eratosthenes, and Diodorus, evident that the priests told Herodotus that great
and preceded, according to the first, by gods, he- periods had elapsed since the time of Menes, the
roes, and Manes (?), VPKVCS, is accepted on all hands first king, and that, in the interval from his reign
as an historical personage. His hieroglyphic name to that of Sethon, the solar risings of stars-that is
reads Menee, and is the first on the list of the to say, their manifestations had twice fallen on
Rameseum of El-Kurneh. It is also met with those days of the vague year on which their settings
in the hieratic of the Turin Papyrus of Kings. fell in their time, and vice versd; and that the hisStrong reasons are given by Mr. Stuart Poole for torian, by a natural mistake, supposed they spoke
fixing the date of his accession at B.C. 2717 (Hore of the sun itself.' Menes appears to have been a
Egyptiacce, 94-98). As one step in his argument Thinite king, of the city of This, near Abydus, in
involves a very ingenious elucidation of a well Upper Egypt. Herodotus ascribes the building of
known statement of Herodotus, we cannot forbear the city of Memphis to him, while Manetho says
to mention it. Herodotus says, that, in the inter- that he made a foreign expedition and acquired
val from the first king to Sethon, the priest of renown, and that eventually he was killed by a hipHephoestus, the priests told him that'the sun had  popotamus. Menes, after a long reign, was sucfour times moved from his wonted course, twice ris- ceeded by his son Athothis, who was the second
ing where he now sets, and twice setting where he king of the first dynasty. Manetho says that he
built the palace at Memphis, that he was a physician,
Josephus preserves two historical fragments.  and left anatomical books; all of these statements




EGYPT                    737                   EGYPT
implying that even at this early period the Egyp- was in power.  Little is known of either the
tians were in a high state of civilization. About 9th or Ioth dynasties, which together may have
the time of Athothis, the 3d dynasty is supposed, lasted nearly 600 years, ending at the time of the
according to the scheme we think most reasonable, great Shepherd war of expulsion, which resulted
to have commenced, and Memphis to have be- in the overthrow of all the royal lines except the
come independent, giving its name to five dynasties Diospolite or Theban.  With the IIth dynasty
of kings, 3d, 4th, 6th, 7th, and 8th. The first commenced the Diospolite kingdom, which subseThinite dynasty probably lasted about two cen- quently attained to greater power than any other.
turies and a half. Of the 2d very little has reached  Amenemha I. was the last and most famous king
us; under one of the kings it was determined that of this dynasty, and during part of his reign he was
women could hold the sovereign power; in the  co-regent of Osirtasen or Sesertesen I., head of the
time of another it was fabled, says Manetho, that I2th. An epoch is marked in Egyptian history
the Nile flowed mixed with honey for the space by the commencement of this dynasty since the
of eleven days. The duration of this dynasty was Shepherd rule, which lasted for 500 years, is coeval
probably between 300 and 400 years, and it seems with it. The three Sesertesens flourished in this
to have come to a close at the time of the shepherd  dynasty, the last of whom is probably the Sesostris
invasion. The 3d (Memphite) dynasty, after hav- of Manetho. It began about Abraham's time,
ing lasted about 200 years, was succeeded by the or somewhat earlier. In ancient sculptures in
4th, one of the most famous of the lines which  Nubia we find kings of the i8th dynasty worruled in Egypt; while the 5th dynasty of Elephan- shipping Sesertesen III. as a god, and this is
tinite kings arose at the same time. This was em- the only case of the kind.  There is reason
phatically the period of the pyramids, the earliest for dating his reign about B.C. 1986. The third
of which was probably the northern pyramid of Sesertesen was succeeded by Amenemha III., supAboo-Seer, supposed to have been the tomb of posed to be the Moeris of Herodotus, who built
Soris or Shura, the head of the 4th dynasty. He the labyrinth.  After the reigns of two other
was succeeded by two kings of the name of Suphis, sovereigns, this dynasty came to a close, having
the first of whom, the Cheops of Herodotus, the lasted about I60 years.  It was followed by
Khufu of the monuments, was probably the builder the I3th, which lasted some 400 years from B.C.
of the great pyramid. On these wondrous monu- I920.  The kings of this dynasty were of little
ments we find traces at that remote period of the power, and probably tributary to the Shepherds.
advanced state of civilization of later ages. The The Diospolites, indeed, did not recover their
cursive character scrawled on the stones by the prosperity till the beginning of the I8th dynasty.
masons proves that writing had been long in com- The I4th, or Xoite dynasty, seems to have risen
mon use.   Many of the blocks brought from    with, or during the I2th. It was named from
Syene are built together in the pyramids of Geezeh  Xois, a town of Lower Egypt, in the northern
in a manner unrivalled at any period. The same part of the Delta. It may have lasted for nearly
manners and customs are portrayed on them as 500 years, and probably terminated during the
on the later monuments. The same boats are great Shepherd war. The I5th, I6th, and I7th
used, the same costume of the priests, the same dynasties, are those of the Shepherds.  Who
trades, such as glass-blowing and cabinet-making. these foreigners were who are said to have subAt the beginning of the 4th dynasty, moreover, dued Egypt without a battle, is a question of great
the peninsula of Sinai was in the possession of uncertainty.  Their name is called Hycsos by
the Egyptians, and its copper mines were worked  Manetho, which is variously interpreted to mean
by them. The duration of this dynasty probably shepherd kings, * or foreign shepherds.  They
exceeded two centuries, and it was followed by have been pronounced to have been Assyrians,
the 6th. The 5th dynasty of Elephantinites, as Scythians,,Ethiopians, Phoenicians, and Arabs.
aforesaid, began the same time as the 4th. The The kings of the I5th dynasty were the greatest
names of several of its kings occur in the necro- of the foreign rulers. Salatis was the first king
polis of Memphis.  The most important of them  of it, and Assa the last but one has already been
is Sephres, the Shafra or Khafra of the monu- mentiored as contemporary with Unas of the
ments, the Chephren of Herodotus and Kheph- 5th dynasty. The kings of the I6th and I7th
ren of Diodorus. This dynasty lasted nearly 600 dynasties are very obscure. Mr. Poole says there
years. Its last sovereign, Unas, is shewn by an  are strong reasons for supposing that the kings of
inscription to have been contemporary with Assa, the I6th were of a different race from those of the
the fifth king of the I5th dynasty of shepherds rul- I5th, and that they may have been Assyrians.
ing at Memphis.  Of the 6th dynasty, which lasted  Having held possession of Egypt 511, or according
about I50 years, the two most famous sovereigns to the longest date, 625 years, the Shepherds were
are Phiops or Papa and Queen Nitocris. The for- driven out by Ames, or Amosis, the first king of
mer is said to have ruled for a hundred years. the I8th dynasty; and the whole country was then
With the latter the dynasty closed; for at this united under one king, who rightly claimed the
period Lower Egypt was invaded by the Shepherds, title of lord of the two regions, or of Upper and
who entered the country from the north-east, about Lower Egypt. With the I8th dynasty, about B.c.
700 years after Menes, and eventually drove the  1525, a new period of Egyptian history commences,
Memphites from the throne. Of the 7th and 8th__
dynasties nothing is known with certainty; they
probably followed the I5th.  To the former of   * There is great doubt as to the time of the
them, one version of Manetho assigns a duration of shepherd invasion. If they were in Egypt 500
seventy days, and 150 years to the latter. The 9th  years, they must probably have come at the bedynasty of Heracleopolites, or more properly of ginning of, or before the 12th dynasty. If they
Hermonthites, as Sir G. Wilkinson has suggested  are put after that dynasty, their period must be
(Rawlinson's Herod. ii. 348), arose while the 6th shortened.
VOL. I.                                                                        3 B




EGYPT                    738                   EGYPT
both as regards the numerous materials for recon- ing to Manetho, the Shepherds took their final destructing it, and also its great importance. No  parture. The conquests of Amenoph III. were
great monuments remain of Ames the first king, also very extensive; traces of his power are found
but from various inscriptions we are warranted in in various parts of Ethiopia. From his features,
supposing that he was a powerful king. During  he seems to have been partly of Ethiopian origin.
his reign we first find mention of the horse, and as His long reign of nearly forty years was marked by
it is often called by the Semitic name szis, it seems the construction of magnificent temples. Of these,
probable that it was introduced from  Asia, and the greatest were two at Thebes; one on the west
possibly by the Shepherd kings. If so, they may  bank, of which little remains but the two great
have been indebted to the strength of their cavalry  colossi that stood on each side of the approach to
for their easy conquest of Egypt. It is certain, it, and one of which is known as the vocal Memthat while other animals are frequently depicted on non. He likewise built, on the opposite bank,
the monuments, neither in the tombs near the the great temple, now called that of El-Uksor,
pyramids, nor at Benee-Hasan, is there any ap- which Rameses II. afterwards much enlarged.
pearance of the horse, and yet, subsequently, The tomb of this king yet remains at Thebes.
Egypt became the great depot for these animals; For a period of about thirty years after the reign
insomuch that, in the time of Solomon, they were of Amenoph III., Egypt was disturbed by the rule
regularly imported for him, and for' all the kings of stranger kings, who abandoned the national reliof the Hittites, and for the kings of Syria;' and gion, and introduced a pure sun-worship. It is
when Israel was invaded by Sennacherib, it was on not known from whence they came, but they were
Egypt that they were said to put their trust for regarded by the Egyptians as usurpers, and the
chariots and for horsemen. Amenoph I., the next monuments of them are defaced or ruined by those
king, was sufficiently powerful to make conquests who overthrew them. Sir G. Wilkinson supposes
in Ethiopia and in Asia. In his time we find that that Amenoph III. may have belonged to their
the Egyptians had adopted the five intercalary race; but if so, we must date the commencement
days, as well as the twelve hours of day and night. of their rule from the end of his reign, as then began
True arches, not' arches of approaching stones,' that change of the state religion which was the great
also are found at Thebes, bearing his name on the peculiarity of the foreign domination.  How or
bricks, and were in common use in his time. when the sun-worshippers were destroyed or expelSome of the more ancient chambers in the temple led from Egypt, does not appear. Horus, or Harof Amen-ra, or El-Karnak, at Thebes, were built em-heb, who succeeded them, was probably the
by him.  In the reign of his successor, Thoth- prince by whom they were overthrown. He was a
mes I., the arms of Egypt were carried into Meso- son of Amenoph III., and continued the line of
potamia, or the land of'Naharayn;' by some, Diospolite sovereigns. The records of his reign are
Naharayn is identified with the Nairi, a people not important; but the sculptures at Silsilis comsouth-west of Armenia. Libya also was subject memorate a successful expedition against the leto his sway, while a monument of his reign is still groes. Horus was succeeded by Rameses I., with
remaining in one of the two obelisks of red granite whom  commences the g9th dynasty, about B.C.
which he set up at El Karnak, or Thebes. The  1324. His tomb at Thebes marks the new dynname of Thothmes II. is found as far south as asty, by being in a different locality from that of
Napata, or Gebel Berkel, in Ethiopia.   With  Amenoph III., and being the first in the valley
him and Thothmes III. was associated a queen, thenceforward set apart as the cemetery of the
Amen-numt, who seems to have received more Theban kings. After a short and unimportant
honour than either.  She is thought to have been  reign, he was succeeded by his son Sethee I. He
a Semiramis, that name, like Sesostris, probably is known by the magnificent hypostyle hall in the
designating more than one individual.  Thoth- great temple of El-Karnak, which he built, and on
mes III. was one of the most remarkable of the the outside of the north wall of which are sculpPharaohs.  He carried his arms as far as Nineveh, tured the achievements of his arms. His tomb,
and received a large tribute from Asiatic nations cruelly defaced by travellers, is the most beautiful
over whom he had triumphed. This was a com- in the Valley of the Kings, and shews that his reign
mon mode of acknowledging the supremacy of a must have been a long one, as the sepulchre of an
conqueror, and by no means implied that the terri- Egyptian king was commenced about the time of
tory was surrendered to him; on the contrary, he his accession, and thus indicated the length of
may only have defeated the army of the nation, his reign.  He conquered the Kheta, or Hittites,
and that beyond its own frontier.  The Pzuzt, and took their stronghold Ketesh, now held to be
a people of Arabia, the Kzfa, supposed to be of Emesa, on or near the Orontes. His son Rameses
Cyprus, and the Rzten, a people of the Euphrates II., who was probably for some time associated with
or Tigris, thus confessed the power of Thothmes; him in the throne, became the most illustrious of
and the monuments at Thebes are rich in delinea- the ancient kings of Egypt. It is he who is genetions of the elephants and bears, camelopards and rally intended by the Sesostris of classic writers.
asses, the ebony, ivory, gold, and silver, which  He built the temple which is erroneously called
they brought for tribute. Very beautiful speci- the Memnonium, but properly the Rameseum of
mens of ancient Egyptian painting belong to the El-Kurneh, on the western bank of the Nile, one
time of this king; indeed, his reign, with that of of the most beautiful of Egyptian monuments, and
Thothmes II. preceding it, and those of Amenoph  a great part of that of El-Uksor, on the opposite
II., Thothmes IV. (whose name is borne by the bank, as well as additions to that of El-Karnak.
sphinx at the Pyramids), and Amenoph III. fol- Throughout Egypt and Nubia, are similar memolowing it, may be considered as comprising the best rials of the power of Rameses II., one of the most
period of Egyptian art; all the earlier time shewing remarkable of which is the great rock-temple of
a gradual improvement, and all the later a gradual Aboo Simbel, not far north of the second cataract.
declension. In the reign of Thothmes IV., accord- The temple of Ptah, at Memphis, was also adorned




EGYPT                    739                   EGYPT
by this Pharaoh, and its site is chiefly marked by  by Sabaco the Ethiopian, the first king of the
a very beautiful colossal statue of him, fallen on  25th or Ethiopian dynasty. It is not certain which
its face, and partly mutilated, belonging to this of the Sabacos-Shebek, or his successor Shecountry, but left there to be burnt for lime by the betok-corresponded to the So or Seva of the
Turks. Numerous monuments celebrate his wars Bible, who made a treaty with Hoshea, which, as
with the Kheta, whom he reduced to tribute, and it involved a refusal of his tribute to Shalmaneser,
with many other nations. He was succeeded by caused the taking of Samaria, and the captivity of
Meneptah. The head of the 20th dynasty, per- the ten tribes.  The last king of this dynasty was
haps, was Sethee II., who was probably the son  Tirhakah, or Tehrak, who advanced against Senof Meneptah. The monuments tell us little of nacherib to support Hezekiah, King of Judah. It
him or of his successor Merer-ra, who was followed  does not appear whether he met the Assyrian army,
by his son Rameses III., who may have been head but it seems certain that its miraculous destruction
of the 20th dynasty. With that sovereign the occurred before any engagement had been fought
glories of the Theban line revived, and a series of between the rival forces.  Perhaps Tirhakah
great victories by land and sea raised Egypt to the availed himself of this opportunity to restore the
place which it had held under Rameses II. He supremacy of Egypt west of the Euphrates.  With
built the temple of Medeenet-Haboo, on the him the 25th dynasty closed. It was succeeded by
western bank at Thebes, the walls of which    the 26th, of Saite kings. The first sovereign of imare covered with scenes representing his exploits. portance was Psammetichus, or Psametik I., who,
Among his vanquished enemies were a nation according to Herodotus, had previously been one
whom Mr. Poole connects with the Cherethim of of a dodecarchy which had ruled Egypt. RawlinScripture, and identifies with the Cretans; and the son finds in Assyrian history traces of a dodecarchy
Pelesatu, or the Philistines.  Several kings, bear- before Psammetichus. This portion of the history
ing the name of Rameses, succeeded this monarch, is obscure.  Psammetichus carried on a war in
but their tombs alone remain. At the close of the Palestine, and is said to have taken Ashdod or
reign of the last Rameses the supreme power fell Azotus, i.e., according to Wilkinson, Shedeed'the
into the hands of a ruler of the 2Ist dynasty, and strong,' after a siege of 29 years. It was probably
of military Pontiffs, of whom, however, but few re- held by an Assyrian garrison, for a Tartan, or genecords remain. It was during the reign of a king ral of the Assyrian king, had captured it apparently
of this age that'Hadad, being yet a little child,' when garrisoned by Egyptians and Ethiopians in
fled from the slaughter of the Edomites by David, the preceding century, Is. xx. Psammetichus was
and took refuge, together with'certain Edomites succeeded by his son Neku, the Pharaoh-Necho of
of his father's servants,' at the court of Pharaoh, Scripture, in the year B.C. 6IO. In his first year
who'gave him to wife the sister of his own wife, he advanced to Palestine, marching along the seathe sister of Tahpenes the Queen,' I Kings xi. 17- coast on his way to Carchemish on the Euphrates,
I9. The 22d dynasty was of Bubastite kings; the and was met by Josiah, king of Judah, whom he
name of one of them has been found among the slew at Megiddo. Neku was probably successful
sculptured remains of the temples of Bubastis, they in his enterprise, and on his return deposed Jehowere probably not of unmixed Egyptian origin, and ahaz, the son of Josiah, and set up Jehoiakim in
may have been partly of Assyrian or Babylonian his stead. He apparently wished by this expedirace.  The first king was Sheshonk I., the con- tion to strike a blow at the failing power of the
temporary of Solomon, and in his reign it was that Assyrians, whose capital was shortly after taken by'Jeroboam arose and fled into Egypt unto Shishak  the combined forces of the Babylonians and Medes.
King of Egypt, and was in Egypt until the death  The army, however, which was stationed on the
of Solomon,' I Kings xi. 40. In the 5th year of Euphrates by Neku met with a signal disaster three
Rehoboam, Sheshonk invaded Judcea with an army years afterwards, being routed by Nebuchadnezzar
of which it is said'the people were without num- at Carchemish (Jer. xlvi. 2). The king of Babyber that came with him out of Egypt, the Lubims, lon seems to have followed up his success, as we
the Sukkiims, and the Ethiopians'-and that having are told, 2 Kings xxiv. 7, that'the king of Egypt
taken the'fenced cities' of Judah, he'came up  came not again any more out of his land, for the
against Jerusalem, and took awaythe treasures of the king of Babylon had taken from the river of Egypt
house of the Lord, and the treasures of the king's unto the river Euphrates all that pertained to the
house,' and'the shields of gold which Solomon had king of Egypt.' Neku either commenced a canal
made.' The record of this campaign,' says Sir G. to connect the Nile and the Red Sea, or else atWilkinson,' which still remains on the outside of tempted to clear one previously cut by Rameses II.;
the great temple of Karnak, bears an additional in- in either case the work was not completed. The
terest from the name of YuIda-MePelchi (kingdom of next sovereign of note was Uahphrah, called
Judah), first discovered by Champollion in the long  Pharaoh-Hophra in the Bible, and, by Herodotus,
list of captured districts and towns put up by Shes- Apries. He took Gaza and Sidon, and defeated
honk to commemorate his success.'   The next the king of Tyre in a sea-fight.  He also worsted
king, Osorkon I., is supposed by some to have been the Cyprians. Having thus restored the power of
the Zerah whom Asa defeated (2 Chron. xiv. 9); Egypt, he succoured Zedekiah, king of Judah, and
but, according to others, Zerah was a king of when Jerusalem was besieged, obliged the ChalAsiatic Ethiopia; of the other kings of this dynasty  doeans to retire (Jer. xxxvii. 5, 7, iI).  He was so
we know scarcely more than the names. It was elated by these successes, that he thought'not even
followed by the 23d dynasty of Tanite kings, so a God could overthrow him.' In Ezek. xxix. 3, he
called from Tanis, the Zoan of Scripture. They is called'the great dragon (i.e., crocodile?) that lieth
appear to have been of the same race as their in the midst of his rivers, which hath said my river
predecessors. Bocchoris the Wise, a Saite, cele- is mine own, and I have made it for myself.' At
brated as a lawgiver, was the only king of the last, however, Amasis, who had been crowned in
24th dynasty. He is said to have been burnt alive a military revolt, took him prisoner and strangled




EGYPT                    740                  EGYPT
him, so that the words of Jeremiah were fulfilled, vegetation, except a few wild and stunted date'I will give Pharaoh-Hophra, king of Egypt, into  palms. Immediately behind are desolate marshy
the hand of his enemies, and into the hand of them  tracts of extensive salt-lakes, and then the fertile
that seek his life,' Jer. xliv. 30. There seems little country, consisting of a wide plain intersected by
doubt that at the time of this rebellion, and proba- the two branches of the Nile and by many canals,
bly in conjunction with the advance of Amasis, of which some were anciently branches of the
Egypt was invaded and desolated by Nebuchad- river, and having a soil of great richness, though
nezzar. The remarkable prophecies, however, in in this particular it is excelled by the valley above.
Ezekiel xxix.-xxxi. may refer for the most part to The deserts which enclose the plain on either side
the invasion of Cambyses, and also to the revolt of are rocky tracts of very slight elevation, having
Inarus under Artaxerxes.  Amasis or Aah-mes their surface overspread with sand, pebbles, and
reigned nearly 50 years; he was succeeded by his debris. Of the towns on the northern coast the
son Psammenitus, held to be the Psametik III. of most western is Alexandria or El-Iskendereeyeh,
the monuments B.C. 525. Shortly after his acces- founded B.c. 332, by Alexander the Great, who
sion this king was attacked by Cambyses, who took  gave it the form of a Macedonian chlamys or
Pelusium, or'Sin, the strength of Egypt,' and mantle. Proceeding eastward, the first place of
Memphis, and subsequently put Psammenitus to importance is Er-Rasheed or Rosetta, on the west
death. With Cambyses began the 27th dynasty of bank of the branch of the Nile named after this
Persians, and Egypt became a Persian province, town. In ascending the Rosetta branch the first
governed by a satrap.  The conduct of Darius spot of interest is the site of the ancient SaYs, on
Hystaspis to the Egyptians was favourable, and he the eastern bank, marked by lofty mounds and
caused the temples to be adorned with additional the remains of massive walls of crude brick. It
sculptures.  The large temple in the Great Oasis was one of the oldest cities of Egypt, and gave its
was principally built by him, and in name to the kings of the 26th dynasty. The godit.is found his name, with the same dess Neith, supposed to be the origin of Athene,
honorary titles as the ancient kings. was the local divinity, and in her honour an annual
[In hieroglyphics the king's name is festival was held at Sais, to which pilgrims resorted
always written in an oval or cartouch, from all parts of Egypt. On the eastern side of
thus:-This reads Shura or Soris.] the other branch of the Nile, to which it gives its
Before the death of Darius, however, name, stands the town Dimyt or Damietta, a
the Egyptians rebelled, but were again strong place in the time of the Crusades, and then
subdued by Xerxes, who made his regarded as the key of Egypt. It has now about
brother Achsemenes governor of the 28,000 inhabitants. To the eastward of Damietta
230.    country.  Under Artaxerxes Longi- is the site of Pelusium, the Sin of Scripture, and the
manus they again revolted, as above re- ancient key of Egypt, towards Palestine. No imferred to, and in the ioth year of Darius Nothus portant remains have been found here. Between
contrived to throw off the Persian yoke, when this site and the Damietta branch are the mounds
Amyrtoeus the Saite became the sole king of the 28th of Tanis or Zoan, the famous Avaris of the Shepdynasty. After having ruled 6 years, he was suc- herds, with considerable remains of the great temceeded by the first king of the 29th or Mendesian ple, of which the most remarkable are several fallen
dynasty. Of the four kings comprising it little obelisks, some of them broken. This temple was
is known, and the dates are uncertain. It was as ancient as the time of the I2th dynasty, and was
followed by the last, or 30th dynasty of Se- beautified by Rameses II. Tanis was on the eastbennyte kings. The first of these was Nectanebo, ern bank of the Tanitic branch of the Nile, now
or Nekht-har-heb, who successfully defended his called the canal of El-Moizz. A little south of
country against the Persians, had leisure to adorn the modem point of the Delta, on the eastern
the temples, and was probably the last Pharaoh bank of the river, is the site of the ancient Heliowho erected an obelisk. His son, Teos or Tachos, polis, or On, marked by a solitary obelisk, and the
was the victim of a revolt, from which he took re- ruins of a massive brick wall. The obelisk bears
fuge in the Persian court, where he died, while his the name of Seserstesen I., the head of the I2th
nephew Nectanebo II., or Nekht-nebf, ascended dynasty. At a short distance south of Heliopolis
the throne as the last native king of Egypt.  For stands the modern capital, Cairo or El-Kahireh.
some time he successfully opposed the Persians, The ancient city of Memphis, founded by Menes,
but eventually succumbed to Artaxerxes Ochus, stood on the western bank of the Nile, about ten
about B.C. 350, when Egypt once more became a miles above Cairo. The kings and people who
Persian province.'From that time till our own dwelt there chose the nearest part of the desert as
day,' says Mr. Poole,'a period of 22 centuries, no their burial-place, and built tombs on its rocky
native ruler has sat on the throne of Egypt, in edge or excavated them in its sides. The kings
striking fulfilment of the prophecy'There shall be raised pyramids, round which their subjects were
no more a prince of the land of Egypt,' Ezek. buried in smaller sepulchres. The site of Memxxx. I3.'                                    phis is marked by mounds in the cultivated tract.
Country, etc.-We shall not attempt to pursue the A few blocks of stone and a fine colossus of Rahistory of Egypt further, since under the Ptole- meses II. are all that remains of the great temple
mies and thenceforth it becomes of classical rather of Ptah, the local deity. There is not space here
than of Biblical interest, but some description of the for a detailed account of the pyramids, suffice it
country and its monuments may now be acceptable. to say that the present perpendicular height of the
The northern coast of Egypt is low and barren, great pyramid is 450 ft. 9 in., and its present
presenting no features of interest, and affording no  base 746 ft. It is about 30 ft. lower than it was
indication of the character of the country which it originally, much of the exterior having been worn
bounds. It is a barrier generally of sand-hills, but off by age and man's violence. Like all the other
sometimes of rock, for the most part destitute of pyramids it faces the cardinal points. The surface




EGYPT                    741                   EGYPT
presents a series of great steps, though when first time of the earlier Caesars, and the names of the
built it was cased, and smooth, and polished. The last Cleopatra and CQesarion her son, are found in
platform on the summit is about 32 ft. square. The it. About twenty miles higher than Denderah,
pyramid is almost entirely solid, containing only a and on the western bank of the Nile, are the ruins
few chambers, so small as not to be worthy of con- of Thebes, the No-Amon of the Bible. In' the
sideration in calculating its contents.  It was built hieroglyphic inscriptions the name of this place is
by Khufa (Cheops), or Shufu (Suphis). The se- written Ap-t, or with the article prefixed T-ap,
cond pyramid stands at a short distance south-west and Amen-ha, the abode of Amen. The Copts
of the great pyramid, and is not of much smaller                   T          which becomes,
dimensions. It is chiefly remarkable for a great wte the former name        whch becomes,
part of its casing having been preserved. It was in the Memphitic dialect,.fL., and thus exbuilt by Khafra or Shafra (Chephren), a king of
the same period.  The third pyramid is much   plains the origin of the Greek Oiepa. The time of
smaller than either of the other two, though it is its foundation is unknown, but remains have been
constructed in a more costly manner. It was found which are ascribed to the close of the I th
built by Mycerinus or Mencheres, the fourth ruler dynasty, and it probably dates from the comof the 4th dynasty. Near the three pyramids are mencement of that first Diospolite line of kings.
six smaller ones, three of them are near the east Under the I8th and two following dynasties it
side of the great pyramid, and three on the south  attained its highest prosperity, and to this period
side of the third pyramid. They are supposed to its greatest monuments belong. The following
be the tombs of near relatives of the kings who  description of this celebrated locality by Mr. Poole
founded the great pyramid.  To the east of the will be read with interest:-' The monuments of
second pyramid is the great sphinx, I88 feet in Thebes, exclusive of its sepulchral grottoes, oclength, hewn out of a natural eminence in the cupy a space on both sides of the river, of which
solid rock, some defects of which are supplied by the extreme length from north to south is about
a partial stone casing, the legs being likewise two miles, and the extreme breadth from east to
added. In the tract between the pyramids of west about four. The city was on the eastern bank,
Sakkarah and Aboo-Seer are the remains of the where is the great temple or rather collection of
Serapeum, and the burial-place of the bulls Apis, temples, called after El-Karnak, a modem village
both discovered by M. Mariette. They are in- near by. The temple of El-Karnak is about half a
closed by a great wall, having been connected, for mile from the river, in a cultivated tract. More
the Serapeum was the temple of Apis. The tomb  than a mile to the south-west is the temple of Elis a great subterranean gallery, whence smaller Uksur on the bank of the Nile. On the western
passages branch off, and contains many sarcophagi bank was the suburb bearing the name Memnonia.
in which the bulls were entombed. Serapis was The desert near the northernmost of the temples on
a form of Osiris, his name being Osir-hapi or Osiris this side almost reaches the river, but soon recedes,
Apis.  In ascending the river we arrive at the leaving a fertile plain generally more than a mile in
ancient Ahnas, supposed by some to be the Hanes breadth. Along the edge of the desert, besides the
of Isaiah, and about sixty miles above Cairo, at small temple just mentioned as the northernmost,
Benee-Suweyf, the port of the province of the are the Rameseum   of El-Kurneh, and that of
Feiyoom. In this province are supposed to be Medeenet-Habou less than a mile farther to the
the remains of the famous Labyrinth of Mceris, pro- south-west, and between them, but within the cultibably Amen-em-ha III., and not far off, also, vated land, the remains of the Amenophium, with its
may be traced the site of the Lake Moeris, near two gigantic seated colossi. Behind these edifices
the ancient Arsinoe or Croiodilopolis, now repre- rises the mountain which here attains a height of
sented by Medeenet-el-Feiyoom. The next objects about I200 feet. It gradually recedes in a southof peculiar interest are the grottoes of Benee- westerly direction, and is separated from the cultiHasan, which are monuments of the I2th dynasty, vated tract by a strip of desert in which are nudating about 2000 B.c.  Here are found two merous tombs, partly excavated in two isolated
columns of an order which is believed to be the hills, and two small temples. A tortuous valley,
prototype of the Doric. On the walls of the tombs which commences not far from the northernmost
are depicted scenes of hunting, fishing, agricul- of the temples on this bank, leads to those valture, etc. There is also an interesting representa- leys in which are excavated the wonderful tombs
tion of the arrival of certain foreigners, supposed  of the kings near the highest part of the mountain
to be Joseph's brethren; at least illustrative of which towers above them in bold and picturesque
their arrival.  In the town of Asyoot, higher forms." EGYPT, Encyclojedia Britannica, p. 506.
up the river, is seen the representative of the At the entrance to the temple of El-Uksur stood
ancient Lycopolis. It was an important place two very fine obelisks of red granite, one of which
3500 years ago, and has thus outlived Thebes is now in the centre of the Place de la Concorde.
and Memphis, Tanis and Pelusium.  Further on, There is also a portal with wings 200 feet in width,
a few miles south-west of Girga, on the border of covered with sculptures of the highest interest, illusthe Libyan desert, is the site of the sacred city of trating the time of Rameses II. Within is a magnifiAbydus, a reputed burial-place of Osiris, near cent avenue of 14 columns, having capitals of the
which, also, must have been situated the very bell-shapedflowers of the papyrus. Theyaresixty
ancient city of This, which gave its name to the feet high and elegantly sculptured. These are of
Ist and 2d dynasties. About forty miles from  the time of Amenoph III.  On a south portal of
Abydus, though nearly in the same latitude, is the great temple of El-Karnak is a list of countries
the village of Denderah, famous for the remains subdued by Sheshonk I. or Shishak, the head of
of the temple of Athor, the Egyptian Venus, who  the 22d dynasty. Among the names is that of the
presided over the town of Tentyra, the capital of kingdom of Judah asbefore mentioned. The great
the Tentyrite nome. This temple dates from the hypostyle hall in this temple is the most magnificent




EGYPT                    742                   EGYPT
work of its class in Egypt. Its length is I70 feet, and the red granite islands and rocks which stud
its width 329; it is supported by 134 columns, the its surface, give the approach a wild picturesqueness
loftiest of which are nearly 70 feet in height and  till we reach the open stream, less than two miles
about 12 in diameter, and the rest more than 40  further, and the beautiful island of Phile suddenly
feet in height and about 9 in diameter. The great rises before our eyes, completely realizing one's
columns, 12 in number, form an avenue through  highest idea of a sacred place of ancient Egypt. It
the midst of the court from the entrance, and the is very small, only a quarter of a mile long and
others are arranged in rows very near together on  500 feet broad, and contains monuments of the
each side. There is a transverse avenue made by time of the Ptolemies. In the desert west of the
two rows of the smaller columns being placed fur- Nile are situate the great and little wahs (oases),
ther apart than the rest. This great hall is, there- and the valley of the Natron lakes, containing four
fore, crowded with columns, and the effect is Coptic monasteries, the remains of the famous
surpassingly grand. The forest of pillars seems anchorite settlement of Nitria, recently noted for
interminable in whatever direction one looks, pro- the discovery of various Syrian MSS. In the
ducing a result unequalled in any other Egyptian  eastern desert the chief town of importance is
temple.  This great hall was the work of Sethee Es-Suweys or Suez, the ancient Arsinoe, which
I., the head of the Igth dynasty, who came to  gives its name to the western gulf of the Red
the throne cir. B.C. I340, and it was sculptured  Sea.
partly in his reign and partly in that of his son  Religion.-Herodotus states that the Egyptians
and successor, Rameses II. It is impossible here had three orders of gods-the first, second, and
to enter further into a description of this mag- third-whereof the first was the most ancient.
nificent temple.  The reader is referred to the A/zVm, NV, or KIneph, was one of the most importnumerous accounts given of it elsewhere. The ant of the gods, corresponding to the'soul' of
Rameseum remains to be briefly noticed. This the universe, to whom was ascribed the creation of
temple on the edge of the desert is perhaps the gods, men, and the natural world.  He is repremost beautiful ruin in Egypt as Karnak is the  sented as a man with the head of a ram and
grandest. It also records the glories of Rameses curved horns. The chief god of Thebes was Amen,
II., of whom there is in one of its courts a colossal or Amen Ra, or Amen Ra AK7en, also worshipped
statue hewn out of a single block of red granite, in the great oasis, and sometimes portrayed unsupposed to weigh nearly 900 tons, and trans- der the form  of Kneph.   He was the Jupiter
ported thither from the quarries of Syene. This Ammon of the classics. The goddess Mut, or'the
temple is also noted for containing the celebrated  mother,' is the companion of Amen, and is repreastronomical ceiling, one of the most precious sented as a female wearing the crowns of Upper
records of ancient Egyptian science.  Not the and Lower Egypt, and the vulture head-dress of a
least interesting among the monuments of Thebes queen.  Khem was the god by whom the producare the tombs of the kings. The sepulchres are tiveness of nature was symbolised. His name re20 or 21 in number. Nineteen are sculptured, minds us of the patriarch Ham.     The Greeks
and are the mausolea of kings, of a queen with identified him with Pan, and called Chemmis, a
her consort, and of a prince, all of the I8th, Igth, city in the Thebais, where he was worshipped,
and 20th dynasties.  The paintings and sculp- Panopolis.  He is accompanied by a tree or a
tures are almost wholly of a religious character, flower on the sculptures, which may have been, as
referring chiefly to the future state.  Standing  supposed by Mr. Poole, the asherah or sacred grove
on the resting-places of kings and warriors who  spoken of in the Bible. Plah was the god of
figured inthe history of Egypt while the world was Memphis, and worshipped there under the form of
yet young, and long before the age of others whom  a pigmy or child; but as his temples have been dewe are accustomed to consider heroes of antiquity, stroyed little is known of his worship.*  The godit seems as though death itself were immortalised; dess Neit or Neith is often associated with Ptah.
and proudly indeed may those ancient Pharaohs, She was the patron deity of SaYs in the Delta; and
who laboured so earnestly to preserve their memory the Greeks say that Cecrops, leading a colony from
on earth, look down upon the paltry efforts of later thence to Athens, introduced her worship into
aspirants, and their slender claims to be regarded  Greece, where she was called Athene. This name
as either ancient or immortal. About twenty miles may be derived from the Egyptian, if we suppose
further south is the village of Adfoo, representing  the latter to have been sometimes called Thenei,
the town called by the Greeks Apollinopolis Magna, with the article prefixed like the name of Thebes.
where is still found in a comparatively perfect state  She is represented as a female with the crown of
a temple of the Ptolemaic period. Above Adfoo, at Lower Egypt on her head. Ra, or the sun, was
Gebel-es-Silsileh, the mountains on either side, worshipped at Heliopolis.  His common figure is
which have for some time confined the valley to a that of a man with a hawk's head, on which is
narrow space, reach the river, and contract its placed the solar disk and the royal asp. Thoth was
course; and higher still, about 30 miles, is the the god of science and letters, and was worshipped
town of Aswan, which represents the ancient at Hermopolis Magna. His usual form is that of
Syene, and stands among the palm trees on the a man with the head of an ibis surmounted by a
eastern bank opposite to the island of Elephan- crescent. Bast was called Bubastis by the Greeks,
tine. The bed of the river above this place is ob- who identified her with Artemis. She is represented
structed by numerous rocks and islands of granite, as a lion or cat-headed female with the globe of the
which form the rapids called the first cataract. sun on her head. There is a similar goddess called
During the inundation boats are enabled, by a
strong northerly wind to pass this cataract without
aid, and in fact at other times the principal rapid  * His name is now proved to be the same as the
has only a fall of five or six feet, and that not per- word' open;' and, therefore, the root is equivapendicular. The roaring of the troubled stream, i lent to the Heb. nnn.




EGYPT                    743                   EGYPT
Pasht. Athor was the daughter of Ra, and corre- forms apparent in it. It is, however, to be obsponded to the Aphrodite of the Greeks; the town  served, that this subject is not yet understood as
of Tentyra or Denderah was under her protection. we may hope to understand it.
Shu represented solar or physical light, and MVa-t  The Exodus.-With respect to the much vexed
or Thma (Themis) moral light, truth, or jus- question as to the date of the Exodus, it will pertice. Sebak was a son of Ra. He has a croco- haps be advisable to mention the various opinions
dile's head.  Osiris is the most remarkable per- which have been held. Sir Gardiner Wilkinson,
sonage in the Egyptian Pantheon. His form is Anc. Egypt. i. 42, supposes Joseph to have arthat of a mummied figure holding the crook and  rived in Egypt during the I2th dynasty, in the
flail, and wearing the crown of Upper Egypt, reign of Osirtasen or Sesertesen I.  The'new
generally with an ostrich feather on each side. He  king who knew not Joseph' he takes to be Ames,
was regarded as the personification of moral good. or Amosis, the first of the i8th dynasty, and
He is related to have been on earth instructing  finally believes the Exodus to have occurred under
mankind in useful arts, to have been slain by his Thothmes III. He thinks the change of dynasty
adversary Typhon (Set or Seth), by whom he was under Ames the Diospolite very likely to have been
cut in pieces; to have been bewailed by his wife and  accompanied by that enmity and oppression which
sister Isis; to have been embalmed; to have risen  are attributed to the king who knew not Joseph.'
again, and to have become the judge of the dead, The Israelites, on their first arrival, may have obamong whom the righteous were called by his tained a grant of land from the Egyptians, on conname, and received his form:-a wonderful fore- dition of certain services being performed by them
feeling of the Gospel narrative, and most likely  and their descendants. As long as the Memphite
symbolising the strife between good and evil. Isis dynasty lasted this compact would be respected,
was the sister and spouse of Osiris, worshipped at but when the Thebans came to the throne it would
Abydus, and the island of Philse. Horus was their not improbably be broken, while the service would
son.  Apep, Apophis of the Greeks, an enor- be still required, and would rapidly be changed
mous serpent, was the only representative of moral into bondage. Sir G. Wilkinson places the Exodevil. The worship of animals is said to have been  us in the fourth year of Thothmes III., whom he
introduced by the second king of the second dy- supposes to have survived the destruction of his
nasty, when the bull Apis at Memphis, and Mnevis army in the Red Sea, on the ground of there being,
at Heliopolis, and the Mendesian goat, were called  as he perhaps somewhat rashly observes, no augods. The cat was sacred to Pasht, the ibis to thority in the writings of Moses for believing that
Thoth, the crocodile to Sebak, the scarabecus to  Pharaoh was himself drowned. The next view is
Ptah and a solar god Atum. In their worship of that of the present Duke of Northumberland, also
the gods, sacrifices of animals, fruit, and vegetables given in the Ist vol. of Anc. Egyptians, p. 77;
were, used, as well as libations of wine and incense. he supposes the'new king who knew not Joseph'
No decided instance of a human sacrifice has been  to have been Rameses I., and that the Pharaoh
found. A future life and the immortality of the  of the Exodus was Meneptah, Ptahmen, or Ptahsoul were taught by the priests. After death aman  menoph, son of Rameses II., the last king of
was brought before Osiris: his heart weighed against the i8th dynasty; cogent reasons are advanced in
the feather of truth. He was questioned by 42  support of this view, which are accepted by Bunassessors as to whether he had committed 42 sins sen and Lepsius, and may be seen as above. The
about which they inquired. If guiltless he took  thirdopinionis thatof Mr. StuartPoole, who believes
the form of Osiris, apparently after long series of that Joseph's Pharaoh was Assa, or Assis, the fifth
transformations and many ordeals, and entered into  king of the 15th dynasty of Shepherds, and that the
bliss, dwelling among the gods in perpetual day  Exodus occurred under later Shepherds. He conon the banks of the celestial Nile. If guilty he was siders it more likely that a race of foreign kings than
often changed into the form of some base animal, one of pure Egyptians should have been the patrons
and consigned to a fiery place of punishment and  of the Israelites in the time of Joseph.  He thus
perpetual night. From this abstract it may be places the Exodus as high as 1652 B.C. See his
seen that the Egyptian religion is to be referred to  argument in Smith's Dictionaryof the Bible. Such
various sources. There is a trace of some primyeval are the various theories on this disputed and perrevelation in it. There is a strong Sabsean element, haps unascertainable point. We believe that the
preponderance of evidence is now considered to be
in favour of the latest date for the Exodus, or about
1300 B.C.  The French Egyptologer, M. Chabas,
has recently found a name, apparently of foreign
captives, employed by the Egyptians in building and
quarrying under the I9th and later dynasties. This
name he reads Aperui, and shews that it may reasonably correspond with Dnd1y, the Hebrews, but this
* i           people is found as late as Rameses IV., probably
B.C. cir. I200, certainly after 1300, and this necessitates the supposition that if the Hebrews are
meant, some must have been left at the Exodus
231.                      or some of the'mixed multitude.' In this case
the earlier occurrence under the 19th dynasty
and it is remarkable that the verb to adore is ex- proves nothing.
pressed by the symbol of a man in a posture of  It is hoped that the following chronological
worship with a star. There is also much of cosmic summary of names and events will be found usereligion or nature worship in its higher and lower ful:



EGYPT                    744                  EGYPT
Dynasty.        Date B.C.         Name of King.                  Event.
I.         3643 Bunsen.    Menes.                 Memphis built.
2717 Poole.
IV....       Shura.                Pyramids.
XII....       Diospolites.          The Osirtasens and Amenemhas.
XI  ShepXVII..  herds.
XVIII.          1650 B.         Amosis, Ist king.      The horse first mentioned.
1520 P.
Amenoph I.
Thothmes I. II. III.   The last probably Joseph's Pharaoh.
Amenoph II.
Thothmes IV.           The Sphinx erected by him.
Amenoph III.           El-Uksur. Vocal Memnon.
XIX.          I324.            Rameses I.
Sethee I.              War with Khita, etc. Great hall of
Karnak.
Rameses II.            Rameseum. Red Sea canal. Sesostris?
Meneptah.              Exodus.
XX.          1232.            Sethee II.
Rameses III.           Medinet Habou.    Khairetana =
Cretans?
XXI....        Military  Pontiffs and
Lower Egyptian kings.
XXII.          990.            Sheshonk I.            Shishak, Solomon.
Osorkon I. II.         The latter perhaps Zerah.
Sheshonk II.
Osorkon III.
Sheshonk III.
XXIII.                          Sheshonk IV.
XXIV.    0                      Bocchoris the Wise, of
XXV.                        J     Sais.
|j Pa &              1Sabaco = So?
~C J                   Tehrak = Tirhakah.
XXVI.           664.            Psammetichus.
Neco.
Psammis.
Apries = Hophra.
Amasis.
XXVII.           525.            Cambyses and Persians.
XXX.           380.            Nectanebo I.
The principal prophecies relating to Egypt are thinks it may refer to the condition of the country
as follows:-Is. xix.; Jer. xliii. 8-13, xliv. 30, under Inaros.
xlvi.; Ezek. xxix.-xxxii., inclusive. In the course  Language.-The language of the ancient Egypof what has been said several allusions have been  tians was entirely unknown until the discoveries
made to portions of these prophecies-we cannot made by Dr. Young from the celebrated Rosetta
pretend to investigate them all, but it may be ob- stone, now preserved in the British Museum.
served that the main reference in them seems to be This stone is a slab of black marble which was
to the period extending from the times of Nebu- found by the French in August 1799, among the
chadnezzar to those of the Persians, though it is ruins of Fort St. Julien, on the western bank, and
not easy to elucidate them to any great extent from  near the mouth of the Rosetta branch of the Nile.
the history furnished by the monuments. Nebu- It contains a decree in three different kinds of
chadnezzar appears to have invaded Egypt during writing, referring to the coronation of Ptolemy V.
the reign of Apries, and Sir G. Wilkinson thinks (Epiphanes), and is supposed to have been sculpthat the story of Amasis' rebellion was invented or tured cir. B.C. I95. As part of the inscription
used to conceal the fact that Pharaoh-Hophra was is in Greek, it was easily deciphered, and was
deposed by the Babylonians. It is not improbable found to state that the decree was ordered to be
that Amasis came to the throne by their interven- written in Sacred, Enchorial, and Greek charaction. The 40 years' desolation of Egypt, Ezek. ters. Thence, by carefully comparing the three
xxix. Io, is a point of great difficulty, and for the inscriptions, a key was obtained to the interpretaillustration or interpretation of this, as well as tion of the mysterious hieroglyphics. The lanothers, we must be content to wait. Mr. Poole guage which they express closely resembles that




EGYPT                    745                  EGYPT
which was afterwards called Coptic when the papyrus (Cyperzs Papyrus) has entirely disappeople had become Christians.  It is monosyl- peared.*
labic in its roots, and abounds in vowels. There  Zoology. —The absence of jungle or forest prewere at least two dialects of it-spoken respec- pares us for a paucity of beasts of prey as well as
tively in Upper and Lower Egypt. The Coptic of birds of beautiful plumage. The camelf thrives
has three, viz., the Memphitic, that of Lower better in the dry climate of Egypt than elsewhere
Egypt; the Sahidic or Theban, that of Upper out of his native deserts. It has but one hump,
Egypt, and the Bashmuric, perhaps spoken in and has erroneously been called the dromedary,
the oases,' and therefore to be considered pro- which is merely a swift camel, being to the comvincial. The Coptic is a language which stands mon camel what a saddle-horse is to a cart-horse.
very much by itself, and is not readily to be as- Camel's flesh is eaten by the peasants and desert
signed to any one of the great families of languages. Arabs. The Copts consider it unlawful food. It
It somewhat resembles the Semitic in its gram- is singular that no representation of the camel is
mar, but not at all in its vocabulary.       found in the sculptures and paintings of the monuBolany.-Egypt is a country without timber. ments.  In Gen. xii. I6, Ex. ix. 3, camels are
There is scarcely a grove to be seen excepting mentioned as belonging to the Pharaohs. Mr.
of date-palms. The commonest trees are acacias, Poole thinks that the Shepherds were dominant at
sycamore fig-trees, and mulberry trees. The most the time referred to, and that the camel, from its
beautiful are the date-palm and banana trees. The probable connection with them, was omitted on
lowest branches of the palm are cut off every year, the monuments as a beast of ill omen. In old
and on this account the ancient Egyptians adopted times the horses of Egypt were famous, though the
the palm as a symbol of the year. When it is Egyptian'cavalry' probably consisted of chariots.
allowed to grow wild, its ragged branches reach The modern horses are of an indifferent breed.
to the ground, and it has a much less beautiful The ass in Egypt is of a very superior kind, tall,
appearance. The Theban palm is a very different handsome, docile, and swift. Buffaloes are comtree, growing in two great stems, each of which mon, and not wild. Sheep and goats abound,
divides into many branches.  The weeping wil- and the flesh of the former is the ordinary butchers'
low, myrtle, elm, and cypress grow under cultiva- meat. The dogs are half wild, being considered
tion, and the tamarisk abounds everywhere. The unclean by the Muslims, and therefore neglected.
commonest fruit is dates. The Feiyoom is cele- Cats are as numerous, but more favoured. The
brated for its grapes, from which the market of wolf, fox, jackal, and hymena, the wild cat, weasel,
Cairo is chiefly supplied. The vines are trailed ichneumon, jerboa, and hare, are also found. Anon trellis-work in the form of avenues in the gar- telopes, wild asses, and wild boars inhabit the
dens of Cairo. An Egyptian garden is said to be deserts on either side of the Nile. The hippopolike a miniature Egypt, being intersected by nu- tamus is not now found below the first cataract,
merous small channels filled by a water-wheel. and rarely below the second; judging from the
The water is thus spread over the garden, which monuments, it was once common in Egypt. The
is divided into many square compartments, bor- crocodile, also, has retreated in like manner, and
dered with ridges of earth. Besides dates and is seldom seen till the traveller is many miles above
grapes, figs, pomegranates, apricots, peaches, oran- Cairo. From the name of the island Elephantine,
ges, citrons, lemons, limes, olives, and various which has the same meaning in hieroglyphics as
kinds of melons are met with. The cactus, bear- in Greek, it is probable that at an early period
ing the Indian fig, is extremely common, and elephants were found in Upper Egypt, though at
forms the hedges of gardens and plantations. The present they are not seen north of Abyssinia. Vulflowers are the rose, jasmin, narcissus, lily, olean- tures, eagles, falcons, and kites abound. Quails
der, chrysanthemum, convolvulus, geranium, dah- migrate to Egypt in great numbers.  Serpents
lia, basil, the hinne plant or Egyptian privet, the and snakes are very common, including the deadly
helianthus, and the violet. The vegetables, for cerastes and the cobra di capello. The dangerous
which the Israelites longed in the desert are very scorpion is frequently met with. Beetles of various
common, and of various kinds. The principal kinds are found, including that which was acare peas, beans, vetches, lentils (of which pottage counted sacred, the scarabeus.  The locust is
is made that is the common food of the Nile not often though occasionally seen in Egypt. Bees
boatmen), lupins, mallows, spinach, leeks, onions, and silkworms are kept, but the honey is not so
garlic, celery, parsley, chicory, cress, radishes, good as our own, and the silk is inferior to that of
carrots, turnips, lettuce, cabbage, fennel, gourds, Syria.
cucumbers, tormatas, caraway, coriander, cumin,  Ancient Inhabitants and their Customs.-It has
and aniseed.  The commonest field-produce is now been ascertained that the ancient Egyptians
wheat, barley, millet, maize, rice, oats, clover, the were more nearly allied to the Caucasian than to
sugar cane, cotton, and two species of the tobacco  the negro type. Their faces appear to have been
plant.  The sugar-cane is much cultivated, and oval in shape, and narrower in the men than in the
excellent sugar is made from it. There are fields 
of roses in the Feyoom which supply the market  * Sir G. Wilkinson and Mr. Poole quote, in
with rose-water. Madder, woad, indigo, hemp, allusion to this fact, the words of Is. xix. 7,'The
and flax are also grown. The lotus, which was paper reeds by the brooks.... shall wither,
richly prized for its flowers by the ancient Egyp- be driven away, and be no more.' It is, however,
tians, is not now common, and the byblus or by no means certain that the word means paper
reeds.
~+ It is often said that the Arabs call the camel
* The word oasis is merely a Greek modifica- I the ship of the desert.' This is a mistake; it is
tion of the local term wdh, which is probably the ship which is called after the camel, markab
Coptic in its origin.                        from Rakaba,'to ride.' [See art. CAMEL]




EGYPT                    746                   EGYPT
women. The forehead was well-shaped, but small as ointment was generally kept in an alabaster box,
and retiring; the eyes were almond-shaped and  the Greeks and Romans applied the name alabasmostly black; the hair was long, crisp, and gener- tron to all vases made for that purpose, and one of
ally black; the skin of the men was dark brown, them found at Thebes, and now in the museum at
chiefly from exposure; that of the women was Alnwick Castle, contains some ointment perfectly
olive-coloured or even lighter. The Egyptians, preserved, though from the Queen's name in the
for the most part, were accustomed to shave their hieroglyphics it must be more than 3000 years old.
heads, indeed, except among the soldiers, the In architecture they were very successful, as the
practice was probably almost universal.  They magnificent temples yet remaining bear evident witgenerally wore skull caps. Otherwise they wore ness, though in ruins. The Doric order is supposed
their own hair, or wigs falling to the shoulders in to have been derived from columns found at Beneenumerous curls, or done up in the form of a bag. Hasan, and the arch is at least as old as the I6th
They also shaved their faces; kings, however, and century B.C. In medical science,* we know from the
other great personages, had beards about three evidence furnished by mummies + found at Thebes,
inches long and one inch broad, which were that the art of stopping teeth with gold, and probaplaited. The crown of Upper Egypt was a short bly cement, was known to the ancient Egyptians,
cap, with a tall point behind, which was worn over and Cuvier found incontestible proof that the fracthe other. The king often had the figure of an  tured bone of an ibis had been set by them while
asp, the emblem of royalty, tied just above his fore- the bird was alive.  Their knowledge of glasshead. * The common royal dress was a kilt which blowing has been alluded to, and a glass bead inreached to the ankles; over it was worn a shirt, scribed with the name of a queen of the I8th
coming down to the knees, with wide sleeves, as dynasty, proves it to be as old as 3200 years ago.
far as the elbows: both these were generally of fine The Egyptians were in the habit of eating much
white linen.  Sandals were worn on the feet, and bread at table, and fancy rolls or seed cakes were
on the person, armlets, bracelets, and necklaces. in abundance at every feast. Those who could
The upper and middle classes usually went bare- afford it ate wheaten bread, the poor alone being
foot; in other respects their dress was much the content with a coarser kind made of doora flour or
same as that of the king's, but of course inferior in  millet. They ate with their fingers, though they
costliness. The priests sometimes wore a leopard's occasionally used spoons. The table was someskin tied over the shoulders, or like a shirt with the times covered with a cloth, and in great entertainforelegs for the sleeves. The queen had a parti- ments among the rich each guest was furnished
cular head-dress, which was in the form of a vulture with a napkin. They sat upon a carpet or mat
with expanded wings. The beak projected over upon the ground, or else on stools or chairs round
the forehead, the wings fell on either side, and the the table, and did not recline at meat like the
tail hung down behind.   She sometimes wore Greeks and Romans. They were particularly fond
the urseus or asp. The royal princes were distin- of music and dancing.  The most austere and
guished by a side-lock of hair elaborately plaited. scrupulous priest could not give a feast without a
The women wore their hair curled or plaited, good band of musicians and dancers, as well as
reaching about halfway from the shoulders to the plenty of wine, costly perfumes and ointments, and
waist.                                        a profusion of lotus and other flowers. Tumblers,
It is hardly needful to observe that the ancient jugglers, and various persons skilled in feats of
Egyptians had attained to high degrees of civiliza- agility, were hired for the occasion, and the guests
tion and mental culture. This is evidenced by played at games of chance, at mora, and the game
many facts. For instance, the variation of the of latrunculi, resembling draughts. The latter was
compass may even now be ascertained by observ- the favourite game of all ranks, and Rameses III.
ing the lateral direction of the pyramids, on account is more than once represented playing it in the
of their being placed so accurately north and south. palace at Thebes. The number of pieces for playThis argues considerable acquaintance with astro- ing the game is not exactly known. They were of
nomy. Again, we know that they were familiar different colours on the opposite sides of the board,
with the duodecimal, as well as the decimal, scale and were not flat as with us, but about an inch and
of notation, and must, therefore, have made some a half or two inches high, and were moved like
progress in the study of mathematics. There is chessmen, with the thumb and finger. Sacred
proof that the art of painting upon plaster and music was much used in Egypt, and the harp, lyre,
panel was practised by them more than 2000 years flute, tambourine, cymbals, etc., were admitted in
before Christ; and the sculptures furnish represen- divers religious services of which music constituted
tations of inkstands that contained two colours, an important element. Sacred dancing was also
black and red; the latter being introduced at the
beginning of a subject, and for the division of cer- * They were celebrated as physicians (cf. Jer.
tain sentences, shewing this custom to be as old as xlvi. II).'  Virgin! daughter of Egypt, in vain
that of holding the pen behind the ear, which is shalt thou use many medicines' (Hom. Od. iv.
often portrayed in the paintings of the tombs. 229). Herodotus says-' Cyrus and Darius sent to
Alabaster was a material much used for vases, and  Egypt for doctors.' Pliny ascribes to them postmoritenm examinations (xix. 5). Herod. mentions
I Hence is derived the term basilisk, BataXlIKos, that each physician treated a single disorder, and,
as applied to the asp, it being the royal emblem, no more; their accoucheurs were women (cf. Exod.
so urceus, from ouro,'king,' in Coptic.  Sir G. i. I5). Animal-doctors also are depicted on the
Wilkinson thinks that the story of Cleopatra and  monuments healing quadrupeds and birds.
the asp may have originated in this use of the em-  + It may be interesting to mention that the word
blem: her statue carried in the triumph of Augus-'mummy' is derived from the Persian mzrnz,' wax.'
tus would have an asp on it (Rawlinson's Herod. Some, however, believe it to be an Egyptian
ii. 123, n.)                                  word.




EGYPT                    747                  EGYPT
common in religious ceremonies, as it seems to side.'  The more wealthy Egyptians had their
have been among the Jews (Ps. cxlix. 3). Moses large town houses and spacious villas, in which
found the children of Israel dancing before the the flower-garden and pleasure-grounds were not
golden calf (Ex. xxxii. I9), in imitation probably the least prominent features. Avenues of trees
of rites they had often witnessed in Egypt. The shaded the walks, and a great abundance of violets,
dinner hour was usually the middle of the day, as roses, and other flowers, was always to be had,
Joseph's brethren dined with him at noon. The even in winter, owing to the nature of their climate
fine linen of Egypt was greatly celebrated; and and the skill of their gardeners. A part also was
that this was not without cause is proved by a assigned to vines and fruit-trees, the former were
piece found near Memphis and by the paintings trained on trelliswork, the latter were standards.
(cf. Gen. xli. 42; 2 Chron. i. I6, etc.) The looms It is a curious fact that they were in the habit of
of Egypt were also famed for their fine cotton and employing monkeys, trained for the purpose, to
woollen fabrics, and many of these were worked  climb the upper branches of the sycamore trees,
with patterns in brilliant colours, sometimes being and to gather the figs from them. The houses
wrought with the needle, sometimes woven in the generally consisted of a ground floor and one upper
piece. Some of the stripes were of gold thread, storey; few were higher. They were often placed
alternating with red ones as a border. Specimens of round an open court, in the centre of which was a
their embroidery are to be seen in the Louvre, and fountain or small garden. Large houses had somethe many dresses painted on the monuments of times a porch with a flight of steps before the street
the ISth century shew that the most varied door, over which latter was painted the name of
patterns were used by the Egyptians more than  the owner. The wealthy landed proprietors were
300oo0 years ago, as they were subsequently by grandees of the priestly and military classes (Mr.
the Babylonians, who became noted for their Birch and M. Ampere may be said to have proved
needle-work. Sir G. Wilkinson states that the the non-existence of castes, in the Indian sense, in
secret of dyeing cloths of various colours by means Egypt); but those who tended cattle were looked
of mordents was known to the Egyptians, as proved down upon by the rest of the community.' Every
by the manner in which Pliny has described the shepherd was an abomination to the Egyptians,'
process, though he does not seem to have un- both from his occupation and from the memory of
derstood it. They were equally fond of variety of the Shepherd kings who had oppressed Egypt.*
patterns on the walls and ceilings of their houses This contempt is often shewn in the paintings, by
and tombs, and some of the oldest ceilings shew  their being drawn unshaven, and squalid, and
that the chevron, the chequer, the scroll, and the dressed in the same covering of mats that were
guilloche, though ascribed to the Greeks, were thrown over the beasts they tended. None would
adopted in Egypt more than 2000 years before our intermarry with swineherds. It was the custom
era. A gradual progress may be observed in their for the men to milk, as it is still among some Arab
choice of fancy ornament. Beginning with simple tribes, who think it disgraceful for a woman to
imitations of real objects, as the lotus and other milk any animal. Potters were very numerous,
flowers, they adopted, by degrees, conventional re- and the wheel, the baking of cups, and the other
presentations of them, or purely imaginary devices; processes of their art were prominent on the monuand it is remarkable that the oldest Greek and ments. It is singular, as affording illustration of
Etruscan vases have a similarly close imitation of Scripture language, that the same idea of fashioning
the lotus and other real objects. The same pat- the clay was also applied to man's formation; and
terns common on Greek vases had long before the gods Ptah and Num, the creative agencies, are
been introduced on those in Egypt; whole ceil- represented sitting at the potter's wheel turning
ings are covered with them, and the vases them- the clay for the human creation.
selves had often the same elegant forms we     The Egyptians were familiar with the use of iron
admire in the cilix and others afterwards made from a very remote period, and their skill in the
in Greece. They were of gold and silver, en- manufacture of bronze was celebrated. They were
graved and embossed; those made of porcelain acquainted also with the use of the forceps, the
were rich in colour, and some of the former blow-pipe, the bellows, the syringe, and the siphon.
were inlaid or studded with precious stones, or Leather was sometimes used for writing purposes,
enamelled in brilliant colours. Among their most but more frequently paper made from the papyrus,
beautiful achievements in the art of glass-blowing which grew in the marsh-lands of the Delta. The
were their richly-coloured bottles with waving lines mode of making it was by cutting the pith into
and their small inlaid mosaics. In these last, the thin slices lengthwise, which being laid on a table
fineness of the work is so great that it must have were covered with similar layers at right angles,
required a strong magnifying power to put the parts and the two sets being glued together and kept
together, especially the more minute details, such under pressure a proper time formed a sheet. The
as feathers, the hair, etc.'They were composed,' dried flower heads of the papyrus have been found
says Sir G. Wilkinson,' of the finest threads or in the tombs. As illustrating Scripture, it may be
rods of glass (attenuated by drawing them when mentioned that the gods are sometimes represented
heated to a great length), which, having been selected according to their colour, were placed up- in the tombs holding the Tau or sign of life
right side by side, as in an ordinary mosaic, in
sufficient number to form a portion of the intended  which   adopted by some of te early Christins
picture. Others were then added until the whole
had been composed; and when they had all been
had been composed; and when they had all been   * It is curious that while, according to Manetho,
cemented together by a proper heat, the work was H   i cmound o,, and o 
Hyksos is compounded of Hyk, kiag', and sos selcompleted. Slices were then sawn off transversely,   i       nd.        -
as in our Tunbridge ware; and each section pre-  ed, in Coptic  C means dedecus, o5probriunt,
sented the same picture on its upper and under' abomination.'




EGYPT                     748          EGYPT, PLAGUES OF
in lieu of the cross, and is mentioned by Ezek. ix. bably been said to shew how much light is thrown
4, 6, as the'mark (Tau) set upon the foreheads of on the Bible history by the monuments of ancient
the men' who were to be preserved alive. Chris- Egypt. If it occasions surprise that the details ot
tian inscriptions at the great oasis are headed by  that history, such as the marvels connected with
this symbol; it has been found on Christian monu- the Exodus, etc., are not corroborated by them, it
ments at Rome.                                must be borne in mind that they are in no way imEgyptian edicts seem to have been issued in the pugned by them, and that it is not the object of
form of afirmaln or written order; and from the any people to record their misfortunes on sculpture
word used by Pharaoh in granting power to Joseph  or painting; witness, for example, the picture('According to thy word shall all my people be gallery at Versailles. It may also be observed that
ruled:' Hebrew kiss, Gen. xli. 40, alluding evi- if the Israelitish sojourn fell during the Shepherd
dently to the custom of kissing afirmzdn), we may  domination, it is precisely this period of which next
infer that the people who received that order to no monuments are found.
adopted the usual eastern mode of acknowledging  The writer is under great obligations to the
their obedience to the Sovereign. And besides the article on Egypt in the Encyclopedia Britannica,
custom of kissing the signature attached to these 8th edit., of which the parts treating of the andocuments, the people were doubtless expected to  cient history and the description of the country are'bow the knee,' Gen. xli. 43,* in the presence of by Mr. Stuart Poole, and those on the modern
the monarch and chiefs of the nation, or even to  history and modern inhabitants by Mr. Stanley
prostrate themselves before them. The sculptures Poole. He is also greatly indebted to the valurepresent them thus bowing with the hand stretched  able papers and notes on Egyptian antiquities, in
out towards the knee.                         the 2d vol. of Rawlinson's Herodotus. Sir G. WilThe account of brick-making in Exod. v. 7-I9 is kinson, Ancient Egyptians; Popular Account of
illustrated in a remarkable degree by a painting in  Ditto; The Egyptians in the time of the Pharaohs;
a tomb at Thebes, in which the hardness of the Modern Egypt and Thebes; Handbook for Egypt;
work, the tale of bricks, the straw, and the native  Bunsen,./Egyptens Stelle; Hengstenberg, Eyplt,
taskmasters set over foreign workmen, are vividly and the Books of Moses; Kenrick's Ancient Egypt;
portrayed. The making of bricks was a monopoly  R. S. Poole, Horce E~gyptiacce, etc., etc. See also
of the crown, which accounts for the Jews and other an excellent little book by two ladies, Early Egypcaptives being employed in such numbers to make lian Historyfor the Young, London, I86I.-S. L.
bricks for the Pharaohs.
Certain injunctions of the Mosaic law appear to  EGYPT, PLAGUES OF. In the 7th, 8th, 9th,
be framed with particular reference to Egyptian  Ioth, and I2th chapters of Exodus, we have an
practices, e.g., the fact of false witness being for- account of a series of inflictions brought upon the
bidden by a distinct and separate commandment be- Egyptians through the instrumentality of Moses
comes the more significant when we bear in mind and Aaron, for the purpose of constraining the
the number of witnesses required by the Egyptian  ruling Pharaoh to allow the Israelites to leave his
law for the execution of the most trifling contract. country, and escape from the bondage under which
As many as sixteen names are appended to one for they had long been held there. These inflictions
the sale of a part of certain properties, amounting were ten in number, and are commonly spoken of
only to 400 pieces of brass. It appears that bulls as'the plagues of Egypt.' We propose briefly to
only, and not heifers, were killed by the Egyptians describe them in order, and then to offer some
in sacrifice. Cf. with this the law of the Israelites, observations of a general kind on the narrative as
Num. xix. 2, commanding them to'bring a red  a whole.
heifer, without spot, wherein was no blemish.' It  I. Moses having given the Pharaoh, in comwas on this account that Moses proposed to go pliance with his own request, a sign of his divine'three days' journey into the desert,' lest the  commission, and consequent right to demand the
Egyptians should be enraged at seeing the Israelites liberation of the Israelites in the name of God;
sacrifice a heifer (Exod. viii. 26); and by this very and the Pharaoh, in despite of this, having refused
opposite choice of a victim they were made unequi- his demand, God commanded him to appear before
vocally to denounce and to separate themselves the monarch as he walked by the side of the Nile,
from the rites of Egypt. The Egyptian common  and threaten him, in case of his persisting in his
name for Heliopolis was AN,+ from which was de- refusal, with a judgment by which the waters of
rived the Hebrew On or Aon, pointed in Ez. xxx. the river should be turned into blood. This was
I7, Aven, and translated by Bethshemesh, Jer. xliii. the first of the plagues; for the Pharaoh having
13. So also the Pi-beseth of the same place in hardened his heart against the divine threatening,
Ezekiel, is from  the Egyptian article Pi, pre- Aaron, at the command of Moses,'smote the
fixed to Bast, the name of the goddess there wor- waters that were in the river... and all the waters
shipped, and is equivalent to Bubastis, a city named that were in the river were turned into blood.' In
after her, supposed to correspond to the Grecian  the first instance this was probably confined to the
Artemis. The Tahpanhes of Scripture, Jer. xliii. 8, waters of the Nile, else where could the magicians
Ezek. xxx. I8, was perhaps a place called Daphnae, have found water on which to try their art, as we
sixteen miles from Pelusium. Enough has pro- are told they did? But as the king continued in
his obduracy, the plague spread until the judgment
* It is somewhat remarkable that the Arabs at fell on'their streams, upon their rivers, and upon
this day use the same word here attributed to their ponds, and upon all their pools of water,'
Pharaoh (abrek) when requiring a camel to kneel and even on the water which they had in the artiand receive its load.                         ficial reservoirs and cisterns connected with their
t The sacred name was HA-RA,'the city of houses. There was thus (as is proleptically stated
the sun,' with which compare the Heres of Is. in ver. 2I)'blood throughout all the land of
xix. IS.                                      Egypt.' In consequence of this the fish in the




EGYPT, PLAGUES OF                749          EGYPT, PLAGUES OF
river died, and the water became putrid, so that by which the cattle of the Egyptians were destroyed,
no one could drink it; and the Egyptians, to whom while those of the Israelites escaped. On this, the
the waters of the Nile are especially delicious (see Pharaoh, hardened by his repeated acts of resistance
Harmar, Observations, iii. 564, etc.), were forced to the divine will and judgments, seems to have
to turn from it with loathing. It would appear, looked with a feeling almost of indifference, and
however, that the water, when filtered through the Moses was consequently commanded to inflict a
earth on the bank of the river, was restored to its severe personal affliction upon the Pharaoh and his
salubrity, for the Egyptians, by digging round about people; he was' to take handfuls of ashes of the
the river, were able to supply themselves with furnace, and sprinkle it toward the heaven in the
water they could drink. This plague lasted for sight of Pharaoh,' and as the result of this there
seven days, after which the water returned to its came'a boil, breaking forth with blains, upon man
former state (Ezek. vii. 10-25). An interval having and upon beast,' and affecting even the magicians,
elapsed, Moses was again commissioned to demand so that they'could not stand before Moses' (ix. 8the liberation of the people, and, in case of the  I2). The boil (1pEi she/zeen) was a scab or pustule,
monarch's refusing, to threaten to smite all his which might or might not break out into an ulcerborders with frogs. Aaron was accordingly in- ous sore (Lev. xiii. I8, ff.) With this, in one of
structed to' stretch forth his rod over the streams, its worst forms, Job was afflicted (ii. 7), and by this
over the rivers, and over the ponds,' and having Hezekiah was brought to the verge of life (2 Kings
done so,'the frogs came up and covered the land xx. 7; Is. xxxviii. 2I); it was an eruption of a very
of Egypt.' This miracle also was imitated by the painful kind, accompanied with a burning itch, and
magicians; they'did so by their enchantments.' tending to produce a permanent state of foul and
This probably served, as before, to confirm the wasting disease.  One species of it which seized
Pharaoh in his obduracy; but to him  and his upon the legs and knees, and was regarded as inpeople the visitation itself seems to have been curable, was peculiar to Egypt, and was hence
peculiarly distressing; so much so that he was con- called'the botch of Egypt' (Deut. xxviii. 27, 35).
strained to humble himself before Moses and ask  In the case before us this eruption had a tendency
him to' entreat the Lord to take away the frogs,' to break out into larger swellings (n31).', from
and promised to let the people go (viii. I-8). The unused 13:, to boil up, to swell), and became probaspecies of reptile which was made the instrument bly the disease called elephantiasis, a disease said
of this infliction is probably the small frog of Egypt to be peculiar to Egypt (Winer, R. W  B. s. v.
called by the natives dofda, the rana IMosaica of Aussatz), or the black leprosy, a disease which also
Seetzen (Reisen, iii. 245, 350, etc.) [TSEPARDEA.] affects cattle under the name of melandria (Jahn,
In compliance with the request of Moses God Archaeol. Th. I. i. 381, ff.)  It was something
removed the frogs from the dwellings of the Egyp- evidently more severe and deadly than the endemic
tians. But as the king, when he saw there was Nile-fever, or eruption which visits Egypt periodirespite, again hardened his heart, and refused to let cally about the time of the overflowing of the Nile,
the people go, God sent on him a third plague, and with which some writers would identify it.
that of A, rendered in the A. V.'lice.' Aaron,  When this painful visitation was withdrawn, the
in obedience to the divine command, smote thePharaoh was found still obdurate and fixed in his
dust of the earth, and it became lice in man and in resolution not to let the people go An impression,
beast throughout all the land of Egypt.  The however, seems to have been made on some of the
magicians tried to rival this also but could not, and  eople, for we read that before inflicting another
were compelled to acknowledge that'this was theplague God gave warning of it to the nation, and
finger of God.' The rendering in  the effect of this was to make it apparent that whilst
finger of God.' The rendering in the A. V. is some treated the warning with indifference, there
supported by many high authorities, Bochart amongsome treated the wa  th    fference there
the rest; but the majority of more recent scholars were others who feared the Lord, and took the
follow the LXX. and the Vulg., which translate means suggested for the protection of their servants
~D8: by vites and sciniphes, and regard the insect and cattle from the threatened judgment.  This
in question as a species of gnat or mosquito  consisted in a fearful storm of hail, accompanied
[KINN IM.]                         m         with thunder and lightning, such as had never be-The next plague was that of the IV, which the fore been witnessed in that land, and by which imThe next plague was that of the, which themense destruction, both of vegetable produce and
LXX. render by Kvv6vtCia, or dog-fly, while others animal life, was produced. In Goshen, however,
make it the scarabeus, and others, with the A. V., where the Israelites were, the storm was not felt;
a swarm olf ies (from::I' to mix) [AROB].  The in it'was there no hail.' This was the first of a
last has as much in its favour as any of the others, series of severer and more appalling visitations than
and all travellers concur in attesting that even now  those which had preceded; God was now about to
one of the greatest pests of Egypt is the multitude send all his plagues upon the heart of the Pharaoh,
of flies which at certain seasons infest the country, that he might know that there is none like Jehovah
and torment both man and beast. By the invasion in all the earth (ix. 14), i.e., He would now by the
of this insect the land was corrupted, i.e., what terror of his judgments compel that submission
before was pleasant and useful was spoiled, and be- which the less awful inflictions previously sent had
came noisome (comp. Barhebr. Chronic. Syr. p. failed to effect (ix. 13-26).
343); and the Pharaoh was again brought to pro-  Appalled by the awful scene before him, and
mise the liberation of the Israelites, and entreat the throughout his land, the Pharaoh once more prooffices of Moses to plead with God for the removal mised submission to the command of God if the
of the plague (viii. 20-28).                 visitation were withdrawn. But no sooner had this
The removal of the infliction was the signal for the taken place than his heart was again hardened, and
monarch's recall of his promise, and his relapsing into he again refused to let the people go.  This
his former obduracy. A fifth plague was therefore brought on him and his people the eighth plague,
sent on his land, that of a virulent pestilence ('i"!), that of locusts. The prospect of this fearful inflic



EGYPT, PLAGUES OF                 750          EGYPT, PLAGUES OF
tion [ARBEH] alarmed the servants of the Pharaoh, count for this, various hypotheses have been reand they suggested a compromise with Moses, pro- sorted to.  I. It has been supposed that they were
posing that the men should be allowed to go with  enabled to do this by diabolic aid. But this ashim to offer sacrifice to Jehovah in the wilderness, sumes the position that men can enter into agreewhile by retaining the females they made sure of ment or compact with evil spirits so as to receive
the men's returning to their servitude. This pro- their aid-a position which has never been proved,
posal, when communicated to Moses by the king, and consequently cannot be legitimately assumed to
was indignantly rejected, and bothparties separated  explain an actual phenomenon. This hypothesis
in anger. Then came the threatened infliction; assumes also that evil spirits can work miracles, a
Moses stretched his rod over the land of Egypt, position no less gratuitous and improbable. 2. It
and'the Lord brought an east wind upon the land  has been maintained that the magicians were aided
all that day and all that night, and when it was by God to do what they did; that they were inmorning the east wind brought the locusts.' This struments in his hand, as was the witch who raised
was so terrible an infliction that the Pharaoh was Samuel, and were probably as much surprised at
bowed before it; he'called for Moses and Aaron in their own success as she was; and that God thus
haste, and he said I have sinned against the Lord  employed them probably to shew in the most deyour God, and against you; now therefore forgive, I cisive manner that the agency at work was His,
pray thee, my sin only this once, and entreat the and that it was just as he gave the power or withLord your God that He take away from me this held it that the miracle was performed. For this
death only.' His request was complied with, and  hypothesis there is much to be said. At the same
the locusts were removed; but only to give the time it is open to objection, for-I. Whilst Moses
king another opportunity of shewing how insincere distinctly asserts that it was by Divine power that
was his penitence, and how obdurate his heart. he and Aaron wrought, he never hints, even in the
This brought on him the ninth plague, that of dark- most distant way, that it was by this that the maginess.  This darkness, which was of the intensest cians succeeded in their attempts; and 2. It is exkind, lasted three days, and spread over the whole pressly said, on the contrary, that what they did they
land of Egypt, with the exception of the part in- did by means of their' enchantments.' The word
habited by the Israelites.  Moses was again sum-    ed       mean a s       a, 
moned before the king, but no agreement was comehere uss a secret art hence ma
to between them, and they again parted in anger, arts, enchantments, and may be properly used to
to see each other no more (Exod. x.) Then came designate the covert tricks or juggling artifices by
the final infliction on Egypt, the death of the first- which practisers of legerdemain impose upon others.
born throughout the land,'from the first-born of This leads us to the 3d hypothesis, which is, that
Pharaoh that sat on the throne, unto the first-born the achievements of the magicians were merely
of the captive that was in the dungeon, and all the clever tricks by which they imposed upon the
first-born of cattle.'  This appalling visitation  people, and tended to confirm the Pharaoh in
broke the yoke of Israel; the Egyptians literally  his obduracy. This hypothesis has in its favour'thrust away' the people whom they had so long  the fact that the magicians of Egypt, and of
kept in cruel bondage.                        the East generally, have always, down to our
II. i. In proceeding to offer a few observations own day, possessed an unparalleled and almost
of a general nature on this series of inflictions, we incredible dexterity in artificial magic (see Lane's
start with the observation that they were of a mira- Modern Egyptians, p. 352, ff.) It is to be borne
culous character. As such, the historian obviously in mind, also, that in the cases before us these
intends us to regard them, and they are elsewhere magicians were allowed time to prepare themspoken of as the'wonders' (Vil'n1 ) which God  selves, and to go through those introductoryprowrought in the land of Ham (Ps. cv. 27), as his cesses, by means of which jugglers mainly succeed
in cheating the beholders; and, moreover, it is immiracles (         iinl g~m ) in Egypt (Ps. cvi. 7), as his portant to keep in view that they performed before
signs and prodigies (tD:n1D 1 AikN) which he sent witnesses who were interested in believing in their
into the midst of Egypt (Ps. cxxxv. 9), etc. It is success. Above all, in the three feats in which they
only under this aspect that we can accept the narra- succeeded, there was really nothing but what the
tive as historical. It is true that many of them ap- jugglers of the present day could easily do. The
pear to have been of the same kind with phenomena jugglers of India will, for a few pence, do tricks
natural to the country; but this cannot be said of with serpents far more wonderful than making them
all of them; and in the case of those of which it can  rigid so as to resemble staves; and any juggler
be said, the presence of the supernatural is seen not could make water in a basin or a tank resemble
only in the unparalleled degree to which the in- blood, or, when the country was already swarming
fliction reached, but still more in the complete  with frogs, could cover some place that had been
command which was exercised by Moses as the   cleared for the purpose, with these reptiles, as if
agent of Jehovah over the coming and going of the he had suddenly produced them. The performvisitation. The exemption of the Israelites from  ances of these magicians are really below par as
the general calamity is also clearly assigned to  compared with those which may be witnessed in
the miraculous. The only alternative, therefore, the room of any travelling conjuror among ourallowed to us, is to reject the whole narrative as selves. Let it be noted, also, that they failed as
mythic, or to accept it as miraculous.  The at- soon as they were required to perform the miracle
tempts made by Eichhorn and the older rational- on the instant, as in the case of the plague of lice,
ists, to give natural explanations of these plagues, for their attempts to imitate which no time was alonly exhibit the deplorable expedients to which an  lowed; and as a consequence of this it is emphatiunsound hypothesis may compel able men to resort. cally said,'they could not.' When to all this it
ii. Of the deeds performed by Moses some were is added that they were impotent not only to reimitated by the magicians of the Pharaoh. To ac- move the infliction, but even to exempt themselves




EGYPT, PLAGUES OF                 751         EGYPTIAN VERSIONS
from it, there seems abundant reason for conclud- object of idolatrous worship among the Egyptians.
ing that these magicians attained to nothing beyond The devouring of the serpents by the serpent into
the performance of a few successful tricks (Scot which the rod of Moses had been turned, was
Congregational Lecture, p. 210-226; Wardlaw On  directed against the serpent-worship of Egypt; the
Miracles, p. 23I, ff.)                        turning of the water into blood, was an assault on
iii. It has been asked, What period of time their sacred river the Nile; the plague of the frogs,
was occupied in the infliction of these successive the gnats, the flies or scarabei, all tended to bring
plagues? In answer to this, some contend for a objects of idolatrous worship among the Egyptians
year; but they have no better reason for this than  into contempt; the murrain on the cattle was
that it enables them to compare the plagues with  directed against their Apis-worship; the plague of
certain natural phenomenon, occurring at fixed boils, brought on by the casting of ashes from the
seasons of the year in Egypt. This has been done altar into the air, a rite which they followed to
with considerable ingenuity, though not without arrest evil, shewed how God could reverse their
some rather violent straining in particular cases; omens, and make what they used for good to turn
but without some better reason than this we should to evil; the hail and storm plague was directed
not feel justified in accepting a hypothesis which  against their worship of the elements or of deities
the general tone of the narrative does not suggest. supposed to preside over them; the plague of
Each plague, according to the historian, lasted only locusts shewed that this great scourge which they
for a short time; and unless we suppose an inter- were accustomed to trace to the wrath of their
val of several weeks between each, a few months deities was entirely in the power of Jehovah; the
would afford sufficient time for the happening of plague of darkness poured contempt on their
the whole.                                    worship of the sun-god; and the death of the firstiv. A  more important inquiry respects the born wound up this terrible series, by shewing that
design of these inflictions.  That their ultimate in the hand of Jehovah alone was the life of all his
design was the effecting of the liberation of the creatures. A mighty and memorable lesson was
Israelites from  their cruel bondage lies on the thus read out before both Egyptians and Israelites,
surface of the narrative; but with this, there may, which could not but have its effect in weakening
and probably were other ends contemplated. We among the former the attachment of many to their
may suppose-I. That God designed to produce an  idols, and confirming the latter in their reverence
effect on the mind of Moses himself, tending to for Jehovah as the only true God. (Stackhouse,
educate and discipline him for the great work on  Hist. of the Bible; Bryant, Observations on the
which he was about to enter, the conduct and plagues inflicted on the Egyptians, Lond. 1794;
rule of the people during their passage through  Eichhorn, De Egypti anno mirabili, in the Comthe wilderness. For such a task, great fortitude ment. Soc. Reg. Scient. Gottingen. Recentior., vol.
and implicit confidence in the power and majesty iv. 45; Rosenmiiller, Scholia, in loc.; Knobel, in
of Jehovah were required; and as Moses, timid at loc.; Hengstenberg, Egy5pt and the Books of Moses;
first, and ready to retire on the first rebuff, gradu- Winer, R. W.B., art. Moses.) —W. L. A.
ally acquired courage and determination as the
manifestations of God's power in the chastisements  EGYPTIAN VERSIONS. After the death of
inflicted on the Pharaoh and his land proceeded, it is Alexander the Great, the Greeks multiplied in
very probable that the series of inflictions of which  Egypt, and obtained important places of trust near
he was the instrument, were designed to confirm  the throne of the Ptolemies. The Greek language
him in faith, obedience, and confidence, and so fit accordingly began to diffuse itself from the court
him for his great work. 2. We may suppose that among the people; so that the proper language of
a salutary effect was intended to be produced on  the country was either forced to adapt itself to the
the minds of the Israelites, the mass of whom had, Greek, both in construction and in the adoption of
under their long protracted debasement, sunk low  new words; or was entirely supplanted. In this
in religious and intellectual life. The marvellous way originated the Coptic, compounded of the old
manner in which God interposed for their deliver- Egyptian and the Greek. There is a version in
ance, and the mighty power by which He brought the dialect of Lower Egypt usually called the Copthem forth, could not but arouse them to thought, tic, or, better, the Mremphitic version; and there
and elevate and quicken their religious emotions. is another in the dialect of Upper Egypt, termed
3. It appears that a salutary religious effect was the Sahidic, and sometimes the Thebaic.
produced on many of the Egyptians themselves, as  I. The AIempzhitic version of the Bible. —The
is evidenced by the multitudes who united them- 0. T. in this version was made from the Septuaselves to the Israelites when they made their escape; gint and not the original Hebrew. It would appear
and also on the surrounding natioxs, as is attested from Miinter (SSecim. verss. Dan. Copt., Rome,
by Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses (Exod. xviii. 1786) that the original was the Hesychian recen10, II). We may presume, therefore, that this sion of the LXX. then current in the country.
also was part of the design of these inflictions, There is little doubt that all the 0. T. books were
especially as we find God expressly declaring to translated, though many of them have not yet been
Moses that these judgments were intended to make discovered.  The Pentateuch was published by
the Egyptians know that He was God (Exod. vii. Wilkins (Lond. I73I, 4to) and by Fallet (Paris,
5). 4. But these ends were included in the great 1854, et seqq.); the Psalms at Rome (I744 and
end of demonstrating the vanity of those idols in  I749) by the Propaganda Society.  In 1837,
which the Egyptians trusted.'Against all the Ideler published the Psalter more correctly; and
gods of Egypt,' said the Lord to Moses,'I will in 1844 the best critical edition, by Schwartze, apexecute judgment: I am Jehovah' (Exod. xii. 12). peared. The twelve minor prophets were pubOn these idols, God would pour contempt; and in lished by Tattam, Oxon, I836, 8vo; and the major
connectionwith this, it is noticeable that nearly every prophets by the same, I852. Bardelli published
miracle performed by Moses, had relation to some Daniel (Pisa, 1849). A few small pieces of other




EHI                     752               EICHHORN
books were printed at different times by Minga- languages at Jena, and professor of the same at
relli, Quatremere, and Miinter. The N. T., made Gottingen. He was a man of extensive and varied
from the original Greek, was published by Wil- culture, of a vivid and versatile genius, possessed
kins, at Oxford, with a Latin translation, A.D. of immense powers of application, and capable
1716. In 1846 a new and more correct edition  of employing these powers with success in various
was begun by Schwartze, and continued, but in departments of literature. His fertile ingenuity
a different manner, after his death by Botticher often betrayed him into untenable hypotheses,
(1852, etc.) In 1848-52 the Society for Promoting which, though plausibly defended by him, have
Christian Knowledge published the N. T. in Mem- tended considerably to detract from his permanphitic and Arabic, 2 vols. fol. The text was revised  ent reputation and influence. His writings are
by Lieder. Its readings, as may be inferred from  very numerous; they are chiefly in the departthe place where it was made, coincide with the ment of ancient history, literary history, and BibliAlexandrine family, and deserve the attention of cal literature. In this last branch his works are:
the critic. Unfortunately the version is not yet -Einleitung in das Alte Testament, 3 vols. 8vo,
correctly edited. It belongs perhaps to the third  Leipz. 1780-83, best edition, Gott. 1820-24, 5
century.                                     vols.; Einleit. in die Apocryph. Schriften des
2. The Thebaic.-This version was also made A. 7, Gott. I795; Einleit. in das N. T., G6tt. 2
from the Greek, both in the 0. and N. T., and vols. 1804-Io, best edition, Leipz. 1820-27, 5 vols.;
probably in the second century. Only some frag- Commentarius in Apocalypsin yohzannis, 2 vols.
ments of the 0. T. part have been printed by G6tt. 179I; )iefHebr. Propheten, 3 vols. Gott. I8S6Miinter, Mingarelli, and Zoega. In the N. T. it 2o. To this branch, also, belong his Repertorium
agrees generally, though not uniformly, with the fuir Bib. und Morgenlandische Literatur, 18 vols.
Alexandrine family. Not a few readings, however, Leipz. 1777-86; and his A4llgemeine Bibliothek der
are peculiar; and some harmonise with the Latin Biblischen Literatu;, io vols. Leipz. I787-1801.
versions.  Fragments of it have been published by As a theologian, Eichhorn belonged to the rationMingarelli, Giorgi, Miinter, and Ford.       alist school, and may be regarded as one of its
3. The Bashmuric or Ammonian.-Only some most influential leaders. His works on Biblical
fragments of such a version in the 0. and. N. T. Introduction produced a great effect, both on the
have been published, and very little is known con- treatment of that subject, and on the views of his
cerning it. Scholars are not agreed as to the countrymen in regard to the questions coming
nature of the dialect in which it is written; some under it. Nothing so painstaking, so copious, so
thinking that it does not deserve the name of a exact, or so systematic, had before appeared on
dialect; while others regard the Bashmuric as a the subject; and to this day his works remain the
kind of intermediate dialect between those spoken most valuable repertory of facts to which the
in Upper and Lower Egypt. Hug and De Wette student can betake himself. It is when Eichhorn
are inclined to believe that it is merely the version resorts to hypotheses that he becomes misleading;
of Upper Egypt transferred into the idiom of the and yet it would be unfair to say that even by this
particular place where the Bashmuric was spoken. he has not contributed largely to the advance of
The origin of this version belongs to the third or Biblical science. His inquiry into the origin of
fourth century.-S. D.                        the three synoptic gospels is a most elaborate
17TTTEHI /^<~;  c  <- ~'Ay~. ^piece of investigation; and though his conclusion
EHI (ain; Sept.'A7yXs). One of the sons of has met with but few to adopt it, there can be no
Benjamin, and chief of one of the clans or septs of doubt that the interest his inquiry excited has
that tribe (Gen. xlvi. 21). In Num. xxvi. 38 he is tended much to advance the question at issue tocalled Ahiram, which probably is the full name. wards a satisfactory solution. His discussion of
It is doubtful whether the same person is intended the canon of the 0. T., though containing some
by Huram, I Chron. viii. 5, or Ehud, in the next peculiar and untenable views, is still of great value
verse.-W. L. A.                              to the student. The only books of the N. T.
whose genuineness he calls in question are Jude,
EHUD (t~l.; Sept.'A&5), of the tribe of 2 Peter, and the Pastoral epistles; respecting
Benjamin, one of the'Judges' of Israel, or rather these last he was the first to suggest that, though
of that part of Israel which he delivered from the not ritten by Paul, Pauline ideas lie at their
dominion of the Moabites by the assassination of basis. As an exegete, Eichhorn's great defect is
their king Eglon. These were the tribes beyond his want of spiritual sympathy with the sacred
the Jordan, and the southern tribes on this side the writers, and the consequently purely literary and
river.  Ehud obtained access to Eglon as the superficial character of his exegesis. The zesthebearer of tribute from the subjugated tribes, and tic element in the prophetical writings he fully apbeing left-handed, or rather ambidextrous, he was preciates, but their religious and theocratic eleenabled to use with a sure and fatal aim a dagger ments he almost wholly misses, while of their reconcealed under a part of his dress, where it was lation to Christianity he seems to know nothing.
unsuspected, because it would there have been use- Had the Bible not been a divine book, Eichhorn's
less to a person employing his right hand. The writings on it might have occupied the same place
Israelites continued to enjoy for eighty years the of authority as all will concede to his Geschic/te
independence obtained through this deed of Ehud der Literatur von iren andinge bis auf die neues(Judg. iii. 15-30).-J. K.                    ten zeiten, and his other works on literary history;
but as it is, his works on Scripture only afford
EICHHORN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED, was born another illustration, among many, how incompeI6th October I752, at Dorenzimmern, and died tent are mere genius and scholarship to do justice
at G6ttingen, 25th June 1827.  He was succes- to them, apart from that teaching of the Spirit by
sively rector of the Gymnasium at Ordruff in the which alone the things that are'spiritually disGrand Duchy of Gotha, professor of Oriental cerned' can be apprehended.-W. L. A.




EKRON                     753                   ELAM
EKRON    (jpnp; Sept.'AKKCapWV), one of the versions of I Sam. xvii. I9. There can be little
royal cities of the Philisti.  Its s n is doubt, however, that the word is used as a proper
royal cities of the Philistines. Its situation  sname, though most probably arising from some repointed out with considerable minuteness in Scrip- markable terebinth which grew in the valley. The
ture. It is described as ying on the northern borvalley is now called Wady-es-Suinpt. (' Acacia valder of Philistia (Josh. xiii. 3), and of the territory ley'), because it abounds in acacias. It is a reallotted to Judah (xv. II). It stood on the plain markable fact, and tends to throw light on the
between Bethshemesh and Jabneel (Id.) Jerome
obetween Bethshemesh and Jabneel (Ihd.) Jerom  origin of the ancient name, that one of the largest
locates it on the east of the road leading fromterebinths in Palestine may be seen in a branch of
Azot   (Ashdod). to Jamnia (Jabneel, Onomast.  terebinths in Palestine may be seen in a branch of
Azotus (Ashdod) to Jamnia (Jabneel, Onomast. s. the valley only a few miles distant from the scene
v. Accaron).  From these notices we can have no of the battle. It was noticed by Dr.  obinson
difficulty in identifying it with the modern village (, ii. ), and has since been visited by the
of Akir.  Akir stands on the southern slope of a writr (ndbookfor S. andP. 280.)
low, bleak ridge or swell which separates the plain    ecclesiastical tradition affirms that Wady
An old ecclesiastical tradition affirms that Wady
of Philistia from Sharon. It contains about fifty Beit Hanina, eight miles north of Jerusalem, is the
mud houses; and has not a vestige of antiquity  Elah of Scripture; but it so happens that the inciexcept two large and deep wells, and some stone dental references in Scripture afford sufficient data
water-troughs.  Wady Surar, which lies below it, to prove that this is altogether erroneous (Kitto's
and the great plain beyond, are rich and fertile; Pictorial Palestine, 121).'The Philistines gayet the higher ground around the village and thered together at Shochoh, which belonget  to
northward has a barren aspect, and may perhaps  _dah, and pitched between Shochoh and Azekah'
have suggested the name (Ekron,' wasteness'). (I Sam. xvii. I). Wady Beit Hanina is in BenjaThe houses are built on the accumulated rubbish of min  and Shochoh and Azekah were on the borpast ages; and like their predecessors, if left ders of the Shephelah, or plain of Philistia, some
desolate for a few years, they would crumble to twelve miles south-west of Jerusalem (Josh. xv. 33,
dust (Robinson, B. R. ii. 227; Van de Velde, n. 35)  The sites of both are now known, and serve
168; Hanabookfor S. and P. 275).              not only to identify the valley, but to mark the
Ekron was within the territory of Judah; but exact scene of the battle. Wady es-Sumpt runs in
was one of the cities allotted to Dan (Josh. xix. a north-westerly direction from the mountains of
43). The most interesting event in its history was Judah, through the low hills at their base, into the
the sending of the ark to Bethshemesh. A new  plain of Philistia, which it enters a little north of
cart was made, and two milch kine yoked to it, the site of Gath. The ruins of Shochoh, now
and then left to choose their own path;'and they called Shuweikeh, cover a natural terrace on the
took the straight way to the way of Bethshemesh;' left bank of the valley; and Azekah appears to
the position of which can be seen in a gorge of the have stood on a conical hill some two miles distant
distant mountains eastward (I Sam. v.) The deity on the same bank. Between there, on the slope of
worshipped at Ekron was called Baal-zebub; and the ridge, the Philistines encamped; and opposite
we may conclude from the story of Ahaziah that them on the right bank were the Israelites. The
his oracle had a great reputation even among the distance between the armies was about a mile; and
degenerate Israelites (2 Kings i.) The doom of the vale beneath is flat and rich. Through the
Ekron was predicted by the prophets in connection centre winds a torrent bed, the banks fringed with
with the other cities of Philistia; and Ekron is nowshrubbery of acacia, and the bottom covered with'rooted up'-every trace of royalty, riches, and rounded smooth stones.' The ridges on each
power is gone (Amos i. 8; Zeph. ii. 4). It ap-side rise to the height of about 500 feet, and have a
pears, however, never to have been completely steep uniform slope, so that the armies ranged
deserted. It was a large village in the days of along them could see the combat in the valley.
Jerome; and also in the age of the crusades (Ono- The Philistines when defeated fled down the valley
mast. ut sup.; Gesta Dei per Francos, p. 404).  towards Gath and Ekron (Handbookfor S. and P.
J. L. P.                                      249; Robinson, B. R. ii. 21 sq.)-J. L. P.
ELAH    (ri; Sept.'HXa). I. One of the       ELAM (DV; Sept.'EXd/i), the oldest son of
dukes of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 41; I Chron. i. 52). Shem (Gen. x. 22), who, like the other early patri2. The father of one of Solomon's officers for pro- archs, was the founder of a nation, and gave his
viding for his household (I Kings iv. I8). 3. A  name to the country which they colonized (xiv. I).
son of Caleb, son of Jephunneh (I Chron. iv. I5); The position of Elam is defined by Daniel. It lay
4. A son of Uzzi, a Benjamite (I Chron. ix. 8). along the river Ulai, the modern Karun (Layard,
5. Son of Baasha, king of Israel. After a reign of Nineveh and Babylon, I46; Loftus, Chaldaa and
two years (B.C. 930-929) he was assassinated while Susiana, 424, sq.); and Shushan (now Shush),
drunk, and all his kinsfolk and friends cut off, by  one of the most powerful and magnificent cities of
Zimri,'the captain of half his chariots.' He was the primeval world, was its capital (Dan. viii. 2;
the last king of Baasha's line, and by this catas- SHUSHAN). The name Elam occurs in the cuneitrophe the predictions of the prophet Jehu were form inscriptions found on the bulls in Sennaaccomplished (I Kings xvi. 6-I4). 6. Father of cherib's palace at Nineveh. The country was also
Hoshea, last king of Israel (2 Kings xv. 30; called NVuvaki, as we learn from the monuments of
xvii. I).                                     Khorsabad and Bisutun (Layard, N. and B., 452).
EL- AHTT/ L'- and ^The extent and boundaries of ancient Elam canELAH (,SN,? pDV; Sept. KotXa ris s pvos, and not now be ascertained. Rosenmiiller says it had'HXa).'The valley of Elah' is only mentioned as Persis on the east, Babylonia on the west, Media
the scene of David's combat with Goliath (I Sam. on the north, and the Persian Gulf on the south
xvii. 2, I9; xxi. 9). Elah signifies a'terebinth  (Biblical Geography, i. I88). Rawlinson's descriptree,' and is so rendered in the Sept. and Vulg. tion is substantially the same.'Susiana, the
VOL. 1.3




ELAM                     754                  ELATH
Elam of Scripture, was bounded on the north by district, to which their name was often attached.
Assyria, on the east by the Zagross mountains and They were a warlike people, trained to arms, and
the liver Tab (Oroatis), on the south by the Persian  especially skilled in the use of the bow (Is. xxi. 2 
Gulf, and on the west by the Tigris.' It was thus Jer. xlix. 35); they roamed abroad like the Beabout 300 miles long, and averaged about go wide dawin, and like them, too, were addicted to plun(Herodotus, i. 570). This may apply to the Greek  der (Strabo, xi. p. 36I). Josephus mentions a
province of Elymais or Susiana, but is not strictly town called Elymais, which contained a famous
accurate as regards the Elam of early biblical his- temple dedicated to Diana, and rich in gifts and
tory. The name Elam appears to have been given votive offerings (Antiq. xii. 9. I); Appian says it
at a very early period, perhaps somewhat inde- was dedicated to Venus (Bochart, Opp. i. 70, sq.)
finitely, to the country lying along the northern  Antiochus Epiphanes attempted to plunder it, but
shore of the Persian Gulf, and extending westward was repulsed (i Maccab. vi.) It is a remarkable
into Arabia, and northward into the mountains of fact that little images of the goddess, whose AssyLuristan. It thus embraced a considerable por- rian name is Anaitis, were discovered by Loftus in
tion of what was afterwards consolidated into the the mounds of Susa (Loftus, p. 379). The ElamPersian empire under Cyrus. The king of Elam  ites who were in Jerusalem at the feast of Penteseems to have been in the time of Abraham one of cost were probably descendants of the captive tribes
the most powerful monarchs of Western Asia. He who had settled in Elam (Acts ii. 9).
received tribute from the richest cities of Canaan,  The fullest account of Elam, its physical geowhile the rulers of Ellasar (Chaldoea), and Shinar graphy, ruins, and history, is given in Loftus' Chal(Babylonia), were either subject to his authority, or daa and Susiana. The southern part of the counin close alliance with him (Gen. xiv. 4). When  try is flat, and towards the shore of the Gulf
the Assyrian empire rose to such a pitch of power, marshy and desolate. In the north the mountain
Elam remained in a great measure unnoticed, ranges of Backhtiari and Luristan rise gradually
though still a distinct and important kingdom (Is. from the plain in a series of calcareous terraces,
xxi. 2; xxii. 6). The warlike monarchs of Baby- intersected by ravines of singular wildness and
lon subsequently extended their conquests over all grandeur. Among these mountains are the sources
the neighbouring nations (BABYLON); but that of the Ulai (Loftus, pp. 308, 347, sq.) The chief
great empire fell in its turn under the power towns of Elymais are now Shuster (' little S/zsh/')
of the Medo-Persians, who subdued nearly all and Dizful; but the greater part of the country is
Western Asia (Esther i.; Dan. v. and vi.; Ezra overrun by nomad Arabs.-J. L. P.
iv. 9).  The power of Elam was thus broken;
it became a mere province, and its chief city   ELASAH (wI[I;'EXeaov  Vat.;'EXea&p
Shushan, or Susa, was made one of the capitals Alex.; Elasa). The son of Shaphan, one of the
of the Persian empire (Dan. viii. 2). These his- bearers of a letter from the prophet Jeremiah to the
toric facts illustrate the prophecy of Jeremiah  captive Jews in Babylon, Jer. xxix. 3 (Jer. xxxvi.
(xlix. 35-39),'and upon Elam will I bring the 3, Sept.)
four winds from the four quarters of heaven, and I  2. ('HXaod.) One of the sons of Pashur menwill scatter them towards all these winds.' The tioned in the list of priests who had married Gensituation of the country exposed it to the invasions tile wives, and were required by Ezra to put them
of Assyrians, Medes, and Babylonians; and it suf- away (Ezra x. I8, 22).-J. E. R.
fered from each in succession before it was finally  ELATH r,  termed in the Sept. AIX; in
embodied in the Persian empire. Then another    ELAT     (      termed in the Sept A; in
part of the prophecy was also singularly fulfilled: Joseph. (Antiq. viii. 6. 4) AtXavs; in Jerome,
I will set my throne in Elam, and I will destroy Ailath; by the Greeks and Romans,'EXcva. It
from thence the king and princes.' The present is now called Ailah. These several names are only
state of the Persian empire, in which Elam is in- variations of the original Hebrew word. It was a
eluded, may be a fulfilment of the concluding words city of Idumoea, having a port on the eastern arm
of the passage:'But it shall come to pass in the or gulf of the Red Sea, which thence received the
latter days, that I will bring again the captivity of name of Sinus Elaniticus (Gulf of Akaba). AcElam' (Vaux, Nineveh andPersesolis, 85, s.)   cording to Eusebius, it was ten miles east from
Herodotus gives the name Cissia to the province Petra. It lies at the extremity of the valley of
of which Susa was the capital (iii. 9I); Strabo  Elghor, which runs at the bottom of two parallel
distinguishes between Susiana and the country of ranges of hills, north and south, through Arabia
the Elymaeans. The latter he extends northwards Petrea, from the Dead Sea to the northern parts
among the Zagros mountains (xi. p. 361; xv. p. of the Elanitic Gulf.
503; xvi. p. 507). Pliny says Susiana is separated  The first time that it is mentioned in the Scripfrom Elymais by the river Eulkeus; and that the tures is in Deut. ii. 8, where, in speaking of the
latter province extends from that river to the con- journey of the Israelites towards the Promised
fines of Persis (Hist. Nat. vi. 27). Ptolemy locates Land, these words occur-' When we passed by
Elymais on the coast of the Persian Gulf, and re- from our brethren the children of Esau, which
gards it as part only of Susiana (Georgr. vi. 3). dwelt in Seir, through the way of the plain from
According to Josephus the Elymoeans were the Elath, and from Eziongeber.' These two places
progenitors of the Persians (Antiq. i. 6. 4); and  are mentioned together again in I Kings ix. 26, in
Strabo refers to some of their scattered tribes as such a manner as to shew that Elath was more
far north as the Caspian Sea. From these various ancient than Eziongeber, and was of so much
notices, and from the incidental allusions in Scrip- repute as to be used for indicating the locality of
ture, we may conclude that there was a little pro- other places: the passage also fixes the spot where
vince on the east of the Lower Tigris called Ely- Elath itself was to be found:'and King Solomon
mais; but that the Elymseans as a people were made a navy of ships in Eziongeber, which is
anciently spread over, and ruled a much wider beside Elath, on the shore (Num. xxxiii. 35) of the




EIATH                    755          EL-BALCHI, CHAVILA
Red Sea, in the land of Edom.' The use which neighbouring tribes of the desert in awe, and to
David made of the vicinity of Elath shews that the minister to the wants and protection of the annual
country was at that time in his possession. Accord- Egyptian Haj, or pilgrim caravan. This place has
ingly, in 2 Sam. viii. 14, we learn that he had pre- always been an important station upon the route of
viously made himself master of Idumaea, and gar- the Egyptian Haj. Such is the importance of this
risoned its strongholds with his own troops. Un- caravan of pilgrims from Cairo to Mecca, both in
der his successor, Joram  (2 Kings viii. 20), the a religious and political point of view, that the
Idumseans revolted from Judah, and elected a king rulers of Egypt from the earliest period have given
over themselves. Joram thereupon assembled his it convoy and protection. For this purpose a line
forces,'and all the chariots with him,' and, falling of fortresses similar to that of Akaba has been
on the Idumoeans by night, succeeded in defeating established at intervals along the route, with wells
and scattering their army. The Hebrews, how- of water and supplies of provisions (Robinson's
ever, could not prevail, but'Edom revolted from  Biblical Researches, vol. i. p. 250).
under the hand of Judah unto this day;' thus ex-  The first Frank who visited this place in modern
emplifying the striking language employed (Gen. times, was Rtipell, in I822. Laborde (7ourney
xxvii. 40) by Isaac-' by the sword shalt thou live, throtogh Arabia Petraa, London, 1836) was well
and shalt serve thy brother: and it shall come to received by the garrison and inhabitants of the
pass, when thou shalt have the dominion, that thou castle of Akaba, of which he has given a view
shalt break his yoke from off thy neck.' From 2 (vol. i. p. I I6). The fortress, he states, is built on
Kings xiv. 22, however, it appears that Uzziah re- a regular plan, and is in a pretty good condition,
covered Elath, and, having so repaired and adorned  though within several good habitations have been
the city as to be said to have built, that is rebuilt, suffered to fall to decay. It has only two guns fit
it, he made it a part of his dominions. This con- for service.-J. R. B.
nection was not of long continuance; for in ch.
xvi. ver. 6 of the same book, we find the Syrian  EL-BALCHI, CI-IAVILA, so called after his
king Rezin interposing, who captured Elath, drove native town Balchi (%:$3 5N), in Bactria, a celeout the Jews, and annexed the place to his Syrian brated rationalistic philosopher, commentator, and
kingdom, and'the Syrians came to Elath, and grammarian, who flourished about 880 A.D. He
dwelt there unto this day.' At a later period it published a translation of the Pentateuch into Arafell under the power of the Romans, and was for a bic, with an elaborate commentary, which created
time guarded by the tenth legion, forming part of as much excitement in the East as Voltaire's attacks
Palaestina Tertia (Jerome, O;oom. s. v. Ailath; upon the Bible created in Europe.  And if we
Strabo, xxi. 4. 4; Reland, p. 556). It subse- had not been convinced that the French infidel
quently became the residence of a Christian bishop. was ignorant of Hebrew and Arabic, we should
Bishops of Elath were at the council of Chalcedon  have been tempted to believe that he copied the
(A.D. 45I), and that of Constantinople (A.D. 536). Jewish rationalist.  El-Balchi's commentary has
At the council of Chalcedon, Beryllus thus wrote not as yet come to light, but Ibn Ezra, with other
his designation as bishop,'AiXa rIs HIaXatcortLv7s expositors, constantly quotes extracts from it, and
rplrT7s. In the days of its prosperity it was much  refutes them in a most masterly manner.
distinguished for commerce, which continued to  El-Balchi's grand work, however, in which he
flourish under the auspices of Christianity. In the intended to explain away all revelation, and to resixth century it was spoken of by Procopius as being duce the miracles of the Bible to mere poetical
inhabited by Jews subject to the Roman dominion figures of speech and hyperboles, is The book of
(De Bell. Pers. i. I9). In A.D. 630, the Christian  Animadversions (nlI3lW  ODD), consisting of two
communities of Arabia Petrzea found it expedient hundred arguments against the inspiration of the
to submit to Mohammed, when John, the Chris- Scriptures and revealed religion.  This productian governor of Ailah, became bound to pay an tion, too, is still hid in some libraries; but copious
annual tribute of 300 gold-pieces (Abulfeda, Ann. quotations from it are dispersed through the biblical
i. 17I). Henceforward, till the present century, commentaries of the greatest Jewish philologians,
Ailah lay in the darkness of Islamism. It is merely who endeavour to refute them. We abstain from
mentioned by the supposed Ibn Haukal, perhaps giving specimens from this work, because the arguin the eleventh century; and, after the middle of ments which El-Balchi uses are exactly the same
the twelfth, Edrisi describes it as a small town fre- as those which the Deists of the I7th century adquented by the Arabs, who were now its masters, vanced, and which are urged by the neologists and
and forming an important point in the route be- rationalists of the present day. El-Balchi's works
tween Cairo and Medina. In A.D. iII6, King   rapidly circulated in Persia, Babylon, and Egypt,
Baldwin of Jerusalem took possession of it. Again and became the favourite studies in the Jewish
was it wrested from the hands of the Christians by schools. Such was their fearful popularity, and
Saladin I., A.D. 1167, and never again fully re- such the baneful influence which they exercised
covered by them; although the reckless Rainald of over the minds of young students, that Saadia,
Chatillon, in A.D. 1182, seized, and for a time Salomon ben Jerocham, Ibn Ezra, and the most
held, the town. In Abulfeda's day, and before distinguished Jewish commentators, were conA.D. I300, it was already deserted. He says,'In strained formally to refute them. We dwell upon
our day it is a fortress, to which a governor is sent this point because the exegetical productions of
from Egypt. It had a small castle in the sea, but these learned interpreters, abounding as they do
this is now abandoned, and the governor removed with quotations from and allusions to El-Balchi
to the fortress on the shore.' Such as Ailah was and his associates, will sometimes hardly be underin the days of Abulfeda, is Akaba now. Mounds stood by the biblical student, unless he bears in
of rubbish alone mark the site of the town, while a mind this. rationalistic fraternity. By way of confortress, occupied by a governor and a small garri- tempt some writers, according to an Eastern conson under the Pasha of Egypt, serves to keep the ceit, have transposed the letters' and 1 in the




ELDAD AND MEDAD                 756          ELDAD, BEN MALCHI
name n:3l [5, and thus obtained the opprobrious hammedan dominions, and we are the tribe of
nickname:,n, the dog. The identity of theseDan.'
names mustbe  rne in mind b  the dentiy  of te  Now the tribe of Dan at first lived in the land of
Jewish exegesist-C. D. G.n md by t  s         Israel, and being the most warlike were urged to
Jewish exegesis.-. D. G.          fight against the sons of Judah, when Jeroboam,
ELDAD    and MEDAD      (C1-i &p'; Sept. son of Nebat, sinned and divided the house of
~  T'-  T z'*    David; whereupon they chose to quit the country'EXad Kal Mwcias), two of the seventy elders ap- rather than participate in the fratricidal war; they
pointed by Moses to assist him in the government then emigrated to Cush (W1), conquered this ferof the people. Although not present with the others tile country, whose inhabitants would not suffer
at the. door of the tabernacle, they were equally them to settle down peacefully, made the aborifilled with the divine spirit, and began to'pro- gines tributary, lived with them many years, and
phesy' in the camp. Joshua thinking this irregu- multiplied exceedingly. The tribes of Reuben, Gad,
lar, requested Moses to forbid them, and received and half of Manasseh, whom Sennacherib took as
an answer eminently characteristic of the great law-captives after his first conquest, were led to Halla
giver:-'Enviest thou for my sake? Would to    Habar, the river Gozan and Media; whilst the
God that all the Lord's people were prophets, and tribes of Asher and Naphthali, who were taken by
that the Lord would put his spirit upon them' him after the second conquest, were brought to
(Nim. Xi. 24-29).                            Cush (W1Z). These four tribes live now in ancient
ELDAD, BEN MALCHI, of Southern Arabia, or Havila, where the gold is. They regularly make
as some will have it, of Media, also called Eldad war every year upon the seven neighbouring nations,
Ha-Dani, Abu-Dani, and Daud Ha-Dani, that is, have plenty of gold, silver, precious stones, and
of the tribe of Dan, a very celebrated Jewish tra-flocks  They cultivate  e land, which abounds i
veller and philologian who flourished about 830-fertile corn fields and vineyards; they have a king
890 A.D. For the sake of those Biblical students whose name is Uziel ben Michael, of the tribe of
who speculate on unfulfilled prophecy and the Asher, and a prince whose name is Elizaphon, of
whereabouts of the ten tribes, as well as to shewthe tribe of Dan; their banner is white, upon
the state of the Hebrew text of the Scriptures atwhich is written i black,'Hear,  Israel, the
that time, we subjoin a summary of Eldad's famousLord our God is one God.  The valiant men of
work.                                        each of these four tribes in their turn guard the
He embarked with another Israelite (about 860 frontiers three months, fight the battles, and divide
the spoil with the others, whilst those who are unA.D.) onthe other side of the river Cush (Inwl' 1012t able to take up arms are engaged in studying the
t'2), when they were suddenly wrecked in the Scriptures. The tribe of Levi,* too, were miramiddle of the night, but saved themselves by culously guided into the land of Havila. They
clinging to a board which drifted them  on the are, however, separated from the other tribes, and
shores of a cannibal country. His companion being protected from all hostile nations by the river Samin good condition was immediately devoured, but he bation or Sabbation, which surrounds their territory,
being ill and lean was spared. Providentially a and flows violently with stones and sand all the six
foreign troop came upon these cannibals, killed  days of the week, so that no one can cross it. On
many, and captured some, and he was taken with the Sabbath, however, the river is quiet and restthe prisoners.  After remaining four years with his ing,+ but is enclosed in a dense fog, and is thereby
captors, who were fire worshippers, he was at last rendered unnavigable. Their land is exceedingly
bought by a Jewish merchant of the tribe of fruitful; there are two harvests in the year, the
Issachar, who took him home; and thus Eldad   flocks too are very productive, there are no wild
came to the territory of this tribe, which lies among beasts there, the people are all Levites, there are
the mountains or borders of Media and Persia.
The tribe of Issachar are very peaceful, and only  * The chosen ones of this tribe the Jewish tradidispute about the import of the Bible. They are tion calls Ben Moshe (1n)O A3), because they did
engaged in agricultural pursuits, have large flocks, not worship the golden calf, responded to the call
but no weapons of war; they are exceedingly honest, of Moses, siding with him against those who worare governed by a judge whose name is Nahashon, shipped the image. They are said to be the Leand speak both Hebrew and Persian.            vites who hung their harps upon the willows of
The tribe of Zebulon live on the other side of the Euphrates, and would not sing the song of
the mountains of Paran (t'Ip ), extending to Ar- Zion in a strange land, and who, when compelled
menia, and reaching to the river Euphrates. They to play by the Chaldoeans, bit off their fingers. For
are engaged in business; whilst the tribe of Reu- this faithfulness tradition says God rewarded them
ben. occupy the other side of the mountains. These in the manner described by Eldad.
two tribes live in brotherly love, speak Hebrew  t Hence its name Sambation, i.e., Sabbatic rivers
and Persian, have the Bible, the Mishna, the Tal- the river that rests on the Sabbath. Josephus almud, and the Agadah; they read the Scriptures ready believed in it, though the story was not so
every Sabbath in Hebrew, and expound in Persian. embellished in his time (De Bell. uztd. vii. 5. I );
The tribe of Ephraim, and half the tribe of Man- and allusion is also made to it in 4 Esdras xiii. 40,
asseh, live in Arabia, not far from Mecca, are war- etc. The Chaldee paraphrase of Jonathan dislike, and subsist on plunder. The tribe of Simeon  tinctly mentions it on Exod. xxxiv. Io; the Taland the other half of Manasseh live in Chorazin, mud, too, and the Midrashim speak of it repeatsix months' journey from Jerusalem, are the most edly; comp. Sanhedrin lxv. 6; ibid. Jerusal. x. 6;
numerous of all, exact tribute fiom twenty-five Bereshilt Rabba, chaps. ii., lxx:i.; Jalkut on the
states,' as well as from some Mohammedans.' The prophets, sec. 33; and Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxxi. II.
tribes of Judah and Benjamin are you who are Dean Trench has made a beautiful poem of this
dispersed through the Roman, Greek, and Mo- Jewish tradition.




ELDER                     757                   ELDER
no grades of society, no servants amongst them; his house, and all the elders of the land of Egypt;'
they have the Bible, the Mishna, the Talmud, and  Sept. 7rpcot6repot, Vulg. senres. These elders of
the Agadah; but their Talmud is in Hebrew, and  Egypt were, probably, the various state-officers.
they trace their laws direct to Moses. They do  The elders of Israel, of whom such frequent mennot know the sages or the Rabbins, since these tion is made, may have been, in early times, the
lived in the time of the second temple, when this lineal descendants of the patriarchs (Exod. xii. 21).
tribe was no more in Judaea; they speak nothing  To the elders Moses was directed to open his combut Hebrew, they never use an oath, and live from  mission (Exod. iii. I6), TrV ycpovuoiav -wwv vlwv
100 to 120 years, and are engaged in cultivating  Io-paiX; Aq. reads roOs 7rpeao-3ras. They accomthe land; they are seen by none, except by those panied Moses in his first interview with Pharaoh,
brethren of the four neighbouring tribes; they  as the representatives of the Hebrew nation (ver.
generally go to the same spots on the two opposite  I8); through them Moses issued his communicashores of the river, and talk across the water about tions and commands to the whole people (Exod.
their mutual affairs.                          xix. 7; Deut. xxxi. 9); they were his immediate
That which is most of interest to the Biblical attendants in all the great transactions in the wilcritic, in connection with this story, is the reply  derness (Exod. xvii. 5); seventy of their number
of the Gaon or Rector of the academy at Sora to were selected to attend Moses, Aaron, Nadab, and
the inquiry of the Jews at Kairwan, to whom    Abihu, at the giving of the law (Exod. xxiv.) on
Eldad related all this, and who felt perplexed by his which occasion (ver. I ) they are called the nobles
assertion that the Talmudwhich the other tribes pos- 
sessed was different from theirs. Mar-Zemash b. (5w  ) of the children of Israel, who did eat and
Chajim, the Rector (889-898 A.D.), after stating to  drink before God, in ratification of the covenant,
the Kairwan Jews that he knew Eldad from the as representatives of the nation.  In Num. xi.
highest authorities, and that they were to believe  16, I7, we meet with the appointment of seventy
without hesitation the description of the Hebrew  elders to bear the burden of the people along with
speaking tribes, goes on to say' Marvel not at the Moses; these were selected by Moses out of the
differences which Eldad told you exists between  whole number of the elders, and are described as
the oral traditions of those tribes and yours, since being, already, officers over the children of Israel.
the very text of the Bible which is written down, It is the opinion of Michaelis, that this council,
and is plain, differs in Babylon from the text of chosen to assist Moses, should not be confounded
Palestine in the orthography, divisions of chapters with the Sanhedrim, which, he thinks, was not
and verses, the Massora, and other points, how  instituted till after the return from the Babylonish
much more easily will differences arise in the oral captivity. [SANHEDRIM].  He observes that these
law, which is very profound?' This shews us most seventy elders were not chosen to be judges of the
unquestionably that the text of the Hebrew Scrip- people, who had already more than 60,ooo judges.
tures was not definitely settled in the ninth century  He also argues that the election of seventy addi[BEN-ASHER]. Eldad is quoted as an authority tional judges would have done but little towards
on lingual difficulties by the greatest Hebrew gram- suppressing the rebellion which led Moses to adopt
marians and lexicographers (Ibn Ganach, Ibn    this proceeding; but that it seems more likely to
Coreish, Kimchi, etc.) Whatever we may think of have been his intention to form a supreme senate
his lucubrations on the ten tribes, be it remem- to take a share in the government, consisting of
bered that the greatest Jewish writers of his time the most respectable persons, either for family or
and afterwards implicitly believed these stories and merit, which would materially support his power
many others far more marvellous about their lost and influence among the people in general; would
brethren.  Graetz, is, therefore, too severe upon  unite large and powerful families, and give an air
Eldad.                                         of aristocracy to his government, which had hitherto
The above epitome of Eldad's account has been been deemed too monarchical. He further infers
made from the two different recensions of his work that this council was not permanent, not being
published by Dr. Adolph Jellinek in tzie Bet- once alluded to from the death of Moses till the
Ha-Midnrash, vol. ii. p. I02, etc., and vol. iii. p. 6, Babylonish captivity; that Moses did not fill up
etc., Leipzig, I853-I855. Comp. Bartoloccii, Bib- the vacancies occasioned by deaths, and that it
liotheca fMagna Rabbinica, vol. i. IOI-I30; Fiirst, ceased altogether in the wilderness.  After the
Bibliotheca?udaica, i. p. 30, etc.; Steinschneider, settlement in Canaan the elders seem to have been
Catal. Libl. Heb. in Bibl. Bodleiana, col. 923-925; the administrators of the laws in all the cities
and Graetz, Geschichte der a'uden, vol. v. 288-294; (Deut. xix. I2; xxi. 3, 6, 19; xxii. 15, 16, I8).
522-529.-C. D. G.                              The continuance of the office may be traced during
the time of the judges (Judg. ii. 7); during that of
ELDER (;-).; Sept. irpeo-lgrepos), literally, one
ELDER c(UP; Sept. rrpe<3iEpos), literally, one Samuel (I Sam. xvi. 4); under Saul (I Sam. xxx.
of the older men, and because, in ancient times, 26); and David (i Chron. xxi. I6). The elders
older persons would naturally be selected to hold  of Israel are mentioned during the captivity (Ezra
public offices, out of regard to their presumed  x. 14), consisting either of those who had sustained
superiority in knowledge and experience, the term  that office in their own land, or were permitted by
came to be used as the designation for the office the Babylonians to exercise it still among their
itself, borne by an individual, of whatever age. countrymen.  We meet with them again at the
Such is the origin of the words yepovita (a council restoration (Ezra v. 5), and by them the Temple
of elders), senatus, alderman, etc. But the term  was rebuilt (vi. 14). After the restoration and'elder' appears to be also expressive of respect during the time of the Maccabees, the Sanhedrim,
and reverence in general, as signore, seigneur, seseor, according to Michaelis, was instituted, being first
etc. The word occurs in this sense in Gen. 1. 7, mentioned under Hyrcanus II. (Joseph. Antiq. xiv.'Joseph went up to bury his father, and with him  9. 3); but elders are still referred to in I Maccab.
went up all the servants of Pharaoh, the elders of vii. 33. Among the members of the Sanhedrim




ELEALEH                    758                  ELECTA
were the 7rperf36repoi. Thus we find 6 cpXtepebs, (BSG-'ib; Anztiq. xii. 1. I).  But elsewhere
or more frequently ol apXtepels Kac ol ypajfa7retk  (De Bell..ud. i. I. 6) he states that Judas lost
Kal ol 7rpeo3T6repot, also' chief priests and elders,' his life in a battle with the generals of Antiochus'elders and scribes,' and various other collocations. Eupator at Adasa, which Grotius and Reland supLike the scribes, they obtained their seat in the pose to be the same as Alasa.-J. E. R.
Sanhedrim by election, or nomination from the; 
executive authority. The word elder, with many  ELEAZAR      (TiK, God the Helfer; Sept.
other Jewish terms, was introduced into the Chris-'EXed'ap).  This was an exceedingly common
tian church. In the latter it is the title of inferior name among the Hebrews, being borne by a conministers, who were appointed overseers amongo siderable number of persons in Scripture (as well
not over the flock; Gr. ev Y, Vulg.'in quo' (Acts as in the Apocrypha and Josephus), of whom the
xx. I7, 28; Tit. i. 5, 7; I Pet. v. I-5). The term  principal are the following.
is applied even to the apostles (2 John; 3 John).  I. ELEAZAR, the son of Aaron (Exod. vi. 23, 25),
So also 7rpeofupre'pov certainly includes even St. who acted in his father's lifetime as chief of the
Paul himself (comp. I Tim. iv. 14 and 2 Tim. i. 6). tribe of Levi (Num. iii. 32), and at his death sucStill the apostles are distinguished from the elders ceeded him in the high-priesthood (Num. xx. 25,
elsewhere (Acts xv. 6). The elder was constituted  sq.) His pontificate was contemporary with the
by an apostle or some one invested with apostolic  military government of Joshua, whom he appears
authority (Acts xiv. 23; see also the epistles to to have survived. A perfectly good understanding
Timothy and Titus). The elders preached, con- seems at all times to have subsisted between Eleazar
futed gainsayers (Tit. i. 9), and visited the sick  and Joshua, as we constantly trace that co-operation
(James v. I4). The word elders is sometimes used  and mutual support which the circumstances of the
in the sense of ancients, ancestors, predecessors, time and of the nation rendered so necessary.
like the word apXaot (Matt. v. 21; Heb. xi. 2). Eleazar is supposed to have lived twenty-five years
It is used symbolically (Rev. iv. 4, etc.) The  after the passage of the Jordan, and the book of
term 7rpeoiTerpos is plainly the origin of our word Joshua concludes with a notice of his death and'priest;' Saxon, preoster and preste, then priest; burial.
High and Low Dutch, priester; French, prestre   2. ELEAZAR, who was set apart to attend upon
and pretre; Ital., preete; Span., presbytero (Jahn, the ark while it remained under the roof of his
Biblisches Archdol, sec. 244; Mede's WIorks, fol. father Abinadab (I Sam. vii. I).
p. 27; Gesenius, Uoiirterbuch, s. v.)-J. F. D.  3. ELEAZAR, one of the three most eminent of
ELEALEH     (nit^; Sept.'EXeaXs5). A town  David's heroes, who'fought till his hand was
~*-."'~:*  -.          weary' in maintaining with David and the other
of the Mishor, or high plateau of Moab, east of two a daring stand against the Philistines after
the Jordan. It is situated a mile north-east of' the men of Israel had gone away.' He was also
Heshbon (Onomast. s. v.), on the summit of a  one of the same three when they broke through
conical hill commanding a wide extent of country. the Philistine host, to gratify David's longing for
Hence its name, El-Aleh, which may be rendered  a drink of water from the well of his native Beth-'God's height.' Its ruins still bear a name simi- lehem (2 Sam. xxiii. 9, Io, I3).
lar in sound, though somewhat different in im-  4. ELEAZAR, the fourth of the Maccabsean
port-El-'al  l  the height.' The city was brothers, sons of the priest Mattathias (I Maccab.
Eport-El-'fl JWi  ~h hgh.    T    cy w     " 5)ii. ).  e was crushed to death by the fall of an
once strongly fortified; and the remains of the  elephant which he stabbed under the belly in the
old wall can be traced. Within all is ruin and  belief that it bore the king, Antiochus Eupator
desolation.'Among the ruins are a number of (I Maccab. vi. 43-46).
large cisterns, fragments of walls, and the foun-  5. ELEAZAR, an aged and venerable scribe who,
dations of houses; but nothing worth particular'as became his age, and the excellency of his
notice' (Burckhardt, Travels in Syria, 365).  ancient years, and the honour of his grey head,'
Elealeh was rebuilt and occupied by the Reu- chose rather to submit to the most cruel torments
benites on the approach of the Israelites to Pales- than conform  to the polluting enactments of
tine (Num. xxxii. 37). It lay close to the border Antiochus Epiplianes (2 Maccab. vii. 18-31).
of Reuben and Gad (Josh. xiii. 26). On the decline of Jewish power, Elealeh, with the whole  ELECTA     orECLECTA ('EKxeKTh).   AccordMishor, fell into the hands of the Moabites, and  ing to Grotius, Wetstein, and some other critics,
is thus included in the woes pronounced by Isaiah this word is used as a proper name in the address
on Moab (xvi. 9);'I will water thee with myof John's second epistle,' Ilpeovrepos'EKXEK
tears, O Heshbon, and Elealeh; for the alarm is Kvpe-i T/ie resbyter to tie Lady cecta.' This
fallen upon thy summer fruits, and for thy harvest meanig is advocated by BishopMiddleton in his
is fallen.' Elealeh was still a large village in the treatise on the Doctrine of t/e Greek Article (2d
time of Jerome (Onomast. s. v.); but now it is in ed. Cambridge, 1828, pp. 626-629). He adduces
ruins, and the whole surrounding plain is desolate. in suprt of it several epistolary inscriptions from
The statements of all travellers who have visitedBasil,  whichthe name precedes and the rank
it shew how fully the prophetic curses have beenor condition  life is subjoined, such as E
executed (Irby and Mangles, 1st ed., p. 471; iarps-AeovTric   o-low — Boorop1q &tr1oK6rLwBurckhardt; Ritter, Pal. und Syr. ii. 1172; G. Mayur8av   KbO7T: none of these, however, are
Robinson's Palest. arnd Syr. ii. Io8, s.)-J  L. L. purely honorary titles. To meet the objection that., s J L   the sister of the person addressed is also called
ELEASA ('EXeaca Vat.;'AXa-ci Alex.; Laisa) Eclecta in ver. 13, he suggests that the words ri7s
(I Maccab. ix. 5). The place where Judas Mac-'EK6ceKcrT are a gloss, explanatory of yov. But this
cabseus was defeated by Bacchides, and lost his life, is mere conjecture, unsupported by a single manuIn Josephus the place is said to have been Bethzetho  script; and such a gloss, if occasioned (as Bishop




ELEPH                     759                ELEPHANT
Middleton supposes) by the return to the singular illustration of both the numerical and the domestic
number, would more naturally have been inserted  sense of the Hebrew root. (See further Meier,
after oe, in which position, however unnecessary, Hebr. TV w. b. p. 379). Simon, in his Onomasticon
it would at least produce no ambiguity. Some   (p. I41), refers to the name of the Cilician town
writers, both ancient and modern, have adopted  MIvplavSpos in illustration, and to Deut. i. I, Ps.
a mystical interpretation, though contrary to the               indefinite use of, to esiguSsus loquendi, and to all apostolic usage, and sup- xci. 7, etc., for an indefinite use of US, to desigusus loquendi, and to all apostolic usage, and sup-  te a great multitude. Fiirst, in his Hebrdisches
d h  nate a great multitude. Fiirst, in his flebrdisches
posed with Jerome that the term eKXeKT^ referred  Wi'terb. (i. 91, 98), finds in Zech. ix. 7 another
to the church in general, or with Cassiodorus, to 
some particular congregation.  The last named mention of our town Eleph, under the form 1.S._
writer (b. A.D. 470, d. 562), in his Complexiones inor  3   which, like 7ebusi, he makes a frontier
Epistolas, etc. (Lond. 1722, p. 136), says,'Johannes. 
-electoe domine scribit ecclesioe, filiisque ejus,city belonging to Benjamin and Judah. He quotes
quas sacro fonte genuerat.' Clemens Alexandrinus, from yepzet (or 7efet ben Ali), a Jewish commenin a fragment of his Adumbrationes, attempts to tator who lived at Jerusalem in the Ioth century,
combine the literal and the mystical meanings-  a statement that the words of Josh. xviii. 28,' Scripta vero est ad quandam Babyloniam Electam  VD.;1p 5  t, are in fact the designation of but
nomine, significat autem electionem ecclesioe sanctoe'' -  T" * - 
a single  city —or still less, apparently, than even
(Opera, ed. Klotz. iv. p. 66). The A. V. translates a sg  city-or still less, apparently, than even
the words in question' the elet lady,' an interpreta- r he further quotes Jefet as saying that in
tion approved by C astalio, BeCa, Mill, Wol f, Lengmii. [Clrk  3 94  the phre rrWS ^
tion approved by Castalio, Beza, Mill, Wolf, Lie hs time a ward of Jerusalem bore that aggregate
Clerc, and Macknight. Most modern critics, how- name, in which was the sepulchre of Zechariah.
ever, Schleusner and Breitschneider in their Lexi- We reject this view as not only doing violence to
ever, Schleusner and Breitschneider             in their Lexi-s                      e
onds    e Bourgerd (1763), Vater (I824), Goeschen  the distinct enumeration of the group of cities given
cons, Bourger (1763), Vater (1824), Goeschen
(oI83, and Tischendorf (I84), in their edions in Josh. xviii. 28, but as disturbing the sense of the
832of te   T., iscNender (Histoy o their eitins passage in Zech. ix. 7 (see Hengstenberg, Christol.
of the N. T., Neander (History of the Plasnt.e o.
ing of the Christian Church, vol. ii. p. 7i, Eng. iii. [Clark] 392-394).  The phrase;.1gP' 
transl.), De Wette (Lehrbuch, p. 339), and Licke  (tribe-rince in  udah), used by the prophet in tis
(Commentary on the njamintoes of        Jh. yh, pp b. thed           prohetinh(Commientnry on the Epistles of St. i 7ohn, pp. 314-passage, is by him repeated twice (see Zech. xii.
320, Eng. transl.), agree with the Syriac and Ara- 5 6)  In the Pentateuch and  Chron. the same
bic Versions in making Kup1i a proper name, and           in the plura  designates the chieftain
render the words'to the elect Cyria.' Lardner has noun,  in     pr         the 
given a copious account of critical opinions in his or'dukes' of Edom.
History of the Apostles and Evangelists, c. xx.;  For some valuable remarks on the phrase, as
TWorks, vi. 284-288.-J. E. R.                 indicating the genuineness of the passages in Zechariah, see also Hengstenberg, iv. 67, note. No
ELEPH is the rendering in    the A. V. and thepriah, P   ersia n  bic, and     67, exteNo
ELEPH    is the rendering in the A. V. and the modern traveller has identified the site of Eleph.Vulgate of r sto  the name (with its prepositive  P. H.
art.) of one of the second group of cities which fell  ELEPHANT ('Xpcas) occurs only in I Maccab.
within the tribe of Benjamin; it occurs in Josh. vi. 34, etc. Bochart imasgined Eonis   shenh abxviii. 28. The LXX. version unites the preceding  bim to be a contraction of  3   shenhkaabbim,
in  (Zela) with this name of Eleph, under the com- because alikhaban is one of the Arabic names of
tpound form eiXaXv.*t   But in that case there the elephant; and thence inferred that schiz denoting
would beone wantinginthefoureent citiesassigned  tooth, the remaining part of the word, habbim or
would be one wanting in                  thehurleener cities assighing Aroi
habbezim, was in Hebrew, like ahhaban in Arabic,
to this group. From the occasional use of lN   to be referred to elephant. However this may be,
in the bucolic sense of' ox,' it has been conjectured all the nations of the south and west of Asia have
that' Eleph and its villages' was a pastoral district. for many ages generally used the word fi, fcl,
The extremely frequent numerical sense, however, pheel, phil, 4; for we find it in the Chaldee,
of   f, a thousand, points rather to the poipuous-  Syriac, Persian, Arabic, and Turkish, extending
ness of these towns which lay in the neighbourhood  to the east far beyond the Ganges, where, neverof Jebus or Jerusalem.  Schultens (Prov. Solom. theless, in the indigenous tongues anei, waranam,. x7), refers to the Arabic, conjunctio, in  and hati are existing names.
The animals of this genus consist at present of
two very distinct species, one a native of Southern
* This is the reading of the Cod. Alex., which, Asia, once spread considerably to the westward
in the enumeration of all the names of this group, of the Upper Indus, and the other occupying
approximates nearly to the Masoretic forms: the southern and middle Africa to the edge of the
Vatican readings deviate widely therefrom. Instead  great Sahara. In a fossil state there are, besides,
of M2XaX4C the latter text has 2EX/Kcdv. This is six more species clearly distinguished.  The eleunaccountable: the same must be said of the    phant is the largest of all terrestrial animals,
Pescito   X i (Gea), which stands in the sometimes reaching to above eleven feet of verP(Ge  bra), which stands in the tical height at the shoulders, and weighing from
place of Eleh.                                five to seven thousand pounds: he is of a black
t The LXX. however assigns, consistently, only  or slaty-ash colour, and almost destitute of hair.
thirteen (TcKarpes) cities to this group.  Eusebius The head, which is proportionably large, is proand Jerome (in their Onomasticon) mention Sela vided with two broad pendulous ears, particularly
(ZeXac,  vuxjs  BEvtapuv ) as distinct from  Eleph, in those of the African species, which are occawhich is separately marked by Eusebius as a city sionally six feet in length. This species has also
of Benjamin.                                   two molar teeth on each side of the jaw, both




ELEPHANT                   760                ELEPHANT
above and below, and only three toe-nails on each tain glens: at times not unwilling to visit the more
of the hind feet; whereas the Asiatic species is arid wastes, but fond of rivers and pools, where
provided with only one tooth on each side above they wallow in mud and water among reeds and
under the shade of trees. They are most assuredly
more sagacious than observers, who, from a few
A~_j-~,' ",\^ jvisits to menageries, compare them with dogs, are
able to appreciate; for on this question we must'..,,.  I \ \                take into account, on the one hand, the physical:'.1 -' II^K-: i  I0\ p       advantages of the proboscis added to the individual
)j^ii>'""K: W s 1 |   \ \  experience gained by an animal slow in growth,
]]'\ ( 5 i }, v /  v \  and of a longevity exceeding a century; but still
Z-'^-'.^^},,? ^"'f  /']     placed in contact with man after a birth free in
SxX \  /e^.! (  |every sense, where his powers expand without;^,/. human education; while on the other hand dogs
~F'!   ~       - 1>"'.  i> Ware the offspring of an immense number of genera{ f  t  @/  tions, all fashioned to the will of a master, and
3&  y{if / ^  i~ 1  ~t~ lconsequently with innate dispositions to acquire a
certain education. In Griffith's Cuvier are found
several anecdotes, some of them from the personal
_._._ _ / — -'lit \_     1 observations of the present writer; and referring to
them, we shall add only a single one here, related
K  -^^.o<. }by the late Captain Hobson, R.N., as observed by
himself at Travancore, where several of these
232. Asiatic Elephant.         animals were employed in stacking teak timber
balk. They had scarcely any human aid or direcand below; and though both have tusks or defences, tion, but each beam being successively noosed and
the last mentioned has them confined solely to the slung, they dragged it to the stack, raised one end
males; they are never of more than seventy pounds up, contrived to shove it forward, nicely watching
weight, often much less, and in some breeds even when, being poised by its own weight, the lower
totally wanting; while in the African both sexes end would rise, and then, placing their foreheads
are armed with tusks, and in the males they have against the butt end, they pushed it even on the
been known seven feet in length, and weighing stack; the sling they unfastened and carried back
above I50 pounds each.  The forehead of the to have it fitted again! In a wild state no other
African is low; that of the Asiatic high; in both  animal has the sagacity to break off a leafy branch,
the eyes are comparatively small, with a malevolent hold it as a fan, and use it as a brush to drive away
expression, and on the temples are pores which flies.
exude a viscous humour; the tail is long, hanging  The Asiatic species, carrying the head higher,
nearly to the heels, and distichous at the end. has more dignity of appearance, and is believed
But the most remarkable organ of the elephant, to have more sagacity and courage than the
that which equally enables the animal to reach the African; which, however, is not inferior in weight
ground and to grasp branches of trees at a con- or bulk, and has never been in the hands of such
siderable height, is the proboscis or trunk; a experienced managers as the Indian mohauts are,
cylindrical elastic instrument, in ordinary condition who have acquired such deep knowledge of the.
reaching nearly down to the ground, but contrac- character of these beasts that they make them
tile to two-thirds of its usual length, and extensile submit to almost incredible operations; such, for
to one-third beyond it; provided with nearly 4000  example, as suffering patiently the extraction of a
muscles crossing each other in such a manner that decayed part of a tooth, a kind of chisel and
the proboscis is flexible in every direction, and so mallet being the instruments used for the purpose.
abundantly supplied with nerves as to render the  This was witnessed by a medical officer, a near
organ one of the most delicate in nature. Within is relative of the present writer.  Elephants walk
the double canal of the nostrils, and at the terminal under water as long as the end of the proboscis
opening a finger-like process, with which the  can remain above the surface; but when in greater
animal can take up very minute objects and grasp  depth, they float with the head and back only
others, even to a writing-pen, and mark paper about a foot beneath it. In this manner they swim
with it. By means of the proboscis, the elephant across the broadest streams, and guide themselves
has a power of suction capable of raising nearly  by the sense of smelling till they reach footing to
200 pounds weight; and with this instrument he look about them  and land.  They are steady,
gathers food from trees and from the earth, draws assiduous workers in many laborious tasks, often
up drink to squirt it down his throat, draws corks, using discretion when they require some dexterity
unties small knots, and performs numberless other and attention in the performance.  Good-will is
minute operations; and, if necessary, tears down all man can trust to in directing them, for corbranches of trees more than five inches in diameter rection cannot be enforced beyond their patience;
with no less dexterity than strength. The gait of but flattery, good treatment,, kind words, proan elephant is an enormous stride, performed with mises, and rewards, even to the wear of finery,
his high and ponderous legs, and sufficiently rapid have the desired effect. In history they appear
to require smart galloping on horseback to outstrip most conspicuous as formidable elements of battle.
him.                                         From the remotest ages they were trained for war
Elephants are peaceable towards all inoffensive by the nations of India, and by their aid they no
animals; sociable among themselves, and ready to doubt acquired and long held possession of several
help each other; gregarious in grassy plains; but regions of High Asia westward of the Indus.
more inclined to frequent densely-wooded moun- They are noticed in the ancient Mahabarata. Ac



ELEUTHEROPOLIS                  761            ELEUTHEROPOLIS
cording to Sauti the relative force of elephants in (Comm. in Obad. i.) It appears from these and
an akshaushini, or great army corps, was one to many other notices that Eleutheropolis was the
each chariot of war, three horsemen, and five foot- capital of a large province during the fourth and
soldiers, or rather archers mounted on the animal's fifth centuries of our era. It was also an episcopal
back within a defensible houdah-in the west city of Palestina Prima (S. Paulo, GeogJ. Sac.,
denominated a castle. Thus one armed elephant, p. 306; Notiice Ecclesiasticae, p. 6). Its site reone chariot, and three horsemen, formed a patti or mained unknown for many centuries, though desquad of at most eleven men, and if there were fined by several ancient writers with much minuteother bodies of infantry in the army they are un- ness. It was identified by Dr. Robinson. Eusenoticed. This enumeration is sufficient to shew  bius states that the plain of Shepheleh extends
that in India, which furnished the elephants and from  Eleutheropolis westward  and southward
the model of arming them, there were only four or (Onomast. s. v. Sephela); and hence it must have
five archers with or without the mohaut or driver, stood at the south-western base of the mountains
and that, consequently, when the successors of of Judah.  He also states that Bethshemesh was
Alexander introduced them in their wars in Syria, ten miles distant from it, on the road to Nicopolis;
Greece, and even Italy, they could not be encum- and Jedna, six miles on the road to Hebron; andi
bered more than perhaps momentarily with one or Sochoh, nine miles on the road to Jerusalem. All
two additional persons before a charge; for the these places are now known, and the lines of road
weight carried by a war-elephant is less than that being traced and the distances measured, we find
of one used for burthen, which seldom equals two  that the site indicated is Beit i5brSi (Robinson,
thousand pounds.  In order to ascend his back  B. R. ii. 58). In the Acda Sanctoi um Martyrum,
when suddenly required, the animal will hold out published by Assemani in Syriac, Greek, and
one of his hind legs horizontally, allowing a person  Latin, Peter Abselama the martyr is said to have
to step upon it until he has grasped the crupper been born at Anea, which lay, according to the
and crept up. In the West, where they were con- Syriac version, in the district of Beth Gubrin,
sidered for a time of great importance, no doubt while both the Greek and Latin read in the disthe squad or escort of each animal was more con- trict of Eleuthero;polis (Id., p. 66). This establishes
siderable than in the East, and may have amounted  the identity of Beth Gubrin and Eleutheropolis.
to thirty-two foot-soldiers; the number given, by Josephus mentions a town in this neighbourhood
some mistake, as if actually mounted, in I Maccab. called Betaris, which some copies read B",yaepts,
vi. 37.                                       and it appears to be the same place (Bell. Jud. iv.
Although red colours are offensive to many  8. I). Under the name Bsetogabra (Ba-roycdppa),
animals, it may be observed that the use of mul- it is enumerated by Ptolemy among the cities of
berry juice or grapes must have been intended as Palestine (v. I6), and it is also laid down in the
an excitement to their taste, for they are all fond  Peutinger tables (Reland, Pal. p. 42I). The name
of fruit. Wine, so as to cause an approach to in- Eleutheropolis first appears on coins of this city intoxication, would render them ungovernable, and  scribed to Julia Donna, the wife of Septimius
more dangerous than when in a state of fear. They  Severus, in A.D. 202-3. The emperor had been
do not require stimulants to urge them on in a in Syria about that time, and had conferred immodern battle, with all its flashes of fire, smoke, portant privileges on various cities, among which
and explosion; and red colours usually employed was Betogabris, which appears to have been then
for their trappings produce more of a satisfactory  called Eleutheropolis,'Free city' (Robinson, B.R.
feeling than rage. Judicious and long-continued  ii. 60). For a few centuries the Greek name suptraining is the only good remedy against sudden planted the Aramaic; but 150 years after the
surprises caused by objects not yet examined by  Saracenic conquest, this city was destroyed, and
their acutely judging senses, or connected with the Greek name disappeared. The Aramaic was
former scenes of danger, which are alone apt to immediately revived (Reland, Pal. 222, 227; Gesta
make them turn. It is likely that the disciplined  Deiper Francos, 1044). In the I2th century the
steadiness of well-armed ranks frightened them  Crusaders found it in ruins, and called by the Arabs
by their novelty more than the shouts of Mace- Bethgebrim (doubtless a Frank corruption of Beit
donian thousands, which must have been feeble in  yibrin). They built a strong fortress on the old
the ears of elephants accustomed to the roar of foundations, to guard against the incursions of the
hundreds of thousands of Indians. It is probable Muslems. After the battle of Hattin it fell into
that the Carthaginians made the experiment of the hands of Saladin, but was retaken by Richard
training African elephants in imitation of Ptolemy  of England. It was finally captured by Bibars,
Philadelphus: they are noticed in their army only and remained in possession of the Saracens until
in the first Punic war; and, from what appears its ruin in the I6th century (See Robinson, B. R.
of the mode of managing them, there is reason ii. 28; and authorities cited there).
to believe, as already noticed, that.they were never  The modern village of Beit Jibrin contains beso thoroughly subdued as the Indian elephants.-  tween two and three hundred inhabitants, and is
C. H. S.                                      situated in a little nook or glen in the side of a
long green valley, which is shut in by low ridges
ELEUTHEROPOLIS ('EXevOepo7r6Xts), an im- of limestone, partially covered with dark copse.
portant town of southern Palestine.  It is fre- The ancient ruins are scattered around it, and are
quently mentioned by Eusebius as a central and of considerable extent.  The principal one is a
well-known point from which the directions and  large irregular inclosure, formerly surrounded by
distances of other towns were reckoned (Onomast. a massive wall, still in part standing, and contains.v. Esthemo, Sephela, 7erzmus, etc.; Reland, Pal. ing the remains of the Crusaders' castle. In the
p. 4Io, 4 I). Jerome says,' Omnis australis regio castle are portions of the walls and of the groined
Idummeorum de Eleutheropoli usque ad Petrum et roof and clustered columns of an old chapel. An
Ailam  in Specubus habitatiunculas habet,' etc. Arabic inscription over the castle-gate bears the




ELIIANAN                   762                ELHANAN
date A. H. 958=A.D. I55 —probably the time Filius Saltus Polymitarius; Syr.     O;.
when it was last repaired. A short distance east-, s, a w                  Ar      r
ward are other massive ruins, and a deep well;  ^1, son of Malah, a weaver; Arab. Ver.
while about a mile up the valley are the picturesque  -, son of Malaah], and as having slain
remains of the church of St. Anne (Handbook for'      t
S. and P., 256, sq.)                           Goliath the Gittite, the staff of whose spear was
The limestone ridges which enclose the valley'   T.i5'3 3' (Kimenor Oregim) like a weaver's
south of Eleutheropolis are almost filled with beam;' a feat which in I Sam. xvii. is ascribed
caverns and excavations, rivalling in extent and  to David himself. In the parallel passage (I Chron.
interest the catacombs of Rome and Malta. They xx. 5), however, Elhanan is designated as the son
are altogether different in character from the rock- of' "1I' (Keri, ^1It) Jair, and as having slain
tombs of Jerusalem  and the grottos of Petra.,, t 
They were examined and described by Dr. Ro-'Lachi [Lehemite], the brother of Goliath the
binson, and they have since been more fuly ex- Gittite, whose spear staff was like a weaver's beam.'
binson, and they have since been more fully explored by the writer. They occur in large groups,  These discrepancies have at all times engaged
like subterranean villages, on both sides of thethe attention of Biblical investigators, and many
valley.'Besides domes,' says Dr. Robinson, and widely divergent have been their attempts
valley.' Besides domes,' says Dr. Robinson, to reconcile them.  The Midrash, followed   by'there are here also long arched rooms, with theto reconcile them.  The Midrash, followed by
walls in general cut quite smooth. One of these Jerome, Targum Jonathan, Jizchaki (Rashi), etc.,
was nearly o10  feet in length; having along its identifies Elhanan with David, explaining the diffisides, about ten feet from the floor, a line of orna-cult'Jaare Oregim' in various fanciful ways
mental work like a cornice. These apartments David's mother, so one version runs, was habitare all lighted by openings from above. The en- ually weaving veis (Oregim) for the tabernacle in
the sanctuary (Hag-adislic:_aar, yaar Lebanon) at
trance to the whole range of caverns was by a the sanctuary (agadi:    ar, 7aar Lebanons) 
broad arched passage of some elevation, and we Bet   em, and on the principle'measure for
were surprised at the taste and skill displayed inmeasure (;>11  t: illn1), the Divine retribution
the workmanship.' Such is one group. About a brought the merits of her weaver's beam to bear
mile from the town, opposite the church of St. against the impious Philistine, whose spear reAnne, is another, still more remarkable. Theysembled a weaver's beam     Another of these
occupy the whole interior of a little conical hill quaint interpretations, which, by the way, influof soft cretaceous rock. These are also well de- enced the early patristic writings to a hitherto
scribed by Robinson.'Lighting several candles, undreamed of extent, is, that David was called
we entered by a narrow and difficult passage, and Jaare Oregim, because he was the loftiest tree in
found ourselves in a dark labyrinth of galleriest  toweringfores (7aar) of theweavers (Oregim)
and apartments, all cut from the solid rock. Here of the Halacha, i.e., the Sanhedrin, who brought
were some dome-shaped chambers; others were the most difficult legal questions before him, that
extensive rooms, with roofs supported by columns he might weave their dcisions (Jalk. ad.  c.,
of the same rock left in excavating; and all were n  KnI 14S,0   nD mnrTnw).
connected with each other by passages apparently  A sober exegesis, however, could not but at
without order or plan. Several other apartments once reject an identity between Elhanan and David
were still more singular. These were also in the established on grounds like these, and no other
form of tall domes, 20 feet or more in diameter, way of explaining the divergences remained than
and from 20 to 30 high; they were entered by a to assume a corruption in one or more of the texts.
door near the top, from which a staircase cut The exact place and amount of the corruptions,
in the rock wound down around the wall to the however, no less than the restoration of the probottom.'                                     per reading itself, are moot points still. AbraThe origin and object of these singular excava-                              Bethlehemtions are easily ascertained.  During the Baby- ite slew] Goliath (Acc.), proposed to read s
lonish captivity the Edomites overran and occupied       liah' Acc.,       se     ea
the whole of southern Palestine, which is hence'.'I n'  [Elhanan slew]'Lachmi [Acc.], the
called by Josephus, Idumaea. Jerome calls the brother of Goliath;' thus emendating Samuel from
Idummeans Horites, and says they dwelt within the Chron., and leaving, by the alteration of three
region of Eleutheropolis (Cozmm. in Obad. i.) The letters, David the uncontested victor of Goliath,
original inhabitants of Edom were Horites, that is whose brother was killed by Elhanan. The A.V.
Troglodytes,'dwellers in caves.'  The descend- likewise adopts the reading from Chron., but, leavants of Esau adopted the habits of their predeces- ing Elhanan's epithet'Bethlehemite' unchanged,
sors, and when they took possession of southern inserts,'the brother of' between' Bethlehemite'
Palestine excavated rock dwellings wherever prac- and' Goliath,' so that the one difficulty of David's
ticable (Robinson, B. R. ii. 68; Van de Velde, contested feat is solved. Piscator, however, folii. I47, sy.)-J. L. P.                       lowed by Kennicott-who proved the former's
suggestion almost to evidence (State of Hebrezw
E L H A N A N   [ELCHANAN, ELEHANAN], Texts, p. 79, seqq.)-Gesenius, Movers, Ewald,
(tPnr,'God-favoured;' LXX.'EXeavdv; Vulg. wBertheau, Thenius, and, in fact, nearly the whole
(Tsp^,'God-favoured;' LXX.'EXeazvv; Vulg.  body of modern critics, go much further. They
Adeodatus) [cf. ~INn,,n Fn, pn','Icavvhs, alter the strange reading Ei.p (Jaare) of Sam.,
phoen. Sln', 13)2nJ1, Hannibal]; one of David's into the more common'VV (Jair) of Chron.-an
heroes, further described in 2 Sam. xxi. I9, as emendation advocated already by Kimchi*-and
Dnrin Fno.i. t _;..I,'the son of 7aare Ore-  Less felicitous, however, is Kimchi's suggesgimz, a Bethlehemite' [LXX. vils'Aptwpytlx; Vulg. tion that In'm nD  might mean'him who was with




ELHANAN                     763                    ELI
strike out the inexplicable Oregim after it; account-'the son of Dodo' (2 Sam. xxiii. 24, and I Chron.
ing for its presence byassumingthat the copyist, after xi. 26), but while in Samuel he is called one of
he had written the 1 of V'lly [or 1yP] (Jair) of the David's'thirty' (n'W'W, sheloshim)-thirty-seven
original reading, mistook this letter for the other  heroes bng enumerated-he fills the same place
of the word NUD (Menor) at the end of the verse, h   b    e              f   t   sm   place
of the word c'1   (Menor) at the end of the verse, in the list given in the parallel passage of Chron.
which, in the codex from which he copied, stood 
exactly underneath it, and unconsciously went on as one of the'valiant men' (3D W, shalishim);
with the word D.INS (Oregim), following in the line so that there is reason to assume a corruption of
below;-without, however, striking out this super- the passage in Samuel.
fluous word when he became aware of his error.  There is another slight variation between the
But while on these two emendations modern critics two readings. The t locale before Beth Lehem is
are almost unanimous, they disagree considerably  omitted in Sam., but is found in Chron.-This
with respect to the ensuing words of the two  Elhanan has also been identified with the above
texts. The majority (Movers, Thenius, Winer, Elhanan, principally on account of their both being
etc., among them) read (with Abrabanel and the natives of Beth Lehem. Some critics have sup.
A.V., who, however, retain the'Oregim') e'n, posed that the'Beth Lehemite' in 2 Sam. xxi. I9,'the brother of,'instead of IN,'the' (Acc.), after and the'Lachmi' of I Chron. xx. 5, have crept'Lachmi,''Halachmi,' or'Bethlehemite.' But into those passages from this; but on these points
they carry (like Kennicott) their emendations so we cannot further enlarge here.-E. D.
far as to make the whole passage in Sam. agree    LI (     ised; Sept., high-priest of
with Chron., from which, they say, the former has                                  -      
been taken and subsequently corrupted: first un- the Jews when the ark was in Shiloh (I Sam. i. 3,
consciously, then consciously, in order that some 9). He was the first high-priest of the line of Itha.
sense might be brought into a passage which had mar, Aaron's youngest son. This is deduced from
become utterly unintelligible through the blunders  I Chron. xxiv. 3-6 (comp. Joseph. Antzq. v. 9. I).
of successive copyists. These critics thus likewise It also appears from the omission of the names
arrive at the conclusion that the Elhanan of both  of Eli and his immediate successors in the enu
passages slew Lachmi, and David slew Goliath; meration of the high-priests of Eleazar's line in
and it can certainly not be denied that the narra- I Chron. vi. 4-6. What occasioned this remark
tive of David's exploit in, I Sam. xvii. carries a able transfer is not known-most probably the ingreat deal of historical truth on its face, and that capacity or minority of the then sole representative
altogether this solution seems the easiest and most of the elder line; for it is very evident that it was
satisfactory.  Others, however, —and Gesenius, no unauthorised usurpation on the part of Eh
Ewald, Bertheau, among them, -hold that in (I Sam. ii. 27, 28). Eli also acted as regent or
reality it was Elhanan who slew Goliath, and  civil judge of Israel after the death of Samson.
that his contest formed the ground-work of the This function, indeed, seems to have been intended,
much-later written and either entirely fictitious or by the theocratical constitution, to devolve upon the
highly - coloured tale of David's encounter with high-priest by virtue of his office, in the absence of
some'nameless' Philistine.  Gesenius, it is true, any person specially appointed by the Divine King,
confesses not to know' ubi latet mendurn,' while to deliver and govern Israel. He is said to have
Ewald (Bertheau) makes eclectic emendations in judged Israel forty years (I Sam. iv. I8): the Sepall the three passages. But even setting aside the tuagint makes it twenty; and chronologers are didifference of the localities in which the two fights vided on the matter. But the probability seems te
are reported to have taken place (Valley of Elah  be that the forty years comprehend the whole period
and Gob), and the wide periods and momentous of his administration as high-priest and judge, inevents which lie between them, and which seem  cluding, in the first half, the twenty years in which
to preclude all possibility of one story being mixed  Samson is said to have judged Israel (Judg. xvi.
up with the other; one of the principal arguments 3I), when some of his civil functions in southern
for assuming Goliath to be the name later be- Palestine may have been in abeyance. As Eli died
stowed on David's foe, viz., that in 2 Sam. xxi. at the age of ninety-eight (I Sam. iv. 15), the forty
19, he is called Goliath the Gittite, while in I years must have commenced when he was fifty-eight
Sam. xvii. 5, he is named'the Philistine' only, does years old.
not seem at all tenable, considering that he is in-  Eli seems to have been a religious man; and
troduced in the former place, where David's deed the only fault recorded of him was an excessive
is narrated, both as'Goliath, from Gath' (xvii. 4) easiness of temper, most unbefitting the high re-one of the principal five cities of the Philistines;-  sponsibilities of his official character. His sons,
as'Goliath, the Philistine, from Gath' (xvii. 23) Hophni and Phinehas, whom he invested with au(=the Gittite); and as'the Philistine' (of that thority, misconducted themselves so outrageously
name and place). Nor can we at all see what in- as to excite deep disgust among the people, and
duced Jizchaki, who takes Elhanan and David to render the services of the tabernacle odious in their
be one person (see above), to make that same dis- eyes. Of this misconduct Eli was aware, but continction between' Goliath, the Philistine,' and  tented himself with mild and ineffectual remon-' Goliath, the Gittite;' a distinction which would strances, where his station required severe and
certainly rather form an argument against his theory. vigorous action. For this neglect the judgment of
The name Elhanan occurs further as that of God was at length denounced upon his house,
through the young Samuel, who, under peculiar cirGoliath,' viz., the Bethlehemite, or Lachmi of cumstances [SAMUEL], hadbeen attachedfromchildChron.; since it would then needs follow from the hood to his person (I Sam. ii. 29; iii. I8). Some
context that David slew both; and Kimchi dis- years passed without any apparent fulfilment of this
tinctly declares himself'unable to see why David  denunciation-but it came at length in one terrible
should be Elhanan.'                           crash, by which the old man's heart was broken.




ELIAB                    764                 ELIAKIM
The Philistines had gained the upper hand over al/ support* the common text of I Chron. xiv. 7;
Israel, and the ark of God was taken to the field, the authority of the LXX. is neutralised by the
in the confidence of victory and safety from its Codd. Alex. and Frid. August., the former of
presence. But in the battle which followed, the which has Ba\XXtad, and the latter BaXEyad, eviark itself was taken by the Philistines, and the two dently corroborating the Masoretic text; as does
sons of Eli, who were in attendance upon it, were the Vulg. Baaliada. As to the difficulty of David's
slain. The high-priest, then blind with age, sat by g           contained    for one of its
the way-side at Shiloh, awaiting tidings from the using a name which contained 73= for one of its
the way-side at Shilob, a  faiting tidings from the elements, it is at least very doubtful whether that
war,'for his heart trembled for the ark of God.' word  whic  literally means maser,  rorietor,
war)                  ^........*word, which literally means mzaster, proprietor,
A man of Benjamin, with his clothes rent, and
A man of Benjamin, with his clothes rent, and Ihusband, and is often used in the earlier scriptures
with earth upon his head, brought the fatal news:inoffensively (see Gesenius, Thes. 224), in David's
and Eli heard that Israel was defeated-that his time had acquired the bad sense, which Baal
sons were slain-that the ark of God was taken-  worship in Israel afterwards imparted to it. It is
at which last word he fell heavily from his seat, much to the present point, that i this very chapter
and died (I Sam. iv.)                        (ve. II), David does not object to employ the word
The ultimate doom upon' Eli's house was accom-s 
plished when Solomon removed Abiathar (the last VY. in the name Baal-perazim, in commemoration
high-priest of this line) from his office, and restored of a victory vouchsafed to him by the Lord (see 2
the line of Eleazar in the person of Zadok [ABIA- Sam. v. 20, where the naming of the place is asTHAR].-J. K.                                  cribed to David himself). It is possible that this
appellation of his son might itself have had referELIAB (3:IS; Sept.'EXicd). I. The son of ence to that signal victory.
Helon, prince of the tribe of Zebulon during the  2. The father of Rezon, who fled from the serpassage through the wilderness (Num. i. 9    vice of Hadadezer, king of Zobah, and became a
ii. 7; vii. 24, etc.) 2. The son of Pallu and captain of Syrian marauders, and ultimately king
father of Dathan and Abiram (Num. xxvi. 8, 9;of the country. The name is given as Eliadak,
Deut. xi. 6). 3. The eldest son of Jesse and with the final h, in I Kings xi. 23; but it is identibrother of David (I Sam. xvi. 6; xvii. 13, 28; calwithNo. I in the LXX.,+ Vulg., and Peschito.
I Chron. ii. I3), whose daughter, or more pro-  3. One of the two Benjamine commanders
bably grand-daughter, Abihail, was married to Re- (field-marshals perhaps) in the magnificent army
hoboam (2 Chron. xi. I8). 4. A Levite who was of Jehoshaphat; besides whom there were three
one in the second rank of those appointed to con-'captains of thousands' of 7udah. Eliada, whose
duct the music of the sanctuary in the time of name in the original and the versions is the same as
David, and whose part was to play on the psaltery Nos. I. and 2, is described specially (all the five
(i Chron. xv. I8, 20; xvi. 5). Three more be- being mentioned with characteristic differences), as
sides, having this name, are mentioned (I Chron.'a mighty man of valour,' cn  33.; while his
vi. I9 [27]; xii. 9; Judith viii. I).-W. L. A.
i,9 [. 9; J t  i.division of the Benjamine quota of the grand army
ELIADA (P~S, a compound of 5N, God, and consisted of the light-armed forces,'armed men
o       n       eus cognovit   according towith bow and shield' (2 Chron. xvii. I7), in contra-,                     co' ac      g to distinction to the heavy-armed troops of Jehozabad.
Simonis, Onomast. p. 488.'Whom Godknoweth,' Jehoshaphat's army of the two tribes alone apGesenius, Lex. (Robinson) s. v.; so Fiirst, Hebr. proached within a little of David's conscription
Wort. i. 92]). This name occurs as-          under the undivided kingdom (comp. 2 Sam. xxiv.
I. One of the younger sons of David, born to 9 with 2 Chron. xvii. I4-i8): the result is described
him in Jerusalem; the child (as it would seem) of in 2 Chron. xvii. Io.  Eliada's troops alone
one of his wives, and not of a concubine; in 2 amounted to 200,000 men (see Bertheau, on ChroSam. v. i6 [LXX.'EXMi8a; Vulg. Elioda]; I nices [Clark], vol. ii. p. 385).-P. H.
Chron. iii. 8 [LXX.'EXiasd; Alex.'EXied; Vulg.
Eliada]. In I Chron. xiv. 7 the name appears in  LIADAH. [LIADA, 2.]
the form of PIv. ['Beeliada,' A. V.; Baaliada,  ELIAKIM (np1SN, whom God hath lifted up;
Vulg.], q. d. Dominus cognovit, Whom the Lord Sept.'EXtaKmp and'EXtaKeiu). I. Son of Helkiah
knoweth (see Simonis, Onomasticon, s. v., p. 460; and Prefect of the palace, or minister of the -royal
53 being the Syriac form of 93:, Lord). This house-'over the house,'-under Hezekiah (Is.
v:    --                                   _xxxvi. 3). There is no solid reason for regarding
curious reading of the Masoretic text is not, how- 
ever, indisputable: De Rossi's Cod. 186, primd him as a priest, or for rendering n'l'-.V bypremanu, reads V'1K, the LXX. ~'EXMa   and the positus templi, after the Vulgate, which would remanu, reads J)~PST, the LXX.'Eca6~, and the,
v   A  I                           quire nili'r nr+n,". The meaning of his name was
Peschito.^     (Elidaa). On the strength of
* And the more remarkably, from the' variety
these authorities De Rossi (after Dathius, Lib. ist. ndthe more remarably, from the  iety
V. T. p. 654), pronounces in favour of assimilating  in identity' which they curiously display; two
this passage to the other two, and refers to the reading T1'I~1 as separate words; and one readimprobability of David's using the names 5N and ing merely 3)l without any adjunct; and another
3) promiscuously (see De Rossi's Var. Lect. V. T. varying the second letter, but retaining the word
Hebraicce iv.; also BEELIADA). We must not, J'S3.
however, in the interest of careful criticism, too  + For the mutilated state of the Sept. text here,
hastily succumb to arguments of this kind. As to see Tischendorf's Sep!. i. 430; and Keil's ComMSS., the four or five, which Kennicott adduces, mentary on Kings [Clark], i. 197, 198.




ELIAM                     765              ELIAS LEVITA
fulfilled in his history; as he was raised by God to  piness and prosperity, under the patronage of the
the high position he occupied, instead of Shebna, Cardinal, he was driven from Rome at the sacking
who was removed for misconduct, according to   of the city in 1527, under Charles V., with the loss
Isaiah's prophecy, and was made'a father to the of everything.  Venice again became his home,
inhabitants of Jerusalem,' and had'the key of the where he published some of his most valuable
house of David' laid'upon his shoulder,' Is. xxii. writings, until 1540, in which year he accepted an
I5, 25. He thus became a type of Christ (Rev. iii. invitation from Paul Fagius to take up his residence
7). He was one of the three persons sent by at Isny, in Swabia, and assist him in the publicaHezekiah to treat with Rabshakeh (2 Kings xviii. tion of Hebrew books.  On the removal of his
18; Is. xxxvi. 3), and afterwards to consult Isaiah  friend from Isny, Elias withdrew once more to
as to Rabshekah's blasphemous message.         Venice, where he ended his eventful life in 1549,
2. A son of Josiah, whom Pharaoh Necho set two years after his last resort to the city which had
upon the throne instead of his brother Jehoahaz so often been his refuge. His frequent intercourse
(the people's choice) changing his name to Jehoia- and great courtesy at Rome and elsewhere with
kim  (         whoim), whom  Yehovah hath lifted cp; his Christian pupils, added to the unusual liberality
2 Kings xxiii 3-34.    hchange is significant ofof his opinions, excited much jealousy among his
his dependance and loss of liberty, as heathen  Jewish brethren, but in the preface to his great
kings were accustomed to give new names to those work he defends himself against his alleged apostasy
who entered their service (Gen. xli. 45; Ezra v. from the religion of his forefathers.  (For Alsted's
14; Dan. i. 7), usually after their gods. In this strong assertion that he died a Christian, see Wolfii
case, as the new name is Israelitish, it is probable  Bibl. Hebr. i. I61 and for Bartolocci's strong rethat Pharaoh Necho gave it at the request of Elia- gret that he continued in Judaism, see his Bil.
kim himself, whom Hengstenberg supposes to have  Rabbit i. I37.)  The prevalent character of Elias
been influenced by a desire to place his name in  Levita's literary labours is well indicated by the
closer connection with the promise (i Sam. vii. I2),name whch distinguishes him among the Jewswhere not El but Jehovah is the promiser.; and  P'pn, ke Grammarian (see Buxtorf, Lex. Rabto have done this out of opposition to the sentence  bin. 570, s. v.), and the appellation which he seems
of the prophets respecting the impending fall of the to have given himself in allusion to one of his
house of David (Christol. ii. 401, Eng. Trans.) characteristic works on Grammar,  rnIn,','the
There exists the most striking contrast between his s n' (    ng to B, L 
beautiful name and his miserable fate. The Lord,student' (according to Buxtorf, Lex. s.v.); or'the
instead of raising him up, will cast him down to
the lowest depth. Not even an honourable burialBo. p. 934)    His chief works are but indirectly
is to be bestowed upon him. Unwept, his carcaserelated to Biblical science; in this relation, howis to be bestowed upon him. Unwept, his carcase'was to be cast without the gates of Jerusalem, and  ever, they are very important, because of the
buried with the burialof an ass' (Jer. xxxii. 8, I9). author's profound knowledge of Hebrew, and his
3. A priest of the returned captives who took  enlightened views of its grammar and philology.
part in the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem  Simon (Listoire Grit. du Vieux Tes., p. 177) speaks
(Neh.' xii. 4I)                                of him in the highest terms of praise, as,'sans
4. Son of Abiud and father of Azor, in the doute le plus sgavant Critique des Juifs, qu'il a
4. Son of Abiud and father of Azor, in the tous surpasses dans l'art de la Grammaire.'
genealogical line of Jesus (Matt. i. I3).tous surpa         s dans iar     de la Grammaire.'
5. Father of Jonan, and son of Melea, in the  Similarly Jos. Scaliger (Efist. 62) commends him
5. Father of Jonan, and son of Melea, in the as the greatest Hebrew scholar of the age,' unicum
second genealogical table of Jesus (Luke iii. 30, hus  greatest Hebrew scholar of the age,'unicu
&3I) — I. J' hujus sevi Criticum e/ Arzstarchum.' Nor did his
3 )'-I. J-                                 own people begrudge him equal praise; R. Asaria
ELIAM      (9hbt N; Sept.'EXitc), the father of di Rossi, in his Meor Enajim, lix. p. 179, calls
Bathsheba, the wife of David (2 Sam. xi. 2) [BATH-him mL' iP  n,'thegreat grammarian, and
SHEBA]. It is probable, as tradition asserts, thatths in spite of his strong objection to some of E.
this Eliam is the same who is mentioned 2 Sam. Levita's literary opinions.  Munster, Fagius, and
xxiii. 34, as the son of Ahithophel.-W. L. A.  other theologians of that period owed their Hebrew
learning in a great degree to Elias Levita. His
ELIAS. [ELIJAH.]                             works which are most immediately related to biblical science areELIAS    LEVITA    (properly ELIA  HA-LEVI cal science are-, or
BEN ASCHER, ASCHKENASI, i.e., the German) was    I.            or Exposition of fhe Book of ob
born about the year 1470, at Neustadt, on the  [in verse], a small oblong I2mo volume, published
Aisch, near Nuremburg.  So much of his life was at Venice, I544. That E. Levita was its author,
spent in Italy, that certain writers (e.g., Bartolocci, and not editor only (as Wolf, Bibl. iii. IOI, would
Biblioth. -Rabbin. i. 135, and Basnage, Hisloire des have it), is demonstrated by Steinschneider (Calal.
Yuifs, vol. v., p. 2025) make him an Italian, with   940). 2.             A lieral ranslaion
Padua for his birth-place.  (For a correction of this939,940)  2.  F.     A   eratra    ao
error see Wolfii Bibliotheca Hebraea, i. I53, note). of the Psalms into German, Venice, 1545.  See
On the expulsion of the Jews from   his native  Wolfii B.H. iii. IoI. Steinschneider, 942. Fiirst,
country he removed to Venice, where he entered. Yuda, ii.        3. r'i     ~ n.~   The
on his career as an enlightened teacher of Hebrew,, i. 24)           3 p       D           e
which he prosecuted with much success afterwards Psalms, wilh the Commentary of R. D. Kimchi,
at Padua (from I504 to 1509); after a short sojourn  with the revision and correction of our author;
at Venice, whither he retired on the sacking of Isny, 1542. (See Fiirst, Bibl. jud. ii. 242). 4.
Padua, he removed to Rome (in 1514), where       $i.       u   of e Proerbs 
Cardinal Egidio and several illustrious pupils at-       n1          a      f te rover 
tended his instructions.  After some years of hap-  Solomon, an edition with explanatory notes; Isny,




ELIAS LEVITA                  766                 ELIASAPH
1541. (Fiirst, 1. c.) 5. An epistle to Seb. Mun- also an industrious and intelligent labourer in the
ster, published with Kimchi's Comment. on Amos; field of Lexicography. His chief works under this
Basle, 1531.  (See Wolfii Biblioth, iii. IoI;head are D^inD, i.e. Dictionary.     In Wolfii
Steinschneider, page 937-) 6. A translation of the   ebr..,               i.:   B   i 
Pentateuch into German has been attributed to Elias B.  r. I57, I58, and Bartolocci, i. C 37, te
but..      mentions it as an     title given to this work is'Lexicon Chaldalcum,. evita, ut Steinschneider mentions it as an op Targumicum, Talmudicum et Rabbinicum;' Isny,
sutSzosititium (Cala?. 942).
Our uosttzthum  Catal.   wo, m    d by 942).. This work, which seems to have been less a
Our author's philological works, marked by a dictionary of Biblical Hebrew than of the Targums
freshness and independence of judgment, as well di the Tar  ud, was afterwards edited with the
and the Talinud, was afterwards edited with the
as deep and accurate knowledge, which had been
preface translated  into Latin by Paul Fagius.
seldom, if ever, united in a Hebrew critic before,  ner te t      a collectin of all the passages
Under the root nln  a collection of all the passages
gave him a reputation which his name has sus- i which the Tarumists had used thesacred word
taed ever since. The chiefMessiah n, was carefully made; this portion
I. n1bn    Ib, Traditio traditionis, is an ela- was separately published by G. Genebrard in a
V*' T T- V' TX i.....,   T,.       Latin version in the year 1572. 6. The treatise
borate treatise on the criticism  of the Hebrew  j'Tishbite,' is a sort of sequel to Hebrew
Scriptures.  Among the many interesting topics 
discussed in it, the question of the vowel points at- lexicons. It notices 712 Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic,
tracted special notice, owing to the author's asser- Greek, and Latin words which had escaped the
tion of their modern origin. He was the first (Bar- notice of preceding compilers of dictionaries. In
tolocci, i. I4I) to give prominence to the opinion  the quaint title we have a specimen of the author's
which has since been adopted by most of the humour in selecting a designation, Tishbi, which,
learned, whether British or foreign, that the Hebrew  while numerically composing the 712 he has to inpoints were invented about 500 years after Christ, dicate, contains also an allusion to his name, EliJah
by the Masoretic doctors of the school of Tiberias, or Elias (I Kings xvii. i). Paul Fagius published
in order to indicate and fix the genuine pronuncia- a Latin translation of this work likewise, at Isny,
tion of the sacred language.  R. Asaria de Rossi I54I. A reprint at Berlin, 1833, by Moses Koeropposed him strenuously, maintaining the old belief ner.  7. D'n: n.'1  i, Nomina rerum, a nomenthat the vowel points, as well as the Hebrew letters, clator of Hebrew words in Hebrew-German; P.
were known to Moses; and Buxtorf in his Tiberias Fagius added a Latin version (Isny, 1542), and
borrowed much from him, but modified his con- Drusius the elder a Greek vocabulary, which his
clusions. The Latin translation by Seb. Munster,* son augmented, editing the work in alphabetical
of much of the FnltDb FntDn  gave great currency  order, and arranged in columns, printed several
to its opinions among the reformers and theologians times at Frankfort in the I7th century.  8. His
of the I6th century. The controversy was sustained  valuable notes on the Liber Radicum of R. David
with great learning by such men as Capellus and  Kimchi must not be omitted from this list; *Dp.).
Morinus on one side, and Calovius and the' 
Buxtorfs on the other. (For a short sketch of the  ~ w'W,'glosses [or explanatory notes] on the
subject, and the modifications it has received from  bo   of Hebrew] roots, etc.  Gesenius, in his
more recent scholars, see Hiivernick's Introd. to the  o       H r     e t c.'  Geses, n ohis
0.  [Clak] sec.  pp. 266-269.) 2.  preface to Biesenthal and Lebrecht's edition of this
0.. [Clark] sec. 55, PP. 266-269.) 2.  D1. 3t1. work (Berlin, I847), says that it abounds in excellent
(A title fancifully taken from ver. 66 of Ps. cxix.) explanations of Biblical words and passages-'hic
[The book of]'good judgment,' a treatise in eight liber permultas vocabulorum locorumque biblicorsections on the Hebrew accents. An abridged trans- um explicationes continet his, quae nunc placere
lation in Latin was published in I539 by Munster. solent, prmeferendas, atque dignissimas quse ab obli3. nilln 1D.    The choice treatise, or the Mas- vione vindicenttr.'
ter's treatise; a Hebrew Grammar drawn up for his  R. Simon in his Histoire Crtique du Vieux Tes.,
pupils at Rome, and dedicated to Cardinal Egidio, c. xxxi. p. 177, thus explains the characteristic of this
I5I8. Itwas shortly afterwards translated by Seb. learned Rabbi, which has inspired so great a conMunster, under the title pip1,'ll  The Grammar. fidence in his writings:-' On peut dire, que cet
~.,'~ * -homme seul parmi les Juifs a ete capable de ne se
Several editions were published of this work, laisser point preoccuper, et de ne point croire simand many adaptations, especially that of Jean  plement a l'autorite de ses Docteurs. Ii a examine
Campange, Paris, I539. 4. He was the author of les choses en elles-memes, et sans suivre les preother grammatical treatises, including' Scholia' on juges des autres Juifs, il a parle des diverses Lemons
the two works of R. Moses Kimchi [the Petach   du Texte Hebreu, des points et des accents avec
Debara, and the Mahalach], and his      P, beaucoup de liberte             [and in   539 he.... T*:. V' sums up], En un mot, c'est celui de tous les Rabbins
The chapters of Elias-dissertations, in which he qui ait et6 le moins superstitieux et qui merite le
analyses the structure of the Hebrew  language  plus d'etre leu.'  (Besides the works of reference
from its letters upwards, through its verbal forms already mentioned, use has been made in this art.
and relations, rhythmiclaws, etc. (For an analysis, of Gabr. Groddeck's De Scriptoribus Rabbinicis
see Bartolocci, i. 138, I39.) 5. Our author was [in D. Millii Catal. Rabbin.] and Neudecker's
Elias Levita in Herzog's Real Encycl.).-P. H.
* There is a complete translation of the three ELIASAPH     (        Sept.'E        i Son
Prefaces into Latin, in the Dissertationes vacri of            n' -. 
J. A. M. Nagelius, published 1757-177I (Stein- of Deuel, prince of the tribe of Gad, at the time of
schneider, 2031), and a German version of the  the census in the wilderness (Num. i. 14; ii. 14,
entire work, with notes by Semler, Halle, 1772. etc.) 2. Son of Lael, chief of the family of the
(Fiirst, Bibl. yud. ii. 241.)                  Gershonites at the same time (Num. iii. 24).-+.




ELIASHIB                   767                  ELIHU
ELIASHIB (n:'ls; Sept.'EXiaoe/pcv,'EXi- ing is, that Eliezer was born in Damascus: and
aBi,'EX-ci3a,'EXcroIp/,'EXtai), the name of how is this compatible with the notion of his being
several persons mentioned in Scripture (I Chron. Abraham's house-born slave, seeing that Abraham's household never was at Damascus? It is
iii. 24; xxiv. I2; Ezra x. 24, 27, 36; Neh. iii. I,has household never was at Damascus? It is
20, 21. The last of these2, who is mentioned also true that there is a tradition, quoted by Josephus
20, 2I). The last of these, who is mentioned also from Nicolaus of Damascus (Anti. i. 7. 4), that
in Ezra x. 6, was high-priest at the time of the re- from  N icoaus of Damascus (nti i. 7. 4), that
building of Jerusalem, and took an active part in Abraham  reigned nDamascus;' but the tradithat work. He was related in some way to Tobiah tion was probably founded on this very passage,
the Ammonite, for whom, during the absence of andhas o clam onour belief,
Nehemiah, he prepared a chamber in the courts of The exression'the steward of mine house,' i
the house of the Lord, a proceeding which filled ver. 2, will explain the sense of'one born in mine
Nehemiah with grief, and which he promptly contra- house is mine heir,' in ver. 3. The first phrase,
vened by dispossessing Tobiah, and after clearing lite   translated, is'the son of pssession of my
the chamber, restoring it to its proper use (Neh.house,'  one who shall possess my house, my
xiii. 4-9).-W. L. A.                         property, after my death; and is therefore exactly
the same as the phrase in the next verse,' the son
ELIEL (EK; Sept.'EXtnX). I. One of the of my house (paraphrased by'one born in mine
heads of the house of Manasseh, of the half tribehouse') is mine heir.' This removes every objecwhich remained    e as of the     a     r    tion to Eliezer's being of the Jordamascus, an Chrod enables
v. 24). 2. The son of Toah, of the family of the us to dispense with the tradition; for it is no longer
Kohathites (I Chron. vi. I9 [A. V. 34]). He is necessary to suppose that Eliezer was a house-born
probably the same as Elihu, the great-grandfather slave or a servant at all; and leaves it more probable that he was some near relative whom Abraof Samuel (I Sam. i. I). 3. A chief of the tribebable that he  as hso e near rela tive whom Acase
of Benjamin (Sept.'EXtXt, I Chron. viii. 20). 4.ham rearded as hs hei-at-law  In th  case
Another Benjamite chief (Sept.'EXeX, I Chron. Abraham obviously means to say,'Behold, to me
iii. 22). 5. The Mahavite, one of thevaliantmen thou hast given no children, and not the son of my
viii. 22). 5. The Mahavite, one of the valiant men
of David's army (Sept. Alex.'IeXt7X, I Chron. xi. loins, but the son of my house (ie., of my family
46). 6. Another of the same body (Sept. AaXtX,-the son whom my house gives me-the heir-atAlex.'A, xi 47)  7 neofthe  aditeswho aw) is mine heir.' It is by no means certain that
joined David in the wilderness (Sept.'EXTcWP, xii. this Eliezer was present i Abraham's camp at
II). 8. The chief of the sons of Hebron, of the all: and we, of course, cannot know in what de.
Kohathites (xv. 9, I). 9. One of the overseers gree he stood related to Abraham, or under what
under Cononiah, appointed by Hezekiah to take circumstances he was born at, or belonged to,
Damascus. It is possible that he lived there at the
charge of the offerings and the tithes dedicated in mascus. It is possibleha  th ere at the
the temple (2 Chron. x-xxi. I3).-W. L. A.    very time when Abraham thus spoke of him, and
that he is hence called' Eliezer of Damascus.'
ELIEZER. This is the same name as Eleazar-   This view, that Eliezer was actually Abraham's
whence came the abbreviated Lazar or Lazarus of near relative and heir-at-law, removes another diffithe N. T. It is proper to note this here, because culty, which has always occasioned some embarthe parable which describes Lazarus in Abraham's rassment, and which arises from the fact, that
bosom (Luke xvi. 23) has been supposed to con- while he speaks of Eliezer as his heir, his nephew
tain a latent allusion to the name of Eliezer, whom, Lot was in his neighbourhood, and had been, until
before the birth of Ishmael and Isaac, Abraham  lately, the companion of his wanderings. If Eliezer
regarded as his heir. The passage of Scripture in was Abraham's servant, it might well occasion surwhich the name of Eliezer occurs is one of some prise that he should speak of him and not of Lot
difficulty. Abraham, being promised a son, says: as his heir: but this surprise ceases when we re-' I go childless, and the steward of my house is gard Eliezer as also a relative, and if so, a nearer
this Eliezer of Damascus.... Behold, to me relative than Lot, although not, like Lot, the comthou hast given no seed: and, lo, one born in mine panion of his journeys. Some have supposed that
house is mine heir' (Gen. xv. 2, 3). Part of the Lot and Eliezer were, in fact, the same person;
difficulty is caused by the translation, and part by and this would be an excellent explanation if the
the prevalence of notions gathered from external Scriptures afforded sufficient grounds for it.
sources, and not warranted by the original text.  2. The second of the two sons born to Moses
The common notion is that Eliezer was Abraham's while an exile in the land of Midian (Exod. xviii.
house-born slave, adopted as his heir, and mean- 4). Eliezer had a son called Rebadiah ( Chron.
while his chief and confidential servant, and the xxiii. 17).-J. K.
same who was afterwards sent into Mesopotamia to  ELIHU (~tV,   God-yehovah, Sept.'EXrods).
seek a wife for Isaac. This last point we may dis- LIHU         God-   oah; Sept.'E    ).
miss with the remark, that there is not the least One of Job's friends, described as'The son of
evidence that' the elder servant of his house' Barachel, a Buzite, of the kindred of Ram' (Job
(Gen. xxiv. 2),'whom Abraham charged with this xxxii. 2). This is usually understood to imply that
mission, was the same as Eliezer: and our atten- he was descended from Buz, the son of Abraham's
tion may therefore be confined to the verses which brother Nahor, from whose family the city called
have been quoted.                            Buz (Jer. xxv. 23) also took its name. The ChalIt is obvious that the third verse is not properly  dee paraphrase asserts Elihu to have been a relation
a sequel to the second, but a repetition of the state- of Abraham. Elihu's name does not appear among
ment contained in the second; and, being thus those of the friends who came in the first instance
regarded as parallel passages, the two may be used to condole with Job, nor is his presence indicated
to explain each other.                       till the debate between the afflicted man and his' Eliezer of Damascus,' or' Damascene-Eliezer,' three friends had been brought to a conclusion.
is the subject of both verses. The obvious mean- Then, finding there was no answer to Job's last




ELIJAH                    768                  ELIJAH
speech, he comes forward with considerable mo- brook Cherith that is before Jordan' (I Kings xvii.
desty, which he loses as he proceeds, to remark on  5) [CHERITH].
the debate, and to deliver his own opinion on the  Some commentators, availing themselves of the
points at issue. The character and scope of his fact that G1921  orebim, which we translate ravens,
orations are described elsewhere [JOB, BOOK OF]. means, in Ezek. xxvii. 27, merchants, have tried
It appears from the manner in which Elihu intro- to explain away the miraculous character of God's
duces himself, that he was by much the youngest preservation of his servant at Cherith.  Others
of the party; and it is evident that he had been again have thought that the original signifies Arapresent from the commencement of the discussion, bians, as in 2 Chron. xxi. I6; Neh. iv. 7, where
to which he had paid very close attention. This the like word is used, or possibly the inhabitants
would suggest that the debate between Job and his of the city Arabah, near Beth-shan (Josh. xv. 6,
friends was carried on in the presence of a deeply- and xviii. I8, etc.) In the face of such opinions
interested auditory, among which was this Elihu, as these, we still believe that ravens and not men
who could not forbear from interfering when the were the instruments which God on this occasion
controversy appeared to have reached an unsatis- employed to carry needful food to his exiled and
factory conclusion.-J. K.                     persecuted servant, and in this He would give us
/EIJAH    (i'V%,  God-Jehova;  Septc7 7. A'HXo6). a manifest proof of His sovereignty over all crea-.ELIJAH'11ON, God-_eho.vah; Sept.' ).tures. But it has been inquired, how could these
This wonder-working prophet is introduced to our birds obtain food of a proper kind, and of a suffinotice like another Melchizedek (Gen. xiv. iS;  cient quantity, to supply the daily wants of the
Heb. vii. 3), without any mention of his father or prophet? The answer to this inquiry is very simmother, or of the beginning of his days-as if he ple. We cannot tell. It is enough for us to know
had dropt out of that cloudy chariot which, after that God engaged to make a provision for him,
his work was done on earth, conveyed him back to and that He failed not to fulfil His engagement.
heaven. From this silence of Scripture as to his We need not to speculate, as some have done, as to
parentage and birth, much vain speculation has whether this supply was taken from Ahab's or
arisen.  Some of the Rabbins have supposed that Jehoshaphat's table, or from that of one of the
he was Pzhineas, the grandson of Aaron; whilst seven thousand of Israel who had not bowed the
others have thought that he was an angel, who, for knee to Baal.
the purpose of reforming wicked king Ahab and   A fresh trial now awaits this servant of Gol
his ungodly subjects, assumed the form of a man. (B.. 909), and in the manner in which he bears it
Some suppose that Elijah is called a Tishbite from  we see the strength of his faith. For one year, as
Tishbeh, a city beyond the Jordan. Others suppose some suppose, God had miraculously provided for
that Tishbite means converter or reformer, deriving his bodily wants at Cherith, but the brook which
it from the Hebrew radical 2B9. The very first heretofore had afforded him the needful refreshsentence that the prophet utters is a direful denun- ment there became dried up. Encouraged by past
ciation against Ahab, and this he supports by a experience of his heavenly Father's care of him,
solemn oath,' As the Lord God of Israel liveth, the prophet still waited patiently till He said,
before whom I stand, there shall not be dew or rain'Arise (I Kings xvii. 9), get thee to Zarephath,
these years (i.e., three and a half years, Luke iv. which belongeth to Zidon, and dwell there; be25; James v. 17), but according to my word' (I hold, I have commanded a widow woman there to
Kings xvii. I).  Before, however, he spoke thus, sustain thee.' He then at once set out on the
it would seem  that he had been warning this journey, and now, arrived at Zarephath, he in the
most wicked king as to the fatal consequences which  arrangement of God's providence met, as he enmust result both to himself and his people, from the tered its gate, the very woman who was deputed to
iniquitous course he was then pursuing; and this give him immediate support.  But his faith is
may account for the apparent abruptness with  again put to a sore test, for he found her engaged
which he opens his commission.                in a way which was well calculated to discourage
We can imagine Ahab and Jezebel being greatly all his hopes; she was gathering sticks, for the
incensed against Elijah for having foretold and purpose, as she assured him, of cooking the last
prayed that such calamities might befall them. meal, and now that the famine prevailed there as
For some time they might attribute the drought it did in Israel she saw nothing before her and her
under which the nation suffered to natural causes, only son but starvation and death.  How then
and not to the interposition of the prophet; and, could the prophet ask for, and how could she think
therefore, however they might despise him as a of giving, a part of her last morsel?  The same
vain enthusiast, they would not proceed immediate- Divine Spirit inspired him to assure her that she
ly to punish him. When, however, they saw the and her child should be even miraculously provided
denunciation of Elijah taking effect far more ex- for during the continuance of the famine, and also
tensively than had been anticipated, they would influenced her heart to receive, without doubting,
naturally seek to wreak their vengeance upon him  the assurance! The kindness of this widow in
as the cause of their sufferings. But we do not baking the first cake for Elijah was well requited
find him taking one step for his own preservation  with a prophet's reward (Matt. x. 41, 42); she
till the God whom he served said,' Get thee hence, afforded one meal to him, and God afforded many
and turn thee eastward, and hide thyself by the to her (see I Kings xvii. I6). But uninterrupted
brook Cherith, that is before Jordan, and it shall prosperity will not do for even God's most devoted
be that thou shalt drink of the brook, and I have servants.  Possibly a feeling of self-righteousness
commanded the ravens to feed thee there' (I Kings might, through the deceitfulness of sin, have begun
xvii. 3, 4). Other and better means of protection  to enter their minds, seeing that whilst millions
from the impending danger might seem open to around them were now suffering and dying from
him, but, regardless of these, he hastened to obey want, they were made the special objects of God's
the divine mandate, and'went and dwelt by the providential care.  Accordingly, their heavenly




ELIJAH                   7G9                  ELIJAH
Father saw fit to visit them with a temporary real cause to be his own sin of idolatry. Regarding,
calamity-a calamity as severely felt in some re- however, his magisterial position, while he reproved
spects by the one as it was by the other.' And it his sin, he requests him to exercise his authority in
came to pass that the son of the woman, the mis- summoning an assembly to Mount Carmel, that
tress of the house, fell sick; and his sickness was the controversy between them might be decided,
so sore that there was no breath left in him' (I whether the king or the prophet was Israel's
Kings xvii. 17). Verse I8 contains the expostula- troubler. Whatever were the secret motives which
tion with the prophet of this bereaved widow; she induced Ahab to comply with this proposal, God
rashly imputes the death to his presence.  She directed the result. Elijah offered to decide this
seems to have thought within herself that, as God controversy between God and Baal, not by Scriphad shut up heaven from    pouring down re- ture-for an appeal to its authority would have
freshing showers upon a guilty nation, in conse- fallen powerless upon their infidel minds-but by a
quence of the prophet's prayer, so she was now  miracle from Heaven. As fire was the element
suffering from a similar cause. Elijah retaliates over which Baal was supposed to preside, the pronot, but calmly takes the dead child out of the phet proposes (wishing to give them every advanmother's bosom, and lays it on his own bed (verse tage) that, two bullocks being slain, and laid each
19), that there he may, in private, pray the more upon a distinct altar, the one for Baal, the other
fervently for its restoration.  Every epithet that for Jehovah, whichever should be consumed by fire
the prophet poured forth on this occasion was big must proclaim whose the people of Israel were,
with meaning; his prayer was heard, and answered and whom it was their duty to serve. The people
by the restoration of life to the child, and of glad- consent to this proposal, because it may be they
ness to the widow's heart.                   were not altogether ignorant how God had formerly
Since now, however, the long-protracted famine, answered by fire (Gen. iv. 4; Lev. ix. 24; Judg.
with all its attendant horrors, failed to detach Ahab  vi. 21, xiii. 20; I Chron. xxi. 26; 2 Chron. vii.
and his guilty people from their abominable idola- I). Elijah will have summoned not only all the
tries, God mercifully gave them another oppor- elders of Israel, but also the four hundred priests
tunity of repenting and returning to Himself. For of Baal belonging to Jezebel's court, and the four
three years and six months (James v. 17), the hundred and fifty who were dispersed over the
destructive famine had spread its deadly influence kingdom.  The former, however, did not attend,
over the whole nation of Israel. During this time being perhaps glad to shelter themselves under the
the prophet was called upon passively to suffer plea that Jezebel would not allow them to do so.
God's will; now he must once again resume the Confident of success, because doubtless God had
more active duties of life; he must make one great revealed the whole matter to him, he enters the
public effort more to reclaim his country from  lists of contest with the four hundred and fifty
apostasy and ruin. According to the word of the priests of Baal. Having reconstructed an altar
Lord he returned to Israel; Ahab was yet alive, which had once belonged to God, with twelve
and unreformed; Jezebel, his impious consort, was stones, as if to declare that the twelve tribes of
still mad upon her idols; in a word, the prophets Israel should again be united in the service of Jehoof Baal were prophesyizf lies, thepriests zere bear- vah, and having laid thereon his bullock, and filled
ing rule by their means, and the people loved to have the trench by which it was surrounded with large
it so. Such was the state of things in Israel when quantities of water, lest any suspicion of deceit
Elijah once again stood before Ahab. Wishing might occur to any mind, the prophet gives place
not to tempt God by going unnecessarily into dan- to the Baalites, allows them to make trial first.
ger, he first presented himself to good Obadiah (I In vain did these deceived and deceiving men call
Kings xviii. 7).  This principal servant of Ahab from morning till evening upon Baal-in vain did
was also a true servant of God, and on recognizing they now mingle, their own blood with that of the
the prophet he treated him with honour and respect. sacrifice, no answer was given, no fire descended.
Elijah requested him to announce to Ahab that he  Elijah having rebuked their folly and wickedhad returned. Obadiah, apparently stung by the ness with the sharpest irony, and it being at last
unkindness of this request, replied, What, have I evident to all that their efforts to obtain the wishedsinned, that thou shouldest thus expose me to for fire were vain, now, at the time of the evening
Ahab's rage, who will certainly slay me for not sacrifice, offered up his prayer.  The Baalites'
apprehending thee, for whom he has so long and so prayer was long, that of the prophet is shortanxiously sought in all lands, and in confederate charging God with the care of His covenant, of
countries, that they should not harbour a traitor His truth, and of His glory-when, behold,'the
whomhelooks upon asthe author ofthefamine,'etc. fire came down, licked up the water, and conMoreover, he would delicately intimate to Elijah sumed not only the bullock, but the very stones of
how he had actually jeoparded his own life in se- the altar also.' The effect of this on the mind of
curing that of one hundred of the Lord's prophets, the people was what the prophet desired: acknowand whom he had fed at his own expense. Satis- ledging the awful presence of the Godhead, they
fled with Elijah's reply to this touching appeal, exclaim, as with one voice,'the Lord He is God;
wherein he removed all his fears about the Spirit's the Lord He is God!'  Seizing the opportunity
carrying himself away (as 2 Kings ii. I -I6; Ezek. whilst the people's hearts were warm with the fresh
viii. 3; Acts viii. 39), he resolves to be the pro- conviction of this miracle, he bade them take those
phet's messenger to Ahab. Intending to be re- juggling priests and kill them at Kishon, that their
venged on him, or to inquire when rain might be blood might help to fill that river which their
expected, Ahab now came forth to meet Elijah; idolatry had provoked God to empty by drought.
he at once charged him with troubling Israel, i.e., All this Elijah might lawfully do at God's direction,
with being the main cause of all the calamities and under the sanction of His law (Deut. xiii. 5;
which he and the nation had suffered. But Elijah  xviii. 20). Ahab having now publicly vindicated
flung back the charge upon himself, assigning the God's violated law by giving his royal sanction to
VOL. I.                                                                      3D




ELIJAH                    770                 ELIJAH
the execution of Baal's priests, Elijah informed now proceeded to the field where he found Elisha
him that he may go up to his tent on Carmel to in the act of ploughing, and, without uttering a
take refreshment, for God will send the desired word, he cast his prophet's mantle over him, which
rain. In the meantime he prayed earnestly (Jas. was a symbol of his being clothed with God's
v. I7, 18) for this blessing: God hears and spirit. The divine impression produced upon the
answers: a little cloud arises out of the Mediter- mind of Elisha by this act of Elijah made him willranean Sea, in sight of which the prophet now was, ing to leave all things and follow him.
diffuses itself gradually over the entire face of the  For about six years from this calling of Elisha
heavens, and now empties its refreshing waters we find no notice in the sacred history of Elijah,
upon the whole land of Israel! Here was another till God sent him once again to pronounce sore
proof of the Divine mission of the prophet, from  judgments upon Ahab and Jezebel for the murder
which, we should imagine, the whole nation must of unoffending Naboth (I Kings xxi. I7, etc.)
have profited; but subsequent events would seem  How he and his associate in the prophetic office
to prove that the impression produced by these employed themselves during this time we are not
dealings of God was of a very partial and tem- told. We may conceive, however, that they were
porary character. Impressed with the hope that much engaged in prayer for their country, and in
the report of God's miraculous actings at Carmel imparting knowledge in the schools of the prophets,
might not only reach the ear, but also penetrate, which were at Jericho and Beth-el. We need not
and soften,. the hard heart of Jezebel; and anxious dwell upon the complicated character of Ahab's
that the reformation of his country should spread in wickedness (I Kings xxi.), in winking at the murand about Jezreel also, Elijah, strengthened, as we derous means whereby Jezebel procured for him
are told, from on high, now accompanies Ahab  the inalienable property of Naboth [AHAB; NAthither on foot. How ill-founded the prophet's BOTH]. When he seemed to be triumphing in the
expectation was, subsequent events too painfully possession of his ill-obtained gain, Elijah stood
proved. Jezebel, instead of receiving Elijah obvi- before him, and threatened him in the name of the
ously as the messenger of God for good to her Lord (2 Kings ix. 21-26 inclusive), that God would
nation, now secretly conceives and openly declares retaliate blood for blood, and that not on himself
her fixed purpose to put him to death. The man  only-' his seventy sons shall die, and (2 Kings x.
whose prayer had raised the dead, had shut and  6) Jezebel shall become meat for dogs.' Fearing
opened Heaven, he who had been so wonderfully that these predictions would prove true, as those
preserved by God at Cherith and Zarephath, and about the rain and fire had done, Ahab now aswho dared to tax Ahab to his face with being  sumed the manner of a penitent; and, though subseIsrael's troubler, is now so terrified by the know- quent acts proved the insincerity of his repentance,
ledge of this vile woman's design that he fled yet God rewards his temporary abasement by a
into the wilderness and there longed for death-  temporary arrest of judgment. We see, however,
thus affording a practical evidence of what St. in after parts of this sacred history, how the judgJames says of him, that he was a man of like pas- ments denounced aginst him, his abandoned consions with us.  His now altered state of mind  sort, and children, took effect to the very letter.
would seem to have arisen out of an exaggerated  Elijah again retires from the history till an act of
expectation of what God designed to effect through blasphemy on the part of Ahaziah, the son and
the miracles exhibited to, and the judgments successor of Ahab, causes God to call him forth.
poured upon, this guilty nation. He seems to have Ahaziah met with an injury, and, fearing that it
thought that, as complete success did not crown might be unto death, he, as if to prove himself
the last great effort he had made to reform Israel, worthy of being the son of idolatrous Ahab and
there could not be the slightest use in labouring for Jezebel, sent to consult Baalzebub, the idol-god of
this end any longer.  Alas! had he stood his Ekron; but the Angel of the Lord tells Elijah to
ground at Jezreel, who can tell what effect this go forth and meet the messengers of the king (2
might have had even upon the mind of Jezebel, Kings i. 3, 4), and assure them that he shall not
and, through her, upon the whole nation! But recover.  Suddenly reappearing before their masno; the great opportunity of usefulness is now  ter, he said unto them,'Why are ye now turned
lost, and he asks for death: still God will be back?' when they answered,'There came a man
gracious to him. He now, alone in the wilderness up to meet us, and said unto us, Go, turn again
and at Mount Horeb, will at once touch his heart unto the king that sent you, and say unto him, thus
and correct his petulancy by the ministration of saith the Lord: is it not because there is no God
His angel, and by a fearful exhibition of His in Israel that thou sendest to inquire of Baalzebub,
Divine power. And having done this, revealing the god of Ekron?   Wherefore thou shalt not
Himself in the gentle accents of a still voice, He come down from that bed on which thou art gone
announces to him that he must go and anoint Hazael up, but shalt surely die.' Conscience seems to have
king over Syria, Jehu king over Israel, and Elisha at once whispered to him that the man who dared
prophet in his own place, ere death can put a to arrest his messengers with such a communicaperiod to his labours. These persons shall revenge tion must be Elijah, the bold but unsuccessful
God's quarrels; one shall begin, another shall pro- reprover of his parents. Determined to chastise
secute, and the third shall perfect the vengeance on him for such an insult, he sent a captain and fifty
Israel. When God had comforted His prophet by armed men to bring him into his presence; but
telling him of these three instruments he had in lo! at Elijah's word the fire descends from Heastore to vindicate his own insulted honour, then he ven and consumes the whole band! Attributing
convinced him of his mistake in saying,' I only am  this destruction of his men to some natural cause,
left alone,' etc., by the assurance that there were he sent forth another company, on whom, though
seven thousand in Israel who had not bowed the the same judgment fell, this impious king is
knee to Baal.                                 not satisfied, till another and a similar effort
Leaving the cave of Horeb (B.C. 906), Elijah  is made to capture the prophet.  The captain




ELIM                    771                 ELIPHAZ
of the third band implored mercy at the hands It lay along the desert plain on the eastern shore
of the prophet, and mercy was granted.  De- of the Red Sea. Elim must consequently have
scending at once from Carmel, he accompanies been in this plain, and not more than about fifty
him to Ahaziah.  Fearless of his wrath Elijah miles from the place of passage. With these data,
now repeats to the king himself what he had be- and in a country where fountains are of such rare
fore said to his messengers, and agreeably thereto, occurrence, it is not difficult to identify Elim.
the sacred narrative informs us that Ahaziah died.  Near the south-eastern end of this plain, and not
The above was the last more public effort which far from the base of Jebel Hummam, the outthe prophet made to reform Israel. His warfare post of the great Sinai mountain-group, a charmbeing now accomplished on earth, God, whom he ing vale, called Wady Ghurundel, intersects the
had so long and so faithfully served, will translate line of route. It is fringed with trees and shrubhim in a chariot of fire to heaven. Conscious of bery, stunted palms, with their hairy trunks and
this, he determines to spend his last moments in dishevelled branches; tamarisks, their feathery
imparting divine instruction to, and pronouncing leaves dripping with what the Arabs call manna;
his last benediction upon, the students in the col- and the acacia, with its gray foliage and white
leges of Beth-el and Jericho; accordingly, he made blossoms (Stanley, S. and P. 69). Well might
a circuit from Gilgal, near the Jordan, to Beth-el, such a wady, in the midst of a bare and treeless
and from thence to Jericho. Wishing either to be waste, be called emphatically Elim,'the trees.'
alone at the moment of being caught up to hea- Living fountains still exist in it. The principal
ven; or, what is more probable, anxious to test one wells out at the foot of a sandstone rock,
the affection of Elisha (as Christ did that of Peter), forming a pool of sparkling water, and sending
he delicately intimates to him not to accompany out a tiny but perennial stream. This, in fact, is
him in this tour.  But the faithful Elisha, to one of the chief watering-places in the peninsula
whom, as also to the schools of the prophets, God of Sinai (Robinson, B. R. i. 68, sq.; Bartlett,
had revealed his purpose to remove Elijah, declares Forty days in the Desert, p. 33, sq.) Wady Useit,
with an oath his fixed determination not to for- some three miles nearer the mountains, is also a
sake his master now at the close of his earthly claimant for the title of Elim; but we can scarcely
pilgrimage. Ere yet, however, the chariot of God suppose that the thirsty host would pass Ghurundescended for him, he asks what he should do for del; or that Moses, who knew the topography of
Elisha. The latter, feeling that, as the former's the whole peninsula, would have failed to take adsuccessor, he was; in a sense, his son, and, there- vantage of it. —J. L. P.
fore, entitled to a double portion; or rather, con-  ELIMELECH (      God the King; Sept.
scious of the complicated and difficult duties which.                           -
now awaited him, asks for a double portion of'EXtudXeX). A native of Bethlehem, husband of
Elijah's spirit. Elijah, acknowledging the magni- Naomi, and father by her of two sons, Mahlon
tude of the request, yet promises to grant it on the and Chilion. In a time of scarcity he withdrew
contingency of Elisha seeing him at the moment of with his family into the land of Moab, where he
his rapture. Possibly this contingency was placed died (Ruth i. I-3). [NAOMI; RUTH.]
before him in order to make him more on the 
watch, that the glorious departure of Elijah should            e      of one of the f Benjamin's second son (
not take place without his actually seeing it. Chrons    ). 2. A princ   e of the Simeonites (I
Whilst standing on the other side of the Jordan, Chron. v. 3). 2. A pin  of tea Simenites
whose waters were miraculously parted for them         sn Chron.    o.  3  Seeh son of hemai
to pass over on dry ground, and possibly engaged shelemiah, one of the Korhite porters (s Chron.
in discourse about anointing Hazael king over x   3              ret  the time of Nehemiah
Syria, angels descended, as in a fiery chariot, and, xxv. 3). 5. A priest in the time of Nehemiah
in the sight of fifty of the sons of the prophets and  (Neh. x.  ). 6. One of the sons of Zattu (Ezra
Elisha, carried Elijah into heaven. Elisha, at this. 27). 7. One of the sons of Hashum (Ezra x.
wonderful sight, cries out, like a bereaved child, 22).-'My Father, my Father, the chariot of Israel and  ELIPHAZ  (t[14, God the Strong; Sept.
the horsemen thereof;' as if he had said, Alas              - *:
the strength and saviour of Israel is now departed'EXi'ds).  I. A son of Esau and Adah (Gen.
But no; God designed that the mantle which fellxxxvi. IO).
from Elijah as he ascended should now remain   2. One of the three friends who came to condole
with Elisha as* a pledge that the office and spirit with Job in his affliction, and who took part in that
of the former had now fallen upon himself.-  remarkable discussion which occupies the book of
J. W. D.                                     Job. He was of Teman in Idumaea; and as Eliphaz the son of Esau had a son called Teman,
ELIM (S; Sept. AiXeIf), the second station  from whom the place took its name, there is rea~*"-~~.**  j rson to conclude that this Eliphaz was a descendant
at which the Israelites encamped after the passage f the former Eliphaz. Some, indeed, even go so
of the Red Sea. When they had sung their song far as to suppose that the Eliphaz of Job was no
of triumph over the host of Pharaoh,'they went other than the son of Esau. This view is of course
three days' journey into the wilderness of Shur, confined to those who refer the age of Job to the
and found no water.' They then reached the sta-time of the patriarchs
tion of Marah, whose waters were bitter; and   Eliphaz is the first of the friends to tae up the
afterwards proceeded to Elim,'where were twelve debate, in reply to Job's passionate complaints.
wells of water (fountainst  li) and threescore debate, in reply to Job's passionate complaints.
wells of water (fountains, ),  and threescore The scope of his argument and the character of his
and ten palm-trees; and they encamped there by oratory are described under another head [JOB,
the waters' (Exod. xv. 27; Num. xxxiii. 8, 9). BOOK OF]. He appears to have been the oldest of
The route of the Israelites cannot be mistaken. the speakers, from which circumstance, or from




ELIPHELET                   772                  ELISHA
natural disposition, his language is more mild and  Elijah! There was in their expressions an admixsedate than that of any of the other speakers. He  ture of rudeness, infidelity, and impiety. But the
begins his orations with delicacy, and conducts his inhabitants of Beth-el were to know, from bitter
part of the argument with considerable address. experience, that to dishonour God's prophets was
His share in the controversy occupies chapters iv., to dishonour himself; for Elisha was at the mov., xv., xxii.-J. K.                          ment inspired to pronounce the judgment which
-ELIPHELET     or ELIPHALET_,  f5biL    or at once took effect; God, who never wants for inELIPHELET      or ELIPHALET,    *:,: or struments to accomplish his purposes, caused two
tPg61   (with a pause accent). I. One of David's she-bears to emerge from a neighbouring wood,
sons born to him in Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 16;   nd destroy the yoing delinquents.
Chron. iii. 6; xiv. 7). In the last passage the  Jehoram, who reigned over Israel at this time,
name is Elpalet.  2. Son of Ahasbai, one of though not a Baalite, was yet addicted to the sin
David's mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 34). He is of Jeroboam; still he inherits the friendship of
called Eliphal in I Chron. xi. 35. 3. One of the Jehoshaphat, the good king of Judaea, whose
sons of Eshek, a descendant of Jonathan (I Chron. counsel, possibly, under God, had detached him
viii. 39). 4. One of the sons of Adonikam in from the more gross idolatry of his father Ahab.
the time of Ezra (Ezra viii. 13). 5. One of the Wishing tosee the now (. 895) revolted king
sons of Hashum in the time of Ezra (Ezra x. 33).of Moab reduced to his wonted allegiance to Is-S. D.                                        rael, Jehoshaphat determined to go up to battle
against him, together with Jehoram, and his own
ELISABETH     ('EXtoc-cer), wife of Zacharias, tributary the king of Edom.  These combined
and mother of John the Baptist (Luke i. 5). The armies met together on the plains of Edom. Conname in this precise shape does not occur in the fident in their own powers they press onward
0. T., where the names of few females are given.  against the enemy; but, not meeting him, another
But it is a Hebrew name; the same, in fact, as of a more formidable character started up before
Elisheba, which see,                          them. In the midst of the arid plains of Arabia
-,_,^EISHA  (~,, Go  the deliverer; Sept. Petroea they could find no water. Jehoram deELISHA    (, God the deliverer; Sept. plores the calamity into which they had fallen,'EXtl-caL). The manner, and the circumstances, in but Jehoshaphat inquired for a prophet. On this,
which Elisha was called to the prophetic office one of his courtiers said to Jehoram,' Here is
have been noticed in the article ELIJAH.      Elisha, the son of Shaphat, who poured water
Anxious to enter at once upon the duties of his on the hands of Elijah.' No sooner were they
sacred office, Elisha determined to visit the schools made acquainted with the fact that Elisha was at
of the prophets which were on the other side of hand than the three kings waited upon him. Elithe Jordan. Accordingly, returning to this river, sha, feeling that it was nought but superstitious
and wishing that sensible evidence should be af- fear, joined to the influence of Jehoshaphat, which
forded, both to himself and others, of the spirit led Jehoram thus to consult him, now indignantly
and power of his departed master resting upon and tauntingly advises him to go for succour to the
him, he struck its waters with Elijah's mantle, gods of his father Ahab and of his mother Jezebel.
when they parted asunder and opened a way for The reproved monarch was then led to acknowhim to pass over on dry land. Witnessing this ledge the impotency of those gods in whom he
miraculous transaction, the fifty sons of the pro- had trusted, and the power of that God whom he
phets, who had seen from the opposite side Eli- had neglected. Still the man of God, seeing the
jah's ascension, and who were awaiting Elisha's hollowness of Jehoram's humiliation, continues:
return, now, with becoming reverence, acknow-'As the Lord liveth, before whom I stand, surely
ledged him their spiritual head.              were it not that I regard the presence of JehoshaThese young prophets are not more full of re- phat, the king of Judah, I would not look toward
verence for Elisha than of zeal for Elijah; they thee.' Having thus addressed Jehoram, Elisha
saw the latter carried up in the air-they knew  desired a minstrel to be brought before him; and
that this was not the first time of his miraculous now, when his spirit is calmed by, perhaps, one
removal. Imagining it therefore possible that the of the songs of Zion, Jehovah approaches his proSpirit of God had cast him on some remote moun- phet in the power of inspiration, as it is written,
tain or valley, they ask permission to go and seek'The hand of the Lord came upon him.' The
him. Elisha, though fully aware that he was re- minstrel ceases, and Elisha communicates the joyceived up into glory, but yet fearful lest it should ful intelligence that not only should water be
be conceived that he, from any unworthy motives, miraculously supplied, but also that Moab should
was not anxious to have him brought back, yielded be overcome.'Thus saith the Lord, make this
to their request.                             valley full of ditches; ye shall not see wind, neiThe divine authority by which Elisha became ther shall ye see the rain; yet that valley shall be
the successor of Elijah received further confirma- filled with water that ye may drink.' Accordtion from the miracle whereby the bitter waters of ingly the next morning they realized the truth of
Jericho were made sweet, and the place thereby this prediction. But the same water which prerendered fit for the habitation of man (2 Kings serves their lives becomes the source of destrucii. 19-22).                                   tion to their enemies. The Moabites, who had
As the general visitor of the schools of the pro- received intelligence of the advance of the allied
phets, Elisha now passes on from Jericho to the army, were now assembled upon their frontiers.
college which was at Beth-el. Ere, however, he When the sun was up, and its rosy light first fell
entered Beth-el, there met him from thence (2 upon the water, their vanguard, beholding it at a
Kings ii. 23, 24) little children, who, no doubt distance, supposed it to be blood. Thus the noinstigated by their idolatrous parents, tauntingly tion was rapidly spread from one end to another
told him to ascend into heaven, as did his master that the kings were surely slain, having fallen out




ELISHA                    773                 ELISHA
amongst themselves. Hence there was a univer- fact that the child was no more till she should see
sal shout,' Moab, to the spoil!' and they went if it might please God, through Elisha, to restore
forward confident of victory. But who can de- him to life. She therefore hastens to Carmel,
scribe their consternation at beholding the Israel- where she found the prophet, and informed him
itish squadrons advancing to meet them sword in what had taken place. Conceiving probably that
hand! At once they flee in the utmost panic and it was a case of mere suspended animation, or a
confusion; but in vain do they seek to defend swoon, the prophet sent Gehazi, his servant, to
themselves, God had decreed their punishment place his staff on the face of the child, in the hope
by, and subjugation to, Israel (2 Kings iii. 20, that it might act as a stimulus to excite the animal
etc.)                                         motions. But the mother, conscious that he was
The war having terminated in the signal over- actually departed, continued to entreat that he
throw of the revolters, Elisha, who had returned himself would come to the chamber of the dead.
home, is again employed in ministering blessings. He did so, and found that the soul of the child
Another case arose to declare the peculiar charac- had indeed fled from the earthly tenement. Nater of his mission as messenger of mercy to man. tural means belong to man; those that are superThe widow of a pious prophet presents herself be- natural belong to God; we should do our part,
fore him (2 Kings iv.), informs him that her hus- and beg of God to do his. On this principle the
band having died in debt, his creditors were about prophet on this occasion acted. God blesses the
to sell her two only sons, which, by an extension means used, and answers the prayer presented by
of the law (Exod. xxi. 7, and Lev. xxv. 39), and Elisha. The child is raised up and restored to
by virtue of another (Exod. xxii. 3), they had the the fond embrace of its grateful and rejoicing
power to do; and against this hard-hearted act parents.
she implores the prophet's assistance. God will  The next remarkable event in the history of
not, without a cause, depart from the general laws Elisha was the miraculous healing of the incurof his administration; Elisha therefore inquires able leprosy of the Syrian general Naaman, wherehow far she herself had the power to avert the by the neighbouring nation had the opportunity of
threatened calamity.  She replies that the only learning the beneficence of that God of Israel,
thing of which she was possessed was one pot of whose judgments had often brought them  very
oil. By multiplying this, as did his predecessor low.  The particulars are given under another
Elijah in the case of the widow of Zarephath, he head. [NAAMAN.]
enabled her at once to pay off her debts, and   Soon after this transaction we find this man of
thereby to preserve the liberty of her children (2 God in Gilgal, miraculously neutralising the poison
Kings iv. 1-7).                               which had, by mistake, been mixed with the food
Having thus contemplated Elisha in the act of of the prophets, and also feeding one hundred of
relieving the wants of a poor widow, we may with them with twenty small loaves which had been
the more pleasure observe how, in the arrange- sent for his own consumption (2 Kings iv. 38,
ment of God's providence, his own necessities etc.) In his tender regard to the wants of others,
were, in turn, supplied. In his visitations to the and in the miracles he wrought, how like he was
schools of the prophets it would seem that his to the Saviour of the world!
journey lay through the city of Shunem, where   Notwithstanding the general profligacy of Israel,
lived a rich and godly woman. Wishing that he the schools of the prophets increased, B.C. 893.
should take up, more than occasionally, his abode This was, doubtless, owing to the influence of
under her roof, she proposed to her husband to  Elisha.  Accompanied by their master, a party
construct for him a chamber, where, far from the of these young prophets, or theological students,
society of man, he might hold solitary and sweet came to the Jordan, and whilst one of them was
communion with his God. The husband at once'felling a beam (for the purpose of constructing
consented, and, the apartment being completed  there a house) the axe-head fell into the water.'
and fitted up in a way that shewed their proper This accident was the more distressing because
conception of his feeling, the prophet becomes its the axe was borrowed property. Elisha, however,
occupant.  Grateful for such disinterested kind- soon relieved him by causing it miraculously to rise
ness, Elisha delicately inquired of her if he could to the surface of the river.
prefer her interest before the king or the captain  The sacred record again leads us to contemplate
of his host; for he must have had considerable the prophet's usefulness, not only in such indiinfluence at court, from the part he had taken in vidual points of view, but also in reference to his
the late war. But the good woman declined the country at large. Does the king of Syria devise
prophet's offer, by declaring that she would rather well-concerted schemes for the destruction of'dwell among her own people,' and in the condi- Israel? God inspires Elisha to detect and lay
tion of life to which she had been accustomed. them open to Jehoram. Benhadad, on hearing
Still, to crown her domestic happiness, she lacked that it was he that thus caused his hostile moveone thing-she had no child; and now, by reason ments to be frustrated, sent an armed band to
of the age of her husband, she could not expect Dothan in order to bring him bound to Damascus.
such a blessing.  In answer, however, to the The prophet's servant, on seeing the host of the
prayer of the prophet, and contrary to all her enemy which invested Dothan, was much alarmed,
own conclusions, God causes her to conceive and but by the prayer of Elisha God reveals to him
bring forth a son (B.C. 89I). This new pledge of the mighty company of angels which were set for
their affection grows up till he is able to visit his their defence. Regardless of consequences, the
fond father in the harvest-field, when all the hopes prophet went forth to meet the hostile band: and
they had built up in him were overthrown by his having again prayed, God so blinded them that
being suddenly laid prostrate in death.       they could not recognise the object of their search.
The bereaved mother, with exquisite tenderness The prophet then promised to lead them to where
towards the feelings of the father, concealed the they might see him with the natural eye. Trust



ELISHA                    774                 ELISHAH
ing to his guidance they followed on till they  prophet replied that he should then die, though
reached the centre of Samaria, when, the optical his indisposition was not of a deadly character.
illusion being removed, Elisha stands in his re- Seeing moreover, in prophetic vision, that the man
cognised form before them! Who can tell their Hazael, who now stood before him, should be
confusion and alarm at this moment?  The king king in Benhadad's stead; and that, as such, he
is for putting them all to death; but, through the would commit unheard-of cruelties upon his country,
interposition of him whom they had just before the prophet was moved to tears. How these painsought to destroy, they were honourably dismissed ful anticipations of Elisha were realized the subto their own country (B.C. 892). But a year had sequent history of this man proved. Some twentyscarcely elapsed from this time when Benhadad, three years had now elapsed since Elijah had
unmindful of Israel's kindness and forbearance, prophesied the destruction of Ahab's guilty consort
invests Samaria and reduces its inhabitants to such and family.  But God's declared judgments are
a state of starvation that an ass's head, a proscribed  sure though delayed. Not only Ahab and Jezebel
animal by the Levitical law, was sold for fourscore had been bloody and idolatrous, but Israel had
pieces of silver, and the fourth part of a cab-a  become partakers in their crimes, and must share
quart or three pints-of dove's dung for five pieces in the judgment. Elijah's complaint in the cave
of silver. [DovE's DUNG.] But this was not all. now received this late answer:'Hazael shall
Parents were found, if not murdering, actually eat- plague Israel: Jehu shall plague the house of
ing their deceased children. These very calamities Ahab and Jezebel.' How fearfully these declared
Moses had foretold should come upon them if they purposes of God took effect we may read in 2
forsook God (Deut. xxviii. 53-57).  Still the king  Kings ix. and x.
of Israel plunges deeper and deeper into sin, for  For a considerable time after Elisha had sent
he orders Elisha to be put to death, conceiving  to anoint Jehu king over Israel we find no. menthat it was his prayer which brought these sufferings tion of him in the sacred record. We have reason
upon himself and nation. But God forewarns him  to suppose that he was utterly neglected by Jehu,
of his danger, and inspires him to predict to the Jehoahaz, and Joash, who resigned in succession.
wicked king that by to-morrow'a measure of fine Neither the sanctity of his life nor the stupendous
flour should be sold for a shekel, and two measures miracles he wrought had the effect of reforming
of barley for a shekel, in the gate of Samaria.' the nation at large: much of the time of his latter
This assurance was not more comfortable than  years was, doubtless, spent in the schools of the
incredible; but when the lord on whose hand the prophets. At length, worn out by his public and
king leaned expressed his disbelief, he was awfully private labours, and at the age of 90-during 60
rebuked by the assurance that he should see but of which he is supposed to have prophesied-he is
not enjoy the benefit. The next night God caused called into eternity. Nor was the manner of his
the Syrians to hear the noise of chariots and horses; death inglorious; though he did not enter into rest
and conceiving that Jehoram  had hired against as did Elijah (2 Kings xiii. I4, etc.) Amongst his
them the kings of the Hittites and the king of weeping attendants was Joash, the king of Israel.
Egypt, they fled from before the walls of Samaria He was probably stung with remorse for having so
-leaving their tents filled with gold and provisions neglected to acknowledge his national worth; yet,
-in the utmost panic and confusion. In this though late, God does not suffer this public recogway did God, according to the word of Elisha, nition of his aged and faithful servant to go unremiraculously deliver the inhabitants of Samaria quited. The spirit of prophecy again entering the
from  a deadly enemy without, and from   sore dying Elisha, he informs Joash that he should
famine within, its walls: another prediction more- prevail against the Syrians.  Even after death
over was accomplished; for the distrustful lord  God would put honour upon Elisha: a dead body
was trampled to death by the famished people in having touched his bones came to life again! (2
rushing through the gate of the city to the forsaken  Kings xiii. 21.)
tents of the Syrians (2 Kings vii.)             Elisha was not less eminent than his predecessor
We are next led, in the order of the history, Elijah. His miracles are various and stupendous,
though not in that of time, to notice God's gracious and, like those which were wrought by Christ,
care of the woman of Shunem. Having followed were on the whole of a merciful character.  In
the advice of her kind friend Elisha, she resided in this they were remarkably distinguished, in many
Philistia during the seven years' famine in Israel. instances, from the miracles of Elijah. In N. T.
On her return, however, she found that her pater- Elisha is Eliseus.-J. W. D.
nal estate had been seized by others. She at once  EISAH   (;        S.',  a   n  f
went to the king, who at the moment of her ap-; S 
proach was talking with Gehazi as to Elisha having Javan (Gen. x. 4), who seems to have given name
miraculously raised her son to life. This was a to'the isles of Elishah,' which are described as
very providential coincidence in behalf of the exporting fabrics of purple and scarlet to the marShunamite.  The relation given by Gehazi was kets of Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 7). If the descendants
now corroborated by the woman herself.  The   of Javan peopled Greece, we may expect to find
king was duly affected, and gave immediate orders Elishah in some province of that country. The
for the restoration of her land and all that it had  circumstance of the purple suits the Peloponnesus;
yielded during her absence.  We next find the for the fish affording the purple dye was caught
prophet in Damascus, but are not told what led at the mouth of the Eurotas, and the purple of
him thither (B.C. 885). Benhadad, the king, whose Laconia was very celebrated. The name seems
counsels he had so often frustrated, rejoiced to hear kindred to Elis, which, in a wider sense, was apof his presence; and now, as if he had forgotten plied to the whole Peloponnesus; and some identify
the attempt he once made upon his life, despatches Elishah with Hellas. The uncertainty of all this
a noble messenger, with a costly present, to consult speculation is most apparent: but it may be
him concerning his sickness and recovery.  The added that, if probable thus far, it is equally pro



ELISHAMA                   775                ELKANAH
bable that the general name of'the isles of families of father, son, and grandson, mentioned
Elishah' may also have been extended to the as three distinct (surviving) families.  Or, which
islands of the ZEgean sea; a part of which may seems more plausible, that Exod. does enumerate
seem to have derived the name of Hellespont, sea the sons of Korah: Assir, Elkanah, Ebiasaf, while
of Hellas, from the same source.-J. K.       in Chron. it is only intended to trace the pedigree of
ELISHAMA (3y:WMt; Sept.'EXiWaLd'1E1s - Samuel; and that the three names stand in the same
ia'ir *.-: Ti T IVt/,: zorder here by a curious but by no means uncomoata'u). I. Son of Ammihud, prince of the tribe mon coincidence. Assir, Korah's son, may have
of Ephraim at the census in the wilderness (Num. named his son after his own brother Elkanah,
i. Io; ii. iS, etc.) He was the father of Nun, While upon his grandson was bestowed the name
and the grandfather of Joshua (I Chron. vii. of his other brother Ebiasaf: just as we find the
26). 2. One of David's sons, born to him in name of Elkanah constantly recurring in the seJerusalem  (2 Sam. v. I6; I Chron. iii. 8; veral generations and branches of the family, or
xiv. 7); in ver. 6 of chap. iii. another Elishama as Ebiasaf's son was again called Assir (in both
appears among the sons of David, but as this is genealogies, vi. 23 and vi. 37), after his greatcalled Elishua in the other lists, it is probably a grandfather. The Elkanah of Chron. vi. 23 would
clerical error. 3. One'of the seed royal,' and then be the nephew of the Elkanah of Exodus,
the grandfather of Ishmael who smote Gedaliah whose own offspring is not given, whereas that of
(2 Kings xxv. 25; Jer. xli. I). Jewish tradition both his brothers (Ebiasaf's, vi. 37; Assir's, vi.
identifies him with the Elishama, son of Jekamiah  6), is enumerated for certain purposes. [KoRAH.]
mentioned I Chron. ii. 41 (Hieron. Quast. Heb.  2. The father of Samuel the prophet. He is
in loc.) 4. Scribe to Jehoiakim (Jer. xxxvi. I2, described (I Sam. i. I, ff.) as living at Rama20, 21). 5. One of the Levites sent by Jehosha- thaim Zophim in the Mount Ephraim, and as
phat through the cities of Judah to teach the being the'son of Jeroham, son of Elihu, son of
people in the book of the law.-W. L. A.      Tohu, son of Zuph, Efrati;' a genealogy which
ELISHEBA     (VMl:tIi; Sept.'EXcaapet), the agrees in the main with the one given in the pedi*-l.  *.. p)::     gree of Heman, I Chron. vi. 34, 35, but differs
wife of Aaron (Exod. vi. 23); daughter of Ammina- considerably from I Chron. vi. 27, ff. By both
dab and sister of Nahshon (Num. ii. 3).      these lists of Chron., however, he is traced to
ELJSEHUA (V)~*l; Sept.'EXiwov4r'EXt-r d; Levi; a circumstance which has been thought by
EISHUA  -(.;     Sept.'EXv:ov,'EXe;'modern critics to stand in direct contradiction to
Alex.'EXto-oSi). One of David's sons born to him  the'Ephrati' or'Ephraimite' in Samuel, no less
in Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 15). [ELISHAMA.]     than to Elkanah's living in a place of Mount
ELIUD ('EXio), son of Achim, in the genea- Efraim, not enumerated among the Levitical
logy of our Lord (Matt. i. I5).  This is the towns. It has, therefore, been thought that the.  how  genealogies of Chron. were framed at a late
Grecised form of the Heb.  1g, which, how- period for the purpose of making Samuel, whom
ever, does not occur in the 0. T.            we see performing sacerdotal duties, a Levite by
birth.  But it has been forgotten, in the first
ELIZAPHAN (       p^[I; Sept.'EXio-cad'). I. place, that'Ephrati' does not only mean a man of
A Levite chief of the house of the Kohathites at the tribe of Ephraim, but also a man of Ephrata,
the time of the census in the wilderness (Num. ii. i.e., Beth Lehem, where Elkanah's ancestors may
30). His family is mentioned in the history of the have lived (cf. Ruth i. 2,'Machlon and Chilion,
times of David and Hezekiah (I Chron. xv. 8; 2 Ephratites from Beth Lehem Jehuda;' I Sam. xvii.
Chron. xxix. 13). He is the same who is called  12,'David, the son of the Ephratite from BethElzaphan in Exod. vi. 22, and Lev. x. 4, where it Lehem Jehuda.') Secondly, that the Levites were
appears that he was cousin to Moses and Aaron, not by any means obliged to live in the forty-eight
being the son of Uzziel, who was brother of Am- towns especially set aside for them, but were alram their father.-W. L. A.                   lowed to settle wherever they pleased (cf. Judg.
-.-.ELKANAH      (P N  LXX.'EXiavd; Vulg. xvii. 7, etc.) In fact, if a further, proof of the
ELKANAH      (~.1n2; LXX.'EXeaId; Vulg. authenticity of the independent lists in Chron.
Elcana),'God-acquired' [cf.'11^i9Ot; phcen. were needed, we should feel inclined to find it in
t etc.), a name of not u t  the very discrepancies of some of the intermediate
etc^.) anameofnot    n      names; which point to the remote antiquity and
currence in the 0. T., more especially among the    which point to the remote antiquity and
descendants of Levi's second son, Kohath (Kehath).  This Elkana, who lived during the later years
Io Ate'Son' of Korahml   and founder of one of Eli's high-priesthood, had, we are told, two
of the'Korahite families' (Exod. vi. 24). The wives, Hannah and Peninnah, the latter of whom
apparent discrepancy between Elkanah's genea-    ad probably mared on account of the sterilogy as given here, and that contained in I Chron. liy  Hannah,'whom he loved,' and to whom
vi. 22, 23 (6, 7, in the Hebrew text); the former he doubled the presents which he was wont to
of which would make him the offspring of Korah
himself, and boke her of Ebiasaf (or Abiasaf), give to his other wife, and'all her sons and
himself, and ^ rother  of Ebiasaf (or Abiasaf)~ daughters' (their number is not stated), on the
and Assir; while the latter makes him the son of daughters' (their number is not stated), on the
and Assir; whl the latter mf Ebiasaf, might e o- occasion of his annual sacrifice at Shiloh. Elkanconciled by assuming that  in Exod. does not ah does not, at the time of the narrative at least,
co  assuming tt   in E. ds nt appear to have officiated as a Levite; either bemean'sons' in the usual sense, but'issue,' and cause he then perhaps had passed the age of fifty,
that in reality the'Assir, Elkanah, Ebiasaf' of when the Levitical duties ceased, or because the
both passages stand to each other in the relation respective Mosaic ordinances had in some manner
of father, son, and grandson:-in which case, how- fallen into disuse, and were not restored to their
ever, it would be rather strange to see the three pristine authority until David's time. This would




ELKOSH                    776                  ELON
also solve the difficulty of Hannah's dedicating the four who invaded Canaan in the time of Abrason she might have'to the Lord,-all his days;' ham (Gen. xiv. I). The association of this king
a thing which, although incumbent upon her, was with those of Elam  and Shinar, indicates the
not customary at that time. Another way of ex- region in which the kingdom should be sought;
plaining this her vow, might be, to assume that she but nothing further is known of it, unless it be the
referred to those early years of her son (up to five- same as Thelassar mentioned in 2 Kings xix. I2.
and-twenty, according to Num. viii. 24, or up to [THELASSAR.]
thirty according to Num. iv. 3, 23, 30,47), before his
legal inauguration into the Levitical office. Little  ELLYS, SIR RICHARD, BART., of Wyham,
more is known of Elkanah.   He appears to have Lincolnshire, a gentleman of scholarly habits and
been in easy circumstances, and of a pious and  extensive intercourse with the learned men of his
good-natured disposition. Hannah bore him three dy. He wasthe greatgrandson of the illustrious
sons and two daughters after the birth of Samuel. Hampden. From his intimacy with Dutch literati
Whether the'LEphrati' refers to him or to his great- he is supposed to have studied in Holland.  The
great-grandfather Zuph is a moot- point.  The Wetsteins dedicated to him their edition of SuiAccent (a Tipchah,'Rex' or principal sign of cr's Thesaurus, Amst. 1728; Abr. Gronovius
division) under Zuph, and the absence of the his edition of Aelian's  ar. Hist., Amst. 1731;
article (iI) in Ephrati, seem to indicate that it and Horseley, his Brittania Romana.  He was
refers to the first name, viz., to Elkanah, and itthe friend and correspondent of Boston of Ettrick,
has, indeed, by most versions been taken in this whose Tractatus Stigmatologicus was dedicated to
sense. The Midrash, followed by Targum Jona- him by D. Millis [BOSTON], and in the appendix
than, makes Elkanah a prophet:'  0Dl  Anon   b    nto Boston's Memoirs are several letters that passed
i.e., nDODY bnWd jn.'  For'from  Ramathaim- between them. Ellys held at first with the ReZophim' read' Mathaim-Zophim'-' One of the two monstrant party, but became afterwards a decided
Calvinist; he was a Dissenter, and belonged to
hundred Seers' (Jalk. ad loc.) N44Z  0143im, the congregation of Dr. Calamy, and afterwards to'of the disciples of the prophets' (Jonathan).  that of Thomas Bradbury. He sat in Parliament'Korahites' of the same name are the follow- as member for Boston from 1715 to 1734; his
ing four:-                                  death took place 2Ist Feb. I74{, and as he died
3. The father of Amasai and Achimoth (I sineprole, the baronetcy became extinct with him.
Chron. vi. 25). (The beginning of the following His only work is entitled, Fortuita Sacra; guiverse has evidently a corrupt reading.)      bus subjicitur Comment. de Cymbalis Veterum, 8vo,
4. A son of Mathath (I Chron. vi. 35), per- Roter. 1727. It contains dissertations on various
haps identical with the former. vpassages of Scripture, written by the author for
5. A son of Joel (I Chron. vi. 36).        his own private use, but which his friends induced
6. One of the'mighty men' who rallied round him to publish. These'discover very considerDavid at Ziklag before his assuming the crown able critical talents, and great acquaintance with
(i Chron. xii. 6).-                          the language of the Bible'-(Orme). His essay on
7. Another Levite, but of uncertain family; the the cymbals of the ancients shews his acquaintfather of Asa, dwelling in a village of the Neto- ance with classical literature. In the dedication to
phathites (I Chron. ix. I6).                 him of Suicer's Thesaurus his scholarship is highly
8. A man in high office.' Second to the king' lauded. —W  L A
at the court of Ahaz, the king of Judah (2 Chron.
xxviii. 7). He fell in an encounter with the Israel-  ELM. This occurs only Hosea iv. 3. [ALAH.]
ites by the hands of Zichri, an Ephraimite.-E. D. ELNATHAN          Sept.'E'E
ELNATHAN (l~:..; Sept.'EXavaadA,'EBXELKOSH. The prophet Nahum is called an vcdav, Nctav), the fatherofNehushta, motherofJeElkoshite ('piS), that is, a native of some place hoiachin; distinguished as'of Jerusalem' (2 Kings
called Elkosh (Nahum i. I). There was a village XXiV. 8).  e was sent by Jehoiakim on an embassy
of this name in Galilee in the time of Jerome; butto Egypt, to bring Uriah, who had fled thither to
the prophet was more probably born of Jewish escape the wrath of the king (Jer. xxvi. 22). In
exiles at Elkosh or Alkush in Assyria, near Mosul. XXXi. 2, he is described as one of'the princes.'
The Jews themselves believe that he was born and  He was one of those who in vain entreated the
buried there; and Jewish pilgrims from all parts king not to destroy the roll containing Jeremiah's
still visit his alleged tomb. On this Mr. Rich re-prophecy against Israel and Judah (ve 25). Three
others of this name are mentioned, Ezra v(i).
marks,'The Jews are generally to be trusted for ers    ths name are mentioned, Ezra   iii.
local antiquities. Their pilgrimage to a spot is  6
almost a sufficient test.  The unbroken line of  ELOHIM. [GOD.
tradition which may have been handed down
among them, and their pertinacious resistance of  ELON. I. (piS.; Sept.'EXSv, AiX'4A; Alex.
all innovation, especially in matters of religious'EX6je), the father of one of Esau's wives (Gen
belief, render their testimony very weighty in such xxvi. 34 xxxvi. 2). [BASHEMATH].
matters' (Residence in Koordistan, p. I I ). Alkosh
is thirty-four miles north of Mosul (Nineveh), and  2. (JI5S; Sept.'AXX6v; Alex.'A-p(i6v), the second
is situated a little way up the side of a mountain, son of Zebulon (Gen. xlvi. 14), from whom dein the range to which it gives its name. It is scended the family or clan of the Elonites (Num.
entirely inhabited by Chaldee Christians, who have  xvi. 26).
a convent higher up the mountains.-J. K.
L3ELLASAR   CIB  Sep3.- (.tic.; Sept. AlIXbu), one of the judges of
ELLA R  (; S.      p, a  t'   Israel (Judg. xii. II, I2).  He was buried at
tory in Asia, whose king, Arioch, was one of the Aijalon which was probably named after him, the




ELSLEY                    777              EMBALMING
two words differing only in their vocalization. The  ELZEVIRS, THE.  The real name of this
Vulg. gives them both Aijalon.-W. L. A.      family, who are supposed to have come originally
ELSLEY, REV. HENEAGE, M.A., chiefly from Liege or Louvain, was Elzevier. They were
ELSLEY, REV. HENEAGE, M  chieflyprinters and booksellers at Utrecht, the Hague,
known as the editor of a useful manual of'Anno- pter     and  dn     t eec      t the t
tations on the four gospels, compiled and abridged Asterdam, ad They were inferior in learning, and
for the use of students,' which was first published   their laces. Tey were inors, to the Sepens,
anonymously in 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1799. A  in their Greek and Hebrew works, to the Stephens,
but surpassed them  in the neatness, elegance,
second edition appeared with annotations on the    el  y    thei      t     s The din
Acts in 3 vols. I812. This work, which has been and delicacy of their small types.  The distincommended by bishops Lloyd, Van Mildert, Sum- guished members of this family flourished between
commended by bishops Lloyd, Van Mildert, Sum-      ^     80. The name is first found on an
ner, and others, has passed through many edi-  592 and i68o. The name is first found on an
ner, and others, has passed through many     edition of Eutropius, published in 1592 by Louis,
tions, the last and best being that in one vol. 8vo, who was a bookseller at Leyden.  He was the
who was a bookseller at Leyden. He was the
revised and corrected by R. Walker, M.A., of first to mark the distinction between the vowels i
Lincoln College, Oxford, 844. Elsley was edu- and, and the consonants j and v, though to do
cated at St. Peter's College, Cambridge, and was so had been recommended by others before him.
vicar of Burneston, near Bedale in Yorkshire. so had been recommended by others before him.
v      icar of Burneston, near Bdale m Beza, BYo re  He did not, however, distinguish these letters in
The manual is a compilation from Beza, Beau- capitals; this practice was introduced by Louis
sobre, Calmet, Le Clerc, Du Pin, Doddridge, Eras- cetznerof Strasburg. About 1ac7 Louis lzevir
mus, Macknight, Grotius, Lightfoot, Whitby, and retner of Sra busine, ad wa  succeeded by his
others, with critical and philological notes, and a  elest son Matthew, who was born in s 565  The
valuable introduction.-S. L                  eldest son Matthew, who was born in I565. The
valua n. L.      most famous members of the family were two
ELSNER, JAKOB, professor at the Joachim    sons of Matthew, Bonaventura and Abraham, who
gymnasium, and second preacher at the Dom- formed a partnership in printing at Leyden in
kirche in Berlin, was born at Saalfeld in March  I626, which lasted till I652. It was from their
1692, and died 8th Oct. 1750. He is the author press that the elegant editions proceeded which
of Observationes Sacrae in N. F. libros, 2 vols., rendered their family so celebrated.  Their VirUltraj. 1720-28, a work which illustrates the N. gil, Terence, and other Latin classics, as well as
T. from the Greek classics, and which occupies a their New Testament, and Psalter adorned with
high place among suchworks. He published also red letters, are masterpieces of typography for acDer Brief an die Philpper in predigten erklart, 4to, curacy and beauty. It is said that they employed
1741. After his death appeared Commentarius in  women to correct their proofs as a means of inEvangelia Matthcei et Marci, 3 vols. 4to, Zwoll. et suring greater accuracy, as it was supposed that
Traj. ad Rhen., I767-73.-W. L. A.            they would be less likely to introduce any arbiELUL (T  /    Neh. vi. I5;* Sept.'TEoX;\ *\trary alteration of the text. Abraham and Bona-:EUL  (.',  Neh. vi. 15;  Sept.'EXoX; ventura both died I652. Their business was carried
the Macedonian roprtitos) is the name of that on by John the son of Abraham, and by Daniel
month which was the sixth of the ecclesiastical, the son of Bonaventura. At the death of John
and twelfth of the civil, year of the Jews, and his widow continued the business. But Daniel,
which began with the new moon of our September. who left his cousin, in I655 set up at Amsterdam,
Several unsatisfactory attempts have been made to and died in I680, leaving his business to the care
find a Syro-Arabian etymology for the word. of his widow. Daniel was the last of the ElzeThe most recent derivation, that of Benfey, de- virs who was noted as a printer. Descendants of
duces it, through many commutations and muti- the family still remain, and one of them was golations, from an original Zend form  haurvatdt vernor of Curagoa in 1820. Several catalogues of
(Monatsnamen, p. 126). According to the Megillat the Elzevir works were put forth, but the last and
Taanith, the I7th day of this month was a public best was that by Daniel in I674. Brunet's Manuel
fast for the death of the spies who brought back du Libraire, contains a copious list of their works.
a bad report of the land (Num. xiv. 37).-J. N.  The individual names of the Elzevirs do not apTELYMAS *7\ ('EXi A   e), a/n appaiec      pear on the title-pages of their books, but generally
ELYM   (EXas), an  appellative com-Apud Elzevirios, Ex offcind Elzeviriorum or Elzemonly derived from the Arabic.J  Aliman (a viriand. The motto of the Batavian republic was
also adopted, Concordid res parve crescunt; and in
wise man), which Luke interprets by 6 Lidyos: some editions the name Elzevir was symbolised by
it is applied to a Jew named Bar-Jesus, mentioned the design of a pile of wood burning, Els or Elzen
in Acts xiii. 6-i I (v. Neander's Hist. offirst plant- in Dutch meaning alder, and vuur, fire.-S. L.
ing of the Christian Church, i. p. 125, Eng. transl.)
A very different but less probable derivation of the  EMBALMING. Embalming is the art of preword is given by Dr. Lightfoot in his Hebrew and serving bodies by the use of medicaments. Two
Talmudical Exercitations on the Acts (Works, viii. ancient kinds of embalming are mentioned in
p. 46I), and in his Sermon on Elymas the Sorcerer Scripture, the Egyptian and the Jewish.
(Works, vii. p. o14).  Chrysostom observes, in  i. Ancient Egyptian embalming is twice spoken
reference to the blindness inflicted by the Apostle of; Jacob and Joseph having died and been emon Bar-Jesus, that the limiting clause'for a balmed in Egypt. Before noticing what is said
season,' shews that it was not intended so much respecting them, we must speak of the Egyptian
for the punishment of the sorcerer as for the practice.
conversion of the deputy. El y&p KoXtovTros Xv,  I. The feeling which led the Egyptians to em&c7ravrTbs  v a6rbv 47rotrloe TV\X6v, vvv  U  ob balm the dead probably sprang from their belief in
roUro, dXX& urpbs Katpbv,'tva irov vuOIrTCrov Kp- the future reunion of the soul with the body. Such
dcivp. Chrysost. in Acta Apost. Homil. xxviii.; a reunion is distinctly spoken of in the Book of the
Opera, tom. ix. p. 24I.-J. E. R.             Dead (Lepsius, Todtenbuch, ch. 89 andpassim), and




EMBALMING                    778              EMBALMING
obscure as is the subject, probably on account of the second, he cites only two, and of the third, not
the obscurity of the details of the Egyptian belief, one, only alluding to the statements of modern trathe statements are sufficiently positive to make vellers. He depends mainly upon the examinations
this general conclusion certain.  This conviction  of mummies brought to Europe, which are genewould naturally make the Egyptians anxious to rally of the more costly kinds, which were painted
preserve the bodies of the dead, and would occa- with mythological subjects, or otherwise adorned,
sion the invention of their famous art of embalming, whereas M. Rouyer describes what he observed in
which was applied not only to men but also to the Egypt itself. His classification is as follows:sacred animals. While tracing the art to this feel-  (I.) Mummies having an incision in the left flank
ing, we might suppose that it was more readily for the removal of the viscera.
received by a people which probably shared the  a. Prepared with balsamic matter.
mysterious reverence for the dead which charac-  b. Prepared with natron (salted).
terizes a certain portion of our race, some nations  (2.) Mummies without the ventral incision.
of which practise or have practised a kind of em-  a. Salted and filled with bituminous matter less
balming, without, as far as we can trace, any idea pure than that of the others, called pissasphaltus.
of the resurrection of the body.* But it must be  b. Salted and dried.
observed that the art is confined to the ancient  There are some exceptions to this classification,
Egyptians and nations which may be supposed   as when in a mummy prepared in a costly manner
with probability to have borrowed it from them, there is no ventral incision.
save only the Guanches and the ancient Peruvians,  In the more costly kind of mummies the brain
and even their use of this custom, when we recol- has been usually extracted through the nostrils by
lect the legend of the island Atlantis and the a skilful operation, and the head been either washed
American picture-writing and pyramids, may indi- or filled with medicaments, of which remains
cate something more than a common descent.    have been found, as well as of insects, which were
The immediate origin of the Egyptian methods enclosed in the operation of embalming, and lived
of embalming has been ingeniously conjectured to for some time in this strange prison.* In many
have been the discovery that bodies buried in the cases, however, the brain was not removed at
sand of Egypt were preserved by the natron with  all, and yet the body very carefully and perwhich it is impregnated.                      fectly preserved (History of Egyptian Muimmies, p.
During the period to which most of the mummies 56). An incision was generally made in the flank,
of certain date belong, which commences with the through which the viscera were extracted, and havI8th dynasty and extends to the overthrow of ing been prepared, were either placed in four vases,
paganism, various kinds of embalming were used, having the heads of the four genii of Amenti or
according to the outlay made by the relations of Hades, sons of Osiris, or were wholly or partly
the deceased.  But it is probable that in earlier replaced, in the latter case being sometimes entimes there was greater simplicity. The portion  closed in bandages. According to Herodotus the
of a mummy found in the Third Pyramid, which  great cavities of the body were, after being cleansed,
was almost certainly that of a king (the size leaves filled with aromatics, of which remains have been
no doubt as to the sex), or at least of some one found in examples examined, and the body was
of the blood royal, is in a very coarse cloth, so that steeped in a solution of natron, in which it reit has been supposed to be the remains of an Arab  mained for seventy days, but for no longer period.
workman left here when the pyramid was rifled,'This,' Mr. Pettigrew observes,'would appear to
but incorrectly, as the mummy-spices are to be be precisely the time necessary for the operation of
traced by sight and smell. Herodotus describes the alkali on the animal fibre' (Ibid., p. 6I). The
three methods of embalming, according to cost, be- body was then washed, and next, according to Heroginning with the most costly (ii. 85-89), and Dio- dotus, itwas bandaged. Diodorus Siculus says, howdorus Siculus mentions the same number (i. 91); but ever, that it was prepared with oil of cedar and other
as it is impossible to class all mummies that have things for thirty (var. forty) days or more, the passage
been examined under some one of these, instead of being deficient in distinctness. Mr. Pettigrew supdiscussing the passages we prefer giving the main poses that in this stage'the body must have been
results of modern examinations. Mr. Pettigrew, in subjected to a very considerable degree of heat; for
his History of Egyptian Mummies, while acknow- the resinous and aromatic substances have penetrated
ledging the faultiness of the statement of Herodotus even into the innermost structure of the bones, an
yet mainly follows it, though quoting the scientific effect which could not havebeen produced without the
classification of M. Rouyer in the Description de aid of a high temperature, and which was absolutely
P'Agypte (2d ed. vi. pp. 461-489). In his remarks necessary for the entire preservation of the body'
on the different kinds of mummies, the former is (Ibid., p. 62). M. Rouyer is of the same opinion.
evidently in want of materials for the description of'From one skull more than 270 tolerably-perany but the most costly, for he fully illustrates the  ro  one skull or e than 20 tolerably-perfirst kind from known specimens; but in speaking of fet specimens were taken; and from the remaining
fragments of others, probably double that number
* We must draw attention to the manner in which  lived, propagated their species, and died, without
the Egyptian belief in this great doctrine confirms ever seeing the light.'-History, pp. 54, 55, note.
the supposition that many nations preserved some  t' M. Rouyer, I find, also conceives that the
remains of a primseval revelation, and signally re- bodies must have been put into stoves, or kept at
futes the old calumny that the Law, which held  a certain temperature in convenient vessels, to inout temporal rewards and punishments, was derived  corporate most intimately the resinous substances
from the Egyptian religion, though we can quite with the animal matter...'Cette operation, dont
understand that the Israelites knew a truth believed  aucun historien n'a parle, etait sans doute la prinby all the Egyptians and not contradicted in the cipale et la plus importante de l'embaumement.'Law.                                          Descr. de l'Pgypte, p. 471. (History, p. 62.)




EMBALMING                    779               EMBALMING
The surface of the body was in one example certain that linen was invariably used.  Though
covered with'a coating of the dust of woods and  always long, they vary in this respect; and we
barks, nowhere less than one inch in thickness,' know no authenticated instance of their exceeding
which'had the smell of cinnamon or cassia' (Ibid., 700 yards, though much greater measures are menpp. 62, 63). At the same stage plates of gold were tioned.*  The width is also very various, but it is
sometimes applied to portions of the body, or even  not generally more than seven or eight inches.
its whole surface. Before enwrapping, the body  The quantity of cloth used is best ascertained from
was always placed at full length, with no variety the weight. The texture varies, in the cases of single
save in the position of the arms.             mummies, the coarser material being always nearer
In mummies prepared in an inferior manner the to the body. The bandages are found to have been
brain does not appear to have been extracted, and saturated with asphalt, resin, gum, or natron; but
the viscera seem to have been destroyed before the asphalt has only been traced in those nearer
withdrawal. Resinous and aromatic medicaments the body: probably the saturation is due to the preare supposed not to have been used.  It is said by  paration of the mummies, and does not indicate
Herodotus that the intestines were filled with oil any special preparation of the clothes. The beauty
of cedar, and the body put in a solution of natron  of the bandaging has been the subject of great
apparently for seventy days (raptXedovu- Tr&s admiration. The strips were very closely bound,
7rpoKEt/escvas  l/4pas-compare, of the costly mode, and all directions were adopted that could carry
TaptXE6ovCOt XirpCp, Kp6Iav/reS'iJpas eo360otKovTa, out this object. Mr. Pettigrew is of opinion that
and the same of the cheapest). In confirmation  they were certainly applied wet. Various amulets
of this statement, a mummy has been examined, of and personal ornaments are found upon mummies
which'the skin and bones alone remained, the and in their wrappings; the former were thought
flesh was entirely destroyed by the natrum' (Hist., to be of use to the soul in its wanderings, and they
p. 69). The cheapest mummies are separated by  were placed with the body from the belief in the
M. Rouyer into those salted and filled with piss- relation between the two after death. With these
asphaltus, and those that were only salted. In the matters, and the other particulars of Egyptian mumformer kind, the body is coated with this mineral mies, we have little to do, as our object is to shew
pitch, which has so thoroughly penetrated it, that how far the Jewish burial-usages may have been dethe two are not to be distinguished.  He supposes rived from Egypt. The body in the cases of most
that such mummies were submerged in liquid pitch. of the richer mummies, when bandaged, has been
In Egypt they are the most common. The mum- covered with what has been termed by the French
mies simply salted are generally found in caves a cartonage, formed of layers of cloth, plastered with
abounding in saline matters; and their preparation  lime on the inside. The shape is that of a body
may be regarded as the rudest kind of embalming, of which the arms and legs are not distinguishable.
practised either in very remote times or when the  In this shape every dead person who had, if we
usual substances could not be obtained, or else may believe Diodorus, been judged by a particuwhen the decay of the Egyptian religion had   lar court to be worthy of the honour of burial,
brought embalming into neglect, perhaps on all was considered to have the form of Osiris, and was
these occasions, for such a simple mode of pre- called by his name. It seems more probable, howservation may have been the oldest, and have never ever, that the tribunal spoken of was that of Amenti,
fallen into complete disuse. Both these kinds of'the hidden,' the Egyptian Hades, and that the
mummies have been imperfectly described.      practice of embalming was universal. The carOur knowledge of the medicaments used in the  tonage of the more costly mummies is generally
preparation of mummies is as yet very incomplete. beautifully painted with subjects connected with
We cannot trust the statements of the Greek   Amenti. Mummies of this class are enclosed in
writers, nor are we always sure of the exact mean- one or even two wooden cases, either of sycamore,
ing of the terms they employ, and the chemical or, rarely, of cedar. The mummies of royal and
analysis of the substances discovered in the exami- very -wealthy persons were placed in an outer stone
nation of mummies is anything but conclusive. case, within which there was a wooden case, and,
The principal material in the more costly mum- probably, sometimes two such cases. +
mies appears to have been asphalt, either alone or
mixed with a vegetable liquor, or so mixed with seq.; especially p. 9I, note ~). Mr. Pettigrew
the addition of resinous and aromatic ingredients. states as his conclusion:'The bandages...
Mr. Pettigrew supposes resinous matters were used  we have seen, are principally composed of cotton,
as a kind of varnish for the body, and that pounded  though occasionally of linen,' p. 95. Sir Gardner
aromatics were sprinkled in the cavities within. Wilkinson positively states the mummy-clothes to
The natron, in a solution of which the mummies be linen (Rawlinson's Herod., vol. ii. p. I42, n. 6).
were placed in every method, appears to have  In the British Museum Synopsis and Guide, the
been a fixed alkali. It might be obtained from  Egyptian wrappers are said to be of linen, doubtthe Natron Lakes and like places in the Libyan  less on Mr. Birch's authority.
desert. Wax has also been discovered.*          * Mention is made of bandages, twenty, thirty,
The embalming having been completed, the and even forty-six times round the body, but we
body was wrapped in bandages. There has been  cannot compute their length without more precise
much difficulty as to the material:t but it seems information, as they were very variously arranged.
t- In the British Museum Guide the following
* See the whole chapter on the medicaments account is given, no doubt on Mr. Birch's authority,
in Mr. Pettigrew's History (p. 75, seqq.)  The which we insert, as it differs somewhat from ours.
author is in error where he cites as an ancient'The more costly process was as follows:-The brain
authority the modern Alexander ab Alexandro having been extracted, and the viscera removed
(Ibid., p. 85, and note t).                  through an opening cut in the left side with a
+ See the chapter on the bandages (Ibid., p. 89, stone, the body was, in earlier times, prepared




EMBALMING                   780               EMBALMING
2. The records of the embalming of Jacob and  to render it possible that the seventy days in the
Joseph are very brief. In the former case we time of Herodotus was the period of mourning, as
read,'And Joseph commanded his servants the it was not to be exceeded in what appears to have
physicians to embalm his father: and the physi- been the longest operation of embalming. The
cians embalmed Israel.  And forty days were division of the seventy days mentioned in Genesis
fulfilled for him; for so are fulfilled the days of into forty and thirty, may be suggested if we cornembalming: and the Egyptians mourned for him  pare the thirty days' mourning for Moses and for
threescore and ten days' (Gen. 1. 2, 3). Of Joseph  Aaron, in which case the seventy days in this inwe are only told that'they embalmed him, and stance might mean until the end of seventy days.
he was put in a coffin in Egypt' (ver. 26). The It is also to be remarked that Diodorus speaks of the
verb Lan_, here rendered in the sense of embalm- time of mourning for a king being seventy-two days,
ing, signifies,'he or it spiced or seasoned.' The apparently ending with the day of burial (i. 72).
phrase    f1nl 4ELF, we have rendered'the days Joseph's coffin was perhaps a stone case, as his...-1 -..o X                      mummy was to be long kept ready for removal.
of embalming,' following Gesenius's translation of  ii. It is not until long after the Exodus that we
the second word (Lex. s. v.) The word j]'1,  find any record of Jewish embalming, and then we
though commonly meaning'an ark or chest,' is have, in the 0. T., but one distinct mention of the
evidently in the second quotation a coffin. It practice. This is in the case of King Asa, whose
should be remarked, that in Joseph's case the em-burial is thus related:'Andthey buried hm in his
baling must have been thorough, as Moses at theown sepulchres, which he had digged for himself in
Exodus carried his body into Canaan. The motivethe ctyofDav1d, and laid himm the ed or  ther
of embalming in these instances was evidently that  coffin,' not bier'] which he had filled [or which
the strong desire of these patriarchs to be buried was filled'] with perfumes and spices compounded
in the Land of Promise might be complied with, by the apothecaries' art; and they made for him an
although, had this not been so, respect would pro- exceeding great burning (2 Chron. xvi. 4). The
bably have led to the same result. That the phy-burning is mentioned of other kings of Judare
sicians were employed by Joseph to embalm hisFrom this pasae i seems that Asa had prepared
father may mean no more than the usual em- a bed, probably a sarcophagus, filled with spices,
balmers, who must have had medical and surgical and that spices were also burnt at his burial. In
knowledge, but it is not unlikely that the kingste accounts of our Saviour's burial the same or
and high officers were embalmed by household similar customs appear to be indicated, but fuller
physicians. The periods of forty days for em-  articulars are given. We  read that Nicodemus
balming, and seventy for mourning, are not easily brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes, about
reconciled with the statement of Herodotus, whoan hundred pound [weight].  The body they
specifies seventy days as the time that the'body wound'in linen clothes with the sweet spices, as
specifies seventy days as the time that the body
remained in natron. Perhaps the periods varied in the  anner of the Jews isto prepare forburial'
different ages, or the forty days may not include (John xix. 39, 40). St. Mark specifies that fine
the time of steeping in natron. Diodorus Siculus, clothes were used (xv. 46), and mentions that the
who, having visited Egypt, is scarcely likely to have women who came to the sepulchre on the morning
been in error in a matter necessarily well known, of the resurrection,'had bought sweet spices, that
speaks of the anointing of the body at first with oil they might come and anoint him' (xvi. i). St.
speaks of the anointirg of t~ebody at first w Luke relates that the women went to see the
of cedar and other things for above thirty or forty ke relates that the women went to see the
days (e0' ihpas 7rXelovs Trv TptdKovra; some MSS. sepulchre.' And they returned, and prepared
reapKov  a). This period would correspond v sweet spices and ointments' (xxiii. 56). Imme~Teo-apcve.This period would correspon vry diately afterwards he speaks of their'bringing the
well with the forty days mentioned in Genesis,
well with the forty hdays mentioned in Genesis, swee t spices which they had prepared' (xxiv. i), on
which are literally'the days of spicing,' and indi-sweet spices which they had prepared' (xxiv. ), on
cate that the latter denoted the most essential the second day after. Our Lord himself referred
period of embalming. Or, if the same period asto the useof ointment in burial-ceremonies (rpbs
the seventy days of Herodotus be meant by Dio- T  Ttlev  )  forthe preparation for burial,'
dorus, then there would appear to have been a when He commended the piety of the woman who
change. It maybe worth noticing, that Herodotus, had anointed hs head with'very precious otwhen first mentioning the steeping in natron, speaks ment' (Matt. xxvi. 6-13), and spoke in like manner
of seventy days as the extreme time to which itight in the similar case of Mary the sister of Lazarus
be lawfully prolonged (fgupas  &oKiovTa- *7r\ev*as (John xii. 3-8). The customs at this time would
y rovrT^P o0ec feT raptXeLev). This would seemseem  eem to have been to anoint the body and wrap it
in fine linen, with spices and ointments in the folds,
and afterwards to pour more ointment upon it, and
with salt and wax; in later times, steeped or boiled perhaps also to burn spices. In the case of our
in bitumen; then wrapped round with bands of Saviour the hurried burial and the following of the
linen, sometimes 700 yards in length; various Sabbath may have caused an unusual delay. Ordiamulets being placed in different parts, and the narily everything was probably completed at once.
whole covered with a linen shroud, and sometimes  Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus speak of the
decorated with a network of porcelain bugles. It use of myrrh in Egyptian embalming, but we do
was then enclosed in a thin case formed of canvas, not find any mention of aloes. The wrapping in
thickened with a coating of stucco, on which were fine linen is rather contrary to the Egyptian pracpainted figures of divinities and emblems of various tice than like it, when we remember that the
inds, as well as the names and titles of the de- coarser mummy-bandages are those which immeceased, and portions of the Ritual [or Book] of the diately enfold the body, and would best correspond
Dead. The whole was then enclosed in a wooden to the clothes used by the Jews.
coffin, and sometimes deposited in a stone sarco-  The Jewish custom has therefore little in comphagus,' pp. 94, 95.                         mon with the Egyptian. It was, however, pro



EMERALD                    781                 EMMAUS
bably intended as a kind of embalming, although king of Bashan,'who remained of the remnant of
it is evident from what is mentioned in the case of the giants,' and whose huge bedstead was preLazarus, who was regularly swathed (John xi. 44), served in Rabbath-Ammon (Deut. iii. II); of the
that its effect was not preservation (ver. 39). It is Anakim,'a people great and tall' (Deut. ix. 2),
probable that the sojourn in Egypt had left an im- of whom the spies said,'we were in our own
pression that led to the use of spices and ointments, sight as grasshoppers, and so we were in their
and that, like many harmless or useful practices sight' (Num. xiii. 33); of Goliath,'whose height
thus derived, this was not forbidden. Those who was six cubits and a span' (I Sam. xvii. 4); and so
endeavour to trace the Law to the Egyptian reli- of these Emim,'a people great and tall as the
gion, may be reminded of the silence of the former Anakim; which also were accounted giants as the
as to burial-rites, and the extreme importance Anakim' (Deut. ii. Io, II). Josephus also alludes
attached to them in the latter.-R. S. P.     to the race of giants who inhabited Canaan in
EMERALD. [NoPEC      ]                   early times, who had bodies so large, and counEMRALD. [NOPECH.itenances so entirely different from other men, that
EMERODS (VQV, printed with the vowels they were surprising to the sight, and terrible to
the hearing. The bones of these men are shewn
belonging to D W~ n  which is invariably the keri to this very day at Hebron (Antiq. v. 2, 3). It is
for it, perhaps euphemistically; meaning tuberes, worthy of note, too, that the traditions of most
tuberationes), the word used in the E. V. to denote ancient nations contain references to a primeval
the disease with which God threatens to punish the race of giants. Homer celebrates-' Great Polydisobedient Israelites (Deut. xxviii. 27), and which pheme, of moreth an mortal might!''Odus and
He inflicted on the Philistines for their profanation  Ephialtio-' More fierce than giant, more than
of the ark (I Sam. v. 6, 9, 12, 17; vi. 4, 5). I. giants strong' (Odys. i. 91; xi. 375). In various
According to Josephus it is dysentery.'At length parts of Syria the traditional tombs of the patriarchs
God sent a very destructive disease upon the city are still shewn, and they are all of gigantic dimenand country of Ashdod, for they died of the dysen- sions (Porter's Damascus, i. 264; ii. 278. See
tery or flux, that brought death upon them very Calmet's Dissertation on Giants).
suddenly; for before the soul could, as is usual in  The Anakim, Rephaim, Zuzim, and Emim,
easy deaths, be well loosed from the body, they were apparently different sections of one great
brought up their entrails, and vomited up what tribe, or different names applied to the same peothey had eaten,' etc. (Antiq. i. I. I).  2. The pie in different districts where they had settled.
bite of the Solpagos (So Jahn, Heb. Antiq. xii. They were gradually exterminated by foreign in185, following Lichtenstein), a venomous kind vaders.  The Emims were dispossessed by the
of spiders, which'bite men whenever they have Moabites (Deut. ii. 9-II). [GIANTS.]-J. L. P.
an opportunity, especially in the fundament and EMLN, THOMAS, bo     at Stmford, 1663, was
verenda, and whose bite causes swellings fatal  EMLYN THOMAS, bornatStamford, i663, was
vnerenda  and whose bite caus es swellings fatalfor several years minister of a Presbyterian congregain their consequences.' It is these he supposes tion in Dublin, wherehewas shamefully persecuted
are meant by the achbarim (mice, E. V.), and tioninDublin, where he was shamefully persecuted
are meant by the achbarim (mice E. V.), and                                    He J 
which, being greatly multiplied, kiled many per- on account of his Arian opinions. He died in
sowhich, beingugreatlymultiplied, killed mny per  London, 1743. The narrative of his imprisonment,
sons. But thoe dapholin were not inflicted by the written by himself, and an account of his life by his
achbarim, whose devastations were confined to the  are given in his collected works (3 vols. vo,
son, are given in his collected works (3 vols. 8vo,'land,''which mar the land;' and the achbar is Loud. 1746). His contributions to Biblical literano species of spider, but rather the field mouse, tureconsist of three pamphlets on the authenticity
especially the short-tailed species, whose ravages of iJohn v. 7. These were-I. A Full Enquiry
in cultivated lands are so destructive.  [ACH-                            T. 
into the OriginalA utlhority of that Text, I yohn v. 7,
BAR.] 3. Piles, bleeding piles, Ges. tumours, he- Lond. 1715, 8vo. 2. An Answer to Mr. Martyn's
morrhoids. First (Heb. Concord.)'tumores, tu-CiicalDssertation o iohn. 7, Lond.   A 9, 8vo.
bera ani, mariscae, Arab. Ghafalon.' A very pain- C it ia ssertat on o I y n v. 7 Lond 9, 
ful disease, especially when inward, which often 3   Rely to Mr. Martyn's Exa  ation of the
proves fatal.  The Philistines, according to the   toisDisserttio   Ld. 720,     o-S. N.
custom  of the heathen, presented to Jehovah   EMMAUS ('E/tca6ubv). We read in Luke xxiv.
golden images of the emerods and achbarim from  that on the day of our Lord's resurrection, two of
which they suffered, as an expiation for their the disciples went from Jerusalem to a village called
offence, that He might remove the plague.-I. J.  Emmaus. Jesus appeared to them on the way,
EMIM  Sept. Oao and'O  el) te walked with them to the village, joined them in
EMIM (D?.; Sept.'Oxcaor and'O/Xtelv), the their evening meal, and then revealed himself unto
name of the aboriginal inhabitants of Shaveh-Kiria- them and vanished. It will be observed that though
thaim, or the plateau of Moab (Gen. xiv. 5). The the distance of the village is stated (araaiovs
word is from  A,'to frighten,' and thus sig- 6eKovra a7rb'IepovoaXrct), its direction is not
nifies' terrors.' It has been questioned by some given. Josephus mentions a place where the emwhether the names given to these primitive races, peror Vespasian planted a colony of disbanded solAnakim, Rephaim, Emim, etc., have refer- diers; he says'it is called Emmaus, and is distant
ence to their courage and warlike character, or from Jerusalem sixty stadia' (Bell. Yud. vii. 6. 6).
to their physical strength and stature (A. Clarke, There can be little doubt that the two places are
on Gen. vi. 4).  But an honest interpretation  identical. This is all the information we possess
of the sacred text requires us to give the words regarding the scene of one of the most interesting
the latter meaning. That there were great num- events in Gospel history.
bers of giants in Canaan in a remote age, and  The site of Emmaus has given rise to considerthat many of them still existed at, and long subse- able controversy.  No place bearing this name
quent to, the conquest of the country by the Israel- now exists within the prescribed circle-' threeites, does not admit of doubt. We read of Og, score furlongs,' 7V Roman miles from Jerusalem.




EMMAUS                     782               EMMERLING
There is an Emmaus (in Arabic Amwas) on the   clusion that the village was not more than the disborder of the plain of Sharon, at the base of the tance stated from Jerusalem.
Judoean hills; it however is twenty-two miles from  A tradition, reaching back to the I4th century,
the city. Yet Dr. Robinson and others maintain fixes Emmaus at Kubeibeh, a small village about
that this is the Emmaus referred to by Luke. His seven miles north-west of Jerusalem; but for this
reasons for this view are the following:-I. In a the only evidence is that its distance from the Holy
few ancient MSS. the word ecKarbv is inserted be- City agrees with the statement of Luke (Maundefore e'iKovTa in Luke xxiv. 13, thus making the ville in Earvl Trav. in Palest., p. I75; Tobler,
distance of Emmaus I60 instead of 60 furlongs  Top. ii. 540; Robinson, B. R. ii. 255). Mr.
from Jerusalem. 2. Both Eusebius and Jerome   Williams considers Kuriet el-Enab to be the true
are explicit in identifying the two. The latter says site of Emmaus; but this opinion is as devoid of
-' Emaus cujus Lucus meminit Evangelista, haec all reliable evidence as the former (3ournal of Phiest nunc Nicopolis insignis civitas Palaestinae' lology, iv. 262). Thomson appears to adopt the
(Onomast. s. v.) All the ancient writers seem to same view (The Land and the Book, 534). The
agree with, or rather to follow them; and the same real site of Emmaus has not yet been discovered.
view continued general until the I4th century.. Emmaus or Nicopolis. The position of this' This,' says Robinson,'was not the voice of mere ancient city is defined by Jerome (ad Dan. viii.)tradition; but the well considered judgment of men'Emaus quae nunc Nicopolis...  ubi inciof learning and critical skill resident in the country, punt montana Judaese consurgere.' The Jerusaacquainted with the places in question, and occu- lem Itinerary places it twenty-two miles from Jerupied in investigating and describing the scriptural salem, and ten from Lydda (August. Iiner., ed.
topography of the Holy Land' (R. R. iii. I48).  Hessel., p. 600). Its site is now occupied by the
There is much weight in these remarks, and  little village of Amwas, which lies on the western
coming from such a source they are deserving of declivity of a rocky hill commanding the plain. It
our most careful consideration. But the question  contains two copious fountains, one of which is
just resolves itself into one of sacred criticism, in  doubtless that referred to by some old writers as
which diplomatic evidence alone must be our possessing remarkable healing properties (Sozom.
guide. Looking at the evidence for and against H. E., v. 21; Robinson, B. R. iii. 146, and authothe reading eKarbv, on which the theory depends, rities there given). The only ruins of importance
no sound critic would for a moment hesitate to  are those of a church a little south of the village.
reject it as an interpolation. It is only supported  Though not mentioned in the Bible, Emmaus is
by three Uncial MSS., and these not of high   frequently referred to in Jewish history. Beside it
value (. K. and NV.); while all the others omit it Judas Maccabseus defeated Georgias the Syrian
(see Tischendorf, Lachmann, and Alford, in oc.) general (I Maccab. iii. 40; iv. 3, sq.) It was
Robinson says-' This (eKarbv) may have been the afterwards fortified by Bacchides, under Antiochus
current reading in the days of Eusebius and Jerome. Epiphanes, when engaged in war with the Jews
There seems indeed to be a strong probability that (ix. 50). In the beginning of the third century,
it actually was so.' It is a sufficient answer to this the city was rebuilt by the exertions of Julius Afristatement, that Jerome's own version and the old  canus, and called Nicopolis (Reland, Pal. p. 759),
Latin read'sexaginta' (Lachmann and Sabatier, a name which it retained till after the wars of the
in loc.)  Neither Eusebius nor Jerome can be  Crusades (Gesta Deilper Francos, p. 743).
taken as a certain guide on all points of sacred geo-  3. A place mentioned by Josephus.  Speaking
graphy; and their followers in succeeding cen- of Tiberias, he says-' There are warm baths at a
turies were but poor critics. It seems that in this, little distance from it in a village named Emmaus'
as in several other instances, ancient geographers, (Antiq. xvii. 2. 3); and he further states that the
when they found a place bearing a scriptural name, name Emmaus,'if it be interpreted, may be renassumed, without close investigation, that it was dered'a warm bath' (Bell. zid. iv. I. 3). Dr.
the scriptural city. The explicit statement of Jose- Robinson supposes this to be only a Greek form of
phus, cited above, confirms the words of Luke. the Hebrew Hammath, which has the same signifiHe refers repeatedly in his writings to Emmaus or cation, and was the name of a town of Naphtali
Nicopolis; and it appears to be only in order to (B. R., ii. 385). [HAMMATH.]-J. L. P.
distinguish this Emmaus from the other that he men- 
tions its distance from Jerusalem (comp. Bell. zud. EMMANUEL. [IMMANUEL.]
ii. 5. I; iii. 3. 5; iv. 8. I; vii. 6. 6). It is also  EMMERLING, CHRISTIAN AUGUST GOTTjustly remarked by Reland (Pal. 758, sq.) that the FRIED, was born June I6, I781, and died January
distance of Nicopolis from Jerusalem is too great 22, 1827. He was for some time preacher at St.
to agree with the Gospel narrative. We know not Thomas's Church, Leipsic, and subsequently pastor
at what time the two disciples left Jerusalem; but of four village churches in the neighbourhood of
it could not have been early in the day (ver. 22, that city. Amidst his other labours he gave consg.) They reached Emmaus in the evening (ver. siderable attention to the exegesis of the N. T.,
29); they partook of the evening meal, which was and in 18 1 published a Latin translation of Keil's
usually served at sunset; and then, after Christ Elements of Hermeneutics.  His principal work
had made himself known to them,'they rose up was a commentary on the Second Epistle to the
the same hour, and returned to Jerusalem, and  Corinthians-Pauli:Epistola ad Corinthiosposterior,
found the eleven gathered together, and them that grace, peretuo commentario illustravit C. A. G. E.,
were with them' (ver. 33). The night could not Lips. I823.  He had previously published two
have been as yet far advanced; and there would shorter works on certain passages in this epistle.
have been no time for a journey of twenty-two miles, These were-De Paulo felicein institutionis sum sucwhich up those rugged mountains could scarcely cessum prcedicante ejusque causas exponenle, 2 Cor.
have been accomplished in less than seven hours. ii. 14-I6, Lips. I809; and Succincta Tractatio
The whole tenor of the narrative leads to the con- loci Paulini, 2 Cor. v. -20, Lips. 1816.-S. N.




EN                     783                 EN-GEDI
EN, properly AIN, a word signifying'foun- part of the name is derived. Theleading road from
tain;' and hence entering into the composition of Jezreel and the north to Samaria and Jerusalem
sundry local names, of which the following are the passes Jenin.  This may illustrate the passage
chief. [AIN.]                                in 2 Kings ix. 27, where it is stated that Ahaziah,
EN-DOR (Ul 14, O and   "i I-W Y; Sept.'Aevsbp and king of Judah, in escaping from Jehu at Jezreel,
EN-DOR( ~, an -'; Sep. tV'2~ and'fled by the way of the garden-house;' that is,'Evbp), an ancient town of Issachar, but allotted, Belh-Haggan, as it is rightly rendered in the Sept.
with a few others, to the half tribe of Manasseh  (nil i'1:), which appears to be just another name
(Josh. xvii. I ). It was one of those places out of for En-gannim. He was thus taking the straight
which the Israelites were for a long period unable road to Jerusalem (Stanley, S. andP. 342). Jenin
to drive the Canaanites. Endor is celebrated as contains above 2000 inhabitants, and is the capital
the scene of Saul's singular interview with the of a large district (Robinson, B. R. ii. 315; Handwitch. The details of that melancholy incident bookfor S. and P. 35I).
are well known (I Sam. xxviii.) It is also men-  2. A town of Judah, situated in the plain of
tioned by the Psalmist in connection with the vic- Philistia at the western base of the mountains, and
tory over Sisera (Ps. lxxxiii. Io).          not far from Zanoah and Jarmuth (Josh. xv. 34).
The situation of Endor is rightly described by Its site has not been identified.-J. L. P.
Eusebius. He says it is'in Jezreel' (that is, in
the valley or plain of Jezreel or Esdraelon); four  EN-GEDI (r-p, kids' fountaiz; Sept.'E,miles south of Tabor (Onomast. s. v. Aendor).  In. ya88i), a city of Judah, which gave its name to a
another place he states that it is near Nain (s. v. part of the desert to which David withdrew for
Endor). Endor is still a small village. It lies on fear of Saul (Josh. xv. 62; I Sam. xxiv. 1-4). Its
the northern slope of a bleak ridge, now called more ancient Hebrew name was Hazezon-tamar;
Jebel ed-Duhy, but in Scripture'the hill of and by that name it is mentioned before the deMoreh' (Judg. vii. I). It is four miles south of struction of Sodom, as being inhabited by the
Tabor, and a mile and a half east of Nain. The Amorites, and near the cities of the plain (Gen.
plain of Esdraelon sweeps round the whole base of xiv. 7). In 2 Chron. xx. I, 2, bands of the Moabthe ridge. From the fountain of Jezreel, where ites and Ammonites are described as coming up
Saul was encamped, to Endor, is about seven miles. against king Jehoshaphat, apparently round the
Endorcontainssometwentymiserablehouses. The south end of the Dead Sea, as far as En-gedi.
calcareous cliffs around are filled with rude caverns, And this, as we learn from Dr. Robinson, is the
and some of the modern habitations are formed of route taken by the Arabs in their marauding exfront walls shutting in these caves. One of the caves peditions at the present day. According to Johas a little fountain in it; the entrance is narrow  sephus, En-gedi lay upon the lake Asphaltites, and
between rugged rocks, and partly covered with a fig- was celebrated for its'beautiful palm-trees and
tree. The writer, when standing in this wild and opobalsum (Antif. ix. I. 2); while its vineyards
gloomy cave, could not but think how fit a residence are also mentioned in Sol. Song, i. 14. In the
it would be for the witch of Endor (Handbook for time of Eusebius and Jerome, En-gedi was still a
S. and P., p. 358; Thomson, The Land and the large village on the shore of the Dead Sea. EnBook, p. 445; Van de Veide, ii. 383).-J. L. P.  gedi has always, until recently, been sought at the
_L-ELI _ —... —..,n  north end of the Dead Sea. But Seetzen recogEN-.EGLAIM    ~(D8.:3 1p, calves' fozuntain; nised the ancient name in the Ain-jidy of the
Sept.'EvayaXXea), a town of Moab (Ezek. xlvii. Arabs, and lays it down in his map at a point of
io), which Jerome places at the northern end of the the western shore, nearly equidistant from both
Dead Sea, at the influx of the Jordan.-W. L. A.  extremities of the lake. This spot was visited by
EN-GANNIM.   Sept. Alex.'yav  Dr. Robinson, and he confirms the identification.
EN-GANNIM     (} l.Y.; Sept. Alex.'H,-'yav- The site lies among the mountains which here
vy1), a town of Palestine, allotted to the tribe of confine the lake, a considerable way down the deIssachar, and situated in the plain of Esdraelon  scent to its shore. Here is the beautiful fountain
(Josh. xix. 21). It was assigned out of that tribe of Ain-jidy, bursting forth at once in a fine stream
to the Levites (xxi. 29). The same town appears upon a sort of narrow terrace or shelf of the mounto be called Anem (DYM) in I Chron. vi. 73. There tain, above 400 feet above the level of the lake.
can be little doubt that this is the Ginzca which The stream rushes down the steep descent of the
Josephus speaks of as situated in the great mountain below; and its course is hidden by a
plain on the confines of Samaria (Ant. xx. 6. I; luxuriant thicket of trees and shrubs belonging to a
Bell. yud. iii. 3. 4). We can have no difficulty in more southern clime. Near this fountain are the
identifying it with the modern town of Jenin. remains of several buildings, apparently ancient;
Jenin stands at the mouth of a picturesque glen  although the main site of the town seems to have
which winds down into Esdraelon from the wooded been farther below. The whole of the descent
hills of Ephraim. The town is high enough to  below appears to have been once terraced for tiloverlook the broad plain, and low enough to have lage and gardens; and near the foot are the ruins
its houses encircled by its verdure. The hills rise of a town, exhibiting nothing of particular interest,
steeply behind, dotted with bushes, and here and and built mostly of unhewn stones. This we may
there clothed with the sombre foliage of the olive. conclude to have been the town which took its
Rich gardens, hedged with prickly pear, extend name from the fountain (Robinson, ii. 209-216).
along their base; and a few palm trees give variety  THE WILDERNESS OF EN-GEDI is doubtless the
to the scene. The'fountain,' from which the town immediately neighbouring part of the wild region
took the first part of its Scripture name (En, 4 ee),west of the Dead Sea, which must be traversed to
is in the hills a few hundred yards distant; and its reach its shores. It was here that David and his
abundant waters flow over and fertilize the'gar- men lived among the'rocks of the wild goats,' and
dens' (Gannim) from which the second and chief where the former cut off the skirts of Saul's robe in




EN-HADDAI          t         784               EN-ROGEL
a cave (1 Sam. xxiv. 1-4).'On all sides,' says Dr. occurs in the Hebrew and the Peschito; for both
Robinson,'the country is full of caverns, which unmistakeably unite the names as the designation
might then serve as lurking-places for David and hisp 
men, as they do for outlaws at the present day.' He of a single town (i  p.: 11, 4 D ~ I- C O
adds that as he came in sight of the ravine of the 
Ghar, a mountain-goat started up and bounded along et' in Zn-Remon;' A. V.'And at En-Rimmon.')
the face of the rocks on the opposite side.-J. K.  The Vulg. now drops the shorter name ('Et in
EN-HADDAH    Sept. Aap&     Alex Remmon'); the LXX. Alex. does the same (Kal ev
EN-HADDAH (nI1; Sept. AIapK; Alex. [prep.]'Rieybv), the Vatican text has here an
1)v &88a), one of the boundary marks of the tribe of hiatus. Such is the textual variety connected with
Issachar (Josh. xix. 21). Van de Velde identifies these two words, which designate one or two of
it with the existing Ain Hazad or Apostles' foun- the towns which were originally assigned to the
tain; but this is not probable.-W. L. A.      tribe of Judah, and afterwards transferred to the
EN-HAKKORE  -.   y  tribe of Simeon (Josh. xix. 7, 9), and on the
EN-HAKKORE (         _..; Sept. II?  rov^ return from Babylon occupied by the children of
f7rtKaXovl/,vov), the well or spring of him  who  Judah (Neh. xi. 29). The situation of these cities
called, i.e., upon God (Judg. xv. I9), so named  of Judah, comprising the first of the four groups, is
because it sprang up, or was providentially dis- described in Josh. xv. 21 as'at the extremity of
covered, when Samson, thirsty after the slaugh- the tribe, on the borders of Edom  toward the
ter of a thousand Philistines with the jawbone of south, M=23..' With regard to En-Rimmon, the
an ass, called on God for drink (ver. I8). Its posi-. 
tion, any more than that of Lehi, in which it is said  conjecture, which has received the sanction of
to be, is unknown, beyond the bare fact that it was Grotius (in loc.), Rosenmiiller (in oc.), Knobel
somewhere in the western border of the tribe of (Exeg. H-buc  z. A. I, in loc.), and Keil (on
Judah. Van de Velde's attempt to identify it is vain. yosh. [Clark], p. 378), is a reasonable solution of
It is to be regretted, however, that men of sense, the discrepancy-to the effect that theha   two places,
with a view to disparage the book of Judges aswhich were evidently near each other (perhaps
mythical, should be found resuscitating the vulgar contiguous, by means of their'villages, which
notion, the fruit of ignorance, that the well sprung  they possessed from first to last, comp. Josh. xv.
up in the jawbone instead of the place called Lehi, 32 with Neh. xi. 29, 30), were united after the
after the instrument of Samson's exploit.-I. J.  captivity, and considered as one town only.
Van de Velde (Memoir, p. 344), says expressly;
EN - RIMMON. These words occur together,'we think this is the right solution of Neh. xi.
in the Masoretic text, in the following passages; 29; for Ain is probably identical with a site only
(i) Josh. xv. 32; (2) xix. 7; (3) I Chron. iv. 30' or 35' distance south of Um er-Rummamin, now
32; (4) Neh. xi. 29.   In (I) they appear as called Tell-Khewelfeh, and opposite anotherancient
undoubtedly the names of two cities, both in the site, Tell Hora. Between the two Tells is a copious
original and in the Vulg. (ti?..11 l.l; et Aen, et fountain filling a large ancient reservoir, which for
Remon); the LXX., however; and the Peschito  miles around is the chief watering-place of the
howe, ad  Bedawin population of this region. A city, at the
unite them into one name ('Epwsc6 $;,,^ base of which such a remarkable fountain existed,
would well derive its name from'kte fountain,''Irmon,' Walton, but literally tb'i.1).  In (2) and its vicinity to Rimmon would justify both its
the Hebrew words Wtt3Y iWp occurring without the distinct enumeration and its collective appellation.'
the Hebrew words l]'~ INl/, occurring without the In his Map of the Holy Land, he places the supconjunction, would leave it doubtful whether twoIn h  Map of Ie Holy Land, he places the supcities or one were meant, but the clause, four cities,  locality about eight miles north ofBeersheba
in the same verse, requires them to be regarded as and twenty-five south-west of Jerusalem. Winer
separate places; the doubt is increased by the (Bib. R. w.-b., s. v.'Rimmon, ii. 33I), identifies
LXX., which not only amalgamates the places asour town with that mentioned in Zech. xiv. 10 as
before,'Epeqec6v,5 but inserts OahXa to make up'South of Jerusalem,' and refers to Eusebius
the number four; but the Peschito now makes two  Onomast. (cited above in note). Probably it was
7r                     also the same place as the Amin, one of the nine
distinct towns;. 1;O   WH     ('oIn, Ramin' Levitical cities of the united tribe of Judah-Simeon,
I -X          X mentioned in Josh. xxi. i6. (Besides the works
literally 1p'31  l4Fl); the Vulg. also has Ain et already named, see also Rab. I. Schwarz, Descripl.
Remmon. In (3) both the original and the ver-Geog. of Palestine, p. I24; Von Raumer'sPaldstina,
sions agree in mentioning the two places without PP. 170, 2I9, 220; and Simonis Onomast V...,
the conjunction intervening (the LXX. Alex., how- PP. 226, 347).-P. H.
ever, omits "Hv), but the structure of the verse in  EN-ROGEL; Sept.     X). The
all of them requires that the two should be con-; Sep.'. 
sidered as separate cities. In (4) the opposite name means Foot-fountain, and is construed by the
Targurn into'Fuller's Fountain,' because the
* This is the Vatican reading; the Cod. Alex. fullers trod the clothes there with their feet. It
reads the names of two cities,'Ai' Kal'Recu/A/S. was near Jerusalem, on the boundary-line between
It is noticeable, that in their Onomasticon, Jerome the tribes of Judah and Benjamin (Josh. xv. 7;
mentions Eremmon as'Vicus Judeorum praegran- xviii. 16; 2 Sam. xvii. 17; I Kings i. 9). It has
dis,' and Eusebius'EpesLPcbv as K(t6/r'IovbaIwv been usually supposed the same as the Fountain of
tzeyl-T-r, which they place in the south of Judaea, Siloam. But Dr. Robinson is more inclined to find
about 16 miles south of Eleutheropolis: Bonfre- it in what is called by Frank Christians the Well
rius, their annotator, identifies their town with our of Nehemiah, but by the native inhabitants the
En-Rimmon. (Note, in loc.)                   Well of Tob (Bir Eyz2b). There are only three




EN-SHEMESH                    785             ENCAMPMENTS
sources, or rather receptacles of living water, now  Jericho, or more exactly, between the'going up of
accessible at Jerusalem, and this is one of them.  Adummim' and En-Rogel (Josh. xv. 7; xviii. 17).
It is situated just below the junction of the Valley  It was, therefore, among the mountains in the wilof Hinnom with that of J ehoshaphat. It is a very  derness.  Fountains in this region are very rare.
deep well, of an irregular quadrilateral, form, About a mile east of Bethany, on the road to
walled up with large square stones, terminating  Jericho, is a little fountain now called by natives
above in an arch on one side, and apparently of Ai el-Haud, and by pilgrims and travellers' the
great antiquity.  There is a small rude building  fountain of the apostles.' It is in the bottom of a
over it, furnished with one or two large troughs or deep and desolate glen. A Saracenic arch covers
reservoirs of stone, which are kept partially filled  the stone trough into which the'waters' (b.,
for the convenience of the people. The well meafor te c c of te            J w   osh. xv. 7) flow; and a few ruins around it mark
sures 125 feet in depth; 50 feet of which were, at the site of an old village, or more probably a cathe time of Dr. Robinson's visit (in the middle of vanserai built in former days for the accommoda
April), nearly full of water. The water is sweet, tion and security of travellers along this dreary and
but not very cold, and at the present day is drawnltion and security of travellers along this dreary and
but not very cold, and at the present day is drawn  danerous road (Luke x  s   There can be
up by the hand. In the rainy season the well be- dangere x 30 sq.) There can be
little doubt that this is Enshemesh.  It is the only
comes quite full, and sometimes overflows at t    he                               important
mouth. Usually, however, thewaterruns off under    mark for deining the boundaries an imporan
landmark for defining the boundaries of Judah and
the surface of the ground, and finds an outlet some  Benjamin (Tobler, Topog. Zion ferusalen, ii. 400;
forty yards below the well, whence it is said to flow  Handbook for S. and PI. 90).-JL.P.
for sixty or seventy days in winter; and the stream
is sometimes large.-J. K.                        EN-TAPPUACH (nrrp), Citron or AppleEN-SHEMESH (W         \' Sept. ry           o ontain; Sept.  7rf^f7y OCaS000), a place on the'fot'*an (" th        boundary-line of Manasseh (Josh. xvii. 7). [TAP-7\iov, and 7r/yi/ Balto-rais). A'fountain' (as the PUACH.]
name implies), and perhaps also a village, on the
northern border of Judah between Jerusalem and   ENCAMPMENTS. Of the Jewish system of
EAST.-FIRST DIVISION-CAMP OF JUDAH: I86,400.
d                                 JUDAH,                                   o
O                                  74,60oo.'^-                   ISSACHAR      AND        ZEBULUN,
54,400.                  57,400.
nn        0
F4<       ~* O~           MOSES,      AARON,            -               Z ~
o 0, AND THE PRIESTS.                                        O             C
00
2                                   C d'                                    t<
o         N             -)
-oN<1~Ng ~                                H..            0
U           *             S       a IV) ta         -                        I.,U''.
~ oo-7'^5'OOz Z'mInv~~fXa    (INV      HUassvNvi 
q                                  I
*ooI'80o: IV0 HcH lO cd IVD.-NOISIAI(I aGIHJ.'          SALS3M
VOLT. T.                                                                        3 E
SRJANOHSNRO    u-,~~3




ENCHANTMENTS                   786           ENGLISH VERSIONS
encampment the Mosaic books have left a detailed  of a movable tower, or helipolis, it became a most
description. From the period of the sojourn in formidable engine of war-one used in all great
the wilderness to the crossing of the Jordan the sieges from the time of Demetrius, about B. c. 306,
twelve tribes were formed into four great armies,
encamping in as many fronts, or forming a square,
with a great space in the rear, where the tabernacle                  / 
of the Lord was placed, surrounded by the tribe of/_____                  i /l\
Levi and the bodies of carriers, etc., by the stalls 
of the cattle and the baggage: the four fronts faced 
the cardinal points while the march was eastward,          -      X        Cl
but as Judah continued to lead the van, it follows                   _
that when the Jordan was to be crossed the direc-      _        a=i=!['_  I
tion became westward, and therefore the general__
arrangement, so far as the cardinal points were                 l-/          -
concerned, was reversed. * It does not appear that,
during this time, Israel ever had lines of defence 
thrown up; but in after ages, when only single              233. Battering Ram.
armies came into the field, it is probable that the
castral disposition was not invariably quadrangular; till long after the invention of gunpowder. Towers
and, from the many positions indicated on the of this kind were largely used at the destruction of
crests of steep mountains, the fronts were clearly Jerusalem by the Romans. Of the balistae and
adapted to the ground and to the space which catapults it may be proper to add that they were
it was necessary to occupy. The rear of such  of various powers. For battering walls there were
positions, or the square camps in the plain, appear some that threw stones of fifty, others of one
from the marginal reading of I Sam. xvii. 20, hundred, and some of three hundred weight; in
and xxvi. 5 to have been enclosed with a line of the field of battle they were of much inferior
carts or chariots, which, from the remotest period, strength. Darts varied similarly from small beams
was a practice among all the nomade nations of to large arrows, and the range they had exceeded
the north. The books of Moses are so explicit on
the subject of encampment, and the march of the
Israelites, that we deem a distinct plan of the
numbers and position of the twelve tribes, of the
various corps of Levites, etc., with the tents of                         /D —
Moses and Aaron ranged about the tabernacle, and 
other particulars, sufficient to give a very clear idea
of the whole, and to supersede the necessity of                   __
further description.-C. H. S.
ENCHANTMENTS. [DIVINATION.]
ENGINES OF WAR were certainly known
much earlier than the Greek writers appear to
admit, since figures of them  occur in Egyptian 
monuments, where two kinds of the testudo, or
pent-house, used as shelters for the besiegers, are
represented, and a colossal lance, worked by men
who, under the cover of a testudo, drive the point234
between the stones of a city wall. The chief pro- aquarterof a mile, orabout 450 yards. Allthese
jectiles were the catapulta for throwing darts, andengines were constructed upon the principle of the
the balista for throwing stones. Both these kinds sling the bow, or the spring, the last being an
of instruments were prepared by Uzziah for the elastic   brent back by a screw or a cable of
defence of Jerusalem (2 Chron. xxvi. I5), and bat-sinews, with a trigger to set it free, and contrived
tering the wall is mentioned in the reign of King either to impel darts by its stroke, or to throw
David (2 Sam. xx. I5); but the instrument itself stones from a kind of spoon formed towards the
for throwing it down may have been that above- summit of the spring. —C. H. S.
noticed, and not the battering-ram. The ram was,
however, a simple machine, and capable of de-   ENGLISH VERSIONS. I. The earliest Engmolishing the strongest walls, provided access to lish version in prose of any book of the Bible was
the foot was practicable; for the mass of cast metal made about the time when Edward the Third
which formed the head could be fixed to a beam  ascended the throne, by William de Schorham.
lengthened sufficiently to require between one and The MS. is in the British Museum, containing the
two hundred men to lift and impel it; + and when  Psalter in Latin and English. Immediately after,
it was still heavier, and hung in the lower floor Richard Rolle, chantry priest at Hampole, translated and published the same book. Next to the
* If the leading tribes did not thus turn with the psalter was translated the N.T.; probably by Wydirection of the march, Judah and his two wings cliffe. To the several books were prefixed promust have formed the rear in crossing the Jor- logues; but they betray a different hand from the
dan.                                         text. Before the N. T. was completed, a translation
+ The Algerines, about two centuries ago, took  of the Old was undertaken by one of Wycliffe's
the lower mast of one of their frigates and im- coadjutors, Nicholas de Hereford; as is stated in
pelled it by forcing 400 slaves to use their personal a note at the end of a copy in the Bodleian Library.
strength in the work.                        It would seem that the writer was suddenly stopped




ENGLISH VERSIONS                  787          ENGLISH VERSIONS
in the book of Baruch; so that the translation had  (Facsimiles are given by Mr. Anderson, in his
to be completed by another, probably Wycliffe.'Annals of the English Bible,' vol. i. p. 64.) At
This version has all the canonical, besides the apo- Worms, whither he proceeded on leaving Cologne,
cryphal books, except the fourth book of Esdras. he commenced another edition of the N. T. in 8vo,
It was the first English version of the whole Bible. without the prologue and glosses belonging to the
A second revised translation was suggested, and 4to. A third edition was printed at Antwerp in
perhaps commenced by Wycliffe; but it was not 1526, a fourth at the same place in 1527, a fifth in
completed and published till after his death. Pre- I529, a sixth in 1534, and three editions in I535.
fixed is a general prologue, whose date determines In 1536, the year in which he was strangled at
that of the version, and was probably 1388. This Vilvorde, there were ten or twelve editions.  He
prologue was designed as a preface to the 0. T. also printed at different times the five books of
only; for it may be assumed that the 0. T. was Moses; and in I53I, the book of Jonah, with an
put forth by itself before the New was revised. admirable prologue respecting the state of his counThe author of the general prologue, and conse- try. In addition to the Pentateuch, he translated
quently of the corrected version, was John Purvey, other parts of the 0. T., at least as far as the end
the leader of the Lollard party after Wycliffe's death. of Chronicles.  The O. T. was made from the
He had the assistance of Nicholas Hereford, John  original, not from Luther's German version; for
Ashton, John Parker, and Robert Swynderby.     there is no evidence to shew that Tyndale was acThe former of these versions was that in which  quainted with German, or indeed that he ever saw
Wycliffe took a leading part; the N. T., and pro- Luther; though there is abundant testimony of his
bably some portions of the Old, being wholly his skill in Hebrew. Besides, its internal character
own work. If it be assigned to 1380 the date can- proves that it was made from the original Hebrew
not be far from the truth; for it was evidently cor- and Greek.
pleted in the latter part of his life. The second, or  The excellence of this version, the basis of all
Purvey's, which was a revision of the first, rather subsequent English Bibles, has never been called
than an independent translation, belongs, as we in question by candid and competent judges,
have seen, to about I390. Both were made from  notwithstanding the severe opposition it encounthe Latin or Vulgate.                          tered during the life of the honoured Tyndale,
The N. T. part of the latter was first printed by  and the peculiar circumstances in which he was
Lewis, in I73I. It was afterwards reprinted by  placed.  The language is pure, appropriate, and
Baber in I8Io. Both editors, however, errone- perspicuous. It is an astonishing monument of the
ously ascribed it to Wycliffe.  It was again pub- indomitable zeal and great learning of the author.
lished by Messrs. Bagster in the English Hexapla, The N. T. part was printed in Bagster's Hexapla.
1841, from a MS. now in the collection of Lord   3. MAyles Coverdale.-The English version of the
Ashburnham.   The first part of the earlier ver- whole Bible made by Coverdale is dated I535,
sion ever printed was in Dr. Adam Clarke's Com- in folio. Where it was printed is matter of conmentary on the Bible, from a MS. in his own jecture.    In the title-page it professes to be faithpossession. In 1848 the N. T. was printed for fully and truly translated out of the'Douche
the first time by Lea Wilson, from a MS. belong- (German) and Latyn.' This Bible was imported
ing to himself. It was reserved for the Rev. Josiah  into England in I536; and various expedients
Forshall and Sir Frederick Madden to publish both  were tried in the way of altering the title-page
versions complete; The Holy Bible, containing the and the dedication, or of affixing a new title-page,
Old and Newz Testaments, with the Apocryphal in order to procure it the royal approbation.
books, in the earliest English versions tadefrom the Another edition, in 4to, was issued in 1550, and
Latin Vzdgate by ohnz Wycliffe and his followers; in the same form reissued in I553. This Bible
four vols., royal quarto, I850.  (See the preface to  certainly owed its origin to Lord Cromwell's pathis splendid edition, pp. I-64.)             tronage. Coverdale states, that he had five transWycliffe, though a zealous reformer, and a man lations before him'to help him herein.' Although
of learning in his own day, was ignorant of the the author had the benefit of Tyndale's, his work
Hebrew and Greek languages. Hence he was un- must be reckoned inferior. In addition to the culfitted for the task of translating the Bible. Latin  pable obsequiousness of Coverdale, he was not so
was all but universal in the I4th century; and the well skilled in the original languages of the ScripLatin Bible or Vulgate was the only document tures; and had therefore to rely more on the
which constituted the Word of God in the estima- German and Latin (Anderson, vol. i. p. 587).
tion of men. The version, as far as it proceeded  This translation has been reprinted by Bagster.
from Wycliffe, is remarkable for its fidelity, and  [COVERDAIE.]
the propriety of the words selected.  Still it is but  4. M/atthew's Bible.-Although this version is
the translation of a translation, and therefore more the same as Tyndale's previously described, yet it
important as illustrative of the state of our language deserves to be separately spoken of. John Rogers,
in the I4th century than as contributing to the an intimate friend of Tyndale, set about the supercriticism or interpretation of the Scriptures.  intendence of a new edition soon after the incar2. Tyndale's Translation.-William  Tyndale, ceration of the latter at Vilvorde. Where it was
having printed at Hamburg an edition of the Gos- printed cannot now be ascertained.  Hamburg,
pel by Matthew and an edition of Mark, committed  Marburg, Paris, Antwerp, and Lubeck, have all
to the press at Cologne the first edition of his N. been named. When Rogers had proceeded with
T. in 4to, with a prologue and glosses.  In con- the printing as far as Isaiah, Richard Grafton and
sequence, however, of the exertions of Cochlseus, a Edward Whitchurch, the celebrated printers, unviolerit and crafty enemy to the printing of the dertook to bring out the work as a matter of trade.
Scriptures, the edition was interrupted before it The N. T. entire, and the Old as far as the end of
was printed off. A precious fragment of it is now  Chronicles, are Tyndale's; the remainder of the
in the library of the Right Hon. Thomas Grenville.  O. T. was done by Rogers himself, with the assist



ENGLISH VERSIONS                 788           ENGLISH    VERSIONS
ance perhaps of Coverdale's sheets. The whole less the most eminent men for learning that could
was finished in I537. Why it bears the name of then be procured. They met in companies at difThomas Matthew is not clear. It has been con- ferent places, having their respective tasks assigned
jectured, however, that it may have been com- them. According to the ordinary account, fourteen
menced at the request of a person of that name. rules were given to the translators for their guidArchbishop Cranmer, without any previous con- ance; but another account states that only seven
nection with the undertaking, was applied to by were finally prescribed. The whole was revised by
Grafton to procure it royal patronage, which he twelve men together, two having been chosen out
happily effected though Lord Cromwell.        of each of the six companies. The final revision
In the year 1538 another edition was begun at was made by Dr. Miles Smith, who wrote the
Paris, edited by Coverdale, which was interrupted  Preface, and Dr. Bilson. It was first published, in
by an order of the Inquisition.  It was finished in  a folio volume, in I6I I. The whole expense was
London, in April I539. This book was set forth  defrayed by Barker,, the patentee. In order to
and enforced by the highest authority in England. judge of the real character of this work, which has
5. 7averner's Bible.-Richard Taverner, the continued to be the authorized version down to the
editor of this work, was a learned layman. His present day, it is necessary to consider two of the
Bible was published in London, 1539, folio. Two  rules given to the editors or translators, viz., the
other editions of it were issued in quarto. It is not first and fourteenth:-' The ordinary Bible read in
a new version, but a correction of Matthew's.  the church, commonly called the Bishops' Bible;
6. Cranmer's Bible.-The first great Bible, with to be followed, and as little altered as the original
a prologue, by Cranmer, was published in 1539, will permit.' Again: —'These translations to be
folio, printed by Whitchurch. Three subsequent used when they agree better with the text than the
editions had the archbishop's name affixed to the Bishops' Bible: viz., I. Tyndale's; 2. Matthew's;
title-page. The N. T. is printed in Bagster's 3. Coverdale's; 4. Whitchurch's (Cranmer's);
Hexa5pla. [CRANMER.]                          5. The Geneva.' From these instructions it may
7. Geneva Bible.-The N. T., in duodecimo, be inferred that the A. V. is a revision of the
printed at Geneva, by Conrad Badius, in I557, is Bishops' Bible, by a careful collation of the oriproperly a revision of Tyndale's from the Greek, by ginals and a comparison of existing translations.
William Whittingham. It was merely preparatory, It was not a new and independent work, but a
however, to the revision of the entire Bible by laborious compilation from existing works of the
Whittingham and other exiles, which appears to same kind, regulated in every case by the Greek
have been begun in January 1558, and to have and Hebrew.
been continued till the Ioth April I560. Whit-  It is needless to pronounce a formal encomium
tingham had for his associates in the undertaking  on our A. V. The time, learning, and labour exAnthony Gilby and Thomas Sampson. Its size is pended on it were well bestowed. It far surpasses
quarto. This was the first English Bible printed  every other English version of the entire Bible, in
in Roman letter, and the first in verses. A patent the characteristic qualities of simplicity, energy,
relative to it was issued by Elizabeth in favour of and purity of style, as also in uniform fidelity to
John Bodeleigh.  The work is a new translation  the original.
from the original, not simply a revision of any for-  A revision of it, however, is now wanted; or
mer version. It is faithful and literal. The N. T. rather a new translation from the Hebrew and
portion was reprinted by Bagster in the Hexaypla.  Greek, based upon it. Since it was made, criti8. Archbishop PParker's, or the Bishops' Bible.-  cism has brought to light a great mass of mateThis Bible was published in 1568, at London, in rials; and elevated itself in the esteem  of the
one folio volume. It was superintended by Parker, critical theologian as an important science. HerArchbishop of Canterbury, the text being carefully meneutics too have been cultivated, so as to asrevised after the originals, by upwards of fifteen sume a systematic, scientific form. We require,
scholars, eight of whom were bishops. Different in consequence, a new English version, suited to
portions were assigned to different individuals, the the present state of sacred literature.  It need
initials of whose names are placed at the end of scarcely be stated that King James's translators
their several parts. It was not, as is commonly sup- have failed to apprehend the true meaning in
posed, undertakenbyroyal command. The text of many passages.  Of the merit attaching to their
it is much better than that of any preceding one.  version a considerable share belongs to Tyndale.
9. Anglo-Romish Version.-An English transla- Parker's Bible was the professed basis, and that
tion of the N. T. was published at Rheims in 1582, was a revision of Cranmer's.  Cranmer's Bible
in a quarto volume. It is made from the Latin  was chiefly a correction of Matthew's, or in other
Vulg. not from the original, and is accompanied words of Tyndale's, as far as Tyndale had transwith annotations. In I609-10 the 0. T. was trans- lated.  Thus King James's translation resolves
lated from the Vulg., and published at Douay in itself at last, in no small measure, into Tyndale's;
two quarto volumes, also with notes. These three and when we consider the adverse circumstances
volumes contain the standard version of Roman  continually pressing upon that noble-minded man,
Catholics. Many of the original Hebrew and with the little assistance he could obtain; the work
Greek words are retained, so that simplicity and  he produced assumes a pre-eminent position amid
perspicuity are sacrificed. It has been conjectured  the immortal monuments of human learning and
that this was done to render it as obscure as pos- skill.
sible to the common people. The N. T. has been  Thus few men have successfully attempted an
reprinted in Bagster's Hexapla.               English version of the entire Bible since the authoro1. King yames's Bible.-The proposal for this ised one of 16I. They have contented themselves
new translation of the Bible originated with Dr. with separate books, either of the 0. or N. T. In
John Rainolds, of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. point of style and diction Lowth's translation of
Forty-seven persons were engaged upon it, doubt- Isaiah is the best. Dr. Campbell translated the




ENGRAVING                     789               ENGRAVING
Gospels, and Macknight the Epistles; but the for- indefiniteness in the terms with which our article is
mer scarcely reaches the expectations which a surmounted. No. (I), although once in the A. V.
reader of the Prelinaziary Dissertations would  (Job xix. 24) translated'graven' (with an unform; while the latter has not commended itself to  doubted reference to the ancient art of engraving),
competent judges. [PURVER; GEDDES; BOOTH- is generally used to indicate the rougher work of
ROYD.]                                          hewing stone or wood, in quarry or forest. In
See Johnson's Account of the several English  Prov. ix. I, indeed, it is applied to the finer art of
translations of the Bible, Lond. I730, 8vo, re-  ewitng or fashioning pillars; but its usual objecprinted in Bp. Watson's Theological Tracts; Bp. tives of k': ('cistern,' Jer. ii. I3),  (Ise ('sepulMarsh's History of the Translations which havebeen  ce' Is. xii. I),   ('winepress,' Is. v. 2),
made of the Scriptures, from the earliest to the pre- 
sent age, Lond. 1812, 8vo; Lewis's History of the prove that 21n has to do with rougher operations
principal Translations of the Bible, Lond. I739, than those which fall under our idea of'engraving.'
8vo; Newcome's Historical View of the English   (But see below, under (8), tUp.) This word is conBiblical translations, Dublin, 1792, 8vo; Cotton's trased with No. (4) in our list, hln (or, as it once
List of Editions of the Bible, from the year 505 to                            T
i820, Oxford, I821, 8vo; Walter's Letter on the occurs, nj   in Exod. xxxi. I6), whichisusedto
Independence of the Authorized Version of the Bible, describe'engraving,' in Jer. xvii. I. In Gen. iv.
Lond. 1823, 8vo; Todd's Vindication of our Au- 22 the participial derivative of this root is emthorized Translation, etc., Lond. I819, 8vo; Whit- ployed in the description of Tubal-cain, the Biblical
taker's Historical and Critical Inquiry into the progenitor of all artificers of the kind indicated in
Interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures, etc., Lond. this article.  But it is less in the verbal forms, than
I819, 8vo, and Supplement, I820; Townley's in the noun tIn, that this word expresses the art
Illustrations of Biblical Literature, Lond. 1821, 3  before us.  As a noun it occurs more than thirt
vols. Svo; and especially Anderson's Annals of
thveEnglish Bible, Lond. 1845 2 vols. 8vo which  times; and is rendered variously in A. V. (enthe English Bible, Lond. 1845, 2 vols. 8vo, which graver, craftsman, smith, artificer, etc.) Though
must be regarded as the standard work on the sub- itindcates artistic work by fne instruments, in
ject. -S. D.                                    it indicates artistic work by fine instruments, in
~j  ~ect.-~ b-S~. D.                metal, wood, and stone, and is thus opposed to the
ENGRAVING.       The following are the terms rougher operations of r1n, it yet includes other
by which this art is indicated in the Hebrew Scrip- usages, which remove it from the specific sense of
tures-(i),:lh'; (2), pj2; (3), D!; (4), g   i h our art. (Thus, while with:: alone, Exod.
T        -T' ""      - T  xxviii. I, it may well refer to the fine work of the
or nli; (5), td%; (6), nn_; (7), ny1?; (8), engraver in stone, yet in the phrase V'p l~. wn,
D    T. There is much indistinctness in the terms of literally, hewers of the stone of the wall, 2 Sam. v.
I; or more simply nip jFran [workers of awall],
the ancient art of the Jews, arising from the fact,.. s  T.
that one and the same artisan combined, in skill I Chron. xiv. I, it can hardly describe a higher art
and practice, many branches, which the modern   than what is attributed to it in A. V.-that of the
principle of'division of labour' has now assigned  ordinary'mason;' similarly with D4Yg, timber, it
to different pursuits.  Thus Aholiab was not only points to the work of the'carpenter,' I Chron. xiv.'an engraver,' but also'a cunning workman' in    etc                    to th  of the',i'.  xi
general art,'and an embroiderer in blue, and in  I, etc. and with.  iron to that of the smith
purple, and in scarlet and fine linen' (Exod. xxxviii. or iron-founder.) The prevalent idea, however, of
23).  In like manner Bezaleel is described as   n'il is the subtle work of the finer arts; and with
accomplished'in all manner of workmanship; and  this well agree such passages as Prov. vi. 18, where
to devise curious works, to work in gold, and in the word describes the'heart that deviseth wicked
silver, and in brass, and in the cutting of stones to imaginations,' and I Sam. xxiii. 9, where it is preset them, and in carving of wood, to make any   dicated of Saul,'secretlypractisingmischief' [Hipzh.
manner of cunning work' (Exod. xxxv. 3I-33).
These numerous gifts they both possessed and prac- part. y1? 1- n 5J W]   Gesenius has collected
tised themselves, and imparted to others; so that instances of the like meaning of the word in the
they formed an early school of art to supply the  other Shemitic languages; and compares with it
demand created by the institution of the Mosaic the'Dolifabricator' of Virgil,.Eneid, ii. 264; and
ritual, the members of which school were as com- the cognate phrases,'Fabricare quidvis,' Plautus,
prehensive in their attainments as their great Asin i. 1.. 89; and S6Xov redXeCI, KaK& TreXetiV,
teachers (Exod. xxxv. 34; xxxvi. I, 2). The same of Hesiod and Homer, and TreKratveo-IYac JLTrtv,
combination of arts seems to have characterized the Iliad, x. 19 (Thes. 529). In connection with the
later school, which was formed under the auspices word 12Wn, we have in I Chron. xiv. 14, an indicaof David, when preparing for the erection of the  tion that, even in early times, encouragement was
temple (I Chron. xxii. I5; xxviii. 21).  Many of given to associations of art among the ancient Jews,
these artificers were Phoenicians, whom the king  by providing for their members a local habitation
had invited to his new capital (2 Sam. v. I I; I in which to pursue their calling, which is proved to
Chron. xiv. i). In the next reign, Hiram, to whose have been an honourable one from the illustrious
genius the temple of Solomon owed much of the names which are associated with its pursuit (ver. 13,
beauty of its architectural details, as well as its  4). From thispassage (ofver. 14, compared with
sacred vessels (i Kings vii. 15-45), was a native of ver. 21 and 23), we further learn that the various
Tyre, the son of a Tyrian artificer by an Israelite  arts were hereditary in certain families.*  No. (2)
mother.  This man's skill was again as compre-        _
hensive as that of his great predecessors (v. 14). 
We are not surprised, therefore, to find extreme  * The word'stonesiquarers,' in I Kings v. iS, is




ENGRAVING                    790               ENGRAVING
on our list, ppn, describes a- branch of art which  tion of idols, which afforded much employment to
more literally coincides with our idea of engraving. the various artificers engaged in the complicated
In Ezek. iv. I the word is used of engraving a planlabour of image-manufacture (see also Jer. x. 3-9,
or map; in Job xix. 23, of inscribing upon tabletsfrom whch t would seem that the wrought and
[of stone or metal], a very early instance of the art  pepared metal for covering the idol was imported,
[of stone or metal], a very early instance of the art; and put on by Jewish artisans).  Working  in
similarly in Is. xxx. 8; whilst in Ezek. xxiii and     on        sh artsans).  Working in
[lrr lD i ES^] the word seems to indicate painting, Wari  was common to the ancient Egyptians
-':.i   -v -                           X s (Wilkison's Anc. Egypt, iii. 69); the Assyrians
portraying in colours [Eltf. ni.n];  and the  (Layard's Nineveh, ii. 420); the ancient Greeks
addition of -ii1,   upon te wall raises the sus- (Grote's Greece, vi. 30-32); and the artificers of.. -   -J wal, r e  Jerusalem (Solomon's ivory throne, I Kings x. I8;
picion that fresco art, which was known to very ivory palaces, Ps. xlv. 8; ivory beds, Amos, vi. 4);
ancient nations, including the Egyptians, was prac- and of Samaria (Ahab's ivory house, I Kings, xxii.
tised by the Babylonians, and admired if not imi-  which was not an uncommon luxury Amos
tated by the Jews; comp. ver. I4, 15, I6.  (On iii. I5). No doubt the alliance of the royal houses
the art of colouring as known to the Assyrians, of Israel and (indirectly) of Judah with the PhceniEgyptians, Greeks, etc., see Sir G. Wilkinson, On  cian monarch (I Kings xvi. 31) was the means of
Colour and Taste, p. I53.) The LXX. renders attracting many of the artificers of Tyre and Sidon
the remarkable phrase before us,'E^cypao1y.vouvs and Gebal to the metropolis of each of the Jewish
ev ypacilt, without specifying colour; but Sym- kingdoms; both in Solomon's time and in Ahab's,
machus, the Vulgate, the Peschito, and the Chaldee ivory-sculpture was probably a Phcenician art. The
paraphrase all include in their versions the express neighbouring idolators, whose example was so
idea of colour. The idea of careful and accurate disastrous to Israel, were skilled in image-manufacart which is implied in the term under consideration  ture. From Deut. vii. 25 it appears that the body
imparts much beauty to the. passage in Is. xlix. I6, of the idol was of sculptured wood, overlaid with'Behold, 1 have graven thee upon the palms* of one or other of the precious metals. The passage,
my hands,' where the same word is used. The   I Sam. vi. 2-12, seems to prove that the Philistines
second clause of this sentence,'Thy walls are con- had artificers in the precious metals capable of
tinually before me,' may be compared with Is. forming the figures of small animals; and their
xxii. I6, where our verb ppn is also employed to idols that were taken among the spoils of the great
describe the engraved plan or sketch of a house for battle of Baal-perazim  were probably graven of
architectural purposes. Among other applications wood (I Chron. xiv. I2). No. (6), nnn [Piel and
of the art indicated by this word, may be mentioned                            - T
monumental stones, such as the I1f1;J   of I Pual], is perhaps distinguished from the term we
Sam. vii. 2, with suitable inscriptions  see especi- have just considered (~D) by being used to describe,inscri; se         figures in relief rather than statues, such as the
ally Deut. xxvii. 2-8. In No. (5), %D_, and its cherubic figures on the walls of the temple (see I
noun ^D    (always rendered in A. V.'graven  Chron. iii. 7). Compare the cognate noun jnU.3,
image'), we have the operation rather of the sculp-engraved fgure, in I Kings vi. 29, which passage
tor's or the carver's art than the engraver's. In  iforms us that the temple walls were lavishly
several passages of Isaiah (xxx. 22; xl. 19; xli. 7   wth these figures standing out probably
xliv. 12-15) curous details are given of the fabr in various degrees of relief (see also other but simicurious  given of the fabr lar work, described by this verb, I Kings vii. 36).
in the original >5l.f' Giblites,' or inhabitants of The chief application, however, of the word is to
the  or i       s of the cutting and engraving of precious stones and
Gebal [or Byblos], north of Berytus, on the Medi- metals [intaglio work, as distinguished from the
terranean, and lying nearest the celebrated Cedar raised work of cameos, etc.]; such as the breastforest of all the harbours thereabouts (Keil, on plate of the high-priest (Exod. xxviii. 9-I, 21), and
Kinzgs). This proximity encouraged the inhabitants the plate of his mitre (ver. 36, 37). The mystic
in their art of engraving and sculpture for which  engraving of Zech. iii. 9 is likewise described in the
they were noted.  In Ezek. xxvii. 9 they are same terms. The splendid jewellery of Solomon's
called  7.'t,'the ancients of Gebal;' these, time, as referred to in the Canticles, i. o1, 11, is.-: **.'best classed under the art indicated by rnnl and its
and' the wise men thereof,' Rosenmiiller in a learned  derivatives. From. Is. iii. 18-24 it appears that
note on the verse describes as peritissimi, optimi this art of the goldsmith continued rife in later
fabri; so Grotius, in Crit. Sacr. See also Poli reigns; and was not unknown even after the
Synopsis, in loc., who refers to Pliny, Nat. Hist. captivity (see Zech. vi. 1I). The neighbouring
v. 18; Ptolemy, v. 15; Strabo [ed. Casaub.], p. nations were no less skilled in this branch of
0o96.                                         art; for instance, the Egyptians, Exod. xii. 35,
* There is here an allusion to the eastern custom  compared with xxxii. 2, 3; the Canaanites, Josh.
of tracing out on their hands the sketches of emi-vi.  9; the Midianites, Num. xxxi. 50, and
nent cities or places, and then rubbing them with (afterwards) Judg. viii. 24-26; the Ammonites,
the powder of the hennah or cypress, and so making  I Chron. xx. 2; the Syrzans of Zobah and
the marks perpetual. Maundrell (7ourney from  Hamat, 2      m.             No. (7), 
Aleppoto t erusalem, p. ioo [London, I8I0]), H    ath, 2 Sam. v. 7-. No. (7),,
describes the process of'pilgrims having their like our last term of art, describes sculpture in
arms and hands marked with the usual ensigns of relief [wie auf altagypt. Denkmalern, also nicht
Jerusalem.' See also Rosenmiiller, in loc., and Hautrelief (Vulg.), says Fiirst, Hebr. Wort.-b. i.
J. D. Michaelis, Notce in Lowthii Prcelect. [Oxford, 780]; it occurs I Kings vi. 18, 29 (' carved figures
1821], pp. 50I, 502; and Burder's Oriental Cus- of cherubims,' A. V.), 32, vii. 3I ('gravings,' A. V.)
tomas [London, I840], p. 149.                 No. (3) and No. (8) are the Hebrew names of the




ENOCH                     791            ENOCH, BOOK OF
engraver's tools. t3n occurs only in Exod. xxxii. Enoch as the author, not only of a prophetic writ4 (A. V.' a graving tool'), and in Is. viii. I (A. V. g, but ofvarious productions.  The hook of'apen'). This was rather the scalprumfabrile of Enoch is alluded to by Justin Martyr, Irenaeus,
the Romans (Livy, xxvii. 49), than the stylus (see Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen, Augusart. Scaltura, in Smith's Dit. of G. and R. Anti tine, Jerome, Hilary, and Eusebius.  It is also
For two other opinions as to the meaning of A   iquoted on various occasions in the Testament of the
T welve Patriarchs, a document which Nitzsch has
in Exod. xxxii. 4, see Gesenius, Thes. 520). Up  shewn to belong to the latter part of the first cen(which in Ps. xlv. 2 and Jer. viii. 8, means a writer's tury or the beginning of the second. The passages
style or reed), has the same meaning as the previous in these ancient writings relating to our present
word in the other places of its occurrence (Job  purpose have been carefully collected by Fabricius,
xix. 24; Jer. xvii. I); here it has the epithet  n his Codex Pseudepigraphus (vol. i., pp. 160-224),
and by Gildemeister in the Zeitschrift der deutscht', i. q.' Pen of iron.' The occurrence of UZ., morg. Gesellschaft, Band. ix. Jewish writers have
*in Job xix. 24, imparts to the j!Ys the idea of a also referred to the book more or less expressly.: T"              There are reminiscences of it in different works;
finer art than is usually expressed by that verb. as in the book Sohar, in Rabbi Menahem, and
See above, No. (I).   (De Saulcy's Histoire de others enumerated by Jellinek in the seventh'art 7udaique, Paris, I858, has been consulted in volume of the Zeitschrift der deutschen movgenthe preparation of this article.)-P. H.       liindischen Geselschaft, p. 249, et seqq.  In the
ENOCH     C(in;  Sept. and N. T.'Ec8X).8th century Georgius Syncellus, in a work entitled
^\'-:-.\ C'  r         Chronographia, that reaches from Adam to DioFour persons bearing this name are mentioned in cletian, made various extracts from' the first book
the 0. T., the most distinguished of whom was of Enoch.' In the 9th century Nicephorus, patrithe son of Jared and father of Methuselah. Ac- arch of Constantinople, at the conclusion of his
cording to the 0. T., he walked with God; and, Chronographice Compendium, in his list of canoniafter 365 years, he was not, for God took him (Gen. cal and uncanonical books, refers to the book of
v. 24). The inspired writer of the Epistle to the Enoch, and assigns 4800 t-rXoi as the extent of it.
Hebrews says,'By faith Enoch was translated  After this time little or no mention appears to
that he should not see death, and was not found, have been made of the production until Scaliger
because God had translated him' (xi. 5).  Walk- printed the fragments of Syncellus regarding it,
ing with God implies the closest fellowship with  which he inserted in his notes to the Chronicus
Jehovah which it is possible for a human being to  Canon of Eusebius. In consequence of the exenjoy on earth. As a reward, therefore, of his tracts, the book of Enoch excited much attention
extraordinary sanctity, he was transported -into  and awakened great curiosity. At the beginning
heaven without tasting of death. Elijah was in  of the 17th century an idea prevailed that it existed
like manner translated; and thus the doctrine of in an Ethiopic translation.  A  Capuchin monk
immortality was palpably taught under the ancient from Egypt assured Peiresc that he had seen the
dispensation.  The traditions of the Jews have book in Ethiopic; a circumstance which excited
ascribed to Enoch many fabulous qualities. They  the ardour of the scholar of Pisa so much, that he
have invested him with various attributes and ex- never rested until he obtained the tract. But
cellences for which the Bible furnishes no founda- when Job Ludolph afterwards visited the Royal
tion. Thus, he is represented as the inventor of Library in Paris, he found it a fabulous and silly
letters, arithmetic, and astronomy; as the first production.  In consequence of this disappointauthor, from  whom   several books emanated. ment the idea of recovering it in Ethiopic was
Visions and prophecies were commonly ascribed to abandoned. At length Bruce brought home three
him, which he is said to have arranged in a book. MSS. of the book of Enoch from  Abyssinia.
This book was delivered to his son, and preserved'Amongst the articles,' he states,'I consigned to
by Noah in the ark. After the flood it was made the library at Paris, was a very beautiful and magknown to the world, and handed down from one nificent copy of the prophecies of Enoch in large
generation to another. Hence the Arabians call quarto. ~ Another is amongst the books of Scriphim          Edris, i.e., thSe l7earned (Koran, Sur. ture which I brought home, standing immediately
him'~..)0 ] is,  X      ~        e., the  learned (Koran, Sr. before the book of Job, which is its proper place
xix.) See Juchasin, f. 134; Eusebius, Prtvpar  in the Abyssinian Canon; and a third copy I have
Evang. ix. 17, and Hist. Eccles. vii. 32; Barhebr. presented to the Bodleian Library at Oxford by the
Chron., p. 5.-S. D.                           hands of Dr. Douglas, bishop of Carlisle.' As
soon as it was known in England that such a preENOCH, BOOK OF. The interest that once sent had been made to the Royal Library at Paris,
attached to the apocryphal book of Enoch has now  Dr. Woide, librarian of the British Museum, set
partly subsided. Yet a document quoted, as is out for France with letters from the secretary of
generally believed, by an inspired man, can never state to the ambassador at that court, desiring him
be wholly devoid of importance or utility in sacred to assist the learned bearer in procuring access
literature. We shall allude to the following parti- to the work. Dr. Woide accordingly transcribed
culars relating to it:-                      it, and brought the copy back with him to England.
I. History of the book of Enoch.            The Parisian MS. was first publicly noticed by the
2. The language in which it was written.    eminent Orientalist De Sacy, who translated into
3. Constituent parts, authorship, and age.  Latin ch. i. ii. iii. iv.-xvi., also xxii. and xxxi., and
4. The place where it was written.          published them in the Magasin Encyclopedique,
5. Did Jude really quote it.                ar. vi. tom. i. p. 382, et seqq. Mr. Murray, editor
6. Its use.                                1 of Bruce's Travels, gave some account of the book
In several of the fathers mention is made of Ifrom the traveller's own MS. The Bodleian MS.




ENOCH, BOOK OF                 792            ENOCH, BOOK OF
was translated into English by Dr. Laurence, then of religion oppressed the righteous. The outward
Professor of Hebrew in Oxford; and thus the circumstances of the godly were such as to excite
public were favoured, for the first time, with the doubts of the divine equity in their minds; or at
whole book in English, A.D. 1821. In 1833 a least to prevent it from having that hold on their
second, improved edition of the translation ap- faith which was necessary to sustain them in the
peared; and, in 1838, the third edition, revised hour of trial. In accordance with this, the writers
and enlarged. To the translation is prefixed a pre- exhibit the reward of the righteous and the punishliminary dissertation of 59 pages, giving some ment of the wicked. To give greater authority to
account of the book, its author, the time and place their affirmations, they put them into the mouths
of its composition, etc. etc. It has also been of Enoch and Noah. Thus they have all the
translated into German by Dr. Hoffmann of Jena. weight belonging to the character of eminent proAccording to Angelo Mai there is a MS. copy of phets and saints.  The narrative of the fallen
the book of Enoch among the Ethiopic codices of angels and their punishment, as also of the flood,
the Vatican, which must have been brought into exemplifies the retributive justice of Jehovah;
Europe earlier than Bruce's MSS. In 1834 Riip- while the Jewish history, continued down to a late
pell procured another MS. of Enoch from Abys- period, exhibits the final triumph of His people,
sinia, from which Hoffmann made the second part notwithstanding all their vicissitudes.  Doubtless
of his German version.                       the authors lived in times of trial; and looking
In I840 Gfrirer made and published a Latin abroad over the desolation, sought to cheer the
version in his Prophete veteres Psezdepigraphi, etc. sufferers by the consideration that they should be
Being taken from the English and German trans- recompensed in the Messianic kingdom. As for
lations it has little value.                 their wicked oppressors, they were to experience
In 1838 Laurence edited the original work in terrible judgments. The writers occasionally deEthiopic from Bruce's MSS. In I85I Dillmann light in uttering dire anathemas against the wicked.
published it in Ethiopic from five MSS. (Liber It is plain that the book grew out of successive
ZenZoch,  Athsiopice, Lipsibe, 8vo); which was fol- times and circumstances by which they were surlowed in 1853 by a German version, with a general rounded. It gives us a glimpse not only of the
introduction and copious explanations (Das Buch religious opinions, but also of the general features
Henoch, uebersetzt und erkld'rt, Leipzig, 8vo). On which characterized the whole period. The book
this standard edition a judgment must now be belongs to the apocalyptic literature of the period
formed of the original work; not on the imper- between the close of the 0. T. canon and the
fect and faulty editions of Laurence and Hoff- advent of Messiah. It is therefore of the same
mann.                                         class of composition as the fourth book of Ezra,
There is little doubt that the Ethiopic translation and the Jewish Sibyllines. The principal interest
exhibits the identical book, which, as most believe, attaching to it arises from its contributing to our
Jude quoted; and which is also mentioned or cited knowledge of the development of Jewish Messianic
by many of the fathers. The fragments preserved ideas subsequently to the writings of inspired proby Syncellus (reprinted by Laurence, Hoffmann, phets.  In tracing the gradual unfolding and
and Dillman) are obviously the same, the devia- growth of those ideas among the Jewish people,
tions being of little importance.  It is manifest we are the better prepared for the revelation of the
also, to any one who will compare the quotations N. T.
made by the fathers with the Ethiopic version, that  2. The Language in zwhich it was written.both point to the same original. The extracts in The careful reader soon sees that the work was
question could not have been interpolations, as composed at first in Hebrew, or rather Hebrewthey are essential to the connections in which they Aramean.  This was long ago perceived by
are found.                                   Joseph Scaliger: though he had before him
The book was never received into the series of nothing but the Greek fragments preserved by
canonical writings. The Apostolical Constitutions Syncellus. Hottinger, however, observed, in opexpressly style it apocryphal (vi. I6); while Origen position to Scaliger, that a Hebraising style is no
(contra Celsum) affirms that it was not reckoned sure proof of a Hebrew  original.  Hoffmann
divine by the churches; although in another place adduces the Hebrew-Aramsean etymologyof names,
he hints that some of his contemporaries were of a especially the names of angels, as an evidence
different opinion.  In the Synopsis of Scripture of the Aramsean original; an argument which
published with the works of Athanasius, as well as is more pertinent; and Laurence infers from
in the writings of Jerome and Augustine, its non- the book of Sohar that Hebrew was its primicanonicity is distinctly stated. The only ancient tive language.  The writer's thorough acquaintwriter who reckoned it of divine authority was Ter- ance with the canonical Scriptures of the Jews
tullian, who undertakes to defend it against the in the tongue in which they were composed;
objections by which it was then assailed (See his their use of them in the original, not the Greek
treatise De Cuttu F^eminarum). His arguments, translation of the LXX.; their Hebrew etymolohowever, are puerile.                        gies of names, especially the appellations of angels
The Greek translation, in which it was known and archangels; the fact that all words and
to the fathers, appears to be irrecoverably lost. phrases can be easily rendered back into Hebrew
There is no trace of it after the 8th century. The or Aramaean; and the many Hebrew idioms and
last remnants of it are preserved by Syncellus. turns that occur, prove that neither Greek nor
The Ethiopic was made from it, not from the Ethiopic was the original language, but the later
Hebrew.                                      Palestinian Hebrew. Thus the- names of the sun
The leading object of the writers, who were are Orres and Tnas (xxviii. I) from D  jS and
manifestly imbued with deep piety, was to comfort 
and strengthen their contemporaries. They lived in  Un  In lxxvii. I, 2, we read that'the first wind is
times of distress and persecution, when the enemies called the eastern because it is the frst' which




ENOCH, BOOK OF                  793            ENOCH, BOOK OF
can only be explained by the Hebrew,   l'Ip, with parable the first, parable the second, parable
he the tird, respectively. Here the author represents
CI'ID' the second is called the south, because the
-~.-..  th second is calledthesonth, becausetheEnoch as travelling through the upper heavens,
Most High there descends,' i.e., ti1' from 11  where he sees many wonderful things, some
- (Dillmann, Das Buch Henoch, pp. 235, 236). actually and in the body; others in prophetic
T (Dil, Ds B, p., 3)   visions; which describes them accordingly, viz.,
The names of the conductors of the month are also the mysteries of the angel world, of the kingdom
Hebrew (Ixxxii. I3), as Murray (p. 46) and Hoff- of heaven, the Messianic kingdom, the person of
mann (p. 690) remark.                         the Messiah, the establishment of his kingdom by
At what time the Greek version was made from  judgments, its growth and completion, the blessedthe original can only be conjectured. It could not ness of the elect, and the condemnation of the
have been long after the final redaction of the unbelieving.  The book treats not only of the
whole; probably about the time of Philo. Having secrets of the purely spiritual, but also those of the
appeared in Greek it soon became widely circu- visible, world. The latter are evidently touched
lated.  The Ethiopic version was made after the. upon in subservience to the former, to shew that
0. T. had been translated into that tongue.   the secret powers of the visible world work in
3. Constitzentpaits, Authorship, and Age.-The harmony towards the consummation of the MesBook of Enoch is divided in the Ethiopic MSS. sianic reign, when righteousness shall obtain secure
into twenty sections; which are subdivided into and eternal victory over all opposition. The ultiIo8 chapters. But copies differ in their specifica- mate tendency and drift of the whole production
tion of chapters.  Dillmann has properly departed  are the Messianic issues of all things.
from the MSS., and endeavoured to make divisions  It is obvious that the author was a poet of no
of sections, chapters, and verses, which may repre- mean order. His inspiration was high, his ideas
sent the text pretty nearly as it is preserved among elevated and pure.  He had a creative fancy which
the Abyssinians. We shall follow his edition.  could body forth new forms and shapes. Speaking
The work is divided into five parts or books, out of the midst of his own time, he could throw
with an introduction, and several concluding chap- himself back into the past, and mould it suitably
ters. The introduction consists of the first four to his purpose.  His language too, has the living
chapters, characterising the book to which it freshness of a master.  He was well acquainted
belongs as a revelation of Enoch the seer re- with the book of Daniel, as is obvious from the
specting the future judgment of the world, and its spirit of his production.  Not that he was an
results both towards the righteous and rebellious imitator of that book, far from it; his mind was
sinners, written to console the pious in the times of too powerful and independent. It is characteristic
final tribulation.                            of him that he calls Jehovah Lord of Spirits, that
The first part comprehends chapters v.-xxxvi.; the he specifies as the seven spiritual beings that stand
second, xxxvii.-lxxi.; the third, lxxii.-lxxxii.; the before God, the four highest angels, Michael,
fourth, lxxxiii.-xci.; and the fifth, xcii.-cv. Chap- Raphael, Gabriel, Phanuel; and the three highest
ters cvi.-cviii. form the conclusion.         hosts, the Cherubim, Seraphim, and Ophanim;
Laurence remarks, that'the book may have that he speaks of the Elect, and of one in particular
been composed at different periods; perhaps it as the Elect by way of eminence, the Son of Man,
might also be added, that there may have been i.e., the Messiah.  The charm  of the writer's
different tracts, as well as tracts composed by diffe- descriptions is irresistible, transporting the reader
rent authors.' This idea was taken up by Murray, into the highest regions of the spiritual world.
and wrought out in a treatise of considerable With a genuine glow of feeling, and the elevation
ingenuity; though it must be affirmed that the of purest hope, he carries us away, till we are lost
author signally failed from want of critical ability, in wonder at the poetic inspiration of one living at
as well as of a better text than Laurence's. a period comparatively so late. His work must
Enoch restitutus, as Murray terms his work, was have created a new branch of writing at the time;
reviewed by Hoffmann in his second excursus; an leading to numerous imitations.
honour to which it was scarcely entitled.       The first Enoch book was written after Daniel,
The first thing that strikes a reader of this and as far as we can judge from its descriptions
apocalyptic production is, that extracts from  a and tone, it appeared about 144 B. C., after Jonathan
prophecy of Noah appear in loose and awkward  had been made prisoner by the Syrians; when the
connection with Enoch's prophetic revelations. Jewish people seemed to be in complete subjection
Thus the 65th chapter begins:'And in those to their conquerors, and it was necessary to turn
days Noah saw the earth how it was bowed down, all the nobler spirit they had, against the oppresand its corruption was near. And he lifted up his sion and cunning of foreign kings. This is consisfeet thence, and went to the ends of the earth, tent with the mention of the Parthians in lvi.
and cried to his grandfather, Enoch,' etc. etc. 5-7, for that people were well known in Palestine
Portions are ascribed to Enoch; others belong to  after the Parthian expedition of Antiochus Sidetes,
Noah.   To the former belong chapters xxxvii.- in which John Hyrcanus was obliged to accompany
lxxi.; I-I6, chiefly, but incompletely, and a few  him. Laurence's argument for the year 40 B.C.,
other places fragmentarily; as also xci. 3-cv.; viii. founded on this mention of the Parthians, is nuga20-36; lxxiii.-lxxxii., lxxxiii., lxxxiv., lxxxv.-xc., tory (Preliminary Dissertation, p. 37, et seq., 3d
cvi., etc., etc., etc. To the latter belong vi. 3-8, edition). The connection of the passage shews
ix.-xi. fragmentarily, liv. 7-lv. 2, xvii.-xix., lxv.- that the writer does not describe his immediate
lxix. The first Enoch book lies in xxxvii.-lxxi., present, but the distant Messianic times.  He
with a few interpolations.  Chapter xxxvii. is a speaks in parables. The analogy too of the 57th
sort of preface, in which the writer calls his book  chapter shews that he neither refers to the march
a vision of wisdom. It consists of three parts, viz., of the Parthians into Palestine and to Jerusalem,
xxxviii. -xliv., xlv.-lix., lviii. -lxxi., each commencing about 40 B.C., nor to a definite historical event in




ENOCH, BOOK OF                 794            ENOCH, BOOK OF
the future, but to the Medo-Parthians as about to from Pul to Esarhaddon, and the three Chaldoean
play the part of Magog in Ezekiel. The attention  ones, besides the four Egyptian, from Necho till
of the Israelites had been increasingly directed to Amasis. The first 23 begin with Darius the Mede,
the Parthians since the Maccabhean struggles, till and Cyrus. The 12 + 23 make 35, the half of 70.
they became well known in the course of the The second 23 consists of Alexander and his next
second century. Hence the date 40 B. C. is inad- two successors, Cassander, Antigonus, Demetrius;
missible; though Hoffmann, Gfrorer, and Krieger, the next five kings of the new Macedonian house;
follow Laurence in adopting it. Kcestlin has en- the first seven Ptolemies; and the first five Seleudeavoured, but unsuccessfully, to shew that this cidre. The last twelve consist of the twelve Seleupiece was written between the years 80 and 60 of cidoe, from Antiochus the Great to Demetrius II.
the Christian era.                            The 36, or as it may be read 37 shepherds, in xc. I
The second Enoch book consists of vi. I, 2; vii. should be 35, as Laurence conjectured on a wrong
i-6; viii. 4; ix. I-6, 8-II; x. 4-IO, I2-xi. 2; xii.- ground; Ewald on a right one. The author of
xvi.; lxxxi, I-4; lxxxiv.; xci. 3-cv. It may be divided this book lived under John Hyrcanus, a little later
into two unequal parts, the first of which is pre- than the writer of the second Enoch book. It
served in fragments that are now scattered here and does not seem to us worth while to enter minutely
there, and difficult to be discovered; the second is into the various views and computations of the
easily detected in xci. 3-cv. Chapters i.-v. form  seventy shepherds that have been put forward by
an introduction to the whole. The object of the scholars. It may suffice to say that Laurence,
writer was much the same as that of his predecessor, Gfrorer, Krieger, Liicke, Hoffmann, are all more
viz., to threaten, as well as to console, his country- or less in error, as Dillmann and Ewald have elamen. He was a gifted poet; and had the faculty borately demonstrated. (See Dillmann's Das Buc
of powerful description, with a spirit moved and  Henoch, allgemeine Einleithng, p. 47, et seqq.;
passionate, greatly excited by the commotion of the and Ewald's Aibhandlung, p. 51, el seqy.; Ewald's
times. He wrote chiefly on account of the internal Geschichle des Volkes Israel, vol. iv., p. 397, et
dissensions of the people; not with relation to seqq., 2d edition.)
heathen oppressors. With the first book of Enoch  Besides these three Enoch books, there is the
he was acquainted, as the spirit of it is largely re- book of Noah existing in an abridged, mutilated,
echoed in his. Yet he was evidently an indepen- and fragmentary form.  Being now scattered in
dent author, adducing much new matter. He is disjointed pieces through the Enoch books, it is
more rhetorical than poetical.  The people of difficult of detection. It may be seen, however, in
God are generally designated by him'the right- vi. 3-8; ix. 7; x. I-3, II-22 b, 17-I9; liv. 7-lv. 2;
eous;' God is'the mighty,''the great,''the Holy Ix. 1-Io, 24, if. 64; lxv. I-lxix. I, 2-16 a, and a
One.' The Messiah he calls'the plant or root few other passages. The production referred to
of righteousness,''the Son of God.' His work the secrets of the angelic and heavenly world, and
must have been composed not long after the human inventions and errors. The end of the old
first book of Enoch, viz., under John Hyrcanus, world which was destroyed by the flood, the
about ten to fifteen years later. An analysis of deliverance of Noah and his house, threatenings
the ten weeks of the world's history, described and promises in relation to the new world, are
in xci. and xciii., of which seven had elapsed described in it. It is evident that the author of the
when Enoch revealed the wonderful things con- Noah book had the other three productions before
tained in the book, brings us to the time of Hyr- him; and that he was mainly influenced and
canus.                                        guided by the third. How long after the Enoch
The third book of Enoch consists of viii.; books this Noah production was composed, cannot
xx.-xxxvi.; lxxiii.-lxxxii.; lxxxiii. I-II; lxxxv.-xc.; be exactly determined. It was probably 50 years
cvi.; not completely but fragmentarily.  It is later.
difficult to collect the dispersed and imperfect  An editor subsequently undertook to put them
members of this scattered work.   It is more together so as to form the entire work. In doing
didactic and learned than the other two; and  so he proceeded very freely and independently.
is mainly occupied with unfolding the secrets of He transposed, abridged, and added, putting the
creation.  The writer, too, had a poetical genius; parts into the order that seemed best. The apbut he was less impassioned than his predecessors. pendix to the third Enoch book had been composed
He had both skill and ability; but borrowed from  before; thus making six persons concerned in the
the first book more than the second author did. whole. Probably the editor belonged to the middle
It is characteristic of him that he assumes seven of the first century B.C.
leading evil angels, as well as seven good ones;  Such is Ewald's theory of the composition of the
that he calls the latter the white ones; that he terms book, an ingeniously elaborated and complex one,
both good and bad angels stars, and the Holy that admits of question and doubt. But it is imLand, the blessed.  The appendix, viz., chapter possible at the present day to arrive even at procviii., was afterwards added to this third book by bability in relation to the structure of the whole.
an unknown hand.                              Plausible theories may be proposed very different
This writer, in grouping the periods of time from  in their nature. We believe that Ewald has assumed
the creation till his own day, gives as the third too many separate writers. That there are two
that of the dominion of the 70 shepherds over the Enoch books is plain. That there are also pieces
people on whom righteous punishment had fallen of a Noah book is unquestionable. Under these
(ch. Ixxxix. 59-xc. I3). This reaches from the three heads we should put all, a final compiler
8th and 7th centuries before Christ to the author's having interwoven the parts so as to give a kind of
present. He seems to have divided the 70 into unity to the whole. In constructing the second
12 + 23 + 23 + 12, four series of foreign rulers. Enoch book it is unnecessary to assume so much
The first twelve kings consist of Assyrian, Baby- dismemberment as Ewald does.  With all the
lonian, and Egyptian Iings; the five Assyrian ones allowance that can be reasonably made for corrup



ENOCH, BOOK OF                  795             ENOCH, BOOK OF
tion of the text in the process of translation and  first book of Enoch in the fragments preserved by
transmission, it cannot well be supposed that a Syncellus, consists with the idea that the whole
later redactor would put or leave the alleged second was then divided into different books. Tertullian
and third Enoch books in so disjointed a form as leads us to believe that it was of the same extent
Ewald's theory implies. That the entire produc- in the Greek text then existing as it is in the
tion appeared before the Christian era is clearly present Ethiopic.
deducible from the fact that the Roman empire    4. The place where it was written.-The place
never appears as a power dangerous to Israel.  where the authors lived and wrote is Palestine.
Stuart has laid considerable stress on the Christ- This alone seems to suit the circumstances implied
ology of the book as indicative of an acquaint- in the work, which is largely pervaded by the spirit
ance on the authors' part with the N. T., espe- of persons whose power, religion, and indepencially the Apocalypse.  But the Christological dence had been overborne by foreign interference.
portions do not possess sufficient distinctness to  Laurence, however, endeavours to shewfrom the
imply a knowledge of the N. T.     The name    72d chapter (7Ist Laurence), where the length of
Jesus never occurs. Neither are the appellations the days at various periods of the year is given,
Lord, Lord yesus, 7esus Christ, or even Christ, that the locality must have been between the 45th
employed. The words faith, believers, God and and 49th degrees of north latitude, in the northern
his anointed, deny, etc., can hardly be claimed  districts of the Caspian and Euxine seas. Hence
as Christian terms, because they occur in the he conjectures that the writer was one of the Jews
Ethiopic 0. T. as the representatives of Hebrew- who had been carried away by Shalmaneser and
Greek ones. All that can be truly deduced from  did not return.  Krieger supposes (Beitrdge zur
the Christology is, that it is highly developed, Kritik und Exegese, p. 53) that Enoch, the imagiand very elevated in tone; yet fairly derivable nary writer, drew from the astronomical traditions
from the 0. T. in all its essential and individual or writings of northern Asia, regardless of the diffeatures. Nor is there anything in the eschatology ference of Palestine's geographical position. Murray
or angelology to necessitate a Christian origin. has shewn (p. 63, et seqq.) that one passage favours
We allow that the Messiah is spoken of in very the idea that the author lived in Abyssinia; whence
exalted terms.  His dignity, character, and acts he infers that the production proceeded from varisurpass the descriptions presented in other Jewish  ous persons belonging to countries removed from
books. But they are alike in the main, coloured  one another. But De Sacy has remarked that as
by the highly poetical imagination of the writers, the authors' astronomical system is partly imagiin conformity with the sublimity and animation of nary, their geography may be also visionary.
their creations.  We must therefore reject Stuart's Neither Egypt, nor Chaldea, nor Palestine, suits
opinion of a Jewish-Christian origin. All the argu- the astronomy of the book. The scientific knowments adduced on its behalf are easily dissipated, ledge of the Israelites was imperfect.  It is theresince Dillmann's edition and Ewald's criticisms fore idle to look for accuracy in geography or
have led to a better acquaintance with the text of astronomy. The writer or writers systematised
the work itself. Nor is Hilgenfeld's attempt to shew  such knowledge as they had of natural phenomena
that the first Enoch book (xxxvii.-lxxi.) proceeded  after their own fashion; as appears from the fact
from Christian gnostics more successful, as Dill- that to every third month thirty-one days are
mann has remarked (Pseudepigraphen des A. T. assigned. The allusions to the Oriental theosophy
in Herzog's Encyklofprdie, vol. xii., pp. 309, 3I). and the opinions of Zoroaster do not necessarily
Equally futile is Hoffmann's endeavour to shew that commend a Chaldean origin, at least of the astronothe work did not appear till after the destruction  mical part; since the images of fire, radiance,
of Jerusalem in the first century, when both Jude's light, and other Oriental symbols, may be satisfacepistle and the Apocalypse had been written (Die torily accounted for by the Jews' intercourse with
Zeilschrift der deuischen morgenldndischen Ges- other nations, and their residence there for a time.
ellschaft, vol. vi., p. 87, et seqq.) Not very dis- The Oriental philosophy of Middle Asia was evisimilar is Bottcher's view, that the book, like the dently not unknown to the authors. Zoroastrian
Sybilline oracles, was made up in the first and  doctrines are embodied in the work because Persian
second centuries after Christ, of pieces belonging  influences had been felt by the Israelites since the
to different times (De fnferis, i. sec. 505). Nothing  Babylonian captivity.
is more certain than that the work belongs to an  5. Did 7ude really quote the book of Enoch?ante-Christian  world; and therefore the only  Some are most unwilling to believe that an inspired
problem is how to distribute the different books writer could cite an Apocryphal production. Such
incorporated, and when to date them separately an opinion destroys, in their view, the character of
and collectively.  After Laurence, Hoffmann and his writing, and reduces it to the level of an ordinGfrorer had erred in placing the whole under ary composition. But this is preposterous. The
Herod the Great; Krieger and Liicke rightly as- apostle Paul quotes several of the heathen poets;
signed different portions to different times; putting yet who ever supposed that by such references he
ch. i. -xxxvi. and lxxii.-cviii. to the early years of the sanctions the productions from which his citations
Maccabean struggle; and xxxvii.-lxxi. to 38-34 are made, or renders them of greater value? All
B.C. How far we believe this apportionment in- that can be reasonably inferred from such a fact is,
correct will be seen from the preceding statements that if the inspired writer cites a particular senti(see Krieger's Beitrage zur Kritik und Exegese, ment with approbation, it must be regarded as just
1845; and Liicke's Versuch einer voilstdndigen  and right, irrespective of the remainder of the book
Einleitzngin die Offenbarung des yohannes, u. s. w., in which it is found. The apostle's sanction exsec. II, 2d ed.)                              tends no farther than the passage to which he
The mention of books of Enoch in the Testa- alludes. Other portions of the original document
ment of Judah, in the Testament of Benjamin, in  may exhibit the most absurd and superstitious
Origen (c. Cels. and Homil. in Num.), and of the Inotions. It has always been the current opinion




ENOCH, BOOK OF                 796            ENOCH, BOOK OF
that Jude quoted the book of Enoch; and there is of Man who has righteousness, with whom rightenothing to disprove it. It is true that there is ousness dwells, and who revealeth all the treasures
some variation between the quotation and its ori- of that which is concealed, because the Lord of
ginal; but this is usual even with the N. T. spirits has chosen him, and his lot before the Lord
writers in citing the Old.                   of spirits has surpassed all through uprightness for
Others, as Cave, Simon, Witsius, etc., suppose ever. And this Son of Man whom thou hast seen
that Jude quoted a traditional prophecy or saying shall raise up the kings and the mighty from their
of Enoch; and we see. no improbability in the as- couches, and the powerful from their thrones, and
sumption. Others again believe that the words shall loose the bands of the powerful, and break in
apparently cited by Jude were suggested to him by pieces the teeth of sinners. And he shall hurl
the Holy Spirit. But surely this hypothesis is un- the kings from their thrones, and drive them out
necessary. Until it can be shewn that the book  of their kingdoms, because they magnify him not
of Enoch did not exist in the time of Jude, or that nor praise him, nor thankfully acknowledge whence
his quoting it is unworthy of him, or that such the kingdom is lent to them. And the face of
knowledge was not handed down traditionally so the mighty shall he reject, and shame shall fill
as to be within his reach, we abide by the opinion  them,' etc. (xlvi.) After this general conception of
that Jude really quoted the book. While there  Messiah, he is invested with divine attributes, as
are probable grounds for believing that he might -' Before the sun and the signs were made, the
have become acquainted with the circumstance in- stars of heaven created, his name was already
dependently of inspiration, we ought not to have named in presence of the Lord of spirits' (xlviii.
recourse to the hypothesis of immediate suggestion. 3);'before the creation of the world was he
On the whole, it is most likely that the book of chosen and concealed before him, and will be beEnoch existed before the time of Jude; and that fore him from everlasting to everlasting' (xlviii. 6).
the latter really quoted it in accordance-with the It is also said that the angels know him and praise
current tradition. Whether the prophecy ascribed his name (xl. 5; xlviii. 2). Thus it appears that
to Enoch was truly ascribed to him, is a question a pre-existence is assigned to the Messiah; he had
of no importance.                            a hidden existence, before time began, in the pre6. Its use. —Presuming that it was written by sence of God. Highly, however, as he is exalted,
Jews, the book before us is an important document he is not represented as a Being truly God, or on
in the history of Jewish opinions. It indicates an an equality with the Father.  All that is said is,
essential portion of the Jewish creed before the ap- that he is exalted above all other creatures, sits on
pearance of Christ; and assists us in comparing the throne of the divine glory, having all judgthe ideas of the later with those of the earlier Jews. ment committed to him, and judges angels themWe would not appeal to it as possessing authority. selves (Iv. 4; lxi. 8). Nowhere is proper worship
The place of authority can be assigned to the Bible ascribed to him; on the contrary, he is reprealone. No human composition, be it ever so valu- sented as joining in the universal worship offered
able, is entitled to usurp dominion over the under- to the Lord of spirits. He is still the Son of Man
standings of men. But apart from all ideas of and the Elect one, on whom the fulness of the
authority, it may be fairly regarded as an index of Spirit is poured out; a creature subordinate to
the state of opinion at the time when it was written. God, with a kind of idealised pre - existence,
Hence it confirms certain opinions; provided they clothed with the highest attributes of majesty and
can be shewn to have a good foundation in the humanity. The Christology, generally, is a deveWord of God.                                 lopment of the acknowledged Jewish doctrine;
Mr. Stuart in depicting the Christology of the and never transgresses the Jewish stand-point in
book, finds the doctrine of the Trinity distinctly deifying the Messiah, or hinting at the incarnarecognised in lxi. 9, etc. (Ix. 12 of Laurence). But tion. The 7th chapter of Daniel contains in germ
he has been misled by Laurence's version. The the ideas of Messiah, which are developed and set
passage runs thus:-When the saints shall be forth in the work before us. It is there that we
judged by the elect one'they shall all speak with find the essence of its Christology.
one voice, and praise, extol, exalt, and magnify  Wisdom is not hypostatised in the book, any
the name of the Lord of spirits. And he shall more than in Proverbs. It is merely personafed.
call to all the host of the heavens, and all the saints This appears from the following passages:-' Wisthat are above, and the host of God, the Cherubim, dom found no place where she should dwell; then
and Seraphim, and Ophanim, and all the angels of she had a dwelling in heaven. Wisdom came to
power, and all the angels of principalities, and of dwell among the sons of men, and found no habithe elect, and the other powers which are upon the tation: then wisdom returned to her place, and
dry land, over the water, on that day,' etc. Here took up her abode among the angels. And una plurality of persons in the Godhead is not dis- righteousness came forth from her recesses; whom
coverable.                                   she did not seek she found, and dwelt among them,
The manner in which the Messiah is depicted as the rain in the wilderness, and as the dew on
exceeds in loftiness what we find in the 0. T.:-  the thirsty land' (xlii. 2-3).'The wisdom of the'I saw one who had a head of days (comp. Dan. Lord of spirits has revealed him [the Son of Man]
vii. 13), and his head was white as wool, and  to the holy and righteous' (xlviii. 7).'The rightewith him was another whose countenance was as ous one will arise from sleep, and wisdom shall
the appearance of a man, and full of grace was arise to be given them' (xci. Io).
his countenance, like to one of the holy angels.  In like manner, the word is not an appellation
And I asked one of the angels who went with me of Messiah.'The word calls me, and the spirit is
and shewed me all hidden things respecting that poured out upon me [Enoch]' (xci. I).'The Lord
Son of Man who he was, and whence he was, and  called me with his own mouth, and said to me,
wherefore he went with the ancient of days? And'come hither, Enoch, and to my holy word" (xiv.
he answered me, and said to me, This is the Son 24). The only passage in which the word appears




ENOCH, BOOK OF                  797             ENOCH, BOOK OF
to be used personally of Messiah is xc. 38,' And  He has known it from the beginning, I praised the
the first among them [was the word, and the same Lord of judgment and magnified Him, because He
word] became a great beast,' etc. But we agree has made the sun go forth from the windows of the
with Dillmann in holding that the words in brackets east,' etc. etc. (lxxxiii. I ). This certainly reminds
are a Christian gloss. They give no suitable sense. one of Essenism shewing its influence on the mind
Besides, the identification of the word with Messiah  of the writer.  It belongs to the third Enoch book.
is foreign to the Christology of the book, and does The Io8th chapter, which was later than the third
violence to Jewish ideas of His person (Dillmann, Enoch book, is more plainly Essenic. The pious,
Das Buch Henoch, p. 287).                      whom God rewards with blessings, are described as
As in the canonical prophecies of the 0. T. having lived a life of purity, self-denial, and ascetiso here, the final establishment of the Messianic cism like to that of the Essenes.  Yet Dillmann
kingdom is preceded by wars and desolations. appears disinclined to find any reflexion of Essenism
In the eighth of the ten weeks into which the in lxxxiii. 1, or elsewhere (Das Buch Henoch Allworld's history is divided, the sword executes judg- gemeine Einleitung, p. liii.) We admit that the first
ment upon the wicked; at the end of which God's and second Enoch books are free from it, as also
people have built a new temple, in which they are the Noah book.  It is obvious that none of the
gathered together. The tenth week closes with  writers belonged to the school of the Pharisees.
the eternal judgment upon angels (ch. xc. xci.)  They were tolerably free from the sects of their
With respect to the doctrine of a general resur- people; rising above the narrow confines of their
rection, it is certainly implied in the work.  But distinctive peculiarities, which were not then fully
the mode of the resurrection of the wicked and the developed.
righteous is differently presented. The spirits of  The Book of Enoch the Prophet, by Richard
the former are taken out of sheol and thrown into  Laurence, LL.D., Archbishop of Cashel, third
the place of torment (xcviii. 3; ciii. 8; cviii. 2-5); edition, Oxford, 1838, 8vo.  Das Buch Henoch
whereas the spirits of the righteous raised againin vollstdndier Uebersetzung mit fortlaufendem
will be reunited to their bodies, and share the  Commentar, ausfiihrlicher Einleitung und erldublessedness of Messiah's kingdom on earth (lxi. 5; ternden Excursen, von Andr. G. Hoffmann, Erste
xci. 10; xcii. 3; c. 5). The reunion of their bodies Abtheilung, Jena, 1833, 8vo. Zweite Abtheilzun
with their spirits appears a thing reserved for the Jena, 1838, 8vo. Enoch Restitutus, or an attempt
righteous.                                    to separatefrom the books of Enoch the book quoted
In bringing out the sentiments expressed in the by St. 7ude, etc., by the Rev. Ed. Murray, Lonbook care must be taken not to convert them into  don, I836, 8vo.  American Biblical Repository
dogmas, or fixed ideas that formed part of the for 1840, in which are two articles by Professor
writer's settled creed. Their descriptions are poeti- Stuart on the book of Enoch.  Versuch einer vollcal and ideal.  Hence doctrines cannot well be stdndigen Einleitung in die Offenbarung yohannis,
deduced from them. As well might one attempt von. Dr. F. Liicke, Bonn, I848, 8vo, sec. I,
to construct a theology out of the prophetic writ- second edition. A. F. Gfirrer's tract in the Tiibinings of the 0. T. As the authors of the work gen'Zeitschrift fur Theologie,' entitled,' Die Quelbuilt largely on the prophets, assuming a like tone, len zur Kentniss des Zzstandes der judischen Dogand animated in part by the same spirit, they can- men undder Volksbildung im Zeitalter Yesu Christi,'
not be truly regarded as other than Hebrew poets, 4 Heft. pp. I20, sq. for the year I837. Das 7ahrand prophets of an inferior order to the old inspired  hundertdes Heils, Abtheil., i., p. 93, et seqq.; Wieseones of a better age.                         ler's Zur Auslegung und Kritik der Apocalypt.
Stuart has gone to the book with his system of Lilteratur des A. u. N. T., ersler Beytrag, p. 162,
theology, and derived from it a Christology essen- et seqq. Silvestre de Sacy's Notice du livre d'Enoch
tially Christian.  Hence he supposes that the in Magasin Encyclopedique, an vi. tom. i. p. 382.
writer of several passages had some acquaintance  This dissertation contains a Latin version of several
with the Gospel and Revelation of John.  Surely chapters, and was translated into German by F.
the reverse is the fact. The Apocalypse is a work  T. Rink, Koenigsberg, i8oI, 8vo. De Sacy, in
that savours strongly of the Jewish apocalyptic the Yournal des Savans for 1822, October.  Faliterature, Daniel and Enoch. This is consistent bricii Codex Pseudepigraphus Veteris Testamenti,
with the fact adduced against it by Stuart, viz., vol. i. pp. 160-224. Bruce's 7Travels, vol. ii., 8vo
that John bears on the face of all his writings the edition.  The Genuineness of the Book of Enoch
stamp of originality (Biblical Repository for  an. Investigated, by Rev. J. M. Butt, M.A., London,
1840, p. I27).                                 I827, 8vo.  Liber Henoch,   Ethiopice, Leipzig,
As various sects in Judaism  were tolerably  I851, 8vo, by Dillmann. Das Buch Henoczh ueberdeveloped at the time of some of the writers, it has setzt und erkldrt, von Dr. A. Dillmann, Leipzig,
been a subject of inquiry whether the peculiar doc- I853, 8vo. Abhandlung ueber des,thiopischen
trines of any appear in the work.   According  Buches Henokh, Enstehung, Sinn, und Zusamto Jellinek (Zeitschrift der deutsch.-morgenland. mensetzung, von H. Ewald, Gittingen, 1854, 4to.
Gesellschaft, vii. p. 249) the work originated in the  Ueber die Entslehung des Buches Henoch, by K.
sphere of Essenism.  We learn from Josephus that R. Koestlin, in Baur and Zeller's Jahrbuch for
the Essenes preserved as sacred the names of the  i856, Heftt. 2 and 3. Die ziidische Apokalyptik,
angels: and put up certain prayers before sunrise, von. A. Hilgenfeld, Jena, 1857, 8vo. Pseudepias if they made supplication for that phenomenon graphen des a/len Testaments, by Dillman, in Her(jewish Wars, book ii. ch. viii.)  Now there is a zog's Encyklopcedie, vol. xii., p. 308, et seqq. The
very developed angel-doctrine in the work before publication of a good Ethiopic text by Dillmann,
us; and we also find the following passage:-   and his excellent translation of it, accompanied' When I went out from below and saw the hea- with copious explanations, have introduced a new
ven, and the sun rise in the east, and the moon go  era in our acquaintance with the nature of the
down in the west, a few stars, and everything as work.  Possessing all that he has written about it,




ENON                     798               EPHESIANS
with the masterly essay of Ewald, and Koestlin's Philippi, was the bearer of the epistle which forms
judicious articles, the student may well dispense part of the canon. Grotius and some other critics
with everything previously published in elucidation  conjecture that Epaphroditus was the same as
of the book. No opinion founded on the very the Epaphras mentioned in the Epistle to the
imperfect editions and translations of Laurence  Colossians. But though the latter name may be
and Hoffmann can be now relied upon.-S. D.    a contraction of the former, the fact that Epa~~~~ENONP\T~~~~~~.  [phras was most probably in prison at the time suffiENON. [.ENON.]                           ciently marks the distinction of the persons. The
ENSIGNS. [STANDARDS.]                      name Epaphroditus was by no means uncommon,
as Wetstein has shewn by various quotations from
EPNENETUS ('ETralveros), a Christian resident classical authors (Nov. Test. Gr., tom. ii. p. 273).at Rome when Paul wrote his Epistle to the J E. R.
Church in that city, and one of the persons to
whom he sent special salutations (Rom. xvi. 5).  EPHAH. [WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.]
In the received text he is spoken of as being' the
firstfruits of Achzaia' (adrapX- rijs'AXaas); but  EPHAH (1).  I. One of the sons of Midian'the first fruits of Asia' (artS'AiaCs) is the reading  (Gen. xxv. 4; Sept. reqdp; I Chron. i. 33, Sept.
of the best MSS. (A B C D E F G 67) of the Paeaci), whose descendants formed one of the
Coptic, Armenian,.Ethiopic, Vulgate, the Latin tribes of the desert connected with the Midianites,
Fathers, and Origen (In Ep. ad Rom. Comment. Shebaites, and Ishmaelites (Is. Ix. 6, 7).
lib. x., Opera, vii. p. 431; In Numer. Horm. xi.,  2. (Sept. racia) Caleb's concubine (I Chron.
Opera, x. p. o09). This reading is preferred by  ii. 46).
Grotius, Mill, Bengel, Whitby, Koppe, Rosen-   3. Son of Jahdai, of the tribe of Judah (I Chron.
miiller, Riickert, Olshausen, and Tholuck; and ii. 47).-W. L. A.
admitted into the text by Griesbach, Knapp, Tittmann, Scholz, Lachmann, Tischendorff, Alford,   EPIIAI (c_, Chetibh, iV Ophai; Sept.'Iwd),
Vaughan, and Wordsworth; also by Bruder, in'the Netaphathite' whose sons were captains of
his edition of Schmidt's Concordance, Lips. 1842. the forces that came unto Gedsliah to Mizpeh, and
-J. E. R.                                    probably suffered with him at the hands of Ishmael
EPAPHRAS ('E7rap)as), an eminent teacher (Jer. xl. 8; xli. 3).+
in the church at Colossa, denominated by Paul   EPHER (S; Sept.'Aetp,'O09p). I. The'his dear fellow-servant,' and'a faithful minis- 
ter of Christ' (Col. i. 7; iv. 12). From Paul's second son of Midian (Gen. xxv. 4; I Chron. i.
Epistle to Philemon it appears that he suffered im- 33). Gesenius regards the word as equivalent to
prisonment with the apostle at Rome. It has   h A          Gif
been inferred from Col. i. 7, that he was the; 
founder of the Colossian Church; and Dr. Neander Knobel suggests that the descendants of Epher are
supposes that the apostle terms him v7r6p iu//wv the Banu Ghiphar of the Kenana Arabs in Iedjaz.
a&dKovos TO7 Xp-TroU (a servant of Christ in our (Exeget. Hbuch, d. A. T. in loc.)
stead), because he committed to him the office of  2. (Sept. "Afep; Alex. raop).  One of the
proclaiming the Gospel in the three Phrygian cities, sons of Ezra of the tribe of Judah (i Chron.
Colossse, Hierapolis, and Laodicea, which he could iv. 17).
not visit himself (Hist. of Plantin, etc., i. pp. 200,  3. (Sept.'O0p). One of the heads of the half
373, Eng. transl.) This language, however, is by tribe of Manasseh on the east of Jordan (I Chron.
no means decisive; yet most probably Epaphras v. 24).-W. L. A.
was one of the earliest and most zealous instructors
of the Colossian Church. Lardner thinks that the  EPHES-DAMMIM       (Q'1tM.DS;'Aoeao-oLtv,
expression respecting Epaphras in Col. iv. 12, 6  Acfeoousdv; Vat.'Eep5L; Zn finibns Dovvuwv, is quite inconsistent with the supposition of mi), the cessation or boundary of blood (I Sam.
his being the founder of the Church, since the sameCh. xi. 13, the form of the word
xvii. X). In I Chron. xi. I3, the form of the word
phrase is applied to Onesimus, a recent convert is "-D. It is the proper name of a place in
(Hist. of the Apostles and Evangelists, c. xiv.;      -
Works, vi. I53). But, in both cases, the words in the tribe of Judah in the Valley of Elah,'between
question seem intended simply to identify these in- Shochoh and Azekah,' where the Philistines endividuals as the fellow-townsmen of the Colossians, camped preparatory to the battle in which David
and to distinguish them from others of the same slew Goliath. Its exact locality is unknown. It
name in Rome (v. Macknight on Col. iv. 2).-   may have derived its name from the battle referred
J. E. L.                                      to, the result of which was the overthrow of the
Philistine power, and an end put to the effusion of
EPAPHRODITUS ('E7ra0p66tros), a messen-Israelitish blood.-I. J.
ger (&r6o'-roXos) of the church at Philippi to the
Apostle Paul during his imprisonment at Rome,   EPHESIANS, EPISTLE TO THE.        I. This
who was entrusted with their contributions for his epistle expressly claims to be the production of the
support (Phil. ii. 25; iv. I8). Paul's high estimate Apostle Paul (i. I; iii. I); and this claim the writer
of his character is shewn by an accumulation of in the latter of these passages follows up by speakhonourable epithets (Trv a&Xeq6v, Kan -vvep-yv, Kae ing of himself in language such as that apostle is
ovaurpaTrcr7)v fov), and by fervent expressions of accustomed to use in describing his own position as
gratitude for his recovery from a dangerous illness an ambassador of Christ (iii. I, 3, 8, 9). The jusbrought on in part by a generous disregard of his tice of this claim seems to have been universally
personal welfare in ministering to the Apostle admitted by the early Christians, and it is expressly
(Phil. ii. 30). Epaphroditus, on his return to sanctioned by several of the fathers of the second




EPHESIANS                    799                EPHESIANS
and third centuries (Irenseus, Adv. HCr. v. 2, 3; because the apostle uses phraseology which was
Clemens Alex. Protrept. ix. p. 69, ed. Potter; employed also by the Gnostics, he uses it in the same
Strom. iv. 8, p. 592; Origen, Cont. Cels. iv. p. sense as they did, which is purely gratuitous and
211, ed. Spencer; Tertullian. Adv. MI/arc. v. II, indeed untrue, for to confound the alives and
17; Cyprian, Testim. iii. 7, etc.) The epistle is arXpc/wuac of the apostle with the alrves and
also cited as part of sacred Scripture by Polycarp  7rXppwtca of the Gnostics, as Baur does, only proves,
(Ep. ad Philipp. c. I; c. I2); and it is probably  as Lange has remarked, that'a man may write
to it that Ignatius refers when, in writingto the  whole books on Gnostics and Gnosticism, without
Ephesians, he calls them HIIaXov ovI/soTraC...detecting the characteristic difference between the
Os ev 7rdo'a  eriTo-roX   Ivrlj tovejeoi,tuv ev XpZO-Tr  Christian principle and Gnosticism' (Apostol. Zeitalt.'IJo-ou (c. 12, Conf. Cotelerii, Annol. in loc.; i. I24). With regard to the resemblance between
Pearson, Vind. Ignatiala. Par. ii. p. II 9; Lard- this epistle and that to the Colossians, it can surner's Works, vol. ii. p. 70, 8vo). It is certain that prise no one, that, written at the same time, they
Marcion accepted it as canonical, and by Valentian  should in many respects resemble each other; but
and his school it was cited as Scripture (Hug. in- it does not require much penetration to discover
trod. Fosdick's Trans. p. 551; Hippolytus, Philo- the many points of difference between them,
sophzumena, vi. 34).                            especially in the point of view from which the
In the face of this decided and general testimony, writer contemplates his main subject, the Lord
the objections which have been urged on internal Jesus Christ, in each; in the one as the prehistoric,
grounds against the genuineness of this epistle  pre-existent, supreme source of all things, in the
cannot be allowed to influence us, even did they  other as the incarnate, historical, exalted, glorified
possess more intrinsic weight than can be assigned  head of the Church, to whom all things are subto them; for it is incredible that a forged writing jected (comp. Eph. i. 20-23, with Col. i. I5-20;
should have obtained such general reception as and Lange, Ap. Zeit. i. I8).  As for the alleged
genuine, at so early a period from the time of its' copious expansion,' that may be left to the judgalleged author.  These objections are chiefly:-I.  ment of the reader; as well as the counter notion
The absence of any friendly greetings in this of Schneckenburger, that the Epistle to the Colosepistle, coupled with what are alleged to be indi- sians is an epitome of that to the Ephesians made
cations of want of previous acquaintance on the  by Paul himself. On such objections in general,
part of the writer with the Ephesians, facts which, we may say with Reuss, that'rash hypotheses,
it is asserted, are incompatible with the supposi- whatever acceptance they may have received, tell
tion that it was written by Paul, whose relations by their deficiency or strangeness not against the
with the Ephesian Church were so intimate; 2. epistle but against themselves; and in opposition
The occurrence of words, and phrases, and senti- to all cavils, the many traits which disprove the
ments, which indicate acquaintance with those   presence in the thoughts of a deceptive imitation
Gnostic ideas which were familiar only at a period  by a foreign hand, stand as valid arguments in its
much later than that of the Apostle; and 3. The  defence' (Gesch. p. I04).
close resemblance of this epistle to the Epistle to the  2. It is much more difficult to determine to whom
Colossians, suggesting that the former is only a this epistle was addressed.  On this subject two
copious expansion ('wortreiche erweiterung,' Baur) hypotheses have been principally entertained, beof the latter.  These objections do not rise above  sides the common opinion which, following the
the level of mere cavils.  The first may be passed  [disputed] reading in ch. i. ver. I, regards the
by here, as the allegations on which it rests will party to whom it was sent as the church at Ephebe particularly considered when we come to the  sus.  Grotius, reviving the opinion of the ancient
question of the destination of the epistle; at pre- heretic Marcion, maintains that the party adsent it may suffice to cite the remark of Reuss in  dressed in this epistle was the church at Laodicea,
reference to the unreasonableness of such objections: and that we have in this the epistle to that church'If Paul writes simple letters of friendship they are which is commonly supposed to have been lost;
pronounced insignificant, and so spurious, because whilst others contend that this was addressed to
there is a want of the didactic character in them; no church in particular, but was a sort of circular
and, on the other hand, if this prevails, there is letter, intended for the use of several churches,
proof of the spuriousness of the writing in the  of which Ephesus may have been the first or
absence of the other. What! must both elements centre.
always be united according to some definite rule?  The view of Grotius, which has been followed
is it so with us? or are any two of Paul's epistles by some scholars of eminent name, among whom
alike in this respect?' (Die Geschichte d. H: Schr. are found Hammond, Mill, Venema, Wetstein,
Nezien Test., p. 104, 3d edit.)  The second of and Paley, rests chiefly on two grounds; viz., the
the above objections has reference to such passages testimony of Marcion, and the close resemblance
as i. 21; ii. 7; iii. 21; where it is alleged the  between this epistle and that to the Colossians,
Gnostic doctrine of Aeons is recognised; and to taken in connection with Col. iv. 16.    With
the expression,rXppc/xa, i. 23, as conveying a respect to the former of these grounds, it is alleged
purely Gnostic idea; and to such words as AvoTrr)pLov, that, as Marcion was under no temptation to utter
voqi0a, Yv'YWa, I5S,, rKOTrla, etc.  On this it seems a wilful falsehood in regard to the destination of
sufficient to observe, without denying the existence this epistle, he probably had the authority of the
of Gnostic allusions in this epistle, that on the one  church at Laodicea, and it may be the tradition
hand the objection assumes, that because Gnostic  of the churches generally of Asia Minor for the
schools and systems did not make their appearance  opinion which he expresses (Grotius, Proleg. ad
till after the age of the apostles, the ideas and  Ephes.; Mill, Proleg. ad N. T. p. 9, Oxon.
words in favour with the Gnostics were unknown  1707).  But, without charging   Marcion with
at an earlier period, a position which cannot be  designedly uttering what was false, we may supmaintained [GNosTIcs]; and on the other, that pose that, like some critics of recent times, this




EPHESIANS                    800               EPHESIANS
view was suggested to him by the Apostle's allu- to prove that the epistle to the Laodiceans had
sion, in Col. iv. 16, to an epistle addressed by been written some considerable time before that to
him to the Laodiceans.  Nor is there the least the Colossians, and therefore could not have been
ground for supposing that Marcion spoke in this the same with that now under notice.
instance on the authority of the Asiatic churches;  The opinion that this epistle was a sort of ciron the contrary, there is every reason to believe cular letter was first broached by Archbishop
the opposite, for not only do Origen and Clement Usher.  His words are (Annal. Vet. et Nov. Test.
of Alexandria, who were fully acquainted with  p. 680, Bremse, I686),'Notandum, in antiquis
the views, of the eastern churches on such matters, nonnullis codicibus (ut ex Basilii lib. 2, adv. Eunogive no hint of any such tradition being enter- mium, et Hieronymi in hunc Apostoli locum comtained by them, but Tertullian, to whom we are mentario apparet) generatim inscriptam fuisse hanc
indebted for our information respecting the opinion  epistolam -ros ayfios rots oiat, Kal 7rtor0Tos Jv Xp.
of Marcion,* expressly says that in that opinion he'IJ. vel (ut in literarum encyclicarum descriptione
opposed the tradition of the orthodox churches, fieri solebat) sanctis qui sunt.....   I el fidelibus
and imposed upon the epistle a false title, through  in Christo Mesu; ac si Ephesum primo, ut prseciconceit of his own superior diligence in exploring  puam Asime metropolim, missa ea fuisset, transsuch matters ('Ecclesize quidem veritate epistolam  mittenda inde ad reliquas (insertis singularum
istam  ad Ephesios habemus emissam, non ad     nominibus) ejusdem provincise ecclesias.' To this
Laodicenos, sed Marcion ei titulum  aliquando  opinion the majority of critics have given their
interpolare gestiit, quasi et in isto diligentissimus suffrage; indeed, it may almost be regarded as the
exploratory'-Adv. Marc. v. 17). It is plain that received opinion of Biblical scholars in the preto a statement of such a nature no weight can be sent day. This may make it apparently presumpsafely attached. With regard to the other argu- tuous in us to call it in question; and yet it seems
ment by which this view is advocated, we cannot to us so ill supported by positive evidence, and
help expressing surprise that such men as Mill and  exposed to so many objections, that we cannot
Paley should have deemed it of so much import- yield assent to it. In the first place it is to be
ance as to rest upon it the chief weight of their observed that it is an hypothesis entirely of modern
opinion. To us it appears to possess no force invention. No hint is furnished of any such notion
whatever in support of the view which they espouse. having been entertained concerning the destination
Admitting the fact of a close resemblance between  of this epistle by the early church. With the solithe Epistle to the Colossians and that before us, tary exception of Marcion, so far as we know, all
and the fact that Paul had, some time before send- parties were unanimous in assigning Ephesus as
ing the former epistle, written one to the church  the place to which this epistle was sent, and Marat Laodicea, which he advises the Colossians to  cion's view is as much opposed to the supposition
send for and read, how does it follow from all this of its being a circular letter as the other. As rethat the Epistle to the Laodiceans and that now  spects the external evidence, therefore, this hypounder notice were one and the same? To us it thesis is purely destitute of support. 2. It is an
appears more probable that, seeing the two extant hypothesis suggested for the purpose of accounting
epistles bear so close a resemblance to each other, for certain alleged facts, some of which are, to say
had the one now bearing the inscription'to the the least, doubtful, and others of which may be
Ephesians' been really the one addressed to the explained as well without it as with it. These
Laodiceans, the apostle would not have deemed it facts are-I. The alleged omission of the name of
of so much importance that the churches of Colosse any place at the commencement of the epistle; 2.
and Laodicea should interchange epistles.  Such  Marcion's assertion that this epistle was addressed
being the chief arguments in favour of this hypo- to the Laodiceans, which, it is said, arose prothesis (for those which, in addition, Wetstein  bably out of his having seen that copy of this ciralleges from a comparison of this epistle with that cular epistle which had been sent to Laodicea;
to the church at Laodicea, in the Apocalypse, are 3. The want of any precise allusions to personal
not deserving of notice; see Michaelis, Introd. vol. relations subsisting between the apostle and those
iv. p. I37), we may venture to set it aside as with- to whom this epistle was addressed; and 4. The
out any adequate support. It may be observed, expressions of unacquaintedness with those to
also, that it seems incompatible with what the whom he wrote, which occur in this epistle, e. g.,
apostle says Col. iv. 15, where he enjoins the  iii. I-4. How these facts may be reconciled with
church at Colossae to send his greetings to the the supposition that this epistle was addressed to
brethren at Laodicea, etc. Now one sends greet- the Ephesians will fall to be considered afterwards;
ings by another only when it is impossible to  at present the question is, How do they favour
express them oneself.  But if Paul wrote to Laodi- the hypothesis that this was a circular letter?
cea at the same time as to Colossse, and sent both  Now, supposing them to be unquestionable, and
letters by the same bearer, Tychicus, there was admitting that they are not irreconcilable with
manifestly no occasion whatever for his sending  this hypothesis, it must yet appear to all that they
his salutations to the latter of these churches go very little way towards affording primaly evithrough the medium of the former; it was obvi- dence in its support. It is not one which grows
ously as easy, and greatly more natural, to have naturally out of these facts, or is suggested by
sent his salutations to the church at Laodicea in them; it is plainly of foreign birth, and suggested
the epistle addressed to themselves. This seems for them. But when it is remembered that the
first of these alleged facts is (to say the least) very
* Epiphanius also speaks of Marcion as having  doubtful; that the second is made to serve this
an Epistle to the Laodiceans in his Apostolicon; hypothesis only by means of another as doubtful
but, as he states that he had also the Epistle to  as itself, and that, were its services admitted, it
the Ephesians, this cannot be regarded as corro- would prove too much, for it would go to shew
borating the testimony of Tertullian.          that, to the Laodiceans, the apostle not only sent




EPHESIANS                    801               EPHESIANS
a peculiar epistle, mentioned Col. iv. I6, but gave this epistle. The solution proposed by Michaelis
them a share also in this circular epistle written  himself, viz., that' when the several parts of the
some time after their own; and that the third and  Greek Testament were collected into a volume,
fourth are both either partially or wholly question- the copy inserted in this collection must have been
able, it must be admitted that this hypothesis procured from Ephesus,' besides being mere unstands upon a basis which is little better than  supported supposition, proceeds on the assumption
none.  3. Had the epistle been addressed to a that the Canon of the N. T. was formed by authoparticular circle of churches, some designation of rity, which is what cannot be proved [CANON].
these churches would have been given, by which  Hug's opinion that'the title rrpbs'Eqetrovs was
it might have been known what churches they given to it, either because Ephesus was the most
were to which this letter belonged. When it is eminent of the Asiatic cities, or was the first
argued that this must be a circular letter, because which received it,' might account, perhaps, for a
there is no church specified to which it is ad- preponderance of testimony in favour of this title,
dressed, it seems to be forgotten that the designa- but is certainly inadequate to account for the uianition of a particular set of churches is as necessary  mity of testimony by which it is supported.  On
for a circular epistle as the designation of one these grounds the suggestion of Michaelis appears
church is for an epistle specially addressed to it. to be inadmissible, and our objection to Usher's
If we must leave out the words ev'Ekpo-y in ch. i. hypothesis remains in full force. 4. In ch. vi. 2I,
I, what are we to put in their place? for if we 22, Paul mentions that he had sent to those for
take the passage as it stands without them, it will whom this epistle was destined, Tychicus, who
follow that the epistle was addressed to all Chris- should make known to them all things, that they
tians everywhere, which is more than the advo- might know his affairs, and that he might comfort
cates of the hypothesis now under notice contend  their hearts. From this it appears that Tychicus
for. It will not much help them  to say, with was not only the bearer of this letter, but that he
Usher, that the name of the place was left blank  was personally to visit, converse with, and comto be filled up; for the question immediately fort those to whom it was addressed. On the suparises, By whom was it to be filled up? If by position that this was a circular letter, the followthe church at Ephesus, to whom the epistle was ing questions are naturally raised by this statement
first sent, then it could not be a circular epistle, of the Apostle: Was Tychicus to carry this letter
but was a special epistle to the church at Ephesus, from church to church? or had he a distinct copy
which they were left to communicate to as many for each church in the circle? If the former, it
or as few other churches as they pleased; and this will follow that no church ever possessed this epistle,
may be said, we suppose, of all Paul's Epistles; but that certain churches around Ephesus enjoyed
nor is it at all improbable that this is exactly what the advantage of reading it or hearing it read,
the Ephesians would have done of their own ac- while the bearer of it stayed with them. If the
cord, without any blank being left to give them  latter, then it may be asked, Was Tychicus, as he
the hint. If we say with Michaelis that the blank  carried round these copies to deliver them, bound
was left to be filled up by the Apostle himself, to abide at each church, and to answer all the dewho had a number of copies written, which he mands and inquiries which the Apostle's declarathus addressed to particular churches, the ques- tions in the passage quoted would prompt its memtion occurs, How do we know in that case that bers to make? To affirm of either of these supthere ever was a blank at all? If every copy of positions that it is inpossible, would be, perhaps,
this epistle that was sent by the Apostle had the to go too far; but it must be felt by every one,
name of a place written in it before it left him, that, under all the circumstances of the case, neither
there was, of course, no blank in any of them. of them is very probable.
The reasoning here, in fact, is a merepetitio princi-  The objections just stated seem to us to justify
pii. If we ask, How is it known that this was a the rejection of Usher's hypothesis respecting the
circular epistle? the answer is, Because the name destination of this epistle; we now turn to the
of the place was left blank to be filled in by the consideration of the common, and, as we believe,
Apostle. If, now, we ask, How is it known that the true view of this matter.  Here it will be nethe place was left blank? it is answered, Because cessary to consider, in the first instance, the objecthis is a circular epistle,'ut in literarum encyclica- tions which have been offered to this view. These
rum descriptione hoc fieri solebat!' Besides, it are borrowed from the epistle itself, in which, it is
seems hardly consistent with the Apostle's perfect said, we not only miss those allusions to personal
integrity of character to suppose that he would in- relations and intercourse which we should expect
sert in the copy sent to each church the name of in an epistle from Paul to a church with which he
the place where that church was located, in such  had been so closely connected as with that at
a way as to lead the members of that church to  Ephesus, but we meet with statements which seem
suppose that the epistle they received was specially to imply that the parties to whom this epistle was
addressed to them. As an apostolic letter was written were, at the time, strangers to the Apostle.
usually esteemed a treasure of no ordinary value As respects the former of these objections, it must
by the church to which it was originally sent, we be admitted that the epistle contains no direct almay easily suppose that it would occasion no small lusions to previous intercourse between the writer
mortification to each of the churches round Ephe- and those whom he addresses; but this may be
sus to find that what each had supposed to be a partly accounted for by the circumstance that seletter specially addressed to itself was in fact only veral years had now elapsed since that intercourse
a copy of what had been sent to many others. In  took place; and probably, during the interval, mesfine, this suggestion of Michaelis renders it very sages had been sent by the Apostle to the Ephedifficult to account for the prevailing insertion of Ev sians which rendered it unnecessary to allude to'Eao-ey in the text, as well as the universal tradi- his earlier personal intercourse with them in this
tion of the church, that such was the destination of epistle.  It is worthy of remark, on the other
VOL. I.                                                                         3 F




EPHESIANS                    802                EPHESIANS
hand, that the tone and style of the epistle are his purpose against his antagonist.  As the case
such as of themselves to suggest the probability of stands, we have on the one side the unanimous
previous intercourse between the parties; such  testimony of all the extant witnesses in favour of ev
warmth of feeling and so much of a free outpour-'Eoecy; we have against it only the assertion of a
ing of thought not being customary in a letter writer who, to support what he considers a good
addressed to strangers, however strong might be stroke at his adversary, assures us that he had
the writer's general interest in their welfare.  The heard a tradition that these words were to be
peculiar nature of the composition as a theological omitted, and had seen some MSS. in which they
tractate must also be taken into account, as serving  were omitted, thereby at the same time implicitly
to explain the absence of personal allusions and  assuring us that in his day the received reading was
greetings.  With regard to the passages in which  the same as in ours. In such a case it is surely
it is alleged that Paul writes as if the parties he ad- preposterous to attach any weight whatever to such
dresses were personally unknown to him, they are a testimony.  But, secondly, does Basil's stateall susceptible of a very different construction. ment necessarily deny the existence of the words
When the Apostle says (i. 15),'Wherefore also, ev'Epdo- in any part of this verse? Admitting
I having heard of your faith,' etc., he is not neces- that he did not read them after rots oost, does it
sarily to be understood as intimating that this follow that he did not read them here at all? May
knowledge had then for thefirst time been obtained  not the passage have stood, in the authorities to
by him through the report of others; he rather which he appeals, thus-rois ev'EOCp TOI0S aylois
means that, as some years had elapsed since he TOS OoiT,. K. T. X.? the words having been transleft them, he was rejoiced to hear that they were  posed by some transcriber whose blunder Basil,
still steadfast in the faith.  Again, when he says with the blind zeal of a controversialist, hailed as
(iii. 2),'If ye have heard of the dispensation of proving his argument? This supposition has in its
the grace of God which is given me to you-ward,' favour-i. that Basil, in the passage quoted, foretc., and (iv. 21),'If so be that ye have heard  mally states that Paul wrote thus in an epistle to
him,' etc., the force of the particle etye is not ad- the Ephesians; 2. that this reading supports as
versative, but rather, according to its proper mean- well Basil's argument against Eunomius, as if ev
ing (comp. Hermann. ad Viger. sec. 512; Kiih-'E^&cry had been entirely omitted; and 3. that
ner's Gram. d. Gr. Sp. sec. 704, I. 2), and the unless we insert those or similar words somewhere
ordinary usage of the Apostle, concessive; it is in the passage, the inscription of this epistle bethus equivalent to since, forasmuch as, and ex- comes so vague and indefinite as to be without
presses rather the confidence of knowledge than  meaning.  Some confirmation of this suggestion
the uncertainty of ignorance. To these passages, may be drawn, perhaps, from the place in which
then, no weight whatever deserves to be attached, Jerome alludes to the argument here urged by
as tending to shew the erroneousness of the ordi- Basil from this passage. After stating the argunary designation of this epistle.  In favour of this ment he adds,' Alii vero simpliciter non ad eos
designation, on the other hand, are to be urged  qui sunt, sed qui Ephesi sancti etfideles sunt, scripthe reading ev'E54qoy (i. I), and the unanimous tur arbitrantur,' where he arranges the words in
testimony of Christian antiquity.  This reading is the same order, substantially, in which we have
that supplied by all the MSS. except Codex B.' supposed them to have stood in Basil's MSS. If
and ancient versions.  From a passage, however, this suggestion, however, be deemed ungrounded
in one of the writings of Basil (Adv. Ennomium, or improbable, we have still the fact that Basil's
lib. ii.), it has been inferred that in his day some  evidence is unsupported, to fall back upon, in supMSS. were extant in which these words were not port of the received reading. Stress has also been
found.  In maintaining against Eunomius, that laid by Hug and others upon the passage from
Jesus Christ may justly be styled o bv, Basil argues Tertullian, already quoted, in which he charges
that this is the more proper from the circumstance  Marcion with having altered the title of this epistle.
that the Apostle, writing to the Ephesians, calls Had the MSS., it is argued, in Tertullian's time,
Christians 6vras, absolutely and peculiarly, saying  contained ev'Ee'ecy, Marcion must have had to
TO7S altotL rotS o0ti Kcal 7rto7ro  ev Xp.'Id., and  alter, not only the title of the epistle, but, to be
adds,'for so those before us have handed down, consistent, the text also of the first verse; and with
and we have found it in old copies.' Now there this Tertullian does not charge him, though' not
can be no doubt that Basil here means to say that accustomed,' as Hug reminds us,' to overlook
he had both traditional and documentary authority  anything in him.' But this surely is, at best, very
for reading -ros o0oe absolutely without the addi- precarious reasoning.  Tertullian may have not
tion of ev'E(pieo after these words, else his whole  deemed it worth while to specify Marcion's alteraargument against Eunomius, based on this quota- tion of the text just because it was rendered so obtion, must go for nothing.  But in the first place, viously necessary by his alteration of the title, that
supposing that in these MSS. to which Basil re- in mentioning the latter (which was all his purpose
fers, the words ev'Efp&wr were not found at all in required), he, by implication, also intimated the
the address of the epistle, of what weight, in a former.
critical point of view, is this fact?  Of the age,  From  these considerations it appears that the
number, source, and general worth of these testi- received reading ev'Eleo-ia is impregnable. As a
monies to which Basil appeals, we know nothing, necessary consequence it follows that the title -rpos
and we must be jealous of taking a keen contro-'Eqeolovs expresses the original and proper destinaversialist's authority for the value of what serves tion of this epistle.
The epistle is so much the utterance of a mind
* In this Codex it appears on the margin; Hug  overflowing with thought and feeling, that it does
says it is inserted there by the first hand (De Anti- not present any precisely marked divisions under
quitate Cod. Vat. p. 26), but this Tischendorf has which its different parts may be ranked.  After
shewn to be a mistake.                        i the usual apostolic salutation Paul breaks forth




EPHESUS                    803                 EPHESUS
into an expression of thanksgiving to God and  XEWS r7s -'Aaoas, of the first and greatest metroChrist for the scheme of redemption (i. 3-Io), fromn polls of Asia.  (Boeckh, Corp. Inscr. Gr. 2968which he passes to speak of the privileges actually  2992). The Bishop of Ephesus in later times was
enjoyed by himself and those to whom he was the president of the Asiatic dioceses, with the
writing, through Christ (i. II1-23). He then re- rights and privileges of a patriarch (Evagr. Hist.
minds the Ephesians of their former condition when Eccl. iii. 6).  In the days of Paul Jews were
they were without Christ, and of the great change found settled in the city in no inconsiderable
which, through divine grace, they had experienced number (compare Joseph. Antiq. xiv. Io, I ), and
(ii. I.-22). An allusion to himself, as enjoying by from them the Apostle collected a Christian comdivine revelation the knowledge of the mystery of munity (Acts xviii. I9; xix. I; xx. I6, 17), which,
Christ, leads the Apostle to enlarge upon the dig- being fostered and extended by the hand of Paul
nity of his office, and the blessed results that were himself, became the centre of Christianity in Asia
destined to flow from the exercise of it to others Minor.  On leaving the city the Apostle left
(iii. 1-12).  On this he grounds an exhortation to  Timothy there (I Tim. i. 3): at a later period,
his brethren not to faint on account of his suffer- according to a tradition which prevailed extenings for the gospel, and affectionately invokes on sively in ancient times, we find the Apostle John
their behalf the divine blessing, concluding this, in Ephesus, where he employed himself most dilil
which may be called the more doctrinal part of his gently for the spread of the gospel, and where he
epistle, with a doxology to God (iii. 13-21). What not only died, at a very old age, but was buried,
follows is chiefly hortatory, and is directed partly with Mary the mother of the Lord.  Some make
to the inculcation of general consistency, steadfast- John bishop of the Ephesian communities, while
ness in the faith, and propriety of deportment others ascribe that honour to Timothy.  In tht
(iv. I; v. 2I), and partly to the enforcement of book of Revelations (ii. I) a favourable testimony
relative duties (v. 22; vi. 9). The epistle con- is borne to the Christian churches at Ephesus.
cludes with an animated exhortation to fortitude,  The classic celebrity of this city is chiefly owing
watchfulness, and prayer, followed by a reference to its famous temple, and the goddess in whose
to Tychicus as the bearer of the epistle, and by the honour it was built, namely,' Diana of the Epheusual apostolic benediction (vi. 10-24).      sians.' This goddess has been already noticed,
This epistle was written during the earlier part and a figure given of her famous image at Ephesus
of the Apostle's imprisonment at Rome, at the same [ARTEMIS].
time with that to the Colossians [COLOSSIANS,    Around the image of the goddess was afterwards
EPISTLE TO THE].                               erected, according to Callimachus (Hymn. in Dian.
Literature.-The questions connected with the 248), a large and splendid temple:
literary history of this epistle are discussed fully in   5     OEEpo     el 
the Introductions of Hug, Davidson, De Wette,'     c 6epov' ct KeV Huepov fI era p obs
0,,''95vet6repov' pa KeV IIvOCva 7rap~Xoc
Schott, Bleek, the Beitrage of Schneckenburger,
and by Meyer and Alford in the Prolegomena to    This temple was burnt down in the night in
their Commentaries; valuable remarks are found in which Alexander was born, by an obscure person
Reuss, Geschichte d. H. S. Neuen Test.; Neander, of the name of Eratostratus, who thus sought to
Apostol. Age, E. T., i. 314, ff.; Lange, Apostol. transmit his name to posterity; and, as it seemed
Zeitalt. i. II 7, ff.; Liinemann, De Ep. ad Ephes. somewhat unaccountable that the goddess should
authentia, Gott. 1842.  COMMENTARIES - Seb. permit a place which redounded so much to her
Schmidt, Strasb. 1684; Schutze, 1778; Krause, honour to be thus recklessly destroyed, it was given
1789; Holzhausen, 1833; Riickert, 1834; Har- out that Diana was so engaged with Olympias, in
less, 1834; Meier, I834; Matthies, I834; Seder- aiding to bring Alexander into the world, that she
holm, 1845; Eadie, 1854; Ellicott, 1855; Stier, had no time nor thought for any other concern.
I858.-W. L. A.                                 At a subsequent period, Alexander made an offer
to rebuild the temple, provided he was allowed to
EPHESUS ("Epeo-os), an old and celebrated inscribe his name on the front, which the Ephecity, capital of Ionia, one of the twelve Ionian  sians refused. Aided, however, by the whole of
cities in Asia Minor in the Mythic times, and said  Asia Minor, they succeeded in erecting a still more
to have been founded by the Amazons, was in later magnificent temple, which the ancients have lavishly
ages inhabited by the Carians and Leleges, and praised and placed among the seven wonders of
taken possession of by the Ionians, under Andro- the world. It took two hundred and twenty years
clus, the son of Codrus. It lay on the river Cay- to complete. Pliny (Hszt. Nat. xxxvi. 21), who has
ster, not far from the coast of the Icarian sea, given a description of it, says it was 425 feet in
between Smyrna and Miletus.  It was also one of length, 220 broad, and supported by 127 columns,
the most considerable of the Greek cities in Asia each of which had been contiibuted by some prince,
Minor; but while, about the epoch of the intro- and were 60 feet high: 36 of them were richly
duction of Christianity, the other cities declined, carved.  Chersiphron, the architect, presided over
Ephesus rose more and more. It owed its pro- the undertaking, and, being ready to lay violent
sperity in part to the favour of its governors, for hands on himself, in consequence of his difficulties,
Lysimachus named the city Arsinoe, in honour of was restrained by the command of the goddess,
his second wife, and Attalus Philadelphus furnished  who appeared to him during the night, assuring
it with splendid wharfs and docks; in part to the him that she herself had accomplished that which
favourable position of the place, which naturally had brought him to despair. The altar was the
made it the emporium of Asia on this side the work of Praxiteles. The famous sculptor Scopas
Taurus (Strabo, xiv. pp. 64I, 663).  Under the is said by Pliny to have chiselled one of the
Romans Ephesus was the capital not only of Ionia, columns.  Apelles, a native of the city, contribut of the entire province of Asia, and bore the buted a splendid picture of Alexander the Great.
honourable title ris 7rpr7-7S KCd /eUtyLr73S n7Trp6oro- The rights of sanctuary, to the extent of a stadium




EPHESUS                    804                 EPHESUS
in all directions round the temple, were also con-' ypdctaTra), which appear to have been a sort of
ceded, which in consequence of abuse the emperor magical formulae written on paper or parchment,
Tiberius abolished. The temple was built of cedar, designed to be fixed as amulets on different parts
cypress, white marble, and even gold, with which  of the body, such as the hands and the head (Plut.
it glittered (Spanh. Obseivat. in Hymn. in Dian. Sym. vii.; Lakemacher, Obs. Philol. ii. I26;
353). Costly and magnificent offerings of various Deyling, Observ. iii. 355). Erasmus (Adag. Cent.
kinds were made to the goddess, and treasured ii. 578) says that they were certain signs or marks
in the temple, such as paintings, statues, etc., the which rendered their possessor victorious in everyvalue of which almost exceeded computation. The  thing. Eustathius (ad Horn. Odys. r 694) states
fame of the temple, of the goddess, and of the an opinion that Crcesus, when on his funeral pile,
city itself, was spread not only through Asia but was very much benefited by the use of them 
the world, a celebrity which was enhanced and  and that when a Milesian and an Ephesian were
diffused the more readily because sacred games wrestling in the Olympic games, the former could
were practised there, which called competitors and gain no advantage, as the latter had Ephesian
spectators from every country. Among his other letters bound round his heel; but, these being disenormities Nero is said to have despoiled the temple covered and removed, he lost his superiority and
of Diana of much of its treasure.  It continued  was thrown thirty times. These passages shew the
to conciliate no small portion of respect, till it feeling which prevailed respecting the books that
was finally burnt by.the Goths in the reign of were bought and burned, and serve to illustrate
Gallienus.                                    the remark made by the writer of the Acts,' So
At Ephesus Diana was worshipped under the mightily grew the word of the Lord and prevailed.'
name of Artemis.   There was more than one       The ruins of Ephesus lie two short days' jourdivinity which went by the name of Artemis, as ney from  Smyrna, in proceeding from   which
the Arcadian Artemis, the Taurian Artemis, as towards the south-east the traveller passes the
well as the Ephesian Artemis. It will be seen, pretty village of Sedekuy; and two hours and a
from the figure given on p. 235, that this last dif- half onwards he comes to the ruined village of
fered materially from the Diana, sister of Apollo, Danizzi, on a wide, solitary, uncultivated plain,
whose attributes are the bow, the quiver, the girt- beyond which several burial-grounds may be obup robe, and the hound; whose person is a model served; near one of these, on an eminence, are
of feminine strength, ease, and grace; and whose the supposed ruins of Ephesus, consisting of shatdelights were in the pursuits of the chase.-  tered walls, in which some pillars, architraves, and
Along the shady hills and breezy peaks      fragments of marble have been built. The soil of
Rejoicing in the chase, her golden bow     the plain appears rich. It is covered with a rank,
She bends, her deadly arrows sending forth.  burnt-up vegetation, and is everywhere deserted'and solitary, though bordered by picturesque mounThe'silver shrines' of the Ephesian Artemis, tains. A few corn-fields are scattered along the
mentioned in Acts xix. 24, have been already no- site of the ancient city, which is marked by some
ticed [DEMETRIUS, 3].                         large masses of shapeless ruins and stone walls.
Among the distinguished natives of Ephesus in Towards the sea extends the ancient port, a pestithe ancient world, may be mentioned Apelles and lential marsh. Along the slope of the mountain
Parrhasius, rivals in the art of painting, Hera- and over the plain are scattered fragments of
clitus, the man-hating philosopher, Hipponax, a masonry and detached ruins, but nothing can now
satirical poet, Artemidorus, who wrote a history be fixed upon as the great temple of Diana. There
and description of the earth.  The claims of are some broken columns and capitals of the CorinEphesus, however, to the praise of originality in thian order of white marble: there are also ruins
the prosecution of the liberal arts, are but incon- of a theatre, consisting of some circular seats and
siderable; and it must be content with the dubious numerous arches, supposed to be the one in which
reputation of having excelled in the refinements of Paul was preaching when interrupted by shouts of,
a voluptuous and artificial civilization. With cul-'Great is Diana of the Ephesians.' The ruins
ture of this kind, a practical belief in, and a constant of this theatre present a wreck of immense granuse of, those arts which pretend to lay open the deur, and the original must have been of the
secrets of nature and arm the hand of man with largest and most imposing dimensions. Its form
supernatural powers, have generally been found alone can now be spoken of, for every seat is
conjoined.  Accordingly, the Ephesian multitude removed, and the proscenium is a hill of ruins. A
were addicted to sorcery; indeed, in the age of splendid circus (Fellows' Reports, p. 275) or
Jesus and his apostles, adepts in the occult sciences stadium remains tolerably entire, and there are
were numerous: they travelled from country to numerous piles of buildings seen alike at Pergacountry, and were found in great numbers in Asia, mus and Troy as well as here, by some called
deceiving the credulous multitude, and profiting by  gymnasia, by others temples; by others again,
their expectations.  They were sometimes Jews, with more propriety, palaces. They all came with
who referred their skill and even their forms of the Roman conquest. No one but a Roman emproceeding to Solomon, who is still regarded in peror could have conceived such structures. In
the East as head or prince of magicians (Joseph. Italy they have parallels in Adrian's villa near
Antiq. viii. 2. 5; Acts viii. 9; xiii. 6, 8). In Asia Tivoli, and perhaps in the pile upon the Palatine.
Minor Ephesus had a high reputation for magical Many other walls remain to shew the extent of the
arts (Ortlob, De Epzhes. Libris combustis).    buildings of the city, but no inscription or ornaThe books mentioned, Acts xix. I9, were doubt- ment is to be found, cities having been built out of
less books of magic. How extensively they were this quarry of worked marble. The ruins of the
in use may be learnt from the fact that' the price adjoining town, which arose about four hundred
of them' was' fifty thousand pieces of silver.' years ago, are entirely composed of materials from
Very celebrated were the Ephesian letters ('Ecpcra Ephesus.  There are a few huts within, these




EPHESUS                     805                 EPHESUS
ruins (about a mile and a half from  Ephesus), tomb of Mary and the seven Sractla (boys, as the
which still retain the name of the parent city, Synaxaria calls the Seven Sleepers) are found in
Asalook-a Turkish word, which is associated with  an adjoining hill. At the back of the mosque, on
the same idea as Ephesus, meaning the City of the  the hill, is the sunk ground-plan of a small church,
Moon (Fellows). A church dedicated to St. John  still much venerated by the Greeks. The sites of
is thought to have stood near, if not on the site of, two others are shewn at Asalook. There is also
the present mosque. Arundell (Discoveries, vol. a building, called the Prison of St. Paul, constructed
ii. p. 253) conjectures that the gate, called the  of large stones without cement.
Gate of Persecution, and large masses of brick   Though Ephesus presents few traces of human
wall, which lie beyond it, are parts of this cele- life, and little but scattered and mutilated remains
brated church, which was fortified during the  of its ancient grandeur, yet the environs, diversified
great Council of Ephesus. The tomb of St. John  as they are with hill and dale, and not scantily
was in or under his church, and the Greeks have a supplied with wood and water, present many featradition of a sacred dust arising every year, on his tures of great beauty. Arundell (ii. 244) enumefestival, from the tomb, possessed of miraculous rates a great variety of trees which he saw in the
virtues: this dust they term manna. Not far from  neighbourhood, among which may be specified
the tomb of St. John was that of Timothy. The groves of myrtle near Ephesus. He also found...... ---—.-..:. _
— _ -" -      _-:-'-.-..___.... X~~T                           T -:~_~ -— ~:~_IV
235. Ephesus.
heath in abundance, of two varieties; and saw  A herd of goats was driven to it for shelter from
there the common fern, which he met with in no  the sun at noon, and a noisy flight of crows from
other part of Asia Minor.                      the quarries seemed to insult its silence. We heard
Dr. Chandler (p. I50, 4to) gives a striking  the partridge call in the area of the theatre and of
description of Ephesus, as he found it on his visit the stadium. The pomp of its heathen worship is
in 1764:-' Its population consisted of a few Greek  no longer remembered; and Christianity, which
peasants, living in extreme wretchedness, depen- was then nursed by apostles, and fostered by genedence, and insensibility, the representatives of an  ral councils, barely lingers on, in an existence
illustrious people, and inhabiting the wreck of their hardly visible.' Even the sea has retired from the
greatness-some the substructure of the glorious scene of devastation, and a pestilential morass,
edifices which they raised; some beneath the covered with mud and rushes, has succeeded to the
vaults of the stadium, once the crowded scene of waters which brought up ships laden with merchantheir diversions; and -some in the abrupt precipice, dise from every part of the known world (Herod.
in the sepulchres which received their ashes. Such  i. 26; ii. I48; Liv. i. 45; Pausan. vii. 2, 4;
are the present citizens of Ephesus, and such is Philo, Byz. de sept. Orb. Mirac. Gronov. Thesaur.
the condition to which that renowned city has been  viii.; Creuzer, Symbol. ii. 13; Hassl, Erdbeschr.
reduced. It was a ruinous place when the Em- ii. I32; for a plan of Ephesus, see Kiepert's Atlas,
peror Justinian filled  Constantinople with its von Hellas; Arundell's Visit to the Seven Churches
statues and raised the church of St. Sophia on its of Asia; Fellows' Excursion in Asia Minor,
columns. Its streets are obscured and overgrown. i839; Discoveries in Asia Minor, by Rev. T.




EPHOD                     806                EPHRAIM
Arundell, 1834); and for a special reference to the  Promised Land (Num. i. 33; Josh. xvii. I4; I
Epistle, Conybeare and Howson's Life and Letters Chron. vii. 20).  The precise position of the imof St. Paul. —J. R. B.                        mediate descendants of Joseph in Egypt might
EPHOD.     [PRIESTS.]                       form an interesting subject for speculation. Being
the sons of one in eminent place, and through their
EPHRAEM, THE SYRIAN, as he is commonly mother connected with high families in Egypt,
called, was born at Nisibi. His father was a hea- their condition could not at once have been identithen priest, who beheld his intercourse with the fled with that of the sojourners in Goshen; and
Christians with horror, and ultimately expelled perhaps they were not fully amalgamated with the
him from home because he would unite himself to rest of their countrymen until that king arose who
them. James, bishop of Nisibi, received him into  knew not Joseph.
his house, and instructed him in Christian know-  At the departure from Egypt, the population of
ledge, and, on his death, Ephraem   retired to the two tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh together
Edessa, where he devoted himself to a solitary life amounted to 72,700 men capable of bearing arms,
of study and meditation. Drawn by the fame of greatly exceeding that of any single tribe, except
Basil the Great to visit him at Csesarea, he was, Judah, which had somewhat more. During the wanthough reluctantly, ordained by him, and returned  dering, their number increased to 85,200, which
to Edessa as a deacon. He now set himself to  placed the two tribes much higher than even
oppose the heretical notions which were becoming Judah.  At the Exode, Ephraim singly had 40,500,
prevalent in the Syrian churches, especially those and Manasseh only 32,200; but a great change
of Bardesanes and the Arians. This he did, as by took place in their relative numbers during the
other means, so chiefly by means of hymns and wandering.  Ephraim lost 8000, and Manasseh
metrical homilies.  The fame he acquired drew  gained 20,500; so that just before entering Canaan,
around him a multitude of scholars, to whom he Ephraim stood at 32,500, and Manasseh at 52,700.
expounded the Scriptures; and thus arose the At the departure from Egypt, Ephraim, at 40,500,
school of Edessa, the successor of that of Antioch. was above Manasseh and Benjamin in numbers; at
Having refused the honour of the episcopate (it is the end of the wandering it was, at 32,500, above
said, by feigning insanity), he died in the year 378, Simeon only, which tribe had suffered a still
though some place his death after 379. So great greater loss of numbers (comp. Num. i. and
was his reputation, that his works were read in the xxvi.)
churches of Greece after the reading of Scripture  One of the finest and most fruitful parts of
(Hieron. Catal. c. II5). His writings were nume- Palestine, occupying the very centre of the land,
rous; those of them extant have been collected in was assigned to this tribe. It extended from the
6 vols. fol., edited by Assemani, Rom. I732. borders of the Mediterranean on the west to the
They are partly in Syriac, partly in Greek; the Jordan on the east; on the north it had the halflatter being, it is supposed, translations, though it tribe of Manasseh, and on the south Benjamin and
is somewhat singular, if this be the case, that no  Dan (Josh. xvi. 5, so.; xvii. 7, sq.) This fine
work exists in both tongues. Among the former country included most of what was afterwards
are commentaries on the whole of the 0. T., with  called Samaria, as distinguished from Judzea on
the exception of Psalms and the writings attributed  the one hand, and from  Galilee on the other.
to Solomon. His commentaries on the N. T. have The tabernacle and the ark were deposited within
not come down to us, except those on the Pauline its limits, at Shiloh; and the possession of the
epistles in an Armenian translation, and a few  sacerdotal establishment, which was a central object
fragments on the Gospels in the Catenae. Though  of attraction to all the other tribes, must, in no
Gregory of Nyssa says he followed the method of small degree, have enhanced its importance, and
the school of Antioch in seeking to bring out the increased its wealth and population. The domiliteral sense of Scripture, his extant commentaries neering and haughty spirit of the Ephraimites is
shew a decided leaning to the allegorical method.-  more than once indicated (Josh. xvii. 14; Judg.
W. L. A.                                      viii. I-3; xii. I) before the establishment of the
EPHRAIM (AR;           Sept.'Eqpae ), the regal government; but the particular enmity of
Ephraim against the other great tribe of Judah,
younger son of Joseph, but who received prece- and the rivalry between them, do not come out
dence over the elder in and from the blessing of distinctly until the establishment of the monarchy.
Jacob (Gen. xli. 52; xlviii. I). That blessing was In the election of Saul from the least considerable
an adoptive act, whereby Ephraim and his brother tribe in Israel, there was nothing to excite the
Manasseh were counted as sons of Jacob in the jealousy of Ephraim; and, after his heroic qualiplace of their father; the object being to give to ties had conciliated respect, it rendered the new
Joseph, through his sons, a double portion in the king true allegiance and support.  But when the
brilliant prospects of his house. Thus the descend- great tribe of Judah produced a king in the person
ants of Joseph formed tevo of the tribes of Israel, of David, the pride and jealousy of Ephraim were
whereas every other of Jacob's sons counted but as thoroughly awakened, and it was doubtless chiefly
one. There were thus, in fact, thirteen tribes of through their means that Abner was enabled to
Israel; but the number twelve is usually preserved, uphold for a time the house of Saul; for there are
either by excluding that of Levi (which had no manifest indications that by this time Ephraim
territory), when Ephraim and Manasseh are sepa- influenced the views and feelings of all the other
rately named, or by counting these two together as tribes. They were at length driven by the force
the tribe of Joseph, when Levi is included in the of circumstances to acknowledge David upon conaccount. The intentions of Jacob were fulfilled, ditions; and were probably not without hope
and Ephraim  and Manasseh were counted as that, as the king of the nation at large, he would
tribes of Israel at the departure from Egypt, and  establish his capital in their central portion of
as such shared in the territorial distribution of the the land. But when he not only established his




EPHRAIM                    807                 EPISTLE
court at Jerusalem, but proceeded to remove the tribes of Israel; and that as this forest lay near
ark thither, making his native Judah the seat both their territories on the other side the Jordan, they
of the theocratical and civil government, the were wont to drive their flocks over to feed there
Ephraimites became thoroughly alienated, and  (see Jarchi, Kimchi, Abarbanel, etc., on 2 Sam.
longed to establish their own ascendancy. The xviii. 6). —J. K.
building of the temple at Jerusalem, and other  EPH      H  or E        H   t, 
measures of Solomon, strengthened this desire;  EPHRATH     or EPHRATAH (
and although the minute organization and vigour Sept.'Eq<padc), the ancient name of Bethlehem
of his government prevented any overt acts of (Gen. xxxv. I6; xlviii. 7). It would also appear
rebellion, the train was then laid, which, upon from Ruth i. 2, that Ephrath was the name of a dishis death, rent the ten tribes from the house of trict, of which Bethlehem was the chief town. The
David, and gave to them a king, a capital, and a sons of Naomi are called'Ephrathites of Bethlereligion suitable to the separate views and in- hem-Judah.' And in Mic. v. 2, we read,'And
terests of the tribe.  Thenceforth the rivalry of thou Bethlehem-Ephratah,' which in Matt. ii. 6, is
Ephraim and Judah was merged in that between rendered Kac o-v Bq0Xee 7y'Ioisa, thus giving the
the two kingdoms; although still the predomi- district in which Bethlehem was situated; and may
nance of Ephraim in the kingdom of Israel was so we not reasonably suppose that Ephrath, though
conspicuous as to occasion the whole realm to be not equivalent to'yI'Ioida, was still the name of a
called by its name, especially when that rivalry district?
is mentioned.-J. K.                            Various theories have been, suggested regarding
I  i i  in   wi the origin and meaning of the name Ephrath. It
EPHRAIM ('E0pa     ), a city in the wilderness has been thought strange that a daughter of Israel
of Judoea, to which Jesus withdrew from  the           f Caleb, I Chrn. ii., 50) should
he(the wife of Caleb, i Chron. ii. I9, 50) should
persecution which followed the miracle of raising bear the same name as a Canaanitish town; and
Lazarus from the dead (John xi. 54). It is placed  so   hav imagined either that she gave her name to
by Eusebius (Onomnas. s. v.'EqpcbS) eight Roman  the place, or took her name from it. The former
miles north of Jerusalem. This indication would 
s. t. m. i.   supposition is impossible because the name Ephseem to make it the same with the Ephraim which  rath existed in the time of Araham; and the
ismntio..i. 19, ag  rath{ existed in the time of Abraham; and the
is mentioned in 2 Chron. xiii. I9, along with latter seems to be ver doubtful (See, however,
Bethel and Jeshanah, as towns taken from Jero- Smith's Dict. ofte Bible, s.v.) There can be little
boam by Abijah. And this again is doubtless the doubt that the name Ephrath is derived from the
same which Josephus also names along with Bethel      the soil immediately around it in comfertility of the soil immediately around it in comas'two small cities' (1ro0iXvma), which were takenparison with that of the adjoining wilderness. The
and garrisoned by Vespasian while reducing the vineyards and olive groves which cover the terraced
country around Jerusalem (De Bell  id. iv. 9. 9). 9  slopes of Bethlehem are still luxuriant and fruitful;
[It is probably the same as Ophrah (Josh. xviil. and the fields of the plain below yield rich crops of
23), which Robinson and Stanley identify with  grain (See BETHLEHEM; Lange on Matt. ii. 6
Taiyibeh (B. W. ii. 124; S. and P. 2I4)].-J. K.  Stanley, S. nd P. 37).-J. L. P.
EPHRAIM, MOUNT, a mountain or group of       EPHRON     (l)a; Sept.'E0pv), a Hittite
mountains in central Palestine, in the tribe of the:.
same name, on or towards the borders of Benjamin residing in Hebron, who sold to Abraham the cave
(Josh. xvii. 15; xix. 50; xx. 7; Judg. vii. 24; and field of Machpelah as a family sepulchre (Gen.
xvii. I; I Sam. ix. 4; I Kings iv. 8). From a xxiii. 6).
comparison of these passages it may be collected  EPHRON ('Epcbv).'A large and vely strong
that the name of'Mount Ephraim' was applied to  city' on the east of Jordan, destroyed by Judas
the whole of the ranges and groups of hills which  Maccabeus (i Maccab. v. 46-52;2 Maccab. xii
occupy the central part of the southernmost border  It seems to have been placed in a efile or
of this tribe, and which are prolonged southward  v. Its site has notbeen identified.-W. L. A.
into the tribe of Benjamin. In the time of Joshua
these hills were densely covered with trees (Josh.  EPHRON, MOUNT ()-lD. in,; Sept. rb 6pos
xvii. I8), which is by no means the case at present.'Epcv), on the boundary line of Judah (Josh. xv.
In Jer. 1. I9, Mount Ephraim is mentioned in 9)   As it was between the water of Nephtoah
apposition with Bashan, on the other side of the and Kirjath-jearim, it is probably the range of hills
Jordan, as a region of rich pastures, sug tig  on the westi side of the Wady Beit-Hanina.t.
that the valleys among these mountains were well
watered and covered with rich herbage, which is  EPICUREANS. [PHILOSOPHY, GREEK].
true at the present day.-J. K.                 EPIPHI ('Etrz0t, 3 Maccab. vi. 38), the eleventh
month in the Egyptian calendar. It began on the
EPHRAIM, THE FOREST OF, in which Absalom   25th of June in the Julian calendar. As the Egyplost his life (2 Sam. xviii. 6-8), was in the country tn months had each 30 days, from the 25th of
east of the Jordan, not far from Mahanaim. How  Pachon (the 9th month beginning 26th April) to
it came to bear the name of a tribe on the other the 4th of Epphi would e 40 days.W. L. A
side the river is -not known. Some think it was
on account of the slaughter of the Ephraimites  EPISTLE. Epistles are probably as old as
here in the time of Jephthah (Judg. xii. 4-6); but the art of writing. Verbal messages seem to have
others suppose that it was because the Ephraimites been the usual way of communication between
were in the habit of bringing their flocks into this persons at a distance from  one another in the
quarter for pasture; for the Jews allege that the primitive conditions of society, but there is no
Ephraimites received from Joshua, who was of proof that there was no other way.  In the Hotheir tribe, permission to feed their flocks in the meric poems, though messages are usual, letters
woodlands within the territories of any of the are not unknown, as we see from the story of Bel



EPISTLE                   808                  EPISTLE
lerophon. In the Bible, the first mention is in the report of it would be carried to those whom it
time of David, who gave Uriah a letter to Joab (2 specially concerned. When Nebuchadnezzar had
Sam. xi. 14, I5). This seems to have been done as carried captive some of the people of Judah, we
the only way of concealing the king's wicked design. read how Jeremiah addressed them by a letter,
It must have been sealed, like the letters which  which is a written exhortation and prophecy (xxix.
Jezebel'wrote''in Ahab's name, and sealed   1-23). It can scarcely be said that here we perwith his seal,' to plot the death of Naboth the ceive a positive distinction between the later proJezreelite (I Kings xxi. 8-Io). The contents of phets and the earlier, for Elijah sent a letter or
these letters are simply royal commands, and'writing' to Jehoram king of Judah, as already
nothing is said of salutation or even address. It noticed. The distance of Babylon from Jerusais to be noticed that the answer of Joab was by lem, and of Jerusalem from the kingdom which
a messenger (ver. I8-25); and that no mention is was the scene of Elijah's ministry, seems to afford
made of a written reply to Jezebel's letter; we the true explanation. That letters were not unonly read that the news of the death of Naboth  common between the captives at Babylon and
was' sent' to her (ver. I4). In neither case was those who remained at Jerusalem before it was desecrecy still necessary. Jehu wrote letters and sent stroyed, appears probable, from the mention of
them to Samaria to authorities, respecting Ahab's letters to Zephaniah the priest and to others from
children, the form of which, or of the one tran- a false prophet Shemaiah, at Babylon, in contrascribed, is the first instance in the Bible of anything  diction of Jeremiah's letter (24-29). Jeremiah was
like a formula. It begins,'Now as soon as this commanded to send to the captives a condemnaletter cometh to you,' but ends without any like tion of this man (30-32), and it is therefore prophrase. It was apparently replied to by a message, bable that at least three letters passed on this
and Jehu wrote another letter, which, as given, has occasion. Though with the little evidence we have
not the same peculiarity as the first. That Jehu, we cannot speak positively, it seems as if the cuswho, though perhaps well born, was a rough soldier, tom of letter-writing had become more common
should have written, and there is no ground for sup- by degrees, although there is no ground for inferposing that he used a scribe, but, from the extremely ring any change in its character. Still we find
characteristic style, rather evidence against such an nothing of an address or signature.  The letter
idea, indicates that letter-writing was then common seems to be always a document, generally a mes(2 Kings x. 1-7). In this case secrecy may have sage written for greater security or to have full
been thought desirable, but the importance of the authority, and was probably rolled, tied up, and
matter would have been a sufficient reason for sealed with the writer's seal.
writing. The letter which the king of Syria, Ben-  Although no Hebrew letters are preserved of
hadad, sent by Naaman to Jehoram king of Israel, the time before David, it might be supposed that
though to a sovereign with whom the writer was the form might have been derived from Egypt.
at peace, is in the same peremptory style, with no  We have papyri containing copies by Egyptian
salutation, from which we may conjecture that scribes of the kings of the Rameses family, about
only the principal contents are given in this and  the I3th century B.C., of letters of their own
like instances (2 Kings v. 5, 6). The'writing' correspondence. These shew a regular epistolary
(3J"0?) to Jehoram king of Judah, from Elijah, style, the conventionalism of which at once removes
T: *                                        us from all ideas of Semitic literature. There is
must have been a written prophecy rather than a an air of the monuments about it that strikes us in
letter (2 Chron. xxi. 12-15); though it must be the descriptive character of certain of the formulas.
observed that such prophecies when addressed to  Some letters, from a superior to an inferior, compersons are of an epistolary character.  Heze- mence in the manner shewn in the following exkiah, when he summoned the whole nation to ample:-' The chief librarian Amen-em-an, of the
keep the passover, sent letters,'from the king and  royal white house, says to the scribe Penta-ur,
his princes,' as had been determined at a council Whereas, this letter is brought to you, saying-conheld at Jerusalem by the king, the princes, and munication.' A usual ending of such letters is,
all the congregation. The contents of these letters'Do thou consider this.' Some begin with the word
are given, or the substance. The form is that of'Communication.' The fuller form also seems to be
an exhortation, without, however, address. The an abbreviation. An inferior scribe, addressing his
character is that of a religious proclamation (2 superior, thus begins;'The scribe Penta-ur salutes
Chron. xxx. I-9). The letter or letters of Sen- his lord, the chief librarian, Amen-em-an, of the
nacherib to Hezekiah seem to have been written royal white house.  This comes to inform my
instructions to his messengers, which were given to lord. Again I salute my lord. Whereas I have
Hezekiah to shew him that they had their master's executed all the commissions imposed upon me by
authority. It is to be observed that the messengers my lord, well and truly, completely and thoroughwere commanded,'Thus shall ye speak to Heze- ly [?] I have done no wrong. Again'I salute my
kiah,' and that Hezekiah' received the letter' from  lord.' He ends,'Behold this message is to inform
them. What he received was probably a roll of my lord.' A more easy style is seen in a letter of
apyrus, as that which Jehoiakim burnt seems to  a son to his father, which begins,-' The scribe
have been (Jer. xxxvi. 23), for when he took it to  Amen-mesu salutes [his] father, captain of bowthe temple he'spread it before the LoRD' (2 men, Bek-en-ptah,' and ends'Farewell.' A miliKings xix. 91I4; Is. xxxvii. 9-14; comp. 2 Chron. tary officer writing to another, and a scribe writing
xxxii. I7). It does not appear to have been usual to a military officer, appear to begin with a prayer
for the prophets to write letters. Generally they for the king, before the formula'Communication.'
seem, when they did not go themselves to those A royal or government letter is a mere written
whom they would address, either to have sent a decree, without any formal introduction, and ending
messenger, or to have publicly proclaimed what with an injunction to obey it. The contents of
they were commissioned to say, knowing that the  these letters are always addresses to the person




EPISTLE                    809                 EPISTLES
written to, the writer using the first person singular. with'Greeting' (Xcapetv), and ending with' FareThe subject-matter is various, and perhaps gives well' ("Eppwoo, Acts xxiii. 25-30). The epistle of
us a better idea of the literary ability of the Egyp- the council has the same form, save only that the
tians, and their lively national character, than any plural,'Fare ye well,' "Eppjwa-e, is used (xv. 23,
other of their compositions.*                  29). The separate epistles, with the exception of
In the books of Scripture written after the return  that of St. James, which has the formula' Greetfrom Babylon, mention is made of letters of the ing,' and that to the Hebrews, as well as the First
enemies of the Jews to the kings of Persia, and of of St. John, which have not an epistolary beginning,
the kings to these persons, the Jews, or their all commence, after the name, and usually the divine
officers, some of which are given. These are in commission, of the writer, and the name of the
an official style, with a greeting and sometimes church or person written to, with a salutation, genean address. The letter to Artaxerxes contains the rally a prayer that the church or person addressed
form,'Be it known unto the king,''Be it known  may receive grace, mercy, and peace. The salunow unto the king' (Ezra iv. II-I6); and his tation at the end is a grace, sometimes accomanswer thus begins;'Peace [or'welfare'], and  panied by a doxology. St. Paul appears to have
so forth' (17-22), the expression'and so forth,' generally added, at the end, his own salutation
occurring elsewhere in such a manner that it seems in his own hand (2 Thes. iii. I7; see also I Cor.
to be used by the transcriber for brevity's sake xvi. 21; Col. iv. I8).  He probably always em(I, II; vii. I2). It must therefore not be corn-  loyed an amanuensis.  His handwriting was
pared to the common modern Arabic formula large, as we learn from a passage in the Epistle to
of commencement,' After the [usual] salutations.' the Galatians (vi. II), not correctly translated in
The letter of the opponents of the Jews to Darius the A. V.  The apostles use the singular and
(Hystaspis) thus begins:-'Unto Darius the king, plural of the first person, in the latter case speakall peace. Be it known unto the king' (v. 6- ing in the name of the church, or perhaps associI7). The letter of Artaxerxes (Longimanus) to  ating with themselves, as does St. Paul, another
Ezra is a written decree, and not an ordinary letter teacher or other teachers. After the address and
save in form (vii. I, 26). Nehemiah asked for, salutation, the main subject at once follows, and
and was granted, letters from the same king to special greetings with all personal matters are not
the governors, and the keeper of the king's forest introduced until its discussion has ended. In St.
(Neh. ii. 7, 9). When he was rebuilding Jerusa- Paul's Epistles, the style seems to shew plain indilem, Sanballat sent him'an open letter' by his cations of writing by dictation in the length and
servant, repeating an invented rumour of the Jews' intricate construction of some of the sentences, and
intention to rebel (vi. 5, 7): no doubt it was left the occurrence of parentheses.  The contents of
not sealed purposely, either in order that the  each of the Epistles will be found discussed under
rumour should be so spread as if by accident, or the article devoted to it.
to shew disrespect.  At this time many letters   St. Paul refers to a custom of the apostolic
passed between the nobles of Judah and Tobiah, time, the giving recommendatory letters, ava-raTTKa
and letter-writing seems to have been common   e7rlroXa  (2 Cor. iii. I), to persons going from
(1I7, see also 19). In Esther we read of exactly one church to another.-R. S. P.
the same custom as that spoken of in the case of
Jezebel's letter, the authority of writings with the  EPISTLES OF THE N. T. In directing our
king's name and seal, even if not written by him. inquiry first of all towards the relation in which the
It is related that Ahasuerus'took his signet from  epistles stand to the other component parts of the
his hand, and gave it unto Haman,' who caused  N. T., we find that both the 0. and N. T. have
letters to be written containing a mandate:-' In  been arranged by divine wisdom after one and the
the name of king Ahasuerus was it written, and  same plan. All the revelations of God to mankind
sealed with the king's signet' (Esth. iii. Io, I2,rest upon history. Therefore in the 0., as well as
I3).  In like manner, the same authority was in the N. T., the history of the deeds of God
given to Esther and Mordecai, and it is remarked, stands FIRST, as being the basis of holy writ;'for the writing which is written in the king's thereupon follow the books which exhibit the
name, and sealed with the king's signet, may not doctrines and internal life of the men of God-in
be reversed' (viii. 7, 8).                    the 0. T. the Psalms, the writings of Solomon,
The Hebrew word for a letter is  DD,' a writ- etc., and in the N. T. the Epistles of the Apostles;
-...        finally, there follow in the 0. T. the writings of
ing,' hence also'a book.' In the later books, the prophets, whose vision extends into the times
an13, JIDFI, F.lM, and i111, etc., occur.      of the N. T.; and at the conclusion of the N. T.
In theN. T.:, epistles take a very importantstands its only prophetic book, the Revelation of
In the N. T., epistles take a very important
place as authoritative documents addressed to the John.
churches.  Of these there are the separate canon In this also we must thankfully adore divine
churches. Of these there are the separate canoni-                       which lay down the
cal epistles, and the short epistle addressed by the  dotris  te Christian religion, originate, not
apostolic council held at Jerusalem, to the Gentile  e      e
converts in Antioch, Syria, arnd Cilicia, which is from one apostle alone, but from all the four princonverts in Antioch, Syria, and Cilicia, which is c   a        s  t
included in the Acts. There is also a letter from cipal apostles; so that one and the same divine
itruth is presented to our eyes in various forms as
Claudius Lysias to Felix, which may be supposed it were is various  rrors by  i    s    richness
to preserve the official style of the provinces. It it were in various mirrors, by which its richness
and manifold character are the better displayed.
uses the common Greek formulas, beginning, after and manifold character are the better displayed.
the names of the writer and the person written to,  The epistles of the N. T. divide themselves
into two parts-the PAULINE and the so-called
CATHOLIC.
* See Mr. C. W. Goodwin's paper,' Hieratic    The PAULINE epistles are thirteen in number;
Papyri.' Camnzbridge Essays, I858; pp. 226, seq.  or fourteen, if we add to them the Epistle to the




EPISTLES                   810                 EPISTLES
Hebrews. Up to our days their genuineness has and stations of the communities to whom they
almost unanimously been recognised in Germany, were addressed, and conclude with the epistles to
with the exception only of the pastoral epistles, and  the two bishops and a private letter to Philemon.
more especially the first letter to Timothy. Eich-  That the epistles offered great difficulties was
horn and Bauer have attacked the genuineness of already felt in the earliest times (2 Pet. iii. I6).
all the three pastoral epistles, and Schleiermacher In the Roman Church their true understanding
that of the first epistle to Timothy.  Indeed, was more particularly lost by the circumstance
the very peculiar character of the Pauline epistles that it understood by THE LAW, only the opus
is so striking to any one who is not ignorant operatum  of the ceremonial law; consequently
of the want of ease and originality conspicuous the Roman Church could not comprehend justifiin the counterfeit writings of early times, as to  cation by faith, and taught instead justification
leave not the least doubt of their genuineness. by works; as soon, therefore, as the true underDepth of thought, fire of speech, firmness of cha- standing of the Pauline epistles dawned upon
racter-these manly features, joined withal to the  Luther, his breach with the Roman Church was
indulgence of feelings of the most devoted love decided.
and affection, characterise these epistles.  The  Among the more ancient interpreters of the
amiable personal character of the apostle maybe  Pauline letters, Chrysostom and Calvin deserve
most beautifully traced in his Epistles to the Philip- particular distinction; though the former, with
pians and to Philemon.                         all his zeal and psychological penetration, was
All the epistles, except the one to the Romans, still deficient in the true hermeneutic method.
were called forth by circumstances and particular  THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. —There is, in the
occasions in the affairs of the communities to first instance, a diversity of opinion respecting
which they were addressed.   Not all, however, their name: some refer it to their WRITERS (letters
were preserved; it is, at least, evident, from  from all the other apostles who had entered the
I Cor. v. 9, that a letter to the Corinthians has stage of authorship along with Paul); some, again,
been lost; from Col. iv. I6, it has also been con- to their CONTENTS (letters of no special but general
cluded-though probably erroneously, since there  Christian tenor); others, again, to the RECEIVERS
perhaps the letter to the Ephesians is referred to-  (letters addressed to no community in particular).
that another letter to the community of Laodicea None of these views, however, is free from diffihas likewise been lost. Press of business usually  culties. The first and the second views-and more
compelled Paul-what was, besides, not uncom- especially the first-cannot be brought to harmomon in those times-to use his companions as nize with the idiomatic expressions in the extant
amanuenses.  He mentions (Gal. vi. I I), as some- pages of the ancient writers; the second is, besides,
thing peculiar, that he had written this letter contradicted by the fact that the letter of James is
with his own hand.     This circumstance may   of a special tenor, while, on the contrary, that to
greatly have favoured the temptation to forge the Romans is of such a general character as to
letters in his name, because since the period of deserve the name CATHOLIC in that sense. The
Alexandrian literature it was not unusual to indite third opinion is most decidedly justified by passages
spurious books, as is evident from Eusebius (Hist. from the ancient writers (Euseb. Hist. Eccles. v.
Eccles. p. 23); and even Christian bishops made  I8; Clem. Alex. Strom. iv. 15, ed. Potter, p.
complaints about the falsification of their letters. 606; Orig. c. Cels. i. 63). The Pauline Epistles
Paul alludes to this (2 Thes. ii. 2), and therefore had all their particular directions, while the letters
writes the greeting (2 Thes. iii. 17) with his own  of Peter, James, I John, and Jude, were circular
hand.   Paul himself exhorted the communities epistles. The Epistles 2 and 3 John were submutually to impart to each other his letters to sequently added, and included on account of their
them, and read them aloud in their assemblies shortness, and to this collection was given the
(Col. iv. I6). It is therefore probable that copies name CATHOLIC LETTERS, in contradistinction
of these letters had been early made by the several to. the Pauline, which were called 6 d7r6-ToXos.communities, and deposited in the form of col- A. T.
lections. So long therefore as the various communities transmitted the manuscripts to each other,  EPISTLES OF THE APOSTOLICAL FATHERS.
no other letters, it is obvious, could come into the  Under this head we shall briefly notice those recollections than those to whose genuineness the mains of Christian antiquity which are ascribed
communities to whom   they were originally ad- to the writers usually styled the Apostolic Fathers,
dressed, bore witness.  Even Peter (2 Peter iii. from the circumstance that they were converted
I6) seems to have had before him a number of to the Christian faith during the lifetime, and
Paul's letters, as, about forty years later, a number probably by the instrumentality, of the Apostles.
of letters of Ignatius were transmitted by Polycarp  Of Barnabas and the epistle which bears his name
to Smyrna, while the church of Philippi forwarded  we have already spoken at length [BARNABAS].
to him those directed to them (Ep. Poiic. sub fin.;  I. CLEMENT, or CLEMENS ROMANUS. It will
Euseb. Hist. Eccles. iii. 36). This Pauline collec- probably be generally admitted that no production, in contradistinction to the gospels, passed by  tion of the early church approaches so near the
the name of 6 aw60rorXos.                      apostolic writings, in the union of devout feeling
The letters of Paul may be chronologically   with justness and sobriety of thought, as that denoarranged into those written before his Roman im- minated the'First Epistle of Clement to the Corinprisonment, and those written during and after it: thians,' but addressed in the name of'the Church
thus beginning with his first letter to the Thessa- sojourning at Rome (j wrapoLKov-a'PcbSuzv) to the
lonians, and concluding with his second to Timo- Church of God sojourning at Corinth.' Eusebius
thy, embracing an interval of about ten years terms it,'great and wonderful' (J~ey\ciX  re Kal
(A.D. 54-64). In our Bibles, however, the letters Oavtaala), and states that in his own and former
are arranged according to the pre-eminent parts times it was read in most churches (Hist. Eccles.




EPISTLES                    811                 EPISTLES
iii. 16; iii. 38; iv. 22, 23).  Irenseus calls it the Corinthians; but though the Evangelists are
ticoLav-Wrrv ypCa~v,' a most powerful writing' not named, several sayings of Christ contained in
(Euseb. Hist. Eccles. v. 6). It is frequently quoted  our Gospels are repeated.  There arealso evident
by Clemens Alexandrinus (Strom. i. 7, sec. 38; allusions to the Acts, all the Pauline Epistles (I
Opera, ed. IKlotz, ii. p. 29), 6 a7r6oroXos KX,)?/s; Thessalonians excepted), the Epistles of Peter and
Strom. iv. I7, sec. 107; ii. p. 335; Strom. v. 12, James, and the Epistle to the Hebrews. A tabusec. 8; iii. p. 57; Strom. vi. 3, sec. 65; iii. p. 137. lar view of these passages is given by Dr. Lardner
The only known manuscript of this epistle is that (Credibility of the Gospel History, pt. ii. ch. ii.
appended to the celebrated Alexandrian Codex,   Works, vol. ii. pp. 35-53). Eusebius, speaking of
which was presented to Charles I. by Cyrillus   Clement's Epistle, says,'He has inserted in it
Lucaris, the patriarch of Constantinople.  The many sentiments taken from the Epistle to the
same manuscript contains also a fragment of the  Hebrews, and sometimes makes use of the identical
so-called second Epistle. They were first published  expressions, from which it is evident that that comat Oxford, in I633, by Patrick Young, the royal positionis not a recent one.
librarian.  Sir Henry Wotton re-examined the.. Paul having addressed the Hebrews in
manuscript, amended Young's copy in above eighty their native language, some say that the Evangelist
places, and published a very correct edition at Luke, and others that this very Clement, translated
Cambridge, in 1718.  Certain portions of the first the document; an opinion which is supported by
epistle have been thought to bear internal evidence  the fact, that the Epistle of Clement and that to
of spuriousness.  Bignonius, in a letter to Grotius, the Hebrews are marked by the same peculiarities
instances ch. xl., which relates to the presentation  of style, and in both compositions the sentiments
of offerings at set times, in which the word Xaic6s are not unlike' (Hist. Eccles. iii. 38, ed. Valessii,
occurs; and the epithet ancient (capxaav) applied  I672, p. IIo).
to the Corinthian church in ch. xlvii. Mosheim    As to the date of this epistle, it has been fixed
asserts that some passages are evidently taken from  by Grabe, Galland, Wotton, and Hefele, about the
Clement of Alexandria (Mosheim's Commentaries, year 68; but Cotelerius, Tillemont, and Lardner
transl. by Vidal, vol. i. p. 27I). The main object think that it was written at the close of the Dioof this epistle was to allay the dissensions which  cletian Persecution in 96 or 97. A passage in ch.
had arisen in the Corinthian church, and especially  xli., in which Clement speaks in the present tense
to repress the unruly spirit shewn by many against respecting the sacrifices of the Mosaic law, has
their teachers. It is worthy of notice that Clement been supposed to favour the earlier date; but Jouniformly speaks of the opposition of the Corin- sephus adopts the same phraseology in his Antithians against their presbyters, never of their in- quities, which were not finished till twenty years
subordination to their bishop: he inculcates sub- after the destruction of Jerusalem.
mission to the presbyters, but never to the bishop.  The first writer that notices the second Epistle
Comp. ch. xlvii., liv., lvii. In two other passages of Clement is Eusebius, who does not absolutely
the term 7rpeofprepoL appears to denote simply the pronounce it spurious, but says that it was less
elder members of the church, while the term 7yo0- known than the former, and not quoted by ancient
),.evot (Heb. xiii. 7, 17, 24) is used for their teachers writers (Hist. Eccles. iii. 38). Photius states deor superintendents.  Ch. i.,'Being subject to  cidedly that it was rejected as spurious.  It is only
those that have the rule over you' (rois  OVYVOU S  a fragment, and its style is rather homiletic than
WJ/zv),' and giving due honour to the aged among  epistolary. The Gospels are quoted several times
you' (rTOlS Trap' VIV 7rpea-UvrpoIs).  Ch. xxi.,'Let in it, more expressly than in the first Epistle, and
us honour those that are set over us' (rois Trpoiyov- there is one passage from an apocryphal writing
ue'vovs);'let us respect the aged that are among  called the Gospel according to the Egyptians (Lardus' (Trobs TpecapvTpovs);'let us instruct the young,' ner's Credibility, etc., part ii. ch. 3; Works, ii. 55).
etc. In ch. xlii. he speaks of bishops and deacons In I752, John James Wetstein published, at the
in a manner which shews that he considered the end of his edition of the Greek Testament, two
former as synonymous with presbyters:'They     epistles in Syriac (accompanied by a Latin transla(the Apostles) appointed their first-fruits to be tion), attributed to Clement, which were discovered
bishops and deacons (ministers, Abp. Wake's at the end of a manuscript of the Syriac N. T.
transl.) of those who should believe. Nor was this Immediately on their publication Dr. Lardner
any new thing, seeing that long before it was written  examined the evidence for their genuineness, and
concerning bishops and deacons.  For thus the gave the result of his inquiries in a Dissertation
Scripture, in a certain place, saith, I will appoint (Works, vol. x. pp. 186-212), to which we refer
their overseers (bishops, robs TrmOrK6bTovs), and their the reader, only remarking that the whole strain
ministers (deacons, robs &iaK6vovs) in faith.' It has of these compositions, and the allusions to preindeed been supposed that the bishop of the Corin- vailing practices, sufficiently indicate that they
thian church was deceased, and that the disorders were written long after Clement's time.
which Clement sought to repress broke out before  The following works have also been attributed
his successor was appointed.  But had this been  to Clement, but, as they are unquestionably supthe case, for which there is not the slightest evi- posititious, we shall merely give their titles. I. The
dence, it is almost incredible that no allusion should  Apostolic Constitutions, in eight books. 2. The
be made to it. The only legitimate inference ap- Apostolic Canons.  3. The Recognitions of Clepears to be,' that the original constitution of the ment. 4. The Clementina. They are all printed
church of Corinth still subsisted in Clement's time; in the Patres Apostolici of Cotelerius, vol. i.
the government was still vested not in one man, (Mosheim's Commentaries, translated by Vidal,
but in many' (Dr. Arnold's Sermons on the Chris- vol. i. pp. 270-274).
tian Life, Introduction, p. xlvi.)               2. IGNATIUS, according to Eusebius (Hist.
In Clement's Epistle only one book of the Eccles. iii. 36) and Origen (IHoZ. vi. in Luc.; Opera,
N. T. is expressly named, Paul's first Epistle to  ed. Lommatzsch, v. o14), the second bishop, or,




EPISTLES                   812                 EPISTLES
according to Jerome (De Fir. Illustr. xvi.), the  20), gives an interesting account of his early
third bishop of Antioch in Syria. Fifteen epistles recollections of Polycarp, and refers to the epistles
bear his name. Three of these (one addressed to  which he sent to the neighbouring churches. Only
the Virgin Mary, the other two to St. John) are one, however, has been preserved; it was addressed
preserved only in a Latin version. The rest are to the Philippians, and in Jerome's time was
extant in Greek and in an ancient Latin version, publicly read in the assembly of Asia-' Scripsit
and are addressed to Mary of Cassabolis or ad Philippenses valde utilem epistolam quse usque
Neapolis, to Hero, to the churches at Tarsus, hodie in Asize conventu legitur' (De Vir. Ilustr.
Antioch, Philippi, Ephesus, Magnesia, Trallium, c. I3). It is also mentioned by Eusebius (Hist.
Rome, Philadelphia, Smyrna, and to Polycarp. Eccles. iii. 36), who cites two passages from  it
The first eight are unanimously allowed to be  (sec. 8 and sec. 13) relating to Ignatius, and remarks
spurious.  Of the remaining seven (which were that it contains several quotations from the first
written on his journey from Antioch to Rome, epistle of Peter (Hist. Eccles. iv. 14). It is divided
where he suffered martyrdom by exposure to wild into fourteen sections, of which the first nine and
beasts), there are two recensions, one longer, the the thirteenth, preserved by Eusebius, are in the
other shorter. It has been warmly controverted  original Greek, and the rest only in an ancient
whether the longer epistles are interpolations of Latin Version. This version of the whole epistle
the shorter, or the shorter abridgments of the was first printed at Paris in 1498. Peter Halloix
longer.  Mr. Whiston contended earnestly in    published the epistle in Greek and Latin in 1633,
favour of the longer recension, including the from a copy sent by the Jesuit Sirmond to TurriEpistles to Tarsus, Antioch, and Hero, and     anus. Fourteen years after, Archbishop Ussher
attempted to prove that the smaller were only  obtained another copy, from which he prepared an
heretical extracts from them made in the fourth  edition in I647. An excellent edition, edited by
century.  He published both recensions, with   Sir Thomas Smith, appeared in 1709 (Hefele's
translations and various readings, in the first Patrum Apostolicorum Opera, p. xviii.; Lardner's
volume of his Primitive Christianity Revived, Credibility, pt. ii. ch. 6).
London, 1711, 5 vols. 8vo. The same opinion      4. The Shepherd of Hermas [HERMAS].has lately been maintained by Dr. Charles Meier J. E. R.
of the University of Giessen (Studien und Kritiken,
I836, p. 340), whose arguments have been met by  EPISTLES, SPURIOUS [APocRYPHA]. Of
Dr. Richard Rothe in an essay on the genuineness these many are lost, but there are several still
of the Ignatian Epistles appended to his work Die extant: the principal areAnfange der Christlichen Kirche und ihrer Vesfas-  The Epistle of Paul to the Laodiceans.
sung, Wittenberg, I837.    Lardner and most      The Third Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians.
modem critics adopt the shorter recension. Mo-   The Epistle of Peter to James.
sheim  expresses himself very doubtfully, and,   The Epistles of Paul and Seneca.
while he allows the seven epistles to have'some-  There was an Epistle to the Laodiceans extant
what of a genuine cast,' confesses that he is unable in the beginning of the second century, which was
to determine how much may be considered as received by Marcion; but whether this is the same
authentic (Commentaries, translated by Vidal, vol. with the one now extant in the Latin language is
i. pp. 276, 277). Dr. Neander, while he allows more than doubtful.'There are some,' says Jemany passages to bear the impress of antiquity, rome,'who read the Epistle to the Laodiceans, but
considers even the shorter recension to be grossly it is universally rejected.' The original epistle was
interpolated. The support which it was supposed  most probably a forgery founded on Col. iv. I6,
might be drawn from these epistles in favour of'And when this epistle is read among you, cause
episcopacy gave, on their publication, an exagge- that it be read also in the church of the Laodirated importance to the question of their genuine- ceans, and that ye likewise read the Epistle from
ness, and called forth the polemical skill of several Laodicea.'  The apparent ambiguity of these last
distinguished theologians of the seventeenth century.  words has induced some to understand St. Paul as
In I666 a work appeared by Dalloeus (Jean Daille), speaking of an epistle written by him to the Laodientitled, De Scriptis quce sub Dionysii Areopagitce ceans, which he advises the Colossians to procure
et Ignatii Antiocheni nominibus circumferuntur from Laodicea, and read to their church.'Some,'
Libri duo, in which he maintains that the Ignatian  says Theodoret,'imagine Paul to have written an
Epistles were forged at the close of the third, or at Epistle to the Laodiceans, and accordingly prothe beginning of the fourth century (c. xxxviii. p. duce a certain forged epistle; but the Apostle does
46I). In reply to this and other writers, Bishop  not say the Epistle to, but the Epistle from, the
Pearson published his celebrated Vindicice igna- Laodiceans.' Bellarmine, among the Roman Catiance, Cantab. I672, which was reprinted by   tholics, and among the Protestants Le Clerc and
Cotelerius in his edition of the Apostolic Fathers, others, suppose that the passage in Colossians revol. ii. pp. 251-444. (Wake's Genuine Epistles of fers to an epistle of St. Paul, now lost, and the
the Apostolical Fathers, London, I737, PP. xl.-li. Vulg. translation-earn quf  Laodiavensium  estpp. 60-128; Lardner's Credibility, pt. ii. ch. 5; seems to favour this view. Grotius, however, conWorks, vol. ii. pp. 73-94; Neander's Church Hist. ceives that the Epistle to the Ephesians is here
E. T. ii. 443 [Clarke's ed.]; Cureton, Corpus Ig- meant, and he is followed by Hammond, Whitby,
natianum, etc., 1847; Bunsen, Die 3 dchten und and Mill, and also by Archbishop Wake (Epistles
die 4 unachten Briefe des Ignatius, I847; Peter- of the Apostolic Fathers).  Theophylact, who is
mann, S. Ignatii Epp. coll. edd. Gr., verss. Syr; followed by Dr. Lightfoot, conceives that the
Armen. Lactt. 1849.)                           epistle alluded to is I Timothy.  Others hold it to
3. POLYCARP'S Epistle to the Philippians.  Ire- be I John, Philemon, etc. Mr. Jones conjectures
noeus, in a letter to Florinus the Valentinian, that the epistle now passing as that to the Laodipreserved in part by Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. v. ceans (which seems entirely compiled out of the




EPISTLES                   813                 ERASMUS
Epistle to the Philippians) was the composition of epistles.  Among those now universally rejected
some idle monk not long before the Reformation; are the well-known Epistle of Lentuhus to the
but this opinion is scarcely compatible with the fact Roman Senate, giving a description of the person
mentioned by Mr. Jones himself, that when Sixtus of Christ (Orthodoxographia, p. 2, Basil, I555;
of Sienna published his Bibliotheca Sancta (A.D. Fabrici Cod. Epig., 1719), and some pretended
I560), there was a very old manuscript of this epistle epistles of the Virgin Mary. One of these is said
in the library of the Sorbonne. This epistle was to be written in Hebrew, and addressed to the
first published by James Le Fevre of Estaples in Christians of Messina in Sicily, of which a Latin
15I7. It was the opinion of Calvin, Louis Capell, translation has been published, and its genuineness
and many others, that St. Paul wrote several gravely vindicated (Veritas Vindicata, 1692, fol.)
epistles besides those now extant. One of the It is dated from Jerusalem, in the 42d year'of
chief grounds of this opinion is the passage I Cor. our Son,' nones of July, Luna 17, Feria quinta.
v. 9. There is still extant, in the Armenian lan- The metropolitan church of our Lady of the Letter,
guage, an epistle from the Corinthians to St. Paul, at Messina, takes its name from the possession of
together with the Apostle's reply. This is con- this celebrated epistle, of which some have presidered by Mr. La Croze to be a forgery of the tended that even the autograph still exists. An
tenth or eleventh century, and he asserts that it epistle of the Virgin to the Florentines has been
was never cited by any one of the early Christian  also celebrated, and there is extant a pretended
writers. In this, however, he is mistaken, for this letter from the same to St. Ignatius, together with
epistle is expressly quoted as Paul's by St. Gregory his reply.-W. W.
the Illuminator in the third century, Theodore  E
Chrethenor in the seventh, and St. Nierses in the ER (; Sept. "p).. The eldest son of
twelfth. Neither of them, however, is quoted by Judah by the daughter of Shuah, a Canaanite
any ancient Greek or Latin writer (Henderson, (Gen. xxxviii. 3; Num. xxvi. 19). It is said'Er
On Inzspiration, p. 497. The passages are cited was wicked in the sight of the Lord,'* which proat length in Father Paschal Aucher's Armenian  bably intimates his having followed the abominable
and English Grammar, Venice, I819).           idolatries of his mother's race,'and the Lord slew
The Epistle of Peter to mames is a very ancient him' (Gen. xxxviii. 7). 2. The nephew of the
forgery. It was first published by Cotelerius, and preceding, son of his brother Shilah (I Chron. iv.
is supposed to have been a preface to the Preach- 2). 3. The son of Jose and father of Elmodad
ing of Peter, which was in great esteem among in our Lord's genealogy (Luke iii. 28).-W. L. A.
some of the early Christian writers, and is several
times cited as a genuine work by Clement of Alex-  ERAN (1l; Sept.'Eev), son of Shuthelah,
andria, Theodotus of Byzantium, and others. It eldest son of Ephraim and ancestor of the Eranites
was also made use of by the heretic Heracleon, in (Num. xxvi. 36). The Samar. and Syr. read with
the second century. Origen observes of it, that it the Sept. I for' in this name. No corresponding
is not to be reckoned among the ecclesiastical name occurs in the genealogy of Ephraim in I
books, and that it is neither the writing of Peter Chron. vii. 20.-W. L. A.
nor of any other inspired person. Mr. Jones conceives it to be a forgery of some of the Ebionites in  ERASMUS, DESIDERIUS, was born at Rotterthe beginning of the second century.          dam the 28th of October 1467, and died at Basel
The Epistles of Paul and Seneca consist of eight on the IIth or 12th July (O. S.) I536. His father's
pretended Latin letters from the philosopher Seneca name was Gerhard Praet; his mother was the
to St. Paul, and six from the lat      Seneca  daughter of a physician of Sevenbergen. They
Their antiquityis undoubted. St. Jerome had suchwere never marred.  He was called Gerhard after
an idea of the value of these letters that he was in- his father; and subsequently took the names of
duced to say,'I should not have ranked Seneca in  Desiderius and Erasmus, which, the first in Latin,
my catalogue of saints, but that I was determined the second in Greek, have a similar meaning to
to it by those Epistles of Paul to Seneca and   erhard in German  At the age of thirteen both
Seneca to Paul, which are read by many....his parents died, and he was ill-used by his guarHe was slain by Nero, two years before Peter and dian; hey misappropriated his property, and enPaul were honoured with martyrdom.' St. Augus-  avoured to force him into a monastery  He
tine also observes (Epistle to  acedonius) thatressted a long te but at length, in  486, he' Seneca wrote certain epistles to St. Paul, which entered a monastery at Stein, near to Gouda, and
are now read.' The epistles are also referred to in took the vows a year afterwards. The monastic
the spurious'Acts' of Linus, the first bishop of life, however, was repugnant to him, and he gladly
Rome after the Apostles. But these Acts are a accepted the post of secretary to the Archbishop of
manifest forgery, and were first alluded to by a Cambray, which his reputation for Latin scholarmonk of the eleventh century. The letters do not ip procured him. This was in 1492, and at the
appear to have been mentioned by any other an- same time he was ordained priest. At the expiracient writer; but it seems certain that those now  tio  of this time he went to study at Paris; but
extant are the same which were known to Jerome left in I497. His life after this was somewhat unand Augustine. The genuineness of these letters settled. Hevisited Holland, England (repeatedly),
has been maintained by some learned men, but by  and Italy; for some time he was professor of theofar the greater number reject them as spurious. logy and Greek at Cambridge, where he was the
Mr. Jones conceives them  to be a forgery of the instrument, if not of introducing, yet of establishfourth century, founded on Philip. iv. 22. Indeed,
there are few persons mentioned in the N. T., as  * There is a play on the words here, produced
companions of the Apostle, who have not had some by a transposition of the letters, which is lost in the
spurious piece or other fathered on them.     translation: Er (13)) was 31, etc. Of such the
These are the principal of the ancient forged  Hebrews were fond. [EDUCATION.]




ERASTUS                    814                  ERES
ing the latter in the English universities. In 51 6 his power over them; from which we may conhe was invited to the Low Countries, to the court clude that they previously existed. An ancient
of the king of Spain, afterwards Charles V., and  tradition,'which Jerome and others have followed,
was appointed royal counsellor without any particu- but which is against all probability, and has no
lar duties and with a pension. The rest of his life foundation to rest upon, identifies Erech with
was spent mostly at Basel or in the Netherlands. Edessa. Bochart, however, rather seeks the name
He left Basel in 1529 for Friburg, thinking himself in the Aracca or Aracha of the old geographers,
unsafe at Basel, in consequence of the religious ex- which was on the Tigris, upon the borders of Babycitement of the time and place. He fell ill at lonia and Susiana (Ptolemy, vi. 3; Ammian. MarFriburg, however, and returned to Basel in I535, cell. xxxiii. 6, 26).. This was probably the same
and died there the year after.               city which Herodotus (i. 185; vi. II9) calls ArErasmus was a voluminous writer. His contri- derikka, i. e., Great Erech. Rosenmiiller happily
butions to Biblical science entitle him to a place of conjectures that Erech probably lay nearer to Babyhonour in the ranks of those who have been its lon than Aracca; and this has been lately conpromoters. In I505 he published a translation of firmed by Col. Taylor, the British resident at Bagthe N. T. in Latin; and in 1516 he edited the first dad, who is disposed to find the site of the ancient
published edition of the N. T. in Greek, with a Erech in the great mounds of primitive ruins, indifLatin translation. Before this he had issued a ferently called Irak, Irka, and. Senkerah, by the
commentary on the Ist Psalm, published in I515, nomade Arabs; and sometimes El Asayiah,'the
which contained the important words,'Legant place of pebbles.' These mounds, which are now
et idiote legem domini quacumque lingua.' His surrounded by the almost perpetual marshes and
text of the Greek N. T. passed through five edi- inundations of the lower Euphrates, lie some miles
tions in his lifetime; in the third (1522) of east of that stream, about midway between the site
which he inserted I John v. 7, which he had on of Babylon and its junction with the Tigris. Some
critical grounds previously omitted. He had but have thought that the name of Erech may be preone MS. for the Apocalypse, and this being defec- served in that of Irak (izak-Arabi), which is given
tive at the end, he translated the missing verses to the region enclosed by the two rivers, in the
from the Vulg.  This MS. he borrowed from    lower part of their course.-J. K.
Reuchlin, but did not return it. It was long supposed to be lost, but has been recently discovered  ERES or ~ERES (tI) occurs in numerous
in the library of the princely house of CEttingen-  ocrir, b
Wallenstein at Maylungen in Bavaria. He wrote places of Scripture, but authors are not agreed on
also Adnotationes in Nov. Test., Basil, 1522; and the exact meaning of the term: Celsius (Hierobot.
Paraphrases in N. T. So highly were these latter i. Io6, sq.), for instance, conceives that it is a general
name for the pine tribe, to the exclusion of the
esteemed in England, that by an order in council,name for the  ine  ie, to the exclusionof the
every parish church was obliged to possess a copy ced  ofb   he wo   oh, considers to be  diof a translation of them. The position of Erasmuscated by the  ord Berosh   The majority of au
thors, however, are of opinion that the cedar of
in the great religious conflict of his age was some- thors, however, are of opinion that the cedar of
what ambiguous;* neither by Romanists nor by Lebanon (Pinus Cedrus or Cedrus Libani of BotanLutherans was he trusted. Withouthaving courageists) is alone intended. The discrepancy of opinion
Lutherans was he trusted. Without having courage has on this occasion, however, arisen from the
to identify himself with the Reformation movement, dou  whthes ocas, n the er,  arisen f om te
he yet in various ways contributed greatly to help  Sctu whe re inccu, is a  s us passges 
it forward. His great service to the church as well s   sigiici where it occurs,  i i ways used in the
as to society, was the impulse he gave, and the sane  signification; that s, whether it is always
great assistance his works contributed, towards tendedto          one      ular kind of the
sound learning and criticism. The best edition of pine tribe, or whether it is not sometimes used
his works is that published at Basel in 1540-41 in generically. In the latter case others of the pine
9 vols. folio. They have been reprinted with some tribe appear to be  tended alon with te cedar of
additions, but not so accurately, at Leyden, inLebanon, and not to its exclusion, as advocated by
i703-i706 in 0 ols. folio         the learned Celsius. We are disposed to think that
1703-17o6, in Io vols. folio.
17 76, in 0 volsfoliothe different passages in which Eres occurs authoERASTUS ("EpacTrros), a Corinthian, and one rise our considering it a general term, applied to
of Paul's disciples, whose salutations he sends from  different species.
Corinth to the Church at Rome as those of'the  But before proceeding to compare these passages
chamberlain of the city' (Rom. xvi. 23). The with one another, it will be desirable to ascertain
words so rendered (olKov6bios rS 7r6Xews; Vulg. its modern acceptation, as well as the meaning
arcarius civitatis) denote the city treasurer or which it bears in Arabic works on Materia Medica.
steward, an officer of great dignity in ancient In these such terms are generally used in a more
times (comp. Joseph. Antiq. vii. 8. 2). We find precise sense than in general works, the authors
this Erastus with Paul at Ephesus, whence he was of which are usually unacquainted with the correct
sent along with Timothy into Macedonia (Acts xix. appellation of the products of nature.
22). They were both with the apostle at Corinth  In the first place there is no doubt that the name
when he wrote, as above, from that city to the             is, att  es     day, applied to the
Romans: at a subsequent period Erastus was still ar or         the present day, applied to the
at Corinth (2 Tim. iv. 20), which would seem to cedar of Lebanon by the Arabs in the neighbourhave been the usual place of his abode.-J. K.  hood. Mr. Harmer, on Canticles v. I5, observes
ERECH  Se   ) oe of te cs that the country people near the mountain call the
ERECH (;       Sept.'Opxv), one of the cities cedar ars, which is very nearly the original name.
which formed the beginning of Nimrod's kingdom  But the same name appears to be applied also to
in the plain of Shinar (Gen. x. I6). It is not said others of the pine tribe: thus' at Aleppo the firthat he built these cities, but that he established tree is included under the name ars' (Niebuhr, as




ERES                    815                   ERES
quoted by Rosenmiiller, Bibl. Bot. p. 246). So we  Frugifera non floret: et in ea antecedentem frucfind the term alerce, that is al-arz, applied by the turn occupat novus. Semen ejus cupresso simile.
Arabs to a coniferous plant, a native of Mount Quidam cedrelaten vocant. Ex hac resina laudaAtlas, and of other uncultivated hills on the coast of tissima' (Hist. Nat. xiii. i ). The conclusion of
Africa. The wood-work of the roof of the cele- this passage, as translated by Holland, is,'-and
brated mosque, now the cathedral, of Cordova, the timber of it is everlasting: wherefore in old
which was built in the ninth century, has been  time they were wont to make the images of the
proved to be formed' of the wood of this tree gods of this wood, as it appeareth by the statue of
(Loudon's Arboret. p. 2463). From alerce the Apollo Sosianus, made of cedar wood brought
English name larch is supposed to have been derived. If we consult Persian works on Materia
Medica, we find the name aras or orns given as a.-'.*^
synonyme of abhul, which is a species of juniper:
so, again, oosuz is described as duruzkht sunoburbe
bzr, that is,' the pine-tree without fruit;' sunobur 
appearing as the general term for pine-trees, which
are distinguished by the name of sunobur suztgar,.:*H';'the lesser pine,' called also ltnoob, and sunobur'      "'_ — t
kubar,'the larger pine:' of this are given, as   -;...
synonymes, nazov and chilghozah, which is the
Pinus Gerardiana of Botanists. With the Arabs,:                            i:.
as quoted by Celsius, 1. c p. I07:  i (arz) nomen  |      -
generale est ad pini species designandas;' and he  -.>
further quotes Abu'l Fadli, as stating,'Arz est "
arbor zanaubar (pinus) cujus, quoad omnes ejus   ^ ^' 
species, mentionem faciemus sub lit. Z. si Deus...^;'::'.,<
volet.-Loco condicto hoc modo pergit: Zanaubar....
(pinus) est arbor magna. Gignitur in montibus,              d       -
et regionibus frigidis. Ejus tres sunt species, mas 
nempe, et foemina major, atque minor.' It is not rie-.   r   6t
cessary for us on the present occasion to determine,                          - _
what are the species intended by the Arabian authors.
They no doubt sometimes follow Dioscorides, and              -     -'  -
at other times insert names and descriptions which         236 Cedar of Lebanon.
will apply only to the species indigenous in the
mountains of Persia. Different species of pine, from Seleucia.' Again (xvi. 39),'as for cedars,
therefore, will be adduced as the kinds intended, the best simply be those tat grow in Candia,
in different countries. We may also remark, as Africke, and Syrie. This vertue hath the oile of
stated by Celsius, that the translators of the sacred  cedar, that if any wood or timber be thoroughly
Scriptures into Arabic sometimes use the term  anointed therewith it is subject neither to worm
sunobar, sometimes arz, as the representative -of nor moth, nor yet to rottennesse.' The greater
eres.                                         part of this account of the different kinds of cedar
Rosenmuiller states that'the word eres, which is adopted from Theophrastus (iii. I2); though,
occurs so frequently in the 0. T., is, bythe ancient no doubt, the latter was also acquainted with a
translators, universally rendered cedar' (Ke'pos). large cedar, as appears from lib. v. c. 9, where,
Therefore it has been inferred by him, as well asspeaking of Syria, he says,'Illic enim cedri in
others, that the cedar of Lebanon must be in- montibus, cum longitudine, tum crassitudine prle-.tended: but the name does not appear to have stantissimae nascuntur.' Quintus Curtius also uses
been applied specially to this tree by the ancients. the term KeSpos in a general sense, when he says
Thus the K48pos of Dioscorides is supposed by  of the palace of Persepolis,'multa cedro aedifiSprengel, in his edition of that author, to be a spe- cata erat regia.'
cies ofjuniper, and Dr. Lindley, the editor of the last  If we proceed to compare the several passages
numbers of Sibthorpe's Flor Grceca, agrees with  of Scripture in which the word Eres occurs, we
him:' KepoS, juniperus oxycedrus, vel potius J. shall equally find that one plant is not strictly
Phcenicea, secunldum Sprengelium, cuiassentio, Ke-applicable to them  all. The earliest notice of
6pos /lUKpd, juniperus communis.' J. oxycedrus is the cedar is in Lev. xiv. 4, 6, where we are told
the brown-berried juniper, and J. Phcenicea is the that Moses commanded the leper that was to be
Phoenician juniper or cedar, while J. Lycia, the cleansed to make an offering of two sparrows,
Lycian juniper or cedar, is cedrus Phcenicea alteracedar-wood, wool dyed in scarlet, and hyssop;
Plinii et Theophrasti.  These have already been and in ver. 49, 51, 52, the houses in which the
mentioned under the article BEROSH.           lepers dwell are directed to be purified with the
Pliny, speaking of the plants of Syria, says, same materials. Again, in Num. xix. 6, Moses'Juniperi similem  habent Phcenices et cedrum  and Aaron are commanded to sacrifice a red heiminorem. Duo ejus genera, Lycia et Phoenicia, fer:'And the priest shall take cedar-wood, and
differunt folio: nam quoe durum, acutum, spino- hyssop, and scarlet.' As remarked by Lady Callsum habet, oxycedros vocatur, ramosa et nodis cott (Scrip. Herbal, p. 92),'The cedar was not a
infesta: altera odore priestat.  Fructum  ferunt native of Egypt, nor could it have been procured
myrti magnitudine, dulcem sapore.  Et majoris in the desert without great difficulty; but the junicedri duo genera: quze floret, fructum non fert. per is most plentiful there, and takes deep root in




ERES                     816                   ERES
the crevices of the rocks of Mount Sinai.' That sel, in 1829, and which he had made into a small
some, at least, of the cedars of the ancients were piece of furniture, presented a surface compact,
a species of juniper is evident from the passages agreeably veined, and variously shaded, and which,
we have quoted; the wood of most of them is on the whole, may be considered handsome (Hist.
more or less aromatic. The ancients, it may be du Cedre, p. 43). But Dr. Pococke, who brought
remarked, threw the berries of the juniper on  away a piece of one of the large cedars which had
funeral piles, to protect the departing spirit from  been blown down by the wind, says that the wood
evil influences, and offered its wood in sacrifice to does not differ in appearance from white deal, and
the infernal gods, because they believed its pre- that it does not appear to be harder. Varennes de
sence was acceptable to them. They also burned  Feuille considers it as the lightest of the resinous
it in their dwelling-houses to keep away demons. woods, and he adds that it contains very little
It is curious that, in the remote parts of the Hima- resin; that its grain is coarse, and that he thinks
layan Mountains, another species of this genus is the wood can neither be so strong nor so durable
similarly employed, as the present writer has men- as it has the reputation of being. Mr. Louden
tioned elsewhere (Himalayan Botany, p. 350): says (foc. cii.) that a table which Sir J. Banks had'Here there is also another species, 7uniperus made out of the Hillingdon cedar was soft, withreligiosa, Royle, called gogul by the natives, and out scent (except that of common deal), and posemployed for burning as incense in their religious sessed little variety or veining; and the same receremonies.'                                  marks will apply to a table which Mr. L. had
At a later period we have notices of the various made from a plank which is referred to as having
uses to which the wood of the eres was applied, been kindly presented to him by J. Gostling, Esq.
as 2 Sam. v. II; vii. 2-7; I Kings v. 6, 8, Io; of Whitton Park. Dr. Lindley (Gardeners' Chrovi. 9, 10, 15, i6, I8, 20; vii. 2, 3, 7, II, 12; ix. nicle, vol. i. p. 699), calls it'the worthless, though
II; x. 27; I Chron. xvii. 6; 2 Chron. ii. 8; ix. magnificent cedar of Mount Lebanon.' A corre27; xxv. 18. In these passages we are informed spondent, however, at p. 733, says,'Mr. Wilcox
of the negociations with Hiram, King of Tyre, of Warwick, a most ingenious and skilful carver
for the supply of cedar-trees out of Lebanon, and  (in his works little inferior to the celebrated Gibof the uses to which the timber was applied in  bons), has now in his rooms some specimens of
the construction of the Temple, and of the king's furniture made of cedar of Lebanon, ornamented
palace; he' covered the house with beams and  with carved work, in flowers, leaves, etc. etc., in
boards of cedar;''the walls of the house within the best taste, and in sharpness and colour so
were covered with boards of cedar;' there were similar to box-wood that any common observer' cedar pillars,' and'beams of cedar;' and the would mistake it to be such.' In reply to this Dr.
altar was of cedar. In all these passages the word  Lindley adds,' The fact last mentioned is the first
eres is employed, for which the Arabic translation, that has come to our knowledge of the cedar of
according to Celsius (loc. cit.), gives sunobar as the Lebanon having been found of important use.'
synonyme. There is nothing distinctive stated re- He is of opinion that some of the cedar-trees sent
specting the character of the wood, from which  by Hiram, king of Tyre, may have been obtained
we might draw any certain conclusion, further from Mount Atlas, and may have been the produce
than that, from the selection made and the con- of the above Alerce or Al Arz-the Callitris quadstant mention of the material used, it may be fairly rivalvis-which no doubt furnished the ancients
inferred that it must have been considered as well with one of their most valued woods [THYINE].
fitted, or rather, of a superior quality, for the pur- This is hard, durable, and fragrant, and commonly
pose of building the Temple and palace. From  used in religious buildings in the East.' Though
this, however, proceeds the difficulty in admitting we have seen both temples and palaces built enthat what we call the cedar of Lebanon was the tirely with one kind of cedar (that of the Cedrus
only tree intended by the name Eres. For modern  Deodara), we think it more probable that, as the
experience has ascertained that its wood is not of timber had to be brought from a distance, where
a superior quality. To determine this point, we all the kinds of cedar grew, the common pine-tree
must not refer to the statements of those who take and the cedar of Lebanon would both furnish
their descriptions from writers who, indeed, de- some of the timber required for the building of the
scribe cedar-wood, but do not prove that it was Temple, together with juniper cedar. The name
derived from the cedar of Lebanon.  The term  arz, as we have seen, is applied by the Arabs to' cedar' seems to have been as indefinite in ancient all three; and they would give all the qualities of
as in modern times. Now we find it applied to timber that could be required. We have shewn
the wood of 7uni perus virginiana, which is red or that the KieSpos of the ancients was most probably
pencil cedar; and to that of J. Bermudiana or the wood of a juniper.  Celsius was of opinion
Bermuda cedar. J. oxycedrus yields the cedar of that the eres indicated the Pinus sylvestris or Scotch
the north of Spain and south of France, but the pine, which yields the red and yellow deals of
term is also applied to many other woods, as to  Norway, and which is likewise found on Mount
white cedar, that of Melia Azedarach; and Indian  Lebanon. This opinion seems to be confirmed by
cedar, that of Cedrela Toona.                 Ezek. xxvii. 5,'They have made all thy ship
Mr. Loudon, in his Arboretum (p. 2417), de- boards of fir-trees of Senir, they have taken cedars
scribes it thus:'The wood of the cedar is of a from Lebanon to make masts for thee.' For it is
reddish white, light and spongy, easily worked, not probable that any other tree than the common
but very apt to shrink and warp, and by no means pine would be taken for masts, when this was produrable.' But when the tree is grown on moun- curable, since even in the present day' Pallas
tains, the annual layers of wood are much nar- assures us that the pine of Livonia and Lithuania
rower, and the fibre much finer than when it is differs not from the Pinus sylvestris; masts, he
grown on plains; so much so that a piece of cedar- says,. are not made of any peculiar species, as
wood brought from Mount Lebanon by Dr. Pari- foreigners, and more especially the French, think;




ERES                    817                 ERNESTI
but they are all of the Pinus sylvestris' (Loudon, proportion to the trunk, being disposed in distinct
Arboret. p. 2158).                           layers or stages, and the distance to which they
Though Celsius appears to us to be quite right extend diminishes as they approach the top, where
in concluding that eres, in some of the passages they form a pyramidal head, broad in proportion
of Scripture, refers to the pine-tree, yet it seems to its height. The branchlets are disposed in a
equally clear that there are other passages to which flat fan-like manner on the branches. The leaves,
this tree will not answer. It certainly appears im- produced in tufts, are straight, about one inch
probable that a tree so remarkable for the magnifi- long, slender, nearly cylindrical, tapering to a
cence of its appearance as the cedar of Lebanon point, and are on short footstalks. The male catshould not have been noticed in the Sacred Scrip- kins are single, solitary, of a reddish hue, about
tures; and this would be the case if we applied two inches long, terminal, and turning upwards.
eres exclusively to the pine, and berosh to the The female catkins are short, erect, roundish, and
cypress. If we consider some of the remaining rather oval; they change after fecundation into
passages of Scripture, we cannot fail to perceive oval, oblong cones, which, when they approach
that they forcibly apply to the cedar of Lebanon, maturity, become from 2' inches to 5 inches long.
and to the cedar of Lebanon only. Thus, in Ps. Every part of the cone abounds with resin, which
xcii. 12, it is said,'The righteous shall flourish  sometimes exudes from between the scales. Belike a palm-tree, and spread abroad like a cedar of lon, who travelled in Syria about I550, found the
Lebanon.' It has been well remarked'that the cedars about 28 in number, in a valley on the sides
flourishing head of the palm and the spreading of themountains. Rauwolf, who visited the cedars
abroad of the cedar are equally characteristic.' in 1574,' could tell no more but 24, that stood
But the prophet Ezekiel (ch. xxxi.) is justly ad- round about in a circle; and two others, the
duced as giving the most magnificent and, at the branches whereof are quite decayed from age.'
same time, the most graphic description of this De la Roque, in I688, found but 20. Maundrell,
celebrated tree: (ver. 3),'Behold, the Assyrian in 1696, found them reduced to I6; and Dr. Powas a cedar in Lebanon with fair branches, and cocke, who visited Syria I744 and 1745, discovered
with a shadowing shroud, and of an high stature; only 15.  One of these, that had the soundest
and his top was among the thick boughs.' (ver. 5), body, though not the largest, measured 24 feet in' Therefore his height was exalted above all the circumference, and another, with a sort of triple
trees of the field, and his boughs were multiplied, body, and of a triangular figure, measured 12 feet
and his branches became long, because of the mul- on each side.' The wood,' he says,' does not
titude of waters:' (ver. 6),'All the fowls of heaven differ from white deal in appearance, nor does it
made their nests in his boughs, and under his seem to be harder. It has a fine smell, but is not
branches did all the beasts of the field bring forth so fragrant as the juniper of America, which is
their young.' In this description, Mr. Gilpin has commonly called cedar, and it also falls short of it
well observed,'the principal characteristics of the in beauty. I took a piece of the wood from a
cedar are marked; first, the multiplicity and length great tree that was blown down by the wind, and
of its branches. Few trees divide so many fair left there to rot. There are 15 large ones standbranches from the main stem, or spread over so ing.' Mr. Buckingham, in 1825, says,'Leaving
large a compass of ground.'His boughs are Biskerry on our right, we ascended for an hour over
multiplied,' as Ezekiel says,'and his branches light snow, until we came to the Arz-el ibinien,
become long,' which David calls'spreading abroad. or the cedars of Lebanon.' M. Laure, who, in
His very boughs are equal to the stem of a fir or company with the Prince de Joinville visited the
a chestnut.  The second characteristic is what cedars in 1836, calls them EZ-Herze. M. LamarEzekiel, with great beauty and aptness, calls his tine, in 1832, says,' These trees diminish in every
shadowing shroud. No tree in the forest is more succeeding age. Travellers formerly counted 30
remarkable than the cedar for its close-woven leafy or 40; more recently, 17; more recently still only
canopy. Ezekiel's cedar is marked as a tree of 12. There are now but 7. These, however, from
full and perfect growth, from the circumstance of their size and general appearance, may be fairly
its'top being among the thick boughs.' The other presumed to have existed in Biblical times. Around
principal passages in which the cedar is mentioned these ancient witnesses of ages long since past,
are I Kings iv. 33; 2 Kings xix. 23; Job xl. I7; there still remains a little grove of yellow cedars,
Ps. xxix. 5; Ixxx. 10; xcii. 12; civ. 16; cxlviii. appearing to me to form a group of from 400 to
9; Cant. i. I7; v. 15; viii. 9; Is. ii. 13; ix. I0; 500 trees or shrubs. Every year, in the month of
xiv. 8; xxxvii. 24; xli. I9; xliv. I4; Jer. xxii. June, the inhabitants of Beschierai, of Eden, of
7, 14, 23; Ezek. xvii. 3, 22, 23; Amos ii. 9; Kandbin, and the other neighbouring valleys and
Zeph. ii. I4; Zech. xi. I, 2; and in the Apocry- villages, climb up to these cedars, and celebrate
pha, I Esdras iv. 48; v. 55; Ecclus. xxiv. 13; 1. mass at their feet. How many prayers have reI2; but it would occupy too much space to adduce sounded under these branches, and what more
further illustrations from them of what indeed is beautiful canopy for worship can exist!'-J. F. R.
the usually admitted opinion.
It is however necessary, before concluding, to  ERI (V.; Sept.'Agels2; A.'ASs). Asonof
give some account of this celebrated tree, as noticed  Gad (Gen. xlvi. I6).
by travellers in the East, all of whom make
a pilgrimage to its native sites.  The cedar of  ERNESTI, JOHANN AUGUST, a distinguished
Lebanon is well known to be a widely-spreading philologist and theologian of the I8th century,
tree, generally from 50 to 80 feet high, and when  was born at Tennstddt in Thiiringen, August 4th,
standing singly, often covering a space with its I707. After being at Schulpforta, he studied at
branches, the diameter of which is much greater Wittenberg and Leipzig. In the latter place he
than its height. The horizontal branches, when became professor of ancient literature, I742. In
the tree is exposed on all sides, are very large in  1756 he was appointed professor of eloquence; in
VOL. 1.                                                                       3 G




ERPENIUS                    818                   ESAU
1758 doctor and professor of theology, and subse- den, I615, 4to; Pentateuchus Mosis Arabice,
quently canon (Domherr) at Meissen. He died    1622, 4to; Historia yosephi Patriarchre ex AlcorIIth September I78I. The chief of his theologi- ano, Leyden, 1617, 4to; Psalmi Davidis Syriace,
cal writings is his Institutio interpretis Novi Testa- 1625, 4to; Grammatica Arabica dicta Giarumia
menti, 1761; a fifth edition, with remarks by Am- etc. cum versione latina et comm. 1617, 4to; Elmon, appeared in 1809.    This work is distin- macin's Historia Saracinica, Arabic and Latin,
guished by its classical diction and terseness. of which, however, he had not completed the
Though many things belonging to the departments printing, when he died, and which was afterwards
of introduction and criticism are brought into it, edited by Golius, Leyd. 1625, fol.
the popularity of the book is shewn by the number
of editions it passed through, and by its transla- ESAR-HADDON.      [ASSYRIA.]
tions into English.  It put grammatical interpreta-  ESAU  ('P   Sept.'Ho-). The origin and
tion on a sure foundation.  He also edited andand
wrote most of the Neue theologische Bibliothek, Io  meaning of the name are not quite free from ambivols. 8vo, 1760-69; and Die neiieste theologische guity.  Simon, deriving the word from'Y,
Bibliot/zek, 4 vols. 8vo, 1773-79. His Opuscula texit, renders it pilis opertus (covered with hair),
Philologico-critica, 1764, 1777, are partly theolo- and some such reason as this implies, seems ingical, partly philological. Ernesti's influence upon  volved in the passage Gen. xxv. 25.  Cruden,
theology was far-reaching in his own time and that however, explains the name as meaning one who
immediately following.  His stand-point was a does (qui facit), an actor or agent.  His surname
conservative one. Yet his strength lay in philology, of Edom  (red) was given him, it appears (Gen.
not in exegetical theology. Hence he will be best xxv. 30) from the red pottage which he asked
remembered by his editions of the classics, espe- of Jacob. Esau was the eldest son of' Isaac,
cially that of Cicero.-S. D.                   Abraham's son' (Gen. xxv. 19) by Rebekah,' the
daughter of Bethuel the Syrian of Padan-aram,
ERPENIUS (ERPEN), THOMAS, one of the the sister to Laban the Syrian.' The marriage
most celebrated Oriental scholars, was born at remaining for some time (about I9 years; comGorkum in Holland, on the 7th of September pare xxv. 20, 26) unproductive, Isaac entreated
1584. Having completed his elementary educa- Jehovah, and she became pregnant. Led by pecution at the schools of Leyden and Middeldorf, he, liar feelings' to inquire of Jehovah,' Rebekah was
at an early age, devoted himself to the study of informed that she should give birth to twins, whose
Oriental languages.  Having spent a year at the fate would be as diverse as their character, and,
University of Leyden, he left it, honoured with  what in those days was stranger still, that the
the dignity of Magister, in order to visit foreign  elder should serve the younger.  On occasion of
universities and libraries.  After his return to his her delivery the child that was born first was
native country in 1612, he was elected, in the fol-'red, all over like an hairy garment; and they
lowing year, to the chair of Oriental Languages called his name Esau.' Immediately afterwards
at the University of Leyden, and, as the especial Jacob was born.
professorship of Hebrew was not then vacant, a   In process of time the different natural endowsecond chair for Hebrew was founded for him in  ments of the two boys began to display their effects
1619, in order that he might be able to teach that in dissimilar aptitudes and pursuits. While Jacob
language also publicly.  Appointed Oriental in- was led by his less robust make and quiet dispositerpreter to the States-General, he still further ex- tion to fulfil the duties of a shepherd's life, and
tended his linguistic knowledge, and such was the pass his days in and around his tent, Esau was
mastery he acquired in reading and writing the East- impelled, by the ardour and lofty spirit which
ern idioms, chiefly Arabic, that Eastern princes are agitated his bosom, to seek in the toils, adventures,
said to have expressed their highest admiration for and perils of the chase, his occupation and sustethe purity and elegance of diction to be found in his nance: and, as is generally the case in natures like
foreign letters. Many and tempting were the offers his, he gained high repute by his skill and daring.
with which Erpenius himself was honoured by      A hunter's life is of necessity one of uncertainty
foreign princes and learnedbodies; but herejected  as well as hardship; days pass in which the
them all, fully satisfied with his sphere in his own greatest vigilance and the most strenuous exercountry. A contagious fever cut his life short in tions may fail even to find, much less capture,
his fortieth year, I3th November 1624. The most game.  Esau had on one occasion experienced
meritorious of his many works is undoubtedly his such a disappointment, and, wearied with his unArabic Grammar, which first appeared in 1613   productive efforts, exhausted for want of suste(Grammatica Arabica, 4to), and which, up to nance, and despairing of capturing any prey, he
within a comparatively recent time, has held al- was fain to turn his steps to his father's house for
most undisputed sway.   It has been often re- succour in his extremity. On reaching home he
edited, with additions by Deusing (1636), Golius found his brother enjoying a carefully prepared
(I656), Schultens (1748), Morss (I796), etc. He dish of pottage: attracted by the odour of which
also wrote Gramm. Ebrcea generalis, Leyden     he besought Jacob to allow him to share in the
1621, often reprinted; and a Gramm. Syra et meal. His brother saw the exigency in which Esau
Chald&ca, edited by C. l'Empereur, after the was, and determined not to let it pass unimproved.
author's death, Amsterdam, 1628. It cannot be Accordingly, he puts a price on the required food.
said that he reached the same eminence in these Esau was the elder, and had in consequence imbranches of Semitic as he did in Arabic.  Other munities and privileges which were of high value.
contributions to linguistic and Biblical literature  The surrender of these to himself Jacob makes the
are three orations, De linguarnm ebrcee e ara- condition of his complying with Esau's petition.
bicce dignitate, published together in 1621, 4to; Urged by the cravings of hunger, alarmed even
Pauli Apost. ad Romanos Epistola, arabice, Ley- by the fear of instant death, Esau sold his birth



ESAU                    819                  ESDRAS
right to his younger brother, confirming the con- deserve. What then must have been his surprise,
tract by the sanction of an oath. Jacob having when he saw Esau running with extended arms to
thus got his price, supplied the famishing Esau with greet and embrace him? and Esau' fell on his
needful refreshments.                        neck, and kissed him, and they wept.' Jacob had
Arrived now at years of maturity, Esau, when prepared a present for Esau, hoping thus to con40 years of age, married two wives, Judith and ciliate his favour; but, with the generous ardour
Bashemath, both of whom were Canaanites, and, which characterises, and somewhat of the disinteron account of their origin, were unacceptable to estedness which adorns, natures like his, Esau at
Isaac and Rebekah, especially the latter (Gen. first courteously refused the gift-' I have enough,
xxvii. 46). Esau thus became alienated from the my brother, keep that thou hast unto thyself' (Gen.
parental home, and the way was in some measure xxxiii.)
smoothed for the transference of the coveted birth-  The whole of this rencontre serves to shew, that
right to the younger son.                    if Jacob had acquired riches, Esau had gained
The time for the fulfilment of the compact be- power and influence as well as property; and the
tween the brothers at length arrived.  Isaac is homage which is paid to him indirectly, and by' sick unto death.' His appetite, as well as his implication, on the part of Jacob, and directly, and
strength, having failed, is only to be gratified in the most marked and respectful manner by the
by provocatives. He desires some savoury veni- females and children of Jacob's family, leads to the
son, and gives the requisite instructions to Esau, supposition that he had made himself supreme in
who accordingly proceeds in quest of it.  On the surrounding country of Idummea.
this Rebekah begins to feel that the critical time  Esau from this time appears but very little in
has come. If the hated Hittites are not to enter the sacred narrative. He was ready to accompany
with her less favoured son into possession of the Jacob, or to send with him an escort, probably for
family property, the sale of the birthright (the protection, but Jacob's fears and suspicions inoriginal idea of which she may have suggested to duced him to decline these friendly offers; and
the'plain man,' her son Jacob) must now in they separated on the same day that they met,
some way be confirmed and consummated. One after an interview in which Jacob's bearing is rather
essential particular remained-the father's blessing. that of an inferior to his lord than that of a brother,
If this should be given to Esau, all hope was and Esau's has all the generousness which a high
gone; for this, like our modern wills, would hand nature feels in forgiving an injury, and aiming to
the inheritance and the accompanying headship of do good to the injurer. The latter, we are merely
the tribe to Esau and his wives. Isaac, however, told,' returned on his way to Seir' (Gen. xxxiii. I6).
had lost his sight-indeed all his senses were dull  Jacob and Esau appear together again at the
and feeble. It was therefore not very difficult to funeral rites which were paid to their deceased
pass off Jacob upon him as Esau. Rebekah takes father; but the book of Genesis furnishes no parher measures, and, notwithstanding Jacob's fears, ticulars of what took place.
succeeds. Isaac, indeed, is not without suspicion,  Esau is once more presented to us (Gen. xxxvi.)
but a falsehood comes to aid Jacob in his otherwise in a genealogical table, in which a long line of
discreditable personation of Esau. The blessing is illustrious descendants is referred to' Esau, the
pronounced, and thus the coveted property and father of the Edomites' (Gen. xxxvi. 43). [IDUascendency are secured. The affectionate endear- MEA. Respecting Esau's wives, see BASHEMATH.]
ments which pass between the deceiver and the -J. R. B.
abused old blind father, stand in painful contrast
with the base trickery by which mother and son  ESDRAELON, PLAIN OF.         JEZREEL.]
had accomplished their end.                    ESDRAS is the Greek ("Ea-pas) for Ezra the
Esau, returning from the field, found that he famous scribe and priest [EZRA] which is used in
had been deprived for ever of his birthright, in our English version of the Apocrypha instead of
virtue of the irrevocable blessing, and but too  Ezra (I Esd. viii. I, 3, 7, 8, 9, I9, 23, 25, 9I, 92,
naturally conceived and entertained a hatred of 96; ix. I, 7, 6, 39, 40, 42, 45, 46, 49; 2 Esd. i.
Jacob, and even formed a resolution to seize the  I ii. Io, 33, 42; vi. IO  vii. 2, 25  viii. 2, 19;
opportunity for slaying him, which the days of xiv. I, 38). By thisGreekformof the name,theA.
mourning consequent on the approaching decease V., following the Geneva Bible, also designates the
of their father would be likely to afford. Words apocryphal books of Ezra, to distinguish them from
to this effect, which Esau let drop, were repeated the canonical volume. But this is simply arbitrary,
to his mother, who thereupon prevailed on her as all other English translations, as well as the
younger son to flee to his uncle Laban, who lived ancient versions, and the translations of the rein Haran, there to remain till time, with its formers on the Continent, have rightly one form for
usual effect, might have mitigated Esau's wrath. both.-C. D. G.
Meanwhile Esau had grown powerful in Idumaea,
and when, after many years, Jacob intended to  ESDRAS, THE FIRST BOOK OF, is the first of
return within the borders of the Jordan, he feared the Apocryphal books in the English translations of
lest his elder brother might intercept him on his the Bible (viz., Coverdale, Matthews, Taverner,
way, to take revenge for former injuries.  He the Geneva Bible, Cranmer's Bible, the Bishops'
accordingly sent messengers to Esau, in order, if Bible, the A. V.), which follow Luther and the
possible, to disarm his wrath.  Esau appears to translators of the Zurich version, who were the
have announced in reply, that he would proceed to first that separated the apocryphal from the canonimeet his returning brother. When, therefore, Jacob  cal books. It must, however, be observed that
was informed that Esau was on his way for this Luther himself never translated the apocryphal
purpose with a band of four hundred men, he was portions of Ezra, because he regarded them as ungreatly distressed, in fear of that hostility which  worthy of a place amongst the apocrypha (see behis conscience told him he had done something to low, sec. 5).




ESDRAS                     820                 ESDRAS
I. The Title and Position of the Book.-This book  to rebuild Jerusalem and return the sacred vessels
has different titles. In some editions of the Sept. it when he ascended the throne (43-47). The king
is called 6'Iepc6s, the Priest (Cod. Alex.), which is stood up, kissed Zerubbabel, wrote to all officials
equivalent to Ezra, who KaT' e4oxv, was styled 1n'll  to convey him and all his brethren to Palestine, and
or 5DO7, in others it is designated "Eoapas Ezra, to supply all the necessary materials for the rebuildwhilst in the Vatican and many modern editions of ing of the temple (48-63). 
the Sept., as well as in the Old Latin and the Syriac,  This is preceded and followed by descriptions of
it is called'thefirst book of Ezra,' and accordingly  events which present the whole as one continuous
is placed before the canonical Ezra, which is called  narrative, relating in historic order the restoration'the second book of Ezra,' because the history it of the temple-service first under Josiah, then under
gives is in part anterior to that given in the canoni- Zerubbabel, and finally under Ezra, and which are
cal Ezra. In the Vulg. again, where Ezra and   compiled from the records contained in the books
Nehemiah are respectively styled thefirst and se- of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah, as follows: —
cond book of Ezra, this apocryphal book, which   I. Chap. i. corresponds to 2 Chron. xxxv. and
comes immediately after them, is called' the third  xxxvi., giving an account of Josiah's magnibookofEzra.' Othersagaincallit'thesecond book       ficent celebration of the passover-feast in
of Ezra' (Isidor. Origg. vi. 2), because Ezra and    the eighteenth month of his reign, and conNehemiah, which it follows, were together styled     tinuing the history till the Babylonish cap-' thefirst book of Ezra,' according to a very ancient  tivity.
practice among the Jews, who by putting the two  II. Chap. ii. 1-15 corresponds to Ezra i. I-II,
canonical books together, obtained the same num-     recording the return of the Jews from Babyber of books in the Scriptures as the letters in the  Ion under the guidance of Sanabassar in
Hebrew alphabet: and others call it Pseudo-Ezra,     the reign of Cyrus.
in contradistinction to the canonical Ezra. The  III. Chap. ii. I6-30 corresponds to Ezra iv. 7-24,
namefirst Esdras given to it in the A. V. is taken   giving an account of Artaxerxes' prohibition
from the Geneva Bible; the older English transla-    to build the temple till the second year of
tions (viz., Coverdale's Bible, Matthew's Bible, the  Darius.
Bishops' Bible), as well as the sixth article of the  IV. Chap. iii. I-v. 6 contains the original piece.
Church of England (I57I), following Luther and   V. Chap. v. 7-73 corresponds to Ezraii. I-iv. 6,
the Zurich Bible, call it the third Esdra, according  giving a list of the persons who returned
to the Vulg. Since the Council of Trent (1546) this  with Zerubbabel, describing the commencebook has been removed from its old position to the   ment of the building of the temple and the
end of the volume in the Sixtine and Clementine      obstacles whereby it was interrupted'for
editions of the Vulg.                                the space of two years' until the reign of
2. The Design and Contents of the Book.-The        Darius.
design of this book, as far as its original portion is  VI. Chap. vi. I-vii. 15 corresponds to Ezra v. Iconcerned (iii. I.-v. 6), is to excite the heathen rulers  vi. 22, giving an account of the building of
of Judaea to liberality and kindness towards the Jews,  the temple by Zerubbabel under Darius, of
by depicting the good example of Darius, from whom   its completion in the sixth year of this monZerubbabel obtained permission by the aid of wisdom  arch's reign and of the commencement of
to return withhis brethren to Palestine and to rebuild  the temple service.
the cityand the temple. This design is worked out in  VII. Chap. viii. I-ix. 36 corresponds to Ezra
the following attractive story. Darius, having given  vii. I-x. 44, describing the return of Ezra
a sumptuous feast to all his subjects in the second  with his colony, and the putting away of the
year of his reign, retired to rest (iii. I-3); when  strange wives.
asleep his three bodyguards, Zerubbabel being one  VIII. Chap. ix. 37-55 correspondents to Neh. vii.
of them, proposed each to write a maxim stating      23-viii. 12, giving an account of Ezra's pubwhat he thought was the most powerful thing, in      lic reading of the law.
the hope that the king would reward the wisest   The original piece around which all this clusters,
writer (4-9). Accordingly they all wrote; one has evidently been the cause of this transposition
said'Wine is the most powerful;' the other,'A  and remodelling of the narrative contained in the
king is the most powerful;' whilst Zerubbabel canonical books. Having assumed that Zerubbabel
wrote-' Women are very powerful, but truth con- returned to Jerusalem with a portion of his brethren
quers all.' The slips containing these maxims were in the second year of Darius, the compiler natuput under the king's pillow, and were given to rally placed Ezra ii. I-iv. 5, which gives the list of
him when he awoke (IO-I2).  When he had read   those that returned, after the original piece, for it
them he immediately sent for all his magnates, and  belongs to Zerubbabel's time, according to ii. 2,
having read these maxims before them (13-I5), and the original piece he placed after Ezra iv. 7-24,
called upon the three youths to explain their say- because Ezra (Ezra iv. 24) led him to suppose that
ings (I6, I7). The first spoke elaborately about Artaxerxes reigned before Darius.
the great power which wine manifests in different 3. The Unity and Original Langzage of the
ways (I8-24); the second descanted upon the un- Book.-The above analysis of its contents shews
limited power of royalty, illustrating it by various that the book gives us a consecutive history de
examples (iv. I-I2); whilst Zerubbabel discoursed  templi restitutione as the OldLatin tersely expresses
upon the mighty influence of women, frequently it. It is, however, not complete in its present
contravening the power of wine and monarchs, state, as is evident from the abrupt manner in
and then burst forth in praise of truth so elo- which it concludes with Neh. viii. 12. We may
quently, that all present exclaimed-' Great is truth, therefore legitimately presume that the compiler
and mightiest above all things' (I3-41). Darius intended to add Neh. viii. I3-IS, and perhaps also
then offered to Zerubbabel anything he should ask  chap. ix. Josephus, who follows the history given
(42), whereupon he reminded the king of his vow  in this book, continues to speak of the death of




ESDRAS                     821                  ESDRAS
Ezra (Antiq. xi. 5. 5), from  which it may be better said by Esop in his Fables, or even in much
concluded that it originally formed part of this nar- more trivial books' ( Vorrede auf dezn Baruch); the
rative.  More venturous are the opinions of Zunz, version given in the later editions of Luther's Bible
that Neh. i.-vii. originally belonged to this book  being the work of Daniel Cramer, and the Protes(Die Gottesdienstl. Vortrage, p. 29), and of Eich- tant Church generally has treated it with great
horn, that 2 Chron. xxxiv. followed the abrupt contempt, because it contradicts the canonical books
breaking off (Einleitung in d. Apokr., p. 345, etc.) of Ezra and Nehemiah.  On the other hand,
As to its original language, this compilation is un- Josephus, as we have seen, regards it as a great
doubtedly made directly from the Hebrew, and not authority, and it was treated with great reverence
from the present Sept. This is evident from the by the Greek and Latin Fathers.  St. Augustine
rendering of nyil e   by /arpoaorev ou Xaog, read- mentions it amongst the canonical books (De
for"t."*''                 Daci-~ rDoctr. Christ., lib. ii. 13), and quotes the passage,
ing:r. for j1n (comp. i. II with 2 Chron. xxxiv.'truth is the strongest' (chap. iii. 12), as Ezra's
12) and of ilnnn  4: Son by ccal eruveXeXEav ra civra prophecy respecting Christ (De Civit. Dei, xviii. 16);
the same sentence is quoted as Scripture by Cyprian
r& gvlooa aTrtis, reading Z Lf l for'- 5Z (comp. (Epist. lxxiv.; comp. also Clemens Alexandrinus,
i. 53 with 2 Chron. xxxvi. 19; see also ii. 7-9 Strom. i.; Athanasius, Orat. iii. Cont. Arianos;
with Ezra i. 4, 6; ii. 17 with Ezra iv. 9; ii. 16 Justin Martyr, Dial. cum  Tryph.) Now modern
with Ezra iv. 7; ii. 24 with Ezra iv. 16; ix. IO criticism has justly taken the middle course between
with Ezra x. 4), since these can only be accounted  treating it with contempt and regarding it as cafor on the supposition that the book was com- nonical, and has recognised in it an important
piled and translated from the Hebrew.  The trans- auxiliary to the settling of the text, and to the
lator, however, did not aim so much to be literal adjusting of the facts recorded in Chronicles, Ezra,
as to produce a version compatible with the Greek  and Nehemiah, since this book has evidently been
idiom. Hence he sometimes abbreviated the He- made from a different recension of the Hebrew,
brew (comp. i. Io with 2 Chron. xxxv. 10-12; ii. and has some readings and divisions preferable to
15, i6 with Ezra iv. 7-II; v. 7 with Ezra v. 6, 7; those contained in the canonical books (comp.
vi. 4 with Ezra v. 3, 4; viii. 6 with Ezra vii. 6; chap. v. 9 with Ezra ii. I2; chap. ix. 12 with
viii. 14 with Ezra vii. I7; viii. 20 with Ezra vii. Ezra x. 6; chap. ix. I6 with Ezra x. I6). Both
22), and sometimes tried to make it more intelli- Bertheau in his commentary on Ezra and Nehemiah
gible by adding some words (comp. i. 56 with 2  (Exeget. Handbuch, part xviii.), and Fritzsche in
Chron. xxvi. 20; ii. 5 with Ezra i. 3; ii. 9 with  his Commentary on the apocryphal Ezra (Exeget.
Ezra i. 4; ii. i6 with Ezra iv. 6; ii. 18 with Ezra  Handb. z. d. Apokr., part i.), have shewn the
iv. 12; v. 40 with Ezra ii. 63; v. 47 with Ezra iii. I; important services which the canonical and unv. 52 with Ezra iii. 5; v. 66 with Ezra iv. I; vi. canonical records may render to each other.
4I with Ezra ii. 64; vi. 8 with Ezra v. 14; vi. 9  6. Literature on the Book.-Joseph. Antiq., x.
with Ezra v. 8; vii. 9 with Ezra vi. 18). The 4. 5-5; xi. I-5; Josippon ben Gorion, ed. Breitoriginal portion, too, is a Palestinian production, haupt, 1710, p. 47, ff.; Trendelenburg, in Eichembellished to suit the Alexandrian taste.  The horn's allg. Biblioth. i. p. i80, ff.; Eichhorn,
Hebrew forms of it may be seen in Josephus (Aniq. Einteitung in d. Apokr. Schriften d. A. T, p. 335,
xi. 3. I; and Josippon ben Gorion (i., c. 6, p. 47, ff.; Herzfeld, Geschichte d. V. Israel van d.
etc., ed. Breithaupt).                         Zerstorung d. ersten Tempels, p. 320, ff.; Ewald,
4. The Author and Date of te Book.-It is now  Geschichte d. V. Israel, iv. p. 131, ff.; Keil, Hisimpossible to ascertain the author or date of this torisch-Kritische Einleitung in d. A.., ed. I859,
production, inasmuch as neither the book itself nor p. 677, ff.; Fritzsche, Kurzgef. exegetisches Handancient history gives us the slightest clue to this buch z. d. Apokr. d. A. T, i. p. 3, ff.; Davidson,
subject. Whoever the author was, he seems to   The Text of the 0. T. considered, etc., p. 987, ff.;
have lived in Palestine (comp. v. 47), and certainly  Bertheau, Ezra, Nehemias und Ester, Exeget.,
was master of the Greek, as is evident from his Handbuch z A..., part viii.-C. D. G.
superior style, which resembles that of Symmachus,
and from his successfully turning the Hebraisms  ESDRAS, THE SECOND BOOK OF, i.e., the
into good Greek (comp. viii. 5 with Ezra viii. second in the order of the apocryphal nooks, as
17; ix. 13 with Ezra x. I4). The compiler must given in the English translations of the Bible,
have lived at least a century before Christ, since which follow the Zurich Bible.
Josephus follows his narrative of the times of Ezra  I. The Title and Position of the Book. -The
and Nehemiah (comp. Antiq. xi. 5; xi. 45). The  original title of this book by which it is appropribook must therefore have existed for some time, ately called in the Greek Church, is'A7rocdXihv'
and have acquired great reputation and authority, "Ea-pa, or 7rpoq77-rela'aspa, the Revelation or proto make the Jewish historian prefer its descrip- phecy of Ezra (comp. Nicephorus ap. Fabric. Cod.
tion of those days to that of the canonical books.  Pseud. V T., ii. p. 176; Cod. Apocr. N. T., i. p
5. The Canonicity andimportance ofthe Book.-  95, sqq.; Montfaucon, Bibliolh. Coislin, p. I94).
This book was never included in the Hebrew     The designation, I Ezra, which it has in the Arabic
canon, ror is it to be found in the catalogues of and Ethiopic versions, arises from the fact that it was
the Hebrew Scriptures given by the early Fathers, placed before the canonical Ezra, because it begins
e. g., Melito, Origen, Eusebius, etc., and St. a little earlier (i.e., with 558 B.C.) than the Hebrew
Jerome emphatically warns us'not to take plea- Ezra. It is also called 2 Ezra in the Latin version,
sure in the dreams of the 3d and 4th apocryphal because it follows the canonical books Ezra and
books of Ezra (Praef. in Esdr. et Nechem.) The  Nehemiah, which were together styled the first
Councils ofFlorence (438) andTrent (1546) decided  Ezra, and it is still more generally denominated
against its canonicity-Luther would not even trans- 4 Ezra, a name given to it by St. Jerome (comp.
late it,'because there is nothing in it which is not Prcf. in Esdr. et Nechem.), because it is in most of




ESDRAS                    822                 ESDRAS
the Latin MSS. the fourth of the books which go  something more if he will fast again seven days
by the name of Ezra, and which are placed in the (29-34).
following order; I Ezra, i.e., the canonical Ezra;  Third Revelation (vi. 35-ix. 25 A. V.; iv. 382 Ezra, i.e., Nehemiah; 3 Ezra, i.e., I apocryphal ix. 27 Eth.)  The fasting being over, Ezra again
Ezra; and 4 Ezra, i.e., this book.  The name appeals to God, to know how it is that his chosen
A Ezra is retained by Luther, the Zurich Bible, people, for whom this wonderful world was created,
Coverdale, Matthew's Bible, Cranmer's Bible, the are deprived of their inheritance (35-59)? WhereBishops' Bible, and in the sixth article of the Church upon Uriel appears a third time, tells him that it
of England (I57I). The name 2 Esdras, given to is because of their sin (vii. 1-25), describes the
it in the A. V., is taken from the Geneva Bible. death of Messiah, the resurrection, the judgment,
This book, like the former one, is placed at the and the things which will come to pass, concludend of the Vulgate in the Sixtine and Clementine  ing with an admonition to Ezra to fast and pray
editions, because it has been excluded from the again (26-ix. 25).
canon by the Council of Trent.                  Fourth Revelation (ix. 26-x. 59 A. V; ix. 282. The Design and Plan of the Book.-The x. 74 Eth.) After appealing again to God in bedesign of this book is to comfort the chosen people half of his brethren (26-37), Ezra suddenly saw a
of God who were suffering under the grinding  woman in the deepest mourning for her only son,
oppression of the heathen, by assuring them that who had been born to her after being married
the Lord has appointed a time of deliverance when thirty years, and who died on the day of his nupthe oppressors shall be judged, and the ten tribes tials (38-x. I), and would not be comforted (2of Israel, in union with their brethren, shall return 4).  He rebuked her for being so disconsolate
to the Holy Land to enjoy a glorious kingdom  about the loss of one son, when Sion was bereaved
which shall be established in the days of Messiah. of all her children (2-14),. and recommended her
This is gradually developed in an introduction, and  to submit to the dealings of God (I5-24), her face
seven angelic revelations, or visions, in which Ezra is speedily shone very brightly, and she disappeared
instructed in the mysteries of the moral world, as (25-27); whereupon Uriel appeared to Ezra, and
follows.                                     told him that the woman is Sion, the thirty years
Introduction (iii. 1-36 Auth. Version; or i. of her barrenness are'the thirty years wherein no
1-36 Ethiopic Version).  When on his couch in sacrifice was offered in her,' her first-born is the
Babylon, in the 30th year after the destruction of temple built by Solomon, his death on the day of
Jerusalem (558 B.C.), mourning over the deplorable his marriage is the destruction of Jerusalem, and
fate of his brethren (I-3), and recounting the deal- the extraordinary brightness of the mother's face
ings of God with mankind generally (4-I2), and is the future glory of Sion (28-59).
with his chosen people in particular, in consequence  Fifth Revelation (xi. I-xii. 51 A. V; xi. I-xii.
of their sinful nature inherited from Adam (I3-22), 58 Eth.)  Ezra in a dream had a revelation of
for which the temple was destroyed and the city the latter days under the figure of an eagle coming
delivered into the hands of Gentiles (23-27), Ezra up from the sea with three heads and twelve wings,
asked God why the heathen sinners of Babylon  which afterwards produced eight smaller wings
are spared, whilst the people of his covenant are spread over all things, and reigning over all the
so unsparingly punished (28-36)?             world (I-7).  These wings, beginning from the
First Revelation (iv. I-v. 15 A. V.; ii. I- right side, according to a voice which proceeded
iii. 23 Eth.) In answer to this, the angel Uriel from the body of the eagle, reigned successively
is sent, who, after censuring the presumptuousness over all the earth, and perished, so that there reof a short-sighted man in trying to fathom the mained six small wings (8-23), which, however, in
unsearchable dealings of the Most High, when he attempting to rule, also perished, and the three
cannot understand the things below (I-2I), and heads only were left on the eagle's body (24-3I).
after Ezra's earnest reiteration of the question  These now reigned, *one after the other, and
(22-25), says that sin has not yet reached its perished, so that a single head remained (32-35).
climax (26-31), enumerates the signs whereby the A lion (Messiah) declared unto the eagle that all
fulness of that time will be distinguished, and pro- his wings and heads were destroyed because he
mises to reveal to him still greater things if he will ruled the earth wickedly (36-46), when the body
continue to pray and fast seven days (32-v. 15).  and whatever was left of the eagle were burnt in
Second Revelation (v. I6-vi. 34 A. V.; iii. 24-iv. fire (xii. I, 2). Ezra awoke, and having prayed
37 Eth.)  Having fasted seven days according for the interpretation of this vision (3-9), was told
to the command of the angel, and against the ad- by the angel that the eagle was the fourth monvice of the prince of the Jews (I6-2I), Ezra archy which Daniel saw, and was admonished
again appeals to God, asking why he does not again to fast and pray (Io-5I).
punish his sinful people himself, rather than give  Sixth Revelation (xiii. I-58 A. V.; xiii. 1-64,
them over to the heathen (22-30)? Uriel who Eth.)    Ezra then had another dream, in which
appears a second time, after referring again to he saw a mighty 7rvevua arise from the sea rethe inscrutable judgments of God (31-56), reveals sembling a man, who destroyed all his enemies
to Ezra, according to promise, more distinctly with the blast of his mouth, and gathered around
what shall be the signs of the latter days, saying him large multitudes (I-I3). On awaking, Ezra
that with Esau [Idumeans] the present world will was told by the angel that it was the Messiah, who
terminate, and the world to come begin with shall gather together the ten tribes, lead them to
Jacob (vi. I-Io), whereupon the day of judgment their holy land, and give them Sion'prepared and
will follow, and be announced by the blast of a builded for them' (14-58).
trumpet (11-25); Enoch and Elias, the forerunners  Seventh Revelation (xiv. 1-48 A. V.; xiv. 1-52,
of Messiah, shall appear (26), and sin and cor- Eth.)  Three days later the voice which spoke
ruption be destroyed (27-28); tells him to be com- to Moses in the bush tells Ezra that the latter days
forted, patient, and resigned, and that he shall hear are at hand (I-I2), bids him set his house in order,




ESDRAS                    823                 ESDRAS
reprove those that are living (I3-i8), and write contestably shews that the author of it was a Jew.
down, for the benefit of those who are not yet His personating Ezra, the contempt and vengeance
born, ninety-four books, i.e., the twenty-four in- which he breathes against the Gentiles (vi. 56, 57),
spired books of the 0. T. which have been burnt, the intense love he manifests for the Jews, who
and seventy books of divine mysteries, which he alone know the Lord and keep his precepts (iii.
duly did with the help of scribes (I9-44), the re- 30-36), declaring that for them alone was this
covered Scriptures to be communicated to all, and world created (iv. 63, 66; vi. 55-59; vii. Io, II),
the Cabbalistic books only to the sages (45-48).  and reserving all the blessings of salvation for them
3. The Unity and OriginalLanguage ofthe Book.(vii. I-I3); his view of righteousness, which con-Despite the arbitrary division into chapters in sists in doing the works of the Law, and that the
our English version which sometimes interrupts a righteous are justified and rewarded for their good
vision in the middle of a sentence, few readers works (viii. 33, 36), the purport of his questions,
will fail to see the intimate connection and the referring exclusively to the interests of this people
beautiful adjustment of these angelic revelations, (iv. 35; vi. 59); the Hagadic legends about the
and how every one of them forms an essential part Behemoth and Leviathan which are reserved for
in leading us further and further, till we reach the the great Messianic feast (vi. 49-52), the ten tribes
climax of the apocalypse. It is owing to this re- (xiii. 39-47), the restoration of the Scriptures and
markable unity which the whole work displays, the writing of Cabbalistic books for the sages
that the numerous interpolations made for dog- or Rabbins of Israel (xiv. 20-22; 37-47), all this
matic purposes have so easily been detected.  proves beyond doubt that the writer was a thorough
The idea of a Hebrew original has now been Hebrew. Chapters i., ii., xv., and xvi., which
pretty generally given up by scholars, despite the contain allusions to the N. T. (comp. i. 30 with
positive assertion of Galatinus (De Arcanis Catho- Matt. xxxiii. 37-39; ii. I with Luke xvi. 9; ii.
lice Veritatis), that a copy of it was reported to  I2 with Rev. xxii. 2; xv. 8 with Rev. vi. o1; xvi.
exist among the Jews at Constantinople in his 29 with Matt. xxxiv. 10; xvi. 42-44 with I Cor.
day, and it is commonly believed that it was written vii. 29), and especially the anti-Jewish spirit by
in Greek. Although the Greek is lost, yet there which they are pervaded, as well as the name of
can be no doubt that the Old Latin version, Jesus in chapter viii. 28, which have been the
through which alone this book has been known cause why some have maintained that this book is
to us till lately, was a translation from that lan- the production of a Christian, are now generally
guage. This is evident from the fact that it imitates acknowledged to be later interpolations made by
the Greek idiom in making the adjective in the some Christian, and are wanting both in the Aracomparative degree govern a genitive case, and not, bic and Ethiopic versions.  The same dogmatic
as in Latin, an ablative, and introduces other Gre- causes which dictated these additions also gave
cisms, which are barbarous in the version (comp. rise to the omission of a long and important pasii 24; V. 13, 26, 39; Vi. 25, 31, 46, 57; vii1 5  sage between ver. 35 and 36 of chapter vii. in the
viii. 7, 8, 38, 44; ix. 14; xi. 42). This is, more- English version, which is found both in the Araover, corroborated by the Arabic and Ethiopic bic and Ethiopic, and which was known to Amversions discovered in modern days, the one by the brose (De Bono Mortis, x., xi. )
learned Gregory of Christ Church, Oxford [GRE-  As to te date of the book, this has most unGORY], translated into English by Simon Ockley, necessarily and most unsafely been made to depend
and the other by Archbishop Laurence, both of upon the interpretation of the different wings and
which are made directly from the Greek, as wellheads of the eagle in xi. and xii., since no two exas the quotation from this book in the Fathers positors agree in their explanation of this vision,
(see below, sec. 5), which prove the very early ex- and every one finds in the'three heads,' the
istence of it in Greek.  It is, however, equally'twelve feathered wings,' and the'eight countercertain that many of the things contained in this feathers' such emperors, kings, and demagogues
book are of Palestinian origin, and are still to be as will square with his pre-conceived notions what
found in Hebrew or Aramaic dispersed through they shall describe. So, for instance, the learned
the Talmud and Midrashim.                    Whiston makes the three heads to mean the king4. TzheAuthorand Dateof theBook. -The greatestdom of France since Francis the Great, I515 A.D.;
divergency of opinion prevails about the author f Spain, since Ferdinand, the author of the Inand date of this book. He has successively been quisition, 1468 A D; and the house of Austria
described as a true prophet who lived 336 B.C.;*since the Emperor Albert, I438-all of whom peran inmpostor who flourished r6o A.D.; a Jew, a secuted the Protestants (Authen. Records, i. p. 8I).
an impostor who flourished i60 A.D.; a Jew, a
Christian, a converted Jew, and as a Montanis  The safest and most satisfactory data for determinThe whole complexion of the book, however,in  ing ts probable age, are-. The quotations from it
in the Epistle of St. Barnabas (c. xii. with 2 Ezra
v. 3) and in Clemens Alexandrinus (Strom. iii. I6),
* This is certainly the opinion of Whiston, shewing beyond doubt that the book was well known
though Dr. Davidson denies it (The Text of the 0. at the commencement of the Christian era, and must
T. considered, p. 995), as will be found to be the therefore have been written some time before to
case by referring to A collection of Authentic Re- have obtained such general currency and acceptcords, London, 1722, voL I, p. 50. The passages in ance; and 2. The minute description which the
Whiston's Essay on the Apostolic Constitutions (pp. writer gives of the pre-existence and death of Mes38, 39), in which this eccentric writer assigns it to a siah (vii. 29; xiv. 7), which no Jew would have
converted Jew who lived about 90-10I A.D., seem  given at the very outset of Christianity, to which
to refer to the interpolations which undoubtedly we have traced the book, when these very points
belong to that age. At all events, the statement were the stumblingblock to the ancient people, and
in the Authentic Records, being written ten years formed the points of contest between Judaism and
later, must be taken as Whiston's final opinion. Christianity, thus shewing that it must have been




ESDRAS                    824                 ESHEAN
written before Christ. We may, therefore, safely  711; the Ethiopic version, with a Latin and
assign it to about 50 B.C.                    English translation and valuable remarks, was pub5. The Canonicity and importance of the Book. — lished by Archbishop Laurence, entitled Primi
By many of the Fathers this book was undoubtedly Ezre Libri Versio tEhiopica, Oxon. 1820; comp.
regarded as canonical. The quotations from it in also Lee, Dissertation upon the second Book of
the Epistle of St. Barnabas is described as the Esdras, Lond. 1722; Whiston, Authentic Records,
saying of a prophet (c. xii.), the quotation by  Lnd. 1727, vol. i., p. 44, ff.; Van der Vlis,
Clemens Alexandrinus is introduced as "Eaopas 6 Disputatio  Critica de Ezrce Libro Apokrphna,
wrpoo'rjrs XTyet (Strom. iii. I6), and Ambrose speaks Amstelodami, 1839; Gfrorer, Das Yahrhundert
of it as containing divine revelations (De Bono des Heils, Stuttgart, I838, vol. i. p. 69, ff.; and by.Mortis, x. xi.) The famous story about Ezra being the same author, Proiphetl veteres Pseudepigraphi,
inspired to write again the Law, which was burnt Stuttgart, 1840, p. 66, f.; Liicke, Einleitung in
(xiv. 20-48), has been quoted by Irenaeus (Adv. d. Ofenbarung  /ohannis, 2d ed., p. 138, ff.
Haer. iii. 21. 2); Tertullian (De Cult. ftam. i. 3); Davidson, The Old Testament Text Considered,
Clemens Alexandrinus (Strom. i. 22); Chrysostom  Lond. I856, p. 990, ff.; Hilgenfeld, Die jiidische
(Horn. viii., in Heb.), and many others.  The Apokalypitik, Jena, 1857, p. 187, if.; Volkmar,
Ethiopian Church regards it as canonical, which  Das vierte Buch Ezra, Zurich, 1858; Keil, Einleimay be seen from the manner in which it is alluded  tung in d. Alte Testament, 1859, p. 734, ff.to in the Book of Devotions, called'The Organon  C. D. G.
of the Blessed Virgin Mary' (written circa 1240),  EB.'Open my mouth to praise the virginity of the   ESEBON. [HESHBON.]
mother of God, as thou didst open the mouth of  ESEK (p.p; Sept.'A&Kla), the name given by
Ezra, who rested not for forty days until he had 
finished writing the words of the Law and the Pro- Isaac to'a well of springing water' dug by his serphets, which Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon had vants, and about which they and the herdsmen of
burnt' (Prayer for Monday, see also Prayer for Gerar had a strife (Gen. xxvi. 20), whence the name,
Tesday). St. Jerome was the first who denounced from jWa, to strive. The rendering of the LXX.,
it. In reply to Vigilantius, who, regarding this book  and of the Vulg. calumna, arose probably from
as inspired, appealed to xii. 36-45, to prove thatthe translators reading pLy for *y.-W..A.'none would venture to intercede for others in the
day of judgment,' this Father, playing upon the ESHBAAL.      [ISHBOSHETH.]
name Vigilantius, remarked,' Tu vigilans dormis,  ESHCOL.  (; Sept.'EoX), one ofthe
et dormiens scribis, et propinas mihi librum apocry-                            s 
phum, qui sub nomine Esdrce a te et similibus tuiAmoritish chiefs with whom Abraham was in allilegitur, ubi scriptum est, quod post mortem nul- ance when his camp was near Hebron, and who
lus pro aliis gaudeat deprecari,' quem ego librum  joined with him in the pursuit of Chedorlaomer
nunquam legi, quid enim  necesse est in manusand his allies, for the rescue of Lot (Gen. xiv. 13,
sumere, quod Ecclesia non receit. Nisi forte Bal- 24).
samum et Barbelum, et thesaurum Manichei, et   ESHCOL, TE VALLEY OF 
ridiculum  nomen Leusiborae proferas; et quia                                         ept.
radices Pyrenrei habitus, vicinusque es Hiberise, 4dpa7y B6rpvos). The valley in which the Hebrew
Basilidis, antiquissimi heretici, et imperita scien- spies obtained the fine cluster of grapes which they
tie incredibilia portenta prosequeris, et propbnis, took back with them, borne' on a staff between
quoad totius orbis auctoritate damnatur (Ep. liii., two,' as a specimen of the fruits of the Promised
ad Vigilant.) This is a most important passage, Land (Num. xiii. 24). The cluster was doubtless
inasmuch as it shews that those of the primitive large; but the fact that it was carried in this manChurch who, from their knowledge of Hebrew, had ner, does not, as usually understood, imply that
the best means of ascertaining what were the the bunch was as much as two men could carry,
canonical Scriptures of the ancient Synagogue, seeing that it was probably so carried to prevent its
repudiated this book as uncanonical.  In the being bruised in the journey.   The valley of
Council of Trent, the second Ezra, like the first, Eshcol probably took its name from the distinwas excluded from  the canon, and Luther de- guished Amorite already mentioned, and is hence
nounced it as worse than Esop's Fables [ESDRAS, to be sought in the neighbourhood of Hebron.
FIRST BOOK OF]. But this is going too far. His- Accordingly the valley through which lies the comtorico-critical expositors of the Bible, and those mencement of the road from Hebron to Jerusalem
who are engaged in Christological works, whilst is indicated as that of Eshcol. This valley is now
regarding 2 Esdras as not belonging to the canon, full of vineyards and olive-yards; the former chiefly
yet see in it a most important record of Jewish in the valley itself, the latter up the sides of the
opinion on some vital points. It shews that the enclosing hills.'These vineyards are still very
Jews before the rise of Christianity most distinctly fine, and produce the finest and largest grapes in
believed in the immortality of the soul, that the all the country' (Robinson, i. 317). [Van de Velde
Messiah was denominated the son of God, that he says (ii. 64) that he was told that there is in the disexzsted in heaven previous to his appearance upon  trict of Hebron a well still known by the name of
earth (xiv. 7), and that he was to die (vii. 29).'Ain Eskali.]
6. Literature on the Book.-The Latin text is
published in Walton's Polyglot, vol. iv., and in J.  EAN   (      Sept., cod. Alex.'E
A. Fabricii, Codex. Apocr. Vet. Test. ii., p. 173, A town in the mountain districtofJudah (Josh. xv.
seqq., with the additions and variations of the Arabic 52). Van de Velde thinks this may be the same as
version. An English translation of the important Ashan; but this is inadmissible, partly because of
Arabic version made by Simon Ockley is given in the difference of letters in t/VK and ItV, and partly
Whiston's Primiive Christianity, vol. iv., Lond. because the only Ashan mentioned in Scripture lay




ESHEK                     825                  ESHEL
in the low country (Josh. xv. 42, comp. ver. 33), signifies a'terebinth tree,' but is translated'oak'
while Eshean is expressly placed in the hill country in the A. V.:'They arose, all the valiant men,
of Judah (ver. 48, 52). To escape this last and  and took away the body of Saul, and the bodies of
fatal objection, Van de Velde follows Von Rau- his sons, and brought them to Jabesh, and buried
mer (Palest. p. I73) in supposing two Ashans, one their bones under the oak in Jabesh, and fasted
in Judah and the other in the southern part of seven days.'
Palestine, belonging to Simeon; but that the    Celsius has quoted several authorities in support
Ashan of Judah and that of Simeon were one and  of his opinion that eshel is used in a generic sense,
the same, is evident from comparing Josh. xv. 42 as R. David Kimchi, who remarks,'Eschel est
and xix. 7, where Ether appears as in the vicinity of nomen generale omni arbori:' and with reference
both, and Josh. xix. 7 with I Chron. iv. 32, where to the passage in Genesis,' Et plantavit Eschel, h.
the same holds of Ain-Rimmon.-W. L. A.        m. interpretatur: et plantavit plantationem.' So
_ESH1EK        S eptE.'-h   Alex. TO-EX), a i.Rosenmiiller, though considering the term to be
ESHIEK (p; Sept.'AoX; Alex.'EX)       specific, says,'We have the testimony of Rabbi
Benjamite descended from Saul, whose son Ulam  Jonah or Abulwalid, in his Hebrew-Arabic Lexiwas the head of a family or clan famous for their con, that the Arabic term athle is not unfrequently
skill in archery (I Chron. viii. 39, 40).     used for any large tree, as was the word eshel by
-,,,-.-  Lx?   1.     *   the later Hebrews.' The word athle which is
ESHEL (V)) occurs in three places of Scripture, in one of which, in our A. V., it is ren-cited is no doubt the Arabic - _ >   asm  or athul.
dered grove, and in the other two tree. Celsius The letter Lc is the fourth letter of the Arabic
(Hierobot. i. 535) maintains that 3KW has always
a general, and not a specific signification, and alphabet: its legitimate power appears to be that
that it is properly translated tree. This, as statedof th in the English word thng; but i the mouth
by Rosenmiiller, has been satisfactorily refuted of a Turk, Syrian, Egyptian, Persian, and a native
by Michaelis in his Szpplem., p. I34.  If weof Hindoostan, it is either pronounced like an s
compare the passages in which the word es/el lisped, or not to be distinguished from that character. In a few instances it is pronounced like t
occurs, we shall see that there is no necessity for  In a e     an      it i  rononc 
considering it a generic term: the more so, as (Rchardson, Pers   ad Arabic Dictionary.  I
we find in the Arabic a name very similar to it, that work  asis translated'a tamarisk shrub;'
and applied to a tree of which the character and
properties would point it out as likely to attract UW.1  asalat,'large prickly tamarisks.' In 1Inotice in the situations where eshel is mentioned. ttstr. Himal. Bat. p. 214, we have said'The
The first notice of this tree is in Gen. xxi. 33, Arabic name astu or atul is applied to furas (an'And Abraham planted a grove (eshel) in Beer- arboreous species of tamarisk) in India, as to 7:
sheba, and called there on the name of the Lord.'orietalis in Arabia and Egypt.' So in the U/faz
The second notice is in I Sam. xxii. 6:'Now   Udzieh, translated by Mr. Gladwin we have at
Saul abode in Gibeah under a tree (eshel) in
Ramah, having his spear in his hand, and all his No. 36, J3i ussel, the tamarisk bush, with Yhaou
servants were standing about him.' Under such a 
tree also he and his sons were buried, for it is saidas the Hidee; and  guz as the Persian synonyme. The tamarisk and its products were highly, ~,,~ J'.'.~}'valued by the Arabs for their medicinal properties,
l-^:1iif~  ~and are described in several places under different
s   S. ij!'                    names in Avicenna; the plant being noticed under
^.i tr,-~l^^~      ftoorfa, and the galls, which are often found on it,
under jouz-a-toorfa, but which are also called chezi i ltf i~l^^mezech or kuzmezech. They adopt much of the de-,.~,~.^''.'*~,        scription of Dioscorides, though the translation of:'*' ^^ii^^  ^' ^Serapion no doubt errs in making athel the dKaKaXis:;,v aii~- ~ [E,^ ^of the Greeks. But Serapion himself, from Isaac
*:-.^ l (", k f^       eben Amram, says,' Athel est species tamarisci.'
~':.'"!:,i;, b~,'      If we refer to travellers in eastern countries, we
",i~  ~  ~  shall find that most of them mention the athuL.
(- ^}-< i^-.   -Thus Prosper Alpinus (De Plantis Egypti, c. ix.: --—...   a.a,.x 1 \ 9 DeTamarisco atle vocata) gives a figure which suffi-.ii \,'4-i         ciently shews that it must grow to the size of a large:-'J: ":~:t;'  "   — 1, I'\ tree:'Alterum vero tamarisci domesticum genus
\   in IEgypto spectatur-quod ad magnae olivoe mag(.;. ~l'-ij:-'"~"k.W"~ "  1M Arnitudinem crescit;' and says that he had heard of
-:. (;\/el-H^^^     - a-ulits attaining, in another place, to the size of a large
"-.%L.' /r^-^"t - w^;oak; that its wood was employed for making a'"  I iZ::~ --,variety of vessels, and its charcoal used throughout
_aeo —     Egypt and Arabia; and that different parts of it'aisk  [Taarixwere employed in medicines. So Forskal, who
237. Tamarisk. [Iamarix orientalis.   calls the species Tamariscus orientalis, gives atl as
(i Sam. xxxi. 13),' And they took their bones, and  its Arabic name, and identifies it with 5.W, says,
buried them under a tree (eshel) at Jabesh, and' Galle Tamaricis in officinis usurpantur loco frucfasted seven days.' In the parallel passage of I tus.' Belon (in his Observ. ii. 28), says,'TamariChron. x. 12, the word alah is employed. This ces in ALgypto humidis et siccioribus locis indif



ESHEL                     826                ESHTEMOH
ferenter nascuntur; illarum enim silvulse perinde led, as in some other instances, by finding that it
in aridioribus locis reperiuntur atque in humidis lit- was esteemed in those eastern countries, from
toribus.  Ese autem  excrescentia quam  Gallam  which much of their information and opinions were,
nominavimus adeo onustse sunt, ut parum absit in the first instance, derived. The ohly difficulty
quin rami prse pondere rumpantur.' In Arabia is to ascertain the exact species found in the several
Burckhardt found the tree called asui in the neigh- situations we have indicated-a difficulty which
bourhood of Medina, and observes that the Arabs arises from their similarity to one another, rendercultivated it on account of the hardness of its wood. ing it almost impossible to distinguish them in the
If we endeavour to trace a species of tamarisk in state of dried specimens.  Ehrenberg, who has
Syria, we shall find some difficulty, from the want most recently investigated the species, gives a tamaof precision in the information supplied by travel- rix tetragyna as a species of Syria, and:T orienlers on subjects of Natural History. But a French  tails of Forskal as the species found in Arabia,
naturalist, M. Bove, who travelled from Cairo to  Persia, and India, and T. arborea as a variety of
Mount Sinai, and from   thence into Syria, has  T. gallia found near Cairo. But as they are all
given ample proofs of the existence of species of so similar, any of the arboreous species or varieties
tamarisk in these regions. Thus, near Sinai, he which flourish in the most barren situations, would
says,'Le lendemain, je m'avan9ai dans la vallee have the name asul applied to it, and this name
el Cheick, presque entierement couverte de tamarix  would appear to an Arab of those regions the most
mannzfera.' In proceeding from Suez to Gaza, in  appropriate translation for eshel, in the passage
an extensive plain of barren sand, he again finds a where Abraham is described as planting a tree,
tamarisk; and further on,' De la nous arrivames and calling on the name of the Lord, the everlasta quelques dunes de sable, ou je remarquai de tres ing God.-J. F. R.
gros Tamarix.' On the borders of Palestine, and  ESHKALONITES.        [ASHKELON.
the day before reaching Gaza, he says,'Vers midi,                    L 
nous nous arretames dans la vallee Lesare, bordee  ESHTAOL    (J1l.; Sept.'A-racbX, and
de dunes de sable mouvant, et remplie de Tama-     6), a townof the Shephelah or plain of
risc qui ont trois'a quatre metres de circonference,':El0a6X), a town of the Shephelah or plain of
eris qd ount t  a quatre metres de ctcoufere ce,t Philistia. It is connected with Zorah, Zanoah, and
et de douze  qnze mtres de hauteur:' thatBethshemesh; and we may hence conclude that it
is, in the very country in which Beersheba is sup-  s stte close to the foot of the mountains of
posed to have been situated, we have Tamarisk  was suad close to the foot of the mountains 
trees, now called asul, where the eshel is described  Ju, ad  one of the towns allotted to Dan
as having been planted.                        xix. 41). It was one of the towns allotted to Dan,
though within the bounds of Judah. In the camp
It is very remarkable that the only tree which is of Dan (or Mahaneh-Dand   between Zorah and
found growing among the ruins of Babylon is a Eshtaol, Samson began to exhibit the strength and
wtamarisk    Thus, on the north side of the Kasr, valour which afterwards distinguished him, and
-where Ker Porter thought he saw traces of the there, too, after a brilliant but melancholy career, his
hanging gardens, there stands upon an artificial man led remains were buried (Judg. iii. 25 with
eminence a tree to which the Arabs give the name xviii  xvi. 3    Eshtaol was one of the great
of athela. It is a species of tree altogether foreignstrongholds of the Danites, and its inhabitants,
to the country. Two of the attendants of Ker strongholds of the Danites, and its inhabitants,
to the country. Two of the attendants of Ker with those of Zorah, were noted for their daring.
Porter, who were natives of Bender Bushire, assured  The 60o men who captured and colonized Laish
him that there are trees of that kind in their coun-  e aties o these two t    d    
try, which attain a very great age, and are called ee    s of ts to tns 
gaz.' The one in question is in appearance like  From the way in which Eshtaol is connected in
several passages of Scripture with Zorah, and  from
Fromigwlo  b  t  tu  i olo  hog   the topography of the district, which the writer has
the weeping-willow, but the truns is hollow through  several passages of Scripture with Zorab, and from
age, and partly shattered. The Arabs venerate it the topography of the district, which the writer has
age, ndprlshtee.TeAasvnreithad an opportunity of carefully examining, there
as sacred, in consequence of the Calif Ali havin  had an opportunty of carefully examp ng, therein
aros red under itconse n e  oaf the batle f Hillahvg  would seem to be a high probability that the site of
rposend under its shade after the battle of Hilh i this ancient town is now occupied by the village of
(Rosenmiiller, Bibl. Geog. ii. p. 20, from Ker Por-  esa or Esta, as the natives pronounce it
ter; comp. Ainsworth's Researches, p. I25). It            esha     a    the nate    rit
may be observed that the presentwriter has already (ele).  Yeshua lies at the eastern extremityof
quoted the two names here given as applied to the 
tamarisk, in a Persian work on Materia Medica, the broad valley which runs up among the hills bepublished in India.                            tween Zorah and Bethshemesh.   The mountains
From the characteristics of the tamarisk-tree of rise steep and rugged immediately behind it; but
the East, it certainly appears as likely as any to  the village is encompassed by fruitful fields and orhave been planted c iny Beearsheba by Abraham, be- chards. Zorah occupies the top of a conical hill,
have been planted in Beersheba by Abraham, because it is one of the few trees which will flourish  scarcely two miles westward, and a lower ridge
and grow to a great size even in the arid desert connects the hill with the mountains at Yeshua.
aind grow   to a great size even in the and desert.Upon that ridge the permanent  camp, or gath ering
It has also a name in Arabic, as s, very similar to  Upon that ridge the permanent camp, or gathering
the Hebrew   estel.  Besides the advantage of place of Dan ('between Zorah and Eshtaol,' Judg.
the Hebrew      eshex. Besides the advantage of    2x
affording shade in a hot country, it is also esteemed  xiii. 25) was probably fixed.  In the time of Jerome
on account of the excellence of its wood, which is Eshtaol was known as a village close to Zorah
converted into charcoal. It is no less valuable on  (Onsomast. s. v. Es/zaol and Sarea). A brief, but
account of the galls with which its branches are  clear description of this region is given by Robinoften loaded, and which are nearly as astringent as son (B.., i. I53, Sq.)-J. L. P.
oak-galls.  It is also one of those trees which were  ESHTEMOH   or ESHTEMOA (i27nTj-     and
esteemed by the ancients, being the /cup'K' of: V
Theophrastus, Dioscorides, etc.' Hanc enim vati- 9i113r; Sept. cod. Alex.'EOeup, etc.) InJosh.
cinaturi manu gestabant ut Ap.ollo in Lesbo, inde xv. 50 this name is written without the guttural V; but
Myriceus dictus, etc.' To this they were probably I in all other places it retains that letter. The Sept.




ESLI                     827                 ESSENES
has also several ways of representing the name, There is hardly an expression, the etymology of
some of which bear little resemblance to the oi- which has called forth such a diversity of opinion
ginal. The position of Eshtemoa is defined with  as this name. The Greek and the Hebrew, the
considerable minuteness in the Bible. It was in  Syriac and the Chaldee, names of persons and
the mountains of Judah, near the southern border names of places, have successively been appealed
of that tribe, and not far distant from Anab, Jattir, to, to yield the etymology of this appellation, and
and Socho, the sites of which are known (Josh. xv. to tell the reason why it has been given to this sect;
50). All that is known of its history may be told  and there are no less, if not more, than nineteen difin a very few words.   It was assigned to the ferentexplanations ofit. I. Philo (Quodomnisprob.
priests (Josh. xxi. I4). It was one of those cities lib., sec. xii.) derives it from the Greek 6'soos, holy.
which David frequented when hiding from Saul, 2. Josephus, according to Jost (Geschichte d. 5idenand to which, as a reward for kindness and hospi- thums, i. 207), seems either to derive it from the
tality, he sent part of the spoils of the Amalekites Chaldee KWIn, to be quiet, to be mysterious, because
(I Sam. xxx. 26-3I). Eusebius and Jerome simply he renders Vn1 the higsh-riest's breastplate, for
mention it as a large village in Darom, in the pro- which the Sept. has Xo-yeiov by eaaov, or directly
vince of Eleutheropolis (Onomast. s.v. Esthemo). from  rln, in the sense of Xoyedov or X6ytov, endowed
Dr. Robinson has rightly identified it with Semzla, with the gift of prophecy.  3. Epiphanius (Haer.
a village eight miles south of Hebron, and the last xix.) takes it to be the Hebrew D4rn=rtqp ap6v
inhabited place towards the desert.  He says,'it yi0os, the stout race. 4. Suidas (s. v.) and Hilgenis situated on a low hill, with broad valleys round feld (Diejzid. Apokal., p. 278) make it out to be
about, not susceptible of much tillage, but full of the Aramaic form't1n == rewp-qrKol, seers, and the
flocks and herds, all in fine order.' Beside it are latter maintains that this name was given to the
some olive groves. The ancient ruins are exten- sect because they pretended to see visions, and to
sive; among them    are foundations of massive prophesy. 5. Josippon ben Gorion (lib. iv., secs.
bevelled stones, shewing that the architecture is 6, 7, pp. 274 and 278, ed. Breithauzpt) takes it for
Jewish. The most conspicuous object now is a the Hebrew'       DI, the pious, the puritans. 6. De
fragment of an old castle, which appears from the  Rossi (HMeor Enaim, c. iii.), Gfrirer (Philo, ii. p.
character of the masonry to be of Saracenic origin  341), Diihne (Ersch u. Gruber's Encyklop., s. v.),
(Robinson, B. R. iii. 206; Wilson, Lands of the Nork (Real- Wdrterbuch, s.v.), Herzfeld (Geschichte
Bible, i. 353).-J. L. P.. Israel, ii. p. 395), and others insist that it is
ESLI ('Eoa', var. lect.'EoXel), son of Nagge, the Aramaic  tO: =  ieparCvrTs, pzhysician, and
that this name was given to them because of the
in the genealogy of our Lord (Luke iii. 25). Pro-that this namewas given to them because of the
in th e genealogy of our Lord (Luke iii.  i.  spiritual or physical cures they performed.  7.
bably this represents the Hebrew Aizx, Azaliah.  Aboth R. Nathan (c. xxxvi.) and a writer in
ESS, LEANDER VAN, a Roman Catholic theo- Jost's Annalen (i. 145), derive it from j1Vty, to do,
logian, was born on the I5th February 1772, at toperform; the latter says that it is the Aramaic
Warburg, entered the Benedictine monastery of from   W      and that they were so called because
Marienmutnster in Paderborn, I790, became priest of their endeavours to perform the law. 8. Rppa1796, and was afterwards pastor at Schmalenberg  port (Erech Millin, p. 41) says that it is the Greek
in the principality of Lippe. In I813 he received  ioS   cit, asiae,   of thefraternity. 9. Frana call to Marburg as professor extraordinarius of kel (Zeischrzt, 1846, p. 449, etc.) and others think
theology. Various circumstances afterwards in- that it is the Hebrew expression I yr,  the retired.
duced him to resign this and other offices which he  IO. Ewald (Geschichte d. V Israe, iv. p. 420) is
held. Having retired from public life, he lived surethat it is the Rabbinic n, servan (of God) and
secluded at Darmstadt and elsewhere, till his tht the name was given to them because it was
death in 1847. Van Ess translated the N. T. in ther only desire to be _ epaevral weoV. Ih.
conjunction with Karl Van Ess, his relative; 8vo,Graetz (Geschchte d. uden, iii. 525) will have it
Brunswick, 1807; 4th edition, 1819, Salzburg. that it is from the Aramaic Nnt, to bathe, with
The Pope subsequently interdicted its printing. aleph prostheticum, and that it is the shorter form
His work on the Vulgate version gained the pro- for 1-DY Dn=rPnn1 n11t, /iAepopa7rta-ral, heposed prize, Pragmatisch-kritische Geschichte der merobaptists, a name given to this sect because they
Vulgata im A4llemeinen, und zzundchst in Bezie- baptized themselves early in the morning. 12. Dr.
hung auf das Trientische Decret, 1824, 8vo. He  Low (Ben Chananja, i. 352) never doubts but that
also published Gedanken ueber Bibel und Bibellesen, they were called Essenes after their founder, whose
1816; and an edition of the LXX., Lips. 1824. name he tells us was OW., the disciple of Joshua b.
He assisted the operations of the Bible Society on  Perachja.  13. Others again say that it alludes to
the Continent, by circulating the Scriptures among  7esse, the father of David.  14. Others again subRoman Catholics.  For this he was regarded with  mit that it is derived from the town Essa, or
suspicion; and compelled by various influences to the place Vadi Ossiss (comp. Ewald, Geschichte d.
withdraw from the public service of his church.-  V.., iv. p. 420). 15. Dr. Adler (Volkslehrer,
S. D.                                         vi. p. 50), again, derives it from the Hebrew'DN,
ESSENES OR ESSAEANS (4^EtY), Aboth R. to bind together, to associate, and says that they were
- Nathan, c. xxxvi; *'Eo-qzvo Joseph.; Esseni Pliny  called lt:IN, because they united together to keep'Eoaoot, Joseph. Bell. lud. i. 3. 5, etc.; Philo),the law.  I6. Dr. Cohn suggests the Chaldee
a very remarkable Jewish sect or order of Judaism,
which, by virtue of the exemplarily holy and self-  * Jost himself hazards no opinion about the
denying life of its followers, exercised a most bene- etymology of this name; and Mr. Westcott, the
ficial influence upon the Jewish community, and  writer of the article Essenes in Smith's Dictionary
prepared the way for Christianity.             of the Bible, is wrong in representing him as derivI. The name of the sect and its signification. — ing it from INtn, zhe silent, the mysterious.




ESSENES                   828                 ESSENES
root JlC  to be strong, and that they were called ciety, to form a separate community, and live
4.y, because of their strength of mind to endure apart from the world. Their manner of life and
sufferings and to subdue their passions (Frankel's practices were most simple and self-denying.
Monatsch. vii. 272). 17. Oppenheim thinks that They chiefly occupied themselves with tilling the
it may be the form 1W'V3, and stands for IWV1  ground, tending flocks, rearing bees, and making
tp1n no1t, or ntIn n1'tD 1Wl), observers of the articles of food and dress required by the
the laws ofpurity and holiness (ibid.) I8. Jellinek community, as it was contrary to their laws of
(Ben Chananja, iv. 374), again, derives it from the Levitical purity to get anything from one who did
Hebrew lxn, sinus, 7repticoa, alluding to the not belong to the society, as well as with healing
CD4=  mentioned in the Talmud (Bechoroth, 30, a), the sick and studying the mysteries of nature and
i. e., the apron which the Essenes wore; whilst, I9. revelation. Whatever they possessed was deposited
Others again derive it from NDnI pious. The two in the general treasury, of which were several
last-mentioned explanations seem to have much to managers, appointed by the whole fraternity, who
recommend them, and both of them are natural and supplied therefrom the wants of every one, so that
expressive of the characteristics of this sect. We, they had all things in common, hence there were
however, incline towards the last, because it plainly no distinctions amongst them of rich and poor, or
connects the Essenes with the Chasidim, from which of masters and servants. They reprobated slavery
they originated. [CHASIDIM.]                 and war, and would not even manufacture martial
2. The tenets andpractices of the sect.-The car- instruments. They rose before the sun, and did
dinal doctrine of this sect was the sacredness of not talk about any worldly matters till they had all
the inspired Law of God. To this they adhered assembled together and offered up their national
with such tenacity that they were led thereby to prayer for the renewal of the light of the day
pay the greatest homage to Moses the Lawgiver,
and to consider blasphemy of his name a capital (p''P1XnI), whereupon they dispersed to their
offence. They believed that to obey diligently the respective engagements, according to the direccommandments of the Lord, to lead a pure and tions of the overseers, till the fifth hour, or eleven
holy life, to mortify the flesh and the lusts thereof, o'clock, when the labour of the forenoon terand to be meek and lowly in spirit, would bring minated, and all reassembled, had a baptism in
them in closer communion with their Creator, and cold water, after which they put on their white
make them the temples of the Holy Ghost, when garments, entered their refectory with as much rethey would be able to prophesy and perform   ligious solemnity as if it were the holy Temple,
miracles, and, like Elias, be ultimately the fore- sat down together in mysterious silence to a comrunners of the Messiah. This last stage of perfec- mon meal, which had the character of a sacration, however, could only be attained by gradual ment,-and may be the reason why they did not
growth in holiness, and by advancement from one offer sacrifices in the temple,-the baker placed
degree to another. Thus, when one was admitted before each one a little loaf of bread, and the cook
a member of this order, and had obtained the a dish of the most simple food, the priest invoked'tt = -replwtcua, apron, which, from its being used  God's blessing upon the repast, and concluded
to dry oneself with after the baptisms, was the with thanks to the Bountiful Supplier of all our
symbol of purity, he attained-I. To the state of wants. This was the signal of their dismissal,
outward or bodily purity by baptisms (lKn1D n't1I  when all withdrew, put off their sacred garments,
lpe 41'-7). 2. From bodily purity he progressed and resumed their several employments till the
to that stage which imposed abstinence from con- evening, when they again partook of a common
ttta wcat  c   meal. Such was their manner of life during the
nubial intercourse (nlWVD f"i,Wn3n  rJnl). 3. week.  On the Sabbath, which they observed
From, this stage, again, he attained to that of with the utmost rigour, and on which they were
inward or spiritual purity (4rI N1n DWnS     more especially instructed in their distinctive ordin1n1D). 4. From this stage, again, he advanced ances, Philo tells us'they frequent the sacred
to that which required the banishing of all anger places, which are called synagogues, and there
and malice, and the cultivation of a meek and they sit according to their age in classes, the
lowly spirit (,l, v;1N'D  m;1nD~). 5. Thence younger sitting below  the elder, in becoming
he advanced to the stage of holiness (;lK3tz T1h3n  attire, and listening with eager attention. Then
he advancd to te se        one takes up the holy volume and reads it, whilst
I'n'1 In'''P). 6. Thence, again, he-advanced to another of the most experienced ones expounds,
that wherein he was fit to be the temple of the omitting that which is not generally known; for
Holy Spirit, and to prophesy (- 21 U2   3 n' n  they philosophise on most things in symbols, acp"rm).  7. Thence, again, he advanced to that cording to the ancient zeal' (Quod omnis prob. lib.
state when he could perform  miraculous cures sec. xii.) The study of logic and metaphysics-they
Land raise the dead ( ^,, ~   andregarded as injurious to a devotional life. They
and raised   ny the     psdeadti (otf Eli Wpn n); and were governed by a president, who was chosen by
8. Attained finally to the position of Elias, the the whole body, and who also acted as judge. In
forerunner of the Messiah (0nriK *I  w",nnn). cases of trial, however, the majority of the comComp. Talmud, yerusalem Sabbath, c. i.; Sheka- munity, or at least a hundred members of it, were
lim, c. iii.; Bably Aboda Zara, xx. 6; Midrash  required to constitute the tribunal, and the brother
Rabba, Shir Hashirim, at the beginning, and Ben  who walked disorderly was excommunicated, yet
Chananja, iv. 374.                           was he not regarded as an enemy, but was adAs contact with any one who did not practise monished as a brother, and received back after
their self-imposed Levitical laws of purity, or with  due repentance.
anything belonging to such an one, rendered them  As has already been remarked, the Essenes
impure, the Essenes were, in the course of time, generally were celibates; their ranks had thereobliged to withdraw altogether fiom general so- fore to be recruited from the children of the Jewish




ESSENES                    829                 ESSENES
community at large, whom they carefully trained for thousands of ages (' per seculorum milliafor this holy and ascetic order. Previous to his incredibile dictu, -gens eterna est in qua nemo
final admission, the candidate for the order had to  nascitur, Hist. Nat., lib. v. c. I5). Modern writers,
pass through a noviciate of two stages.  Upon en- with few exceptions, have shaped their descriptering the first stage, which lasted twelve months, tion of this community according to these acthe novice (veo-6rTarTos) had to cast in all his pos- counts, because they supposed that the Essenes are
sessions into the common treasure, and received a neither mentioned in the N. T. nor in the ancient
spade (ocKaXis, aLvcipLov =  )l)  to bury the excre- Jewish writings, and hence some of them have
ment (comp. Deut. xxiii. 12-15), an apron (rrep- been led to think that they originated in Egypt or
wcoa=t t"t), used at the baptisms, and a white Greece, or from an amalgamation of the philosorobe to put on at meals, which were the symbols phic systems of both countries. Frankel has the
of purity, and, though still an outsider, he had to honour of being the first who, in an accumulation
observe some of the ascetic rules of the society. of passages from the Talmud and Midrashim, has
If, at the close of this stage, the community found demonstratively shewn that Essenisms is simply an
that he had properly acquitted himself during the order of Pharisaism, that both are sections of the
probationary year, the novice was then admitted  Chasidim or Assideans [CHASIDIM], and that all
into the second stage, which lasted two years. these three orders are frequently spoken of under
During this period he was admitted to a closer fel- the same name. That the Essenes are simply an
lowship with the brotherhood, and shared in their order of Pharisaism is most distinctly stated in
lustral rites, but was still excluded from the com- Aboth R. Nathan, c. xxxvii., where we are told
mon meals. Having passed satisfactorily through  that there are eight distinctions or orders among
the second stage of probation, the novice was then  the Pharisees, and that those Pharisees who live
fully received into the community (els rbv bjuXov), in celibacy are the Essenes ('iled-ifl W l'1n'ln
when he bound himself by awful oaths*'that, in  ~ iK=Y   1niinD).  This will, moreover, be seen
the first place, he will exercise piety towards God; from a comparison of the following practices, which
and then that he will observe justice towards all Josephus describes as peculiar characteristics of
men; and that he will do no harm to any one, the Essenes, with the practices of the Pharisees, as
either of his own accord or by the command of given in the Talmud and Midrashim:others; that he will always hate the wicked, and  I. The Essenes had four classes of Levitical
help the righteous; that he will ever be faithful to  purity, which were so marked that a member of the
all men, especially to his rulers, for without God upper class had to bathe himself when he touched
no one comes to be ruler, and that if he should be anything belonging to the lower class, or when he
ruler himself he should never be overbearing nor came in contact with a stranger, so also the Phariendeavour to outshine those he rules either in his sees (comp. Joseph. Bell. yud., ii. 8. Io, with
garments or in finery; that he will always love  Chagiga, ii. 7).
truth, and convince and reprove those that lie;  II. The Essenes regarded ten persons as conthat he will keep his hand from stealing, and his stituting a complete number for divine worship,
soul clear from any unjust gain; that he will not and held the assembly of such a number as sacred;
conceal anything from the members of his society, so the Pharisees (comp. Bell. Yud., ii. 8. 9, with
nor communicate to any one their mysteries, not Aboth iii. 6; Berachoth 54, a).
even if he should be forced to it at the hazard of  III. The Essenes would not spit out in the
his life; and finally, that he will never deliver presence of an assembly, or to the right hand; so
the doctrines of the Essenes to any one in any the Pharisees (comp. Bell. 5i'd., ii 8. 9, with yeruother manner than he received them himself, that salem Berachoth, iii. 5).
he will abstain from all species of robbery, and  IV. The Essenes regarded their social meal as a
carefully preserve the books belonging to their sacrament, so the Pharisees (comp. Bell. ead., ii.
sect and the names of the angels't (Bell. tud., ii. 8. 5, with Berachoth 55, a).
8. 7). This vow sufficiently shews the doctrines  V. The Essenesbathed before meals, so the Phariand practices of the sect.                    sees (comp. Bell. bud., ii. 8. 5, with Chagiga i8, b).
3. The Origin of this sect, and its relationship to  VI. The Essenes put on an apron on the lower
Judaism  and Christianity.-The origin of this part of the body when bathing, the Pharisees
sect has been greatly mystified by Philo and  covered themselves with the Talith (comp. Bell.
Josephus, who being anxious to represent their J7ud., ii. 8. 5, with Berachoth 24, b).
co-religionists to cultivated Greeks in a Hellenistic  VII. The Essenes bathed after performing the
garb, made the Essenes resemble as much as pos- duties of nature, so the priests (comp. Bell. 7ud.,
sible the Ascetic, Pythagorean, Platonic, and other ii. 8. 9, with Yoma 28, a).
philosophers.  This mystification has been still  VIII. The Essenes abstained from taking oaths,
more mystified by the account of Pliny, who tells so the Pharisees (comp. Bell. yud., ii. 8. 6, with
us that this community has prolonged its existence Shevuoth 39, b; Gitlin 35, a; Bemidbar Rabba,. ~-. —-------  c. xxii.)
* This was the only occasion on which an oath  IX. The Essenes would not even remove a
was permitted among the Essenes, for their doc- vessel on the Sabbath, so the Pharisees (comp.
trine was, swear not at all, but let your communi- Bell. dud., ii. 8. 9, with Tosfia Succa, iii.)
cation be yea, yea; nay, nay.' X. The Essenes had a steward in every place
t This refers to the secrets connected with the Te- where they resided, to supply the needy strangers
tragrammaton (tW11B^   Dt), and the other names of this order with articles of clothing and food, so
of God and the angels comprised in the theosophy the Pharisees (comp. Bell. yud., ii. 8. 4, with Peah
(HlVn>1 nI'V?), and to the mysteries connected viii. 7; Baba Bathra 8, a; Sabbath x18).
with the cosmogony (nr'W: i HiWf) which     XI. The Essenes believed that all authority
played so-important a part both among the Essenes comes from God, so the Pharisees (comp. Bell.
and the Kabbalists.                            zd., ii. 8. 7, with Berachotz 58, a).




ESSENES                    830                  ESTHER
XII. An applicant for admission to the order the Maccabmean, i.e., 143 B.C. (Antiq. xiii. 5. 9);
of the Essenes had to pass through a noviciate of he then mentions Judas, an Essene, who delivered
twelve months, so the'nr among the Pharisees a prophecy in the reign of Aristobulus I., i.e., I06
(comp. Bell. Yud., ii. 8. 7, with Bechoroth 30, b).  B.C. (Bell. 7ud. i. 3. 5; Antiq. xiii. 11. 2). The
XIII. The novice among the Essenes received third mention of their existence occurs in conan apron (7repiwuoJa) the first year of his probation, nection with Herod (Antiq. xv. I0. 5).  These
so the Chaber among the Pharisees (comp. Bell. accounts distinctly shew that the Essenes at first
-uLd., ii. 8. 7, with Tosifta Demai, c. ii.; Jerusalem  lived among the people, and did not refrain from
Demai, ii. 3, b; Bechoroth 30, b).             frequenting the court, as Menachem the Essene
XIV. The Essenes delivered the Theosophical was a friend of Herod who was kindly disposed
books, and the sacred names, to the members of towards this order (Ibid.)  This is, moreover,
their society, similarly the Pharisees (comp. Bell. evident from the fact that there was a gate at
j7ud. ii. 8. 7, with Chagiga ii. I; Kiddushim 71, a). Jerusalem which was named after them ('EraorThe real differences between the Essenes and v&v t7riX, Bell. uad. v. 4. 2). When they ultithe Pharisees, developed themselves in the course mately withdrew themselves from the rest of the
of time, when the extreme rigour with which they Jewish nation, the majority of them settled on the
sought to perform the laws of Levitical purity, made north-west shore of the Dead Sea, and the rest lived
them withdraw from intercourse with their fellow- in scattered communities throughout Palestine and
men, and led them-I. To form an isolated order; other places. Their number is estimated both by
2. To keep from marriage, because of the perpetual Philo and Josephus at 4000.
pollutions to which women are subject in menstruum  5. The Literature on the Essenes.-The oldest
and child-birth, and because of its being a hindrance accounts we have of this order are those given
to a purely devotional state of mind; 3. To abstain  by Josephus, Bell. Cud. ii. 8. 2-15; Antiq. xii.
from frequenting the Temple and offering sacrifices 5. 9; xv. Io. 4, f.; xviii. I. 2, ff.; Philo,
(comp. Antiq. xviii. I. 5); and 4. Though they  Quod omnis probus liber, sec. xii. ff.;'Pliny, Hist.
firmly believed in the immortality of the soul, yet Natur, v., c. xvi. xvii.; Solinus, Polyhist. c. xxxv.;
they did not believe in the resurrection of the Porphyry, De Abstinentia, p. 381; Epiphanius,
body (Bell. dud., ii. 8. II).                  Adv. H]er. lib. i.; Eusebius, Histor. Eccles., ii. c.
As to their connection with Christianity, there xvii. Of modern productions we have Bellermann,
can be no difficulty in admitting that Christ and  Geschichtliche Nachrichten aus dem Allerthume
the Apostles recognised those principles and prac- iiber Essder und Theraezuten, Berlin, 1821, who
tices of the Essenes, which were true and useful. has studiously collected all the descriptions of this
Though our Saviour does not mention them by the order; Gfrorer, Philo und die jiidisch-alexandriname Essenes, which Philo and Josephus coined  nische Theosophie, Stuttgart, 1835, p. 299, ff.;
for the benefit of the Greeks, yet there can be no  Prideaux, Connection of the 0. and NV. T, part ii.,
doubt he refers to them in Matt. xix. 12, when he book v., 5; Dahne, Geschichtliche Darstellung der
speaks of those'who abstain from marriage for the jidisch-alexandrinische Religions Philosophie, i.
kingdom of heaven's sake,' since they were the 467, ff.; and by the same author, the article Essder,
only section of Jews who voluntarily imposed upon  in Ersch und Grub&r's Encykloplddie; Neander,
themselves a state of celibacy, in order that they  History of the Church, ed. Bohn, vol. i.  The
might devote themselves more closely to the service Essays of Frankel, in his Zeitschrftfiir die religiosen
of God. And I Cor. vii. can hardly be understood  Interessen d. -udenthums, 1846, p. 441, ff.; and
without bearing in mind the notions about marriage  Monatschrzft fi.r Geschichle u. WTissenschaft d.
entertained by this God-fearing and self-denying?udenthums, vol. ii. p. 30 ff., 6I ff., are most
order. Matt. v. 34, etc., and James v. 12, urge the  important, and may be considered as having created
abstinence from using oaths which was especially  a new epoch in the treatment of the history of this
taught by the Essenes.  The manner in which    order.  Adopting the results of Frankel, and purChrist commanded his disciples to depart on their suing the same course still further, Graetz has given
journey (Mark vi. 8-Io), is the same which these a masterly treatise upon the Essenes in his Gespious men adopted when they started on a mission chichte der 7uden, Leipzig, 1856, iii. 96 ff., 518 ff.;
of mercy.   The primitive Christians, like the treatises of great value are also given by Jost,
Essenes, sold their land and houses, and brought Geschichte des Yudenthums und seiner Secten, Leipthe prices of the things to the apostles, and they  zig, 1857, p. 207 ff.; and Herzfeld, Geschichte d.
had all things in common (Acts iv. 32-34). John  V. Israel, Nordhausen, I857, vol. ii. p. 368,
the Baptist must have belonged to this holy order, 388, if. The accounts given by Ewald, Geschichte
as is evident from his ascetic life (Luke xi. 22), d. Volkes Israel, Gottingen, 1852, vol. iv. p. 420,
and when Christ pronounced him to be Elias (Matt. ff., and Hilgenfeld, Diejiidische Apokalyptik, Jena,
xi. 14), he declared that the Baptist had really  1857, p. 245, ff., though based upon Philo and
attained to that spirit and power which the Essenes Josephus, are important contributions to the literastrove to obtain in their highest stage of purity ture of the Essenes. To these must be added the
(vide supra, sec. 2).                          very interesting and important relics of the Essenes,
4. The Date, Settlements, and Number of this published by Jellinek, with instructive notices by
Order.-The fact that the Essenes developed the learned editor, in Beth Ha-Midrash, vol. ii.,
themselves gradually, and at first imperceptibly, Leipzig, I853, p. xviii. ff.; vol. iii. Leipzig, 1855,
through intensifying the prevalent religious notions, p. xx. ff.-C. D. G.
renders it impossible to say with exactness at what
degree of intensity they are to be considered as ESTHER (lnD; Sept.'ErGp), a damsel of
detached from the general body.  The Saviour, the tribe of Benjamin, born during the Exile, and
and the ancient Jewish writers do not speak of whose family did not avail itself of the permission
them  as a separate body.  Josephus, however, to return to Palestine, under the edict of Cyrus.
speaks of them as existing in the days of Jonathan  Her parents being dead, Esther was brought up




ESTHER, BOOK OF                 831            ESTHER, BOOK OF
by her cousin Mordecai. The reigning king of though in the service of the king, refused to renPersia, Ahasuerus, having divorced his queen, der to Haman the homage which the king had enVashti, on account of the becoming spirit with joined, and which his other servants rendered; he
which she refused to submit to the indignity which  describes in detail the means by which this was
a compliance with his drunken commands involved, averted through the influence of a Jewish maiden
search was made throughout the empire for the called' Hadassah, that is, Esther,' the cousin of
most beautiful maiden to be her successor. Those  Mordecai, who had been raised to be the wife of
whom the officers of the harem deemed the most the king, along with the destruction of Haman
beautiful were removed thither, the eventual choice and the advancement of Mordecai; he tells us
among them   remaining with the king himself. how the Jews, under the sanction of the king, and
That choice fell on Esther, who found favour in with the aid of his officers, rose up against their
the eyes of Ahasuerus, and was advanced to a sta- enemies, and slew them to the number of 75,000;
tion enviable only by comparison with that of the and he concludes by informing us that the festival
less favoured inmates of the royal harem. Her of Purim was instituted among the Jews in comJewish origin was perhaps at the time unknown; memoration of this remarkable passage in their
and hence, when she avowed it to the king, she history. From the important part played by Esther
seemed to be included in the doom of extirpation in this history the book bears her name. It is one
which a royal edict had pronounced against all the of the five Megilloth, or books read in the synaJews in the empire. This circumstance enabled her gogue on special festivals; the season appropriate
to turn the royal indignation upon Haman, the chief to it being the feast of Purim, held on the I4th
minister of the king, whose resentment against and 15th of the month Adar, of the origin of
Mordecai had led him to obtain from the king this which it contains the account. Hence it stands in
monstrous edict. The laws of the empire would the Hebrew Canon after Coheleth, according to
not allow the king to recall a decree once uttered; the order of time in which the Megilloth are
but the Jews were authorized to stand on their read. By the Jews it is called the Megillah, Kar'
defence; and this, with the known change in the eoX7-v, either from the importance they attach to
intentions of the court, averted the worst conse- its contents, or from the circumstance that from a
quences of the decree. The Jews established a very early period it came to be written on a special
yearly feast in memory of this deliverance, which        fr u
is observed among them   to this day [PURIM]. roll         or use in the synagogue (Hottiger,
Such is the substance of the history of Esther, as Thes. PAil. p. 494). In the LXX. it appears with
related in the book which bears her name. The numerous additions, prefixed, interspersed, and apdetails, as given in that book, afford a most curious pended; many of which betray a later origin, but
picture of the usages of the ancient Persian court, which are so inwrought with the original story as
the accuracy of which is vouched not only by the to make with it a continuous and, on the whole,
historical authority of the book itself, but by its harmonious narrative. By the Christians it has
agreement with the intimations afforded by the been variously placed; the Vulgate places it beancient writers, as well as by the fact that the same tween Tobit and Judith, and appends to it several
usages are in substance preserved in the Persian  Apocryphal additions [see next article]; the Procourt at the present day.                     testant versions commonly follow Luther in placing
It should be observed that Esther is the name it at the end of the historical books.
which the damsel received upon her introduction  2. Canonicity. Among the Jews this book has
into the royal harem, her Hebrew name having been  always been held in the highest esteem. There is
HADASSAH (;lnDlN, myrtle, Esth. ii. 7). Esther is some ground for believing that the feast of Purim
most probably a Persian word.  Gesenius cites was by some of the more ancient Jews opposed as
from that diffuse Targum on this book which is an unlicensed novelty (Talm. Hieros. Tr. Megilknown as the second Targum on Esther, the fol-  oth, fol. 70; Lightfoot, Hor. Heb. ad yoh. x. 22);
lowing words:' She was called Esther from the but there is no trace of any doubt being thrown by
name of the star Venus, which in Greek is Aster.' them on the canonicity of the book. By the more
Gesenius then points to the Persian word Satdrah, modem Jews it has been elevated to a place beside
star, as that of which Esther is the Syro-Arabian  the Law, and above the other hagiographa, and even
modification; and brings it, as to signification, the prophets (Pfeiffer, Thes. Hermen. p. 597, ff.;
into connection with the planet Venus, as a star of Carpzov, introd. p. 366, ff.) In the Christian
good fortune, and with the name of the Syrian  Church it has not been so generally received.
goddess Ashtoreth, according to the etymology of Whilst apparently accepted without question by the
the word, already referred to in that article.  churches of the West in the early centuries, the testiThe difficulties of the history of the book of mony of the Eastern Church concerning it is more
Esther, especially as regards the identity of the fluctuating. It is omitted in the catalogue of Meking, have been examined under AHASUERUS, and lito, an omission which is shared with Nehemiah,
are also noticed in the following article.-J. K.  and which some would account for by supposing that
both these books were included by him under Ezra,
ESTHER, BOOK OF. I. Contents, Name, and a supposition which may be admitted in reference
Place in the Canon.-In this book we have an ac- to Nehemiah, but is less probable in reference to
count of certain events in the history of the Jews Esther; Origen inserts it, though not among the
under the rule of the Persian king Ahasuerus historical books, but after Job, which is supposed
(Achashverosh), doubtless the Xerxes of the Greek  to indicate some doubt regarding it on his part; in
historians. [AHASUERUS 3. ] The writer informs the catalogues of the Council of Laodicea, of the
us of a severe persecution with which they were Apostolical Canons, of Cyrill of Jerusalem, and of
threatened at the instigation of Haman, a favourite Epiphanius, it stands among the canonical books;
of the king, who sought in this way to gratify his by Gregory of Nazianzus it is omitted; in the
jealousy and hatred of a Jew, Mordecai, who, Synopsis Scri-. Sac. it is mentioned as said by




ESTHER, BOOK OF                 832           ESTHER, BOOK OF
some of the ancients to be accepted by the He- could do nothing else than place before us such a
brews as canonical; and by Athanasius it is ranked picture as that which this book presents; had he
among the dvcaytvco-K6fJeva, not among the canoni- done otherwise he would not have narrated the
cal books. These differences undoubtedly indicate truth. It does not follow from this, however, that
that this book did not occupy the same unques- he himself sympathised with those of whom he
tioned place in general confidence as the other wrote, in their motives, feelings, and conduct; or
canonical books of the 0. T.; but the force of that the spirit dominant in them is the spirit of his
this, as evidence, is greatly weakened by the fact writing. If this is alleged let it be proved; and it
that it was not on historical or critical grounds, must be proved by some evidence more direct and
but rather on grounds of a dogmatical nature, and conclusive than is furnished by the mere fact that
of subjective feeling, that it was thus treated. On he has faithfully described these men and women as
the same grounds, at a later period, it was sub- they were, without comment or stricture. An hisjected to doubt, even in the Latin Church (Juni- torian, as such, is not bound to this; he fulfils his
lius, De partibus Leg. Div., c. 3). At the time of office when he truly places before us things as they
the Reformation, Luther, on the same grounds, really occurred, and the actors in his story as they
pronounced the book more worthy to be placed reallywere. Itistrue, occasions may frequentlypre-'extra canonem,' than' in canone' (De servo arbi- sent themselves in the course of his narrative when he
trio; comp. his Tischreden, iv. 403, Berlin ed., might have indulged in reflections of an ethical or
1848), but in this he stood alone in the Protestant didactic character on what he has narrated; but to
churches of his day; nor was it till a comparatively do this may not have been in the plan and conrecent period that his opinion found any advocates. ception of his work, and he may therefore have inThe first who set himself systematically to impugn  tentionally avoided it. Now when the subject is
the claims of the book was Semler; and him Oeder, looked at in this way, the question as to the canonCorrodi, Augusti, Bertholdt, De Wette, and Bleek, icity of the book of Esther, as affected by the chahave followed. Eichhorn with some qualifications, racter of its contents, resolves itself simply into
Jahn and Havernick unreservedly, have defended this: Is it inconceivable or highly improbable that
its claims.                                  a prophet of Jehovah, or a man imbued with the
The objections urged against the canonicity of religious beliefs of the O. T., could have written such
the book resolve themselves principally into these a book? If the answer to this be in the negative,
three-I. That it breathes a spirit of narrow, selfish, it follows that the book may be canonical notwithnational pride and vindictiveness, very much akin standing the spirit which characterises those whose
to that displayed by the later Jews, but wholly history it sets forth; if it be in the affirmative, it
alien from the spirit which pervades the acknow- rests with the affirmant to substantiate his position.
ledged books of the 0. T.; 2. That its untheocratic  Observations to the same effect may be made on
character is manifested in the total omission in it the second objection. If the purpose of the author
of the name of God, and of any reference to the was to relate faithfully and without comment the acdivine providence and care of Israel; and 3. That tions and words of persons who were living without
many parts of it are so incredible as to give it the any vital recognition of God, the omission of all reappearance rather of a fiction or romance than the ference to God in the narrative will be sufficiently accharacter of atrue history (Bertholdt,De Wette, etc.) counted for by this circumstance. If it be said, But
The relevancyoftheseobjections must beallowed; it a pious man would have spontaneously introduced
only remains to inquire how far they admit of being some such reference, even though those of whom
obviated.  Now, in regard to the first of these, he wrote gave him no occasion to do so by their
whilst it must be admitted that the spirit and con- own modes of speech or acting; it may suffice to
duct of the Jews, of whom the author of this book  reply, that as we are ignorant of the reasons which
writes, are not those which the religion of the moved the author to abstain from all remarks of
O. T. sanctions, it remains to be asked whether, his own on what he narrates, it is not competent for
in what he narrates of them, he has not simply us to conclude from the omission in question that
followed the requirements of historical fidelity; he was not himself a pious man. If again it be
and it remains to be proved, that he has in any said, How can a book which simply narrates the
way indicated that his own sympathies and convic- conduct of Jews who had to a great extent fortions went along with theirs. On both these points, gotten, if they had not renounced the worship of
we think, the impartial inquirer will arrive at a Jehovah, without teaching any moral lessons in
conclusion favourable to the author. There can be connection with this, be supposed to have proceeded
little doubt, that among the Jews of whom he from a man under God's direction in what he
writes, a very different state of religious and moral wrote; it may be replied that a book may have a
feeling prevailed from what belonged to their most excellent moral tendency and be full of imnation in the better days of the theocracy. The portant moral lessons, even though these are not
mere fact that they preferred remaining in the land formally announced in it. That it is so with the
of the heathen to going up with their brethren who book of Esther may be seen from such a work as
availed themselves of the permission of Cyrus to  M'Crie's Lectures on this book, where the great
return to Judaea, shews how little of the true spirit lessons of the book are expounded with the skill of
of their nation remained with them.  In them, one whose mind had been long and deeply versed
therefore, we need not wonder to find a spirit of in historical research. As the third objectionabove
worldliness and ungodliness predominant-a spirit noticed rests on the alleged unhistorical character
of self-seeking, pride, and vindictiveness-a spirit of the book; its force will be best estimated after
much the same as that which we see characterising we have considered the next head.
the later Judeeism even in Palestine itself, but of  3. Credibility.-In realtion to this point three
which the beginnings were surely found among the opinions have been advanced.  I. That the book
extra-Palestinian Jews at the time to which this is wholly unhistorical, a mere legend or romance;
history relates. This being the case, the historian 2. That it has an historical basis, and contains some




ESTHER, BOOK OF                 833        ESTHER, APOCRYPHAL
true statements, but that with these much of a We reply that it does not appear certain that her
fabulous kind is intermixed; 3. That the narrative Jewish descent was unknown; and if it were, we
is throughout true history. Of these opinions the are too little acquainted with the usages of the Perfirst has not found many supporters; it is obviously sian royal harem to be able to judge whether this
incompatible with the reception of the book into was an unlikely thing to occur or not; we may sugthe Jewish canon, for however late be the date as- gest, however, that the writer of the history was
signed to the closing of the canon, it is incredible somewhat more likely to know the truth on such
that what must have been known to be a mere points than German professors in the I9th century.
fable, if it is one, could have found a place there;  Such are the principal objections which have
it is incompatible with the early observance by the been urged by De Wette and Bleek against the
Jews of the Feast of Purim, instituted to comme- credibility of this book. To readers in this country
morate the events recorded here (comp. 2 Maccab. accustomed to weigh evidence, they will, doubtless,
xv. 36); and it is rendered improbable by the appear of little moment, while some of them will
minuteness of some of the details, such as the hardly escape being regarded as'weak and connames of the seven eunuchs (i. Io), the seven offi- temptible.' It only remains for us to accept the
cers of the king (i. I4), the ten sons of Haman historical character of the book. The history is a
(ix. 7-IO), and the general accurate acquaintance curious one, but its very singularity makes it all the
with the manners, habits, and cotemporary history more valuable as a record of customs and events in
of the Persian court which the author exhibits. that distant time. With the establishment of its
(See the ample details on this head collected by credibility falls to the ground the objections to its
Eichhorn and Hivernick, Einleit. ii. I, p. 338- canonicity, founded on its alleged unhistorical cha357). The reception of the book into the canon racter.
places a serious difficulty also in the way of  4. Authorship and Date.-No information exists
the second opinion; for if those who determined as to the author of this book; nor have we any
this would not have inserted a book wholly fabu- means of forming a tenable conjecture on the sublous,' they would as little have inserted one in ject. Some have ascribed it to Mordecai, some.to
which fable and truth were indiscriminately mixed. Ezra, some to Joiachim the high-priest; but these
It may be proper, however, to notice the parts are mere guesses, for which no authority or valid
which are alleged to be fabulous; for only thus reason can be adduced.'Libri esther auctorem
can the objection be satisfactorily refuted. First, indicare velle,' says Le Clerc,'prinde est ac haerithen, it is asked, How can it be believed that if the olum se profiteri.'
king had issued a decree that all the Jews should  That the book was written after the downfall of
be put to death, he would have published this twelve the Persian monarchy in the time of the Maccabees
months before it was to take effect (iii. 12, 13)? But is the conclusion of Bertholdt, De Wette, and
if this seem incredible to us, it must, if untrue, have Bleek. The reasons, however, which they assign
appeared no less incredible to those for whom the for this are very feeble, and have been thoroughly
book was written; and nothing can be more im- nullified by Havernick. The latter supposes it to
probable than that a writer of any intelligence have been written at a much earlier date, and the
should by mistake have made a statement of this reasons he urges for this are-I. The statement in
kind; and a fiction of this sort is exactly what a ix. 32, compared with x. 2, where the author places
fabulist would have been most certain to have what he himself has written on a par in point of
avoided, for knowing it not to be in accordance authenticity with what is recorded in the Persian
with fact and usage, he must have been sure that annals, as if cotemporary productions; 2. The
its falsehood would be at once detected. Secondly, vividness, accuracy, and minuteness of his details
It is said to be incredible that the king when he respecting the Persian court; 3. The language of
repented of having issued such an edict should, as the book, as presenting, with some Persianisms,
it could not be recalled, have granted permission to those idioms which characterise the books of Ezra,
the Jews to defend themselves by the slaughter of Nehemiah, and Chronicles; and 4. The fact that
their enemies, and that they should have been per- the closing of the canon cannot be placed later than
mitted to do this to such an extent as to destroy the reign of Artaxerxes, so that an earlier date must
75,000 of his own subjects.  To our habits of be assigned to this book, which is included in it.
thinking this certainly appears strange; but we These reasons seem to' be not without weight.
must not measure the conduct of a monarch like Whether the book was written in Palestine or in
Xerxes by such a standard; the caprices of Oriental Persia is uncertain, but probability inclines to the
despots are proverbially startling; their indifference latter supposition.
to human life appalling: and Xerxes, as we know  5. Commentaries.-Serrarius, I6Io,fol.; Fritzsche,
from other sources, was apt even to exceed the  I848; Calmberg, I837; Bertheau, I862.-W. L. A.
limits of ordinary Oriental despotism in these respects (comp. Herod. i. 183; vii. 35, 39, 238; ix.  ESTHER, APOCRYPHAL ADDITIONS TO. Beio8-II3; Justin, ii. Io, II). Thirdly, it is asked sides the many minor deviations from the Hebrew,
how can we believe that the king would issue an there are six important additions in the Septuagint
edict to all his subjects that every man should bear and the other ancient versions of the book of
rule in his own house (i. 22)? We reply, that as Esther.
the edicts of Oriental despots are not all models of  I. Title and Position.-In the Septuagint and
wisdom and dignity, there seems to us nothing im- the Old Latin, these additions are dispersed through
probable in the statement that such an edict was, the canonical book, forming therewith a well adunder the circumstances, issued by Ahasuerus. justed whole, and have therefore no separate title.
Fourthly, Is it credible, it is asked, that Esther St. Jerome, however, separated them in his transshould have been so long time in the palace of the lation, and removed them to the end of the book,
king without her descent being known to the king because they are not found in the Hebrew. They
or to Haman, as appears to have been the case? are, therefore, in this position in the MSS. and
VOL. I.                                                                      3 H




ESTHER, APOCRYPHAL                 834         ESTHER, APOCRYPHAL
the printed editions of the Vulgate, and form, ac- characters of bygone days, and which gave rise to
cording to Cardinal Hugo's division, the seven last those beautiful legends preserved in their copious
chapters of the canonical Esther. Luther, who was literature, scarcely ever had a better opportunity
the first that separated the apocryphal from the  afforded to it for employing its richly inventive
canonical books, entirely detached these additions, powers to magnify the Great Jehovah, embalm the
and placed them among the apocrypha under the memory of the heroes, and brand the names of the
title'Stiicke in Esther.'  In the Zurich Bible, enemies of Israel, than in the canonical book of
where the Apocryphal and canonical books are Esther.    Nothing could be more natural for a
also separated, the canonical volume is called I nation, who'have a zeal of God,' than to szupply the
Esther, and these additions are denominated 2  name of God, and to point out more distinctly, His
Esther. Our English versions, though following interposition in their behalf in an inspired book,
Luther's arrangements, are not uniform in their which, though recording their marvellous escape
designation of these additions. Thus Coverdale from destruction, had for some reasons omitted
calls them' 7ze chapters of the book of Hester, avowedly to acknowledge the Lord of Israel.
which are not found in the text of the Hebrew, butBesides, the book implies and suggests far more
in the Greek and Latin.' In Matthews and the than it records, and it cannot be doubted that
Bishops' Bible, which are followed by the A. V., there are many other things connected with the
they are entitled,' The Rest of the chapters of the history it contains, which were well known at the
book of Esther, which arefound neither in the He- time, and were transmitted to the nation.  This
brew nor in the Chaldee,' whilst the Geneva version  is evident from the fact that Josephus already (Antiq.
adopts Luther's title.                         xi. 6. 6, seqq.) gives the edict for the destruction of
2. Design and Contents.-The design of these the Jews in the Persian empire, the prayers of
additions is to give a more decidedly religious tone Mordecai and Esther, and the second edict authoto the record contained in the book of Esther, and  rising the Jews to destroy their enemies; and that
to shew more plainly how wonderfully the God of the second Targum, the Chaldee, published by De
Israel interposed to save his people and confound  Rossi, and Josippon ben Gorion (ed Breithaupt, p.
their enemies. This the writer has effected by  74, ff.), give the dream of Mordecai as well as
elaborating upon the events narrated in the canoni- his prayer and that of Esther. Bearing in mind
cal volune as follows:-                       these facts, we shall have no difficulty in acI. Chap. i. I of the canonical volume is preceded  counting for the apocryphal additions. The first
in the Sept. by a piece which tells us that Mordecai, addition which heads the canonical book, and
who was in the service of Artaxerxes, dreamt of the in which Mordecai foresees in a dream both the
dangers which threatened his people, and of their dangers and the salvation of his people, is in acdeliverance (I-I2). He afterwards discovered a cordance with the desire to give the whole a more
conspiracy against the king, which he discloses to religious tone. The second addition originated
him, and is greatly rewarded for it (I3-I8). This from the fact that iii. 13 of the canonical book
is in the Vulgate and English Version, xi. I, xii. 6. speaks of the royal edict, hence this piece pretends
II. Between verses 13 and 14 of ch. iii. in the to give a copy of the said document; the same is
canonical book, the Septuagint gives a copy of the the case with the third addition, which follows iv.
king's edict addressed to all the satraps, to destroy  I7, and gives the prayers of Mordecai and Esther,
without compassion that foreign and rebellious for the said passage in the canonical volume relates
people, the Jews, for the good of the Persian  that Esther ordered prayers to be offered. The
nation, in the fourteenth day of the twelfth month fourth addition after v. I, giving a detailed account
of the coming year. This is in the Vulg. and Eng- of Esther's interview with the king, originated from
lish version xiii. 1-7.                        a desire to give more information upon the fact,
III. At the end of iv. 17 of the canonical book, which is simply alluded to in the canonical passage.
the Septuagint has two prayers of Mordecai and  The fifth addition, after viii. 13, originated in the
Esther, that God may avert the impending destruc- same manner as the second, viz., in a desire to suption of his people. This is in the Vulg. and English  ply a copy of the royal edict, whilst the sixth addi.
version xiii. 8; xiv. I9.                      tion, after x. 3, beautifully concludes with an
IV. Between verses I and 2 of ch. v. in the interpretation of the dream with which the first
canonical book, the Septuagint inserts a detailed  addition commences the canonical volume.  From
account of Esther's visit to the king. This is in this analysis it will be seen that these supplementary
the Vulg. and English version xv. 4-I9.        and embellishing additions are systematically disV. Between verses 13 and 14 of ch. viii. in the  persed through the book, and form a well adjusted
canonical books, the Septuagint gives a copy of the and continuous history. In the Vulg., however,
edict, which the king sent to all his satraps, in  which is followed by the versions of the Reformers
accordance with the request of Mordecai and    on the continent, and our English translations,
Esther, to abolish his former decree against the where these additions are torn out of the proper
Jews. This is in the Vulg. and English version  connection and removed to a separate place, they
xvi. 1-25.                                     are most incomprehensible.
VI. At the close of the canonical book, x. 3,  4. Author, Date, andorzginalLanguage.-From
the Septuagint has a piece in which we are told  what has been remarked in the foregoing section, it
that Mordecai had now recalled to his mind his will at once be apparent that these apocryphal adextraordinary dream, and seen how literally it has ditions were neither manufactured by the translator
been fulfilled in all its particulars.  It also gives of the canonical Esther into Greek, nor are they
us an account of the proclamation of the Purim  the production of the Alexandrian nor any other
festival in Egypt.                            school or individual, but embody some of the nu3. Origin, historical Character, and Unity.  merous national stories connected with this marThe patriotic spirit with which the Jewish nation so  vellous deliverance of God's ancient people, the
fondly expatiated upon the remarkable events and  authorship of which is lost in the nation.  Many of




ESTHER, FAST OF                 835                  ESTIUs
them date as far back as the nucleus of the event victory obtained by Judas Maccabeus over Nicanor
itself, around which they cluster, and all of them  on the I3th of Adar (comp. I Maccab. vii. 49;
grew up at first in the vernacular language of the Joseph. Antiq. xii. 10. 5; Megillath Taanith,
people (i.e., in Hebrew or Aramaic); but afterwards c. xii.; Josippon ben Gorion, iii. 22, p. 244, ed.
assumed the complexion and language of the    Breithaupt)..  But this festival has long since
countries in which the Jews happened to settle ceased to be celebrated, and as early as the ninth
down.   Besides the references given in the pre- century of the Christian era, we find the fast of
ceding section which lead us to these conclusions, Esther was again duly observed (comp. Sheelthoth
we also refer to the two Midrashim published by of R. Achai, Purim 4), and it has continued ever
Jellinek in his Beth Ha-Midrash, vol. i., Leipzig, since to be one of the fasts in the Jewish calendar.
1853, p. I, seqq.                             The Jews entirely abstain-from eating and drinking
5. Canonicity of these additions.-The Fathers, on this day, and introduce into the daily service
who regarded the Septuagint as containing the penitential psalms, and offer prayers which have
sacred scriptures of the 0. T., believed in the been composed especially for this occasion. If the
canonicity of these additions.  Even Origen, I3th of Adar happens to be on a Sabbath, this
though admitting that they are not in the Hebrew, fast is kept on the Friday, because fasting is not
defended their canonicity (Ep. ad African., ed. allowed on the Sabbath-day.  Some Jews go so far
West, p. 225), and the Council of Trent pro- as to fast three days, according to the example of
nounced the whole book of Esther, with all its Esther (comp. iv. 6).-C. D. G.
parts, to be canonical. These additions, however,
were never included in the Hebrew canon, and the  ESTIUS (GULIELMUS), the Latinised name of
fact that Josephus quotes them only shews that he WILLIAM HESSELS VAN EST, who was descended
believed them to be historically true, but not in- from an illustrious family of the Lords of the Castle
spired.  St. Jerome, who knew better than any  of Est, near Til, in Holland.  He was born at
Father what the ancient Jews included in their Gorcum in that country in I542. After a complete
canon, most emphatically declares-' Librum Esther course of learned studies at Utrecht and Louvaine,
variis translatoribus constat esse vitiatum: quem  he fulfilled for upwards of ten years the duties of a
ego de archivis Hebraeorum relevans, verbum e Professorship of Divinity and Philosophy in the
verbo expressius transtuli.  Quem librum  editio latter university, with great success. In 1580 he
vulgata laciniosis hinc inde verborum sinibus (al. was admitted to the degree of Doctor of Divinity,
funibus) trahit, addens ea qume ex tempore dici and shortly afterwards was appointed to a Divinity
poterant et audiri; sicut solitum est scholaribus Professorship in the University of Douay; at the
disciplinis sumto themate excogitare, quibus verbis same time he was made Superior of the Seminary,
uti potuit, qui injuriam passus est, vel qui injuriam  and Provost of St. Peter's Church, in that city. In
fecit' (Prif. in I Esth.)                      1603 he was elected to the Chancellorship of the
6. Literature.-Josephus, Antiq. xi. 6. 6, seqq.; same University, and died at Douay, September
Midrash Esther; Targzin Sheni on Esther, in    20, I613, aged 72 years. During the thirty-one
Walton's Polyglot, vol. iv.; yosippon ben Gorion, years of his connection with Douay, he sustained
ed. Breithaupt, I7I0, p. 72, seqq.; Whitaker, with great eminence the character of a profound
Disputation on Scrziture, Park. Soc., ed. I849,theologian and an accomplished professor: nor
p. 71, etc.; Usser, Syntagnma de Grceca LXX. were his private virtues less conspicuous; his coninterretzum versione, Lond. 1655; De Rossi, Speci- tinual application to study not hindering him from
men Variarum Lationum sacri Textzs et Chaldaica works of charity, which he pursued with exceeding
Estheris Additamenta, Romme, 1782; Eichhorn, modesty.    Besides many other writings, he left
Einleitung in d. Apokr. Schriften d. A. T., Leip- three works by which his fame has been perpetuzig, I795, p. 483, ff.; Fritzsche, EcrSp. Duplicem  ated.  The first and second of these take the
libri textzum ad oplimos cdd. emend. et cum selecta highest rank respectively in dogmatic theology
lectionis varietate, ed. Torici, I848; and by the same and exegetical divinity. Dismissing the first [his
author, Exegetisches Handbsch, z. d. Apokr. d. A. commentary on the Master of the Sentences], we
T., vol. i. p. 69, ff.; Davidson, The Text of the proceed to notice his well-known work, entitled,
0. T. considered, Lond. 1856, p. IOO1, etc.;'In omnes Beati Pauli et aliorum Apostolorum
Herzfeld, Geschichte d. Volkes Israel, vol. i. Nord- epistolas Commentaria.' The first edition of this
hausen, I857, p. 365, etc.; Keil, Lehrbuch der commentary bears the date, Douay, 1614-1616.
historisch-kritischen Einlzeitung, etc., ed. I859, It has been continually republished at Cologne, at
p. 705, etc.-C. D. G.                          Paris, at Rouen, and at Mayence.     Different
editors have superintended the chief editions; the
ESTHER, FAST OF (VIOD nf3I1), so called first, which was posthumous, was carefully edited
from the fact that it was ordered by this queen to  by Barthol. de la Pierre, Professor of Divinity at
avert the impending destruction which at that time Douay, who completed the work by adding the
threatened the whole Jewish population of the commentary on I John v.; 2 John, and 3 John,
Persian dominions (comp. Esther iv. i6, I7). The which Estius at the time of his death had left
Jews to this day keep this fast on the 13th of unaccomplished.  The name of. Mearle Horst
Adar, the day which was appointed for their extir- appears as editor on the title-page of the Paris edipation, and which precedes the Feast of Purim, tion of i679. The best of the recent editions, Maybecause it was ordained both by Esther and Mor- ence, I841, was edited very correctly by F. Sausen.
decai, that it should continue a national fast, to be A convenient epitome of Estius and Corn, a Lapide
observed annually in commemoration of that event- on St. Paul's Epistles, was published by y. van
ful day (comp. Esther ix. 31). During the Mac- Gorcum, at Antwerp in i620, and reprinted in
cabsean period, and for sometime afterwards, this  I754 at Louvaine. The utility of this little work
fast was temporarily superseded by a festival which  was increased by its containing the prefaces of
was instituted to celebrate the anniversary of the Estius, which are very valuable.  Romanists and




ETAM                     836                ETHIOPIA
Protestants have concurred in high praise of this, At any rate, there is nothing to contradict, and much
on the whole the best, commentary on the Aposto- to support, the idea of Ethbaal being thus dedicated,
lical Epistles.  (Du Pin, Nouvelle -Bibliotheque, in the fact that Jezebel was so firm and devoted an
cent. xvii. liv. v.; Walch, Bibliotheca Theol. Selecta, adherent of Baal worship (Joseph. Antiq. viii.
iv. p. 666). The third work above referred to is 13. I; C. Apion. i. I8). An Ithobal wasalso king
of less merit and renown than the commentary; of Tyre in the time of Nebuchadnezzar (Joseph.
but is nevertheless of some value.  Its title is, Antiq. x. II. I; C. Apion. i. 2I).-S. L.'Annotationes in Procipcua ac dzficiora Sacroe'Azntn~t/ones  inz pr~ct~zlza  cc di 2~cit/ere Sacr~  ETHER ('~DJ); Sept.'IO$c,'IeO/p; Alex.'Aebfp,
ScriptVu/re loca.'  This work has been often re- THER         Sept.    K,    p;Alex.'A
printed, though less frequently and less recently BeOdp), one of the cities originally belonging to
than the larger one. It is again a posthumous Judah, but which were allotted to Simeon (Josh.
publication, consisting of notes collected by mem- xv. 42; xix. 7). Eusebius and Jerome confound
bers of Estius' theological classes, and edited first it with Jathir (which see).-W. L. A.
by Caspar Nemizis, for the Douay edition of I628.  ETH   A.   Th   H   re 
A later editor, Norbert d'Elbecque, republished ETHIOPIA.     The Hebrew Cush,.  asa
these'Annotations' at Antwerp in I699; in prepargeographical name, is redered  the A  V  by
ing this republication he used Estius' CommentaryEthiopia. The two names, when applied to an
in the later part of the work. Walch sees in these African country, seem perfectly to correspond, as
Annotations evidences of much learning, and pro- far as we can judge of a territory of uncertain exnounces the book a valuable one, notwithstanding  tent and it is possible that they are merely differthe drawback of its wanting the care and finish ofent forms of the same word. In one passage, in
the original author (vol. iv. p. 844; comp. Duthe description of the garden of Eden, an Asiatic
Pin, In loc. antea cit.)-P. H.                Cush, or Ethiopia, must be intended (Gen. ii. I3),
and the distribution of the descendants of Cush,
ETAM    (nt4p; Sept. Alrdv), a town in the with later Biblical historical indications, should be
tribe of Judah, which was decorated by Solomon  compared with the classical mentions of eastern
with gardens and streams of water, and fortified  and western Ethiopians, and other indications of
by Rehoboam along with Bethlehem and Tekoa profane history. In all other passages, the words
(I Chron. iv. 3; 2 Chron. xi. 6; Joseph. Antiq.Ethiopia and the Ethiopians, with one possible exvii. 7. 3).    From  this place, according to the ception,'the Arabians, that [were] near the EthioRabbins, water was carried by an aqueduct to pians  (2 Chron. xxi. I6), which may refer to
Jerusalem. Josephus places it at fifty stadia (in Arabians opposite to Ethiopia, may be safely consome copies sixty) from Jerusalem (southward);  sidered to mean an African country and people or
and alleges that Solomon was in the habit of peoples. In the Bible, as in classical geography,
taking a morning drive to this favoured spot in his but one limit of Ethiopia is laid down, its northern
chariot. Dr. Robinson (Researches, i. I68) inclinesfrontier, just beyond Syene, the most southern
to find Etam at a place about a mile and a half town of Egypt.  Egypt is spoken of as to be desouth of Bethlehem, where there is a ruined village solate'from Migdol to Syene, even unto the borcalled Urtas, at the bottom of a pleasant valley of der of Ethiopia' (Ezek. xxix. Io), or'from Migdol
the same name. Here there are traces of ancient to Syene' (xxx. 6), shewing that then, as now, the
ruins, and also a fountain, sending forth a copious southern boundary of Egypt was at the First Catasupply of fine water, which forms a beautiful purl- ract   The extent assigned to Ethiopia in ancient
ing rill along the bottom of the valley.  It is times ma  have been very grat, as it was the
usually supposed that' the rock Etam,' to which land of the Negroes, and therefore represented all
Samson withdrew (Judg. xv. 8, i), was near the that was known of inner Africa, besides that part
town of the same name. Urtas seems too far in- of the continent south of Egypt which is washed
land for this; there is, however, a little to the east, by the Red Sea. The references in the Bible are,
the Frank mountain, which (this considerationhowever, generally, if not always, to the territory
apart) would have furnished just such a retreat as which was at times under Egyptian rule, a tract
the hero seems to have found. [This Etam seems watered by the Upper Nile, and extending from
to be different from the Etam  mentioned   Chron. Egypt probably as far as a little above the confluiv. 32, which belonged to Simeon].            ence of the White and Blue Rivers.
The name Cush is found in the Egyptian KEESH,
ETHAM, the third station of the Israelites when  which is evidently applied to the same territory,
they quitted Egypt. [ExoDus.]                though we have the same difficulty in determining
ETHANIM.      [TISHRI.]                     its limits, save on the north. The classical EthioETHBAAL ( N   Sept.     pia, Ai0o7rla, may have the same origin, through
ETHBAAL (53'lr;      Sept.'Ie6^/adX; Alex.
A  — H A  v  Sp' 3   the Coptic COWSY, of which, unless it be de-'Ia/3adX). The father of Jezebel, Ahab's wife (I
Kings xvi. 31), and possibly also priest of Baal, as rived from  000,'a boundary,' the Sahidic
his name'with Baal,' i.e., living with Baal, or un- form    may be the purest, and connec
der the favour and protection of Baal, might per- 
haps warrant us in supposing. Josephus, quoting  the classical with the ancient Egyptian name. In
Menander, mentions a man with a slight variation  the Bible there is no certain notice of any Ethiopian
o te sa.'..     race but Cushites: Chub (Ezek. xxx. 5) has been
of the same name, 3_S., i.e.,' with him is Baal,' thought to be Nub, for Nubia, but this is an exas king of Tyre as well as Zidon, and calls him priest tremely rash conjecture; it is more probable that
of Astarte. The worship of Baal was no doubt Phut is a territory or people of Ethiopia, for we
closely allied to that of Astarte, and it is even pos- find the word PET,' the bow,' in the ancient Egypsible that a priest of Astarte might have been dedi- tian names, of Nubia, TA-MERU-PET,' the region of
cated also to the service of Baal, and borne his name. the island of PET,' and of the Nubians, ANU-MERU1




ETHIOPIA                   837                ETHIOPIA
PET,'the ANU of the island of PET.' The last by red granite and other primary rocks. The
word is read by Dr. Brugsch KENS, and the groves of date-palms, here especially fine, are
second word he omits in reading, but we find no the most beautiful objects in the scene, but its
sufficient reason for attributing the sound KENS to general want of variety is often relieved by the
the unstrung, or, in the less usual form, the strung splendid remains of Egyptian and Ethiopian civibow, and prefer supposing that when the word lization, and the clearness of the air throws a
KENS, undoubtedly a name of Nubia, precedes it, peculiar beauty over everything that the traveller
the sense is the KENS of PET, nor do we think the beholds. As he ascends the river, the scenery,
omission of the second word justifiable.     after a time, becomes more varied, until on the
According to Dr. Brugsch, the first country  east he reaches the Abyssinian highlands, on the
above Egypt was TA-MERU-PET, or TA-KENS, cor- west the long meadows, the pasture-lands of herds
responding to Nubia, and extending, under the of elephants, through which flows the broad and
Pharaohs, at least as far south as Napata.*  As a sluggish White Nile. In this upper region the
nome, Nubia, before the formation of the Ombite climate is far less healthy than below, save in
Nome, included Ombos, Silsilis being probably  Abyssinia, which, from its height, is drained, and
the first city of the Egyptian Apollinopolite Nome. enjoys an air which is rare and free from exhalations.
Although it is not impossible that at Silsilis was  The Nile is the great fertilizer of the northern
anciently the great natural barrier 6f Egypt on the regions of Ethiopia, which depend wholly upon
south, we think that this extension of Nubia was its yearly inundation. It is only towards the juncsimply for purposes of government, as Dr. Brugsch tion of the two great streams that the rains take
seems to admit (Geographi  sche nschriftez, i. p. an increasingly important share in the watering of
Ioo). South of the Nubia of the Pharaohs, he the cultivable land.  In about N. lat. I7~ 40,
places a region, of which the name perhaps reads the great river receives its first tributary, the AstaPENT-HEN?-NUFRE, which, however, was probably boras, now called the Atbarah. In about N. lat.
a district of the former country. Still further, and  I5~ 40', is the confluence of the Blue and White
near Meroe, he puts the land of KEESH, and in Niles. The Blue Nile, which has its source in
and about Meroe, the land of the NEHSEE or Abyssinia, is a narrow rapid stream, with high
Negroes. But, with all deference for his authority, steep mud-banks, like the Nile in Egypt; it is
we think that KEESH commenced immediately strongly charged with alluvial soil, to which it
above Egypt, probably always at the First Cataract, owes the dark colour which has given it its disand included all the known country south of Egypt, tinctive name. From this stream the country beTA-MERU-PET or TA-KENS, save as a nome, being a low derives the annual alluvial deposits.  The
part of it, the modern Nubia. Names of conquered  White Nile is a colourless river, very broad and
Negro nations, tribes, or countries, occur on the shallow, creeping slowly through meadows and
monuments of the empire: of these the most sugges- wide marsh-lands. Of the cultivation and natural
tive are the BARBARTA, and TAKRERR (see Brugsch, products of Ethiopia little need be said, as they
Geogr. Znschr., i. pp. 1oo-I07, I50-I64; ii. 4-13, 20; do not illustrate the few notices of it in Scripiii. 3, 4, and indices s. w. Aethiopien, Kes, etc.)  ture. It has always been, excepting the northern
Ethiopia comprises two very different tracts. part, productive, and rich in animal life. Its wild
North of the region of tropical rains, it is generally animals have gradually been reduced, yet still
an extremely narrow strip of cultivated land, some- the hippopotamus, the crocodile, and the ostrich
times but a few yards wide, on both sides, or occa- abound, though the second is alone found throughsionally on one side only, of the Nile. Anciently  out its extent. The elephant and lion are only
the watered tract was much broader, but the giving known in its southernmost part.
way of a barrier at Silsilis (Gebel es-Silsileh), or  In the Bible a Cushite appears undoubtedly to
Syene (Aswan), has lowered the level of the river be equivalent to a Negro, from this passage,
for some distance above the First Cataract, exactly'Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard
how far cannot be accurately determined, but cer- his stripes' (Jer.'xiii. 23)? and it is to be observed,
tainly for the whole space below the Third Cataract. that whenever the race of KEESH is represented on
The cultivable soil which was anciently productive the Egyptian monuments by a single individual,
is now far above the highest level of the stream. the type is that of the true Negro. It is therefore
The valley is, however, never broad, the mountains probable that the Negro race extended anciently
seldom leaving a space of more than a mile within further to the north than at present, the whole
the greater part of the region north of the limit of country watered by the Nile, as far as it is known,
tropical rains. The aspect of. the country is little being now peopled by a race intermediate between
varied. On either side of the river, here narrower the Negro race and the Caucasian. There is no
than in its undivided course in Upper Egypt, rise certain mention, in the Bible, of this intermediate
sterile sandstone and limestone mountains, the for- race in Ethiopia, but the Egyptian and Ethiopian
mer sometimes covered by yellow sand-drifts. monuments afford us indications of its ancient
At the First Cataract, at Kalab'sheh, and at the existence in its modern territory, though probably
Second Cataract, the river is obstructed, though it did not then extend as far south as now. At
at the second place not enough to form a rapid, the present day, Ethiopia is inhabited by a great
variety of tribes of this race: the Kunooz, said to
* Dr. Brugsch supposes that TA-KENS was, in be of Arab origin, nearest to Egypt, are very dark;
the earlier times, the whole tract south of Syene the Noobeh, the next nation, much lighter: beunder Egyptian rule [therefore governed by the yond them  are some fair Arabs, the Caucasian
Prince of KEESH and corresponding to, or included  Abyssinians, with scarcely any trace of Negro inin, that country], and, in the later times, little more fluence, save in their dark colour, and tribes as
than the Dodecaschcenus of the Ptolemies and black as the true Negro, or nearly so, though not
Romans, the remains of the older territory (Geogr. of the pure Negro type. The languages of EthioInschr. i. p. ioo).                          pia are as various as the tribes, and appear to hold




ETHIOPIA                    838                ETHIOPIA
the same intermediate place between the Semitic without its humanity, and untouched by any but
group and the Nigritian, if we except the Ethiopic, the rudest civilization.
which belongs to the former family. [ETHIOPIC    In speaking of the history of the country, we
LANGUAGE.]                                     may include what is known of its chronology, since
In all that relates to the civilization of ancient this is no more than the order in which kings
Ethiopia, we see the same connection with Egypt reigned.  Until the time of the I2th dynasty of
that is constantly indicated in the Bible. So far as Egypt, we have neither chronology nor history of
the Egyptian sway extended, which was probably, Ethiopia. We can only speculate upon the earlier
under the empire, as far as somewhat above the junc- conditions of the country, with the aid of some intionof the two Niles, the religion of Egypt was pro- dications in the Bible. The first spread of the
bablypractised. While the tract was under Egyptian  descendants of Cush seems to be indicated by the
rule, this was certainly the case, as the remains of order in which the Cushite tribes, families, or heads
the temples sufficiently shew. We find it as the are enumerated in Gen. x. All the names, exceptreligion of Tirhakah, in his Ethiopian as well as ing Nimrod, might be thought to indicate a colohis Egyptian sculptures, and this is also the case of nization of southern and eastern Arabia, were there
the later kings of Ethiopia who held no sway in  not good reason to suppose that Seba, though elseEgypt. There were evidently local differences, where mentioned with Sheba (Ps. lxxii. Io), is conbut apparently nothing more. Respecting the laws nected with Ethiopia, and is probably the Hebrew
and forms of government the same may be sup- name of the chief Ethiopian kingdom from the
posed. We have very little evidence as to the  time of Solomon downwards.*    If this be the
military matters of the Ethiopians, yet, from their case, it would be remarkable that Nimrod is
importance to Egypt, there can be little doubt that mentioned at the end of the list and Seba at the
they were skilful soldiers. Their armies were pro- beginning, while the intervening names, most if
bably drawn from the Ethiopian, or intermediate  not all, are Arabian. This distribution may acrace, not from the Negro.  Of the domestic life  count for the strongly-Caucasian type of the Abysof this people we have but slight hints. Probably  sinians, and the greater indication of Nigritian inthey were more civilized than are their modern fluence in all the other Ethiopian races, for a curve
successors. Their art, as seen in the sculptures drawn from Nimrod's first kingdom,-there can,
of their kings in Ethiopian temples, from  Tir- we think, be little doubt, that the meaning in
hakah downwards, is merely a copy of that of Genesis is, that he went northward and founded
Egypt, shewing, after the first, an inferiority in  Nineveh,-and extending along the south Arabian
style to the contemporary works of the original art. coast, if carried into Africa, would first touch
Their character can scarcely be determined from  Abyssinia.  The connection of southern Arabia
scanty statements, applying, it may be, to ex- and Abyssinia has been so strong for about two
tremely different tribes. In one particular all ac- thousand years, that we must admit the reasonablecounts agree: they were warlike, as, for instance, ness of this theory of their ancient colonization
we equally see in the defiance the Ethiopian king by kindred tribes. The curious question of the
sent to Cambyses (Herod. iii. 21), and in the cha- direction from which Egyptian civilization came
racteristic inscription at Kalab'sheh of Silco,'king  cannot be here discussed. It is possible that it
(paoiXiGKos) of the Nubadne and all the Ethiopians' may have descended the Nile, as was, until
(Modern Egypt and Thebes, ii. pp. 3II, 312), who lately, supposed by many critics, in accordance
is to be regarded as a very late Ethiopian king or with statements of the Greek writers. The idea
chief in the time of the decline of the Roman  or tradition on which these writers probably build
empire. The ancients, from Homer downwards, may be due to the Nigritian origin of the low
describe them as a happy and pious race. In the nature-worship of the old Egyptian religion, and
Bible they are spoken of as'secure' or' careless' perhaps, so far as it is picture-writing, of the hiero(Ezek. xxx. 9), but this may merely refer to their glyphic system, of which the characters are somestate when danger was impending.               times called Ethiopic letters by ancient writers.
Probably the modern inhabitants of Ethiopia    Under the I2th dynasty we find the first mategive us a far better picture of their predecessors rials for a history of Ethiopia.  In these days
than we can gather from the few notices to which  Nubia seems to have been thoroughly Egypwe have alluded. If we compare the Nubians with tianized as far as beyond the Second Cataract,
the representations of the ancient Egyptians on the but we have no indication of the existence at that
monuments, we are struck by a similarity of type, time in Ethiopia of any race but the Egyptian. We
the same manner of wearing the hair, and a like find an allusion to the Negroes in the time bescantiness of clothing. There can be no question  tween the I2th dynasty and the I8th, in the name
that the Nubians are mainly descended from an  of a king of that period, which reads RA?-NEHSEE,
Egyptianized Ethiopian people of two thousand  or'the Sun? of the Negroes,' rather than'the
years ago, who were very nearly related to the Negro Sun?' (Turin Papyrus of Kings, ap. LepEgyptians. The same may be said of many tribes sius Konigsbuch, pi. xviii. I97; xix. 278). The
further to the south, although sometimes we find word NEHSEE is the constant designation of the
the Arab type and Arab manners and dress. The  Negro race in hieroglyphics.
Ethiopian monuments shew us a people like the    Before passing on to the beginning of the I8th
ancient Egyptians and the modern Nubians. The dynasty, when the Egyptian empire commenced,
northern Nubians are a simple people, with some
of the vices, but most of the virtues, of savages.  * Josephus, it should be remarked, calls Meroe
The chastity of their women is celebrated, and they  Saba (Antiq. ii. Io. 2): in his time the city and
are noted for their fidelity as servants. But they island of Meroe were more famous than any other
are inhospitable and cruel, and lack the generous city and territory of Ethiopia above Egypt, so that
qualities of the Arabs. Further south, manners are his intention is perhaps to indicate Ethiopia genecorrupt, and the national character is that of Egypt rally. Seba of Cush he calls Sabas (Ibid. i. 6. 2).




ETHIOPIA                   839                 ETHIOPIA
we may notice two possible references to the Ethio- There can be no doubt that Shishak was a powerpians in connection with the Exodus, for that event ful king, especially as he was strong enough to
is placed either before or during the period of the invade Judah, and it is therefore probable that he
empire, and we incline to the former opinion. In  restored the influence of the Egyptians in Ethiopia.
Is. xliii., which, though relating to the future, also  Zerah the Ethiopian, on account of his army being
speaks of the past, and especially mentions or of Cushim and Lubim, and thus as well as in conalludes to the passage of the Red Sea (see particu- sisting of chariots, horsemen, and foot, of like
larly ver. 16, 17), Ethiopia is thus apparently con- composition to that of Shishak (2 Chron. xvi. 8;
nected with the Exodus:'I gave Egypt [for] thy xiv. 9, 12, 13; xii. 2, 3), seems certainly to have
ransom, Ethiopia and Seba for thee' (ver. 3). It been either a king of this dynasty, or else a general
can scarcely be supposed that this is an emphatic re- of such a king. In the former case he would prolation of future events, and it is difficult to connect bably correspond to Usarken II.  The names
it with any other known past event, as the conquest Usarken and Zerah seem very remote, but it must
of Egypt by Sennacherib, which may have already be remembered that Egyptian words transcribed in
occurred. If this passage refer to the Exodus, it Hebrew are often much changed, and that in this
would seem to favour the idea that the Israelites case it is probable that both Egyptian and Hebrew
went out during the empire, for then Ethiopia was forms, if they be two forms of one word, come
ruled by Egypt, and would have been injured by from a third source. The style'Zerah the Cushite'
the calamities that befel that country. In Amos is unlike that applied to kings of Egypt who were
there is a passage that may possibly connect the foreigners, or of foreign extraction, as in the cases
Ethiopians with the Exodus:'[Are] ye not as of'So king of Egypt,' and'Shishak king of
children of the Ethiopians unto me, O children of Egypt.' On this account, and especially from the
Israel? saith the LORD. Have not I brought up  omission of the word king, or any royal appellation,
Israel out of the land of Egypt? and the Philistines though we cannot infer positively from the few infrom Caphtor, and the Syrians from Kir' (ix. 7)? stances in Scripture, Zerah may be rather supposed
But the meaning may be that the Israelites were to have been a general, but the army that he comnno better than the idolatrous people of Cush.  manded must, from the resemblance of its comAt the beginning of the i8th dynasty we find position to that of Shishak's, have been that of a
the Egyptians making expeditions into Ethiopia, king of the same line.* It is recorded that Asa had
no doubt into its further regions, and bringing back  an army of 580,000, and that Zerah the Ethioslaves. At this time the Egyptians seem to have plan came against him with,000,000ooo, and 300
intermarried with people of Ethiopia, probably of chariots. These high numbers have been objected
the intermediate race, darker than the Egyptians, to, but the history of our times shews that war
but not of the Negro race. One of the wives of upon this large scale is not alone possible to great
Aahmes, or Amosis, the first king of the I8th  kingdoms, but also to states of no very large popudynasty, is represented as black, though not with lation, which put forth their whole strength.t  It
Negro features. A later sovereign of the same is to be noticed that Asa was evidently struck by
dynasty, Amenoph III., is seen by his statues to the greatness of the hostile army, to which the
have been partly Ethiopian, and this may have prophet Hanani alludes, reproving him at a later
been one cause of his identification by the Greeks time (2 Chron. xvi. 8). There is, therefore, too
with Memnon.    During this and the dynasty general an agreement for us to admit the supposiwhich succeeded it, the g9th, we have no proof tion that the original number has not been prethat the regularly-governed Egyptian dominions served. Asa encountered Zerah'in the valley of
extended beyond Napata; but it is probable that
they reached a little beyond the junction of the  The possible identification of Zerah with
White and Blue Niles. There can be no doubt Usarken II. is of great importance, as its settlethat Ethiopia remained subject to Egypt as late as ment affirmatively would throw light upon the
the reign of Rameses VI., soon after whom the origin of the 22d dynasty, and, in consequence,
empire may be said to have closed, having lasted  upon the question of an eastern and western Cush.
three centuries from the beginning of the I8th  The proper names of that royal family are disdynasty. Under the empire, Ethiopia, or at least tinctly Babylonian, and Nimrod, NAMURAT, occurs
the civilized portion, was ruled by a governor, who among them: if, therefore, one of the kings be
bore the title, SUTEN-SA-EN-KEESH,'Prince,' lite- called a Cushite, we should be justified in looking
rally'Royal son''of Cush,'. etc. The office does to the eastern Cush, to Nimrod's country, especinot seem to have been hereditary at any time, nor ally as Semitic, though perhaps African, foreigners
is it known to have been held by a son of the are seen to have gained power in Egypt at that
reigning king, or any member of the royal family.  time as mercenaries, and as Manetho does not conAfter the reign of Rameses VI., the feebleness nect this line with the 25th dynasty, which was proof the later Theban kings may have led to the loss bably though not certainly of African Ethiopians,
of Ethiopia, and we know that in Solomon's time and ruled Ethiopia.  Mr. Kenrick rather too
there was akingdom of Seba. Shishak, the first hastily remarks, as to the term Cushite, that'no
king of the 22d dynasty, probably made Ethio- king of the Bubastite [22d] dynasty could have
pia tributary. When this king, the Sheshenk I. been so designated,' and is at some pains to explain
of the monuments, invaded the kingdom of Judah, what he considers to be a mistake (Ancient Egypt,
he had in his army'the Lubim, the Sukkiim, and ii. pp. 354, 355).
the Cushim' (2 Chron. xii. 13). The Lubim are   t We refer, on the one hand, to the great armies
a people of northern Africa, near Egypt, and the of the late campaign in Italy, and, on the other, to
Sukkiim are of doubtful place. The indications those of the present war in America. In the case
are of an extensive dominion in Africa, for though  of Zerah, he was probably joined by great bodies
the Lubim and Sukkiim may have been merce- of marauding Arabs, as the smiting the cities about
naries, it is unlikely that the Cushim were also. Gerar and the tents seems to indicate.




ETHIOPIA                  840                ETHIOPIA
Zephathah at Mareshah,' and praying for God's aid bable that Ethiopia became wholly independent.
against this huge army, it was put to the rout, and The 23d dynasty appears to have been an Egyphe pursued it to Gerar, and smote all the cities tian line of little power. The 24th, according to
round Gerar, which seem to have been in alliance Manetho of but one king, Bocchoris the Saite,
with the invaders, and took much spoil from the was probably contemporary with it. In the time
cities, and also smote the tents of cattle, from which  of Bocchoris, Egypt was conquered by Sabaco
he took many sheep and camels (xiv. 8-15). This the Ethiopian, who founded the 25th dynasty of
great overthrow may have been a main cause of the Ethiopian kings. The chronology and history of
decline of the power of the 22d dynasty, which pro- this line is obscure. We take Manetho's list for
bably owed its importance to the successes of Shishak. the chronology, with a necessary correction, in the
During the later period of this dynasty, it is pro- following table:TABLE OF THE 25TH DYNASTY.
B. C.     Monuments.           Manetho.        HighestDte s.o         Events.
Monuments.
Yrs.
A.  E.   C.
719   SHEBEK              Sabaco     8 12 12       XII.       Treaty with Hoshea, 723?
707   SHEBETEK            Sebichus  14 12 12
695   TEHARKA             Tarkos    I8 20 26      XXVI.        War with Sennacherib.
670   End of Dynasty.
The duration we have given to the first and  Supposing the latter duration, the first year of
second reigns can only be considered to be con- Tirhakah's reign would fall B.C. 695, which would
jectural. The sum of the dynasty would be 50 correspond to the 4th year of Manasseh. This
years, which is the duration Herodotus assigns to reckoning is probable, as it would leave five years
the Ethiopian dominion in Egypt (ii. I39), and as for the calamitous period before the reign of Psamhe lived at no great distance from the time, and metichus. The contemporaneousness of Tirhakah
is to be depended upon for the chronology of the and Hezekiah can be explained by one of two supnext dynasty, we should lay some stress upon his positions, either that Hezekiah's reign exceeded
evidence, did he not speak of but one Ethiopian  twenty-nine years, or that Tirhakah ruled in Ethiking, Sabacos. There are two Hebrew synchron- opia before coming to the throne of Egypt. It
isms and one Egyptian point of evidence which must be remembered that it cannot be proved that
aid us in endeavouring to fix the chronology of the reigns of Manetho's 25th dynasty form a series
this dynasty. Either the first or second king of without any break, and also that the date of the
the dynasty is supposed to be the So of the Bible, taking of Samaria is considered fixed by the Assywith whom Hoshea, who began to reign B.C. 730, rian scholars. At present, therefore, we cannot
made a treaty at least three years before the taking venture on any changes.
of Samaria: the latter event is held to be fixed to  We do not know the cause of the rise of the
B.C. 721: therefore one of these two Ethiopians was 25th dynasty. Probably the first king already had
probably reigning in B.C. 723, or somewhat, per- an Ethiopian sovereignty when he invaded Egypt.
haps seven years, earlier. But it is possible that the That he and his successors were natives of Ethiopia
treaty may have been made before the conquest of is probable from their being kings of Ethiopia and
Egypt. Tirhakah was contemporary with Hezekiah having non-Egyptian names.  Though Sabaco
and Sennacherib at the time of the destruction of conquered Bocchoris, and put him to, death, he
the Assyrian army. The chronology of Hezekiah's does not seem to have overthrown his line or the
reign is extremely difficult, but we are disposed to 23d dynasty: both probably continued in a tributhink that the common reckoning, varying not more tary or titular position, as the Sethos of Ierodotus,
than three years, is correct, and that the preferable an Egyptian king of the time of Tirhakah, appears
date of the accession of Hezekiah is B.C. 726. In to be the same as Zet, who in the version of
this case we must follow Dr. Oppert in supposing Manetho by Africanus is the last king of the 23d
that the date of Sennacherib's invasion should be dynasty, and as kings connected with PsammetiHezekiah's 24th year, instead of the I4th year chus I. of the Sai'te 26th dynasty are shewn by the
(Chronologiedes Assyriens et desBabyloniens, pp. 14, monuments to have preceded him in the time of
I5), or else infer a long interval between two wars. the Ethiopians, and probably to have continued
The last year of Hezekiah is thus B.c. 698, unless the line of the Sa'te Bocchoris. We think it
we suppose that his reign was longer than is stated probable that Sabaco is the' So king of Egypt,'
in the Masoretic text, and perhaps was for the latter who was the cause of the downfall of Hoshea,
part contemporary with Manasseh's. Tirhakah's the last king of Israel. The Hebrew name  1D,
reign is nearly determined by the record in a tablet if we omit the Masoretic points, is not very reof the tombs of the Bulls Apis, that one of them  mote from the Egyptian SHEBEK.  It was at
was born in his 26th year, and died at the end of this time that Egypt began strongly to influence
the 20th of Psammetichus I. The length of its life the politics of the Hebrew kingdoms, and the
is unfortunately not stated, but it exceeded twenty prophecies of Hosea, denouncing an Egyptian
years, and the longest age recorded is twenty-six. alliance, probably refer to the reign of So or his
successor; those of Isaiah, of similar purport, if
* A. Africanus. E. Eusebius. c. Probable cor- his book be in chronological order, relate to the
rect reckoning.                             reign of Tirhakah. Tirhakah is far more corn



ETIIOPIA                   841                 ETHIOPIA
memorated by monuments than his predecessors. pian rule, or that immediately after it, when the
At Thebes he has left sculptures, and at Gebel- states, if separate, would have united against a
Berkel, Napata, one temple and part of another. common enemy. Three chapters of Isaiah relate
There seems no doubt that Sethos (Zet?) was at to the future of Ethiopia and Egypt, and it is
least titular king of part of Egypt, or the whole probable that they contain what is virtually one
country, under Tirhakah, on the following evi- connected subject, although divided into a prodence:-In the Bible, Tirhakah, when mentioned  phecy against Ethiopia, the burden of Egypt, and
by name, is called'king of Cush (Ethiopia),' and  the record of an event shewn to prefigure the fall
a Pharaoh is spoken of at the same period (Is. xxx. of both countries, these divisions having been fol2, 3; xxxvi. 6; 2 Kings xviii. 21); in the Assyrian  lowed by those who separated the book into chapinscriptions a Pharaoh is mentioned as contempo- ters. The prophecy against Ethiopia is extremely
rary with Sennacherib; and the Egyptian monu- obscure.  It appears to foretell the calamity of
ments indicate that two or three royal lines centered  Ethiopia to its furthest people, to whom messengers
in that of the 26th dynasty. The only event of should be sent in vessels of papyrus, by the sea,
Tirhakah's reign certainly known to us is his ad- here the Nile, as in the description of Thebes by
vance against Sennacherib, apparently in fulfilment the prophet Nahum (Z. c.), bearing, probably, that
of a treaty made by Hezekiah with the Pharaoh  news which is related in the next chapter. In the
whom we suppose to be Sethos. This expedition  end the Ethiopians would send a present to the
was rendered needless by the miraculous destruction  LORD at Zion (xviii.) Then follows' the burden of
of the Assyrian army, but it is probable that Tirha- Egypt,' apparently foretelling the discord and strife
kah seized the occasion to recover some of the cities of the Dodecarchy, the delivering of the people into
of Palestine which had before belonged to Egypt. the hand of a cruel lord, probably the Assyrian conHerodotus gives a traditional account of Sennache- queror, the failure of the waters of Egypt and of
rib's overthrow, relating that when Egypt was ruled its chief sources of revenue, and the partial converby Sethos, a priest-king, the country was invaded  sion of the Egyptians, and, as it seems, their ultiby Sennacherib, against whom Sethos, who had  mate admission to the church (xix.) We then read
offended the military class, marched with an army how a Tartan, or general, of Sargon, the king of
of artificers and the like, and encamped near Pelu- Assyria, took Ashdod, no doubt with a garrison
slum, where in the night a multitude of field-mice from the Egyptian army. At this time, Isaiah
gnawed the bow-strings and shield-straps of the was commanded to walk'naked and barefoot,'
Assyrians, who being thus unable to defend them- probably without an outer garment, three years,
selves, took to flight (ii. I41). It has been well probably three days, a day for a year, as a sign to
observed that it is said by Horapollo that a mouse shew how the Egyptians and Ethiopians, as no
denoted' disappearance in hieroglyphics (Hieroq. doubt had been the case with the garrison of Ashi. 50). Here we have evidently a confused tradi- dod, probably of both nations, should be led caption of the great overthrow of the Assyrians. Stra- tive by the king of Assyria. This captivity was to
bo, on the authority of Megasthenes, tells us that be witnessed by the Jews who trusted in Ethiopia
Tirhakah, in his extensive expeditions, rivalled  and Egypt to be delivered from  the king of
Sesostris, and went as far as the Pillars of Her- Assyria, and the invasions of Egypt by Esarhadcules (xv. p. 686).                           don are therefore probably foretold (xx.) In the
The beginning of the 26th dynasty was a time books of later prophets, Ethiopia does not take
of disaster to Egypt. Tirhakah was either dead  this prominent place: no longer a great power,
or had retired to Ethiopia, and Egypt fell into it only appears as furnishing part of the Egypthe hands of several petty princes, probably the tian forces or sharing the calamities of Egypt,
Dodecarchs of Herodotus, whose rule precedes, as in the history of Egypt we find Ethiopia occuand perhaps overlaps, that of Psammetichus I., pying a position of little or no political importance,
who is said to have been at first a Dodecarch. the successors of Tirhakah in that country being
In this time Esarhaddon twice invaded and con- perhaps tributaries of the kings of the 26th dynasty.
quered the country, but after his second invasion  In the description by Jeremiah of Pharaoh-necho's
Psammetichus seems to have entirely thrown off army, the Ethiopians (Cush) are first spoken of
the Assyrian yoke and restored Egypt to some- among the foreign warriors mentioned as servwhat of its ancient power.  There are several ing in it (xlvi. 9). Ezekiel prophecies the fear
passages in Scripture which probably refer to of Ethiopia at the overthrow of Egypt by Nebuthese invasions, and certainly shew the relation  chadnezzar (xxx. 4-9), and though the helpers of
of Ethiopia to Egypt at this time.  The pro- Egypt were to fall, it does not seem that the invaphet Nahum, warning Nineveh, describes the fall sion of their lands is necessarily to be understood.
of Thebes,'Art thou better than No Amon, that One passage illustrates the difficult I8th chapter of
was situate among the rivers, [that had] the waters Isaiah:' In that day shall messengers go forth from
round about it, whose rampart [was] the sea, [and] me in ships to make ['secure' or] careless Ethiopia
her wall from the sea? Cush and Mizraim [were afraid, and great pain shall come upon them as
her] strength, and [it was] infinite; Put and Lubim  in the day of Egypt' (Ezek. xxx. 9). Zephaniah,
were in thy help' (iii. 8, 9). The sack and captivity somewhat earlier, mentions the Ethiopians alone,
of the city are then related. The exact period of predicting their overthrow (ii. I2). It is probable
Nahum is not known, but there can be little doubt that the defeat of the Egyptian army at Carchemish
that he lived after the time of that campaign of by Nebuchadnezzar is referred to, or else the same
Sennacherib in which Hezekiah became a tribu- king's invasion of Egypt. The kings of Egypt do
tary of the king of Assyria (i. 11, I2). He there- not appear to have regained the absolute rule of
fore appears to refer either to one of the conquests Ethiopia, or to have displaced the native kings,
of Egypt by Esarhaddon, or to,a previous one by though it is probable that they made them tribuSennacherib.  The close alliance of Cush and tary. Under Psammetichus I. a revolt occurred in
Mizraim seems to point to the period of the Ethio- the Egyptian army, and a large body of rebels fled




ETHIOPIA                   842                 ETHIOPIA
to Ethiopia, and there established themselves. A  Brugsch, Geogr, Inschr. i. pp. 163, I64). 3d, Older
Greek inscription on one of the colossi of the great kings of Meroe, among whom is a queen KENTAtemple of Aboo-Simbil, not far below the Second  HEE, in whom a Candace is immediately recogCataract, records the passage of Greek mercenaries nized, and also MEE-AMEN ASRU and ARKAMEN,
on their return from an expedition up the river, the latter Ergamenes, the contemporary of Ptolemy'king Psamatichus' having, as it seems, not gone Philadelphus, who had, according to Diodorus
beyond Elephantine. This expedition was proba- Siculus, received a Greek training, and changed
bly that which Herodotus mentions Psammetichus the customs of Ethiopia (iii. 6). Some of these
to have made in order to bring back the rebels princes had an extensive dominion. The name of
(ii. 30), and, in any case, the inscription is valuable Ergamenes is formed from Lower Nubia to Meroe.
as the only record of the 26th dynasty which has 4th, Laterkings of Meroe, some, at least, of whom
been found above the First Cataract. It does not ruled both Meroe and Napata, though the former
prove, more especially as the king remained at Ele- seems to have been the favourite capital in the later
phantine, that he governed any part of Ethiopia. period (K6nigsbuch, taf. lxxi., lxxii., Ixxiii.) The
The next event of Ethiopian history is the disastrous importance of queens is remarkably characteristic
expedition of Cambyses, defeated by the desert- of an African people.
march, and not by any valour of the invaded nation.  The spread of Christianity in Ethiopia is a reFrom this time the country seems to have enjoyed  markable event in the history of the country, and
tranquillity until the earlier Ptolemies acquired part one in which the truth of'the sure word of proof Lower Nubia that was again lost to them in the  phecy' has been especially evident. In this case,
decline of their dynasty. When Egypt became a as in others, the Law may have been the predeRoman province, Syene was its frontier-town to the cessor of the Gospel. The pious eunuch,'Ebedsouth, but when, under Augustus, the garrison of melech the Ethiopian,' who befriended Jeremiah
that town had been overwhelmed by the Ethi- (xxxviii. 7-I3; xxxix. I5-I8), may have been one
opians, the Prefect Petronius invaded Ethiopia, of many converts from paganism, but it is scarcely
and took Napata, said to have been the capital likely that any of these returned to their native
of Queen Candace. The extensive territory sub- land. The Abyssinian Jews, being probably a
dued was not held, and though the names of some colony of those of Arabia, were perhaps of later
of the Cesars are found in the temples of Lower origin than the time of the introduction of ChristiNubia, in Strabo's time Syene marked the frontier. anity. But in the case of the Ethiopian eunuch,
This part of Ethiopia must have been so unpro- who had charge of all the treasure of Candace,
ductive, even before the falling of the level of the  queen of the Ethiopians, and who, on his return
Nile, which Sir Gardner Wilkinson supposes to from worshipping at Jerusalem, was baptized by
have happened between the early part of the I3th  Philip the deacon, we see evidence of the spread of
dynasty and the beginning of the I8th, that it may  the old dispensation in Ethiopia, and of the recepwell have been regarded as a kind of neutral ground. tion there of the new (Acts viii. 27-39). In Psalm
The chronology of the kings of Ethiopia after Tir- lxviii. (3I), in Isaiah (xlv. I4), and probably in
hakah cannot yet be attempted. Professor Lepsius Zephaniah (iii. Io), the calling of Ethiopia to God's
arranges all the Ethiopians under four periods:-  service is foretold. Whether conversion to the Law
1st, The 25th dynasty, first and second kings. 2d, or to Christianity, or indeed to both,, is intended,
Kings of Napata, beginning with Tirhakah, who, it is remarkable, that though long deprived of its
in his opinion, retired from Egypt, and made this actual geographical contact with the Coptic church,
his capital: of these kings, one, named NASTES- of which it is a branch, by the falling away of Nubia,
SES, or NASTES-NEN, has left a tablet at Dongolah, the Abyssinian church yet remains, and the empire
recording the taking in his wars of enormous booty  and the kingdom of Shoa are the only Christian
in cattle and gold (Lepsius, Denkzidler, v. I6; sovereignties in the whole of Africa.
TABLE OF ETHIOPIAN HISTORY.
B.C. cir.  Egyptian Dynasty.
2000         XII.         Ethiopia held as far as Semneh. Egyptian monuments begin.
1750?       XIII.        Ethiopia held as far as Isle of Argo.
(Empire.)
1500       XVIII.        Aahmes's expedition into Ethiopia.
1450...         Thothmes II.    Ethiopia governed by prince appointed by
Pharaoh.
Nine other princes mentioned on monuments.
1340        XIX.         Eleven other princes mentioned.
1150         XX.         Rameses VI. Last prince mentioned.
II00?   (End of Empire.)
7I9?       XXV.         Shebek, Ethiopian king.
707...         Shebetek,    Id.
695...         Teharka,     Id.    Tirhakah. Capital in Ethiopia, Napata.
669   XXVI.-XXXI. )
Ptolemies and    Later Ethiopian kings: capitals, Napata and Meroe.
Cesars.




ETHIOPIA                   813         ETHIOPIC LANGUAGE
The ancient monuments of Ethiopia may be opia we find no traces of an original art or civiseparated into two great classes, the Egyptian and lization, all the ancient monuments, save those of
the Egypto-Ethiopian. In Lower Nubia the Egyp- Abyssinia, which can scarcely be called ancient,
tian are almost universal; at Napata we find shewing that the country was thoroughly EgypEgypto-Ethiopian, as well as higher up in the tianized.
island of Meroe.  In the monuments north of    Lepsius has published the Ethiopian monuments
Napata, of which the chief lie between the First in his Denkmdler (Abth. v.; Bl. 1-75), as well as
and Second Cataracts, we perceive no difference the inscriptions in Ethiopian Demotic (AbtJ. vi. 
from those of Egypt save in the occurrence of the Bi. I-II: see also, 12, I3).-R. S. P.
names of two Ethiopian kings-ARKAMEN or Er-     ETH      C LE.             As it i 
gamenes, and ATSHERAMEN. The remains attest     ETHIOPIC LANGUAGE.         As it is maithe wealth of the kings of Egypt, rather than that taed by  competent judges that the Amharic
of the country in which they are found; their abun- and the Tigr  are really dialects of the ancient
dance is partly owing to the scanty modern popu-Ethopic or Geez* it may be expected, from the
lation's not having required the ancient masonry for recent progress of comparative grammar, that fubuilding-materials. The nearness of the mountainsture scholars will apply them  to elucidate the
on either side to the river, and the value of the structure of the other Syro-Arabian languages.
little tracts of alluvial soil, have rendered wholly or At present, however, as even the Amharic is not
partly rock-hewn temples numerous here. Tombs yet able to boast of adequate and accessible means
are few and unimportant   Above the Second for its study, and as neither possesses any ancient
Cataract there are some similar remains until version of any part of the Bible, the Geez is the
the traveller reaches Gebel Berkel, the sacred only one which claims a particular notice here.
mountain beneath which stood Napata, where,     The ancient Ethiopic or Geez, which is the only
besides the remains of temples, he is struck with  one ofthe three dialects which eitherhas been, or
the sight of many pyramids. Other pyramids are is now, generally used in written documents of a
seen in the neighbourhood. They are peculiar in sacred or civil kmd, is to be classed as an ancient
branch of the Arabic. This affinity is evident from
construction, the proportion of the height to the nbase ranch of the Arabic. This affinity is evident from
being much greater than in the pyramids of Egypt. the entire grammatical structure of the language:
The temples are of Egyptian character, and one of it s confirmed by the relation of its written chathem is wholly, and another partly, of the reign of racter to  at of the Hijarte alphabet; and either
Tirhakah. The pyramids are later and are tho-supports, or is supported bythe assumption, that
roughly Ethiopian. Yet higher up the river are Habesh was actually peopled by a colony from
the monuments of Meroe and neighbouring places. southern Arabia. The grammatical structure of
They are pyramids, like those of Napata, and  the Geez shews a largely predominant identity
temples, with other buildings, of a more Ethiopian with that of Arabic; but  also possesses some
style than the temples of the other capital. The traits which are in closer accordance with the other
size and importance of these monuments prove Syro-Arabian idioms, and some which are peculiar
that the sovereigns who ruled at Meroe must have to itself alone. The main features of its structure
been very rich if not warlike. The furthest vestiges are as follow:-The verb possesses the first ten
of ancient civilization that have been found are conjugations of the Arabic verb, with the exception
remains of an Egyptian character at Sobah, on the of the eighth and ninth; besides these it has two
Blue Nile, not far south of the junction of the two other conjugations which are unknown to the
rivers. The name suggests the Biblical Seba, which, Araic. The formaton of nouns resembles most
as a kingdom, may correspond to that of Mero; but that of Hebrew, but nouns often have superfluous
such resemblances are dangerous. The tendenen f ed-vowels, which are modified in particular cases,
Ethiopian art was to imitate the earliest Egypti nd  analogous to the Arabic nunnation. As
forms of building, and even subjects of sculpture.for the flexion of nouns, the masculine and femiThis is plain in the adoption of pyramids. The same nine plurals are ether formed  y affixed syllables
feeling is strongly evident in Egypt under the 26th (dn, di) on the principle common to the whole
dynasty, when there was a renaissance of the style Syro-Arabian family; or by changes within the
of the pyramid-period, though no pyramids seem to compass of the radical letters, after the manner of
have been built. This renaissance appears to have the so-called broken plurals of the Arabic grammar.
begun under, or immediately after, the later part ofThe state construct, and that relation of the noun
the 25th dynasty, and is seen in the subjects ofwhich is equivalent to our objective case, are
sculpture and the use of titles. The monuments of denoted by changes in the final vowels. There is
no form for the dual number either in the verb or
Ethiopian princes, at first as good as those ofthe nform forth dual   ber either vo tc e verb or
Egypt at the same time, become rapidly inferior,the nun. With regard to the vocabulary of the
and at last are extremely barbarous, more so than language, one-third of the roots are to be found in
any of Egypt. The use of hieroglyphics continues the same state in Arabic. By making allowance
any of Egypt. The use of hieroglyphicscontinueshfor commutations and transpositions, many other
to the last for royal names, but the language seems,for commutations and transpositions many other
after the earlier period, to have been little under-roots may be identified with their Arabic correstood.  An Ethiopian Demotic character has spondents; some of its roots, however, do not
been found of the later period, which succeeded exist in our present Arabic, but are to be found in
the hieroglyphic for common use and even for
some inscriptions. We do not offer any opinion  * Adelung and Vater, in the Mithridates, appear
on the language of this character.  The sub- to be the chief authorities for doubting the intimate
ject requires full investigation. The early Abys- affinity of the Geez and Amharic. In this partisinian remains, as the obelisk at Axum, do not cular, and throughout the subject, we have followseem to have any connection with those of more ed Gesenius, in his two articles on the Ethiopic
northern Ethiopia: they are of later times, and  and Amharic languages in Ersch and Gruber's
probably are of Arab origin. Throughout Ethi-  41Agezeinle Encyclopidie.




ETHIOPIC VERSION                 844                 ETHUN
Aramaic and Hebrew. Besides this it has native they place next to that of Job. The critical uses
roots peculiar to itself: it has adopted several of this version are almost exclusively confined to
Greek words, but shews no traces of the influence the evidence it gives as to the text of the Septuaof Coptic.                                    gint. The version of the N. T. was made direct
The alphabet possesses twenty-six consonants, from the Greek original. It follows the verbal
arranged in a peculiar order, twenty-four of which arrangement of the Greek very closely, and has
may be regarded as equivalents to the same num- mistakes which are only to be explained by the
ber of letters in the Arabic alphabet (the ones confusion of words which resemble each other in
that language. It is difficult to determine what
excepted being, A,, and'. The re- recension it follows; but it frequently agrees with
maining two are letters adopted to express the the Peshito and the Itala.  A  carefully edited
Greek II and I. The vowel-sounds, which are edition of the 0. T. is being executed by Dr.
seven, are not expressed by separable signs, as inAugustus Dillmann of Tibingen, of which has
the Hebrew   and Arabic punctuation, but are appeared, Toms primus, sve Octoteuchus tthiodenoted by modifications in the original form of  icus, Lipsiae, I853.  This work has a critical
apparatus, and is based on a collation of MSS.
the consonants, after the manner of the Devanagaripparatus, and is based on a collation of MSS.
alphabet.  The mode of writing is from left toThe whole N. T. has appeared.    The Gospels
right.  As for the written characters, Gesenius wereeditedanewfromMSS. byT.P.Platt,M.A.,
has traced the relation between some of them and in I826, in 4to.-J. N.
their equivalents in the Phoenician alphabet. There  ETHUN (QiK) occurs in Prov. vii. 16, in conis, however, the most striking resemblance between 
the Geez letters generally and those in the Himja-nection wth Egypt, and as a product of that
rite inscriptions; a circumstance which accords well country. It is translated fine linen of Egypt, in
with the supposed connection of Southern Arabia the A. V.  As Egypt was from     very early
and Habesh.  Moreover, Lepsius, inan interesting  times celebrated for its cultivation of flax and
essay, Ueber die Anordnung und Verwandschaft manufacture of linen, there can be little doubt
des Semitischen, Indischen, Aethioschen  etc that eun is correctly rendered, though some
AzlPhabets (in his Zwei Sprachzvergleichende Ab  have thought that it may signify rope or string
handlungen, Berlin, 1836, 8vo, pp. 74-80), has of Egypt,'funis Agyptius,'funis salignus v.
adduced some striking arguments to prove thatintubaceus;' but Celsius (Hierobot. ii. p. 89)
the Devanagari alphabet must have had some observes,'Ethun non funem, sed linum et linteum
influence on the development of the Geez.     esse, clamat graca vox o60ov6 vel 66bvtov, quam ab
The literature of the Geez language is very  ethun esse deducendam.' So Mr. Yates, in his
scanty indeed, and that little is almost exclusively  Textrinm Antiquorum, p. 265, says of oo6vr, that
of a Biblical or ecclesiastical character. It p-' it was in all probability an Egyptian word, adopted
sesses nothing, not even an imitation of the nationalby the Greeks to denote the commodity to which the
poetry, nor of the lexicographical and grammatical Egyptians themselves applied it.' For te1r, put
works, of the Arabs. Some few historical works  nto Greek ltters, and with Greek terminations
in the shape of chronicles, and a few medical becomes ouovq and 6oOovov. Hesychius states, no
treatises, constitute the main body of their profane doubt correctly,'that 6O607i was applied by the
literature.  The Geez has ceased ever since the Greeks to any fine and thin cloth, though not of
beginning of the I4th century to be the verna- lien.' Mr. Yates further adduces from ancient
cular language of any part of the country, having  Scholia that ovat were made both of flax and of
been supplanted at the court of the sovereign by   wool; and also that the silks of India are called
the Amharic. It still continues, however, to be 66vai opmKa bytheauthor of the Periplus of the
the language used in religious rites, in domesticErythrcan Sea. In the same work it is shewn
affairs of state, and in private correspondence.-  that the name oi6Yov was applied to cloths exported
J. N.                                         from  Cutch, Ougein, and Baroach, and which
must have been made of cotton.     Mr. Yates
ETHIOPIC     VERSION.      The libraries of moreover observes, that though 06v967, like ov&wov,
Europe contain some, although very rarely con- originally denoted linen, yet we find them both
plete, manuscript copies of a translation of the applied to cotton cloth. As the manufacture of
Bible into the Geez dialect. This version of the linen extended itself into other countries, and as
0. T. was made from the Greek of the Septuagint, the exports of India became added to those of
according to the Alexandrian recension, as is Egypt, all varieties, either of linen or cotton cloth,
evinced, among other things, by the arrangement wherever woven, came to be designated by the
of the Biblical books, and by the admission of the originally Egyptian names'006vi' and Zvsbv.
Apocrypha without distinction. It is divided into  In the N. T. the word 0Ovyiov occurs in John
four parts: The Law, or the Octateuch, containing xix. 40-' Then took they the body of Jesus and
the Pentateuch and the books of Joshua, Judges, wound it in linen clothes' (booviots); in the parallel
and Ruth; The Kings, in thirteen books, consist- passage, Matt. xxvii. 59, the term used is o-'V6OL,
ing of two books of Samuel, two of Kings, two of as also in Mark xv. 46, and in Luke xxiii. 53.
Chronicles, two of Ezra (Ezra and Nehemiah), We meet with it again in John xx. 5,'and he
Tobit, Judith, Esther, Job, the Psalms; Solomon, stooping down saw the linen clothes lying.' It is
in five books, consisting of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, generally used in the plural to denote'linen bandCanticles, Wisdom, and Sirach; Prophets, in eigh- ages.''O06bv occurs in Acts x. II,'and (Peter)
teen books, consisting of Isaiah, Jeremiah's pro- saw heaven opened, and a certain vessel descendphecy and Lamentations, Baruch, Ezekiel, Daniel, ing unto him, as it had been a great sheet knit at
and the twelve minor prophets: lastly, they have the four corners, and let down to the earth,' and
also two books of the Maccabees. Besides this, also in xi. 5, where this passage is repeated.
they possess an apocryphal'book of Enoch, which  From the preceding observations it is evident




ETZ-'ABOTH                  845               ETZ-GOPHER
that 606vtov may signify cloth made either of linen  renders it'squared timbers,' and Jerome, in the
or cotton, but most probably the former, as it was Vulgate, renders it'planed wood' and'pitched
more common than cotton in Syria and Egypt wood.' Some have adopted the opinion that a kind
[SHESH].-J. F. R.                             of pine-tree is intended; and others that several
ETZ-'ABOTH (Tn       ) occurs~\   in Lev.  ***i species may be included, as they all yield resin,
ETZ-ABOTH (       ) occurs in Lev. tar, and pitch. The Persian translator has also
40, and Neh. viii. I5, and in both passages is men- adopted the pine; but Celsius objects that it was
tioned along with etz-shemen. These words occur never common in Assyria and Babylonia.  The
also in Ezek. xx. 28, where, as well as in the other Chaldee version and others give the cedar, because
passages, they are translated thick trees. The word it was always plentiful in Asia, and was distin3y  etz, used in several places in Scripture to guished by the incorruptible nature of its wood.
designate a tree, is said to be derived from the But cedar is a very general term, and correctly apverb otze,'to fix,''to make steady.' The word plied, as we have seen [ERES], only to different'aboth, according to Celsius (Hierobot. i. p. 322), kinds of juniper. These, though yielding excelis by the Rabbins, as well as in the Chaldee and lent wood, remarkable for its fragrance, never
Syriac versions, understood to mean the myrtle. grow to a large size in any warm country. EutyBut Celsius himself follows the Septuagint, the chius, patriarch of Alexandria, relates in his Annals
Vulgate, and several other authorities, in consider- (p. 34), as quoted by Celsius (Hierobot. i. p. 331),
ing the etz-'aboth to signify a shady tree,'foliis et that the ark was made of a wood called sag or saj
frondibus densa.'                                                                 has 
The shade of trees must always have been,.t                       The sa or sa has been
highly esteemed in eastern, or rather in warm  thought by some to be ebony, but apparently withclimates. The planting of trees was early prac- out any foundation. Still less is there any likelitised, as we have seen in the case of the eshel hood of its being a shrub like junizerus sabina, as
planted by Abraham at Beersheba, when he called indicated in a note by Rosenmiiller, Eng. transl. p.
on the name of the Lord. We know also that 261. It is curious, as already alluded to in the
among the nations of antiquity, the planting of Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine, as
groves, and their consecration to their gods, were mentioned by Forskal, that the woods imported
antecedent to the building of temples and altars, from India into Arabia are saj, abnoos (ebony), and
and were of almost universal adoption; and that sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo). Some Persian writers on
groves were the scenes of their idolatrous worship  Materia Medica consider saj to be the sdl (szhorea roand licentious rites. Hence probably the Jews busta), another valued and much used Indian timber
were prohibited from planting trees around or near tree, but common only along the foot of the Himathe altar of God.   Shade and solitude seem   layan mountains. The teak is the best known and
always to have been considered as giving an air the most highly valued timber tree on the Malaof mystery and devotion to religious services.- bar coast, and it has long been imported into
Seneca, as quoted by Dr. Carpenter, says,'If Arabia, and also into Egypt. One of the names
you find a grove thick set with ancient oaks that by which it is known in India is sagoon. The saj
have shot up to a vast height, the tallness of the is described in some Persian works, chiefly translawood, the retirement of the place, and the plea- tions from the Arabic, as having large leaves like
santness of the shade, immediately make you elephants' ears. This applies well to the leaves of
think it to be the residence of some god.' The the teak tree; and there is little doubt, therefore,
prophet Hosea also gives the following description: that the saj of Arab authors is the teak tree. With'They sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains, respect to its being the gopher wood, the present
and bum incense upon the hills, under oaks and writer has already remarked in the above work:
poplars and elms, because the shadow thereof is'The gopher wood of Scripture is so differently
good' (Hos. iv. 13). Hence in the above pas- translated by different commentators, that it is
sages, it is more than probable that etz-'aboth has difficult to form even a conjecture on the subject;
a general, and not a specific, signification. There besides being used at so early a period, and menis no proof of the myrtle being intended: in fact, tioned only once. It need not have been alluded
it is not likely to have been found in any part of to, except that the Arabic version translates it saj,
the wilderness, and no better material can be which is the teak, and not likely to have been the
required for the construction of booths than the wood employed.' The Chaldee Samaritan transboughs of thick or shady trees.-J. F. R.      lator, for gopher, gives, as a synonym, sisam, of
ETZ-GOPHER (rjT rr       etzT-gher) is men- r\which Celsius says (Hierobol. i. p.332),'Vocem
ETZ-GOPz  her) is men- obscuram, sive referas ad tSXa oiclvrciua, quae ex
tioned only once in Scripture, as the material of Indiis adferri scribit Arrianus  (Peri f. Mar.
which Noah was directed to build the ark (Gen. Erythr. p. I62), et Ebeno similia perhibent alii
vi. 14),'Make thee an ark of gopher wood; rooms (Salmas. in Solin. p. 727).' The sisam is probashalt thou make in the ark, and shalt pitch it bly the above sissoo, mentioned by Forskal as imwithin and without with pitch' (khemar, probably  ported in his time into Arabia, and which is a'bitumen'). In endeavouring to ascertain the par- highly-valued, dark-coloured wood, of which one
ticular kind of wood which is mentioned in the kind is called blackwood (Dalbergia latifolia). The
above passage, we can get assistance only from the greatest number of writers have been of opinion
name, the country where the wood was supposed  that by the gopher wood we are to understand the
to have been procured, or the traditional opinions cypress; and this opinion is supported by such authorespecting it. That nothing very satisfactory has rities as Fuller in his Miscell. Sac. iv. 5; Bochart
been ascertained is evident from the various in- (Geogr. Sacra, i. 4); as well as by Celsius (Hierobot.
terpretations that have been given of this word, i. p. 328). It has been stated that the letters gand
so that some have preferred, as in our A. V., ph, k andp, differ only in the soft or hard manner
to retain the original Hebrew.  The Septuagint in which they are pronounced, and therefore that




ETZ-HADAR                    846                 EUCHEL
gopher and kupar differ very little in sound, and  any, would no doubt direct the Israelites to take
that tlaos in the Greek Kv7rdpLao0s is a mere addi- such fruits or branches as were procurable in the
tion to the root. It is argued, further, that the desert; but it is probable, as maintained by the
wood of the cyprus, being almost incorruptible, majority of commentators, that the term is general,
was likely to be preferred; that it was frequently rather than specific, and therefore that the fruit or
employed in later ages in the construction of tem- branches of any goodly tree might be thus employed.
pies, bridges, and even ships; and that it was very (Comp. Ursini, Arboret. Bibl. p. 577).-J. F. R.
abundant in the countries where, according to
these authors, the ark is supposed to have been  ETZ-SHEMEN      (1tW. rt) occurs three times
built, that is, in Assyria, where other woods are in Scripture, and is differently translated in all the
scarce. But wherever the ark was built, there three passages in the A. V. At the rebuilding of
would be no deficiency of timber if there was a cer- the temple, Nehemiah (viii. 15) directs the Israeltain degree of moisture with warmth of climate; ites to'go forth unto the mount and fetch olive
and we know not what change of climate may have andgpine branches (etz-shemen), and myrtle-branches,
taken place at the Deluge. The pine tribe, in- and pa/rm-branches, and branches of thick trees
cluding the cyprus, appears as likely as any other (etz-aboth), to make booths, as it is written.'
to have been employed, usually growing as they doThis term occurs also in Is. xli. I9, where it is
in extensive forests, and yielding straight and  translated'oil-tree.' The third mention of etzeasily worked timber, calculated, from its resinous shemen is in I Kings vi. 23, where it is translated
nature, effectually to resist moisture, especially if olive-tree. If we collate the several passages in
covered with pitch and tar, which might easily  which etz-shemen occurs, we shall find reason to
have been prepared from the refuse branches and  conclude that it is not the olive-tree, as it is transtimber, and used as well as the natural bitumen. lated in I Kings vi. 23, since in Neh. viii. I5, the
But the whole of these suggestions amount only to  olive-tree (sait) is distinguished from etz-shemen,
conjectures, and there seems no possibility ofarriv- which is there rendered pine-tree; and that it is as
ing at a satisfactory conclusion.-J. F. R.     little likely to be the pine-tree, since in Is. xli. I9,
ETZ-HADAR (Ti1 Y)) occurs only once inetz-shemen, translated oil-tree, is mentioned as disT T 1 *.) o      yoc       ntinct from both the fir and the pine.
Scripture, in Lev. xxiii. 40, where the Israelites  Though the above names, occurring in the same
are directed, in remembrance of their dwelling  sentences with etz-shemen, enable us to say that
in tents or booths when they were brought out of it is not likely to have been any of them, it is
the land of Egypt, to leave their homes and dwell not easy to say what tree is intended.  Several
in booths for a season every year.'And ye have been adduced in addition to those mentioned
shall take you on the first day the boughs of goodly above, as the different kinds of pine, including the
trees (peri etz-hadar), etc.' The words peri etz- cedar of Lebanon, the cypress, the citrus, the balhadar, the Septuagint renders Kapirov t\ov upaLov, sam-tree; but there is no proof in favour of any of
and the Vulgate, fructus arboris pulcherrima, the these.  Ursini and Celsius are both of opinion that'fructus ligni honoris' of Ursini. These transla- the term is used generically, and therefore that no
tions are followed in many versions, as enumerated  particular kind of tree is intended. This may apby Celsius (Hierobot. i. p. 252); but, as this author pear to be the case in the earlier passages; but in
also shews, Onkelos and others consider the phrase those of Is. xli. I9, and of I Kings vi. 23, a specific
to signify'fructus arboris citrei:' so R. Aben Esra, tree seems to be pointed out; but we have no means
in Hebrew, but as translated by Celsius,' Fructus of determining the particular tree, though there are
arboris speciosoe est citrus.  Nam  certe nullus several in Palestine which are not noticed in our
fructus arboreus speciosior est illo.'  The term  version of the Scriptures, and though it is probable
etragh or atrzj is that translated citrus.  This that some even of the modern Arabic names may
interpretation has been adopted by the Jews, and  bear some similarity to the Hebrew. The Arabic
is that given by Josephus. The orange and lemon  shamzanat, signifying fragrant things, and the Perhave sometimes been adduced as the citrus of sian shamanah, signifying anything odoriferous,
the above passages, but both were unknown in   a fragrant smell, seem to be connected with it.
those early times so far north as Palestine; while  But Hebrew scholars consider shemen as having
the citron seems to have been early introduced  some reference to oiliness or fatness. Thus Celsius
from Media, and was known to the Greeks and    (Hierob. i. 3Io) quotes R. D. Kimchi as commentRomans, as we shall shew    under the article ing on I Kings vi. 23, as follows:'Intellige per
TAPPUACH. Some again are of opinion that the iW         speciem  aliquam  pini, ex qua manat
olive is intended by the word hadar, as the olive is pinguedo, unde faciunt picem; nam inde dicitur
mentioned instead of this tree by Nehemiah (viii. IJn   r' arbor pinguedinis.' The objection to etz15), in reference apparently to the above passage. shemen being one of the pine tribe, is that it is
Instead of fruit, however, some, as Tremellius and  mentioned as apparently distinct from both the pine
Dr. Geddes, conceive that peri signifies young  and fir in the passage of Isaiah, while in that of
growing shoots or boughs, as indeed it is inter- Kings a tree is required having wood fit for making
preted in our A. V.   There'can be no objec- the cherubim. As no tree has yet been pointed
tion to the citron being considered the hadar, out having a name similar either in meaning or
as is done by the Jews; since we learn from    sound to the Hebrew, and with wood of a good
Josephus that they had them in their hands in  quality, it is better to consider etz-shemen as one of
festo Scenopegiorum, when they threw  them  at those not yet ascertained, than to add one more to
King Alexander Jannseus; and t'hey still con- the other unsatisfactory guesses.-J. F. R.
tinue to use citrons at the Feast oftTabernacles.
But this does not prove that the a citron was    EUCHEL, ISAAC BEN ABRAHAM, of Copencommon in Palestine, or rather in the. desert, at hagen. He was born in 1756, and was one of the
the time of Moses. The lawgiver, if he specified  distinguished leaders of the Society for the Promo



EUCHERIUS                   847               EUERGETES
tion of Biblical literature and exegesis which was by this title, Alexander I., Antiochus VII., and
formed in the days of Mendelssohn, the reformer Demetrius III. being shewn by their coins to have
of modern Judaism [MENDELSSOHN].     To this been styled Euergetes, no one of them reigned more
excellent scholar Biblical literature is indebted for than a few years. It is more probable, on pzizmd
a learned treatise on the ancient mode of burial facie grounds, that an Egyptian Euergetes is here
among the Jews, entitled, 1st nachjiidischen Geset- spoken of, if the same discrepancy should not be
zen das Uebernacthen der Todten wirklich verboten? found.  Two of the Ptolemies bore this title,
Breslau, 1797, and a German translation of the Ptolemy III., always known as Euergetes, who
Book of Proverbs, with a critical and exegetical reigned twenty-five years, B.C. 247-222; and
commentary, which was at first published in Berlin, Ptolemy VII. (or IX.), Euergetes II., more com1790, as a part of the great Bible work started by monly called Physcon, who began to reign jointly
Mendelssohn, and of which improved editions ap- with his brother Ptolemy VI. (or VII.), Philomepeared in Vienna 1799 and Offenbach I805. tor, B.C. 170, and became sole king in B.C. 146,
Euchel died in 1804, in Berlin.-C. D. G.     dying in his fifty-fourth year, reckoned from the
former date, and the twenty-ninth year of his sole
EUCHERIUS, SAINT, born of an illustrious reign, B.C. 117 (Fynes Clinton, Fasti frellenici, iii.
family in the second half of the 4th century. His p   382  38  38,    Lepsius, s i  nigs*uc/,
father's name was Valerian: that of his wife, PP- 32 3        6  9) A gre       difiuy  s
Synoietische Tafin, p. 9). A great difficulty has
Gallia; by whom he had two sons, Salonius and arse in the attempt to decide which of these
Veranius, and two daughters, Consortia and Tullia.              Everything hinges upon the
About the year 4Io he left the world and retired manner in which the reigns were reckoned  There
with his wife and children, first to Lerins, and is no satisfactory evidence for supposing that Euerafterwards to a neighbouring island, Lero, now  getes I. counted his regnal years from a time becalled St. Marguerite, where he led a recluse life, fore his accession; the evidence of the inscription
devoting himself to study, the education of his at Adule, that Fynes Clinton adduces in favour of
children, and the exercise of religion according to as high a date as the 27th year, is, we venture to
the idea of the time.  During his retreat, he say, wholly inconclusive (pp. 382, 383); besides,
acquired so high a reputation for learning and the 27th year is far short of the 38th. To ascerpiety, that about 434 he became bishop of Lyonstain the official reckoning of the years of Euergetes
which dignity he retained till his death, in the II., during the latter part of his rule, and thus to
time of Valentinian III. and Marcian. His sondetermine from what date he then counted hs
determine from what date he theft counted his
Veranius succeeded him as bishop of Lyons, and regnal years, we have only to examine the demotic
Salonius became chief of thehis reign. From these Dr. oung co
Eucherius was present at' the first Council of lected a list of dates which appeared thirty years
Orange, 44i, presided over by Hilary of Arles. He ago in his posthumous Rudiments of an  gytia
is said by Claudian Mamertius to have been ac- -...   M
is said by Claudian Mamertiusto have been ac-Dictionary; we are particular in mentioning the
counted the greatest prelate of his time. The year  atwe may sew how long the commentatime that we may shew how long the commentaof his death is uncertain; it was about 45o. Be- tors have neglected this conclusive evidence. These
sides some works of ascetic import, he wrote  ates are year 29, 34, 45, 46, 47  r 43, 52, 53
Lber Formuarum s     tas intelligenti ad Vpersc aia-. (pp. 27-3I). It is thus proved incontestably that
nium fiium, in eleven chapters, containing alle- Physcon counted his years from the commencement
gorical and mystical expositions of certain textsofhis ont en  th  ometo    thot
~~~~~~~~~~~~~of Scripture:          his joint reign with Philometor, without any sepao  I m  bri 1. ad     rate reckoning from his accession as sole king of
nium filium, of which the first propounds andcl. Theh ero 1  h *  *  * f
nium fihinz, of which the first propounds and Egypt. The hieroglyphic inscriptions, as we should
answers difficult questions on the 0. and N  T.,
and thswers difficult qusecond gesplanations othe 0. and N. T.expect, follow the same reckoning. Thus one of the
and the second gives explanations of  ebrewApis tablets gives the dates of the 28th, 3ist, 5st,
names; also homilies, which are mostly addressed and  years of this king (Lepsius 7e 22
to monks. There is a good account of Eucherius  Eyptian RoyasDnasty, trans. by Dr. Bell, p. 
and complete collection of his works, in the 5oth  We must not pass by the idea of Winer (R[eW
vol of the Abbe Migne's Patrologz  cursus corn- s. v. Jesus Sohn Sirachs), and Jahn (Einteitung-5 p~ietus.-S ~ Ls~.lii. pp. 930, seqq.), that the 38th year refers to the
EUERGETES (Eiepfy7ss; Euergetes),'bene- translator's age instead of a king's reign. It would
factor,' a title of several Greek kings. Its use is be better to suppose an era. Three occur to us as
thus referred to in our Saviour's teaching:'The possible, the era of the Seleucidoe and that of Simon
kings of the Gentiles exercise lordship over them; the Maccabee, used in Palestine, and the era of
and they that exercise authority upon them are call- Dionysius used in Egypt. The era of the Seleucied benefactors' (ebepyeTral, Luke xxii. 25). It was dse began B.c. 3I2, and its 38th year is therefore
bestowed by states upon those who had conferred too early for the reign of Euergetes I.; the era of
benefits upon them, and was taken by several kings. Simon the Maccabee began B.C. I43, or a little later,
A king of Egypt is mentioned by this title in the and its 38th year is too late for the reign of EuerPrologue to Ecclesiasticus, wherein the translator getes II. The era of Dionysius commenced B.c.
states that, having gone into Egypt in the 38th  285 (Lepsius, Konigsbuch, 1. c.), and its 38th year
year of king Euergetes, and been there some time, was therefore the last of Ptolemy II., Euergetes I.
he found this book by his grandfather ('Ev y&p coming to the throne in the next year. The conTQry 06ys6 Kai TpoaKoo-TLr ret eirl ro  E6epyerov struction that does not allow the year of the reign
p3a-tXeows 7rcpayevrqls els Atyvi7rrov, Ka i oirXpo- of Euergetes to be intended, and thus necessitates
vitcas, etpov ov tutKprS iratleias cdfi6tocov.'Nam in some such explanation, is certainly the more coroctavo et trigesimo anno temporibus Ptolemiei rect; but as Dr. Davidson, who has laboriously
Euergetis regis,' etc., Vulg.) There can be no collected much criticism upon this question that
question that a king of Egypt is here meant, we have shewn to have been needless, observes,
for though a king of Syria could be intended we need not here look for correct grammar (Horne's




EUMENES I1.                 848                 EUNUCH
Introduction, I856, ii. pp. 1026-I028). With this country of India and Media, and Lydia, and
admission, the usual reading cannot be doubted, part of their fairest countries' (Kal Xcjpav r7v
and the date mentioned would be B.C. I33. Other'IvSLKhv Kal M16etcav Kal Avuiav, Kal acro riv KaXevidence for the time of the composition of Ecclesi- XitraTv Xocpwv avrTv).. This is in part clearly out of
asticus, which, of course, can be approximatively the question, for neither India nor Media belonged
inferred from that of the translation, is rather in to Antiochus or the Romans. All the Greek and
favour of the second than the first Euergetes.-  Latin texts agree in this reading, and it is difficult
R. S. P.                                     to offer any solution. Many suggestions have been
made, such as for India, the Eneti of Paphlagonia,
EUMENES II. (Ei/ev/js), king of Pergamus, mentioned in Strabo, and according to Zenodotus,
and son of Attalus I. His accession to the throne called in his time Amisus (Strabo, xii. 3, p. 465).
is fixed by the death of his predecessor to B.C. 197 Hecatoeus says they were the Eneti of Homer
(Clinton, F. H., iii. p. 403). He inherited from his (I. ii. 852; Strabo, xii. 3, p. 473). But in any
father the friendship and alliance of the Romans, case these people had disappeared long before.
and when peace was made in B.C. 196 with Philip  Another suggestion is that the India of Xenophon
V., king of Macedonia, he was presented with the is meant (Cyrop. i. 5. 3, etc.), which may have
towns of Oreus and Eretria in Euboea (Liv. xxxiii. been on the Carian river Indus (K.cidX3s, Strabo,
34). In B.C. 191 Eumenes and the Romans en- xiv. 2, p. 556; Ptol. v. 2. rI), but this is not progaged the fleet of Antiochus (Liv. xxxvi. 43-45), bable, and the Cyropoedia is of no historical value
and seeing more than ever the policy of adhering whatever. Long dissertations have been written to
to the Romans, he, in the following year, rendered  solve this difficulty, but without much success (Cf.
them valuable assistance at the battle of Magnesia, Wernsdorff, Defid. Libr. Macc., sec. xxvii.) Grocommanding his own troops in person (Liv. xxxvii. tius without any MS. authority substitutes'Ionia,'
39-44; Just. xxxi. 8; Appian, Syr. 34). As soon for'India,' and'Mysia' for'Media.' This is
as peace was concluded, B.C. I88, Eumenes set out certainly the happiest suggestion, and perfectly
for Rome to ask some rewards for his services. The agrees with the account of Livy (xxxvii. 55)' ut cis
Senate were pleased with the modesty of his beha- Taurunz montem quse intra regni Antiochi fines
viour, and conferred upon him the Thracian Cher- fuissent, Eumeni attribuerentur praeter Lyciam
sonese, Lysimachia, both Phrygias, Mysia, Lyca- Cariamque, usque ad Mseandrum fluvium,' etc.,
onia, Lydia, and Ionia, with some exceptions. and all the other statements of classical writers.One province only would have much enlarged his F. W. M.
dominions, but by this large addition to his territory he found himself one of the most powerful of  EUNICE (EViK), the mother of Timothy, a
monarchs (Liv. xxxvii. 56; xxxviii. 39; Polyb. Jewess, although married to a Greek and bearing
xxii. 27; Appian,- Syr. 44). About the same timea Greek name. Shewas a believer in Christ, and
he married the daughter of Ariarathes IV., kingeven hermother Los lived in the faithof theexof Cappadocia (Liv. xxxviii. 39). Eumenes con- pected Messiah, if she did not live to know that
tinued in good favour with the Romans for several he had come in the person of Jesus of Nazareth
years, and repeatedly sent embassies to them. (2 Tim. i. 5; Acts xvi. I).-J. K.
In B.C. 172 he again visited Rome, and in return-  EUNUCH  (eivoiXos). This word, which we
ing nearly lost his life through the treachery of have adopted from the Greek, has, in its literal
Perseus, king of Macedonia (Liv. xlii. 11-16). In  sense, the harmless meaning of'bed-keeper,' i.e.,
B.C. 169 Eumenes is said to have had secret cor- one who has the charge of beds and bed-chambers;
respondence with Perseus, by which act he lost the but as only persons deprived of their virility have,
favour of the Romans (Polyb., Frag. Vat. xxix., from the most ancient times, been employed in
Didot. ed., pp. 39, 40), and two years after he Oriental harems, and as such persons are employed
was forbidden to enter Rome (Liv., Epit. xlvi.) almost exclusively in this kind of service, the word
The latter part of his reign was disturbed by'bed-keeper' became synonymous with' castratus.'
frequent wars with Prusias, king of Bithynia. The In fact, there are few eastern languages in which
Romans favourably received his brother Attalus, the condition of those persons is more directly exapparently for the purpose of exciting him against pressed than by the name of some post or station
Eumenes, who had sent him to Rome. Attalus, in which they are usually found. The admission
however, was induced through the entreaties of a to the recesses of the harem, which is in fact the
physician, named Stratius, to abandon any such domestic establishment of the prince, gives the
ideas. Eumenes thus managed to keep on friendly eunuchs such peculiar advantages of access to the
terms with his brother and the Romans till his royal ear and person, as often enable them to exerdeath (Liv. xlv. I9, 20; Polyb. xxx. 1-3; xxxi. 9; cise an important influence, and to rise to stations
xxxii. 5). The exact date of his death is not men- of great trust and power in Eastern courts. Hence
tioned by any writer, but it must have taken place it would seem that, in Egypt, for instance, the word
in B.C. 159 (Clinton, F. H., iii. p. 406).   which indicated an eunuch was applied to any
Eumenes II. much improved the city of Perga- court officer, whether a castratus or not. The
mus by erecting magnificent temples and other word which describes Joseph's master as'an qofcer
public buildings. His greatest act was the founda- of Pharaoh' (Gen. xxxvii. 36; xxxix. I) is 0'l
tion of a fine and splendid library, which rose to saris, which is used in Hebrew to denote an eunuch;
be a rival in extent and value even to that of and in these places is rendered S:1,'prince,' in
Alexandria (Strabo, xiii. 4, Didot. ed., p. 533; the Targum, and evvoQ-os,'eunuch,' in the SepPlin. xxii. II; xxxv. 3).                    tuagint.
The large accessions of territory given to Eu-  Authority would be superfluous in proof of a
menes at the completion of the treaty with Antiochus, matter of such common knowledge as the employin B. C. 188, are also mentioned in I Maccab. viii. 8. ment of eunuchs, and especially of black eunuchs
It is there said that'the Romans gave him the in the courts and harems of the ancient and modern




EUODIAS                    849               EUPHRATES
East.  A noble law, which, however, evinces the journey from Erzeroom, near which rise two of
prevalence of the custom prior to Moses, made the tributaries that concur in forming the Phrat.
castration illegal among the Jews (Lev. xxi. 20; Thus uniting, they give rise to the Euphrates
Deut. xxiii. I). But the Hebrew princes did not strictly so called, which, flowing to the south,
choose to understand this law as interdicting the divides Armenia from  Cappadocia; but, being
use of those who had been made eunuchs by others; driven westward by the Anti-Taurus and Taurus
for that they had them, and that they were some- mountains, it works its circuitous way through
times, if not generally, blacks, and that the chief of narrow passes and over cataracts, until, breaking
them was regarded as holding an important and  through a defile formed by the eastern extremity
influential post, appears from I Kings xxii. 9; 2 of Mons Amanus (Alma Dagh), and the northKings viii. 6; ix. 32, 33; xx. I8; xxiii. I; Jer. western extremity of Mons Taurus, it reaches the
xxxviii. 7; xxxix. I6; xli. I6. Samuel was aware plain country not far from Samosata (Schemisat),
that eunuchs would not fail to be employed in a then winds south and south-east, passing the north
regal court; for he thus forewarns the people,' He of Syria, and the north-east of Arabia Deserta,
(the king) will take the tenth of your seed and of and at length, after many windings, unites with
your vineyard, and give to his eunuchs [A. V. the Tigris, and thus united finds its termination'officers'] and to his servants' (I Sam. viii. I5).  in the Persian Gulf. (Herod. i. 80; Strabo, ii.
Under these circumstances, the eunuchs were p. 521; Ptolem. v. 13; Plin. list. Nat. v. 20;
probably obtained from a great distance, and at Q. Curt. i. 13; Orbzis Terrartsm, C. Kaercher
an expense which must have limited their employ- Auct.; Map to Report frozm ite Select Cozmmittee
ment to the royal establishment; and this is very on Steam Navig-ation to India.) In conjunction
much the case even at present.                with the Tigris, it forms the rich alluvial lands of
In Matt. xix. I2, the term'eunuch' is applied  Mesopotamia, over which it flows or is carried by
figuratively to persons naturally impotent. In the canals, and thus diffuses abroad fertility and beauty.
same verse mention is also made of persons'who  At Bagdad and Hillah (Babylon), the Euphrates
have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of and Tigris approach comparatively near to each
heaven's sake;' which is a manifestly hyperbolical other, but separate again, forming a kind of ample
description of such as lived in voluntary abstinence basin, till they finally become one at Koorma.
(comp. Matt. v. 29, 30); although painful examples Under the Coesars the Euphrates was the eastern
have occurred (as in the case of Origen) of a dispo- boundary of the Roman empire, as under David it
sition to interpret the phrase too literally, and thus was the natural limit of the Hebrew monarchy.
to act upon the following injunction, or permission,  Although occasionally much more, the breadth' Let him who is capable of doing this, do it'-6 of the Euphrates varies between 200 and 400 yards;
avvucdfevos Xopet, xwpeirw.-J. K.            but for a distance of 60 miles through the Lemlun
EUODIAS ( s), a female member of themarshes the main stream narrows to about 80 yards.
cUODIAS (EPiippi, a female member of the
church at Philippi, who seems to have been at The general depth of the Upper Euphrates exceeds
variance with another female member named     8 feet. In point of current it is for the most part
Syntyche. Paul describes them as women who    a sluggish stream; for, except in the height of the
had'laboured much with him in the gospel,' and  flooded season, when it approaches 5 miles an hour,
implores them to be of one mind (Philip. iv. 2, 3). it vaes from 2  to 3  wth amuch larger portion of its course under 3 than above. Its general
EUPHRATES (EvppdTrTs), termed in Deut. i. description for some distance below Erzingan is
7,'the great river,' where it is mentioned as the that of a river of the first order, struggling through
eastern boundary of the land which (ver. 8) God high hills, or rather low mountains, making an
gave to the descendants of Abraham. In Gen. exceedingly tortuous course, as it forces its way
ii. 14, the Euphrates (AnD) is stated to be the over a pebbly or rocky bed, from  one natural
fourth of the rivers which flowed from a common barrier to another. As it winds round its numerous
stream in the garden of Eden. Divines and geo- barriers, it carries occasionally towards each of
graphers have taken much trouble in order to learn the cardinal points a considerable body of water;
the position of Eden from the geographical particu- and is shallow enough in some places for loaded
lars given in the Bible, without remembering that camels to pass in autumn, the water rising to their
probably nothing more than a popular description bellies, or about 44 feet. The upper portion of
was intended. It is true that two of the rivers the river is enclosed between two parallel ranges of
mentioned in the passage, namely, the Tigris and hills, covered for the most part with high brushthe Euphrates, have their sources in the same high wood and timber of moderate size, having a suclands; but scientific geography neither sanctions cession of long narrow islands, on several of which
nor explains the Scriptural account, if Eden is to are moderate-sized towns; the borders of this
be sought in the mountainous range in different and ancient stream being still well inhabited, not only
distant parts of which they rise.             by Bedouins, but by permanent residents. The
In consequence of its magnitude and importance, following towns may be named: Samsat, Haothe Euphrates was designated and known as'the roum, Romkala, Bir, Giaber, Deir, Rava, Anna,
river,' being by far the most considerable stream in  Hadisa, El Oos, Jibba, Hit, Hillah, Lemlun,
Western Asia. Thus in Exod. xxiii. 31, we read, Korna, and Bussora. The scenery above Hit, in'from the desert unto the river' (comp. Is. viii. 7). itself very picturesque, is greatly heightened by
It has two sources and two arms-a western the frequent recurrence of ancient irrigating aqueand an eastern-which rise in the mountains of ducts, beautiful specimens of art, which are attriArmenia.  Of these streams the western is the buted by the Arabs to the Persians when fire-worshorter, and is called Kara Sou, or Melas; the shippers: they literally cover both banks, and prove
eastern is itself made up of several streams, the that the borders of the Euphrates were once thickly
longest of which bears the name of Murad, or inhabited by a highly civilized people. They are
Phrat. The two arms unite about three days' I of stone. Ten miles below Hit is the last of these
VOL. I.                                                                        3 I




EUPHRATES                    850                EUSEBIUS
The country now becomes flatter, with few hills: states that boats-either coracles, or rafts, floated
the river winds less; and the banks are covered by inflated skins-brought the produce of Armenia
with Arab villages of mats or tents, with beautiful down to Babylon (i. I94). The trade thus carried
mares, cattle, and numerous flocks of goats and  on was considerable.
sheep. From Hit to Babylon the black tent of    The Emperor Trajan constructed a fleet in the
the Bedouin is almost the only kind of habitation  mountains of Nisibis, and floated it down the
to be seen. This distance is cultivated only in Euphrates.  The Emperor Julian also came down
part; the rest is desert, with the date-tree shewing the river from the same mountains, with a fleet of
in occasional clusters. In descending, the irrigating not fewer than I Ioo vessels.
cuts and canals become more frequent. Babylon   A great deal of navigation is still carried on
is encircled by two streams, one above, the other from Bagdad to Hillah, the ancient Babylon; but
below the principal ruin; beyond which they unite the disturbed state of the country prevents any
and produce abundance.  For about thirty miles above the latter place. In the time of Queen
below  Hillah both banks have numerous mud    Elizabeth merchants from England went by this
villages, imbedded-in date-trees: to these succeed river, which was then the high road to India.
huts formed of bundles of reeds. The country     The prophets made use of the Euphrates as a
lower down towards Lemlun is level and little figurative description of the Assyrian power, as the
elevated above the river; irrigation is therefore Nile with them represented the power of Egypt;
easy: in consequence, both banks are covered with thus in Is. viii. 7,'The Lord bringeth up upon
productive cultivation, and fringed with a double them the waters of the river, strong and many, even
and nearly continuous belt of luxuriant date-trees, the king of Assyria' (Jer. ii. I8). Wahl's Asien, p.
extending down to the Persian Gulf. At one mile 700; Ritter's Erdk. ii. 120; Traitz Elem'ent. Geoand a half above the town of Dewania is the first grapziqgue, Bruxelles, 1832, vol. ii.; Mannert's
considerable deviation from this hitherto majestic  Geogr. ii. 142; Reichard's _l. Geogr. Schrif., p.
river; another takes place 22 miles lower; and  210; Parliam. Rep. of Steamz Navigation to India,
nine miles farther-at Lemlun-it again separates I834.-J. R. B.
into two branches, forming a delta not unlike that
of Damietta, and when the river is swollen, inun-  EUPOLEMUS (Etvr6Xe     voos), the son of John,
dating the country for a space of about 60 miles in the son of Accos, one of the envoys sent by Judas
width with a shallow sheet of water, forming the Maccaboeus to Rome to negociate an alliance with
Lemlun marshes, nearly the whole of which is the Romans (I Maccab. viii. 17; 2 Maccab. iv.
covered with rice and other grain the moment the  II Joseph. Antiq. xii. Io. 6). His father John
river recedes (in June). Here mud villages are is spoken of as one by whom various services had
swept away by the water every year.           been rendered to the state.-t.
Below Lemlun the Tigris sends a branch to the  EUROCLYDON        [WINDS.
Euphrates, which is thus increased in its volume;
and turning to the east, receives the chief branch  EUSEBIUS, Bishop of Coesarea, and father of
of the Tigris, thence running in one united stream, ecclesiastical history, called Pamphili after his
under the name of the Shat al Arab, as far as the friend, the Martyr Pamphilus, to whom he was
sea (the Persian Gulf). In this last reach the river devotedly attached, was born in Palestine about
has a depth of from 3 to 5 fathoms, varies in A.D. 264.  On the martyrdom of his friend he
breadth from 500 to 900 yards, and presents banks fled into Egypt, where he was thrown into prison.
covered with villages and cultivation, having an  After his release he returned to Cmesarea, and
appearance at once imposing and majestic. The  became bishop of that see, A.D. 3I5. He occupied
length of the navigable part of the river, reckoning a conspicuous position at the Council of Nice (327),
from Bir to Bussora, is 143 miles; the length of where he had the honour to sit at the Emperor's
the entire stream, I400 miles. It is very abundant right hand. Implicated in the disputes between
in fish. The water is somewhat turbid; but, when the Arians and Athanasians, he pursued, theolopurified, is pleasant and salubrious. The Arabians gically, a middle course; and was more eminent
set a high value on it, and name it Morad Sou; for his love of peace than for his orthodoxy. He
that is, Water of desire, or longing.         retained his friendship with the Imperial family till
The river begins to rise in March, and continues his death, which took place (A.D. 340) while he
rising till the latter end of May. The consequent was actively engaged in preparing, at the request
increase of its volume and rapidity is attributable of Constantine, filly parchment MSS. for the use
to the early rains, which, falling in the Armenian  of the churches of the capital.
mountains, swell its mountain tributaries; and also  The historical and apologetical works of Eusebius
in the main to the melting of the winter snows in are his best.  His exegetical Commentaries on the
these lofty regions. About the middle of November Psalmzs; Ten books on Isaiah; a fragment on
the Euphrates has reached its lowest ebb, and  Canticles; Commentary on Luke, and Quzestiones
ceasing to decrease, becomes tranquil and sluggish.  Evanzgeicce, are deemed of an inferior order.
The Euphrates is, on many accounts, an object But his'Exegetical Introductions,' as Semisch
of more than ordinary interest.'The great river' calls them, have attracted attention:-I. Onomastiis linked with the earliest times and some of the con de Locis Hebraeicis (zrepi rTiV TroTrLKuv Ovoica'irT
most signal events in the history of the world. rdv Iv r5 04eiq, ypacp5,), a topographical account
Appearing among the few notices we have of the of places mentioned in Scripture (Bonfrere, Paris,
first condition of the earth and of human kind, it I631; Cleves, Amsterdam, 1707; Larsow et Parcontinues, through the whole range of Scripture they, Berl. 1862). 2. The Ten Ezvangelical Canons,
history down to the present hour, an object of designed to help the reader to compare the parallel
curiosity, interest, wonder, hope, or triumph.  statements in the Gospels. They are given in a very
In ancient as well as in modern times the convenient form in Wordsworth's Greek Testament,
Euphrates was used for navigation. IHerodotus vol. I.  3. Z7rTza/ra  a  Xlat oiSet, questions and




EUTHALIUS                   851              EVANGELISTS
answers, designed to remove the seeming contra- commentary on the four Evangelists was pubdictions in the first and last chapters of the Gospels. lished in Latin by Hentenius, Louvaine, 1544, and
4. A fragment entitled 7rep is TOs O vp33\iov Trv 7rpo- afterwards at Paris, 1547, 1560, I602, and in the
Tn-rCv 6voloiaSTas. To the preceding we ought to add Biblioth. Paotrm. A more complete edition, with
the'EKKX/Lo-tao-rtK/'Io-Topla, because of its important Prolegomena, was edited by C. F. Matthzei, Lips.
bearing on the history of the Canon. [CANON.] I792, in 4 vols.  Other exegetical works are
Good editions of it are Heinichen's, Lipsize, 1827, extant in manuscript in the Vatican, on the Pauline
8vo, 3 vols.; and Burton's, Oxonii, 1838, 2 vols. and Catholic Epistles, also letters, a monody on
There are several English translations, useful edi- the death of Eustathius of Thessalonica, and a
tions of which have been published by Bohn and conversation with a Saracenic Philosopher.  His
Bagster. The whole works of Eusebius were pub- great polemical work was undertaken by desire
lishedat Basil, 1542; and at Paris, 1580. (Herzog. of the Emperor Alexius, it is entitled IlavowrXia
Encyc.; Smith's Die. of G. and R. Biog.; Nean- 6o-zy/raToc  TrJS Optoo6oov Trolarews jTO, 6wTXoiY)K-q
der's Gen. Ch. Hist.; Neander's Hist. of Christ. 6oyUcTarwv. It is divided into twenty-four sections,
Dogmas; Gieseler's Eccles. Hist.; Hagenbach's devoted to as many heresies and their confutation,
Hist. of Doctrines. )-I. J.                  but hitherto no complete edition of it has appeared.
EUTHALIUS, Deacon of Alexandria, and af- In the earliest edition in Latin by Zini, Venice,
1555, the x2th and 13th sections against the Pope
terwards, if the title of the Vatican MS. is to be and the Churc a of Rom   are omitted.  In the
credited, Bishop of Sulce (,s'E w  ),aand the Church of Rome are omitted.  In the
credited, 1Bishop of Suce (7oLXK-s'EriCKoos), a Greek edition by Tergovist in Wallachia, 17I1,
city whose site has not been satisfactorily deter- the 24th sectio  against Mohammedanism is left
mined. According to the common opinion he was out   The section on the Bogomiles and that
the first to apply the stichometrical arrangement to agant th e essi   e been printed spaagainst the Messalians, have been printed sepathe books of the N. T. Previously the continuous     His mistaes in reference to these sects
form of writing was all but universal in the MSS. ve been pointed out by later ecclesiastical writers.
nave been pointed out by later ecclesiastical writers.
of the Scriptures, and this, combined with the ab- nder,       isty (Bohn    vol viii. 278,
sence of any system of punctuation, rendered the 288   Gieseler, LeCh rch Hi   Band ii,  bth. ii. p.
task of the public reader a very difficult one. i. In 
I  665; E. T. iii. 495)  On the text of the Greek
five of the books of the 0. T. the parallelism ofTeta nt       Et          h          the
Testament used by Eutfiymius in his work on the
Hebrew poetry had led to a different method of Gses   M     as sme remarks in his Prolegowriting, and the separate clauses or stanzas were Gospe,  l h   s    073-79 rea E. R.
arranged in separate lines (oTlXoC, Greg. Naz.
Carm., 33). Euthalius saw that a similar arrange-  EUTYCHUS (EirTvXos), a young man of Troas,
ment might with advantage be applied to the books who sat in the open window of the third floor
of the N. T.; and in the year 458 he published an while St. Paul was preaching late in the night,
edition of the Pauline epistles with the text divided and who, being overcome by sleep, fell out into
in this way. He also introduced the division into the court below. He was'taken up dead' (OpOVchapters (KcefacXaa) already employed by a writer veKpos); but the Apostle, going down, extended
of the year 396, whom he terms eva rTv oo/wrciTwv himself upon the body and embraced it, like the
Ttv&l Kadl qlXoxploTwv TraTrTpwv. From  the same prophets of old (I Kings xvii. 21; 2 Kings iv. 34);
author he borrowed the summaries of the several and when he felt the signs of returning life, restored
chapters. A prologue on the life and writings of him to his friends, with the assurance that'his life
the Apostle Paul was prefixed to the work. A  was in him.' Before Paul departed in the morning
similar edition of the Acts of the Apostles, and of the youth was brought to him alive and well. It
the Catholic epistles, was subsequently published is disputed whether Eutychus was really dead, or
by Euthalius, and dedicated to Athanasius the only in a swoon; and hence, whether a miracle
younger, who succeeded to the see of Alexandria was performed or not. It is admitted that the
in 490. In the preparation of this work he de- circumstances, and the words of Paul himself,
rived, as he himself acknowledges, some assistance sanction the notion that the young man was not
from a MS. of Pamphilus the martyr, preserved in actually dead; but, on the other hand, it is conthe Library of Csesarea, and Tregelles suggests that tended that the words of the narrator,'taken up
it is not improbable that the stichometrical ar- dead,' are too plain to justify us in receiving them
rangement itself was a part of the Biblical labours in the modified sense of'taken up for dead,' which
of Pamphilus (Horne, Introd., Ioth ed. vol. iv. 27). that interpretation requires (Acts xx. 5-12).-J. K.
The works of Euthalius were published by L. A. EVANGLISTS        (E             Thisterm
EVANGELISTS (Evay~yeXtoral). This term
Zacagni in his Collectanea Monumentorut ve/er **m
Zacagni in his Collectanea Monumenatorunz veterm  is applied in the N. T. to a certain class of Christian
Ecclesze, Ro, 6omaI98 4to; Cave, Hist. Lit. i. teachers who were not fixed to any particular spot,
446; Fabric, Bzil. Gr. vm. 367; Rosenmtiller, but travelled either independently, or under the
Hist. Inters. Lib. Sac. iv. I.-S. N.         direction of one or other of the Apostles, for the
EUTHYMIUS, ZIGABENUS (more correctly purpose of propagating the Gospel. Philip, one
Zygadenus), was one of the most eminent Byzan- of the seven deacons, is termed the Evangelist (Acts
tine theologians of the 12th century, and the last xxi. 8). St. Paul exhorts Timothy'to do the work
of the Greek commentators.  He flourished under of an Evangelist' (2 Tim. iv. 5); and though this
the reign of Alexius Comnenus, about  18, and name is not given to Titus, the injunctions addressed
was monk of a convent dedicated to the Virgin, near to him, and the services he rendered, are so similar
Constantinople. His Commentary on the Psalms as to render the propriety of applying it to him
was published in a Latin Version at Verona in unquestionable.  In the Epistle to the Ephesians
1530, and has been often reprinted. Le Moyne (iv. 11) the EivayyyeXoa-Tis (Evangelists) are exadded a preface and introduction to the Greek  pressly distinguished from the 7rotLuaS &a  6taacText, which was inserted in the fourth volume of KciXovs (astors and teachers). The chief points of
the works of Theophylact, Venice, 1754-63. His difference appear to be that the former were itine



EVANSON                    852             EXECUTIONER
rant, the latter stationary; the former were em- Evil - merodach had contracted with the Jewish
ployed in introducing the Gospel where it was king, when he was himself consigned to prison by
before unknown; the business of the latter was to  Nebuchadnezzar, who, on recovering from his seven
confirm  and instruct the converts statedly and years' monomania, took offence at some part of the
permanently.  Such is the representation given by conduct of his son, by whom the government had
Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. iii. 37). Referring to the in the meantime been administered. This story
state of the church in the time of Trajan, he says, was probably invented to account for the fact.' Many of the disciples of that time, whose souls Evil-merodach is doubtless the same as the Ilvarothe Divine word had inspired with an ardent love dam of Ptolemy's Canon. The duration of his
of philosophy, first fulfilled our Saviour's precept reign is made out variously by chronologers, some
by distributing their substance among the poor. extending it to twenty-four years, others reducing
Then travelling abroad they performed the work it to two or three. Hales, who adopts the last
of Evangelists (9pyov rrerTeXouv EbayyeXto-fTrw), number, identifies him with the king of Babylon
being ambitious to preach Christ, and deliver the who formed a powerful confederacy against the
Scripture of the Divine Gospels. Having laid  Medes, which was broken up, and the king slain
the foundations of the faith in foreign nations, they by Cyrus, then acting for his uncle Cyaxares. But
appointed other pastors (7rotqdsas re KaOLOTaivTS this rests on the authority of Xenophon's Cyropeedia,
rTepovs), to whom they entrusted the cultivation of the historical value of which he estimates far too
the parts they had recently occupied, while they highly. [CYRUs.]
proceeded to other countries and nations.' He   The latter half of the name Evil-merodach is
elsewhere speaks of Pantoenus and others as Evan- that of a Babylonian god. [MERODACH. ] Two
gelists of the Word (EaayyeXt7orca tro X6yoU, Hist. modes of explaining the former part of it have
Eccles. v. Io). In the same writer the term Evan-             S          s a   bre 
gelist is also applied, as at present, to the authorsbeen attempted. Since E1S, as a Hebrew word,
of the canonical gospels (Hist. Eccles. iii. 39). means'foolish,' Simonis proposes to consider it the
(Campbell's Lectures on Ecclesiastical History, vol. derivative of'i[, in the Arabic signification of
i. PP. I48-I50; Neander's History of the Planting''to be first,' affording the sense of'prince of Meofthe Christian Church, Eng. transl., vol. i. p. 173). rodach.' This rests on the assumption that the
-J. E. R.                                     Babylonian language was of Syro-Arabian origin.
EVANSON, EDWARD, was born at Warrington     Gesenius, on the other hand, who does not admit
in Lancashire I73I, educated at Emmanuel Col- that origin, believes that some Indo-Germanic
lege, Cambridge, was ordained and became curate word, of similar sound, but reputable sense, is
to his uncle at Mitcham in Surrey. In 1768 he concealed under evil, and that the Hebrews made
obtained the vicarage of South Mimms, which he some slight perversion in its form to produce a
shortly afterwards exchanged for that of Longdon word of contemptuous signification in Hebrew.
in Worcestershire. He subsequently became rec- [Fiirst suggests Scr. abhila, terrible, as the etymon.]
tor of Tewkesbury, holding this living with Long- EWALD   (WILHELM   ERNST), was bor    at
don.  It was here that he began to entertain  Wachtersbach (Isenburg-BUdingen) in Germany,
doubts on the Trinity and the Incarnation; but           e    se   hs sudies       ir
with his theological aberrations we cannot hereB      remen, and Urec  and graduated at the Unis
occupy ourselves. He claims a place amon Bibli- Bremen, and Utrecht, and graduated at the UniHe claims a place among Bibli  versity of the latter place in 1728 as D.D. He
cal writers solely by his work published in I792, was first elected preacher at the Reformed Church
entitled,' The dissonance of the four generally re- of Altona, subsequently at that of Lehe, near received Evangelists, and the evidence of their authen-  tona, susequenty a  t ht of Lh eath in 
ticity examined.' In this he rejects the Gospels men, where he remained up to his death in 1741.
city theamznedk In this he rejects the Gospels His writings, chiefly consisting of Meditations and
of Matthew,  Mark, and John, the Epistles those osmaller dissertations on theological subjects, are
Romans, Ephesians, Colossians, Hebrews those of rather numerous, but not of an eminent character,
James, Peter, John, and Jude, and the letters to His principal work is-Eblemat Sacr Misce
the Seven Churches. His opinions appear to have  ane, in uibus plrima  eteris ac Nov Testamenti
excited considerable attention in his day, and the laca et antiquitatibus sacris etprofanis explicanlur,
Bampton lectures of S8IO were directed against 3 parts, Lipsiu et Altonaviae, I732-37, 4t. He
them; but his name is almost forgotten now. He also left a hitherto unpublished fragment of a comdied September 25, I805.-S.  L.              also left a hitherto unpublished fragment of a comdied September 25, i8o5.-S. L.           mentary on the N. T. (St. Matthew, and five chapEVE (iln; Sept. ZcOn in Gen. iii. 20, elsewhere ters of St. John).-E. D.
EBa), the name of the first woman. Her history is  EXECUTIONER. In the margin of the A.V.
contained in that of ADAM, which see.         of Gen. xxxvii. 36; Jer. xxxix. 9; Dan. ii. 14, the
EVENING. [DAY.]                            words in,1 U'1'   or'.int. g1, are rendered
EVIL-MERODACH (ECU; $,-; Sept. EvtaX-' chief of the slaughtermen or executioners.' In
-M O  (:]u; S ept. ] aX  the text the rendering is'captain of the guard.'
capwo&K, OvXaft/acacixap), son and successor of Both translations may be said to be correct, for the
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, who, on his word nto means executioner; and the body-guard
accession to the throne (B.C. 562), released the of the king was employed not only to watch his
captive king of Judah, Jehoiachin, from prison, palace and guard his person, but also to execute
treated him with kindness and distinction, and set his (often bloody) mandates; so that the captain of
his throne above the thrones of the other conquered the body-guard would be chief of the executioners.
kings who were detained at Babylon (2 Kings xxv. Another recognised rendering of the words is' chief
27; Jer. lii. 31-34). [BABYLON; DARIUS.] A Jew- marshal' (2 Kings xxv. 8; Jer. xxxix. 9), which is
ish tradition (noticed by Jerome on Is. xiv. 29) less felicitous, for though the provost-marshal of
ascribes this kindness to a personal friendship which an army sustains the office of executioner, it is not




EXILE                    853              EXODUS, TIIE
an office like that designated by the phrase under It pleased their divine conductor, however, not to
notice. In the passages cited, the officer in ques- take this path, lest, being opposed by the Philistion was an officer of the Egyptian or of the tines, the Israelites should turn back at the sight of
Chaldoean court; but an analogous officer seems to  war into Egypt. If, then, Philistia was to be
have been in the service of the kings of Israel (I avoided, the course would lie nearly direct east, or
Kings ii. 25; 2 Kings x. 24. [ARMY.]) Among south-east. Pursuing this route,'the armies' come
the modern Persians, the Nasakshi Bashi, and to Etham, their next station,'in the edge of the
among the Turks the Capidshi Bashi, seem to hold  wilderness' (Exod. xiii. I7, sq.) Here they ensimilar situations.                           camped. Dispatch, however, was desirable. They
In the N. T. the word executioner occurs as the journey day and night, not without divine guidance,
translation of roecKovuXdrwpa in Mark vi. 27. In for'the Lord went before them by day in a pillar
the Roman army the Speculatores were originally  of a cloud, to lead them the way; and by night in
scouts or spies sent before to reconnoitre the a pillar of fire, to give them light; to go by day
ground; but under the emperors a body bearing and night.' This special guidance could not well
this name existed whose special office it was to  have been meant merely to shew the way through
guard the emperor and execute his will (Tac. Hist. the desert; for it can hardly be supposed that in
i. 24, 25; ii. II; Suet. Claud. 35; Galb. 18, etc.) so great a multitude no persons knew the road
As these were often employed to put criminals to  over a country lying near to that in which they and
death (Seneca, De Ira i. 16; Wetstein adloc.), the their ancestors had dwelt, and which did not exname they bore came to denote an executioner, and tend more than some forty miles across. The
was adopted not only into Greek but also into  divine guides were doubtless intended to conduct
Hebrew ('IJUpSo, Lightfoot, Hor. Heb. et Talm., the Israelites in that way and to that spot where
in loc. )-W. L. A.                            the hand of God would be most signally displayed
in their rescue and in the destruction of Pharaoh.
EXILE.    [CAPTIVITY.]'I will be honoured upon Pharaoh and upon all
his host, that the Egyptians may know that I am
EXODUS, THE. The intention of Jehovah to the Lord.' For this purpose Moses is directed of
deliver the Israelites from Egyptian bondage was God to'speak unto the children of Israel, that
made known to Moses from the burning bush at they turn and encamp before Pi-hahiroth, between
Mount Horeb, while he kept the flock of Jethro, Migdol and the sea, over against Baal-zephon;
his father-in-law.  Under the divine direction before it shall ye encamp by the sea: and they did
Moses, in conjunction with Aaron, assembled the so' (Exod. xiv. 2-4). We have already seen reaelders of the nation, and acquainted them with the son to think that the direction of the Israelites was
gracious design of Heaven. After this they had  to the east or south-east; this turning must have
an interview with Pharaoh, and requested permis- been in the latter direction, else they would have
sion for the people to go, in order to hold a feast been carried down towards the land of the Philisunto God in the wilderness. The result was not tines, which they were to avoid. Let the word
only refusal, but the doubling of all the burdens'turn' be marked; it is a strong term, and seems
which the Israelites had previously had to bear. to imply that the line of the march was bent conMoses hereupon, suffering reproach from his peo- siderably towards the south, or the interior of the
pie, consults Jehovah, who assures him that he land. The children of Israel then are now enwould compel Pharaoh' to drive them out of his camped before Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol and
land.'' I will rid you out of their bondage, and I the sea, also'by the sea.' Their position was
will redeem you with a stretched-out arm and with such that they were' entangled in the land, the
great judgments' (Exod. iii.-vi. 6). Then ensue a wilderness hath shut them in.'
series of miracles, commonly called the plagues of  A new scene is now laid open. News is carried
Egypt (Exod. vi.-xii.) [EGYPT, PLAGUES OF.] to Pharaoh which leads him to see that the reason
At last, overcome by the calamities sent upon him, assigned (namely, a sacrifice in the wilderness) is
Pharaoh yielded all that was demanded, saying, but a pretext; that the Israelites had really fled' Rise up, and get you forth from among my peo- from his yoke; and also that, through some (to
pie, both ye and the children of Israel; and go him) unaccountable error, they had gone towards
serve the Lord as ye have said; also. take your the south-east, had reached the sea, and were
flocks and your herds and be gone.' Thus driven hemmed in on all sides. He summons his troops
out, the Israelites, to the number of about 600,000ooo and sets out in pursuit-' all the horses and chariots
adults, besides children, left the land, attended by of Pharaoh, and his horsemen and his army;' and
a mixed multitude, with their flocks and herds, he'overtook them encamping by the sea, beside
even very much cattle (Exod. xii. 31, sq.) Being  Pi-hahiroth, before Baal-zephon' (Exod. xiv. 9).'thrust out' of the country, they had not time to  The Israelites see their pursuing enemy approach,
prepare for themselves suitable provisions, and and are alarmed. Moses assures them of divine
therefore they baked unleavened cakes of the aid. A promise was given as of God that the
dough which they brought forth out of Egypt.  Israelites should go on dry ground through the
On the night of the self-same day which termi- midst of the sea; and that the Egyptians, attemptnated a period of 430 years, during which they had ing the same path, should be destroyed!'and I
been in Egypt, were they led forth from Rameses, will get me honour upon Pharaoh and all his host,
or Goshen [GOSHEN]. They are not said to have upon his chariots and his horsemen' (ver. I7).
crossed the river Nile, whence we may infer that Here a very extraordinary event takes place:'The
Goshen lay on the eastern side of the river. Their angel of God, which went before the camp of
first station was at Succoth (Exod. xii. 37). The Israel, removed and went behind them; and the
nearest way into the land of Promise was through  pillar of the cloud went from before their face and
the land of the Philistines. This route would have stood behind them; and it came between the
required them to keep on in a north-east direction. camp of the Egyptians and the camp of Israel;




EXODUS     THE                854              EXODUS, THE.
and it was a cloud and darkness to them, but it intelligent reader would be led to take, involves, in
gave light by night to these; so that the one came fact, all that is important in the case.  But a disnot near the other all the night' (ver. 19, 20). like of the miraculous has had an influence, and
Then comes the division of the waters which we give erudition has tried to fix the precise spot: whence
in the words of the sacred historian: And Moses have arisen views and theories which are more or
stretched out his hand over the sea, and the Lord less discordant with the Scripture, or are concerned
caused the sea to go back by a strong east wind all with comparative trifles.  So far as aversion to
that night, and made the sea dry land, and the miracle has had an influence in the hypotheses
waters were divided. And the children of Israel which have been given, all we shall remark is, that
went into the midst of the sea upon the dry ground; in a case which is so evidently represented as the
and the waters were a wall unto them on their sphere of miracle, there is but one alternative,right hand and on their left.  And the Egyptians they who do not admit the miracle must reject the
pursued and went in after them to the midst of the narrative; and far better would it be to do so
sea, even all Pharaoh's horses, his chariots, and his frankly than to construct hypotheses which are for
horsemen.'  Delays are now occasioned to the   the most part, if not altogether, purely arbitrary.
Egyptians; their chariot-wheels are supernaturally  A narrative obviously miraculous (in the intention
taken off, so that'in the morning-watch they drave of the writer) can be explained satisfactorily on no
them heavily.' The Egyptians are troubled; they  rationalistic principles: this is not to expound but
urge each other to fly from the face of Israel. to'wrest' the Scriptures; a position which, in our'Then Moses stretched forth his hand over the sea, opinion, has been fully established, in relation to
and the sea returned to his strength when the the Gospels, against the whole of the rationalistic
morning appeared; and the Egyptians fled against school of interpretation.
it; and the Lord overthrew the Egyptians in the  The account now given must, as being derived
midst of the sea. And the waters returned and  immediately from the Scripture, be in the main
covered the chariots and the horsemen and all the host correct. If the authority is denied, this can be
of Pharaoh that came into the sea after them; there  done effectually by no other means than by disprovremained not as much as one of them.  But the ing in general the authority of the books whence it
children of Israel walked upon dry land in the  is derived; and it may with truth be affirmed, that
midst of the sea, and the waters were a wall unto  no view opposed to that given can possess greater
them on their right hand and on their left. And  claims on our credit, while any mere sceptical
Israel saw the Egyptians dead upon the sea-shore; opinion must rest on its own intrinsic probability,
and the people feared the Lord, and believed the  contested, so far as it opposes the Scripture, by
Lord and his servant Moses' (ver. 28-3I).  From  scriptural authority.
the song of triumph which Moses sang upon this   When, however, we descend from generals to
occasion we learn some other particulars, as that particulars, and attempt to ascertain precise locali-' the depths covered Pharaoh's host, they sank to the ties and determine details, diversity of opinion may
bottom as a stone;' language which, whatever de- easily arise, and varying degrees of probability only
duction may be made for its poetic character, im- are likely to attend the investigation. For instance,
plies that the miracle took place in deep water. the immediate spot which Moses proposed to reach,'Thou sentest forth thy wrath which consumed   was, we know, on the Red Sea; but the precise
them as stubble, and with the blast of thy nostrils line which he took depended of course on the
the waters were gathered together, the floods stood  place whence he set out. With difference of
upright as an heap, and the depths were congealed  opinion as to the spot where the Hebrews had their
in the heart of the sea; thou didst blow with thy  rendezvous, there cannot be agreement as to the
wind, the sea covered them; they sank as lead in  route they followed.
the mizhlty waters'-all which would be not poetry,  The position of Goshen, where the Israelites
but bombast, had not the wind been as miraculous were settled, we shall endeavour to fix in another
as any other part of the event, and had not the article.  It is enough here to say, that it was on
sea been large and deep (Exod. xv.; comp. Ps. the eastern side of the Nile, probably in the procvi. 9, sq.)                                   vince of Esh-Shurkiyeh. Rameses was the place
Such is the bearing and import of the sacred  of rendezvous. The direct route thence to the Red
narrative.  If any intelligent reader, knowing  Sea was along the valley of the ancient canal.
nothing of the theories of learned men, were to  By this way the distance was about thirty-five
peruse the account given in Exodus with a map  miles.  From the vicinity of Cairo, however, there
before him, he would, we doubt not, be led to runs a range of hills eastward to the Red Sea, the
conclude that the route of the Israelites lay to- western extremity of which, not far from Cairo, is
wards the south-east, up the Red Sea, and that the named Jebel-Mokattem; the eastern extremity is
spot where they crossed was at a place encircled  termed Jebel-Attaka, which, with its promontory
by mountains on the side of the desert, and fronted  Ras Attaka, runs into the Red Sea. Between the
by deep and impassable waters: he would equally two extremes, somewhere about the middle of the
conclude that the writer in Exodus intended to  range, is an opening which affords a road for cararepresent the rescue as from first to last the work  vans. Two routes offered themselves here. Supof God.  Had the Israelites been at a place which  posing that the actual starting point lay nearer
wxas fordable under any natural influences, Pha- Cairo, the Israelites might strike in from the north
raoh's undertaking was absurd.  He knew that of the range of hills, at the opening just menthey were entangled,-mountains behind and on   tioned, and pursue the ordinary caravan road
either hand, while the deep sea was before them. which leads from Cairo to Suez; or they might
Therefore he felt sure of his prey, and set out in  go southward from Mokattem, through the Wady
pursuit. Nothing but the divine interposition foiled el Tih, that is, the Valley of Wandering, through
and punished him, at the same time redeeming the which also a road, though less used, runs to Suez.
Israelites. And this view, which the unlearned but Accordiing to Niebuhr they took the first, accord



EXODUS, THE                  855              EXODUS, THE
ing to ancient tradition, Father Sicard (Ueber dcr also Ritter, Erdkunde, i. 858).  It cannot be
Weg der Israeliten, Paulus, Samml. v. 211, sq.), denied that this route satisfies all the conditions of
and others, they took the last. Sicard found the case. Equally does the spot correspond with
traces of the Israelites in the valley. He held the miraculous narrative furnished by holy writ.
Rameses to be the starting point, and Rameses he A different route is laid down by Niebuhr (Arab.
placed about six miles from ancient Cairo, where p. 407). Other writers, who, like him, endeavour
Bezatin is now found. Here is a capacious sandy to explain the facts without the aid of miracle,
plain, on which Sicard thinks the Israelites as- imitate his example.
sembled on the morning when they began their   It is no small corroboration of the view now
journey. In this vicinity a plain is still found, given from Sicard and Raumer, that in substance
which the Arabs call the Jews' Cemetery, and it has the support of Josephus, of whose account
where, from an indefinite period, the Jews have we shall, from its importance, give an abridgburied their dead. In the Mokattem chain is a ment.'The Hebrews,' he says (Antiq. ii. I5),
hill, a part of which is called Mejanat Musa,'took their journey by Latopolis, where Babylon'Moses' Station.' On another hill in the vicinity, was built afterwards when Cambyses laid Egypt
ruins are found, which the Arabs name Meravad waste. As they went in haste, on the third day
Musa,'Moses' Delight.'  Thus several things they came to a place called Baal-zephon, on the
seem to carry the mind back to the time of the Red Sea. Moses led them this way in order that
Hebrew legislator.  Through the valley which  the Egyptians might be punished should they
leads from Bezatin (the Valley of Wandering) to venture in pursuit, and also because the Hebrews
the Red Sea, Sicard travelled in three days. He had a quarrel with the Philistines.  When the
reckons the length to be twenty-six hours, which, Egyptians had overtaken the Hebrews they preif we give two miles to each hour (Robinson), pared to fight them, and by their multitude drove
would make the distance fifty-two miles.  This them into a narrow place; for the number that
length is also assigned by Girard (Descrip. Too- went in pursuit was 600 chariots, 50,000 horsemen,
grap. de la Valle& e e'Egarement).  The valley and 200,000 infantry, all armed. They also seized
running pretty much in a plain surface would the passages, shutting the Hebrews up between
afford a convenient passage to the mixed bands of inaccessible precipices and the sea; for there was
Israelites.  About eighteen miles from  Bezatin on each side a ridge of mountains that terminated
you meet with Gendelhy, a plain with a fountain. at the sea, which were impassable, and obstructed
The name signifies a military station, and in this their flight.  Moses, however, prayed to God,
Sicard finds the Succoth (tents) of Exodus, the and smote the sea with his rod, when the waters
first station of Moses. The haste with which they parted, and gave the Israelites free passage. The
left (were driven out) would enable them to reach  Egyptians at first supposed them distracted; but
this place at nightfall of their first day's march. when they saw the Israelites proceed in safety, they
Sicard places their second station, Etham, in the followed. As soon as the entire Egyptian army
plain Ramliyeh, eighteen miles from  Gendelhy was in the channel, the sea closed, and the purand sixteen from the sea.  From this plain is a suers perished amid torrents of rain and the most
pass, four miles in length, so narrow that not more terrific thunder and lightning.'
than twenty men can go abreast. To avoid this,  The opposition to the scriptural account has
which would have caused dangerous delay, the been of two kinds.    Some writers (Wolfenb.
order was given to turn (Exod. xiv. 2). Etham  Fragm. p. 64, sq.) have at once declared the
is said (Exod. xiii. 20) to be on the edge of the whole fabulous; a course which appears to have
wilderness. Jablonski says the word. means ter- been taken as early as the time of Josephus
minus maris, the termination or boundary of the  (Antiq. ii. I6. 5). Others have striven to explain
sea. Now, in the plain where Sicard fixes Etham  the facts by the aid of mere natural causes; for
(not to be confounded with the Eastern Etham, which see Winer, HandwEorterbuch, art. Meer
through which afterwards the Israelites travelled  Rothes. A third mode of explanation is pursued
three days, Num. xxxiii. 8), is the spot where the by those who do not deny miracles as such, and
waters divide which run to the Nile and to the yet, with no small inconsistency, seek to reduce
Gulf of Suez, and Etham is therefore truly ter- this particular miracle to the smallest dimensions.
minus maris. Here the Israelites received com- Writers who see in the deliverance of the Hebrews
mand to turn and encamp (Exod. xiv. 2) before the hand of God and the fulfilment of the divine
Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea, over purposes, follow the account in Scripture implicitly,
against Baal-zephon. Pi-hahiroth (the mouth of placing the passage at Ras Attaka, at the terminathe hiding-places), Sicard identifies with Thuarek  tion of the Valley of Wandering; others, who go
(small caves), which is the name still given to on rationalistic principles, find the sea here too
three or four salt springs of the plain Baideah, wide and too deep for their purpose, and endeaon the south side of Mount Attaka, which last vour to fix the passage a little to the south or the
Sicard identifies with Baal-zephon, and which is north of Suez.
the northern boundary of the plain Baideah, while  The most recent advocate of the passage at or
Kuiabeh (Migdol) is its southern limit. The pass near Suez is the learned Dr. Robinson (Biblical
which leads to Suez, between Attaka and the Researches in Palestine), from whom we hesitate
sea, is very narrow, and could be easily stopped  to differ, and should hesitate still more, did not
by the Egyptians.  In this plain of Baideah, his remarks bear obvious traces of being, however
Pharaoh had the Israelites hemmed in on all sides. the author may be ignorant of the fact, influenced,
This then, according to all appearance, is the if not dictated, by some foregone conclusion and
spot where the passage through the sea was certain rationalistic habits of mind. While, howeffected. Such is the judgment of Sicard and of ever, we pay every proper tribute of respect to
Raumer (Der Zug der Israeliten, Leipzig, 1837; Dr. Robinson's learning and diligence, we must
for a description of the Valley of Wandering see prefer the authority of Scripture and the obvious




EXODUS, THE                  856              EXODUS, THE
facts of the case to all other considerations. The action of the flood. Of these causes, the last, the
route taken by Moses was, according to Robinson, change of wind, is, as we have seen, a gratuitous
from Rameses to the head of the Arabian Gulf, assumption.  From'north-east wind' we must
through Succoth, to Etham. The last place he strike out'north,' as being another gratuitous
fixes on the edge of the desert, on the eastern side assumption-it is'a strong east wind' of which
of the line of the gulf. Instead of passing down  Moses speaks. An east wind, however, would by
the eastern side, at the top of which they were, no means effect the purposes needful for Dr. Robinthe Israelites thence marched down the western son's hypothesis. Of his remaining causes, the
side of the arm of the gulf, stopping in the vicinity ebb and flood tide, enough has already been said;
of Suez, where the passage was effected.     and, so far as an east wind, acting naturally,
This view represents Moses as having actually would have an effect, it would drive the waters
conducted his people first out of all danger, and upon the shallows, which Dr. Robinson wants
then led them at once into it, by placing the gulf dry. But we much question whether his assumed
between them and safety. Such a proceeding ill'north-east wind' would cause what he requires.
became a prudent leader, having to do with a It would, he alleges,'have the effect to drive out
self-willed and stiff-necked band. But the chief the waters from the small arm of the sea which
objection to this representation of the route is, that runs up by Suez, and also from the end of the gulf
it does not answer to what Scripture requires; for itself, leaving the shallower portions dry, while the
in Exod. xiii. I8, we are told that'God led the more northern part of the arm, which was anciently
people about thzrough the wilderness of the Red Sea.' broader and deeper than at present, would still
How, according to Robinson, did he'lead them  remain covered with water.  Thus the waters
about,' especially' throzugh the wilderness of the Red would be divided, and be a wall to the Israelites
Sea,' which they must merely have touched upon?  on the right hand and on the left.' We desire the
The passage Robinson thinks took place'across reader to consult the map appended to. Dr. Robinshoals adjacent to Suez on the south and south- son's first volume. While considering the hypowest,''where the broad shoals are still left bare thesis in question, he must remember that the
at the ebb, and the channel is sometimes forded,' action of ebb and flood tide rests on no better'a distance of three or four miles from shore to ground than an assumption; the Scripture says
shore;' or'it might have been effected through  nothing thereof. Now a wind setting in at the
the arm of the gulf above Suez.' A simple refer- head of the gulf would commence its influence of
ence to the language of Scripture previously cited course at the end of the arm which runs up to the
confutes this supposition; for where, in or near east of Suez, and would, so far as it acted, bear
this place, are the deep waters of which Moses down the waters from the top towards the very
speaks?  Besides, is it for a moment to be sup- place which the hypothesis requires to be dry,
posed that Pharaoh was not well acquainted with namely, the head of the gulf, thus covering the
the tides of a sea which lay so near his capital? shallows.  But if, to avoid this difficulty, Dr.
and would he have been so infatuated as to remain  Robinson fixes the passage in the arm itself, then
quietly in his position (for the Scripture shews that how could a wind, acting on the waters in the arm,
the two armies were some time in sight of each'divide' them?  Drive them out, scatter them to
other) until the Israelites had availed themselves some extent, it might, but surely not divide them.
of the ebb, and then, when the flood came, quietly Nor does Dr. Robinson secure by his other supgo into the sea and be destroyed?  In order to position, namely, the passage over the shallows,
help out his hypothesis, conscious, apparently, that such a division as the Scripture requires. Supposthe body of water here was insufficient, Dr. Robin- ing the effect which he contemplates to be produced,
son advances a supposition (but for suppositions then there would be on the north. side of the
his view would look as groundless as it really is), shallows so much of the sea as'the wind had left
namely, that with the flood-tide the wind was in the arm, and so much of the sea as lingered
changed.  But a perusal of his scriptural refer- under its driving impulse on the south side of the
ence (Exod. xv. 8-Io) shews that this alleged shallows. With this in his mind let the reader
change is without evidence-a pure supposition: peruse the scriptural account,'the waters were a
the language in the 8th verse has respect to the wall to them on the right hand and on the left.'
wind which divided the sea; and the language By Dr. Robinson's account there was no wall at
in the Ioth verse in no way implies any change all, but such a state of the sea and land as would
of direction whatever; the same wind, in the hand render the choice of the language employed by
of God, could both divide and close the sea.  Moses most inappropriate. In truth, however, the
The great question, however, is the cause or east wind of which Moses speaks was precisely
instrument employed in securing the Israelites a the influence to bring about the effect which he
passage on dry ground, and overwhelming the alleges to have taken place. Acting on the sea
Egyptians. On this point we complain of a want at a right angle it would literally divide the
of explicitness in Dr. Robinson.  He does not waters, causing the mid-way to be dry, and a
deny a miracle, but blends together the miracu- wall to stand on either side. Such obviously is
lous and the natural, so as to confuse his own the view which Moses intended to give. In enand his reader's mind.'It (the miracle) was deavouring to define and estimate the action of
wrought by natural means supernaturally applied.' this east wind, however, it must be borne in mind
A north-east wind was brought of God to act on that the Scripture represents the entire affair as
the water as the sea was ebbing, which gave a miraculous. It was from first to last Ithe hand
dry passage to the Israelites. We are therefore of the Lord,'-the east wind and its action, as'to look only for the natural efects arising from  much as the collapse of the sea. The east wind,
the operation of such a cause.' The sole causes indeed, is also termed'the blast of thy nostrils;'
then in the case were a north-east wind, the ebb- and so'thou didst blow with thy wind, the sea
tide, the flood, and a change of wind to aid the covered them.'




EXODUS, THE                   857                 EXODUS
The miraculous character of the transaction, as for the army of Israel, encumbered with infants
affirmed in Scripture, takes all point from  the and aged people, as well as with flocks, to pass
question of time, which Dr. Robinson says is fatal over (near Suez) in the face of their enemies'
to the alternative hypothesis, namely, that the  (i. 346). Besides, the peculiarities of the place
Israelites crossed from Wady Tawarik; since there must have had a tendency to disguise the character
is no occasion, in order to sustain the narrative of and impair the effect of the miracle. The passage
Moses, to calculate whether the interval between made at the intervention of Moses was kept open
the ebb and the flow of the tide afforded sufficient all night. The Egyptians followed the Hebrews
time for the Israelites to cross the bed of the sea, to the midst of the sea, when the sea engulphed
a distance of twelve geographical miles.  The them.'The entire night seems to have been conpassage did not depend on ebb or flow. It was sumed in the passage. It is hardly credible that
not a question of mere time. The right hand of so much time should have been consumed in crossthe Lord was at work.                         ing near Suez, to accomplish which one or two
It appears then very clear, by comparing Dr. hours would have been sufficient.'' Nor is it conRobinson with Moses and with facts, that his ceivable that the large army of the Egyptians' extraordinary ebb, brought about by natural should have been at once within the banks of so
means,' could not have produced such a state of narrow a channel.  The more advanced troops
things as he supposes, still less such a state of would have reached the opposite shore before the
things as the miracle requires. The only resource rear had entered the sea; and yet we know that
is to deny the miracle, and disown the entire ac- all Pharaoh's chariots and horsemen followed to
count. If this bold course is declined, then the the midst of the sea, and, together with all the
passage at Suez or across the arm must be given host that came in after them, were covered with
up in favour of one lying far more to the south.  the returning waves' (i. 348).  Preferring the
These strictures on Dr. Robinson's hypothesis position at Ras Attaka, Olin states that the gulf is
are in no way prompted by any previous leaning here ten or twelve miles wide.'The valley exto a preference in favour of the passage at Ras pands into a considerable plain, bounded by lofty
Attaka, for they were penned exclusively under precipitous mountains on the right and left, and by
the influence of the scriptural narrative.  And if the sea in front, and is sufficiently ample to accomauthority is needed as against one who has been on modate the vast number of human beings who comthe spot, what has already been given from Sicard posed the two armies.'' An east wind would act
might be deemed sufficient, especially when it so almost directly across the gulf. It would be unable
obviously agrees with the tenor of the accounts to co-operate with an ebb tide in removing the
found in Exodus and in Josephus.   But other waters-no objection certainly if we admit the
witnesses are not wanting.  Mr. Blumhardt, in his exercise of God's miraculous agency;' but a very
missionary visit to Abyssinia, passed through Suez great impediment in the way of any rationalistic
(Oct. 1836, see Chzirch /sissioznary Record, No. I, hypothesis.'The channel is wide enough to alJan. I838), and furnishes some remarks on the low of the movements described by Moses, and
subject.' The Red Sea at Suez is exceedingly the time, which embraced an entire night, was
narrow, and in my opinion it cannot be that the sufficient for the convenient march of a large army
Israelites here experienced the power and love of over such a distance.'' The opinion which fixes
God in their passage through the Red Sea. The the point of transit in the valley or wady south of
breadth of the sea is at present scarcely a quarter Mount Attaka derives confirmation from the names
of an hour by Suez. Now if this be the part which  still attached to the principal objects in this localthey crossed, how is it possible that all the army ity. Upon this point I acknowledge my obligaof Pharaoh, with his chariots, could have been  tions to the Rev. Mr. Leider, of Cairo, who has
drowned?   I am rather inclined to believe that spent more than ten years in Egypt, is familiar
the Israelites experienced that wonderful deliver- with the Arabic language, and has devoted much
ance about thirty miles lower down. This opinion | attention to this vexed question.  He recently
is also strengthened bymost of the Eastern churches, spent several days in this neighbourhood in making
and the Arabs, who believe that the Israelites investigations and inquiries in reference to the pasreached the opposite shore at a place called Gebel sage of the Israelites. Jebel Attaka, according to
Pharaon, which on that account has received this Mr. Leider, who only confirms the statements of
name. If we accept this opinion, it agrees very former travellers, means in the language of the
well with the Scripture.' Still more important is Arabs'the Mount of Deliverance.' Baideah or
the evidence of Dr. Olin (Travels in the.East, New  Bedeah, the name of this part of the valley, means
York, I843). Many of his remarks we have anti-'the Miraculous,' while Wady el Tih means'the
cipated in our observations on Robinson.  Dr. Valley of Wanderings.' Pi-hahiroth, where Moses
Olin, however, agrees with Robinson in fixing  was commanded to encamp, is rendered by scholars
Etham'on the border of the wilderness which'the mouth of Hahiroth,' which answers well to
stretches along the eastern shore of the arm of the the deep gorge south of Attaka, but not at all to
sea which runs up above Suez.' At this point he the broad plain about Suez' (i. 350).
says the Hebrews were commanded to turn. They   Other parts of the line of march pursued by the
turned directly southward and marched to an ex- Israelites will be found treated of under the heads
posed position, hemmed in completely by the sea, MANNA, SINAI, WANDERING.-J. R. B.
the desert, and Mount Attaka. A false confidence
was thus excited in Pharaoh, and the deliverance  EXODUS (Gr. "Eoaos, in the Hebrew canon
was made the more signal and the more impressive          the second boo  of Moses so called
alike to the Israelites and to Egypt. Admitting           the second book of Moses so called
the possibility that the sea at Suez may have been from the principal event recorded in it, namely,
wider and deeper than it is now, Olin remarks,'it the departure of the Israelites from Egypt. With
must still have been very difficult, if not impossible, this book begins the proper history of that people,




EXODUS                     858                  EXODUS
continuing it until their arrival at Sinai, and the  all, but. only the remarkable resting-places are
erection of the sanctuary there.  It transports us mentioned, where Jehovah took special care of his
in the first instance to Egypt, and the quarter in  people. In the account (xviii.) of the civil regulawhich the Israelites were domiciled in that country. tions framed by the advice of Jethro, a strong line
We do not find in the Pentateuch a real history of of demarcation is drawn between the changeable
the people of Israel during this period. Such a institutions of man and the divine legislation which
history, in the more strict acceptation of the term, began then to be established, and which thencehas no place in an historical sketch of the kingdom  forth claims by far the greatest part of the work.
of God, where the mere description of the situation  At the commencement of the legislation is a brief
and condition of the people is all that is requisite. summary of the laws, with the decalogue at their
From that description we learn satisfactorily how  head (xix. -xxiii.) The decalogue is the true fundathe people of the Lord were negatively prepared  mental law, bearing within itself the germ of the
for the great object which God had decreed with  entire legislation.  The other legal definitions are
regard to them. This is the important theme of only further developments of the decalogue. These
the history of the Pentateuch during the whole  definitions manifest the power and extent of the
long period of four hundred years. Exodus is law itself, shewing what an abundance of new reguvery circumstantial in its account of the life of lations result from the simple and few words of the
Moses, which, instead of partaking of the character decalogue.  Upon this basis the covenant is conof usual biography, manifests in all its details a de- cluded with the Israelites, in which God reveals
cided aim of evincing how, by the miraculous dis- himself in agreement with the understanding and
pensation of the Lord, Moses had been even from  the exigencies of the people. Not until this covehis earliest years prepared and reared to become nant was completed did it become possible for the
the chosen instrument of God. In this book is de- Israelites to enter into a communion with God,
veloped, with particular clearness, the summons of confirmed and consecrated by laws and offerings,
Moses to his sacred office, which concludes the first and thereby to receive further revelations from him
important section of his life (Exod. i.-vi.)  No  (ch. xxiv.)  Whatsoever after this, in the twentyhuman choice and no self-will, but an immediate fifth and in the following chapters, is communicated
call from Jehovah alone, could decide in so im- to the people, concerns the dwelling of God in the
portant an affair. Jehovah reveals himself to him  midst of Israel. By this dwelling of God among
by his covenant-name (rP1P), and vouchsafes him  Israel it is intended to shew, that the communion
the power to work miracles such as no man before is permanent on the part of God, and that on the
him had ever wrought. It was not the natural dis- part of the people it is possible to persevere in composition and bent of his mind that induced Moses munion with God. Consequently there follows the
to accept the office, but solely his submission to  description of the sanctuary, the character of which
the express will of God, his OBEDIENCE alone, that is symbolical.  The sacred symbols are, however,
influenced him, the LAWGIVER, to undertake the not so much expressed in formal declarations, as
mission. The external relation of Moses to his contained in the whole tenor of the descriptions.
people is also clearly defined (comp. ex. gr. Exod. The symbolics begin with the central point, the holy
vi. I4, sq.) This furnishes the firm basis on which  of holies, which unites in itself the impeaching law
is founded his own as well as Aaron's personal au- and the redeeming symbol of divine mercy, and
thority, and the respect for his permanent regula- thus sets forth the reconciliation of God with the
tions. A new section (vii.-xv.) then gives a very  people.  This is followed by the description of
detailed account of the manner in which the Lord  the sanctuary, representing those blessings which
glorified himself in Israel, and released the people through the holy of holies were communicated to
fiom the land of bondage.  This forms a turning- the subjects of the theocracy, and serving as a
point in the narrative-with it begins the real his- perpetual monument of Israel's exalted destiny,
tory of the people of God.  Every day affords here pointing at the same time to the means of attaining
an eternal demonstration of divine grace, justice, it. Last comes the description of the fore-court,
and majesty.  The relation of the theocracy to  symbolising the participation of the people in those
heathenism, the representative of which is Egypt, blessings, and their sanctified approach to the
is here illustrated by facts. The history contained  Lord.  The description then proceeds from the
in Exodus may very fairly be described as the his- sanctuary to the persons officiating in it, the priests,
tory of the triumph of Israel, or rather of Israel's God, characterized both by their various costumes (xxviii.),
over the heathen power, which appears here in its and the manner of their inauguration (xxix.) Then
innermost spirit of revolt against God. The world follows, as' a matter of course, the description of
is conquered progressively and with increased force; the service in that sanctuary and by those priests,
and the passover manifests on the one hand the but merely in its fundamental features, confining itannihilation of worldly power, while on the other self simply to the burnt and incense offerings, indihand it is the celebration of the birth-day of the  cating by the former the preparatory inferior service,
people of God.  This section of the history then  and by the latter the complete and higher office ol
concludes with a triumphal song, celebrating the the sacerdotal function. But, by contributing to
victory of Israel. In ch. xvi. -xviii. we find the in- the means of establishing public worship, the whole
troduction to the second principal part of this nation shares in it; and therefore the description
book, in which is sketched the manifestation of of the officiating persons very properly concludes
God in the midst of Israel, as well as the promul- with the people (xxx.) As a suitable sequel to the
gation of the law itself, in its original and funda- former follows the description of the use and nature
mental features.  This preparatory section thus of the implements requisite for the service of the
furnishes us with additional proof of the special priests, such as the brass laver for sacred ablutions,
care of God for his people; how he provided their the preparation of the perfume and anointing oil
food and water, and how he protected them from  (xxx. I7-38). These regulations being made, men
the assaults of their foes. In. ch. xv. 22, sq., not endowed with the Spirit of God were also to be




EXODUS                     859                   EXODUS
appointed for making the sacred tabernacle and all and describes their cliaracter.  The least attention,
its furniture (xxxi. I-II).  The description of the  however, to the preceding genealogy, and the desanctuary, priesthood, and mode of worship, is scriptive style of the Pentateuch in general, must
next followed by that of the sacred times and   soon convince them  that even a contemporary
periods (xxxi. 12, sq.)  Of the sacred times there is writer might have spoken in the way which Moses
here only appointed the Sabbath, in which the   does in these passages.
other regulations are contained as in their germ.  For neological criticism it was of the utmost imGod having delivered to Moses the tables of the  portance to stamp this book as a later production,
law, the construction and arrangement of the taber- the miracles contained in its first part but too
nacle might thus at once have been begun, had its manifestly clashing with the principles in which
further progress not been interrupted by an act of that criticism takes its starting-point. Its votaries
idolatry on the part of the people, and their pun- therefore have endeavoured to shew that those
ishment for that offence, which form the subject miracles were but mythological fictions which had
of the narrative in ch. xxxii.-xxxiv.  Contrary and  been gradually developed in process of time, so
in opposition to all that had been done by Jehovah  that the very composition of the book itself must
for and in the presence of Israel, the subjective for- necessarily have beef of a later date. Neither do
midable apostacy of the latter manifests itself in a we wonder at such attempts and efforts, since the
most melancholy manner, as an ominously signifi- very essence and central point of the accounts of
cant prophetic fact, which is incessantly repeated in the miracles given in that book are altogether at
the history of subsequent generations.  The narra- variance with the principles of rationalism and its
tive of it is therefore closely connected with the  criticism, which can by no means admit the rise
foregoing accounts-Jehovah's mercy and gracious and formation of a people under such miraculous
faithfulness on the one hand, and Israel's barefaced  circumstances, such peculiar belief, and, in a reliingratitude on the other, being intimately con- gious point of view, such an independent existnected.  This connection forms the leading idea  ence, at the side of all the other nations of antiof the whole history of the theocracy. It is not till quity. Indeed, the spiritual substance of the whole,
after the narrative of this momentous event that the divine idea which pervades and combines all
the account of the construction and completion of its details, is in itself such a miracle, such a pecuthe tabernacle can proceed (xxxv.-xl.), which ac- liar and wondrous phenomenon, as to lend natural
count becomes more circumstantial in proportion as support and undeniable confirmation to the isothe subject itself is of greater importance.  Above  lated and physical wonders themselves; so that it
all, it is faithfully shewn that all was done accord- is impossible to deny the latter without creating a
ing to the commands of Jehovah.                 second and new wonder, an unnatural course in
In the descriptive history of Exodus a fixed plan, the Jewish history.  Nor is that part of the book
in conformity with the principles above stated, is which contains the miracles deficient in numerous
consistently and visibly carried through the whole historical proofs in verification of them. As the
of the book, thus giving us the surest guarantee for events of this history are laid in Egypt and Arabia,
the unity of both the book and its author. In vain  we have ample opportunity of testing the accuracy
have several modern critics attempted to discover of the Mosaical accounts, and surely we find nohere also sundry sources and manifold original where the least transgression against Egyptian indocuments, or even fragments, but loosely connected  stitutions and customs; on the contrary, it is most
with each other (comp. ex. gr. De Wette, Introd. evident that the author had a thorough knowledge
to the 0. 7T, sec. I5I).  Such an assumption    of the Egyptian institutions and the spirit that perproves in this case in particular to be nothing more vaded them.  Exodus contains a mass of incidents
than a last resource of argument against the Mosaical and detailed descriptions which have gained new
composition of the book. De Wette has of late force from the modern discoveries -and researches
been induced, in favour of this hypothesis, to de- in the field of Egyptian antiquities (comp. Hengclare that in some portions of Exodus the source is stenberg, Die Buches Mosis uzd Egptyi enz, Berlin,
uncertain, and that there took place a mixture of I84I). The description of the passage of the Israelboth sources, the Mosaical and the non-Mosaical ites through the desert also evinces such a thorough
(comp. PENTATEUCH). Nor are other modern       familiarity with the localities as to excite the utmost
critics more successful in their attempts to shew in respect of scrupulous and scientific travellers of
this book traces of a post-Mosaical origin. Among  our own time for the authenticity of the Pentateuch
the passages quoted in support of that assertion is (comp. ex. gr. Raumer, Der Zug der Isr-aeliten ais
xxiii. 9, the law contained in which seems to imply'E/gypten nach Cnanaan Leipz. 1837). Nor is the
a later state of the people during their settled  passover-festival, its rise and nature, less confirmabode in Palestine.  Regulations about strangers atory of the incidents connected with it, if we
were, however, of importance during their abode have not recourse to the desperate expedient-as
in the desert, especially since a number of Egyp- rationalistic criticism really does-of ascribing to
tians had joined the Israelites, and stood to them  that festival a quite different signification originally,
in the relation of strangers. Chap. xvi. 36, also, namely, a purely physical one, an opinion which
is quoted in favour of the above opinion, because brings its advocates in conflict with the whole of
the onzer is designated therein as the tenth part the Israelitish history. The arrangements of the
of an ephzah, implying that changes had in later tabernacle, described in the second part of Exodus,
times been made in the Hebrew measures. But likewise throw a favourable light on the historical
they forget that the Hebrew word'1I) does not I authenticity of the preceding events; and the least
at all indicate a definite measure, but merely a tenable of all the objections against it are, that the
vessel, the size of which it was therefore necessary  architectural arrangements of the tabernacle were
to specify by giving its exact measurement. In  too artificial, and the materials and richness too
vi. 26, 27, also, they think they recognise the hand  costly and precious for the condition and position
of a later author, who refers to Moses and Aaron, I of the Jews at that early period. etc. But the




EXORCIST                   860                EXORCIST
critics seem to have overlooked the fact that the cations, ceremonies, and other observances. InIsraelites of that period were a people who had  deed, the various forms of exorcism, alluded to in
come out from Egypt, a people possessing wealth, authors of all nations, are innumerable, varying
Egyptian culture and arts, which we admire even from the bloody human sacrifice down to the fumes
now  in the works which have descended to of brimstone, etc. etc. The power of expelling
us from ancient Egypt; so that it cannot seem  demons Josephus places among the endowments
strange to see the Hebrews in possession of the of Solomon, and relates that he left behzid him.
materials or artistical knowledge requisite for the the manner of using exorcisms by which they drive
construction of the tabernacle.  Moreover, the away demons (for the pretended fragments of these
establishment of a TENT as a sanctuary for the He- books see Fabric. Cod. Pseud. Vet, Test. p. 1054).
brews can only be explained from their abode in  He declares that he had seen a man, named Eleathe desert, being in perfect unison with their then zar, releasing people that were demoniacal, in the
loving and nomadic life; and it is therefore a de- presence of Vespasian, his sons, captains, and the
cided mistake in those critics who give to the whole multitude of his soldiers. He describes the
sacred tent a later date than the Mosaical; while manner of cure thus:' He put a ring that had a
other critics (such as De Wette, Von Bohlen, Vatke) root of one of those sorts mentioned by Solomon
proceed much more consistently with their views, to the nostrils of the demoniac; after which he
by considering the narrative of the construction drew out the demon through his nostrils, and when
of a sacred tabernacle to be a mere fiction in the man fell down he adjured him to return no
Exodus, introduced for the purpose of ascribing more, making still mention of Solomon and recitto the temple of Solomon a higher antiquity and ing the incantations he composed.' He further
authority.  However, independently of the cir- adds, that when Eleazar would persuade and decumstance that the temple necessarily presupposes monstrate to the spectators that he had such a
the existence of a far older analogous sanctuary, power, he set a cup or basin full of water a little
the whole process of such a forced hypothesis is way off, and commanded the demon as he went
but calculated to strike out a portion from the out of the man to overturn it, and thereby to
Jewish history on purely arbitrary grounds. The let the spectators know he had left the man
extremely simple and sober style and views through- (Anti. viii. 2. 5). He also describes the mode of
out the whole narrative afford a sure guarantee for obtaining the root Baaras, which, he says,'if
its authenticity and originality. Not a vestige of a it be only brought to sick persons, it quickly
poetical hand can be discovered in Exod. xviii.; drives away the demons,' under circumstances
not even the most sceptical critics can deny that which, for their strangeness, may vie with any
we tread here on purely historical ground. The prescription in the whole science of exorcism (De
same may fairly be maintained of ch. xx.-xxiii. Bell. ud. vii. 6. 3). Among all the references
How is it then possible that one and the same to exorcism, as practised by the Jews, in the
book should contain so strange a mixture of truth  N. T. (Matt. xii. 27; Mark ix. 38; Luke ix.
and fiction as its opponents assert to be found in 49, 5o), we find only one instance which affords
it?  The most striking proofs against such an any clue to the means employed (Acts xix. 13);
assumption are, in particular, the accounts, such from which passage it appears that certain proas in Exod. xxxii. sq., where the most vehement fessed exorcists took upon them to call over a
complaints are made against the Israelites, where demoniac the name of the Lord Jesus, saying,
the high-priest of the covenant-people participates'We adjure you by Jesus whom Paul preacheth.'
most shamefully in the idolatry of his people. All Their proceeding seems to have been in conformity
these incidents are described in plain and clear with the well-known opinions of the Jews in those
terms, without the least vestige of later embellish- days, that miracles might be wrought by invoking
ments and false extolling of former ages. The the names of the Deity, or angels, or patriarchs,
whole representation indicates the strictest imparti- etc., as we learn from Justin Martyr, Irenseus, Oriality and truth. On the literature of Exodus, see gen, etc., and Lucian (Frag. p. I4I). The epithet
PENTATEUCH.-H. A. C. H.                      applied to these exorcists (7reptepXocvwC, Vulg. de
circumeuntibus yudaeis) indicates that they were
EXORCIST (JeopKtC-rTs, Acts xix. I3). The travelling mountebanks, who, beside skill in medibelief in demoniacal possessions, which may be cine, pretended to the knowledge of magic. It
traced in almost every nation, has always been is evident that the opinion we form of exorcism
attended by the professed ability, on the part of will be materially affected by our views of desome individuals, to release the unhappy victims moniacal possessions [DEMON]. The neutral course
from their calamity. In Greece men of no less dis- we have pursued in regard to both these subtinction than both Epicurus (Diog. Laer. x. 4) and jects will be completed upon observing, that the
AEschines, were sons of women who lived by this office of the exorcist is not mentioned by Paul in
art; and both were bitterly reproached, the one by his enumeration of the miraculous gifts (I Cor.
the Stoics, and the other by his great rival orator xii. 9), though it was a power which he possessed
Demosthenes (De Cor., sec. 79), for having assisted himself, and which the Saviour had promised
their parents in these practices. The allusions to (Mark xvi. 17; Matt. x. 8). Mosheim says that
the practice of exorcism among the Jews, con- the particular order of exorcists did not exist till
tained both in their own authors and in the N. T., the close of the third century, and he ascribes its
are too well known to render quotations necessary. introduction to the prevalent fancies of the GnosIn some instances this power was considered as a tics (Cen. iii. II, c. 4). Fairness also induces us
divine gift; in others it was thought to be acquired to notice Jahn's remark upon the silence of St. soh/z
by investigations into the nature of demons and his.elf, in his Gospel, on the subject of possesthe qualities of natural productions, as herbs, sions, although he introduces the _eovs as speaking
stones, etc., and of drugs compounded of them; in the customary way respecting demons and
by the use of certain forms of adjurations, invo- demoniacal possessions, and although he often




EXPIATION                    861                    EYE
speaks of the sick who were healed by the Saviour; to be so or so in his individual judgment or
coupled with the fact that John wrote his Gospel opinion; and is equivalent to'seeming' or'apin Asia Minor, where medical science was very  pearing' (Gen. xix. 8; xxix. 20; 2 Sam. x. 3).
flourishing, and where it was generally known that'To set the eyes' upon any one, is usually to
the diseases attributed to demons were merely regard him with favour (Gen. xliv. 2I; Job xxiv.
natural diseases (Jahn, Archiol., large German ed. 23; Jer. xxxix. 12); but it occurs in a bad sense,
pt. i. vol. ii. 232, pp. 477-480; see also Lomeierus, as of looking with anger, in Amos ix. 8. But
De Vet. Gent. Lustra.; Bekker, Le Monde en- anger is more usually expressed by the contrary
chantei; Whitby's note on Matt. xii. 27).-     action of turning the eyes away.
J. F. D.                                         As many of the passions, such as envy, pride,
EXPIATION.      [ATONEMENT; SACRIFICE.]     pity, desire, are expressed by the eye; so, in the
Scriptural style, they are often ascribed to that
EXPIATION, DAY OF. [ATONEMENT, DAY           organ. Hence such phrases as'evil eye' (Matt.
OF.]                                           xx. 15);'bountiful eye' (Prov. xxii. 9);'haughty
EYE  In most languages t          eyes' (Prov. vi. 17);'wanton eyes' (Is. iii. i6);
eyes full of adultery' (2 Pet. ii. 14);'the lust of
organ is used by figurative application, as the sym- the eyes' (I John ii. I6). This last phrase is apbol of a large number of objects and ideas. In  plied by some to lasciviousness, by others to covethe East such applications of the word'eye' have  tousness; but it is best to take the expression in
always been uncommonly numerous; and they      the most extensive sense, as denoting a craving for
were so among the Hebrews. It may be service- the gay vanities of this life (comp. Ezek. xxiv. 25).
able to distinguish the following uses of the word, In the same chapter of Ezekiel (ver. 16),' the defew of which are common in this country, unless so  sire of thy eyes' is put not for the prophet's wife
far as they have become so through the translation  directly, as often understood, but whatever is one's
of the Bible.                                  greatest solace and delight; which in this case was
I. A fountain. This use of the word has already  the prophet's wife-but which in another case
been indicated [AIN].   It probably originated  might have been something else.
from the eye being regarded as the fountain of   In Zech. iv. Io, the angels of the Lord are called
tears.'his eyes,' as being the executioners of his judg2. Colour, as in the phrase'and the eye (colour) ments, and watching and attending for his glory.
of the manna was as the eye (colour) of bdellium' From some such association of ideas, the favourite
(Num. xi. 7). This originated perhaps in the eye ministers of state in the Persian monarchy were
being the part of the body which exhibits different called'the king's eyes.' So, in Num. x. 31,'to
colours in different persons.                  be instead of eyes' is equivalent to being a prince,
3. The surface, as'the surface (eye) of the to rule and guide the people. This occurs also in
land' (Exod. x. 5, I5; Num. xxii. 5,  I): the the Greek poets, as in Pindar (Olymp. ii. Io),
last is the passage which affords most sanction to  where'the eye of Sicilia' is given as a title to
the notion that pW ain means in some places'face.' some of the chief men in Sicily, shewing his power.
This is the sense which our own and other versions In like manner, in the same poet,'the eye of the
give to'eye to eye' (Num. xiv. 14, etc.), translated  army' stands for a good commander (Olymp. vi.'face to face.' The phrases are indeed equivalent i6).
in meaning; but we are not thence to conclude    The expression in Psalm cxxiii. 2,' As the eyes
that the Hebrews meant'face' when they said   of servants look unto the hand of their masters,''eye,' but that they chose the opposition of the has suggested a number of curious illustrations from
eyes, instead of that of the faces, to express the  Oriental history and customs, tending to shew that
general meaning. Hence, therefore, we may ob- masters, especially when in the presence of others,
ject to the extension of the signification in such pas- are in the habit of communicating to their servants
sages as I Sam. xvi. 12, where'beautiful eyes,' il'  orders and intimations by certain motions of their
V.4S., is rendered'beautiful countenance.'    hands, which, although scarcely noticeable by
4. It is also alleged that'between (or about) other persons present, are clearly understood and
the eyes' means the forehead, in Exod. xiii. 9, I6, promptly acted upon by the attendants. This cusand the forepart of the head, in Deut. vi. 8; but tom keeps them with their attention bent upon
the passages are sufficiently intelligible, if under- the hand of their master, watching its slightest
stood, to denote what they literally express; and  motions.
with reference to the last it may be remarked that  The celebrated passage,'Why beholdest thou
there is hair about the eyes as well as on the head, the mote that is in thy brother's eye, and consithe removal of which might as well be interdicted  derest not the beam that is in thine own eye?'
as an act of lamentation.                      (Matt. vii. 3), has occasioned much waste of ex5. In Cant. iv. 9,' eye' seems to be used poeti- planation. It seems much better to understand it
cally for'look,' as is usual in most languages; as a hyperbolical proverbial expression, than to'Thou hast stolen my heart with one of thy looks' contend that as &OK6S cannot literally mean'a
(eyes).                                        beam,' it must here signify something else, a dis6. In Prov. xxiii. 31, the term'eye' is applied  ease, a thorn, etc. (see Doddridge and Campbell,
to the beads or bubbles of wine, when poured out, in loc.)  As a proverbial phrase, parallels have
but our version preserves the sense of'colour.'  been produced abundantly from the Rabbins, from
To these some other phrases, requiring notice  the fathers, and from the classics.
and explanation, may be added:                   Respecting blinding the eyes as a punishment,'Before the eyes' of any one, meaning in his or political disqualification, see PUNISHMENT.
presence; or, as we should say,'before his face'' PAINTING THE EYES,' or rather the eyelids, is
(Gen. xxiii. II, 18; Exod. iv. 30).            more than once alluded to in Scripture, although'In the eyes' of any one, means what appears this scarcely appears in the A. V., as our trans.




EYE                     862                    EZ
lators, unaware of the custom, usually render custom of thus ornamenting the eyes prevailed'eye' by'face,' although'eye' is still preserved  among both sexes in Egypt in very ancient times;
in the margin, So Jezebel'painted her eyes,' this is shewn by the sculptures and paintings in
literally,'put her eyes in paint,' before she the temples and tombs of this country; and kohhlshewed herself publicly (2 Kings ix. 30). This vessels, with the probes, and even with the remains
action is forcibly expressed by Jeremiah (iv. 30), of the black powder, have often been found in the'though thou rentest thine eyes with painting.' ancient tombs. I have two in my possession. But,
Ezekiel (xxiii. 40) also represents this as a part of in many cases, the ancient mode of ornamenting
high dress-' For whom thou didst wash thyself, with the kohhl was a little different from  the
paintedst thy eyes, and deckedst thyself with orna- modern. I have, however, seen this ancient mode
ments.' The custom is also, very possibly, alluded practised in the present day in the neighbourhood
to in Prov. vi. 25-' Lust not after her beauty in of Cairo; though I only remember to have noticed
thine heart, neither let her take thee wit/ her eye- it in two instances.  The same custom existed
lids.' It certainly is the general impression in among the Greek ladies, and among the Jewish
Western Asia that this embellishment adds much women in early times.'
to the languishing expression and seducement of  Sir J. G. Wilkinson alludes to this passage in
the eyes, although Europeans find some difficulty Mr. Lane's book, and admits that the lengthened
in appreciating the beauty which the Orientals find form of the ancient Egyptian eye, represented in
in this adornment,                           the paintings, was probably produced by this
means.' Such (he adds) is the effect described by,/-2   s''...Juvenal (Sat. ii. 93), Pliny (EIp. vi. 2), and other
riters who notice the custom among thectom amo   Romans.
At Rome it was considered disgraceful for men to
11 /'~  ~~  ~______~  ilf      adopt it, as at present in the East, except mediciN/yi^' l  Ho^^ Of _ _nally,5 but if we may judge from the similarity of
11 [t!^  If  I  ^the eyes of men and women in the paintings at
li;~ /                     All' r \^\  Thebes, it appears to have been used by both sexes
i./\\  (l, )       among the ancient Egyptians. Many of the kohhl-, /|| 2 i 0 /' li\\   \       /   I l     bottles have been found in the tombs, together
with the bodkin used for applying the moistened
/  X\'  \\  Ad, powder. They are of various materials, usually of
stone, wood, or pottery; sometimes composed of
238.                     two, sometimes of three or four separate cells, apparently  containing each a mixture, differing
The following description of the process is from  slightly in its quality and hue from the other three.
Mr. Lane's excellent work on the Modern Egp- Many were simple round tubes, vases, or small
tiacrs (i. 41-43):'The eyes, with very few excep- boxes; some were ornamented with the figure of
tions, are black, large, and of a long almond form, an ape or monster, supposed to assist in holding
with long and beautiful lashes and an exquisitely the bottle between his arms, while the lady dipped
soft, bewitching expression: eyes more beautiful into it the pin with which she painted her eyes;
can hardly be conceived; their charming effect is and others were in imitation of a column made of
much heightened by the concealment of the other stone, or rich porcelain of the choicest manufacfeatures (however pleasing the latter may be), and ture' (Ancient Egyptians, iii. 382). J. K.
is rendered still more striking by a practice universal among the females of the higher and middle  EZ (?T). This word is generally said to denote
classes, and very common among those of the lower the she-goat; and in several passages it is undoubtorders, which is that of blackening the edge of the ely so used (comp. Gen. xxxi. 38; xxxii. 14; Num.
eyelids, both above and below the eyes, with a xv. 27); but it is equally certain that it is used
black powder called kohhl. This is a collyrium,
commonly composed of the smoke-black which is
produced by burning a kind of libdm-an aromatic
resin-a species of frankincense, used, I am told,
in preference to the better kind of frankincense, as
being cheaper, and equally good for the purpose.f 
Kohhl is also prepared of the smoke-black pro-     -'' i'
duced from burning the shells of almonds. These 
two kinds, though believed to be beneficial to the
eyes, are used merely for ornament; but there are 
several kinds used for their real or supposed medi-::\
cal properties; particularly the powder of several 
kinds of lead ore; to which are often added sar-    -'<>
cocolla, long pepper, sugar-candy, fine dust of a                                -
Venetian sequin, and sometimes powdered pearls. 
Antimony, it is said, was-formerly used for paint-           239. Syrian Goat.
ing the edges of the eyelids. The kohhl is applied
with a small probe, of wood, ivory, or silver, also to denote the he-goat (comp. Exod. xii. 5;
tapering towards the end, but blunt; this is Lev. iv. 23; Num. xxviii. 15; 2 Chron. xxix. 21;
moistened, sometimes with rose-water, then dipped  Dan. viii. 5, 8, etc.) In most of the passages in
in the powder, and drawn along the edges of the
eyelids; it is called mir'wed; and the glass vessel  This is not altogether correct. In Persia it is
in which the kohhl is kept, mooh'/ho'ah.  The  as common among the men as the women.-J. K.




EZBON                     863                  EZEKIEL
which it occurs, it may denote either the male or residence. Josephus (Anliq. x. 6. 3) states that he
the female animal. It is used also to designate a was a youth (-racs 6v) when carried away captive;
kid (Gen. xv. 9). From this we are led to con- but, as Hivernick (Comnmentar fiber Ezechiel, Erclude that properly it is the generic designation of langen, 1843, p. viii.) justly remarks, the matured
the animal in its domestic state, a conclusion which  character of a priest which appears in his writings,
seems to be fully established by such usages as ".  and his intimate acquaintance with the temple
ir, a kid of tIegoals, CV nM tike goal, i.e., any  service, render such a supposition highly impro-..y..bable.  He received his commission as a prophet
of the goat species (Gen. xxvii. 9; Deut. xiv. 4). in the fifth year of his captivity (B. c. 594). Many
Bochart (Hieroz, bk. ii. c. 51) derives the word  critics suppose (from ch. i. I) that this event took
TV from ft stlrength, minht; Gesenius and Fiirst place in the 30th year of his age. Thus Carpzov
prefer tracing it to t, to strengtXen or become (p. 20I) understands the expression. There is,
— TX                       however, little reason to think that this is the epoch
strong; in either case the ground-idea is the intended. The more probable opinion seemsto be
superior strength of the goat as compared with the that the reckoning is from the commencement of
t                           repre- the reign of Nabopolassar, the father of Nebuchadsheep; Syr. (d; Arab.j., where the "    repr   nezzar (Scaliger, De Emendatione Tem orum, Lug.
sents the rejected t of tTy; Phoen. Oz, of which  Bat. I598, p. 374; Rosenm. Schol. in Ezech.;
Ozza or Azza is the feminine form. Whether there Eichhorn, Einleitung in d. A. T., vol. iii. p.
is any affinity between this and the Sansc.  a,I88, 3d edit.; Winer, Bzbi. Realworterbuch, art.
fem. ago, Gr. ai, acy-6s, Goth. gaitan, and ourot,'Ezech.')  Others (as Ussher, Havernick, pp. I2,
may be doubted. In the LXX., t3 is usually re- I3) take the era to be that of the finding the book
presented by, in a few instances by  o of the law in the I8th year of Josiah, which is
when td is used to denote goafs hair (as in Exod. nearly synchronous with the former. The question
xxvi. 7; xxxvi. 14; Num. xxxi. 20) the LXX: use i not of much impotance in a chronological point
aKith-ouS  rplXiOS, or acyEtos; in I Sam. xix. 13 they  of view, since the date is sufficiently fixed by the
give the strange rendering  rap rC aYl, reading  reference he makes to the year of captivity.
3 fort:s1  (comp. Joseph. r Antiq. vi. II. 4.)  Ezekiel is remarkably silent respecting his personal history; the only event which he records
EZBON ('2 t; Sept. Oao'opdv,'Eo^-ecv'Ae- (and that merely in its connection with his proof th son o:f. xlvi.ir   fi) * \phetic office) is the death of his wife in the
P6v). I. One of the sons of Gad (Gen. xlv. i6).ninth year of the captivity (ch. xxiv. i8). He
In the genealogy in Num. xxvi. I5-8, for this name continued to exercise the prophetic office durthere stands Ozni, from whom came the clan of the 
Oznites. The LXX.- here read ~'A3-c, so that the ing.a period of at least twenty-two years, that is,
alteration, if it is one, is of ancient date. Which  to the 27th year of the captivity (ch. xxx. I7); and
it appears probable that he remained with the capis the correct reading, or how the one came to be  aears rbabe tt he durind the     he of hi
substituted for the other, it is now impossible to say. tives by the river Cieba during the whole of his
The attempt has been made to shew how  life. That he exercised a very commanding influThe attempt has been made to shew how i        ence over the people is manifest from the numerous
might pass into d    so that heps ilatter is t si y intimations we have of the elders coming to inquire
a later mode of spelling the former; but this is
~quite improbable.~                of him what message God had sent through him
q2. So  of Bela in the genealogy of the Ben- (ch. viii. I; xiv. I; xx. I; xxxiii. 31, 32, etc.)
jamiteS, I Chron. vii. 7.e [cH. ]-Wf  L.e A.  Carpzov (pp. 203-4) relates several traditions rejaites,  Chrov. 7R...   specting his death and sepulchre, principally from
EZEKIAS. [HEZEKIAH.]                        the treatise De Vilis Prophet., falsely attributed to
Epiphanius. It is there said that he was killed at
EZEKIEL (pe            - = i, [wzoom] God Babylon by the chief of the people (6 yoi'yeYos roV
wil s,  Gs.  T     es. o i  Gd XaoO) on account of his having reproved him for
wiltl strengthen, Gesen.  es., or  p.., Godidolatry; that he was buried in the field of Maur (,
will trevail, Rosenm. Schol.; Sept.'Ie-tcKtX), caypu' Maobp) in the tomb of Shem and Arphaxad,
one of the greater prophets, whose writings, and that his sepulchre was still in existence. Such
both in the Hebrew and Alexandrian canons, are traditions are obviously of very little value.
placed next to those of Jeremiah. He was the     Ezekiel was contemporary with Jeremiah and
son of Busi the priest (ch. i. 3), and, accord- Daniel. The former had sustained the prophetic
ing to tradition, was a native of Sarera (e.K?7s office during a period of thirty-four years before
2ap-7pd, Carpzov, Introd., pt. iii. p. 200). Of his Ezekiel's first predictions, and continued to proearly history we have no authentic information. phesy for six or seven years after. It appears
We first find him in the country of Mesopotamia, probable that the call of Ezekiel to the prophetic'by the river Chebar' (ch. i. i), now Khabgr, a office was connected with the communication of
stream  of considerable length flowing into the Jeremiah's predictions to Babylon (Jer. li. 59),
Euphrates, near Circesium, Kirkesia (Rosenmiiller's which took place the year preceding the first reveBibl. Geog. of Central Asia in Bibl. Cabinet, vol. ii. lation to Ezekiel (Hivernick, p. ix.) The greater
p. i80). On this river Nebuchadnezzar founded a part of Daniel's predictions are of a later date
Jewish colony from the captives whom he brought than those of Ezekiel; but it appears that his
from Jerusalem when he besieged it in the eighth  piety and wisdom had become proverbial even in
year of his reign (2 Kings xxiv. I2). This colony  the early part of Ezekiel's ministry (ch. xiv. I4,
(or at least a part of it) was settled at a place  I6; xxviii. 3).
called Tel-Abib, which has been thought by       Most critics have remarked the vigour and sursome to answer to the Thallaba of D'Anville passing energy which are manifest in the character
(Rosenm., Bibl. Geog., vol. ii. p. i88); and it of Ezekiel. The whole of his writings shew how
seems to have been here that the prophet fixed his admirably he was fitted, as well by natural disposi



EZEKIEL                   864                 EZEKIEL
tion as by spiritual endowment, to oppose the're- the golden one. It is, indeed, to the matter rather
bellious house,' the'people of stubborn front and than the language of Ezekiel that we are to look
hard heart,' to whom he was sent. The figura- for evidence of poetic genius. His style is often
tive representations which abound throughout his simply didactic, and he abounds in peculiarities of
writings, whether drawn out into lengthened alle- expression, Aramaisms, and grammatical anomagory, or expressing matters of fact by means of lies, which, while they give individuality to his
symbols, or clothing truths in the garb of enigma, writings, plainly evince the decline of the language
all testify by their definiteness the vigour of his in which he wrote. An extended account of such
conceptions. Things seen in vision are described  peculiarities is given by Eichhorn (Einleitung in
with all the minuteness of detail and sharpness of das A. T., vol. iii. p. 96) and Gesenius (Geschichte
outline which belong to real existences. But this der Zleb. Spirache u. Schrift, p. 35).
characteristic is shewn most remarkably in the  The genuineness of the writings of Ezekiel has
entire subordination of his whole life to the great been the subject of very little dispute. According
work to which he was called. We never meet to Jewish tradition doubts were entertained as to
with him as an ordinary man; he always acts the canonicity of the book on the ground of its
and thinks and feels as a prophet. This energy of containing some apparent contradictions to the
mind developed in the one direction of the pro- law, as well as because of the obscurity of many of
phetic office is strikingly displayed in the account its visions. These, however, were removed, it is
he gives of the death of his wife (ch. xxiv. I5-I8). said, by Rabbi Hananias, who wrote a commentary
It is the only memorable event of his personal his- on the book, in which all these difficulties were
tory which he records, and it is mentioned merely satisfactorily solved (Mischna, ed. Surenhusius,
in reference to his soul-absorbing work. There is Pref. ad. Part. iv. 1'n'VP nODD; Carpzov, Introd.
something inexpressibly touching as well as cha- pt. iii. p. 215); but still, on account of their obracteristic in this brief narrative-the' desire of his scurity, the visions at the beginning and close of
eyes' taken away with a stroke-the command not the book were forbidden to be read by those who
to mourn-and the simple statement,'so I spake were under thirty years of age (Carpzov, p. 212).
unto the people in the morning, and at even my Some continental critics of the last century have
wife died; and I did in the morning as I was impugned the canonicity of the last nine chapters,
commanded.'   That he possessed the common and have attributed them to some Samaritan or
sympathies and affections of humanity is manifest Hebrew who had returned in later times to the
from the beautiful touch of tenderness with which land of Judaea (Oeder, Freye Untersuchung iiber
the narrative is introduced. We may even judge einige Biicher des A. T., Hal. Sax. I771; Vogel,
that a mind so earnest as his would be more than in his remarks on the above; and Corrodi, Beleuchusually alive to the feelings of affection when once tung des Jidisch. und Christl. Bibelkanons, pt. i.
they had obtained a place in his heart. He then, p. 105, quoted by Rosenmiiller, Schol. in Ez. ad.
who could thus completely subordinate the strongest c. xl.) These objections have been fully answered
interests of his individual life to the great work of by Eichhorn (Einleitung, vol. iii. p. 203), Jahn
his prophetic office, may well command our admi- (Introd. in Lib. Sac. V F., p. 356), and others.
ration and be looked upon as (to use Havernick's Jahn has also taken notice of and answered some
expression)'a truly gigantic phenomenon.' It is in- objections raised by an anonymous writer in the
teresting to contrast Ezekiel in this respect with his Monthly Magaazine, 1798, to the canonicity of c.
contemporary Jeremiah, whose personal history is xxv. -xxxii., xxxv., xxxvi., xxxviii., xxxix.  A
continually presented to us in the course of his writ- translation of Jahn's arguments will be found in
ings; and the contrast serves to shew that the pecu- Home's Introd. vol. iv. p. 222. These and similiarity we are noticing in Ezekiel belongs to his lar objections have so little weight or probability
individual character, and was not necessarily con- that we shall content ourselves with quoting the
nected with the gift of prophecy.            general remark of Gesenius in reference to the
That Ezekiel was a poet of no mean order is ac- whole of Ezekiel's writings:'This book belongs
knowledged by almost all critics. Lowth (De to that not very numerous class which, from besacra Piesi Hebrceorum, ed. J. D. Michaelis, ginning to end maintains by means of favourite
Gbtting. I770, p. 431) thus sums up his account expressions and peculiar phrases such a oneness of
of him:' In ceteris a plerisque vatibus fortasse tone as by that circumstance alone to prevent any
superatus; sed in eo genere ad quod unice videtur suspicion that separate portions of it are not genua natura comparatus, nimirum vi, impetu, pondere, ine' (Geschichte der Heb. Spr., p. 35). The canonigranditate, nemo ex omni scriptorum numero eum  city of the book of Ezekiel in general is satisfactounquam aequavit.' Michaelis and Dathe are the rily established by Jewish and Christian authorities.
only critics of any eminence (as far as we know) There is, indeed, no explicit reference to it, or
who think slightingly of his poetical genius. The quotation from  it, in the N. T.  Eichhorn
former (to whom Dathe assents) remarks,'Mihi (Einleit. p. 218) mentions the following passages
in Ezekiele non  sublimitas laudanda, nedum  as having apparently a reference to this book:
Isaiana, videtur, ut potius in exornandis amplifi- Rom. ii. 24; comp. Ezek. xxxvi. 21: Rom. x. 5;
candisque imaginibus plus artis et luxuriei eum  Gal. iii. 12; comp. Ezek. xx. 11: 2 Pet. iii. iv;
habere dixerim, quam cum impetu et sublimitate comp. Ezek. xii. 22; but none of these are quotapoematis consistere potest. Perpetuus aliqua ex tions. The closing visions of Ezekiel are clearly
parte imitator est, et tamen novus ac suus, non referred to, though not quoted, in the last chapters
grandis, sed ingeniosus' (lb. p. 427). The ques- of the Apocalypse. The prophet Ezekiel is distion is altogether one of taste, and has, we imagine, tinctly referred to by the son of Sirach,'IeeKi/7X
been decided by common consent against Michaelis. 6s elTev paacv 564rs,'?v v7rleLtev auryc rirl cipuacros
He remarks more truly that Ezekiel lived at a Xepovp3iL (Ecclus. xlix. 8), and by Josephus (Antiq.
period when the Hebrew language was declining x. 5. I; 6. 3; 7. 2; 8. 2). The book of Ezein purity, when the silver age was succeeding to kiel is also mentioned as forming part of the




EZEKIEL                     865                 EZEKIEL
canon in the catalogues of Melito (Eusebius, Hist. suspense between the divine intimation that NebuEccles. iv. 26), Origen (apud Euseb. 1. c. vi. chadnezzar was besieging Jerusalem (ch. xxiv. 2),
25), Jerome (Prologus Galeatus), and the Talmud  and the arrival of the news that he had taken it
(Eichhorn, vol. iii. p. 218; vol. i. pp. 126-137). (ch. xxxiii. 21).  The predictions are evidently
One of the passages of Josephus to which we have arranged on a plan corresponding with these the
referred has occasioned much controversy and   chief subjects of them, and the time of their uttermany conjectures, because he seems to affirm that ance is so frequently noted that there is little
Ezekiel had written two books of prophesies. difficulty in ascertaining their chronological order.
Having spoken of Jeremiah and his predictions of This order is followed throughout, except in the
the Babylonian captivity, Josephus adds, o0 /6vov middle portion relating to foreign nations, where
U6 oTros irpoeOeaortcre -ravra roLs 6XXotL, XX& Kal 6 it is in some instances departed from to secure
rrpoq057-S'IeEK&7Xos'  [Os] TrpWTros 7repl rorT-Wv 66o greater unity of subject (e. g. ch. xxix. I7). The
3tg3Xa ypcdaas KacrXTreC (Antiq. x. 5. I). Ac- want of exact chronological order in this portion
cording to the ordinary and, indeed, as it would  of the book, has led to various hypotheses respectseem, necessary interpretation of this passage, ing the manner in which the collection of the
Ezekiel was thefirst who wrote two books respect- separate predictions was originally made. Jahn
ing the Babylonian captivity. The question then  (Introd. p. 356) supposes that the predictions
arises, Has one of his books been lost, or are the against foreign nations were placed in their pretwo now joined into one?  Theformer supposition  sent position by some transcriber in the order in
has been maintained by some in order to account which they happened to come into his hands, and
for certain professed quotations from the prophet that he through forgetfulness omitted chaps. xxxv.,
Ezekiel of passages which are not found in his xxxviii., and xxxix. Eichhorn (Einleit. vol. iii.
writings at present. Thus Clemens Romanus (I p. I93) thinks it probable that the predictions
Ep. ad Cor. c. 8) refers to such a passage, which  were written on several greater or smaller rolls,
is given more at length by Clemens Alexand. which were put together in their present form
(Padagog. i. Io). Thus, again, Tertullian (Decarne without sufficient regard to chronological accuChristi, c. 23, p. 394, ed. Semler) says,'Legimus racy. Bertholdt (Eizneit. vol. iv. p. I487, quoted
apud Ezechielem de vacca illa quse peperit et non  by Havernick) supposes that the collector of the
peperit.' Other instances may be seen in Fabri- whole book found two smaller collections already
cius (Codex Pseudepigraphus V. T. ed. 2da, p. in existence (ch. xxv.-xxxii. and xxxiii. 21-xxxix.),
III8), and quoted from him by Carpzov (Introd. and that he arranged the other predictions chronopt. iii. p. 208). Both these critics, however, agree logically.  All such hypotheses belong, as Haiverthat the most probable explanation of such refe- nick remarks, to a former age of criticism.
rences is that they were derived from Jewish tra-  The arrangement, by whomsoever made, is very
dition. The latter hypothesis, that our present evidently designed, and it seems on many accounts
book was originally two, the second containing the most probable that it was made by Ezekiel himlast nine chapters, has received the support of very self. This is maintained by Havernick on the
many critics (see Le Moyne, Varia Sacra, t. ii. p. following grounds: I. The arrangement proceeds
332; Carpzov, Introd. p. 208). This view, how- throughout on a plan corresponding with the subever, is not without serious difficulties. There is jects of the predictions.  In those against foreign
no evidence that the book, as at present existing, nations chronological is united with material order,
was ever considered two; and the testimony of whilst in those which relate to Israel the order of
Josephus himself, that only twenty-two books were time is strictly followed. 2. The predictions stand
received as sacred (Contr. Apion. i. 8), appears in such connection with each other that every part
quite opposed to such a supposition, since in  has reference to what has preceded it. 3. Historiwhatever way the division of the 0. T. into    cal notices are occasionally appended to the predictwenty-two books is made, there cannot be two  tions, which would scarcely be done by a transcriber:
out of the number left for Ezekiel.  Eichhorn  e.g., the notice respecting himself in chaps. xi., xxiv.,
(Einlei/tng, vol. iii. p. 146) maintains that it is xxv., and the close of chap. xix., which Havernick
Jeremiah of whom Josephus speaks, a position to translates,'This is a lamentation and was for a
which we should at once assent if we could with lamentation.'  The whole book is divided by
him  consider the words 6s TrpUTro as equivalent Havernick into nine sections, as follows:to 6 66 7rpro0s. If this is what Josephus meant,  I. Ezekiel's call to the prophetic office (ch. i. -iii.
we must suppose some corruption of his text. 15).
[Bekker omits bs.]                               2. Series of symbolical representations and parThe central point of Ezekiel's predictions is the ticular predictions foretelling the approaching dedestruction of Jerusalem.  Previously to this struction of Judah and Jerusalem (ch. iii. i6-vii.)
catastrophe his chief object is to call to repentance  3. Series of visions presented to the prophet a
those who were living in careless security; to warn  year and two months later than the former, in
them against indulging in blind confidence, that which he is shewn the temple polluted by the worby the help of the Egyptians (Ezek. xvii. I5-I7; ship of Adonis-the consequent judgment on the
comp. Jer. xxxvii. 7) the Babylonian yoke would inhabitants of Jerusalem and on the priests,-and
be shaken off: and to assure them that the destruc- closing with promises of happier times and a purer
tion of their city and temple was inevitable and  worship (ch. viii.-xi.)
fast approaching. After this event his principal  4. A series of reproofs and warnings directed
care is to console the captives by promises of especially against the particular errors and prefuture deliverance and return to their own land, judices then prevalent amongst his contemporaries
and to encourage them  by assurances of future (ch. xii.-xix.)
blessings.  His predictions against foreign nations  5. Another series of warnings delivered about a
stand between these two great divisions, and were year later, announcing the coming judgments to be
for the most part uttered during the interval of yet nearer (ch. xx.-xxiii.)
VOL. I.3 K




EZEL                    866                   EZOBH
6. Predictions uttered two years and five months in the name of a small wady with'brackish water,
later, when Jerusalem was besieged, announcing to el-Ghudyan opening into el-Arabah from the westthe captives that very day as the commencement of ern mountain, some distance north of Akabah.
the siege (comp. 2 Kings xxv. I), and assuring  However different the names el-Ghudyan and Ezion
them of its complete overthrow (ch. xxiv.)    may be in appearance, yet the letters in Arabic and
7. Predictions against foreign nations (ch. xxv.- Hebrew all correspond.' [ELATH.]-J. R. B.
xxii.)
8. After the destruction of Jerusalem a pro-  EZNITE, THE (.f.l; K'ri, JVOnT; Sept.'Arwphetic representation of the triumph of Israel and vaios; Alex.'AB-c6aos). In 2 Sam. xxiii. 8, this
of the kingdom  of God on earth (ch. xxxiii.- epithet is applied to Adino, who is also described as
xxxix.)                                      the Tachmonite, the chief of that portion of David's
9. Symbolic representation of Messianic times army which was known as the Shalishi corps, perand of the establishment and prosperity of the haps the elite of the elite of the army. In I Chron.
kingdom of God (ch. xl.-xlviii.)              xi. I I he is called'Jashobeam, the son of Hachmoni,'
The latter part of the book has always been  and this probably supplies the correct reading;
regarded as very obscure. It will be seen by the that in Samuel                (   e 
brief notices of the contents of the sections whichthat  amuel    1              The Tachwe have given above, that Havernick considers monite that sat in the chair,' A. V.) having, as
the whole to relate to Messianic times. The pre- Kennicott suggests, probably arisen from the trandictions respecting Gog (ch. xxxviii., xxxix.) have scriber's eye having caught the fnli  of the precedbeen referred by some to Antiochus Epiphanes; ing verse, as he was writing the name of the hero,
by others to Cambyses, to the Chaldreans, the and so incorporated it with the name. Josephus
Scythians, the Turks, etc. Mr. Granville Penn  also gives the name'Io'o-a'los, vits'AXetailov
has interpreted them of Napoleon and the French  (Anzti. vii. 12. 4). The LXX., however, read
(The Prophecy of Ezekiel concerning Gogue, etc.,'O Xavavcaos, the Canaanite; and this, some think,
I815). The description of the temple (ch xl.- suggests the true reading. In I Chron. xi. xI also,
xliii.) has been thought by many to contain an for.XY'l1 1VIV,'Adino the Eznite,' the reading is
account of what Solomon's temple was; by others,  J'P1rI nYIN'11,'he lifted up (brandished) his
of what the second temple should be.    The spear.' This is regarded by some also as supplydifficulties of all these hypotheses seerh to be in- ing the original reading; but it seems better to
superable.  We have only space to say that we integrate both passages from each other, and to refully accord with the view of Havernick, to whom  gard the original reading as,'This is Adino the
we are greatly indebted for the materials of the Eznite who brandished his spear,' etc. So the
present article.-F. W. G.                     A.V., after the LXX., reads the passage in Samuel;
[Commentaries. -CEcolampadius, Bas. 1548, and so it must be read to make sense. To reject the
fol.; Calvin [in capp. 20 priora], Gen. 1565, words VS3    lY"13 altogether as spurious would be
8vo, I583, fol.; Pradus and Villapandus, Rom. to do violence to critical authority; these words
1596-I604, 3 vols. fol.; Greenhill, Lond. I694, are in all the MSS., and must have been in the text
4to, new  edition by Sherman, Lond. 1837; used by the LXX. Jerome taking the Ez in EzNewcome, Lond. 1785, 4to, 1836, 8vo; Ewald, nite for I./ wood, renders'quasi tenerrimus ligni
Stuttg. 1840; Havernick, Erlang, 1843; Umbreit, vermiculus.'-W. L. A.
Hamb. 1843; Hitzig., Leipz. 1847; Fairbairn,    EZOBH (i;  Sept. and N. T.  wro).    A
Edin. 1851; Henderson, Lond. I855.      The.
valuable commentaries of D. Kimchi is in Buxtorf's great variety of opinions have been entertained reBiblia Rabbinica; and the commentary of Rashi specting the plant called ezobk, translated' hyssop'
is printed with others in Ezekiel Heb. c. vers. germ., in the A. V. both of the 0. and N. T.; but as yet
etc., Furth, 1812].                           no satisfactory investigation has been made, so as
to enable us to fix with certainty on the plant inEZEL. [EBEN-EZEL.]                          tended.  The difficulty appears to have arisen
EZIONGEBER..~res cu4-   from the similarity of the Greek name Vo-o-w7ros to
EZIONGEBER       ( 1 iS.g;    Sept. rvwv    the Hebrew ezobh, whence the former seems, from
rdpep; and Vulg. Asiongaber), a very ancient an early period, to have been considered synonycity lying not far from Elath, on the eastern arm  mous with the latter, and used for it in referring to
of the Red Sea. It is first mentioned in Num. the passages of the 0. T. where it is mentioned.
xxxiii. 35 as one of the stations where the He- As the v6acrwwos of Greek authors is generally
brews halted in their journeyings through the desert acknowledged to be the common hyssop (Hysso(Deut. ii. 8). From its harbour it was that Solo- pus officinalis of botanists), it has been inferred
mon (I Kings ix. 26) sent the fleet which he had  that it must also be the plant of the 0. T., as well
there built to the land of Ophir, whence they as that referred to in the N. T. This inference
fetched four hundred and twenty talents of gold. has not, however, been universally acquiesced in;
Here, also, Jehoshaphat (I Kings xxii. 48; 2 for Celsius enumerates, under no less than eighteen
Chron. xx. 36) built a fleet'to go to Ophir,' but heads, the different plants which have been adbecause he had joined himself with Ahaziah,'king  duced by various authors as the hyssop of Scripof Israel, who did wickedly,'' the ships were ture. Before mentioning these, it is desirable to
broken that they were not able to go to Tarshish.' refer to the passages of the 0. and N. T. where
Josephus (Antiq. viii. 6. 4) says that Eziongeber the plant is mentioned.  The first notice of it
lay not far from Ailath, which was also called  occurs in Exod. xii. 22; it is next mentioned in
Berenice. It is probably the same with the once Lev. xiv. 4, 6, 52; and again in Num. xix. 6, I8.
populous city Assyan (Burckhardt, ii. 83 ). Robin- To these passages the apostle alludes in Heb. ix.
son (Biblical Researches, i. 250) says,'no trace  I9, and from this we learn that the Greek name
of Eziongeber seems now to remain, unless it be  t'oa-wros was considered synonymous with the He



EZOBH                     867                   EZRA
brew ezobh; and from the preceding passages that filement on the eve of the Sabbath, which was a
the plant must have been leafy, and large enough  high-day, by being in the field of execution' (Scripto serve for the purposes of sprinkling, and that it ture Herbal, p. 208).  Rosenmiiller, again, thinks
must have been found in Lower Egypt, as well as that the Hebrew word Ezobh does not denote our
in the country towards Mount Sinai, and onwards hyssop, but an aromatic plant resembling it, the
to Palestine.  In I Kings iv. 33 it is classed with  wild marjoram, which the Germans call Dosten, or
trees; and from Ps. li. 7, it would appear to have  Woihgemuth, the Arabs Zatar, and the Greeks
possessed some cleansing quality, though here it is Origanum. In the Pictorial Bible (i. x6I), Mr.
considered by some commentators that hyssop is Kitto suggests it as probable, that'the hyssop was
used in a figurative sense. It ought, at all events, a species of Phytolacca, as combining length of stem
to be found growing upon walls, and in Palestine. with cleansing properties, from the quantity of potIn the account of the crucifixion of our Saviour, ash which is yielded by the ashes of the American
the Apostle John says (John xix. 29),'Now there  species, P. decandra, of this genus.' P. Abyssinica
was set a vessel full of vinegar, and they filled a grows to the size of a shrub in Abyssinia.  Winer
sponge with vinegar, and put it upon hyssop, and  (Bibl. Realworterbuch, ii. 819, s. v. Ysop) gives a
put it to his mouth.' In the parallel passages of description of the common hyssop, but says that it
Matthew (xxvii. 48) and Mark (xv. 36), it is stated  must not be concealed that the Talmudists distinthat the sponge filled with vinegar was put upon a guish the hyssop of the Greeks and Romans from
reed or stick. To reconcile these statements, some that mentioned in the law.  He then adduces the
commentators have supposed that both the sponge  Origanum, mentioned in the quotation from Rosenand the hyssop were tied to a stick, and that one miller, as the Ezobh of the Hebrews; but concludes
apostle mentions only the hyssop, because he con- by observing that a more accurate examination is
sidered it as the most important; while, for the  required of the hyssops and Origana of that part of
same reason, the other two mention only the stick; Asia, before the meaning of the Hebrew Ezobh
but the simplest mode of explaining the apparent can be considered as satisfactorily determined.
discrepancy is to consider the hyssop and the stick  After careful enquiry we are led to fix on the
to be the same thing-in other words, that the  caer plant as the ezobh of Scripture. This plant
sponge was affixed to a stick of hyssop.       has an Arabic name, asuf, similar to the Hebrew
A great variety of plants have been adduced by  esob or esof, as it is found in Lower Egypt, in the
different authors as that alluded to in the above deserts of Sinai, and in New Jerusalem.  It grows
passages.  Of these some belong to the class of upon rocks and walls, was always supposed to be
ferns, as Capillus Veneris, maiden-hair, and Ruta possessed of cleansing qualities, is large enough
Muraria, or wall-rue, because they will grow upon  to yield a stick, and its different parts used to
walls; as also do the Polytrichum, or hair-moss, be preserved in vinegar, as its buds now are.the Kloster hyssops, or pearlwort, and Sagina pro- J. F. R.
cunbens are suggested by others, because from their
growing on rocks or walls they will answer to the EZRA (K      hep; Sept. "Epas. The form
passage in I Kings iv. 33, and from their smallness of the name is Chaldaic or Aramaic; and it is
contrast well with the cedar of Lebanon, and are a equivalent in meaning to the Hebrew name'?,
proof of the minute knowledge of Solomon. Some
again contend for species of wormwood, as being,.     he surrounded,profrom their bitterness, most likely to have been  tected, helped). I. A  priest who went up with
added to the vinegar in the sponge, that it might Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. I. 33). 2. One of the heads
be more distasteful to our Saviour.  The majority, of families in Judah (I Chron. iv. I7). 3. The
however, have selected different kinds of fragrant celebrated Jewish scribe ('5D) and priest (,tl),
plants belonging to the natural family of Labiatce, who, about the year B.c. 458, led the second exseveral of which are found in dry and barren situa- pedition of Jews back from the Babylonian exile
tions in Palestine, and also in some parts of the into Palestine.
Desert. Of these may be mentioned the rosemary,  Ezra was a lineal descendant from Phinehas,
species of lavender, of.mint, of marjoram, of thyme, the son of Aaron. He is stated in Scripture to
of savory, of thymbra, and others of the same be the son of Seraiah, the son of Azariah; which
tribe, resembling each other much in characters as Seraiah was slain at Riblah by order of Nebuchadwell as in properties: but it does not appear that nezzar, having been brought thither a captive by
any of them grow on walls, or are possessed of Nebuzaradan.  But, as I30 years elapsed between
cleansing properties; and, with the exception of the death of Seraiah and the departure of Ezra
the rosemary, they are not capable of yielding a from Babylon, and we read that a grandson of
stick, nor are they found in all the required situa- Seraiah was the high-priest who accompanied Zertions. If we look to the most recent authors, we ubbabel on the first return to Jerusalem, seventy
find some other plants adduced, though the gene- years before Ezra returned thither, we may suppose
rality adhere to the common hyssop.  Sprengel that by the term son here, as in some other places,
(Hist. Rei Herb. i. 14) seems to entertain no doubt the relationship of grandson, or of a still more rethat the T/ymbra spicata, found by Hasselquist on mote direct descendant, is intended.  In addition
the ruins about Jerusalem, is the hyssop of Solo- to the information given in the books of Ezra and
mon; though Hasselquist himself thought that the Nehemiah, that Ezra was a'scribe,' a'ready
moss called Gymnostomum    truncatum  was the  scribe of the law of Moses,''a scribe of the words
plant. Lady Calcott asks,'Whether the hyssop  of the Commandments of the Lord and of his
upon which St. John says the sponge steeped in statutes to Israel,''a scribe of the law of the God
vinegar was put, to be held to the lips of Christ of Heaven,' and'a priest,' we are told by Joseupon the cross, might not be the hyssop attached  phus that he was high-priest of the Jews who were
to its staff of cedar-wood, for the purposes of left in Babylon; that he was particularly conversprinkling the people, lest they should contract de- sant with the laws of Moses, and was held in uni



EZRA                    868                   EZRA
versal esteem on account of his righteousness and  took place the death of the prophets Haggai,
virtue (Antiq. xi. 5. I);                     Zechariah, and Malachi, and in which prophecy
In the year B.C. 457 Ezra was sent by'Arta- became extinct.  According to other traditions
xerxes Longimanus and his counsellors to inquire Ezra returned to Babylon and died there at the
concerning Judah and Jerusalem, according to the age of I20 years. The Talmudic statement is that
law of his God which was in his hand; and to he died at Zamzumu, a town on the Tigris, while
carry the silver and gold which the king and his on his road from Jerusalem to Susa, whither he
counsellors freely offered unto the God of Israel.' was going to converse with Artaxerxes about the
Permission was also granted to him to take with affairs of the Jews.  A tomb said to be his is
him all the silver and the gold which he could find shewn on the Tigris, about twenty miles above its
in all the province of Babylon, together with the junction with the Euphrates.  An interesting
free-will offerings which the people and priests description of this tomb is subjoined to the notes
offered for the house of God at Jerusalem. Of on the book of Ezra in the'Pictorial Bible.'
this treasure he was directed to employ as much as
was requisite in the purchase of offerings according._...-__.......
to the law of Moses, and the surplus he was to lay —"out according to his discretion for the maintenance
of the externals of religion. Ezra was also chargedi=         _        =
to convey vessels for the house of God in Jerusalem; * _._
and, lest these gifts should be insufficient, he was  -__________
empowered to take from the king's treasure-house
as much as should be wanted to supply everything
needful for the house of the Lord. At the same
time that this commission was given to Ezra, Arta- 
xerxes Longimanus issued a decree to the keepers
of the king's treasure beyond the river, to assist
Ezra in everything in which he needed help, and   I5    *,    -.i    " 
to supply him liberally with money, corn, wine,
oil, and salt. It was further enacted that it should
not be lawful to impose tribute upon any priest,
Levite, or other person concerned in ministration 
in the house of God. Ezra was commissioned to
appoint'according to the wisdom of God which 
was in his hand,' magistrates and judges to judge
all the people beyond the river, that knew the laws          240    b of Ezra.
of his God; and was enjoined to teach them to
those who knew them not. The reason of the in-  Some traditions assert that Ezra was, about A.M.
terest for the worship of God at this time evinced 3II3, the president of the n1nn nD3:, Synaby Artaxerxes, appears to have been a fear of the goga Magna, and the father of all Mishnic doctors.
divine displeasure, for we read in the conclusion of In piety and meekness he was like unto Moses
the decree to the treasurers beyond the river, (uIztcasin, p. 13. See Zemacl David). When' Whatsoever is commanded by the God of Heaven, he went from Babylon to Jerusalem, he took with
let it be diligently done for the house of the God him all persons whose descent was either illegiof Heaven; FOR WHY SHOULD THERE BE WRATH      timate or unknown; so that the Jews left in
AGAINST THE REALM     OF THE KING AND HIS     Babylon should be nIDI: "1P, 5zure like flour
SONS?'                                       (Kiddush/iz, c. 4, I, Gem.) Ezra is said to have
Of the manner in which Ezra acquitted himself introduced the present square Hebrew character,
of the trust thus reposed in him, a detailed account and, in conjunction with some other elders, to
is given in the book bearing his name (viii.-x.)  have made the masora, the punctuation, and acIt is probable that he returned after accomplishing  centuation of the whole Bible (Abarbanel, Prcefat.
his commission to the king, as we hear nothing  ad NTachalath Avoth; Elias, Prozf 3 Masor.)
more of him till in Neh. viii. we read that, on the  Ezra is also said to have vigorously resisted the
occasion of the celebration of the feast of the sect of the Sadducees, which sprang up in his days;
seventh month, subsequently to Nehemiah's num- a 
bering the people, Ezra was requested to bring  and therefore to have put the words 
the book of the law of Moses; and that he read aB3   nj, a saculo in saerulzm, at the head of all
therein standing upon a pulpit of wood, which prayers, as a symbol by which the orthodox could
raised him above all the people. Josephus relates be distinguished (Bab. Berachoth, fol. 54).
the affecting scene which occurred on the reading  Since the people, during the Babylonian capof the law by Ezra (Antiq. xi. 5. 5). The account tivity or exile, had become accustomed to the
given by Josephus agrees with that of Nehemiah  Aramaic language, and scarcely understood Hein all leading particulars, except that Josephus brew, Ezra established the office of turgoman,
places the date and occasion twelve years after-  D19'In, dragoman, or interpreter, who stood near
wards.                                       the public reader in the synagogue, and translated
Josephus tells us that Ezra died soon after this every verse after it was read (Megillah, fol. 74).
celebration of the Feast of Tabernacles, and was  Ezra ordained that the year of jubilee should
buried.at Jerusalem  with great magnificence. be reckoned from the seventh year after the reAccording to some Jewish chroniclers he died building of the temple (Maimon. Hal. Jobel. cap.
in the year in which Alexander came to Jerusalem, IO).
on the tenth day of the month Tebeth (that is, the  Ezra is considered to be the author of the
lunation in December), in the same year in which  canon, and worthy to have been the lawgiver,




EZRA, BOOK OF                 869             EZRA, BOOK OF
if Moses had not preceded him (Bab. Sanhed. rightly perceived, though he is wrong in including
c. ii. f. 21; compare the article CANON). He the 6th verse.
is even said to have re-written the whole of the  We assume that the name Artachschascht must
0. T. from memory, the copies of which had be Artaxerxes Longimanus, not Smerdis as some
perished by neglect. But we must abstain from  have thought; which agrees with the letter sent
recounting all the traditional amplifications of the to him, given in iv; I I-16, and the king's answer,
doings of Ezra, since, if all were to be received, it I7-23; for we know from Nehemiah that the
would be difficult to say what he did not do, so building of the walls was thought of under Arstrong has been the inclination to connect impor- taxerxes; and the passages in question refer only
tant facts with the person of Ezra (comp. 2 Esdras to the rebuilding of the city. If they referred to
xiv.; Irenseus, Adv. Hores. iii. 25; Clem. Alex. the rebuilding of the temple, the case would be
Strom. i. p. 142; Augustin. De Mrirabil. Script  otherwise. But there is not a word of that. The
ii. 23; Hieron. ad Halrid. p. 212; Buxtorf, languageiniv. 12,'theJews which come upfromz
Tiberias, p. 88, sqq.; Bertholdt, Einleit. i. 69, thee to us are come unto Jerusalem,' can only resqq.; De Wette, Einleit. p. 17, sq.; Sauer, Diss. fer to the colony that came under Ezra in the time
canonem  Vet. Test. etc. Altorf, 1792, 4to; Sanhe- of Artaxerxes, not to that under Nehemiah in the
drin, fol. xxi. I; Rau, De Synag. Magna, pp. 31, same reign, because of iv. 23, which does not
89; Hartmann, Verbindung des Alten und Nezen  agree with the record of the building under NeheTestamzentes, pp. II4, sqq. Arabian fables about miah; and it would have been meaningless to
Ezra are mentioned in Hottinger's Thes. Philol. write to Smerdis in that strain, understanding the
p. 113, and in Herbelot, Bibl. Orientale, p. 697, caravan under Zerubbabel in the time of Cyrus.
etc.)-C. H. F. B.                            Besides, the adversaries write to the king to have
EZRA, B K OF The present book of Ezra search made'in the book of the record of thy
EZRA, BOOK OF The present book of Ezra fathers;' whereas,    at the time of Smerdis, they
consists of two parts, viz., i.-vi. and vii.-x; the fathers;' whereas, at the time of Smerdis, the
first containing a history of the company of exiles had been no more than fifteen years under the
who returned under Zerubbabel and Joshua, from  Persian dominion. Thus Artachschaschta cannot
who returned under Zerubbabel and Joshua, from  ^ Smerdis, with whom   the name does not
the first year of Cyrus till the completion of the  an Smerdis, with whom the name does not
temple in the sixth year of Darius Hystaspis; the are  but Ataerxes  e   rter o the previo
second, communicating particulars relative to the carefully abstain from mentioning the previous
return of the second caravan under Ezra, and his building of the temple, the more effectually to
return of the second caravan under Ezra, and his       ^   ing's mind against the rebuilding
proceedings in Jerusalem. -prejudice the king's mind against the rebuilding
The first chapter begins with the closing words of the city. Nothing is plainer than that iv. I IThe first chapter begins with the closing words     y,          rebuilding of the wals,
of the Chronicles, as far as the middle of the third 6, 723, relate to the rebuilding of  e w s,
not the tenmple; and therefore Artaxerxes is meant.
verse, which belong, therefore, to the Chronicle- At iv.  the Chaldee language begins; v. i-vi. 8
writer; and the whole chapter proceeds from one   another Chaldee document which existed before
person.  The edict of Cyrus, given in the 2d, is another Chaldee document which existed before
person.  The edict of Cyrus, given in the 2d, the compiler's time. But in vi. 14 the last clause
3d, and 4th verses, must be a Judaising paraphrase the  redactr's im. B  in vi. and Artaxerxes king
of the original, else Cyrus could not speak of him- of Persia,' tos wk e the passage agree with his
self in such language as,'The Lord God of hea-  Persia,' to ma  e the p asae agre with  is
ven hath given me all the kingdoms of the earth;' insertion of i. 6. Here  the ncompletion o
which does not harmonie with his treatment of occurs again in connection with the completion of
which does not harmonise with his treatment of                        therefore have come
Cyaxares. This is corroborated by the fact that the te e, ad co     ot thereore name is a
the decree is not the same here as in the 6th chap- frm him tat rte, s Hvernick perceived though
ter; though it should be identical in words, if accu- we cannot believe  it him that Ezra added it,
rately given. The language and style of the chap- becausee must ve with  that Artaxerxes did
ter resemble those of the Chronist. Whether the be e e ust hae known themple, and would
narrative be an extract from Ezra v. i3-i6, Vi. not promote the building of the temple, and would
narrative be an extract from Ezra v. I3-I6, vi.not even have appended his name out of gratitude
3-5, as Zunz supposes, is doubtful.          not even have appended his name out of gratitude
3-5, as Zunz supposes, is doubtful.          for the great gifts that monarch made to the
The second chapter was found as an original for the great gifts that monarch made to the
The second chapter was found as an oniginal temple, nor because he favoured the Jews genedocument, and inserted by the Chronicle-writer.  temple, nor be
The third chapter belongs to the Chronist, as rally, since, by putting Artaxerxes along with
the manner and language shews. From iv. 6 to  Cyrus.and Darius in this connection, Ezra would
the manner and language shews. From iv. 6 to hv    m,rd       Artaxerxes is here the
have misled the reader, Artaxerxes is here the
24 is an interpolation, apparently put in the wrong addition of a later hand than that of the Chaldee
place by the redactor; for it belongs to Nehe- author of the fragment presented in v. I-vi. I8,
miah's, not Ezra's time. It relates wholly to the because it' clashes with what he had just written.
building of the city, not the temple. It is impos  To ascribe it to Ezra is to make him employ an
sible to say where it should be placed. The 6th unsuitable expression
verse passes suddenly to Xerxes (called Ahasue-  In v 4 we read-' Then said  unto them after
rus); and then Artaxerxes appears in the 7th. this manner, What are the names of the men that
The 24th verse is the redactor's, resuming the make this building?' whence Movers infers that the
narrative which had been interrupted by the in- writer was an eye-witness and contemporary. The
terpolated piece. In consequence, however, of
terpolated piee.   In cnsequence, however a  ofe example of Joshua, v. 6, is adduced as confirmathe  ord.  te, which,  its place at thetory. But this passage is not a valid proof.
commencement of the verse can only refer to what  To the compiler belongs vi. 19-22. It describes
immediately precedes, the redactor makes the nar- the celebration of a passover, whose attendant
rative state what is incorrect, by transferring to circumstances in honour of the Levites resemble
the building of the temple what relates merely to the celebration of the passover under King Hezethe rebuilding of the city, and so putting Arta- kiah, as related in Chronicles (2 Chron. xxx. 15xerxes before Darius Hystaspis. The first five verses 25). In the 22d verse the king of Persia is termed
of chap. iv. belong to Ezra himself, as Zunz has king of Assyria; which reminds one of 2 Chron.




EZRA, BOOK OF                  870             EZRA, BOOK OF
xxxiii. II. The same redactor continues in vii.  In opposition to all these phenomena it is useI-II.  Here he begins with a genealogy of Ezra, less to appeal to the interchange of the first and
which nearly agrees with I Chron. vi. 35-38. The third persons in the prophets, e. g., Is. vii. I-I6,
way in which Ezra is spoken of in ver. 6, Io, comp. with viii. I, etc.; Jer. xx. I-6, comp. with
Ii, shews that he himself could not have so ver. 7, etc., xxviii. I, etc., comp. with ver. 5,
written.  He is termed' a ready scribe in the law  etc.; Ezek. i. 1-3; vi. I; vii. I, 8; Jer. xxxii. Iof Moses;' it is said that'he had prepared his 8; Hosea i. 2, 3; iii. I. The cases are not paralheart to seek the law of the Lord, and to do it;' lel, prophetic writing being very different from
and an explanation of'lDE is given in the IIth  historical prose. There is no necessity, as Keil
",.v-'"',,alleges, for Ezra to speak of himself in the third
verse, which is incorrect. The only objection to person in the first seven verses of the 7th chapter.
attributing vii. I-II to the compiler or Chronist All the unity belonging to the book is that arising
is, that he here shews an acquaintance with the       being the  o   ilt       th    rs
fact of Artaxerxes living after Darius, while in from its being the compilation of the Chronist,
fact of Artaxerxes living  fter Darius, w ile ion  who put materials together relating to the times of
iv. 7 he places him before Darius; but the Chron- Zerubbabel and Ezra, written by Ezra and others,
ist was not careful to remove contradictions of this iererng  own here and there. In consekind; he transcribed his sources without much  quence of the one redactor there is considerable
elaboration or change.
elaboration or change..     similarity of expression throughout; though cerIn vii. 12-26 we have a Chaldee piece, giving tainly not enou  to prevent the critic from seArtaxerxes's written commission to Ezra to return ain  pieces of different writers incorporated
parating pieces of different writers incorporated
with his countrymen to Judrea. This is an authen- i   work.
tic document.
tic document.,                           The independence of the book cannot be mainFrom vn. 27, ix. 15, Ezra himself is the writer  tained. The identity of the termination of ChroniHe employs the first person. But there is reason     h the commencement of Ezra shews one
cles with the commencement of Ezra shews one
for excepting the 35th and 36th verses of the 8th                     with the abruptness of
writer; and in connection with the abruptness of
chapter; both because the first person plural is   former, that both at first were parts of the
suddenly cha.ged for the thiI -and also -on the former, that both at first were parts of the
suddenly changed for the third, and also on ac- same work.  It is likely that Ezra (with Nehesame work. It is likely that Ezra (with Nehecount of the want of connection between the 34th  miah) was first put to the collection of sacred
and 35th verses, a circumstance unlike Ezra's. historical books; and that the portion now called
They belong to the compiler,                  the Chronicles was appended to it as the last part,
In x. I-17 the Chronist reappears. Six times some time afterwards. This agrees with the posiis Ezra cited in these verses. It is also said that to  o  Chronicles in the Hagiographa as the
he went into the chamber of Johanan, the son of closing book.  When the Chronicles were thus
Eliashib-of the high-priest Eliashib who lived disposed in the canonical list, the last two verses
after Nehemiah (See Neh. xn. 22, 23), shewing now in 2 Chron. xxxvi., which stood already at the
that Ezra himself was not the writer. It is ratherbeginning of Ezra, were repeated, for the purpose
begminng of Ezra, were repeated, for the purpose
hypercritical in Hvermck to assert, that becauseof reminding the reader that the continuation of
Eliashib is not called tig-priest in this book, he the narrative was to be found elsewhere. At the
may not have been till afterwards, and hence that time of the LXX. the separation already existed,
Ezra and Eliashib may have lived together. In because the book of Ezra has a distinct title in
compiling the piece, it is probable that the Chron- their version. The beginning of the apocryphal
ist used accounts written by Ezra.            Ezra or Esdras favours this view; the writer passFrom  x. 18 to the end of the chapter was ing at once from the history in 2 Chron. xxxvi. 21
written by Ezra, and inserted here by the com- to Ezra i., using the now separated books as one.
piler. It does not bear the impress of the Chron- The sme conclusion is confirmed by the prevailing
ist himself.                                  belief of the Jews that Ezra wrote both. The TalOur analysis shews that the book of Ezra in mud asserts in one place that Ezra wrote the work
its present form did not proceed from the scribe bearing his name, and the genealogies (in the
himself. Some pieces of his are in it, but another
put them  there.  The Chronicle-writer is the Chronicles) as far as the word 1 (2 Chron. xxi.
author or compiler, who made it up from pieces 2) but that Nehemiah completed the book of
partly written by Ezra and others, and in part by Ezra. In another place this is contradicted, and
himself.                                      the whole ascribed to Nehemiah.
Keil, after the example of Hdvernick, is anxious  Some, perhaps, will object to the statement
to uphold the unity and integrity of the book,that the Artaxerxes in i 7 and vii. -  were the
claiming it all for Ezra himself, with the exception same, and allege that the compiler thought them
of the Chaldee section in iv. 8-vi. I8, which the different, by giving the names a somewhat different
latter took, without alteration, into the body of orthography. It is observable that Nj1 lnC
the work. How little ground there is for this is twice spelled with  in iv. 7; while in vi. I,
view may be inferred from the preceding analysis,  it has  instead of   the compiler finding it
which shews that the work is incompact and in-so written in the  haldee pieces respectively
artificial. In speaking of Ezra, the writer some- This, however, seems too small a point to insist
times uses the first person, sometimes the third; upon. If it be of any weight, it maes no differdifferent parts are composed in different languages  ence m our argument; for in any case the redactwo pieces are in Chaldee, which were not written
by the same person; the style varies in various Darius, as well-attested history shews; or, to speak
places, and there is an apparent chasm in the his- more correctly, none called nIEw.nN.
tory of more than half a century at the end of the  In Ezra i. 7-I 1, the sacred vessels which Nebu6th chapter-a real chasm in the opinion of such  chadnezzar had carried away at several times from
as make Artaxerxes in vii. I, i, etc., a different the temple are enumerated, as —30 chargers of
person from the Artaxerxes of iv. 7.          gold, 1ooo of silver, 29 knives, 30 cups of gold,




EZRA, BOOK OF                  871                  EZRACH
410 silver double cups, and oo000 other vessels. Mover's XKritische Untersuchungen ueber die BibThe whole number is stated to be 5400, whereas lische Chronik, I834.-S. D.
the sum  of those specified is only 2499. The
Pseudo-Ezra mentions oo000 cups of gold, and 1ooo  EZRACH (Ilt,). This word occurs only once
of silver, 29 silver knives, 30 chargers of gold, and  in Scripture, namely, in Ps. xxxvii. 35, where it is
2410 chargers of silver, with oo000 other vessels, rendered bay-tree. Commentators and translators
making together 5469. Josephus, again, makes have differed respecting it; some supposing it to
up the number 5400. Both the apocryphal Ezra indicate a specific tree, as the laurel; others, supand Josephus arbitrarily alter the Hebrew.     ported by the Septuagint and Vulgate, the cedar of
There are three lists of the number of re- Lebanon; others, an evergreen tree; others, a
turned exiles, viz., in Ezra ii. I-67; in the apocry- green tree that grows in its native soil, or that has
phal Esdras v. 7-43; and Neh. vii. 6-69. The not suffered by transplanting, as such a tree spreads
three vary here and there in relation to single itself luxuriously; while others again, as the unnames and the sum total. In Ezra the aggregate known author of the sixth Greek edition, who is
of the numbers is 29,818, in Nehemiah, 3I,089. quoted by Celsius (i. p. I94), consider the word as
In' the Septuagint Ezra it is 29,627, and in the  referring to the'indigenous man:''Vidi impium
Septuagint Nehemiah 3I,I99.  In Esdras of the  et impudentem, in ferocia sua gloriantem, et dicenKOLVi it is 30,043, of the Alexandrian codex 33,932, tem: sum instar indigence, ambulanti in justitia;'
of the Aldine, 33,949. But none of these, even  and this opinion is adopted by Celsius himself.
the highest, reaches the given total, viz., 42,360.  Celsius states that recent interpreters have
Josephus reckons the priests without a family adopted the laurel or bay-tree for no other reason
register, 525, but their number is not in the 0. T. than because
Doubtless the three lists are imperfect; both
names and numbers being deficient in all. It is         viret semper laurus, nec fronde caduca
impossible to tell which is, on the whole, the Ca'pitur.
most accurate.                                    Sir Thomas Browne, indeed, says,'as the
The number of men who returned under Zerub- sense of the text is sufficiently answered by this,
babel or Sheshbazzar is 42,360. Including their we are unwilling to exclude that noble plant from
families, the sum  total probably amounted to the honour of having its name in Scripture.'
200,000 persons, provided the statement in I     The cause why the laurel is not more frequently
Esdras v. 41 be incorrect in placing all boys above mentioned in Scripture, is, probably, because it
twelve years of age among the men; for if that was never very common in Palestine; as otherwise,
writer be correct, the sum total would not exceed  from its pleasing appearance, grateful shade, and
170,000.  Of the whole, 4289 were priests be- the agreeable odour of its leaves, it could hardly
longing to four great races or families, and a num- have failed to attract attention. Though Celsius
ber of priests who, not being able to adduce their and others have remarked that, if ezrach does
registers, were excluded from office on that ac- indeed signify a tree, it must be some one distinct
count (525, according to Josephus).  The Levites from the laurel, and one'quse in Judea frequens
among them were but few, 360 or 341. There fuerit, et altitudine, frondiumque umbra, atque
were 392 nethinim. The people brought with     amcenitate praecelluerit coeteris,' yet no evidence is
them upwards of 7500 slaves of both sexes, and  adduced by any of the above authors in behalf of
a number of horses, mules, camels, and asses, the bay-tree, as that intended in the passage reamounting to upwards of 7000. The number of ferred to. It appears to us that the Hebrew word
returning exiles belonged almost entirely to the
tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and Levi. According must have been derived from the Arabic..^A
to Ezra ii. I, and Neh. vii. 6, they returned'every a   wi  i d            A    c 
one unto his city,' a statement which hardly allowsasru  wh       scrbed    Arabc woks on
of the conjecture that a great many Israelites of Materia Medica as a tree having leaves like the
the Assyrian exile joined the Jews. Comparatively ghr, that is, the bay-tree or Taurus nobiis of
few joined their brethren. In the course of 200  botanists. If ezrach, therefore, was originally the
years their attachment to heathen customs and  same word as ashruk, then it would indicate some
manners had been confirmed; and had they come tree resembling the bay-tree, rather than the bayback in great numbers they would have settled  tree itself; but, until that can be discovered, the
again in their old abodes in Israel, a fact unknown  latter is, upon the whole, well suited to stand as its
to history.  It is an unfortunate conjecture of representative.
Prideaux's that I2,000 of the returning exiles be-  The laurel or bay-tree, Taurus nobilis of botanists,
longed to Israel; and it is still more incorrect to  s well known to the Asatics by its Arabic name
infer that the whole of such as preferred to remain  of 1  gzar, under which it is mentioned by
in Assyria was six times the number of those who 
returned, because four courses only of the priests Serapion and Avicenna, who quote chiefly Diosreturned out of the twenty-four.  If we reckon  corides and Galen, thus indicating that they had
that nearly the half returned, we shall not be far not much original information of their own respectfrom the truth (See the Introductions of Haver- ing a tree which is probably not indigenous in the
nick, Keil, De Wette, and Bleek; Davidson's In- countries in which they wrote. The leaves and
troduction to the Old Testament, vol. ii.; Keil's berries of the laurel, as well as the bark and the
Apologetischer Versuch ueber die Bscher Chronik, root, were employed in medicine: the berries conii. s. w. I833; Kleinert in the Dorpat Beitrd,-en, tinue, even in the present day, to be exported to
u. s. w., vol. i., p. I, et seqq., 1832; Ewald's Ges- India, where we found them in the bazaars, under
chichte des Volkes Israel, vols. i. and iv.; Zunz's Die the name of hubal-ghar (Ilust. Him. Bot., p. 326),
Gottesdienstlichen Vortraege der yuden, 1832; Herz- being still esteemed as a stimulant medicinal,
feld's Geschichte des Yolkes Israel, vol. i., I847; though not possessed of any properties superior to




EZRA                     872               EZRAHITE
those of the laurels of more southern latitudes. among the ancients-a celebrity which has not
The Arabs give zfnefe and zaknee as the Greek  yet passed away, the laurel-wreath being still the
names of the giar-tree. These are corruptions, symbolical crown as well of warriors as of poets.
no doubt, of &dvr, the name by which the bay- Its ever green grateful appearance, its thick shade,
tree was known to the Greeks.    It does not and the agreeable spicy odour of its leaves, point
appear to occur in Palestine, as travellers, such as it out as that which was most likely in the eye of
Rauwolf and Belon, do not mention it. Hassel- the Psalmist.-J. F. R.
quist expressly states that he had not met with it
in Judaea or Galilee, but had rested himself very  EZRAIIITE (,; Sept. ZaptrLs), a desigcomfortably under its shade near the mountains nation applied to Ethan, a man famous for his wisbeyond White Cape, on the road from Acre to   dom (I Kings v. II [A. V. iv. 31]); but of whom
Sidon.  In the neighbourhood of Antioch bay- nothing further is known. In the inscription of
trees were formerly very abundant, especially at Ps. lxxxix., Ethan the Ezrahite is named as its
the village and grove of Daphne, famous for the author; and in the inscription of Ps. lxxxviii., the
temple of Apollo and its licentious rites. Though  same is said in respect of it of Heman the Ezrahite.
the cypress-grove and the consecrated bay-trees This has led some to identify the Ethan and Heman
have disappeared from the immediate vicinity of of I Kings with the Levites Ethan and Heman,
Antioch, Dr. Pococke states that they are in great who were chief among the singers appointed by
abundance at some little distance.  Capts. Irby  David (I Chron. xv. I9). But we have no reason
and Mangles describe the beauty of the scenery to believe that, whatever skill these men had in
on the banks of the Orontes as surpassing anything  music, they were famed for surpassing wisdom;
they expected to see in Syria, and the luxuriant and the inscription on the Psalms is probably due
variety of the foliage as prodigious. The laurel, to the mistake of some one in whose mind the paslaurestinus, bay-tree, fig-tree, wild vine, plane- sage in Kings had got mixed up with I Chron. ii. 6,
tree, English sycamore, arbutus, both common and  where Ethan and Heman appear among the sons
Andrachne, dwarf oak, etc., were scattered in all of Zerah of the tribe of Judah. As 4I'1tW is the
directions. Capt. M. Kinneir describes a delight- same as'I'T with the prosthetic X, it is not improful spot, called Babyle, about seven miles from  bable that in this last passage it is the Ethan of
Antioch, which he was disposed to consider the  Kings that is referred to; but we cannot with cerancient Daphne. A number of fountains boil up  tainty pronounce this, as there is a want of accordfrom amongst the rocks, and flow in different ance between the statement of the chronicler and
channels through a meadow, shaded with luxu- that in Kings respecting the parentage of the other
riant bay-trees, walnut-trees, and groves of myrtle. persons mentioned. It is not improbable, howThe bay-tree is well known to be common in the ever, that the names'Heman, Calcol, and Dara,'
south of Europe, as in Spain, Italy, Greece, and have been interpolated in the text of Chronicles
the Levant. It is usually from 20 to 30 feet in from  the passage in Kings; especially as the
height, often having a bushy appearance, from  writer goes on to state only the descendants of
throwing up so many suckers; but in England it Carmi or Zimri and Ethan (ver. 7, 8). In this
has attained a height of 60 feet, which is not un- case Ethan, the son of Zerah, may be Ethan the
usual in warmer climates. It is unnecessary to  Ezrahite; but there is no Heman the Ezrahite.allude further to the celebrity which it attained  W. L. A.
END OF VOLUME I.
Printed by R. & R. CLARK, Edinburgh.