THE ECCLESIASTICAL POLITY OF
THE NEW TESTAMENT.








TIlE
ECCLESIASTICAL POLITY
OF
THE NEW TESTAMENT.
A STUDY FOR THE PRESENT CRISIS IN THE
CHURCH OF ENGLAND.
EFTHE
REV. G.> A. JACOB, D.D,
LATE HEAD-MASTER OF CHRIST'S HOSPITAL.
NEW-YORK:
t~. W- I TTARKER,
No. 2 BIBLE HOUSE.
1872.




St. Johnland Stereotype Foundry,
SUFFOLiK COUNTY, N. Y.




PREFACE.
THE  following pages were written as a course of
Lectures; which, however, were  not  delivered.
They are now presented to the public in their original
form  and arrangement, though with some alterations
in the substance of their contents, in the belief that a
review  of the organization and outward life of the
Christian Church, as exhibited in the New Testament,
and compared with the Church in the post-apostolic
times, especially in what is termed the Nicene period,
will suggest some useful thoughts for the Church of
England in the crisis through which it is now passing.
The words which M. de Pressense wrote a few years
ago in the Preface of his'Church History' have lost
none of their force and truth at the present time. "II
n'est pas un seul parti religieux qui n'eprouve le besoin
ou de se raffermir ou de se transformer. Les Eglises
nees du grand mouvement du seizieme siecle sont toutes
engagees dans une crise serieuse."
Whether this crisis shall in our case issue in good,
or in evil, is almost identical with the question whether
the English Church has sufficient wisdom to see what
ought to be done, and sufficient courage to do it.
(v)




vi                  PREFACE.
The object of these Lectures is not to advocate the
views or opinions of any Church party, or theological
school; but to present to thoughtful men a view of the
Christian religion in its original form; to mark some of
the differences between Scripture truth and Church tradition, between the primitive state of Christianity as it
came from the Apostles, and what it became in the
hands of uninspired men; and from thence to point
out some obvious suggestions for our consideration at
the present time.
It has been thought desirable in almost every case,
instead of merely giving references to quote the words
of the authorities appealed to; and to these the attention of the reader is especially requested.
TWICIENHAM,
May, 1871.




CONTENTS.
I.                                       PAGE
THE APOSTLES AND  THE CHRISTIAN  HC                  H     UH.....................   3
THE FIRST ORGANIZATION  OF THE CHURCH......................  37
III.
A FURTHER CONSIDERATION OF THE CHRISTIAN MINISTRY (With a
special reference to  the  question  whether  it is rightly  regarded  as a Priesthood)...................................   87
IV.
THE LAITY, OR CHRISTIAN BODY AT LARGE (With their Position
and   Duties)..............................................   135
V.
PuB c WORSHIP..............................................  187
VI.
CHRISTIAN  BAPTISM2....1....................             241
(VII)




VIII                          CONTENTS.
VII.                              PAGE
THE LORD'S SUPPER........................................... 285
ViM.
APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION................................. 323
APPENDIX A.
SOME PRACTIOES AND DOCTRINES OF THE EARLY CHURCH......... 371
APPENDIX B.
THE AUTHORITY OF COUNCILS................................. 402
APPENDIX C.
CONFESSION, ABSOLUTION, AND PENANCE......................... 410
APPENDIX D.
THE APOSTOLICAL SUCCESSION................................. 418




LECTURE I.
THE APOSTLES AND THE CHRISTIAN
CHURCH.








THE APOSTLES AND THE CHRISTIAN
CHURCH.
T HERE are in the New Testament several names
and titles given to Christians as individual men,
each one in and for himself believing in Christ, and guided
by His Spirit: and many doctrines and preceptive
instructions are addressed to them in this character,
with a view to their personal edification, and their progress in the Christian life.
But however true it may be that this individual
Christianity is the first and most important;-and that
his own particular religious state is the first and most
important consideration for each human soul;-it is
evident that it was from the beginning the intention of
the Divine Founder of our religion that there should
be societies or communities of His disciples, acting
together as united members of a corporate body, with
mutual relations to each other as well as to Himself,
and with mutual duties connected with this union.
(3)




4             THE APOSTLES AND
Different names are accordingly given to them, —some
with a figurative, and others with a more literal meaning,-descriptive of this religious incorporation, and exhibiting different aspects of its nature and design.
As therefore the subject which I propose to consider
embraces the Ecclesiastical Polity of the Apostles of
Christ-or the organization and outward life of the
Apostolic Church as it appears in the New Testamentit may be well first of all to notice, briefly, the most
prominent of these descriptive names, and the manner
in which the apostolic office and work are set forth
in connection with them.
i.-Christians represented as a temple.
One of the most striking figures, by which the corporate life of Christians is described represents them
as a magnificent and sacred building-a temple of God
wherein He spiritually dwells. In  this figure each
Christian is one of the stones built up into the gradually
rising structure;-the apostles are sometimes the foundation, or stones first laid in the building, sometimes themselves the builders of the temple;-and Jesus Christ is
in one aspect the builder, in another the foundation, and
in another the chief corner-stone. Thus our Lord said to
Peter, " Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build
my Church."  St. Paul wrote to the Ephesians, "Ye are
built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets,
Jesus Christ Himself being the chief corner-stone, in
whom  all the building fitly framed together groweth




THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.                   5
unto a holy temple in the Lord; in whom ye also are
builded together for a habitation of God through the
Spirit." And to the Corinthians, " Ye are God's building;-as a wise master-builder I have laid the foundation, and another buildeth thereon;-other foundation
can no man lay than that which is laid, which is Jesus
Christ."  And St. Peter, in similar terms, "To whom
coming as unto a living stone, disallowed indeed of men,
but chosen of God and precious, ye also as living stones
are built up a spiritual house."
2.-Christians represented as the body of Christ.
Another figure which frequently occurs in the Pauline
Epistles,-a figure more simple and familiar, but more
rich in spiritual sympathies, and in the view which it
displays of the Christian's life, strength, health, and joy,
in his union with the Saviour,-describes the whole
number of Christian people as a body-the body of
Christ; —Christ Himself being the head, and each Christian one of the members,-so that the whole together are
even said to be "Christ."  Thus to the Corinthians it is
written, "For as the body is one and hath many members, and all the members of that one body, being many,
are one body, so also is Christ; for by one spirit we are
all baptized into one body."  The Ephesians are exhorted to " grow up into Him in all things which is the
head, even Christ; from whom  the whole body, fitly
joined together, and compacted by that which every
joint supplieth, according to the effectual working in the




6             THE APOSTLES AND
measure of every part, maketh increase of the body unto
the edifying of itself in love."  In a similar manner the
bringing in of Christians indiscriminately from all nations
is spoken of as "the mystery," or once hidden truth,
"that the Gentiles should be fellow-heirs, and of the
same body, and partakers of His promise in Christ by
the Gospel."  The various Church ministrations, to
which the different gifts of grace gave birth, are said
to have been designed " For the perfecting of the saints,
for the work of the ministry, for the edifying of the body
of Christ."  And those who departed from  essential
Christian truth are described as "not holding the head,
from which all the body by joints and bands having
nourishment ministered and knit together increaseth
with the increase of God."
But of far more frequent occurrence than either of
these figurative appellations are the two names of a
" Kingdom," and a "Church;" which represent not by
way of similitude, but as a matter of fact, the united
state and position of Christ's disciples;-the former
expression appearing most frequently in the Gospel
narratives, as commonly used by Jesus Himself in his
public life among the Jewish nation; while the latter
occurs more often, though not exclusively, in the Acts
and Epistles, as employed by the Apostles in their
ministrations in the world at large.
3.-Christians the subjects of a kingdom.
In the very beginning of the Gospel it was declared




THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.                  7
that the mission of Jesus was to establish in the world
a kingdom-the kingdom of heaven or of God-of which
He was Himself to be the king. John the Baptist, as
His forerunner, proclaimed, "The kingdom  of heaven
is at hand."  Jesus Himself, at the first commencement
of His ministry, published the same announcement. He
called His public teaching, "preaching the kingdom  of
God;" He told those who rejected Him that "the
kingdom of God had come upon them before they were
aware " —  ^0a ev ib' vtcdS: and in the "good confession"
which He witnessed before Pilate, He acknowledged
Himself to be a King-not indeed of this world's kingdoms, but of a kingdom founded on divine truth, and
containing the lovers of truth as its subjects.
The Apostles of Christ were heralds sent forth to proclaim this kingdom, and to invite men into it. They
preached "the Gospel of the kingdom."  Those who
assisted them in their ministrations were styled their
" fellow-workers unto the kingdom of God."  Those who
listened to their proclamation, and joined themselves to
their company, were assured that they were "no longer
strangers and foreigners, but fellow-citizens with the
saints;"-they were "called into God's kingdom;""translated into the kingdom of his dear Son."
4- Christiansformed into a c7zhrc7i-hux;Ldix.
The word "Church "-sxx1;d6ca-signified primarily
any number of men possessing common privileges, and
called out (uxXrroz), or summoned, to meet together for




8            THE APOSTLES ANVD
the exercise of some common or united functions. And
in the New Testament it is used especially of Christian
men in their collective capacity, having been called by
God's grace out of the darkness of sin and condemnation into the light and liberty.of the Gospel covenant;
and in Christ, as citizens of His kingdom, enjoying
common privileges, and entitled to united action as a
lawfully constituted community.
The word thus used is found in the New Testament
with either a comprehensive or a restricted meaningin the singular or the plural number-the Church, a
Church, or Churches.
(a.) In its highest and most comprehensive signification it denotes all real Christians, who have been, are,
or will be, on earth, and who will be united in Christ's
kingdom  of glory. It is in this sense that St. Paul
speaks of "the general assembly and Church of the firstborn which are written in heaven."  In this sense the
Church is the true body of Christ, "the fulness of Him
that filleth all in all;" in which the glory of God will be
displayed "throughout all ages world without end."
(b.) It is also used to signify the "Visible Catholic
Church," i. e., all professing Christians living at any
given time upon earth: in which sense, "The Lord
added to the Church daily those who were being saved;"
and St. Paul exhorted the Corinthians to "give none
offence, neither to the Jews, nor to the Gentiles, nor to
the Church of God."
(c.) But this word is much more frequently used with




THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.                           9
a restricted meaning to denote a distinct Christian community in  a particular place; in which  connection  it
should be observed that in the apostolic writings it is
never said  of a country  or nation.   It is always the
Church in a city or town. Neither is it ever said to be
the Church of any given town;' but always in or at the
place,-or else the Church of the inhabitants, i.e. the
Christian inhabitants of the town; as " the Church which
was at Jerusalem;" " the Church that was in Antioch;"
" the Church of the Laodiceans."  Whenever the Christians of a country or nation are spoken of collectively,
the word  is always in the plural number; as, "The
Churches of Galatia;" " The Churches of Judea." There
is no  example of a "National Church" in the New
Testament.2
(d.) And lastly, in its most restricted meaning, the
word is applied to a congregation assembling in one
place for Christian worship; as,'" The Church that is in
their house;" " When ye come together in the Church,"
An apparent, but not a real, national life, are not divine or aposexception is found in Rev. ii. 1, tolic institutions. Their propriety
"Unto the angel of the Church of rests altogether on the ground of
Ephesus;" but this is an error, for general expediency and public adthe words are, vTG a)yyea  rt5 vantage; and to attempt to furnish'E(p6iv7 u5 2Xd6ix, not'Epe-  them with a higher sanction by
6ov; not to mention that rt  tv  arguments drawn from the theo-'Eqp6e is a preferable reading.    cratic government of the Jewish
2 From the very circumstances of people seems to me to savour but
the case there could be no such little of sound reasoning, and to
thing as a "National Church" in  confound together some of the
the apostolic period.  National distinctive characteristics of two
Churches, however justifiable and widely different dispensations.
desirable in certain periods of




IO               THE APOSTLES AND
i.e. in your assembly as a Christian congregation;and,
"if the whole Church be come together into one place."
But the word is never used in the New Testament to
signify  a  building or a place of worship:  nor does it
ever mean Christian ministers as distinguished from the
general body of Christians. On the contrary, in two
instances, it is found to signify the Laity or general body
as distinguished from the Apostles and Elders; thus,
" they were received of the Church, and of the Apostles
and Elders, and it pleased the Apostles and Elders with
the whole Church," who  are afterwards in  the same
chapter designated as "the Apostles, and the Elders,
and the Brethren."2
I The word Church in 1 Cor. xi. his orthodox opponents fellinto the
18-22, is sometimes representedas same fundamental error of conmeaning a building; but no reason  founding the visible with the inviscan be assigned for this, except the ible Church, though they differed in
puerile one (which would justify  the application of their mistaken
any amount of erroneous transla- notion.  Throughout the Nicene
tion), that such a rendering will period, the same unfortunate mismake sense in this particular pas- take wrought incalculable mischief
sage. There is no good example of in doctrine and in practice. It is
EuX2yc6iac meaning a building ear- needless to say that it has domilier than the third century.     nated in the Church of Rome. And
2 It is by no means an unneces- even now there are those amongst
sary or trivial thing to mark these  ourselves who to this ancient misdifferent significations of the word  apprehension join the additional
Church. What may justly be af- error of confounding their own parfirmed of the Church in one sense, ticular Church platform with that
may be a fatal delusion when ap- of the whole Catholic Church, to
plied to it in another. And the want the great detriment of Christian
of clearly distinguishing between  feeling, and the encouragement of
such differences has been at the  a blind and uncharitable bigotry.
root of many evils in the course of    "Inextricable  confusion  and
ecclesiastical history. Thus, in the  dangerous error must arise, unless
third century, both Novatian and  we keep distinct two things-abso



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.                         I 
Of this Gospel Church in its highest and most comprehensive meaning our Lord Jesus Christ is declared to
be the Head; —the source of life to each member of this
His body;-the chief shepherd of this flock and fold.
But while all true Christians are thus united to Him.
and have in Him  a common life, the Church, in this
sense, being at present altogether a spiritual body, has
no visible form or organization, in the regulation of
which man has anything to do, however human instrumentality may be employed in bringing men, one aftei
another, into it. The place and time of its manifestation in its completeness as an organized community,or what St. Paul terms a  ourir-ev/a,-)is not on earth or
in the existing gospel dispensation.
The Church which the Apostles were sent forth to
constitute and establish in the world, though possessing
spiritual blessings, and containing within it those who
have an inner spiritual life in Christ, is yet a visible
body, Catholic or one in nature, privilege, doctrine, and
position, so far as any portion of it succeeds in realising
lutely different in themselves, and  [the portion of the invisible Cathyet too often regarded as one and olic Church] on earth, or the
the same-I mean, on the one aggregate of individuals, whether
hand, visible Christianity, or the scattered or congregated, whose
system of Christian doctrines and hearts have been quickened from
practices existing or established in  above, and whose dispositions and
this and that country, sometimes conduct are actually governed by
giving direction to the course of the genuine motives of the Gospel;
events on the great stage of affairs, in a word, the children of God, of
sometimes depressed and confined whatever name or communion."within the narrowest limits; and,'Ancient Christianity,' p. 433.
on the other hand, the True Church




12            THE APOSTLES AND
its professed character and state; but including any
number of Christian societies, which, as far as human
authority is concerned, are independent of each other.
It is this visible Catholic Church,-as a community,-or
number of communities, of professedly Christian men,in the regulation of which human agency has in all ages
had a part to take and a duty to perform; and the
polity of which as instituted by the Apostles we have
now to consider.
The two names of a Kingdom and a Church, although
sometimes apparently used as synonymous and interchangeable, yet represent the Christian body under
different aspects, and correspond respectively with the
moral and the religious position of Christ's disciples.
And, in connection with this distinction, it may be observed, that the kingdom of God, with Jesus as its king,
began during the Saviour's life upon earth; but the
Church was not brought into existence until after He
had left the world.
Jesus Himself commenced his kingdom; and those
who attached themselves to Him became its citizens.
Jesus Himself made known the great moral principles
which were to regulate His subjects; as may be seen in
a condensed form in the Sermon on the Mount, and
more diffusively in other portions of the Gospel narratives.' He shewed plainly in the course of His instruc1 Some rationalistic writers have only a moral Rabbinical teacher
unfairly seized on this circum- introducing a purified Judaism
stance to represent that Jesus was without adding a single doctrine to




THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.                        13
tions that the moral life, or citizenship, in His kingdom
was not a mere enforced subjection to the yoke of law,
or an outward conformity with the letter of commandments; but a life proceeding from  an inward powei
imparted by His spirit to those who were united to Him,
as fruitful branches of the living vine;-a life acting
through the influence of love, and not of a slavish fear,
producing a happy, spiritual, and enlarged obedience
to His will, and extending to every particular of the
Christian  character.   And all that was left for His
Apostles, in this portion of their work, was to proclaim
and inculcate what Christ Himself had taught,-to teach
men that "the law of the spirit of life in Christ Jesus
made His subjects free from the law of sin and death"
(Rom. viii. 2), in order that they might live the new life
unto God;-and to exhort them  to walk in a manner
worthy of the vocation wherewith they had been called,
-the  heavenly citizenship to which they had been
admitted.
But the Church was not begun until after the descent
of the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles on the day of
Pentecost; and it is never mentioned, except prospectively, before that time. Men could be admitted into
the kingdom of Christ, as soon as they were willing to
the older religion. They ignore more prominent in the Gospels,
the important facts that Chris- yet the great Christian doctrines
tianity, as a religion, could not exist are also alluded to; and, above all,
until after the death of Christ; the historical foundation of those
and also that, although the Chris- doctrines is most distinctly retian life in its moral aspect is the corded.




14           THE APOSTLES AND
submit to His authority, and to conform  to the life
which He lived and taught; but they could not be
formed into a Church, until they believed in Him as the
Son of God,-the Saviour of those who received Him,
by the justifying righteousness of His life and the
atoning sacrifice of Iis death,-and the imparber of
the Holy Spirit, and the future judge of man; and this
could not be, until after His work on earth was done,
and He had risen again, and ascended into heaven.
The Apostles, therefore, were the founders of the
Christian Church.  They were its divinely appointed
and infallible teachers and legislators. They were its
supreme authorities on earth, to declare its doctrines
and to prescribe its form and polity,-to admit into it
and exclude from it,-to bind and to loose,-to remit
and to retain sins. They were in short to organize the
Church as a regular society possessed of a definite
character, with its own especial rights, privileges, and
objects. They were to rule in it as long as they lived;
and it rested with them to leave such instructions for
its future guidance, as they might consider necessary for
its continuance and welfare, as a permanent institution
in the world.
To qualify them for this high office and important
work the Apostles received a divine authority and power,
from the commission of Christ, and the inspiration of
the Holy Spirit. The authority was given them by
Christ Himself, when He said to them, as recorded by
St. Matthew, "Go ye therefore and teach-or rather




THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.                 I5,uaOrevxsare, make disciples of-all nations, baptizing
them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of
the Holy Ghost; teaching them to observe all things,
whatsoever I have commanded you; and lo! I am with
you always, even unto the end of the world." And when,
as related by St. John, He declared to them, "As my
Father hath sent me, even so send I you;" and, " Whosesoever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them, and
whosesoever sins ye retain, they are retained." And a
divine power was given to them by the coming of the
Holy Spirit, of whom Jesus had told them beforehand,
that when He was gone they should receive another Comforter, to abide with them forever-even the Holy Ghost,
who would teach them all things, and bring all things to
their remembrance, whatsoever He had said unto them;
and who, as the Spirit of truth, would " guide them into
all the truth," Ztrdoxv riev dosezoav, —which they were
to proclaim  to men. This was " the power from on
high," for which, after His ascension, they were "to
tarry at Jerusalem."  This power, as the last words
of Jesus informed them, "they would receive, when
the Holy Spirit came upon them," and thus fitted them
to be His witnesses and ambassadors, throughout the
world.
And this power and authority were both combined in
those words, so often, as I venture to think, misinterpreted and misapplied, which Jesus addressed to Petercertainly not to the exclusion of the other Apostles"Thou art Peter, and on this rock' I will build my




I6               THE APOSTLES AND
Church;    and I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth
shall be bound  in heaven, and whatsoever thou shalt
loose  on  earth  shall be  loosed  in  heaven" " (Matt.
1  am  unable to see that the  says, "inquodamlocode Apostolo
"rock" in this verse can mean  Petro, quod in illo, tanquam  in
anything but Peter himself; nor petra, fundata sit ecclesia; qui
do I believe that any Christian  sensus etiam  cantatur ore mulscholar reading the original text torum in versibus beatissimi Amwould assign to it any other mean- brosii, ubi de gallo gallinaceo ait:
ing, if he had no special opinion       Hoc ipsa petra ecclesiae
which he was determined to main-        Canente culpam diluit."
tain. Some Protestant interpreters         Aug. lib. i. Retract. xxi.
in their zeal against popery have  So Cyprian, a century earlier, says,
rejected this obvious meaning. But  "Petrus tamen, super quem adifiit is a very dangerous practice, cata ab eodem domino fuerat ecclewhatever be the motive, to make  sia, unus pro omnibus loquens
the sense of Scripture conform itself et ecclesiao voce respondens, ait,
to our opinions, instead of making  domine, ad quem ibimus?-Epist.
our opinions conform themselves to  55, ad Cornelium.
it. It is, moreover, difficult to see    2 The words of this apostolic
why Peter should not be called the  commission, "I will give thee the
" foundation " in this verse, as well keys," &c., have been a favourite
as the Apostles in general in Eph. text with Papal despotism, and
ii. 10. See also Rev. xxi. 14. The  have given occasion to some very
ancient fathers are but little to be  gross delusions.
relied on as interpreters of Scrip-    Protestant  divines, rejecting
ture; and they differ from  each  these, have yet too often entangled
other in their interpretation of this  themselves and their readers in
verse.  Augustin once held the  unprofitable speculations on these
common-sense  view, and  after- simple words. Romanists are, at
wards changed his opinion. But any rate, consistent in their error
his second thoughts were not al- when they use this text as a founways the best, seeing that he in- dation for the pretended infallibilveighed against the superstitions ity of their church; for the words
of his time, and then gave the  addressed to Peter do distinctly
weight of his authority to support speak of an infallible authority;
them.  Ambrose also held  that and if they applied to successive
Peter was the "rock," as Augus- ages of the Church, they would justin  acknowledges.  "Dixi," he  tify ecclesiastical claims of the




THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.                         I7
xvi. 19)-words both of power and of authority, for he
who has the keys given to him is both able and authorised
to admit and to shut out; while the last part of this
commission declares this authority to be infallible, and
makes the  Apostle's words of command  or solemn
instruction the Word of God to men.'
The INWARD and OUTWARD aspect of the Chlurch.
This Church of the apostolic times, as in every other
period of its history, presents an inward and an outward
aspect. To the former belong the doctrines which the
Apostles taught: the latter is exhibited in its apostolic
form,-its institutions and laws.  These two are, indeed,
intimately connected  together; for "the  form  of the
Church, at any period, is a result primarily of its doctrine.  Its external phase in constitution and worship is,
papal type. But Protestants are in- that' Whatsoever they should bind
consistent when, denying the claims or loose upon earth, would be
of Rome, they deduce for them- bound and loosed in heaven."
selves from this verse a divinely-   1 As Peter was specially mengiven church authority, which they tioned by name in this giving of the
call the " power of the keys."  keys, so he is specially named when
Every Church, as a lawfully con- the keys were first used on the day
stituted body sanctioned by Christ, of Pentecost to admit the believing
has, in accordance with his will, a Jews into the Church. It was also
legitimate authority over its mem- Peter who, with these keys, opened
bers, just as all other voluntary  the door of entrance to Cornelius
communities have over those who and his friends, the first-fruits of
join them; but it does not depend  Gentile Christianity.  With the
upon such texts as these.  The same keys, again, Peter and John
words will justly apply to Peter and shut out Simon of Samaria from
the other apostles alone. To them  the Church, when his real chaalone could it be said with truth, racter was discovered.
2




I8            THE APOSTLES AND
for the most part, the necessary fruit and effect of the
inner principle of doctrine and creed." (Guericke.) And
conversely the outward form  and constitution of a
Church,-the laws or customs which regulate its worship
and discipline,-the functions assigned to its officers,the ritual observed in its devotions,-and its whole
action as a visible Christian body,-re-act with great
force upon its inner life,-upon the doctrines which it
most prominently teaches,-the manner in which those
doctrines are received and held by its individual members, and the whole of their religious character and state.
Neither can such outward forms be lightly passed by on
the ground that the real strength and essence of such a
religion as ours is the invisible spirit of its inner life.
For every religion, however spiritual in its nature, must
have some outward exhibition of its truths and principles,
-must have a visible organization, through which its
inner life may act and be maintained, and its power duly
exercised among men. Without these external things
no visible Church could be gathered together or continue
to exist,-no Christian community-and, possibly, no individual Christian-could long preserve his religion unimpaired. The importance, therefore, of the external
action in any Christian Church, though it must be confined to its own proper sphere, can hardly, within that
sphere, be exaggerated, or too highly placed. Outward
forms and ordinances are not, indeed, the life, yet they
are necessary as means and instruments of the life's
powers and influences. They stand related to the real




THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.                      19
life and spirit of a Christian Church nearly as the organs
of the human body do to the soul,-dead and powerless
by themselves, yet requisite for the soul's contact with
the material world. And as in the man, considered as a
creature of this world, his best and soundest condition
is when his body, healthy and complete in every limb,
subserves and exhibits the action of a healthy mental
state;- so that is the best and soundest condition of a
Church on earth, when an external organization, healthy
and complete in all its parts, most freely and fully displays the working of a divine life within;-neither by an
excess of laws and ceremonies, causing the true spirit to
be lost sight of in adherence to the form;-nor by
an opposite defect and want of forms preventing the
spirit, from its very spirituality, from being apprehended
by ordinary men;-nor by unauthorised, unsound, or
questionable  observances and rules giving erroneous
views of Christian doctrine-hindering the healthy action
of Christian feeling-unduly fettering Christian libertyor distorting the fair proportions of Christian truth, which
it is the office of the Church to cherish and make known.
Hence in every Church a due attention to its outward
organization,-its regulations, ceremonial, government,
and polity in general,-is intimately connected with its
most vital interests, and can never with safety be omitted,
or regarded as a matter of slight and trivial concern.l
1 With regard to our own Church, when it was more imperatively
surely there never was a time called to a large and scriptural consince the reign of Queen Elizabeth, sideration of such questions with




20             THE APOSTLES AND
For this reason the outward aspect and constitution
of the apostolic Church, as it is exhibited in the New
Testament, has seemed to me a subject not likely to be
unprofitable, even when handled with no more power
than I can hope to bring to it, and to no wider an extent
than the limits of these lectures will allow. And in
dwelling upon this subject I purpose at the same time
to wander so far into the regions of the post-apostolic
Church, as to compare, in certain striking respects, the
institutions and practices of the apostolic age with those
of the three following centuries,-especially that latter
portion of them which is commonly called the Nicene
period.
It seems to me the more important to take this double
view of the subject, because there is so very much in the
aspect of Church thought and action at the present time,
which demands from true and earnest Christian men an
impartial and unshrinking consideration not only of the
teaching of the New Testament, but also of the real
teaching of the Nicene Church, and of the authority supposed to be attached to it. Notwithstanding the still
generally acknowledged supremacy of Holy Scripture
all earnestness and gravity. The lent elements, perhaps, on the surdangers which hung over the face, but with deeper grounds of
Church of England at the begin- apprehension underneath, the naning of the seventeenth century tional Church, endangered from
may seem to us now more alarming within and from without, is still,
than those of the present day; but unfortunately, shrinking from that
the Churchmen of those times made which alone, humanly speaking,
light of the storm, until it burst could ensure its safety.
upon their heads. With less vio



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.                2
amongst us, the main current of Church opinion on all
questions of polity and practice (to say nothing here of
doctrines) has for a very considerable time been setting
strongly towards the ecclesiastical system of the third
and fourth centuries, to the neglect, in this respect, of
the New Testament; and many are carried quietly along
with the tide, knowing little or nothing of the shore to
which it is wafting them. The movement, which was
commenced in our Church nearly forty years ago, and
which has gradually extended its influence under various
forms and phases, until it is now felt throughout our
ecclesiastical life, was begun and carried on by men, who
diligently and perseveringly brought to bear upon the
public mind their stores of learning, gathered, not from
the Apostles, but from the post-apostolic Fathers; not
from the divinely taught Church of the New Testament,
but from the humanly deteriorated Church of a later
time. The opponents of this Oxford school of theology
cried out against what seemed to be the Romanistic
nature of its teaching; —a considerable number of its
teachers and disciples ended their career in the Church
of Rome;-and Romanizing predilections and practices
are still plainly seen in some of its adherents. Yet it
was a mistake to suppose that Rome was the proposed
object of the Oxford Tractarians' aims or wishes. The
accomplished leaders of that movement were no doubt
perfectly sincere, when at an early period of their course
they denied the charge of Rome-ward tendencies which
was brought against them. It was not into conformity




22           THE APOSTLES AND
with the Church of Rome, but into conformity with the
Church of the fourth century, that they desired to bring
us. It was only at a later time that some of them, discovering the end to which their accepted principles
naturally le4c but which they had not at first perceived,
honestly went over to the Romish communion. And
even now, after the long, and for the most part triumphant, career which this Church party has pursued, it is
only the very advanced members of it who distinctly
hold Romanistic tenets, and long for an actual re-union
with the Papal See. The greater number, the more
moderate and less deeply imbued portion of the High
Church or Anglo-Catholic school, who do not denounce
the English Reformation as a blunder and a crime, desire
still, with a consciousness more or less indistinct, to draw
as near as they can, in doctrine and in practice, to the
model of the Church, as it existed before the supposed
commencement of the Papacy;-or at any rate they
entertain a great reverence for the Nicene period, as if
the true Christian system had then reached its perfection, and as if the doctrines and practices then in force,
were in some way or other binding upon Christians now.
Yes, and even with some, who do not by any means
belong to the High Church school, there may be found
a vague feeling that the Nicene period enjoys a kind of
authority in the Church of England beyond that of any
other time. And so when "Church authority" or
"Church principles," instead of the teaching, or as supplemental to the teaching, of the New Testament, are




THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.                23
urged upon our acceptance under the penalty of our
being considered untrue to the Catholic Church, if we
reject them, the Church as it was in the fourth century
is intended.
And all the while there is frequently a profound ignorance of what the Church system at that time really was,
and of the extent to which it had departed from the
simplicity of the apostolic age and truth.
In the following pages therefore some particulars of
that Church system will be noticed in connection with
the apostolic practices, with which they are contrasted;
and in the meanwhile I would observe in general terms
respecting it, that it is not at all surprising if modern
Anglo-Catholicism, while following the Nicene Church,
has been popularly accused of Romish tendencies; or
if some of the leaders or promoters of this theology have
joined themselves to the Papal Church. Nor is it by
any means so extraordinary or outrageous a thing, as it
might at first sight be deemed, when clergymen of the
Church of England,-a Church which protests against
Romish errors,-seem to conform their ministrations as
nearly as possible to the rites and ceremonies of Rome.
For almost all the doctrines and practices which characterize modern lRomanism, are to be found only a little
less intensified in times long before the date of what is
considered the commencement of the Papal system; beginning, indeed, at the end of the second century,-making large growth, and gaining strength and development
in the third and fourth,-and numbering among its ad



24               THE APOSTLES AND
herents, expositors, and supporters, the greatest names in'
patristic divinity.' And consequently a reverent and
admiring study of those times, pursued to any length,
must exert a powerful, if not an irresistible, influence in
this direction,-an influence which naturally and necessarily lands the captivated student in something scarcely
distinguishable from full-grown Romanism,-unless the
New Testament is placed high and alone above all other
authorities in his mind, and the words and deeds of the
best and most honoured of men and Churches, are constantly brought to the test of the inspired record, and of
the apostolic teaching in the really primitive  Church.
And as long as the Church of the third and fourth cenI Full and irrefragable proofs of ago-an unanswerable book, which
this assertion, which may seem  deserves more attention than it
strange and incredible to some has received from English Churchworthy men, are to be found in the men; and which may be studied
ecclesiastical writers.of the period. with advantage by all who wish to
Our Church histories are, in this know the  source  and end of
respect, of very little use. Bing- modern Anglo-Catholicism.
ham's'Antiquities' (if it be an    Mede's learned work on'The
edition in which'the original au- Apostacy of the Latter Times,'
thorities are quoted at length) sup- may also be read with advantage
plies many useful materials for in connection with this subject.
forming a sound judgment on'In Appendix A. I have endeasome particulars; but he passes voured to give, within a. short comtoo lightly over many points which  pass, a synopsis of the doctrines
are the most necessary for the dis- and practices which are sometimes
covery of the truth; and his cx- thought to be exclusively Romanplanations and inferences are'often  istic, but which were maintained
too innocent to be of any value.  by the Christian Church before or
A large amount of most valua- at the end of the fourth century.
ble information, with authorities The attention of the reader is
quoted or referred to, is contained  specially requested to the proofs
in'Ancient Christianity,' by Isaac which are there given for every
Taylor, first published thirty years statement.




THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.                    25
turies is regarded with especial reverence, and its authority over us is even partially admitted, it will be possible
for our clergy, who desire to reproduce its system, to
draw through it quite close to Romanism, without being
self-convicted of unfaithfulness or dishonesty,-but on
the contrary having many pleas wherewith to satisfy
their own conscience, and to excuse, if not to justify,
their proceedings. Such Anglo-Catholics often seem to
feel that they need not go over to Rome, because they
can thus make a Rome for themselves where they are,
without the painfulness and scandal of a secession.
But the opinion that we are bound dutifully to submit
to the authority, and ought to be guided by the practice
and example, of the Church as it was in the first three,
four, or any other centuries, however prevalent and
plausible, is delusive and ensnaring. The Church of the
apostolic period is the only Church in which there is
found an authority justly claiming the acknowledgment
of Christian bodies in other times. And such authority is
found in this Church,-not because it was possessed of a
truer catholicity, or a purer constitution, or a more pritnitive antiquity, than belong to succeeding ages; for neither
antiquity, nor purity of form, nor catholicity, confers any
right to govern or command; but because it was under
the immediate rule and guidance of the Apostles; and
it is their infallible judgment alone, as exhibited in this
Church, which has a legitimate claim to our submission.'
1 Pressensd says of the apostolic est toutefois une pdriode de son hisage in his forcible language, "I1 toire, qu'il importe de distinguer




26                 THE APOSTLES AND
Of the Church of no other period can the same be
said, because the Apostles had no successors in their
office.'   They  stand  alone.   They  stand  alone as the
des autres; c'est l'geapostolique. the one nor the other are the
Sa mission spdciale fut de con- Apostles' successors."
server au monde le souvenir vivant    It might with equal truth and
du Christ. L'Eglise primitive est force be added that in some things
l'intermediaire oblige entre nous et every Christian man is a successor
lui; elle seule nous le fait con- of the Apostles.  The Apostles
naitre; elle est pour nous comme  ordained presbyters, and so do
le canal qui nous apporte l'eau de la bishops; the Apostles preached
source.  Aussi a-t-elle recu les Christ, and so do presbyters; the
dons necessaires k l'accomplisse-  Apostles believed in Jesus, and so
ment de sa mission. I1 en est deux  do Christian men; but all this has
surtout qui lui sont particuliers.  really nothing to do with the quesElle est l'Eglise de l'Apostolat, et tion whether the Apostles had any
l'Eglise de l'Inspiration.  D'une  successors in their Apostleship. In
part, elle est le temoin imm6diat all the essential powers and authodu Christ, et de l'autre elle a regu  rity of the Apostles' office they had,
l'esprit de Dieu dans une mesure  and could have, none to succeed
extraordinaire, afin de poser solide- them.  And the question is not
ment le fondement, sur lequel fairly met and argued by Hooker.
1'Eglise de tous les temps devait   Indeed, in spite of the high esti6tre assise."-' Histoire des Trois mation  in  which  Hooker  has
Premiers SiBcles,' vol. i. p. 350.    always been justly held, in spite of
1 " Ipsius Apostolatus nulla suc- his great and admirable qualitiescessio. Finitur enim legatio cum  his genius, learning, eloquence,
legato, nec ad successores ipsius  and piety-a thoughtful and unpretransit."'Staple,' quoted by Hook- judiced  man  will hardly  read
er  (Eccl. Pol. vii. ~ 4), who  through the whole of his' Ecleremarks upon it, "Such as deny  siastical Polity' (which I suspect
Apostles to have any successors at very few of our modern divinity
all in the office of their Apostleship, students do), without once and
may hold that opinion without con- again feeling that he is listening to
tradiction to this of ours, if they  an advocate bent upon saying all
will explain themselves in declar- that can be said on one side, and
ing what truly and properly Apos- not always having the best of the
tleship is.  In some things every  argument, rather than a fair invespresbyter, in  some things only  tigator of the truth; and regretting
bishops, in some things neither that never since his time has an




THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.                   27
divinely inspired teachers, legislators, and rulers in
Christ's Church and kingdom.  They stand alone as
men appointed and commissioned by Christ Himself, and
not by man; whereas all Christian ministers since their
time, of whatsoever order or degree, have been fallible
men, and have been appointed and commissioned by
man,-by the authority of the particular Church in
which they were to minister.
The promise of our Lord, that He would be with the
Apostles even to the end of the world, as it did not
secure to them a continuance on earth beyond their own
generation, so neither did it entg.ge or imply that others
with a similar power and authority should succeed them.
With faithful preachers of Christ, and sound teachers of
His word and doctrine, and diligent pastors of His flock,
their divine Master has in all ages been present by His
Spirit. But no Christian ministers having received the
commission or inspiration of the Apostles, none of them
could inherit the apostolic office, nor could they individually or in any collective body ever possess the apostolic authority. And as no Church ministers, so neither
the Church itself of any post-apostolic time, (in whatever mode we may suppose it to have uttered a united
voice), has ever had any apostolic or divine authority to
which after-ages owed submission.
The opinion that such submission is due to the Church
authoritative and impartial judge and obtained a just verdict in the
summed up the case between cause.
Hooker and his Puritan opponents,




28            THE APOSTLES AND
of any given period, can be justified only on the supposition that the Church of that period was infallible: that
in fact our Lord was then so present with the visible
Church, as to miraculously exempt it from. error in the
exercise of its legislative and administrative functions,
in doctrine and in practice. But if so, is there any
ground whatever for rejecting the claims of infallibility
such as are persistently and consistently put forward by
the Church of Rome?  Is there any ground whatever
for ascribing this divine sanction to the Nicene period,
and denying it to the modern Papacy? For surely it is
impossible with any show of reason or truth, to draw the
line at any one place in the history of the Church, after
the Apostles had been withdrawn; and to say, before
this the Church was divinely preserved from error,after this it was fallible and erred.
Nor can the nearness of the early Church to the
Apostles' time be with any effect pleaded in behalf of
its authority. For it is not being near to truth and
wisdom that makes men true and wise. And there is
unquestionable evidence that soon after the Apostles
disappeared, the Church was no longer always guided
by the spirit of truth and wisdom; but, on the contrary,
gradually yielded to the seductions of error,-was corrupted by its contact with Judaism, Gnosticism, and
Heathenism, and advanced more and more along the
downward road of superstition and formality.
The only deference, therefore, which we owe to Church
antiquity, as distinguished from the inspired authority of




THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.                          29
the Apostles, is this,-that whenever good men, either
singly or unitedly, have said or done what is right and
good, we should love to listen to them, and to tread in
their steps-to  follow  them  as they  followed  Christ.
But we must use our own judgment, guided by Scripture, reason, and experience, in deciding what is right or
wrong in their words or deeds.
I appeal, therefore, from the Nicene Fathers to the
Apostles of Christ; from patristic literature to the New
Testament; from  ecclesiastical authorities and practices
of post-apostolic centuries to the primitive Church of the
apostolic age.  To go back to that time, and to endeavour, as far as possible, to reproduce the Church of the
New Testament, is most needful for us now, if we would
preserve  a  faithful and  distinct acknowledgment of
Christian truth amongst our people.  By realizing as far
as we may the ideal of that Church in our own community, we shall best maintain its liberty and puritywe shall best meet the peculiar dangers of the present
time, and prepare for the future which is at hand.'
1 The following words of Pres- temporaine. C'est dans cette voie
sense are well worthy of the atten- qu'elle trouvera la liberte et la
tion of English Churchmen at the saintetw, ces deux  attributs si
present time: "Pour quiconque etroitement lies et qui lui sont si
admet la divinitd du Christianisme, ndcessaires pour s'elever h la haul'Eglise de l'avenir a son type et teur de sa vocation actuelle. C'est
son iddal dans ce grand passd qui dans cette voie qu'elle accomplira
remonte non pas B trois siecles, aussi dans sa theologie ce progres,
mais h dix-huit siecles en arri&re. que tout prepare, et que tout conLe connaitre toujour mieux pour le seille, et qui ne sdra qu'une approreproduiretoujoursplusfiddlement, priation plus profonde de la doctelle est la thche de 1'Eglise con- trine apostolique...




30             THE APOSTLES AND
But in considering the constitution of the apostolic
Church of the New Testament, it will be necessary to
remark with as much precision as we can, and to bear in
mind, throughout our investigations, the following distinctions:
1. What, according to the apostolic record, is necessary
and of perpetual obligation in the Church.
2. What is non-essential and discretionary, being allowable and under certain circumstances the best, but not
necessary or at all times right or desirable.
3. What is excluded, and expressly or virtually forbidden, as unsuitable to the Christian dispensation, or
inconsistent with its essential character and design.
From the first and the last of these expressions of the
apostolic judgment no Church ought ever to deviate.
It is the duty and the wisdom of all Christian communities carefully to retain, and to embody in their ecclesiastical regulations, whatever the inspired teachers and
rulers of the original Church regarded as essential;
and with equal care to avoid in practice, and to exclude
from their ordinances and polity, whatever is shown on
the same authority to be alien to the Gospel principles
or plan.  On the other hand all non-essential things,
which in the New Testament are not commanded or forPuisse-t-elle y reussir de nos jours apostolique. Rien ne lui est plus
moins imparfaitement que par le necessaire pour les luttes solenpasse, et remonter dans son dogme, nelles qui l'attendent." —'Histoire
comme dans son organisation, par des Trois Premiers SiEcles,'-Predela toutes les obscuritds et toutes face.
les entraves humainesjusqu'au type




THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.                  3
bidden, or for which no obligatory form or mode has
been prescribed, even where in some form or mode they
must have a place, and must have had a place, in the
practical life of every Church,-all these are left to
the discretion and judgment of each Christian community. Every such community is fully authorized to
retain, change, or discontinue any ordinance or practice
of this nature. It is wise and good for non-essentials to
be always distinguished from things of perpetual obligation, and to be altered when changes, or time, or circumstance require such change of ministration. It is wise
and good for every Church from time to time to revise
its formularies, and to consider with all gravity, but with
all Christian freedom, whether any such alterations be
required or no. It is very unwise, unapostolic, and unChristian to bind fast what the Apostles left unbound,
and for one Church to condemn another for differences of
judgment in such questions. It is very unwise and hostile to the best interests of a Church to regard its regulations, its liturgy, or its other formularies, as fixed for
ever, and virtually unalterable, as if they were the embodiment of a divine inspiration or of an express commandment, and so to refuse all change, until at last what
was a harmless practice becomes a hurtful superstition,
or what was once believed to be a bond of union and
strength becomes a source of division, weakness, or disruption. It is a valuable remark of Richard Hooker
that, " The superstition that riseth voluntarily and by
degrees which are hardly discerned, mingling itself with




32            THE APOSTLES AND
the rites even of very divine service done to the on y
true God, must be considered of as a creeping and
encroaching evil-an evil'the first beginnings whereof are
commonly harmless, so that it proveth only then to be
an evil, when some further accident doth grow unto it,
or itself come unto further growth... This might be exemplified even by heaps of rites and customs, now superstitions in the greatest part of the Christian world, which
in their first original beginnings, when the strength of virtuous, devout, or charitable affection bloomed them, no
man could justly have condemned as evil." (Eccl. Pol. v. 3.)
Furthermore, in endeavouring to arrive at just conclusions respecting the mind and will of the Apostles on
all such questions, it will be necessary to observe not
only what they commanded, practised, or allowed, but
also whether these commands and _practices were of
lasting obligation, or were only of a temporary or nonessential character. And it will be necessary also to
notice some things not commanded or practised in the
Apostolic Church-the  Omissions in the New  Testament.' Such omissions always prove as much as thisthat the matter in question was left to the discretion of
future Churches to adopt or to decline it; but there are
cases in which they lead us much further than this,
and warrant-nay, enforce-the conclusion that what
is omitted is in effect forbidden.
1 See'Essays on the Omissions tions of them quoted in his'IKingin the New Testament,' by Arch- dom of Christ Delineated.'
bishop Whately, especially por



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.                33
This negative argument from the omissions of Holy
Writ may doubtless be rashly and illegitimately used, as
it was most notably by the Puritans in the latter part of
the sixteenth century; but it ought not on that account to
be neglected. For although many truths may be rightly
believed, many actions in life be justly done, and many
rites and practices in the Church be wisely adopted,
without their being expressly sanctioned, or even mentioned, in Holy Scripture, yet in all questions of which
we know nothing except by divine revelation, or by
the express direction of Christ or His Apostles, the
negative argument is conclusive; and the omissions of
the New Testament are in all such cases equivalent
to authoritative prohibitions.
I desire to bear in mind these considerations, as general
principles of thought and argument, in all that I may
have to say about the apostolic administration of the
Church, and its bearing upon the times and questions of
our own day. And as it is desirable in so wide a field,
and one admitting of such various aspects, to select
certain prominent points of view, and by dwelling on
them to make our investigation as systematic and connected as we may, I purpose to consider the whole subject under the following heads, each of which will be
comprised in a separate lecture.
The First Organization of the Church, with the officers
who ministered in it.
The Origin of the Form of the Church Ministry, with
a further consideration of its nature and functions.
8




34       THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.
The Laity, or Church body at large, with their position
and duties.
The Places of Christian Worship, and the manner in
which the public devotions were conducted.
The Sacrament of Baptism.
The Sacrament of the Lord's Supper.
And lastlyA review of the whole subject, with special reference
to the application of it to our own time and Church.




LECTURE II.
THE FIRST ORGANIZATION OF THE
CHURCH.








II.
THE FIRST ORGANIZATION OF THE
CHURCH.
N the very day that the Apostles received their
full power from on high, and the divine seal and
sanction was affixed to their authority, they began to
organize the Christian Church. The three thousand
converts of the Day of Pentecost, without reckoning
those who were daily added to them, must at once have
required some system of administration; some regulations for their orderly guidance as the professed disciples of Christ; some provision for their instruction in
Christian doctrine and practice; some arrangements for
their meeting together as a united body, and for their
common worship as a religious community. We could
have had no reasonable doubt that these wants were
supplied without delay, even if the sacred historian had
not given us, as he has done in immediate connection
with the first ingathering of disciples into the Church, a
(37)




38       THE FIRST ORGANIZA TION
detailed, though very brief, account of their public or
social religious life.
But the moment that we look at the Apostles as the
organizers and legislators of the primitive Church, and
enquire how they exercised these important offices,
we are met at once by a very remarkable circumstance, presenting us with a striking characteristic of
the Christian dispensation in the form which it was
to assume as a new religion; and with an equally
striking contrast to the divinely constituted form  of
the elder dispensation, which was now to be superseded and pass away. The Jewish Church, as instituted
and settled by the Mosaic Law, exhibited from the first
an elaborate code of ordinances and regulations, prescribed by divine authority even in their minute details.
Their priesthood was not only expressly appointed by
a divine selection, but arranged for all their future
generations in a course from which no man was to
presume to deviate. The modes in which their highest
religious worship was to be conducted were marked
out with an unalterable precision. Their whole ritual
with all its ceremonies was given to them  for their
invariable use, without an authority being vested anywhere in their Church to change or interfere with it.
And all these ordinances and statutes were at once
recorded in a written document, that they might be
preserved in their integrity to guide and bind succeeding
ages.
But the Apostles, habituated as they were to a reli



OF THE CHURCH.                       39
gion thus formed and ordered, adopted no such plan
in the institution of the Christian Church.  They issued
no such orders for regulating the form of Christ's religion.  There is no Leviticus in the New Testament.
There are no " Apostolic constitutions "' truly so named.
In all that relates to the outward life and polity of the
Church the Apostles did not begin with promulgating
a code of laws, and then shape the new community
into a conformity with them. Still less did they record.
a series of fixed rules for the Church Government or
ceremonial of future times. On the contrary, they began
with the formation of Christian communities; necessarily
giving them such directions as each case immediately
required, but enforcing, as of general or permanent obligation, only a few principles or obvious truths, which
admitted of great variety in their practical application;
and leaving each community to exercise a large amount
of independent discretion, and to develope its organization from within itself, if any further development should
be needful.  And they showed themselves throughout
their whole course on earth much more solicitous to
inculcate and cherish sound doctrine among Christian
men, than to enjoin a precise ritual; more concerned to
maintain a unanimity of kindly feeling and  mutual
1 The so-called'Constitutiones tury, some of which are very good,
Apostolice' are a compilation of and might with advantage be
ecclesiastical formularies and regu- adopted by our own Church; but
lations of various dates, from the none of them  are of apostolic
second to the fourth or fifth cen- origin or authority.




40          THE FIRST ORGANIZA TION
forbearance, than to require a uniformity of opinion in
non-essentials, or of observance in outward forms.
This remarkable feature in the original constitution of
the Church ought never to have been, as it often has
been, overlooked or disregarded by later times, exhibiting, as it does, the liberty, the duty, and the responsibility,
which Christian societies should recognise in dealing
with ecclesiastical questions; remembering that every
particular Church in its present visible development is
a human  institution, formed  and  continued by  man's
authority and laws, and by man's authority and  laws
to be, when necessary, altered and reformed.1
It is very desirable, however, to know and mark what
the Apostles ordered or sanctioned in the Church of their
own time; because whatever they  appointed  (whether
designed to be perpetual or not) we may be confident
was the very best for the time then being, and for the
I Grave and lamentable errors may embrace a portion of this
and  mischiefs have arisen, and  divine element, so far as it is faithmust arise, from men's confound- ful to Christ and Christian truthing together, sometimes uncon- is, nevertheless, in its special
sciously, what is divine and what form, and in all the individualities
is human, in their conception of of its regulations and observances, a
a Church   a confusion  which  work of men.  "All the Church's
tends most effectually to aggravate  constitutions," it is well observed
abuses, and to prevent their re- by Hooker, "are of the nature of a
moval.'      human law" (Eccl. Pol. iii. 9),
It may be well maintained that savouring therefore of man's imper"The Church " is a divine institu- fection; his wisdom, or folly; his
tion, in accordance with the will perception of truth or entanglement
and command of Christ, and upheld  in error; his passion, pride, and
by His power and promises; but perversity, it may be, as well as
each particular Church, whether his sound judgment, piety, and
national or otherwise-however it discretion.




OF THE CHUR CH.                   41
circumstances of those days and people. And just, so
far as the present time and the circumstances in which
we are placed resemble them-to the same extent we
may be equally confident that the apostolic form and
order are the very best for us. And so far as there are
wants in the Church which belong to every time, and
people, so far the manner in which these wants were
met by apostolic injunctions is the best for the Church
in every age.
And even where our position differs from that of the
primitive Church, and needs a different mode of treatment the more effectually to encounter new difficulties
and forms of evil, and to bring old Christian truths to
bear with renewed force upon modern life and manners,
a consideration of what the Apostles ordered, or did
not order,-of their way of dealing with their own times
and difficulties, or their silence respecting the course
which they pursued,-may greatly assist us, either by
the analogies of cases which differ, or by way of suggestion, caution, and warning, or even by showing us
that our liberty in Christ is not restrained from- meeting
new requirements with new forms of Christian policy,
and from regulating Church practices in accordance with
the specialities of our own age. Moreover, as the Church
is now the Church of history as well as of revelation,
linked with the past centuries, and inheriting portions
of their tradition, it can never be unprofitable to go back
further still to the original source of all Christian truth,
and to see whether even long-cherished and inveterate




42        THE FIRST OR GANIZA TION
usages are conformed as much as they might be to the
example of apostolic authority.
A knowledge then of the mind and judgment of the
Apostles, in mnatters of Church order and associated life,
must be gained by considering what the New Testament has recorded respecting the prescribed or permitted practice of the apostolic Church. And a consideration of the Christian ministry of that time will
serve as a starting point in our enquiry to give us some
insight into the general character of the ecclesiastical
body and its common action as a Church.
Now leaving out of view the apostolic office, which
stands alone and separate from every other, the Christian
ministry appears in the New Testament in two distinct
forms. One of these had, at any rate, in some places,
an earlier existence than the other, though both for a
while stood as it were side by side, and acted contemporaneously together, until the former gradually disappeared, leaving the other still in force to become a
permanent institution in the Church.
These two forms of the Christian ministry may be
called "the Ministry of Gifts," and "the Ministry of
Orders."
The Ministry of Gifts comes first. It belonged to
apostolic times alone, when praternatural or spiritual
gifts, XapidJara, usually by imposition of the Apostles'
hands, were abundantly shed abroad in the Church.
In the earliest part of this period it wag exercised the
most extensively, and probably in some places exclu



OF THE CHURCH.                        43
sively, before the ministry of the other form was sufficiently matured.
Some of the spiritual gifts then bestowed were specially adapted for congregational use, and the edification
of religious assemblies. The gift of a spirit and utterance of prayer, the gifts of the "word of wisdom" and
the " word of knowledge," the gift of prophecy, i.e., not
of.ore-telling future  events, but forth-telling solemn
truths-explaining and enforcing with fervid words the
lessons of Scripture, and Christian doctrine practically
applied-seem  to have been bestowed for the express
purpose of supplying what must have been a pressing
want-sound instruction, impressive exhortation, and
fervent but enlightened prayers-in the newly gathered
Christian congregations.
It is evident from the circumstances mentioned by St.
Paul in connection with the Church at Corinth (1 Cor.
xi.-xiv.) that the public worship there was not conducted
by one or two ministers expressly chosen and appointed
to the office; but any one, who possessed a spiritual
gift available  for general edification, was permitted
either to pray or prophesy; to address words of exhortation, instruction, or encouragement; to lead the devotional singing with psalms or hymns of his own selection; to speak in a foreign language,l if either he himself
2 The difficulties connected with ed, owing probably to the want of
some of St. Paul's remarks about fuller contemporary information.
the "gift of tongues" in 1 Cor. Those, however, who would reprexiv. have never, as far as I am  sent these "tongues" to have been,
aware, been satisfactorily explain- not foreign languages, but ecstatic




44          THE FIRST ORG ANIZA TION
or some one else interpreted his words; and in short to
exercise his peculiar gifts with the full sanction of
apostolic  authority, and  without any  other restraint
than a conformity to such wholesome general admonitions as, " Let all things be done unto edifying," " Let
all things be done decently and in order."
This picture of the mode of conducting public worship
at Corinth comes before us only incidentally, and  is
given  as in consequence  of certain  disorders in that
Church, which St. Paul found it necessary to reprove.
But we can have no reasonable doubt that a similar
mode prevailed in other Churches of the time; seeing
that the same spiritual gifts were very widely diffused,
and there is no intimation  in St. Paul's words that the
custom of the Corinthians was at all confined to them.
The ministrations of this nature were of great adand almost incoherent utterances, them  speak  in  our  tongues,"
seem to reverse the order of sound'uesrzpcarz   yXG6daz5;   where
interpretation, and to explain away  yAlcdda and 6zca'Lexro are used
what is clear and plain by that as synonymous, and must mean a
which is obscure. The account of real and distinct language.  And
these "tongues " in Acts ii. makes even in 1 Cor. xii. 10, "divers kinds
it evident that they were foreign  of tongues," yevy yAXic66dca,
languages, quite intelligible to the  intimates the same thing, although
natives of their respective coun- there is no word for "divers" in
tries. In this chapter they are not the original; for yev  must imcalled simply "tongues," yA0cd- ply an orderly diversity-different
da5, but "othertongues," Eiropaz  kinds. It surely cannot be right
YXca6ddaz5, i. e. different languages, to set aside this positive evidence,
different from what they usually  because there is something in St.
spoke. Those who heard them re- Paul's brief allusions to the Corinmarked, "We hear every man  thian gifts which we cannot clearly
in our own tongue," r. 16ia understand.
SzaxLexGco; and, "We do hear




OF THE CHURCH.                    45
vantage to the infant Church. For, although at Jerusalem, while the Apostles were all there, a large number
of congregations might have been supplied with the
very best ministerial services at the hands of the twelve,
and other experienced disciples of Christ; yet, as soon
as Churches began to be multipled in other and more
distant places, it would often have been difficult to find
competent and trustworthy men to lead their public
devotions, if this providential supply of spiritually-gifted
persons had not been given to the Church.
The possessors of these spiritual gifts were not, as far
as we are informed, ordained or specially appointed to
their office by any ceremony; and hence their functions
have been sometimes represented as merely one phase
of the operation of that universal priesthood which
belongs to all Christians; or as the absence of all
ministry in those times, when, as it is alleged, "all
Christians were allowed, before the Church was fully
settled, to preach, baptize, and expound the Scriptures
in the Church."  But that this was really an acknowledged and authorized ministry attached to the possessors of such gifts, and exercised because of this
possession, and not merely a liberty indulged in from
the absence of all rule, appears still more plainly from its
not being confined to edifying ministrations in social
worship, but extended to other spheres of labour also.
For among the possessors of spiritual gifts are enumerated not only such as those already named, but
also "Teachers, helps, and governments, evangelists and




46         THE FIRS T ORGA NIZA TION
pastors," who are expressly declared (Eph. iv. 12) to be
"for the work of the ministry;" and all of whom could
find employment for their gifts only in addressing themselves to the general life of Church-members, or in
endeavouring to bring in fresh accessions to the flock,
and thus exercising just such  a superintendence  or
influence over Christian communities, as we commonly
include in the idea of a well-ordered parish under clerical
supervision among ourselves.'
A due consideration of this " Ministry of Gifts" in the
earliest days of Christianity,-" those times of high and
sanctified spiritual freedom " —both shows and justifies
the custom  of the public ministration of women at that
time in the Church. The very ground and title of this
ministry being the acknowledged possession of some
spiritual gift-and such gifts being bestowed on women
as well as men-the former as well as the latter were
allowed to use them in the Christian assemblies. This
seems to me quite evident from  St. Paul's words in
I Cor. xi. 5, where he strongly condemns the practice
of women "praying or prophesying" with the head unveiled, without expressing the least objection to this
I It does not fall within the scope different Xapidpcacra in their variof these Lectures to dwell upon the ous forms, and in their probable
special nature and uses of the relations to the more permanent
different spiritual gifts, the fact Ministry of Orders, may be found
only that they formed the basis and in the works of Neander, particusupplied the materials of the earli- larly in his' History of the Plantest Christian ministry being suffi- ing and Training of the Christian
cient for our present purpose. A  Church by the Apostles.'
full and learned discussion of these




OF THE  CHURCH.                   47
public ministration on their part, but only finding fault
with what was considered an unseemly attire for women
thus publicly engaged.
The injunction contained in this same Epistle (1 Cor.
xiv. 34), "Let your women keep silence in the Churches,
for it is not permitted unto them to speak," refers, as the
context shows, not to prophesying or praying in the congregation, but to making remarks, and asking questions
about the words of others. The directions given to
Timothy at a later period (1 Tim. ii. 11, 12), and forbidding "a woman to teach or to usurp authority over
the man," seem also to have no reference to spiritual
gifts, and therefore to be no contradiction to what had
been before allowed.
This " Ministry of Gifts " was, from its very nature, only
for a time. It was liable to obvious abuses; and it did
not contain the elements of order and sobriety in sufficient strength to make it suitable for a permanent institution. The gifts moreover not being conferred by any
hands but those of Apostles, the ministrations which
depended on them  must have gradually passed away.
And long before they disappeared, the other form of
the Christian ministry was introduced and extended
generally throughout the Church. As this became more
and more fully established, it was not unnatural that the
"Ministry of Gifts "-once the glory, and, it may be
said, the pride, of Christian congregations-should suffer
some disparagement, and possibly should at times be
regarded as an irregularity, or an interference with esta



48       THE FIRST ORGA NIZA TION
blished order. And I think there are traces of this to
be found in the New Testament. The warnings given
by St. Paul (1 Thess. v. 19), " Quench not the spirit,"
and " Despise not prophesyings," probably point to this
tendency, and express the Apostle's desire that the
possessors of such gifts might still be allowed to use
them for the benefit of their several Churches, and receive
a becoming attention from their hearers.
The attempts of some Christian sects and associations
of a recent date to re-establish this ancient form as their
ordinary and only ministry, seem to show that they had
forgotten the proverbial hopelessness and uselessness of
reviving the obsolete practices of a by-gone age not
founded on any abiding and living principle; and -that
they ignored the fact, that what made these ministrations necessary, possible, and right, in the infant Church,
is no longer in existence now. At the same time, since
natural gifts in an extraordinary degree, and of a kind
most available for extensive good, are sometimes found
even now in Christian men and women, it would seem
that Churches might still advantageously imitate the
example of the apostolic age, by employing such powers
to supplement, though not supplant, their more regular
ministrations.
The " Ministry of Orders," which gradually superseded
the more free and unrestricted form of Church administration, was exercised by men especially selected for this
purpose, and ordained, or solemnly appointed by ecclesiastical authority, to minister in their respective congrega



OF THE CHURCH.                             49
tions.  This ministry may possibly in  some localities,
as at Jerusalem, have  been  contemporary  with  the
earliest labours of the Apostles; in other places it was
introduced, or at any rate brought into full operation,
at a later date. But, if we may judge from recorded
instances of St. Paul's practice, the Apostles ordained
" Elders " in the Churches which they founded, as soon
as intelligent and suitable men could be found for this
purpose;   and  long  before the  end  of the  apostolic
1 The account of the apostolical their gross idolatry, must, humanly
journey of Paul and Barnabas in  speaking, have been very great, not
Acts xiii., xiv. throws some light to say insuperable. St. Paul cauupon this subject. As they passed  tions Timothy against ordaining
through the different towns on  "a novice;" and, in modern mistheir way, they gathered together sions, it is found necessary to prove
many converts, uaOrrez^t'6a're5 converts from  heathenism  for a
iucrvov5, on whom, doubtless, as long time before any of them can
in  other cases, they conferred  be safely admitted as candidates for
"spiritual gifts," which were at ordination.  There was, however,
once available for the edification  at that period, in many of the
of  the newly-formed  societies. towns throughout the Roman eCiBut when  Paul and Barnabas pire, a class of men, prepared by
visited these towns again on their divine providence, and better fitted
return towards Antioch, besides than all others for supplying this
encouraging the disciples by ex- need of the Gentile Churches.
hortations "to  continue in the    Educated  and  thinking  men
faith," they ordained them elders among the Greeks and Romans had
for each Church or congregation, for some time felt the hollowness
XezporovdavrE5i crVozS 7tpepd- and worthlessness of their old
f3vrd-pov5 uxar' 7 uuix6iv, to  religions; and the dispersion of the
whom the general charge of each  Jews in "every nation under heavcommunity was committed.         en," with the Greek translation of
The difficulty of finding men fit their Scriptures, had brought to
for the ordained ministry among  the conviction of such men that
bodies of Christians recently gath- there was a higher and purer knowered from Gentile populations, and  ledge of God to be obtained, than
only just reclaimed from the debas- was afforded by their own poetical
ing principles and practices of but effete mythology. Hence many
4




50    THE FIRST ORGANIZA TION
age, the " Ministry of Orders " had become a generally reof them renounced polytheism and  (pof3ovueozo rov OeYv. In verse
idolatry; and, although they did  43 of the same chap. such persons
not become Jews, they acknow- are termed "religious proselytes,"
ledged and worshipped the one  6ef3ojevoz trpod6OLvraz, i. e. protrue God, joined in the services of selytes, as far as their worshipping
the Jewish synagogue, and were  was concerned, though still called
commonly regarded by the Jews  Gentiles in the preceding verse. So
with a friendly feeling, though they  also the "honourable women " of
were still to the Jewish mind essen- this class, whom the Jews stirred up
tially Gentiles, and Jews would not against Paul and Barnabas are rd 5
enter their houses or eat with them. 6efouaevaS  yovoacxac in verse 50.
These intelligent and earnest re-   Now such men were usually those
ligionists are often mentioned in  who most readily and heartily
the Acts ofthe Apostles-Cornelius,  welcomed the Gospel doctrines
the Roman "officer and gentle- which the Apostles proclaimed.
man," and the first Gentile Chris- They had the religious knowledge
tian, being an eminent example of of Jews, without their narrowthe class. They have been some- mindedness, formality, and pretimes called  "proselytes of the judices; they were often men of
gate," to distinguish  them  from  good education. They had given
the Gentiles who became Jews, and  proof of their love of truth, their
were called "proselytes of righ- earnestness and sincerity.  They
teousness."  In the Acts they are  had already renounced the gross
designated by various names, sig- vices of heathenism. These, therenificative of their religious posi- fore, both became the first-fruits
tion. Thus Cornelius (Acts x.) is  of the Apostles' labours in Gentile
saidto have been ev6def/g, not  "d- lands, and also among these they
vout," as in our English Bible, but, would find some who might almost
as the word literally means, "wor- immediately be entrusted with the
shippingaright," and po/otvj euvo   ministerial charge  of Christian
rT6  ()esv' "fearing the [true]  congregations. And with this agree
God."  Hence a mixed congrega- the words of Clement, when he
tion of Jews and these religious  writes to the Corinthians that the
Gentiles at Antioch, in Pisidia, was Apostles appointed their first conaddressed by St. Paul as, " Men of verts to be'bishops and deacons":
Israel, and ye that fear God," oi xaoxTd Xc'paS5 xai toX65ez 7ppzd6qpo/fov5uevoz rzcv  eov (Acts xiii. 6ovtreS,  oKaOi6xrovov vra?5 h7tap16); andagain, in verse 26, "Men  Xdf5 azcOrcV, 6omtzxcdarvres  TGr
and brethren, children of the stock rtve3,/uarz, Ei5 67z6od ov5 Xxri
of Abraham, and whosoever among  68axcvovo5  TzcV   uftEL roVgtV
you feareth  God," oi  v vty,  7ri6zdrevezi. —'Clem. ad Cor.' ~ 42.




OF THE CHURCH.                          5I
ceived and ordinary institution throughout the Churches.
And, as doubtless many of those who were thus formally
ordained were also possessors of spiritual gifts, the earlier ministrations, which these gifts supplied, must
commonly have passed into the later form without difflt
culty or any painful change, until at last they were
quietly merged in its permanent establishment.
In  the mean  time, while both  these forms of the
ministry were in  operation  together, those who had
gifts of "teaching," and  of "prophecy,"  and  other
xacpiduatrrr of a similar nature were subject to the general
superintendence and control of the ordained officers,
who always acted as rulers or overseers-  167ti6uooz-of
the Christian  communities, whether they  themselves
took a prominent part or not in the instructions, prayers,
and other services of their religious assemblies. And,
as might be expected, several different phases of the
working of this double system might be seen in different
Churches, and at different times, during the period embraced by the New  Testament, and before the final
disappearance of the " Ministry of Gifts " as a distinct
ordinance in the Church.'
1 Different phases of the double to them, they do not seem to have
ministry:                      made any attempt to prevent or re1. In the Corinthian Church the strain even the gravest disorders.
Xapi6/ xrax are seen in full opera- St. Paul, indeed (1 Cor. xvi. 15),
tion, and, it may apparently be speaks of the house of Stephanas
said, in uncontrolled exercise. If as having "addicted themselves to
there were presbyters in authority  the ministry of the Saints," and
among the Christians at Corinth, beseeches the brethren, "Submit
when St. Paul wrote his first epistle yourselves unto such, and to every




52    THE FIRST ORGA NIZA TION
It is one of the marked and significative omissions in
the New Testament, that no account is given of the first
appointment of ordained  men to minister in  Church
offices.  But after a time the two orders of Presbyters
(tpetd/Jrepoz), and  Deacons  (tiduorvoz), appear as wellknown titles; and in the later books of the New Testaone that helpeth with us, and la- who also " laboured in the work
boureth." But the expressions here  and doctrine," the duties of the
used are peculiar: eiS dzcziovizav  former class being supplemented,
rozs  zy~iozi  TzxXv  eravrov?5, as we may well conclude, by men
" they appointed, or set, themselves  who had Xapi6,uarax for teaching
to minister "-words which do not and exhortation.
necessarily imply anything more   4. Timothy, however, at Ephesus,
than a devoted exercise of some  and Titus in Crete, are directed,
iXapiductrc for the general good. in choosing presbyters for the fuIf they were ordained presbyters, ture, to take care that they be
their authority was here at the  "apt to teach;" the time being
weakest.                         now come when it was desirable
2. In Thessalonica, at a rather that the "Ministry of Orders"
earlier date, both forms may be  should be carried out in its comtraced (1 Thess. v. 12, and 19, 20); pleteness.
but the possessors of spiritual gifts    " At this later period, when the
seem  to have been losing  their pure Gospel had to combat with
influence more rapidly than St. manifold errors which threatened
Paul thought desirable.          to corrupt it-as was especially the
3. In Ephesus, at the time re- case during the latter portion of St.
ferred to in Acts xx., a united body, Paul's ministry - at this critical
or council, of presbyters had the  period, it was thought necessary to
complete charge of the Church,  unite more closely the offices of
and no others are alluded to by St. teachers and overseers, and with
Paul in his solemn address to them  that view to take care that overseers
as the overseers, E'idt7oioz, of the  (/ti6xoitoz) should be appointed,
flock. Yet there must have been  who should be able by their public
men there with spiritual gifts; and  instructions to protect the Church
several years later than this (1 Tim. from the infection of false doctrine,
v. 17), there is a notice of presby- to establish others in purity of faith,
ters at Ephesus "who ruled well,"  and to convince the gainsayers."
oZ xa;xAaci poedrGctreS zrpetfdv- — Neander,'The Planting of the
repoz, as distinguished from those  Christian Church,' Bk. iii. 5,




OF THE  CHURICH.                   53
ment their functions are alluded to as already familiar in
the Church.
The first occasion on which Christian Elders, or
Presbyters, are mentioned is in Acts xi. 30, when the
collection made for the relief of the Christians in Judea,
against the predicted famine, was " sent to the elders
by the hands of Barnabas and Saul."  Not long after
this the same Paul and Barnabas, on their first apostolic
journey in Asia Minor, are recorded to have ordained
presbyters in the different Churches which they established in those countries; and the office is frequently
referred to in other parts of the New Testament.
The first mention of deacons by name as a distinct
order in the ministry is found in St. Paul's Epistle to
the Philippians; and the title only occurs again in the
same Apostle's Pastoral injunctions in his first Epistle to
Timothy. That the order of deacons is so seldom expressly named is perhaps owing to the circumstance
that the title of Presbyter, or Elder, is sometimes used
as a general appellation for Church officers, including
the inferior order of deacons, as it sometimes did the
higher office of the Apostles. Thus St. Paul gives directions to Timothy for ordaining presbyters and deacons,
while in his similar directions to Titus he names presbyters only.
Whether deacons are alluded to at a much earlier
period, is a question which cannot be decided with any
positive certainty. The seven, who were selected to
superintend the daily ministration of the tables spread




54         THE FIRST ORGANIZA TION
for the poorer Christians, were generally looked upon as
deacons by the early post-apostolic Church, which considered their appointment as the first institution of the
diaconate.  And from  the number of those who were
appointed on this occasion, some Churches-for example,
the Church of Rome in the third century-confined themselves to seven deacons; and when  a larger number
was required the later office of Sub-deacon supplied
the want.  And the council of Neo-Caesarea (A.D. 315)
affirmed that this number ought to be always maintained,
even if the Church was very large, on the ground that it
had been so ordered in the history of their institution.'
But it must be observed that these seven officers are
never called deacons in the New Testament; that they
were selected entirely from the Hellenistic Jews, to look
after the interest of that body, in consequence of some
alleged neglect; and that, if they are to be regarded as
deacons, it must be concluded that Hebrew  deacons
had been appointed before.
It is very probable that " the young men " who buried
Ananias  and  Sapphira, held  the office  of  deacon,
although they are not designated by this name. They
appear, at any rate, in an official character, and when
first mentioned they are called oi Vecarepoz,2 the word
I Azxcovoy iktr rcr spez2lovi6zv were Jioaxooz; and the two orders
EvCyatz urti rOdv XucvO;V, ayv of ministers instituted by the AposztCdv   ErsydaX   EiV    z Lt5Ll' ties seem to have been at first dist'eidOd6 7 68  d'to ril5ffifXtov tinguished. as Jtldxovooz 7tpedTcG3V  pcYeeov. — Conc.Neo. Cas.' 3ivrepoz, and Auzxovoz yvecreCan. 15.                     poz, the elder and the younger
2 All officers in the early Church ministers. Then, after a time, the




OF THE CIURCH.                           55
apparently used for deacons by St. Peter in 1 Pet. v. 5,
and by St. Paul in 1 Tim. v. 1. If this be so, it will
carry back the institution of the diaconate to the very
earliest times.
The duties which belonged to these ministerial offices
are nowhere formally laid down in the New Testament;
but in the case of the presbyters in particular they may
be gathered in some detail from the scattered notices
which here and there occur.
As men  appointed  by  the Apostles under divine
direction, and holding a sacred office approved by the
divine Head of the Church, they were charged, "to feed
the flock over which the Holy Ghost had made them
overseers " Hence it was their duty to exercise a general
superintendence in religious things over the body of
Christians amongst whom  they ministered, and whom
they were to tend after the similitude of a shepherd's
care.  In this their pastoral office therefore, they had an
authority given to them-not as lords or masters of their
respective congregations,' but as those who were to be
superior order were called by their seers," no higher terms are used in
specific name, ztpedGf/3tvpoz, pres- the apostolic writings, [than ztpozoyters, while the inferior order 6roueYoz and iryovuevsoz; and
Kept the generic term, AzcMxovoz, presbyters are expressly forbidden
deacons.                       to be   tOrazuvpzevovTe~5 TcVr
The words used in the New  x2tirpaov (1 Pet. v. 3). The word
Testament to describe the position?1yoveUvoz is employed in the
and authority of Christian pres- same manner by Clement, in his
byters are very significative, and Epistle to the Corinthians; and
contrast strongly with the titles and Justin Martyr, in the middle of the
assumptions of the clerical office, second century, has no higher title
even in the third century. Besides than o 77rpoedrai5 for the chief
tZidixonoz, bishops i. e. "over- minister in his Church.




56        THE FIRST. ORGA NIZA TION
their guides and leaders, their pattern and example; and
who, without interfering with the Christian liberty of all
Church-members, were by their position and influence to
prevent that liberty from degenerating into disorder,
and preserve, as much as possible, among the faithful, a
godly unanimity in creed and life. They were, therefore, themselves to hold fast, and to admonish all others
to hold fast, the divine truths of their religion;-to warn
or rebuke the unruly-to support the weak-to bring back
the wandering-to build up the faithful-and to animate
and encourage all in godliness of living. During the
time that the " Ministry of Gifts " continued in operation,
the presbyters did not necessarily take the lead in the
public prayers and praises of Christian worshippers, or
in the public instruction of the people by those expository addresses and practical exhortations which were
comprised under the name of prophesying, and were the
originals of our modern sermons.
These duties might be performed by those who, without ordination, had the "gifts " which were suitable for
such ministrations; though, doubtless, it was within the
province of the presbyter to see to the orderly performance of the whole service, and to make regulations to
this effect. Hence some presbyters might "rule well,"
though they did not " labour in the word and doctrine." 
I " Let the elders that rule well one text, some Churches have built
be counted worthy of double honor, their favourite institution of "layespecially they who labour in the elders," or "ruling elders," as disWord and doctrine," 1 Tim. v. 17. tinct from the ordained presbyters,
On the supposed authority of this who were to teach and preach. But




OF THE CHURCH.                                57
But as the " Ministry of Orders " gradually prevailed
over the earlier system, it more and more devolved on
the  presbyters  to  undertake  the  duties  of  religious
teaching, of conducting  the devotions  of the  people,
this is claiming a great deal for forte doctorum  desidia aut magis
what is, at the most, only an ob- superbia," is sometimes quoted in
scure allusion, while there is in the  support of the supposed antiquity
New Testament no other trace of of lay-elders; and Guericke, in his
any such distinction between one  "Manual of Church Antiquities"
elder and another, as that above  (i. 2, 8), seems doubtful what to
alluded to. Neither is there any- make of it. But the testimony of a
thing in the records of the sub- Church writer of the fourth cenapostolic Church which gives the  tury, about an apostolic practice no
least countenance to such a theory: longer, as he acknowledges, in
while, after the end of the second  existence, would not be worth much
century, the sacerdotalism which  if this were Hilary's meaning. And,
universally prevailed made it utter- moreover, the comment is not made
ly impossible that such an institu- on the 17th, but on the 1st verse
tion should find a place in  the  of this chapter, which speaks of
ecclesiastical system.              tpe6ftv'repo merely, and this the
The seniores plebis, or seniores  commentator takes to mean simply
ecclesice, in  the African Church,  "old Christian men," as modern
mentioned by Optatus and Augus- commentators often do; and his retin, were evidently nothing like the  mark is quite correct, so far as this,
lay-eldersin the modern sense; nor -that not only old laymen, but the
were they ruling elders in  that laity in general, were in the apostoChurch, but only persons of rank or lic and following times much conrespectability, who were of note and  suited, and had great influence in
influence in their congregations,  Church matters, until priestly preand to whom the care and custody  tensions, and pride (as he honestly
of Church property was sometimes  admits), had pushed them aside.
entrusted.-See'Bingham,' B. II.    Lay, or ruling-elders, may be a
xix., 19, and his authorities.      very lawful institution, sufficiently
The passage in'Hilary' (Ambro- maintainable on the authority of
siaster), Corn. in  1 Tim. v. 1,  the Church which uses it. It may
"Apud omnes utique gentes hono- also have been, and may still be,
rabilis est Senectus; unde et syna- very useful for preventing or regoga et postea ecclesia seniores  straining the growth of hierarchhabuit, quorum sine consilio nihil ical propensities  but it need not,
agebatur in ecclesia.  Quod qua  and must not, claim for itself an
negligentia obsoleverit nescio, nisi Apostolic antiquity.




58    THE FIRST ORGANIZA TION
and of administering all Church ordinances for the edification of the Church at large. And, before the death of
St. Paul, it was required that they should be men well
instructed in the Christian faith,-apt to teach, and able
to exhort their flocks with sound doctrine, as also to
convince or refute opposers of the truth, and to stop the
mouths of those who were already beginning to mislead
individual Christians, and whole congregations, by dangerous errors plausibly put forth. It is therefore at this
completed and fully developed form that we must look,
in order to view the office of the Christian presbyter as
it was designed and established by the Apostles, and
bequeathed by them to the future Church.
The duties of deacons, which  are, however, very
scantily noticed in the New Testament, appear to have
been to render a general assistance to the presbyters in
a subordinate capacity; and to perform such services
as were needful in a well-ordered Christian community,
without being immediately connected with religious
teaching or divine ordinances. At the same time, since
deacons were required to be men " holding the mystery
of the faith in a pure conscience," and by using the office
well "acquired great boldness-or rather freedom  of
speech-~rapp6zioav-in the faith which is in Christ Jesus,"
we may infer that they also took some part in the work
of instruction and propagation of Christian doctrine.
If the seven, mentioned in Acts vi., were really
deacons, it would follow that the special duty of this
order was to attend to the wants of the poor, and to




OF THE CHURCH.                        59
superintend the application of the contributions for their
relief. And in post-apostolic times this was generally
considered to be the case, and thus deacons are called
by Jerome, "Attendants on  tables and widows."  In
these times also (especially after the third century), it
was their duty to look after the morals and behaviour
of the people, reporting particular cases to the presbyter
or bishop. And in connection with public worship, they
had charge of the sacred vessels used in administering
the Lord's Supper; and at the celebration of this sacrament they received the offerings of the congregation, and
presented them to the officiating minister.
In the second century, as mentioned by Justin Martyr,
they distributed the bread and wine to the communicants; but at a later period they were not allowed to
do so.  On some occasions the deacon appears to have
been a special or confidential attendant on the bishop;
not only acting as his sub-almoner and his medium of
communication with the people, but being even sent to
represent him at councils when the bishop himself was
unable to attend. There is no intimation of any such
duties as these being discharged by deacons in the New
Testament; but in the absence of express injunctions of
apostolic authority it was competent for any Church at
any time to alter or add to the functions of these or any
other officers in its service.'
1 Hooker, who takes it for gives the following account of the
granted that " the seven," in Acts functions of this order:
vi., were the original deacons,   "Deacons were stewards of the




60          THE FIRST ORGA NIZA TION
In our own Communion the duties of the diaconate
are  in theory not very different from  those which were
most usually  attached  to it in the early  Church; as
appears from  the description  of them  in  our ordinal.
But, in practice, at the present time the services of a
deacon.differ in  nothing  from  those  of a presbyter,
except that he does not consecrate the elements at the
celebration of the Lord's Supper, or read "the Absolution" in the Liturgy.1  He now but seldom  retains the
office for more than one year, regarding it as a mere
stepping  stone  to  the higher order.   And  thus the
diaconate is stripped of its distinctive  character, and
rendered almost useless in our Church.
Church, unto whom  at the first liberty.-'Eccl. Hol.' v. 78.
was committed the distribution of   I Why these two ministerial acts,
Church goods, the care of provid- and these alone, should be denied
ing therewith for the poor, and the  to our deacons, it seems impossible
charge to see that things of expense with any consistency to give a
might be religiously and faithfully  reason. A deacon may, and often
dealt in. A part also of their office does, consecrate the water for bapwas attendance on their presbyters tism; then why not the bread and
at the time of divine service. For wine for the other sacrament? A
which cause Ignatius, to set forth  deacon may preach, and is often
the dignity of their calling, saith  licensed to do so, and in so doing
that they are in such case to the he may, and ought, to declare that
bishop as if angelical powers did  "God pardons and absolves all
serve him. These only being the  them  that truly repent, and unuses for which deacons were first feignedly believe His holy Gospel;"
made, if the Church have since then why may he not read the very
then extended their ministry far- same declaration from the prayer
ther than the circuit of their la- book in the morning or evening
bours at the first was drawn, we are service? Such inconsistent pronot herein to think the ordinance of hibitions, authorized neither by
Scripture violated, except there  Scripture, Church antiquity, nor
appear some prohibition, which  common sense, necessarily tend to
hath abridged the Church of that foster superstition.




OF THE CHURCH.                         6I
It was very different in the Church of ancient times.
Not only were the deacon's functions quite distinct from
those of the presbyter, but he continued in his office for
a much longer period, or it might be even for life.  Indeed, deacons, from  their immediate contact with their
bishops, and from many matters of order and discipline
being entrusted to them, together with other incidental
circumstances in particular Churches, sometimes became
persons of great importance, and looked down upon
presbyters as beneath them.  That this was not so very
uncommon  an occurrence may  be inferred from  the
decree" of the Council of Nice (and  other Councils)
against it, as well as from Jerome's sharp remonstrance
half a century later against certain deacons at Rome.
And, although such conduct was an abuse of their.privileges, it shows plainly that it was by no means the
custom  then for deacons to regard their office as a
merely temporary step to a higher ministry.  And the
same thing is further indicated by the circumstance, also
mentioned by Jerome, that deacons chose one of their
number and made him  an Archdeacon-an office then,
as well as now, considered superior to an ordinary presbyter.l
The Council of Nice decreed, Epistle to Evagrius, says, "Audio'Ejtulevdroodcv, oi d8zaovoz E'  quendam in tantam erupisse vecorrToi' iSzuz5,urtpoz5, eiSore5, 0trz diam, ut diaconos presbyteris id
troiY Jtv'7td6;x6Otov vZtJVpgroaz est episcopis, anteferret.  Nam
esdi, rcv  86  7rped/3vrz pcov  quum Apostolus perspicue doceat
EaiATrov5 TvyXcraov6zv.-Can. eosdem esse presbyteros quos epis18'LabbG Concil.' vol. ii. p. 676.  copos, quid patitur mensarum  et
Jerome at the beginning of his viduarum minister, ut supra eos se




62          THE FIRST ORGANIZA TION
So distinct, indeed, and complete in itself was each
one of these  three orders of Deacon, Presbyter, and
Bishop, in the earliest ages of the Church, that it was by
no means without example for a layman to be at once
made  a presbyter, or even  a bishop, as Ambrose of
Milan was, and Nectarius, the predecessor of Chrysostom at Constantinople. In the fourth century, however,
this was considered irregular. Decrees of councils and
other directions were issued to restrain the practice, to
the existence of which, however, they clearly testify.
And by the end  of that century it had  become the
established rule that the clergy should pass through the
inferior orders to the diaconate, and so to the higher
offices.  Yet even then it seems not to have been considered very strange for a deacon to be at once made a
bishop.'
tumidus efferat, ad quorum preces fuisset lector annis triginta, deinde
Christi corpus et sanguis con- uno die exorcista," &c.
ficitur!"                         The Council of Sardica (A. D.
And in this same Epistle, " Quo  347) ordered that no one should be
modo si exercitus imperatorem fa- made bishop without having been
ciat, aut diaconi de se quem indus- a presbyter, or, at least, a deacon;
trium noverint, et Archidiaconum  and that no layman should be at
vocent."                         once ordained deacon, or presby1 A Council at Rome, under the ter.-' LabbG Concil.' vol. iii. p.
Bishop Silvester I. A. D. 324, di- 35. "Episcopus non prius ordinerected that no layman should be  tur, nisi ante ex lectoris munere,
ordained except through the regu- et officio diaconi et presbyter
lar degrees  of lector, exorcist, fuerit perfunctus," &c.
acolyth, subdeacon, &c.-cap. xi.   Siricius, Bishop of Rome (A. D.'Labbe Concil.' vol. ii. p. 627. 384), directed that the clergy should
"Ut nullus ex laica persona ad  pass regularly through all the orhonorem acolythus usque ad Epis- ders, inferior and superior; though
copatum sublevarotur, nisi prius even he seems not to have objected




OF THE CHURCH.                               63
And so in the New Testament there is no appearance
of the offices of deacon and presbyter being linked together in any necessary or indispensable succession; nor
is any instance mentioned of a promotion from one to
the other.  St. Paul, indeed, observes that, "they  who
have used the office of a deacon well purchase to themselves  a  good   degree "-foacov e/avroZS  x;aLoY    ep/z-.eozoovrctz,' i.e., gain an honourable standing or position" and great boldness in the faith;" but he does not intimate that they were, or ought to be, selected as presbyters.
In  Churches which, like our own, have retained the
to  a bishopric being conferred  accessu temporam presbyterium vel
upon a deacon; while condemn- Episcopatum......  sortietur. —
ing the practice of making laymen' Ep. ad Himerium i, Labb6 Conpresbyters.  Siricius says:       cil.' vol. iii. p. 669.
" One who has devoted himself    1 It should however be noticed
to the Church from  his infancy, that at a later period /fja6io/s, as
ante pubertatis annos baptizari et used in this text, seems to have
lectorumn debet ministerio sociari; been taken to mean a degree or step
then when he is thirty years of age  in the way of promotion, since the
acolythus et sub-diaconus esse debe- prayer at the ordination of a deabit; post quse ad diaconii gradum.  con, given in the' Constitutiones.. accedat; ubi si ultra quinque  Apostolicre,' ends with the words,
annos laudabiliter inistraritcong-'rtaxraicdoov Tavrov e ppe66rco5
rue presbyterium consequatur. Et XAezovpyrd6 acvrx T-?V eyXeipz6inde post decennium Episcopalem   Oei'6av' Vort   Sza(x oviovy z(rpecathedram poterit adipisci."     d6ra-c O cJerIic05,  dvEyXtIrT0,
"If any one entered the ministry  ueiasovo5 azcOQrYvz( f/ac0,u ov " to
when more advanced in life, jam   be thought worthy of a higher desetate grandsevus; he was still to  gree or step "in the ministry-i.e.,
be made first of all lector aut exor- I presume, to be made a presbyter.
cista; then acolythus et subdiaconus In St. Paul's words, however, there
fiat, et sic ad diaconatum, si per is no comparison used to correhac tempora dignusjudicatus fue- spond with /te'iCovoo.
rit,  provehatur.   Exinde  jam




64    THE FIRST ORGANIZA TION
three orders, it surely is desirable that each one of them
should have a special character and service of its own.
At the present time, if our diaconate were made a real
office instead of a name-if it were understood that it
would not, as a matter of course, or even usually, lead to
any higher ecclesiastical position, and if our Church
would  decide, as it has full authority to do, that
deacon's orders at any rate should not be indelible, or
incompatible with  secular occupations-perhaps the
wants of extensive parishes might be more easily met,
and the spiritual destitution of our populous towns be
encountered with more hopefulness.
Our view of the ancient diaconate will not be cormplete without noticing that it included women as well as
men. As deacons are not often expressly named in the
New Testament, it is not surprising that deaconesses are
still more rarely mentioned. Yet one distinct instance
at any rate occurs, not obvious, indeed, in our English
version, but evident in the original. Phoebe, who in
Rom. xvi. 1, is termed " a servant of the Church in Cenchrea," was a deaconess —& Sovoyo. And if a place comparatively so unimportant as Cenchrea had a deaconess
to minister in its Church, it can hardly be possible that
other more populous towns, with larger Christian communities, should not also have been supplied with the
same female ministry. And is it not highly probable
that "Tryphoena and Tryphosa" with "the beloved
Persis," who are named in this same chapter as labouring
in the Lord, just as presbyters in I Tim. v. 17 are said




OF THE CHURCH.                          65
to "labour in the word and doctrine," were regularly
appointed ministers in their Church? 
In the post-apostolic Church the office of deaconess
was for a long time continued, especially in the Eastern
portion of it, where the greater seclusion of the female
sex, which ordinarily prevailed, made the ministrations
of women more requisite than in the Western populations. The deaconesses at first were commonly widows
past middle age; indeed by Tertullian and others their
office is called "the Widowhood" (viduatus), and the
Church at that time seems to have regarded the widows
mentioned in I Tim. v. as deaconesses, and to have acted
according to the directions there given in their appointment. In the early times the deaconesses were formally
ordained by imposition of hands; but after the middle of
the fourth century this was thought undesirable; after
which the office appears to have received less consideration than formerly, and was gradually laid aside altogether, disappearing in Western Europe earlier than in
the Greek Church, where deaconesses were still found at
the end of the 12th century.
1 Whether I"the elder women," and, secondly, in the parallel pasand "theyounger," 7tpes6dvreppa  sage of Titus ii. 2, 3, the nonand veGorepacx, in 1 Tim. v. 2, may  official words ztped3fivraz, ztpedbe considered female ministers, cor-  vT3'rz6S5, and veY'a, seem to deresponding with presbyters and cide the question in the negative.
deacons, is at the best too uncertain   The " Pastor of Hermas " probfor this passage to be adduced in  ably alludes to a deaconess, when a
evidence. For, in the first place, it woman named  Grapt6 is menis doubtful whether 7Zped/3vrEpq,c tioned; xai Fpcarrz,uvY vov0eand Veorepov5 in the preceding  ru6ez  ZCi5 Xifrpc5 Xaci TOvv
verse, are used in an official sense; odpqpvoV3,.-Book i. Vis. ii. 4,




66    THE FIRST ORGA NIZA TION
This ancient institution has in later times been revived
in an analogous form by the Moravian brethren; and
very recently in our own Church the proved value of
ministering women has in some few instances led to a
similar revival. This practice, if carried out with judgment and an unostentatious simplicity, may in some
places be productive of good. But in general the reasons
for discontinuing this office are equally valid against
restoring it; and what is needed in order to meet the
crying wants of the present age is not so much an increase in Church officials, as in the sound and self-denying unofficial ministrations of Christian men and women.
The offices of sub-deacon, acolyth, and other inferior
orders of the clergy, which began to appear in the third
century, were added one after another, as the ecclesiastical system became more complicated and formal; but
these had no place in the Church of the New Testament,
-their services, so far as they were needed, being performed by the deacons or by lay members of the congregations.
In order to obtain a correct conception of the Christian
ministry in its primitive state, it is necessary to distinguish clearly between what the Apostles themselves
established in the Church, and what was afterwards found
to be expedient as a further development of their polity.
That which may justly claim to be a legitimate and
beneficial extension of apostolic order must not on that
account be confounded with ordinances of apostolic in



OF THE CHURCH.                    67
stitution. I have, therefore, thought it necessary to omit
all notice of Episcopacy in considering the offices of
presbyters and deacons. These were established in the
Churches by the Apostles themselves; while the episcopate, in the modern acceptation of the term, and as a
distinct clerical order, does not appear in the New
Testament, but was gradually introduced and extended
throughout the Church at a later period.
That it was perfectly lawful for the post-apostolic
Church to adopt the episcopal form of ecclesiastical
government can be reasonably doubted by no one who
believes the Church itself to be a lawful, not to say
a divine, institution. That the establishment of episcopacy was proved to be a good thing in its effects and
influence, and may therefore so far be said to be
of divine origin, because, in the words of Richard
Hooker, "Of all good things God Himself is the
author," and " All things are of God which are well
done," cannot justly be questioned. That, our Lord
having directed that His disciples should be gathered
into religious societies, and His apostles having carried
out His directions, all lawful exercise of the powers of
such societies is sanctioned by Christ Himself, as well
as by His Apostles-is a position which may be indisputably maintained.
But, unfortunately, not contented with such indisputable, just, and reasonable sanctions, writers on Church
matters in all ages have too often evinced a tendency to
represent the regulations of their own time as precisely




68    THE FIRST ORGANIZA TION
those which were made at the beginning;  and to insist
upon referring to the actual institution of the Apostles,
or even the personal appointment of Christ Himself, all
the existing ordinances of their own Churches.  And
thus after the general establishment of episcopacy, it
was often  assumed  and  asserted  that this ordinance
emanated  immediately  from  these  sources;  and  the
more the powers of bishops were enlarged beyond all
that savoured of tie apostolic age, the more boldly was
a direct apostolic constitution claimed for their position
and authority.
Such assertions put forth in the early centuries of
Christianity have often been repeated even by learned
men in later times without any sufficient examination of
their correctness, and of the evidence-or the lack of evidence-on which they rest;2 and the unlearned, if they
have indulged in any thought on the subject, have com1 Bingham, in the Preface to his  "The ancient writers of the Church
learned' Antiquities,' justly repro- derive the original of bishops from
bates this tendency of Church  divine authority and apostolical
writers; without, unfortunately, in  constitution,"  and quotes their
his following pages being altoge- assertions to this effect vwithout the
ther free from its influence himself. least investigation of their correct2 Bingham, and others, some- ness: whereas the accounts given
times take the assertions of men  of the first century by men who
who lived one, two, three, or more, lived in the third or fourth were
centuries after the Apostles' time  always more or less affected by the
-assertions made without any  then prevailing notions and pracproof at all-as if they sufficiently  tices, and often merely prove that
substantiated any statement re- their authors took for granted that
specting  apostolic practices or That was established and acknowcommands.                       ledged in their own time had been
Thus Bingham informs us that, so also in the apostolic age.




OF THE CHURCH.                    69
monly taken it for granted that such assertions have
been fully proved, and that there is no reasonable doubt
whatever to be entertained respecting them. The assertions themselves, however, as they appear in writers at
the end of the second and in the following centuries,
are sometimes obviously incorrect in matters of fact
recorded in the New Testament; sometimes mere suppositions more or less extravagant of their respective
authors, or vague traditions current at the time; and
the only attempted proof is a reference to lists of bishops
in different Churches, beginning with the names of those
who were said to have been settled there and consecrated
by the Apostles, and reaching down to some later date.
But these lists are of little or no historical value, and
cannot be relied upon for the earliest names, which
alone are of any importance. If any one Church had
possessed an authentic and trustworthy catalogue of
this nature, we might justly expect to find it in so
important a Church as that of Rome. But the catalogue of the earliest Boman bishops exhibits so many
variations and contradictions, as it is recorded by different authors, that it is evidently of no authority
whatever. Indeed, the only authentic accounts of successive bishops, which anywhere existed, were those
whicl were recorded by their contemporaries in the
Church books, called Diptychs, and kept for such purposes. But there is no mention of such books before
the fourth century, and the Archives of Churches, supposed to have been kept from the very beginning, were




70           THE FIRST ORGANIZA TION
nothing but oral traditions, most doubtful, when most
confidently affirmed.'
1 The following are some exam- zeridrevxe KIpipzo5 zdrv Opvovo
pies of the testimony of the early  carvrov~   ~tz  rz-5 y"r5  spcGrOt.
Fathers respecting the apostolic or'Hamres,' 78, ~ 7.
divine institution of episcopacy.    Chrysostom also affirms that St.
Irenseus (about A. D. 180), the  James was made Bishop of Jerusaearliest of the authorities cited, lem by Christ himself;'tezra cqp0Q
says that bishops and presbyters'laxc1/f, /,uoi z ox e, rG aieStfrom Ephesus and the neighbouring  pd excvroov, ao3rdv y/ap  XrOdv
cities came to meet St. Paul at XAyeraz ueXezporovxesVaz,   caz
Miletus.  "In Mileto convocatis  Eiirixoncov  iv'1epo6oj2WuozS
Episcopis et Presbyteris qui erant  reiozlyxvcxra  itporov.-' Hom.'
ab Epheso et reliquis proximis civi- 78, in 1 Cor. xv.
tatibus."-Lib. iii. 1. Although it   Chrysostom further asserts, that
is evident, from Acts xx. that they  the presbytery which laid hands on
were presbyters only; and noth- Timothy must have been bishops.
ing is said about "other cities."  Why so?  Because Timothy was a
Irenaeus, however, inserts these  bishop, and therefore could not
because a number of bishops, in  have been ordained by presbyters!
his sense of the word, could not  ov  yop   v/ 81)   pe fvljrepoZ
have come from Ephesus alone.'tiOdxotov o'Xezporovydr6o.For the evidence of Tertullian    Corn.' in Phil. i.; also, referring
and  Clemens Alexandrinus, see  again to the same circumstance,
Note, page 71.                     he says, ov 7tepi ztpe6/1vrt pcoV
The great reverence entertained  qpv6iv'vravvOo,  dAXcXx  zepi
by the Church at Jerusalem  for  E-tzzdx6tmOo'  ov ycCp 8r? 7pedJames, the Lord's brother, and the  fv'repoz rodv iti'doitov kxezpoeminence which he evidently held  rvovrv-' Corn.' in 1 Tim. v. 14;
there, naturally led those, who'Hom.' 13-perverting the words
fondly painted the past with the  of St. Paul to suit the ideas of his
colours of the present, to assert own time.
that he was the first Bishop of Jern-   The same tendency to thrust the
salem; but even this is not enough  Church usages of later times upon
for the Fathers of the fourth cen- the apostolic age, without regard to
tury; thus Epiphanius (about A. D. the facts of the case, is seen in the
370) declares that St. James was not assertions made by several writers,
only the first Bishop, but that Christ that the Apostles John and James
committed to him his own throne upon  (the Lord's brother), and even St.
earth; zrpcoro 5 orozg eiorn(p  r)V,   Mark  were  made Jewish  high
cxaOedpav  rr5    rzdxrozr5  c  priests, the title of high priests hav



OF THE CHURCH.                                71
The argument put forward  in  more modern times for
proving the episcopate to be an apostolic or divine
ing been given  to bishops friom  phanius also says of St. James,
the beginning of the third century.  oVroS  Iaxuco,/3o S xoi ztirc'kov
Thus Eusebius, quoting from Poly-  evi rtiS  epaLYr 5 8'q(pspEZ, Heres,
crates, who lived at the very end of 78, ~ 14. For the story about St.
the sQcond century, says, IG0covvYY   Mark, see'Bingham,' ii. 9, 5.... 8? Eyev's7Oy iepeZ  re  rO rra-    What then is the value of any
Lov  tecpopexC35, 7xai jtdpprv5  amount of testimony of such a
ctai 6z6[dxcaHAo5,'H. E.' v. 24, character as the foregoing?
the terztaov being the gold plate    The following are the lists of the
on the high priest's mitre.  Epi- first bishops of Rome, given byIrenceus.               Tertullian.            Augustin.
1. Peter.                1. Peter.              1. Peter.
2. Linus.                2. Clemens.            2. Linus.
3. Anacletus.            3. Linus.              3. Clemens.
4. Clemens.              4. Anacletus.          4. Anacletus.
Eusebius gives the same list as the ignorance of those who handed
Irenseus; and, living much later  them down was greater, he under
than he, when the traditions had takes to give the exact dates of
gathered accretions by time, and  their episcopates, thus1. Peter...................         to    68  A. D.
2. Linus................... from 68 "  80  "
3. Anacletus...............   "  80 "  92  "
4. Clemens................         92" 101  "
Thus, to say nothing of St. Peter  story to kill off personages who
at the head of the list, even so  are in the way, but in this case the
well-known a name as Clemens is  explanation is worthless, besides its
placed in three different positions  being a mere conjecture of modern
in different accounts, appearing  date; for the lists must be still
as second, third, and fourth. Bing- equally due to varying and erroneham  remarks upon this discrep-  ous traditions; and the date of
ancy, that "it is easily reconciled  Clemens  in  Eusebius is quite
by learned men, who make it ap- irreconcileable with it.  Was St.
pear that Linus and Anacletus died, Peter living in A. D. 92?
while St. Peter lived, and that    An ingenious explanation of the
Clemens was ordained their succes- confusion in these lists of the early
sor by St. Peter also" (ii. 1, 4.) bishops of Rome solves the discreIt is a very easy expedient in a  pancies, at the same time that it




72    THE FIRST ORGANIZA TION
institution, from the Apostles themselves having been
(as it is alleged) the first bishops, has more appearance
of truth and validity, but in reality helps to establish the
very opposite conclusion. For as the Apostles exercised
all, and more than all, the authority which legitimately
belonged to the episcopal office in after-ages, there were
not only no bishops then, but not even any need or
room for their appointment.
But if we turn from such questionable arguments, to
take our stand upon more solid ground, I venture to
think that the following conclusions are supported by as
strong historical evidence as such a subject can well
demand.
1. Firstly, the only bishops mentioned in the New
Testament were simple presbyters; the same person
being  a "bishop "-  rixotoS, i.e., a superintendent or
" overseer," from his "taking an oversight " of his congregation, as is distinctly shewn by Acts xx. and other
passages; and a presbyter-~rped/3vrepo or elder, from
the reverence due to age.  It may, however, be observed
that the office of elder is of Hebrew origin; while the
utterly destroys the value of this   Thus Pressensd says "Clement
catalogue as an evidence of episco- a partagd la direction de l'Eglise
pacy. Itissuggested that Clement, avec Linus et Anaclet, qui ont 6dt
Linus, and Anacletus were all pres- dveques ou anciens en meme temps
byters together, and were therefore que lui. AprBs la mort de ses colbishops only in the New Testament lTgues, il demeura le seul ancien
sense; that Clement survived his de l'dpoque apostolique, et fut par
two colleagues, and, from having  consequent investi d'une autoritd
been the companion of St. Paul, morale toute particuliere." —Vol.
had a moral authority in the ii. p. 387.
Church above the other elders.




OF THE CHURCH.                       73
term "bishop"-e7riotto5-is Hellenic, and is applied
in the New Testament only to the officers of Gentile
Churches, though it did not supersede the use of the
word presbyter among them.'
2. Secondly, Timothy at Ephesus, and Titus in Crete,
were delegated by St. Paul to perform for him what we
might call episcopal functions, in ordaining, superintending, reproving, or encouraging the ministers of those
Churches, as well as endeavouring to promote the general
well-being of the Christian communities there. But they
are never called "bishops," or any other name which
might indicate a special order or ecclesiastical office.
Their commission was evidently an exceptional and
temporary charge, to meet some peculiar wants in those
places during the necessary absence of St. Paul; and
there is no intimation of any kind that such appointments were of general necessity-no intimation that
they were needed; or that they were made, or ought
to be made, in any other Churches of the time. Nevertheless, the authority thus delegated to Timothy and
Titus may justly be considered  the  embryo of the
episcopacy of the following age, or the pattern which
the Churches probably followed when it was found
desirable to establish an order superior to that of the
presbyters, and which may have suggested the nature
1 The word Etrid7oTro5 was well superintending authority in cities
known in classical Greek. It sig- of their "subject-allies," and correnified in particular the civil officer sponded with the Lacedemonian
sent by the Athenians to exercise a term dpuo6riz5.




74    THE FIRST ORGA NIZA TION
and measure of the functions and authority which were
committed to their bishops at the first.
And if it be  thought that this in fact supplies an
apostolic origin to the episcopal order, the admission
may be so far made in this limited sense-an Apostle
having suggested the idea, and the Churches afterwards
on their own authority having adopted and embodied
it in their ministry.
3. Thirdly, the tradition alluded to by Tertullian, and
more strongly noticed by Clement of Alexandria,' that St.
John after his release from Patmos established bishops in
the different Churches around Ephesus, suggests a very
interesting step in the rise and progress of episcopacy,
1 The reference in Tertullian is duces it with axov6dov u0oov ozt'
very brief, "OrdoEpiscoporumad,uvOov aoUA`d O'vra Xlyov Trepz
originem recensus in Johannem'I(ovyrov roV ~ro6tod)dlov trapastabit auctorem."-'Adv. Mar-  e6ojdlevov o oi /,ui, n'tevqvcion,' iv. 5.;cay-tevov. And the quotation
Clemens Alexand. writes more above given is followed by the story
atlength: erezsro, zov rvpavVov  of a youth, whom St. John comzeevr-r)V6,rVTo5n c7rt r5  lldr- mended to the care of one of these, ov rT5 YV6ov  uerOry ev  ktil bishops, and who afterwards berfrv'Epe6ov, 2(ozjez rcp(xata- came a robber. St. John, however,
Xov/jevo, 5 acxi riti TCr 7tVl6z0- went to him to reclaim him; and,
Xcopx rTGV  0VG,7V) Joiov /eyv  with very questionable theology,
ett6dxoZovu5 Carcxdrr?6cov), otov  assures him, that there is stillhope
68  o'Acx5 EXx uxXi 6iX dp/6doV, for him. "For I," said he, "will
O7IOV 6  XiXpOV,'ea re TVZa  account to Christ for thee; I will
xLr/pcGdC6o vf  TO3 r6v llyeViua- bear thy death for thee, as the Lord
ros 6,y7JaLcVOeVYcoV.-' Quis Di- did for us:" lyo Xpzdrq 6dscoa
ves Salvetur,' ~ 42.           Xoyo'v v6rtp 60ov'o'v 87r, rov
The words are part of a story 6odv Oaovrov excov Vo7rotevcG,
which Clement honestly says has cog o Kvppzo5 rTOv tvrp /?UGC'
been handed down only by tra- vzrp 6ov rrv Ipvxrv oavrzSodjci
dition, and which he fears may be rz'v,/4tr.
regarded as fabulous. He intro



OF THE CHURCH.                      75
and its relations to the earlier polity.  And it may
probably have had a basis of truth.  For the Churches
in Asia Minor seem to have been the first to exhibit the
episcopal form of Church government; and the state of
things at that time may naturally have led St. John to
repeat, and perhaps enlarge, what St. Paul had done
many years before at Ephesus and Crete. But this
tradition indicates that at any rate at the end of the
apostolic age, when St. John was probably the only
surviving Apostle, the order of bishops had not previously been called into existence. The tradition itself
appears for the first time a hundred years or more after
the alleged events, and is too brief and obscure for
anything more than historical conjectures. Moreover,
whatever St. John may have found it desirable to do,'he
did not think it necessary to record or refer to it in any
of his canonical writings, nor is there any reason to
suppose that he gave any general instructions on the
subject to the Church at large.
4. Fourthly, there is evidence of the most satisfactory
kind, because unintentional, to the effect that episcopacy
was established in different Churches after the decease of
the Apostles who founded them, and at different times;
-some Churches being considerably later than others
in adopting this form of government. Thus there was
evidently no bishop over the Church at Corinth, when
Clement wrote his Epistle to the Corinthiansl  some
l Clement wrote his Epistle to disorders in that Church; and his
the Corinthians on account of the special complaint against them is




76    THE FIRST ORGA NIZA TION
time  after  the  death  of  St.  Paul.  In  the time  of
Ignatius, at the beginning of the second century, there
were several Asiatic bishoprics; Ignatius himself being
Bishop  of Antioch, while  Onesimus  of Ephesus, and
their conduct to their presbyters.  rz,/uv rjTv xrOr'xovdav driovdThey had got up factious parties /uovreS  roZS ZTap' Vuiv Zit  6(6ra6tiES) against their presbyters fivripoz5, veozs5 re #i rpcz xci
(~ 47): they had even dismissed  6ejvod  voezyv'erp TfE ere,
from  their office presbyters, who  yvvazsiv zre 1EY  dUVuG  xuaz
had been regularly appointed, and  d6eatLi    at azL  6yv  vrYEZ86Ez
who had blamelessly discharged  zaOvrao  er7tzterev  zapyyX;ttheir duties (44); he exhorts them  Xere. ~ I.  And  Tdv  Kvpzoo
to live at peace with their pres-'lr7oviv Xptdrov, o5 ro eC i at
byt3rs (54); and to submit to their v7rdp,/'Cuv 686doz, ~vrpaz c37tuEv,
presbyters (57). And not only does  roo5 zt povy ov  ei v ov 5w/6v
he say nothing about a bishop, or aioce6OiQuev, Tzov3S   pe6fivreany one officer in authority over the  povS 7z7,uGo  rzuzd6Goauev, tovS
presbyters, but if there had been a  viov5s  az6evz6GoaeV  TrzV   iazbishop in the Corinthian Church, it   ezFiav trov pOfiov rvo5 (eov, cra
is impossible that the people could  yvvacrza5 IgGOV etz ro dryaov'
have acted as they did, without the  dzopOGo6GodcAa. ~ 21.
bishop's authority being utterly set   But it must be observed that
at nought, and a still graver cause  both these passages, so similar to
of complaint being created, which  each other, evidently refer to the
Clement must have noticed.        common relative duties of life;
Clement mentions the two orders  duties owing to persons in authori
of Presbyters and Deacons, some- ty,-to our elders-to our children
times calling the former E/si6ivooz and wives: and they may be com(~ 42) after the manner of the New  pared with 1 Tim. v. 1, 2, and
Testament; and he seems to know  Titus ii. 2-6.
of no other.                        If Church authorities are here alThose, indeed, who are deter- luded to at all, they are not bishops,
mined to find "bishops" in the  but presbyters, called zyovuevot,
apostolic age, profess to find them   as they are in the New Testament.
hidden under the words ^yovjtevoz   To say that;yov/uevoz, being
and tpory ovEvozi in two passages plural, means a series of Corinthian
of this Epistle; namely-           bishops, past and present, is a'TozS vouiuoz5  roOV  @eov   mere contrivance to prop up a preEiopvted 60,   VtzorTO666ddUvoi conceived opinion.
roi'f 5yovu  v oz 5 Vua,  atz




OF THIE CHURCH.                            77
Polycarp of Smyrna, are mentioned  by  name in  his
genuine epistles. But some years later, when Polycarp
wrote his Epistle to the Philippians, there was no bishop
over the Church at Philippi.l And, later still, in Justin
Martyr's account of Christian worship in his time only
two orders of ministers are seen, with no allusion to any
other, even under circumstances which a century or less
later would necessarily have introduced the services of a
bishop.2
I The proof from Polycarp's Epis- to the bishop to exhort the people to
tie to the Philippians, is similar to  obey him? Ignatius had thought it
that from  Clement to the Corin- no disrespect to Polycarp to write
thians; namely, that under the  rO   z7ttd7los7l   7Ipo6xere iVcr
circumstances, it is morally impos-  x'ai o  O(E6 ev~-v; and oavribvXov
sible that the bishop should have  hyco zTGcV V' OTor66cddodUVCo  tOr
been unmentioned, if there had  iitzdx6tGO, rpedfivripozS, 6zcathen been one in that Church.    xOvozI.
Polycarp addresses exhortations   2 Justin Martyr mentions only
to the people, to the deacons, and  two kinds of ministers; and in parto the presbyters. In particular he ticular in the account of the celeurges the Philippians to submit bration of the Lord's Supper, he inthemselves to the presbyters and  troduces only o itpoed'6tc   and oi
deacons-v7toroar66douo ov5 roZi  8zcduooz; thus, irpo6dqperTaz.pe6d/vrTpozi uoAi Szcrxovozi; rGo 7poeGdrc6T    TrV d8sXpCa9V
caS  O&eo  Xai Xpzd6t —but he  aproi SdaOz iTorpzov  S6atroS xai
mentions  no bishop.  Was no  apjoctrovo.,. EX. apzr6avTrog
obedience due to him, if he had  6d  zov   iopoe6rTcro5... oi
been there?                     Xo.oVV/oeOtrop' a ~iLV 8ZOViooz
The learned Hefele, in his edi- &z5odz6zv exoudrO rV  crpCp6Ovtion of the'Patres Apostolici,' has  rGcoV   teCraoafezVr  Ort  TroU
a curiously characteristic note on  EvXapZ6rvtVOrTo5  a5prov, Uaz
these words, namely, "Policar-  oizov Xat vS'aoro5. —'Apol.' i.
pus episcopi non facit mentionem, ~ 85, also 87.
quippe qui verecundia impeditus   If it be contended that o irpoEdeum nollet cohortari!"  But, how- rasc here is a bishop, then the presever great his verecundia, would it byters are entirely omitted. Were
have been any mark of disrespect there none of them in Justin's time?




78    THE FIRST ORGA NIZA TION
The author of the'Hermae  Pastor,' who probably
lived after the middle of the second century, knew only
the two orders of presbyters and deacons; though he
alludes, with disapprobation, to a tendency then existing towards episcopacy, or a pre-eminence among presbyters.  The "bishops" whom  he mentions, like those
in the New Testament, were only presbyters taking the
oversight of Churches.'
Before the end of the second century, however, the
episcopal form  was probably  established  by  general
consent in all the churches of the Roman empire.
The causes of this change, or rather development, of
the apostolic form of the Christian ministry are not
doubtful, or far to seek. The want of united action
among the  different presbyters of the same  Church,
when they were all of equal authority, and there was
no official superior to control or direct them; the disOr was there ever a Church with a 3, 5, are taken by Romanists to
bishop and no presbyters?      allude to bishops as distinguished
1 In the' Hermse Pastor' occur from presbyters; but doctores is not
such expressions as 6dv dz ov(ay- an appropriate word for presbyters,
yereX~s roZ' 7tpe6d/Jfvrpozs r5S and if there were then bishops
exAxJditSa, or in the Latin, seni- superior to and presiding over
oribus, qui praesunt ecclesise.-Lib. presbyters, he would not have
i. 2, 4. Episcopi, id est praesides blamed them for seeking apre-emiecclesiarum-and then, qui prsesi- nence; as, Nunc itaque vobis dico
des sunt ministeriorum qui et in- qui praeestis ecclesiae, et amatis priopes et viduas protexerunt. Lib. mos consessus. —Lib. i. 3, 9. And
iii. 9, 27: a description of Presby- again, Verum omnes hujusmodi inters and Deacons.               sipientes sunt et fatui, qui habent
The words Apostoli, et Episcopi, inter se aemulationem  de princiet doctores et ministri, in Lib. i. patu, &c.-Lib. iii. 8, 7.




OF THE CHURCH.                           79
putes and divisions which consequently arose similar to
those which disturbed the Corinthian Church in the lifetime of St. Paul, and which, checked for a while by him,
broke out again after his removal; the need which must
have been felt more and more of a centre of union and
of religious teaching and action, to bind together in
one harmonious body the different members of each
Christian community, and to facilitate their communication  with  other Churches-led  naturally, after the
departure of the Apostles, to the wise and wholesome
practice of appointing one presbyter to have a superiority over the rest in every Church; and then the name
of bishop, which before was common to them  all, was
restricted to the superior authority.l
This origin of episcopacy is expressly acknowledged
by patristic testimony even in the fourth century, when
there was so strong a tendency to magnify the bishop's
IAs in the case of the Jewish   With this associated authority, it
Synagogues, so in the earliest would doubtless happen that one of
Christian  Churches, there was the number by mutual arrangement
usually, if not always, a body or would, either in rotation or other", College" of presbyters at the wise, act as the President or Chairhead of each society. At any rate, man of their meetings, or-to use
in the New Testament, presbyters, an ecclesiastical term-their "Conin the plural, are expressly men- sistories."  To make such a presitioned  in  connection with the  dency a permanent office, and to
Churches at Jerusalem, at Ephesus, invest it exclusively with certain
and even at Philippi, where proba- portions of the ministerial authobly the  Church was not large. rity once common to all the presWhile, on the other hand, there is byters, is all that was needed to orino recorded instance of a single ginate the primitive episcopate, and
presbyter superintending any con- thereby to secure a united action,
gregation.                      without any violent innovation.




80    THE FIRST OR GA NIZA TION
office.  It is acknowledged that Churches were at first
governed by the common  advice  of presbyters; that
schisms and contentions among them made it necessary
to place one over the others; and that the custom of the
Church, rather than any ordinance of the Lord, made
bishops greater than the rest.l
The causes above mentioned  might, under any circumstances, have had sufficient force to produce such
a change; but the gravity of the crisis, which marked
the  last years  of the  first century, immensely increased the urgency of their operation.  At that time
the growing dissensions between the Jewish and Gentile
Christians-the destruction of Jerusalem with the entire
breaking up of the Church in that city which had been
the source and centre, the strength and example, of the
whole Christian body-the appearance of the Gnostic
heresy with its delusive, pernicious, and widely spreading doctrines-the impending and already commenced
collision of Christianity with the power of the Roman
empire, which was to test the faith, and patience, and
I Let Jerome's unmistakeable esse, non Christi, in toto orbe dewords be a sufficient evidence of cretum est, ut unus de presbyteris
this-                          electus superponeretur ceteris, ad
"Idem  est ergo Presbyter qui quem omnis ecclesive cura pertineEpiscopus; et antequam diaboli ret....... Sicut ergo presbyteri
instinctu studia in religione fierent, sciunt se ex ecclesihe consuetudine
et diceretur in populis, Ego sum  ei qui sibi praepositus fuerit, esse
Pauli, Ego Apollo, Ego autem  subjectos,-ita Episcopi noverint
Cephle, communi presbyterorum  se magis consuetudine, quam disconcilio ecclesiae gubernabantur. positionis dominicae, veritate, presPostquam vero unusquisque eos, byteris esse majores."-'Comm. in
quos baptizaverat, suos putabat Titus.' i.




OF THE CHURCH.                          8I
courage of the Churches with a fiery trial-all created a
pressing need of some organization to meet the accumulating dangers of the time, and to cement together
the diverse elements of Christian society thus threatened
with dissolution.
The establishment of episcopacy saved the Church;
whatever mischiefs were afterwards wrought by the
abuse and perversion of the system.
The episcopal office in its original institution was one
of simple priority among the other ministers, rather than
a superior order in the Church.  Every town had  its
bishop with a body of presbyters and deacons under
him; the Church often consisting of a single congregation assembling in one place of worship, and the bishop
himself performing all the duties of a presbyter among
them, and having  a personal acquaintance. with every
member of his flock.'  So that the condition of each
Lord King, in his "Enquiry  the other hand, many capozxixz
into the Constitution of the Primi- had doubtless only one Church;
tive Church,' declares that during  and consequently the number of
the first three centuries each such primitive bishoprics in the
bishop's diocese,-or rather his course of time became very great.
"parish," for it was then called Thus, in Augustin's days, there
itrpozxia),-contained only one were nearly 500 bishoprics in the
Church, i. e., one congregation  African Church, and 400 in Asia
meeting in a single place of wor- Minor.  And Ignatius, in  his
ship. This, however, is too sweep- Epistle to Polycarp, bids him not
ing an assertion. Many large towns only to let nothing be done in his
must even from the earliest times Church without his concurrence,
have had several places, where,uy8ev  c'&v   yvcOu7S   6ov
different congregations of Christ- yzyldO co; but to be able to enquire
ians met, as Jerusalem and Ephesus after every member of his flock by
are in the Acts of the Apostles ex- name, fe  ovo6,(uaro5  T'VrauS
pressly said to have had. Yet, on   ereiz; which could not possibly
6




82        THE FIR ST ORGA NIZA TION
diocese, and the relations of its ministers to each other,
were very much like what is now seen in one of our
parishes in the charge of an incumbent with several
curates working under him  and with him  in it. But
as the numbers of Christians increased, and were spread
abroad more widely, separate congregations were necessarily formed and multiplied, and bishops appointed
presbyters to take charge of them; until by degrees
the episcopal office was fully occupied with the ordination and general superintendence of the clergy and other
special duties, without any longer taking an active part
in the parochial ministrations. And thus the episcopate became quite distinct from the office of the presbyters, and was naturally regarded, as indeed it then
was, a separate order in the ministry.
It is not necessary for our present subject to trace in
any detail the progress of events and changes, in the
course of which the episcopate gradually rose from its
originally simple position of priority, to the culmination
of its authority as a dominant power in the Church.
A very interesting account of the successive advances,
which were thus made in the second and third centuries,
is given by Professor Lightfoot in his treatise on the
Christian ministry appended to his edition of the Epistle
to the Philippians.  He there points out that the development of the episcopal authority was marked by
have been done if the see of Smyrna from each other, and superintended
had been an extensive district with by their own  distinct pastors
a number of congregations separate respectively.




OF THE  CHURCH.                   83
three distinct stages.of progress, which were connected
respectively with the names of Ignatius, Irenseus, and
Cyprian. In the time of Ignatius, the bishop, then only
primus inter pares among his co-presbyters, was regarded
as a centre of u/nity; in the time of Irenaeus, he was
looked upon as the depositary of primitive truth; and
with Cyprian, the bishop was the absolute vicegerent of
Christ in things spiritual in the Church.
This great change was fully confirmed and established
in the following century, in spite of some struggles on
the part of the presbyters to maintain their original
position. But this exaltation of the bishop's power was
not the only thing which marked the contrast between
the hierarchy of the Nicene period, and the ministry
of the apostolic age. That contrast was completed by
the contemporaneous introduction and expansion of the
sacerdotal element, which will be noticed in the following Lecture.








LECTURE  III.
A FURTHER CONSIDERATION OF THE
CHRISTIAN MINISTRY,
WITH A SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE QUESTION WHETHER
IT IS RIGHTLY REGARDED AS A PRIESTHOOD.








III.
A FURTHER CONSIDERATION OF THE
CHRISTIAN MINISTRY,
WITH A SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE QUESTION WHETHER IT IS
RIGHTLY REGARDED AS A PRIESTHOOD.
T HE Christian Ministry in its two Orders instituted
by the Apostles, and in its subsequent episcopal
development, has been so far considered, as it appears
in the New Testament, and in the period immediately
ensuing; but there still remain some particulars connected with it, some questions respecting its nature and
functions, too important to be omitted.
The simple account of the public services of Christian
ministers, which is given by Justin Martyr,' towards the
middle of the second century, shows that very little
deviation from the apostolic practice had then taken
place; and from the testimony of other Christian authors,
together with the taunts of Pagan adversaries, it appears
1 See Justin Martyr'Apol.' i. ~ 85, 86.




88   A FURTHER CONSIDERA TION
probable that during the course of this century the
essential character of the original office continued to
be preserved.  By the commencement of the third century, however, this apostolic simplicity had begun to be
greatly marred by the assumption of a more ostentatious style of ministration, and a more imposing authority.  The Christian ministry was now changed into a
Priesthood  after the  model of the  Levitical Law.1
Bishops, presbyters, and deacons, became high-priests,
priests, and Levites, and were gradually more and more
regarded  as  a  mediating, sacrificing, and  absolving
order, standing between God and the general body of
Christian men. Before this the reproach cast by Pagans
against the Christian Church that it had no temples;
altars, priests, or sacrifices, had been its praise and
glory; for its temple was the whole world, or wherever
two or three were gathered together in the Saviour's
name; its altar was the Cross; its priest the Lord Jesus
Christ, at once the Priest and the all-sufficient sacrifice.
And the only earthly priesthood was confined to no
sacerdotal cast, or tribe, or separated order; but was
co-extensive with the whole community of the faithful,
who in a figurative or spiritual meaning were kings and
1 Jerome expressly says that the copi, et Presbyteri, et Diaconi
scheme of a priesthood in the vindicent in Ecclesia."-' Epist.
Christian Church was taken from  ad Evagrium,' the end.
the Old Testament.  "Et ut   Accordingly a bishop was then
sciamus traditiones  apostolicas often called'ApiXepev5 or Summus
sumptas de veteri testamento, quod Sacerdos, a presbyter'IsEpeVS  or
Aaron, et filii ejus, atque Levitse Sacerdos, and a deacon Jeviryg or
in templo fuerunt, hoc sibi Epis- Levita.




OF THE CHRISTIAN MINISTRY.  89
priests unto  God  in  Christ.  But now  the leaven  of
Jewish and of Pagan influences,' which from the first
Professor Lightfoot-(' Epistle  quered almost always in the end
to the Philippians,' p. 258)-as-  exercise an influence over their
cribes the origin of the Christian  conquerors; and vanquished Judasacerdotalism to Pagan influences  ism, being no longer watched and
exclusively, though he admits that guarded against, was enabled to
itsform was taken from the Jewish  -work its way with more security,
priesthood of the Old Testament.  and with a more deadly effect.
Pagan influences, in the midst of   3. The prevalence of Judaeowhich the Christian Churches were  Christianity in  the Church was
located, contributed doubtless in  proved by the breaking out of the
some measure to this effect; but I heresies of the Nazarenes and the
think that Judaism also furnished  Ebionites in the second century,
a large contribution in the same  these sects being formed out of the
direction. The Professor's argu- two parties into which the Judaizments do not appear to me conclu- ing Christians  split themselves
sive. The absence of sacerdotalism  when they became openly separaup to this time may be due to the  ted from the Church.
strength of the Church's hold upon    4. The existence of Judaizing
apostolic truth rather than to the  tendencies in the Church is also inweakness of Jewish influences; and  dicated by the reaction against them
the following considerations appear  which gave occasion to such hereto me to have great weight.       sies as those of Marcion, who by
1. After the destruction of Jeru- his eager and enthusiastic spirit was
salem, and the utter overthrow of hurried into opposite extremes in
the Jewish nation, Judaism was no  combating the Judseo-Christianity
longer formidable to the Church as of those times. And again, the
an enemy attacking itfrom without, Church, while encountering these
but this did not hinder it from be- heresies, was led  too strongly
ing even more dangerous as an  in  the direction of the Jewish
evil influence within the Christian  Law.
body. It was the Judseo-Christi-   5. The Canon of the New Testaanity of Church-meitbers which  ment was not yet fully formed, at
wrought the greatest mischief.    least in many Churches; the Old
2. The victory which the Church  Testament was still the sacred
had gained over Judaism  as an  Book; and there were in the second
open antagonist, made it only the  century no divinely inspired men
more formidable as an insidious in- to teach the Christian body how to
fluence. By a strange law the con



90    A FURTHER CONSIDERATION
had been working insidiously in the Church, although
the  religious systems from  which  they  sprang  were
formally renounced and resisted, began to make itself
felt and seen; and as the inner life of the Church declined in spirituality, and lost its firm hold of apostolic
truth, its outward form  and  show  became more prominent and presuming, and challenged more attention
from the world.
Tertullian' is the first Christian author by whom  the
Church ministry is directly asserted to be a priesthood.
By Cyprian an undisguised sacerdotalism is maintained;
and  in  the fourth century the sacerdotal system  took
deep root in the Church, and grew and flourished, until
it culminated at last in the overbearing pretensions of
the priesthood in the later Church of Rome.
In  our own Church the attempt was made  at the
Reformation to bring back the presbyter's office as nenrly
as might be to the apostolic model, without making
distinguish in it the abiding truth  licere."-' Exhort. Cast.' 7.
from the obsolete form.           The system, once introduced,
See some admirable remarks on  soon developed itself in strength
all these points in Pressense's and pretensions. Cyprian in his'Hist. des Trois Prem. Siecles,' time contributed greatly to estabvol. ii.                        lish the sacerdotal position and
I This changehad been gradually  power in the Church.  " Vel eliapproaching, but distinctly appears gendi dignos sacerdotes, vel indigfirst at the beginning of the third nos recusandi... ut sacerdos,
century. Thus Tertullian, "'Dandi plebe presente, sub omnium oculis
baptismum quidem jus habet sum- deligatur."-Cyp.'Ep.' 68.
mus Sacerdos, qui est Episcopus."    " Utique ille sacerdos vice Christi' De Bapt.' 17.                 verefungitur." Ep. 63, ad Coecilium.
"Vani erimus si putaverimus,   See further, Appendix A.
quod sacerdotibus non liceat, Laicis




OF THE CHRISTIAN MINISTRY.  91
more violent and sudden changes than were absolutely
necessary.  The noble-minded Reformers in the reign
of Edward VI. in this, as in other portions of their work,
faithfully followed the light of the New Testament, as
far as that light gradually shone in upon their minds
with increasing clearness; but they did not continue
long  enough  to  complete their labours.  And  their
efforts never having been subsequently followed up in a
similar spirit, some blemishes, which they failed to
notice, or could not then remove, some expressions
which  savour more of the Romish errors which they
desired to eliminate, than of the apostolic truth which
it was their object to restore,-have not yet disappeared
from our formularies.l
In order, therefore, to a right appreciation of the true
nature of the ministerial offices in the Christian Church,
and of the ministrations essentially belonging to them,
it is necessary to enquire more particularly what the
Apostles really intended their Church officers to be, and
1 The Reformers of Edward VI.'s At the beginning of Elizabeth's
time evidently proposed to them- reign the spirit of compromise preselves the noble object of bringing  vailed. In the time of James I.,
their Church into as close a confor- the leading object was to assimilate
mity as possible with Scripture  us to Rome without submitting to
truth; and they endeavoured quiet- the Roman Pope.  And at the
ly but honestly to make our Church  "Restoration" the violent reacformularies accord with that truth, tionary feeling against the Puriso far as they were enabled them- tans carried the day, and influenced
selves to perceive it. But all the  the whole proceedings.
subsequent revisions of our Liturgy    Since then-what has been done
and ecclesiastical system, were un- during more than two hundred
dertaken in a very different spirit, years?
and for very different purposes.




92    A FURTHER CONSIDERA TION
to do'; and what they purposely and altogether excluded
from the sphere of their authority and duties; and so
to arrive at a just and sober judgment respecting the
claims and assertions of post-apostolic times.
And herein, with a view to bringing the question in
as distinct and clear a manner as possible before those
who may be inclined to give it a careful consideration,
I will at once state that the proposition which I undertake to prove from the New  Testament, and from  the
teaching and practice of the Apostles there recorded, is
that, according to Scripture truth, the Christian ministry
is not a priesthood, and Christian ministers are not priests,
are not invested with any sacerdotal powers, and have
no sacerdotal functions to perform.
The English word "priest" is indeed only the word
"presbyter" abbreviated in its passage into our modern
language; and were it not for the equivocal meaning
of the term, and the consequent confusion of thought,
and the excuse for erroneous teaching, which it favours,
there could be no objection to our thus using it to designate the truly apostolic office of the presbyter, or elder,
of the New  Testament.'  But I here use the words
iThe word "presbyters" be- tian ministers, indicates that the
came "prester;" then in Norman nations which thus use it were
French "prestre;" and from this Christianized after sacerdotalism
the modern French  "pr6tre," had gained a settled place in the
and the English "prest," after- Church.
wards " priest."                The word "priest " from its equiThe circumstance that this word vocal meaning, is still employed
is used to denote the Jewish and amongst ourselves to prove by an
Pagan sacrificers, as well as Chris- argument,-weak indeed and illo



OF THE CHRISTIAN MINISTRY.  93
priest and priesthood only in the other and more common meaning, as  the  equivalents of the Greek  iepes5
gical, yet not without its influence  name of Presbyters, or fatherly
on weak and illogical minds,-that guides? The Holy Ghost throughthe Church of England retains all out the body of the New Testament,
the  sacerdotalism  of the  older making so much mention of them,
Church.  Thus, the  Church of doth  not  anywhere  call them
England declares certain of her  Priests."-'Eccles. Polit.' v. 78.
ministers to be "priests;" a priest Yet he says, that after all it makes
must offer sacrifices (Heb. viii. no difference; and he will make
3, x. 11), and must have an altar no concession of the name.
whereon to offer them; the altar in    And very recently indeed Proour churches must be the Commu- fessor Lightfoot, in his valuable
nion Table, and the Lord's Supper  Excursus on the Christian ministry,
the sacrifice; andthenanyamount appended to his edition of the
of sacerdotal and sacramental su-'Epistle to the Philippians,' deperstitions can be introduced ad  dares "as broadly as possible,"
libitum, in direct opposition to our  that " the Kingdom  of Christ has
Prayer-Book's teaching. It is most no sacerdotal system;" that in the
desirable, therefore, that this equi- Christian Church "for communicavocal word should be avoided, and  ting instruction, and for preserving
the honest, original "presbyter"  public order, for conducting relibe restored to its place.          gious worship, and dispensing of
It is much to be lamented that social charities, itbecamenecessary
good and learned men, while ac- to appoint special officers. But the
knowledging that a Christian minis-  priestly functions and privileges of
ter is not a sacrificing priest,-a  the Christian people are never reiepeZv  or sacerdos-but an Elder, a  garded as transferred or even deletped/IvrepoS or presbyter-should  gated to these officers.  They are
yet have countenanced the con-  called stewards, or messengers of
tinned use of the word "priest;"  God, servants or ministers of the
thus giving a handle to those who  Church, and the like; but the sacerwell know how to use it for evil.    dotal title is never once conferred
Thus Hooker, long  ago, ad- upon them."  He declares that the
mitted that, "in truth, the word  idea of a priesthood was brought
Presbyter doth seem more fit, and  into the Church at the end of the
in propriety of speech more agree-  second century, by the influence of
able, than Priest, with the drift of Paganism, and took its form from
the whole Gospel of Jesus Christ."  the Levitical law; that Christian
And " What better title could there  ministers are not priests in the sense
be given them than the reverend  of offering sacrifices for sin, or




94   A FURTHER CONSIDERATION
and ispareia, and  as they  are used  throughout our
English Bible.  A priest in this acceptation of the word
is one whose office it is to act as a mediator, or medium
of acceptable communication, between God and man in
sacred things, to offer acceptable sacrifices to God for
the people, and to impart to them  by the power of his
official acts the grace or blessing which God is ready to
bestow, especially the absolution or forgiveness of their
sins, when they have confessed, and repented of them.
And in this sense it is that I undertake to prove that
the Christian ministry is not a priesthood.
1. The first evidence, which I adduce in proof of this
proposition, is supplied by a consideration of the source
from whence the form  and shape (so to speak) of the
Christian ministry was derived; the  model which the
Apostles saw  fit to imitate  in  the  offices which they
instituted in the Church.
As the  Christian  religion rose up out of the  very
depth and essence of Judaism, following it as its foremaking an atonement. Yet he as- clearly apprehended; and it might
serts that they may be so called, have been better, if the later Chris" if the word be taken in a wider tian vocabulary had conformed to
and looser acceptation." And this the silence of the apostolic writers;
is quite enough for those, who de- so that the possibility of confusion
sire it, to cite him as an authority  would have been avoided." This
for asserting that the Christian  undecided protest is of no avail.
presbyter is a "priest," and, there- As far as the Professor is concerned
fore, that all priestly acts and func- the mischief is to go on, and his
tions may be predicated of him.    name is, and will be, used to supIt is in vain that Professor Light- port the very sacerdotalism against
foot adds, " Only in this case the  which he so forcibly declaims.
meaning of the term should be




OF THE CHRISTIAN_ MINISTRY.  95
ordained end and consummation, it might reasonably
be expected, that such forms and regulations of the
Jewish Church, as were not inconsistent with the principles of the Gospel Dispensation, would be retained and
adapted to its use. And the Apostles being men deeply
imbued with Jewish feelings, and (it may even be said)
with Jewish prejudices, must have been inclined to
deviate no further from the customary observances of
their law, than their Divine Instructor taught them to
be absolutely required. And they must have felt that
it was wise to give their new religious life and worship
as little innovation and strangeness to Jewish minds as
possible, by continuing whatever could consistently be
continued of their accustomed ceremonial.
But when we proceed to trace how far these anticipations were realized in the apostolic ordering of the
Christian societies, we meet with apeculiarity in the Jews'
religion, which must be clearly apprehended before the
retention or rejection of Jewish ordinances can be rightly
understood; but which, when clearly apprehended, throws
great light not only on the origin of the Christian ministry, but also on all the powers and functions which were
assigned to it at the first, or which it could ever afterwards legitimately claim.
The religious life of the Jews in its outward practice
and operation at the commencement of the Christian
era, and for at least several centuries before it, exhibited
a remarkable Dualism,-a two-fold system,-each part
of which was quite independent of the other, though




96   A FURTHER CONSIDERATION
their operation and effects were harmoniously combined.
These two parts were respectively centred in
The Temple and Tle Synagogue.
The religious system of the Temple was altogether of
divine appointment, and all its services divinely ordered,
even in their minute details, without an authority being
vested anywhere on earth for altering any of the regulations originally prescribed.
The religious system of the Synagogue was of man's
appointment, its services being ordered by no divine law,
but originating in the wisdom  of man, and by man's
authority and discretion regulated and maintained.
In the Temple was the priest consecrated according
to a precise regulation, and a sacerdotal succession laid
down by God Himself, with the altar and its sacrifices at
which he officiated, the incense which he burned, the
holy places into which none might enter, but those to
whom it was especially assigned.
In the Synagogue was the reader of the Scriptures,
the preacher or expounder of religious and moral truth,
the leader of the common devotions of the people, unconsecrated by any special rites, and unrestricted by any
rule of succession; with a readiug-desk or pulpit at
which he stood, but with no altar, sacrifices, or incense,
and no part of the building more holy than the rest.
And without attempting now to dwell upon all the
remarkable contrasts thus displayed, it may suffice to
say that the Temple exhibited in a grand combination




OF THE  CHRISTIAN  MINISTRY.    97
of typical places, persons, and actions, God dwelling
with man, reconciling the world unto Himself in the
person and work of Christ; and pardoning, justifying,
and graciously receiving those ho come to Him through
the appointed Saviour: while the Synagogue exhibited
a congregation of men, already reconciled to God, assembled as devout worshippers for prayer and praise, for
instruction in divine knowledge, and edification in righteous living. And the two systems,-the one divine, the
other human,-the one gorgeous and typical, the other
simple and real,-in the one, God drawing near to man,
in the other, man drawing near to God,-never clashed
or interfered with each other: were never intermingled
or confounded together. "In the Temple there was no
pulpit, in the Synagogue there was no altar."
Now it was the Temple system with its imposing.aesthetic services, its associations of awe and mystery,
and not the simple unexciting worship of the Synagogue,
that naturally appealed to the imagination and feelings
of men.  And accordingly, from the beginning of the
third century, portions of this system began, and continued increasingly, to be introduced into the Church;
and in particular the idea of the Temple service was
imported into the worship of Christian congregations;
the Christian ministry, as already mentioned, was represented to be a Hierarchy; the form and arrangements
of the buildings for public devotions were assimilated as
much as possible to those of the Hebrew sanctuary;
and a system of sacerdotalism grew up, and became so
7




98    A FURTHER CONSIDERA TION
inveterate in the Church, that it still lingers and revives
even amongst ourselves, purified indeed from its grosser
superstitions, but not altogether removed by the happy
influence of the Reformation.
Not so, however, was it in the Apostles' days, or with
any of their ordinances and institutions. They retained
and adapted to Christian use some Jewish forms and
regulations; but they were taken altogether, not from
the Temple, but from the Synagogue. The offices which
they appointed in the Church, and the duties and authority which they attached to them, together with the
regulations which they made for Christian worship, bore
no resemblance in name or in nature to the services of
the priesthood in the Temple. The Apostles had been
divinely taught that those priests and services were
typical forms and shadows, which were all centred,
and fulfilled, and done away, in Christ: and to reinstate them in the Christian Church would have been
in their judgment to go back to the bondage of " weak
and beggarly elements" from  the liberty, strength,
and rich completeness, of the Gospel Dispensation.
They saw  that as the ordinances of the Temple
represented the work of God wrought out for man, not
man's work for God, to continue them, after that work
was finished in the life and death of Jesus, would be in
effect so far to deny the efficacy of the Saviour's mission,
and to thrust in the miserable performances of men to
fill up an imagined imperfection in the Son of God.
The Apostles therefore took nothing from the Temple




OF THE CHRISTIAN MINISTRY.  99
system for the machinery of their Church government;
but the offices which they appointed, and the duties and
authority which they attached to them, together with
the legulations which they made for Christian worship,
corresponded in a remarkable and unmistakeable manner
with the whole system of the Jewish synagogue.
It would be too long to enumerate here all the particulars of this similarity. They may be found at length,
with the whole subject exhaustively discussed in a spirit
of great fairness in Vitringa's treatise'On the Synagogue.'  It will be sufficient for our present purpose to
observe that a Jewish synagogue was governed by a
body of elders, some of whom acted especially as rulers
or judges, others were the public religious ministers, and
led the prayers of the people, and took  care of the
1 The agreement of the Christian priests in the Temple; but no parChurch with the Synagogue, and ticular dress was used in the Synaits disagreement with the Temple  gogue, nor in Christian Churches.
system, are specially seen in the   6. No restriction of persons to a
following particulars:        particular tribe or class in the Sy1. The ntmes of the office-bearers nagogue; but any fit person might
in the Church, before the third cen- be appointed to minister there; so
tury, were those of the Synagogue, also in Christian Churches.
not of the Temple.               7. No fixed rule about the age of
2. The places of worship-only  those who officiated in the Synaone Temple, but Synagogues any- gogue; nor  in  the  Christian
where; so Churches.            Churches.
3. No different degrees of sanctity   S. No exclusion on the ground of
in the  Synagogues-or in  the bodily defects in the Synagogue; or
Churches.                      in the Christian Church.
4. The services in the Synagogue,   9. The Synagogue had a raised
but not in the Temple, correspon- desk or pulpit for the reader, but
ded with those of Christians.  no altar; so Churches had only an
5. Vestments were necessary for Ambo orpulpitum of the same kind.




ioo   A FURTHER CONSIDERA TION
reading of the law; and such an officer was called the
angel of the Church, and the cthazan or bishop of the congregation.  There were also  deacons or almoners, on
whom the care of the poor devolved. And these offices
with their ministrations the Apostles transferred  to the
Christian Churches.' Nor is it an unreasonable supposition that "whenever a Jewish synagogue existed which
1 "In a Synagogue, three have had failed in anything. And hence
the magistracy, and were called the he was called Chazan, that is 71ridBench of Three; whose office it was xozoS, or Overseer. Certainly, the
to decide the differences arising  signification of the word Bishop, or
between members, and to take care  Angel of the Church, had been deof other matters of the Synagogue. termined with less noise, if reThese judged concerning money  course had been had to the proper
matters, thefts, losses, &c. These  fountains, and men had not vainly
were properly and with good reason  disputed about the signification of
called opXzd6v'uvdoyoyoz, rulers of words, taken I know  not from
the Synagogue, because on them  whence.
lay the chief care of things, and    "The service and worship of the
the chief power.                 Temple being abolished as being
"Besides these, there was the  ceremonial, God transplanted the
Public liinister of the Synagogue, worship and public adoration of
who prayed publicly, and took care  God used in the Synagogues, which
about the reading of the Law, and  was moral,  into the Christian
sometimes preached, if there were  Church; to wit, the public minisnot some other to discharge this try, the public prayers, reading
office. This person was called the  God's word, and preaching, &c.
Angel of the Church, and Chazan or Hence the names of the ministers
Bishop of the Congregation....... of the Gospel were the very same,
The Public Minister of the Syna- the Angel of the Church, and the
gogue himself read not the Law  Bishop, which belonged to the
publicly; but every Sabbath he ministers in the Synagogue.
called out seven of -the Synagogue    " There were also three Deacons,
(on other days fewer), whom he  or Almoners, on whom  was the
judged fit to read. He stood by  care of the poor; and these were
him that read, with great care ob- called Parnasim, or Pastors."serving thathe read nothing either Lightfoot,'Heb. and Talmud.
falsely, or improperly, and calling  Exercit. on Matth.' iv. 23.
him back and correcting him, if he




OF THE CHRISTIAN MINISTRY.  iOI
was brought, the whole or the chief part of it, to embrace
the gospel, the Apostles did not there so much form a
Christian  Church (or congregation, exIntdiar), as make
an existing congregation  Christianz, by introducing  the
Christian  sacraments  and worship, and  establishing
whatever regulations were requisite for the newly adopted
faith; leaving the machinery (if I may so speak) of
government unchanged, the rulers of synagogues, elders,
and other officers (whether spiritual or ecclesiastical, or
both) being already provided in the existing institution."
That such was sometimes the case in Jerusalem  and
other Jewish towns is highly probable; and this possibly
is the reason why St. James calls the place where Christians met for public worship, or the congregation itself,
their Synagogue,' as he does in his epistle addressed
especially to Hebrew disciples.
The Apostles, therefore, having adopted the official
arrangements of the synagogue, and discarded those of
the Temple, in the institution of Church offices, plainly
showed by this circumstance  that no priestly powers
or duties were attached to their ministrations.
2. Another argument which lands us in the same con-'Archbishop Whately —'King- would naturally, if not necessarily,
dom of Christ Delineated,' p. 108. adopt the normal government of a
2 Epist. of James, ii. 2.  "If Synagogue; and a body of elders
there come into your assembly," or presbyters would be chosen to
e~z rT, dVVaycoY)v?, Viucv.  direct the religious worship, and
"Christian congregations in Pa- partly also to watch over the temlestine long continued to be desig- poral well-being of the society."nated by this name of Synagogue. Professor Lightfoot,'Ep. Philip.'
With the Synagogue itself they p. 190.




102   A FURTHER CONSIDERA TION
elusion is deduced from the condition of the lay members
of the Church as it appears in the New Testament, and the
equality of privilege or standing-ground in Christ which
Christians of all orders or degrees possessed. The way
of access to Gocl being open to all without distinction
through the priesthood of Christ, there was nothing for
a priest to do-no sacerdotal work or office for him to
undertake. But the substance of this argument, being
specially connected with the position of the Christian
laity, will be more fully considered in the following
Lecture.
3. A third distinct proof that the office-bearers in the
Church of the Apostles were not, and could not be,
priests, or perform  any sacerdotal duties, is seen in a
condensed form in the Epistle to the Hebrews, and is
found at large in the whole of the Old and New Testaments, of which that Epistle, as far as its subject
reaches, is so valuable an epitome. We there learn that
from the very nature of the priestly office, it is necessary
for those who hold it to be specially called and appointed
by God, either personally by name, or according to a
divinely instituted order of succession; and that, since
the patriarchal dispensation, only two orders of priesthood have ever had  this necessary divine sanction
granted to them. These two orders are the Order of
Aaron and the Order of Melchizedec. The priests of
the former Order belonged to the Jewish dispensation
only, and have indisputably passed away. The only
priest after the Order of Melchizedec, ever mentioned




OF THE CHRISTIAN MINISTRY.  I03
in the Bible, is our Lord Jesus Christ,-the " Priest upon
His throne," without a successor, as He had none before
Him, in the everlasting priesthood of His mediatorial
reign. This argument appears to me to be conclusive.
It appears to me that the Epistle to the Hebrews shuts
out the possibility of there being any other priest in the
Christian Church besides Christ Himself.  But this does
not so appear to a large number of our clergy. Bishops,
as far back as the third century, claimed to be successors
or vicegerents of Christ on earth;' and our presbyters
now do not hesitate to declare that they are Priests after
the order of M2elchizedec.  To  my mind and feeling this
is an impious claim; but countenanced as they are by
I In the estimation of Cyprian, in which the testimony of Ambrose
the middle of the third century, will be sufficient. He declares that
the Bishop was the absolute vicege- a Bishop performs the part of Christ
rent of Christ upon earth in spirit- in the Church, and is the vicegeual things.                       rent of the Lord.' Nam si Jesus Christus Dominus    " In ecclesia propter reverentiam
et Deus noster ipse est summus sa- Episcopalem nonhabeat caput libecerdos Dei patris, et sacrificium  rum, sed velamine tectum; nec
patri se ipsum primus obtulit, et habeat potestatem loquendi; quia
hoc fieri in sui commemorationem  Episcopus personam habet Christi.
precipit, utique ille sacerdos vice Quasi ergo ante judicem, sic ante
Christi vere fungitur."-' Cyp. Ep.' Episcopum, quia vicarius Domini
63, ad Ocecilium.                 est, propter reatus originem subAnd again, "Neque enim aliundo  jecta debet videri." -'Ambros.
haereses obortm sunt, aut nata sunt Com.' in I Cor. xi. 10.
schismata, quam inde quod sacer-   The interpolator of the Ignatian
doti Dei non obtemperatur; nec  epistles, whatever was his date,
unus in ecclesia ad tempus sacer-  " had used almost the highest posdos et ad tempus judex vice Christi sible language about Episcopacy;"
cogitatur."-' Cyp. Ep.' 65, ad Cor- but from Cyprian's time and onnelium.                           wards, the addition of sacerdotalThese pretensions were not di- ism raised it to a higher level.
minished in the fourth century, for




04   A FUR THER CONSIDERA TION
numberless past and present examples, good men are
not conscious of impiety in making it. But then it is
necessary to ask these "priests" for their credentials.
Where is the record of their divine appointment to the
sacerdotal office? In what part of the New Testament,
and in what form  of words, is the institution of such
priests, and the manner of their succession, to be found?
And to such inquiries no satisfactory answer has been
or can be given.
But there is still another way in which the priestly
claims of the Christian ministry are presented, and which
is thought to be less arrogant in its pretensions than the
one just noticed. Christian priests, it is urged, are representatives of the whole Christian body; even as under
the Jewish law the priestly tribe held their position as
representatives of the whole people, who were " a kingdom of priests-a holy nation." And since in a secondary
and spiritual sense all those who are in Christ are " kings
and priests unto God "-" a holy nation, a royal priesthood,"-the clergy as a representative order, and delegates from the whole Christian community, have a priestly
office in the Church.
But if this were so, then the Christian minister, as
such a representative priest, could at any rate only
exercise the powers of the body which he represented;
he could therefore offer only spiritual sacrifices, without
any material altar or material sacrifice to put upon it,only such sacrifices as that of praise and thanksgiving,
which every individual Christian is to give; and for this




OF THE CHRISTIAN MINISTRY.  o05
purpose a separate order of priests is useless.' Besides
this the idea of the spiritual priesthood of each individual
Christian being delegated to the clerical order is only a
fond imagination, put forward to support a  favourite
claim.  There  is no  ground  for supposing  that the
priestly functions and privileges of the Christian people
ever were  or can  be  thus  transferred  or delegated.
Although the Jewish people were a nation of priests, it
was only by a divine command expressly and distinctly
given that one tribe was selected to minister for the
nation in sacred things, and one family out of this tribe
was appointed for the priesthood. No such divine selection or appointment for a priesthood in the Christian
Church is anywhere to be found; and the want of this,
plead what we will, is absolutely  destructive  to  all
priestly claims.
4. And this brings us to a fourth and conclusive proof
of my proposition, to be found among the remarkable
1 "The sacrifice of praise, " is a tians (not by a priest or minister),
Scriptural expression, and our Cor- in the memorial of the bread and
munion Service speaks of "this our wine, in which they remember what
sacrifice of praise and thanksgiv- Christ suffered for them. "Orzfusv
ing."  Such spiritual sacrifices are  oiYv xci evoxai zai seV^ptdriOrz,
offered up by all and each of the vtro rtoYV daicoiv yerdJVOtUet,
faithfulfrom the altar of theheart; rzezacz,uovo6z xazi e~vzpe6roi
and there is no place for any other  eid, r  QS OeS Ov6ioz, xai aozVr5
priest, besides the worshippers  V5,uz, raovra yodp,udova uai
themselves, in such a sacrifice. Xpzdrzl(voi c7apxtLaftov zrozezv,
This is the old Christian view be- uoci Eit' orvaarfd6ez 8d  ro5
fore sacerdotalism  infected the  rpop5O  aV rcTy  iVpcA5 rse arz
Church. Justin Martyr (A. D. 155), vypcid, Ev 7, tai roY 7aC'Oov5, O
says that prayers and thanksgivings  tirztovOe 8L' avtrov  o vid5 roT
are the only acceptable sacrifices, Oeov,  /dti}r7vrvoat.-' Justin M.
and that they are offered by Chris- Dial. c. Tryph.' ~ 117.




Io6   A FURTHER CONSIDERA TION
omissions of Holy Writ.  In  nothing  is the speaking
silence of the New Testament more complete and significant, than  in the fact that never there  are Christian
ministers  of any  degree  called  priests.  Neither  the
Apostles themselves, nor any office-bearers whom they
appointed, are  ever spoken  of as  having  sacerdotal
powers, or sacerdotal duties, committed to them. In no
single instance is any one  of the words, which  describe
the priesthood and its work, assigned to the office of the
Christian ministry or to its ministrations.' Familiar as
I Such words as ispesi5, iepa-''epe<5 and iepoirev/uca priest
reiZcr  ispTrevaucr, iepovpyGco,  and priesthood,-said of all Christ0VG),  Ovdiza  Ov6zca6rtripzo, or ians. "Yeare aholypriesthood"any others of sacerdotal meaning,  iepctevjao:-and "a royal priestare never so much as once in the  hood" ieparsev/o. (I Pet. ii 5, 9.)
New Testament spoken of the min-    " Hath made us kings and priests
isterial services in the Christian  (iepe-T) unto God."  (Rev. i. 6).
Church.                            and also in Rev. v. 10, xx. 6.
They are used when speaking of   St. Paul on one occasion, in a
the priesthood of Jesus Christ; and  very grand figure of speech, reprethe following obviously figurative  sents the whole body of Gentile
expressions are found applied to  Christians as a great sacrifice offered
Christians in general,-not Chris- up to God, and himself as a priest
tian ministers.  Thus-             ministering at it; thus "That I
Ovdic, a sacrifice. "Present your  should be the minister (2eztrovpbodies a living sacrifice."-Ovdioyv  ydv, not a sacerdotal word) of
CGo6ax. Rom. xii. 1.               Jesus Christ to the Gentiles, minisThe contribution  sent by the  teringtheGospelofGod." (IepovpPhilippians to St. Paul is called "a  yovyrT. Tr iv eayyerzdov-acting
sacrifice (Ovdici) acceptable, well- as a priest with respect to the Gospleasing to God." (Phil. iv. 18.)    pel)  "that the  offering up  of
"The  sacrifice  (Ovdiav)  of the Gentiles" (ipodcpopoid Trc
praise:" and "to do good and to  IOYv6v) "might be acceptable."
distribute forget not, for with such  Rom. xv. 16.
sacrifices (Ov6iaz5) God is well   He also uses a similar metaphor in
pleased."  (Heb. xiii. 15, 16.)    writing to the Philippians, "And if
"To offer up spiritual sacrifices "  I be offered (d6t78 o0a.rz, am poured
Ovdiaxy tvevzurvzxi5.. (1 Pet.ii.5.) out as a libation or drink offering),




OF THE CHRISTIAN MITNIS TRY.  Io
the Apostles were with the striking ceremonial of the
Temple worship, and sometimes deriving from  it a
figurative language of the greatest force, they never
employ terms of priestly import in any manner which
countenances the supposition that they, or the presbyters
of their Churches, were acting as Priests in the congregations of Christian people.
This omission is acknowledged by High Churchmen to
be a "difficulty;" but it is far more than a difficulty, it
is an insuperable bar to all sacerdotal assumptions. For
when it is considered that before the Apostles' times
neither they, nor any one else, had even so much as
ever heard of a religion without a visible priesthood, and
its necessary accompaniments; and that after the Apostles were gone the Church turned back to this conspicuous element of all other religions; when it is considered
also that a priesthood requires not merely a non-prohibition, but a positive and express appointment of divine
authority, I am justified in affirming that this negative
argument from  the omissions of the New Testament
proves as strongly as any historic evidence can demonstrate, that in the Christianity which the Apostles
preached and taught, there was no priesthood or priestly
ministrations, but those of Jesus Christ Himself,-the
upon the sacrifice (Ov6i4) and ser-   These are all the instances in
vice of your faith." (Phil. ii. 17.) which words occur in connection
Andheusestheword dtevSopoatrz  with Christians, except in Heb.
in the same sense in 2. Tim. iv. 6, xiii. 10, for which see Note (p),
"I am ready to be offered" 87! and Lecture vii.
d7t6vSoj6caz.




o18   A FUR THER CONSIDERA TION
one great and sufficient High-priest of the whole Church
of God.l
I am well aware that a single expression in the Epistle
to' the Hebrews-" We have an altar "-is sometimes put
forward as opposed to what has been here advanced.
The "altar"  is then taken  to  mean the communion
table, the Eucharistic elements laid upon it are declared
to be a sacrifice, and the officiating minister necessarily
becomes a priest.  But such an interpretation is inconsistent with the context, and is on all grounds, altogether
indefensible.2  Indeed, these words, "We have an altar"
The office and work of a be produced, it must be affirmed
"priest "is one which so absolutely that the New Testament and the
requires a divine appointment, that Apostolic Church repudiate such
nothing short of an express andposi- claims; and their only support
tive declaration to this effect in the must be sought for in the later
New Testament could justify our time, when "the mystery of inicalling the Christian ministry a quity" was doing its work, and
priesthood.  The Jewish priests the predicted apostacy had alcould point to a distinct and un- ready begun.
mistakeable ordinance of God in   The arguments commonly put
their Law, instituting their order forward to support the allegation
and assigning to them their powers that the Christian ministry is a
and duties. Those who claim to be priesthood,-when they are not
Christian Priests, must be called  simply borrowed from the unscripupon to show an equally distinct tural practices of the third and folappointment of their order in the lowing centuries,-are marked by
New Testament. -This they are  the fallacy technically called ignoutterly unable to do: and nothing  ratio elenchi, or irrelevant conclucan supply the absence of it. No  sion; being such as do not tend to
pleas of " antecedent probability," prove the existence of this priest..
or analogies between the Jewish  hood, but assuming its existence,
and Christian dispensations, or proceed to account for it, or to exother similar arguments, can be of plain the nature and mode of its
any avail in such a case. Until a dis- operation.
tinct divine institution of a priest-   2 These words, "We have an
hood for the Christian ministry can  altar," are more fully considered in




OF THE CHRtSTIAN MINISTRY.  I09
when rightly understood, confirm instead of invalidating
the preceding argument.
And these four proofs, each one by itself complete,
must be taken together in their accumulative force, in
considering the question whether the Christian ministry
is a priesthood or not.l
But this is not all. There is other collateral or secondary evidence by no means void of weight, though not
bearing  so directly on  the  subject as the preceding
testimony.  Thus it is a significant fact that neither
presbyters nor deacons were  anointed, like the Jewish
priests, to consecrate them for their ministerial work;
but they were admitted  to their sacred  offices by a
solemn but simple form of ordination.  And a brief consideration of the nature of this ordination,-of the persons
from whom it was received, —and what was conferred by
it,-will still further illustrate the design and character of
the Christian ministry in the apostolic Church.
1. There are no  rules prescribed, nor any  precise
directions given in the New Testament, as to the form
or manner in which ministers were to be ordained.  But
Lecture VII. in connection with  repulsive to their ideas and printhe Sacrament of the Lord's Sup- ciples as faithful Jews, to have set
per. See Note, p. 306.          up other priests and altars, either
1 Another proof still,-or at any to rival or to co-operate with those
rate, an indirect confirmation of of the Temple. After the overthe foregoing proofs-is seen in the throw of the Jewish polity, there
fact that the Apostles continued to is no indication anywhere that
attend the Temple services and the any apostolic authority then estaministrations of the Jewish priest- blished a priesthood which they
hood at the temple altar: since it had not previously instituted.
would have been utterly alien and




iIO   A FUR THER CONSIDERA TION
in Acts xiii. it is recorded that Paul and Barnabas were
ordained to the office of Apostles by the imposition of
hands, accompanied  with  prayer  and  fasting.l  And
doubtless this simple ceremonial, which sufficed for
assigning the highest place of dignity in the Church, was
used with appropriate variations in the ordination of
presbyters and deacons. So that when St. Paul warned
Timothy at Ephesus " to lay hands suddenly on no man,"
these words had become a well-known  expression for
ordaining to a sacred office.  And this mode continued
to be used in the post-apostolic Church, as is evidenced'by the directions and the forms of prayer for ordinations
in what are called "the Apostolic constitutions."
2. The persons who ordained Christian ministers were
at first naturally and necessarily the Apostles, as the
founders and chief rulers of the Church.  Thus Paul and
1 It may possibly be objected that was at any rate considered sufficient
this ceremony was not an Ordina- to entitle them to.exercise apostotion to the Apostleship, inasmuch  lie powers and authority in that
as St. Paul declares in his Epistle  mission, by ordaining presbyters,
to the Galatians, that he was "an  and regulating Churches, as well
Apostle not of man neither by  as preaching Christ.
man."  This objection does not   It is further to be noticed that
*seem to me to have much force; St. Paul seems not to have preached
because St. Paulwas directly chosen  to the gentiles, until he had been
and appointed by Jesus Christ; thus formally sent to do so by the
whether any ecclesiastical cere- direct call of the Spirit, and this
mony was afterwards added or not. imposition of hands at Antioch.
However this may be, the argu-   "Jusqu'au moment ohuilre9ut la
ment in the present case is not delegation de l'Eglise d'Antioche,
affected; since, if the transaction  Saul s'etait born6 h  annoncer
recorded in this chapter was only  1'Evangile aux Juifs et aux prosea solemn Church sanction given to lytes." —Pressensd,'Histoire des
the particular mission, which Paul Trois Premiers Sihcles,' vol. i.
and Barnabas then undertook, it p. 447.




OF THE CHRISTIAN MINISTRY.  III
Barnabas having gathered together Christian converts
at different places irv Asia Minor, " ordained them elders
in every Church."  And Clelhent of Rome remarks of
the Apostles generally, what he had probably himself
witnessed in some instances, that they appointed some
of their earliest converts-the first-fruits of their Apostleship-as ministers in their several congregations.' But
when fresh ministers were ordained in an already constituted Church, the presbyters there present took part
in an Apostle's ordination by laying their hands with
him on those who were ordained; a custom which was
preserved in the later Church, and has been retained
even to the present day, in some slight respect, in our
own.
But it was evidently not by an Apostle's hands alone
that sacred orders could be conferred. The authority
to appoint Church officers was inherent in every duly
constituted Church, as the natural right of a lawful and
well organized society.  And as presbyters might be
joined with an Apostle in ordaining, so might they
without an Apostle, give this sanction of ecclesiastical
authority in the ordination of any minister in their
Church.  And thus not only Timothy and Titus, who
were specially delegated by St. Paul, ordained presbyters
and deacons in the Churches of Ephesus and Crete; but
" certain prophets and teachers " at Antioch, without any
1 KarOl XcGpa5 o3VV Hai rtolezS xHai &z(XU6ov rcTGQV /jte;LOVroO
urpv66dovr5 uxaOizdavorv  r 5 Cz6revzezv.-' Clem. Rom. ep. ad
za7tpxea aT rcZrt, v 8oxztoi6a'vreS  Cor.' i. 52.
rT  IIvseOariz    e etlzduao7roV5




II2   A FURTHER CONSIDERA TION
such apostolic delegation, were competent to ordain an
Apostle.
When Episcopacy was fully established in the Church
it became the rule that Bishops only should ordain the
presbyters and deacons; but this was not owing to  any
divine law or apostolic prescription.'  And the Article
1 Jerome expressly affirms that it latitude. And it is especially imwas ecclesiastical custom, and the  portant to observe that they lay
desire to prevent disputes, and not more stress on Episcopal sanction,
any divine law, that caused the dis- than on Episcopal ordination."
tinction between Bishops and Pres-    See also the Professor's remarks
byters-see Lecture II. note (c) p. about the origin and position of
79. This distinction, according to  the Chorepiscopal office.
him, consisting principally, if not   Another remarkable testimony to
solely, in the authority to "Or- the existence and long continuance
dain."                            of presbyterian ordination is given
Long after the general establish- by Eutychius., a Patriarch of Alexment of Episcopacy, and reaching  andria. He represents that from
even into the 4th century, traces  the very foundation of the Church
are to be found of presbyterian  at Alexandria by St. Mark, down to
ordinations still retaining their the time of the Council of Nice (A.
place in the Church.              D. 325), the Bishop of that Church
Professor Lightfoot (Ep. Phil. was always chosen by and out of the
p. 231), quotes a decree of the  twelve presbyters, andwas by them
Council of Ancyra (A.D. 314), to  consecrated as their Bishop by the
the effect that neither the country  imposition of their hands.  ThA
bishops nor the city presbyters were  eleven  presbyters  then   chose
to give ordination without permis- another to fill up their number, and
sion from the Bishop of the diocese  made  him  a co-presbyter with
in writing,                       themselves.
XGopetz6xtZOLS   As  iEVoYaz      "Constituit item Marcus Evanrped6tvr~povS  7   8dzavx.vov5  gelista duodecim presbyteros cum
XezporoveZV,  LXXd?7 /S  7rtpEa6-  Hanania, quinempe manerentcum
fJvT~potzS  6toXeco   XcpiS  TOV  patriarcha [i.e. Episcopo], adeo ut,
etZZtpo7trVt V1t6 TOV  tbz6-  quum vacaret patriarchatus, eligex6Oiov,Luro  ypoLuv/UcoiOV  ~v  rentunum e duodecimpresbyteris,
xia6rp ra(xpozuii.                cujus capiti reliqui undecim manus
"Thus, while restraining the ex- imponerent, eumque benedicerent, et
isting license, the framers of the patriarcham crearent; et dein virum
decree still allow very considerable  aliquem insignem  eligerent, eumque




OF THE CHRISTIAN MINISTRY.  I13
of our own Church is most scriptural, when, without any
allusion  to  bishops, it declares those  to  be lawfully
ordained, "who are chosen and called by men who have
public authority given unto them  in the congregation to
call and send ministers into the Lord's vineyard."  A
priest, indeed, whose office is to stand between God and
man, must be specially called by God; and as far as he
is authorized by man at all, he must be authorized precisely in  the way  of God's own  prescription; but a
pastor and teacher and administrator of sacred things in
a congregation of Christian men, who have access to
presbyterum secum constituerent loco    And so Richard Hooker, though
ejus qui sic factus est patriarcha."  an uncompromising opponent of
-Eutychius.'Origines Ecclesia Presbyterianism, was too honest
Alexandrinoe,' translated from the  and too learned a man not to admit
Arabic by Selden; who reckons the validity of Presbyterian orders.
the date of Eutychius to have been  " Now whereas," he writes, " some
A. D. 876.                       do infer that no ordination can
- Eutychius adds that the custom  stand, but only such as is made by
which he describes continued to the Bishops, which have had their ortime of Alexander, the Bishop of dination likewise by other Bishops
Alexandria, who was one of the  before them, till we come to the
318 bishops at the Council of Nice. very Apostles of Christ themselves;
This distinct testimony of Euty- to this we answer that there may be
chius is confirmed by Jerome, who  sometimes very just and sufficient
lived so close to the time when the reason to allow ordination made
Alexandrian practice was still in  without a Bishop.  The whole
force.  "Nam  et Alexandrim a Church visible being  the true
Marco Evangelista usque ad Hera- original subject of all power, it
cleam  et Dionysium  Episcopos, hath not ordinarily allowed any
presbyteri semper unum ex se elec- other than Bishops alone to ordain;
turn, in excelsiori gradu collocatum, howbeit, as the ordinary course is
Episcopum nominabant;quo modo  ordinarily in all things to be obsi exercitus imperatorem faciat, aut served, so it may be in some cases
diaconi eligant de se quem indus- not unnecessary that we decline
trium  noverint et archidiaconum  from the ordinary ways." —EcvQcent,"-' Ep. ad Evagrium.'    cles. Polit.,' vii. 14,




I4   A FUR THER CONSIDERA TION
God through the priesthood  of Jesus Christ-whatever
inward call he may require-needs no other outward
appointment to  his office than  the  authority  of the
Church in which he ministers.  And the visible Church,
"as the true  original subject of a.l power" in such
matters, may  make  such  appointments in  any mode
which may be deemed most expedient; amenable only
to the general law of decency and order.l
The Churches, which like our own have retained the
I "They [the Authorities of a deliberate and cautious judgment,
Christian Church] have an un- might deem best for the time, and
doubted right.... to appoint country, and persons, they had to
such orders of Christian ministers, deal with; whether exactly similar
and to allot to each such functions or not to those introduced by the
as they judge most conducive to the Apostles; provided nothing were
great ends of the society: they may  done contrary to Gospel precepts
assign to the whole, or to a portion, and principles. They were, thereof these, the office of ordaining  fore, perfectly at liberty to appoint
others as their successors; they  Bishops, even if they had none that
may appoint one superintendent of joined in the Reformation; or to
the rest, or several, under the title  discontinue the appointment, even
of Patriarch, Archbishop, Bishop, if they had: whichever they were
Moderator, or any other that they  convinced was the most conducive,
may prefer; they may make the ap- under existing circumstances, to
pointment of them for life, or for  the great object of all Church
a limited period, by election, or by  government.  And though their
rotation, with a greater or a less decision on this point ought to have
extensive jurisdiction: and they  been greatly influenced by their
have a similar discretionary power belief as to what were the forms
with respect to liturgies, festivals, adopted by the Apostles (which
ceremonies, and whatever else is must have been not only wise, but
left at large in the Scriptures."  the very wisest, for those times and
"The bodies of Christians we have persons), they had no reason to
been speaking of [i.e., the Reform- hold themselves absolutely bound to
ed Churches] had full power [i.e., adhere always and everywhere to
authority] to retain, or to restore, those  original models." —Archor to originate, whatever form of bishop Whately,'Kingdom   of
Church government they, in their Christ Delineated,' pp. 248, 252.




OF THE  CHRISTIAN MINISTRY.   ii5
Episcopate and Episcopal ordination, may reasonably
prefer this form of government; and justly consider that
it is one of all but apostolic antiquity,-and one, which
having been found desirable, or even necessary, after
the departure of the Apostles,-and having been well
tried by long experience,-should never lightly be
given up. But on the other hand, the government and
the ordinations of Presbyterian Churches are just as valid,
scriptural, and apostolic as our own; and when circumstances made it necessary or expedient, it was quite
lawful for them to adopt this form of Church polity, and,
having found it effective, to retain it.
3. What is conferred upon a Christian minister by his
ordination has generally been said to be a certain power,
-a power ecclesiastical or spiritual, or both,-communicated by divine appointment through the hands of him
from whom the orders are received. And this power has
been variously interpreted in a wider or more restricted
sense, according to the respective tenets of individuals, or
of Churches. It has been declared to be the same power
which was given to the Apostles, continued and handed
down in the Church; it.has been called the power of
forgiving sins, or of conferring the grace of absolution:
of effectually administering the sacraments, or of making
the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist; or generally and vaguely the power of acting as a Christian
priest, whatever that may be held to mean.
But with all due respect to the antiquity of such
opinions, and to the Churches and theologians who have




I I6   A FURTHER CONSIDERA TION
held them, I must, with the New Testament in my
hands, venture to affirm that, according to its divine
teaching, it cannot be shown that ordination confers any
power at all; and from  what we can gather from its
pages respecting the nature and work of the ministry to
which men are ordained, it may be confidently and
reasonably concluded that ordination confers, not power,
but ecclesiastical authority, to perform the duties of the
clerical office.
The words "power" and "authority," though very
distinct in meaning, have often been confounded together,
and much confusion of thought and language has thereby
ensued. When the distinction between them is borne in
mind, and the erroneous notion of the ministry being a
priesthood is eliminated, there will not be much difficultyin
seeing that authority and notpower is given by ordination.
1. To assist in substantiating this assertion I appeal
to the words used in the New Testament to denote
ordination; and I ask what inference may be deduced
from them?  The word "ordain" occurs very often in
our English version, and is used for any kind of appointment or regulation, being applied indifferently to persons
and to things. It is given as the translation of no less
than twelve Greek words of very different force and
meaning, but all implying some kind of causation, appointment, or selection.' Of these twelve words six are
The word " Ordination" does tament any word of the original
not occur in our version of the language corresponding to it.
Bible; nor is there in the New Tes-  The verb "to ordain" occurs




OF THE CHRISTIAN MINISTRY.  II7
used of persons appointed to some office; but only two
of these, xaoidrCl  z and xezporoveca, are spoken of the
ordination of Christian presbyters. The former of these
two words, otaid6rvyl, is one of very wide and  general
meaning, and  signifies "to  set up,"  "constitute,"  or
"place in  a position," in any way, or for any purpose
whatever.  The other word, xezporovo1, with its kindred
substantive Xezporovia, was the word commonly employed
in post-apostolic times for ordination, in the strictly
ecclesiastical sense; but as in two of the three places,
where it is found in the New Testament, it means simply
selected, chosen, or appointed; as, in Acts x. 41, to be
witnesses of Christ's resurrection; and in 2 Cor. viii. 19,
to convey the contributions of the Gentile Churches to
Jerusalem; there is no ground for supposing that it has
any other special or different meaning in Acts xiv. 23,
very often; and the following are man whom  he hath -ordained."
the twelve Greek words of which  Also Acts x. 42, 1 Cor. ii. 7.
it is the translation: —          toZo-Mark iii. 14, "he oryiy/vouaxz-Acts i. 22, "must dainedtwelve."
one be ordained to be," &c.        rdd06GO-Acts xiii. 48, "were
ypocpco —Jude 4, "before of old  ordained to eternal life."
ordained to this," &c.             ri07Vti-1 Tim. ii. 7, "I am or8(zarc66cd — 1 Cor. viii. 17, "so  dained a preacher."  John xv. 16.
ordain I."  Also 1 Cor. ix. 14.   XEzporovco - Acts  xiv.  23,
Gal. iii. 19.                    "When they had ordained them
eroz/ttlco-Eph. ii. 10, "hath  Elders."
before ordained," &c.              In one passage, Rom. vii. 10, the
Otd-i6r0-11z-Tit. i. 5, "and or- English word " ordained" has nodain Elders."  Also Heb. v. 1.    thing to correspond fwith it in the
xara6xeevac3o- Heb. ix. 6, original, —Ero vtl       et1 aCo'71.
"these things were thus ordained."    Of these twelve, the six words
xpiVc —Acts xvi. 4, "the de- yiyrvoaz, ) aOidr7,tuz, opipco,
crees that were ordained."      Z7ozeco,) riOwize and Xezporovec0
opiZco-Acts xvii. 31, "by that refer to persons appointed to office.




18   A FURTHER CONSIDERA TION
when applied to the ordination of presbyters. Neither
of these words, therefore, implies anything more than
that presbyters and deacons were in a regular, orderly,
and becoming manner appointed to their offices; and
were authorized to act as ministers in their respective
Churches; without expressing, or in any way intimating,
that any special powers were thereby given, or anything
conveyed to them, except the lawful authority which
office-bearers in a well regulated community of any kind
must be expected to possess.
2. I further observe, that all spiritual power is a gift
from God. And power of various kinds was thus given
in the apostolic age; and usually through the- Apostles'
hands in the spiritual gifts, or Xapiduoaroa, which characterized that period. But these gifts were bestowed upon
men and women without any connection with sacred
orders; and there is no intimation that ordination conferred them. Doubtless some of these spiritual gifts,
and the powers which they imparted, were possessed in
those days by ordained men; and it is quite possible
that such gifts were sometimes given them at the time of
their ordination; but it was not by their ordination that
they received them, but by the same means as at other
times. The only passage in the New Testament which
seems to countenance the contrary supposition is the
well-known verse in 1 Tim. iv. 14,-" Neglect not the gift
that is in thee, which was given thee by prophecy with the
laying on of the hands of the presbytery."  This gift, no
doubt, was a spiritual power. But this was given to him




OF THE  CHRISTIAN  MINISTRY.   II9
by prophecy, i.e. by express divine direction; and although it was probably given at the time of his ordination, yet it was given not by the laying on of the hands
of the presbytery, but with, i.e. together with this imposition of hands, —~erd, rtS   Ezzo6eco5 rcev xezpw~v;-the
presbyters joining in the ordination, but the gift being
bestowed by the hands of Paul, as in other cases,-a
fact which he himself mentions in his second Epistle
(2 Tim. i. 6), when he says, "Wherefore I put thee in
remembrance that thou stir up the gift of God which is in
thee by the putting on of my hands " —zo r" S  zzoQdecoS
rZV XeZpcv OV. It is indeed indubitable that such powers
were given only by the Apostles, and therefore if they did
accompany their ordinations, they must have ceased to
do so when the Apostles were no more; and as to any
power specially imparted by the act of ordination, independently of such gifts, there is not in the New Testament the slightest trace of its existence, much less of its
continuation from age to age.
We are therefore brought again to the conclusion that
ordination gave, and still gives, ministerial authority, and
not power,-authority to use gifts or powers for the
benefit of the Church, as its recognized office-bearers, but
not itself conferring them. Richard Hooker indeed has
said, that " No man's gifts or qualities can make him  a
minister in holy things, unless ordination do give him
power."  But gifts and qualities do give power: what
they do not give is authority to minister in the congregation, which authority ordination supplies.




I20    A  FUR THER  CONSIDERA TION
And so again, on looking at ordination in the present
time, either amongst ourselves, or in other Churches, it is
not seen that it bestows any power upon those who
receive it. Authority it gives, according to the order
and constitution of each Church, but no other power than
men possessed before, or afterwards by whatsoever means
obtain. The power of preaching the word, of bringing
God's truth home to men's hearts, of winning souls,
converting sinners, building up believers, reclaiming the
backsliding, supporting the weak, and comforting the
sorrowful,-these and all other such powers are evidently
not given in or by ordination, however abundantly some
ordained men may possess them. Those therefore
amongst ourselves who contend that spiritual power is
given by the act of ordaining, if they are not merely
misunderstanding the word, and using it in a sense which
does not belong to it, are brought to the assumption
(which, to say the truth, they are usually not backward
to acknowledge), that this power is not anything like
what has just been mentioned,-a power producing
effects which are seen and felt in the hearts and lives of
men,-but one much more secret and unappreciable in
its working,-the power, as it is alleged, of conferring
divine grace through the sacraments,-of giving absolution to those who repent,-of rendering men's prayers
and services acceptable to God;-thus making the effect
of the sacraments to depend upon something in the
administrator, instead of the ordinance of Christ; and
consciously or unconsciously adopting the notion of a




OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  MINISTRY.   I21
priestly office, which the Apostles, as before shown, did
not institute in the Church. Indeed the real ground of
all that has been held and taught respecting such ministerial power from the third century to the present day;
the true reason which underlies all the arguments used to
justify the claims to such powers, is the original assumption that Christian ministers are priests to mediate
between God and men, to make intercession for them, to
offer sacrifices, to remit sins, and to do all that a priesthood has to do.
It is this conception of the Christian ministry that has
given birth, among other things, to all the questions of
ancient or modern times respecting the confession of sins,
and the absolution of those who confess them. A large
page in Church history is filled with such questions, and
their practical results; a long catalogue of Church
scandals and crimes is supplied by them, and the confessional, penance, and priestly absolution, have been made
powerful engines of sacerdotal tyranny and debasing
superstition. But the apostolic record  by  its very
silence testifies aloud that all these are the doctrines and
doings of men, opposed to the word of God, and the
practice of the primitive Church. The Apostles commanded no man to confess his sins to them, or to the
presbyters of his Church; though it might at times be
desirable for Christians to "confess their faults to one
another;" and converts might naturally sometimes think
it right publicly to confess and show their former evil
deeds, in order to declare more distinctly their renun



122   A FURTHER CONSIDERA TION
ciation of them. It may still at times be good for a
perplexed or burdened conscience to seek relief or guidance by making known its secret troubles to some experienced and sympathizing Christian brother; and such a
one a Christian minister may well in many cases be:
but such confession is in no case commanded or required;
nor is there any advantage in making it to a presbyter,
rather than to any other prudent Christian friend.
As to the "grace of absolution" presumed to be given
by Christian ministers to those who confess their sins,
there is not the least appearance of it in the New Testament. The Apostles indeed proclaimed most plainly
forgiveness of sins to all who would receive their wordto all who had "repentance towards God, and faith
towards our Lord Jesus Christ."  It was the office and
duty of the presbyters to do the same. It is still the
duty and the privilege of Church ministers "to declare
and pronounce unto Christ's people that God pardoneth
and absolveth all them that truly repent and unfeignedly
believe His holy gospel."  But neither Apostle nor
presbyter in the primitive Church, as far as we know,
pronounced absolution upon those who had confessed
their sins for the purpose of conveying to them a grace
from God, which otherwise they would not have had;
nor is there anything in the New Testament to show that
the declaration of God's forgiveness has any greater
efficacy from the mouth of an ordained presbyter, than
from that of any ordinary Christian. The doctrine of
ministerial absolution had no existence in the Church




OF THE CHRISTIAN MINISTRY.  123
until after it had so far departed from apostolic truth,
as to suppose the Christian presbyter to be invested
with sacerdotal powers; and not even then, until the
lapse of several centuries had sunk it deeper still in
superstitious error.'
The clergy, then, not being a priestly caste, or a mediating, sacrificing, absolving order, but Church officers
appointed for the maintenance of due religious solemnity,
the devout exercise of Christian worship, the instruction
of the people in divine truth, and their general edification
in righteous living,-are the acting representatives of the
Church of which they belong, and derive their ministerial
authority from it. In the words of Archbishop Whately,
" the clergy are merely the functionaries of the particular
Church to which they are members; it is in that capacity only that they derive their station and power from
Christ, by virtue of the sanction given by Him to Christian
communities; their authority, therefore, comes direct
from  the society so constituted, in whose name and
behalf they act as its representatives, just to that extent
to which it has empowered and directed them to act." 2
And I venture now, with all respect, to commend the
arguments, which in the preceding pages I have endeavoured to set forth in conformity with the teaching of
the New Testament, to the serious consideration of our
clergy at the present time. For " the clergy," writes the
archbishop just quoted, " are under a peculiar temptation
I See Appendix C. on "Confes-  2 See Appendix D. on'The
sion," &c.                  Apostolical Succession.'




I24   A FURTHER CONSIDERA TION
to lean too favourably, and with too little of rigorous
examination, towards a system which confers the more
elevation and grandeur on them, in proportion as it
detracts from the claims of the entire community," and
which "derives our Church's authority rather from them,
than theirs from it." Far better, however, is it for us to
exalt Christ alone, and to seek no other place in His
service than He has appointed for us.  And when
stripped of the false glare of sacerdotal pretensions, and
restored to its apostolic simplicity, though less imposing
then in the eyes of men, how truly dignified is the office,
how solemnly important is the work of the Christian
minister!  How great is the honour laid upon him,
that he should be a fellow-worker with God Himself in
the world,-an ambassador of Christ to men,-a dispenser of divine truth to His people! And when grace
and wisdom, earnestly sought and freely given, have
enabled him effectually to do the work of his ministry
by the words which he speaks, by the ordinances which
he administers, and by the life which he lives,-how
immeasurable is the joy and blessing which crown his
successful ministrations!
Several other particulars, not without their interest,
but of less vital importance, in connection with the
ministry of the Church, can only be just alluded to here,
when even the gravest questions have been but lightly
touched. Of this kind are the social condition of the
clergy,-their connection with secular pursuits, —thi




OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  MINISTRY.   125
sources of their maintenance,-and the indelibility of
their orders.
1. The Apostles evidently intended the ministers of
the Churches which they formed, to be of and with their
people,-to be united with them in all the social ties,
the relationships and sympathies, of common life. And
accordingly among the very first of the directions given
by St. Paul, in his Pastoral Epistles, for their ordination,
appears the injunction that a presbyter and a deacon
should each be " the husband of one wife." Whatever
points of dispute may be raised upon these words, it is
clear that a Christian minister was expected to be a
married man. The honour given by the apostolic religion
to married and domestic life, and the responsibility
assigned to the Christian family, as the wholesome
fountain from whence sound piety and moral purity
were to flow forth into the whole Church, were to be
especially exemplified in the office-bearers of the community. The contrary rule of a later age took its origin
from the perverse one-sided asceticism which the wide
diffusion of Gnostic principles had introduced. The
Gnostic doctrines respecting the material world and
animal life began very early to infect the Church, and
produced a general sentiment that celibacy was a much
higher and holier state than married life,-that it brought
men nearer to God, and fitted them for receiving and
imparting the Holy Spirit. Such false sentiments, encouraged and strengthened by the extravagant manner
in which Church authorities extolled the celestial virtues




126   A FURTHEER CONSIDERA TION
of a single life, very naturally attached themselves to the
prevalent idea of a priestly caste, pre-eminently consecrated to God.  The state which was the holiest upon
earth ought surely to belong to those who ministered in
the holiest mysteries.  And by the end  of the third
century a strong feeling had grown up in the Church
that its ministers ought to be unmarried men.  This
unscriptural opinion, as is often the case with religious
errors, originated with the general body of the people,
who however only carried out to its legitimate effects the
teaching which they had received. Married priests began
to be looked upon, in the popular estimation, as degraded.
Some persons refused to accept their ministrations; and
although synodal decrees at first reproved this objection,
the popular prejudice prevailed, and by the end of the
fourth century the celibacy of the clergy was enforced;
and a married presbyter became a criminal.  So directly
was the apostolic rule contradicted, and that brand of
the  predicted  apostacy, "forbidding  to  marry," was
stamped upon the Church, to its lasting injury.l
1 The sentiments which led to   These false notions of holiness
the enforcement of celibacy in the went on infecting the Church more
clergy, began to show themselves and more throughout this century;
at the beginning of the 3rd century, and by the end of it another stage
when we see an expression of them  had been reached. It was then
in Tertullian's indignant remon- considered a discreditable thing for
strance against a presbyter, who a presbyter to be a married mian at
should have committed the of- all; and some of the clergy were
fence of marrying a second time. constrained to cast off their wives
"What!" he exclaims, " do you, a with a view to greater piety.
twice - married man, venture to   The Canones Apostolici indeed
baptize, and to offer the oblation! condemn this practice, and order
Digamus tingis! Digamus offers I" that any one who did so, should be




OF THE CHRISTIAN MINISTRY.  127
2. In the primitive Church it was not thought unworthy,
even of an Apostle, to engage in the work of a manual
ort, and to support himself, as St. Paul often did, by the'labour of his hands. And to do this for his own sustenance, or to raise funds for religious and benevolent
purposes, was long after still thought not unbecoming to
the ministerial office. No rule, however, is given in the
New Testament for such cases.  The matter was left to
each one's own judgment; but presbyters and deacons
who heartily devoted themselves to their Christian work,
would, through want of time, if from no other cause, be
increasingly withdrawn from secular occupations. And
when in any Church a permanent maintenance for its
officers is provided, it is clearly to the advantage of the
community at large that they should be unencumbered
with secular cares. Whether this should be enforced by
law or not, is a question for each community to decide for
itself; but it should be remembered that it is a question
unrestricted by any divine or apostolic command; and is
open to the free consideration of every Church, to be
decided as times and circumstances may suggest.
3. That it was a, divine appointment inculcated by the
Apostles, "that those who preach the gospel should live
deposed from his office.'Eztid6o- who went so far as to refuse the
to5,  z7tpes63VrEpoS,  lztxovoo5, ministrations of a "married priest,"
ur rzy  kxavro J yvvorZxoC exfiJoL- as some persons had done: but the
lrco tpocpa6ez -ev fta3ia5 oedv Church authorities soon gave their
6 eu/X3al?, cpqopzd960ao, itzuLde- sanction to the popular feeling
VroV S6, Ocr(xzpei6Oeo.-(Can. v.) which they had themselves created.
And the Council of Gangra as   For further particulars, see Aplate as A.D. 324, condemned those pendix A. No. xi.




128   A FUR THER CONSIDERA TION
of the gospel," is repeatedly recorded in the New Testament; and it would appear that very early in the Church
payments were made to the clergy according to some
scale of proportionate remuneration. For the words in
1 Tim. v. 17, " Let the Elders that rule well be counted
worthy of double honour," when taken with the context,
can scarcely refer to anything but a salary,-a money
payment, or its equivalent,-which might be increased,
when special care or labour had been bestowed. And
further, it would possibly not be too much to infer from
this text that Church officers at that time partly supported themselves by their own means; and that when
they gave up to the Church in godly ministrations the
time and labour which they might have employed for
themselves, it was thought that they should be remunerated by an additional income from the church treasury.
The source from whence such funds were supplied was
at first the liberal contributions of Christians, such as
those mentioned at the very beginning of the apostolic
history.  These were  afterwards reduced to a more
systematic liberality. Oblations were given every week
for clerical and ecclesiastical purposes; and sometimes,
as mentioned by Tertullian, certain monthly contributions
were collected.' Before the end of the third century
1Justin Martyr mentions that'xic6roi Tr1V oiavrov~, o S3ovAethese voluntary contributions were razt di8wdzoz'  zai Tr  6v;lemade every Sunday —r' rov ionXiov yo,uevov 7taxpc t) ripoedrcorz
Ayo/d'v',i/p7,tp-andwereplaced clzori08eraz.-' Apol.' ~ 88.
in the hands of the presiding min-   Tertullian says of the monthly
ister-Oi evtzopovyrsv  E  du xai contribution, "Modicam unusquis6ovAoujevol xuarz 7tpoaipe6zv que stipem menstrua die, vel quum




OF THE CHRISTIAN MINISTRY.  129
houses and lands had been occasionally given or left by
will, and Christian emperors having sanctioned such acquisitions, Church property rapidly increased.  Before
this the practice of giving tithes to the Church had been
voluntarily begun; and men of influence, such as Origen,
and afterwards Jerome and Augustin, endeavoured to
create a conviction that the Jewish law  of tithes was
obligatory upon  Christians.  In  the  fourth  century,
tithes were irregularly and uncertainly paid; and it is
not clear when laws were first made to enforce them.
In  the fourth  century it was the custom  in  some
Churches for the bishop and his clergy to live together
in one house, and eat at the same table-like fellows in
a college-their expenses being taken from a common
purse.  But from the manner in which such instances are
mentioned it would seem  that this was not the usual
practice.1 In general each one of the clergy had his
portion of the church revenues and oblations, which
were managed by the bishop, distributed to him; and
velit, et si modo velit, et si modo manner with his clergy at Hippo, is
possit, apponit."-'Apol.' ~ 39.    mentioned by his biographer, PossiNot only money was given in  dius-"G um ipso semper Clerici
these contributions, bnt sometimes una etiam domo ac mensa sumptifruit, fowls, beasts, &c., as men- busque communibus alebantur et
tioned in the' Canones Apostolici,' vestiebantur." -' Vita  August.'
which direct that such  things ~ 25.
should not be presented at the   And Sozomen says the same thing
"altar," but taken to the Bishop's of the Church of Rhinocorura on
house-See Can. iii. iv.         the borders of Palestine and Egypt.
For a full account of the sources  ozivy   de  Ed6z  roiS aovro'0T
and the increase of clerical reve- KAi7pzoiZ5  ozi`vGi  re  xai
nues, see Bingham.              varp.7ecua, iai ra;licL nrcvra.-'That Augustin lived in this'Eccl. Hist.'vi. 1.
9




130   A FURTHER CONSIDERA TION
Cyprian mentions that in his Church such distributions
were made every month.: The beginning of the more
modern system of parochial endowments may be traced
to the middle of the fifth century, when it is said that it
was first ordered that the clergy of each congregation
should receive the revenues of their own Church.
Questions connected with the endowments of a national
Church, and the right of the national government to
interfere with them, which have lately acquired so serious
an importance, and may possibly ere long be agitated
with a still deeper interest, cannot be determined by
appeals to Scripture. There is nothing about them in
the New Testament; and the laws and principles of the
Jewish Theocracy cannot be justly applied to such cases.
They are matters very grave indeed, and involving the
gravest issues; but they belong to the domain of politics,
in the highest and noblest meaning of the word, and
must be determined by reason, sound expediency, and a
careful consideration of the nation's truest good.
4. There is not in the New Testament the slightest
intimation that any peculiar or official dress was worn
by Church officers in their public ministrations, or in
private life. The vestments of the Jewish priests belonged, like the rest of their prescribed distinctions, to
that Temple service, which the Apostles did not imitate;
and there was no peculiar dress worn by those who offi" Ceeterum presbyterii honorem  honorentur, et divisiones mensurnas
designasse nos illis jam sciatis, ut aequatis quantitatibus partiantur."
et sportulis iisdem cum presbyteris -Cyprian'Ep.' 34, end.




OF THE CHRISTIAN MINISTRY.  131
ciated in the synagogues.  The pallium, or cloak, a more
simple garment than the Roman toga, was usually worn
by Christians, or at any rate by those who were the more
strict and austere in their mode of life; and no mention
is made of the use of any other for Church purposes
until after the third century. When the Church was
fostered, instead of being  persecuted, by the imperial
power, and began  to  exhibit more of ornament and
display, a white garment, the original of the modern
surplice, was worn by the officiating clergy in the administration of the sacraments.l More splendid vestments, such  as  that presented  by  Constantine  to
Macarius, Bishop  of Jerusalem, were  gradually  introduced in conformity with the rest of the sacerdotal
system already established in the Church.
5. The indelibility of Church Orders is a subject about
which nothing is said in Holy Writ; but it is an opinion
of long standing, encouraged by Rome, and not rejected
by our own Church, that a man once ordained cannot' The use of the simplepallium by  marked the different orders. The
Christians, gave occasion to the Council of Toledo (A.D. 633), mensarcastic proverb used against them  tions that all the three superior
by the pagans, A toga ad pallium.  orders then wore the Orarium, a
The white dress is mentioned by stole or scarf, while a Bishop had a
Jerome, " Si Episcopus, presbyter, ring and staff (annulus et baculus); a
diaconus, et reliquus ordo ecclesi- Presbyter, theplaneta, or chasuble;
asticus, in administratione sacra- and a Deacon, the alba, i.e., tunica
mentorum  candida veste proces- alba, an albe-or surplice.
serit."-'Cont. Pelag.' Lib. i. And   The mitre (mitra or infula) bealso by Chrysostom.             gan to be worn by Bishops about
At a later period, distinguishing  the 10th century.
vestments  and  other  insignia




132      THE CHRISTIAN  MINISTR Y.
either voluntarily, or by compulsion, give up the commission which he has received, and return to the ranks
of the laity again. Accordingly, ordination has been
described as " the grant of a peculiar commission and
power, which remains indelible in the person to whom
it is committed, and can never be obliterated or rased
out, except the person himself cause it by his heresy,
apostacy, or most extremely gross and scandalous impiety."  But such a description is founded on the unwarranted supposition that a certain special grace or
supernatural power is imparted by the act of ordination,
mysteriously handed down by a succession from  the
Apostles; and that this therefore cannot be removed,
unless it be sinned away by the recipient. But the
power which gives a commission can also take it away.
When therefore it is acknowledged, and so far as it is
acknowledged, that ordination is the act of a Church
giving its officers authority to minister in its behalf, it
will follow that the same Church can revoke what it has
khus given. In the absence, therefore, of all scriptural
direction, the indelibility of clerical orders is a question
of expediency which every Church is at liberty to decide
for itself. It may generally be advisable that the solemn
engagement of the Christian ministry, especially in the
case of a presbyter, should be for the whole of life; but
there is nothing in the office itself, as there is nothing in
the New Testament, to justify its being regarded, as some
worthy men have regarded it, as a profane or monstrous
thing for a Church to allow its orders to be rescinded.




LECTURE IV.
THE LAITY, OR CHURCH BODY AT
LARGE,
WITH THEIR POSITION AND DUTIES.








IV.
THE LAITY, OR CHURCH BODY AT
LARGE,
WITH THEIR POSITION AND DUTIES.
IN endeavouring to give an outline of the ecclesiastical
polity of the Apostles, it seemed expedient to exhibit first the ministry, which they established in their
Churches, as presenting some of the most characteristic
features of these societies. But the laity, or Church at
large, must now be considered. After which some particulars respecting the relations subsisting between these
two parts of the general body, and some notice of their
discipline, government, and social life so far as it was
affected by Church influences, will naturally follow in
their place.
I know not how it may appear to other minds, but for
my part the first thing which strikes me in the general
body of the apostolic Church, is the marvellous equality
which sprung up-or rather, it may be said, burst forth(135)




136                 THE LAITY, OR
so suddenly did it at once appear in full completeness, on
the very first day that the Church began.
This equality, in the enthusiasm which seized the
hearts of those who were baptized on the day of Pentecost, produced  at the  moment a holy  communism.
The  new  converts were so closely united, that they
formed, as far as possible, one great family togetherwith a common life, and a community of goods-or, if
not exactly  what is now  meant by  a community  of
goods, at any rate such an overflowing liberality of heart
and hand, that each one used his property as readily
for others, as for himself. "They that believed were
together, and had all things common; and sold their
possessions and goods, and parted them to all men, as
every man had need." 
1 There is great reason to doubt   2. But much earlier than this,
whether what is commonly called a even at the time when self-denying
community of goods-amounting  men were selling their possessions
to a renunciation of all private or in- for the benefit of the poorer Chrisdividual property-ever existed in  tians, the case of Ananias and Sapthe apostolic Church, even at the phira shows that the owners of provery beginning. The following con- perty were under no obligation to
siderations, at any rate, go far to give it up, but might give it or keep
establish the contrary conclusion.  it in whole or in part, just as they
1. In the first place, it is evident were disposed to do. "Whilst it
that no such custom was in exist- remained, was it not thine own;
ence at a somewhat later period, and after it was sold, was it not in
when rich and poor found their thine own power?"
place in Christian societies, and   3. Neither is this all. For Acts
when, as is often seen in St. Paul's iv. 32-35, one of the passages
epistles, men were exhorted to care which records that "they had all
for others as well as for themselves, things common," contains intimaand to give to those who were in  tions which show that even in those
need, each according to his ability. early days these words must not be




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   137
It was thought by Chrysostom  that this community
of life  and  property  existed  only  among  the  three
taken too literally, or pressed into  meals-or the principal meal-in
the meaning of an absolute con- social parties arranged for that purmunism. For we are here informed  pose, since their numbers were too
that no one " said that aught of the  great for all to meet in one room;
things which he possessed was his and the requisite expenditure for
own."   There were  still then  these Christian dv6di6za was taken
" things which he possessed," rv'G  from a common purse.
VtrapXdOVroV aVi3rV, only he did    Besides these considerations, denot say that any part of them "was rived from the expressions used in
his own," i'dzov edvai, to be kept the history, another argument is
exclusively for his own use. And, supplied by the known sentiments
further, when the lands or houses of and practice of the Apostles, bearsuch benefactors were sold the pro- ing directly upon this subject. It
ceeds were not given indiscrimin- is an elementary and indisputable
ately to all, but went to a fund en- principle in Economics, "that a
trusted to the Apostles, out of community ofgoods, as apermanent
which, as occasion required, dis- ordinance, is totally impracticable,
tribution  was  made,'Xci6rGd   except on one condition, namely,
caOorz',v rz5 Xpefiav  ezpXev, the abrogation of marriage in one of
"'according as any one had need."  the two modes in which it maybe
This was, no doubt, liberally done; abrogated; that is to say, either by
but this was not in the modern sense  admitting a community of wives,
"a community of goods."          or by the renunciation altogether of
4. But if this be so in Actsiv., the sexual relationship...... It
can the circumstances have been  cannot be necessary to prove that
very different in that earliest in- the family economy-the sacredstance related in Acts ii. 44? Even  ness of the matrimonial connection,
in this case, there is the same ex- and the consequent dependence of
pression  ar0OT-z c'V Trzz  Xpepsi     children upon their parents-must
ezXi e; and if in the former in- very speedily break up any scheme
stance "having all things con- intended to perpetuate the nonmon " did not preclude the posses- property  principle."- (' Ancient
sion of private property, must we Christianity,'p. 521.) TheEssenes
say that it did so in thelatter case? among the Jews, and the monks in
The only circumstance which  the Christian Church kept up a
marks a difference in the alleged  communism among them, because
communism of Acts ii. is that "all celibacy was an essential part of
that believed  were' together."  their system. And, on the other
Probably, therefore,they took their hand, the honour assigned by the




138               THE  LAITY, OR
thousand who first joined themselves to the Apostles;
and that they all took their meals together, as well as
possessed all that they had in common. However this
may have been, although the practice of thus living
together-never commanded, and unsuitable as it was
for general adoption-did not long continue, yet the
same mutual feeling of equality and close union manifested itself as strongly as ever, when with increased
and increasing numbers "the multitude of them  that
believed were of one heart and one soul; neither said
any of them, that ought of the things which he possessed
was his own, but they had all things common: neither
was there any among them  that lacked; for as many
as were possessors of lands or houses sold them, and
brought the prices of the things that were sold, and laid
them  down at the Apostles' feet; and distribution was
made to every man according as he had need."
And later still, indeed throughout the apostolic age,
and far beyond it, the same thing was plainly visible,
however the expression of it varied in form and manner
with varieties of time and place; "the brother of low
degree rejoicing in that he was exalted, and the rich in
that he was brought low."  The names of "brother," and
"friend," by which they usually called each other; the
form of the Christian salutation; and the spontaneous
acts of loving-kindness, which abounded everywhere,
Apostles to married life and family possibility of a community of goods
religion [see the last part of this having, or being intended to have,
Lecture] is conclusive against the anylasting existence in theirpolity.




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   139
testified that it was no mere short-lived unnatural excitement, but a deep-rooted and abiding principle which
animated Christian men-an influence which might begin
with enthusiasm, but could not end with it; a flame
flashing out at first with dazzling brilliancy to settle
down into a steady unwavering light.
This equality observable in the early Church was
as unlike as possible the dishonest, selfish, rapacious
schemes of modern equalities and socialisms.  They are
born of a desire to seize and take away; but this of a
desire to impart and give. It was essentially an equality
of heart and feeling; and it was only incidentally, and
by an easy and natural consequence, that it affected (as
far as it did affect) men's possessions and goods. It
sprung up from a community of great and absorbing
interests, and from the common possession of advantages
of incalculable worth.
How often is it seen even in secular things that the
pursuit of some interesting  object-some literary or
scientific study, or a fondness for some pleasing artproduces, as far as its influence can reach, a wholesome
equality and communion between men of the most
widely differing rank and social position; raising up
the low, and bringing down the high, to the same level
without unduly exalting the one or degrading the other!
How strongly too can a common danger, or the enjoyment of a common benefit, bind men together who
otherwise would have been separated and estranged!
But the religion of Christ presented objects of pursuit




140             THE LAITY, OR
and interest infinitely more attractive and sublime than
those of any secular art or study. It often associated
in the greatest dangers those who had embraced it. It
bestowed advantages, and conferred an elevation upon
them, in comparison with which all earthly rank and
wealth are trivial and poor. And thus it united men
of all degrees together in mind and heart; and by
actually making them equal in the highest things led
them  to regard their inequalities in less important
matters as comparatively of little moment.
Besides this, even now, in spite of the very artificial
state of modern civilization, and the consequently wider
dissociation of ranks and classes, genuine Christianity
still produces a great effect in smoothing down the
sharp distinctions between man and man; subduing
pride and superciliousness in the rich and great; and
softening the roughness of speech and manners in the
low-born and illiterate, and supplementing often in a
marvellous degree their want of culture and education.
Such influences in a more simple state of society must
have operated with a still greater force.
But there is another peculiarity which specially marked
the general body of the Christian Church, lying deeper
beneath the surface than the equality just mentioned,
and therefore not meeting the enquirer's view so obviously at first, while it is still more deserving of his
attention as a most essential property of the whole community —a most distinctive characteristic of its nature
and position-the very cause of its being what it was.




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   I4I
This peculiarity indeed itself took the form of an
equality, since it belonged equally to every member
of the body-an equality of privilege or standing-ground
in Christ, the divine Head of all and each one in the
Church, in contradistinction to the equality of social
intercourse, or property, or kindly feeling, exhibited
visibly in. the Christian life. But its own distinguishing
character, and that from which it most justly takes its
name, is Liberty.' In Christ every Christian was delivered from  bondage, and made free-free from  the
bondage of sin, the bondage of condemnation, the bondage
of fear and superstition, the bondage of ordinances, and
rites, and burdensome ceremonial laws-from the bondage
of all law, so far as he was led by the Spirit of life.
And just as the Christian equality of self-denying kindness was utterly different from the selfish and rapacious
equality which has usurped its name; so this Christian
freedom  was as opposite as possible to that lawless
licence by which, when misnamed liberty, ignorant and
unprincipled men have sometimes been deceived.  The
Christian man had liberty in Christ, not in Satan; in
godliness, not in sin. It was the glorious liberty of the
children of God, not the licentiousness of evil men.
It was a truth clearly proclaimed by the Apostles, and
I How needful St. Paul felt it to excessive assumption of ministerial
watch and guard this liberty, is authority, but from the entangleshown by his strong and earnest ment of ceremonial observances.
language in his Epistle to the Gala- Both of these, however, since his
tians. In his time the Christian time have too soon and too long
liberty was in danger, not from an wrought mischief in the Church.




142             THE  LAITY, OR
received with undoubting and joyful confidence by the
Church in those days, however it has been often unfortunately obscured or kept out of sight in later times,
that every believer had himself an unrestricted access to
Christ, and through Him unto the Father, without the
intervention of any other person or thing whatever.
That Jesus and His finished work, Jesus the Son of
God, and the Son of Mlan, with His atoning blood and
justifying righteousness, Jesus born into the world,
dying, rising again, ascending into heaven, sitting at theright hand of the Father, and ever living to make intercession for us, was all that any man required for coming
boldly, so to speak, into the presence of God, to receive
the fulness of His favour and blessing;-all that he
needed to break down the barrier which sin had placed
between him and the Holy One, to entitle him to be
enrolled as a free citizen of Christ's kingdom, a son
in God's family, an heir of the heavenly inheritance.
And as Jesus, the Christ, was the sole author and allsufficient security of this heavenly freedom; so besides
Him there was no more need, or place, for any priest,
or altar, or sacrifice, or mediator, or any one of whatsoever office, name, or service to stand between any man
and God, to present his prayers at the throne of Grace,
or to bring back a blessing from above. The rent veil
of the Temple at the death of Jesus indicated that the
"holiest of all" was no longer to be hidden or closed
against the approach of men, but " opened to all believers."  Instead of needing the priestly ministrations




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   143
of another, each Christian was to be himself a priest,
called and consecrated to a holy priesthood, to offer
spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God-even the living
sacrifice of himself, his soul and body-the sacrifices also
of praise and thanksgiving, of self-denying kindness to
others, and godliness of living for Christ's sake. "That
which the priesthood before Christ had only typified
and prefigured was now accomplished for all; and the
duty of constantly realizing it by the oblation of his
own heart became the priestly duty of each individual
Christian."'
Such then being the condition of the Christian conmunity with its most essential characteristics —a personal, spiritual liberty in Christ, and a social, loving
equality in the Church-the whole polity of the apostolic
times was necessarily adapted to it; and may even be
said to have grown out of this condition, as a natural
organism of the common Christian life. From  this the
true relations subsisting between the general body of
the laity on the one hand, and the clergy or Church
officers on the other, unfold themselves distinctly to our
view. And the position which the laity occupied, and
the part which they were expected to perform  in the
Church, is seen to be quite in harmony with this their
normal and recognized status in it.
It was a necessary consequence of this status that the
Christian ministry instituted by the Apostles could not
Guericke's' Manual of the Antiquities of the Church,' i. 1, 7.




144                 THE LAITY, OR
be a priesthood. In the preceding Lecture arguments
were adduced to prove that the Christian ministers of
the New  Testament were not priests; but a consideration of the standing  held by the lay-members of the
apostolic Church shows that they could not have been
so.  It would  have  been  quite  at variance  with  the
whole character of that Church, and inconsistent with
the fundamental principles of its formation and coherence, that a literal, objective, separated priesthood
should  be  established  in  it.  The  Christian  ministry
was requisite, not on account of any spiritual functions,
which  could  not  otherwise  have  been  lawfully  discharged; but for the sake of the solemnity and regularity which are essential in a religious and permanent
society. There was no spiritual act which in itself was
of such  a nature that it might have  been  done by
every individual Christian;' but the general well-being
iThere are positively no sacred  sidered valid, even in the most
rites or acts which it is declared in  sacerdotal periods of the Church.
the New Testament must be admin- Thus Jerome, " Unde venit ut sine
istered by men ordained, or in any  chrismate et episcopi jussu neque
way separated from  the general presbyter neque diaconus jus babebody of Christians. The two sacra- ant baptizandi; quod frequenter, si
ments are justly considered the tamen  necessitas cogit, scimus
most solemn of Christian ordinan- etiam licere laicis. "-' Ep. adv. Luces; but even for them such admin- ciferianos.'
istration is nowhere commanded.   The celebration of the Eucharist
With regard to baptism, the at first included an actual supper,
Apostles evidently did not care to  in imitation of the scene at its instibaptize with their own hands, but tution. And as at the Jewish Passdirected others to perform the rite. over any person might preside,
See Acts x. 48; 1 Cor. i. 14. And usually the master of the houselay baptism has always been con- this was probably the case in the




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   145
and  healthy  action  of the whole body, required  that
known and responsible officers should be charged with
certain religious duties in the midst of it. There were
no  mysteries  or rites  of any  kind too  sacred  to  be
touched by ordinary Christian hands, and demanding
a separated caste of holier men for their pious celebration; but it was absolutely necessary that all things
should "be done decently and in order," and that provision for this should be uninterruptedly secured.
It was again a necessary consequence of the acknowledged status of the whole Christian body, that the Church
government ordered or sanctioned by the Apostles was
not and could not be oppressive or overbearing, or such
earliest times in the Christian  called the Ambrosiaster.  "PostChurch also.                      quam omnibus locis ecclesie sunt
And so Pressense remarks that constitute et officia ordinata, aliter
the words of St. Paul to the Corin- composita res est, quam coeperat.
thians imply that all Christians Primum enim  omnes docebant, et
might break the bread and bless the  omnes baptizabant, quibuscunque
cup at the Lord's Supper, and not diebus vel temporibus fuisset occaan officiating minister only; for he  sio... Ut ergo cresceret plebs et mulsays, "the bread which we break,"  tiplicaretur omnibus inter initia
and "the cup of blessing which we concessum  est, et evangelizare, et
bless."  "Pour ce qui concerne la  baptizare, et scripturas in ecclesia
CMne, Paul atttribue a tous les explanare.  At ubi autem  omnia
Chretiens la benediction  de la locacomplexa estecclesia, conventicoupe, et la fraction du pain. La  cula constituta sunt et rectores, et
coupe de benddiction  que nous cmtera officia in ecclesiissuntordibenissons,... le pain que nous nata, ut nullus de clericis auderet,
rompons."-Vol. ii. p. 224.        qui ordinatus nonesset, presumere
The view given in the text is in  officium, quod  sciret non  sibi
accordance with the following pas- creditum vel concessum. Et coepit
sage from a commentary on Eph. alio ordine et providentia guberiv. 11, by  the  author  whose  nari ecclesia, quia si omnes eadem
writings are appended to those of possent et vulgaris res et vilisAmbrose, and who is therefore  sima videretur."
10




I46              THE  LAITY, OR
as to paralyze, or crush out the active and wholesome
influence of popular thought and feeling. The Christian,
individually set free from the moral and spiritual bondage
of sin, was kept socially free from all ecclesiastical bondage of priestcraft and ministerial domination.
Though the whole Church might be termed a spiritual
monarchy under Christ its King, each Christian community was a republic. The clergy were its representative and responsible officers; and as such were invested
with official authority, were entitled to due respect and
submission, and "had the right to rebuke and repress
the extravagances of individual fancy or of congregational caprice and self-will."  But on the other hand
the laity possessed and exercised a large amount of
power and influence, not only as the original earthly
source and fountain of ecclesiastical authority, or on
the occurrence of momentous emergencies; but also in
the ordinary affairs of Church life. And to trace the
nature of this power and influence as they are seen
in  operation  during the  apostolic and sub-apostolic
period is especially interesting in the present day, when
one of the greatest questions of the time is, What ought
to be the place and voice of the laity in the government
and administration of our Church?
With the strictly official, or what may be termed the
professional acts of the clergy, in conducting public
worship or administering religious ordinances, the laity
of course did not interfere, as soon as order had been
taken for their regulation; such duties having been then




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   I47
committed to their ministers for the express purpose
of confining them  to their hands. But in all other
Church matters; (i.) in the appointment and removal
of the ministers themselves; (ii.) in the general edification and discipline of the Church; and (iii.) in questions of doctrine and dogmatic teaching, the laity had a
voice, and were able to make it heard.
I. The people took part in the selection and appointment of Church officers. For although presbyters and
deacons were ordained, and afterwards bishops were
consecrated, by the hands of the ministry; yet as soon
as any regular Church was formed, the popular voice
elected or approved of them; and might on the other
hand disallow and reject them, or might (as it would
seem) with sufficient and reasonable cause depose or
remove them from their office. It is true that the only
clear and decided instance of such popular selection in
the New Testament is in the case of the seven officers
mentioned in Acts vi., and usually, but not indisputably,
called deacons. And there are in St. Paul's pastoral
Epistles no directions as to the manner in which presbyters and deacons should be chosen.  Clement, however, a contemporary and friend of St. Paul, speaks in
his Epistle to the Corinthians of presbyters ordained
by the Apostles, or after them by other men of high
repute, with the common assent and approbation' of the' Toy3s ov  tradOc6rEtrx VT r' vt ei8ivcrwV,   -Jercta v' rV ETepo
\.0Xoyi/Lov axvSpoor) dvvev8ox6x6Ciddd     rij5 eu'x' dia5  taO'rt.-~
Clem.'ad Cor.' ~ 44.




148                  THE LAITY, OR
whole Church7; so that the omission of such directions
in the Epistles to  Timothy and  Titus may be due to
the fact that the apostolic practice was then fully established and well-known.  And for several centuries afterwards, although the tendency of the times was rather to
silence  the  voice  of the laity  than  to  make it more
distinctly  heard, it is evident that a popular  election
or approval was considered requisite both for presbyters
and bishops;  and was looked upon as a regulation of
apostolic authority.l
1 The people continued to have a  et mores ac merita singulorum
voice and vote in the choice of cornrnuni consillio  ponderare." —
bishops and presbyters, and to have  Epist. 33, addressed to the clergy
the right that none should be forced  and laity at Carthage.
upon them against their will, until   "Factus est Cornelius Episcopus
at least the middle of the sixth cen- de Dci et Christi ejus judicio, de
tury. And, notwithstanding the  clericorum  pene omnium  testiincreasing power of the episcopate, monio, de plebis qua3 tune adfuit
the bishops seem to have made no  suffragio, et de sacerdotum  antiattempt to deprive them  of this quorum et bonorum virorum colright.                            legio."-Epist. 52.
Eusebius ('H. E.' vi. 29), in his    Cyprian also asserts that this
account of the election of Fabian as custom was derived " de traditione
Bishop of Rome, (A. D. 236) says, divina, etapostolica observatione,"
rov y xp  8&ECpGo3V   tciYzTvrcv, and that in his time "apud nos quoXzlpovrios ia     veXv    raid  roi  que etfereperprovinciasuniversas
/,tolovro5  86zai8exadOorz  rTi, tenetur."-Epist. 68.
T7rzdtxorzjv,,7ri rS  ux&2.ldfiia    Siricius, Bishop of Rome (A. D.
dvyxamporn'//vcov, when  Fa- 384) says that one, having worthily
bian, who  had  not previously  filled the office of deacon, "exinde
been thought of, was unanimously  jam  accessu temporum  presbytechosen from a dove having alighted  rium vel episcopatum, si eum cleri
on his head.                      ac plebis evocaverit electio, non imCyprian (A. D. 250) frequently  merito  sortietur."-'Epist.  ad
testifies to this effect; thus-   Himorium,' i. 10; in Labbd' Con"In ordinationibusclericis,fratres  cil.' vol. iii. p. 660, ed. 1769.
carissimi, solemus vos ante consulere,   Chrysostom  was chosen to le




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   149
It would further appear from Clement's Epistle that
Church-members might depose  their presbyters.  For
whereas  he  wrote  to  the  Corinthians  expressly  on
account of the disorders in that Church, in which presbyters had been deposed, he blames them, not simply
for so doing, as if it were an unlawful assumption of
power on  their part, but only for acting  thus in the
case of those who had blamelessly, quietly, and without
arrogance  discharged  their sacred duties.  He  seems
therefore to admit that for a just and reasonable cause
a presbyter  might be deprived  of his office by the
popular judgment of the Church in which he ministered.
And at a much later time it was distinctly acknowledged
that no. Church ought to submit to the ministrations of
a presbyter or bishop of scandalous life, or who had
Bishop of Constantinople  v7qpi6- orders sometimes took place, and,uartL  ozIVGO  tooV~  7roLZcoav, the emperors occasionally interx72tpov re rqny7i xai To ov ltao. —  posed their authority. By the laws
Socrat.' Hist.' vi. 2.          of Justinian the elections were conLeo, Bishop of Rome (A. D. 440), fined to the Optimates, which seems
writes, "Quum  de summi sacer- to be alluded to in the quotation
dotis electione  tractabitur, ille  from Liberatus, though he says the
omnibus preeponatur quem cleriple- election was to be omnium civium
bisque consensus concorditer postu- voluntate. On the breaking up of
larit."-Epist. 14. 5, Labb' Conc.' the Roman empire, kings (espevol. v. p. 1276.                 cially in France and Spain) had a
And Liberatus (A. D. 533), " Ut voice in these appointments; and,
onnium  civium  voluntate eligcrent afterwards, "the interests of the
ordinandum Episcopum.... collecti people was secured (says Bingham)
sunt ergo nobiles civitatis ut eum, qui by their consent in parliaments;
esset vita et sermone pontificatu  and by such consent the nomination
dignus, eligerent."-'Breviar.' 14; of bishops was reserved to princes,
LabbI'Concil.' vol. ix. p. 690.  and the patronage of livings to parAt these clerical elections dis- ticular persons."-Bing. iv. 2, 1.




150                THE LAITY, OR
himself departed from the essentials of the Christian
faith; but that on the contrary it was bound to desert
such an offender, and to choose another in his stead.'
When Christian communities felt themselves obliged
to adopt such strong measures, they naturally desired
to justify their conduct in the eyes of other Churches;
and hence the practice gradually arose of referring such
cases to the consideration of some synod or council;
until as the Church system  became more and more
concentrated  and consolidated throughout ihe Roman
empire, the power of deposition at last slipped away
from the hands of the people.
II. In the exercise  of the Church  discipline  and
government,  which  were  thought requisite  in  the
apostolic age, the influence and action of the whole
Church body may be very plainly traced.  Although
the authority of the ministerial office is distinctly acknowledged in the New  Testament, and Christians are admonished "to obey them  that have the rule over them,
and to submit themselves;" yet the right and duty of
the whole congregation to take a sensible, and indeed
a prominent, part in the maintenance of necessary discipline is equally enforced. If the very design of the
1 Cyprian declares distinctly, that cis, et Deum metuens, a peccatore
the people ought to separate them- prsposito separare se debet, nec so
selves from  heretical bishops or ad sacrilegi sacerdotis sacrificia
presbyters. Referring to the com- miscere; quando ipsa maxime
mand of Moses, "Depart, I pray habeat potestatem  vel eligendi
you, from the tents of these wicked dignos sacerdotes, vel indignos
men," he adds, "Propter quod recusandi."-Epist. 68.
plebs obsequens preeceptis domini



CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   I51
Christian ministry is "the edifying of the body of
Christ," Christian laymen are also bidden to "edify
one another."  If Christian ministers are "to reprove,
rebuke, and exhort with all long-suffering and doctrine,"
Christian laymen are also "to admonish one another,"
and "to warn the unruly" and disobedient. And, as if
to show beyond dispute that official ministerial functions
and unofficial popular influence were quite compatible,
and ought to be in active and harmonious exercise
together in the Church, the two are united in a remarkable manner in a single utterance by St. Paul
when he writes thus to the Thessalonians, "Wherefore
comfort yourselves together [or exhort each other, rapaxaXerZe oaaljlXtov ], and edify one another, even as also
ye do. And we beseech you, brethren, to know them
which labour among you, and are over you in the
Lord, and admonish [vovOerovvraz ] you; and to esteem
them  very highly in love for their work's sake; and
be at peace among yourselves. Now we exhort you,
brethren, warn [vovOretre] them that are unruly, comfort the feeble-minded, support the weak, be patient
towards all men."  (1 Thess. v. 11-14.) Where the
brethren in general are exhorted to do what is also
expressly spoken of as a ministerial duty; and such
exhortations are placed in close combination with directions to esteem the ministry very highly for its work's
sake.
Nothing can be more distinct than this testimony
from St. Paul to the Thessalonians; but this view of




152                 THE LAITY, OR
the ministerial and popular duties in  the Church  is
not confined to this one passage. The Epistles in the
New  Testament addressed  to Christian  communities
again and again present the authority and work of the
ministerial office, and of the whole company of faithful
people, in a similar light; sometimes one, and sometimes
the other, being pressed on the attention of the reader.
Nowhere in  them  is the position  of presbyters so
exalted as to leave little or no power to be exercised by
the people; but with impartial faithfulness, the ministry
is  duly  honoured  while the authority  of the whole
Christian body is unhesitatingly maintained. There
can hardly be a greater contrast than that which appears
between the relative position of ministers and people
as it is seen in the New Testament, and as it is displayed
in the spurious or interpolated Epistles of Ignatius, which
exhibit the ideas and practice of a later age when episcopacy had enlarged its powers, and a dominant hierarchy
was growing up in the Church.'
The manner in which the min- taken of their ministers, who reisters of the Church are dealt with  main undistinguished in the gen
in the Epistles of the New Testa- eral body, as in Romans and
ment is remarkable, and, one would Galatians. In some, the presence
think, must sometimes have sur- of ministers is acknowledged, but
prised Churchmen of the Nicene with only a passing allusion, if
period, as it surely must their any, to the nature of their office,
modern admirers and imitators; as in Ephesians and Philippians.
who think that the only privilege In one, a message is sent to a minof the laity in Church matters is, ister, through the Church, bidding
"to hear and to obey."         him "take heed to his ministry,
In some of the Epistles, Churches that he fulfil it," as in Colossians.
are addressed  and admonished In another, presbyters are warned
without any notice at all being not to assume too high an authority,




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   153
Nor is it only on a general view that the action of the
laity is discerned. If the particulars of Church discipline
are marked in more detail, the popular element is still
more clearly seen.
Church discipline, so far as it was concerned with the
infliction of rebuke or punishment, exhibits in the New
Testament three different degrees of severity, corresponding pretty accurately with the different forms of the
"ecclesiastical censures" of the third and fourth centuries,
which were called  " admonitions," "the lesser exconmunication," and "the greater excommunication," or
expulsion from  the Church.  And in all these in  the
apostolic age the whole Christian body took an authoritative part.
(a.) With regard to the first of these, " the admonition," it has been already noticed that it was the duty of
Christian laymen, as well as of the clergy, to warn and
admonish the unruly.
(b.) In the infliction of "the lesser excommunication,"
which  was a breaking off of friendly association  or
communion  with  an  offender for a time, while  still
regarding him as a member of the Church, the Christian
brethren in general, and not the presbyters merely by
by lording it over their people, as strongly urged to assert their
in the First of Peter. Yet all this authority.
is oot without a distinct acknow-   A careful consideration of what
ledgment of the respect which was is due from the clergy to the laity,
due to them. For Churches are and from the laity to the clergy,
expressly bidden to revere and would not be unprofitable at the
obey them; and in the pastoral present time.
epistles Timothy and Titus are




I54                THE LAITY, OR
special virtue of their office, are bidden thus to mark
their disapprobation of wrong-doing, and to vindicate
the purity and healthy  life of their society.  Thus the
Christians at Rome are bidden "to  mark them  which
cause divisions and offences, and to avoid them."  And
the Thessalonians are urged "to  withdraw themselves
from every brother that walketh disorderly."  And "if
any man obey not the Apostle's word to note that man,
and to have no company with him  that he may be
ashamed."
(c.) And in the case of some grievous offence which
demanded expulsion from the Church, while an inspired
Apostle, as a divinely  appointed ruler in the Church,
mighlt by his own authority excommunicate the offender,
as we may perhaps say that Peter and John  did to
Simon of Samaria, and as Paul did  to  Hymenaeus
and Alexander; yet no minister of lower rank in the
Apostles' times appears to'have had authority to do
this.  But so serious a punishment-the highest which
the Church as a voluntary association, and as a Christian
community 2 could inflict-required the united action of
Political communities, not be-   2 The Jewish dispensation being
ing altogether voluntary, exercise divinely founded on temporal sancan absolutely coercive power. But tions, and wrought into the civil
in a purely voluntary community, polity of the nation, used forcible
such as the Christian Church, the penalties, and coerced religious
ultimate penalty must be expul- offences with the sword. But the
sion; all others short of this being Christian dispensation rests only on
submitted to as the alternative.-  spiritual sanctions, and its true
Archbp. Whately's'Kingdom of power is entirely independent of
Christ Delineated,' p. 90.     civil laws. It therefore does not




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   I55
the whole society, solemnly assembled together, to consider the offence, and to impose the penalty: the same
general assembly having authority also to remit the
punishment, and, when satisfied of the offender's repentance, to receive him again into the Church. (See 1 Cor.
v. 4, and 2 Cor. ii. 6.)
In the exercise of ecclesiastical discipline, however,
there is no mention whatever in the apostolic age of
the imposition of pecance, or subjecting a repentant
offender to some painful infliction, or a long course of
abasement and exclusion. Even  in  the case of the
gravest sins such usages had not then been introduced;
nor could they plead with truth any apostolic sanction,
when at a later date they so extensively prevailed. In
the fourth century an offender such as he who was excommunicated at Corinth by St. Paul's command, would
have been subject to long years of humiliating penance, before he was re-admitted into the Church; but
St. Paul directed that he should be restored as soon
as he had repented; and that without any forms of
degradation or abasement. Different times and circumstances might indeed recommend different regulations
for such cases, which it was competent for any Church
in its discretion to adopt; but the departures from the
simple discipline of the Apostles, which soon began after
they were gone, savoured little of simplicity or discretion.
authorize the punishment of re- inflictions; but unworthy members
igious offences by any positive of a Church may be expelled.




156               THE LAITY, OR
It is not necessary here to dwell at any length on
the remarkable expression twice used by St. Paul as
descriptive of a judicial expulsion from  the Church,
when he terms it, "the delivering  of the offender to
Satan."  Little light is thrown upon tlhe precise mleaning of these words by any powers or practices of the
later Church.  But that it involved scme temporal or
corporal suffering designed to bring the offender to a
sense of his sin, seems evident from  St. Paul's remark
that it was clone " for the destruction of the flesh, that
the spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus."
The power of imposing this infliction was confined to the
apostolic age, and probably to the Apostles themselves.
For even in the  case of the Corinthian offender, though
he was excommunicated by the whole Church, yet St.
Paul says, "I have determined already... to deliver
such an one unto  Satan."  And this is rendered the
more probable by the fact that later Church authorities,
though not apt to be over-scrupulous in their assump-ions, very seldom ventured to use this formula in their
ecclesiastical sentences; nor is there, I  believe, any
instance of its adoption by them, when they did use
it, being followed by any peculiar effects.' Instead of
1 There seems to be some reason those who were excommunicated
for believing that in the early apos- by an Apostle, but also that, withtolic age Christians were to a cer- out any Church censures, sickness
tain extent placed under a peculiar or other painful visitations came
providence, or divine discipline; upon them as warnings and chasand that not only did some bodily tisements on account of their sins.
or temporal suffering come upon Thus, St. Paul distinctly tells the




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.    157
being contented with ordinary and lawful weapons, when
this extraordinary power had ceased, the Church in an evil
hour employed the aid of the civil magistrate to inflict
punishment on ecclesiastical offenders; and  thus from
the time of Constantine, forgetful of its true mission and
policy, it was gradually led on to those atrocious persecutions which  afterwards disgraced  its history, and
made it often  a  curse, instead  of a blessing, to  the
nations of the earth. But there is nothing in the New
Testament, nor in any recorded apostolic command or
practice, which can justify such a  departure  from  the
will and mind of Christ,-such a contradiction to His
assertion, " My kingdom is not of this world." 1
Corinthians that "many were weak  ligion was not to be propped up
and sickly among them, and many  with civil penalties, or enforced by
had died," because of their dis- persecution. More especially when
orderly and profane behaviour; the whole conduct of Jesus Himand that these inflictions were in- self, and His words on other occatended to recall them from their sions-the example of His Apostles,
wrong-doings, 1 Cor. xi. 30.     their directions for encountering
St. James also seems to allude to  grave errors and  heresies, the
something of the same kind, when, manner in which they dealt with
referring to the case of a Christian  offenders in their own time, the
restored to health after a danger- whole temper and spirit of their
ous illness, he says that " the teaching-all show that throughout
prayer of faith shall save the sick, the New Testament there is nothand the Lord shall raise him up, ing to justify the use of force and
and if he have committed sins, they  compulsion  for promoting  the
shall beforgiven him. "-James v. 15. cause of Christianity.
The emphatic declaration of   "Yet no sooner had the Church
Jesus before Pilate respecting the  obtained civil power under Connature of His kingdom, and the  stantine, than the general principle
means by which it was to be sus- of coercion was admitted and acted
tained, ought for ever to have settled upon against the Jews, the hereti cs,
the question for His disciples, and  and the pagans."  The Christians
to have taught them that His re- in the fourth and fifth centuries



158                   THE LAITY, OR
III. Haaving thus seen the influential position assigned
by the Apostles to the law element in preserving and
like the puritans in the seven- digious extent, it is true, but still
teenth-began to persecute others  only carried out-the very princiwhen they ceased to be persecuted  ples and practices which had come
themselves.  The New Testament down from  the fourth and fifth
refused to sanction such conduct; centuries.
but having long before gone to the    What those principles and pracOld Testament for the sacerdotal- tices were, in  accordance with
ism, which the Christian Scriptures  which the Church authorities in the
had denied them, they now drew  fourth  century  endeavoured  to
arguments from the same source  crush those, whom, however unfor persecution, as old Christian  justly, they denounced as heretics,
persecutors ever since have done.  is sufficiently  indicated by the
The good and learned Jeremy  treatment of Jovinian by the Italian
Taylor in his'Liberty of Prophesy- bishops, amongst whom were Siriing,' feeling that "it is unnatural cius Bishop of Rome, and Ambrose
and unreasonable to persecute dis- of Milan. Jovinian had ventured
agreeing opinions," labours to per- to protest against some of the gross
suade himself and his readers that errors of the Church, especially its
"the Church in her distinct and  extravagant doctrines on the subclerical capacity was against de- ject of asceticism and celibacy. For
stroying or punishing difference in  this he was condemned and excomopinion, till the popes of Rorme did  municated by Siricius, and aftersuperseminate and persuade the  wards by Ambrose; and subsecontrary."  Yet he admits that quently the Italian bishops pre"the bishops did persuade the  vailei upon the emperor Ionorius
emperors to make laws against here- to have him seized and scourged,
tics, and to punish disobedient per- with his abettors and attendants;
sons with fines and imprisonment,  after which, Jovinian himself was
with death and banishment respec- banished to the island of Boa, a
tively."  So that even, according  wretched rock off the Illyrian coast,
to the good bishop's admission, where he ended his days. The eclittle more can be pleaded in de- clesiastical historian, Fleury, says
fence of the earlier Church than  that Jovinian was scourged with
may with equal justice be pleaded  thon gs loaded with lead, " battu de
for the "Popes of Rone."  In fact lanieres plombees;" and that he was
the Church of Rome, in all the  banished to the island of Boa,
horrible persecutions with which  where, he adds with  malignant
it glutted itself, as long as it had  irony, " on dit qu'il continuajusques
the power, carried out-to a pro- d la mort sa vie voluptueuse."




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   159
enforcing ecclesiastical discipline, or what may be regarded as the moral aspect of the Church; it remains to
be noticed that the laity held an influential position also
in what may be contradistinguished as the religious
aspect of the body, in questions, that is, of faith and
doctrine which required any formal or authoritative decision. Strange to say, the apostolic practice in this
respect seems to have been in many quarters so long
and effectually ignored, that not only in times of hierarchal tyranny, but in our own Church at this present
time, it is not unfrequently regarded as an undoubted,
axiomatic, truth that the laity have no authority in
questions of Christian doctrine, and ought to have no
voice in their discussion or decision. Laymen, it is
sometimes admitted, may be allowed to take a certain
part in Church government, order, and discipline; but
the clergy alone, it is contended, are entitled to judge
matters of faith and creed; as if to them exclusively by
some divine appointment such judgment had been indisputably assigned; and the only privilege of the laity
was " to hear and to obey."
Yet so far from this being the case, it is evident from
the New Testament that questions of fogmatic theology
are to be considered by the lay members of the Church,
as well as by the clergy; and that no Christian man is
to resign his reason, or apprehension of religious truth,
any more than his conscience, to the judgment of his
pastor.
1. Thus doctrines as well as moral precepts are in the




I60             THE LAITY, OR
apostolic Epistles addressed to the whole body of believers, and not handed over to the presbyters alone;
as is obvious in those which, like the Epistles to the
Romans and Galatians, dwell much on dogmatic truths.
2. All Church members are called upon to form  an
opinion on doctrinal questions, and to judge whether
what they are taught is true or false. The Beroeans are
commended for testing the truth of St. Paul's own
teaching. The Galatians are exhorted "to stand fast
in the liberty wherewith Christ had made them  free,
and not to be entangled again with the yoke of bondage," which erring teachers would lay upon them. The
Thessalonians were to "prove all things and to hold
fast that which is good."  And St. John addresses to all
Christians, " Beloved, believe not every spirit, but try the
spirits whether they be of God."
3. And the New Testament clearly shows that Christian
ministers would sometimes teach false doctrine; as when
St. Paul warns the Presbyters of Ephesus that "some
would arise from among themselves speaking perverse
things;" and St. Peter declares that there would be
false teachers in the Church, even as there had been false
prophets among the people of old. And when this
should be so, it would necessarily be the duty of every
Christian to refuse their teaching.
4. But besides these general notices of Christian responsibility which relate to the common course of
ordinary Church life, it is manifest from a clear and
decisive example of apostolic practice that the whole




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   I6i
body of the Church, and not its ministers only, was
regarded by the Apostles as the guardian and expositor
of Christian truth; and that in any doubt or question
as to what this truth required, when put into the dogmatic form of a Church doctrine to be received by the
faithful, not the clergy only but the whole community,
laic as well as clerical, were to be consulted, and according to there deliberate judgment to decide. For when
the dispute had arisen as to the obligation of the Gentile
believers to observe the Jewish law, involving so important an alternative of doctrine as the justification
of the Christian by his faith, or his justification by his
legal observances, and it was felt to be so grave a crisis
as to demand a special assembly or council of the
Apostles to consider it-not the Apostles only, nor
the Apostles and elders, but the whole Church with
them-the Apostles, elders, and brethren formed the
assembly, discussed the question, pronounced the decision, and issued the decree to the Church at Antioch
in their united names.
Now in this case the Apostles, as the inspired and
divinely commissioned founders and teachers of the
Church, might justly have considered the question, and
pronounced the decree, by themselves. Whatsoever they
bound or loosed on earth was ratified in heaven. It was
their voice and judgment which gave the decree its decisive authority, and which we still regard as the final
settlement of the dispute; nor without this apostolic
Voice and judgment would the Church at Jerusalem have
11




I62                  THE LAITY, OR
had any just pretension to legislate for the Church a.
Antioch, or in other places.
Yet, as an example to all future times, when no living
apostolic voice, nor any other infallible human guide,
would remain in the Church, they associated with themselves "the elders and the brethren," in order that every
Christian community in all ages might learn after the
same similitude to decide in similar emergencies; and
that we might see that, while the Scriptures are the only
treasure-house of all Christian doctrine, the responsibility
of embodying such doctrine, when necessary, in Church
forms, or dogmatic articles of belief, rests with the members of the Church at large, and ought not to be by
them  declined, or from  them  taken away.
It is not without some show of true Israel of the New Covenant,
reason and probability that the met together, not so much to enact
"Council of Jerusalem" has been  a theological decree, as to express
viewed in a different light from that their fraternization with the Gengiven above. The twelve Apostles, tile portion of God's people, and to
it has been said, were a repre- hold out to them the right hand of
sentation of the twelve tribes, i. e. fellowship; and so, for this purof the people of God, the true  pose, the presence of the brethren
Israel, taken as a whole. Thus M. -the people in general-as well as
de Pressense remarks, "Les Apo- the Apostles and elders, was most
tres sont la representation ideale du  appropriate and requisite.
veritable Israel, et comme ses anc-   If this were conclusively estabtres spirituels semblable aux douze lished, the meeting at Jerusalem
fils de Jacob. Ils ne figurent evi- would obviously'have no single
demment pas la tribu sacerdotale, point of resemblance to a Church
mais bien les douze tribus, c'est a  council of the later type. But this
dire le peuple de Dieu." —'Hist. view is hardly consistent with the
de l'Eglise Chrdt.' vol. i. p. 376.)  fact that Paul and Barnabas went
And then, this being so, the  up to Jerusalem  for the express
Apostles, elders, and brethren as- purpose of obtaining-not an acsembled on this occasion at Jerusa- knowledgment  of  the  Gentile
lem, have been regarded as the  Churches-but a decision upon the




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   163
Unfortunately in after ages, while the wholesome
lesson, which this "first council" teaches, was quite
neglected, the very point in which it could not be an
example to post-apostolic times, but must ever stand
alone in its authority, was perversely seized on by the
misguided Church; and while laymen were gradually
excluded from ecclesiastical synods, and all the clergy
also, except the bishops, these councils arrogantly claimed
for themselves the language which was exclusively appropriate to the Apostles, and, as if they were successors
to their supernatural power and inspiration, published
their decrees as the decisions of the Holy Ghost.1
If from the public and formal action of the Church
in grave questions of order, discipline, and doctrine we
now turn to its less prominent and official operations,
and enquire what influences, if any, affected the domestic
or individual life, and whether any practices or customs
sanctioned, if not commanded, by  apostolic authority
prevailed in the Christian society of that time; although
no full and precise information of this nature is given
in the New Testament, yet enough is found in the way
of incidental allusions, illustrated  at  they are by the
more formal developments of the following ages, to
furnish us with at least some partial conception of the
social aspect of primitive Christianity.
question of enforced Jewish obser-' For some account of the nature
vances; which very question was and authority of Church councils,
debated and decided upon by this see Appendix B.
meeting.




164              THE LAITY, OR
The earliest views that are presented to us in this
department of the Church's action, arose immediately
from that striking characteristic of original Christianity
already alluded to; its unselfish, broad, outflowing spirit
of equality or kindly fellowship, which exhibited itself in
a loving care for the temporal no less than the spiritual
wants of all its members. Taking up, as we may perhaps
infer, the injunctions implied in the Saviour's words recorded in Matt. xxv., and rejoicing to serve and honour
Christ in the persons of His suffering brethren, the primitive Church exerted itself from the very first in relieving
and comforting the poor and afflicted, the widows and
fatherless.  And soon afterwards to support and educate
destitute or deserted children, to receive and assist
strangers and foreigners,-and, in times of persecution to
visit and encourage martyrs or confessors,-were special
objects of its ministrations.  And that this sympathizing
spirit was generally prevalent in all the Churches, and
that it was considered by the Apostles most desirable
to keep it in lively action, is evidenced by the frequent
directions scattered throughout the epistolary portion
of the New Testament, "to remember the poor," "to
minister to the necessities of the saints," " not to forget
to entertain strangers," "to visit the fatherless and
widows in their affliction."
The funds requisite for carrying out such benevolent
purposes, as well as for the partial or entire support
of the clergy, were supplied by the money which liberal
contributors "laid at the Apostles' feet,"-by collections




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.  -16
gathered generally throughout the several Churches,-by
contributions made  at the  celebration of the Lord's
Supper corresponding with  the  offertory  among  ourselves, —-and at a later period by certain monthly' subscriptions or gifts which were customary in some Churches,
and by special donations or legacies of money or other
property. But pecuniary gifts, however liberal, were not
in the earliest times deemed  a  sufficient discharge of
Christian obligations. Personal services and labours
were also  required, and  where  possible  were freely
given.  In such works of faith  and  self-denying  kindness Christian  womien  were especially  distinguished:
and several of these are honourably mentioned by name
in St. Paul's Epistles as " having been succourers of
many," or "labouring much in the Lord."
Such works of loving-kindness soon assumed, as might
have been expected, certain definite forms; and regulations were made for their more orderly or effectual operation. Thus in the very earliest years of the Church the
The following is Tertullian's — Apol.' i. 39.
account of these monthly subscrip-   From the circumstance of these
tions. "Modicam unusquisque sti- contributions being made monthly,
pem menstrua die, vel quum velit, a monthly distribution also among
et si modo velit, et si modo possit, the presbyters seems to have been
apponit; nam nemo compellitur, made in some places, and is alluded
sed sponte confert.  Haec quasi to by Cyprian, " caterum presdeposita pietatis sunt, nam inde byterii honorem designasse nos illis
non epulis, non potaculis, nee  jam sciatis, ut et sportulis iisdem
ingratis voratrinis, despensatur, cum  presbyteris honorentur, et
sed egenis alendis, humandisque, divisiones mensurnas aequatis quanet pueris ac puellis re ac parenti- titatibus partiantur."-' Ep.' 34bus destitutis, jamque domesticis end.
senibus, et si qui in metallis," &c.




66'                THE LAITY, OR
practice was begun at Jerusalem  of providing a dinner
or supper every day for Christian widows, including no
doubt orphans and other destitute persons; and seven
ecclesiastical officers were specially appointed for the
orderly superintendence of these " daily ministrations."
This custom, however, was apparently only'for a time,
since it is not elsewhere alluded to; and it was probably found better in general " to visit the fatherless and
widows" at their own homes, rather than to assemble
them together into one place for this purpose.
By the time that St. Paul wrote his first Epistle to
Timothy the charitable operations of Christian Churches,
had received, in one respect at least, a still more definite
organization; since associations of widows had  been
formed, who were supported by the funds of the Church,
and who were expected to devote their time to the
visitation of the sick and suffering, and under the superintendence of the ordained ministry to assist in carrying
out the different works of Christian benevolence.
Of these ecclesiastical widows some probably became
deaconesses  of their respective Churches; and the rest
1 In the post-apostolic Church the dition, were removed from all occuwidows here mentioned were some- pation with earthly concerns, and
times supposed to have been in all dedicated their few remaining days
cases deaconesses; and the same to devotion and prayer."  Thus
opinion has been held in modern Neander ('Hist. of Planting the
times. On the other hand, the Christian Church,' iii. 5): "We
very opposite opinion has been en- must imagine such women to be
tertained, that they were persons among those widows, who, after
charged with no active service, presenting a model in discharging'who, as suited their age and con- their duties as Christian wives,;td




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   167
appear to have very much resembled the District Visitors
and Bible Women  of modern days: and to  have had
their several districts or number of houses assigned  to
them   for  their  particular  ministrations.'  That these
visitors then, as well as now, did not always perform
their duties judiciously is evident from  St. Paul's severe
mothers, would now obtain repose  trpo6evXoci, are used in chapter
and a place of honour in the bosom  ii. 1, of this Epistle. And if there
of the Church, where alone they  is any force in the meaning which
could find a refuge in their loneli- I have ascribed to tepzepXioUevctz
ness; and, by their devotional zrei oioixS (see the next Note), it
spiritual life set an edifying ex- follows that they must have had
ample to other women.....H.ence, some active duties assigned to
it would naturally be an occasion  them. Consider, also, what is said
of scandal, if such persons quitted  about the duties of aged women in
a life of retirement and devotion, Titus ii. And it is further to be
and showed a fondness for habits  noticed, that this institution  of
that were inconsistent with their  Church widows was not, in its
matronly character."              original  intention,  confined  to
It does not appear to me that elderly women, who would be uneither of these views is altogether fit for active employment.
correct.  St. Paul's account is    I The words in 1 Tim. v. 13,
hardly, I think, consistent with the  seem to me, when duly considered,
supposition that all these widows to justify the view which I have
were deaconesses, though deacon- given   above.  IlepzepX6otevatr
esses may have been sometimes  tord  otxici cannot mean, as in our
taken from their number. Still less English version, "wandering about
is it consistent with the opposite  from  house to house," but must
opinion that they had no active  signify, going round," or, accordemployment. The expression in  ing to a common idiom  of the
1 Tim. v. 5, "continueth in suppli- Greek  participle, "while going
cations and prayers night and day,"  round, to the houses."  The article
has perhaps helped to lead to this  rdc  necessarily particularizes the
latter supposition; but the words, houses spoken of. What then are
ztpo6JU/ez zv rif zSde61dz xai TraZ  the particular houses? I answer,
7tpo6evxcaZ5, will naturally mean  the houses specially assigned to
attends regularly the public devo- them, which it was their duty to
tions of the Church; in describing  visit; something in the manner of
which, the samewords, derj6ezS and  modern "district visitors.




168                 THE LAITY, OR
reproof of those widows who made their visits occasions
of tattling and idle curiosity, instead of opportunities of
Christian  kindness and  encouragement in well-doing.
And such  abuses probably formed one reason why St.
Paul directed that more tried and experienced women,
not under sixty years of age, should alone be placed
upon the Church List.'
It is to be observed that it was considered right for
those only, who were destitute, and had no near relatives
to support them, to be thus maintained  and officially
employed by the Church; and that consequently they
were required on their admission to undertake not to
marry again, in order that the Church funds might not
be spent unnecessarily, or upon those who might not be
1The words of St. Paul in 1  which the widows gave, on their
Tim. v. 12, ycj/tev O8Xovdzv, admission, that they would remain
EXovdctt xpzLucr, O'rz rt)v rtpcGrTtv  unmarried; and which they, therezcitv6rz IOeOrdaxv, have been vari- fore, "set at nought," or "made of
ously interpreted; and our English  no effect,"'rO rrdarv by marrying.
version has increased the difficulty  This zridrz5, or promise, was an
of the passage by rendering the  engagement made to the Church,
word xppiZJu  " damnation."      and not a " vow," or a devoting of
It appears to me not at all likely  themselves by an engagement to
that ridrzv Oervydav shouldmean  God, the word for which in the
"casting off their Christian faith,"  New Testament is ezVxy. By breakor apostatizing; the expressions ing this promise, they justly inused for this in the New Testament curred the censure of the Church,
are, "to deny the faith;" as rjv  andsowere 8Xovdarz xpuar, having
7ti6ddv  pipv7ratZ in this very chap- "judgment" passed upon them.
ter, and ov>x tpvyOdco Trv iti6rzv   It would further appear that,uov, Rev. ii. 13; or else, "to de- young widows having been at first
part from the faith;" as airodr }- admitted on the Church List, some
dovtrai rzve5 r5 7zi6reco5, 1 Tim. scandals had ensued, to prevent
iv. 1.                           the recurrence of which candidates
I think that tidrzv here must were in future required to be at
mean the assurance or promise least sixty years of age.




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   I69
able to render any service in return. But this affords no
ground for the supposition, afterwards entertained, that
a second marriage was considered an unhallowed thing;
still less did it give any sanction or encouragement to
the practice, which will be noticed more at length below,
of inciting young women to make vows of celibacy and
to devote themselves to the life of nuns, under the supposition that they thereby acquired an amount of holiness not attainable in the virtues of a Christian family.
It may be further remarked that the services of these
Church widows were not designed to supersede or disparage similar ministrations on the part of others; for
the widows were not to be admitted into the number,
unless they had already been voluntarily engaged in the
very same works of kindness as they would, after their
admission, be required to perform officially. It was the
usual practice commencing with, but continuing far
beyond, the apostolic age, that every Christian woman,
as far as she had opportunity, engaged in such ministrations; and Tertullian shows that in his time it was
expected that Christian women would, as a matter of
course, attend to the sick, go round to the houses of the
poor, relieve the needy, and visit imprisoned martyrs;
and he gives it as one reason why a Christian woman
should not marry a pagan, that she would not then be
able without let or hindrance to engage in such occupations.'
1 "Quis enim sinat conjugem  vicatim aliena et quidem paupesuam visitandorum fratrum gratia riora quseque tuguria circuire?....




170               THE LAITY, OR
It is evident that in the apostolic and sub-apostolic
age, Christian women performed these works of charity
and mercy without forming themselves into Sisterhoods,
or making any vows, or wearing an unusual dress, or
calling themselves by fantastic names, or in any way
relinquishing their ordinary, simple, natural, and therefore most Christian, position in the family circle and
household life.
This excellent spirit of brotherly kindness, so conspicuous in the earliest age, continued in its effects to be
one of the most notable features of the new religion,
attracting the admiration or envy even of those who
rejected its doctrinal truths. In the fourth century,
especially, when the Church, delivered from persecution,
was free to extend and display its influences without
restraint or fear, the new names of Hospitals or Infirmaries, of Alnmshouses for the aged, Orphanages, Foundlinghospitals, and Strangers'-homes, became words in common
use.  Yet, as Augustin remarks, it was the names only
of some of these that then were new; the things themselves having existed with less publicity and prominence
long before.l
Nor was the benevolence of the several Churches confined to the indigent of their own respective congregations; but foreign  Churches were included in their........ Quis in carcerem ad oscu-' Such names were vo6oxogle'x2
landa vincula martyris reptare pa- or  valetudinaria,  y/ipoxojus(x
tietur?.....Si cui largiendum erit opcpcpvorpocpeZx,  /3pecporpohorreum, proma praeclusa sunt."-  (pear, es'o oxeiLa.
Tertull.'ad Uxorem,' ii. ~ 4.




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   i71
sympathies, and aided by their means. The collections
made for the Christians at Jerusalem by the Churches
of Antioch, and throughout the Roman provinces of
Macedonia and Achaia, are well known instances in the
apostolic period; and succeeding centuries followed the
example.
With respect to the customs and habits of domestic
and social life, the Christianity of the New Testament
made no abrupt or sudden change, except in those things
which necessarily and in themselves were sinful. It was
to be the salt of the earth by gradually interpenetrating
the corrupted and corrupting mass of heathen civilization, and not by shrinking from all contact with it. The
Christian, therefore, was enjoined to cast off the vilenesses and abominations which heathenism produced
or palliated; but he was neither commanded nor recommended to renounce the society or friendship of his
heathen neighbours. He was to separate himself from
sin, not from the sinful; to be not of the world, yet in it.
Thus he was utterly to forsake idolatry, but he was
not forbidden to sit down with idolaters in social festivity; and the only reason why he was dissuaded from
joining in a sacrificial feast in an idol's temple was-not
that he must thereby incur any pollution in himself-but
a consideration for the scruples of weaker brethren. He
was to avoid all the intemperance and excess, the
"drunkenness and revellings," so common then at festive
meetings; but he might accept invitations to dinner or
supper at a heathen neighbour's house, and mix with




172             THE LAITY, OR
freedom and courtesy in such social gatherings. The
Bacchanalian and Aphrodisian songs so prevalent in
heathen companies were to have no countenance from
him; but music and singing were by no means forbidden; on the contrary, both heart and voice alike
might rejoice in inoffensive or sacred melodies. This,
indeed, seems to have been an abundant source of
recreation in Christian families, and Christian songs and
hymns soon multiplied greatly, by which at meal times,
and all family or friendly unions, they expressed their
habitual faith, and hope, and joy.
Thus St. Paul sums up the whole duty of Christians in
such particulars in one broad and comprehensive principle, "All things are lawful, but all things are not
expedient." The Christian's liberty is wide and unconfined; but he must consider faithfulness to Christ before
all things;- he must consider others as well as himself,
and must abstain from  acts which would wound the
conscience of a brother, or encourage a sinner in his sin.
It is not surprising that this wise and liberal simplicity
was not, and, perhaps, could not be, always observed in
the following centuries, when the Church was brought
into such trying and deadly collisions with heathenism
and heathen powers, making at the same time promiscuous friendly intercourse almost impossible, and a distinct avowal of the Christian profession more imperative
than ever. Errors were then sometimes committed on
the side of godly zeal, which led men to regard as unlawful, what Paul or Peter would have allowed; and in




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   173
the fear of countenancing even a semblance of idolatry
to  abridge the liberty  of Christ.1  But it is easier to
criticize the errors of such men than it is to imitate their
faithfulness.   Similar errors may  sometimes now  be
seen in the conduct of godly men in their contact with
the surrounding worldliness of nominal Christianity: but
the opposite, and less excusable, and more fatal error,
it is to be feared, is much more usual, when Christians
act as if they were of the world, as well as in it-as if
they had no  religious principles to  acknowledge  and
maintain.'
1 The refusal of a Christian sol- but bread; although, according to
dier to wear the crown of laurel on  St. Paul's direction, they might
a military festival, which gave occa- have eaten, without scruple, whatsion to Tertullian's treatise'De  ever was sold in the shambles.
Corono Militis,' is an example of   The Christians at Antioch, under
such mistaken conscientiousness. the same circumstances, acted with
This crown had no connection with  more wisdom, and took no notice
idolatry; but, as a badge of victory, of the emperor's petty spite.
was worn in honour of the em-   Valentinian, in his younger days,
peror on days when he gave lar- according to a story told by Theogesses to the soldiers. Tertullian, doret, went as a captain of the
however, entirely approves of the  guard with Julian to an idol's
soldier's conduct, having at that temple; and when a drop of the
time, it is supposed, adopted the lustral water fell on his coat, he
principles of Montanism.         struck the man who carried it a
With a similar  scrupulosity, blow in the face; for which he was
Lucian the Martyr is said to have banished by the emperor. Theochosen to die of hunger rather than  doret commends him!-See Bingeat things which had been offered  ham, xvi. 4, 14.
to idols, when  his persecutors   2It is almost impossible for us
would allow him no other food.    now to form an adequate idea of
And when the Emperor Julian  the innumerable difficulties and
had all the meat in the butchers' fearful trials which beset the Chrisshops at Constantinople sprinkled  tian in the second and third cenwith  idolatrous lustrations, the  tury.
Christians there would eat nothing    Tertullian gives us some account




174                  THE LAITY, OR
And if from  these  social aspects of Christian life we
look more closely within the domestic walls at the influences there at work in the Apostles' days, we may see
enough to convince us that by no means the least of the
triumphs of the doctrine of Christ were to be found in
the Christian family.  Family religion among the Jews
indeed was not unknown; and  pleasing  features had
of these difficulties, in his treatise  stitions, were revived  in great
on Idolatry, which had mixed itself force. And this revival in the
up with and polluted the whole  masses-the rudest and most ignocourse and framework of civil and  rant parts of the population-by
social life.                     its violence and fury carried away
A Christian had to give up or with it the better educated, who
avoid all the many trades and arts had previously laughed at the
which were connected with idols popular creed. In the Augustan
and idol worship, the numerous age, it was the upper classes who
festivals of false deities, invitations were corrupt; but in the second
to idolatrous sacrifices, some civil century the whole lower populaand military offices, some common tion had become grossly demoralexpressions and forms of speech.   ized, as well as fanatical.
The relation in which he stood    Apuleius gives a dreadful acto the  emperor, who was the  count of the state of things at that
universal deity of the paganism of time. See also the graphic narrathe Roman empire, and whose tive of Pressens —Series ii. vol.
statue was everywhere worshipped, II. p. 1-25.
afforded another source of difficulty    What must have been the condiand danger.                      tion of Christian families living in
But greater, and more pressing, the midst of such abominations!
and more unavoidable than these, It is no marvel that they sometimes
were the trials and dangers which  made mistakes. The marvel is that
beset Christian life from the gross they held fast their Christian indemoralization and fanaticism  of tegrity, and were not swallowed up
the masses of the population.  The  in the deluge of debauchery and
pagan religion, which had sunk  superstition.  Nothing  but the
into contempt in the first century, force of their divine religion, and
and seemed to be dying out, burst the living power.of the Divine
out afresh with renewed vigour in  Spirit in their hearts, could have
the second and third. The old kept them from year to year in the
oracles, mysteries, and other super- midst of such an ordeal.




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   175
once been seen in the domestic life of Pagan Rome,
before the decay of the'Republic and the establishment
of the Empire brought in a flood of demoralizations in
their train. But at the commencement of the Christian
era, throughout the most important portions of the
Roman  dominions, there was in general very little
within the family circle, especially among the upper
classes, to relieve the debased condition of religion and
morals which was visible outside it. It was here that a
most happy change was at once begun, wherever the
preaching of the Apostles was received and bore its
fruit. And it is not unworthy of remark that the first
apostolic proclamation of the Gospel in Europe by the
visit of Paul and Silas to Philippi illustrates the planting
and early growth of family religion in the Church. It
was at Philippi that occurred the first recorded instances
of whole families being Christianized, when Lydia " and
her household," the Jailor "and all his," were baptized
into the Christian faith. The effects of such a faith, with
its earnest realization of divine truth, its unselfish spirit,
its equalizing privileges combined with orderly submission, made each Christian household a little centre of
light and purity in the midst of the corruption all
around. And many passages from the Epistles of St.
Paul and St. Peter show how highly they appreciated
these effects, when we find them  exhorting Christian
men, women, and children, by the very highest considerations, to the due performance of all their home
duties; and calling upon them as husbands and wives, as




176             THE LAITY, OR
parents and children, as masters and servants, "to adorn
the doctrine of God their Saviour " in all the occupations
of their ordinary life. "Henceforth," it has been well observed, " the worship of the household plays an important
part in the divine economy of the Church. As in
primaeval days the patriarch was the recognized priest
of his clan, so in the Christian Church the father of
the house is the divinely appointed centre of religious
life to his own family. The family religion is the true
starting point, the surest foundation, of the religion of
cities and dioceses, of nations and empires."  Lightfoot's'Philippians,' p. 56.
It so happens also that the work of Paul and Silas at
Philippi serves to indicate the two great social revolutions effected by the Gospel, to which the growth and
maintenance of family religion were principally due.
The case of the Slave-girl "possessed with the spirit of
divination," and the fact that the first congregation
addressed by Paul in that place consisted of women, and
that Lydia was the first convert, exemplify the Christian
influences which began at once to lead the way to the
abolition of slavery and the elevation of woman to her
proper place in the social system; and by means of these
changes to alter the whole character of domestic life.
The abolition of slavery was brought about by the indirect and gradual operation of Christian principles, and
not by any direct or violent denunciation of this nefarious
but inveterate evil. Apostolic Christianity did not order
the Christian master to emancipate his slaves, or bid the




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   177
Christian slave to rebel against his master. But besides
the general lessons of caring for others as well as for
ourselves, it taught both master and slave that in Christ
they stood upon equal ground: the master, that he had
a Lord over him in heaven with whom was no respect of
persons; the slave, that he was Christ's freeman, however he might be in bonds on earth. And this immediately effected a marked amelioration in the slave's
condition, relieving bondage from its most galling burdens, until its ultimate removal could be secured. The
story of Onesimus, with the touching Epistle of Paul to
Philemon, show how apostolic Christianity dealt with
such questions, and with what marvellous tact and
feeling an Apostle could respect the civil rights of a
master, while securing freedom and brotherhood for a
runaway slave.
The elevation of the female sex was a result which
followed with more rapidity, wherever the religion of
Jesus was received. The position of women among the
Jews being much more honourable than in most Gentile
nations, the Apostles had in this respect but little prejudice to overcome, when they began the formation of
Christian Churches. And the devotion and loving faithfulness of the women who ministered to Jesus during His
abode on earth,-the manner in which he received them
as His disciples and friends,-the remembrance that He
never uttered a reproach against the sex in general, or a
word of severity to any individual woman, while to some
He accorded the highest praise,-the knowledge that
12




178             THE LAITY, OR
among His disciples no woman ever betrayed Him,
denied Him, or forsook Him,-and that it was women
who were the last at the cross and the earliest at the
sepulchre,-must all have taught the Apostles, if they
needed any such teaching, what position women were
entitled to hold in the social economy of the Church.
Accordingly, in the very first meetings of the few
faithful disciples between the Ascension and the day of
Pentecost, the presence of " the women and Mary, the
mother of Jesus," is expressly mentioned; the spiritual
gifts in the primitive Church were bestowed upon women
as well as men; the relief of widows was a special object
of apostolic care; and wherever the name of Christ
was preached, women were invited and welcomed into
the Church,-were admitted equally with men to all
Christian privileges, and showed themselves equally
ready to receive religious truth,-equally faithful in
obeying it,-equally self-denying in all good works,equally courageous and patient in danger and tribulation. Hence in a Christian family the wife and mother
occupied at once her destined place.
Nothing can surpass in simplicity and force, and in a
just estimate of the relationship between the sexes,nothing can more happily describe the place to which
woman was restored in the apostolic Church,-than the
short admonition of St. Peter, every expression of which
is full of important meaning:-" Likewise, ye husbands,
dwell with them according to knowledge, giving honour
unto the wife as unto the weaker vessel, and as being




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   179
heirs together of the grace of life; that your prayers be
not hindered."  And the conjugal union-the source of
all other family relationships-being thus hallowed and
honoured, communicated  a  happy Christianizing  influence throughout the household.
And what views of Christian  womanhood  in  the
primitive time may be gained even from  the scanty
notices of female names contained in the New  Testament! How  much  may be  learnt by a thoughtful
realization of what is implied, if not expressed, in the
little narrative of Dorcas, "full of good works and almsdeeds which she did," and the incidental mention  of
" the house of Mary, the mother of John whose surname
was Mark;" — how much from the glimpses given us of
Christian women in Romans xvi., and of Euodia and
Syntyche in the Epistle to the Philippians;'-how  much
especially from  what is said of Priscilla, the wife of
Aquila, a woman apparently superior in mental power
and force of' character to her husband, himself a man
of note,' capable of instructing  and  convincing  "an
eloquent man and mighty in the Scriptures" like Apollos, being herself neither carried away by his eloquence,
1 In Philippians iv. 2, both the is always mentioned whenever
names are feminine, and the first Aquila's name occurs, her name
should be Euodia, not Euodias; being even put before his in Rom.
and these two are the women men- xvi. 3; and the circumstance that
tioned in the following verse, which she is described as taking a part in
ought to be translated, "help them, the interview with Apollos, and in
since they laboured with me," dvL- all the Christian works and danuoAt/uS'vov a'v'cra5, c'rzzvE5, &c. gers of her husband, seem to justify
2 The manner in which Priscilla this opinion of her character.




i80                THE LAITY, OR
nor afraid of his learning, nor scornful of his mistaken
views, and courageous together with her husband with
a  holy boldness even unto  the danger  of her life,
to secure the safety of St. Paul; yet never stepping
beyond her proper sphere, or giving occasion for any
just reproach!
Such was the honour given by the Apostles to married
life and family religion, and such its happy results.' And
such results have always more or less obviously ensued
whenever apostolic Christianity has been allowed to do
its work.  But what a strange and lamentable contrast
is presented by the Church of the Nicene period in the
principles and practices then advocated by the highest
authorities, with reference to married life and Christian
womanhood!  At that time the delusive teachings of
Gnosticism, though repelled by the Church as a formal
heresy, had deeply infected all classes of Christians with
some of the notions of its false philosophy. And one of
1 St. Paul in 1 Cor. vii. gives a from young widows being admitted
preference to a single life, espe- on the Church list, he directs that
cially in times of persecution and such candidates be in future redistress, provided that no violence fused, and that they should get
be done to personal feelings; but married again instead: "I will,
he commends no vows of celibacy, therefore, that the younger widows
nor attaches any special sanctity to  [roS v'ecorepa.,? not yvvacrY'L 5,
that state. And, knowing what but the widows before spoken of]
human nature is, he writes in this marry, bear children, guide the
very chapter as a general rule, house, give none occasion to the
"Nevertheless, to avoid fornica- adversary to speak reproachfully."
tion, let every man have his own 1 Tim. v. 14. But all this wise
wife, and every, woman have her advice was before long utterly disown husband." And when some regarded by the post-apostolic
scandals had arisen at Ephesus, church.




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   I8I
the consequences of this was the exaltation of Asceticism
in general, and of Virginity in particular, far, far above
any holiness or virtue to be found in the married state.
Without denying, as some Gnostic heretics did, that
matrimony was a good and lawful estate for Christian
men and women, celibacy was declared to be something
infinitely higher and more holy, conferring a supernatural
meritoriousness and perfection.
Young men were encouraged to devote themselves by
irrevocable vows to a life of unmarried continence, not
because of any "present distress," but because they
would thereby be raised above all measures of earthly
excellence, and would make themselves fit recipients of
the highest spirituality and the most glorious sanctification.  The  eloquence  of  the  greatest  bishops  and
preachers of the time was exerted to persuade young
women and girls to make vows of perpetual virginity,l
It is said of Ambrose, Bishop of Seigneur. Les meres defendaient
Milan, that he was pre-eminently  a leurs filles daller entendre les
zealous in extolling the glories of sermons d'Ambroise, tant elles
virginity; and that his burning elo- craignaient qu'il ne les entrainat
quence persuaded so many hun- par son eloquence a prlferer la virdreds of young girls to become ginitd aux engagements de marnuns, that mothers forbade their iage. "-' Dictionnaire Catholique.'
daughters to go and hear him, for   These remarks are fully borne
fear of their being induced to join  out by the extant writings of Amthe number.                     brose on this subject, abounding
" S. Ambroise recommandait as they do with the most extravaavec un zele tout particulier la gant encomiums on the life and
virginit.. Ses paroles ardentes condition of nuns, and the exalted
retentirent jusqu' en Afrique et merit and glory  of their deinspirerent a des centaines de voting themselves to this angelic
vierges la force de se consacrer au  state.




I82              THE LAITY, OR
by assuring them that a nun was in an ineffable manner
the Bride of Christ, and was a being of superhuman holiness, of celestial perfection,-a very angel upon earth, to
stand hereafter the very closest to the throne of God, and
even now to be gazed upon with awe and trembling
admiration by all beholders, as if one of the cherubim
had come down from  heaven!  The success of such
preaching was great; and was followed, as might be
expected, with very dreadful results. A miserable substitution of a materialistic, factitious, unnatural sanctity
for the pure and genuine holiness of apostolic Christianity generally prevailed: family religion was by comparison degraded in the common estimation of men;
married men and women were regarded as a very
inferior sort of Christians; and the Nemesis of the outraged laws of nature and of God came down, to its fearful dishonour, upon the Church.  Examples of this state
of things in the fourth century are given us by the best
contemporary authority, even by one who, like all the
rest, favoured and promoted the system, while declaiming against its natural effects. Under the very shadow
of the Cathedral of Constantinople, within the sound of
Chrysostom's fervid sermons, and subject to his episcopal
supervision, the shameful and shameless conduct of
monks and nuns, not then confined to cloisters and
convents, became a public scandal in the Church.l In1 This account of the institution self, contained in two addresses
of celibacy and its results is taken apparently delivered in his church,
from the words of Chrysostom him- and entitled, 7rp65 rozti'"XovraS




CHURCH BODY AT LARGE.   183
deed, some of the worst moral and religious enormities
of the monastic and conventual life, in the worst period
of the Church of Romre, were equalled, if.not surpassed,
at Constantinople in the Church of the fourth century.
If the Nicene Church is to be held up to English
Christians as their authority and guide, as many are now
endeavouring to bring to pass, it will be well for its real
teaching, with its necessary results, to be generally and
correctly brought to light.
rcapO8EvovS  6vverz6dxvrov6, and more than bear out all that has.Lepi rov  }it rTO  xcauxvovzxcdS been stated. For some further
dvozx-eizv oCrvpcdzyv. They are information on this subject, see
in the first volume of his works Appendix A.
in the Benedictine edition, and








LECTURE V.
PUBLIC WOR SHIP.








V.
PUBLIC WORSHIP.
AMONG the manifestations of the outward life of
the Christian  Church  a prominent position is
necessarily occupied by the places, forms, and times of
its public worship. Indeed, to the popular eye and mind,
these are wont to appear as the very essence of a religion,
-the religion itself. And, however superficial and defective such a view may be, it cannot be denied that the
public worship of a Church deserves much attention, both
as an effect and as a cause of its actual condition. The
nature of its ritual, and the manner in which its united
devotions are conducted, in any Christian community,
when free to act without restraint, necessarily result from
its hold and acceptance of religious truth or error, and
furnish a fair criterion of the state of Christian doctrine
prevalent in the body. But the administration of its
ceremonial also re-acts with much force upon the religious
opinions and creed of habitual worshippers, and becomes
(187)




i88              PUBLIC WORSHIP.
a cause, or at any rate a very efficient means, of producing and preserving among them the dogmatic theology
which  it most prominently exhibits.  An unsound  or
questionable liturgy, and superstitious or unhealthy
devotional practices, both  imply  and promote corresponding disorders  in  a  Church's inner life; while
liturgical purity, if it does not always preserve it from
all departures from the faith, supplies a ready and wholesome instrument for its revival and recovery.l
A consideration therefore of the public worship of the
apostolic Church will not be without its interest, even
though we can gather from  the New Testament no full
account of its devotions; but only scattered notices, not
sufficient to satisfy our curiosity, yet enough for our
profitable instruction.
The absence, indeed, of numerous details of the public
services in the apostolic Churches,-the omission of all
record, even of regulations which the Apostles must have
made for the guidance of Christian  congregations in
their religious exercises,-is not without its grave significance and beneficial results. It shows us, at any rate,
It is a perfectly legitimate pro- from ancient liturgies called by
cess of reasoning to infer from the apostolic names, that certain doccontents of ancient liturgies now  trines contained in them  were
extant, that the doctrines involved  taught by the primitive Church;
in them were held and taught by and if all the conditions of the
the Churches where, and at the argument were fulfilled, the contimes when, these liturgies, as clusion would have been most
they stand, were used. Thus, the fairly established. But in this he
learned Dr. Neale, in his' Tetralo- entirely fails. See further on this
gia Liturgica,' undertakes to prove point, Note (2), p. 227.




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                            189
that Churches  are unfettered by any divine laws, but
such as are of broad general principles, in their ritual
observances and forms of worship. It has preserved us
from  possibly being entangled in a superstitious veneration for apostolic practices unsuitable to our times and
people.  it leaves us free to institute  and cherish  the
reasonable service of spiritual devotion with such a ceremonial as may best exhibit and retain the simplicity of
Christian truth, in accordance with the wants and feelings of our own place and generation.'
1 "Why should not the Apostles scrupulously retained, even when
or their followers have committed  changes of manners, tastes, and
to paper, what we are sure must local and temporary circumstances
have been perpetually in  their of every kind, rendered them no
mouths, regular instructions to  longer the most suitable.  The
catechumens, articles  of faith, Jewish ritual, designed for one
prayers, and directions as to public  nation and country, and intended to
worship and administration of the  be of temporary duration, was fixed
Sacraments?....Paul says to the  and accurately prescribed; the
Corinthians,'The rest will I set in  same divine wisdom  from  which
order when I come;' and so doubt- both dispensations proceeded, havless he did......Is it not strange mg designed Christianity for all
then that these verbal directions nations and ages, left Christians at
should nowhere have been corn- large, in respect of those points in
mitted to writing?                which variation might be desirable.
"If the hymns and forms of But I think no human wisdom
prayer, the catechisms, the confes- would have foreseen and provided
sions of faith, and the ecclesiastical for this. That a number of Jews,
regulations, which the Apostles em- accustomed from their infancy to
ployed, had been recorded, these  so strict a ritual, should, on introwould all have been regarded as ducing Christianity as the second
parts of Scripture; and even if they  part of the same dispensation, have
had been accompanied by the most abstained, not only from  accuexpress declarations of the lawful- rately prescribing for the use of
ness of altering or laying aside any  all Christian Churches for ever the
of them, we cannot doubt that they  mode of divine worship, but even
would have been in practice most from recording what was actually




9go             PUBLIC WORSHIP.
But while thus benefited by what has been omitted,
we may notice with advantage what has been " written
for our learning " on this subject, which will include a
consideration of the places of worship,-the public worship itself,-and the religious times and seasons of the
apostolic age.
I. Places of Worship.
Since the practice of Christians meeting together
for united prayer and praise, as believers in Jesus
Christ, began with the very beginning of the Christian
Church, it is evident that several places of worship
must have been required immediately after the day
of Pentecost, when the three thousand converts joined
themselves to  the Apostles.  And since there could
not, for some  considerable  time  at least, be  any
buildings expressly erected for this purpose, they must
have used the most suitable rooms that they could procure.  Possibly before long, at any rate at Jerusalem,
some of the Jewish synagogues, whose congregations
had become Christians, were used with some slight
alterations for Christian services,-the place, as well as
the government and orderly arrangements of the synagogue being adopted by the Church.  (See Lect. III.
p. 100.) But such cases would not be numerous, and the
in use under their own directions, Spirit."-Archbishop  Whately's
does seem to me utterly incredible,' Kingdom of Christ Delineated,'
unless we suppose them to have p. 290-292, and taken from his
been restrained from doing this by' Essays on the Omissions of Holy
special admonition of the Divine Writ.'




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                           19I
Christians must in general have had places of assembly
for themselves. Such places are indeed expressly named
as early as in the second chapter of the Acts of the
Apostles, and in connection with the very first formation
of the apostolic Church.  They are afterwards repeatedly
mentioned in the New  Testament, being always called
by the same name (oz0Io), which became the ordinary
term for a Christian place of worship; and in the Eastern
Church continued long after the Apostles' time to be
often  used  in  the  same  sense, even when  the place
was a building expressly erected for the religious services of a Christian congregation.'
I Oixia and Ozwo5.             xii. 39, "would not have suffered
The two words oixia and ozxo5 his house (rov ozxov CrTrovi) to be
very frequently occur in the New  broken through;" where Matth.
Testament, and are in our version  xxiv. 43, has ozxicv,; and even here
almost always translated  indis- the idea, intended by St Luke to
criminately "a house."  But their be conveyed by the word owo5, is
meanings in the original are very  probably not that of a mere house,
distinct, and ought not to be con- but the house with all its confounded.                         tents,-"his house and goods;"
Ouiicr is the material house-the just as it is used in Homer, e. g.,
actual building. It occurs 94 times   Ov yciRp'r' cdvdxerd v'opy
in the New Testament; and only in    rereVXctOIara  ovJ''rtz XtXcZ5
four of these is it used to signify a    OL'os edo 5zlXtcoe. —'Odyss.'
family, according to the common  ii. 64, and elsewhere.
metaphor, by which the name of a   The general use of ozio5 in the
place is transferred to the persons New Testament exhibits two prinwho are in it. These four passages cipal significations, under each of
are in Matth. x. 13, xii. 25 (where  which some varying shades of
Luke xi. 17 has ozuo5), Mark iii. meaning are foudd25, and 1 Cor. xvi. 1.             1. The most frequent meaning of
Ozixo5 occurs 110 times in the  oz'o5 is "a family," or household,
New Testament, and only in one of with a more or less distinct referthese is it used to signify a material ence to the house as containing it;
house like oixia; namely, in Luke  thus, in Matth. ix. 6, the first place




192                 PUBLIC WORSHIP.
The meaning of this word is unfortunately lost to the
English  reader of the New  Testament, from  its being
in which the word occurs, Vroaye used for "house" in a religious
ez~  rOv  oz6i'  dov  "go unto  sense as applied to the Jewish
thine house," means, go to thy  Temple; as "My house shall be
family and friends at home; which  called  the house of prayer," o
explanation is actually added in  oz6xc5 t ov ozio 7podevx~S i xArMarkv. 19, v'rays eid rov ozuov  Ordseraz, Matth. xxi. 13.  "My
6ov, irpdo rov  doviS. Hence the  Father's house," rTd  ozuov rov
word is sometimes very properly  tarrp6oJ ov, John ii. 16;while "in
translated " home," as in this place  my Father's house," John xiv. 2, in
of St. Mark, "go home to thy  a different sense, is Ev rT  oiuia
friends," as also in 1 Cor. xi. 34, xiv.  rovz izrpo65 i ov. The same word
35, and elsewhere.                 ozcoS is also used in the Septuagint
From  this meaning it followed  of the Temple, or any place in which
that ozYuo5 was the word to signify  the divine presence was especially
"house," in the sense of a family  acknowledged; as, in Gen. xxviii.
of descendants, or a separate race; 17, "the house of God," oZxo5
as, "the lost sheep of the house of OeOIY. And so also oUo5S is emIsrael, oziov'Idppou,." Matth. x. ployed in speaking of the Christian
6. "Of the house of David, fC  Church under the similitude of a
oI"ov  l//fi6."  Luke i. 27.     sacred building, or spiritual temple,
2. The second meaning of oz7'oi as in 1 Tim. iii. 15, 1 Pet. ii 5.
nearly resembles that of the Latin    Now  this word  ocxo5 (never
word cedes in the singular number, otxiad) is the one always used in the
and signifies an apartment, hall, or New Testament as the common
building  appropriated  to  some  name of the places where Christians
special purpose, particularly  a  met for religious purposes.  The
sacred purpose. Thus, in Luke  "'upper room" where the Apostles
xiv. 23, "that my house may be  and their earliest adherents after the
filled," where oz'os is the hall or Ascension "continued with one acroom in which the guests were as- cord in prayer and supplication," is
sembled; in Matth. xi. 8, "in  probablymeantby "thehouse r(ov
kings' houses" —Ev  rozI  oitozS  o~ioov) wheretheyweresitting," in
rc5v fiJzaxGcov, in the'halls or Acts ii. 2; and the word is afterpalaces of kings. So in Acts x. wards  indisputably  applied  to
30, Cornelius says, "I was praying  places of Christian worship in nine
in my house," meaning by ev TrO  other passages. Acts ii. 46; v. 42;
oi'GQ lov, the apartment to which  viii. 3; xx. 20; Rom. xvi. 5; 1 Cor.
doubtless he retired to pray.     xvi. 19; Col. iv. 15; Tit. i. 11;
Hence ozxo5 is the word always Philem. 2.




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                           I9j
translated, " a house;" whereby not only is the force of
the original passage impaired, but in some cases a quite
erroneous notion is necessarily suggested. As there is
no one suitable English word exactly corresponding with
it, it may in this connection be rendered "a worshiproom;" and the substitution  of this term  for the word
"house," in  several passages in which it occurs, will
greatly elucidate their meaning, while it will at the same
time more clearly exhibit this early Christian usage. Thus
in Acts ii. 46, the sacred historian  informs us that the
Apostles were in the habit of "breaking bread,"-not
"from  house to house "-as if they celebrated the Lord's
Supper in private families one after another-but "at
different worship-rooms," where religious assemblies were
held by Christian congregations.' In Acts v. 42, it is
related that " daily in the Temple," and-not " in every
Long after the apostolic age, the  d6v.-Sozomen,'Hist. Eccl.' ii. 5.
same word olxo5, either alone or   I The words ar' ozxov in Acts
with some explanatory addition, ii. 46, could not mean "from house
continued to be used as one of the to house," whatever were the meanappellations of Christian churches, ing of ozuo5; the words must signii.e., places of worship; thus, in  fy "at different ozioz," and the use
directions for building a church, o  of the singular number, and withozoio5 eBrC edtZtzUiVS   Xzi  aZr' out the article shows that, when
ovr(XTOtdi rerpxu#'voS. —'Con- St. Luke wrote his narrative, the
stitut. Apostol.' ii. 4.         custom of meeting in these worshipOovs  exxyVadz     olixoo- rooms for united devotions had beutev2.-Euseb. ix. 9.             come  perfectly  common  and
llpd OvpGV rtcO  o'ic av rG'v familiar; otherwise he would have
evxjrrpiGav. — Chrysost.'iHom.' written xaroa r ot3 oziov5. Just
24, de Verb. Apost.              as we should say, "All the people
Tov oz'oov TrS5 7rpodevXr5.-  in the city were at church," meanBasil,'Epist.' 63, ad Neo. Casar.  ing in the different churches of the
EvHtzvpiov5 ozMov5 xco8o6uV- place; whereas a stranger, unused
l^




194              PUBLIC WORSHIP.
house," as if the Apostles paid pastoral visits to every
Christian family, but " in different worship-rooms, they
ceased not to teach, and to preach Jesus as the Christ."'
When Saul " made havock of the Church," we are told
in Acts viii. 3, that he entered,-not "into every house,"
which would not have answered his purpose,-but "into
the different worship-rooms" at Jerusalem, where he
might find Christians actually assembled and engaged in
their religious services, and so might obtain positive proof
against them.  When St. Paul, in Rom. xvi., sends his
salutation to Aquila and Priscilla, and " to the Church
in their house," he does not mean, as the English reader
is apt to imagine, the Christian members of their family,
but the congregation of Roman Christians, who met' in
the worship-room, which they had provided.  And the
Judaizing teachers, whom  Titus is warned against, are
described in Tit. i. 11, as subverting by their erroneous
doctrines,-not " whole houses" or families, though that
would be bad enough,-but "whole worship-rooms"
or congregations, whom  they led astray.   The false
Christians, on the other hand, who did beguile  the
members of families, were said to " creep into houses "eZS tax oziica, not oinov3 —2 Tim. iii. 6.
to this custom, would say "they worship-rooms; as the modern
were in the churches."         missionary appeals to; men in the
I The practice of the Apostles bazaar or other public place of
alluded to in Acts v. 42, corre- resort; and as soon as he is able,
sponds exactly with that of zealous assembles the native Christians in
missionaries now. They addressed a room or church, for religious
the general population in the worship and instruction.
Temple, and their converts in the




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                         195
These places of religious assembly were probably at
first those large upper rooms which are several times
alluded to in the New  Testament.  And such  a room
is on  one occasion  expressly mentioned  as used for
Christian worship at Troas (Acts xx. 8), when St. Paul
addressed the disciples there on his last journey to
Jerusalem; besides the upper room noticed in the first
chapter of the Acts. Probably also " the house of Mary,
the mother of John, whose surname was Mark," mentioned in Acts xii. 12, "where many  were gathered
together praying," contained one of these worship-rooms
well known to Peter, who went there immediately on his
deliverance from the prison.
This apostolic practice of assembling in the rooms of
private houses continued to nearly the end of the second
century, as we may infer from  Justin Martyr's description of Christian congregational worship in his time,
and from  the express declaration contained in the account of his martyrdom.'
1 In Justin Martyr's account the aypov'5/ uervovTGcV stz TO OaVTO
place where Christians met has 6vvdlEvd6z5 yiy/eraz. —'Apol.' i.
no name given to it; he merely 85, 87.
describes it as "where the breth-   And in the account of his examren were gathered together to en- ination by the Prefect Rusticus, at
gage in common prayers." Thus Rome, before his martyrdom, it is
of a newly baptized convert, he mentioned, that in reply to the
says, Eztz  rov's  eLyoEivov5 question as to where he assembled
xSeXlpovf Xyouiv, a'vO(x dvvy- his disciples, he said thathe neither
yJd/voz  e6di  uozrvoS  evXod?  had nor knew of any other place of
7ozld6,tuevoz. And of the asser- assembling, except the upper room
bling for Sunday worship he merely  of the house where he lodged.,too
writes, r? rTo   a2iov XEyo/vY  d6vVipXy608; 7 Ef5 urtoiov rdtroY
r7u/xCpOLC xCvrGoC     Hd rc ltOsLZ5  o2 pois-ez  rovts  uCraOQrag dov;




I96                PUBLIC WORSHIP.
At the end of this century or the beginning of the
third appear the first indication of buildings specially
appropriated to divine service; but these seem to have
been  of  a  simple  and  unpretending  nature.'  While
Answer.'Eyca   etOcvGo,ueVco  large number of examples, to have
rzvod Mcpzrivov rov Tz/orzivov  a certain definite meaning or mean/faa(xviov,.. X. c ov yzyrv6xco  ings, we are not at liberty to assign
arXy Vl rTiv'  6vXEv6z.vi ef )u?  to it (in the same authors) a differrov   ezeivov. -'Acta  Martyrii ent signification in some isolated
Justini,' June 1.                 passage, where, although the sense
1 The names given to Christian  may admit of this translation, the
places of worship. When places  ordinary rendering is perfectly inhad been built expressly for Chris- telligible.
tian worshippers, they naturally    Now the word exr6fdioa occurs
acquired new names besides the  in the New Testament 115 times,
original appellation of the simple  and in all its acknowledged shades
ozoi5. The word Church (exxX7- of meaning it signifies an assembly
6i(x) is not used in the New Testa- or body of persons, and not a place;
ment to signify a place of assembly.  therefore it is contrary to sound
The passages sometimes alleged to  scholarship to assign to it a differprove this meaning, such as 1 Cor. ent meaning in the two solitary
xi. 18, 22; "When ye come to- verses of 1 Cor. xi. when the
gether in the Church," and "de- established sense of a Christian
spise ye the Church of God?" do  congregation equally harmonizes
not supply the requisite proof, with the context.
notwithstanding their acceptance    It is, of course, a very usual thing
in this sense by such learned men  for the name of an assembly of
as Joseph Mede in his'Discourse persons to be applied to the place
on Churches.' The fact that this where they assemble, or vice versa;
meaning makes sense in these pas- but it so happens that there is no
sages, and accords with modern  well authenticated instance of the
phraseology, is no proof that the  word "Church" being used for a
word is so used. It is nothing  place of worship, before the third
better than a puerile delusion to  century, a passage from Clement of
suppose that the translation of a  Alexandria (A. D. 204) being the
word must be correct, because it earliest authority for this use.  O(
makes sense, and accords with our  vvv  rv6   rorov',)  dXXad   Z
own usage. It is a much sounder dOpozduc  Z rcav exXercov5, Exprinciple to affirm  that, when a  xtV6dioav xa cG.-' Strom.' Lib.vii.
word has been clearly seen, in a    Other ordinary names were ix



PUBLIC WORSHIP.                      I97
Christianity was in general an object of suspicion, and
Christians were liable to be persecuted, either by popular
violence or magisterial authority, it was obviously a
matter of prudence, not to say necessity, on their part,
not to make their places of assembly or any of their
proceedings too conspicuous to the public eye. And in
times of special persecution even rooms in private houses
were too dangerous to be frequented.  And then any
retreat where two or three could assemble in the name
of Christ became a Christian sanctuary.
But in the latter portion of the third century, and
especially in the comparatively quiet times between the
death of Cyprian and the persecution of Diocletian,
more ample and spacious churches were erected. And in
the reigns of Christian emperors sometimes the splendid
public halls, called Basilicce, were granted to the Church
for Christian worship; sometimes magnificent churches
were built and adorned by imperial munificence.
In the apostolic age, and  during  the  time when
Christian worshippers met in private rooms, or in edifices
of a simple style, there was no distinction made between
different portions of the building: men and women were
not separated in the congregation;' neither was any
zX76dzap6rfpzov, xvpzcuoiv, from    I The custom of having separate
whence our words "kirk" and places in a church for men and for
"church," 7tpo6evitZrpizo, vao65; women, and making them sit apart,
and in the Western Church, domus prevailed in the fourth century;
ecclesice, dominicum  (which also but this was not so in the beginsignified the Lord's Day, and the ning, as may probably be inferred
Lord's Supper), templum, and ti- from the short notice in Acts i. 14,
fulus:                       and from  the practices in the




198             PUBLIC WORSHIP.
form of consecration then used, or any particular sanctity
or reverence attached to the place. The sanctity was in
the worshippers, who met together in the Saviour's
name; and the reverence was given to His spiritual
presence, which had been promised to those who should
be thus assembled.  At a later period, coincident with
the time when magnificent structures had superseded
the simple worship-rooms, Christian churches were divided into the two-and later still into three-parts,
which the ecclesiastical system in its progressive development required for duly carrying out its principles.
For when, during the third century, the tide of sacerdotalism had set in, and Christian presbyters were looked
upon as priests, who had a sacrifice to offer upon an altar;
this imitation of the Jewish Temple in its officers and
services was naturally followed by a further imitation of
its material structure in the arrangements of Christian
churches.  Two parts separated from  each other were
now considered necessary for the ecclesiastical economy;
-the sanctuary in which the " altar" stood, and which,
being regarded as more holy than the rest of the building,
was appropriated to the clergy alone, while the body of
the church, marked off from  it, was occupied by the
general congregation.
Corinthian Church alluded to in 1    [raXaz6Y   ov6jd  ravrza  V rad
Cor. xi. Chrysostom, who says that reiezax....i oszi Zt rv dxorod6the custom had been introduced Ac2ov d 6  obo  nai Lvdpes5 Xcti
on account of the bad behaviour yvvoaxes IdYrv... ovK 1Mtovof men and women when they sat 6ar8e o[rz  d6arv  6vvyj/e vot
together, adds, cads yoy, s acxov o  vSpfe.5 noai yvvrc.iF5  v TOY
rc   tpe65fivredpcoV,  "trz ro VInepco. —'Hom. 74, in Matth.'




PUBLIC  WORSHIP.                  199
The architectural arrangement of a Basilica when
converted into a church, required little or no change to
accommodate it to this twofold division. For the apse
at the end of the hall, which in its civic use had been the
"tribunal" for administering justice, was made the
sanctuary for the " altar," and the hall itself supplied an
ample space for the lay portion of the congregation to
assemble.
In the mean while another want was beginning to be
felt; and it was subsequently thouglt right that the
catechumens should have a separate part of the church
area assigned to them, divided off from the baptized
worshippers. From the end of the second century the
catechumens had been a distinct and numerous class,
kept a long time under instruction and preparatory
discipline before they were baptized, and although they
were allowed to be in church during the reading of the
Scriptures and the sermon, they were dismissed before
the prayers began. In all probability therefore, they sat
by themselves; but there does not appear to have been
a place actually separated for them from the congregation of the " Faithful," until the fifth or sixth century.
When this was done churches were built with a triple
division, and Basilicas sometimes then had a portion for
the catechumens marked off at the lower part of the
hall.1
The Form and Divisions of pressly for Christian worship in the
Churches.                 third century and onwards, they
When churches were built ex- were usually of an oblong shape




200                PUBLIC WORSHIP.
With these changes in the places of worship, and in
the nature of the ministrations performed in them, the
custom of consecrating churches after the manner of
and turned towards the east, ac- the splendid public buildings (basicording to the direction, o ozxo5 licce), which were transferred to
Elrz/tU /'roo  zxr' ovarYxZo-  ecclesiastical purposes, was usually
XdIc   rerptat#rivo. —'Constitut.  divided into three portions with
Apost.' ii. 4.                     either a single, or with three, and
Other forms, however, were  sometimes even five naves. And
sometimes  observed.  Thus, of this architectural arrangement of
three noted  churches built by  the basilicse determined beforehand
Constantine, one at Golgotha was the character of the  Christian
round, another at Antioch octagon, churches." But this assertion must
and the third at Constantinople in  not be taken without some qualifithe form  of a cross.  [See Bing-  cation.  The  plan  of building
ham, or Guericke,'Manual of churches with a curved apse at the
Church Antiquities.']              east end, and with a central division
Christians in Tertullian's time  and two, or occasionally four, side
had adopted the custom  of wor- aisles, separated from it by columns,
shipping with their faces towards  was no doubt borrowed from the
the east,-the east (ovaroo2X) be- basilicce; but the triple division for
ing taken to be an emblem of Christ the "altar," the faithful, and the
[Luke i. 78], and  consequently  catechumens, was not suggested by
churches were usually so placed; these civic halls, but by ideas and
the Communion Table-then called  consequent arrangements which
the "altar "-being at the eastern  arose within the church itself. The
end. But this rule was not always basilica, too, was distinctly divided
observed. The church at Antioch  not into three, but two parts-the
mentioned by Socrates (' H. E.' v. tribunal, and the body of the hall;
22), had the "altar" at the west as described by Vitruvius, to whom
end.'Ev'AVT'zoXefX Tzr  2vpia5  Guericke himself refers, and as apr E XtA1diaO  ivridVRpoyov  Xesz pears still in some very ancient
rfrv  0eadzv,  ov  yop  zSpot Italian  churches, particularly at
odyarotoAt   Tr   Ov&izaCEdrpzo   Ravenna, retaining the form of the
cXalo  zrtp65 Vzdtv 6pc.           Roman basilica, and dating possibly
With respect to the divisions of from  the fourth or fifth century.
churches into different parts, Guer- The following is Vitruvius's deicke in his' Manual of Church An- scription "of the basilica built in
tiquities,' observes that, "The  the Julian colony of Fano:"whole of the rectangular space of    "The middle vault between the




P UBLIC WORSHIP.                            201
the Jewish Temple  easily followed, the buildings themselves were then deemed holy, and the sanctuary or
c(lumns, is 120 feet long and 60  tion."
feet wide.  The portico around it   Thus both the Jewish notion of a
is 20 feet wide. The tribunal is in  temple which none but priests
the shape of a segment of a circle, might enter, and the heathen nothe front dimension of which is 46  tion of sacred mysteries hidden
feet, that of its depth 15 feet; and  from  the uninitiated, were enis so contrived that the nw-'-alnts  couraged in the Church.  None of
who are in the bas"-  may not in- these things have the least counterfere with'^e, who have busi- tenance in the Church system of
ness  before the magistrates."-   the New Testament.
Vitruvius, v. 1. translated by J.    Morinus having declared that the
Gwilt, p. 127.                    ancient churches had no v4rpO~,
The three divisions when adopted  or special place for catechumens
in Churches were called-1. The  and  unbelievers, for above 500
vCpOyr, or ante-temple, where  years,Bingham affirms that "in this
penitents and catechumens stood, he is evidently mistaken; for though
and to which heathens were ad- the name, perhaps, is not very
mitted.                            ancient, yet the thing itself is; for
2. The vo35, or temple,where the  this was always a distinct and sepa"faithful," or communicants,were  rate part of the church, as any one
placed, and which was also called  will easily imagine that considers
aula laicorum.   The word vaco'  the ancient use of it. For the
was afterwards Latinized into navis, Church, ever since she first divided
whence the English word "nave."  her catechumens and penitents in3. The  /huxo, or  sanctuary, to distinct orders and classes, had
where the "altar" was placed. It also distinct places in the church
was also called ayov, iepareszov, for them."-viii. 4, 2. But BingOv6zao6rpzov; orinLatin,sanctua- ham gives no proof at all of this
rium, sacrarium, sancta sanctorum, confident assertion of his. For his
the Holy of Holies. It was sepa- references to the'Constitutiones
rated by rails or lattice-work-  Apostolicae,' to Basil, and others,
cancelli; whence the modern name  only prove that catechumens were
"chancel."  The entrance to this required to withdraw  from  the
was closed by gates or curtains, church after the reading of the
"partly to hide the prospect of Scripture lessons and the sermon;
this part of the church from the  from which it by no means necescatechumens and unbelievers, and  sarily follows that churches must
partly to cover the sacrifice of the  have been always built with a disEucharist in the time of consecra- tinct and separate part for their use.




202                PUBLIC WORSHIP.
chancel the most holy part of all; and men were taught
to believe that their prayers were more efficacious in a
consecrated building, and  that the divine presence in
an especial manner dwelt within its walls.'
There is not the slightest trace of any of these things
The consecration of churches  Supper, although the latter, as a
with formal solemnities, which were  pagan custom, had been forbidden
supposed to impart a sacredness to  by the Council of Elvira at the bethe place and building, does not ginning of this century. Both,
appear until the fourth century. however, are sanctioned by the
Before that time it was thought'Canones Apostolici,' which direct
sufficient to "dedicate" a church  /u r  ov'6d  rG 7rtpodcyed6(xi Ir
by the first act of using it for public  erepov ef5 To ov6zad6rptov,.
prayer, as had been the case also'Aiczoiv ef5 Trvy   vXv'icv, xnai
with the Jewish synagogues. And  Ovjtiatto  rc t  xcuptipp rTi?   yi5c
thus the word dedico is used by  ipo6dpopc5.-Canon 3.
Cyprian in the sense of doing a    Crosses, sometimes of silver, were
sacred thing for the first time, when  set up on the " altar," and flowers
he says of Aurelius whom he had  were placed on it; while, as Jerome
ordained as a reader, "Dominico  approvingly observes in his panelegit interim nobis, id est auspicatus gyric on Nepotian, flowers, leaves,
est precem, dum dedicat lectionem."  and  vine-branches  ornamented
-Ep. 33 ad Clerum  et Plebem. other parts of the church.  "BasiSee the remarks of Selden and  licas ecclesiae et martyrdum conciliDodwell on this subject, quoted by  abula diversis floribus, et arborum
Vitringa.-' De Synag.' i. 3, 2.    comis, vitiumque pampinis adumBut from the time of Constantine  bravit."
much more elaborate ceremonies    Pictures were first introduced inwere introduced. The sacerdotal to churches at the end of the fourth
notions, taken from  the.Jewish  century by Paulinus at Nola, in
temple, were enhanced by an acces- order to keep the people from dission of mystery and awfulness; turbances and excess at the Church
and, in particular, the place where  festivals! Images and statues came
the " altar" stood was regarded as in later; but a superstitious rever"most holy," and hidden from the  ence for the supposed relics of
vulgar sight.                      saints and martyrs, and the ascripThen too incense, and lighted  tion of miraculous-powers to them,
lamps in the day time, were used  were encouraged by Paulinus himin the celebration of the Lord's self.




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                         203
in the New Testament, or for a hundred years after the
Apostles' time; and even in the fourth and following
centuries thoughtful men could  see that churches of
architectural beauty, glittering with ornamentation, and
invested with an artificial sacredness, lacked the true
honour and simple dignity of the apostolic age, when
the grace and spirituality of the congregation, and not
the splendour of the building or the gorgeousness of
priestly vestments, adorned the devotions of the Church.
For us, who can now look back upon the history of the
past, to choose for our imitation the florid display of
the later time rather than the simplicity of the first, is
surely a grave mistake, and one which ought not to be
found in a Church in which the New Testament has been
for more than 300 years in the hands of the people, and
its supreme authority openly avowed.l
1 Isidore of Pelusium, at the end Xcrpid6ic'adt 7rtvevjxTrzuo2'5, 4i/JpvE
of the fourth century, contrasting  8s rtoXtreif Xajltzrpc' ExuX7lzoathe times of the Apostles with his 6drtjpto ov3x rV. 7tzi 61 /^cGv aTr 
own, remarks, that then the congre- EuXrjixdza6rrOpza TtAsov   roil
gation was adorned with spiritual deovro5 eoJ6jd/triat, v d 8E -
gifts, and distinguished by an ad- uXird6ia —cdR' ovXSv f/oz;thoaz
mirable social order, while the place  Svd6epS5 esi'E-vto oGeS,[raz.
in which they worshipped was'Eyci yovvc, si'ye capeEdi5 uoz
unadorned; but in his own time ipoVxezro, rFiAouc7'1v a v  v roZ
the churches were decorated with  xaipozS Exeivozt e yeyeYvz)6Ocz,
an excess of ornamentation, and  ev  oz'  txuh27dz 6TpdrOza AC/I
glittering with splendour, while  orTGcio- xexto6(5At/va  ov3 v, kthe  congregation, destitute  of xAydixa  e Oeioz5 axi ovppavioz5
spiritual graces, was, to say the  Xapid6ucaudv  6retiauv7, v iv
least, an object of reproach and  rovtrot, Ev oz5 rdS  i tiEv EMlx76zaridicule.'Erizi'v rcGv5'A7roO'6-  drtpzaC 7rv/roioz5 xel3aUcj07tlzdAXwy O'T rg' xXrdia  x.~Uod(ao v  rat Ocapflapot5) v 8s exxnX6ia




204             PUBLIC WORSHIP.
II. Public Worship.
From the places in which the early Christians met for
their united devotions we are led next to enquire into
the form and method of the devotions themselves; and
this enquiry is at once assisted by a scriptural account
of the very earliest arrangement of Christian worship,
commencing with the formation of the first Christian
community.  In Acts ii. 42, we are presented with an
enumeration of the different parts which made up the
religious services, instituted by the Apostles for the instruction and edification of the infant Church.
As the words indeed stand in our English Version, the
information which they give is not very precise or
clear, when we read of the new converts in this verse,
that " they continued steadfastly in the Apostles' doctrine
and fellowship, and in breaking of bread, and in prayers."
But in the original it is evident that four distinct particulars are enumerated in such a- manner as to show
that, at the time when the account was written, they
were well-known and customary portions of an  established mode of procedure in the religious assemblies of
the Church.  To give the real meaning of the verse it
may be translated, " They were constantly attending the
Apostles' teaching, and the collection, or contribution
zr~3v v8evCtarzxGV Xaopz6LCtGrco' epigrammatic form, r6re a' o'uicat'eXiv6V ep7j t,(nlZxiyvavr}' x;aoQe- E~7XArdiCaz 7rdr)v, vyvv   7} vExdriuevY.-Lib. ii. Ep. 246.   i,176ia oziia yeyovev.-'Hom.
Chrysostom also very briefly ex- 32 in Matth.'
presses the same thoughts in an




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                              205
(for the poor), and the breaking of the bread, and the
prayers (of the congregation)." 
1 It is necessary in this verse to  bution  to  the  disciples.  Thus
mark the presence of the Article,  every meal was consecrated to the
repeated  with  each  word, rz   Lord, and at the same time was a
6z6aoX  rvcv'AtrodrTo'rcoi, xoi meal of brotherly love.  Hence,
rp  ozv'covi,, acri rp xuAcdez rov  the designations afterwards chosen
caprov., xoi rozx  izpodevXaoz, were  deitvov   Kvpiov,   and
which shows that every particular  cyaot.7z"-B. i. 2.
enumerated is a distinct and sepa-   Neander adds in a note, "IMorate thing, and, consequently, that sheim thinks, since everything else
r7 dzeaX# rvTV'A7to6rdtXOV') Uai is mentioned that is found in later
rz  uozv6covix cannot be  "the  meetings of the Church, that the
Apostles' doctrine and fellowship;"  uoz'cVGviao refers to the collections
and which shows besides that all made on these occasions."  And,.
these particulars were known and  besides Mosheim's reason, it may
familiar objects, admitting of this  be noticed that iozYvcovioc is not
precise and definite allusion.     elsewhere met with in the New
The only possible doubt as to the  Testament in the connection which
meaning of the verse is connected  Neander gives, nor in the sense of
with the word xozvcovicr, which  participation, without the object
instead of "a contribution" might participated in being expressed;
signify "a common participation"  whereas it is several times used to
-that is, in this place, a partaking  signify a collection, or contribution.
together of the'Ayo/t7z, or Love    Kozvoovica occurs nineteen times
Feast, which accompanied the cele- in the New Testament in the followbration of the Lord's Supper in the  ing senses:
earliest times.  This is the opinion    I. Fellowship, or cozmmunion.
of Neander, in his' History of the    1. With a person, so as to share
Planting and Training of the Chris- with him  in his advantages, or
tian Church,' where he says that work, &c. If the person is exxozvooevir here "means the daily  pressed,,uerd, with a Gen., is put
meal of which believers partook as before it.
members of one family," and "in   Azidzo i5'cooKa     eaoi zcai
which they commemorated the last /3apvco/3t  ozvcoviaS, Gal. iii. 9,
supper of the disciples with Christ,  " they gave to me and Barnabas the
and their brotherly union with one  right hands of fellowship," i. e. acanother.  At the close of the meal knowledged us as having a share
the president distributed bread and  with them in their work.
wine to the persons present, as a   "Iva  Moai   arv2ei5  iozvodvicv
memorial of Christ's similar distri-  gXyre vse'  ij/cY'nai j iozvo0Vic




206                PUBLIC WORSHIP.
"The Apostles' teaching" was the address or sermon
delivered by them,-and afterwards by other ministers,
6d  7erfrpct usrdt roio HTrpto,   THLav irpo6xaprepouvrMe   r#
xari uerLd  TOV  vlov   aVro)W'zcaX# rca~ drVtod6roAxv, Xai r
1 John i. 3, a share with  the  xozcVovic, Acts ii. 42, as given
Father and the Son in their bless- above.
ings, &c.                           Kozvonvirzv rzvad TozrdcOoQat
So with  Edv  eI'CteUeV  OrzT eZS roV?5 7trrcXovS, Rom. xv. 26,
xozvcoviav'h o,uev per aVroz-, to make a certain collection for tho
1 John, i. 6; and xotvcviaxv  poor.
exoUev uer' dIXA.(xov, 1Johni. 7.    Tifv xozvcoviav ri5 &zaxoviax
2. Fellowship, or communion, in  ri5 E1S roVz  a7yiovS, 2 Cor. viii.
a thing (or Person) so as to share  4, the contribution of their service
with others in the advantages, &c., to the saints.
which comes from it (or him).       Koxi dcrtXorvlr rti  ozyveovic
Al ov   X0Qvre ei5 ozivoovicxv  ei  aivrovS, 2 Cor. ix. 13, the
roV viov axVTroV I Cor. i. 9, into  liberality of their contribution for
a participation in His Son; i. e. to  them.
be joint partakers in His blessings.'Erii rT OZ ozcvioi VuGitcV ei5 ro
To ztortptov rTv  e~vioyi (x5 S  Evryydrtov, Phil. i. 5, for your
evXoyovYuev,  ovi UozYcosvio  contribution to the Gospel; i. e.
TOV a"'arTo5 roT Xpz6rozv -6z; the supplies which they had sent
vrov aprov  Yv  XtGOUce,   ovxi to St. Paul for the Gospel's sake.
xozrvoovic  to)v  dGOarot5o  TOV    2. A communication, or distribuXpzdrov Ed6rz; 1 Cor. x. 16, a  tion.
participation in  the blood-and`"ODrag5 i  ozLVc'ia tr#5 idtreaS
the body.                         dov,e'pyr7S ysv7rcZz, Philem. 6,'H  oozvVGavia  rota dyiov  that the communication of thyfaith
llvevziuarro5, 2 Cor. xiii. 13, the  [to others] may prove effectual.
participation in the Holy Spirit.    TS5 6d evriotzia5 xai UotVoEi'rz5 ozVcoxviia llv'evtaoro,  virx  ur  Etz^xv0rdve60sQ Heb.
Phil. ii. 1, any participation in the  xiii. 16, "to do good, and to distriSpirit.                           bute, forget not."
So also with riS 77 xozvcoz'vi    The verb UozvGaYoEo occurs eight
Tro  fv6drvpiov, Eph. iii. 9; and  times in the New Testament, and
r7'V iotzcoviorvi rcTv tO ^ 7r,aroa  signifiescvzroT, Phil. iii. 10.              1. To have a share with others;
II. Communication, or imparting  to be partakers with others, or in
a share of what we have to others. the things of others; as in Rom.
Hence-. xv. 27; 1 Tim. v. 22; Heb. ii. 14;
1. A collection, or contribution.  1 Pet. iv. 13; 2 John 11.  [2.




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                    207
-to the assembled believers, accompanied no doubt with
a reading of portions of the Jewish Scriptures, from
which, as it evidently appears in the history of the
Apostles' ministrations, so large a portion  of their
Christian preaching was more or less directly drawn.
"The collection or contribution" included probably
those large and liberal gifts which are said to have been
"laid at the Apostles' feet;" as well as the smaller
donations of less wealthy Christians who were taught to
give according to their means. And these together produced the fund which supplied the wants of the poorer
brethren, and other ecclesiastical expenses, and which,
being thus directly consecrated to the service of Christ,
was invested with a religious or sacred character, so accordant with the devotional spirit of the apostolic Church.
"The breaking of the bread " was the celebration of
the Lord's Supper, of which more will be said hereafter.
"The prayers" were the public supplications of the
assembled people.
Taking then this original outline as a starting-point,
we may trace allusions to one or another of these component parts of the primitive worship, scattered here and
there throughout the New Testament. Thus in Acts xx.
7, we are informed that the Christians at Troas " on the
first day of the week came together to break bread," and
that St. Paul " preached to them."  In 1 Cor. xi. and xiv.
we have a fuller account of the religious meetings of the
2. To give a share to others'; to which we have; as in Rom. xiii. 3 
make others partakers in the things Gal. vi. 6; Phil. iv. 15.




208             PUBLIC WORSHIP.
Corinthian Christians, and of their prayers accompanied
with singing,-their celebration of the Lord's Supper,
and their prophesying, i.e. inculcating divine truths by
the exposition of Scripture lessons, in what would now
be termed  Lectures or Sermons. In  the  Pastoral
Epistles of St. Paul are found, as might be expected,
several exhortations to Timothy and Titus to see that
the religious services in their churches were duly performed.  Thus he directs "that supplications, prayers,
intercessions, and giving of thanks be made for all men."
(1 Tim. ii. 1.) He desires Timothy "to attend to the
reading" of the Scriptures in the congregations, and " to
the exhortation and the instruction " addressed to them.l
And since the teaching and admonitions of the ministers
in any church must have a great influence on the faith
and conduct of their congregations, he requires that a
bishop, i.e. a presbyter having the oversight of a Church,
should, among other qualifications, be " apt to teach,"
and able both to exhort Christian people by his sound
instruction, and also to convince or refute opposers of
the faith (Tit. i. 9). And he urges Timothy himself with
all earnestness " to preach the word," " rightly to divide
the word of truth," and " to take heed to himself and to
his teaching."
The singing also of psalms and hymns, taken from the
1 In Tim. iv. 13, zn'p6eXe r# being accompanied with the other
ovayv,0csd)ez, tz 7tzcpax7lnr'ez, rT  words, must necessarily mean the
6z8sx6xaxia)  " the  reading" public reading in the church.
having the Article prefixed, and




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                       209
Old Testament, or composed for Christian use, not only
prevailed in Christian families, but was introduced in the
very earliest times into the public services of the Church.
It is mentioned by St. Paul in his directions to the
Corinthians (1 Cor. xiv.); and it is with good reason
believed that the words in Eph. v. 14, are a quotation
from a Christian hymn.1
This apostolic mode of public worship was still continued in almost its original simplicity in the middle of
the second century, as may be seen in the description
of the Sunday services given by Justin Martyr, who
enumerates the reading of lessons from the Gospels, or
the prophetical Scriptures, followed by a sermon or address by the officiating minister,-after which the congregation stood up for their common prayers,-and the
service concluded with the celebration of the Lord's
Supper, which was immediately preceded by appropriate
prayers and thanksgivings uttered by the minister, and
responded to by the people with the word Amen; accompanied also with the voluntary contributions of the
communicants.2
I The words in Eph. v. 14, form  count of the Sunday service in his
three lines of a hymn:        time: T~ rov'A2iov eAyouiCevg
"Eyezpaz 6o aoejevGcov,        ip sp Zr 7,rovTG  xard ZOtdeS5 v7
xoai vc6ra itr   rca T5y vexpovo, aypov'5 lEVd'ot'coV Eiti To aVTOr
Larz z7tzaveoz o 60 o Kpzzdr65. 6vvRlev6z5 yivecaz, xai Tdx
The quotation is introduced in a d(7roti'vrIovEtVt(ra rtV d7rto6peculiar manner by 6zdo 2yez, not rOdciaov  rcd vyypoit/tuarTC rov
Ae[Etnt ypaq7, or;pdyeraz, o r Irpocpratrv  a(xCyzvCG'dxeraz
yeypaztraz, but Aseyez "one,8UXpzS. YXvopei' ETra., 7rtv6asays"-in the Church service.    jdevov Trov ovxayzYCV6ioVro, 6
The following is Justin's ac- Ztpoec6ra5  &zd  6oyov  raTz...'14...'
a._..




210                PUBLIC WORSHIP.
Notices of a similar kind are found in Tertullian/ and
indeed throughout the third and fourth centuries and
onwards; but little alteration is to be seen in the general
form and outline of the public worship, except that the
strongly marked distinction between believers and catechumens, and the tendency to deal with the Christian
sacraments after the manner of the secret pagan mysteries led, in the third century, to a formal division of the
Church services into two portions-subsequently called
lMissa Catechumenorum and Missa Fidelium.  At first the
former of these  two  divisions, to  which  all persons,
whether Christians or not, were admissible, probably
included the singing, Scripture lessons, and sermon;
and the latter, at which Christians only were present,
consisted of the common prayers of the people with the,ovOediaiv xi rtpo6Xr(dz'v rt   dvXXAey6/ueYoY, tocpd rTa  poedrGOV XCrAvY rovGrcov  jz/ 6deScoaS  tr6rz d'ro(iOt azier.-'Apol.'i.~ 87..toze'rozr. "Eiezra ( ovz6rd(tasOo    Justin does not mention singing
uotv     t zvre5   xaai  evixdS in this description; but it is evi-.ti8TltO/1V' uXi cof Itpo9cp/jeV,, dent that hymns were sung in the
taV6dueracYGOy 7tc> r#5 e)~VXVS, religious services of his time, from
~apro5 tpodpiperaz xai oz"vo  a remark which he makes in an
xoai Vcop,  xcAi o zpoedrC5  earlier part of his'Apology.'
evXCaS o6uoioS5 Xcai evX'apZ6ric5,  tojucrd! Xaiv ivlyov5 te']uroUev.'306 86(vlagz avrG, dcrteiftez, -~ 16.
aoi 6 Xor5 6 EtevZcpruaI   Aycoyv        Tertullian, meaning apparently
t6'Ar/uv.  ati 7 8zia8odZ~5  ai v  to enumerate with  the greatest
UErciXrticz5 a76 torZTc  aeVpz6rV^- brevity the different parts of the
Oev/Tcov    UdrTGo yivesrcz, Lci Church service, says, "Jam vero
roiz o zoappovdz 8zci rc  6 z8cHO6- prout  Scripturea  leguntur, ant
v  ov'7 jUtzera(z. Oiev7topozvre5 psalmi canuntur, aut allocutiones
d8   xoai  fovX6ouevoz  xtacra  proferuntur, aut petitiones dele7rpoaiped6zv 8'uado6rz5 ojV avro   gantur."-'De Anima,' ~ 9, ed.
o fi3oVXeTZaz   iGco6z, uai TO  1664.




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                             211
usual devotions of the Eucharistic service; but in the
fourth century a somewhat more complex.arrangement
was thought to be desirable.
1 As the Sunday morning ser- directions of the Council of Laodivice, as described by Justin Martyr,  cea (A. D. 360), the sermon was
contained no other prayers but followed by a prayer for the catethose which Christians offered to- chumens, who then retired; after
gether (xozrvoi eVxai), and the  which came a prayer for the peniprayers of the officiating minister  tents, who also then withdrew from
immediately before the celebration  the church, the heathen part of the
of the Lord's Supper, the parts of congregation, if any, having apparthe service which were suitable for ently departed at the end of the
non-Christians would be the sing- sermon. Mereo rox5 oiiutzrio  rc5G
ing, the Scripture lessons, and the  erzd6lrTcotv) xai rcGV  oiarVXovsermon; and, consequently, a divi- juevcov  ev'xrv  Ezt'zreXLOaZ' —
sion  would naturally be made  aczi jteti  rTd  E&OEeZV  rove
there.  In the  fourth  century,  xayzvrjXovvvu  rov5      iY'  kv /,erohowever, when catechumens were  voia zrv evXfrv yiyrve6dOa, mai
sufficiently numerous to form  a  rTOvrav   7rpodeAXOOirCOv  vZit
distinct class, under a long course  XeLpr, utai v7toxopdavrrGco,
of instruction;-when Christians,  orcgO  rv c    7i6ZdrGCV rd  evaXCS
who had committed grave offences, yiy've6Oaz.-' Cone. Laodic. Can.'
or had submitted to heathen com- 19; Labb6 Cone.' vol. ii. p. 567.
pliances in times of persecution,    But in the'Canonica' of Basil
had to be placed under a peniten-  (A. D. 370), the prayer for the penitial discipline;-and when Chris- tents seems to have been the only
tian worship attracted more atten- one which followed the sermon,
tion in the pagan part of the popula- before the'Missa Fidelium' betion;-certain prayers were added  gan. For he there directs that a
to the   Missa Catechumenorum;' certain penitent should at first be
and, at the same time, the latter shut out of the Church altogether:
portion of the service, or'Missa /erZo  S   o rd re'6dxpc   Trpa       EZs5
Fidelium,' was also enlarged.      tOV3S (xYpocouevov5 SeXOd6 rear,
The accounts, however, which  aoi ev itevre E'~edrier' avrtcv
are given of these enlarged services  e     r~X~V6etdra, —'     Etad  ~redz
do not exactly agree in all their  uesrc TrGa  8Yv V zitOtrcOd6z tpodetails; and, probably, some differ- 6e~vXouEvo5  etEXEV6ZraT, —~V
ence was observable in this respect r66ddapz  6vd6re6~rrz   f#ivov
in different Churches.             roZi z7zdroMi.-Epist. 217; Can.
Thus, with respect to the' Missa  56; also Can. 75.
Catechumenorum,' according to the    And then the directions given in




212               PUBLIC WORSHIP.
And thus the general outline of the Christian worship,
instituted by the Apostles, "was  maintained down to
the Reformation, notwithstanding some variety of details,
and the continual addition of ceremonies, intended to
present its rites in  an  outward form, and with a symbolical pomp, calculated to strike and gratify the senses."
And now, delivered from such excessive and superstitious
accumulations, with which they had been overlaid, the
four particulars mentioned  in  the  original apostolic
the' Constitutiones Apostolicae' said, Amen. All these three prayspeak of no less than four distinct ers are mentioned m the directions
courses of prayer after the end of of the Council of Laodicea, above
the sermon, and the departure of referred to; and the two of later
the unbelievers, namely, prayers introduction are described in the
(1) for the catechumens; (2) for'Apostolic Constitutions,' viii. 9, 10.
the energumens, i. e. those who    The first and most ancient of
were possessed with evil spirits, these prayers was a "silent prayer,"
oi evepyovtuevoz V-io ntvevuo-  each member of the congregation
TcaV OXzUdOpTrcoV; (3) for those praying mentally by and with himwho were readyfor baptism; (4) for self. It is expressly so named by
the penitents; all these classes of the Council of Laodicea, svXS &azd
persons leaving the church when  dztonr5. And I cannot but think
their respective prayers were con- that it was a silent prayer in Justin's
cluded-See'Constit. Apost.' viii. time, and, possibly, from  a still
5-9.                             earlier date. Thus, in Justin's narIn the' Missa Fidelium,' between  rative, the people said Amen only
the prayers of the people, and the after the prayers and thanksgivings
Eucharistic prayers of the officiat- uttered by the minister; but of the
ing minister, mentioned by Justin, " common prayers" before this, he
there are found in the fourth cen- says, "We all stand up together
tury two other prayers inserted. and send forth prayers," avzdro'The former of these was a "Bid-  e68ac uot~v,   Tolvre5 xo i evXcd
ding Prayer," et'Xr p)zd d podpao- let utoueYv;  and  "When  we
vYeso, pronounced by a deacon, have ceased from  our prayer,"
and responded to by the people  rcv6oaqutdvcov IcUGP  ry etvxiji,
with some short ejaculations; and with no Amen, and no minister
the latter was a prayer by the uttering the prayers before them;
bishop, at the end of which they  while there is no intimation that




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                          213
worship are still exhibited  in  our own congregations,
when our full morning service is performed, and when
besides the  common  prayers of the  assembled  wor-;hippers, "the breaking of bread" is continued in the
Lord's Supper,-" the  collection" is preserved in the
offertory,-and " the Apostles' doctrine " is, or ought to
be, heard in the sermon.
As it does not come within the scope of these lectures
to dwell upon all the particulars which might be noticed
in a treatise on Christian Antiquities, it will be sufficient
to mention very briefly that the usual postures of prayer
in the earliest Churches were in all probability " standing"
and "kneeling." The latter alone is expressly named
in  the New  Testament in connection  with  Christian
worship; but standing was a posture used in prayer by
the Jews; and Christians, even as early as Justin's time,
stood  up  to pray in  their Sunday  congregations,-a
custom afterwards very scrupulously observed.l
they were all uttering one common  to words of the officiating minister.
form  of words. This therefore   It was in this "silent prayer"
seems to  have  been  "silent that the people stood up; in the
prayer."                        others they knelt down.
Tertullian, too, can hardly mean    I Justin, in his account of the
anything but silent prayer, when  Christian  worship on  Sundays,
he says in allusion to the public says, that they stood up to pray,
worship of Christians, "sine moni- dvz6rouesOQ Xozvp TtoIvres, axzi
tore quia de pectore oramus"  ev3Xod5 7ret7tote.-'Apol,' i. 87.
('Apol.' ~ 30), for a number of Irenaeus, half a century later, menpersons could not pray together tions the same practice, and says
aloud in this manner.           that it was done in token of the
Indeed, the only prayers which  resurrection, and began from the
the people seem to have uttered  times of the Apostles, ro 8d  Ev
aloud were the Lord's Prayer, and  KvpzaoUj,ui  xiirezv   y6ov
certain short ejaculations in reply  6v0/ltoX6ov b6rt riz^  oVo6dra



214               PUBLIC WORSHIP.
The practice of stretching out or lifting up the hands
in praying, also of Jewish origin, is alluded to by St. Paul
in 1 Tim. ii. 8, "I will therefore that men pray everywhere lifting up holy hands," but doubtless without the
conceit of doing so in the form of a cross, as was the
case in the third century.
There is in the New Testament no trace of Christian
worshippers turning to the east in their prayers, or other
parts of their service; though this practice appears at
the beginning of the third century, and was probably
begun much earlier.' Neither is the use of incense or of
lamps or candles, as sacred or symbolical accompaniments
in any Christian ceremony, to be found in the apostolic
age; nor does it appear that Christian ministers then
wore  any peculiar dress or qfficial vestments in any of
6eo5.....   rTGcV   todroTolzcv  east in the prayers of the church is
XPOVGcV   rozcOvrTr   dvvQOsEzu  first mentioned by Tertullian, who
eaf/JSe rzYv opxrv.-'Fragm. de says, that Christians were on this
Pasch.' And in Tertullian's time it account accused of worshipping the
was considered quite an unlawful sun, "quod innotuerit nos ad Orithing to kneel at prayers on the  entis regionem precari."-('Apol.'
Lord'sDay, "Die Dominico jeju- 16.) The words of Zechariah, iii.
niumnefas ducimusvel de geniculis 8, "Behold I will bring forth my
adorare. Eadem immunitate a die servant, the Branch," being transPasche  in  Pentecosten  usque lated in the Septuagint, i8ov'eyw
gaudemus."-'De Cor. Mil.' 3.    aryco tv  0oiYA16 oov'Avorz-oIn the fourth century, however, Afv, Christians, at a very early
it seems to have been the custom  period, looked upon the east as an
for the people to stand,up at one emblem of Christ; thus Justin M.
portion of the prayers, while in  says, Xpzdr6ci  oavcrroXr  6zai
the others they knelt down. See ZaXwapiov:xATroaz.-'Dial. c.
Bingham, xv. 1, and'Constit. Tryph.' ~ 126.  And Tertullian,
Apost.' viii. 9; see also note (1) "Orientem   Christi  figuram."p. 211.'Adv. Valentin.' p. 284.' The practice of turning to the




PUBLIC  WORSHIP.                 215
their ministrations. All these came in at a later period
and were derived from Jewish or heathen practices, as
the Church, having lost the freshness and fulness of
apostolic truth, learned from such objectionable sources
to affect a more elaborate ceremonial, and to court an
exhibition of aesthetic display, quite foreign to the devout
simplicity of the apostolic age.
There is, however, one part of this subject which demands more than a passing notice, from its connection
with Church controversies of the past, and from the
interest which it even now in some respects assumes in
its bearing upon wants and difficulties in our own
Church and time.
The controversies in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries between the advocates of a fixed liturgy on
the one hand, and of extemporaneous or at least unprescribed prayers in public worship on the other, necessarily gave importance to the question as to what was
the rule or practice of the apostolic age in this matter;
and what authority or deference the ancient liturgies,
bearing apostolic or other venerated names, are justly
entitled to receive.
The opponents in those times, too much influenced on
both sides by personal and party feelings, appear to have
satisfied themselves that the practice which they respectively preferred was the only lawful one; the other,
unjustifiable,-not to say heretical. And even now particular views of Christian doctrine which men desire to
advocate, or their individual preferences in matters




216           PUBLIC  WORSHIP.
ecclesiastical, seem to bias- their minds unduly in the
investigation of such questions.
But for those who acknowledge the sufficiency and
supremacy of Scripture, and the independent authority
of each particular Church in subordination to the written
word, and who duly appreciate the force of the omissions in the New Testament, there can surely be no
doubt that inasmuch as no forms of prayer of apostolic
authority are given in the sacred record, nor any command from the Apostles as to the use or non-use of such
forms, this is an open question to be decided by every
Church for itself; each Church having a full right to act
according to its discretion and deliberate judgment; but
no right at all to condemn or disparage the opposite
practice, which another Christian community may prefer.
Nor in the decision of such questions can any Church
with propriety or safety disregard the consideration of
times, circumstances, and men's manners; the feelings
and requirements of any given age.
But this general conclusion does not make it less
interesting or instructive to consider the question of
liturgical formularies in the ancient Church somewhat
more widely, even though we do nothing more than
take a brief notice of the most important of those
particulars which the study of this subject presents
to view.
Setting out then from the general position just mentioned, that there is no authority in the New Testament
either for or against set forms of prayer; let us first




PUBLIC  WORSHIP.                 217
enquire what was, in fact, the practice of the earliest
Churches.
Since forms of prayer were in use in the Jewish Synagogues, and in some heathen religious services a scrupulous adherence to the words of a sacred formula was
considered essential; the Churches, whether of Jewish
or of Gentile Christians, could not have been unprepared
for, or naturally averse to, prescribed and settled formularies of devotion for their own use. But did they, in
fact, employ them?
There is no need to prove, nor for this question is
there any advantage in proving, that the apostolic
Churches used devotional forms, so far as to sing Old
Testament Psalms and precomposed hymns; and that
the Lord's prayer, as a well-known and honoured prescription of the Saviour, found a place in their religious
services. Such might well be the case, even in Churches
which allowed the fullest liberty to themselves and their
officiating ministers in conducting their public devotions.
The only questions to be answered are such as these:
Were the public prayers in the apostolic Churches set
forms known beforehand, and repeated on every occasion, like our own?
When such forms first appeared, did they spring up
gradually with a spontaneous growth, or were they at
some given time imposed by authority, so as to supersede all extemporaneous or discretionary prayers?
When formal liturgies had been adopted, were they
regarded as fixed and settled for future generations as




218           PUBLIC  WORSHIP.
well as for tie one then present, so that to alter them
would be thought a dangerous undertaking almost involving an ecclesiastical revolution? or was revision and
alteration felt to be a natural, easy, necessary thing,
requiring attention from time to time, and effected without danger or alarm?
Now, I think it is perfectly certain that in the earliest
period of the apostolic age, a fixed and prescribed
liturgy could not have been used, especially in the Gentile Churches, and during the time when the " Ministry
of Gifts" prevailed. The remarks which St. Paul makes
about the public worship of the Corinthian Christians,
where "every one had a psalm, had a doctrine, had a
tongue, had a revelation," and did not even observe due
order and propriety in uttering them, and where the
Apostle found it necessary to bid them not to pray or
give thanks in a language which the congregation could
not understand or respond to, are quite incompatible
with the use of devotional formularies laid down beforehand, and known to all the worshippers. And when it
is further noticed that St. Paul, though desiring to correct disorders, does not at all condemn or disapprove of
this mode of worship, provided that all things were
"done decently and in order;" and that he neither here,
nor elsewhere, —nor any other of the Apostles, as far as
we are informed,-recommended any forms of prayer to
be used; it is scarcely possible that there should be any
reasonable doubt as to what the practice was at that
period.




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                         219
In the course of time, and as the " Ministry of Orders"
gradually superseded the " Ministry of Gifts," it might
naturally  be expected  that without any marked  or
sudden change, and without any authoritative directions
being given by the Apostles, some devotional utterances
would by common use acquire certain definite forms of
expression, conveniently employed on recurring occasions, and thus paving  the way for more extensive
changes in this direction, whenever the feeling or the
circumstances of any Church should render them desirable.  That this, in fact, did take place we are justified
in concluding; and allusions to such familiar formulas
are found here and there in the later portions of the
New Testament, such as, " Hold fast the form of sound
words" (2 Tim. i. 13); and, "The answer of a good
conscience towards God" (1 Pet. iii. 21).'
Besides this in the administration of Baptism, and of
the Lord's Supper, the words of Jesus were probably
used from the first without variation, whatever religious
service might be added  to  them.  And  the prayers
made "for kings and all in authority," with others of a
iThe expression in 2 Tim. i. 13, iii. 21, 6vvetSr6 JG6o   ayoxOi.S
v7rortv7tGcozv  xe V'Lyzacurz;vovrov  eTrepcrvoryta may mean, as AlXAoyco, cannotmean, onanysound ford gives it, "the enquiry of a
principles of translation, "hold good conscience;" but it is not
fast the form of sound words;" impossible that those interpreters
but among  many explanations may be right who suppose that it
which have been suggested, it may means " the questions [with their
possibly mean, "Have (or keep) an answers]  asked  in  Baptism,"
exemplar or formulary of sound which, perhaps, even in the aposwords," for the instruction and tolic age were expressed in a wellguidance of Christians. In 1 Pet. known form of words.




220               PUBLIC WORSHIP.
similar kind, might naturally from their frequent use
soon fall into a settled form of words; as would also be
the case with short ejaculatory expressions and answers
between the minister and the people, designed to keep
alive a spirit of devotion; such as Sursum corda, " Lift
up your hearts!" and Habemus ad Dominum, " We lift
them  up unto the Lord."  But all this is very far from
being a proof of the existence of precomposed liturgies;
though it may be deemed a certain advance towards, and
preparation for, their introduction. And thus all the
evidence directly deducible from  the New  Testament is
against the use of such formularies in the apostolic age.
Nor throughout the  second  century is any reliable
testimony to be found indicative of any considerable
alteration in this respect. On the contrary, the prayers
of the Church, described by Justin Martyr, seem to have
depended upon the ability and discretion1 of the officiat1 In his account of Christian wor- they meant no more but his invenship, Justin Martyr relates that the tion, expression, or the like;.....
officiating  minister  evdX o5 wai whereas, indeed, it signifies here
evxapzp6rzc, oJr,jvaLtz5 avtrv, quite a different thing, viz. that
aovteruitz, which words have spiritual vigour, or intenseness and
very naturally been considered a ardency of devotion with which
proof that "liturgies, or set forms the minister offered up the sacriof prayer" were not then used, fices of the Chturch of God."since the minister here is said to Bing. vi. 3, 5.
send up his prayers to the utmost   But the fact is that'06,3ic,67} uz
of his ability. But this is contro- and other kindred  expressions,
verted by those who are desirous such  as  cr'or 6SV'/rUtV  cGo
to represent liturgies as of more  8vvazrxz,  ep   o'dov  fV rv
ancient  date.  Thus  Bingham  d8vyaZr&, are so common that
affirms, "Some misconstrue this there cannot be the least doubt
passage, and interpret the abilities as to their real meaning.  They
of the minister officiating, as if can  signify nothing  else but,




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                             221
ing  minister, as much  as they  did  in  the  preceding
century.  And  none  of the  passages sometimes cited
from  other patristic authors of this period are at all at
variance with Justin's account.'
"as well as one can," or, "to the  Nazianzen is, (Epes, o5 6vt LAtiz5
best of one's ability;" and the  ayv'zd/jueLvoz nxai 6caSjtara xaCi
particular nature of the ability  bvXcd', cai rliczv aevc raya' cvrS5
must depend upon the context with  pcoyvrv, Evi 6vvxapto6Odvre5
which the expression is joined in  tvevtuartz  aScotev,  &c., Greg.
any given case. And as there is Naz.'Orat.' iii., where, hownothing else in Justin's words to  ever, it is by no  means plain
indicate a set form of prayer, of6  that o'Ydt Sv'a#z5 is so used as the
d8vcJaz5S cannot, in fairness, be  learned Antiquarian asserts; on
taken to mean anything else than  the contrary, it most naturally conthat the minister prayed in the  nects itself with dyvzd^6o/,eoz, and
best manner that he could.        the immediately following words,
The words o6rf 8vr,/uz5 occur and means here, just as in other
in two other places in Justin's  places, nothing else than "to the'Apology,' ~ 16, and ~ 72; and  best of our ability."
Lord King, in his'Enquiry into   It may be further remarked that,
the Constitution, &c. of the Primi- in the'Constitutiones Apostolicse,'
tive Church,' has collected a large  where  frequent exhortations to
number of examples from  Origen  "'ardency and intenseness of devoand others; remarking, "I have  tion" are found, the words emnot found one place wherein this ployed for this purpose are not o6qd
phrase, o' 6v SvtS'uzt, doth not  Svjvaruz5, but such as EUreVGc5,
comprehend personal abilities."    or 6vvrtvSo5.
Bingham, returning to the sub-   i The following are all the eviject in Book xiii. 5, 5, repeats his dences about liturgical forms in
assertion that 0o 6Sv/ vx/iuz5 "re- the second century which the dililates to the ardency and intenseness gence of the learned has been able
of devotion," and adds, "And so it to collect.
is plain the very same phrase is   1. Pliny's celebrated letter to
used by Nazianzen when he exhorts Trajan (x. 97), in which he relates
Christians to sing 0od6  Sv/aut5 that Christians were accustomed to'with all their might' that triumph- meet, and " carmen Christo quasi
ant hymn (upon the death of Julian) Deo dicere secum invicem."  The
which the children of Israel sang  word "carmen," it is true, may
when the Egyptians were drowned  mean any "formulary;" but "carin the Red Sea."  The passage in  men dicere invicem," much more




222                PUBLIC WORSHIP.
It is not until the third century that any evidence,
at all clear and conclusive, of the use of settled forms of
naturally means "singing" than  were sung in Christian worship;
"praying."                        and he mentions the things which
2. Ignatius is reported by Socra- Christians prayed for, such as the
tes, the ecclesiastical historian, to  peace and welfare of the emperor,
have introduced the practice of &c., but he does not say that such
alternate singing into his Church at prayers were expressed in a set
Antioch. But, besides that this is form of words. On the contrary,
second-hand testimony, it mentions  the following passages, in which he
only "singing," which is nothing  refers to such prayers, shows that
to the purpose.                    they were not in any prescribed
3. Lucian, the pagan  satirist, form: "Illuc suspicientes Christiani
describing his coming into a re- manibus expansis, quia innocuis,
ligious assembly, says, " He heard  capite nudo, quia non erubescimus;
there that prayer which began  denique sine monitore quia de pectore
with the Father and ended with  oramus, precantus sumus semper
the  hymn  of many  names!"  pro  omnibus Imperatoribus."Surely there is not much evidence  Tert.'Apol.' ~ 33. Whatever part
to be extracted from this!        of the Christian service this may
4. Justin  Martyr, as already  refer to, sine monitore quia de pectore
noticed before, says that Christians  oramus, mustmean extemporaneous
met together, xozvdo S e-jXdi5 ozy- prayer.
6'ouevoz, &c.; but it is acknow-   7. Clement of Alexandria, accordledged on all hands that this ex- ing to Bingham, says, "that the
pression proves nothing in behalf congregation prostrated themselves
of liturgies. Justin's words about in prayers, having, as it were, one
the prayer of the officiating min- common voice."  The words of
ister have been considered in the  Clement are, 6rzi yo'v TO tcap
preceding note.                   u7zv Ov61-dtrjpzoov Bvratv~0o zr
5. Irenmeus shows that in his time    tiryezov, rz aXpozdL6a (x vcv ra
the words "for ever and ever,"  evXoSi      orxvarxezustL ovaY,  /fixvY
eiS  olcarX5    vcX Y   XaiGc oVC, were cQ6:drep gXov 7 CpGOVY7    v'rv Uoz'r)iV',
used in Christian worship —a very  uai /ucav  yvYOcuv.-' Stromat.'
minute  contribution  towards a  vii. 6. And contrasting the Chrisliturgy; especially as the words tian worship with the sacrifices
occur frequently in the New Testa- and religious services of heathens
ment, and might as well be em- to their  gods, he says, "'Our
ployed in extemporaneous prayer, altar here on earth  is the asas in one previously composed.    sembly of those who are offered
6. Tertullian relates that psalms up to God in prayers, having, as it




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                      223
prayer in Christian Churches, is to be found in contemporary authorities. And even in that century, although
the evidence is conclusive as far as it goes, it does not
make it certain that other prayers suggested by particular circumstances or occasions were altogether excluded.
In the fourth century several distinct liturgies are
found clearly established in different Churches, and,
having been then committed to writing, some of the
most celebrated of them are still preserved.
This, therefore, very briefly expressed, is the sum and
substance of the contemporary patristic testimony; and
it points us conclusively to the third and fourth centuries, and not to the apostolic age, for the distinct
appearance and growth to maturity of formal liturgies
in Christian Churches.
Another distinct consideration in the liturgical question, which confirms the conclusion just arrived at, is
presented by the fact that no rules or forms were ever
in the first centuries imposed upon a Church by any
authorityfrom without. The Apostles, as we have seen,
left no commands on this  subject; and after them
nothing interfered with this general independence for
three or four centuries at least.  Every Church at the
were, one voice, their common but only that all were praying
utterance, and being of one mind." together.
On which it is sufficient to observe   Besides, the two last-mentioned
that the q(pGvoiv Trv uozvv' cannot authorities, Tertullian and Clement,
mean anything more liturgical than belong to the third century rather
the xozivi eVXai of Justin, which than the second.
did not mean a precomposed form,




224             PUBLIC WORSHIP.
beginning arranged the details of its own public services
according to its own discretion; and when the Episcopal
form of government had been established, it was left to
the prudence, choice, and  judgment of each bishop
to decide what words and ceremonies he would use in
the devotions of his Church; and each one varied his
petitions according to the existing circumstances and
emergencies of his place and people. During this time
prayers, originally extemporaneous or composed  by
individual bishops, were from their beauty or suitableness repeatedly used, and grew  into a settled form,
without being  committed to writing, or having any
authority beyond their own Church. And sometimes,
in the third century, the liturgical arrangements made
by some distinguished bishop were regarded with much
veneration and continued long in use. Thus it is mentioned by Basil that the prayers and devotional rites of
the Church at Neo-Caesarea, which had been arranged
for them by their Bishop Gregory (Thaumaturgus) in
the middle of the third century, were still, a hundred
years after his decease, scrupulously retained by them
without any addition.'
At a later period "bishops agreed by common consent
to conform their liturgies to the model of the metropolitan Churches of the province to which they belonged,"
1 Basil, in his panegyric on them, ov 7p5iciv zzvo, ov A6yoov,
Gregory of Neo-Casarea, says that ov; rzvtov rzvrd,uvdrzznv itap
the Church there had not chosen ov eUxEivog5 xaznate r7E  z-  xrto add a single action, or word, or 6ic  Trpo6(OVa1xav. —'De Spirit.
mystic symbol, to what he had left Sanct.' ~ 29.




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                    225
the first intimation of which is given in the Council of
Epone (A. D. 517).' And when the Roman empire was
broken up into different nations, then national Churches
and national liturgies began together; although even
then different liturgical forms were sometimes used
together in the same national Church, as was the case in
our own country at the time of the Reformation.
A  third source of argument in the questions about
the worship of the primitive Church is found in the
ancient liturgies themselves. Some of these which are
in existence still, and from which many parts of our own
formularies are derived, have the names of Apostles
attached to them; and have naturally attracted much
attention from their acknowledged antiquity, willingly
supposed in many quarters to be greater than it really is.
In the Church of Rome some of these liturgies have
been accepted as the genuine offspring of the Apostles,
to whom they were popularly ascribed. And one of the
latest of the learned Anglican writers on this subject,
while he does not venture to claim for the most ancient
liturgy an earlier date than the end of the second century, boldly assumes that "though not composed by the
Apostles whose names they bear, they were the legitimate development of their unwritten tradition respecting
the Christian sacrifice; the words probably in the most
important parts, the general tenor in all portions deThe Council of Epone (A. D. tenent provinciales eorum obser517) directs, " ad celebranda divina vare debebunt."-Can. 27.
officia ordinem quem Metropolitani
15




226               PUBLIC WORSHIP.
scending unchanged from  the apostolic authors."'  But
seeing that the Apostles left no written tradition whatever respecting "the Christian sacrifice," but what is
altogether at variance with the teaching of these liturgies; and seeing that, in the entire absence of all contemporary testimony, it is utterly impossible to know
what was their unwritten tradition, if any such  ever
existed; this claim of apostolic authority is nothing but
a gratuitous, unsupported assumption of Dr. Neale's;
and is only one of the numerous instances of the tendency of ecclesiastical writers in all ages to take for
granted that whatever they approve of in the Church
at any  given  time  must have  come  from  apostolic
hands.
For it is acknowledged that these ancient liturgies
as we have them  now were gradually formed, and grew
INeale's "History of the Holy  Jacobi foetum  esse demonstrat."
Eastern Church," p. 319. A good  But on turning to Allatius, all his
specimen of the untrustworthy  "demonstrations" are found to be
nature of the most confident asser- nothing earlier than a quotation
tions of learned men, when their from Proclus, a patriarch of Conminds are strongly biased in a par- stantinople in the fifth century, and
ticular direction, is seen in the a reference to the Council of Trullo
manner in which Cardinal Bona at the end of the seventh. Bona's
speaks of these ancient liturgies.   own proofs are only such insufHe acknowledges, indeed, that ficient testimony, as (1) "perpetua
the'Liturgy of Peter' is not really  Ecclesiae Graece traditio;" (2) "exhis; and that the liturgies of emplaria in vetustissimis codicibus
Matthew and Mark are doubtful. exarata," with no date mentioned;
But he declares that the'liturgy  (3) quotations from it by ancient
of James' is proved to be the  Fathers, but no date or instance
genuine production of the Apostle  given; and (4) the Council of
by Allatius, who "prolatis anti- Trullo, A. D. 692.
quorum   testimoniis  genuinum




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                         227
up by slow degrees and various changes from the apostolic age to the middle of the fourth century; of which
a singular proof (among others) is supplied by the
remarks of Basil about the liturgy of the Church at
Neo-Csesarea, which, he says, was in  many respects
deficient and old-fashioned; because from  reverence to
the memory of their Bishop Gregory (Thaumaturgus)
they had admitted no alterations since his time, and had
not received any rites, prayers, or practices which had
subsequently been introduced.' It was not until the
middle of the fourth century that the earliest of these
liturgies were committed to writing, necessarily in the
form which they had then acquired.2  And it is admitted
that "the later additions are so interwoven with the
older parts that they cannot be separated without destroying  the  liturgies  altogether."  From   whence it
follows that there can be no solid ground for asserting
that any particular parts of them are even as old as the
second century; much less the very words of the Apostles themselves, unless  some  external evidence  can
sufficiently  attest their  date.   But all the  external
Basil,'De Spiritn Sancto,' ~ 29: cletian and his associates, a strict
Tytvrp rot xai zr toALd vGOV rtap' enquiry was made after the sacred
oaroz5 reSov/evGoV  flez7tic5 books  belonging  to  Christian'xezYv 6oxei) &ci r6 vrS znrato6d- Churches; but, although copies of
zr(x'6eo  (xpxzo'rpoirov.  ov6dv  the Scriptures were often discoverycdp vjYE6Xovro oi XTarXa ~zc0o- ed, books of ritual or of divine
X1?v r5 iS  x'Adic(x  oi:ovouj- service appear never to have been
6Jayvre   rc6v   ser'   xeYZvov  found. As far as liturgies existed,
eErpvpeOsvCov'  7taCpcrzeta6'cxd     they were not written until after
eZ5 7tpodOxru'v.-See Note, p. 224. that time.
2 In the persecutions under Dio



228                PUBLIC WORSHIP.
evidence in this case proves that those parts, which
Dr. Neale  wishes to be the most ancient, cannot be
earlier than the third century.1
1 The object of Dr. Neale in his belong to the fourth century, and'Tetralogia Liturgica' is, to estab- contain  the doctrines which in
lish the apostolic authority of the  that century prevailed.
three doctrines of "the real pre-   The evidence of the New Testasence," i. e. the actual objective  ment, and of subsequent Christian
change of the Eucharistic elements writers down to the end of the
into the body and blood of Christ; second century, shows that the
a true and  beneficial sacrifice  three doctrines in question had not
offered to God in the Eucharist; at that time appeared, and proves
and the duty and advantage of that those parts of the liturgies
praying for the dead-or, in his  which  express them  cannot be
own words, "oblationem mysticam  earlier than the third century.
vere et realiter in corpus et sangui-   Dr. Neale, in his'Essays on
nem Domini nostri transmutari; in  Liturgiology,' endeavours to show
Eucharistia  verum   et salutare  that a considerable number of exsacrificium Deo offerri; preces pro  pressions in the Epistles of the New
defunctorum  requie perutiles iis  Testament are  quotations from
esse."  And his method of proof-  ancient liturgies-a very interestperfectly logical in form-is as ing subject of enquiry-and if this
follows:                          theory could have been established,
As the ancient liturgies are of it would have made it evident that
apostolic antiquity and authority, some portions, at any rate, of these
the doctrines contained in them  formularies were of the very earliest
are apostolic;                    antiquity. But the enquiry does not
The three doctrines above-named  issue in a proof. The quotation
are contained in the ancient litur- from a hymn in Eph. iv. 14, has
gies; therefore-                  been already noticed; and that
The three doctrines above-named  hymns were sung in churches from
are apostolic.                   the beginning is admitted on all
Now, Dr. Neale most clearly  hands. But of all the allegod quoshows that these doctrines are indis- tations from  prayers, only one
putably, and without any disguise, instance  has anything  like an
taught in the ancient liturgies; but approach to satisfactory evidence
he utterly fails to prove the apos- in its favour, namely, a o xcqOaXuoS
tolic antiquity and authority of the  ovu eZge &c. in 1 Cor. ii. 9, which
liturgies which teach them. The  is found in the'Anaphora of St.
whole truth of the matter is, that James.'
these ancient liturgies, as they are,   The evidence in this instance, to




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                         229
These  ancient documents, therefore, do not at all
invalidate the conclusion derived from other testimony,
that liturgical forms were at any rate not used until after
the apostolic times.
But independently of such questions there is a very instructive lesson for us to learn from the liturgical history
of the early centuries. For when liturgies had been
compiled  and  were  habitually  used, they  were  not
regarded as forms so fixed and rigid, that they were
not afterwards to be revised or altered; or so sacred,
that they could not be touched without irreverence and
danger.  The exceptional conduct of the  Church  at
Neo-Cmsarea in this respect was an amiable weakness,
which might be to a certain extent excused, but was
not thought worthy of imitation. On the contrary the
liturgies were continually receiving alterations, as times
were changed, and new wants or thoughts arose: men
being  then wise enough  to  see that the liturgy was
made for the  Church, and  not the  Church  for the
the effect that the words are quoted  the words which he quotes "are
from the liturgy, and not vice versa, written" —yiypaotra —which the
amounts to this: St. Paul gives the liturgies at that time were not; that
words as a quotation, "As it is quotations from the Old Testament
written;" but they are not found in the New are sometimes given
exactly in this form in the Old Tes- without much regard to verbal
tament, while they are in the liturgy. accuracy; and, what is a stronger
And, secondly, the words in the objection, no one of the patristic
Epistle are an abbreviated sentence, commentators on this text-Origen,
requiring something to be supplied; Chrysostom, and Jerome-knew
but, in the liturgy, the sentence is anything of its being a quotation
complete.                       from a liturgy, which they could
But then, on the other hand, it is hardly have failed to know, if such
to be noticed, that St. Paul says that had been the case.




230            PUBLIC  WORSHIP.
liturgy. So that it was deemed no disrespect to the
memory of venerable names or cherished traditions to
adapt their Prayer-book to the new manners or feelings
of another age; nor any injury to a living Church, that
there should also be life, and consequently change, in
the forms of its habitual devotions. So entirely, indeed,
in the early centuries were liturgical forms regarded as
subordinate to the actual circumstances of any Christian
community, that when a district was divided and a new
bishoprick erected in what had been a portion of the
older diocese, "the new  Church was not obliged to
follow the model and prescriptions of the old, but might
frame to herself a form of divine service agreeable to her
own circumstances and condition."
Are we more wise in this our day, when we have
allowed more than two hundred years to pass,-years
of immense changes in everything connected with the
life of man; changes ecclesiastical, political, social, intellectual, and moral,-with scarcely an infinitesimal change
in our Church Liturgy and laws? And when notwithstanding the fact that the last revision of our Prayerbook was effected under circumstances the most hostile
to a sound and sober appreciation of truth and wisdom,
good men are now possessed with so superstitious a
veneration, or so unreasonable a timidity, that they cry
out against the bare proposal of a liturgical revision,
and the most temperate ecclesiastical reform?
The ancient Churches made their liturgies so flexible
and impressible that they altered their ritual to suit




PUBLIC  WORSHIP.                 231
errors in doctrine and practice, into which they fell;
while we shrink from any alteration, even that with the
New Testament in our hands we may make our religious
services as far as possible conformable to the divine
record of Christian truth. And with a singular contrariety to the spirit of antiquity which we profess to
venerate, we press our Anglican Prayer-book and formularies upon all the Churches which missionary labours
have gathered in foreign lands, without any sufficient
consideration of the most widely different habits, climes,
and races; just as if the Church of the English Reformation were the absolute and essential model of Christian
perfection,-the one only visible body of Christ to which
all Christians must belong.
III. The " times and seasons" observed as sacred in
the apostolic Church will next demand a brief notice, to
complete our view of its religious worship. And here
it must be at once acknowledged that there is in the
New Testament no trace whatever of any one of those
annual days of hallowed commemoration which are now
celebrated in Christian Churches.
However seemly, grateful, and edifying we may justly
esteem it to mark the anniversaries of our Lord's birth,
death, and resurrection, with other days of special
import in the Christian year, they were not distinguished
in the ecclesiastical arrangements of the primitive
Church, but are of a later and unapostolic origin.
But the observance of the first day of the week, or




232            PUBLIC  WORSHIP.
"Lord's Day," stands upon a different footing, and
plainly belongs to the New Testament period; although
no commandment is repeated there for its religious
celebration, or much notice taken of its recurrence.
In the earliest existence of the Christian Church, when
a holy enthusiasm was strong in all its members, and
their whole life was felt to be consecrated and elevated
in Christ, all distinction of secular and sacred seasons
seemed out of place; every day was a day of united
worship; every day was holy to the Lord. This, indeed,
was always, and is still, an abiding principle of the
Gospel life, that all our standing-ground of acceptance,
safety, and privilege being complete in Christ, and our
whole selves, our souls and bodies, being presented as
a living sacrifice to Him, no outward ordinances are
essential to this completeness, no observance of special
days can be an adequate substitute for this self-surrender.
But as a high state of spiritual elevation cannot in ordinary cases be long  sustained; and man's complex
nature needs some external ordinances, as well as a
power within; and as, moreover, a large number of
Christians must then, as now, have been unable to attend
a daily religious assembly; the observance of certain recurring days was needful for general edification. A
sacred day became a religious necessity for the Christian
Church; and it is from this point that we have to view the
question of the obligation of the Fourth Commandment.
The Jewish Sabbath was indeed of no obligation in
the Gospel Church; and by Gentile Christians it was




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                         233
better avoided as a remnant of a discarded dispensation.
But the Fourth Commandment is not Judaistic in its
essential character, but, like all the rest of the decalogue,
has in its very wording a broad application to human
life.  And in conformity with it, a Christian day of rest
and of religious worship, equally with the Jewish Sabbath  the seventh day cfter six according to the exact
wording of the Law,1 was established in the Church, as
soon apparently as the peculiar circumstances of the
case would admit of its general introduction.
In modern discussions on the nature and obligation
of the Christian Sabbath, great weight has not unreasonably been attached to the manner in which St. Paul
warns  Gentile  Christians against the observance of
Jewish days (specially in IRom. xiv. 5, Gal. iv. 10, Col. ii.
15), without a single word about any Christian day more
hallowed or sacred than the rest.2 But a consideration
1 In considering the Sabbath thing to be said in reply to the
question it must not be forgotten repudiators of a "Christian Sabthat neither in the Fourth Com- bath," even on their own ground,
mandment nor anywhere else in the and without going beyond the texts
Mosaic law is the seventh day of the upon which they especially rely.
week ordered to be kept. It is   Such  considerations  greatly
always the seventh day after six; strengthen the conclusion which I
and, consequently the observance have endeavoured to deduce from
of the first day of the week is just an historical view of the question.
as conformable to this law, in the   "Gal. iv. 10,'Ye observe days
letter and the spirit, as the Jewish  and months,' &c. Dean Alford
Sabbath day; nor was any divine adds,'Notice how utterly such a
authority required for changing verse is at variance with any and
the day in the Christian Church.   every theory of a Christian Sabbath,
2 The following valuable remarks cutting at the root, as it does, of all
from Dr. Eadie's' Commentary on obligatory observation of times as
Galatians' show that there is some- such.'            [" But,'




234                PUBLIC WORSHIP.
of the history of Sabbath observances during the period
of transition between Judaism  and Christianity seems to
show that this argument is not so conclusive as it might
at first appear.
When the Israelites were brought out from  Egypt,
they passed through their transition state in the wilderness, separated from all other people, while they received
their Law, and became accustomed to its most essential
enactments.  But Christianity  had  to  spring  up  and
develop its religious and moral system in the presence
of older religions still in  force, and coming in contact
with it at every turn. In particular it had to work its
way in the midst of Judaism, which was not brought
abruptly to an end to make room for it, but continued
"But," says Dr. Eadie, "this he observed some of them himself.
generalization is far too sweeping; But, first he condemns the Galatian
for-                              Gentiles for observing sacred Jewish
" 1. It makes assertion on a sub- seasons which, not being intended
ject which is not before the mind  for them, had therefore no authoof the Apostle at all. Nothing is rity over them. The Gentile keepfurther from his thoughts, or his ing of Jewish Sabbaths, or of Passcourse of rebuke and expostulation, overs, Pentecosts, New Moons, or
than the Christian Sabbath and its Jufbilees, was in itself a wrong thing
theme-the resurrection of Christ. -a perilous blunder then, as it
"2. The Apostle is not condemn- would be a wretched anachronism
ing the obligatory observances' of now. And, secondly, he condemns
times as such;' but he is condemn- the observance of these' times,' being the observance only of the  cause the Galatians regarded such
times, which the Galatians, in their observance as essential to salvation,
relapse  into  Judaism, kept as and as supplementing faith in the
sacred; for their keeping of such  atoning work of Christ. These limiJewish festivals was the proof and  tations are plainly supplied by the
result of their partial apostacy.  context, and the true theory of a
" 3. Nor is it even Jewish festi- Christian Sabbath, or rather Lord's
vals as such which he condemns; Day, is not in the least involved in
for both before and after this period  the discussion."




PUBLIC  WORSHIP.                 235
for a time to overlap the new dispensation; and thus
some peculiar and apparently anomalous results were
produced which must necessarily be taken into consideration.
Hence it was that at the beginning of the Gospel the
Jewish Christians continued to keep their original Sabbath, and therefore no other day of rest was ordered for
them; yet immediately after the resurrection of Christ,
the first day of the week was observed by His disciples
as a day of special and religious interest (John xx.
19, 26).
When Gentile Christians were gathered into the
Church, they were, of course, not commanded to keep
the Jewish Sabbath. They were rather discouraged from
doing so, lest they should make to themselves a mixed
and mongrel religion of Judaism  and Christianity, as
some Gentile Churches in fact began to do. The great
object in dealing with them was to raise their minds to
the purity of the Christian faith out of the carnal, sensuous, formal religionism, which they saw in their own
heathen rites, and in Judaism as then popularly held.
Yet the first day of the week was kept by Gentile
Churches; and it is to its observance among them that
reference is made in the New Testament (Acts xx. 7;
1 Cor. xvi. 2).
If it be thought strange that no more than this is
recorded, let it be remembered that before the Jewish
polity was entirely broken up by the destruction of
Jerusalem, it must have been impossible without some




236           PUBLIC  WORSHIP.
violent disruption to effect a complete change from the
Jewish to the Christian day. But the Gospel in this, as
in some other parts of Christian duty, was to work by
slow but effectual influences, rather than by precise
commands; to establish principles rather than enforce
precepts. And while Christians were a small and feeble
body in the midst of heathen populations, the hindrances
to the observance of any Sabbath at all must have been
so great, that the rule, "I will have mercy and not sacrifice," must have had a very wide application to their
case. For a Sabbath in accordance with the Fourth
Commandment is necessarily a social institution, and
could not well have a place except in a religion which
had to some considerable extent penetrated and coloured
the general life of a community. It could not, therefore,
have appeared at once as an ordinance in Gentile
Churches, even had there been nothing else to hinder its
observance.
With the downfall of the Jewish nation a new and
distinct era in the Church began. Christianity became
formally and fully, "the kingdom of God,"-" the vineyard of the Lord's planting;" and the Christian Sabbath
relieved (so to speak) from the rivalry of the Jewish day,
gained a more decided position in the piety and morals
of the Church. To distinguish it from the Jewish day,
and at the, same time to commemorate our Lord's
resurrection, the first day of the week was permanently
adopted; andlthe manner in which St. John terms it
"The Lord's Day," without a word of explanation or




PUBLIC WORSHIP.                           237
remark, seems to indicate that before the end of the
apostolic age it had become a well-known and acknowledged institution in the Church.
In the second century distinct proofs of the observance of this day are found; and by the end of that
period (and we know  not how  long before), to abstain
from all but necessary work on the Lord's day was considered a religious duty.l
In the reign of Constantine Sunday was recognized by
law as a sacred day, and all public business was ordered
to be suspended.
The celebration of the Christian Sunday was specially
marked  from  the very first by assemblies for divine
" In Pliny's celebrated epistle to  And again, r7 rovo 7liov  seyoTrajan [Ep. x. 96] he reports that,Uv,7  ^jp,   7taovzraov actcrd
the Christians were "soliti stato die  t6Aez5?  (xypov 5,ueYvvrcoV'ti
ante lucem convenire, carmenque  to oard  6viveAevdz5 yiyserz(z.
Christo quasi deo dicere secum in- -~ 87.
vicem," without, however, naming    IrenEeus says, tr Sd   u vpzaLm
the day.,/ iU zXivezv  yovv  dVj,/LjoXov
In the Epistle of Barnabas [A..   edrz er#t T  rdvaroE6.5.-' Fragm.
120-140] it is  said,  zto  xai de Pasch.'
a yo E? v zriV  ruepaV ZTr'V oy6o6vv   Tertullian not only mentions the
Ei5 esvppo6dvrpv  kv   xicZ o  observance of the Lord's day, but'IDr6ovi5 OrdvdT    u   EX espcoV.-  shows thatitwas kept as aSabbath,
~ 15.                            or day of rest.  "Die dominico
Justin Martyr mentions rv de  resurrectionis non ab isto tantum
irXiov,uspcav nozV  dtvTrES   (genu flectendo) sed omni anxietazriv  dv~diev6tv  7rozotVueOOa, tis habitu et officio cavere debemus,
et'-ez6v  tpGcjr iv 6rZ   ##pa, differentes etiam negotia ne quem
kv  6 O     seo? rTO   oTro5 Xaoi z-V  diabololocumdemus."-'DeOrat.'
vr/v rpeba5 x6duoYv eroirde, 23.
xai'I^?76ov Xpz6dro o /Ta'rzepo5   After  Tertullian's  time  the
d6ornp  zp   XvT ar    JE pa  ix  observance of Sundayby Christians
Vexpc3Go  dd6vTr?.-' Apol,' i. 67. is plain and distinct.




238             PUBLIC WORSHIP.
worship and religious instruction; and the notices of it,
which we meet with beyond the limits of the New Testament, show that it was considered a day of joy, all
fasting being then strictly prohibited.' A Jewish rigour
in observing the Christian Sabbath was discouraged in
the early Church.
Some lingering influences of the Jewish Sabbath continued to be felt even in the fourth century in the Eastern
Church, where Saturday was regarded as a religious
festival in commemoration of the creation of the world,
as Sunday commemorated the resurrection of Christ.
But in the West, the Saturday festival was altogether
repudiated as an undesirable remnant of Judaism.
"Die dominico jejunium nefas rv xvpzurxx'v kopTrcierE)   Ot
ducimus, velde geniculisadorare." roz  iv' 6r/JzovpyixS.d riv
-Tert.'De Coron. Milit.' ~ 3.   v7tovruVoa, I  8s dAvaodrdesoG5.
To dfi/$Iarov  tvTroz uai -'Constit. Apost.'vii. 23.




LECTURE VI.
CHRISTIAN BAPTIS M.








VI.
CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.
HE religion of Jesus Christ is emphatically a dispensation of the Spirit. His kingdom is a spiritual
kingdom. His Church in the truest sense-" the Church
which is His body, the fulness of Him that filleth all in
all "-consists of those who are united to Him by no
mere outward forms or symbols of profession, but by a
living faith within, by the power of the Divine Spirit
raising them to the higher life of God's children, and to
the position of citizens of heaven.
And even the visible Christian Church, as the outward
form and exhibition of this spiritual kingdom, so far as it
can be seen, in the world, partakes of this spiritual character; not only in that its genuine power and influence
operate from  within,. and give a manifestation and
organism to the Spirit's invisible presence, but also in
the characteristic absence of divinely appointed rites and
ceremonies, which distinguishes the Christian Church
from the earlier dispensation out of which it grew.
(241)




242         CHRISTIAN  BAPTISM.
It has been already noticed how striking is the contrast between the manner in which the Apostles acted
as the legislators of the Christian Church, and the
method adopted by Moses in his legislation for the
people of Israel. And it may now be further observed
that all the ceremonial and ritual laws of the Jews,
including their priesthood, sacrifices, and purifications,
having been fulfilled and realized in the life, death, and
intercession of Christ, no religious rites whatever were
substituted in their place. And no visible, tangible,
ordinances at all of divine appointment are to be found
in the Christian Church, except the two simple institutions bequeathed by Jesus to His disciples in all future
time, which are now called the Christian Sacraments.
Simple and unobtrusive as these two sacred ordinances
appear in their original institution, they would under any
circumstances have demanded a marked and reverent
attention from their exclusive dignity as the appointments of our Lord. But the manner in which they have
been dealt with by different generations in the Church,
beginning with very early, although not the earliest,
times,-the errors and superstitions, which have been
reared upon them, not wholly demolished and dissipated
even in reformed Churches,-the great influence for
good or evil which sound or unsound dogmatic teaching
respecting them, and a consequent healthy or unhealthy
use of them, has had on Christian communities and their
several members,-and the peculiar tenacity with which
false opinions of this nature seem to adhere to the




CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.                       243
minds of Christian men,-have imparted a sad and painful
interest to the history of the two sacraments. And it is
therefore all the more necessary to consider them with a
careful and grave attention in a review of the Ecclesiastical Polity  of the apostolic  Church;-all the more
necessary to go boldly to the New  Testament; to the
practice and authority  of the Apostles; and with a
devout but determined spirit to enquire from them what
the sacraments of Christ really are to us; and to bid all
inferior teachings and authorities give way before their
instructions as mists before the mid-day sun.
The two sacraments are both alike in this, that they
are outward signs of an inward state;-material symbols
of spiritual operations;-visible means of representing
the invisible blessings which result from union with
Christ, and are bestowed by Him, as the head, upon
His true disciples as members of His body. And in the
intelligent and believing use of these outward signs, presented to the senses, the inward spiritual man has these
invisible blessings assured and imparted to him. They
serve, therefore, to indicate and seal to our consciences
the promises of saving grace in Christ, and also to testify
on our part our faith and dutiful obedience towards God.'
Or, in the words of our twenty-fifth Article, they are
Fr. Turretinus, professor of visibilia divinitusinstituta ad signitheology at Geneva in 1688, whose ficandas et obsignandas conscientiis
works deserve to be less forgotten nostris promissiones gratiae saluthan they are in these days, gives taris in Christo, et nostram vicissim
the following wholesome definition fidem, et pietatem ac obsequium
of the Christian sacraments, which erga Deum contestandam."-Loc.
he says are, "Signa et sigilia sacra xix. Qu. 1, 9.




244          CHRISTIAN  BA' TISM.
"sure witnesses and effectual signs of grace and God's
good will towards us, by the which He doth work invisibly in us, and doth not only quicken, but also
strengthen and confirm our faith in Him.... And in
such only as worthily receive the same they have a
wholesome effect or operation:"
But as with this general resemblance each one of these
sacred ordinances has its own special character and
distinctive meaning, they require to be noticed separately. And the nature and use of baptism, as it is seen
in the Church of the Apostles, may be first considered.
The earliest distinct mention of Christian baptism is
found in the commission given by our Lord to His
Apostles, when not long before His Ascension he bade
them " Go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing
them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of
the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all things,
whatsoever I have commanded you."  The words, indeed, which were spoken by Jesus in His conversation
with Nicodemus in a much earlier part of His ministry,
have been commonly supposed to refer to Christian
baptism, when he said, " Except a man be born of water,
and of the Spirit;" but such reference is by no means
certain. The words probably allude to water as a
common emblem  of the Divine Spirit's operation in
purifying the heart from sin; like the expression in the
fifty-first Psalm: " Wash me, aud I shall be whiter than
snow;" and the emblematical washing of the Apostles'
feet by Jesus at the last supper; and just as the some



CHRISTIAN  BAPTISM.                245
what similar form of words, " He shall baptize you with
the Holy Ghost and with fire," refers to the common
effects of that element as an illustration of the subduing,
softening, kindling influences of the Spirit upon the
naturally hardened heart of man.
The baptism of John, as the harbinger of Christ, was
not Christian baptism, although some of those who had
only been baptized by him seem many years afterwards
to have ranked as Christians.
And even the baptism of some of the professed disciples of Jesus during His ministry on earth, and apparently under His immediate direction, could not have'been a baptism of the same type and significance as
that which the Apostles administered after His Ascension. Christian baptism, in the full meaning of the
words, could not take place until the Apostles began to
gather believers into the visible Church of Christ, and
that, as before shown, was not and could not be done
until Jesus had finished His work on earth, and the
Divine Comforter had been given in His stead.
The words in which our Lord gave His Apostles their
commission to baptize, and which may be regarded as
the institution of this sacrament, express with great
brevity, but with equal distinctness, its position in the
Christian system. And after noticing this, a fuller
explanation of the ordinance, in its administration, significance, efficacy, and special bearing on the Christian
life, may be gathered from the manner in which it seems
to have been used in the ministrations of the Apostles




246           CHRISTIAN BAP TISM.
and early Evangelizers, and from the references which
are made to it in the Epistolary portions of the New
Testament.
It may be at once inferred from  the words of the
original institution that this sacrament was to be an
initiatory rite in the Church.l  It was to be administered
to those who believed in the One God, the Father of
all; who acknowledged Jesus as the Christ, the  Son
of God, the long-promised and now manifested Saviour;
who accepted the doctrine that the Divine Spirit is the
author of holiness in  man, and  would lead them  to
the knowledge and practice of the Christian life; and
who with this amount of understanding and conviction
were desirous to renounce the dominion and deeds of
sin, to become obedient subjects of Christ's spiritual
kingdom, and to join themselves to Him  and to His
Church.  To such persons, their baptism was to be the
sign and seal of their discipleship; and thus to be
the formal evidence of their Christian profession,-their
actual admission into the visible fellowship of the Church;
-the symbol of their union with  Christ and of their
1 The force of Christ's commis- name of the Father, and of the Son,
sion in Matt. xxviii. 19 is somewhat and of the Holy Spirit;" not, of
obscured in our English version course, without some intelligent
from the word uoaQzrev36a-re being apprehension of what the divine
translated "teach." It ought to be, name, and the baptism into it, im"Go and make-disciples-of all the plied; and, secondly, by teaching
nations;" and then follows the those who had been baptized to
mode or process by which such dis- observe all the commandments of
ciples were to be made; namely, Christ.
first, "by baptizing them into the




CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.                 247
participation in the privileges which that union imparts.
And having been thus admitted to this standing-ground
in Christ, they were to make further progress in Christian
knowledge and experience, —to be "taught to observe all
things whatsoever He had commanded them."
And thus it was evident from the first that Christian
baptism, though in its outward form one single act,
represented no single, isolated, state or feeling,-but a
spiritual transaction carried on in the spirit and conscience and then declaring itself externally,-a power
and influence which, from the beginning, attested by the
baptismal rite, was to go on to the end of the inward
Christian life, and be diffused over the whole of it.
Accordingly, on examining the manner in which this
sacrament was used, and the estimation in which it was
held in the Church of the Apostles, we find in the accounts presented by the New Testament an ample
confirmation of the foregoing general view, exhibited
with a considerable variety of details and circumstances.
The Apostles in their preaching,-i. e., in proclaiming
Christ, as the heralds of His kingdom, and offering Him
to the acceptance of men,-pressed home upon the
consciences of their hearers the conviction of sin, a sense
of moral and spiritual deficiency and need; holding out
to them at the same time a confident assurance that God
had sent a Saviour all-sufficient for the deliverance of
man, by believing in whom their sins would be taken
away; and that the sanctifying power of the Holy Spirit
would be imparted to those by whom this Saviour was




248         CHRIS TIAN BA   TISM.
received. To the Jews they pointed out that "Jesus of
Nazareth," whom many of them had known, whom some
of them had persecuted and slain, was the very Christ of
their ancient Scriptures,-the very desire and hope
of their nation. To their Gentile hearers they appealed
on the grounds of common sense, reason, experience, and
natural conscience; and exhorted them to turn from
their senseless and debasing idolatry to the one living
God,-the God of nature and of revealed truth. But
equally upon all they urged the necessity of a change
of mind and thought respecting God and themselves,
and of a new life of privilege and duty in Christ, "testifying both to the Jews and also to the Greeks repentance
towards God, and faith towards our Lord Jesus Christ."
And those who received their words, and voluntarily
professed this repentance and faith, were baptizing in
the divine name and received into Christian fellowship.
The New Testament records no office or religious
service as having been used in the administration of
baptism; nor any particular form  of words for the
Christian profession of those who were baptized. Although at least nine different instances of baptism are
expressly related in the Acts of the Apostles, besides
all the allusions in the Epistles, yet in none of them
is the actual form or manner of the administration given.
The historian seems to have been restrained from giving
any such details, lest a superstitious use should afterwards be made of them. But although in the brevity
of the narrative men are sometimes said to have been




CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.                       249
baptized "in the name of the Lord," or "in the name of
the Lord Jesus," I can see in this no reason for supposing that the formula given by Jesus Himself in Matt.
xxviii. 19, was ever omitted or abbreviated.'
The religious profession of those who were baptized
seems to have been made at first in the simplest manner
possible, and without any particular form of words. In
the course of no long time, however, it would naturally
come to pass, and would be found convenient, that there
should be some acknowledged modes of expressing the
requisite repentance and faith on the part of the baptized,
though these modes might differ in different Churches.
And it is not impossible that the "answer of a good
conscience towards God," in 1 Pet. iii. 21, may show that
the custom had already begun of asking the candidate
for baptism  certain questions, by his answers to which
his profession was declared.  At a later period the principal articles of the Christian faith received a definite
expression under ecclesiastical authority, and were comprised in short and convenient summaries.  Different
Churches then had their respective creeds, expressing
1 The notion that the formula of be destitute of all solid foundation.
baptism in the name of the Father, That such expressions as being
Son, and Holy Spirit is not the baptized "in the name of the Lord
oldest, but that there was a shorter Jesus " referred to no other formula
form, more anciently employed, in than that in Matt. xxviii. is evident
the name of Christ alone, has been from the circumstances connected
held by some modern authorities. with those persons who had only
[See Neander's'Church History,' received the "baptism of John,"
vol. i. p. 423; and'Hist. of the and, consequently, had not heard
Planting,' &c. vol. i. p. 222.] But of the Holy Spirit. See Acts xix.
this supposition appears to me to 1-5.




250             CHRISTIAN BAPTISMI.
the same truths in different words, until after the union
of the Church with  the Empire one acknowledged and
authorized form was at length generally adopted.'
As the Apostles authorized no  XetpodS eitayez T rFpyopc TOVrY
summary of Christian doctrine, the  2t6yov, ao2pzep6d5 r.  Oe eo rdv
creeds which afterwards appeared  d6oljzar-tGo  ov Irapovro. Gregrew up by degrees, and additional gory then considered himself orarticles were formularized accord- dained; but being at a loss to know
ing to the convenience and discre- what was the true Catholic faith,
tion of the Churches.  Nothing, free from  heretical errors, the
however, that can be called a creed  Virgin Mary and the Apostle John
appears in any author of the second  appeared to him as he lay awake at
century. In the third some traces night; when the Apostle, at her
or elements of creeds are seen; and  request, communicated to him this
Cyprian mentions (Ep. 76, ad Mag- Creed, which he immediately wrote
num), that Novatian professed to  down and preserved.-Greg. Nyss.
use the same creed as he himself vol. iii. p. 546.
did: eodem  symbolo, quo et nos,   In the fourth century a number
baptizare. Creeds were then taught of different creeds are found, those
to catechumens in the form  of of the eastern Churches nearly requestions and answers, which were  sembling the form of the Nicene
used at their baptism; only one of Creed, while that of Rome, and
these, however, is given by Cyp- other western Churches, was the
rian: Oredis remissionem peccato- same as our "Apostles' Creed;"
rum, et vitam ceternam, per sanctam  the oldest form, however, omits the
ecclesiam.                        articles, "He descended into hell,"
A creed, said to have been used  and "the life everlasting," with
by Gregory Thaumaturgus, Bishop  some other words.
of Neo-Caesarea (A. D. 250), is the    This Roman Creed not having
earliest recorded example of such a  been drawn up by any council, or
formula, if its date can be relied  having any precise date, gave occaupon. It does not appear, however, sionto legendary traditions respectuntil a hundred years later, when  ing it. It was called the Apostles'
it is given by his biographer, Gre- Creed; then a tradition was inventgory Nyssen; who relates, in con- ed that it had been composed by all
nection with it, a marvellous story, the Apostles, who met together for
to the effect that Thaumaturgus was that purpose: " Duodecim Apostoordained, against his will, by Phae- lorum symbolo sanctafides concepta
dimus, Bishop of Amasea, who  est, qui velut periti artifices in
laid his words upon him, in his unumconvenientes clavemsuo conabsence, instead of his hands, cavri silio conflaverunt, clavem  enim




CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.                       251
Christian baptism  being thus given upon a personal
profession of repentance or renunciation of sin, of belief
in Christ as the Saviour, and of a desire and determination to live the Christian life,-and being a solemn dedication of the baptized believer to God, as revealed in the
person of Christ, and acting by His Spirit,-its obvious
significance pointed out the free gift of Christian grace
and blessing on the part of the Heavenly Father, and
the full surrender of himself to the divine will and
guidance on the part of the baptized.  And, consequently, the fact that persons had been baptized is in
the New  Testament often referred to, both  as indicating their privileged position, and as reminding them
of their serious obligation to live in a manner not unworthy of it.  All baptized persons are spoken of as true
disciples of Christ, until the contrary is known to be the
case.  This, however, even in the New Testament Church,
is only the judgment of charity,-the judgment of man.
It does not appear that the earliest Evangelizers-not
even the Apostles themselves, except on rare occasionspossessed any supernatural discernment of men's inner
character, whereby they could infallibly distinguish a
true from a false disciple, either before or after his
baptism.  They judged of converts as we must judge;
quandamipsum symbolum dixerim, tie, as his contribution to the
perquodreserantur diabolitenebrae Creed. "Petrus dixit, credo in
ut lux Christi adveniat."-Am- Deum, patrem   omnipotentem;
brose, vol. iii. Serm. 38. And Johannes dixit, creatorem coeli et
then, farther, it was divided into terrae," &c. -Augustin, vol. x.
twelve articles, each one of which'Serm. de Temp.' 115.
was ascribed to a particular Apos



2 52            CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.
at first by a credible profession, and afterwards by their
life and conduct.  Thus the three thousand on the day
of Pentecost were admitted  at once into the Church
without any further probation, in reliance on the prdfession which they then made; and many other examples
in the Acts of the Apostles testify to the same practice.'
But when baptized  and professing  Christians proved
themselves unworthy of their name, they were addressed
in the plainest words of reproof or condemnation. They
were told that "they had neither part nor lot in the
matter;" they were denounced as " enemies of the cross
of Christ;" and as those who were " drawing back into
perdition."
1 There is no trace in the apostolic clearly separating them from the
age of the class of persons, after- "faithful," i. e. the baptized:
wards called Catechumens, who were  "Quis catechumenus, quis fidelis,
kept for a considerable time under incertum   est:  pariter  adeunt,
Christian instruction and discipline  pariter audiunt, pariter orant."before they were allowed to be bap-' De prescript." ~ 41. Tertullian
tized. Such a period of probation  also calls them "audientes."
was less needed at the first, when   In Origen's time the catechumens
the abundant effusion of the Spirit were divided into two classes, the
was at its height, and when the audientes or (xpocGi3uevoz,   and the
stigma which attached to the Chris- more advanced, or "catechumens
tian name deterred unworthy and  proper," called also genuflectentes,
wavering professors. But, after- as they were permitted to join in a
wards, when lower motives could portion of the prayers.  Orig.'C.
easily prevail, and especially in  Cels.' iii. ~ 51.
times when persecution slept, or   In the fourth century they were
had lost its power, it might well be  divided into three, or sometimes
found expedient to test a convert's four classes, and were subjected to
knowledge and sincerity before his a course of discipline for two or
admission into the Church.       three years-a discipline marked
Catechumens are first mentioned  with a large amount of the mystery
as a distinct class by Tertullian, and superstition which aboundedin
who blames certain heretics for not the Church system of that century.




CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.                       253
The efficacy of Christian baptism in the apostolic age,
or the nature of the religious state and its consequent
privileges into which the baptized were brought, may
be fully learned from  the various notices respecting
it, which are scattered throughout the New Testament.
Baptism is nowhere in the sacred record declared in
express terms to be the Sacrament or sign of Regeneration;  yet there can be no reasonable doubt that such
words as "the washing of regeneration" (Tit. iii. 5),
imply this connection between baptism  and the new,
spiritual life that is in Christ, as does also the assertion
that " Christ loved the Church, and gave Himself for it,
that He might sanctify it by cleansing it with the
washing of the water by the word" (Eph. v. 26). Besides
this, the same connection is clearly implied, though in a
different form of words, in those passages which describe
the baptized as thereby brought into union with Christ,
the fountain and source of the new spiritual life; as we
find in such  texts as "Through faith ye are all the
children of God in Christ Jesus; for as many of you as
were baptized into Christ, put on Christ " 2 (Gal. iii. 27);
and "buried with Him  in your baptism, in which ye
X I do not give here the text, "Ex- other verses of a similar kind, is
cept a man be born of water and of partially lost in our English version
the Spirit," because, as mentioned from a mistranslation of the Greek
before, I do not think it at all tenses;'6doz Ei5 Xptdzrodv tea7tcertain that these words refer to rid60r8e, Xpi6dov  VE8V6da608e,
baptism.  Those who are con- must mean, "as many of you as
vinced that they do will, of course, were baptized into Christ, put on
use them in that connection.   Christ" at the time, and by the
2 The force of this, and some act, of your baptism.




254          CHRISTIAN  BAPTISM.
were also raised up with Him, through your faith in the
operation of God." (Col. ii. 12.) While in other passages particular blessings which follow from this union,
and belong to the regenerate state,  such as the
forgiveness of sins, the gift of the Holy Spirit, fellowship with the Church of Christ,-are spoken of as the
direct results of the believer's baptism. Thus we read,
" Repent and be baptized, every one of you, in the name
of Jesus Christ, for the remission of sins, and ye shall
receive the gift of the Holy Ghost" (Acts ii. 38); "Arise
and be baptized, and wash away thy sins" (Acts xxii.
16); "By one Spirit we are all baptized into one body"
(1 Cor. xii. 13). And we find the whole summed by
St. Peter in one bold assertion, " That baptism doth save
us."  (1 Pet. iii.1.)
And finally, even in what may be called the moral or
practical application of the subject, in appeals to baptized
persons to live the life of godliness, the same view of
baptism is involved; as we see in St. Paul's forcible
enquiry, "How shall we, who died to sin, live any longer
therein? know ye not that so many of us as were baptized into Jesus Christ, were baptized into His death;
that, like as Christ was raised from the dead by the
glory of the Father, even so we also should walk in newness of life " (Rom. vi. 2).
If, therefore, those who repent and believe in Jesus are
declared in Scripture to be by their baptism baptized
into Christ, to put on Christ, to be buried and raised
up with Him, to wash away their sins, to have the




CHRIST1AN  BAPTISM.                 255
washing of regeneration, to receive the Holy Spirit,
and to be saved, there is surely a sound and Scriptural
sense in which we may speak of " Baptismal Regeneration," and call baptism the Sacrament of the New Birth
in Christ.
But now having shown in what strong terms the New
Testament speaks of Christian Baptism,-terms which
some good men scarcely know  how to receive as
applicable to an ordinance of outward action and
material elements,-it is necessary, in the cause of truth
and for a right understanding of the subject, to consider
under what circumstances, and with what qualifications,
if any, such words were used.  It is necessary to ask,
How, or in what sense, does baptism  save us?  How
can it be said to unite us to Christ, wash away our sins,
and obtain for us those powers and privileges of the
spiritual life which in Scripture language are connected
with it?
And then it may be at once replied that all this
is affirmedBecause Christian Baptism is the visible symbol of the
invisible operation of the Divine Spirit, who alone is the
efficient cause and real author of the new life in the
spirit of man.
And because his baptism is the outward exhibition of
a believer's repentance, whereby he forsakes sin; and of
his faith, whereby he lays hold on Christ, and on God's
promises in Him.
Hence the ascribing to the baptismal ordinance all




256           CHRIS TIAN BAPTISM.
that is ascribed to it in Holy Writ, is only a particular
instance of the general fact that in Scripture language
a single part of a complex action, and even that part
which is the most obvious to the senses, is often mentioned for the whole of it; and thus in this case the
whole of the solemn transaction is designated by the
external symbol.l
Besides this, it should be distinctly marked, first, that
whatever efficacy is ascribed to baptism as a divinelyappointed ordinance, the sacred writers are careful to
make it plain, that it is by no power or virtue, natural
or supernatural, in the water and its application, that
the ascribed effects are produced. For if they assure us
that "as many as were baptized into Christ, put on
Christ," they omit not to declare that it is "through
faith " that " all are the children of God in Christ Jesus,"
that it is " by one Spirit" that " we are baptized into one
body."  It is "in the name of the Lord Jesus," and "by
the Spirit of ourG  God," that sinful men "are washed,
sanctified, and justified."  The "washing of regeneration" is "the renewing of the Holy Ghost."
And, secondly, it should be distinctly marked that the
persons, whom their baptism is said to have cleansed
from sin, to have sanctified and saved, were those who
gladly received the Gospel word, who confessed their
In a similar manner, the whole bread;" and the whole transaction
ordinance of the other srcrament is in the ordination of ministers is
expressed by simply naming the termed "the imposition of hands."
visible action of "breaking the




CHRISTIAN  BAPTISM.                 257
sins, and who believed in Christ. They were at any rate
those who, as far as man could see, made an honest profession of repentance and faith; who consequently in the
economy of the apostolic age, as in all subsequent times,
were spoken of on this hypothesis, and so far as this hypothesis was realised, as being what they credibly professed
to be, and who on the ground of such profession were received into the communion of the Church. And thus St.
Peter in affirming that baptism saves us, immediately adds
that it is not "the putting away of the filth of the flesh,"
the mere application of water to the body,-" but the
answer of a good conscience towards God;" the inward
state of the baptized corresponding with the outward
appearance; the belief of the heart with the profession
of the lips. Thus, too, whatever the inspired writers
affirm of the effects of baptism, they take care to' make
it plain that the fruits of the Spirit are the only certain
proof of the Spirit's presence and exerted power; and
that no act previously performed, no privileges once
received, can be allowed as evidence, when these fruits
are absent from those in whom they ought to appear.
"As many as are led by the Spirit of God, they are the
sons of God."  "He that is born of God doth not commit sin,"-" believeth that Jesus is the Christ,"-and
"overcometh the world."
And what still further shows that it was only as a
visible symbol of invisible realities, that baptism is said
to have had any power, is the complete omission in the
New Testament of everything which could lead to the
17




258          CHRISTIAN  BAPTISM.
supposition that there was any virtue inherent in the rite
itself, or the visible element which it employed. In the
Churches of the Apostles there was no consecration of
the baptismal water to intimate that some mystical
power was imparted to it.  A pool or stream in any
place was a sufficient baptistery.  Nor was there
any thought of sacramental grace dependent on the act
and office of the officiating minister, or of any power in
him to impart it by his ministrations.  The Apostles
seem to have purposely guarded against all such notions;
when even on the important occasion of the baptism
of Cornelius, which formed a distinct epoch in the early
history of the Church, Peter did not administer the
ordinance himself; and when Paul informed the Corinthians that he had "not been sent to baptize, but to
preach the Gospel," and considered it a cause of thankfulness that he had himself baptized very few of his
converts in that city.
It only remains to be observed that baptism in the
primitive Church was evidently administered by immersion of the body in the water,-a mode which added
to the significance of the rite, and gave a peculiar force
to some of the allusions to it. But in the absence of all
commands on the subject, this mode of administration
cannot justly be considered as essential to the ordinance,
or a deviation from it as detrimental to its validity.
And thus on looking at the general bearing of this
Sacrament upon the religious life of the apostolic times,
we see that without savouring of formalism, or en



CHRISiTIAN  BAPTISM.                 259
couraging a vain reliance on the "bodily exercise"
of ceremonial acts, it served to impress the minds of
converts with a happy assurance of their union with
Christ in the covenant of grace;-to teach them  that
they had not merely received a new creed, but had
entered upon a new 1ife under the guidance of the HIoly
Spirit; and to remind them continually that they had
enlisted in Christ's spiritual army for a holy warfare
against self and sin, and were to remain His faithful
soldiers and servants unto their life's end.
And the simple grandeur of this view and use of
Christian baptism, which  marked  the earliest age,
reverently honouring the outward act as a divine appointment, without allowing it to overshadow, or take
the place of, the inner spirit of the ordinance, continued
to the middle of the second century with little alteration;
except that even then there appears some slight tendency
to dwell more strongly upon the outward rite, and to
speak of it more positively as if it were in itself a direct
cause of the inward and spiritual blessings sacramentally
connected with it.
Thus Ignatius, in his short notice of baptism in his
Epistle to Polycarp (~ 3), connects it immediately with
the faith, love, and patience of the Christian; putting
these Christian graces as the component parts, so to
speak, of the baptism itself. His words are, r6 fiaorzduao
Vjuc3V uVjere'O c cS O7C;l'r nidLrzs cGs 7EpznePa2Laia, v7 aay'o(r
co5 o6pv, n vooovr Gc t(xavoztXia. Where having called
baptism  the Christian's armour, he enumerates, Us




260         CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.
different parts of that armour, his faith, love, and
patience.
From Justin Martyr's account of the administration of
baptism in his time we learnThat there was still no special class of catechumens
undergoing a long probation; but those who received
the Christian doctrines, repented of their sins, and promised to live the Christian life, were thereupon baptized.
That the candidates for baptism were taught to pray
for the forgiveness of their past transgressions, the
Christians, into  whose community they were to be
admitted, joining with them in these devotions.
That they were then led to some water, in which they
were baptized by immersion, without any consecration
of the element, or any ceremony implying the existence
of a mystical virtue in it.
That this baptism was distinctly called their regeneration. " They are brought," says Justin, " where there is
water, and are regenerated in the same manner as we
ourselves also were regenerated."
That the baptized were considered to have obtained
the remission of sins and other spiritual blessings in the
water, because there was invoked over them the name of
God the Father and Lord of all things, and of Jesus
Christ, who was crucified under Pontius Pilate, and of
the Holy Spirit, who proclaimed beforehand by the prophets all the things concerning Jesus.
That this baptism was also called their " illumination,"




CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.                           261
because those who learned  the  truths of Christianity
had their minds thereby enlightened.
And  that the newly-baptized persons were at once
received into the Christian congregation, and were welcomed with the kiss of peace and brotherhood.l
But by the beginning of the third century a decided
change had taken place both in the views which were
entertained of this sacrament, and in the manner of its
administration; —a change which increased in intensity
during that century, and in the course of the following
age advanced so far, that the simple apostolic rite can
Justin.'Apolog.' i. "Odot (xv  roi3dr 6vpO'evro5 Ezi llovriov
te6zdc606z Mai tzdrez6tJov6z1 a70t~  Hz2A(orov,  aoi  i7t' Ovotaro5
ovroaa   vra TP j"  rcav &z6a6xuc- Ilrevcitaro cxyiov, 5o &zd rcGV
uievLa xiai XeyotALevo eazvrz, Zai  tpocq7rcV 7poexpve rd Xara
fizoi  oUv'rcS  sv'Va60azt V71- r6o'I6dotyv 7ravrax, o pcorz)TZ6dXvcraz, ev6xe6Oai  re  xai uievos  oTveraz.-~ 80.
acirezv vrd6revov'Sre5 tapd ro1v    And,'H/teiS  3 /terda rT  o('zrco5
@eo3v  Tvr   7tpor77itprrvL,#i'cov  Xov6ta r6ov 7tE7rez6)t'vov urai
cPedz6'v  zcIadX5ovYZraz,  tUcoV 6vyZraree/ju7,vov  E7'ri Tov35
6vvevXodivcov xai 6vvvd6rev-  leyotuicovS ax6elpovS aivolev,
yrcov' avrroz'''ztezroa ayovrcraz'vOa 6vvvyuevozt eidi nozv'OS
Vz3q' 1tcGO'V'evOa Vdcop Edri, uazi EvsxdiOS roz6djo'evoz   VtSzp re
rpodtov dvaye'~vv,,6eGco, o'v xUi  Cevrcav nxi roiv t pcorO ZSO ro5.
r/~eT  acUroi oveyevvritesv,..'AXXUiRovs   zrtaartz iX^6ra6cdVayeyVVGVcra't,) fTr' Odv rofS,uOa 7tZavdaievoz rcvy eVXci.
ydp Tro  Ilarpod reOV JaGcov xcai -~ 85.
edrdt6rov ~)eov, Xai ro7Ziorij-    The term  "enlightened,"  or
po5 r^,uGo'h17ov~ Xpzdroiv, ucai "illuminated," as applied to the
llHevruazro5 dxyiov, ro6 E  rTO baptized, seems to be so far of aposv6arz rTr T  Xovrpov Trozovvraz. tolic authority, that it is used in
-~ 79.                           the Epistle to the Hebrews of those
Again, KaX5craz 6&  rovro ro  who had become Christians, though
Xovrpodv pcorz6Tu, 53S qpcorzlo- their baptism is not there expressly
ttVV r  r 8Izlaozaiv rTGyv raV- mentioned:  tra  pGcorz6zdOTvaS —
rar  ta(xvOavovTrGov.   xai r7e' vi. 4; v er ai cpcorz6d'vre5-x. 32.
ovo'd/aro5 dT'I76oe  Xpz6rov




262            CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.
scarcely be recognized in the elaborate ceremonial which
then prevailed, and which more resembled the practices
observed in heathen mysteries, than a hallowed ordinance in the Christian Church'.
During this period, the Catechumenate was established  as a distinct and acknowledged order in the
Christian economy, with its several ranks or subdivisions; and candidates were introduced into it with a
religious ceremony, which was said to make them  Clhristians, although they had not yet been baptized, and had
made no profession of the Christian faith.
In this order they usually continued for two years,
or more,-passing through several stages of probationary
discipline with numerous symbolical rites,-and receiving
successive communications of Christian doctrines, gradually and somewhat mysteriously imparted to them.
Before their baptism, the candidates were anointed
with a holy oil, which had been consecrated by a bishop,
and which was supposed to have thereby had a supernatural power communicated to it to act as an exorcism,
and to expel the evil spirit from the soul.l
1 Catechumens were admitted by -Can. 39.  And, again, with
imposition of hands, the sign of the reference to a catechumen who
cross, and prayers; and this was might have indefinitely delayed his
said to make them Christians, though baptism, "Si eum de clero quisonly in an inferior sense. Thus, quamcognoverit esse Christianum."
the Council of Eliberis (A. D. 305) — Can. 65. And so, also, the
directed that,' Gentiles si in infir- Council of Constantinople (A. D.
mitate desideraverint sibi manum  381), speaking of the reception of
imponi, si fuerit eorum ex aliqua heretics into the Church, says, rvf
parte vita honesta, placuit iis  rpa3r77Vp  rUsdp  itozoivja
manum imponi etfieri Christianos." azVrous  XptdrizvovS  r'v 8e




CHRISTIA N BA P TISi.                       263
The baptism itself was performed with a dramatic
ceremonial, made as imposing  as possible, and  every
action  invested  with  an  esoteric meaning.  And  the
immersion took place in  a baptistery, where the water
was solemnly consecrated by calling upon the Divine
Spirit to descend into it, and by pouring upon it in the
form of a cross some of the holy ointment, which like
the anointing oil had received a spirit-imparting virtue
from a bishop's hands. And the people were then taught
that an actual objective change was thus wrought in the
water itself-a change so distinctly acknowledged as to
be called by the name of "transelementation,"' giving to
8evrepacrv    arvXovEvovv.-  sessed of such power that it not
Can. 7.                          only destroyed all traces of sins,
After their admission, the cate- but also drove out all the unseen
chumens were disciplined by exer- powers of the evil one: EZTrX
cises of fasting, abstinence, confes- OnoSvOevrieS   ai.ci ~7ijiei(p6Oe
sion, and penitence.  They were E&7opxzY6T     C dit' iX pov  rpzxC
taught the words of some creed,'Coo vZGOV xOtZco..... O,etOpand of the Lord's Prayer, and the xz6Td6  TOVTozo Xxzov  E7tiZAn6dZ
answers which they were to make  tzov  @)sov  oai ev'X  8 x&vauzv
at their baptism.                rizxarvi TrVv  2ait13Cdvet, c6tre
They had performed upon them  oi' #civov  xa'ov zrc i vY   rc-GY
the symbolical ceremonies of veil- dtaCprU-ctd rGov  (xsotovMa(ipez,
ing the head, breathing into the  aX22Ld acri tadca5o aoporov5 rovc
nostrils, touching the ears, signing  7tovYopov  xSziGxe.V TdcS 68vv(with the cross, giving them salt to,tsz. —' Catech. Mystag.' ii. 3.
taste, and, lastly and especially,   Just before they were baptized,
the anointing of the whole body  they stood with outstretched hands
with the holy oil, in order to drive in the porch of the church, and,
out demons.                      turning to the west, renounced the
This anointing is not mentioned  devil and his works.
by Tertullian; and probably was'The consecration of the bapnot used in his time; but Cyril of tismal water.
Jerusalem (A. D. 350) describes it,   Tertullian says, "Aqum sacraand says that this holy oil was pos- mentum   sanctificationis  conse



264             CHRISTIAN BAP TISM.
it a sanctifying power that by its own inherent efficacy
it might wash away the sins of the baptized.
The  due  effect of  the  baptismal rite was further
represented  as depending  upon  the  person  who performed it.  The visible orthodox Church, concentrated
in its respective bishops, was the sole depository of
spiritual life and blessing: and its ministers were priests
possessed, as its delegates, of a sacerdotal power, and
alone enabled thereby to  confer divine grace through
the medium  of the sacraments.'
quuntur, invocato Deo, supervenit is distinctly  expressed in  the
enim statinz Spiritus de coelis et aquis above quotations from Tertullian,
superest, sanctificans eas de semet and the'Constitutiones Apostoipso; et ita sanctificate vim sancti- lice.'  Cyprian uses similar lanficandi combibunt."-' De Bapt.' 4.  guage: " Oportet mundari et sanctiA form for this consecration is ficari aquam prius a sacerdote, ut
given in the'Constit. Apostol.': possitbaptismo suopeccata hominis,
KdrOz6e E  ov;pavoov, xi dCyiL-  qui baptizatur, abluere."-Epist. 70
dov rT  V'Scop  TOViro, 8665      ad Janum.
Xdpz'v xai 6;s'auzv  (give it grace    The  transelementation  of the
and power) Gc6TrE r6ov fjaTrrZo- water is affirmed by Cyril of AlexEVOV sCcar' E'vroXrv, roV Xpz-  andria (A. D 410): z/d riS TOVi
6rovi dov, cu3VT  6v6raxvpscOi - l svEvuarTOS  vEpyilx5S ro adiOr/varz,)  ai dvvaoetoOauezvV  ui ZsTO v8, lWp Opdgi eiZLxV fZl,  (xiL
6vvTTax9pvta, Mtai 6adnvaoot6ri-  aTrtpproTo'U ea  6ra   ozx e  o.-'az, et5 vioOediav.-vii. 44.     Ta l  Svzvatvzv,  diyzdgez  sr
The pouring of the ointment on  Xoztodv tOViS V oi5 asV yevozro.
the water in the form of a cross is -'In Johann.' iii. 5.
mentioned by Dionysius (about the' That a visible orthodoxchurch,
fourth century): Dzo jari s rov~  in  communion with its regular
f3atrfz'i(xtaro XoLptS reTtezoTVrYt bishop, alone possessed, and could
8iz  TOV Avzipov 6ravpoeizc65  through its ministers impart, spiTrzXeoUdevov rG  /3atrzt6rTrpilc  ritual grace in baptism, is distinct7trpd   z ov'IepapXov.-' Eccles. ly declared and dwelt upon by CyHierarch.' iv. 10.               prian in his contests with NovaThe inherent power of the water  tian and his followers; and also on
thus consecrated to wash away sin  the question about the rebaptiza



CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.                         265
Thus baptism, throughout its whole ceremonial, wore
the appearance of an initiation into some of those secret
mysteries, which were familiar to the pagan mind; nor
was such an idea discouraged by the greatest teachers of
the time.  The highest spiritual blessings were supposed
to be conferred not only ex opere operato by the outward
rite, but even by the inherent virtue of the water, the
power of the priest, and the gift of the Church. And
being regarded on the one hand as absolutely necessary
for the salvation of all, and on the other hand as a complete deliverance from, and obliteration of, all past sins,
which could never afterwards be so effectually obtained,
the whole ordinance was surrounded with an atmosphere
of awe  and  superstitious reverence, encouraging the
notion in some minds that they might come to it as a
species of magic rites which could annihilate sin; and in
others that it was better to defer their baptism as long
tion of heretics. Thus, "Quum  quse oves faciat."-Ep. 71.
dicunt, Credis remissionem pecca-   So far, indeed, does Cyprian
torum et vitam  eternam per sane- carry his" High Churchism"-puttam ecclesiam, mentiuntur in in- ting, in fact, his own visible comterrogatione, quando non habeant munity in the place of Christ himsanctam ecclesiam. Tune delude  self,-that, notwithstanding  the
quum  voce sua ipsi confitentur high estimation in which marremissionem  peccatorum non dari tyrdom was then held, as a merit
nisi per sanctam  ecclesiam posse, which covered all other defects and
quam  non habent, ostendunt re- sins, he affirms that those who died
mitti illic peccata non posse."- for the name of Christ were not
Epist. 76, ad Magnum. Against at all benefited by it, unless they
the baptism  of the Novationists. were in full communion with the
And on  the necessity  of not orthodox Church, and that their
acknowledging heretical baptism, death was no martyrdom  at all.
"Baptizandus est ut ovis fiat quia  "An secum esse Christum quum
una est aqua in Ecclesia sancta, collecti fuerint opinantur, qui extra




266            CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.
as possible, lest by subsequent sins its blessed effects
might be irrevocably lost.'
The miserable demoralisation, produced by such doctrines and their natural consequences, scarcely needs to
be pointed out.
These sad departures from apostolic practice are said
to have arisen from the circumstance that the Christian
sacraments and other religious services being originally
so few and simple, with no imposing ceremonies, sacriChristi ecclesiamcolliguntur. Tales and, moreover, as sin after baptism
etiam si occisi in confessione nominis could be expiated, if at all, only in
fuerint, macula ista nec sanguine  the precarious and painful methods
abluitur..... esse Martyr non  of penance, which expiatory process
potest, qui in ecclesia non est."-  itself might be cut short by death,
Cyp.'de Unit. Eccles.'          having no remedy whatever;-the
The general opinion on this sub- safer course, though a perilous one,
ject in the following century may  was to hold in reserve to the last,
be summed up in one line of and trusting to good fortune, that
Pacian's (A. D. 370), "Sic generat one remedy, concerning the efficacy
Christus in ecclesia per sues sacer- of which no doubt could be enterdotes."-' Serm. de Bapt.'       tained. This course, moreover,
1 "The custom, general as it had a further recommendation incibecame, of deferring baptism to the dentally attached to it, namely,
last hour, a custom  so utterly  that with the sovereign remedy still
opposed to the practice of the apos- untouched and at hand, a man
tolic age, whence did it arise, but might meantime live as he pleased;
from the doctrine of the Church at only let him be so fortunate at the
the time?  For the people esti- last as to have a kind priest within
mating, if we may so speak, their call, and all would be right!
chances of heaven, all things con-   "In vain the great preachers of
sidered, concluded, and not un- theNicene age spent their eloquence
reasonably, that although in doing  in denouncing this impiety. Men
so they incurred the fearful risk of coolly made their calculations, and
meeting death suddenly, or where  chose to abide by what they felt
the'regenerating water' could  to be their better chance." —'Annot be obtained; yet inasmuch as cient Christianity'(by Isaac Taylor)
a death-bed initiation, if it could  p. 247.
but be had, would cover all defects;




CHRIS TIAN  BAPTISM.               267
fices, and temples, the Christian teachers endeavoured to
set them off by magnificent names,-by involving them
in mystery,-and by adding to them as large a number
of symbolical rites as possible, lest they should be despised for their simplicity and plainness; for which reason
also many things were hidden at first from  the catechumens, in order to increase their veneration by the
concealment, and to make even their curiosity a spur to
their religion.
This doubtless in some cases was the truth; but the
causes of the change must be traced to a deeper source,
and to principles of a wider operation. Arising out of
the midst of Judaism and surrounded by pagan religions,
Christianity was continually exposed to evil influences
from them both. The former was constantly striving, as
long as it had any power or life, to thrust or insinuate
its observances into the Church, notwithstanding the
unanimous sentence of the Apostles at Jerusalem. The
latter was everywhere present, and while its grosser
abominations were repudiated, some feelings and sentiments, which it produced or fostered, were not without
their influence upon the Christian mind.
Now while Christianity, as established by the Apostles,
was essentially a religion of the heart and spirit, exerting
its power within, and acting from within so far as any
outward display was needed; —popular Judaism on the
contrary, and all the denominations of paganism, were
religions of outward exhibition, appealing to the bodily
senses, and acting from without upon the inner man, so




268          CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.
far as they acted inwardly at all. And then, as what is
called the religious instinct in man tends naturally to
make religion a thing of visible and sensuous forms;neither Jewish nor Gentile converts could at once emancipate their minds from this inveterate tendency, but
carried a portion of it with them into the Christian body,
to spread and operate there; while the modes of thought
outside the Church, if they had any influence at all, must
have conduced to the same effect. After the departure
of the Apostles, and when Christianity was extended
more and more throughout the Roman Empire, this evil
leaven spread itself more widely and with less restraint,
although the vitality of the sound apostolic doctrine
held out against it for a considerable time.
Then too, the rise and growth of the Gnostic philosophy, to which we have traced the pernicious and
ungodly asceticism  which so greatly prevailed in the
Church, operated also on another side in strengthening
these Jewish and pagan influences. For if Gnosticism
by its notion that sin was especially connected with
matter and animal life, led to the exaltation of the factitious holiness of bodily macerations,-its principles
equally encouraged a belief that sin might be expelled
by bodily appliances, and justified an exaggerated estimate of all material and palpable ceremonies. And
these Gnostic principles, infecting as they did more or
less perceptibly the heads and leaders of the Church,l
1 "The ancient Church, coming aid of any experience, into contact
as it did, suddenly and without the with the most prodigious evils, at




CHRISTIANI BAPTISM.                         269
made them  ready to encourage rather than to oppose
the growing errors of the popular theology.
From  these causes there was born and developed in
the Christian body " an undue estimation of externals."
The conception of the Church, and of everything belonging to it, was thrown outwards. The whole current of
ecclesiastial feeling, thought, and expression set strongly
in the same direction; and the whole system was modified accordingly.
Hence the visible Church was advanced to an eminence not its own, and was almost deified.  From it the
communion of the Holy Spirit with all his gifts was
declared to be first derived, and through its ministrations
alone to be imparted to men.
Hence, instead of a Christian Ministry of the apostolic
type and age, a priesthood after the Jewish or heathen
once imparted an  impulse, and  and with a violent revulsion it disadmitted an impulse... Did Chris- torted its own principles of virtue
tianity encounter the rigid, punc- in an  equally  extreme degree.
tilious, and self-righteous pietism  Finally, did the religion of the
of the Jews? In the collision the New Testament, rational, spiritual,
Judaism of those who of the He- pure, confront the degrading subrew race embraced the Gospel perstitions of the pagan world?
gave way to some extent, and was It did so, and on this ground,
Christianised;  and, in  return, while it bore a clear testimony
Christianity was Judaised. Or did  against the  doctrine  and  the
it meet the vain philosophy and  flagitious practice of polytheism,
platonism of the speculative Greek  yet it merged itself in the boundand Gnostic? It did so; and pla- less superstition of the times as a
tonism and Christianity thencefor- system of fear, spiritual servitude,
ward were intimately commingled. formality,  scrupulosity,  visible
Did it impinge upon human soci. magnificence of worship, mystery,
ety, then debauched in a most artifice, and juggle."-'Ancient
extraordinary degree? It did so; Christianity,' p. 130.




270         CHRISTIAN  BAPTISM.
model was set up, and sacerdotal powers and functions
were ascribed to it.
Hence the beautifully simple and spiritual ordinances
of the sacraments were similarly dealt with; and baptism loaded with imposing ceremonies, was represented
as having in its visible form and material elements a
supernatural power imparted to them by the Church for
regenerating the believer, and as being absolutely necessary for such regeneration.
So far the sacrament of baptism has been considered in
connection " with a conscious entrance on Christian communion,"-as administered therefore only to adults; but it
is now necessary to notice it also with reference to infants.
For myself I desire to express my entire assent to the
words of our twenty-seventh Article, "The baptism of
young children is in any wise to be retained in the
Church, as most agreeable with the institution of Christ."
But, at the same time, notwithstanding all that has been
written by learned men upon this subject, it remains indisputable that infant-baptism is not mentioned in the
New Testament. No instance of it is recorded there;no allusion is made to its effects;-no directions are
given for its administration.
However reasonably we may be convinced that we
find in the Christian Scriptures " the fundamental idea
from which infant-baptism was afterwards developed,"
and by which it may now be justified; it ought to be
distinctly acknowledged that it is not an apostolic




CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.                           27I
ordinance.  Like modern  Episcopacy, it is an ecclesiastical institution legitimately deduced by Church authority
from apostolic principles, but not apostolic in its actual
existence.
There is no trace of it until the last part of the second
century, when a passage is found in Irenaeus, which may
possibly-and only possibly-refer to it.  Nor is it anywhere distinctly mentioned before the time of Tertullian,
who, while he testifies to the practice, was himself rather
opposed to it.' As an established order of the Church,
therefore, it belongs to the third century, when its use,
and the mode of its administration, and the whole theory
of it as a Christian ceremony, were necessarily moulded
by the baptismal theology of the time. A circumstance
which ought to be distinctly kept in view in every consideration of the subject.
The belief that baptism  was absolutely necessary for
iNotwithstanding such valuable  Romanus, Hermwe Pastor, Justin
and learned works as'Wall on  Martyr, and the "Author of the
Infant Baptism,''  Hammond's De- Recognitions," say nothing about
fence  of Infant Baptism,' and  infant-baptism, though  some of
others, the assertion of Suicer re- them  testify to the necessity of
mains unrefuted, as far as any  baptism in general.
direct historical evidence is con-   The passage from  Irenaus reccrned, when he says, "Primis ferred  to  is,  "Omnes  enim
duobus saeculis nemo baptismum  (Christus) venit per semet ipsum
accipiebat, nisi qui in fide in- salvare; omnes, inquam, qui per
structus et doctrina  Christiana  eum  renascuntur in Deum, inimbutus testari posset se credere, fantes, et parvulos, et pueros, et
propter illa verba, Qui crediderit juvenes, et seniores. Ideo  per
et baptizatus fuerit."            omnem venit aetatem, et infantibus
The passages put forward by  infans factus, sanctificans infantes;
Bingham and others from Clemens et parvulis parvulus, sanctificans




272               CHRIS TAN BAPTISM.
all;  and that it conferred spiritual life by the inherent
virtue of its material elements, and by the administrahanc ipsam  habentes vetatem, et  7rac orra  c,  u A/tdo   rO v T Vy Zciv
exemplum  illis pietatis effectus."  ^ 8pacdaovra5.-Orat. 40.
-ii. 22, 4.-a passage in which    But Augustin declares that they
infant-baptism  is not mentioned,  must be condemned, though with
and by no means necessarily im-  the lightest condemnation.  "Poplied.                              test proinde recte dici parvulos
1 The belief in the absolute neces- sine baptismo de corpore exeuntes
sity of water baptism appears first  in damnatione omnium  mitissima
in Tertullian, who also gives us the  futures.  Multum autem et fallitur,
first distinct evidence of the prac-  qui eos in  damnatione prsedicat
tice of administering it to infants.  non futuros, dicente Apostolo, juHis assertions, however, are not so  dicium ex uno delicto in condemdefinite and strong as are found at nationenm."-' De Peccat. Merit. et
later periods.  "Lex  enim  tin- Remiss.'i. 16.
gendi imposita est et forma prae-    So the author whose writings are
scripta; Ite, inquit, docete natio- subjoined  to those of Augustin,
nes tingentes eas in nomen Patris,  " Nos dicimus eos [infantes] aliter
et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti.  Huic  salutem  et vitam  ieternam  non
legi collata definitio illa, Nisi quis  habituros,  nisi baptizentur  in
renatus fuerit ex aqua et Spiritu  Christo."   Serm. 14, de Verb.
non intrabit in regnum cxlorum,  Apost.
obstrinxit fidem ad baptismi necessi-    But Fulgentius, who  lived a
tatem."-Tert.'do Bapt.' 13.       hundred years later than Augustin,
When this question of the neces- asserts most positively of all men,
sity  of baptism  had connected  "Firmissime tene  et nullatenus
itself expressly with the case of dubites,  exceptis  illis qui pro
infants, a difference of opinion is  nomine Christi suo sanguine bapat first observable respecting those  tizantur nullum hominem acceptuwho died unbaptized, which  in  rum vitam teternam, qui non hic a
process of time settled dovwn into  malis suis fuerit per pcenitentiam,
a most unqualified  assertion  of fidemque conversus, et per sacratheir hopeless condition.  Thus  mentum fidei et pcenitentias, id est
Gregory Nazianzen thought that per baptismum  liberatus.  Parvuthey were in an intermediate state,  lis vero..................
neither condemned nor blessed: sacramentum fidei et pcenitentiae,
TovS  68d  rtre os 6oadO6de6dOc   quamdiu rationis etas eorum capax
tre  o xoxardO6ds660caz trapdo rov  esse non potest, sufficere ad saludtiaiov xptrovz, G5 od6q6pcyi-  tem."-'De fide ad Petrum,' 30.
6rov5 jue' ir7tor'pov5 85, )d2 2Cd




CHRISTIAN  BAPTISM.                273
tion of a priest, led the Church to the conclusion, that
infant-baptism was not merely justifiable, but altogether
necessary; and also that its force and efficacy were exactly the sar.e in the unconscious infant as in the believing
man. This was nothing more than a simple and logical
consequence of such an idea of this sacrament, and the
infant having been placed on the same standing-ground
as the adult, it was then unfortunately thought requisite
to use, as far as possible, the same formula for both;
and thus, as the adult by his own mouth professed the
faith which he had,-the infant was by the mouth of
another to profess the faith which he had not. Hence
the introduction of baptismal sponsors to answer in the
infant's stead;-an institution of very questionable propriety at the best, and one which at a later time was
productive of superstitions, with which the Church of the
Nicene period is certainly not chargeable,-though the
germ of error was planted then, which has not altogether
ceased to bear fruit, even amongst ourselves.
To admit infants to Christian baptism, as the children
of believing parents, may be a wholesome development
of Scripture truth and apostolic teaching; but it is quite
a different thing, and by no means follows as a legitimate consequence, that such baptism should be exactly
the same as in the adult believer. Still less was it wise
or right to endeavour by an ecclesiastical fiction to exhibit an identity which did not exist, in such essentially
different cases.
That even in very early times good men felt the ob18




274            CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.
jections which may be justly made  to  the  sponsorial
affirmations in infant-baptism, —and that no satisfactory
answers could be given to  such  objections,-is made
evident by the correspondence which took place between
Boniface, Bishop of Romne, and Augustin on this subject;
and by the miserable inconclusiveness of the only solutions which the latter could give of the difficulties which
the former had  presented  to  him.'  It is no wonder
therefore that the practice has been a stumbling-block,
and a cause of disunion  in  the  Church, even to  the
1 In Augustin's time the sponsors et sacramentum  sanguinis Christi
wore asked "Does this child be- sanguis Christi est; ita sacramenlieve in God? Does he turn to  tun fidei fides est. Nihil est autem
God?" &c., and they answered, aliud credere, quam fidem habere.
"IHe does."  Upon which  the  Ac per hoc quum respondetur parworthy Bishop of Rome enquires, vulus credere, qui fidei nondum
"How can it be said with truth  habet affectum, respondetur fidem
that an infant believes, and repents, habere propter fidei sacramentum,
&c., when he has no thought or et convertere se ad Deum propter
sense about such things?"  And  conversionis sacramentum, quia et
the only answer that Augustin gives ipsa responsio ad celebrationem
him is, "That the infant is said to  pertinet sacramenti."-Epist. 23
believe, because he receives the ad Bonifacium.
sacrament of faith and conversion.   Can anything be imagined more
As the sacrament of the body of futile than such an explanation?Christ is in a certain manner called  baptism is the sacrament of faith;
His body, so the sacrament of faith  therefore, he who has this sacrais called faith; and he who has this ment has faith; therefore, an insacrament, therefore, has faith; and  fant brought to be baptized may be
consequently, an infant coming to  said to have faith, before the baptism
be baptized may be said to have has been administered, because these
taith or to believe, because these  questions and answers are a part of
questions and answers are a part of the administration!
the celebration of the sacrament   This extreme absurdity is, at any
of faith."  Sicut ergo secundum  rate, avoided in our baptismal serquendam  modum   sacramentum  vice.
corporis Christi corpus Christi est,




CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.                    275
present day. Had our early Reformers been longer
spared, with their earnest love of Scripture truth, and
their candour and courage in setting forth the successive
degrees of light which they themselves obtained, it may
well be believed that in this, and in some other respects,
our baptismal service would not have been left by them
exactly as they did leave it. But since their day none
like them have arisen in our Church; and at the present
time no one in authority seems to venture even to look
such questions in the face.
There remains still one important particular to be
noticed in the subject of infant-baptism, connected by
different points of contact and of interest with apostolic
practice, with the usages of the third and following
centuries, and with those of our own Church.
It is evident from the New Testament that the Apostles
had the power of conferring " spiritual gifts," (Xapiduara)
by the solemn imposition of hands and by prayer upon
those who by baptism had been received into their communion. It is also evident that these spiritual gifts
thus conferred were not personal graces requisite for the
baptized believer's individual standing in Christ, or for
his own faith and holiness of living; but were extraordinary powers granted for the general benefit and
edification of the Christian community. And since none
but the Apostles were able to bestow these gifts, they
ceased to be given, when they departed from the world;
and consequently the ceremonial, which they used in this




276            CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.
connection, was not to be continued as a permanent
ordinance in the Church.
When, however, at the beginning of the third century
Episcopal authority had been strongly developed in the
Church system, and, when not long after, bishops called
themselves successors of the Apostles, and inheritors of
their spiritual authority, they professed to have, like
them, the power of imparting the Holy Spirit,-though
the gifts which followed upon the Apostles' imposition
of hands, did not follow upon theirs. The exercise of
this supposed power by the bishops, which was called
affixing a "seal," or a "perfecting " of the baptized, and
at a later period, "confirmation," was said to be after
the example of the Apostles; but in reality in its use
and  intention  it differed  widely  from   the  apostolic
practice.  Confirmation at this period was looked upon
as a necessary adjunct to baptism, which, without this
addition, was not considered perfect or complete.l
1 Immediately after the actual tans Spiritum   Sanctum."-' De
baptism followed the ceremony of Bapt.'-~~ 4, 7, 8.
anointing the baptized with the   Cyril of Jerusalem describes the
holy ointment or Xpidua, in order power of this ointment: rod ayozov
to impart the Holy Spirit.  The  rov~ro,zvpov  ovderz;zXo6v,
practice was in use as early as the  o038' CO? c v eiFoz rzS HxOZVOV'
time of Tertullian, who says," Non  o;t2lXi  Xpzzrov  Xaipzduta, xai
quod in aquis Spiritum  Sanctum  Ilvev'zuro5-rov dyiov tarpovconsequamur; sed in aqua emun- 6dzc r?/ cavzrov Orrotjo5 evepdati sub Angelo (by the priest), yerzxdv IO  yevvov. —'Catech.
Spiritui Sancto praeparamur. " And, Mystag.' iii. 3.
"Exinde egressi de lavacro perun-   Pacian (A. D. 370) says expressly,
gimur benedicta unctione."  And that the baptismal water washes
"Dehinc manus imponitur per away sin, and the chrism gives the
benedictionem  advocans et invi- Holy Spirit; and so the regenera



CHRISTIA N BAPTISM.                        277
In accordance with the materialistic sentiments then
prevalent in the Church, a sacred ointment, or Chrism,
consecrated by a bishop, and thus (as it was believed),
changed in its nature, and made able to  impart the
Divine Spirit, was applied, with the sign of the cross
and imposition of hands to the baptized person immediately after his immersion if a bishop was present, by
whom alone in ordinary cases this ceremony was to be
performed. And thus, while the special virtue of the
water was to wash away sins, the Chrism, with its equally
marvellous efficacy, was to give the Holy Spirit; and
then alone was the regeneration of the baptized completed, or at least so completed as to fit him for living
the Christian life.
Such was the " confirmation " used in the third and
fourth centuries;-an unauthorized and perverted application of an apostolic pra6tice to an unapostolic purpose,
and another example of the prevalent tendency to convert the Church into an outward system  of mediation,
and to confound together in a corrupt union the Old and
New Testament dispensations.
Confirmation  in the modern sense, as used in the
tion is complete: "IIec compleri end of the fourth century, a presalias nequent,nisi lavacri, et chris- byter was allowed to perform apart
matis, et antistitis, sacramento. of the chrismation; thus, "PresLavacro enim peccata purgantur, byteris chrismate baptizatos ungere
chrismate Sanctus Spiritus super- licet, sed quod ab episcopo fuerit
infunditur; utraque vero ista manu  consecratum; non tamen frontem
et ore antistitis impetramus; atque ex eodem oleo signare, quod solis
ita totus homo renascitur et renova- episcopis debetur auum tradunt Spirtur in Christo."-' Serm. de Bapt.' itum Sanctum Paracletum."-InnoIn the Church of Rome, at the cent I. Epist. i. ad Decent. ~ 3.




278           CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.
Church of England, is a very good and wholesome rite
for those who have been baptized in their infancy, in
order that they may solemnly make a personal and
public profession of their Christian faith. And as infant
baptism must necessarily be to a certain extent incomplete, such confirmation may well be called with Hooker,
"A sacramental Complement."  But it is not " after the
example of the Apostles," who used no ceremony at all
corresponding with it.  Neither is it after the example
of the Nicene Church above referred to; for then there
was no profession made at the confirmation, either of
adults or of infants, to whom it was alike applied, as an
essential part of the baptismal ordinance.  The direction
in our rubric about the confirmation of those who have
been baptized  when "of riper years" was probably
given from   an  erroneous  supposition  that we were
following the practice of the early times; but it is quite
inconsistent with the Anglican idea of confirmation.
"The Order of Confirmation" in our Prayer-book is
obviously intended for those who were baptized in their
infancy; and there is no provision made for the confirmation of any others.'
In the two Prayer-books of the position of hands and prayer they
reign of Edward VI., and in the may receive strength and defence
Prayer-book which was issued at against all temptations to sin, and
the beginning of Elizabeth's reign  the assaults of the world and the
(A. D. 1559), a short preface was devil; it is most meet to be minisprefixed to the order of confir- tered when children come to that
mation, containing the following age, that partly by the frailty of
sentence: "Secondly, for as much  their own flesh, partly by the asas confirmation is ministered to saults of the world and the devil,
them that be baptized, that by im- they begin to be in danger to fall




CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.                     279
But to return for a few moments to the confirmation
of the early Church;-the Christian, by the application
of the sacred ointment, being thus fully baptized, and
strengthened, as he was taught to believe, with all
spiritual grace and power, was clothed in white garments,
delivered to him  sometimes with a solemn charge;-he
stood before the "altar".with a lighted taper in his
hand;-the kiss of peace was given to him;-he tasted
milk and honey in token of his new birth;-he said the
Lord's prayer standing upright, as being now a free
man, and a child of God;-and he was at once admitted
to the Lord's Supper, which was commonly administered
to newly baptized infants, as well as to those of riper
years.
On reviewing the whole course of the baptismal ceremonial of that time, from the probationary discipline of
the catechumen to his admission to the Lord's Table, it
cannot be denied that this elaborate drama may have
been very solemnly impressive.  But how immeasurably
different was it all from the baptism of the apostolic
Church!
It may have been that the times and the people, with
whom the Church then had to deal, demranded a somewhat different treatment in external things from that of
into sundry kinds of sin." This the whole of this preface was omitrubric indicates that the framers of ted in A. D. 1578; and nothing at
those Anglican liturgies designed all corresponding with the aboveto retain to a certain extent the quoted sentence appears in our
idea of confirmation which pre- Prayer-book now.
vailed at the Nicene period. But




280             CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.
the apostolic period.  It may have been that, when the
high spiritual elevation and extraordinary gifts of the
earliest time had passed away, a larger recourse to material and mesthetic appliances, for stimulating a needful
energy in the Christian cause and life, was not altogether
unreasonable.  It may have been that a lower civilization in some parts of the Roman Empire required to be
met with more striking appeals to the bodily senses and
lower self-consciousness of the population. But nothing
could justify the extremes to which the Church system
was carried  in  this direction.  Nothing  could  justify
a  Church of any time or people in thus burying the
simple ordinance of Christ under a mass of sensational
superstition.
1 Mr. Lecky, in his'History of with superstition. And the more
Rationalism,' among other mon- surely so, if the teachers of the restrous assertions, utterly at vari- ligion themselves have departed
ance with the facts of history, takes from the purity and truth of the
upon himself to affirm that "for Christian faith.  But in the first
1500 years after the establishment century it was indisputably shown
of the Christian religion it was in- that a Christianity, not debased by
tellectually and morally impossible  idolatry and superstition, could be
that any religion that was not established in companies of men of
material and superstitious could  all classes throughout the Roman
have reigned over Europe."  And  empire; and, therefore, there evithat " superstition is the inevitable, dently was no intellectual or moral
and therefore the legitimate condi- impossibility in the propagation of
tion of an early civilization. " —Vol. such a religion to any  extent
ii. p. 227, 228.                 throughout the population. And if
When Christianity has come in  possible then, it was possible at any
contact with a people in a state of other time, if the same truths had
barbarism, or low civilization, if it been presented to men's hearts and
has not raised them out of this state minds.
so far as to enable them to apprehend   The earliest and the latest annals
its divine doctrines, it has, of course, of the Gospel distinctly show that
been debased by them and loaded  the divine message of Christianity,




CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.                   28I
This materialization or making-outward of all spiritual
acts grew up and flourished, when some of the fundamental inner principles of evangelic truth had been
forgotten or obscured. It was strengthened and encouraged by the simultaneous growth of the hierarchical
and sacerdotal pretensions with which it was closely
allied. And it gained its height, when after its union
with the imperial authority, the Church became more
than ever a power of earth instead of heaven, and vainly
thought to honour its heavenly Lord by an ambitious
display of temporal magnificence.
We may admire whatever is admirable in the character
of the good men of those days. We may acknowledge
their piety, their zeal, their self-denial, their martyrcourage;-but to approve of the system which they
upheld in the Church would be to prefer the delusions of
man to the truth of God. And to attempt to revive that
system  now,-and to resuscitate, in an age so different
from theirs, their dead and buried symbolisms and mysteries,-above all, to  do  this with the warnings of
Church history sounding in our ears, and with the New
Testament opened wide before our eyes,-would be a
fatal anachronism indeed! It would seem to betoken a
blindness which nothing could enlighten, an infatuation
hopeless of a cure.
when faithfully proclaimed, is able rism of the negro, and the cannibalto cope, not only with a low state ism of the New Zealander
of civilization, but with the barba







LECTURE VII.
THE LORD'S SUPPER.








VII.
THE LORD'S SUPPER.
N nothing perhaps has the tendency of human nature
to pervert and corrupt the best gifts of God been
more clearly and sadly shown than in the treatment
which the Christian religion has received at the hands of
Christian men. And in no part of that religion have
the effects of such a tendency. been more strikingly
exhibited than in the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper.
In its original institution the most simple of all religious ordinances, it became in the hands of men a most
awful mystery. In its apostolic use a pledge of soundness in the faith, it was made in the hands of men an
example of gross superstition and idolatry. In its divine
intention a bond of brotherly love and mutual kindness,
it was changed in the hands of men into an occasion of
the most cruel persecution.
Being instituted by Jesus just after his last participation in the most popular and attractive of the Jewish
festivals, to the place of which this sacrament was in some
285




286          THE LORD'S SUPPER.
measure to succeed,-and just before the last scenes of
his death and passion, which it was especially intended
to conmmemorate,-it forcibly appealed to the sympathies
both of Hebrew and of Gentile Christians. And as it was
not an ordinance, like baptism, for a single celebration
at the beginning of the Christian life, but for frequent
recurrence during the whole of it, for a continually renewed remembrance of the Saviour and his saving work,
and for a sign and means of an unfailing perseverance in
fellowship with him, it naturally became a central point
round which were gathered the deepest feelings and
devotions of the Church. And thus the whole spirit of
Christian worship at any given period stamped itself
upon the mode in which this sacrament was administered; and contrariwise the mode of its administration
re-acted with a powerful influence upon the general
character of the whole Christian worship.
In the early part of the apostolic period so simple
was the manner in which this Christian ordinance was
observed, that it hardly bore the appearance of a religious solemnity; except that every meeting of Christians
at that time was marked with a strong outflowing of
religious feeling, which solemnized their whole life, and
almost made every action of it a religious service. The
Lord's Supper, as then administered, was immediately
preceded by the Agape, or "feast of charity"' and
i The word'Ayvi77 in this sense feature, occurs in the Epistle of St.
of a feast or supper, in which Chris- Jude (verse 12), kv Trx5 ca'yctrarzl
tian love was the most prominent VAGcv, "in your feasts of charity."




THE LORD'S SUPPER.                      287
Christian brotherhood, in which the distinctions of rank
and social position were laid aside, and all met and
sat down together with that free acknowledgment of
equality in Christ, which has been before described.
Immediately after this, and as a concluding part of it,
bread and wine were laid on the table.  And the bread
was then broken and distributed with the wine among
all the guests after Christ's example and appointment;
the very words of thanksgiving  and of presentation,
which Jesus had originally used, being doubtless repeated
by an Apostle, or whoever presided  at the meeting.
Hence the name of "The Lord's Supper," or the still
more simple appellation of " The breaking of bread," was
given to this ordinance, including apparently at first the
whole social meal, the Agape itself, as well as the ~acramental celebration with which it closed.  And  this
custom  sufficiently  accounts for the circumstance that
among the first Christians at Jerusalem, who were so
united as "to be together and  to  have  all things
common," and who were almost like one large family,
the hallowed "breaking of bread" in the Lord's Supper
seems to have taken place every evening; the principal
It is worthy of notice that this word love to God, and the disinterested
adyo7tr,', which is used more than a love to man, which was to hold so
hundred times in the New Testa- preeminent a place in the Christian
ment, did not exist in the classical religion; a new word, therefore,
Greeklanguage,though the kindred was employed, which from the
verb dyartctoL did. Neither of the Latin caritas, has been often transGreekwords,'pcos and z(plicr,were lated "charity" in our English
appropriate for expressing the holy Bible.




288         THE LORD'S SUPPER.
meal of each Christian company being eaten together,
and concluded with this sacred rite.
That this practice of uniting the sacramental celebration with an actual supper was extended also to Gentile
Churches is plainly evidenced by what occurred at
Corinth in connection with it. For the disorders and
profanation which St. Paul reproved there could not
have happened, if an ordinary supper at which different
classes met, and at which excess on the one hand and
a deficiency of food on the other could take place, had
not formed the commencement or introduction of the
more strictly religious ceremony. These disorders, however, at Corinth, which arose from the mismanagement
of the whole celebration, and which probably were not
confined to that Church alone,-the increase in the numbers of Christian communities-and perhaps the suspicion
with which their heathen neighbours regarded these
evening meetings,-led afterwards to the separation of
the sacramental supper from the "Feast of Charity."
The former, as a more entirely religious act, was then
attached to the principal public devotions of the Church,
which took place in the morning; the Agape being still
held separately in the evening as had previously been
the case.
This separation was possibly one of those things which
St. Paul arranged among the other matters, which he
promised "to set in order" on his next visit to Corinth
after writing his Epistles to the Christians there. But
as might be expected from  no general authoritative




THE LORD'S SUPPER.                        289
order having been issued for this purpose, the change
did not take effect in all places at once. Among the
Christians  in  the Province  of Pontus mentioned by
Pliny' in his letter to Trajan, the older custom seems
to  have  been  still retained; but long before this, at
the time when the second Epistle of St. Peter, and the
Epistle of St. Jude, were written, the Agape must have
been already disunited from  the Lord's Supper.  For
the disgraceful conduct of those who  are  so  severely
censured in these Epistles, though taking place at the
"Feasts of Charity," does not appear to have had any
connection with a profanation of the sacred ordinance.
In the time of Justin  Martyr, in the middle of the
second century, the  separation  had  become  an established practice, and the sacramental celebration formed
a regular part of the usual Sunday morning services of
the Church.  Yet a reminiscence of the earlier custom
survived even to the end of the fourth century in some
churches, which  seem  to have kept the anniversary of
i Pliny's words are, "quod essent in this account, I think it must be
soliti stato die ante lucem convo- in tho last part of the passage, when
nire, carmenque Christo, quasi deo, they met again later in the day ad
dicere secum invicem; sequo sacra- capiendum cibum; which would
mento non in scelus aliquod ob- hardly have been mentioned if it
stringere, sed ne furta, ne latro- had not been a part of their rolicinia, ne adulteria committerent, gious worship. The use oftheword
ne fidem fallerent, ne depositum  sacramento,in connection with their
appellati abnegarent, quibus perac- early morning devotions, is no evitis; morem sibi discedendi fuisse, dence that what we call a "sacrarursusque coeundi ad capiendum  ment" was added to their morning
cibum, promiscuum tamen, et in- service. Pliny's whole account,
noxium."-Ep. x. 97.             however, is necessarily very imperIf the Lord's Supper is alluded to feet and obscure.
19




290           THE LORD'S SUPPER.
the institution of this sacrament with an express imitation of the original supper of the Lord.'
The Agape itself was evidently an apostolic institution; and was at first no doubt not only an evidence
of the existence, but also a powerful means for the
promotion, of a strong feeling of union and Christian
brotherhood. Notwithstanding the irregularities above
alluded to, it continued after its separation from the
Lord's Supper to  be observed  not unprofitably by
different Churches, though not so frequently as before.
At the beginning of the third century, if Tertullian's
account may be our guide, such social meetings, conducted with such excellent order, and  so much piety
and kindly feeling, as he describes, must have been
productive of the best effects; and must have exhibited
a very striking contrast to the ordinary pagan festivities.
But these meetings,,so excellent when well regulated,
were from the beginning liable to abuse after they were
separated from the Lord's Supper, as well as before.
Such abuses are alluded to in the Epistle of St. Jude,
as happening even in his time; and at a later period,
when the early Christian fervour was diminished, discipline more  relaxed, and  the  numbers of nominal
Christians much increased, these abuses became more
glaring.  The original'Ayocvl  was of course held in the
This custom appears to be ta altaris non nisia jejunishominialluded to in the canon of the bus celebrentur, excepto uno die
Council of Carthage, A. D. 397, anniversario, quo ecena Donini cele.
which was as follows: "Sacramen- bratur."-~Can. 29.




THE LORD'S SUPPER.                           291
"worship-room," where  Christian societies met for all
religious purposes; and consequently it continued afterwards to take place in Churches; but when the festival
became more secularized this custom  was thought objectionable, and was ordered to be discontinued.'  The
According to Tertullian's ac-   During the 3rd and 4th centuries
count the object of the Agape was  the customs observed in connecthe comfort and refreshment of the  tion with the "Feast of Charity"
poor, as well as the promotion of seem  to have varied at different
cheerful piety. The eating and  times and in different Churches.
drinking  was  kept within  the    In  Tertullian's account given
bounds of moderation, though suf- above the Agape appears altogeficient to satisfy the wants of all; ther disconnected from the Lord's
and being preceded by prayer, was Supper; but in Cyprian's time there
followed by singing psalms or sa- seems to have been an  evening
cred songs; and prayer concluded. feast, or supper, very much like an
"Coena nostra de nomine ratio- Agape, which was regarded as a
nem sui ostendit: vocatur enim  sequel of the sacrament adminis-'Ayorti, id  quod dilectio penes teredin the morning.  This, at any
Grecos est. Quantisque sumptibus rate, appears to be implied in
constet, lucrum est pietatis nomine  Cyprian's argument against the
faceresumptum. Siquidem inopes Aquarii- the Teetotallers of his
quoquc refrigerio isto juvamus..   time; though the passage (in Ep.
Si honesta causa est convivii, re- 63, ad Caecilium), is obscure.
liquum ordinem discipline de cau-   In some places it was the custom,
sa estimate, quid sit de religionis after the Eucharist was over, to
officio.  Non  prius  discumbitur have a common meal of the things
quam oratio ad Deum praegustetur. which had been brought as offerEditur quantum  esurientes capi- ings by the worshippers. And, in
unt; bibitur quantum pudicis est the fourth century, Chrysostom and
utile. Ita saturantur ut qui memi- others speak of feasts after the Sanerint etiam per noctem adoran- cramental Communion, without
dum Deum sibi esse; ita fabulan- calling them "Agape:" and, actur, ut qui sciant Dominum audire.  cording to these accounts the proPost aquam manualem ct lumina, visions on such occasions were not
ut quisque de Scripturis Sanotis, vel entirely what had been presented
de proprio ingenio potest, provo- as offerings.
catur in medium   Deo canero.   As the genuine Agapae fell into
Hinc probatur quomodo biberit. disuse, their place was to some exAtque oratio convivium dirimit.-  tent occupied by the festivals in
rortul."' A)ol.' i. 39.         honour of Martyrs, which were con



292              THE LORD'S SUPPER.
genuine Agape itself seems to have gradually fallen into
disuse from the fourth century; Churches justly using
their Christian liberty, and  their legitimate authority as
independent societies, to set aside at their discretion an
apostolic  ordinance which had not been expressly declared to be of perpetual obligation.
Since that time these "Feasts of Charity " have never
to any extent been revived in Christian churches.l And
it has continued to be usual for the public administration  of the Lord's Supper to take place in the mornduoted ona similar plan, and which  pied de la lettre.  "Apud te Agape
were apparently the originals of in cacabis fervet, fides in culinis
the more modern "Church-ales,"  calet, spes in ferculis jacet. Sed
wakes, and fairs, usually connected  majoris est Agape, quia per hanc
with  Churches or their patron  adolescentes tui cum sororibus dorsaints.                           miunt. "-Tert.'de Jejun.' 17.
A consideration of what Augustin    Notwithstanding the decree of
says in his answer to Faustus's ob- the Council of Laodicea, Ovd eZ ev
jection, that the Christian festivals Vrog2 7vpztlatoZ5,?i v rxz2S e7iX7ywere derived from the heathen re- 6dirzs rca   A yojUdvci'Aydias
ligious feasts and sacrifices, seems  CozEzv, utaoi,v TGO obi i r TOVi
to show that what are there called  6Esov   60iezsv  ixi Ontovf/Jizzr
Agapse, were really Martyrs' festi- 6Tporvviszv (Can. 28); the custom
vals.-See Augustin'Cont. Faust.' of holding such feasts in Churches
xx. 20, 21.                        continued for a long time after in
After what is recorded of Chris- some places; and at the Council of
tian feasts, even in the apostolic  Trullo (A. D. 692), it was found
age, we need not be surprised that necessary to repeat the order.
drunkenness and other disorders'In modern times the Church
sometimes disgraced these evening  of the Moravian Brethren have reor night gatherings, giving just newed a practice very similar to the
occasion for pagans to blaspheme; ancient Agap4; and owing to their
but Tertullian's violent abuse of simple manners, and the vigilance
them, after he became a Montanist, which from the smallness of their
-so utterly at variance with what numbers they are able to exercise,
he had written in his'Apology'-  no offence, I believe, has arisen
must, doubtless, not be taken au  out of it.




THE LORD'S SUPPER.                          293
ing; although there is no rule or direction  of divine,
or otherwise valid, authority restricting the celebration
to that time; as there is evidently nothing in the ordinance itself, suggesting any obligation or propriety in such
restriction. The custom of receiving this sacrament fasting seems to have prevailed even in Tertullian's time,
who makes some allusion to it.  But in the fourth century
it had grown into a gross superstition; this tradition of
the Church being then regarded as a divine command;
and to administer or receive either of the two sacraments, after eating food on that day, being looked upon
as a dreadful sin.1
The real nature, however, and true position of this
1 Thus Augustin presumes to say uai es fuAv  TOVo broSo'6c, kRthat this custom was ordered by the  a;XztqO8ilV  6 Oivo oud  ov   T r75
Holy Spirit.  "Et hoc placuit f3iftAov VTGvYt' z6Oti6eV'j, Hcri ui
Spiritui Sancto ut in honorem tanti ypap(ei.v  r'  13 fiifi  Ti5 O pOosacramenti in os Christiani prius 8dOov 7tidTreco' OT8r  iov  idov
Dominicum corpus intraret, quam  zozovtiTOV'EyGc 7ptxt xcai Odtocaeteri cibi."-Ep. 118 ad Janu- fael  tiue  Xp6rTo'5 Eb  Tir5
arium, ~ 6.        -             /fiadzleai5 aCro.-Chrysost. Ep.
And Chrysostom, being accused  125, ad Cyriacum.
of transgressing this rule, protests   There was the same superstition
his innocence with the most vehe- about baptism; and Chrysostom,
ment asseverations, as if such an  being accused of having eaten someimputation implied a most awful thing before he baptized, thinks it
degree of guilt.  "If I have done necessary to deny the charge with
this, let my name be wiped out of the same vehemence as before:
the' catalogue of the bishops, and  Aiyov6i /oz, azrz'payE5;fai
not be written in the book of the  epfi7trz6t5. El et'oida roiYro,
orthodoxfaith. If I have done any  cavcydOezs  6oxuaz' aCir   pz0tusuch thing, let Christ cast me out 0ei6 v eiS5 Ezdt~(oaiGV piV(axv, /
of His kingdom."                 y/vecolta/Z UEr' cyyA CG;V.-Sermo
Aeyovd6v 5rtz t'vd  xiozcv-: antequam iret in exilium. (DoubtV6Lq r,usrdoi td  ayrv   vtroV,?, ful whether it is Chrysostom's).




294          THE LORD'S SUPPER.
sacrament in the Christian system, and the light in which
it ought to be regarded by Christian men, are questions
of much more importance than any consideration of the
time of administering it, or of its conjunction with other
religious services. Such questions have at times violently
agitated the Church, supplying cardinal subjects of debate
in the gravest controversies, giving occasion to persecu
tion and martyr deaths, and riveting or unbinding the 
fetters of superstition according as they were handled
and resolved. Such questions are agitated still with
no slight vehemence, and with no slight difference of
thought and feeling. So different indeed are the views
entertained respecting this sacrament, and prominently
advocated in the present day by different sections in
our Church; that the breadth of platform which can
give standing-room  for them  all seems almost wide
enough for Anglican and Roman Churchmen to find a
place upon it together.
To consider this subject therefore as it is set forth
in the New Testament, and as it appears in the ecclesiastical polity of the Apostles, is a task of very lively
and serious interest. It is one which I would approach
with all gravity, and with a desire to ascertain and to
express the view  which our Lord himself and His
Apostles give us of this sacrament with as little as
possible of any party spirit or personal prepossession.
The first step in the enquiry respecting the nature of
the ordinance of the Lord's Supper is naturally to look
at the circumstances and the language of its original




THE LORD'S SUPPER.                295
institution. Our Lord Jesus Christ on the same night
that He was betrayed, had joined with His Apostles in
celebrating the Jewish Passover-that service of solemn
joy, belonging to the promise made to Abraham rather
than to the Sinaitic law-in which the lamb slain, and
the sprinkled blood, were obvious types of Himself, and
of what He was just going to accomplish for mankind.
Taking some of the bread and of the wine which had
been used in this sacrament of the Old Testament, He
appointed them to be in future the outward symbols of
a corresponding ordinance under the new dispensation
of the Gospel covenant. Having pronounced a blessing,
or thanksgiving, over them, He broke the bread, and
gave it, and after it the cup of wine, to His disciples with
those simple but solemn words, with which we are all
familiar, bidding them henceforth to do this in remembrance of Him.
Whatever meaning Jesus then attached to His words,
that is the meaning which we should desire to keep in
all our thoughts upon this sacrament. In whatever
sense His Apostles, taught by the Spirit, retained and
applied the words in the administration of it, that is the
sense in which we should desire still to receive and to
apply them. And it may help us to do this aright, if we
look first at some particulars of the Jewish ordinance
out of which this Christian Passover was evolved.
1. At the celebration of this festival among the Jews
the master of the house, or whoever presided at the
supper, took some of the unleavened bread, and breaking




296            THE LORD'S SUPPER.
it blessed it, and gave thanks to God for all His mercies,
and especially for the deliverance of their fathers from
Egyptian bondage; and the cup of wine, which they
drank  immediately  after eating  the lamb, was called
"the cup of blessing"-the very name which St. Paul
gives to the wine of the Lord's Supper.l  Thus our Lord
took up some of the very ceremonies of the Passover,
and applied them to His new institution; from whence'
we may conclude that they were to be understood  as
nearly as possible in the same sense as they had been in
the older covenant.  Now  the Paschal Lamb with its
blood of sprinkling was so eminently a representation of
Christ and His atoning death, that we may well say that
in the later ordinance the bread was to be Christ's body,
" The officiator at the Passover &c. And so he said over Psalms
held up some of the unleavened  cxiii. and cxiv., and concluded
bread, and said,'This is the un- with this prayer,'Blessed be
leavened bread which we eat, be- Thou, O Lord our God, King evercause the dough of our fathers had lasting, who hast redeemed us,
not time to be leavened, before the and  redeemed  our fathers out
Lord revealed himself, and re- of Egypt, and brought us to this
deemed them out of hand. There- night to eat unleavened bread and
fore are we bound to give thanks, bitter herbs.' "-Lightfoot's'Tento praise, to laud, to glorify, to pie Service,' xiii. 6.
extol, to honour, to magnify him,   "At the Passover, the third cup
that hath done for our fathers and  (they drank four) was drunk after
for us all these wonders; who hath  eating the Lamb, and was called
brought us from bondage to free- the'cup of blessing.' This is the
dom, from  sorrow to rejoicing, cup which Jesus told his disciples
from  mourning to a good day, to  divide amongst themselves.
from darkness to a great light, from  The fourth cup-commonly called
affliction to redemption. There- the cup of the Hallel, or hymnfore must we say before Him, was the one which he took and
Hallelujah, praise ye the Lord! used for the institution of the
praise, ye servants of the Lord,' Lord's Supper."-Ibid. xiii. 8.




THE LORD'S SUPPER.                 297
just as the Paschal Lamb had been His body before:
the wine was to be the New Testament in His blood,
just as the sprinkled blood of the Paschal Lamb had
been the Old Testament in His blood before. And as
the lamb and its blood had been to the Israelites the
body and blood of Christ by sacramental anticipation;
so the bread and wine are in an exactly similar way
the body and blood of Christ to us in a sacramental
memorial of the past; there being in neither case any
change whatever wrought out in the visible signs or
figures by which the unseen realities were, and are, represented; nor in the later any more than in the earlier
sacrament, any ground whatever for supposing that the
things which are seen and used are transformed by some
divine and mysterious action, into the invisible things
which are represented by them.
2. The words also used by our Lord on this occasion,
considered simply by themselves, lead to the same conclusion. "This cup," He said, "is the New Testament
in my blood."  Can these words mean anything else
than that the cup with its wine, thus given to His
Apostles, was to represent, or remind them of, the new
Gospel covenant of mercy and blessing founded on and
ratified by the shedding of His blood for the remission
of sins? It is simply impossible in these words, with
any regard to sense and intelligible meaning, to insist
upon a literal acceptation of them, and to affirm that the
cup is the New Testament, by some change miraculously
effected in it, or that any other than a figurative or repre



298          THE LORD'S SUPPER.
sentative character was imparted to it. And if this be so,
then the words, "This is my body," applied to the bread,
must have a similar meaning; and that element also of
the supper must be equally a figure or representation.
3. Besides this there is an earlier chapter in the Gospel
history, which without containing any expressed reference to this sacrament, supplies a most valuable explanation of the language of its institution. In John vi. the
words used by our Lord, when He calls Himself the true
bread from heaven, and asserts that without eating His
flesh and drinking His blood we have no life in us, are
declared by Him to be worthless, if taken in the literal
and carnal sense, in which the multitude received them.
His flesh and blood are here referred to, not as objects
of sight or even of mental apprehension, as they were in
themselves, but as being given for the salvation of man;
and the declared necessity of eating and drinking them
is only a striking lesson for the inner spiritual life
deduced from  the outward actions of the body. As
bread in order to nourish the corporal life must be eaten,
and not merely touched or seen; so Christ, the Son of
God made man, and giving Himself for us to be the
food and nourishment of our spiritual life, must not
merely be known or heard of, but must be received
within by the self-appropriating power of a personal
assent to, and reliance upon, this Gospel truth. And
any other meaning in this case is absolutely revolting
and impossible. Moreover the words of Jesus in this
chapter are all the more instructive, because the idea




THIE LORD'S SUPPER.               299
of eating His flesh and drinking His blood is not here
associated with any outward object, and is therefore the
more unmistakably altogether a mental or spiritual act,
a "feeding on Him in the heart by faith with thanksgiving."  And hence it follows that the sacramental
ordinance of the body and blood of Christ did nothing
more than offer the same truth in another form; teaching us by visible objects and actions representing the
Ulnseen, what had been taught before by words; impressing the same doctrine upon our hearts by means
of the sight and touch, which had been before imparted
through the hearing of the ear. In both cases the saying
is alike applicable, " Crede et manducasti." Believe in
the Lord Jesus Christ, as having given His body, and
shed His blood for thee, and then thou hast eaten
and drunk, in the only way in which thou canst eat and
drink, this spiritual food. And thus this sacrament, as
it came from the Saviour's hands, appears as a sacred
and significant action, exhibiting the faith, hope, and joy
in Christ, and the communion with Him and with each
other, which were to mark the profession and the life of
His disciples.
The Apostles of Christ having received this ordinance
from their Lord introduced it at once, under the divine
guidance, into the ministrations of the Church. And
while it is spoken of in the New Testament in the most
simple terms, utterly avoiding the extravagant and sensational language which was afterwards so frequently
employed; and while as an ecclesiastical rite it has no




300          THE LORD'S SUPPER.
remarkable prominence given to it in the system  of the
apostolic Church; the following particulars may be
distinctly gathered as taught and sanctioned by inspired
authority.
1. That this sacrament is a divinely appointed ordinance, to be reverently used; and even when associated,
as it was at first, with an ordinary supper, to be distinguished from it by its sacred character.
2. That it is to be celebrated as a memorial and representation of Christ, giving Himself to die for us; and is
intended continually to declare or proclaim His death,
and to remind Christians of what He did for them.
3. That by a due reception of this bread and wine in
conformity with the Lord's appointment, the communicant has a participation in all the benefits of Christ's
body given, and His blood shed, for us; and is thereby
assured of God's love and goodness towards him, and of
his spiritual union with the Saviour, and with the blessed
company of all faithful people.
4. That being a service of this holy import, it should
be attended, not without serious thought and self-examination; and that a careless or profane use of it, as if
it differed not from  some ordinary food, was an offence
against the body and blood of Christ therein commemorated, and incurred the divine displeasure, instead of
obtaining a blessing.l
IAn unfortunate mistranslation ous views and superstitious scruples
and misunderstanding of two ver- about the Lord's Supper.  The
ses in 1 Cor. xi., have helped to words in verse 27, "Whosoever
occasion and keep up some errone- shall eat this bread and drink this




THE LORD'S SUPPER.                         301
In the apostolic mode of administering this sacrament,
it is more than probable that the only formulary observed was a repetition of the acts and words of the
original institution.
Indeed, as the whole transaction of the Last Supper
was reproduced in this service, the expressly sacramental
portion of it would naturally be an imitation of what the
Saviour had done and said; and the only form of consecration the blessing or thanksgiving such as He had used.'
In the middle of the second century, after the separacup of the Lordunworthily shall be oerning the body."
guilty of the body and blood of the   The words in verse 29, "Eateth
iord," have led to a vague but and drinketh damnation to himself,
alarming supposition, that a want not discerning the Lord's body,"
of worthiness in the communicant introduced also unfortunately into
makes him  guilty of — putting  our  Communion  Service, have
Christ to death! But the words often alarmed scrupulous minds.
really mean that disorders such as The  translation  ought to be,
those at Corinth-and, consequent- "Eateth and drinketh ( p'iar)
ly, any other profane treatment of judgment, or condemnation, to
this  holy ordinance - was  an  himself, from not distinguishing
offence, not against good manners the Lord's body" from a common
merely, or common propriety, but supper; such condemnation being
against the body and blood of immediately afterwards declared to
Christ therein represented,-a de- have involved some affliction, sent
secration of a hallowed  thing. to correct so grievous an error.
The words, as they now stand in    I The words of St. Paul in 1 Cor.
our Bible, have, strictly speaking, x. 16, "the cup of blessing which
no meaning.  A person may be we bless," and "the bread which we
guilty of a crime; and the expres- break," and his informing them in
sion " guilty of death," though in- the following chapter, that he had
correct in form, is obvious in  received from the Lord and delivsense; "but guilty of the body and ered unto the Corinthians, what
blood" is, at any rate, in modern  Jesus did and said in the instituEnglish, unintelligible: evoXo5 tion of this sacrament, seem to
d'6raz roi  6GdoSt'ro5 should be warrant this conclusion, indepentranslated, "Will be guilty non- dentlyof all other considerations.




302          THE LORD'S SUPPER.
tion of the Lord's Supper from the " Feast of Charity,"
a very similar usage was still observed. The bread and
wine being placed before the presiding minister, he led
the devotions of the congregation by ascribing praise
and glory to God, and expressing at some length their
thanksgivings for all His mercies, and especially for
those more immediately associated with their present
service. And so prominent a place did this giving of
thanks then occupy in the minds of Christian worshippers, that the name of " The Eucharist," v EVXapzdric, i.e., the thanksgiving, was one of the common
appellations by which this sacrament was at that time
known. At the conclusion of the minister's prayer the
congregation all expressed their assent by saying Amen,
and the sacred elements were then distributed by the
deacons of the Church. In this account thus given by
Justin Martyr two practices are mentioned, which appear
to have been usual at that period, though they are not
found in the New Testament. Water was mixed with
the sacramental wine, under the probably correct supposition that wine thus mixed, being used at the Jewish
Passover, must have been given by Jesus at the first.
And portions of the bread and wine were after the
service taken by the deacons to members of the congregation, who from sickness or other causes were unavoidably absent, in token of the loving communion in
which they also had a part.'
iThe following is Justin's ac- 7rpoe6rcrzi rc'v od8eAtcpV aproS
count:"ErEzzra ipod6(peprat rC  uo:i toropzov t3oVaro uac i xpa



THE LORD'S SUPPER.                       303
But in considering the apostolic use and administration of this ordinance it is particularly necessary, as in
some  other cases, to mark the omissions of the New
Testament.
In the Sacred Record:
1. There is not the slightest intimation that the validity
of the sacrament depended upon any ministerial power
or act; or that any Christian minister had the power of
conferring sacramental grace through his administration
of it. Indeed the analogy of the Jewish Passover, which
this ordinance closely followed, will suggest that any
Christian might preside at the Lord's table, although
after a time, as a matter of order, it would naturally
devolve upon a presbyter to conduct this as well as the
other religious services.
2. There is not the slightest intimation  that any
change whatever was effected in the bread and wine;
or that any power or virtue, natural or supernatural, was
infused into them. They are not even said to be " consecrated," but only to have a blessing or thanksgiving
offered over them.
auro5o' avi ovro 2Laf&3iV cvd'ov  dT'r?16avro Sg roi) irpo8drTro5,
xai 6oar O   TzO Irpi ZrCv'Xco  Xti  7rev(pq9idcvaTo5 ztavrTo
&zo tr OVOdvdaroS    ro viovi,  ni Trov) aoVo, oi xaXo /uErVOz irp
tov iivev jurra o y diov dvae7,ti-  uzav Jzdxovot,, 8z86oodzv  ucdt~le, aYi EVXapLdriarv Vz~p TOV  dT TrVc tapOVT   ataGOie raXX3a'V
aytcO~dTOaz rotvrCov irap av- dito  roi V  eVXapzdr7tv6iroS
zoiV Eti ItoXL  tozErTaz. O  aprov xai oiv/ov xai Vi8arto,
6vVYrTeAd6vro5 rdT  evXd5 xci acai roT5 ov trapovdzv  rt0o8TrZv evXaCpz6rtioa, txrd o 7tapcov  povdz.  Kai        a rpoq p    acrt
XaO35 EntEVqy/ue' XdyoV,'A1,u v. xaXeZraz itap' jUFtZ'v Evxapz6To 6d'Aurv r'Ef3paiz.pcov  rza.-'Apol.' i. ~ 85.
tro yvozro 6yxaivez. EvXapt



304          THE LORD'S SUPPER.
3. There is not the slightest intimation that our Lord
Jesus Christ is in any sense present in, or in conjunction
with, the consecrated elements; or that His presence in
the believer's heart at this service is different in kind
from  His presence in him  at prayer, or in any other
spiritual communion.
4. There is not the slightest intimation that the Lord's
Supper is a sacrifice, or that the sacramental elements
are offered on an altar by a priest.
All these forms of sacramental doctrine, omitted in
the New Testament, and unsupported by apostolic teaching, were afterwards introduced into the Church system,
and grew in strength and hurtful power, as wider departures from divine truth took place. All these doctrines were more or less immediately connected with the
sacerdotalism of those times. They are still favourite
tenets with Churches and individual men, by whom such
sacerdotalism is upheld. They fall to the ground when
it is overthrown; and revive with the re-establishment
of its power. For a priest must have a sacrifice;-the
sacrifice in a Christian Church must be found in the
Eucharistic elements;-these elements to be a sacrifice
must become literally the body and blood of Christ,
or must have Christ in them  or with them;-and consequently some change, more subtle, or more gross, must
be represented as effected in them by the official action
and power of the priest. And thus the whole system
is wrought out, and each part of it coheres with and
supports another.




THE LORD'S SUPPER.                   305
But it has been already pointed out, and, as I venture
to think, distinctly proved, that according to the New
Testament there is no priesthood in the Christian Church,
but the eternal priesthood of our Lord Jesus Christ, and
in a secondary sense the universal priesthood of all those
who are in Him. And consequently, as a sacrifice requires a priest, there can be no sacrifices in the Christian
dispensation, but the one great and all-sufficient sacrifice
offered once for all in the Saviour's death; and the
spiritual sacrifices which each Christian offers in virtue of
his share in the universal priesthood,-the living sacrifice
of himself,-the sacrifice of doing good, and communicating to others,-the sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving.
But it may be well further to remark that it is not
by such an inference only that the idea of a sacrifice is
excluded.  It is excluded also by the fact that no
word signifying a sacrifice, or an altar which implies
a sacrifice, or anything akin to them, is ever in the New
Testament used of the administration of the Lord's
Supper, or of any other ministerial functions in the
Christian Church.
In reply to this assertion, the words in the Epistle to
the Hebrews, "We have an altar," are sometimes put
forward to justify the notion of a Eucharistic sacrifice.
It is assumed that the "altar" here named is the
Communion table, and consequently that the Lord's
Supper is a sacrificial service, the officiating minister
a sacrificing priest; and thus an attempt is rnade t9
9 Q




306             THE LORD'S SUPPER.
bring in the whole sacerdotal system under cover of this
scriptural authority.
But such an application of these words is inconsistent
with the context, violates the principles of sound interpretation, and is at variance with the plain meaning of
the words as they actually stand. For the context shows
that the sin-offerings of the Jewish dispensation are here
contrasted with the sacrifice of the death of Jesus as the
sin-bearer for man, and therefore the "altar" must be
the cross on which He died.  And it is a mere makeshift to evade this meaning by thrusting the eleventh
and the three following verses into a parenthesis, in order
to disconnect them  with the tenth.
It is also contrary to all legitimate interpretation to
take this single expression, and without any internal
necessity to give it a meaning, which will fasten upon
the subject of the Lord's Supper a view  quite at variance with all that is elsewhere plainly declared about it
in the New Testament.'
It may be laid down as an  sure, quite a different view from
axiom in the theory and practice of that which was before given."
hermeneutics, which must not be    Now the subject of the Lord's
departed from in the interpretation  Supper is repeatedly spoken of in
of any author, and especially an  the New Testament, and in every
inspired author, that, "when a sub- instance in which it is distinctly
ject has been clearly and distinctly  referred to, the words, and tho
spoken of in several passages, all ideas, of a sacrifice or an altar, are
consistently giving the same view of altogether excluded.
it, we are not at liberty to take    That this is so, is seensome single expression, standing    1. In the terms of its institution:
alone, and not necessarily referring  where the attempt of Sacerdotalists
to the subject at all, and from this to call " do this " rotro toze're, a
to extract, according to our plea- sacrificialterm, is sufficiently metby




THE LORD'S SUPPER.                          307
And if we take the words," we have an altar " just as
they stand, and in their most literal acceptation, what
do they affirm?  That as the older dispensation had an
altar, so we, in the Christian dispensation, have an altar.
Yes! the Jewish  Church had an altar, one altar, not an
altar in every synagogue, but one, only, divinely sanctioned altar in the Temple, on which acceptable sacrifices
were placed.  And we, under the Christian covenant,
have an altar, one altar, not an altar in every Church,
but one, only, divinely sanctioned altar, the Cross of
Christ, on which the one, full, perfect, and accepted
sacrifice  was offered for us once  for all.  It was a
observing that, among the nearly  cup of devils; ye cannot be par600 times in which the word iotgoa  takers of the Lord's table, and the
occurs in the New Testament, there  table of devils."  Where, if the
is no instance of its having this Lord's Supper were a sacrifice, and
meaning, except that in such pas- the Lord's table an altar, it would
sages as these it suits their purpose have been more natural and forcito discover it.                 ble to say, "Ye cannot be par2. In the names by which it is takers of the Lord's altar and the
called-                         altar of devils."  But though in
" The breaking of bread."    the heathen worship there was
" The Lord's Supper."         an altar and a table, in the Christian
3. By the terms in which it is churches there was a table only.
spoken of by St. Paul in 1 Cor. x.   To call the Lord's table then "an
16, &c., and 1 Cor. xi. 20, &c., altar," is to give quite a different
where he dwells on the subject view of the subject from that which
at some length. Notice especially  is contained in all these passages,
in the former of these chapters, and to extract it from a solitary exverses 20, 21: "The things which  pression, which does not necesthe Gentiles sacrifice they sacrifice sarily refer to that sacrament.
to devils, and not to God; and I   Therefore "we have an altar"
would not that ye should have fel- cannot, by any just interpretation,
lowship with devils. Ye cannot be said to mean "we have the
drink the cup of the Lord, and the Lord's table."




308             THE LORD'S SUPPER.
criminal and superstitions will-worship, when the Jews
multiplied altars in their land. What will it be in us, if
we set up an altar in every parish church! 1
To trace in the history of post-apostolic thought and
practice how the notion of a sacrifice in the Lord's
Supper crept into the  Church, and  how  with  it the
1 Another interpretation of Heb. important,) we (Jewish people)
xiii. 10, which gives avery different have an altar (a sacrifice) whereof
view of the writer's meaning, but they have no right to eat who serve
is supported with much ingenuity  the tabernacle (whereof the priests
and sound argument, was put for- themselves are not allowed to eat,
ward a few years ago by the Rev, J. which would never be, if eating
Taylor, in his volume on'The  were an essential part of the serTrue Doctrine of the Holy Eu- vice).  For (instance) the bodies
charist,' and deserves the serious  of those beasts, whose blood is
consideration of theologians.     brought into the sanctuary by the
According to this view, the writer high priest for sin, are burned
in ihis passage expresses himself as without the camp, (and, therefore,
a Jew writing to Jews, and identi- could not be eaten, though this did
fying himself with them, as St. not prevent the blessing being rePaul often does in other places; ceived by the faithful worshipper).
and the "altar" is the Jewish altar, Wherefore, Jesus also, that he
or sacrifice, namely, the sin-offer- might sanctify the people by (the
ing, the  blood of which  was sprinkling of) his own blood (and
brought into the sanctuary, but not by his flesh  being carnally
the body was burned without the  partaken of) suffered without the
camp, no part of the flesh being  gate (as the sin-offering was aleaten by those who attended  in  ways consumed there.)"  For furthe Temple.                       ther details of Mr. Taylor's arguThe following is accordingly Mr. ment the reader is referred to pp.
Taylor's explanation of the whole  116-122 of his book before-menpassage.  " Be not carried about tioned.
with divers and strange doctrines;   It is obvious that, if this be the
for it is a good thing that the heart true meaning of the passage, it
be established with grace; not with  only proves still more strongly the
meats, which have not profited  position which I have maintained,
those that have been occupied  as to the absence of all sacerdotal
therein (those who have eaten). terms in connection with the Chris(Indeed, so far from eating being  tian ministry and its functions.




THE LORD'S SUPPER.                     309
notion also of a change in the consecrated elements
sprang up, and grew  more and more, until these two
together gave birth to the doctrines of transubstantiation, host-worship, and the offering of Christ himself
upon an altar by a priest, with a train of gross superstitions which followed in the rear, would be an instructive
though a saddening task.  But I can here only with
great brevity notice some of the different steps by which
this progress of error marked its downward course.
1. As the spiritual sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving
was intimately  connected  with  the  service  of the
Eucharist, to which it gave its name, it was a very slight
departure from apostolic truth and language to call the
whole solemnity in this sense a sacrifice. And of this
some indications appear in the writings of Justin Martyr,
who, although he does not use any such expressions in
his account of the celebration of the Lord's Supper in
his'Apology;' yet when contrasting the Christian with
the Jewish economy, he observes that the sacrifices,
which Jesus Christ ordered, were those which Christians
offered in the thanksgiving over the bread and wine;
and again that prayers and thanksgivings are the only
perfect and acceptable sacrifices, and that these alone
are offered by Christians in their commemoration of the
suffering of Christ.l
The following are Justin's 7oroTpiov, Trd kv Ixa'Vi TOTGDr
words: 7czaderS ov 6Sz roT ovod- TrS yr~S YZiOIEvoaS a rd rTGOv
luaro5 Trovto Ovdiax,) s 7'txap- XpzdrzavicV, irpoXoalaiv o 6 )eO3
6cSGue'I^6ovt5  o  Xpz6rod5 #aprvpes evarapdrovarj'dpxCezr
yived0az, rovrzdrzv  tri zT  avrT&.
evtXxpd6ri'x tov aprov  cxdi roi   And then just afterwards: "Ort




3Io            THE LORD'S SUPPER.
2. In the latter part of the second century, a little
further advance had been made.  It was customary at
that time for all the members of a Church to give bread
and wine from which the elements for the celebration of
the Lord's Supper were taken.  These, as we learn from
Irenseus, were regarded as thank-offerings of gratitude
to God, as the first-fruits of His creatures, and as a
token that they consecrated to the Lord's use all that
they possessed. Hence these were called a pure sacrifice,
acceptable to God; just as St. Paul calls the supplies
sent to him by the Philippians, " a sacrifice acceptable,
well-pleasing to God."  But that these oblations were
still considered as spiritual sacrifices offered by all
Christians, is evidenced by the remark of Irenaeus, that
these gifts were offered on "the altar in the heavens, to
which all our prayers and oblations are directed." In
this same author appears the first indication of the idea
of a change of any kind effected in the elements by the
prayer of consecration; although it has in Ireneus a
somewhat vague and ill-defined expression.'  But neither
Viev oJv Uai evxaxi ucri ev(xa-   The idea of a sacrifice, thus conpz6riacz vito rcT6v ~icoiv'Yyzvo- nected with the Lord's Supper,
1Evaz  rzeelat txz    vaz   Xai differs but little from that which is
ev(xpe6roi lei6z rzOe~  Ov6iaz, expressed in our Communion Serxci axrvos qpWuz. TaOtra ydap  vice, where, in one of the con-,6ovc;uai Xpzt6rcavoi itap/ca- eluding prayers, we desire our
fov tooziav'  oci ict xvoyattvr'6sz heavenly Father, "to accept this
6. rv~s rpoqp#5 avtcrtv  pcd rez our sacrifice of praise and thanksxaoi vypdS, ev i Xucia rov 7i:tOov5 giving."
8 tin7ovYes 68' avZrov o viod5 roi    1 Irenveus about the sacrifice in
eov, #4oVuVTrX.rz. —  Dial. c. the Lord's Supper, says, "Igitur
Tryph.' 117.                   Ecclesim oblatio quam Dominus




THE LORD'S SUPPER.                           3II
at this time, nor in the earlier view of Justin was there
any reference to  the  sacrifice  of Christ expressed or
implied in  such words, as if that was repeated in the
Eucharistic service.
3. But in the third century, when the outward, materialized  conception  of spiritual things  was already
exerting a stronger influence, an influence extended and
confirmed by the manner in which fellowship with Christ,
instead  of being regarded as flowing from  a believing
appropriation of the Saviour in the heart, was made to depend on the outward instrumentality and intervention of
the visible Church;-when at the same time and in close
docuit offerri in universo mundo  existens...... Quoniam igitur
purum  sacrificium reputatum  est cum  simplicitate Ecclesia offert,
apud Deum et acceptum est ei... juste munus ejus purum  sacrifi-.... offerre igitur oportet Deo  cium apud Deum deputatum  est.
primitias ejus creaturc, ut in quibus Quemadmodum Paulus Philippengratus exstitit homo, in his gratus sibus ait, &c..... Nos quoque
ci deputatus, eum qui est ab eo  offerre vult Deus munus ad altare
percipiat honorem.... Et prop- frequenter sine intermissione. Est'ter hoc illi quidem (the Jews cor- ergo altaTe in calis; illuc enim
pared to slaves) decimas suorum  preces nostrae et oblationes nostrae
habebant consecratas, qui autem  diriguntur.-'Adv. Ha3res.'iv. 34.
perceperuntlibertatem (Christians)   The allusion of Irenaeus to the
omnia quae sunt ipsorum ad Domi- idea of a change in the Eucharistic
nicos decernunt usus, hilariter et elements is found in the same
libere dantes ea, non quam sunt chapter as the former quotation.
minora utpote majorem spem ha-    "Quemadmodum enim qui est e
bentes, vidua illA et paupere hic terra panis percipiens invocatiototum  victum  suum mittente in  nem Dei, non jam communispanis
gazophylacium Dei...... Non  est, sed eucharistia, ex duabusrebus
igitur sacrificia sanctificant homi- constans terrena et caelesti; sic et
nem; non enim sacrificio indiget corpora nostra percipientia euchaDeus; sed conscientia ejus qui ristiam jam non sunt corruptibilia,
offert sanctificat sacrificium  pura  spem resurrectionis habentia."




312          THE LORD'S SUPPER.
cohnection with this view, the Christian ministry was
represented as a priesthood after the Jewish model, and
its ministrations conformed as far as might be to those
of the Old Testament; —and when a desire to present
Christianity in a form as attractive as possible to the
pagan mind was felt by some of the best bishops of that
age;-there inevitably resulted greater changes in the
Church system with respect to the nature and administration of the Lord's Supper, as well as of the other
sacrament, than any which had previously been made.
And these changes, beginning with the third, gained
force and emphasis in the following centuries, being recommended, encouraged, and insisted on, by the teaching of the most distinguished men who in those times
adorned and misled the Church.
During that period, this once simple ordinance became
in the general estimation of the Church a literal sacrifice;
the Communion table, an altar; the officiating minister,
a priest. The sacrifice was no longer now the spiritual
sacrifice merely of praise and thanksgiving, or the thankofferings of all the communicants; but it was the sacrifice
of ChUrist himsef, symbolically and representatively perhaps at first, but afterwards spoken of in language, which,
however modern ingenuity may attempt to soften it down,
could convey to ordinary hearers at the time no other
meaning, but that a real sacrifice of Christ himself was
repeated in this service;-that His body and blood objectively present in the elements were offered up by the
priest; —and even that Christ himself lay upon the altar,




THE LORD'S SUPPER.                     313
surrounded by attendant angels to do Him honour, and
sacrificed there for the benefit of man.1
The notion of a change in the bread and wine, of which
a slight indication only had previously appeared, now
necessarily assumed a very definite and literal shape.
It was declared that the sacramental elements were
transformed into the very body and blood of Christ by
the priest, either through the divine power of the words
of Christ which he repeated, or through the direct action
of the Holy Spirit, whose descent upon the elements
he invoked in his prayer.  Communicants were accordingly taught that the priest took in his hand " the Lord
of the universe," (roi Yozivovy tav'Gcv oe,' p7trVraz 86stOrov),
and that they received into their hands their "king" (rv
8eazii G,usEtov6d fJadz2Ltda 68Xe6Qa:t).
It is true that the patristic writers of this period sometimes use a more sober language; but even this is very
far removed from that of the Apostles, and produced no
effect upon the ordinary current of Church teaching,
belief, and practice, when everything else which was
said and done had a directly contrary tendency.
It is true also that the word "transubstantiation" was
not then employed; on the contrary it was usually,
though not always, declared that the substance or nature
of the bread and wine was not changed; 2 yet it is equally
1 The proofs of the statements declared to  be  changed; as
contained in this and the following /er6arozXezchda5 rcv' q)azivopages, being too long for a note, LI'VcoV  rvf qpv6izv. Gregory
are placed in Appendix A.    Nyssen.' Orat. Catech.' 6 37.
2 Sometimes the very nature was




314          THE LORD'S SUPPER.
insisted on that a divine nature was added to, and incorporated with, the material elements; that in them, as
in the baptismal water, and in the ointment of the
chrism, a change was made by which they were
effectually altered in their qualities, and an inherent
power imparted to them.  And besides this the very
explanations and modified statements, which were sometimes given, show what the common teaching of the
Churches must have been, to render such modifications
needful.
It is in vain that Protestant advocates have endeavoured to rescue the Nicene Church from the charge of
gross superstition in their dealings with this sacred rite,
and to fasten the doctrine of transubstantiation and its
consequences upon the later Church of Rome alone.
The doctrine of the earlier period differed from mediaeval
Romanism, on this point, in scarcely anything beyond
the use of another and synonymous word. In the fourth
century the change in the Eucharistic bread and wine
was called, as in the case of the baptismal water, " transelementation." And is it possible to say what real or
important distinction there is between the earlier and
the later word? Is it possible to point out any practical
difference between a change of elements or qualities, and
a change of substance? seeing that we know nothing
about the substance of anything, except from its qualities, and it is only through its qualities that the
substance of anything can affect us.
Besides this, what the sacramental doctrines of those




THE LORD'S SUPPER.                  I15
times really were, may be safely inferred from various
practices incidental to, or resultant from them.
With a superstitious reverence, quite alien to the
Apostles' teaching, it was considered even in the time of
Tertullian a distressing thing if a particle of the consecrated elements fell to the ground.
Minute directions for holding the hands in a particular
way for receiving the bread into them, and for taking the
cup, are given by Cyril of Jerusalem, mingled with expressions, which will accord only with the belief that the
sacramental elements are the Lord himself.
Chrysostom repeatedly terms the Lord's Supper "a
most awful sacrifice," at which " the very angels shuddered;"-shows, as before mentioned, that it was deemed
a heinous sin for it to be given or received by one who had
on that day previously taken food;-and declares that
the sacred elements, when received into the body, did
not pass through the processes of digestion and excretion like other food, but were in some miraculous way
taken up into the human frame.
And, finally, the consecrated elements, as shown by
Cyril of Jerusalem  and Theodoret, were worshipped
with an adoration, but little differing, if at all, from the
mediaeval host-worship of the Church of Rome.
In conformity with the same doctrine, this sacrament,
like that of baptism, was thought to be absolutely
necessary for the salvation of all, and to be possessed of
an inherent supernatural virtue. It was consequently
administered to infants, as well as to adults. Portions of




3I6           THE LORD'S SUPPER.
the consecrated bread were " reserved" in the custody
of the Church, to be ready for emergencies; and to be
dropped into the mouth of the dying, as a viaticum,
" to smooth their path from earth to heaven."  It is no
wonder therefore if some people went a little beyond
the authorised superstitions, and gave this viaticum
to the dead. Communicants even in the third century
took home from Church some of the sacramental bread,
and kept it in their houses, in order to eat a portion of
it every morning by themselves for their soul's life and
sustenance; and miraculous effects were even then
ascribed to it. But in the following century it was usual
for Christians to carry about portions of this bread with
them in travels and voyages; and to have a small piece
attached to the person was believed to be a sure preservative in the greatest dangers. Neither were such
superstitions confined to the vulgar and ignorant; but
were upheld by the highest authorities and lights of the
Church.l
To complete our consideration of these sacramental
doctrines and practices, which so strongly marked this
notable period, it is necessary to observe how  they
affected the Christian remembrance of the dead. The
communion of saints was not broken by death; cnd
when the gifts of communicants were regarded as thankofferings, similar oblations were presented in the name
1 See, for instance, Ambrose's having a piece of the consecrated
account of his brother Satyrus be- bread tied in a scarf roundhis neck.
ing saved, when shipwrecked, by




THE LORD'S SUPPER.                  317
of those who had fallen asleep, and especially of the
martyrs of each community, to signify that they were
still united together in the same bond of Christian fellowship. But this harmless custom soon degenerated; and
the righteous dead were mentioned at this service in the
belief that by the prayers and intercessions of departed
prophets, apostles, and martyrs, the supplications of the
Church were made more acceptable to God; and also
that the offering up of the sacramental sacrifice in behalf
of all dead Christians was of the greatest benefit to their
souls. A little later in the same century the prayers
and sacrifices of the Church were offered for all nominal
Christians after their death, whether they were good or
bad; and Augustin in particular expresses his approbation of the practice in terms which would fully justify
the doctrine of Purgatory as held in the Church of Rome.
Some of the grossest errors which darkened the medieval
Church before the dawn of the Reformation, were only
these doctrines and practices of the third and fourth
centuries a little more intensified, and mixed with a little
more of ignorance and superstition.
At the Reformation it happened from various causes
that the doctrines respecting the sacrament of the Lord's
Supper became a very central point in the conflict with
Rome. In this country, at any rate, in the transition
period of this great movement, the question of alleged
orthodoxy  or heresy, of conformity or martyrdom,
often rested on this ordinance, and gathered round




318          THE LORD'S SUPPER.
it all the forces of the controversy. It was to some of
our eminent and good men a question of actual life and
death, demanding therefore their gravest consideration,
and most careful judgment.
Before they had fully emancipated their minds from
the trammels of human error which had so long bound
the Church, our early Reformers had been enabled to
grasp the great fundamental principle that the written
word of God, and not ecclesiastical tradition, is the
fountain of authority in religious doctrines; and with
a truth-loving determination very rarely equalled, they
resolved to seek there the solution of the Eucharistic
question, and at all hazards to abide by it when found.
In maintaining this resolution, they not only faced death
in a dreadful form, rather than deny what they were
convinced was true; but with a moral courage of a
higher and more noble kind they preferred truth before
every other consideration, before every opposing sentiment or opinion which had naturally preoccupied their
minds. Deeply imbued as they were with patristic
learning, the special study of their previous years, and
accustomed as they had been to admire and venerate
the Christian Fathers of the earlier centuries, and to
derive from them their dogmatic theology and habits of
religious thought; their love of truth outweighed all
such prepossessions. They put aside all the teaching of
the earlier and the later Church which they found to
be inconsistent with that of the New Testament. And




THE LORD'S SUPPER.                 319
they went back to the pages of inspiration for the
doctrines which they were to uphold, and to the purity
of the apostolic age for the ceremonial in which these
doctrines were to be set forth.
It is owing to this that we have now in our Prayerbook, in spite of some blemishes and unamended defects,
so grandly simple and nearly primitive a Communion
Service; with no teaching of transubstantiation or transelementation in it, —no change in the sacramental elements indicated or implied,-no exaggerated or materialized declaration of the presence of Christ,-the very
word "altar" carefully excluded, with all notion of a
sacrifice offered up in the service, except the spiritual
sacrifices of praise and thanksgiving, of ourselves, our
souls and bodies, and of communicating to those who are
in need,-no prayers or offerings for the dead or trusi
in their intercession,-no adoration of the consecrated
elements,-no directions for a fantastic or superstitious
mode of receiving them,-no administration of them to
infants,-no reserving of them for superstitious purposes,-no encouragement to a vain reliance on a formal
use of them.
Every one of these unscriptural doctrines and practices
our early Reformers had learned from the best Fathers
of the third and fourth centuries, and found them almost
all perpetuated and enforced in the Church of their own
time. But they swept them all away from their own
hearts, and from the Church of the Reformation, when




320         THE LORD'S SUPPER.
they had discovered that they "were grounded upon no
warranty of Scripture but were rather repugnant to the
word of God."  Oh! that we had more of their noble
Beroean spirit to do the work which needs now to be
done for the cause of Christian truth, and for the
Church of Christ within our land.




LECTURE VIII.
APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION.
21








VIII.
APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION.
N the foregoing lectures an attempt has been made,not to give a full and comprehensive view of the
apostolic Church as it appears in the records of the New
Testament,-a subject too wide for our present limits,but to select for consideration certain prominent points
of special import, by which this divine institution is most
strongly marked, and which, as it seems to me, are
worthy of more attention, than at the present time they
usually receive. And although many particulars have
been left untouched, or noticed with great brevity; yet
enough has at any rate been observed, to supply from
its intrinsic importance materials for serious thought to
Christian men in this our day; especially to those who
reverence and love our national Church, who see its
dangers, and who earnestly desire that its outward form,
as well as its inner spirit, should be regulated, as far as
possible, by divine truth and'wisdom.
Most interesting has it been to me, —however I may
(323)




324 APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION.
have failed to make it so to others,-most interesting,
though not without its sadness, to trace the characteristic
features of the Church of Christ in its primitive and
apostolic state; and then to mark how its grand and
spiritual simplicity, preserved awhile after the departure
of the Apostles, began even in the earliest centuries to
be marred by the doctrines and inventions of men, and
to be overlaid with imposing but superstitious ceremonials. But it is not merely as an interesting historical
study that I have desired to draw attention to the most
ancient and only authoritative period of the Church.
The lessons, which this history can teach us at the present time, are something more than an interesting study.
They are, as it seems to me, the very lessons, which of
all others it is most needful for us now to learn, that we
may apply them  to our own ecclesiastical polity and
practice.
To put these lessons forward in a distinct and positive
shape, and to say expressly, even in general terms, what
ought consequently to be done, may be thought presumptuous in one who has no personal authority  or
official position, to command attention to his words.
But in days like these, when long-established confidences
are being overthrown, - when no mere reverence for
antiquity can preserve any institution from the shaking
of the time,-when in particular our national Church is
in such a state, that men of all opinions are either wishing
or fearing its speedy demolition,-it is well for every one,
who sees the danger of its position, but does not despair




APPLICATION  AND  CONCLUSION.  325
of it, if only English Churchmen could be induced to
consider what that position really is, and to act accordingly,-to speak out with all boldness, and to say, as
far as he has opportunity to be heard by many or by
few, what he believes the emergency requires. If it be
God's pleasure the smallest instruments may produce the
greatest effects; and strength may issue forth from
weakness.
The original idea of an established or national Church
unhappily grew up and shaped itself in Christendom
from the false position assumed by the Christian body
in the time of Constantine and subsequent Christian
emperors. The Judaistic and semi-pagan tendencies,
which before this had so strongly affected the Church
system, unfortunately then carried the leading minds,
and indeed the general feeling and convictions of the
Church, to the Old Testament and the peculiarities of
the Jewish polity, for their guidance in the change which
had occurred in the posture of the civil power. Utterly
forgetting the very essential distinction between the
theocracy of the Jews with its politico-religious institutions of divine appointment,-and the religion of Christ,
expressly declared to be not of this world, and to need
not this world's weapons of defence,-they encouraged
the employment of the civil sword to enforce the authority
of the Church; until at last it became the settled and
inveterate sentiment throughout Christendom, that it
was the duty of kings and governments not only to
establish Christianity as the religion of their dominions;




326 APPLICA TION AND CONCLUSION.
but to put down by force all deviations from  the doctrines and practices of the Church thus established, and
to maintain what it held to be Christian truth with the
whole weight of their magisterial power.
This doctrine, though it attained its greatest height in
the Church of Rome, and was associated with its most
revolting tyranny, was too deeply rooted to be at once
discarded by Protestant Churches, when they were freed
from the Romish yoke. In our own Church religious toleration was long considered a national sin. The Puritans,
with all their abhorrence of Romish doctrines, held as
strongly as Rome itself that the persecution of dissentients, even to the death, was a religious duty. And the
most earnest and devoted of the Scottish Churches at
the present day still hold to nearly the same principles,
but very partially modified by the opposing influence of
modern thought.
The idea of a national Church entertained in England
to the end of the Stuarts' dynasty, and since then only gradually and slowly put aside, was that the national Government was to choose the true religion,-i.e., necessarily
the religion which it considered to be true; to impose this
chosen religion upon the people; to embody its forms
and rules in the laws of the land; and to enforce them
by civil penalties.' But at the present time, when reliJeremy Taylor, in his' Liberty natural and unreasonable to perseof Prophesying,' shows that he had cute disagreeing opinions. Unnasome idea of the injustice and un- tural; for understanding being a
reasonableness of religious perse- thing wholly spiritual, cannot be
cution. He could write, "It is un- restrained, and, therefore, neither




APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION. 327
gious liberty has been at last secured, and the civil
magistrate is no longer regarded as the highest authority
in religious truth, our established Church stands on a
very different footing, —nust be looked upon in a very
different light, —and must be maintained by very different
means, from those which prevailed in the days of Queen
Elizabeth, and in the seventeenth century.
For the  security  and  permanence  of our national
Church it is necessary that it should be approved by the
intelligence, and possess the affection, of the nation.  The
danger, therefore, of the Church of England at the present time may be measured by the extent to which it
has lost its hold upon the mind and heart of the English
people. Since, in a free country like this, where, if a
popular conviction be real and strong, the popular voice
punished by corporal afflictions.   Locke, in his'Letters on ToleIt is in aliena republica, a matter of ration,' the first of which was pubanother world. You may as well lished in 1689 is more decided and
cure the ch olic by brushing a man's uncompromising in his opinions;
clothes, or fill a man's belly with a and, as might be expected from
syllogism...... And as it is un- him, enforces his conclusions with
natural, so it is unreasonable that clear arguments, very forcibly exSempronius should force Caius to  pressed. But his sentiments were
be of his opinion, because Sem- too much in advance of the age to
pronius is consul this year, and  produce much effect upon the
commands the lictors. As if he minds even of the leading men.
that can kill a man cannot but be   Klng William III. seems to have
infallible; and if he is not, why  had juster ideas, than any of our
should I do violence to my con- sovereigns before him, as to the
science because he can do violence duties of a civil government with
to my person?"-xiii. 10.        respect to religion; but neither the
Yet in other passages of the same parliament, nor the clergy, nor the
treatise, the worthy bishop is by no  country in general, were then able
means so clear or satisfactory.  fully to appreciate them.




328 APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION.
will be heard, and will prevail, the Church as a national
institution could not long survive the loss of the national
confidence. That our Church has lost this confidence
to a considerable extent, and is, at any rate, approaching to a position which would render it no longer the
Church of the English people, but one sect among others
in the land, cannot, in the face of the most obvious facts,
be with any truth denied, or with safety be ignored.
The causes, or essential symptoms, of this state of
things, a consideration of which is necessary in order to
appreciate, and if possible to apply, any remedies for
their removal, are, I venture to submit, especially such
as the following.
First, the felt unsuitableness of our Church system,
in many respects, to the state of society, life, and thought
amongst us. Some portions of its language, its formularies, and its regulations,-some of the things which it
directs to be done, and some omissions of what might
advantageously be ordered or allowed,-many of its
processes, laws, and canons, whether cumbering the
Church with their obsolete enactments like rusty weapons
at once dangerous and useless, or else offending common
sense and intelligence by their occasional and spasmodic
enforcement, its general stiffness and inflexibility in the
midst of the great varieties of our actual circumstances,have all operated to make it far less adapted to the present time, and far less capable of influencing the bulk of
our population, than it is most desirable that a national
Church should be. In all its outward points of contact




APPLICATION  AND  CONCLUSION.  329
with the nation's life, the Church for nearly the last three
hundred years has, in fact, been almost standing still,
while the people have been advancing in a movement, or
rather a combination and succession of movements,
which have wonderfully changed their whole condition;
and have greatly altered their relation to the Church,
and the feelings which they entertain towards it.
That great national institutions should shift and
change with every breath of popular opinion, or with
the ebb and flow of popular feelings, would indeed be a
great evil even in secular affairs, and much more in those
of religion: neither do I at all question the truth of
Richard Hooker's words, that the alteration of longestablished laws and customs, "though it be from worse
to better, hath in it inconveniences and those weighty."
Yet, on the other hand, it is no less certain that, while
the divinely-revealed truths of Christian doctrine continue unchanged from age to age, and must always be
unchangeably maintained, the forms, and ordinances,
and prescribed practices, in which man's authority and
Church discretion must exhibit those truths, may and
ought to vary with the marked variations of human life
and civilization. And a Church which does not allow
this, must become in effect more and more dead and
obsolete, and may expect to be left at last by the
receding tide a stranded vessel upon a deserted shore.
A second cause of danger to our national Church
arises from internal dissension,-from the great and irre



330  APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION.
concilable differences of doctrine and of practice within
its pale,-and the connection of these differences with
our ecclesiastical system.  That a  national Church
should embrace very considerable differences of religious
opinion, —not requiring or expecting all it members, or
even all its clergy, to look at the entire body of Christian truth with exactly the same eyes, or from the same
point of view,-and that it should not insist on the very
same outward forms and observances in every diocese,
or in every congregation,-would not in itself be a cause
of weakness and danger, but rather of strength  and
security.  But that there should be, as there are in our
case, doctrinal and ritualistic differences so strongly
opposed to each other among the clergy of a Church,
which still requires from them all the most exact agreement of doctrine and ritual, and which is supposed to
bind down every beneficed clergyman to a rigid uniformity in his ministrations, as far as a solemn declaration
can bind his conscience and his practice; and that there
should be withal no discipline worthy of the name to
prevent this scandal, nor any great attempt or care to
alter the prescribed restrictions, the very strictness of
which makes them so unavailing; 1 seems to me to be as
I Unreasonably stringent restric- companied with demoralising eftions applied to a large body of fects.  A memorable example of
men for any length of time will this has been exhibited in the hisalways be evaded or rendered prac- tory of the "Act of Uniformity,"
tically worthless by many of those which was bound upon the Church
who are supposed to be bound by of England at the " Restoration."
them, such result being often ac



APPLICATION  AND  CONCLUSION.  331
dangerous a symptom of decadence and disruption as
can well be imagined in a Christian community.
Under such circumstances the different schools of
religious thought and practice, as they are sometimes
called, are not like the differences of opinion which mark
a wholesome state of religious liberty, and intelligent
faith; for they are necessarily stamped with more or
less of a demoralized and dishonest character, which
injuriously affects the clergy themselves, however they
may succeed in satisfying their own consciences; and
which tends to weaken their moral influence with the
people at large,-to dissociate in the popular mind the
ideas of religious profession and of honest truthfulness,and so to undermine the general confidence in a Church
which admits of so anomalous and unsatisfactory a
condition.
The gravest evils might be expected to result from
such a state of things, independently of any question as
to the soundness or unsoundness of the doctrines which
are held and taught by any of the different parties in the
Church. But when to this is added the fact that an
active, zealous, and influential body among the clergy,
well organized and closely united within their own ranks,
not over-scrupulous as to the use of means, and encouraged by a large measure of success, are endeavouring
to bring us back to the doctrines and practices of the
fourth and fifth centuries and through them to Rome,the danger to the Church appears still more imminent.
For although this Romeward movement will doubtless




332 APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION.
never succeed in persuading the English nation to submit  again  to  the  yoke  of  papal  bondage,-it  may
succeed in producing a large amount of superstition and
infidelity;-it may succeed in creating such a feeling of
disgust and  indignation  against the  Church, as must
ensure its overthrow, — its disestablishment and  disendowment as a national institution,-its existence only as
an opposing power against all the sense and intelligence
of the nation.'
A  third  source of danger, and one in some respects
more formidable than the others in its immediate bearing
upon the security and permanence of our national Church,
is the want of union and consolidation between ourselves
The following remarks of Mr. field, in which reasonable men have
Froude at the end of his' History  ceased to expect any good thing to
of the Reign of Queen Elizabeth,' grow........ If the same pheshould be carefully considered by  nomena are beginning to be visible
all honest and patriotic churchmen. in England, they have appeared as
"To the countries which rejected  yetin a less aggravated form. They
the Reformation, freedom  never are manifesting themselves at preoffered itself again in the dress of a  sent coincident with the repudiation
purer religion. It returned upon  by the clergy of the principles of the
them as Revolution, as the negation  Reformation; and if the clergy are
of all religion. In Austria, in Spain, permitted to carry through their
in France, in Italy, the Church has Catholic'revival,' the divorce bebeen stripped step by step of its tween intelligence and Christianity
wealth, of its power, even of con- will be as complete among ourtrol over the education of the  selves as it is elsewhere; but we
people. Practical life has become  have been exempted hitherto by
secularized, and culture and intelli- the efforts of those brave men,
gence have ceased to interest them- whose perseverance and victory it
selves in a creed which they no  has been my privilege in these palonger believe. Doctrine may be  ges to describe; and unless we are
piled upon doctrine; the laity are unworthy or degenerate, it is not
contemptuously indifferent, and  yet too late for us to save ourleave the priests in possession of the  selves. "-Vol. vi. p. 534.




APPLICATION AND  CONCLUSION.   333
and other Christian bodies in our own country; and the
want of a close alliance, and even of friendly communion,
with Churches in other lands.
A desire for union with some other Churches has
indeed of late years been increasingly felt in several
quarters amongst us; and Eirenicons in word and act
have been held forth, if haply either the Greek or the
Roman portion of Christendom might be drawn nearer
to us, and we to them. If such a union could be effected
on the basis of acknowledged truth, and with a compromise only on such non-essential questions as are left
undecided in the New Testament, to be ordered by the
discretion of each Christian community, it would be a
happy consummation, indeed.  But as there seems at
present no prospect of such a consummation, nor even
any perceptible shadow of it appearing in the far distance, it will be wise to attempt an easier and more
promising task, and to endeavour to unite ourselves with
Churches, which hold the same great doctrinal truths as
our own, and differ only, if at all, in outward form and
government.
A union or close alliance with the Presbyterian
Churches in Scotland, and with other orthodox Protestant bodies, Episcopal or Presbyterian, on the Continent, and in other parts, would necessarily strengthen
our hands as well as theirs, and would greatly further
the cause of apostolic Christianity throughout the world.
And looking nearer home at the bodies of Christian men
in England itself, as sound in the faith as we are, and




334   APPLICATION  AND  CONCLUSION.
holding all or almost all the Articles of our Church, but
unfortunately separated altogether from us into different
sects and denominations, it is impossible to doubt that,
if they could be united with us in one religious community, it would prove an immense accession of strength
to the Church, comprehending as it would within its
borders almost the whole of the nation's religious life.
It is perfectly obvious that one of the greatest dangers;vhich threaten the Established Church, is caused by the
co-existence with it of large and powerful bodies of
nonconformists, commanding respect by their numbers,
intelligence, learning, and piety; and occupying a
position necessarily more or less antagonistic to it.
These dissenting Churches are growing stronger year
by year; and how great is their influence on the national
mnind and will is but too painfully evidenced by the
recurrence of "Religious Difficulties," which from time
to time impede or utterly prevent important measures,
of which all approve, but which can be accomplished
only, if at all, with maimed and curtailed effect, from the
antagonism existing between churchmanship and dissent.
Ever since the firm settlement of the reformed religion
in this kingdom in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, it has
been the desire of the wisest statesmen and of the most
enlightened well-wishers to the country and the Church
to consolidate the religious profession of the nation.
And repeated attempts were made by them,-first, to
prevent the extension of non-conformity, and afterwards
to comprehend the great body of Protestant dissenters




APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION. 335
within the pale of the Church, by judicious alterations
in its formularies.  These laudable efforts were unfortunately frustrated by the obstinacy of the sovereign,the reactionary violence of party feeling,-or the power
and  short-sightedness  of the  clergy.  And  since  the
failure of the " Comprehension Act "  nearly two hundred years ago, things have been allowed to take their
course without any sustained and vigorous efforts to
remedy the increasing evil.
In the presence of these dangers, all of which are still
A grand opportunity was lost,  "Comprehension Act."
and turned into a source of ruinous    "Those distinguished statesmen
mischief, by the obstinacy of Queen  did, however, make a noble, and in
Elizabeth in refusing all concession  some respects a successful, struggle
to the large, influential, and loyal for the rights of conscience. Their
portion of her subjects, who desired  wish was to bring the great body of
the principles of the Reformation to  the Protestant Dissenters vwitin
be legitimately carried out. And a the pale of the Church by judicious
similar policy on the part of the  alterations in the liturgy and the
crown, under the influence of the  articles; and to grant to those who
Romanizing and tyrannical Laud,  still remained without that pale
issued in the violent outbreak of the most ample toleration. They
Puritanism, and in the overthrow of framed a plan of comprehension
the Church and throne.           which would have satisfied a great
At the Restoration much good  majority of the seceders; and they
might have been effected, if the  proposed the complete abolition'of
violent reaction against the Presby- that absurd and odious test, which
terian and Puritan party had not after having been during a century
miserably blinded those who had  and a half a scandal to the pious,
the power.                       and a laughing-stock to the proThe last golden time for consoli- fane, was at length removed in our
dating the sound religious faith and  own time. The immense power of
feeling of the nation was lost in the  the clergy, and of the Tory gentry,
reign of William  III., when his frustrated these excellent designs."
wisest ministers, supported by the -' Macaulay's Essays;'' History
king's enlightened sentiments, en- of the Revolution,' by Sir J. Mackdeavoured in vain to pass the intosh.




336 APPLICA TION AND CONCLUSION.
advancing with greater force as time goes on, it is surely
the best policy to realize our actual position, to look the
dangers in the face, and hopefully to adopt the best
available means for averting them. And the path of
policy is here the path of duty. For it is the duty
of a national Church to extend its legitimate influence
as widely as possible,-to hold forth divine truth in the
clearest manner and to the greatest number,-and, as far
as the manifestation of the truth can do it, to root itself
in the affections of the people.
A grave and temperate, but at the same time courageous and comprehensive, revision of our liturgy and
our whole ecclesiastical system, with a view to wise
and conservative reforms, and such changes as are
necessary for re-invigorating our Church life, seems
therefore to be now imperatively demanded. Such a
revision is required, not to gratify the wishes of this
or that religious school or party in the Church, but in
order to meet the real wants and circumstances of the
present age,-to secure a less cumbrous and more real
and reasonable discipline,-to strengthen the foundations
of the Church in the national mind and conscience, —-to
enlarge its basis in conformity with a truly Christian
and apostolic liberality,-and what is the greatest thing
of all, to exhibit in the most distinct and impressive
manner the great Christian truths which have been
committed to its trust; —and thus as far as possible to
draw together into a compact and healthy union the
religious faith and life of the nation.




APPLICA TION AND CONCLUSION. 337
In attempting this great and needful work, it is not to
the third  and fourth centuries, or any subsequent
period of ecclesiastical history, that we must look for
our authorities and guides. The Church of England
is not dependent on, or subject to, any other Church,
or the Church of any other times. Nor is it an unnecessary thing emphatically to affirm  this independence,
since practices alien to our Church have often of late
been introduced, and defended, on the ground of such
presumed subjection; and the canons of ancient councils have been held forth, as if we were altogether
bound to obey them. We have wisely retained good
rules and customs of the earlier Church, as we have
adopted many laws of imperial Rome; but we owe
no more allegiance to the councils of the one, than we
do to the civil edicts of the other.
The authority, to which alone we should appeal, is
that of the Divine Head of the whole Church, as it may
be gathered from the words and actions of his inspired
Apostles. The one safe and legitimate course in all our
Church reforms is to go to the New Testament as our
guide. The one great object of our desire should be to
exhibit apostolic truth, as far as possible, in its apostolic form; and never willingly to depart from the great
principles of the Apostle's teaching, when we may justly
feel that we have full Christian liberty to deviate from
their regulations, or to regulate what they left unruled.
This course would be a noble following out of what
was done by the noblest fathers of the English Beforma22




338  APPLICATION AND  CONCLUSION.
tion. With their determination to set forth clearly in
the Church the truth of Christ, as far as they themselves
could. see and apprehend it, they wished no other consideration to interfere. And as further light and knowledge were gained by them from the Scriptures, they did
not hesitate to revise and alter what they had authorized
at first. But, entangled as they necessarily were with
fond notions about the ancient Church, from which it
was scarcely possible that, without a miracle, they should
have altogether cleared their minds, they bequeathed to
their Church some difficulties and inconsistencies for
those who came after them  to remove. The truest
honour which we can pay to their memory is to complete what they so auspiciously began, and in the same
spirit as that in which they served their generation, to
endeavour to benefit our own.
Such a course avowedly adopted and honestly carried
out is not only right in itself, whatever its results might
be; but it is one, which more than any other possible
alternative, would approve itself to the intelligence of
the English people, win back their confidence, and
restore their waning affection to the Church. The
people of this country have not lost their love and
reverence for the Scriptures; and reforms made in
acknowledged conformity with Scripture teaching, with
the express intention of bringing out that teaching more
distinctly before the people, and not for state purposes,
or to gratify political or religious party-spirit, would
confirm instead of unsettling the best sentiments of the




APPLICA TION AND CONCLUSION. 339
popular mind, and would have, at the very least, a most
wholesome effect upon the nation at large.
In those things which no divine or apostolic authority
has determined for us, which yet must be determined in
some way in the practice of the Church, as also in numberless details, which have necessarily been left to the
judgment of each Christian community, a consideration
of, though not a submission to, what our own, or other
Churches in former times decreed, will be wise and
needful. Christianity is a religion of facts and history,
not of philosophic dogmas or abstract truths. And
every modern Church has links connecting it with the
past. Yet the history of ancient Churches is much more
useful in holding out beacons to warn us of their errors,
than in lighting up safe paths for us to follow in their
steps.
It is especially in non-essentials of this nature that
times and circumstances-the ordinary feelings, habits,
and social and intellectual conditions of our own ageshould be considered; and the Church should endeavour
to meet the people upon their own ground, and to bring
its ministrations into close contact and friendly sympathy
with the national life. In these things also it is no
wisdom, but the contrary, to require a strict and unvarying uniformity, which secures no useful object, and
hinders rather than helps the general edification.
But above all, sound practical common sense and
honest truthfulness should be allowed full scope in
ecclesiastical laws and regulations. The continuance




340 APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION.
of shams and unrealities in dealing with sacred things,
whatever excuses may be made for them, has necessarily
a demoralising effect, and tends to make all religion be
regarded as nothing but a cunningly devised fable.
On looking then to the apostolic Church of the New
Testament for direction in the religious and ecclesiastical
questions, which it will be necessary to consider, two
great primary lessons are at once presented to us by the
ecclesiastical polity of the Apostles, and may take precedence of all the rest. These two important lessons
relate to the ministry and the sacraments of the Church;
and they teach us that
Sacerdotalism and Sacramentalism
had no place in the Apostles' practice, or encouragement from their authority. And consequently a return
to the purity of the primitive Church will lead to the
exclusion of these post-apostolic errors.
Sacerdotalism.-With regard to the first of these, it
was shown in a former lecture that the Christian
ministry as instituted by the Apostles was certainly
not a priesthood:-that sacerdotalism appeared at the
beginning of the third century, and in the progress of its
development brought in all the kindred notions of a
priestly caste, a material altar, and a material sacrifice
which opened a wide gate to a flood of superstitions;
but all this had no foundation at all in the New Testament or in the teaching and practice of the apostolic
Church: — that the ordination of ministers by the




APPLICA TION AND CONCLUSION. 341
Apostles and by others in their time did not confer a
spiritual power, but an ecclesiastical authority:-and that
there is no intimation whatever in the New Testament,
that ministerial power or authority was to be exclusively
transmitted through any particular line or succession of
ordinations; or that the validity of the sacraments is in
any way derived from  the fact of their being administered by one who has been so ordained; or that there
is any such thing as "the grace of absolution" to be
obtained exclusively or with any special effect from
ministerial lips and hands;-the doctrines of the special
confession of sins to a priest, and  of penance imposed
and absolution given by him, being unknown to the
Church of the Apostles, and invented in a later age.
When compared with the apostolic view of the Christian ministry, the formularies of our Church in their
exhibition  of the ministerial office, display an inconsistency or incompleteness which ought not to have
remained so long uncorrected.
The inconsistencies  in  our opposition to their recommendaPrayer-book are principally owing tions, many important changes were
to the fact that the Prayer-book of introduced by the queen and her
Queen Elizabeth's reign, which is council, before the book was subsubstantially the same as that now  mitted to Parliament. This comin use, was the result of a compro- promise so far succeeded that " the
mise. The policy of the queen, both  book was made so passable amongst
from personal and from political the Papists, that for ten years they
motives, was to conciliate Papists, generally repaired to their parish
without herself submitting to the churches without doubt or scruPope. The commission appointed ple." —(Heylin,'Hist. of Ref' ii.
to prepare the book were ordered p. 286.)
" to favour thefirst Prayer-book of   "The reluctant commission of
Edward VI. " and besides this, in  divines," says Bishop  Burnet,




342 APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION.
"Altars" having even in the reign  of Edward  VI.
given way to "honest tables" in our Churches, while
the word "altar" itself has been  carefully expunged
from our Prayer-book,-and the idea of a material sacrifice having been removed from all the prescribed acts of
our officiating ministers,-it needs only a completion of
this good work to remove also whatever encourages the
thought that a Christian  presbyter is a priest, and
as such possesses the power of granting priestly absolution, of offering sacrifices, or of performing any other
mediatorial work for Christian men.'
And when the idea of a priesthood is eliminated from
the ministry of our Church, it will the more readily be
seen that it is a thing which cannot be justified by any
principle or practice of the primitive Church, that in our
Ordination Service the words of Christ's commission to
His Apostles should be addressed to a presbyter, telling
him at that solemn time, "whose sins thou dost forgive,
they are forgiven; and whose sins thou dost retain, they
are retained;" a form of words never applied in the New'reckoned that if that generation  servants of Christ, desiring and
could have been on any terms sepa- longing for. the redress of. divers
rated from the Papacy, though with  abuses of the Church," was met
allowances for many other supersti- with refusal and persecution. In
tious conceits, it would once unite  the mean while, as remarked by
them all, and in the next age none Bishop Pilkington " pious persons
of those should any more remain." lamented, atheists laughed, and the
The next age came, and the next Papists blew the coals."
reign, but every petition for relief   iThe insufficiency of the plea
from those "who sought it neither that the word " priest " now means
as factious men, nor as schismatics only Christian minister is shown in
aiming at the dissolution of the Lecture iii.
state ecclesiastical, but as faithful




APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION. 343
Testament to any but those who received their authority
immediately from Christ himself; never used in Ordinations for many centuries after the Apostles' time; and
whatever meaning the forgiveness and retention of sins
may  be  supposed  to  bear, appropriate  only  to  men
endued with  infallible  knowledge  and  unerring  judgment through the special inspiration of the Holy Spirit.l
1 It is remarkable that those, who  undesirable that words requiring so
from Richard Hooker to the present much explanation, and liable, as
time, have undertaken to defend  experience proves, to so much
the use of these words in the ordi- abuse, should be used in so solemn
nation of a presbyter, almost invari- a service, the insuperable objection
ably miss the really gravest point of to them does not lie in any partiobjection against them; and satisfy  cular meaning of the word "forthemselves with explaining how the  give," but in the grant of infallibility
forgiveness of sins may, in some  contained in the emphatic words,
lawful sense, be included in the  Whosesoever sins ye forgive, they
ministerial office. Even Archbishop  are forgiven. The Apostles, it is
Whately, usually so clear-sighted in  true, did not infallibly know the
an argument, falls into this error; state of every man's heart, but
and thinks it enough to remark that, they did infallibly know, and unerin forgiving sins as against God, the  ringly declare, the terms of forgiveApostles did so by proclaiming the  ness. They were empowered to
good tidings of forgiveness to all announce, as by the word of God,
who should accept the Gospelinvi- and without the possibility of mistation, and admitting to baptism  take or the right of appeal, what
the attentive and professedly re- men "must do to be saved;" and
pvntant and believing hearers; to say to those, who heartily reand, consequently, that Christian  ceived their word, that God had
ministers may in that sense forgive  forgiven their sins. In their case,
sins now.  "While," he continues,  therefore, it might be truly said,
"offences as against a Community  "Whosesoever sins ye remit, they
may, it is plain, be pardoned, or are remitted unto them."  But this
pardon for them be withheld, by  cannot be so said of Christian minthat community, or by those its isters now. They are not divinely
officers who duly represent it."-  inspired to teach infallibly wh t'Kingdom  of Christ Delineated,' men must do to obtain God's forp. 98-101.                        giveness. They can and do make
But although it is at any rate very  mistakes in their teaching, even on




344 APPLICA TION AND CONCLUSION.
These words moreover but ill accord with the rest of
the service, in which the work and duty of a Christian
presbyter are excellently described with much truth and
feeling, and in admirable conformity with what, as far as
we oan judge, were the work  and duty of presbyters
under the Apostles, and in the time which immediately
succeeded them.
This office, so  solemn and responsible, requires the
continual gift of divine grace, to teach, strengthen, guide,
and animate those who are appointed to it.  None but
God, it has been truly said, can make a true minister
of the New Testament.  Nothing but His Spirit can give
the requisite powers for such ministrations. To remind
men of this with touching earnestness at their ordination
is good indeed.  Good and needful too it is that earnest
and united prayer should then ask for an out-giving of
the most important points.  We in certain cases and under certain
may appeal against their declara- restrictions, in connection with the
tion to the judgment of the Scrip- Lord's Supper. This is indeed
tures. The words, therefore, cannot what Hooker represents it mainly to
truly be said to them, as they were consist in.
to the Apostles. They cannot truly   But what words are these to exbe said to them, without introduc- press so slight an exercise of mining another condition which essen- isterial authority! To use exprestially alters their meaning; namely, sions capable of supporting the
that the minister shall remit sins, most lofty pretensions, and then by
or proclaim the terms of forgive- explanations to attempt to bring
ness, inexact accordance with God's them down to the most innocent
written word.                   and humble claims, is a delusion
Even with regard to ecclesiastical and a snare, which never ought to
forgiveness, or retention of sin, a be allowed a place in the hallowed
presbyter in our Church has no au- ordinances of a pure religion.
thority to forgive or retain, except




APPLICA TION AND CONCLUSION. 345
heavenly grace for those who are admitted to such sacred
duties. Such prayer was an apostolic practice; and was
retained in the Church even after many errors and unapostolic notions had been associated with  the idea of
the ministry.  And  far better would  it be to  give a
greater prominence to such prayer in our ordinal; instead of directing the bishop to use words,' which imply
1 The use of these words has Archbishop Parker and the other
been felt to be a stumbling-block  bishops. He says,' To use these
for the last three hundred years. words,  "Receive ye the Holy
Hooker writes respecting them," A  Ghost," in ordering of ministers,
thing much stumbled at in the  which Christ himself used in apmanner of giving orders, is our pointing his Apostles, is no more
using those memorable words of our ridiculous and blasphemous than
Lord and Saviour Christ,'Receive  it is to use the words that he used
ye the Holy Ghost " (' Eccl. Pol.' in the Supper; but itis blasphemy
v. ~ 77). And most unsatisfactory  thus outrageously to speak of the
is his defence of our thus using  words of Christ. The bishop, by
them, and hardly consistent with  speaking these words, doth not take
itself.                          upon him to give the Holy Ghost, no
Among  the  most recent do- more than he doth to remit sins,
fences of this formulary is the fol- when he pronounceth the remission
lowing, containedin Dr. Blakeney's of sins; but by speaking these
valuable work, on the Book of words of Christ, "Receive the
Common Prayer.                   Holy Ghost; whose sins soever ye
"The third form,'Receive ye remit they are remitted," &c., he
the Holy Ghost,' is also novel in  doth show the principal duty of a
its use. There is, however, nothing  minister, and assureth him of the
objectionable in these words, as assistance of God's Holy Spirit, if he
used in the English ordinal, when  labour in the same accordingly.'"
properly received. It consists of a -Works of Whitgift, p. 489, vol. i.
prayer, an address, and a charge. P. S.' Receive ye the Holy Ghost for the    Of this and all other similar exoffice of a priest in the Church of planations it is sufficient to remark,
God, now committed unto thee by  that they really involve a condemnathe imposition of our hands,' is a  tion of that which they are designed
prayer. Such was the description  to defend. Interpretations savourgiven of it by Whitgift, who must ing so much of a non-natural sense,
have known well the views of show what sort of language ought




346 APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION.
the giving of the Holy Spirit by his own power, when
he lays his hands on those who are ordained; and which
authorise them in consequence of this gift to forgive or
retain the sins of men.
As long as such words continue to be so employed, it
must be impossible  to  prevent the practice of the
confessional in  our Church, with  any amount of its
abominations, that individual presbyters may, in their
discretion-or their indiscretion-think proper to introduce; or indeed, to prevent the whole sacerdotalism  of
the Church of Rome from following with it.  For he who
is directed to forgive sins, or to withhold forgiveness,
may reasonably urge the consequent necessity of individual confession to himself, or as it is commonly called,
" auricular confession;" and he who is expressly declared
to be a priest, cannot by any explanations be prevented
from making for himself an altar, and a sacrifice, though
none is provided for him in the Church. It must be in
vain to expect that our Prayer-book, framed  for the
express purpose of including Romanists, should now be
able without alteration to exclude Romanizers.l
to be used, instead ofjustifying the than the use of our present formula.
present use.  If a prayer is in-   I Such inconsistencies as the
tended, why is there not a prayer form of absolution in " The Visitaactually used, which would need tion of the Sick," evidently introno elaborate explanation?  A very duced there to serve a temporary
excellent prayer might be selected purpose in the transition time of
with scarcely any alteration, from  the Reformation, will necessarily
the'Constitutiones Apostolicae,' be removed, whenever a Scriptural
and to adopt it would be to return  revision of the Ordination Service
to a practice much more ancient is allowed to take effect.




APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION. 347
Sacramentalmsm.-There has been at all times a close
connection between the estimation  and use of the
Christian  sacraments, and the views entertained of
the Christian ministry. Wherever a right understanding and Scriptural estimate of the ministerial office
prevails, Sacramentalism, or an excessive, unscriptural,
and therefore superstitious exaltation of the sacraments,
cannot easily supersede the simple and healthy practice
of the earliest Church.
In that Church the baptism of those who repented of
sin, and believed in Jesus as the divine Saviour, was
regarded as being to them, "the washing of regeneration," the beginning of a new spiritual life, and an imparting of all the privileges of Christ's disciples. While
at the same time no virtue was believed to be inherent
in the rite itself; no consecration of the water was
made, as if to infuse into it some mystical power; no
sacramental grace was supposed to pass forth through it
from the minister who performed the service; neither is
any instance of infant baptism recorded in the New
Testament, nor any directions given respecting it.
But from and after the beginning of the third century
this sacrament was overloaded with a burden of ceremonies before unknown, all tending but too surely to
produce the belief that a special virtue was conveyed
into the water, and that it washed away sin by a supernatural efficacy of its own.
The application of the consecrated ointment with
other imposing rites still further encouraged in ordinary




348 APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION.
minds the notion that the Church possessed a species of
magic, by which those who joined it could have their
sins annihilated, and a spiritual power ex opere operato
imparted to them.
In like manner the sacrament of the Lord's Supper
was the most simple of all ordinances in the apostolic
Church. No idea of a sacrifice was attached to its celebration; no change was supposed to take place in the
sacred elements; no virtue to be imparted to them or
through them  by the administrator; no presence of
Christ in them, or with them, in any especial or peculiar
manner. But in the post-apostolic Church all this was
gradually changed, until at last the service was represented as a sacrifice offered upon an altar by a priest, the
elements were spoken of and worshipped, as if they
were Christ himself; and other gross superstitions
naturally ensued.
Through all these accumulations of error and delusion
the Reformation had to clear its way, and if the heroic
men who first undertook the work left some portions'of
the Herculean task unfinished, which those who followed
neglected to complete, it becomes us, who still enjoy
the fruits of their labours, not to shrink from a lighter
labour of our own, that we may finish what they so
happily began.
The circumstances have been already noticed which
led our early Church Reformers to examine and test the
then prevalent doctrines and practices of the Eucharistic
service with more depth and earnestness than any other




APPLICATION  AND  CONCLUSION,  349
subject. And the happy results of their honest and
courageous search for the truth have so far survived the
compromising efforts of later hands, that but little is
found in our Communion liturgy, which a Scriptural
revision would mark with disapprobation.
Here and there a few words would be corrected which
from an apparent misunderstanding of certain texts are
calculated to mislead the minds of ordinary hearers, and
to give birth to unhealthy feelings of awe and dread,
instead of a wholesome reverence and sacred joy. And
the expressions which are sometimes represented as
inculcating the Romish doctrines of the confessional and
priestly absolution, though they cannot justly bear all
that has been built upon them, should be freed from the
ambiguity, which now attaches to them, and thus gives
some apparent sanction to the assumption of sacerdotal
powers.
In dealing with the other sacrament the original
framers of our baptismal formulary were not under the
same urgent necessity to search the Scriptures for the
solution of all questions connected with it, inasmuch as
that ordinance had not been so cardinal a point of' vital
controversy, as that of the Lord's Supper. And, consequently, they did not give us in every part so good an
exposition of primitive doctrine and practice, as they did
in their Communion service.
They were, it is true, too well acquainted with the
New Testament not to mark numerous unauthorized




350  APPLICATION  AND  CONCLUSION.
and superstitious ceremonies, which had been added to
the ordinance of baptism since the Apostles' days. And
their reverence for patristic antiquity did not prevent
them from sweeping these away, in spite of the authority
of the early Church. And this very circumstance plainly
shows that they would have made further alterations
besides these, if they had seen that there were still some
things in their baptismal service not sufficiently conformed to the written word of truth.
The defects, which I venture to believe an unfettered
and courageous appeal to apostolic authority, such as
was-made in the case of the other sacrament, would have
removed, are particularly the consecration of the fontal
water,-the taking for granted that the baptism of unconscious infants must be in all respects the same as
that of believing adults,-and the ecclesiastical fiction of
the sponsorial promises.
1. The prayer of consecration, " Sanctify this water to
the mystical washing away of sin," encourages the old
superstitious belief that a mysterious change is effected
in the element, by means of which the sins of the baptized are removed; and it is altogether unauthorized by
the practice of the primitive Church. There is nothing
of this objectionable nature in the Communion service.
What is there called the prayer of consecration does not
contain a single word indicative of any change in the
bread and wine corresponding with this presumed change
in the baptismal water.
The explanation that these words in our administra



APPLICA TION  AND  CONCLUSION.  351
tion of baptism only mean "that the water is separated
from common use to a holy purpose," is one of those
interpretations which only show that the words are very
inappropriate to the meaning which ought to be expressed.
2. The baptism of the children of believing parents,
deriving its plea and justification from a reasonable
application of apostolic authority, and Scripture promises, to the circumstances of later times, requires no
unwarranted assertions or assumptions for its wholesome
administration. The language used in the New Testament, when speaking of the baptism of believing men,
does not justify the use of the very same terms in the
baptism of unconscious infants. Words of dedication, of
prayer, and of hope, may be lawful; but positive affirmation can hardly be justifiable, when it has no positive
information or authority whereon to rest. Nor can it
be right, in a solemn religious ceremony, any more than
in secular transactions of common life, to assert that to
be a fact, which we do not know to be so.
The conduct of the churchmen of those times, when
infant baptism is first known to have prevailed, was at
any rate in this matter consistent with their creed. They
believed baptism to be absolutely necessary for salvation,
so that infants, dying without it, could not be savedand they accordingly baptized them. They believed that
through the consecrating and transforming power of certain sacerdotal acts, the baptismal water with its holy oil
and the sacred chrism were able, by their own inherent




352  APPLICA TION  AND  CONCLUSION.
virtue, to convey the pardon of sin and the gift of the
Spirit;-and they accordingly asserted that these same
effects were produced in infants and in adults. But if
we do not believe, as they did, that infants dying unbaptized must certainly perish, we cannot consistently
regard infant baptism exactly as they regarded it. And
if we do believe, as they did not, that the sacraments
"are not physical but moral instruments of salvation,"
and do not take effect from " any natural or supernatural
quality in them,"-we cannot have the same reason as
they had for supposing that the effect of baptismn must
be exactly the same in children as in men. As a moral
instrument it must necessarily be imperfect in the infant
recipient; and it ought therefore to be so regarded, and
the service for its administration should be framed accordingly.
3. The use of sponsors, to make declarations in the
infant's name, probably originated at first, and has been
since retained, from laudable motives; yet it is not only
destitute of all scriptural authority direct or inferred,but the fiction, which it introduces, gives an appearance
of unreality to the whole transaction, and has been followed to a large extent by a demoralizing effect. The
more so, since, by a strange perversity, the parents, who
are the most fitted by their position to answer for
the baptized child, were, by our ecclesiastical laws, until
very lately, excluded from the office. If infant baptism
were in itself unlawful, the addition of the sponsorial
promises could not make it right. If it be most agree



APPLICA TION AND CONCLUSION. 353
able with the institution of Christ, it needs not this
addition to give it validity.
Most right and proper would it be that parents should
be called upon to undertake that children, presented for
baptism, should be brought up "in all virtue and godliness of living;" and far better adapted would such a
practice be to secure a healthy reverence for the sacred
ordinance, and to promote a godly use of it in our population at large, than is now found to be the case with
our present service.l
1 Baptism is now very often re- (1) by the Rubric, which affirms
garded by our upper and middle  that, "It is certain by God's word
classes as a ceremony which it is that children which are baptized,
the right thing to have performed; dying before they commit actual
-to be made an occasion for some  sin, are undoubtedly  saved;"
family festivity; for the giving of though, by the way, God's word
presents; or for securing, through  says nothing whatever upon the
godfathers and godmothers, con- subject; (2) by parents being innections which may be useful to  structed that, in case of illness
the child's pecuniary interests: and  baptism  should be administered
by the lower classes, as a ceremony  privately in houses, and in any
for giving the child a name, and a way rather than not at all; (3) by
title to decent burial, if it should  unbaptized children  being  exdie; or, at the best, as an unintel- eluded from Church burial.
ligible mysterious method of mak-   If parents were plainly taught
ing the child a Christian; while  that baptism is not a charm to be
sponsors are sought for at random, administered to dying infants, but
to meet the ecclesiastical demand, a sacrament for those who are to
without any regard to the engage- live the Christian life; and that,
ments which they have to assume. when they bring their children to
Although the direct assertion  be baptized, they are themselves
that unbaptized  children  must undertaking a Christian responsiperish, which appeared in the bility,-there might be a better
Articles of 1536, has been re- hope that this sacred ordinance
moved from our formularies, yet would be more duly appreciated,
an idea of a similar kind, all the  and made more beneficial than it
more superstitious from its vague- now is.
ness, is kept up in our population,
-  - ~..    2




354  APPLICA TION AND  CONCLUSION.
A Christian Church is doubtless at liberty to institute
rites and ceremonies on its own authority, provided that
nothing be enacted contrary to God's word. Yet within
this limit many different degrees of wisdom, and unwisdom, may find a place; even if in the present instance
it can be justly said that this limit has not been
exceeded.
With infant baptism administered as an ordinance of
prayer and hope for the solemn dedication of the children
of Christians to that Saviour, who suffered little children to come unto Him, and forbade them not;-and
with confirmation afterwards, as a " Sacramental Complement," made a service for a real profession of personal repentance, faith, and godly obedience, of those
who had been baptized in childhood;-our Church might
secure all, and more than all, that can be gained by our
present system, without any of the stumbling-blocks,
which now often give occasion for disingenuous oi nonnatural interpretations, - perplexities for tender consciences,-and disunion between those who ought to be
united in Christian brotherhood.
The most important lessons then, which may be
learned from the apostolic Church for our own ecclesiastical polity, are these which immediately relate to the
ministry and the sacraments. But there are many others
to be gathered from the same source, secondary only to
these in their importance, and worthy of our serious
consideration. Of these I desire especially to notice
two, which are particularly applicable to some of the




APPLICA TION A ND  CONCLUSION.  355
wants of the present time; and which relate to our
public worship, and to the position of the laity in our
Church.
As there is no command in the New Testament respecting the use of extemporaneous prayers, or of the
set forms of a prescribed liturgy, in public worship,but both these modes have the sanction of antiquity,
and every Church is left without the least restriction in
this matter,-it is remarkable that within the compass
of this island two national Churches should not only
have made a different choice in these alternatives, but
with a determined and blind partiality should have long
adhered each to one of these two modes of worship
exclusively, and have looked with positive abhorrence
upon the other. Though either method has its own
advantages, and its own defects, free prayer in the
North, and a rigid unchangeable liturgy in the South,
have been regarded almost as objects of vital and essential faith by their respective communities.
In our own Church the evils resulting from an undeviating adherence to an inflexible form of prayer have
long been felt, and have of late years sometimes been
even in high places openly acknowledged. They have
been aggravated in our case by the circumstance that
our liturgy, However excellent, was compiled, and all its
regulations and arrangements ordered, in a state of
society and national life altogether different from the
present; while a revision, which might make it more
capable of meeting the requirements of modern times,




356 APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION.
has hitherto been effectually prevented, and seems to be
regarded  by  some good men  as if it were  something
sacrilegious and profane.
The opposite defects of the system, which entirely
excludes prescribed forms of prayer, have also of late
been to some extent acknowledged in the Churches of
Scotland; and a desire is beginning to be felt for a
partial use of devotional formularies, where hitherto they
had been looked upon as abominations.l  If such deep
rooted prejudices are giving way, where they might have
been the least expected to do so, will it be too much to
hope that the Church of England, with its more liberal
spirit, may be led to see that some degree of choice and
freedom may be granted to its ministers and congregations
in our public worship, without deviating from the earliest
precedents,-without contravenling any apostolic rule,I' Church Tendencies in Scot- himself in the most effectual manland':-                         ner to supply it. His aim was,
"Accustomed to popularity and while retaining the vigour and
influence, and possessing consi- thoroughness of the Scotch ideal
derable flexibility of constitution, of preaching, to borrow from EpisPresbyterianism has seldom shown  copalianism the best elements of
itself unwilling or unable to retain  its liturgical method, while corthe popular attachment by meet- recting some of its obvious faults.
ing the popular wants. And in  The protracted and somewhat anthe present instance, there are gry controversy, which arose upon
many tokens that Presbyterianism  the introduction of his reforms,
is seeking to adapt itself to the de- has issued substantially in the
mand that has arisen for a larger  success of his ideas. The moveinfusion of life and beauty into its ment for the improvement of the
ritual. To the late Dr. Robert Lee Presbyterian ritual, instead  of
belongs the credit of having first, being extinguished, has been conand most clearly, seen what was firmed." —Essay, by Rev. R. Walwanted here, and of having set lace, D.D., in'Recess Studies.'




APPLICATION A ND CONCLUSION. 357
and with  manifest advantage to general usefulness?
There is at any rate no ground of objection, either in the
Scriptures, or in reason, against a system, which would
combine the advantages of both methods, without losing
the time-honoured and beautiful prayers which we have
inherited from the Church of old.
The position of the laity in our Church, including their
relations to the clerical order,-the duties incumbent on
them,-the authority or influence which they ought to
exercise,-and the aid which they may justly be expected to afford for the general welfare of the Christian
community,-has begun at last here and there to excite
attention, and to engage some of the thoughts of earnest
men.l  One  of the  most distinctive features of the
apostolic Church was the great importance of the part
assigned to the lay members of it. In the first century,
and for several centuries beyond it, they elected, or at
least freely expressed their approval or disapproval of
1 "It cannot be necessary to most anxious for the retention of
dwell at any length on the circum- the great blessing of the union of
stances of the times which are' Church and State,' are also those
bringing into the foreground this who  are looking about most
question of the place of the laity in anxiously for some means of reChurch government. Somepersons adjusting the relations which subare attracted towards it from one sist between the two bodies, now
direction, some from another; but more than ever distinct and sepathe thoughts of very many seem to rate. It is in the introduction of
converge towards the same point. the Church laity in some form or
Is it too much to say that it is the other that they are beginning to
great Church question of the day?" see a way out of their difficulties."
"The old machinery of the Es- -Essay IV. in' The Church and
tablishment is perceived tobe very the Age,' on'The Place of the
much out of gear. Those who are Laity in Church Government.'




358 APPLICA TION AND CONCLUSION.
those who were ordained  to  minister among them;
and they appear at first to have exercised the power of
deposing offending presbyters. In the maintenance also
of Church discipline in all its several forms, and in questions of faith and  doctrine  requiring  any dogmatic
decision, the laity in the New Testament period held an
influential position, and were called upon to give their
voice and sanction to  all ecclesiastical proceedings.
Besides this their mutual sympathies and kindly fellowship, kept up by the Ayapce, or other Christian meetings,
-the words of exhortation, warning, and encouragement,
which they did not shrink from addressing to each other,
-and their constant and ready help in all works of
charity and kindness,-were powerful means in the early
Church for strengthening and cherishing the religious life.
In our Church, on the other hand, a great cause of
weakness and of failure has been the almost utter absence
of lay influence and work. The general tendency of our
system, in its actual working at any rate, has been to
place each clergyman alone as the only motive power
of Godliness in his parish; and to assign nothing to
the parishioners to do.1 His public ministrations in the
parish Church, and his visits from house to house to the
sick and the whole within his cure, were all that seems
to have been looked upon as needful; and anything
1 The office of Churchwardens, the Church. The system to which
whatever it may once have been, they belong, if it ever was effectual
is now quite powerless for any- for much good, has now, at any
thing beyond what relates to the rate, become obsolete.
material fabric and furniture of




APPLICATION  AND  CONCLUSION.  35,
beyond this was until lately by our ecclesiastical authorities discouraged, if not forbidden. It is no wonder that
such a course of action has greatly failed to reach the
masses of our population; and that not only much
spiritual destitution, but much rampant irreligion, prevails
in our parishes. Praiseworthy efforts have been made
by good men to remedy this lamented state of things.
By additional Churches and clergy, Scripture readers,
Bible women, and other similar means, something has
been done to encounter the most glaring symptoms of
this our English heathenism. And cottage lectures,
Bible classes, and communicants' meetings, are sometimes used to supplement the necessarily imperfect instructions of the Prayer-book and the pulpit. But all
these are at the best but partial, and are more or less
spasmodic in their action and effects.
I venture to think that something more systematic
is needed; and that a return, as far as may be practicable, to the apostolic plan, by giving the laity a more
prominent place in our Church,-by showing them that
they have Christian work to do, and by encouraging
them to take an interest in doing it,-is what our present
condition most especially requires. And without pretending here to trace the details of such a reform, or to
assert that it could immediately be brought into full
operation; some good might be done at once by giving
congregations a voice in the appointment of their ministers; some good might be done by reviving the practice
of frequently assembling together the earnest Christians




360   APPLICATION  AND  CONCLUSION.
in our parishes under the direction and superintendence
of their clergy, so that they might have some amount
of real Christian fellowship with each other, a thing now
entirely banished from our Church system.
Each assembly of this kind would be the really visible
Church,-the ExinAdic, —in every place, spreading its
Christian influence all around it. The several members
would have opportunities of mutuar exhortation and
counsel. Unity would be promoted. They would learn
to know and care more for each other, to sympathise
with each others' trials, and to assist each other in temporal and spiritual things. The clergyman also would
know more of his people and they of him. He would be
better able to direct his ministrations among them. All
useful plans and machinery for religious instruction, edification, and general benevolence, could thus be carried
out, and kept in operation without his being overburdened, or obliged to leave the work half-done. And by
the force of a healthy public opinion created through
the instrumentality of this assembly, or local Church,
immorality and ungodliness might be put to shame, and
a considerable amount of Christian discipline might be
exercised, even without the intervention and enforcement
of any ecclesiastical laws. The great obstacles to the
useful working of any such plan, which are presented by
the artificial state of modern society, and by the utter
want of discipline which has so long prevailed in our
Church, might, it is to be hoped, be overcome by tact
and patience. But a broad, liberal, and scriptural reform




APPLICA TION AND CONCLUSION. 361
of our Church laws and formularies would be essential
to its success.l
But finally, in dealing with such questions and all
others of a similar nature, it is needful to bear in mind
one great principle of constant application in everything
connected with our religion,-a principle which ought to
influence the whole course of our ecclesiastical polity,
all regulations of the Church, and every administration
of its ordinances; yes, and to influence all the members
of any Christian community in their use of their Church's
ministrations.
This principle is the great master-truth, that the true
Church of Christ,-the body of which he is the head,"the fulness of him  who filleth  all in  all,"-to which
alone all the promises and blessings of the kingdom of
God belong,-is an invisible society, consisting of all those
who are really united to Christ, and who, from union
1 Dr. Owen, on Heb. x. 25, "Not members, with respect to their
forsaking the assembling of your- walking and conversation, that in
selves together," remarks,-     all things it be such as becomes the
" These assemblies were of two gospel, and giving no offence. So
sorts: 1. Stated, on the Lord's to admonish, exhort, and provoke
Day, or first day of the week. 2. one another to love and good
Occasional, as the duties or occa- works; to comfort, establish and
sions of the Church did require  encourage them that were afflict(1 Cor. v. 4).  The end of these ed, or persecuted; to relieve the
assemblies was twofold. 1st. The poor, &c. Such assemblies were
due performance of all solemn, constantly observed in the first
stated, orderly, evangelical worship Churches; how they came to be
in prayer, preaching of the word, lost is not unknown, though how
singing of psalms, and the admin- they may and ought to be revived,
istration of the sacraments. 2nd. is difficult."-Owen's'Works,' vol.
The exercise of discipline, or the xxvii.
watch of the Church over its




362 APPLICA TION AND CONCLUSION.
with Him as the head, are living members of His mystical body; and further, that the visible Catholic Church
of professing Christians, or any particular branch and
portion of it, can be called Christ's body only in a
secondary, inferior, and imperfect sense; this name describing only its professed intention, and not the reality
of its actual being.
The fundamental mistake of confounding the visible
and invisible together in thought and word,-and thus
regarding any particular Church as being to all within
its sphere the very body of Christ, out of which there is
no safety or Christian privilege,-was an error into which,
as we have seen, the Church began to fall towards the
end of the second century, and which all the tendencies
of that time gradually deepened and extended. This
error, which manifested itself in the throwing outward of
the whole conception of the Church, helped greatly to
encourage the notion of a priesthood, and to give a false
view of the Christian sacraments, and of the general
relation of the Church's office and work to those who
were within and without its pale. And such false views
strengthened in their turn the original misapprehension;
and thus intertwined with each other in the growth of
error, they have continued to act and re-act upon one
another ever since.
Most desirable and necessary is it therefore that, in
all attempts at ecclesiastical improvement, it should be
distinctly kept in view, and distinctly displayed to view,
that Christ, and not the Church, is the author of spiritual




APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION. 363
life; and therefore, that it is not our being members of
the Church which unites us with Christ, but our being
united with Christ makes us true members of His Church;
-that every visible Church on earth is necessarily a
mixed body of real and nominal Christians;-that outward admission to it and communion with it is of no
spiritual profit, without the inward union with Christ himself;-and that separation from it involves no spiritual
loss, if the inward union with Christ is still preserved.
It follows from this, that the highest function of any
Church is to bring those to Christ, who have not yet
been united to Him; and to edify and encourage those,
who are in Him, to adorn His doctrine in their lives:
-that the ministers of a Church, as its representative
officers, can have no more power than the community,
which they represent, itself possesses, and consequently
have no force or virtue in their office, except so far as
they hold forth the Saviour to men, and so far as the
Saviour thus held forth is received, as the immediate
source of spiritual life and strength, by those for whom
their ministrations are performed:-and that the sacraments also, administered in and by the Church at Christ's
commandment, derive all their efficacy from Him, and
that too from their being means of spiritual communication with Him, and not from any virtue imparted to
them, or through them, by the Church office-bearers, by
whom they are administered.
When these truths are clearly apprehended, the New
Testament account of the Clerical order and its minis



364 APPLICA TON AND CONCLUSION.
trations is seen to be consistent with them, and shows
that they were admirably adapted for maintaining in
the visible Christian communities, an abiding sense of the
work assigned to them  in the divine economy of the
Gospel dispensation. And then warned by the lamentable errors, which grew up and strengthened themselves
in after times from this apostolic theory of the Church
being obscured and lost, we shall all the more readily
turn back again to the primitive times, and endeavour to
regain our true position.
Not only then will our Church office-bearers be no
longer regarded as priests usurping the place of Christ,
with unauthorised imitations of his mediatorial work;
but all the deceptive adjuncts and  consequences of
sacerdotalism, will also be easily discarded, or even fall
off of themselves. The notions that Episcopacy is essentially necessary for a Church, and that a mysterious
power, transmitted through an unbroken chain of Episcopal ordinations, can alone make men Christian ministers, will be unable to hold their ground. The use of
esthetic stimulants to devotion, appealing to the senses
and imagination by means of architectural ornamentation, pictures, images, processions, crosses, and other
symbolical objects, or of histrionic displays of ministerial
acts with vestments, incense, artificial lights, prostrations, and fantastic gestures, and with the whole array
of priestcraft, which now, as in more ancient times,
beguile the ignorant and unwary,-will be seen to be
not only no aids to Christian  doctrine and devotion,




APPLICA TION AND CONCLUSION. 365
but positive hindrances to them. Since in proportion
as such things answer the purpose for which they are
intended, and engage the attention and affect the feelings,
to the same extent do they shut out Gospel truth, and
hide Christ from the spirit of the worshipper.
Not only then will the grosser sacramentalism  of
mediaeval Christianity, with its materialized views of
Christ's spiritual ordinances, be no longer possible among
us,' but there will be less danger of our trusting to sacraments instead of Christ,-of our putting baptism  with
water for regeneration by the Spirit, —and the Eucharistic
elements received into our hands and mouths for the
Saviour received into our hearts; less danger of our
shrinking from the Lord's Table with a superstitious
dread, or with equally superstitious confidence trusting
to coming to it in vain.
Then it may be hoped that the artificial sanctity of
consecrated places, and the excellence or antiquity of a
form of prayer, will not be thought to make a heartless
worship acceptable, or to be necessary for that which is
sincere; and that the separation between the clerical
and lay portions of the Church being found to be less
wide and deep, than the theory of a priesthood suggests,
both portions will be enabled to co-operate together,
without detracting from the respect due to the one, or
assigning a false position to the other.
And then, too, will less difficulty be felt in effecting
a friendly union with orthodox foreign Churches, whether
episcopal or otherwise; and shouild our attempts at




366 APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION.
" comprehension" in our own land not succeed so far
as to bring back and consolidate with  ourselves large
bodies of non-conformists,-there will be nothing at any
rate to prevent relations of a most friendly nature between us and our dissenting Churches which "hold the
head" as firmly as we do, instead of the present antagonism  and unchristian estrangement.'
I have thus endeavoured to trace, though very imperfectly, the visible features of the Church as it appears in
the New  Testament; and  to  point out some of  the
lessons which we may learn from them for ourselves. If
in this dangerous time, when the truth of Christ has so
many  assailants on  all sides, and  when  our beloved
Church, which ought to be, under the divine blessing, a
tower of strength against them  for the nation at large,
Even within the Church of concludes his treatise on "The
Rome there is rising in the minds Church and the Churches," read
of learned and moderate men a to us a wholesome lesson. "Tendesire to hold out a friendly hand  dons la main a toutes les sectes qui
to other Churches than their own, croient au Christ, pour soutenir
and to join with them in the war- avec elles une lutte  d6fensive
fare against sin and error under contre toutes les tendances subthe banner of Christ, instead of versives de notre dpoque. Ainsi
anathematizing them as heretics. que l'a dit M. de Radowitz; nous
How much more may we be will- voyons les esprits se ranger sous
ing to co-operate with those with  deux drapeaux, dont lun porte le
whom we have no cause of dif- nom du Christ, fils de Dieu, tandis
ference, but some points of a non- que l'autre reunit autour de lui
essential character, and who are tous ceux qui regardent ce nom
already associated with us in the  comme un scandale ou une folie."
ties of citizenship and close vici- -French translation by L'Abbd A.
nity. The words with which the Bayle.
distinguished Romanist DiDllinger




APPLICA TION AND CONCLUSION. 367
seems itself to be tottering and ready to fall from its
national position,-I may have been able to suggest
some useful thought, or to stir any hearts and hands to
some hopeful exertion for the religious welfare of our
country,   but if not, I could not refrain from saying
what I have said; and with whatever feebleness and
whatever failure, liberavi anirna  meam.








APPENDICES.
24








APPENDIX A.
SOME PRATICES  AND  DOCTRINES  COMMONLY  CONSIDERED
ROMANISTIC, BUT IN REALITY SUCH  AS EXISTED IN THE
EARLY POST-APOSTOLIC CHURCH, AND WERE ONLY RETAINED
AND CONTINUED IN THE CHURCH OF ROME.
jI{ANY doctrines and practices, unscriptural, dangerous,
and superstitious, are commonly supposed by Protestant Christians to be characteristic of Romanism, while in
reality they existed in the Church before or at the end of
the fourth century; and were by the Church of Rome only
retained,-sometimes, it is true, with the principles involved
in them rather more fully developed,- but in some instances,
on the other hand, with their attendant evils moderated
and partially corrected.
To speak distinctly, my allegation is, that the Church system of the Nicene period, i.e., in the third and fourth centuries, or before the death of Augustin, Chrysostom, Jerome,
and other contemporary Fathers, was in all essential respects the same as that of the more modern Romanism; and
hence that in all consistency, if we protest against the one,
we must protest against the other; if we denounce the one
as having departed from the faith once delivered to the
saints, and having overlaid the formal orthodoxy of the
acknowledged creeds with a mass of superstition, our denunciation must extend equally to the other. And, contrariwise, if the earlier system is admired and accepted, the
(371)




372               AAPPENDIX A.
same admiration and acceptance cannot be justly withheld
from its later counterpart.
To substantiate this allegation, I shall enumerate some of
the principal doctrines or practices which marked the
Church of the earlier time; giving under each of them one
or two proofs from  the best contemporary authorities;
proofs which might in almost all the cases be indefinitely
multiplied in a wider space; but which even in the narrow
limits of an Appendix will sufficiently establish what they
are adduced to prove.
I. The mixed chalice and the sign of the cross.-I will refer
in the first place to certain practices innocent and indifferent enough in themselves, and when they were first introduced, but afterwards associated with superstition; and of
these I will instance the " mixed chalice " and the " sign of
the cross."
(a.) The custom  of mixing water with the wine at the
celebration of the Lord's Supper is alluded to by Justin
Martyr (A.D. 150), without any comment, and in a manner
which seems to show that it was then no novelty. His words
are, oi ucoLtEooz'OL iap'j tZV' 6Zx0ioVot'8Soa6zV'aLVC6rw TrCVc
Ztapo6rVov  eteraAXc/feZV o,.it roO  e~vXXapz6Odro5 aprov, Uai
oi'Vov Xo   i vcaroS.'Apol.' i. 85.  And  again, "AproS
Zr(podsEpetrc, oCi ozvo'5 oc i C3Scop.'Apol.' i. 87.
This custom probably arose from the circumstance that
in those times, and particularly in the East, it was a usual
thing to drink wine mixed with water; and' as such mixed
wine was drunk at the Passover, it was reasonably concluded that at the original institution of this sacrament mingled wine had been used. This simple and natural explanation however seemed too trivial in the following century,
when a taste for higher mystical interpretations prevailed;
and the mixing of the water with the wine was then said to
denote, or even to effect, the union of the communicants
with Christ; so that without the water the efficacy of the




APPENiDIX A.                      373
sacrament would be seriously impaired. Thus an innocent
custom was turned into a superstition, encouraging a low,
materialistic conception of this spiritual service.
Cyprian (A.D. 250) says, "Videmus in aqua populum intelligi, in vino vero sanguinem  Christi.  Quando autem in
calice vino aqua miscetur, Christo populus adunatur, et credentium plebs ei, in quem credidit, copulatur et conjungitur....Sic in sanctificando calice Domini offerri aqua sola
non potest, quo modo nec vinum solum potest.  Nam si
vinum tantum  quis offerat, sanguis Christi incipit esse sine
nobis." Epist. 63, ad Ccecilium.
(b.) The sign of the cross, at first perhaps a simple
emblem of the Christian faith (as it is used by us in the
administration of baptism), and a symbol of recognition
among Christians, had become in Tertullian's time (A.D.
200) a perpetually repeated, and consequently almost unmeaning, ceremony in the Christianfamily life. On getting
up or going to bed, on putting on their clothes or their
shoes, on walking out or sitting down, at table or at the
bath, in short in every act or movement, they made the
sign of the cross upon their forehead.  " Ad omner progressum atque promotum, ad vestitum  et calceatum, ad
lavacra, ad mensas, ad lumina, ad  cubilia, ad  sedilia,
qusecunque nos conversatio exercet,frontem crucis signaculo
terimus."  De Corona Militis, ~ 3.
In the following century it appears conspicuously in all
the public ceremonies of the Church, to the efficacy of which
it was supposed greatly to contribute. Thus even the consecrated ointment which was poured upon the baptismal
water in the font must be made to form this sign.  zi6 iai
I TOvi  fo3ari6oarTo5 Xopzt  rse-tioiraz V zo 8zod v~    pov
dr a Vp o0 e    t&c  5 zX0Leo8Ov'0ov vro fi3a7trizGdpilc rapd voo r Iepadpxov. Dionysius,' Eccles. Hierarch.,' iv. 10. And Chrysostom
informs us that all the sacred acts were accomplished by
means of it, whether in our regeneration, in our nourishment




374                  APPENDIX A.
by the mystic food of the Eucharist, in Ordination, or any
other hallowed rite.  tCVrCta    6  av rov  re;eZrct  rTd  Crxo 
7    nl~/t5'  aYv C(Y 8Yvo Yse Oilj'v Y  o387, d6rcTVp6S tCpY.YivEtrCZ' %av'rpCY(qYivxz Tz7j llZVtrv6rZrv beiYlV' rpo(prj'v' XtY XezporoYv7OtVC'z,~xMv
6rzoiv  trepov 7roz7Tjdz, Tovro r#5 vi[rSu?tV 7ctpidza6racTr
6vtrotov.  Horn. 55, in Matt.  And in the same homily,
Chrysostom  assures his hearers that this sign, devoutly
made upon the face, is most efficacious in private use for
driving away unclean spirits, no one of which will dare to
come near when it sees this token  of Christ's victory.
Ov8'6 ydpp c6ro rca    6axtv xr6Y  p eyXarpoirretv covTr6v 6deZi- cdAi
p63repoy rz- 7        Spootp6dst tterC o 7toll TS      7ti6re53sc'  (a'v oUv'rc5
eV7trvGd  atrOV ra' oez,) ozv6ei5'yyv5  dov drvYcat vvi'desrat
rc'- dx 0ociprovc' 8Z/t6lvcov', opc3v tzrv  ItaXazpax V 1'  rr vY
L77yVYv  c fi/Jev.  And this continued to be one great use
of the sign all through the middle ages.
II. Sacerdotalism.-There is no indication  in  the New
Testament that the Christian ministry was in the apostolic
age regarded as a priesthood, either in name or in office;
nor are there any traces of stuch an opinion in the Fathers
of the second century. But from and after the beginning
of the third century a great change is seen.  The ministers
of the Church were then looked upon as priests, a mediating, sacrificing, and absolving order, as the priesthood is
now in the Church of Rome.
The bishop was then a high-priest, OdpXIzepev or summus
sacerdos; the presbyter, a priest, iepsevS or sacerdos; and the
deacon, a Levite, XevirvS  or levita.  The Lord's table was
turned into an altar; and  the Lord's Supper became a
sacrifice, an imitation or repetition of the sacrifice of Christ.
The first Christian writer who shows that this change
had taken  place is Tertullian (A.D. 200).  Thus, "Dandi
baptismum  quidem  habet jus  summus sacerdos, qui est
episcopus."'De Bapt.' ~ 17.  And, "Nonne solennior erit




APPENDIX A.                       375
statio tua, si ad aram Dei steteris? utrumque salvum est,
et participatio sacrificii, et executio officii."' De Orat.' ~ 14.
After Tertullian every patristic author abounds with
evidence of the establishment of this sacerdotal system, and
of the manner in which it operated in the Church. The
work of the Christian ministry became a priestcrcaft. The
priest was a mediator between God and the Christian laity,
who were taught that he stood to them  in the place of
Christ,-was'His representative and vicegerent,-and performed his office upon earth. Thus Cyprian (A.D. 250),
" Neque enim aliunde haereses obortsa sunt, aut nata sunt
schismata, quam inde quod Sacerdoti Dei non obtemperatur,
nec unus in ecclesia ad tempus sacerdos et ad tempus judex
vice Christi cogitatur." Epist. 65, ad Cornelium. And again,
"Utique ille sacerdos vice Christi verefungitur, qui id quod
Christus fecit imitatur."  Epist. 63, ad Ccecilium. Ambrose
(A.D. 370), "In ecclesia propter reverentiam Episcopalem
non habeat caput liberum, sed velarine tectum, nec habeat
potestatum loquendi, quia Episcopus personam habet Christi.
Quasi ergo ante judicem sic ante Episcopum, quia vicarius
Domini est, propter reatus originer subjecta debet videri."
Corn. in 1 Cor. xi. 10.
Hence it was the priest, and the power of his office which,
according to the teaching of the Nicene Church, gave effect
to every Christian ordinance. It was the bishop as highpriest who consecrated the " holy oil," and gave it power to
cast out devils from the catechumen; and who in a similar
manner supplied the "mystic ointment " which helped to
impart to the baptismal water its regenerating power, and
which after baptism gave the Holy Spirit. It was the priest
who regenerated men in baptism, who made the body and
blood of Christ in the " awful sacrifice " of the Eucharist,
and who acceptably offered up Christ upon the "altar " for
the quick and dead. It was by the voice of the priests that
the sentence of excommunication might be pronounced, and




376               APPENDIX A.
re-admission into Church communion be obtained. And
even after death the priest's prayers and offerings were still
effectual for good, and extended their power beyond the
grave.
In one respect, however, the priestcraft of the Nicene age
had not departed so far from apostolic truth, as did that of
the Church of Rome at a later time. The practice of confession and absolution after the Romish manner had no
existence in the third and fourth centuries. See Appendix C.
III. Sacramentalism. —The sacerdotalism of the third and
fourth centuries was no mere question of words and names,
but a deep and essential change introduced into the Church
system; and one of its first effects was to graft upon the
divine and simple religion of the New Testament an elaborate sacramentalism not surpassed in its superstitions by the
darkest ages of the Papacy.
Both the sacraments were turned into awful mysteries.
In both, the opus operatum doctrine was taught in the
broadest and most unqualified manner. In both, the
elements were affirmed to have an actual, objective, physical,
miraculous change wrought in them  through the Holy
Spirit brought down into them by the power of the Church,
and of the priest as its functionary; by which they produced their marvellous effects, and were regarded by people
in general more as the instruments of magic rites, than the
symbols of a religious service.
1. Baptism.-Thus in baptism, besides all the other complicated ceremonies, through which the catechumens had to
pass, the holy ointment consecrated by a bishop, and so
possessed of celestial virtues, was poured upon the water in
the form of a cross, and this together with the prayer of the
officiating priest produced, as it was affirmed, a change in
its very nature which they called "transelementation," and
gave the water an inherent power to wash away sin. Thus




APPLENDIX A.                          377
Cyril of Alexandria (A.D. 412 says), O'vesp ycp rpoJtov ro 6v
TvoT XdF/idtv   XeoJ/tevov vSoop, vta7S rvov tvpo3 O3tz7id6CV oicitaZi
r)v ei avroZi;,Vcuiv &il'z aYYLCtrrE raco  oVUro Slc r#; rTo- lIvev-'Lctro5 evbpysiE, rd caiYdOrov v8coop 7rp5 Osieai  rzvcd  uxYi
a7tppi7roY    U e r C 6 Tr ozX   o z   r acz 3vYaJLY, dcyzZaet re XAolt6
rov;5 e oz'5 cv ygvotro. Com. in Johan. iii. 5. For additional
quotations, see Lecture VII.
2. The Lord's Supper.-In the Lord's Supper an actual,
objective, physical change was said to be effected in the
bread and wine; which, with much variety of expression,
were declared to be no longer mere bread and wine, but to
be, to become, to be made, to be transformed into, to be transelemented into, the body and blood of Christ.  Thus,
Cyril of Jerusalem  (A.D. 350) says, "the bread of the
Eucharist is no longer mere bread, but the body of Christ,"'0 aprot r#z5 ev'Xapz6riazS    uterr Tr'v E7tiirXy6iY  tOV (dy/''
IIveV(Xsaro5 ovedtrz oproS XLzr5, ao(xLd 6c3ua Xpidrov.'Catech.
Mystag.' iii. 3.
Ambrose (A.D. 370) says, " the bread becomes the flesh of
Christ," Panis iste panis est ante verba sacramentorum;
ubi accesserit consecratio, de pane fit caro Christi.   De
Sacram. iv. 4.
And Gregory Nyssen (A.D. 350),'0 apros tiordzv acprovo5 6ri
rSdcS   Vozvd,  a'/.L'  o'raV  TO  uvdTrpzov  iepovpy6]7, 6,c/a
Xpzd6ov?dyeTraz re  ai yiv eaz r.'De Bapt. Christi,' vol.
iii. 369.
Jerome  (A.D. 370) says, that "by the prayers of the
priests the body and blood of Christ are made."  Quid
patitur mensarum et viduarum minister, ut supra eos tumidus se efferat, ad quorum preces Christi corpus et sanguis
conficitur.  Ep. 85, ad Evag.  And Cyril of Jerusalem  says
that "we pray God to send forth the Holy Spirit upon the
elements that He may make them  the body and klood of




378                  APPENDIX A.
Christ."  l(paxapCXoYrVV TOY zpd;l cz  pcGrOctor (e6r TO Cdytoi
IIYvevta ect7toc(odEiaz   k7ti TrO 7tpoU~eileaxy'iV,toz6t7 TOV Z/t1,V
C'ptov d(c3oua XpzdroJ, TOzr, 8  oZrov  azr((cl Xpz6Tov.' Catech.
Mystag.' v.
Ambrose says that "the elements are transformed into
flesh  and  blood."  Quotiescunque  sacramenta  sumimus,
quae per sacroe orationis mysterium in carnem transfigurantur
et sanguinem, mortem Domini annunciamus.  De Fide, v.
Gregory Nyssen says, "Christ in this sacrament mingles
Himself with the bodies of those who believe, in order that
man may partake of immortality," and he then adds, racvra
6i 8di8&6t rT  r t 3 evioyia5 8av'Ltez 7tp6o  eXeZvo tUera(rozX ezc d6 O     rcz V (parotidoVGoV rrv q'6Zv —" by transelementing
the nature of the visible elements" —a physical change.'Orat. Catech.' ~ 37.
In connection with the belief that an actual change was
effected in the nature or substance of the Eucharistic elements may be mentioned the declaration  of Chrysostom
that when taken into the body they did not undergo the
same natural processes as took place with ordinary foodnrri  rz Ctpro0S  6riy iz'S75, he exclaims, uV8' J'rz oz'voS5 Ed
voiz'6g5 ov' ydp cS5 ai Aoz7xai 1/pJd~ ez~ iS  dpe(pcrva XcoPE'
di7cyes!,u  rojro voet' A;2/' c67srep  qpo65 trvpi 7tpo6oluzXj6x5
OV85iV d2rov6zdEZ, OV8%YV 7Erpz66E8~Et, OGrco a Ci  58~e YV6/lZe
6vrvacX;2ti6'dE60at rd  tvd6rTipzi  r-7 zro  6 o Lctaros oZ36ia.    De
Pcenitentia,' Hon. ix.
(a.) All the consequences and logical inferences which
follow from the doctrine of transubstantiation were unhesitatingly adopted. Thus,
The body and blood of Christ were said to lie upon the
altar, to be carried in the sacred vessels, to be taken into the
hands, to be tasted in the mouth of the communicant.
Corpus Christi est in altari.  Ambrose,'De Sacram.' iv. 2.
Qui corpus Domini canistro vimineo, sanguinem portat in
vitro.  Jerome, Ep. ad Rustic.




APPENVDIX A.                        379
KozAci.a a rrv taAk#Y'v 36Xov t6 6cJatC rovt Xptdroi.  Cyril
of Jerusalem,'Catech. Mystag.' v. 18.
OVi ctproY  Xe'VoVratOC  yEev;(60az, xI aX' aovrzrTvirov dcoGOaro5
xai a7'latro rot  Xpzdtrov.  Ibid. v. 17.
(b.) Further than this, they said that Christ himself lay
upon the altar,-was sacrificed,-was handled.  The service
was called a fearful mystery, a most awful sacrifice, angels
standing round with awe, &c.
2v  Q6 Ov6di  7tpodicGOv, v  7xcai  yyelot qppirrovd...
evxpepouljV75 rt75 v&iaS5, f(xi T o j Xp z           o6 r  o    v erv/v o,.. 
tracv iS15 da'vAEHtouVa rad di/tiqvpa, TOre vjz6odov 8zad6rLXE60az rTV  oVppaCvv davoOeV Xai xUarzdvz ro'S (xyyielov5.
Chrysostom, Homn. 24, in 1 Cor.
"OtraV 68 xai rTO HVeVaY t TO iyzov xiaLXf 7xai tvr)v cppcasz6rrTV
7tzzTre    Ov6iav, Nai rzovi ozvov~  ta'vrT(rv d6vvexGS  d.r  r az 8 e 6    r ov (and takes in his hands the Lord of the
universe!).. Z. 6e Uoai ayyLoEA   7tepe86r rad rTZ  iepe, ai
ovpavicoV &vw,'txeGiv' za7tax rLyiCa /fo(x,'aiai o tepi T'3  v6za6drpzov  t^pAypovrat Tozo5 ez5 rzr lv, tov  Uezltivz ov.  Idem'de Sacerdotio,' vi. 4. Could the most determined believer
in transubstantiation say more than this?
(c.) Adoration of the Host.-Such words as those just
quoted imply and justify the practice of Host-worship; but
such adoration is also expressly mentioned.  ThusCyril of Jerusalem in his directions to communicants as to
the manner in which they shoul'd receive the bread and wine
implies an adoration of them throughout, and then expressly
says that they must take the cup bending down in a posture
of worship and adoration-, r dcvraeivicov  rTd  XeZpaS, ctic
7VTrrCTOv  Xzc    p rpOTpo podHVv'?Zcd eGC5 Yxai 6 ~  6  ad/L c6  ZO 5.'Catech. Mystag.' v. 18.
And Theodoret (A. D. 390-447) says of the bread and wine,
"They are understood and believed to be the very things
which they have become, and are worshipped as being the




380                   APPENDIX A.
very things which they are believed  to be."   oesrcrxz 8e't-ep yrv'seto xai tz6revsEazt xaZi rpo6xvvi eraz o5'ixve
vryza a'tep z6rteVSeraz.'I'Adv. Eutych. Dial.' p. 85.
(d.) Various superstitions naturally followed. ThusThe vessels and veils, &c., used in the Communion service
were venerated as most holy, and none but the sacred hands
of priests or deacons were allowed to touch them.  And
Jerome says of them, Ex consortio corporis et sanguinis
Domini eadem  qua corpus ejus et sanguis majestate veneranda.  Ep. ad Theoph.
It was considered a dreadful thing for a particle of the
bread or a drop of the wine to fall; and a crime if this
happened through negligence.
Calicis aut panis etiam nostri aliquid decuti in terram
anxie patimur. Tertullian,' De Cor. Milit.' ~ 3.
Reos enim vos creditis et recte creditis, si quid inde per
negligentiam decidat.  Origen, Hon. 13, in Exod.
Quanta sollicitudine observamus quando  nobis corpus
1 The following extract from the Saviour Jesus Christ,' I have no
judgment of the Court of Arches, doubt that Mr. Bennett has contradelivered July 23rd 1870, in the vened the plain meaning and clear
case of Sheppard v. Rev. W. J. E. intent of the formularies of the
Bennett, shows how modern High- Church."
churchmen receive the doctrine of   But in a later edition of his book,
the "Adorationof the Host." And  Mr. Bennett substituted for the
if the teaching  of the Nicene above expressions, -"The real,
Church is to be our authority, actual, presence of our Lord under
their practice is the right one.  the form of bread and wine upon
" By the expressions,'the real, the altars of our churches," and
actual, and visible presence of the  "who myself adore and teach the
Lord  upon  the altars of our people to adore Christ present in
churches,' and,'who myself adore  the elements, under the form of
and teach the people to adore the bread  and  wine."   And  this
consecrated  elements, believing  amended form  of Host-worship
Christ to be in them, believing  satisfied the Court of Arches, and
that under their veil is the sacred  Mr. Bennett was accordingly acbody and blood of my Lord and  quitted on this charge.




APPE1VDIX A.                          381
Christi ministratur, ut nihil ex ipso de nostris manibus in
terrain cadat. Augustin, Horn. 26 and 50.
The directions of Cyril (already referred to) for preventing
this dreadful thing, and at the same time worshipping the
elements, are those from which modern High-church clergymen take their instructions for communicants.  They  re as
follows.  " When you come forward [to receive the bread], do
not come with your hands stretched out or your fingers separated from each other; but make your left hand a throne for
your right hand, which is going to receive your King; and so
making a cavity in your palm receive the body of Christ; and
after sanctifying your eyes by touching them with it, partake
of the holy body, taking care not to lose any of it; for if you
were to do so, it would be as if you lost a portion of one of
your own limbs. Then, after partaking of the body of Christ,
come forward for the cup of His blood, not stretching your
hands upwards, but bending down in the posture of worship
and adoration, and be sanctified by partaking of the blood of
Christ.  And also sanctify your eyes, and forehead, and your
other organs of sense by touching them with some of the
moisture that is on your lips."
Ipoc6ZGcV 6vV Vi)  reratues'vot5 roZZS rv Xezp&O'v xaXpno7t
Tpo6epXov, ut7de 8otp yu'voit roZS 1 6axrvtot5 oSaLtd rt)v adpzdrepdv OpOvov 7ozl6dar5 rf 8e8z1x, c3S5 ueXovt6faor/at6z 8oa &xe6dOaz,
uai xozXd'ova5 rTTv' taXXitU'v 8Eixov rT  6cuaLX rTOV  Xptdroiv,
Z7tdE'ry6V   To'AUrV"   ter' dU T 6apeixA5 oV r  dayzddaS  rotVS
3cpOQaXltoViT r ~ toLaq7  roV  dyiov  6cuOcuroS   /IeriaetXlx30ve,
T'pod6xGo'V tUT 7tapap7tOrEd675 ex rozrov aXvrov), orep ydOp aiv
a7rloX6p5d? rOVTzrc cJS ato olieov  ifiXovoT6rz EguGc05r Juciov..
Ezra  eaEd  To   XOLVG3'evn"daRi tz TouV  d#U')ro5  Xpzdtrov
ipo6dpxov xaoi rG ztroTripico roU Y ataro, U?'avar.csivov Zd'
XdXpc A, oAt xszrco', xc  rpNnr&o tpodxvvrdeco5 xai de1adiezpa?, a.UaXd UXvt, av)   i rpo'itG? e pco~uvvn^S   xli (350.toaro5,?tyCov Tro  "Airvr, dayzcd'ov  xaoi  Ex  roVi  aioTro5
ezTracXacqfldacGv   XpzdrOV,  vTz  d Tv7r5 voroio5 8 ~VOtv6S  zo75
Xeied[i 6dov Xp6iv ta'qc)G/UEvoS xaxCi O3pOQ;XlgZOLj5, uci tErGdvtov,




382               APPENDIX A.
iai ar  X;ozo7t  dyiase aid60trpza.'Catech.  Mystag.'
v. 18.
(e.) But this was not the worst. The consecrated elements
were "reserved," and used for the purposes of the grossest
superstition, which was kept up by means of marvellous
legends of pretended miracles recorded and propagated by
the highest authorities in the Church.
A piece of the consecrated bread put into the mouth of the
dying was a sure viaticum, or safe passport for the soul. See
the story of Serapion, an old man who had lapsed in a time of
persecution, and not yet been re-admitted into the Church.
When at the point of death he sent a boy for the priest. The
priest was ill, and could not come. But the boy brought back
a piece of the "reserved" bread, and dropped it into the old
man's mouth, who, having been up to that moment marvellously preserved in life, thereupon immediately died in
peace.  The story is mentioned, not as anything extraordinary or unusual, in a letter of Dionysius of Alexandria,
given by Eusebius,'H. E.' vi. 44.
It was only going a little beyond this, when people gave
this sacrament to the dead. This was forbidden by the
Council of Carthage (A. D. 397); and Chrysostom spoke
against it. It was discountenanced therefore by the authorities; but the "orthodox " practice gave occasion for it.
Cyprian mentions with satisfaction that a woman who
kept "the Lord's Sacrament" in a box for her daily use,
joined in some idol-worship, whereupon, when she attempted
afterwards to open the box, a fire burst out from it with
such fury that she did not dare to touch it again.
Quum qusedam mulier arcam suam in qua DoPmini sanctum
fuit, &c. See his treatise'De Lapsis;' where he also gives
another marvellous story of an infant who had been taken by
its nurse to a heathen sacrifice, and was then brought to
Church to receive the Eucharist.
In the following century nothing was thought too gross to




APPENDIX A.                        383
be used in order to inculcate a belief in the magical or miraculous power of the consecrated elements.  Thus Ambrose, in
a solemn oration on the death of his brother Satyrus, triumphantly relates that Satyrus being shipwrecked in a storm at
sea, had a piece of " the divine sacrament " tied round his neck
in a priest's scarf, and having thus cast himself into the waves
was thereby preserved, without needing so much as a plank to
support him.  Satyrus at that time had not been baptized,
but convinced by this miracle, determined to be so. Divinum
illud fidelium  sacramentum... ligari fecit in orario et
orarium involvit collo, atque ita se dejecit in mare, non requirens de navis compage resolutam tabulam cui supernatans
juvaretur.  Ambrose adds the obvious lesson to be learned
from this, Qui tantum mysterii cmelestis involuti in orario
prsesidium  fuisset expertus, quantum  arbitrabatur, si ore
sumeret et toto pectoris hauriret arcano!'De Excessu
Satyri,' ~ 43.
IV. Prayers and offerings for the Dead.-First mentioned
by Tertullian, who speaks of a wife praying for her dead
husband, and presenting offerings for him (in the Eucharist)
on the anniversaries of his death. Pro anima ejus orat et
refrigerium interim appostulat ei, et in prima resurrectione
consortium, et offert annuis diebus dormitionis ejus.  De
Monogam., ~ 10.
Cyprian mentions the same custom, and forbids the offering of "the sacrifice " for those who had committed certain
offences; —Si quis hoc fecisset non offerretur pro eo, nec
sacrificium pro dormitione ejus celebraretur. Epl. 66. Ad.
Cler. et Pleb. Furnit.
Arnobius (A.D. 300) says it was the custom in Churches
to pray for the dead, as well as the living.  Pax cunctis et
venia  postulatur,... et resolutis corporum  vinctione.
B. iv. end.
Cyril of Jerusalem declares such prayers and offerings to




384                  APPENDIX A.
be of the greatest benefit to the dead.  Toavr7yv npod9GJpo.iLvC
6oz Ovdi... a.. oi vtip rcOv 7tpoxeX1O7zljYvci,  (xcyicov rarpcoYv
xcai z'td.d6ottGoV, xai tciyvrGcov ao7rc5 rCTGV EV r/lVy  poiEUozuyjteVGeY C, eyidr7vy  ovy6zv 7trzdret8ovre5  EedOCz cra- ct  Ubvxct, Vtip
cOv  I  6ri75 davac(pqperaz rZi' dxyict  Xtai qppZocodedracr75
rpouezivVs Ouvdia5.'Catech. Mystag.' v. 6.
These prayers and sacrifices at first were for the righteous
dead: afterwards for all, whether good or bad.  Thus Epiphanius (A.D. 370) disputes at large against the opinions of
Aerius, who objected to prayers for the dead; and says that
such prayers were beneficial,-that they were offered for the
just and for sinners, asking for God's mercy for the latter,
&c., cGOcpeXe  8E Rcxi zr vtrp avzroGV yevotevr7 evX^, el xa i rcT
o2ta r3ov  alTrzajl(vrioTyoV  u  coitOuOztTezT d'    o1' ye  zSd zT.toA2icxz zSv Y X6ojUco tcri5  vrTa  a  6pa'A.A2e6az dtiovd6ico5 Te uct
euovdiw5,'vc r6TO EVTYe6repov 6VucvOieQ' uai ydcp azxaiiov.tozo uEuaOt zTjv uvnY'jV),  xcai Vterp djyiaprctAcoV.' Vztrp JRYv
cLxpiap2(XP yOOV  Vip.VeEov?5 OEov  deo6tE#O T..' Heres.'  75.
Aerianos.
Augustin makes an elaborate declaration to showthat the
souls of the dead are benefited by the prayers and sacrifices
of the living.  "Neque negandum est defunctorum  animas
pietate suorum  viventium  relevari, quum  pro illis sacrificium mediatoris offertur, vel eleemosynme in ecclesia fiunt."
He then divides professing Christians into three classes
whom he call,1. Valde boni.  2. Non valde mali.  3. Valde mali.  And
the prayers and sacrifices offered for them have a different
effect accordingly.  For the "very good," they are thanksgivings; for the "not very bad," they are propitiations, and
either procure their entire pardon, or at any rate alleviate
their condemnation; for the "very bad," even if they are
of no benefit to the dead, they are a certain consolation to
the living.  "Quum  ergo sacrificia sive altaris, sive qua
rumcunque eleemosynarum pro baptizatis defunctis omnibus




APPENDIX A.                      385
offeruntur, provalde bonis gratiarum  actiones sunt; pro
non valde malis propitiationes sunt; pro valde malis,
etiamsi nulla sunt adjumenta mortuorum, qualescunque
vivorum consolationes sunt. Quibus autem prosunt, aut ad
hoc prosunt, ut sit plena remissio, aut certe tolerabilior fiat
ipsa damnatio."  Encheiridion, ~ 110.
Here then was a distinct beginning of the doctrine of
Purgatory.
The Gospel doctrine of pardon and justification by faith
in Christ had now been lost in the Church. Justification
was by baptism, which gave a perfect remission of all previous sins; but after this it was by works; i.e., by sinless
obedience; this failing, the sacrifice of the Eucharist,
penance, and especially almsgiving, were remedies, either
partial or complete.
Monks and nuns, who were true to their vows, might be
considered perfectly righteous; but ordinary persons must
need some purgation after their death. Thus Augustin
prayed for the soul of his mother Monica, because he dared
not say that from the time when she was regenerated by
baptism, no word came out of her mouth contrary to God's
commands.
Several of the Fathers also believed that there would be
"a fire of purgation" at the Day of Judgment through
which all must pass. Thus Origen says of this fire, "Ego
puto quod et post resurrectionem  e mortuis indigeamus
sacramento eluente nos atque purgante."   Horn. 14. in
Lucam.
V. PARDON of sin and JUSTIFICATION by ALMSGIVING and
other good works.-After baptism, by which all past sins
were forgiven, men had to keep themselves in sinless perfection, or else to obtain the pardon of their sins, and
justification in the sight of God, by their own works and
doings; among which a very conspicuous place was assigned
25




386                 APPENDIX A.
to almsgiving.  Cyprian wrote a  treatise, "De opere et
eleemosynis," in which he declares in the broadest possible
manner, supporting his assertions with quotations from the
Apocrypha, that " any kind of sin after baptism  is washed
away by almsgiving."   Ut sordes postmodum  quascunque
contrahimus eleemosynis abluamus: that "prayer is good
with fasting and almsgiving, because almsgiving delivers
from death, and purges away our sins." Bona est oratio cum
jejunio et eleemosyna, quia eleemosyna a morte liberat et
ipsa purgat'peccata.
Chrysostom teaches the same doctrine in his more rhetorical style.  "Almsgiving is the queen of virtues, the best
advocate, quickly lifting men up to heaven."-" If you have
ever so many sins, with its advocacy, you need not fear; it
demands back a debt for you; whatever are your sins it
outweighs them."  Axeruo6vvrv /oa6tXi8a r6ov dpercov, rTry
raXScoS dcvi'yov6xv  eiz zrci  dbiS as rTcv  ovpao'cv     rot 3o
cYvOpcor7ov5, 6vvryopoiv  TV  dpit6ryv.  Kv  7zo'toA5d eX7 5
d/JlaprioxS,  Er/eyiod6Jvvr   e   v dvv'yopo5, fu  cpof3ov,-Xpeo5
XT~azrei~, —da5 exest djUaLpriaS Tj' erXeVaodvqVr dOV f1apeZ rTdc
SXAa5. Serm. ii. on Repentance.
VI. INTERCESSION of Saints and PRAYERS to them.-Cyril of
Jerusalem, describing the common practice of the Church,
relates that at the "Eucharistic sacrifice" patriarchs, prophets, apostles, and martyrs, are mentioned, in order that
by their prayers and intercessions God may receive our supplications.  TaozjrVv 7rpodcpdpouv d' oz Ovdzav, zva uvytVov/evcoILeV  Rai  TcVY  trpoReRoz/7tdCevG YZ pcGOtO   7t, tarpzapxcZv
zrpoqp)7lVnc,  rt7or6oto6Vn,  saprz jpT o, oZco 6 @e6 80S etXaS'5.xzTv rc   uoi'tpEdfe3iazxs 7poddeVrc az Otc Gr, ri'v a5r dz.v.'Catech. Mystag.' v. 6.
Gregory Nazianzen (A.D. 370) in an Oration in praise of
his dead father, delivered in the presence of Basil, says that
his father can do more now for those, whom he has left be



APPENVDIX A.                          387
hind, by his tntercession, than he could before by his instructions.  ]leiojtac    es 0"I  aiZ     T p de 6p'tEi i v,uVi2V loV, 7)
tprspov' p   Tp  86xadtaxia,'0d6  xiai /itlov hyyizt @OE8.  And
he then addresses a direct prayer to his dead father, " Make
known to us in what glory thou art, and what light surrounds
thee.... Receive me speedily to the same abode as thou
art in thyself;... and guide in safety the whole flock, and
all the chief-priests-i.e., bishops-whose father thou wert
called, and especially me, who have been governed by thy
fatherly and spiritual authority."  rFvcpz6o'v i lv 7covY  ore
ez' o60), axi ro  trepi 5os  pc.....o.. xaU  t rax5 avrrazS   Heaz
6U~vva-S,  f tuev 8erz, 7  zx Zupd r    ic TOVT3c O Haro   Uo71YaoC76ovrca.... t.. i 6ze coyoz5  izv'c'v5v civo,ud izraT tiv c'tnort6C'v   oi}TuvvY
atzi ztavrao5 dapXzepeZ, Wcv iA? Or75 rtactrp, ReatpE'roS   6 8 rtv
v5to 60do    ficza6'OevrCr uai rvpatvvrYevrOia   rrTpzoS5  Tre Xcir
tvev'arzxccSG, c35 aCv,u  ztadvraY 6E Ute.poZl rV TvS TvpaYvvioS.
Orat. 19, ~ 44.
Paulinus of Nola, a man of great note, affords a marked
example of saint-worship in the fourth century.  He was
present in A.D. 379 or 380 at a festival in honour of Saint Felix
at Nola, and then dedicated his vows and heart to that
saint —
"Ex quo solennibus istis
Coram vota tibi, coram mea corda dicavi."
In 394 he retired to Nola, the place of his patron saint, and
devoted himself to a life of asceticism and almsgiving. His
"Natales," poems written every year in honour of the martyrdom  of Felix, most distinctly show that he worshipped
this saint.  Thus in Natalis i. he thus addresses him"Vectus in methereum sine sanguine Martyr honorem,
O pater, O domine, indignis licet annue servis.
Seu placeat telluris iter, comes aggere tuto
Esto ttis; seu magna tui fiducia longo
Suadeat ire mari, da currere mollibus undis,
Et famulis famulos a plppi surgere ventos."




388                APPENDIX A.
See a further account of Paulinus in'Vigilantius and his
times,' by Dr. Gilly, who well remarks, " It is impossible by
any sophistry, or by any form of words or artifice of interpretation to rescue the memory of Paulinus from the charge
of saint-worship." P. 79.
VII. MARIOLATRY.-The actual worship  of the Virgin
Mary does not appear to have been prevalent until after the
end of the fourth century; yet it had begun before that date.
Some time before this it had become usual to speak of her
in exaggerated terms; marvellous stories were related of
her; such as that which is recorded by Gregory Nyssen in
his life of Gregory Thaumaturgus, to whom, as he was lying
awake by night, the Virgin Mary paid a visit, and desired
the Apostle John, who accompanied her, to explain to him
the true faith, about which he had been in doubt.
The extravagant notions which were then entertained
respecting the exalted, angelic, holiness of virginity naturally led to the unscriptural belief that the mother of Jesus
was oaei T7apoevo5, ever-virgin. And those who did not receive
this dogma were denounced as heretics under the formidable name of "Anltidicomarianites "-i.e., adversaries of
Mary. Epiphanius in writing against them ('Hseres.' 78),
expresses with much rhetorical declamation, his amazement
at their madness in uttering such  blasphemous insults
against her, as to assert that she was really the wife of
Joseph and the mother of other children besides Jesus.
In his desire to do her honour, he suggests, without positively affirming, that she never died; but obtained immortality without passing through death.  Ov'rdvrcoS opigo/yaz
TroVrO ixi ov Xay3  r On 0OXoYLYaro5 ~8iYEYv'  O7;lV   ovre ta i8tefpazotv/at  t eZ riOvev.   Thus exhibiting the earliest form of
the later Romish doctrine of the "Assumption."
There were some at this time who worshipped her as a
goddess, and transferred to her the old Eastern worship of




APPENDIX A.                        389
the "queen of heaven;" the women offering her cakes
(oAvtvpiSe5), as mentioned in Jeremiah vii. 18 and xliv. 19,
whence they were called "Collyridians."
Epiphanius, to do him  justice, denounces this idolatry in
strong terms; 7ai ua?/r ai'yzov'v TO6 65GOca rz5S MapiaS, —oV,ufrv 0eo;' XCi 8r2 ZCYp&eVOS   p? 1) I Lp0svo5 x2ai rerz/tZ/1eV, datL'
ov  i eS5 7po6Uvvjr'6dzv uzir 6oOeZca.'teres.' 79, 4.
But notwithstanding this, actual worship was addressed
to her, without calling her a goddess, as it was to other
saints: and Gregory Nazianzen in his oration on Cyprian
relates without any  disapprobation  that a nun, whom
Cyprian in his youth  pursued with violent attentions,
effectually prayed for help to the Virgin Mary. Trjv zrdpOsvov Ma(xpiZ   iXereiov6a fio~O'da6z 7crxpOgvC xzvSvrevovjP7.
Orat. 18.
VIII. The worship of pictures and images, &c.-The use
of pictures in Churches as helps to devotion must have been
attempted at or before the very beginning  of the fourth
century; since the practice is forbidden by the Council of
Elvira (A.D. 305), for the very proper reason, lest objects of
worship should be painted on the walls. Placuit picturas
in ecclesia esse non debere, ne quod colitur' et adoratur in
parietibus depingatur.  Can. 36. But at the end of the
century, Paulinus had pictures painted on the walls of his
Church at Nola; because, as he said, the rude multitude,
who flocked to the festival of the martyr (Felix) required
such helps to devotion, and might be thus drawn away
from the rioting and drunkenness which were too apt to
occur on such occasions.  The introduction of images, and
the direct worship of them and of pictures, were of a later
date. But Paulinus enriched his shrine with relics, relies
of the Apostles Andrew and Thomas, of John the Baptist,
and St. Luke, and pieces of the bones of numerous martyrs,
in which he believed great virtue to reside. In this case




390                 APPENDIX A.
the beginnings only or germ of the Romish practices are
seen.
IX. Asceticism.-The monstrous asceticism of mo.liks and
anchorites in the fourth century could not be surpassed, if it
was ever equalled, by anything of this kind in the later
Church of Rome. To renounce every tie and every duty of
social life, and every trace of civilization and humanity, and
to macerate the body with savage fasting, sleeplessness, or
other tortures, was universally regarded at the Nicene period
as the very height of holiness, the attainment of superhuman perfection.
To show in any detail what this much admired life was in
which men were looked upon as angels, because they sunk
themselves lower than brute beasts, would be impossible in
this short space. I give three quotations, of which one
suggests the false principle of asceticism, and the others
exhibit small specimens of its practice.
Gregory Nazianzen says of the nun above mentioned,
that she had recourse to fasting and lying on the ground,
that she might destroy her beauty, and at the same time
propitiate God; for by nothing in the world is God so much
conciliated as by maceration of the body.  Ov;Sevi ycp o;r'o
tdvrov GOS  oxo7rcaOxei Ospaxtzeveraz (se OS. Orat. 18.
Chrysostom, describing the mode of life pursued by some
monks who endeavoured honestly to keep their vows, says
that they fled to the tops of mountains, and lived in solitary
huts, with their body pent in bands of iron and clothed with
sackcloth, passing their time i continual fasting, watching,
and every kind of severe discipline, if haply they might by
such means as these gain the victory over their natural
feelings.  HloXioi noi 6zSjpc   itav yTO,  &- 6cu ara86arve5,
xci 6oixdX 7eptLpz3Xodav,    i, zd OtpOs T'x pcGOroV dvapoato7lv~5
7OpVqcpd, xOdi'V76rEic 6VZcVreS 8Z/ iVxeT, aoCi toI'VVXid6Z, oai
oxypvtviarzS, xtai t7rcZOav, z76tzsEzivVtvoz 6i/p77JarycGvyiar, xaz




APPENDIX A.                          391
yv razliv a7raacx  cdrtdyope8vdZvre 5 e7trzfivslezv rov 6csuazriov
icai rT5 xaLvf371r  r75 vEa)vrtcv, xai rv  rpoStrc  rOVrTO 7razd(Zycoyovvtre5 cavrovS uoA6zz5 lpzyipvovzraz vr5 uarzT rrv eTztOvjtia-v,iavYix.' Vol. i. p. 228. Ed. Benedict., entitled rp6s rovt)
exovrraS  7apOeYov5 d6vvez(6xrovS.
Basil describes the life of an anchorite with whom he was
acquainted, and whose ascetic discipline he greatly admired.
This man deserted his wife and home, and fled to Jerusalem, where he lived in solitude devoting himself to divine
contemplation.  He wore rough sackcloth next his skin, and
bound his loins with so hard a girdle that it almost crushed
his bones.  He fasted to such an extent that he had the
appearance of a skeleton, the soft parts of his body being
dried up, and drawn in close to the back-bone, while his
ribs projected over them like the roof of a house.  In the
mean time he passed his nights in confessing his sins to
God, with streams of tears running down over his beard.
Xvf/3atiGov,uE  6ov rv itov 7roXvuivdvov Trepzov6iaxv, oz'ov
OespaTC7eiv axi 6vvoiuov do6zAkixv (a'xpvovzotevo... a.creSpa..e
beti ra'lepo66)Ov/a,'QOa 60oz ai avroS 6vv8lozarpiftor  #axuaxpzoV TGrcV dOXbrzTcV 7tOVrYCV, Or  e f3o/tarz'lxoZ2 xUVxolozS,V6rtL
izaxreov  eGO 7po68eq)zlo6Opq'ez,... 76VXiaVY Uai uoyorpo7tiaxv
6eavrst   (pcapu66da......      xxnG Se rpaxez r  6 c3ad 6ov
zavJrrTTOnV,  xcti GOCV7 dx20Vpq rq  d6cpP;v dov'0t~VLepz6piyYrcv
xaprep.ta5, rd odrc~ d6ov 81d.ze15' rAyovXa  88  rclS vSEia1z5
xozlaz'iVGV  jlSpl Tcz VrcGy YorrzLCiGo'V,leUpo3v V5'Xxyid....'v60oOev  S   rdCS 2aod(xpaOL  d(Ztva5 6iMrYV  v)8uv6a5d  roZ5
veqpZpzrUoi  XcxopiozS 7rpomdxoAa;L c6Ocaz eAfzacov, [o'7v  8d  Trfv
6apxd6S tzu rtlY v   xevGC6d(a  rovtS rZG3v vtoycrdrpicov OXErOVS
yevvaioS  i7Op(xvaS... rCd 7tevppTZRLd  tEdpi  C6T~dEtp rzzv
drTs7y5 e'oroXv  roz 5g ouqXov jEdps6v Etre6ia^e5.-Karca rad?
vvxtrpzvd' c'paS t' Ooto2oAoy'ovJuEvo5 rTO @~e  rozS rTcv 6aiptpvCoY
OXero5 rTfv Ye~EaoBa   efi3poxov  aG3aO/tcaAz5.  Ep. 45, ad
Monachum.
"The extant information bearing on this subject is not




392                APPENDIX A.
scanty, and it is furnished explicitly, or it is incidentally
confirmed, by Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret,
Athanasius, Palladius, Sulpitius Severus, Cassian, Jerome,
Chrysostom, Basil, Augustine, Isidore, Ephrem; some of
whom furnish the minutest details of the'seraphic life,' and
all speak of it in terms of wonder and admiration."'Ancient Christianity,' p. 316.
X. Celibacy and Virginity. —Monks and nuns, bound by
vows of celibacy, were considered the highest glory and
greatest boast of the Church.  "The Greeks," says Chrysostom, "conceded this honour to the Church, and allowed
that virginity, as seen in it, was a perfection supernatural
and superhuman."
The manner in which  celibacy was extolled, and the
practical effects of it, are exhibited at length in Chrysostom's three treatises or Sermons, which stand at the beginning of his works in the Benedictine edition, and are
entitled, IIpo5 rovi  xovtXora5 zapOevov5 d6vezdaurovi, lHepi
roVilj:atoivov'zx< dv5 vozvezv' aovdpdv, Ilepi za/vpeveix5, and
from these the following extracts are taken:
"Nuns stand in the very highest place in the heavenly
choir. They are like the most select troops who form  a
King's body-guard in an army. Nay, they are higher than
the personal guards of a King; for these only stand by the
King's chariot; but virgins are as it were the very celestial
chariot itself of the Heavenly King, like the Cherubim; as
well as standing close to Him, like the Seraphim."  Lepi troi
ug, &c., ~ 6.
"A true nun is the very personification and ornament of
Christian perfection! When she walks abroad she strikes
every one with amazement as if an angel had come down
from heaven. If one of the cherubim appeared on earth he
would attract the eyes of all men; and so a nun should
strike all beholders with awe and wonder at her holiness.




APPENDIX A.                        393
Her time should be occupied with exercises of devotion or
meditation:-at Church sitting in the deepest silence and
abstraction;-at home having nothing to do with any domestic affairs, avoiding the sight of men, and even the company of women who are engaged in any of the affairs of
life. Who will not stand amazed at seeing such an angelic
life in the form of woman! What human being would venture to approach or touch so dazzling a soul! All, whether
they will or no, will stand off aghast as if they saw a mass of
gold all flaming and flashing with fire." Ibid. ~ 7.
Such was the theory of this celestial, angelic, state. In
its practical working at Constantinople, in Chrysostom's
time, it exhibited the most shameless contempt of decency
and religion! Monks and nuns, not then confined to monasteries and convents, cohabited together with everything
of marriage but its sanctity. Nuns were escorted into
Church by their paramours, and delighted in  receiving
numerous attentions from them  during the celebration of
the "most awful mysteries."  Ipo6 rotv exovroa5, &c., ~ 10.
And the remedy for this disgraceful scandal was-not an
acknowledgment that this unscriptural and extravagant
exaltation of celibacy was a violation of the laws of nature
and of God, and a return to a true and healthy mode of
thought and life-but it was nothing less than compelling
the nuns,-those angelic beings of superhuman, dazzling,
holiness,-to submit to a regulation exactly similar to that
clause in the " Contagious Diseases Act," which has been
thought by many persons to be too degrading and abominable even for the very worst and vilest to submit to! The
following are Chrysostom's words:-lpodto  XozroTv rahS
uaitS ia0' H0xddryT ~ltpVaY tepV   rad  TctQV 7tapOevx  oix'iaS)
xaOa'7t8p 7rtpo rZd5 o3 ZYov6(aS, ovx Go6Tr XoXE,-Ldat rzxrovodac,yeyove JtiS  yodp  xica ri rti T'cZV  aci roVro, —L~RAL  codrE
6zayV'c3Voz xaOo7tre p ril roTV GvovtdLVcoV' 0patatZVi/SnO, rz'5 /iSv
7 8ze&pOapJu/dr7, ric 3e  ojdivraqo5; xari 7 /iiv rVt7iov6de 5a p(8i




394                  APPENDIX A.
z  8OZ.tlGCx6iC,)? 8d Cd'vretZe KCxi cLtrZ' roT'l) z Lo 7roCz6XvOe6Zo(
ac;tiOev e  El xai lj  8t6cp/Oc9pro, vrxi.? 11it/ YsAlc,? d3e xai otU
Eo6C0o, uai atVr7;z  8d ztCiZV OVtX iTrrol/ ez' ir1/  CZXi dxiVerz-cL /lY
dvv7eOz6C(5a cto rovT rpOtov (puav.lyaz, c//2Ld /lcaprvpZa;C5 Tgi dctO
r~5      3'8EkTC(.Gi5 8e/Oei(da. llepi roV Utr  &c., ~ 2.
Let it not be supposed that this disgraceful and demloralized state of things at Constantinople was altogether exceptional and rare. It was the natural and necessary result
of the pernicious system which disparaged family life and
family religion, and distorted and outraged the feelings of
man, and the laws of God.  A hundred years before the
time of Chrysostom the same sort of thing was going on in
the African Church, and the same disgraceful remedy applied; as may be seen in Cyprian's Epistle to Pomponius.
The Church of Rome has at any rate in this point improved upon the Nicene period; and has introduced better
regulations than were in force in Chrysostom's time.
XI. Enforced celibacy of  the clergy.-The  clergy were
naturally expected to live the holy life, not only as an
example to others, but as priests who had to touch "the
awful mysteries."  Therefore when celibacy was regarded
as a state of angelic holiness, and matrimony only at the
best an allowed but low condition of Christian living, the
clergy were expected not to marry.
As early as the days of Tertullian for a presbyter to marry
a second time was thought an abomination.
By the beginning of the fourth century people were inclined to refuse the ministrations of a married presbyter.
The Council of Gangra (A. D. 324) condemns this objection.
e2' rz6 Staxpiiozro trapcd  tpesdvrepov ysyatruxiro5, c5 /to
XpTYVaz., iezrovpyTrdarovro5 acVrov, npo6dpop&Y  / EraYta/.fCtY(8Eivy
CrvOea'tGrco. Can. 4.  But twenty years before this the
Council of Elvira (A. D. 305), in which the ascetic spirit was
stronger, ordered that all the clergy should separate from




APPENDIXY A.                       395
their wives, or be deposed. Placuit in totum  prohiberi
episcopis, presbyteris, et diaconibus, vel omnibus clericis
positis in ministerio, abstinere se a conjugibus suis, et non
generare filios; quicunque vero fecerit ab honore clericatus
exterminetur.  Can. 33.
There was in fact in the earlier part of this century some
variety in different places respecting the enforced celibacy of
the clergy.  The popular feeling against "married priests"
was strong; but Church authorities had not everywhere formally spoken.
The Council of Ancyra (A.D. 315), Can. 9, decided that if a
deacon at the time of his ordination declared his intention of
marrying, as being in his case a necessity, he should be
allowed to do so, otherwise not.
At the Council of Nice (A.D. 325) it was proposed (as related
by Socrates and Sozomen) that, for the reformation of manners, all bishops, presbyters, and deacons, who had married
before their ordination, should withdraw from their wives;
but owing to the energetic opposition of Paphnutius, himself
an ascetic, the Council contented itself with enacting the old
rule, Tri, paoxazdv z7cxpcx&o0v, that no one should be allowed to
marry after he had been ordained.
But before the end of the fourth century it had become at
any rate a consuetudinary law, that the clergy must either be
unmarried, or, if they had married before their ordination,
they must thenceforth separate from their wives. Thus
Jerome says, "Certe confiteris non posse esse Episcopum,
qui in Episcopatu filios faciat; aloqui, si deprehensus fuerit,
quasi adulter damnabitur."' Adv. Jovin.' i. And again, "Aut
virgines clericos accipiunt, aut continentes; aut si uxores
habuerint, mariti esse desinunt."' Adv. Vigilant.'
Siricius, Bishop of Rome (A.D. 385), writes with abhorrence
of certain presbyters and deacons, who had committed the
crime of having children by their wives! " Sacerdotes Christi
et Levitas tam de conjugibus, quam de turpi coitu, sobolem




396                APPENDIX A.
procreasse."  Ad  intmerium Ep... These were to be allowed,
on repentance and separation for the future, to continue in
their office, but were never to be promoted. But if any of
them insisted on the liberty of marriage, they were to be
deposed, and never allowed to touch the sacred mysteries again. Siricius declares that such priests cannot please
God; and that the Spirit of God cannot dwell except in
holy bodies, i.e., in those who abstain from marriage!
So utterly did Church tradition contradict the Word of
God! But the predicted apostacy was then far advanced.
XII. LYING WONDERS, Miracles, and the Efficacy of Relics, &c.
-A taste for the invention and narration of miraculous
occurrences appears as early as the beginning of the third
century; and, being encouraged by the countenance and
support of the Church authorities, miracles continually
increased in number and marvellousness. The object of all
these miracles was to prop up some superstition,-such as
prayers for the dead, - fanatical sacramentalism, - the
asceticism of hermits, monks and nuns,-or the sanctity of
martyrs' bones, and other relics.
Tertullian tells the story of a dead woman, who had not
married again after the death of her husband, and whose
hands lifted themselves up in the attitude of prayer while the
presbyter was praying over her corpse; and when the prayer
was finished the hands laid themselves down again, as they
had been before. "Scio foeminam  quandam  vernaculam
Ecclesise, forma et aetate integra functam, post unicum et
breve matrimonium, quum in pace dormlsset, et morante
adhuc sepultura, interim oratione Presbyteri componeretur,
ad primum habitum orationis manus e lateribus dimotas in
habitum supplicem conformasse, rursumque condita pace,
situi suo reddidisse."  De Anim. 51.
Cyprian's narrative of miracles, connected with the Euchar.istic elements, has already been referred to. See his'De
Lapsis.'




APPENDIX A.                        397
But in the fourth century miracles flourished in much
greater abundance.
Gregory Nazianzen, in his Oration on Cyprian relates that
after Cyprian had been beheaded, his body wonderfully disappeared, and was hidden for a long time in the house of some
woman; but at last it was in a marvellous manner brought to
light, and was able to work miracles; such as overcoming
demons, curing diseases, giving a foreknowledge of future
events; " all which things the very dust of Cyprian is able," he
says, "to perform with the faith of his votaries, as those
who have tried it know." —Trv  YSazuOycoV taOpE6iaCx, rizy
zrc  VOd66Cor XZartdXZv6d, rYv rZGY juei;XoVt6Vc  7tp6yYVGq2p Yv,'1&
tdvtrax  "(Xiarczz TKv7tpzvov  ci t  uovztL5 18erd rz s zidGreSc, c3
z'6a6zv ozi tE71tzptLjUeVoZ) xi To OxvcjAua JUdXpz5 iGO/rY 7tapalC7t'#(VxcvrE. Orat. 18.
Ambrose, as related by his biographer Paulinus, in a similar
manner countenanced the pretended miracles connected with
the discovery of the remains of the martyr Nazarius, whose
blood, when his grave was opened, was found quitefresh, as if
it had just been shed,-a prototype of the liquefaction of St.
Januarius's blood at Naples; —and his head, which had been
cut off, was quite sound and undecayed, with the hair and
beard not at all disorded.  "Vidimus autem in sepulcro, quo
jacebat corpus martyris, sanguinem  martyris ita recentem
quasi eodem die fuisset effusus. Caput etiam ipsius, quod
ab impiis fuerat abscissum, ita integrum atque incorruptum
cure capillis capitis atque barba, ut nobis videretur eodem
tempore quo levabatur lotum atque compositum in sepulcro."
Paulin. Vit. Ambros.
Paulinus also mentions the miracles performed by the
remains of the martyrs Protasius and Gervasius, who, he
says, discovered their bones to a priest, qui se sacerdoti
revelaverunt, by which a blind man recovered his sight, devils
were cast out of the possessed, &c.
Ambrose himself in his funeral oration over his brother




398                APPENDIX A.
Satyrus, congratulated himself that he would now have the
benefit of his brother's ashes; and that he would now be more
in favour with God, when lying on his brother's tomb.
"Habeo quas complectar reliquias: habeo sepulcrum  super
quod jaceam, et commendabiliorem Deo futurum  esse me
credam, quod supra sancti corporis ossa requiescam."  Orat.
de Excessu Satyri, ~ 18.
But indeed in this century all sorts of pretended miracles
took place at the shrines of martyrs everywhere, or were performed by the relics of saints, or by a piece of the true cross
(see Paulinus, Natalis x.), or by the hands of the most ascetic
of the monks and hermits.  These miracles were recorded
and countenanced by the highest Church authorities.  See as
a specimen the'Life of St. Anthony,' by Jerome; or any
other work of a similar kind belonging to this age.
Such things are called "lying impostures" in medieval
Rome. What were they in the hands of Ambrose or Jerome?
XIII. CHURCH DESPOTISM-the oppression or persecution
of those who opposed, or objected to, prevailing superstitions.
Even at the very beginning of the third century the principle of Church despotism was avowed by Tertullian.  He
declares that Scripture is of God, but that discipline, i.e., all
the customs and usages of the Church, is of God also.  He
asserts that the Holy Spirit was given in order that this
discipline might be brought to perfection; and therefore
Church ordinances (which are often in reality only man's
perversions of God's truth), are the administration of His
divine wisdom.  "Quumn  propterea Paracletum  miserit
Dominus, ut paulatim  dirigeretur, et ordinaretur, et ad
perfectum  perduceretur disciplina ab illo vicario Domini
Spiritu Sancto... Que ergo est Paracleti administratio
nisi hlnc, quod disciplina dirigitur, quod scripture revelantur, quod intellectus reformanltur."'De Veland. Virgn.' ~ 1..




APPENDIX A.                       399
And this principle was acted upon, and carried out by
those who followed. Augustin, a century and a half later,
presumed to say that the Holy Spirit ordered the Lord's Supper to be received fasting, because this was then the custom
of the Church. "Hoc enim placuit Spiritui Sancto ut in
honorem tanti sacramenti in os Christiani prius Dominicum
corpus intraret quam caeteri cibi."  Ep. 118, Januar. ~ 6.
And so the visible Church with all its human laws and
regulations, with all its accumulating superstitions, and
departures from Christian truth, was declared to be the
expression of the very mind and will, the presence and
operation, of the divine Spirit; and those who ventured to
dissent from anything in or of the Church, however corrupt,
were branded as heretics, and, if possible, crushed. There
were good and true men here and there in the fourth century, who attempted to raise their voices against the corruptions of that age; but as we see in the case of Vigilantius,
Jovinian, and others, they were trampled upon by Jerome,
Ambrose, and their "orthodox" contemporaries; and if
they persisted in proclaiming Scriptural truth the secular
arm was appealed to, to put them down.  (See the case of
Jovinian referred to in Lecture III.: and'Vigilantius and
his Times,' by Dr. Gilly, may be read with advantage.)
XIV. THE PAPACY, or the authority of the Bishop of Rome.
-The authority of the Bishop of Rome overfall Christendom
was not of course fully established as early as the Nicene
age. Plain instances of resistance to attempted dominion
on the part of the Roman See occurred; as when the endeavour of Victor (A.D. 185) to force the Roman observance of
Easter upon the Greek Churches was resolutely opposed.
Yet even in the third century, and increasingly so in the
fourth, traces of an incipient papal supremacy are found, and
principles acknowledged which were naturally developed
into it.




400                APPENADIX A.
1. Thus Cyprian, though he maintained his own independence against Rome, considered that Peter had a primacy
among the Apostles given to him.  "He regards Peter as
the representative of the One Church; whosoever therefore,
according to him, forsakes the outward fellowship with the
one visible Catholic Church, turns himself away from the
representative of the unity of the Church connected by
divine appointment with the person of the Apostle Peter."
2. Then another step was taken; and as there was a tradition, even in the time of Irenaeus and Tertullian, that Peter
and Paul were the founders of the Church of Rome, and as
Rome was once the seat of the dominion of the world, men
began to consider the Roman Church as the seat or see of
Peter, cathedra Petri, and to apply to it, what had been said
of the Apostle Peter, as the representative of Church unity.
Hence Cyprian calls Rome, "Petri ecclesia, ecclesia principalis, unde unitas sacerdotalis exorta est." Ep. 55 ad Cornel.
And again in the same Epistle, "Qaum locus Petri, et gradus
cathedra sacerdotalis vacaret."
3. Thirdly, in the fourth century, and especially in the
latter part of it, we find foreign bishops applying to Rome
for direction in ecclesiastical matters, and the Bishop of
Rome replying, not to give advice as an equal writing to one
independent of him, but as if issuing decrees and orders
with an acknowledged authority over other Churches. Thus
Siricius (A.D. 385), in answer to Himerius, Bishop of Tarracona, who had written about some disorders in his Church,
says, "De his vero non incongrue dilectio tua apostolicam
sedem- credidit consulendam. De quibus... id duximus
decernendum."  And again, "Has ergo impudicas detestabilesque personas... eliminandas esse mandamus;" and he
speaks of persons who had been degraded, as "auctoritate
apostolicse sedis dejectors."  In the same Epistle Siricius
takes upon himself to lay down the law for all Churches,
"Quid  universis posthac ecclesiis sequendum  sit, quid




APPENDIX  A.                     401
vitandum  generali pronuntiatione decernimus."'Ep. ad
Himer.' ~ 9, 10. And no objection seems to have been made
to these claims. Indeed, at this very time, Theodosius the
Great had ordered all nations who were subject to his
dominion, to receive the faith which had been delivered by
St. Peter to the Romans. " Cunctos populos quos clementiaE
nostrae regit temperamenturn in tali volumus religione versari,
quam divinum Petrum apostolum tradidisse Romnanis religio
usque nunc ab ipso insinuata declarat."' Codex Theodos.'
xvi, 1, 2. And "Valentinian III. (A.D. 424) forbade the
bishops both in Gaul and in other provinces to depart from
ancient usages without the approbation of the venerable
man, the Pope of the holy city."  Ranke,'History of the
Popes,' vol. i. p. 12.
26




APPENDIX B.
ON THE AUTHORITY OF COUNCILS.
QUESTIONS about the action and influence of the Councils or Synods of the post-apostolic Church are not
actually included within the scope of the ecclesiastical polity
of the New Testament. Yet they are so far indirectly concerned with it or supplementary to it, that some notice of
the true position and legitimate authority of such councils,
seems to be required for the complete consideration of the
subject.  The more so, inasmuch as this authority and
position have often been misrepresented not only by the extravagant assumptions of the councils themselves, but by
many theological writers ever since; and even in our own
Church such misconception seems still not to be uncommon,
notwithstanding the clear and emphatic declaration of our
Articles to the contrary.
It appears in many quarters to be taken for granted that,
because each " Church has power to decree rites and ceremonies and authority in controversies of faith," therefore
the whole Church Universal has a similar power and authority over all national and particular Churches.  From an
indistinct and erroneous idea of the unity of the Catholic
Church, it is assumed that, being One, it is a single community, authorised and able to govern its component members,
and having a divine commission to exercise such government.
402




APPENDIX B.                      403
Then, as nothing else can be found to answer the purpose,
General Councils are assumed to be the judicial or legislative organs of this reigning Catholicity; and their decrees
and canons are represented as the authoritative utterances
of the Universal Church, binding with a divine sanction
upon Christian men and Churches at all times and in every
place. So that on the whole we are landed in the conclusion that, while provincial synods had authority over their
respective provinces, CEcumenical Councils demand the
obedience of the whole of Christendom for ever.
But to all such representations it is sufficient to reply,
First, that it is an inexorable fact that the Catholic Church
on earth is not one community, but is One, just as the human race is one, though divided into separate and independent nations. It cannot, therefore, and never could, exercise the functions of government.  It has no means or
machinery for governing, even if it had any authority to
govern. In the words of Archbishop Whately, "No Christian, and no particular Church owes obedience to the Universal Church of which it is a part. There is not, and there
never was, since the Apostles' time, any such body existing
as could claim such obedience.  The Catholic Church on
earth is not one society, but is one, just as the human race
is one." (' Kingdom of Christ Delineated,' p. 181. )
Secondly, it is obvious that there were no General Councils during the first three centuries of the Church's history;
and therefore if these are the voice and expression of Catholic authority, Catholicity during all that time was dumb.
During all that time of difficulty and danger both within
and without, and often of fierce struggles for very life,
Catholicity put forth no authoritative utterance-exercised
no government at all! Was this a dereliction of duty,-or
a natural and necessary consequence of its true position?
Thirdly, there is such a striking difference between the
consultation of the Apostles at Jerusalem, and the General




404               APPENDIX B.
Councils of the fourth and following centuries, that it may
be affirmed that there is in the New Testament no example,
as there is certainly no precept or command, for the holding
of such assemblies, or for the exercise of any government at
all by the Catholic Church.
A very short review of the origin and action of Church
Councils in the early centuries will further elucidate this not
unimportant subject; and a solution of the questions connected with it is to be found in the joint consideration of
two things,-the mutual independence of the Churches, and
the force of public opinion,-i.e. the opinion of Christians
generally throughout the world.
During the first three centuries each Church with its
bishop,-as soon as it had a bishop,-at its head, was independent, and carried on the government within its own diocese, or 7rwpozmia, without subjection to any foreign or superior authority. No one Church pretended to exercise a dominion over others; or when such attempts were made, they
were resisted as an unlawful usurpation. Even the Church
of Rome, though already receiving a certain degree of special respect and reverence as the supposed " See of Peter,"
was not permitted until the latter part of the fourth century, and not always then without remonstrance, to interfere
with this Diocesan independence; as was seen, when Victor
(A.D. 185)endeavoured to force the Eastern Churches to conform to the Roman mode of observing Easter; or when
Zosimus and Celestinus in the early part of the fifth century
took upon them to absolve persons excommunicated by
Churches in Africa.
The only force which then bound the several Churches together, and preserved their unity,-that is to say, the only
external power besides the divine truth and grace in the
hearts of men,-was the general state of Christian feeling
and opinion maintained amongst them all. The grand common objects of the Christians' faith and hope,-their deep




APPENDIX B.                         405
consciousness of a community in blessings, and in brotherhood,-and their common position as small bodies of men
in the midst of heathen populations,-all from the very first
drew  Christians together by the closest ties,-fostered a
comprehensive unity among them,-and gave birth immediately to that undefined and unorganized, but vigorous and
effective power, which is produced by the mutual sympathies of men acting and reacting on each other, and which
the term Public Opinion is intended to describe.
This power is often appealed to in the New Testament,
especially by St. Paul, who had to deal with  so many
Churches of different nations and localities. To this power
he appealed, when he informed the Roman Christians as an
inducement to avoid disunion and divisions, that " their obedience was come abroad unto all men; "-  when he silenced
the Corinthians with the final argument, " We have no such
custom, neither the Churches of God;" or stimulated their
zeal by relating to them the liberal contributions of the
Macedonian Churches; and so in other epistles in words of
similar effect. And this power lost none of its force in the
ensuing centuries. The common sentiments, which kept it
in healthy action, were themselves cherished and maintained by various means 1 which promoted a close and friendly
Among these means were:-    Letters addressed to Churches by
Collections  made  for  foreign  distant bishops, or persons in auChurches in times of distress; a thority, on particular emergencies;
practice begun in apostolic times, such as the Epistle of Clement to
as mentioned in Acts xi. and  the Corinthians, and of Polycarp
2 Cor. viii., ix.              to the Philippians.
Commendatory letters given to   A mutual consent on the part of
Christians who were going abroad, every Church to acknowledge the
and who thereby obtained a hos- validity of the ecclesiastical acts of
pitable and friendly reception from  all other Churches; and to join in
the brethren in distant lands; a communion with them, or their
practice also alluded to in the individual members, in  divine
New Testament, as in Rom. xvi. 1; worship and all holy offices, not2 Cor. iii.                     withstanding  any difference in




406                APPENDIX B.
union, and an interchange of thought and feeling between
all the Churches.
Hence it naturally came to  pass that neighbouring
Churches often sought each other's counsel, and strengthened each other's hands' If a bishop of one Church had a
perplexing case to deal with, or a difficult point to determine, he had recourse to another bishop, or to several others,
for advice. Hence Provincial Synods, consisting of representatives from  the different Churches in a province met
from time to time, to consider matters of common interest
or danger,-to express their opinions on some difficulty or
prevailing error,-and to encourage united and harmonious
action throughout the province. These provincial Synods
were voluntary assemblies, self-convened by their own choice
and appointmentt; and their decisions, however formally expressed, had no power or authority, except what came from
voluntary submission to them, and from the operation of
public opinion in the Church at large. This is plainly evidenced by such cases as that of Paul of Samosata, who when
condemned and deposed from the see of Antioch, refused to
submit, and kept possession of the Church-house and premises. And the Council was powerless in the matter, until
they called in the aid of the pagan government, and prevailed upon the Emperor Aurelian to interfere.-See Eusebius,' H. E.' vii. 30.
The deliberate judgments of a. number of grave and respected men from different places necessarily carried with
them great weight, and commended themselves to general acceptance. Those Churches who had joined in the decisions
of course obeyed them. Those who disapproved of them
might disregard them, if they chose; but they would be exreligious rites and forms, which bishop on his appointment sent
they might severally prefer.  circular letters to foreign Churches,
A practice, which however came to signify that he was in comsomewhat later into use, that every munion with them.




APPENDIX B.                            407
posed to the ill-opinion, and possibly the avoidance, of other
Churches if they did so; and individual Christians could
hardly venture to stand aloof from the rest,-at least with
any peace or safety to  themselves.  A  very considerable
amount of influence thus accrued to these Synods; and they
were at last looked upon as a sort of court of appeal for the
redress of grievances, and the decision  of ecclesiastical
questions, both of doctrine and of discipline.l
The nature and position of the so called (Ecumenical or
General Councils, so far as they were ecclesiastical assemblies, differed not at all from the Provincial Synods, except
that they gathered  representatives from   a wider field.
Their authority in this respect stood upon exactly the same
footing, and their decrees could claim nothing more than a
voluntary submission. For, as it may be observed in the
words of Jeremy Taylor, " That the authority  of General
Councils  was  never  esteemed  absolute, infallible,  and
unlimited appears in this, that before they were obliging it
was necessary  that each  particular  Church  respectively
should accept them, concurrente universali totius ecclesise
consensu, &c., in  declaratione veritatum  quse  credenda
i Provincial synods appear to  per Graecias illa ccrtis in locis conhave been first commenced in the  cilia ex universis ecclesiis, per quas
provinces of Greece, where at the  et altiora quseque in commune tracend of the second century they  tantur, et ipsa repreesentatio totius
seem to have been already estab- nominis Christiani magna veneralished as regular institutions, meet- tione celebratur. "-' De Jejun.' ~ 13.
ing at stated seasons. The famili-    "By the middle of the third cenarity of the Greeks with repre- tury, the annual provincial synods
sentative assemblies, such as their appear to have been universal, if
Amphictyonic Council, and the  we may judge from the fact that
meetings of the Achaean and the we find them observed at the same
Jtolian League, perhaps led the  time in parts of the Church so
Churches in those districts to be  widely remote from each other as
the first to adopt a similar practice  Northern Africa and Cappadocia."
for themselves.  Tertullian thus -Neander'Church Iist.', vol i.
alludes to these synods. "Aguntur 281.




408                APPENDIX B.
sunt. That is the way of making the decrees of Councils
become authentic and be turned into a law, as Gerson
observes; and till they did, their decrees were but a dead
letter. And therefore it is that these later popes have so
laboured that the Council of Trent should be received in
France; and Carolus Molineus, a great lawyer and of the
Roman communion, disputed against the reception. And
this is a known condition in the Canon Law; but it proves
plainly that the decrees of councils have their authority
from  the voluntary submission of the particular Churches,
not from the prime sanction and constitution of the Council.... And as there was never any Council so general, but
it might have been more general; for in respect of the
whole Church even Nice itself was but a small assembly, so
there is no decree so well constituted, but it may be proved
by an argument higher than the authority of the Council;
and therefore General Councils, and national, and provincial,
in their several degrees, are excellent guides for the prophets and directions and instructions for their prophesyings; but not of weight and authority to restrain their
liberty so wholly, but that they may dissent, when they see
a reason strong enough so to persuade them, as to be willing upon the confidence of that reason and their own sincerity to answer to God for such their modesty and peaceable, but, as they believe, their necessary, disagreeing."-'Liberty of Prophesying,' Sect. vi. end.
Hence it follows that our Church is bound only by those
General Councils whose authority it has accepted, and only
so far as it has accepted their decisions.
But besides this there is another consideration which
must not be overlooked. The General Councils which
were held in the earlier centuries of the Church, and which
are the most commonly held up now for our submission,
were not simply ecclesiastical assemblies. They partook of
the nature, and had a share in the power, of a civil institu



APPENDIX B.                      409
tion. For they never came into existence until after the
accession of Constantine, when Christianity had become to
a certain extent the established religion of the Roman
Empire, and was in alliance with the State. They were
convened by the emperor's edict: they held their sittings
under his sanction: their decrees were enforced by the
imperial authority; and in some cases civil penalties were
inflicted  on those who  disobeyed them. The decrees
therefore of such General Councils were in reality constitutions or regulations of the Imperial Church as then existing; and they can have no more authority over other
Churches, than the laws of the Imperial State have over
other nations. The Canons of the Council of Nice have as
such no more claim upon our obedience as English Christians, than the civil edicts of Constantine have upon our
obedience as English citizens.
Nor is it superfluous even in these days, and in our own
Church, to assert our Christian liberty in this very thing;
and to speak plainly about the supposed authority of General Councils over us. On a late occasion a learned bishop
of the Church of England, and others with him, asserted,
" That an Archbishop by the law of the Church, had only the
power of consecration in association with his Suffragans;"
and maintained, "that the Archbishop would not be acting
in accordance with the law of the Church, if he should consecrate a Bishop in the face of a protest from his Suffragans;"
the only proof of the existence of such a law being a reference to Canon IV. of the first Council of Nice, and Canon
XIX. of the Council of Antioch (A.D. 341); just as if the
Canons of these Councils were ipso facto undoubted laws of
the Church of England 
And in accordance with modern practice this theology
was published in'The Times' newspaper, Dec. 22, 1869.




APPENDIX C.
CONFESSION, ABSOLUTION, AND PENANCE.
THE gross moral and religious evils of the Confessional
- and of priestly Absolution, which polluted the Church
of Rome in the Middle Ages, and which still to a certain
extent adhere to its system, are not, like many others of
the Romish errors, to be laid to the charge of the Nicene
Fathers. Even after the flood of Sacerdotalism had set in
strongly upon the Church in the third and fourth centuries,
the practice of. Confession and Absolution continued to be
remarkably free from  the infection of priestcraft; even
while the loss of apostolic truth in other respects caused the
acts of penitence, or penance, which were enjoined by
Church authority, to be mingled with lamentable errors.
I. Confession. —1. Public Confession in the presence of a
Christian congregation,-called even in the Latin Churches
by the Greek name Exomologesis,-was at first the only
mode in use; and it was either obligatory or voluntary.
(a) Confession was obligatory in the case of great offenders, who had been excommunicated, and were required
to make a public acknowledgment of their transgressions,
before they were re-admitted to Church communion.
(b) Persons who had sinned more secretly, and had not
been excommunicated, sometimes voluntarily made this
public confession, before they ventured to come to the
Lord's Supper.
( 410 




APPENDIX C.                        411
This public confession seems to have been the only kind
known to Tertullian, and after him to Cyprian.  The former
in his treatise'De pcenitentia,' and the latter in iis'De
Lapsis,' give full expression to their sentiments on this subject; and they exhort those who  had committed any
grievous sin in secret to confess it publicly before the
Church,-a duty which apparently was sometimes very reluctantly performed.
2. Private Confession.-During the third century, and
first in the Eastern Church, the increasing reluctance felt
by Christians to make a public confession of their sins, and
the occurrence of some difficulties connected with this
practice, caused the introduction of private confession for
voluntary penitents.  Origen mentions both the public and
the private mode as used for voluntary confessions in his
time; and  he recommends those who feared publicity to
choose some prudent and friendly Presbyter, and to confess to him in private; and then to be guided by his advice,
as to whether a public confession should'afterwards be
resorted to or not.  "Circumspice diligentius cui debeas
confiteri peccatum tuum: proba prius medicum cui debeas
causam languoris exponere..... si intellexerit et perviderit talem  esse languorem  tuum, ut in conventu totius
ecclesiae exponi debeat et curari, ex quo fortassis et cseteri
sedificari poterunt, et tu ipse facile sanari, multa hoc
deliberatione, et satis perito medici illius consilio, procurandum est."-De Psalm. 37. Hom. 2.
In some Churches, however, and in particular at Constantinople, a Presbyter was specially appointed to act as a
Penitentiary, or Confessor, —o'ti r^75 jzsTavoia5,-to hear
private confession; and the practice of thus confessing
became general in the East.  In the Latin Church the
public voluntary confession appears still to have held a
place; since Leo I., Bishop of Rome, issued a direction for
its discontinuance in A.D. 459, to the following effect.  "Ne




412                 APPENDIX C.
de singulorum peccatorum genere libellis scripta professio
publice recitetur, quunm reatus conscientiarum sufficiat solis
sacerdotibus indicare  confessione  secreta;...  sufficiat
enim illa confessio quae primum Deo offertur, tur  etiam
sacerdoti, qui pro delictis precator attendit."-Labbe' Concil.'
vol. vi. p. 410.
The confession of secret sins, whether publicly before the
Church, or privately to a Presbyter, during all this time
was voluntary. But persons were exhorted to have recourse to it, and the practice was greatly promoted by the
prevalence of exaggerated notions about the Lord's Supper,
by the belief that Christian ministers could release them
from the guilt of their transgressions, and were priests who
could make their peace with God for them —and by ignorance of the way of safety and of pardon in Christ.
Auricular confession to a priest was ordered and made
obligatory in the Church of Rome by the Fourth Lateran
Council, A.D. 1215, in the following decree:-" Omnis
utriusque sexus  fidelis postquam  ad annos discretionis
pervenerit, omnia sua solus peccata confiteatur fideliter,
saltem semel in anno, proprio sacerdoti, et injunctam sibi
pcenitentiam studeat pro viribus adimplere." —Labb' Concil.'
vol. xxiii. p. 1008. This entirely altered the whole. character
of the Confessional, not merely because what was before
voluntary was now compulsory, but because now every sin
was to be confessed, and consequently in many cases extorted
by the priest, whereas before only those sins which were
felt to be a burden upon the conscience were disclosed, and
then only so far as the penitent himself thought necessary
or expedient.
At Constantinople, in the middle of the fourth century,
on account of certain scandals in which a Deacon was involved in connection with private confession, the Bishop
Nectarius, the predecessor of Chrysostom, was induced to
abolish the office of Penitentiary, and men were directed to




APPENDIX C.                       413
confess their sins to God; all Christians, being then allowed
to come to the Lord's Table according to their own judgment and conscience, unless they were under censures publicly pronounced upon them  by the Church authorities.
tro6 rov aovr6v  Xpov/ov e'So8e  alai rozv  k:ti TrSu JsUEraoiwa
7tEpZEtXeLV'7pe86vripov5 Tp V  XC)Y'Vi6zGoY..... dvyxCop7dvat 6'
eiax6rov ra mSico dvvezdort rTGOv uv6rpicoV juCereZxt.-Socrat.'Hist. Eccl.' v. 19.
This was a wise return to the apostolic doctrine and
practice. And it is a further testimony to the soundness of
the Church at Constantinople in this respect, however erroneous in others, that many exhortations conceived in a
similar spirit are found in the Homilies of Chrysostom.
The abolition of this mode of private confession, as an
acknowledged Church ordinance, could not of course prevent those, who wished to do so, from relieving a burdened
conscience by opening their griefs or perplexities to a Christian friend, whether Presbyter or Layman.
II. Absolution.-Absolution  like Confession was either
public or private. 1. Public absolution consisted of a declaration of God's forgiveness of the sins which had been
repented of and confessed, accompanied with the imposition
of the hands of the Bishop and Presbyters, and the prayers
of the congregation. If Church censures had been imposed
they were then formally removed; and the absolved person was admitted to Church communion, and to a participation in the Lord's Supper, exclusion from, and admission
to, which was especially connected with confession and
absolution.
This ministerial absolution was called "Remission of sins,"
-remissio facta per sacerdotes,-and was regarded  as a
matter of great importance. It was in giving and refusing
this that the "priests" exercised the power of loosing and
binding, which the Church claimed for them; as Ambrose




414                APPENDIX C.
says, when writing against the tenets of the Novatianists,
"Qui solvere non potest peccatum, non habet Spiritum
Sanctum. Munus Spiritus Sancti est officium sacerdotis;
jus autem Spiritus Sancti in solvendis ligandisque criminibus est."-Depenitentia, i. 5. Yet Cyprian, who entertained
very high notions of the power of the Christian " priesthood,"
declares that none  can  forgive sins but God. "Solus
Deus misereri potest veniam  peccatis, quse in  ipsum
commissa sunt, solus potest ille largiri, qui peccata nostra
portavit." So that the ministerial action, however exalted
and necessary in the estimation of those times, was strictly
speaking regarded as declaratory only. Unfortunately this
was not always kept in view in the Church's teaching, or in
the popular theology.
2. Private  absolution was a much  less solemn  act,
amounting to little more than a permission given by the
Presbyter to come to the Holy Communion, and a declaration of God's forgiveness, which he seems to have expressed
in the form of a prayer; if we may judge so from the words
in the quotation cited above, "qui pro delictis precator
attendit."
III. Penance or penitence,-pcenitentia.-Before absolution
was given it was requisite that the Church, acting through
its Bishop and other ministers,-or the individual Presbyter in the case of private absolution,-should be satisfied of
the reality of the repentance of those who sought to be
absolved. Hence those, who by great sins had incurred the
public censures of the Church, were required to go through
a course of penitence, longer or shorter, more or less severe,
according to the nature of the offence. This was called in
the Greek  Church by the general term   letravo'ov or,erTuete6oat; but in Latin "agere pcenitentiam," whence
the English expression "to do penance."
Tertullian includes the whole course of this humiliation




APPENDIX C.                         415
under'the name of exowologesis, and he requires a person by
way of penitence, during the time of his exclusion from
Church communion, "to lie in sackcloth and ashes, to
defile his body with filth, and cast down his spirit with
grief, to eat and drink nothing pleasant, to strengthen his
prayers with fasting, to groan, weep, and moan aloud by
night and day to God, to roll on the ground before the
presbyters, to kneel to the favourites of heaven, to entreat
all the brethren to pray and intercede for him."*
"Exomologesis prosternendi et hurilificandi hominis
disciplina est, conversationem injungens misericordie illicein.
De ipso quoQue habitu atque victu mandat, sacco et cineri
incubare, corpus sordibus obscurare, animum  mceroribus
dejicere, illa qume peccavit tristi tractatione mutare. Craterum pastum  et potum  pura nosse, non ventris scilicet sed
animae causa; plerumque vero jejuniis preces alere, ingemiscere, lacrimari et mugire noctes diesque ad Dominum
Deum tuum, presbyteris advolvi, et caris Dei adgeniculari,
omnibus fratribus legationes deprecationis sue injungere.'-'De poenit.' ~ 9.
Cyprian's recommendations are very similar to those of
Tertullian, adding only an injunction to the penitent "to
devote himself to good works, by which sins are taken away,
and  to  almsgiving, by which souls are delivered fromn
death."  Orare oportet impensius et rogare, diem  luctu
transigere, vigiliis noctes ac fletibus ducere, tempus omne
lacrimosis lamentationibus occupare, stratos solo adherere,
in cinere et cilicio et sordibus volutari, post indumentum
Christi perditum nullum jam malle vestitum, post diaboli
cibum  malle jejunium, justis operibus incumbere quibus
peccata purgantur, eleemosynis frequenter insistere quibus a
morte animce liberantur.-' De Lapsis.'
The object of all this was declared to be to make satisfaction to God,-to appease his anger,-to win his compassion
by self-inflicted suffering,-to expiate the sins committed,




416                APPENDIX C.
-to purchase pardon and deliver the soul from  death.
This is the doctrine taught by Tertullian, and still more
distinctly by Cyprian, whose treatise, De Lapsis, abounds
with such expressions as "Deo satisfacere,-satisfactionem
facere,-Dominus satisfactione placandus est,-Illi mcesttiia
satisfacere,-expiare delicta,-Dei iram et offensam jejuniis,
fletibus, planctibus placare,-pcenitentia crimine minor non
sit; putasne tu Dominum cito posse placari;"-and, as we
saw above'the necessity of purchasing the divine forgiveness by almsgiving and other good works.
Similar ideas and similar practices prevailed also in the
following century, especially in the Western Church. Thus
Ambrose, in his'De poenitentia,' while powerfully urging
against the Novatianists the duty of receiving returning
penitents, and while expressing many excellent thoughts on
the subject of repentance and forgiveness,-yet equally
with Tertullian and Cyprian requires the most abject outward humiliation on the part of those who sought re-admission into the Church.  "Volo veniam reus speret; petat
earn lacrimis, petat gemitibus, petat populi totius fletibus;
ut ignoscatur et obsecret; et quum secundo et tertio fuerit
dilata ejus communio, credat remissius se supplicasse, fletus
augeat miserabilior, postea revertatur, teneat pedes brachiis,
osculetur osculis, lavet fletibus, nec dimittat, ut de ipso dicat
Dominus Jesus, Remissa sunt peccata ejus multa, quoniam
dilexit multum.  Cognovi quosdam  in poenitentia sulcasse
vultum lacrimis, exarasse continuis fletibus genas, stravisse
corpus suum  calcandum  omnibus, jejuno ore semper et
pallido mortis speciem  spiranti in  corpore prmetulisse."
De pocnit. i. 16.
All this is clearly accounted for by the fact that the
whole view taken by the Church of the third and fourth
centuries, on the subject of repentance and forgiveness, was
of necessity very much affected by two false principles then
almost universally prevalent.  The one-that self-inflicted




APPENDIX C.                      417
suffering and bodily maceration were especially pleasing to
the Almighty, and most effectual for obtaining his favour.
The other-that almsgiving, or bestowing one's property
upon the Church, was a sovereign remedy for sins, and
cancelled a sinner's guilt.-See Appendix A, Nos. v. and ix.
In the fourth century the course of penitence prescribed
for grave offences of a moral character appears more distinctly formalized than it had previously been; the period
of exclusion for different degrees of guilt was more clearly
defined; and penitents had to pass through three or four
successive stages of partial admission into the Church,
before they were received into full communion. Ten, twelve,
or even twenty years were sometimes occupied with this
discipline. The following is Ambrose's account of one of
these periods of humiliation. —"After the guilty man has
come to sense of his sin let him stand for three years weeping at the door of the house of prayer, and begging the
people as they enter to make earnest and sympathizing
prayers for him. After this let him for three years be
received inside the Church as a hearer only, and be turned
out after the Scripture Lessons and the Sermon, without
being allowed to stay during the prayers. Then if he has
sought it with tears, and fallen down before the Lord [the
Bishop?] with contrition of heart and deep humiliation, let
him be allowed for another space of three years to kneel
down during the prayers. And so, when he has thus displayed the fitting fruits of repentance, let him be received
in the tenth year at the prayers of the faithful [the missa
fidelium], but without partaking in the Eucharistic sacrifice;
and lastly, when two years more have passed, let him be
deemed worthy of the communion."-Basil. Canon. 75.
"It is to this system of penance and confession that in
the Roman Church there has attached itself an immense
and most singular mass of superstition and abuses."Guerickce iv. 19.
27




APPENDIX D.
THE APOSTOLICAL SUCCESSION.
OUR review of the office and position of the Christian
ministry would hardly be complete without some notice
of what has been called, "The Apostolical Succession," inasmuch as the doctrine designated by this expression claims a
direct connection with the Apostles and the exercise of their
authority.
The idea which forms the foundation of this dogma appeared in some slight. form as early as the beginning of the
third century; when it supplied Tertullian with one of his
weapons against some heretical Churches. But it was matured and put forth most distinctly in more modern times.
At the Reformation sharp disputes about the validity of our
Protestant Orders originated from it. It furnishes still to
Rlomanists a ground of attack against all Churches who have
protested against Romish errors; and the spiritual authority
and position of our clergy are by some amongst ourselves
supposed to rest upon a foundation which it supplies.
The doctrine of the Apostolic Succession of the Ministry,
according to those who hold it, " means that all men who have
a right to be considered duly appointed ministers of Christ
have received from Him  a commission to minister in His
name, conveyed in an outward and visible manner in a direct
line from the holy Apostles." That is to say, that Christ
(418)




APPENDIX D.                      419
gave his Apostles a certain spiritual authority and power,
which they by His direction transferred to their successors;
and these again to others after them, and so on in a perpetual line of successive transmissions. The authority and
power which have been thus transmitted are specially those
of ordaining priests, and giving them the power of duly administering the sacraments,-bestowing the grace of absolution,-or doing other priestly acts. And the successors, to
and through whom  alone this authority and power have
been transmitted, are bishops. According to this theory
the whole virtue, force, and efficacy of the Christian ministry
from the Apostles to the present time have been in and by
this succession. Those who have been ordained by bishops,
descended in an unbroken line of this succession from  the
Apostles, are alone lawful Christian ministers; since any
break in the links of this ecclesiastical chain invalidates the
whole standing of an individual functionary, or of a Church,
by cutting off, as it were, the flow of essential energy and
divine power, by the uninterrupted communication of which
the true ministerial life is enabled to act and move. So
that there can be no true Christian ministry, no true Church,
and no validity in the sacraments, except where there are
ministers duly ordained by bishops who have received their
episcopal authority and power by this uninterrupted transmission from  the Apostles. All others, therefore, who
minister in any congregation, are regarded as usurpers,
schismatics, or heretics,-intruding into an office which is
not theirs,-the Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, of modern
days,-without lawful authority, powerless of all good, and
constituting with their people a band of revolters from
Christ, instead of a branch of His Church.
But what solid resting-ground of conviction is there in all
this imaginative theory, when examined by the light of
Scripture and of truth? It is true that a restricted succession something like this was in force for the priesthood of




420               APPENDIX D.
the Jewish Church, and the services of their Temple; but
the Christian ministry, as we have seen, is not a priesthood,
nor was it taken from the Temple services, so as to suggest
any argument of analogy from  that source, except an
argument altogether against this theory and entirely subversive of such a doctrine. But what is of much more
weight, and forms an absolutely conclusive refutation of this
dogma, is the following consideration. The succession of
the Jewish priests was distinctly laid down by divine
authority from the beginning; and reiterated commands,
enforced by the severest judgments, emphatically declared,
that no one who was not of the seed of Aaron might
officiate at the altar of God. Nothing but a divine command expressly given could ever make such a regulation
imperatively exclusive. Nothing but a direct and positive
ordinance of the New Testament could justify the assertion
of such a doctrine now. But in the Christian dispensation
no such command was ever given; nor is there in the New
Testament the slightest intimation, much less an authoritative announcement, that such an apostolical succession is the
only source of lawful ministerial authority. The subject, in
fact, is not once mentioned or alluded to in the Christian
Scriptures; nor are the Apostles ever shown to have
themselves received, or to have given to others, any such
powers as this dogma asserts to have been transmitted.
The words of the New Testament, which are sometimes
pressed into the service of this doctrine of the corrupted
Church, are in reality destitute of all evidence in its favour.;
whereas nothing short of the most explicit declaration
would be of any avail. When Jesus said to his Apostles,
"Lo, I am  with you alway, even unto the end of the
world," he gave indeed a gracious promise to his ministering servants in all ages; —but he spoke not a word about
the virtue or necessity of any particular mode of their
succession. When St. Paul wrote to Timothy to commit




APPENDIX D.                       421
the truth which he had received "to  faithful men who
should be able to teach others also," he desired indeed a
succession of sound doctrine, and of faithful men to teach
it;- but he did not declare that ministerial authority must
be transmitted from himself through a chain of episcopally
consecrated bishops, and must depend for. its preservation
and very existence upon that chain's unbroken continuity.
The citation of such texts as these shows what an infinitesimal amount, or miserable pretence, of evidence is
enough for those who have made up their minds without it;
and shows also what little countenance in the apostolic age
was given to such theology.
If from  the consideration of the conclusive argument,
derived from  the absence of all scriptural authority, we
turn to matters of fact and historical experience, we may
see some, who profess to have this apostolic succession,
teaching vain traditions and gross errors instead of apostolic
truth; and some, who make no pretensions to it, and are
not even episcopally ordained, altogether sound in doctrine
and in practice, and with as true seals of their ministry
among their people, as St. Paul had of his Apostleship
among the Christians at Corinth.
The only answer that is or can be given for this is, that
it is not the security of true teaching, but the power of'
imparting the grace of the sacraments, and of absolution,
which the apostolic succession conveys. And this betrays
the real character of the doctrine in question, and shows
that it is only a fiction invented and propagated in the
Church to bolster up sacerdotal superstitions.
Add to this the fact, that if this dogma were true, there
is no Christian minister now living, who has ascertained, r
could ascertain, whether he is lawfully exercising the duties
of his office or not; but he must remain in doubt as to the
validity of his ordination and the position in which it has
placed him.




422               APPENDIXY D.
Of an apostolic succession, which is not commanded by
the Apostles, nor mentioned in the New Testament;which professes to transmit powers, never, as far as we
know, by the Apostles either received or given; —which
secures no soundness in the faith, but lends itself to error,
as readily as to truth;-which can exclude the best as well
as include the worst of ministers;-and which would leave
every Church in doubt about the validity of its ministrations and very existence; —it is surely not too much to say
that it "is a fond thing vainly invented, and grounded upon
no warranty of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the word
of God."
The authority of the Christian minister in any place is
given to him by the Church in which, and for which, he
acts: and this authority is apostolic, if his teaching is sound
in apostolic truth; this authority is from  Christ, if His
Church is a legitimate Christian community formed in
obedience to Christ's command.
The doctrine of the apostolical succession, though it sometimes unduly alarmed our early Reformers not yet entirely
disentangled from  the errors of the ancient Church;
though clung to since their time by some respected names
in our. communion;-though now strongly maintained, and
insisted on, by advanced Anglicans not yet drawn to
Rome;-is not the doctrine of the Church of England, as the
following proofs distinctly testify.
1. A doctrine, so important and fundamental, if it is
believed to be true, could not have been omitted, as it is,
from our Articles and Prayer-book, if it had been held by
owr Church; whereas it is not only omitted, but the
wording of Art. XXIII. is quite incompatible with it.
2. The Statute of Queen Elizabeth, A. D. 1570, Anno xiii.
Regine Elizabethe c. 12, entituled "An Act for the Ministers of the Church to be of sound Religion," only requires




APPENDIX D.                     423
those, who had received Ordination in "any other form of
Institution, Consecration or Ordering" than that of the
Church of England, to subscribe to the " Articles of Religion "
in order to hold Ecclesiastical preferment in this country; no
objection at all being raised to the validity of such ordinations.
3. It is proved by a great variety and a long series of
evidence, that during the first hundred years after the
beginning of the English Reformation Presbyterian communities were recognised, and men who had only Presbyterian ordination were received, and obtained the highest
preferments in the Church of England.
4. Hooker, the learned and revered champion of the
English Church, whom no one will accuse of not knowing
what its doctrines really were, while declaring Episcopacy
to be the best and most desirable, says, nevertheless,
" Whereas some do infer that no ordination can stand but
such only as is made by Bishops, which have had their
ordination likewise by other Bishops before them till we
come to the very Apostles,..... to this we answer, that
there may be sometimes very just and sufficient reason to
allow ordination made without a Bishop,"-' Eccl. Pol.,' vii.
14, which gives up the whole question.
5. And even now the modern practice of not receiving
men with Presbyterian orders, to minister in our Church.
only points to the necessity of Episcopacy as a form of
ecclesiastical government, and not to the transmission of
sacerdotal power through Bishops. This, therefore, is not
holding the "apostolical succession," which deals with
Episcopacy not as a desirable mode of government, but as
a necessary channel of divine grace.
Much valuable information on this subject is to be found
in a pamphlet very recently published by Longmans,
entituled,'Apostolical Succession, not a doctrine of the
Church of England.' It is written by an honest High



424               APPENDIX D.
church Anglican clergyman who has joined the Church of
Rome, and is addressed to another clergyman of the same
school, who has not yet taken that step. He, of course,
looks at the subject from the Romanist point of view; but
the historical and documentary evidence which he adduces
is fairly dealt with, and clearly proves what the title of the
book expresses.