-R  E P O Et T`
ON THE PROGtIOS'S 0)li' TIflE
() F'   X[- 1 (;  I C ('A X-A.
~MrtSaltti to iltatc Q celoonica  "OiOll, -o.'22, 1870.
BY   ALEXANDIIR  WIINCtI ELL.
I I R F C'   OR v
BY AUTHORITY,
LANSING:
W. S. GEORGE & CO., PRINTERS TO THE STATE.
_ I                            Ai?TATE/








RE PO IRt T
ON THE PROGRESS )F THE
O F  MI  -JI G  N.'rtsentcb to the ftate eaologita{l Noarb, Jo. 22, HAI.
BY ALEXANDER WINCHELL,
DI:REhCTOER.
_:..
BY AUTHORITY.
LANSING:
W. S. GEORGE & CO., PRINTERS TO THE STATE.
18,71.








RE P  O PRT
OF THE
PROGRESS OF THE STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.
To thei State Geological Board:
I have the honor to present herewith my Report on the Progress of the State Geological Survey, from its inauguration,
May 1st, 1869, to the present date,-a period of nearly nineteen months.
1. O RGANIZATION.
By Act No. 65, Laws of 1869, approved March 26tll, 1869,
the sum of eight thousand dollars per annum was appropriated
for the purposes of a State Geological Survey. The control
of the expenditure was placed in the hands of a State Geological Board, constituted of the Governor, the Superintendent of
Public Instruction, and the President of the State Board of
Education, who iwere to appoint and commission a Director of
the Geological Survey. Under this provision the undersigned
received a commission, dated May 1st, 1869, and immediately
entered upon the discharge of his duties.
By the requirements of the Act referred to, one-half of the
annual appiropriation was to be expended in the TUpper Peninsula and one-half in the Lower Peninsula. It was understood
to be clearly the intention of the law, that the moiety assigned
to the Upper Peninsula should be expended in the development
of the iron and copper interests of that portion of the State.
The adoption of an equitable and judicious plan for the pros



ecution of this portion of the work was felt by the Board and
by the Director to involve a serious responsibility, and very
full and candid consideration was given to the subject. Finally,
in view of the magnitude of the work which ought to be performed in each of the metalliferous regions of the Upper Peninsula, and in view of the limited amount of means at the
disposal of the Board, it was decided not to extend the work
in each region over the entire two years which should intervene before another session of the Legislature, but to devote
the entire annual moiety to the iron interest in 1869, and to
the copper interest in 1870.
Accordingly, a contract was signed with Major T. B. Brooks,
by which he was required to complete a survey and report of
the "Marquette Iron District," in accordance with a "Letter of
Instructions" from  the Director (hereto appended, marked
A), and for which he was to receive, inll installments, the sum
of $4,000. A similar contract was signed the following year,
with Professor R. Pumpelly, by which he was required to conclude such portion of the survey of the Copper region as could
be accomplished with the desired degree of unity and completeness for the other $4,000. The work of Major Brooks
began June 5tb, 1869; and such has been his laudable ambition to produce a result not only adequate to the requirements
of the contract, but as complete and creditable as possible to
all concerned, that he has actually continued his labors to
this date, and intends to prolong them into the next year.
He has been assisted by John N. Armstrong, Draughtsman,
C. M. Boss, Mining Engineer, and S. W. Walker, Engineer.
He makes acknowledgements also to sundry engineers and
others, for valuable assistance, which will be mentioned in
detail in the final report. The work of Professor Pumpelly
began June 1st, 1870, and will be continued until brought to
a conclusion which can be guaranteed as satisfactory. He
has been assisted by A. R. Marvin, Mining Engineer, and by




L. G. Emerson. He acknowledges, also, the cordial co-operation of the inhabitants of the Upper Peninsula.
Both of the gentlemen placed in charge of work in the
Upper Peninsula, besides possessing the advantages of a thorough scientific education, had had extensive experience in
geological investigations in the United States, (and Professor
Pumpelly also in foreign countries), and had already expended
three or more years in the geological investigation of the
metalliferous regions of the Upper Peninsula.
Under these arrangements, the entire expense of the general
direction of the work, and of the general investigations, was
devolved upon the moiety of the appropriation assigned to the
Lower Peninsula. The same fund has also borne the expense
of all field-work in the Upper Peninsula which has not properly belonged to the survey of the Iron and Copper districts,
as already specified. Under the appropriation for the Lower
Peninsula, Professor N. HI. Winchell was appointed a permanent Assistant; and Professor M. W. Harrington of the University, Professor E. A. Strong of Grand Rapids, Mr. A. S.
Wadsworth of Traverse City, C. B. Headley of East Saginaw,
A. 0. Currier of Grand Rapids, and J. iH. Emerton of Salem,
Massachusetts, have been under engagenient for specific periods.
Henry S. Clubb of Grand Haven has generously acted as
a volunteer in an important work for which we have not
found means to guarantee a compensation; and in other voluntary labors not strictly provided for by the intent of the
law, we have been favored by Professor M. ir. Harrington,
J. B. Steere of Ionia county, and Professor W. J. Beal of the
Agricultural College. Other valuable aid has been received
from'arious civil engineers in charge of the public works of
the State, and fromn numerous other persons who will be
named in the final report. The Superintendents of the various railroads of the State have done much to forward the
interests of the work by the free passes always cheerfully
accorded to the members of the Survey when requested. The




6
same favors have been enjoyed over the Wisconsin division
of the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad.  Finally, the
universal good will and co-operatiop of our citizens in all
parts of the State have contributed materially to cheer and
lighten the labors of the Geological corps.
Immediately on the organization of the Survey, a detailed
plan of the proposed work was drawn up and placed in print,
for the information and guidance of all persons connected with
the Survey. A copy of this "Outline," with additions and
emendations, is hereto  appended, marked " B."  Subsequently a series of "Schedules of Instructions" (marked "C")
was also published, intended for the more intelligible guidance
of assistants and collaborators. By these explicit announcements of the scope and method of the Survey, it was intended
to secure unity of action and econonly of labor.
II. FIELI) WORK.
The portions of the State actually subjected to examination
are the following:
1. The Copper District of Portage Lake.
2. The Marquette Iron District. This is defined as extending
from the shore of Lake Superior on the east, through townships 46, 47. and 48 North, as far as Range 30 West, and
township 48 North, of Range 31 West; also, T. 45 N., R. 25
W.'The field-work in this district is completed. It has been
very greatly promoted by the contributions of property-holders
in the district.
3. The >St. iMary's Peninsula.  By this is meant that portion
of the Upper Peninsula extending from St. Mary's River west
to the Whitefish River of Little Bay De Nocquet. The survey
has extended generally over this tract, though much yet remains
to be done. Lines of observation have been carried up the valley
of the Whitefish River, and down the Au Train to Lake
Superior; also, up the IManistique and its principal tributaries,




sand in various directions across the country. The eastern
portion of this peninsula has not been traversed, though considerable reliable information has been obtained. These explorations give us a general idea of the geological and physical
features of the entire peninsula~ though the number of specimens brought from the interior is smaller than desired.
4. The Green Bay Region.  The northwest coast of Lake
Michigan has been surveyed from Mackinac westward to Green
Bay. The work has been carried around both shores of Green
Bay, and of Little and Big Bays de Nocquet. An examination
of the numerous islands at the entrance of Green Bay has also
been effected; and the observations have also been extended
some distance up the Whitefish and Escanaba Rivers.
5. Thle Cheboygan Region. All that region in the extreme
northern part of the Lower Peninsula which could be approached
through the system of streams and lakes which characterizes
that region, has been carefully examined. This includes large
portions of Emmet, Cheboygan, and Presque Isle counties.
6. The Little Traverse Region. The region about the shores
of Little Traverse Bay has been submitted to a very careful
study,-the south shore presenting an interesting and difficult
series of problems for solution.
7. The Thunder Bay Region. The valley of Thunder Bay
River and its tributaries, including the region of Hubbard's
River and Lake, the shores of the Bay, the islands at its mouth,
and the lake coast to False Presque Isle, have been investigated
in accordance with the established method. As the geology of
this region is quite complicated, and much obscured by drift
deposits, while the complete solution of it will serve as a key
to the geology of a large part of the Lower Peninsula, it is
deemed necessary to submit this region to still further investigation.
8. The Au Sable Regions. The valley of the Au Sable, from
its mouth to Otsego Lake, at the head-waters of the North
Branuch, has been explored by the Survey. The observations




8
extended up Pine River to its sources, and from Otsego Lake
westward to Elk Rapids, on Grand Traverse Bay.
9. The 3lIanistee Region. This embraces the valley of the
Manistee River from its mouth to its head-waters; and also
the Little Manistee, and the lake coast in the vicinity of these
rivers.
10. The Pere Marquette Region.  This has been explored
from Ludington to its head-waters.
11. The Muskegon Region. The valley of the Muskegon
River has been explored to Houghton Lake. The shores of
this lake and of Higgins Lake have been explored, as also the
line of land communication fiom  Big Rapids to Houghton
Lake.
12. Kent CountZY. Most of the rock out-crops in this county
have been visited, and observations of surface geology, waterpowers, and other phenomena have been extended generally
over the county. The geology of Grand Rapids and vicinity
has been carefully studied. The observations have extended
to Holland, in Ottawa county.
13. Lapeer County.  Besides actual observations through
the western, middle, and southern portions of the county,
information has been obtained froml the various supervisors of
the county, in reference to every town. This information
covers most of the ground embraced in the " Outline " of the
Survey.
14. Sundry Districts. Disconnected observations have been
made, as opportunity presented, in very many localities and
regions in the Lower Peninsula which need not be enumerated
in this place.
In addition to the foregoing regions, which have mostly
received sufficient study to enable us to report upon them,
there are certain classes of observations which have extended
over these and wider areas. They are the following:
1. East-Shore Statistics of Forest, Lumber, and Fishleries.
These extend from Cheboygan southward to St. Clair.




2. West-Shore Statistics of Forest, Lumber, and Fisheries.
These extend from Cheboygan westward and southward to Pentwater. Statistics are partly accumulated for other portions of
the State.
3. Fruit Statistics. These have been accumnulated along the
western slope of the Lower Peninsula, from Grand Traverse
Bay southward.
4. 2Meteorological In vestigations.  T he tables collected represent every part of both peninsulas. The other general investigations relative to topography-, hydrographyv, etc., represent all
parts of the State.
Upon the map accompanying this report (marked "D"), the
blue color indicates those portions of the State explored during
1869, and the red color, those portions explored during 1870.
The purple color denotes other portions of the State of which
our knowledge is sufficient to enable us to draw up a general
geological description, if desired.
III.  RESULTS ATTAINED AND IN PROGRESS.
Some idea of the scope and subdivisions of the work undertaken has been set forth in the " Outline" already referred to,
which I drew up and published last year, and copies of which
were placed in the hands of the Geological Board. Early this
year I supplemented this "Outline" with a series of detailed' "Instructions," which serve still further to set forth my conception of the nature and magnitude of thel work which we
have undertaken.
The Board will have remarked that the scope of the 1" Outline"
is much broader than has heretofore been admitted in enterprises that have been denominated  geological surveys.  I
hardly think this widening of the conventional limits of
geological work needs to be defended on the present occasion.
A few suggestions only will be offered:
1. The idea prevails, whether justly or not, that the Lower
Peninsula possesses little  undiscovered  and  undeveloped
2




10
mineral wealth, especially in comparison with the  Upper
Peninsula; and hence the people of the Lower Peninsula have
been led to imagine that a geological survey can only redound
to the advantage of one section of the State. The plan proposed cannot fail to demonstrate, if carried into execution, that
the survey is capable of benefiting all parts of the State, and of
accomplishing a desirable work, which there is no other agency
to undertake.
2. Michigan is, physically, an exceptional State. Its natural
features must be treated according to some other thain the conventional methods. The peculiarities of the State constitute,
fortunately, its excellencies. They are features which ought
to be made salient and attractive. They depend on the
peninsular situation of the two great natural divisions of the
State. These vast bodies of fresh water are tlenmselves a
phenomenon unparalleled upon our planet.  Their physical
characteristics constitute a study at once rich in scientific
developments andI fruitful in practical results. Growing out
of our remarkable peninsular situation is our remarkable
climate.  The  characteristics of the climate of Michigan
constitute a feature which cannot be surpassed in practical
an:d scientific interest by anything appertaining to the natural history of a State. It would be a sad omission to fail
to assign the first place to at discussion of this subject. Conditioned on the climate is that adaptation to fruit culture,
which, springing into prominence within a few years, has
already secured for Michigan an enviable prestige. It is important to inform  the world not only what climatic adaptations Nature seems to have favored us with, but also what are
the actual results attained when these adaptations have been
utilized by the intelligent industry of our citizens. These all
are great State interests; and should be adequately and prominently handled in any attempt to set forth the natural features and native resources of our State.




If the importance of these subjects is not sufficient to justify
their introduction within the purview of the Survey, it may be
recalled to mind that as our fruit interest depends on soil and
climate, and the climate depends on the presence of the lakes,
so the lakes themselves are but a geological phenomenon; filled
with water which has had a proper geological history; occupying basins scooped out by geologic forces; located in positions
predetermined by ancient coast-lines whose antiquity stretches
back into time which even geology considers remote.
3. While these are gre at physical features and prominent
interests of our State, no other provision exists, or is likely to
exist, for bringing an adequate exposition of them before the
world.
4. It is worthy of remark that thirty-one per cent of all the
legislation of Michigan for the past thirteen years, has been
upon the subjects embraced in the " Outline " of my proposed
Report. Of 2,767 acts and resolutions, not less than 852 acts
and resolutions have been suggested and necessitated by those
physical features of the State which my Report proposes to
discuss. This, certainly, is a demonstration of the relative
importance of these subjects to the welfare of the State. [A
classified table of legislation is appended, marked " E."]
In presenting a statement of the progress and condition of
the work of the Survey to this time, it will be most convenient
to follow the order of subjects presented in the "Outline" already
referred to. For this purpose a copy of the "Outline," marked
" B," with numerous emendations and improvements, is hereto
appended, for consultation.
The introductory matter, relative to the progress of geological investigation in Michigan, is not written out in form, but
all, or nearly all the references and notes are made, and,the Introduction could be completed on short notice.




12
PART  I.  PHYSIOGRAPHIC  FEATURES  OF  THE
STATE.
BOOK L. (LEOGRAPICIICAL POSITION AND AREA.
This book is divided into six chapters. In the first I have
treated briefly of the general geographical relations of our
State to the continent of North America in its outlines and
its great physical features-lakes, rivers, plains, and mountains.
In the second chapter, after describing the general form of
the State and its two peninsulas, togetherwith their natural
boundaries, I have cited the treaties and laws which fix the
political boundaries of the State, and have then given the
length of the boundary line in its extension between coterminous States and provinces. It is shown that the total length
of the political boundary of the State is 1,615 miles, of which
708 miles are coterminous with Canada; 55 miles coterminous
with Minnesota; 571 miles coterminous with Wisconsin; 68
miles coterminous with Illinois; 129 miles coterminous with
Indiana; and!93 miles coterminous with Ohio. In connection
with the subject of boundaries, I have ascertained the latitude
and longitude of each important angulation of the boundary
line, and the area of the strip of land detached from the territory of Michigan, on the south, at the time of the admission
of the State into the Union.
In the third chapter I have given the exact latitudes and
longitudes of the extreme points of the State, —both of the
mainland, the islands, and the political area,-the geographical
centers of the whole State, and of each peninsula, and a complete list of all latitudes and longitudes that have ever been.ascertained by astronomical observations. In connection with
these, I have given the positions of all other important
points in the State, by measurements upon the charts of the
Lake survey and the best maps of the interior. As an addendum to these determinations, I present a table of the differ



13
ence of time betwlen Detroit and the principal places in the
State.
Chapter four is devoted to Dimensions. After furnishing
the different lengths of degrees of longitude and latitude within
the State, with intervals of space corresponding to one minute
and one second of time, a table of air-line distances between
the principal points of the State is given, and then a complete
list of all the islands belonging to the State which exceed
one one-hundredth of a square mile in area. It is found that
the number of these islands is 179. with a total area of 404,730
acres.
Chapter five is devoted to an exposition of the system  of
survey of the public lands. The inaccuracies incident to the
system are noticed —both those which are inherent and those
which are casual.  The more important provisions of the
State laws in reference to surveys are cited; and a brief
account is given of the origin and character of the old
territorial patents, whose lines are unconformable with those
of the United States surveys.
The sixth chapter consists of a table of areas of the several
townships of the State, from the records of the Land Office at
Lansing. These are arranged by counties and towns. Appended
is a table of areas of the islands of the State, with an indication of the counties to which they severally belong.
BOOK II. HYDROGRAPHY.
This is treated under two divisions, the " Lakes" and the
" Streams."
Chapter first is devoted to a strictly physiographic sketch of
the great lakes. The ground covered is of great extent. It is
necessary to treat first of the geographical situation of the
great lakes, their dimensions and areas, their connection with
each other, and the general characteristics of their shores. I
proceed then to a more minute delineation of the coast lines,
giving descriptions of the various lake harbors, and to a




14
delineation of the bottom configuration of the several lakes,
furnishing from the soundings of the Lake Survey numerous
profiles across the lakes and bays and along their axes. These
profiles, besides their value for mere hydrographical purposes,
sustain intimate relations to the underlying geological
structure.
I next address myself to the characteristies and phenomena
of the waters. The chemical constitution, purity, and temperature of the waters are given, and we then proceed to the
fluctuations of the waters. These are treated under six heads:
I. Annual Fluctuations, illustrated by an extended series of
tables gathered from many sources, but especially from the
reports.of the Lake Survey, showing the annual high water in
one of the summer months and the annual low water in one of
the winter months.  II. Secular Fluctuations, or the continuous rise' of the lakes, subject to the annual and minor
fluctuations, for a series of years, and then a corresponding
fall. The tables of observations and corresponding curves
show no regular periodicity in this class of fluctuations, while
the extreme range is from four to five feet, and increases from
the upper lakes to the lower. III. Tides. This phenomenon,
fully recognized only within a few years, is amply proven and
illustrated by tables and diagrams. IV. Storms. The tables
show the effects of winds; they also show the connection of
these effects with the state of the barometer and the position
of the larger axis of the lake in respect to the wind. They
prove that the Detroit River is subject to greater fluctuations
from this cause than any of the other waters. V. Seiches, or
sudden and mysterious risings and sinkings of the waters
without the intervention of any sensible cause.  The real
cause is probably a variation  in the relative amount of
atmospheric pressure upon the surface of the different parts of
a lake. VI. Currents. These are shown to exist to a limited
extent, produced chiefly, as in the case of the ocean, by the
continued action of prevailing winds.




Another phenomenon of the waters is the amount of discharge from the several lakes. This is discussed in the relations of the lakes to each other, and in reference to the
relations between discharge and precipitation and evaporation. The discharge appears to be greater than the total
precipitation requires, after deducting the total evaporation,
and leaves us to conjecture that the lakes have, as we might
indeed expect, some subaqueous sources of supply.
The questions of the climatic effects of the lakes, and the
origin of their basins, are alluded to here, but the full discussion is reserved for another place.
Chapter second of this book treats of the navigation and
commerce of the great lakes. In this connection is furnished
a descriptive, historical, and statistical account of the public
improvements of thle various harbors on the lakes, and of the
St.'Clair Flats. After some further statistics respecting the
availability of the lakes for purposes of commerce, the opening and closing of navigation at various points, I present
tables of the tonnage and commerce of the lakes, and of each
of the lake ports within the limits of the State.
Chapter third treats of the fisheries. Note is made of the
different species of fish possessing commercial value, their
habits, characteristics, and affinities.  The usual methods of
fishing are briefly noticed.  Then follow complete statistics of
the product of the fisheries at all points along the lake shores.
The diminution of the supply of fish is remarked, and some
discussion is given of the subject of fish-breeding.  The statistical portion of this chapter is completed.
Chapter fourth treats of the interior lakes. After some remarks in reference to the laws of distribution of these lakes,
the Report furnishes a complete enumeration of them, referred
to their positions in the several townships, counties, and river
systems of the State. It appears from this enumeration, that
our State is diversified by 5,173 interior lakes, having a total
area of 1,114 square miles, or 712,960 acres. A knowledge of




16
the number, location, and capacity of these lakelets is something of importance in connection with the storage of water
for mechanical purposes. The State of Maine alone bears any
comparison with Michigan in respect to its internal lacustrine
system. Maine possesses 1,568 lakes, with an aggregate area of
2,200 square miles. The Report makes statements respecting
the purity of the waters inll most of these lakes, and the beauty
of the scenery by which they are surrounded, and discusses
briefly, in this place, the questions which arise in reference to
their origin. The phenomena of " sunken lakes," subterranean
lakes and passages, and of "walled lakes" are also discussed;
and the chapter closes with a consideration of the lakes as
places of resort and sources of supply of ice for economical
purposes.
The Second Division of this book treats of the streams, and
embraces the three closing chapters. Chapter fifth, after a
general statement of the characteristics of our streams, proceeds to group them into twenty-three river systems, as shown
by the accompanying map, and to give a particular description
of each stream,-embracing the subjects of source, direction,
length, breadth, depth, and volume of water.
Chapter sixth treats of the navigation of the rivers. This
embraces the descriptive and statistical history of the improvements on the St. Clair Flats and the St. Mary's River, as
also a statement of the volumes of water and the capacity for
navigation. In speaking of the interior streams, the improvements are also specified, and the uses of these streams for navigation and for logging and rafting purposes are set forth.
Chapter seventh treats of the water powers of the State. I
am uncertain to what extent I shall be able to carry this investigation.  I have drawn up and circulated, to some extent, a
circular giving directions for making a survey of a water
power; I have also circulated to a limited extent, a printed
model of a description of a water power; copies of these circulars are herewith submitted, marked "F" and-, "G."  The




17
value of the water-powers of the State has been generally overlooked. I think it would greatly subserve the interests of the
State if we could secure a survey of every water-power, and
publish to the world the extent of our resources in this respect.
Not a little information of this kind will be embodied in my
Report, even without special legislation for this object  Such
details will naturally be preceded by general considerations on
the mechanical value of water-powers, the elements of which
they are composed, the methods of utilizing the mechanical
power of water, the method of effecting a survey, and the theoretical and available aggregates of water-powers in the State.
I would respectfully suggest that it be made the duty of the
supervisors or county surveyors of the State to make accurate
surveys of the water-powers within their respective towns or
counties, and report the results to the Director of the Geological
Survey for compilation.
The tabular matter designed for this book is nearly ready
for the printer's hands. But little of the remaining matter
has yet been written.
BOOK III. TOPOGRAPHY.
The different parts of this book are in various stages of
preparation.  Much  certainly  has been  done, but much
remains. It is intended in chapter first to show, generally,
the relations between topography and geological structure, and
in chapter second, to present descriptions of the prominent
physical features of the land, such as the different water-sheds
of the State, the lake ridges, the lacustrine borders, the interiors, and, in the Upper Peninsula, the mountain systems or
axes of upheaval.
In the third chapter will be embodied a magazine of data
relative to elevations within the limits of the State. I am
collecting fiom  engineers, copies of all levels ever run in
the State. rlese I shall present in tabular form, and also in
profiles on tlhe scale of four miles to the inch horizontally,'2




18
and 400 feet to the inch vertically. These tables and profiles,
besides their value for mere topographical purposes, will be
hereafter shown to sustaiu intimate relations to the underlying geological structure, and to throw much light upon
problems obscured by the abundance of superficial drift in our
State.  Specimens of the tables and profiles are herewith
submitted.
Chapter fourth treats of marshes, alluviums, prairies, and
sand dunes.  The marshes constitute an important feature
of our State, and it is intended to give them a thorough
scientific and economical discussion. After speaking of the
extent and distribution of the marshes, it is my object to give
a summary of legislation in reference to them, and to show
how the ends of legislation have been secured in the drainage
and reclamation of them by means of roads and ditches. I
have muade extended inquiries and observations on the subject
of the drainage, origin, and constitution of our marshes, the
treatment to which these lands should be subjected, and the
adaptations of the soil after adequate drainage has been effected.
I submit an interesting communication on these subjects
from  Samuel Riblet, of Hillsdale county, accompanied by a
map. In connection with the subject of dunes, which, at the
present epoch, occasion our people but little annoyance, the
experience of European nations is cited, the inevitable encroachments of the dunes foretold, and the means of arresting their
progress indicated in the light of the experience of the older
nations of continental Europe.
Chapter fifth is devoted to the subject of erosions anie
depositions along the lake shores and the river valleys. The
slow filling of the inland lakes and the emergence of marshes
is pointed out; and the effects of the elements upon the hillsides are shown to be matters which concern the farmer and
the legislator.  The subject-matter of this chapter is quite
ready, but it remains to be placed in form.




19
Chapter sixth is a sort of appendage to the books on the
hydrography and, topography of the State, and shows how
Nature has combined the varying features of land and water,
forest and glade, to produce some of the most charming
scenery in the world.
BOOK IV. CLIMATOLOGY.
A great deal of labor has been expended upon the investigation of this book. The work is entirely of an original
character. All the meteorological observations ever taken
within the limits of the State have been got together. They
represent 55 localities, and the observations aggregate 280
years. For purposes of comparison, I have also gathered
together observations from 50 selected localities lying beyond
the limits of the State, and aggregating 493 years. These
observations lhave been derived firom  the successive Army
Meteorological Reports, the  Smithsonian   Meteorological
Reports, the Reports of the Department of Agriculture, of the
Lake Survey, the State Agricultural College, and a large
number of other sources, including several manuscripts and
observations made by myself at Ann Arbor, from ten to fifteen
years since. This large mass of observations has been subjected to reduction, and the mean results are tabulated in a series
of tables which have been made the basis of a set of isothermal
charts.
The first chapter of this book-for which only the material
has been collected-is devoted to the elements of climate, and
a determination of certain climatological constants for different sections of the State; and is intended to conduct to an
intelligent understanding of the special discussions which
follow. The elements of climate brought under consideration
are, Temperature, Winds, Humidity, and Atmospheric Pressure; and the details of the treatment will at once be understood by reference to the "Outline."
Chapter second is devoted to meteorological data, and is
VII~LVV) VVVLI  Li LVVYV   C~-'ILVUU-VV n




20
made up of the tables already mentioned. The tables actually
in readiness for publication are the following:
1. Michigan localities:
Temperature, cloudiness, and precipitation.......... 67
Surface winds........................... 44
General results, temperature, and precipitation.......  7
" " winds.............................
- 123
2. Localities not in Michigan:
General results, temperature and precipitation.......  5
" " Twinds............................  4
Total number of tables ready...................... 132
In addition to these, several other tables of winds, humidity,
and barometric pressure require only transcribing to prepare
them for the printer.
Chapter third is devoted to a discussion of this mass of
meteorological data. Under the head of temperature some
general characteristics of the distribution of temperature in
Michigan are developed, when the Report proceeds to a description and discussion of nine isothermal charts, constructed
from  the tables embodied in the preceding chapter. The
territory covered by each chart embraces Michigan, and the
region to the east as far as the meridian of Cleveland, and the
region to the west as far as the meridian of Omaha, and ranges
in latitude from  southern Ohio to the north shore of Lake
Superior. The isothermal lines are drawn over this area for the
months of January and July, for each of the four seasons, for
the year, for mean minima, and for extreme minima. In order'
to convey to the Board a more adequate idea of the interest
and importance of these charts, I append  to  this report
(marked "H ") a copy of a paper read by me last August, at
Troy, N. Y., before the American Association for the Advance



21
ment of Science, on "The Isothermals of the Lake Region."
The paper is to be published in the proceedings, accompanied
by a reduction of the charts for January and July.
It is my purpose also to discuss thoroughly the curve of daily
variation of temperature for some locality,-probably Detroit,
or Lansing,-furnishing the, requisite amount of material for
such a discussion. The question of secular changes of temperature will also be settled, so far as concerns the period covered by exact observations.
I cannot refrain from recording my conviction, in this place,
of the extreme importance of these investigations. Their
value to the State, if published, will be almost beyond computation, and will be felt by the interests of Michigan for a
century to come. I particularly refer you to the paper mentioned for an exposition of the nature of the facts, since their
introduction here would swell this Report beyond reasonable
limits.
It is intended also to embody the mean results from  the
tables of winds in a series of graphical illustrations, or
" wind-roses.'"  The distribution of rain during successive
months of the year, and through the several seasons, will also
be illustrated in a series of charts. The subject of barometric
pressure will also be similarly discussed and elucidated.
Chapter fourth treats of certain special climatic phenomena,
as will be seen by reference to the "Outline."
Chapter fifth presents a general description of the climate
through the year.
Chapter sixth is devoted to the agricultural adaptations of
the climate. It embraces tables of the leafing, flowering, and
fruiting of plants, and of vernal and autumnal frosts in different sections of the State. It discusses the effects of climatic
extremes upon vegetation, and the various methods of securing protection against them. It summarizes what is known
in reference to the absolute amounts of heat required for the
ripening of various crops, illustrating this subject by a chart,




22
of agricultural isothermals, and closes with a brief consideration of the protective agency of snow.
Nothing of the last three chapters is formally written out,
but the sub~ject-matter is almost completely digested.
J300K V. M AG-NETOGRAPIY.
Chapter first presents general considerations on the nature
and phenomena of magnetic force, its correlations with other
forms of force, and its economical applications in navigation,
surveying, and the discovery of iron ores.
Chapter second is devoted to the magnetic needle, its properties and uses, with full tables of the magnetic elements of
our State as ia.r as ascertained, accompanied by graphic'
illustrations in the form of charts of declination, dip, and
intensity.
BO10K VI. VEGETATION.
This is divided into Division 1,'The Forest, and Division II,
Irerbaceous Vegetation.
The first chapter contains generalities relating to the duration and succession of forest growths, and the phenomena met
with in Michigoan which reflect light upon our forest history.
The second chapter discusses the reciprocal influences of
forests and climate, and, by ample citations from the recorded
experience of the Old World, sets forth the consequences certain to ensue fronm the destruction of our own. forests, followed
by an indication of the public policy pursued by foreign govcrnmients in reference to the preservation land restoration of
forests, with practical suggestions adapted to our climate and
topography, and our political and social circumstances.  This
chapter embraces careful estimates of the total original area
of our forests, and their present extent.
The third chapter treats of the character and distribution of
the forests of Michigan, and is accompanied by a map of forest
distribution.




23
The fourth chapter is devoted to pine lumber and its statistics, a subject which has been elaborately and faithfully worked
up by the Survey. The results of this investigation are almost
ready for the printer's hands.
Chapter fifth is devoted to statistics of varieties of lumber
not pine.
Chapter  sixth  treats  of materials  for  miscellaneous
manufactures.
Chapter seventh discusses the various other products of the
forest, under the heads indicated in the " Outline."
A large part of this matter is gathered together in the crude
state, but nothing is yet reduced to form.
Under the division of Herbaceous Vegetation an opportunity
is presented for cataloguing and characterizing our edible and
medicinal herbs, but circumstances are to decide how much
should be done in this direction.
BOOK VII. SANITARY CHARACTERISTIqS OF THE STATE.
The first chapter of this important subject is devoted to a
definition of the various sanitary districts of the State, and a
recapitulation of their climatic and terrestrial characteristics.
The second chapter is composed of mortuary and sanitary
statistics, the materials for which are deduced from  the military records of the United States, from  the census records,
and the recent reports of the Secretary of State of Michigan.
These matters a.ll remain to be compiled.
BOOK VIII. POPULATION AND IMPROVEMENTS.
The statistics of population are intended to be restricted to
the general features, and the details of the frontier regions. It
is desirable to furnish somle tangible indication of the extent to
which the settlements have encroached upon the wilderness,
and of the lirection an:d volume of the tide of population in
the newer portions of the State.  These data will, of course
proceed from the census returns;  Perhaps it will be desirable
to reproduce thel details of population for the entire State.




24
On the subject of Internal Communications, descriptive
tables are furnished of all the railroads of the State, and of
the "swamp land State roads."  In connection with the latter,
references are made to all the legislation that has been had
upon the subject of swamp land roads. These roads are also
to be delineated upon a map constructed from official data.
BOOK IX. FRUIT PRODUCTION.
This subject has received a large share of attention, both from
myself and my assistants. The western slope of the State
has been quite completely canvassed, and the results will be
in form for publication in a few weeks. The general mode of
treatment of the subject will be seen from the "Outline," and
the "Schedules of Instructions."  This portion of the report
will possess much statistical and descriptive information of an
authentic character, and will supply a demand for information
which is widely felt, and which  the welfare of the State
requires to be met.
BOOK X. AGRICULTURE.
The interests of the State scene to demand that this subject
should be thoroughly worked out. I had thought to devote a
chapter to the soils of the State, and their relations to the
various crops; another to Cereal Production; another to Root
Crops; another to Hay and Grass; another to the other farm
crops; one to Nurseries for Fruit Trees; one to Farm Stock,
and one to the difficulties encountered by the Michigan farmer. My conception of a suitable treatment of these various
subjects is fully shown in the developed "Outline," to which I
refer. I am in possession of a vast amount of material destined
for this portion of my Report, but nothing is, las yet, reduced
to order.
I had hoped to induce the officers of the Agricultural
College to assume the direction of this portion of my work,
though I have not been able to assign any portion of the




appropriation as compensation for such labor. Unless these
officers shall conclude to co-operate with me I shall not hesitate to take up the work myself and submit it to such treatment as mi  time and resources shall permit.
With all the divisions, subdivisions, and details involved in
the physiographic sketch of the State, as set forth in the foregoing description, this part is but introductory to the geology
proper. Though introductory, however, it has received a great
amount of labor and is destined to be accepted as an important part of nmy work. It was my first intention to occupy a
volume with these matters. Not unlikely they may all be
embraced within the limits of a volume_ I am sensible, however,
that Books IX and X, on the subjects of Fruit Production and
Agriculture, might profitably be developed into a vollme by
themselves; while the physiography proper might also constitute a volume. I leave the decision of the question to the
provision which the Legislature may make for developing the
agricultural branch of the Survey.
This, however, I wish distinctly to state: a volume upon the
physiography of the  State is substantially ready for the
printer. Were the requisite appropriation to be made immediately upon tile assembling of the Legislature, the matter
would be ready for the printer's hands as rapidly as called for.
I proceed now to state the progress of the work in the other
departments. The greater part of the field work and expense
of the Survey has been applied to the objects embraced in
Parts II, III, IV, V, and VI of the "Outline."  In Parts II,
III, and IV, however, less office work has been performed since
the commencement of the Survey than in Part I; and the
results, consequently, have not been reduced so nearly to the
condition requisite for publication.
4




26
PART II. GENERAL GEOLOGY OF THE STATE.
This part is intended to fill a volume, and to constitute a
general description of each of the geological formations.  The
notes on hand are already nearly sufficient to permit this to be
done for the Lower Peninsula, but considerable more field work
should be performed before the general geology of the Upper
Peninsula can be satisfactorily attempted beyond the naked
outlines.
Commencing with a review  of the relations of' Michigan
geology to the geological structure and history of the Northwest, and of the continent, it is intended to treat each. group
in order, embracing descriptions of its constituent members,
their places of outcrop, their characteristic minerals and fossils,
their economical importance, and their relations generally to
the existing surface structure and physiognomy of the State.
It appears from investigations carried on, that Michigan has
had a geological history of its own.  This is the key and starting point to those physiographic peculiarities of surface, lakes,
climate, and soil, which render Michigan almost a country bv
itself.  The geological facts are no less striking than the
physiognomic and climatic.  This necessitates a geological
classification of our own. This has made Michigan, in all,
ages, the home of peculiar types of organic creatures, and
throws upon the hands of the paleontologist unusual, but
very pleasing labor, in their investigation and description.
The explorations which have been carried on in the Upper
Peninsula, especially in the iron region, have thrown considerable new  light upon the structure and arrangement of
some of the oldest rocks of tlie State.  The rich masses of
magnetic an(d hematitic ores of ironl are. found not to be
those erupted outbursts whichl  the  older geologists were
inclined to regard them. They are simply constituents of the
system of sedimentary dleposits which make up the Huronian
System of Michigan.  rlThe diorites of the region appear to be
equally of sedimentary origii, and are found strictly interstrati



27
fled with chloritic, silicious, talcose, argillaceous, micaceous,
and hematitic schists, in the foldings and convolutions to
which these masses of ancient strata have been subjected.
The usual order of superposition of these rocks is as follows:
Quartzite,
Hematitic and Magnetic Ores,
Ferruginous Quartzite,
Diorite,
Ferruginous Quartzite,
Diorite,
Ferruginous Quartzite,
Diorite,
Ferruginous Quartzite,
Diorite,
Talcose Schist,
Quartzite,
L~AURENTI.N.
Not much new  information has, as yet, been obtained in
reference to the older Laurentian deposits, and comparatively
few observations have been made, save upon Keweenaw Point,
during the past two seasons, upon the Lake Superior Group
of rocks, consisting of the " Conglomerate," the sandstone west
of Keweenaw Point, the sandstone east of Keweelnaw Point,
and the " Upper Gray Sandstone" of Houghton.
The Trenton and Cincinnati Groups have been studied and
traced in the basin of Green Bay, and a local geological map
has been based upon the observations. These formations have
been traced up the valley of the Whitefish River to within ten
miles of Lake Superior. The map referred to, and the observations on which it is based, embrace also the Niagara and
Salina Groups, in reference to which a large amount of notes
and specimens has been collected. The Niagara and Salina
have been traced along the north shore to Mackinac, and for
some distance up the valley of the AManistique River.




28
The Lower Helderberg Group of rocks has been clearly
recognized in Michigan for the first time. The recognition has
grown out of discoveries and identifications made by the Ohio
Survey upon the islands in the west end of Lake Erie. I have
myself visited the islands and studied their geological structure
in company witlh Dr. Newberry, and have examined numerous
specimens of Equrypterus remip2es and Leperditia alta from
Put-in-Bay Island. The first of these characteristic fossils of the
Waterlime formation of the Lower Helderberg Group has not
yet been actually observed upon the Michigan mainland, but
the identical strata in which it occurs have been traced over ia
considerable area in Monroe county, in the vicinity of Brest
and Stony Point, and the Le2erditia is of frequent occurrence.
This formation is also found in its proper place on Mackinac
Island and the mainland of the Upper Peninsula to the west.
We are thus enabled to add a hitherto unrecognized group of
rocks to the geology of Michigan.
It is the waterlime member of the group which chiefly occurs
in our State, and there is no doubt that it will afford
hydraulic cement of a character equal to that manufactured
from it in the State of New York.
The field-work of the Survey has extended over portions of
the Corniferous Group in the vicinity of Mackinac; but the
added information only stands on record in our note-books.
An assemblage of strata in Little Traverse Bay possesses a
unique interest and attains a remarkable development. I have
bestowed a good deal of personal investigation npon them.
While in general characters they conform to the Hamilton
Group of the New York geologists, I find a considerable downward extension of the associated fossil types, which renders it
difficult, for the present, to locate the separating line between
these rocks and the Corniferous Group. I have therefore bestowed upon them  the local designation of Little Traverse
Group. We have traced them across the northern part of the
Lower Peninsula., past the head of Cheboygan Lake, and




29
thence down the Huron shore to'Thunder Bay. They are
characterized everywhere by the presence of Acervularia
Davidsoni, Zaphrentis Traversensis, Favosites A lpenensis, and
other species of fossils. The results of some of my former
unofficial studies upon this group may be consulted in my
Report on the Grand Traverse Region, published in 1866, a
copy of which is submitted, marked "I."
This group of rocks embraces a series of thick-bedded,
nmagnesian, buffish, granular limestones, approaching the celebrated "Athens marble" of Illinois in color and general
appearance, and I am led to believe it would prove suitable for'
architectural purposes.  It is extremely accessible upon the
shore of Little Traverse Bay, on the south side.
The IHuron and Marshall groups have not been officially
studied, to any great extent, during the past two years, but
the fruits of previous studies have been maturing, and are
submitted to inspection in a printed volume herewith communicated. For eight years past I have maintained certain
views in reference to the age of thqse formations, which have
been at variance with older and contemporary opinions of
some American geologists; and I believe the chief positions
which I have held are now admitted to be tenable. The views
asserted by me have also, to some extent, been advocated or
held by several other Western geologists; and the late observations of the Ohio survey seem to have placed the position
beyond the pale of controversy.
It results from these discussions and admissions that the
assemblage of strata, in Michigan heretofore designated by me
the IIuron Group, corresponds essentially to the Portage and
Chenmung groups of the New  York geologists, with the
addition of the Genesee Shale, which  they place at the
top of the Hamilton  Group.  The  Marshall Group  of
Michigan does not, as pretended, correspond to any part of the
Portage and Chemung, but constitutes a distinct group hitherto
unrecognized in the West, comprised within the limits of the




30
Carboniferous System, and lying strictly at its base. It is
probable that the rocks of eastern and southern New York,
occupying a position above the Chemung, are the eastern
equivalents of this group. They constitute the residual portion of the old Catskill Group, after subtracting those portions
which have been found to belong to the Chemung, Portage,
and Hamilton Groups.
The term " Catskill," though older than "Marshall," cannot,
by the canons of geological nomenclature, be retained for the
rocks designated "Marshall," since its application was too
comprehensive. For the same reason, the old designation
" Waverly," so long in use in Ohio, cannot be employed, for it
was held to embrace rocks which fall within the limits of the
Chemung and  Portage Groups; and hence, must now, if
applied to the newly restricted group, be employed in a new
and unauthorized sense.  The designation derived from a
Michlgan locality is the first which was employed with the
requisite restrictions, and I am unable to see how it can be
fairly displaced.
But few additidns have been made, as yet, to our knowledge
of the Michigan Salt Group, or of the Carboniferous Limestone. Thie former holds its place as a unique feature in
Michigan geology, and testifies to the specialization of Michigan
geological history, as before stated.
Little more addition has been made to our knowledge of the
coal measures. Borings near Ionia, however, have demonstrated the correctness of an opinion of mine published ten
years since, in which I identified the peculiar Ionia sandstone
with the Woodville sandstone overlying the principal bed of
coal. It is now demonstrated that a valuable bed of coal
underlies the Ionia sandstone, and I am led to believe that the
position is such, geographically and stratigraphically, that the
coal will prove to be of a better quality than any heretofore
mined in the State.




31
The Post Tertiary deposits of the State have received considerable attention.  Observations made upon the western and
northwestern borders of the Lower Peninsula have contributed
something toward the solution of the problem of post-tertiary
geology in the lake region, and the synchronizing of events
here with events in other portions of the continent. Along
the shores referred to, repose vast horizontal beds of bluish and
pinkish clays, nearly free from boulders, and diversified with
occasional seams of lignitic and soil-like material. These
clays seem to be synchronous in origin with those recognized
upon the shores of Lake Erie, at Cleveland and elsewhere, and
recently designated Erie clays by Dr. Newberry. They repose
upon the older, ice-worn surface of the solid rocks; and seen
to have been deposited in standing, and probably fresh or
brackish waters. The. boulder deposits hold a position above
these clays, and are found  disseminated  through beds of
obliquely laminated sands and clays deposited during an epoch
of comparative disturbance. In the depressions of the surface
of these beds repose the numerous interior lakes of our State,
and the equally numerous beds of peat and marl which remain
to point out the sites of former lakelets which the agencies of
Nature have already filled.  During the earlier part of the
lakelet history, the elephant and the mastodon inhabited our
peninsula, as is certified by the numerous bones and teeth exhumed from our peat beds. Contemporary with these proboscideans and with the gigantic, extinct beaver, were the early
representatives of our race in Michigan. I am in possession of
a flint arrow-head found in the town of Bridgewater, Washtenaw county, in excavating a State ditch, at the depth of seven
feet beneath the surface. At the same time, and in the contiguous parts of Lenawee county, near Tecumseh, were exhumed
the remains of an aged mastodon which had lain buried but
i2- feet beneath the surface. Near Adrian, I formerly visited
the place of exhumation of another specimen, which had been
buried at a similar depth.




32
In connection with post-tertiarv phenomena I have to call
your attention to the discovery of an ancient outlet of Lake
Superior, through the valley of the Au Train and Whitefish
Rivers, into Little Bay de Nocquet and Green Bay of Lake Michigan. A deep and bluff-lined valley, mostly with a limestone
bottom, extends across the interval between Lake Superior and
Little Bay de Nocquet, and the summit elevation between {he
two lakes is inconsiderable. It may easily be that this elevation
is such as to justify the project of a ship canal across the divide,
with the view of shortening the voyage between the ports on
Lake Superior and those on Lake Michigan. The Au Train
River, from its mouth for the distance of ten miles, has a current
of four miles an hour. The stream is 30 to 75 feet in width,
and 1~ to 4 feet in depth. Ten miles up it becomes walled in
between cliffs of sandstone, and here is a fall of 40 feet. Two
miles above this is another fall of 95 feet from the summit
level of the divide between the two lakes. The facilities for
lockage are such that I think the State should at least place
itself in possession of official information respecting this
route; and I should be glad to be instructed to incur the moderate expense of running a line of levels over it from lake to
lake.
The discovery of this ancient outlet is a fact in itself of no
little geological interest. Its interest is enhanced through its
obvious relations to other phenomena. This outlet lies in the
prolongation of the axis of Green Bay, and recalls opinions
formerly entertained, based solely on topographical data, that
Green Bay wmas once prolonged through lakes Winnebago and
Horicon, in Wisconsin. I am not sufficiently familiar with the
topography of Wisconsin, south of the limits of this line of
lakes, to assert or oppose the opinion that the whole series
once founid their outlet southwards, and carried off by a
broad channel, detached from  Lake Michigan, the discharge
firom Lake Superior through the Whitefish Valley. The present connection of Green Bay with Lake Michigan is, however,




33
comparatively slight, and it is probably not many ages since
that bay was completely isolated from the great lake, and constituted a lake by itself.
This lengthened hydrographical basin conforms in its longer
axis with the direction of glacial strip upon the rocks in the
vicinity; with the evidences of glacier transportation; with
the trends of lake-beaches, and all the phenomena which should
testify the former occupation of this basin by a moving glacier, and by the floods whichl must have attended upon its
dissolution.
The bog-ore discoveries in the post-tertiary will be referred
to in another connection.
This part of the Report will embrace, also, a systematic
description of the minerals and the lithological products of
the State. There is probably no quarter of the world which
is richer in minerological and lithological species and varieties
than Michigan; and the opportunity is presented of throwing
no inconsiderable light upon the phenomena and laws of rock
and mineral formation and metallic accumulation. A good
deal of study has been bestowed by me upon this subject
during several years past, in addition to the special investigations in Parts IV and V. Measures have been taken to conform the results of our researches to those already attained
by the thorough and well-directed investigations of the Canadian Geological Survey. For the completion of our work,
however, recourse must be had freely to the advantages of a
chemical laboratory.
PART III. ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY.
Observations and researches in this department of the work
have gone forward with the progress in the general geology.
A large amount of facts stands on record and is continually
augmenting. I shall not, in this connection, occupy the time
to summarize the work done, nor even to present any statistical
results. I desire to place on record the opinion. however,




34
formed after years of observation in all parts of the country,
that there is no portion of the continent more richly endowed
with mineral products, and none favored with so great a
variety, existing in quantities of commercial importance.
An nndeveloped deposit of fine building stone, in Little
Travterse Bay, has been already alluded to. The adaptation of
the Ionia stone to architectural purposes has been recently
demonstrated by actual experience. MIr. Frederick Hall, of
Ionia, has constructed a residence of this material, which is not
inferior in beauty to the fronts constructed of Connecticut freestone. The solidity of the stone may be somewhat less, but I
believe it will prove sufficient. A similar appearance is presented by dressed specimens of the Lake Superior Sandstone,
quarried near Malrquette. Recently, there has also been opened.1 new quarry in the Marshall Sandstone, in the southern part
of Jackson county. The stone presents a grayish cream color;
it is homogeneous in structure and sufficiently coherent for
ordinary purposes.
Within the limits of the Marquette iron region are deposits
of marble which promise to develop into a product of commercial importance.  Some samples are highly crystalline,
almost sparry, flesh-colored, or clouded, and presenting in hand
specimens the characteristics of a v-aluable stone.  Other
samples are fine-grained, and vary from  pinkish to a dove
color. In the AMenominee region, as is known, occur beds of
beautiful white marble, which possess the fineness of grain, the
purity, and translucency of good statuary marble. The Survey,
however, has not yet visited the locality.
Of granitic, syenitic, dioritic, and gneissoid rocks, admirably
adapted to purposes of construction, there is literally no limit
within the bounds of the Upper Peninsula.
The State' is supplied with unlimited quantities of material
for quicklimes and hydraulic limes of the first class.
In respect to clays, there are probably no varieties wanting.
I make especial note of a beautiful material for the manufac



35
ture of white and lemon-colored bricks and wares occurring
in the banks of Spring Lake, near Grand Haven. Undoubtedly, similar clay exists in many localities. Favorite Milwaukee
bricks are in no particular preferable to those which may be
manufactured, and probably are manufactured, in our own
State. The steam brick-works at the place referred to, have
already exported many cargoes to Chicago.
The explorations of the Survey have revealed the probable
extension of valuable gypsum  deposits across the northern
portion of the peninsula.
The salt product of the State is to be the subject of investigation by a special assistant. The matter is postponed to
another year. In the meantime it may not be amiss to state
that the manufacture is extending and improving. All the
later developments tend to confirm views placed on record by
me eight years ago in reference to the existence of three superimposed, detached salt basins underneath the lower peninsula
of Michigan, each of which, in suitable situations, is capable
of supplying brine of commercial importance. It may also be
stated that the enterprise of our citizens is utilizing the collateral products of our brines which have so long been subjected to waste.
The Huron gritstones retain their pre-eminence in the
market unimpaired; and it is known that superior honestones
and oilstones may be wrought out from the Huronian schists
of the Upper Peninsula.
Unlimited quantities of coloring substances are afforded by
the ochre and manganese beds of various parts of the State.
Yellow and red ochres are especially abundant in the St. Mary's
Peninsula.
The swamp lands of the State afford vast quantities of peat
for all the varied uses to which that substance can be applied.
The soils resulting from the drainage of these swamps, after
the neutralization of the vegetable acids, and the pulverization
of the peaty deposits, are probably the strongest and most




36
desirable to be found in the Northwest.  Fifty years hence,
when the enhanced value of land, and the crowded state of
the population, shall have caused the attention of agriculturists to be turned from  the exhaustion of the soils ready
compounded and offered by the hand of Nature, to the subject of recuperation of old soils and the preparation of new,
these mllarshes will be scattered over tlhe landscapes of our
peninsula like rich garden spots in the midst of neglected
farming lands. It will be my object to present a stummary of
the most intelligent experience in the drainage of these lands,
and the preparation of the soil for the purposes of farming
and gardening.  I refer again to a communication from  an
intelligent farmer and public spirited citizen of our State, as
an illustration of the manner in which I propose to draw upon
the actual experience of our citizens.
The xvell and spring waters of olur Stlte are notoriously
p;re and salubrious.  At the same time, the peculiar dish-like
conformation of the various groups of strata underlying the
Lower Peninsula has had the effect to retain within their
concavities nearly all the soluble substances which ever existed
in the sea-waters in which our rocks were deposited, or were
embraced in tlhe sediments which have entered into their constitution.  Our abundant supply of brile, as I showed eight
years ago, is conditioned on this circumstance. Had our strata
been tilted into the form and attitude of inclined planes, all
soluble constituents would long since have leached out by the
passage of atmospheric waters through them. In their present
attitudes, we learn by boring artesian wells inlto tllem, that the
waters which saturate them are charged with a variety of soluble salts. Within a couple of years it has been discovered
that these saline waters possess decided therapeutic properties;
and a number of localities have gained a considerable notoriety
as places of resort for invalids.  At the same time remarkable
assertions have been persistently made in reference to supposed
magnetic properties of some of these waters.  This subject




was so lovel, and the heanling properties of the waters of so
great importance, tlhat I was induced to enter upon a tour of
investig,ation.  The results of such experiments as I was able
to make were announced to the American Association for the
Advancement of Science at its late Troy meeting, in a communication of which I suljoin a newspaper abstract marked
"J."  The full notes of this communication are also sulbmitted
for inspection if desired.
According to my experiments, no magnletism  exists in thle
waters, or is calpable of being bottled up and carried away -with
the water. The water, however, seems to possess the property of
exciting rnagnetic polarity in a rod of neutral iron inserted
into a bottle of it, through the cork. The polarity of the outer
end is thle sanie as that of the south end of the needle.  I
ouglht to add, however, that some experiments since made at
-Eaton Rapids, by Dr. Itilgard, of the United States Coast
Survey, with delicate apparatus, do not sustain the indications
of my rougher experiments.  Nevertheless, my results were
so many times )produced, from nso many different wells, and
unler such  varyilg n   circumstances, anId so completely in;accordance with a rattional method, that, for the present, I
cannot see the prolpriety of discarding them.  In view, however,
of the conflicting results, I am led to consider the whole investigation as insufficienit for a sound scientific induction.
As to the sanitary  opelrleties of these waters, T satisfied myself
that there cau l e n) mislpprellnsion.
PART IV. TII''E IRO:9N  IRIES0OURCES OF THE STATE.
The principal efforts of the Survey in respect to our iron
resources have been directed to the development of the geological and economnical chlaracteristics of the Marquette Iron
Region. This regiol has undergone a very thorough investigation unller the special direction of Iajor T. B. Brooks,
whose report of progress is hereto appended, marked "K,"
a.ccompanied,by the letter of instructions to whichl lhe refers,




38
marked "A."  The true order of succession among the rocks
of this district has been pointed out. Topographical, magnetical, and geological observations halve been made and
mapped with a faithfulness and ability which reflect credit
upon Major Brooks and the State. The subjects of extracting,
transporting, and smelting the ores have been investigated;
the resources of our State for charcoal have been studied;
masses of statistics have been collected, and I believe that
every topic of importance to the iron-miner and manufacturer
has been brought under careful and able consideration. The
report on this subject is nearly ready for publication, and will
constitute "Book I" of this part of the State Survey. It is
expected that the publication of this report will be ordered
bly the Legislature.
The following maps, illustrating the work in this branch of
the Survey, are ready, or nearly ready, for publication:
1. Map of the Washington Mine.
2. Map of Smith Mountain.
3. Map of S. C. Smith Mine, on Sec. 20, T'1. 45, R. 25, in the
Escanaba district.
4. Map of the Iron Cascade Range.
5. Map of the Champion Mine. Nearly reads.
6. Map of the New York Mine.
7. Map of the Lake Superior Mine. Nearly ready.
8. Map of the Magnetic, Cannon, and Chippewa locations,
on one sheet. In progress.
9. Map of the Michigammi Company, and Spur'Mountain
Range. Preparing.
Maps of the Jackson and Cleveland Mines are also in
progress.
Some of these maps are drawn to scales larger than the
convenience of the Survey requires, and may be reduced on
publication by the photolithographic process.
The charts of magnetic observations are nearly finished.




39
For further information on this subject, I refer to Major
Brooks' annual statements of 1869 and 1870.
The explorations of the past season have led to a development of no inconsiderable interest in quite a different region.
We have proven the existence of literally inexhaustible supplies of bog iron ore in certain parts of the peninsula west of
the St. Mary's River. One extensive area lies upon the western
tributaries of the Manistique River, and another upon the
Tequamenon.  Not unlikely still others will be brought to
light by further investigations.
This ore appears to be characterized by unusual purity. The
Survey has not, as yet, been able to secure any chemical
analyses, but I have been kindly furnished with the results of
an analysis procured by Capt. E. B. Ward, which gives 56
per cent of iron and only 0.24 of one per cent of phosphorus.
This small percentage of phosphorus is an extremely favorable
circumstance, as limonitic ores are in great request for mixing
with the magnetites and hematites of the older formations
in the manufacture of iron, especially of iron suited for steelmaking by the Bessemer process. Information in my possession convinces me that iron manufacturers will look upon
these discoveries as events of very great importance in the
history of American iron-making; and that the lands underlaid by these deposits will be immediately enhanced in value.
In accordance with these convictions, I have already indicated
nine townships on the tributaries of the Manistique, and four
on the Tequamenon, the State lands in which ought to be withdrawn, temporarily, from  sale. Beyond doubt, there are still
other tracts of valuable iron-lands not vet discovered, and I
am inclined to the opinion that a large portion of the entire
Peninsula ought to be withdrawn from sale until thorough
geological explorations shall have been completed. In the
mean time, it is clearly the proper policy of the State to provide for the completion of the examinations. A report should
be secured specifying in detail the sections and sub-divisions




40
which are underlaid by ore, and the whole should then be
restored to market at suitably graduated prices.
PART V. THE COPPER RESOURCES OF THE STATE.
The progress made in the survey of the copper region of
the Upper Peninsula is set forth in the communication of Professor R. Pumpelly, who was entrusted by the Board with the
duty of making a judicious expenditure of the means apportioned to this branch of the work. His communication is
hereto appended, marked "L."
The work performed consists essentially in the execution of
a minute topographical map of the region about Portage Lake,
and the careful measurement and study of a geological section
across the mineral range, in the vicinity of Portage Lake.
The map is constructed on a scale of 300 feet to the inch, and
exhibits accurately all the observations that could be made
without actual digging, from the South Pewabic mine to the
Rhode Island mine,-a distance of about eight miles along the
copper range, and covering an area of nearly 24 square miles.
The detailed sections that have been measured and investigated,
across the whole or portions of the range, will constitute a key
to the geology of Keweenaw Point, and probably to that of the
entire range as far as Ontonagon. I trust that when the results
of the season's work are wrought out, we shall understand
quite pIrecisely the degree of persistence characterizing the
various beds of trap, conglomerate, or amygdaloid, and how
fir these beds may be used as bases from which property owners can measure for the purpose of locating mineral deposits
upon their lands. Another branch of the work has been the
investigation of the mineralogy of the copper deposits, made
with the view of throwing light upon the manner in which
the copper is distributed,-a question at the same time most
difficult and most important.
The results of these investigations should constitute Book




41
I of this Part of the Survey. It is intended to be ready for
publication during the winter or spring of 1871.
PART VI. DETAILED G-EOLOGY.
The detailed geology of the State by counties and districts
proceeds, of course, Part passu with the general work; but it
will not be completed when we are prepared to furnish a general report. It is intended that observers shall traverse every
county and fill in the outlines traced by the general investigations. This work could be postponed to the last, or it could
be begun at any period of the survey.
PART VII. PAALEON TOLOGY.
But little has been done in this field during  the past two
years. Material has been accumulating, however, and views
have been maturing. Much had previously been done, and
some of the conclusions of earlier work have been wrougllt out
during the present year in two papers, of seventy-six octavo
pages, in the "Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society."  These and earlier investigations in the paleontology of the State, by myself, are submitted for your inspection in the bound volume accompanying this Report.
Some of the drawings intended for the paleontological portion of the Report have been executed under my supervision.
It was thought better to hegiln this work at the present stage
of the Survey, than, by postponing it, to concentrate the
expense in one or two years at the close.'I'lle following is a
statement of the number of figures drawnl:
From the Marshall Group-..4 4 figures.'    Carboniferous Limestone             53
" " Hamilton Group-                         81
i'  "  Corniferous Limestone-                2 
Unknown ---------   -----------------—. —---   9
T'otal           --------------------   382




42
PARTl VIII. ZOOLOGY.
Though no provision is made ostensibly for prosecuting this
research, I have nevertheless regarded it as so desirable, that I
have embraced opportunities to direct investigation, with the
view of ultimate publication under the auspices of the State.
I have not, however, felt authorized to incur any expense in
such investigation.
Amateur zoologists witllin our own borders are engaged in
working up the mamlimals, birds, insects, and molluscs. of
the State; and I am well persuaded that a judicious public
policy demands that these investigations be encouraged and
patronized, and the results brought before the world ill a style
creditable to the intelligence and standing of our State.
PART IX. BOTANY.
Tilhe remarks just mlde in reference to Zoology may be
repeated under this head. We are more advanced, however, in
our botanical investigations, especially if we leave out of the
account the obscure orders of cryptogamic plants. Investigations of Mosses, Lichens, and Fungi are, however, going forward at my instance; and efforts are making also to perfect
o)ur knowledge of the flowering orders. Very much work has
already been done by Michigan botanists, and it would be an
honor to the State to get together in systematic and handsome
shape the results now in existence or so easily attainable.
PART X. ANTIQUITIES.
This is a department of research which commends itself to
the sympathy of every one who looks with a regretful or even
with an intelligent eye upon the disappearing forms and
vestiges of our predecessors in the occupancy of these beautiful
Peninsulas. I could not, if I would, refrain from preserving
every mnemorial of a disappearing race whose nature and
whose history  are so fraught with  suggestions to study,




43
to  colljecture,  anld  to  discovery.   I  have,accordingly
gathered together a few Indian relics, and have instigated the
exploration of some mounds in Montcalm county), )upon which
I have received a ilemoir. At my instance, also, a survey has
been made of some old mounds and fortifications in Macomb
coulty.  I should hope our Legislatture would avail itself of
the present opportunity to provide for an adequate report uponl
the antiquities and traditions of our State.
Different melllbers of thlle Survey, during the progress of
the work, have published in the public journals some of the
results of their investigations.  A list of such lhpublications
is appended, marked " M."
Sets of specimens have been collected as far as the work has
progressed, in accordance with the requirements of the law.
Three sets firom the Marquette iron region are now quite ready
for distribution.  Other sets will be collected in the spring, for
suIch institutions as shall make known officially their desire to
receive them, and shall otherwise fulfill the requirements of
the law in reference to expenses. It is believed that most of
our institutions have overlooked the provisions of the law in
reference to the collections, and hence have neglected to file
their applications in form.  The specimens from  the Iroll
Region are numbered from  6,000 to 6,202, according to the
Pegister of the University Muserum.
I have thlls —none too elaborately, I believe —touched upon
the various topics embraced within the scope of tlme Geological
Strvey, as organized, and briefly indicated the progress wrhich
has been made. You will agree with me tlhat we have undertaken a great work. I believe it may be pronoulnced a vast
work.  HI-ave we undertaken too much?  Are we aiming atmore tllan the interests of tlhe State demand?-or (omitting
the last three l)arts) more than the letter and spirit of the law
require?  I think not; and I believe the people of the State
will colllenid thle adminlistration whlich shall further this
great enterprise to a conslmmation.  It is a monumental




44
work. It will give a noble State a noble introduction to the
world. It will be the first open utterance of the great truths
respecting our State which ought to have been sounded in the
ears of the world fifteen years ago. The mere whisperings of
them, circulating through the land, and flying over the ocean,
have given Michigan a fame and a prestige which are clearly
indexed in her marked advance in population and prosperity
during the last decade.
I am deeply interested in this work, in every way. I am in.a
condition to urge it forward as rapidly as it is practicable to
do it. I am in possession of the accumulated notes and observations of a seventeen years' period of residence and study.
I have access to the original notes of Dr. Houghton; to a folio
volume of notes of my own survey in 1859-60; to several
scrap-books filled with items and documents bearing upon the
mlaterial resources of the State; all the nmaterials of former
surveys gathered together in the Museum  of the University:
all my original notes of investigation upon these materials,
besides the two or three folio volumes of notes accumulated
during the past two years. I feel thefore, not only interested
in the work, but prepared to prosecute it. I have no purpose,
however, of protracting the work beyond such period as the
legislation which may be had shall necessitate. I would like
to complete it within the next two years. It can be done, and
should be done.  I should feel impatient over a lingering
labor prolonged through the interference of parsimonious or
illiberal views on the part of the State government. It would
be injustice to myself, as well as damage to the State. I hlave
other enterprises lying before me in the future. I have no
disposition to sacrifice them, and cannot. When this work is
concluded, I desire to visit foreign lands. When this work is
concluded, I have another work which has the pledge of my
undivided attention. I have no motive therefore, to protract
this survey. Its pecuniary recompense to me is but a pittance;
though I am  content. I confess that I labor rather to be
remembered with gratitude and re,spect, than to leave tan inher



45
itauce to unknown heirs. It is my urgent request, therefore,
that the Legislature appropriate for the Survey a sum sufficiently large to enable me to complete the work during the
next two years.
IV. ESTIMAI lTES.
I proceed to enumerate the different branches of investigation still remaining, and to present my estimates for the
completion of the Survey within two years.
1. The C('oper Region. In this department of the Survey
there are two branches of the work: First. To investigate
and report upon the phenomena of copper occurrence in the
developed and easily accessible districts. Secondly. To carry
a system of exploration through the whole country, and locate,
as far as science can do it, all the valuable deposits of copper
existing in the State. The first work will demand much less
time and means than the second. It is the completion of the
work inaugurated during the past season. The scale of appropriation adopted for the past two years will only suffice to
accomplish the first work, unless the Survey should be continued
unreasonably long. To effect even this purpose within two
years, the copper region should receive the entire sum of $4,000
a year. To perform  economical labor in the exploration of
undeveloped territory would require, in addition, not less than
$5,000 a year for two years. There are maniy who will smile
even at the supposed insufficiency of this estimate.
2. The Menominee and L'Anse Iron Regions.-It is known
that extensive deposits of iron ores exist in these regions, and
that a survey of them. would as much subserve the interests of
the State, as that of the Marquette region. I estimate that
unless the deposits prove to be more extensive than is suspected, the survey could be completed for $4,000.
3. The Bog Iron Ore Region of St. Mary's Peninsula. —
The nine townships indicated on the tributaries of the Manistique should be examined in detail, and the valuable tracts
designated. I am informed that every eighty-acre lot in the




46
nine townships can be separately examined and reported on
for $1,200, or for two sections of swamp lands, not lying in the
St. Mary's Peninsula, and to be located before the survey
begins. The four townships on the Tequamenon should be
similarly examined, at. an expense of $600; and a general
exploration should be carried over the remainder of the Peninsula at an estimated expense of $1,000, including the detailed
specification of the mineral lots. This should all be accomplished durilg the season of 1871.
4. General Field Worik in the LTper Peninsula.-The survey should be carried at once over the non-metalliferous regions
of the Upper Peninsula, for the purpose of developing the
general geology and bringing to light and defining deposits of
building stones, marbles, slates, novaculites, and other mineral
products; and for collecting information on the topography,
timber, soil, water powers, etc., etc. Five thousand dollars a
year for two years would probably carry this work as far toward
consummation as the present generation would require.
5. General Work in the Lower Peninsula. The general
survey should extend to an examination of the entire length
of all the water courses and coast lines, and all outcrops of
rocks and other marked geological phenomena. It would
include reports on mining and quarrying operations, statistics
of economical geology, and many of the local details. I estimate that this work could be completed in one year for $2,500.
6. Detailed Surveys o.' Counties and Districts.  To accomplish this in two years will require at least three geologists at
work during each season, the expense of each of which would
be $1,350, or say, per year, $4,000.
7. Chernical Researches. For chemical examinations and
analyses in all departments of the work, per year, $1,500.
8. Mechanical Draughting. For all departments of the
work, per year, $1,500.
9. Paleontological Drawings. Per year, $500.
10. Agriculture. For the compilation of agricultural inform



47
ation and statistics, with full discussion of the soils of the
State and their adaptations, per year, $1,500.
11. Water Powers. For the compilation of statistics of the
water powers of the State, $1,000. This estimate may be canceled if the collection of the data is made obligatory upon
some existing class of public officers.
12. State Map.  Compilation and construction of an official
map, if a mechanical draughtsman is otherwise provided for.
$1,000.
13. General SAuperintendence and Investigations.  For services and expenses in direction of the Survey, and in investigation of topography, general geology, economical geology,
mineralogy, lithology, soils, etc., and in the prepartation of the
Report, per year, $2,000.
Recapitulation.
18:71.    18 7z2.
Copper Region:
For developed districts................   $4,000   $4,000
For undeveloped districts............   5,000       5,000
Iron Region:
Menominee and L'Anse districts.......    4,000........
Bog Iron Region:
Manistique River.....................    1,200........
Tequamenon River...................         600........
General surveys......................    1,000........
General work, Upper Peninsula.......... 5,000    5,000
General work, Lower Peninsula..........   2,500........
County surveys in detail................    4,000    4,000
Chemical researches....................    1,500    1,500
Mechanical draughting.................    1,500    1,500
Paleontological drawings................      500       500
Agriculture...........................    1,500    1,500
Water powers..........................       1,000........
State map.............................    1,000.
Superintendence and investigations......   2,000    2,000
$36,300  $25,000
Total to complete the survey........      861,300




48
This is not a large sum  of money for the great State of
Michigan to expend upon a work which is destined to complete the State itself to the eyes and apprehension of the
world. It is too large a sum to squander. Not a cent of it
should be misapplied or yielded to a spirit of greed. This
work accomplished, Michigan will be read and known of all
men. She has nothing to conceal. Her highest encomium is
the fullest truth. This exposition of her mineral resources
and physical characteristics will proffer irresistible invitations
to immigration, to manufactures, to wealth, culture, education,
and all that constitutes a great and glorious commonwealth.
It is not an expenditure for the benefit of a single class of
our citizens. It is not an appropriation for the insane, nor
the idiotic, nor the deaf and dumb. It is not exclusively for
the farmer, nor the mechanic, nor the professional class. It is
not for the improvement of a river, nor a harbor, nor for the
construction of a canal or railroad which would benefit but
one portion of the State. It is not for education alone-either
primary, higher, normal, or professional. It is for all these
classes, for all these objects, and for all sections at once. It
s an expenditure of five cents and one mill by each individual
of our population to add millions to the valuation of our real
estate, millions to the value of our public lands, and thousands to our population. It is, demonstrably, an investment
which will pay. Every section of land which would not heretofore sell for a dollar and a quarter an acre, and which by
this survey is made to command five dollars an acre, will
reimburse $2,400 of this outlay. A single township, at this
moderate enhancement of value, will pay $25,000 more than
the whole bill. Five dollars an acre is a humble valuation for
lands underlaid by iron ore, which will comnmand a thousand
dollars an acre. And yet the survey has already indicated the
existence of thirteen such townships. It would not be hazardous to assert that there exist in the Upper Peninsula single
sections of unsold school lands or swamp lands, lying in the




49
market at $1 25 an acre, which this survey, if carried on, will
discover to be worth the whole amount of the estimate for
completing the work. And such local and sporadic development of values is not, by any means, the principal form of
increased value contributed by the Survey. It is by such
means that the pjublic property is enhanced in value. Individual estates, though truly increased in value by everything
which increases the value of the public lands, are still more
enhanced in value through the thousand indirect channels of
influence radiating from the efforts and results of a survey.
It is through making the world acquainted with the facts
respecting our State, instead of leaving them in ignorance and consequent suspicion; through the disclosure of
positively attractive characteristics-through the consequent
influx of immigration, not only of the indigent foreign class,
but of the native, enterprising, competent, Americanized classes:
through the consequent establishment of manufactures and
the proper diversification of our industries; through the opening of roads of every description to supply the wants and conveniences of widening and thickening population; through the
enhancement, by such means, of the aggregate valuation of
real estate, and thle correlative reduction of the rate of taxation;
by these means, and others, will the Survey swell the aggregate of wealth and comfort and civilization within the limits of
our State.
In view of such results, lying so close within our grasp, the
sum of $60,000 dwindles into insignificance. It is indeed a
large sum in relation to an individual. It is five cents and
one mill to the individual, when considered in relation to the
State. Any sum less than this could, indeed, be made to do a
useful work. Ten thousand would do it. Five thousand
would do it. But the benefits of the State would be curtailed
in a corresponding ratio.  They would be curtailed in an
increased ratio, since large operations are always more
economical than small ones..




50
I cannot help believing that our Legislature will take such
action in this case as shall illustrate and fairly represent the
intelligence and breadth of view which characterize the population of our State.
V. PUBLICATION.
The work of publication should not be postponed to the
last. The Survey should complete sections of its work as it
proceeds. This is my judgment, in the light of all experience.
Provision should be made at the approaching session of the
Legislature, for the publication of so many of the results as
are ready, or likely to be ready within a few months. The
ultimate sanction could be left with the Geological Board.
There are three methods which may be considered in
reference to publication:
1. The entire job may be placed in the hands of the State
Printer.
2. The letter-press and binding may be given to the State
Printer and the illustrations to other parties.
3. The whole work may be let to a special contractor.
Either method is eligible; and all, by turns, have been tried
in other States.
In addition to' provision for the publication of matter now
in a state of readiness, the Legislature should authorize the
Geological Board, in their discretion, to order the engraving
of certain maps, charts, and illustrations, as fast as made ready.
This can be done cheaply, in many cases, by the process of
photolithography. When done, these valuable manuscripts
are insured from danger of loss by fire, miscarriage, or theft;
and the information which they contain will be thus placed
promptly within reach for -use.
The contemplated Report, as will be remarked, extends over
a large variety of topics. In some cases it may be best to publish, as separate documents, different books of a single volume.
For instance, should it be decided to embrace the Report on




Fruit Production within the first volume, it may be best to
publish it also as a separate document, for the., use of persons
but little interested in the subject matter of the other books.
Such a document would be found in great request.
By such a division of the report into detached documentseach paged by itself, and also bearing the continuous paging
of the volume to which it belongs-the different parts of the
Report become vastly more accessible than in the usual
way, where any individual, to obtain access to the information
of a single chapter, must possess himself of an entire volume.
The gift of these documents and records should be restricted
to such persons as have rendered the Survey some valuable
service, and to the large libraries and distinguished citizens of
this and other States and countries, which may be in a position
to render the State some indirect service, by being the means
of extending the information embodied in the Report. All
-other copies of volumes and documents should be sold at cost
of publication. The State would thus partially reimburse
itself for this portion of the outlay.
I would respectfully recommend that a certain number of
extra copies of the document on Fruit Production be given
unbound to the compiler of the statistics in consideration of
his gratuitous labors.
I close this report with the suggestion that the convenience
of the Survey, and no less the convenience of the State, present
and prospective, requires that the Upper Peninsula be mapped
off into counties of suitable size. The longer this is delayed
the greater will be the embarrassment in the end, and the more
will local and private interests interfere with that symmetry
of outline demanded by the general interests of the entire
future.
Respectfully submitted.
ALEXANDER WINCHELL,
Director.




LIST OF DOCUMENTS APPENDED TO THIS REPORT.
A. Letter of Instructions for the survey of the Marquette
Iron District.
B. Outline of a proposed Geological Report, etc.
C. Schedules of Instructions for Observers and Collaborators.
D. AMap of Field Work for 1869-70.
E. Classified Table of Michigan Legislation for 13 years.
F. Instructions for the survey of Water Powers.
G. Model of Description of Water Power.
H. The Isothermals of the Lake Region.
I. Report on the Grand Traverse Region.
J. Report of paper on the Magnetic Waters of Michigan.
K. Report of Major T. B. Brooks on the progress of the
survey of the Marquette Iron Region, for 1870.
L. Statement of Professor R. Pumpelly in reference to the
progress of the survey of the Copper Region.
M. List of publications by members of the Geological Corps
during 1869-70.




THE ISOTHERMALS OF THE LAKE REGION.
[Copy of a paper read before the American Association for the Advancement of
Science, at its Troy meeting in August, 1870, by A. Winchell.]
It may be remembered that four years ago, at the Buffalo
meeting of this Association, I read a paper on the "Fruit
Belt of Michigan," in which I presented some statistics illustrating the influence of Lake Michigan upon the climate of the
contiguous regions upon the east side. More recently I have
had occasion to continue my investigation of the climatology
of the Lake Region, and to prosecute it to a much greater
degree of thoroughness and detail. For this purpose I have
accumulated all the meteorological observations ever published
from within the limits of the State of Michigan, as well as
many observations as yet unpublished. For purposes of comparison I have collected similar data respecting more than
fifty selected localities lying outside of the State of Michigan.
The Michigan observations aggregate 284 years, and those of
the other localities 493 years. The result of this discussion is
to establish from extensive inductive data, the existence of
very remarkable influences exerted by the great lakes upon the
temperature of the regions adjacent. A general statement of
these results is here presented.
For the purpose of exhibiting the thermometric generalizations to the eye, I have constructed nine isothermal charts,
covering the area between the 40th and 48th parallels of latitude and between the 80th and 97th meridians. This embraces
the regions within the influence of Lakes Superior, Michigan
and Huron, and the Valley of the Mississippi as far west as
Kansas and Nebraska.




54
It is well-known that these great bodies of water exert a
cooling influence in summer and a warming influence in winter. The isothermal charts for July and January, to which I
direct your attention, present these influences in strong contrast. Turning our attention first to the chart for July, we
are at once impressed by the magnitude of the deflections of
the isothermals in passing the great lakes. These deflections
are toward the south, in consequence of the cooling influence
of the lakes. In the Lower Peninsula of Michigan the lines
all form loops northward, showing that the mean temperature
for July in the interior is much higher than along the lake
borders. And yet within the peninsula of Michigan the isothermals do not attain so high a northern limit as in the continental region west of Lake Superior. The isotherm of 70~
for instance appears within the limits of the chart in the latitude of 48~ in the valley of the Red River of the North. Passing southeastward and eastward to the Valley of the Menominee river, it comes within the influence of Lake Michigan
and bends directly southward through Green Bay and Milwaukee to latitude 42.66%, and thence trends northward to
Traverse City in latitude 44.66~. Here it is deflected southward again under the influence of Lake Huron, and passing
Saginaw and Sanilac finally bends northeastward to attain its
normal position, striking Penetanguishene on Georgian Bay
of Lake Huron. West of Lake Michigan it sweeps across a
latitudinal belt of five and a half degrees. Within the peninsula of Michigan it is deflected first northward two degrees
and then southward one and a half degrees.
Similar deflections are experienced by the isotherms between
67~ and 72~. The isotherms of 73~, 740, and 750 appear to
escape much of the influence of Lake Huron. The isotherm
of 740 divides in Southern Michigan, one branch passing eastward through Northern Ohio, and the other southward through
Central Indiana and Southern Ohio. The State of Ohio consequently constitutes an area of uniform temperature in July,




55
which is identical with the mean temperature of Central Michigan to the limit of 4~ degrees of latitude, or 300 miles further
north.
An area in the southeastern part of the State of Michigan
seems to be an area of cold, since the temperature seems to be
two or three degrees colder than it is on either side. There is
a region in this portion of the State which is topographically
elevated about 300 feet above the general level of the peninsula.
It is the region of outcrop of the sandstones of the Marshall
Group, but is not entirely coincident with that area. An area
of warmth seems to be indicated in Northern Iowa. It will be
observed that the cooling effect of Lake Michigan is somewhat
greater on the west side than on the east. Not only are the
isotherms deflected from a higher latitude on the west side,
but they likewise attain a somewhat lower latitude. The lowest deflection of the curve of 750, for instance, is at Ottawa to
the west of the meridian of the lake. The curves of 71~ and
72~ are also somewhat more southern on the west side than
on the east. This circumstance is undoubtedly accounted for
by the slight preponderance during July of winds from the
east of the meridian. Thus, at Chicago this preponderance is
as 60 to 33-1.82, at Milwaukee as 48 to 37-1.3. But at Milwaukee and Manitowoc, northerly and even  northwesterly
winds feel the influence of Green Bay.
Contrasting with these results the results represented on the
isothermal chart for January, we are at once struck with three
phenomena: 1st, the great deflection of the isothermal lines;
2d, their northward deflection; and 3d, the exertion of the lake
influence to an excessive amount upon the east side. All this
is illustrated by tracing the isotherm of 22Q. Coming within
the limits of the chart a few miles southwest of Omaha, it
pursues an undulating course eastward to Ottawa in Illinois,
when it bends abruptly northward, passing west of Chicago
and east of Milwaukee to Northport, at the mouth of Grand
Traverse Bay, whence it bends southward to Corunna, in the




56
middle of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, and northward
again to Thunder Bay Island of Lake Huron, and thence east.
to Penetanguishene on Georgian Bay. The isotherm of 23~
reaches almost as far north, but in crossing the Peninsula of
Michigan it strikes southward into Northern Indiana and Ohio,
thence northward again almost to Thunder Bay Island. The
sinuossities of this isotherm spread over a belt 4.10, or 300 miles,
in width. In other words, the influence of the lakes is such
that the mean temperature of January at Northport and
Thunder Bay Island is identical with that of Omaha, Peoria,
Chicago, and Fort Wayne.  The January temperature of
Mackinac and Marquette is the same as that of Green Bay and
Fort Winnebago.
An island of cold is again indicated in the southeastern
part of the peninsula of Michigan. In this case its form and
position correspond quite exactly with a region of elevation.
The area in northern Iowa, which in July is an island of
warmth, appears to be in January an island of cold. A similar one exists in the elevated region of southern Wisconsin,
while a remarkable axis of cold stretches through northern
Wisconsin and Minnesota. The central axis of this cold area
is not entirely coincident with the crest of the ridge dividing
the tributaries of Lake Superior from those of the Mississippi,
since the warming influence of Lake Superior crowds it about
60 miles southward.  One of the most striking phenomena
exhibited by the chart for January is the excess of the wsarming influence along the eastern side of Ltake MIichigan. The
isotherm of 23j~ strikes from Chicago directly to Northport.
almost at the opposite end of the lake. The contrast in
January temperature between opposite shores of the lake is
for the northern half 40o, and for the southern, 6~. This circumstance is due to the fact that the cold winds of the region
come from the west and southwest. The precise ratios of the
winds from the east and the west of the meridian in January
are at Chicago, according to 11 years' observations, as 72 to




57
5-14.4; at Milwaukee for 13 years, as 60 to 18-3.33; at
Manitowoc for 11 years, as 67 to 11=6.09. These results
embody all January winds, except those directly from the
north and south. The reason why the excess of warming
influence on the east side is greater toward the south than
toward the north is evidently because north and even northwest winds coming from Green Bay add their warming effects
to that of Lake Michigan in all the region north of Milwaukee
on the west side.,
The isothermal charts for summer and winter contrast in
the same way as those for July and January. From the isothermal chart we perceive that the isotherm of 72~ makes its
advent upon the northern limit of the chart, and disappears
upon its southern limit only twelve degrees of longitude further
east. Coming from  the Winnipeg country, it passes near
Dubuque and Ottawa, thence into the center of the Peninsula
of Michigan. Sweeping round this region it strikes directly
south of Germantown and Portsmouth, in Ohio. The summer temperature of the Winnepeg region and of Central
Michigan is identical with that of Northern Illinois and Southern Ohio. Areas of cold exist in Southeastern Michigan and
Northern Minnesota, and large areas of uniform temperature
in Wisconsin, Indiana and Ohio. The excess of cooling influence upon the west side of the lakes during the entire summer
is quite noticeable. The isothermals in approaching the Lake
Superior region make an angle of 45 degrees with the
meridian, and under the influence of Lake Michigan they
become quite parallel with the meridian. It does not appear
that in the Lake Superior region any excess of winds from the
lake exists; but in the vicinity of Lake Michigan such excess,is established. At Chicago the winds from the lake are to
those from the land, during summer, as 151 to 119=1.27; at
Milwaukee, the lake winds are to the land winds as 142 to
104=1.27; at Manitowoc, the lake winds are to the land
winds as 153 to 123-1.24.
8




58
From the winter chart we notice that the isotherm of 24~
undulates over a breadth of more than 200 miles. Other
isotherms are similarly situated. The mean winter climate of
Mackinac is 20~, and is identical with that of Green Bay, Fort
Winnebago, and Fort Dodge. The excess of the warming
influence on the east side of Lake Michigan is most apparent.
The winter mean of Chicago is 24~~1, while that of New
Buffalo, in the same latitude, is 28~. The winter mean of
Milwaukee is 220, while that of its vis-a-vis, Grand Haven,
is 26~. The winter mean of Fort Howard is 19.91~, and of
Appleton 18.920, while that of Traverse City, farther north
than either, is 23.64~. These contrasts illustrate again the
effect of the prevalence, during the cold season, of winds from
the west of the meridian.
As to the isothermals for spring and autumn, it might be
expected that they would suffer little deflection under the
influence of the lakes. Comparatively speaking, that is the
case. But it will be noticed, nevertheless, that a marked cooling influence is exerted in spring, since the isotherm of 43~,
for instance, is deflected southward 150 miles. It is worthy of
remark at the same time, that the maximum deflection takes
place on the west side of Lake Michigan. On the east side,
the deflection of the same isotherm amounts to no more than
20 miles. In general, we find the mean spring temperature of
the eastern side of Lake Michigan to be about three degrees
higher than the mean spring temperature of the western side.
As this excess is accumulated in April and May, especially in
May, it is at once apparent that the circumstance has a most
important bearing upon the growth of spring crops on the
opposite sides of the lake. The effect is such that the temperature of Grand Haven, March 15th, is equal to that of Milwaukie March 21st; that of Grand Haven, April 15th, is equal
to that of Milwaukee April 24th; that of Grand Haven, May
15th, is equal to that of Milwaukee May 28th. These contrasts
relate to mean temperature. They show that vegetation on




the east side secures a start of six to thirteen days. Add to
this, protection from exceptional cold in the form of Spring
frosts, and to this, the effects of a drier and a lighter soil, and
we get a clear and demonstrative explanation of the difference
in the agricultural and pomological products of the opposite
sides of this lake.
The contrast of temperatures in Spring is explained, as
before, by the predominance, during the cold month of March.
of winds from  the west of the meridian, and during the
warmer months of April and May, of winds from the east of
the meridian. Thus, at Manitowoc, in March, the winds from
the west of the meridian are to those from  the east as
43:24=1.8; at Milwaukee they are as 44:32=1.4; at Chicago
as 52:20-2.85. On the the contrary, the preponderance of
winds from the east of the meridian during May, is at Manitowoc as 37:26=1.42; at Milwaukee as 62:24=2.58, and in
April as 52:33=1.6; at Chicago, including north winds which
are here lake winds, the ratio of lake and land winds in May
is as 44:40-1.1.
In autumn, the resultant of the lake influences on the west
side is almost zero, while on the east of Lake Michigan, a
warming effect is experienced amounting, along the northern
half of the lake, to three or four degrees. This, as before, is
caused by a preponderance, during each of the autumn months
of winds from the west of the meridian. The preponderance
is shown for Chicago by the ratio of 151:70=2.16; for Milwaukee by the ratio of 147:94=1.56, and for Manitowoc by the
ratio of 160:60-2.67.
The advantages thus secured to vegetation along the eastside of this lake are not less in autumn than in spring. This
singular fact depends upon a shifting of the prevalent winds
at the end of the cold season, toward the close of March, and
again at the end of the mild season, near the close of November. An investigation of the monthly means on the opposite
sides of the lake during autumn, shows that the temperature




60
attaihed at Milwaukee October 15 is not reached at Grand
Haven till October 20. The Milwaukee temperature of November 15 is only reached at Grand Haven November 23. Comparing Chicago with New Buffalo we find that the Chicago
temperature of September 15 is the same as the New Buffalo
temperature of September 21. The October and November
temperatures seem to be nearly coincident. These comparisons show that the warm season is lengthened on the east side
about six to eight days in the autumn. This, added to the
time gained in the spring, makes the growing season on the
east side of Lake Michigan from twelve to twenty-one (lays
longer than on the cast side-to say nothing -about exemption
firom  unseasonable frosts and a nmuch warmler constitution
of the soil on the east side.
Turning our attention now, to the chart of isothermals for
the year, we might anticipate that the warming and cooling
influences of the lake would exactly neutralize each other, so
that the isothermals would experience no deflection. We find,
however, that on the western side, the resultant influence is
slightly cooling, and on the eastern side, very distinctly warming. The resultant of these two influences gives a final resultant of a warming character exerted upon the eastern side.
This final resultant has a value of 11 to 2 degrees. In other
words, Lake Michigan elevates the mean annual temperature
of the contiguous region nearly two degrees above the normal.
This results, of course, fromn the fact that the mean temperature of the lake waters is higher than that of the land. This
excess must be considerably greater than the resultant warming
influence upon the land. Its explanation is a curious and
interesting subject of inquiry. It cannot be caused, as in the
case of the Gulf Stream, by great currents moving from tropical regions. Nor can we attribute it to a large volume of
river water poured into the lake from  regions lying to the
southward. Some more occult cause operates to raise the
mean temperature of the lake above the normal temperature




61
of the land. I do not hesitate to suggest that this cause may
be the internal heat of the earth. Consider the depth to
which the basins of the great lakes are excavated. Lake Michigan has a mean depth of 900 feet. At this depth in the solid
crust of the earth, we should expect to find the temperature
some 18 degrees above the mean temperature at the surface.
That is, if the mean land temperature in the middle latitude
of the lake is 44 degrees, the temperature of the lake bottom
should be 62 degrees. The heat received from the bottom,
however, would be distributed through the whole mass of lake
water, so that the average temperature of the mass might not
be increased more than nine degrees. The excess of radiation
from the warmer waters of the lake might reduce the warming
effect of the lake bottom to four or five degrees in the whole
mass of water. It may not be amiss to mention, also, that the
lake waters, at the depth of 900 feet, in consequence of the
mingling of the temperatures of the different strata, would be
cooler than the land at the same depth. But as the bottom
immediately underlying the water must possess nearly the
temperature of the water, it is evident that the warming effect
upon the water is less than 18 degrees, as first calculated. Still
we must argue that the rate of increase of temperature at
greater depths beneath the lake would be more rapid than at
the same depth upon the land, so that the actual resultant
warming influence exerted upon the lake waters at the bottom
would be somewhere between the two results already indicated.
It would be a positive warming effect, and its reaction upon
the temperature of the land would be very nearly such as
indicated by our isothermal lines for the year.
In studying the influence of the great lake upon the climate
of the contiguous regions, we should especially note its presence under circumstances of exceptional cold or warmth upon
the land. For the purpose of illustrating these relations, I
have constructed two isothermal charts for minimum temperatures. One of these is a chart for mean minima, and the




62
other a chart for extreme m ini7na. By the "mean minimum"
of a locality I understand the average of the yearly minima
for a series of years; and by the "extreme minimum," the
lowest point attained during that series of years. These charts
present results which are truly striking. The isotherms in
the vicinity of lakes Huron and Michigan tend, literally, north
and south. In the chart for mean minima the isotherm of
minus 15~ strikes from Mackinac through Manitowoc, Milwaukee, and New Buffalo to Fort Riley, in Kansas, near the
parallel of 390.  Here is a deflection over nearly  seven
degrees of latitude, or about 480 miles in a straight line. The
meaning of this is, that the most excessive cold at Mackinac
for the period of 28 years is not, on the average, greater than at
Fort Riley, 480 miles further south. It is one degree less than
at Chicago for a term of 11 years. By a glance at the chart of
extreme minima, we perceive that the lowest point reached at
Mackinac is but two degrees lower than the extreme minimum
of St. Louis. Extreme weather of Chicago is 12 degrees
colder than at New Buffalo. The lowest extreme of Milwaukee
is 14 degrees below the extreme minimum of Grand Haven,
while the extreme of Fort Howard is 20 degrees below that
of Northport. In general, while the mean minimum along
the west side of Lake Michigan is minus 16~, that along
the east side is mintus 6~; while the extreme minimum on
the west side is from minus 22 to minus 30, that on the east
side is minus 10 to minues 16.
I cannot forbear directing attention to the important bearing of these additional facts upon the results of soil cultivation. It will be reme mjbered that it is not the severity of the
winter mean, but that of the winter extremes, which conditions
the immunity of exotic plants from destruction by frost. One
killing freeze is as fatal as thirty. That one killing freeze is
as likely to occur at Fort Riley, or Leavenworth, or Peoria or
even at St. Louis, as at Mackinac. The whole east shore of
Lake Michigan is 15~ to 20~ more secure than any of the




63
places just named. As grapes and peach trees require for their
destruction a temperature of minus 20~, it is apparent that
peach orchards and vineyards are perfectly secure along the
whole extent of the eastern shore of Lake Michigan.
The rationale of these remarkable climatic effects is not
difficult to discover. It lies in the comparatively low capacity
of watery surfaces for absorbing and radiating heat. The
mean temperature of the land in the middle latitude of Lake
Michigan is about 44~0, and that of the lake a few degrees
higher. In July the temperature of the land rises to 74~,
while that of the lake is not above 51~ or 520. This difference
is partly due to the fact that upon the land the heat from the
solar rays is accumulated near the surface, while upon the
water, it is disseminated through the whole mass by the
action of waves and currents. In January, the mean temperature of the land sinks to 19~, while that of the water
does not probably fall below 400. The atmosphere in contact
with the water must partake to some extent of the temperature of the water, and when moving from the water to the
land must transfer to the land some portion of the heat or
cold from the lake. The effect is a tendency to equalize the
land temperatures. This tendency is most distinctly felt
in case of extreme weather.  On occasion of our coldest
weather, the wind blows generally from the southwest, and
passing diagonally over Lake Michigan for a distance of
100 to 200 miles must necessarily experience a great degree of
amelioration.
The influence of the sea in equalizing temperatures has long
been understood. The immunity from unseasonable frosts
secured by bodies of fresh water to localities in their immediate vicinity, has also been universally observed; but the fact
that inland lakes of the size of Lake Michigan exert an
ameliorating agency quite comparable with that of the Atlantic
ocean, is something which has only been brought to light by
recent thorough discussions of a wide range of meteorological




64
data. On general principles, it has indeed been asserted by
Profs. Henry and Blodget, and at an earlier period by Humboldt, that the great lakes of North America must exert some
influence in deflecting the isothermal lines; but when we come
to examine any of the isothermal charts which have been published to represent existing knowledge or conceptions, we fail
to detect (except in a late meteorological map of Wisconsin by
Lapham) any marked inflection of these lines in passing the
region of the great lakes. In fact, the thermometric observations from the 55 meteorological stations in Michigan have
not heretofore been employed in tracing out the remarkable
tortuosities of the isothermals of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. I believe these disclosures are destined to take their
place among the most remarkable phenomena of climatological
science.