I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~II At~~~~~~ii it I~~~lr ii I\~~~-m M letI-ll;I~: 1I; iE Ni I\ ~~~~~~~~~~ii: )~~I;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Opv~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 nl I'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~M~/ ~~T~S~i~~ iii ii EREMMM F-Rabi-M ILL USTBATED NATURAL HISTORY OF' THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, BEING 32 BM ttnmatit aii u lar St ri ti lol OF THE HABITS, STRUCTURE, AND CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS FROM THE HIGHEST TO THE LOWEST FORMS, WITH THEIP RELATIONS TO AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, AND THE ARTS. BY S. G. GOODRICH. WITH 1400 ENGRAVINGS. VOL. II. l iu- rk DEI BY & JACKISO N. 1859. ( " -^ ^:A p, Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 15' -T By S. G. GOODICH, 4 Inl the Cierk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the {o _ 1. ~~~~' ~Southern District of New ork. yi BY C. A. ALVORD, No. 15 Vindewater Street. New Yorkl \,, ___,_, ~~~~~~~~~~~~ia CONTENTS OF VOLUME JI. PAGE PAGE Class 11. AVES 1 The Ampelida or Chatterers.. 116 The Piprin.e or Manakins.. 116 Order 1. RAPTRES.. 15 The Dicrurine or Drongo Shrikes. 118 The Falconid......16 The Campephaginm or Caterpillar-Eaters, 119 The Vulturide... 50 The Gymnoderine or Fruit-Crows. 119 The Strigidm or Owls.... 64 The Ampelime or True Chatterers.. 120 The Cotingas..... 121 Order 2. PASSERES... 79 The Muscicapidm or Fly-Catchers. 121 FIssIoSTRES..... 80 The Vireos or Greenlets 121 The Caprimulgidce or Goat-Suckers. 80 The True Fly-Catchers.. 122 The Hirundinidae or Swallows. 87 The Tityrim-c or Becards... 124 The Cora.cinwe or Rollers.. 92 The Tyrannine or Tyrant Fly-Catchers, 125 The Trogons or Couroucous... 94 The Alectrurinm or Cock-Tails. 125 The Buccos, Barbets or Puff-Birds 95 The Turdidme or Thrushes... 126 The Galbulides or Jacamars... 96 The Bulbuls......126 The HIalcyonidme or Kingfishers.. 96 The Orioles.... 126 The 1Meropidme or Bee-Eaters.. 99 The Timaline or Babblers.. 127 TENUIOSTRES... 99 The Turdin or True Thrushes. 127 The Rifle-Birds.....99 The Formicarinem or Ant-Thrushes. 134 The Epimachin or Plumed Birds. 100 The Sylvidre or Warblers... 135 The Upupid orThe pupid or oopoe.. 100 T otaillin or Wagctails. 135 The Cr rebin or Guituits.. 101 The Pipits or Titlarks.. 136 The Promeropid or Sun-Birds..101 The Mniotiltine or Bush-Creepers.. 137 The Trochylidm or Humming-Birds 102 The Parince or Titmice.. 137 The lMeliphagidm or Honey-Eaters.. 107 The Erythacinse or Robins... 141 The Furnarinoe or Oven-Birds. 108 The Sylvinam or True Warblers.. 145 The Certhin or Creepers... 109 The Sylvicolidce or American Warblers, 152 The Sittine or Nuthatches. 110 COTIROSTRES.... 155 The Troglodytinae or Wrens. ll The Fringillidme or Finches.. 155 DENTIROSTRES.. 113 The Ploceins or Weaver-Birds.. 156 The Laniide or Shrikes.. 113 The Grosbeaks.... 159 iv CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. PAGE PAGE The Tanagrinm or Tanagers. 161 Bones of Extinct Struthionidas. 265 The Sparrows. 162 The Linnets.. 165 Order 7. GRALLATORES. 266 The True Finches. 166 The Rallidae or Rails... 267 The Emberizinse or Buntings 170 The Scolopacidse or Snipes.. 272 The Alaudinae or Larks. 172 The Phalaropes.27 2 The Pyrrhulinwe or Bull-Finches. 176 The True Snipes... 273 The Phytotominae or Plant-Cutters 178 The Tringinae or Sandpipers. 27 6 The Sturnidas or Starlings.. 179 Curlews, Tatlers, Stilts, Avocets, Godwits, 277 The Ptilonorhynchinwe or Bower-Birds, 179 The Ardeldae or Herons... 283 The Grackles. 180 The Ciconinm or Adjutants, Storks, &c. 284 The Buphagine or Ox-Peckers. 181 The Ardeinwa or True Herons. 286 The Sturninae or True Starlings 181 The Boat-Bills.. 291 The Icterinm or Troopials. 184 The Charadriidae or Plovers.. 292 The Corvidae or Crows. 192 The Oyster-Catchers or Turnstones 292 The Streperinas or Piping Crows 192 The True Plovers. 294 The Garrulinae or Jays.. 192 The Bustards.297 The Callkeatinae or Tree-Crows. 195 The Gruidas or Cranes.. 299 The Corvinae or True Crows... 195 The Paradiseidae or Birds of Paradise, 205 Order 8. NATATORES. 302 The Buceridae or Hornbills. 205 The Anatidae or Ducks, Geese, &c.. 307 The Musophagidse or Plantain-Eaters 206 The Flamingo, Swans, &c.. 309 The Opisthocomide or Hoatzins. 206 The Anserinae or Geese. 312 The Coliidas or Colies 207 The True Ducks... 315 The Colymbidae or Grebes and Divers. 327 Order 3. SCANSORES... 207 The Alcadae or Auks and Puffins. 329 The Cuculidae or Cuckoos 207 The Pelecanidae.333 The Picidae or Woodpeckers.. 210 The True Pelicans 333 The Yuncinae or Wry-Necks 214 Cormorants, Gannets, &c. 33 6 The Picumninae or Piculets. 214 The Laridae or Gulls. 341 The Psittacidae or Parrots.14 The Petrels...... 347 The Macrocercinae or Macaws 217 Fossil Birds. 352 The Psittacinae or True Parrots 217 The Lorianas or Lories. 220 The Parrakeets.. 220 Class III. REPTILIA. 355 The Plyctolophinae or Cockatoos. 221 The Rhamphastidae or Toucans 223 Order 1. CHELONIA... 356 The Chelonidse or Sea-Turtles.. 357 Order 4. COLUMBIE.. 225 The Trionycidae or Soft Tortoises. 360 The Didunculid... 225 The Chelydidae.361 The Dididas... 226 The Emydidae or Terrapins.. 361 The Gouridae or Ground-Pigeons 226 The Testudidinae or Land Tortoises. 364 The Columbidae or True Pigeons.. 226 Fossil Tortoises. 366 The Treronidae or Tree-Pigeons. 232 The Menuras or Lyre-Birds.. 232 Order 2. LORICATA. 366 Order 5. RASORES... 234 Order 3. SAURIA.. 372 The Tinamids and Chionidida.. 235 The Typhlopid.... 37 73 The Tetraonidas or Grouse 235 The Amphisb-enids. 373 The Perdicinse or Partridges.. 242 The Gymnophthalmide... 374 The European Quails.. 244 The Scincids.. 374 The American Quails.... 244 The Chalcidse..... 375 The Phasianidac or Pheasants. 245 The Lacertide... 375 The Meleagrinse or Turkeys... 246 The Ameividae... 377 The Phasianinse or True Pheasants 249 The Varanidae..... 377 The Pavonine or Pea-Fowl... 255 The Geckotide.... 378 The Megapodidae or NMound-Birds 257 The Iguanide.... 379 The Cracida or Curassows. 258 The Agamide... 379 The Chameleontide..... 380 Order 6. CURSORES. 259 The Struthionidae or Ostriches. 260 Order 4. OPHIDIA 385 The Apterygide... 262 The Viperina.... 387 CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. v PAGE P'AtE The Crotalide... 388 The Pharyngognatha. 451 The Viperid.... 390 The Anacanthina.... 453 The Hooded Snakes.. 392 The Ammodytid. 453 The Colubrina..... 395 The Ophidiid.. - 453 The Hydride or Sea-Snakes.. 395 The GadidPc or Cod.. 453 The Fresh-Water Snakes... 396 The Pleuronectidac or Flat-Fish.. 457 The Tree Snakes.. 397 The Physostomata.. 461 The Pine-Snake, Coach-whip Snake, &c. 399 The Clupeidwe or Herring, Shad, &c. 461 The Colubers.400 The Scopelide... 464 The Boide... 402 The Salmonidse or Salmon and Trout 464 The Galixiidse.. 470 The' Esocidce or Pike. 470 Class IV. BATRACHIA.. 407 The Mormyride... 473 The Cyprinidwe or Carp.. 473 Order 1. ANURA.408 The Peeciliidme.. 479 The Ranidae or Frogs. 408 The Characinida.... 479 The Bufonidae or Toads. 410 The Siluridae. 479 The Pipidae... 412 The Loricariid.... 480 The Amblyopsidae. 480 Order 2. URODELA 413 The Muraenidae or Eels 480 The Salamandridae'...413 The Gymnotide.. 482 The Amphiumida 417 The Symbranchidc e.. 483 Order 3. AMPHIPNEUSTA... 417 Order 4. CYCLOSTOMATA.. 483 The Sirenida.....41 The Proteide.. 417 Order 5. LEPTOCARDIA. 483 Fossil Fishes.... 484 Order 4. APODA.418 The Artificial Propagation of Fishes. 484 Order 5. LEPIDOTA. 418 ClassV. PISCES 419... Division II. MOLLUSCA... 487 Order 1. SELACHIA.424 Class 1. CEPHALOPODA 494 The Chimaeridae.... 425 The Squalidwe or Sharks.... 426 Order 1. DIBRANCHIATA. 494 TheRaiidae or Rays.... 428 The Octopoda...... 494 The Decapoda.499 Order 2. GANOIDEA. 431 The Chondrostea.... 431 Order 2. TETRABRANCHIATA. 502 The Holostea. 431 The Nautilida.503 The Ammonitidae... 503 Order 3. TELEOSTEA 432 The Plectognatha.....432 The Lophobranchia 433 Class II. GASTEROPODA. 505 The Acanthoptera.... 434 The AulostomidT or Trumpet-Fishes 434 Order 1. PULMONIFERA. 505 The Trigilidge or Gurnards & Sticklebacks 434 The Helicidae or Snails. 505 The Percidae or Perch.. 437 The Limacidee or Slugs. 507 The Scieenidae. 439 The Limnmeidae or Pond-Snails 507 The Sparide... 440 The Chaetodontidse.. 441 Order 2. BRANCHIFERA. 507 The Teuthide.. 442 The Prosobranchiata. 507 The Scomberidae or Mackerel, Tunny, &c. 442 The Cypraeidae or Cowries. 507 The Xiphiidae or Sword-Fish.. 445 The Conida... 508 The Coryphaenide.. 445 The Volutidae. 508 The Notacanthid... 445 The Muricidae or Whelks, Helmet-Shells, The Cepolidae or Ribbon-Fish.. 446 &c. 509 The Mugilids... 446 The Strombidae or Wing & Conch Shells 512 The Gobiide.. 447 The Turritellidas or Tower-Shells 512 The Blenniidse... 448 The Littorinidas or Wentle-Traps.. 512 The Lophiida... 449 The Turbinide or Top-Shells.. 513 vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. PAGE PAGE The Neritidwe or Sea-Snails 514 Division III. ARTICULATA.. 533 The Paludinidae or River-Snails 514 The Naticidee.. 514 The Ianthinide... 514 Class 1. INSECTA... 533 The Calyptraeidm... 514 The Haliotide or Ear-Shells 514 Order 1. COLEOPTERA. 541 The Fissurellide.. 515 The Pentamera...542 The Patellidae or Limpets.. 515 The Geodephaga or Ground-Beetles. 542 The Chitonide... 515 The Hydradelphaga. 545 The Dentaliidae or Tooth-Shells 516 The Brachelytra... 545 The Opisthobranchiata.. 516 The Philhydrida. 545 The Doridce or Sea-Lemons. 516 The Necrophaga... 546 The Triton'iide..516 The Helocera... 547 The zEolidid... 516 The Lamellicornia.. 547 The Pleurobranchida.. 516 The Sternoxia... 549 The Aplysiada.. 517 The Malacodermata. 550 The Bursatellida.., 517 The Heteromera.. 551 The Bullidae or Bubble-Shells. 517 The Trachelia.. 551 The Atrachelia... 552 Order 3. HETEROPODA. 517 The Tetramera..552 The Sagittidse. 518 The Rhynchophora.. 552 The Firolide..... 518 The Xylophaga. 553 The Atlantidae. 518 The Longicornia... 554 The Phytophaga.. 555 Class III. PTEROPOBDA 518 The Trimera... 555 The Coccinellide.. 555 Order 1. THECOSOMATA.. 518 Order 2. STREPSIPTERA... 556 Order 2. GYMNOSOMATA.. 519 Order 3. HYMENOPTERA... 556 Class IV. PA]LLlIOBRANCII1ATA, The Petiolata... 557 519 The Anthophila or Bees... 557 The Diploptera or Wasps and Hornets. 563 Class V. ]LATMELLIBRANCHIATA, The Fossoria..... 564 519 The Heterogyna or Ants.. 566 Order 1. SIPHONATA... 520 The Entomophaga. 567 The Veneracea... 520 The Gallicola or Gall Insects 568 The Mactridae or Beach-Clams. 521 The Securifera..569 The Myadae or Long-Clams.. 521 The Cardiacea or Cockles.. 522 Order 4. LEPIDOPTERA.. 570 The Chamacea or Giant-Clams.. 522 The Rhopalocera or Butterflies. 572 The Heterocera or Moths. 574 Order 2. ASIPHONATA. 523 The Sphingina.. 574 The Unionacea or Fresh-Water Clams. 523 The Psychidme.. 575 The Mytilacea or Mussels.. 524 The Bombycina. 575 The Arcacea. 524 The Noctuina..579 The Aviculacea or Pearl-Oysters 524 The Geometrina or Measuring-Worms 579 The Pectinidae or Scallops. 526 The Pyralidina..580 The Ostracea or Oysters.. 527 The Tortricina... 580 The Tineina... 580 Class VI. TUNIBCATA.. 530 Order 5. DIPTERA... 580 Order 1. BIPHORA.. 530 The Culicidae or Gnats.. 580 The Tipulidse.... 581 Order 2. ASCIDI..530 The (Estridme or Bot and Horse Flies. 581 The Muscidae or Flies.. 582 Class VIBI. BBYOZOA. 531 The Hippoboscidae or Forest-Flies. 583 Order 1. LOPHOPODA.... 532 Order 6. APHANIPTERA... 583 Order 2. INFUNDIBULATA. 532 Order 7. NEUROPTERA.... 583 The PhryganeidEe... 583 CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. vii PAGE PAGE The Panorpidse or Scorpion-Flies..584 The Anomura.. 607 The Myrmeleontida or Ant-Lions 584 The Paguride or Hermit-Crab, &c.. 607 The Libellulidae or Dragon-Flies..585 The Brachyura... 608 The Ephemeride. or Day-Flies. 586 The Maiade or Sea-Spiders... 608 The Psocide... 587 The Canceride or Crabs.. 608 The Termitidwe or White Ants. 587 The Portunide or Paddling-Crabs.609 The Ocypodidae or Land-Crabs. 609 Order 8. ORTHOPTERA... 588 The Forficulina or Earwig, &c.. 588 Order 2. STOMAPODA. 610 The Blattina or Cockroaches. 588 The Mantina or Praying-Beetles 589 Order 3. ISOPODA...611 The Phasmina... 590 The Achetina or Crickets... 590 Order 4. AMPHIPODA.. 6. 612 The Gryllina or Grasshoppers.. 591 The Locustina or Locusts... 592 Order 5. LEMiODIPODA... 612 Order 9. PHYSOPODA.... 593 Order 6. XYPHOSURA... 612 Order 10. RHYNCHOTA.. 593 Order 7. PHYLLOPODA. 613 The Heteroptera..... 5 93 The Homoptera..... 594 Order 8. OSTRACODA.. 613 The Coccina or Cochineal, &c... 594 The Phytophthiria or Plant-Lice, Hop- Order 9, COPEPODA 613 Flies, &c.... 595 The Cicadaria or Tree-Hoppers, Harvest- Order 10. PARASITA... 613 Flies, &c........595 Order 11. CIRRHOPODA.. 614 Order 11. THYSANURA... 596 Order 12. MALLOPHAGA. 597 Class V. ROTIFERA. 614 Order 13. ANOPLURA. 597 Order 1. NATANTIA. 615 Class I1I. TIIERIAPODA.. 598 Order 2. SESSILIA.. 615 Order 1. CHILOGNATHA... 599 Class VI. ANNELIDA.. 615 Order 2. CHILOPODA....599 Order 1, ERRANTIA..... 616 Class III. ARACHNIBDA.. 600 Order 2. TUBICOLA 616 Order 1. DIMEROS01SATA. 600 The Araneidme or Spiders... 602 Order 3. SCOLECINA... 618 The Lycosidae or Tarantula, &c...602 The Mygalidme or Spider-Crab, &c.. 603 Order 4. SUCTORIA. 619 Order 2. POLYMEROSOMATA... 603 Class VII. NE IWATELIIA. 620 Order 3. ADELARTHROSOMATA. 604 Order 1. NEMATOIDEA.. 620. Order 4. MONOMEROSOMATA... 604 Order 2. GORDIACEA... 620 Order 5. PODOSOXATA.. 604 Order 3. ACANTHOCEPHALA... 620 Class IV. CRUSTACEA... 605 Class VI5II. PLATYELMIIIA. 620 Order 1. DECAPODA.. 605 Order 1. PLANARIDA... 621 The Macrura..... 606 The Crangonidx or Shrimps and Prawns 606 Order 2. TREMATODA... 621 The Astacidae or Lobster, Cray-Fish, &c. 606 The Palinuridie or Spiny Lobster, &c. 607 Order 3. CESTOIDEA... 621 viii CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. PAGE PAGE Division IV. RADIATA.... 622 The Fungid. 638 The Zoanthid..... 638 The Actiniadae.. 638 Class 1. ECHINODER1IATA 623 The Lucernaride.... 639 Order 1. HOLOTHURIDA. 624 Order 2. ASTEROIDA. 639 The Tubiporide... 639 Order 2, ECHINIDA. 624 The Alcyonidae..... 640 The Gorgonid... 640 Order 3. STELLERIDA. 626 The Pennatulidme....641 The Euryalide..... 626 The Ophiuridae..... 627 Order 3. HYDROIDA. 641 The Asteride.... 627 The Hydraide... 641 The Sertularide.. 642 Order 4. CRINOIDEA..... 628 The Tubularida..... 642 The Encrinidae.... 628 Aquaria...... 643 The Comatulid.e.....630 Class II. SIPHONOPHORA. 630 Division V. PROTOZOA... 645 Order 1. PHYSOGRADA..630 Class 1. INFUSORIA... 646 Order 2. CHONDROGRADA.. 631 Order 1. STOMATODA. 646 The Monadide... 646 Class [III. CTENOPHORA. 631 The Vorticellidae... 647 Order 2. ASTOMATA.. 647 Class IV. DISCOPHORA.. 632 The Astaside. 648 The Peridinide.. 648 Order 1. STEGANOPHTHALMATA.. 634 The Opalinida..... 648 Order 2. GYMNOPHTHALMATA... 635 Class II. PORIFERA.. 648 Class V. POLYPI.. 635 Class III. RHIZOPODA. 650 Order 1. HELIANTHOIDA. 637 The Madreporide.. 637 Order 1. POLYTHALAMIA... 651 The Cyathophyllide... 637 The Astraeidae.... 637 Order 2. MONOSOMATA.... 651 DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. Group of Birds......................................... Frontispiece. Humming-Birds..................................... To face page 104 Blue Jays........................................... " 194 The Concave Hornbill............................... 206 Parrots and Cockatoos.............................. " 214 Doves and Pigeons............................ " 226 The Em eu.......................................... " " 262 The Sacred Ibis.................................... " 284 The Jabiru and Flamnigo.......................... " 2S6 Group of Waterfowl................................ " " 06 The Great Auk, Razor-Bills and Puffins.............. " " 330 The Gavial.......................................... " " 70 The Flying Dragon.........................' 80 The Hooded Serpent............................ " 394 The Black Snake and the Brown Thrushes.......... " " 400 ' i fILLUSTRATED,: jClass I. AVESO. I "OF all the animals by which we are surrounded in the ample field of nature," says an eminent writer, "there are none more remarkable in their appearance and habits than the Feathered Inhabitants of the Air. They play around us like fairy spirits, elude approach in an element which defies pursuit, soar out of our sight in the yielding sky, journey over our heads in marshaled ranks, dart like meteors in the sunshine of summer, or, seeking the solitary recesses of the forest or the waters, they glide before us like beings of fancy. They diversify the still landscape with the most lively motion and beautiful association; they come and go with the change of the seasons, and as their actions are directed by an uncontrollable instinct of provident nature, they may be considered as concomitant with the beauty of the surrounding scene. With what grateful sensations do we hail these faithful messengers of spring and summer after the lapse of the dreary VOL. II.-1 2 VERTEBRATA. winter, which compelled them to forsake us for more favored climes! Their songs, now hearc from the leafy groves and shadowy forests, inspire delight or recollections of the pleasing past ir every breast. How volatile, how playfully capricious, how musical and happy, are these roving sylphs of nature, to whom the earth, the air, and the waters, are almost alike habitable. Thein A lives are spent in boundless action and nature, with an omniscient benevolence, has assisted and formed them for this wonderful display of perpetual life and vigor in an element almost "', / their own."* A careful examination of the struc-.........\.. " ture of birds will show us that while G I/ the vertebrate form is preserved in the Hr.'_.5:- - Xskeleton, there is a wonderful adaptation of all the parts to the life these animals are to lead.. The prodigious..-.Adz."1 ~ o strength necessary to the wings is se/ < \9 | X cured by powerful muscles attached to i id -2g- Q the sternum or breast-bone. As they o t E are to sustain themselves in the air,.Q Adtthe requisite lightness is obtained by xX A^ R- ^making the bones hollow and the cov\ ft is^ cring of feathers. In order to facilitate respiration, which would otherwise':l- T^~ ^be obstructed in the rapidity of their 1 — T gflight, the air is not confined to the /btv 11^ Va ~ lungs, as in other animals, but passes A3^>At — v through into various membraneous cells exterior to the heart, and in some \T N~G~~f~S~ ~~cases is extended even down the wings. Birds, as well as quadrupeds, may ^^ \ 62 w vbe generally divided into two great v'.~^^~ -classes, according to their food, some SKELETON OF SPARROW-HAW. being Carnivorous, as eagles, owls, and A, Cranium or Skull.' B, Cervical vertebrae. C, The dotted lines indicate the extent of the anchylosed vertebra of the back. vultures, and others being Granivorous, D, The caudal vertebrae; the letter is placed on the plowshare or rump-bone.e, pheasats, ad doE, Ribs. F, Sternum, or breast-bone. G, Furcula, or merry-thought. as quails, H*, Scapula, or shoulder-blade, t 11*,Scapulaorsoulde, Forming the sidesman. mestic fowls; many, also, hold a midI, Humerus, or bone of the arm. dle place, and may be called OmnivK, Ulna, Bones of the fore-arm: on the ulna is the place of insertion of the e a l L, Radius, secondary quills. orous. Taken together, the food of M, Metacarpal bones, part of the hand which carries the primary quills. N, Phalanges of the fingers. birds is extremely varied, including P, Pubis, Bones of the pelvis fish and flesh, amphibia, reptiles, inQ orthih-bone o, Ptell, ornee-pn. ects, fruits, grains, seeds, roots, and R, Femur, or thigh-bone. o o, Patella, or knee-pan. sects, fruits grains seeds roots, and S, Tibia and fibula, or leg-bones consolidated. T T, Os calcis, or heel-bone. herbs. In the structure of the digestV V, Metatarsal, or shank-bones. W W, Toes. ive organs, they exhibit a great uniformity. The oesophagus, which is often very muscular, is usually dilated into a large sac, called the Crop, at its entrance into the breast; this is abundantly supplied with glands, and acts as a sort of first stomach, in which the food receives a certain amount of preparation before being submitted to the action of the proper digestive organs. A little below the crop the narrow cesophagus is again slightly dilated, forming what is called the ventriculus succenturiatus, the walls of which are thick, and contain a great number of glands, which secrete the gastric juice. Below *See "Manual of the Ornithology of the United States and Canada," by Thomas Nuttall, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 1834. CLASS II. AVES. 3 this, the intestinal canal is enlarged into a third stomach, the gizzard, in which the process of digestion is carried still further. In the granivorous birds, the walls of this cavity are very thick and muscular, and clothed internally with a strong, horny epithelium, serving for the trituration of the food; but in the predaceous species the gizzard is thin and membraneous. The intestine is rather short, but usually exhibits several convolutions; the large intestine is always furnished with two cceca. It opens by a semicircular orifice into the cloaca, which also receives the orifices of the urinary and generative organs. The liver is of large size, and usually furnished with a gallbladder. The pancreas is lodged in a sort of loop formed by the small intestine immediately after quitting the gizzard. There are also large salivary glands in the neighborhood of the mouth, which pour their secretion into that cavity. The organs of circulation and respiration in birds are adapted to their peculiar mode of life: they are not, however, separated from the abdominal cavity by a diaphragm, as in the mammalia. The heart consists of four distinctly separated cavities-two auricles and two ventricles-so that the venous and arterial blood can never mix in that organ, and the whole of the blood returned from the different parts of the body passes through the lungs before being again driven into the systemic arteries. The blood is received from the veins of the body in the right auricle, from which it passes through a valvular openirg into the right ventricle, and is thence driven into the lungs. From these organs it returns through the pulmonary veins into the left auricle, and passes thence into the ventricle of the same side, by the contraction of which it is driven into the aorta. This soon divides into two branches, which by their further subdivision give rise to the arteries of the body. The jaws or mandibles are sheathed in a horny case, usually of a conical form, on the sides of which are the nostrils. In most birds the sides of this sheath or bill are smooth and sharp, but in some they are denticulated along the margins. The two anterior members of the body are extended into wings. The beak is used instead of hands, and such is the flexibility of the vertebral column, that the bird is able to touch with its beak every part of its body. This curious and important result is obtained chiefly by the lengthened vertebrae of the neck, which in the swan consists of twenty-three bones, in the stork of nineteen, the ostrich eighteen, the domestic cock thirteen, the raven twelve. The vertebrae of the back are seven to eleven; the ribs never exceed ten on each side. The clothing of the skin of birds, consists offeathers, which in their nature and development resemble hair, but are of a far more complicated structure. A perfect feather consists of the shaft or central stem, which is tubular at the base, where it is inserted into the skin, and the barbs or fibers, which form the webs on each side of the shaft. The two principal modifications of feathers are quills and plumes, the former confined to the wings and tail, the latter constituting the general clothing of the body. Besides the common feathers, the skin of many birds, and especially of the aquatic species, in which the accessory plumules rarely exist, is covered with a thick coating of down, which consists of a multitude of small feathers of peculiar construction; each of these down feathers is composed of a very small, soft tube imbedded in the skin, from the interior of which there rises a small tuft of soft filaments, without any central shaft. These filaments are very slender, and bear on each side a series of still more delicate filaments, which may be regarded as analogous to the barbules of the ordinary feathers. This downy coat fulfills the same office as the soft, woolly fur of many quadrupeds, the ordinary feathers being analogous to the long, smooth hair by which the fur of those animals is concealed. The skin also bears a good many hair-like appendages, which are usually scattered sparingly over its surface; they rise from a bulb which is imbedded in the skin, and usually indicate their relation to the ordinary feathers by the presence of a few minute barbs toward the apex. Once or twice in the course of the year the whole plumage of the bird is renewed, the casting of the old feathers being called moulting. In many cases the new clothing is very different from that which it replaces, and in birds inhabiting temperate and cold climates we can frequently distinguish a summer and winter dress. This circumstance has given rise to the formation of a considerable number of false species, as the appearance of the birds in these different states is often very dissimilar, and it is only by an accurate study of the living animals, which is of course almost 4 VERTEBRATA. THE IMPERIAL EAGLE: ILLUSTRATION OF THE PLUMAGE OF BIRDS. impossible with many exotic birds, that such mistakes as these can be prevented or rectified. Another fertile source of similar errors is to be found in the difference which very commonly exists between the two sexes, a difference which is often so great that, without particular information derived from the observation of the birds in their native haunts, it would be impossible to refer the males and females to their proper partners; and the difficulty is still further increased by the fact that the young of all birds in their first plumage differ more or less from their parents, CLASS II. AVES 5 and frequently only acquire their mature dress after the lapse of three or four years, the plumage undergoing a certain change at each moult. These circumstances undoubtedly throw great difficulties in the way of the student of ornithology, and it is perhaps not much to be wondered at, if we have sometimes half a dozen different names for different states of the same species; but it must also be confessed, that in this, as in other departments of natural history, the desire to describe new species has often led to an unjustifiable multiplication of errors of this description. In a zoological point of view the greatest importance attaches to the feathers of the wings and tail, to which different names have been given. The quills are inserted into all the bones of the wing, but the longest are those attached to the bones of the hand, and to these the name of primaries is given. The feathers supported by the fore-arm are denominated secondaries, and those attached to the humerus tertiaries. The thumb also bears a few quills, which form what is called the alula, or bastard wing. These, and some other feathers to which particular names have been given, are shown in the annexed engraving. The base of the quills is covered by a series of large feathers called the wing coverts, which are also distinguished into primary and - secondary. The feathers of the tail are fur|~Inn ~~~~ nished with numerous muscles, by which they "~1i~~C~ ~ ~ E~~6~8~can be spread out and folded up like a fan. Their bases are also covered both above and l Ail ~l JI g Si Sl,, beneath by smaller feathers, which are called the tail coverts. It is impossible to conceive any covering more beautifully adapted to the peculiar wants of these creatures than that with which they are endowed by nature. All the feathers being directed backward, the most rapid motion through the air only tends to press them more closely to the body, and the warm air, confined among the inner downy fibers, is thus effectually prevented from escaping. In the aquatic birds the feathers are constantly lubricated by an oily secretion, which completely excludes the water. In the wings the quill-feathers exhibit in the A, ear coverts; B, bastard wing; C D E wing coverts; F, prima- highest degree a union of the two qualities of ries; G, scapulars; H, secondaries; I, tail coverts; K, under tail coverts, not shown, lightness and strength, while by their arrangement they can be folded together into a very small compass. In their reproduction birds are strictly oviparous. The eggs are always inclosed in a hard shell, consisting of calcareous matter, and, unlike the animals of some of the succeeding classes, birds, instead of abandoning the hatching of their eggs and the development of their offspring to chance, almost invariably devote their whole attention, during the breeding season, to this important object, sitting constantly upon the eggs to communicate to them the degree of warmth necessary for the evolution of the embryo, and attending to the wants of their newly-hatched young, until the latter are in a condition to shift for themselves. Most birds live in pairs during the breeding season, which usually occurs only once in the year; in many cases the conjugal union is for life. Both sexes generally take an equal part in the care of the young. They usually form a nest of some description for the reception of the eggs; this is composed of the most diverse materials, such as sticks, moss, wool, vegetable fibers, &c.; in many instances the work of these little architects must excite the admiration of every observer. The nests of different individuals of the same species are generally not only of the same form, but even composed nearly of the same materials, so that a person, accustomed to the inspection of 6 VERTEBRATA. THE GOLDEN ORIOLE: ILLUSTRATION OF PAIRING AND NEST-BUILDING. birds' nests, can generally tell at a glance the species to which a particular nest belongs. The number of eggs laid is also very uniform in each species. In the structure and development of the egg, we find a great uniformity throughout this class, the development of the embryo taking place here in precisely the same manner as in the reptiles. But notwithstanding this general uniformity in the processes of reproduction, there is a remarkable difference in the condition of the young birds at the moment of hatching, and this has given rise to the division of the class into two great sections. In some, which usually reside upon the ground, where they form their nests and hatch their young, the latter are able to run about from the moment of their breaking the egg-shell, and the only care of the parents is devoted to protecting their offspring from danger, and leading them into those places where they are likely to meet with food. The others, which in fact constitute the majority of the class, pass more of their time in the air, and generally repose upon the trees, or in other elevated situations, where they also build their nests, and the young birds for some time after they are hatched, remain in the nest in a comparatively helpless state, their parents bringing them food, and attending upon them most assiduously until their feathers are sufficiently grown to enable them to support themselves upon the wing. A chicken or a partridge, a day after it is hatched, will run about and pick up seeds, separating them from the gravel among which they lie, while the young of the tree-birds remain often a month in the nest, receiving without discrimination what is given by their parents. This difference between the young of the two classes will be more apparent by a glance at the engravings pages 7 and 8. The first represents a young curlew, a day or two old, going forth with all his faculties awake, and almost ready to make his way in the world; the other CLASS II AVES. 7 THE YOUNG CURLEW. presents a barn-owl, which has reached the comparative old age of a month, and yet-though it may possess something of the serious and knowing aspect of the Bird of Wisdom-seems still sadly puzzled to know which foot he ought to put first. The longevity of birds is various, and, differing from the case of men and quadrupeds, seems to bear little proportion to the age at which they acquire maturity. A few months, or even a few weeks, are sufficient to bring them to their perfection of stature, instincts, and powers. Land animals generally live five or six times as long as the period of their growth, that is, the time required for reaching their maturity; while birds live ten times as long as the period of their growth. Domestic fowls, pigeons, and canaries live to the age of twenty years; parrots thirty, geese fifty, pelicans eighty; swans, ravens, and eagles exceed a century. The velocity with which birds are able to travel in their aerial element has no parallel among terrestrial animals. The swiftest horse may run a mile in something less than two minutes, but this speed can only be sustained for a very brief period, while birds in their migrations move at the rate of a mile a minute for several successive hours. Many of them, no doubt, actually travel six to eight hundred miles a day, and are thus able to go from the arctic to the torrid zones in three or four days. A falcon, sent to the Duke of Lerma from Teneriffe to Andalusia, returned in sixteen hours, a distance of seven hundred and eighty miles. The gulls of Barbadoes go to the distance of two hundred miles in search of their food, making a daily flight of four hundred miles. The migrations of birds are among the most curious and wonderful phenomena connected with their natural history. In some cases these are of comparatively small extent, being prompted only by the necessity of obtaining a supply of food; but many species, known as Birds of Passage, perform long journeys twice in the year, visiting temperate or even cold climates during the summer, and quitting them on the approach of winter for more genial climes. The great object of this movement in the economy of nature is to rear their young in the solitude or security of the colder zones, away from the destructive animals-serpents, monkeys, cats, and other predaceous beasts-which infest the tropics. As these birds have neither reason nor experience, they are endowed with instincts which guide them in their wanderings, often extending across seas 8 VERTEBRATA. YOUNG BARN-OWL. (See page 6.) and rivers and continents for thousands of miles. The various modes in which these migrations are performed by different species are exceedingly curious. Some of them, as owls, butcherbirds, kingfishers, thrushes, fly-catchers, night-hawks, whippoorwills, &c., fly only at night, and others, as crows, wrens, pies, creepers, cross-bills, larks, bluebirds, swallows, &c., only in the day. Many move near the earth, while others soar beyond the reach of vision; some go noiseless as the shadows; others proceed with all the noisy parade of a military march. Some-as our bluebird, robin, blackbird, meadow-lark, cedar-bird, pewee, &c.-do not generally pass beyond the boundaries of our North American continent; they go only so far as may be necessary to find food, and consequently are the first to return with spring; others-as the herons, plovers, swans, cranes, wild geese, &c.-are so impelled by the migratory instinct that they stop neither day nor night till they have reached their far southern homes. While most proceed wholly on their wings, there are some, as the coots and rails, that make a part of their long journey on foot, and others, as the guillemots, divers, and penguins, that make their voyage chiefly by dint of swimming! The young loons, bred in inland lakes and ponds, without the use of their wings, pursue their route by floundering from pond to pond at night until they reach some creek connected with the sea; upon this they fearlessly launch themselves, and finally work their way through storm and calm to the milder zone which they seek. These migrations, it may be observed, are chiefly confined to birds that are bred in temperate climates; but it appears that those which are natives of warm regions have a similar movement, though of less extent. In considering the senses of birds, we shall observe that Smell is generally less acute in them CLASS II. AVES. 9 than in quadrupeds. The nasal cavity exhibits but few convolutions, and in some birds the external nasal apertures are either entirely wanting or. reduced to a very small size. The auditory apparatus is well developed, and the Hearing is very perfect, though there is no external ear. The sense of Taste is enjoyed in a very inferior degree; the Sight surpasses in power any thing with which we are acquainted in other animals. The eyes are large, but have little power of motion; in some birds, as the owls, they are immovable in their sockets. They are furnished with two movable eyelids and a nictating membrane, which performs the process of winking, thus shielding and clearing the eyes without closing the sight. The eye is adapted alike to near and distant vision, so that a bird a thousand feet in the air is able to see, on the earth beneath, the small quadrupeds or reptiles or insects, or even the grain on which it is to feed. By its gift of vision the bird is able to discover at a glance its way amid the mazes of the forest, and to distinguish birds, reptiles, and insects whose colors blend with the objects of nature around and conceal them from the sight of man. There is nothing, perhaps, more remarkable in this interesting class of animated beings than the voice. The windpipe is wider and stronger in birds than in any other animals, and usually terminates in a large cavity, which augments the sound. The lungs, too, have greater extent, and as we have stated, communicate with internal cavities which are capable of being expanded with air-thus, besides lightening the body, giving additional force to the voice. The scream of the eagle seventeen thousand feet in the air, and thus more than three miles distant, may be distinctly heard, and the calls of flocks of storks and geese, beyond the reach of sight and equally remote, are often audible. And these wonderful powers of voice are infinitely diversified in their expression and use, from the simplest call to the most complicated and elaborate song. Every species of bird has a peculiarity of voice possessed by no other. By this variety of vocal endowment they are enabled to express to one another their wants and passions. This power of communication exists not only between the sexes, but between all individuals of the same species. The least experienced observer of nature knows, too, that the approach of danger is expressed by a universally intelligible cry, which, if uttered by the wren, for instance, is understood by the turkey-cock, and vice versa. Of whatever species the one may be which first perceives the approach of a bird of prey, it is able to excite the attention of all birds in the neighborhood by its peculiar cry of warning. As soon as the blue-tit utters her Iss! so indicative of fear and terror-which, nevertheless, she seems sometimes to do from pure love of mischief-the wood is silent in an instant, and every bird either listens for the enemy's coming, or hastens to the aid of the comrade who is attacked. This peculiarity is so marked, that in Europe the fowlers have not failed to turn it to purposes of profit. They build a hut, thatch it with green boughs, and cover the roof with a plentiful supply of limed twigs. They then display a screech-owl or other bird of prey, imitate the sonorous cry of a jay or woodpecker in fear and distress, and birds of every size and species flock to the hut and are caught. The tones of happiness and joy, by which one bird is able to call forth from another a similar expression of feeling, seem to be almost as universally intelligible. Nor is this joy shown by song alone, although when one little creature begins to sing, the whole wood, or, among domesticated birds, the whole room, soon manifests its sympathy by a general chorus. The same is frequently indicated by single notes. In spring and autumn a great variety of species may often be noticed in hedges and bushes, which seem to take great delight in the utterance of a common cry. Again, when in confinement, birds may often be induced to sing by various noises, loud conversation, and above all, by instrumental music, though on wild birds these means would produce no other effect than to frighten them away. In many cases, also, different species have a language, which serves for various purposes of mutual communication. For instance, ravens, crows, jackdaws, &c., understand and respond, both by voice and action, to each other's call. By imitating the call of the yellow-hammer, the birdcatchers of Europe succeed in taking the ortolan, the snow-bunting, the reed-bunting, the foolish bunting, &c.; the cry of the chaffinch decoys the mountain-finch, and that of the siskin attracts the citron-finch and the redpole. "Every bird," says Bechstein, "has received from nature the power of uttering either a song or VOL. II. 2 10 VERTEBRATA. certain distinct sounds, by which it can communicate its desires not only to those of its own, but of other species. These notes, if connected in a melodious succession, are called a song; if unconnected, a call. In some cases the call is the same, however different the emotions which it is intended to express; in others, it is very various. For instance, the chaffinch's call, when on the wing, is Eyak! eyak! its expression of joy is Fink! fink! —if angry, the same syllable is repeated more quickly-and Trief! trief! is the sign of tenderness or melancholy. The raven's callGraab! graab!-is, on the contrary, the same under all circumstances, and the only indication of a change of emotion is the degree of rapidity with which it is uttered. " What is called the Song of Birds is, in all cases, expressive either of love or happiness. Thus, the nightingale sings only during the pairing season and the period of incubation, and is silent as soon as compelled to feed its young; while, on the contrary, the starling, the bullfinch, and the canary, sing throughout the year, except when dejected by moulting. It seems, in general, to be a prerogative of the males, by which they either invite or seek to retain the affections of the females. There are indeed a few species, as in the European redbreast and lark, and in the canary, &c., the females of which, especially if kept by themselves, manifest a capability of uttering a few notes like those of the male; but in general they only listen to the song of the males, in order to show their preference for the most accomplished singer. In a cage of canaries, the liveliest female always pairs with the best singer, and a female chaffinch, when wild, will choose out of a hundred males, the mate whose song is most pleasing to her." Some birds sing throughout the day; some are heard early in the morning; others in the evening, and a few seem to prefer the silence of the night. Some prefer to sing in company; others are mute except when alone. The nightingale, for instance, is silent in the daytime, and sings only in the evening, or at night. It seems, indeed, as if the queen of European song birds was conscious of the superiority of her powers, and disdained to raise her voice amid the various noises of the day and the cry and twitter of other birds, but reserved it for a period when it could be better heard and more fully appreciated by men. It is remarkable, that all birds which, unlike the redbreast, siskin, or bullfinch, do not sing throughout the year, appear to forget their song during the process of moulting, and have to learn it again every spring. "The melody of birds," says Broderip, "finds its way to the heart of every one; but the cause that prompts the outpourings, that make copse, rock, and river ring again on a fine spring morning, is more a matter of doubt with ornithologists than the uninitiated in zoological mysteries might suppose. Much has been written on this subject, and upon a consideration of the different opinions, aided by our own observations, we are inclined to think that love and rivalry are the two great stimulants, though we do not mean to deny that a bird may sing from mere gayety of heart, arising from finding itself in the haunts dear to it, and in the midst of plenty of the food it likes.' In England, the season of reproduction is undoubtedly that wherein'The isle is full of pleasant noises, Sounds, and sweet airs, that give delight;' and about ten weeks have been mentioned as the period during which most of our wild birds are in song. That there are exceptions to this rule there is no doubt. We have heard a wild thrush, one of the sweetest singers of his tribe, sing far into September, but we watched narrowly and never could find that he had a mate. Then, again, we have the autumnal, and even the winter notes of the robin, long after the breeding season; and caged birds, if well fed and kept, will sing the greater part of the year." No naturalist appears to have paid greater attention to this part of our subject than Colonel Montague, and his remarks thereupon are exceedingly interesting. "There is no doubt," he says, "that birds in confinement will learn the song of those they are kept with; but then it is constantly blended with that peculiar to the species. In the spring, the very great exertions of the male birds in their vociferous notes are certainly the calls to love, and the peculiar note of each is an unerring mark for each to discover its own species. If a confined bird had learned the song of another, without retaining any part of its natural notes, and was set at liberty, it is probable it would never find a mate of its own species; and even supposing it did, there is no CLASS II. AVES. 11 reason for believing the young of that bird would be destitute of its native notes; for if nestling birds have no innate notes peculiar to their species, and their song is only learned from the parent bird, how are we to account for the invariable note each species possesses, when it happens that two different species are bred up in the same bush, or in the contiguous one, or when hatched or fostered by a different species? The males of song birds do not in general search for the female, but, on the contrary, their business in the spring is to perch on some conspicuous spot, breathing out their full and amorous notes, which, by instinct, the female knows, and repairs thither to choose her mate. This is particularly verified with respect to summer birds of passage. The nightingale, and most of its genus, although timid and shy to a degree, mount aloft, and incessantly pour forth their strains, each seemingly vying in its lone, love-labored song, before the female arrives. No sooner does the female make her appearance than dreadful battles ensuetheir notes are changed; their song is sometimes hurried through without the usual grace and elegance, and at other times modulated into a soothing melody. The first we conceive to be a provocation to battle at the appearance of another male; the last, an amorous cadence, or courting address. This variety of song only lasts till the female is fixed in her choice, which is in general a few days after her arrival, and if the season is favorable, she soon begins the task allotted to her sex. "The male no longer exposes himself as before, nor are his songs heard so frequently, or so loud; but while she is searching for a secure place in which to build her nest, he is no less assiduous in attending her with ridiculous gestures, accompanied with peculiarly soft notes. When incubation takes place, the song of the male is again heard, but not so frequently as at first; he never rambles from hearing, and seldom from her sight, and if she leaves the nest, he accompanies her with soft notes of love. "The continuation of song in caged birds by no means proves it is not occasioned by a stimulus to love; indeed, it is probable that redundancy of animal spirits from plenty of food and artificial heat may produce the same result, whereas wild birds have it abated by a commerce with the other sex; but even in their natural state birds may be forced to continue their song much longer than usual. A male redstart made his appearance near my house early in spring, and soon commenced his love-tuned song. In two days after, a female arrived, which for several days the male was continually chasing, emitting soft, interrupted notes, accompanied by a chattering noise. This sort of courting lasted for several days. Soon after, the female took possession of a hole in a wall close to my house, where she prepared a nest and deposited six eggs. The male kept at a distance from the nest; sometimes sang, but not so loud nor so frequently as at first, and never when he approached the nest. When the eggs had been sat on a few days I caught the female. The male did not miss his mate immediately, but on the next day he resumed his vociferous calls, and his song became incessant for a week, when I discovered a second female;his note immediately changed, and all his actions as before described, returned. This experiment has been repeated on the nightingale with the same result; and a golden-crested wren, who never found another mate, continued his song from the month of May till the latter end of August. On the contrary, another of the same species, who took possession of a fir-tree in my garden, ceased its notes as soon as the young were hatched." In some comments upon the above, Rennie expresses an opinion that birds sing most frequently from joy and buoyancy of spirits, and not unfrequently in triumphant defiance of rivalry or attack. He says: "I have a redbreast who will sing out whenever I snap my fingers at him, and the sedge-bird sings when a stone is thrown into the bush where he may be." According to Syme, the song of birds may be divided into six distinct utterances: first, there is the call-note of the mate in spring; second, the loud, clear, and fierce notes of defiance; third, the soft, tender, full, melodious love-warble; fourth, the notes of fear when danger approaches the nest; fifth, the note of alarm, or war-cry, when a bird of prey appears; sixth, the note the parent birds utter to their brood, and the chirp or note of the young. This latter he again divides into two-that which the young birds utter while in the nest and that after they have left it. And to these several utterances he adds the soft, murmuring kind of note which the male emits while he is feeding the female on the nest, and also that uttered by her while receiving the food. 12 VERTEBRATA. Barrington remarks that " some passages in the song of a few kinds of birds correspond with the intervals of our musical scale, but that much the greater part of such a song is not capable of musical notation, because-first, the rapidity is often too great, and it is also so uncertain where they may stop, that it is impossible to reduce the passages to form a musical bar in any time whatsoever; secondly, on account of the pitch of most birds being considerably higher than the most shrill notes of instruments of the greatest compass; and lastly, because the intervals used by birds are commonly so minute that we cannot judge at all of them from the more gross intervals into which our musical octave is divided." We shall not follow this accomplished naturalist through the whole of his interesting observations upon this subject. The table which follows will serve to show his estimate of the comparative merits of some of the leading feathered vocalists. BARRINGTON S TABLE OF MUSICAL BIRDS. Designed to exhibit the comparative merit of British Song Birds.. Twenty is supposed to be the point of absolute perfection. S s S ( 1. Nightingale. 19 14 19 19 19 2. Blackcap, or Mock-Nightingale..14 12 12 14 14 3. Skylark......... 4 19 4 18 18 4. Woodlark..... 4 1 12 8 5. Titlark............ 12 12 12 12 12 6. Linnet...... 12...2 1 18 7. Goldfinch............ 12 12 8. Chaffinch.....4 12 4 8 8 9. Greenfinch..........4 4 4 4 6 10. Thrush............ 4 4 4 4 4 11. Blackbird........... 4 4 2 2 12. Robin............ 6 1612 1212 13. Wren.. 12 0 4 4 14. Hedge-Sparrow...... 6 6 4 4 15. Reed-Sparrow.. 4. 2 2 16. Aberdevine or Siskin.2 4 4 4 17. Redpole...... 0. 4i () 4 4 There have been frequent attempts to express the calls as well as the songs of birds by words, but we think with little success. To the ears of different persons, these sounds usually suggest very different words. In some cases it is no doubt otherwise. Waterton tells us that in the awful and interminable forests of Demerara, the night-bound stranger sees a spectral shape flit before him suddenly, crying out, "Who are you; who, who are you?" Another instantly approaches, and, as if commanding some infernal agent to apply the lash to a slave, exclaims-" Work away, work away, work away!" A third appears, and mournfully cries-" Willy come go; willy, willy, willy come go!" Wilson tells us that the benighted traveler in our western wilds, seated by his camp-fire, is often saluted by a boding wing sweeping down from the trees, with a cry-" Wagh ho, wagh ho, who cooks for you all?" Buffon says that one of his servants, who slept in a turret of a castle, heard an owl exclaiming-" Poopoo, poopoo, aim6, heme, edme," and supposing himself called, replied-" Who are you there below? My name's Peter, not Edme." There is no mistaking the strange, hurried cry of the Southern goat-sucker-" Chuck Will's Widow! Chuck Will's Widow 1" and the "Whip Tom Kelly, Whip Tom Kelly," of the tufted titmouse, is equally distinct. But there are other notes of birds the sounds or associations of which are more equivocal. To our English ears the monotonous, but still wild and plaintive cry of the whippoorwill, would seem to be unmistakably distinct, but to the ears of the Delaware Indian it was simply a repetition of "Weecollis, weecollis." One man thinks he frequently hears the name of "Jim Richardson, Jim Richardson," in the merry jingle of the boblink; another as definitely makes out the name of "Tom Denney, Tom Denney." The popular school-boy report of his lay is "Bob-o-link, bob-olink, Tom Denney, Tom Denney, come and pay me the two-and-sixpence you have owed me this year and a half. Come, Tom Denney, Tom Denney; tshe, tshe, tsh, tsh, tshe!" but others consider the impertinent dun as addressed to Jim Richardson. Among the multitude of interpretations of the song of this bird is the following, which seems to us to express much of its jolly, rollicking humor: CLASS II. AVES. 13 THE OLINCON FAMILY.' A flock of merry singing-birds were sporting in the grove; Some were warbling cheerily, and some were making love; There were Bobolincon, Wadolincon, Winterseeble, Conquedle,A livelier set was never led by tabor, pipe, or fiddle, Crying, "Phew, shew, Wadolincon, see, see, Bobolincon, Down among the tickletops, hiding in the buttercups! I know the saucy chap, I see his shining cap Bobbing in the clover there,-see, see, see!" Up flies Bobolincon, perching on an apple-tree, Startled by his rival's song, quickened by his raillery. Soon he spies the rogue afloat, curvetting in the air, And merrily he turns about, and warns him to beware! "'Tis you that would a-wooing go, down among the rushes! But wait a week, till flowers are cheery,-wait a week, and, ere you marry, Be sure of a house wherein to tarry! Wadolink, Whiskodink, Tom Denny, wait, wait, wait!" Every one's a funny fellow; every one's a little mellow; Follow, follow, follow, follow, o'er the hill and in the hollow! Merrily, merrily, there they hie; now they rise and now they fly; They cross and turn, and in and out, and down in the middle, and wheel about,With a " Whew, shew, Wadolincon! listen to me, Bobolincon!Happy's the wooing that's speedily doing, that's speedily doing, That's merry and over with the bloom of the clover! Bobolincon, Wadolincon, Winterseeble, follow, follow me!" Oh, what a happy life they lead, over the hill and in the mead! How they sing, and how they play! See, they fly away, away! Now they gambol o'er the clearing,-off again, and then appearing! Poised aloft on quivering wing, now they soar, and now they sing:"We must all be merry and moving; we must all be happy and loving; For when the midsummer has come, and the grain has ripened its ear, The haymakers scatter our young, and we mourn for the rest of the year, Then Bobolincon, Wadolincon, Winterseeble, haste, haste away!" All this is very descriptive, but still to other minds, as we have already shown, these songs of the bobolink have suggested not only entirely different sounds, but different associations. And the case is the same, when an attempt is made to write down, by the use of letters, the sportive notes uttered by most other birds. It would be easy to select numerous illustrations of this from books of natural history, but the following will suffice: Tiou, tiou, tiouf tio —Spe, tiou, squa-Tio, tio, tio, tio, tio, tio, tio, tix-Coutio, coutio, coutio, coutio-Squo, squo, squo, squ —Tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzn, tzu, tzu, tzi-Corror, tiou, squa, pipiqui-Zozozozozozozozozozozozo, zirrhading!-Tsissisi, tsissisisisisisisis-Dzorre, dzorre, dzorre, dzorre, hi-Tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, dzi-Dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo-Quio, tr rrrrrrrr itz-Lu, lu, lu, lu, ly, ly, ly, ly, lie, lie, lie, li —Quio didl li lulylie —Hagur, gurr, quipio!-Coui, coui, coui, coui, qui, qui, qui, gui, gui, gui, gui-Goll goll goll goll guia hadadoi-Couigui, horr, ha diadia dill si! —Hezezezezezezezezezezezezezezezeze couar ho dze hoi — Quia, quia, quia, quia, quia, quia, quia, quia ti —Ki, ki, ki, io, io, io, ioioioio ki-Lu ly li le lai la, leu lo, didl io quia-Kigaigaigaigaigaigaigaigai guiagaigaigai couior dzio dzio pi." We think it will be equally surprising to those who have and those who have not heard the Nightingale, to learn that this is given to the world as a literal transcript of the song of that renowned bird, and by one of its greatest admirers and most profound students-the celebrated author of the work on Cage Birds-Dr. Bechstein. An attempt to transcribe the song of our catbird or brown thrush, and still more surely the mocking-bird, would present a similar wilderness of inexpressible syllables. The simple truth is, that the melody of birds can neither be written nor *From " The Atlantic Monthly" for October, 1858, which has an interesting article on " The Birds of the Orchard and the Garden." 14 VERTEBRATA. imitated. "It must be listened to, and that by one whose senses are properly attuned to outward harmony by an indwelling and abiding love of the beautiful and the pure in nature: to him the soaring lark will seem indeed to pour forth at heaven's gate, a morning hymn of praise, and the nightingale to chant amid the leafy woodlands a vesper song of thankfulness: the full chorus of feathered minstrelsy will be to him like an angel choir, scattering melody on all around, which sinks into the soul like summer rain into the earth, gladdening and refreshing it." We have thus far been speaking of the native melody of birds. But many species are endowed by nature not only with wonderful powers of voice, but with accuracy of ear and powers of memory which enable them to catch and repeat artificial songs. It might be added that many of them are capable of being taught to perform various tricks. Not only the parrot, but many other species, can be so instructed as to imitate the human voice, and articulate words. There is, in truth, no end to the curiosities presented by a careful study of the feathered tribes. Their industry and ingenuity in building their nests, is a theme of admiring wonder alike to the naturalist and the common observer. The forecast of some birds in regard to the coming weather, often seems like prophecy, and they actually perform what the charlatan almanac-maker only pretends to do. The stratagems employed by birds to escape danger, to elude pursuit, and to defend their young, and especially the display of art in the construction of their nests with a view to concealment, are in the highest degree curious and entertaining. Indeed, in whatever way we may view the feathered tribes which surround us, they are a constant source of amusement and instruction. Without them, the world would be divested of one of its greatest and most abiding charms. Not only do they enliven the landscape by their beautiful forms, and varied colors, and graceful motions-not only do they fill the air and enliven the heart by their songs; but some of the more graceful and gifted species often become inmates of our houses, and thus preserve for us, amid the rigors of the winter, glimpses of the departed spring and summer. They thus offer a ceaseless and boundless contribution to the pleasures of the world at large; especially do they furnish an inexhaustible field of delightful inquiry to the scientific student of nature. IS l11 CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. THE GOLDEN EAGLE. ORDER 1. RAPTORES. The word Raptores, from the Latin, signifying robbers, but partially characterizes this order, for many of the species are not only robbers, but assassins and butchers. Among the birds of smaller size and gentler aspect, which we call Passeres, we shall find instances of species which are exceedingly predaceous in their disposition, devouring not only insects and worms, which in fact constitute a considerable portion of the food of most of them, but also tyrannizing over the smaller birds and other vertebrated animals, in a style which would justify us in applying to them the denomination of birds of prey. It is, however, in the present order that we find the powers of destruction developed to the fullest extent; indeed, the whole structure of the Raptorial birds is evidently adapted to the incessant warfare which they wage upon their neighbors. Nevertheless, some of these birds are of a more peaceful nature, and feed exclusively upon the bodies of animals which they find already dead, although in all their characteristics they are unmistakable members of this order. 16 VERTEBRATA. Amongst their distinctive features the most important are those furnished by the bill and feet. The former of these organs is always rather short and strong, with the upper mandible longer than the lower one, strongly hooked at the tip, or curved throughout its whole length, very sharp at the point, and sometimes armed with teeth on the margins. The base of the bill is covered by a cere, in which the nostrils are pierced. The feet are usually short and powerful, composed of four toes, armed with long, curved, and acute claws. With the latter these birds seize their prey in a deadly grasp, and with them they hold the victim whilst the powerful bill is engaged in tearing off portions of its flesh. At the same time, the wings are always of large size, and often of extraordinary length, giving the birds an astonishing rapidity of flight. The tail is long and broad, usually composed of twelve feathers; it is sometimes rounded and sometimes forked at the end. The tarsi are rarely furnished with scutella as in the Passerine birds, but, like the toes, they are generally covered with a reticulated skin, although in some cases a few scutella are found upon the front of the tarsi and the upper part of the toes. The latter are arranged three in front and one behind, and the anterior toes are usually united at the base by a short membrane, except in the owls, in which the outer toe is capable of being turned backward and the inner one alone is united to the middle toe by a membrane. In some instances the feet are feathered down to the toes. The raptorial birds are very generally distributed over the globe. They vary greatly in size, but the majority feed upon the flesh of animals which they capture for themselves; some of the smaller species, however, condescend to prey upon insects. They are divided into three extensive families, the Falcons, the Vultures, and the Owls. THE FALCONID.l In this family, which not only includes Falcons proper, but Hawks and Eagles, the destructive power is most perfectly developed; and we find in the birds composing it natural instruments for striking, trussing, and dissecting their prey, combined with a power of flight and strength of limbs equivalent to the necessities of the case, ^ — __ r,,\\\\nw~~\\whether the prey be aerial-that is, in the act of flight-or on the ground. These natural weapons i\' are rendered still more formidable by the organization of the whole animal, which is calculated to \'w\l\ ll IP i; give them the greatest possible effect. The nails,''1 or claws, to be available, must be sharp; and, in }\ 2^~ ^order that they may be kept in this state and fit for duty, there is a provision to enable the bird to \. prevent them from coming in contact with the -\':.~...ground or other foreign hard bodies; for the claws are retractile, not indeed in the same manner as those of the cats, which have the power of withdrawing or sheathing theirs within the integuments, but by a conformation which gives the bird of prey the power of elevating its claws at pleasure. The claws of falcons when sitting on stones or large branches of trees have often a cramped appearance; but this arises in most instances from the care of the bird so to arrange its talons that their points may not be blunted against the perch. HEAD AND FOOT OF PEREGRINE FALCON. It is one of the remarkable characteristics of this family, in common with other Raptores, that the females are considerably larger than the males. All the Falconidae have wings of large size, and are remarkably powerful fliers. They pursue CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. IT THE ICELAND FALCON. their prey almost entirely on the wing. Their food consists of quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and insects, which they seize by suddenly pouncing upon them in the air or on the ground; many of the species also feed upon fishes, in pursuit of which they dash down with great force into the water. Their victims are seized by the powerful curved and acute claws, the deadly gripe of which generally destroys life immediately, but the bill is rarely used except to tear the flesh of the prey after it has been secured in the talons. When the animal killed is of small comparative size, the birds generally carry it off to some quiet spot where they may feed upon it without fear of interruption; but when it is too large to be thus disposed of, they gorge themselves with its flesh on the spot where it fell. In either case, however, they usually devour as much: of their victim as will completely fill the crop or dilated portion of the cesophagus, and then always retire to some sequestered retreat, where they remain quiet until the food is digested. They generally remove a good portion of the hair or feathers from their prey before commencing their attack upon its flesh; but, notwithstanding, usually swallow some of these indigestible VOL. I1-3. 18 VERTEBRATA. THE WHITE FALCON. articles, together with a part of the bones; all these parts are left behind in the stomach, and are vomited forth in the form of roundish pellets. This habit is common to many other birds, especially shrikes, swallows, and others which feed on hard-winged insects. The strong feet of the falcons enable them to perch with great ease and security, and, when thus roosting, they sit with the body nearly erect, and the head and neck drawn back in an attitude of considerable elegance; but on the ground the length and curvature of their claws render them rather awkward; they incline the head and body forward, and are obliged to move by clumsy leaps, with the assistance of their wings. The Falconidae are generally solitary birds; their cry is loud and shrill, sometimes becoming a scream or yelp, and is usually a sign of anger or triumph. Their nests are rude, flat, and often of large size; they are composed of sticks, twigs, and similar materials, lined with hair, wool, or feathers, in the part destined for the reception of the eggs. These vary in number from two to six or eight; they are usually of a white color, and more or less spotted with dark tints. Genus FALCON: Falco.-This includes several species, and among them the celebrated birds used in the falconry of the Middle Ages, and called Noble Falcons, in distinction from the other species not employed in this pastime, and called Ignoble Falcons. The WHITE FALCON, F. candicans, is of a pure white, with heart-shaped spots, and faint transverse bands of a grayish-brown color on the upper parts. The male* is eighteen inches long, from the point of the beak to the tip of the tail. It lives on birds of considerable size, principally those of the gallinaceous kinds. It inhabits the high polar regions of both hemispheres, and was the proper Jer Falcon or Gyr Falcon of the days of falconry; this and the Iceland falcon were most esteemed by falconers on account of their capacity for education. It was formerly obtained from Northern Europe, but it is now known to be found in Greenland and the Polar Regions of North America; and under the supposition that it was a distinct species, it has been called the American Gyrfalcon and the F. Groenlandicus. The ICELAND FAL FALCON. Islandicus, is larger than the preceding; it is brown above, barred In speaking of the length of a bird we measure from the point of the beak to the tip of the tail; if we mention the length without naming the gender, we mean the largest, which, in the Raptores, is the female; in most others the male. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 19 TEE PEREGRINE OR WANDERING FALCON. and spotted with white;'eneath it is white, with heart-shaped spots, and bands alternately light and dark on the tail. It is a native of Iceland, as its name indicates, but it sometimes migrates to the south, though it is said never beyond 60~ north latitude. It builds its nests on the loftiest peaks of the mountains; its eggs, to the number of three or four, are of a light yellowish red, with close ocher-colored spots. Audubon describes two birds, a male and female, which he considers of this species, shot by one of his party on the coast of Labrador, in 1833; a sketch of their figures which he has given is presented at page 17. The JERFALCON, F. Gyrfalcon of Gmelin, is eighteen inches long, of a brownish-blue above and white-spotted beneath. Its proper locality is Norway, but it is sometimes seen in Germany and France. The falconers used to obtain it from the remote, wild rocks of Scandinavia, where it bred. It was less esteemed, however, than the two preceding kinds. The PEREGRINE or WANDERING FALCON, the Faucon Pelerin of the French, the Wander Falke of the Germans, F. peregrinus, is eighteen inches long, of a brownish ash-color above; beneath, white with longitudinal stripes. It builds on high rocks, generally near the sea-coast, and lays two to four whitish eggs, mottled with brown. It flight is rapid, and it descends on its prey with almost inconceivable velocity. It feeds chiefly on gallinaceous birds, penguins, and water-fowl. It is found throughout Europe. The three first of the preceding species-that is, the White Falcon, the Iceland Falcon, and the Jerfalcon-though they appear to have been distinguished by falconers in former times, have been regarded as one by many naturalists, but M. Schlegel has shown that they are really distinct. The changes of plumage have led to confusion, so that one of them has frequently been mistaken for the other. In their general qualities all the preceding species resemble each other. All are exceedingly powerful birds, and of almost incredible swiftness of flight. They were all used in falconry; the Peregrine Falcon, howeve, having been much more abundant than the other species, and also of a more docie temper, was most frequently employed. The White 20 VERTEBRATA. A HAWKING PARTY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. Falcon, on account of its greater strength and courage, was flown at birds of large size, as cranes, storks, herons, and wild geese. The Iceland Falcon had the most bold and rapid flight; it mounted higher and its gyrations were wider than those of the other species; its stoop upon the quarry is described by the old writers on falconry as in the highest degree grand, impetuous, and imposing. "In the language of falconry," says Yarrell, "the female Peregrine was exclusively called the Falcon, and, on account of her greater size, power, and courage, was usually flown at herons and ducks; the male Peregrine, being smaller, sometimes one-third less than the female, was called the Tercel, Tiercel, and Tiercelet, and was more frequently flown at partridges, and sometimes at magpies. Young Peregrines of the year, on account of the red tinge of their plumage, were called-the female a Red Falcon and the male a Red Tiercel-to distinguish them from the older birds, which were called Haggarts or Intermewed Hawks." The LANNER, F. lanarius, is found in Dalmatia, Hungary, and Greece. It is colored above like the Peregrine Falcon; below it is white, with dark longitudinal spots. It is a rare species. Formerly the King of France, Louis XVI., had Lanners sent annually from Malta; but they were brought from the more eastern countries. It exceeds the Peregrine Falcon in size, being intermediate between that and the Jerfalcon, and was anciently much esteemed for flying at the kite, with which the Peregrine is hardly able to contend. The name of Lanner was confined to the female; the male was called a Lanneret, on account of its smaller size. Like the other species'it builds its nest on high and almost inaccessible rocks. The SACRED FALCON,* F. sacer, considerably larger than the preceding, was also used in falconry. The plumage above is an ashy-brown; below, white, with light reddish spots. It is a rare species, found in Southeastern Europe. Falconry appears to have been first practiced in the East, and it is still in vogue in Persia and some other Asiatic countries. Though now forgotten in Europe, it was the fashionable sport of the Middle Ages, a favorite with nobles, kings, and fair ladies. So elegant and showy a pastime, and one in the excitements of which the gentler sex could share with the rougher, failed not to become very prevalent, especially in France. In a very old French poem on forest sports, * All the preceding species belong to Cuvier's genus of Hierofalco, a term abridged into Gyrfalcon, and signifying Sacred Falcon; it is used in allusion to the reverence of the ancient Egyptians for certain birds of prey. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 21 FALCON ATTACKING A GAZELLE. falconry is compared with hunting, and the preference given to the former, because "queens, duchesses, and countesses are allowed by their husbands to carry the falcon on their wrists without offending propriety, and they can enjoy all the sport of this kind of hunting, while, in hunting with hounds, they are only allowed to follow by the wide roads or over open fields, in order to see the dogs pass. "The knight, on such occasions, was anxious to pay his court to the ladies by his attentions to the falcons. He was obliged to be careful to fly the bird at the proper moment, to follow it immediately, never to lose sight of it, to encourage it by calls, to take the prey from it, caress it, put on the hood, and place the impetuous bird gracefully on the wrist of his mistress." The training of a bird for this sport was a very critical process; there were persons very learned in it, and who even wrote treatises on falconry, which were deemed a fit and necessary study for an accomplished gentleman. The birds destined to this sort of training for the chase, were taken from the nest when quite young, and for months were nourished with the flesh of pigeons, and also of wild birds, given to them raw. Much time and pains were then spent in teaching them to sit on the hand, by practicing them in perching upon posts, movable bars, &c. To tame them into obedience to the will of the master, they were deprived of sleep and food, were beaten, and otherwise tyrannized over, till the creatures found that absolute submission to the word of command was by far the least of two evils. The same persevering government inured them to wear a leather hood over their heads. To practice them in their art, and without the risk of their flying away, they were attached to a string some two hundred feet long till they were so far disciplined as to be trusted with liberty, and yet relinquish it on the instant at a given signal. When brought out for use into the open country their heads were hooded, and they were allowed to see nothing but their game; as soon as the game was put up by the dogs, or indicated by them, the powerful bird was tossed from the wrist, and darted straight toward it; if a quadruped, it pounced upon its head, or seated itself there, and pecked the eyes of the victim, till, bewildered and terrified, it fell an easy prey. If a bird were the quarry or object of chase, the scene became very animated and exciting. Picturesquely scattered over the fields could be seen stately dames, with their proud and beautiful faces eagerly upturned, beaming piquantly, perhaps with a little of the ferocity of the age; gay squires on their daintily caparisoned steeds, cheering the falcon to exert his utmost swiftness and prowess; noble personages relaxing from their dignity to watch maneuvers that must often remind them, in miniature, of their own pursuits-all these on high-mettled but well-managed steeds, while around, the crowd of low degree filled the welkin with their boisterous clamor. 22 VERTEBRATA. \ {~iis~ l THE MERLIN. (See page 26.) The expense of the hawking establishment was sometimes enormous. Under Francis I. of France, the " flower of chivalry"-whose ambition it was to be the arbiter of elegance, the mirror of his age, first in every manly sport, courtly pastime, or gay adventure-incredible sums were devoted to this one amusement. His training establishments were in charge of a Grand Falconer, whose salary was four thousand livres, and who had subordinate to him fifteen noblemen and fifty falconers, with the care of three hundred falcons. The yearly cost of the whole was fifty thousand livres. Hawking was introduced into England as far back as the tenth century, and appears to have flourished from the time of the Heptarchy to that of Charles II. Soon after the Norman conquest it seems to have been at its height. At that time there was a nice adaptation of the different kinds of falcons to the different ranks. Thus, one species of hawks was for kings, and could not be used by any person of inferior dignity; another was for princes of the blood, and others for the dukes and great lords, and so on down to the knave or servant. In all there were fifteen grades. The great conquerors of Asia were even more magnificent in the expenses of falconry. The Emperor of China is attended, in his sporting progresses into Tartary, by his Grand Falconer, with one thousand subordinates, and every bird has a silver plate fastened to its foot with the name of the falconer who has charge of it, so that if lost it may be returned to the proper person; but if he cannot be found it must be handed to a special officer, called the Guardian of Lost Birds, who keeps it till it is demanded by the falconer to whom it belonged. The Grand Falconer, the more easily to be found among the army of hunters, erects a conspicuous standard. The AMERICAN PEREGRINE FALCON, F. anatum, so closely resembles the European Peregrine Falcon that it was long considered to be identical with that species. It is generally known by the various names of Hen-Hawk, Chicken-Hawk, Big-footed Hawk, and Duck-Hawk, in this country. It is brown above, with transverse bands of deeper tint; the throat is white; the breast white, tinged with rose-color, and marked with narrow black longitudinal lines; the lower parts CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 23? "' TEE KESTREL. (See page 26.) are banded across, on an ash-colored ground. The length is about twenty inches. It builds in remote forests or on rocky peaks, and lays two to four eggs. It feeds on grouse, pheasants, partridges, pigeons, -ducks, and geese. It is common in all the United States, especially along the sea-coast. Audubon speaks of it in Louisiana, and Richardson in the region of Melville Island. Wilson gives us a lively description of the manner in which this fine and powerful bird darts down upon the ducks along the shores of New Jersey and Pennsylvania, carrying terror and dismay among the myriad flocks that gather at particular seasons in that quarter. In the breeding time it retires to the gloomy cedar swamps, on the tall trees of which it constructs its nests and rears its young, secure from all molestation. In these wilds, which present obstacles almost insuperable to the foot of man, the screams of this bird, occasionally mingled with the hoarse tones of the heron and the hooting of the Great Horned Owl, echoing through the dreary solitude, arouse in the mind all the frightful imagery of desolation. The WESTERN PEREGRINE FALCON, F. nigriceps, found in lower California and Chili, greatly resembles the preceding, but is smaller. The AMERICAN LANNER FALCON, F. polyagrus, is brown above and white below; the length is twenty inches; found in California, on the Platt River, and near Puget's Sound. The HOBBY or HoBBY-FALcON- the.Hobereau of the French-F. subbuteo, formerly used in hawking at larks and quails, is eleven inches long, of a bluish ash-color above, white below, tinged with red. It builds in lofty trees, or in the crevices of high rocks, laying three or four reddishwhite eggs. It is found in Southern Europe and Northern Africa, and feeds largely upon larks, which it captures by soaring above and then pouncing down upon them. It also devours other small birds, and frequently condescends to sup on frogs, beetles, and crickets. Swallows have such fear of this hawk that when pursued by it they sometimes fall insensible to the ground from mere fright. 24 VERTEBRATA. The KOBEZ, INGRIAN, or RED-LEGGED FALCON, F. vespertinus, is ten and a half inches long, of a bluish-gray above and red beneath. Unlike other falcons, all of which live solitary or in pairs, this species often congregates in flocks. It builds in tall trees, lays three or four eggs, and is found all over Europe, but is most abundant at the north. The BENGAL FALCON or MARTIN FALCON, F. coerulescens, is the smallest species of falcon that is known; it is of a bluish-black above and red beneath. The tail is crossed by four white lines. It is found in India and Sumatra. The CHICQUERRA FALCON, F. Chicquerra, is ashy-gray above and white beneath, striped with light gray. It is found in Java, in India and South Africa. The RUFOUS-BACKED KESTREL or MOUNTAIN FALCON, F. rupicolus, resembles the kestrel, and is found at the Cape of Good Hope. The CRESTED FALCON, F. frontalis, is of a steel-gray above; below it is of the same color, with cross-bands of a darker tint. It is remarkable for its crest, which rises and falls according to the passions which agitate it. It lives upon the borders of the sea, in which it fishes for crabs and shell-fish. It builds its nest on the rocks, and lays four or five eggs of a reddish-white color. It is found in Southern Africa. The BLACK-THIGHED FALCON, F. tibialis, is an African species of the size of a pigeon, of a grayish-brown above and a light red below. The RED-THIGHED FALCON, F.femoralis-the Lead-colored Merlin of Azara-is a South American species, of a blackish lead-color above and lead-colored below. It builds on isolated trees, and lays four or five eggs. The LITTLE FALCON or AMERICAN SPARROW-HAWK —the St. Domingo Merlin of Buffon-F. sparverins, is spread over the greater part of both North and South America, and is familiarly known in the United States. It is reddish-bay above, transversely streaked with black; the lower parts yellowish-white, marked with longitudinal lines of brown. It flies rather irregularly, occasionally suspending itself in the air, hovering over a particular spot for a minute or two, and then shooting AEt 2 off in another direction. It perches on the top of a dead tree or pole in the middle of a field or meadow, and, as it alights, shuts its long wings so suddenly that A / ^ $they seem instantly to disappear; it sits here in an al-; 7M i, most perpendicular position, sometimes for an hour at a time, frequently jerking its tail, and reconnoitering the....'...' ground below, in every direction, for mice, lizards, &c. It approaches the farm-house, particularly in the morning, skulking about the barn-yard for mice or young (, a\ct chickens. It frequently plunges into a thicket after (.//l^/^f|\l "small birds, as if by random, but always with a particular, and generally a fatal aim. It is particularly fond of watching along hedge-rows and in orchards, where various kinds of small birds usually resort. When grasshoppers are plenty they form a considerable part of its food. The male is ten inches long. This species lives on grasshoppers, snakes, mice, lizards, and small birds. The blue jays have a particular antipathy to this bird, and frequently insult it by following and imitating its notes so exactly as to deceive even those well acquainted with both. In return for all this abuse, the hawk contents himself with now and then feasting on HEAD AND FOOT OF AMERICAN SPARROW-HAWK. the plumpest of his persecutors, who are, therefore, in perpetual dread of him; and yet, through some strange infatuation, or from fear that, if they lose CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 25 *8K II SPARROW-HAWKS. sight of him, he may attack them unawares, the sparrow-hawk no sooner appears than the alarm is given, and the whole posse of jays follow. The AMERICAN PIGEON-HAWK, F. columbarius, is migratory in its habits, returning to the Southern States about November, and in summer extending its excursions as far north as Hudson's Bay. It is eleven inches long, the upper parts being of a dark brown; the lower parts brownish-white, streaked with dark brown; the legs are yellow; the claws black. Small birds and mice are its principal food. When, toward autumn, the reed-birds, grackles, and red-winged blackbirds congregate in large flights, it is often observed hovering in their rear, or on their flanks, picking up the weak, the wounded, or stragglers, and frequently making a sudden and fatal sweep into the very midst of their multitudes. The flocks of robins and pigeons are honored VOL. II. 4 26i VERTEBRATA. with the same attentions from this marauder, whose daily excursions are entirely regulated by the movements of the flocks on whose unfortunate members it fattens. The bird which Audubon called the Little Corporal, in honor of Napoleon, was an old male of this species. The MERLIN-Emerillon of the French-F. iEsalon, is a small species of hawk, nine or ten inches long, of an ashy-blue above, below white striped with brown. It builds on lofty trees, and lays five or six eggs This bird, on account of its docility, was formerly used for hawking at larks, quails, partridges, and pigeons. Its skill and courage in pursuing them excited great admiration among the sportsmen. It inhabits the south of Europe in winter and the north in summer. (See page 22.) The KESTREL, called Windhover in England-the Crecerelle of the French; F. tinnunculus of Linnaeus-is about a foot in length; its color is a reddish-brown above, marked with angular black spots; beneath it is reddish, with longitudinal rays on the breast. It is widely spread over Europe, and was formerly used in falconry. It lives on mice, lizards, insects, and small birds. It makes its nest in the trees of forests, and also sometimes in old towers and walls. It lays five or six eggs, and is an abundant breeder. (See page 23.) Ilk THE LESSER KESTREL. The LESSER KESTREL the Crecerine of the French-F. cenchris, is eleven and a half inches long, and resembles the preceding in color. It inhabits the coasts of the Mediterranean in winter, and migrates northward in summer. It makes its nests in rocks and old castles, and lays three or four eggs. There are a number of other species, variously arranged by different naturalists, but which we shall include in this genus, among which are the BLACK FALCON, F. subniger; the SULTAN FALCON, F. peregrinator, much used for falconry in India; the SALAKOO FALCON, F. peregrinoides; the DOUBLE-BEARDED FALCON, F. cervialis; the JUGGER FALCON, F.jugger; the SEVERE FALCON, F. severus; the RED-NECKED FALCON, F. rufigularis; the PARAMATTA FALCON, F. frontatus; the UNIFORM FALCON, F. concolor; the CREAM-BELLIED FALCON, F. berigora; the NEW ZEALAND FALCON, F. Novce Zealandice; the ROCK FALCON, F. rupicoloides; the SPOTTED FALCON, F. punctatus; the NANKIN HAWK, F. cenchroides; and the CINNAMON FALCON, F. cinnamomeus. Genus ELANUS: Elanus.-The birds of this genus resemble the falcons in the sharpness of their wings and some other respects. The BLACK-SHOULDERED HAWK or WHITE-TAILED HAWK, E. leucurus-the Falco dispar of Temminck-is an abundant species in the Southern and Southwestern States: the upper parts are of a fine ash-color; the lesser wing-coverts glossy black; length of the female sixteen to seventeen inches. The BLACK-WINGED FALCON or BLACK-WINGED SWALLOW-HAWK, E. melanopterus, found in Africa, India, and Australia, is smaller than the preceding, with which it has been confounded. Its plumage is soft and silky, and ash-colored above; the tail is slightly forked. It lives chiefly on insects, which it captures on the wing. Other species are the AXILLARY FALCON, E. axillaris, and the LETTER-WINGED FALCON, E. scriptus. Genus PANDION: Pandion, comprises three or four species: in these the bill is short and curved from the base; the wings are very long; tarsi short, thick, and strong, and covered with small circular scales; the claws are sharp and curved; the tail of moderate length. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 27 The OSPREY, BALD BUZZARD, or FISHING EAGLE-Balbusard Offraye of Le Maout; Falco haliaetus of Linnaeus-P. haliaetus, is a large ~___~- -~:~~~~ ~ ~~ ~ and powerful bird; the female, being a quarter larger than the male, measures twentyfive inches and weighs five pounds. The plumage is white below, with a few brown streaks and speckles on the throat; the whole of the upper part is brown; the feathers on the,1 t'_111 thighs are close, and the legs short, stout, and grayish. In this part of its organization we see a beautiful instance of adaptation to its hab4'.S i' Mits. The close thigh-feathers resist the action iSI ['// /2 ^of the water, in which it plunges for its prey,' 1111?!;,r ~,. while the talon of the outer toe is much larger 4t "i / i' than the inner one, and capable of being turned -" ~, \ ~ backward; the under surfaces of all the toes are also very rough, and covered with protuberances, which enable it to secure its slippery prize. 111, A:^~~ This bird usually flies at a considerable height, and lives chiefly on fishes, which it seizes along the sea-shore or in ponds and lakes, by descending upon them and bearing them off in its talons. It however occasionally seizes upon sea-fowl. Its strength is so great that it will lift from the water and carry away a fish of its own [^^ ^O E^ L ^11 l ~ ~weight. Its greediness is said sometimes to excoed its discretion, for it occasionally buries its X ill \ talons in a fish too heavy to be borne away, and being unable or unwilling to extricate them, is carried beneath the water and drowned. This species is migratory, and is generally distributed throughout Europe, and in some places is abundant; it is also found in parts of Africa and Asia. HEAD AND FOOT OF THE OSPREY. Other foreign species of this genus are the WHITE-HEADED OSPREY, P. leucocephalus; the MARINE EAGLE, P. ichthyaetus; and the SMALL MARINE EAGLE, P. humilis. The AMERICAN OSPREY, popularly known among us as the FISH-HAWK, P. Carolinensis, has been generally considered as identical with the European species, but it is said to be somewhat larger, the female measuring thirty inches, and the marks on the breast being heart-shaped and circular instead of narrow and lanceolate, as in the European osprey. It is abundant on the seacoasts and those of the interior waters of the United States. Wilson says: " This formidable, vigorous-winged, and well-known bird subsists altogether on the finny tribes that swarm in our bays, creeks, and rivers, procuring his prey by his own active skill and industry, and seeming no further dependent on the land than as a mere resting-place, or, in the usual season, a spot of deposit for its nest, its eggs, and its young." It is migratory, arriving on the coasts of the Middle States late in March; its arrival is regarded by the fishermen as the happy signal of the return of the vast shoals of herring, shad, and other fishes which it follows, and' hich it preys. In Europe the osprey builds on the ground, or on rocks and old ruins; herei kes its nest in the top of decayed trees. This consists externally of a huge mass of sticks, eacWffro-m half an inch to an inch and a half in diameter and two or three feet long; these are piled four feet high, and are intermixed with corn-stalks, sea-weed, turf, mullen-stalks, and the like, the whole being lined with grass. The huge structure is visible for half a mile. " Unlike other rapacious birds," says Nuttall, "the ospreys may be almost considered gregari 28 VERTEBRATA. THE OSPREY. ous, breeding so near each other that, according to Mr. Gardiner, there were on the small island on which he resided, near to the eastern extremity of Long Island, New York, no less than three hundred nests with young. Wilson observed twenty of their nests within half a mile. I have seen them nearly as thick about Rehoboth Bay, in Delaware. Here they live together at least as peaceably as rooks, and so harmless are they considered by other birds, that, according to Wilson, the crow blackbirds or grakles are sometimes allowed refuge by the ospreys, and construct their nests in the very interstices of their eyry. It would appear sometimes that, as with swallows, a general assistance is given in the constructing of a new nest, for, previous to this event, a flock have been seen to assemble in the same tree, squealing, as is their custom when any thing materially agitates them." The eggs, from two to four, are laid in May, and are usually of a creamy white, marked with brown spots, and are somewhat larger than those of a common fowl. Wilson says: "On the appearance of the young, which is usually about the last of June, the zeal and watchfulness of the parents are extreme. They stand guard and go off to fish alternately,-one parent being always within a short distance of the nest. On the near approach of any person, the hawk utters a plaintive, whistling note, which becomes shriller as she takes to wing and sails around, sometimes making a rapid descent, as if aiming directly for you; but checking her course, and sweeping past at a short distance over head, her wings making a whizzing in the air. My worthy friend Mr. Gardiner informs me that they have even been known to fix their claws in a negro's head who was attempting to climb to their nest." Many other instances are recorded of the fierceness with which these birds defend their nest and their young. Genus HARPAGUS: Harpagus of Vigors.-This includes two species; the NOTCHED FAL CLASS IT. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 29 THE FORK-TAILED KITE. ON, H. bidentatus is found in Guiana and Brazil; it is brown above and ashy-gray beneath; its bill is short, and the upper mandible has two notches or teeth; the body is a foot in length. This bird lives in the borders of woods, feeding on birds, reptiles, and small quadrupeds. In its habits it is rather indolent, its flight being slow and never prolonged. The other species is the TWO-TOOTHED FALCON, H. diodon. Genus IERAX: lerax.-Under this genus the British Museum Catalogue gives the following: the BENGAL FALCON, I. coerulescens, which we have noticed at page 24; the SILKY FALCON, J. sericeus, and the WHITE-NAPED FALCON, I. eutolmus. Genus NAUCLERUS: Nauclerus.-This includes the SWALLOW-TAILED HAWK or FORK-TAIL, N. furcatus; it is twenty-five inches long; the wings and tail black; neck and under parts white; the tail-feathers, twelve in number, are deeply forked, the lateral ones excessively elongated. It feeds on snakes, lizards, and frogs; it devours also grasshoppers, locusts, and wasps, making attacks on the nests of the latter. It builds its nest of dry sticks on the top of a tall oak or pine near a stream; the eggs are four to six, and of a grayish-white. The male and female sit alternately. They feed on the wing, and often soar to an immense height, their evolutions in the air being peculiarly graceful. This species is common in the Southern and Southwestern States, and also in the Western States, as far north as Wisconsin. It is also occasionally, but very rarely, found in Europe. It is migratory in this country, arriving in large flocks in April, at the same time uttering a sharp, plaintive cry; it departs in September. There are two other species of this genus, one African, the other South American; the latter, Elanoides yetapa, resembles the fork-tail above described, and is perhaps only a variety of it. Genus ICTINIA: Ictinia.-This includes two species. The MISSISSIPPI KITE, I. Mississippiensis, is fourteen inches in length, and has a spread of wing of three feet. The head and neck are hoary white, the back blackish-ash, the under parts whitish-ash; the rump and tail are black, the latter slightly forked. It is found in the Southern and Southwestern States, where it may be seen sailing in large circles in the air in company with turkey-buzzards. The SPOTTED-TAILED HOBBY, 1. plumbea, is a South American species, differing from the preceding, but has often been confounded with it. Genus MILVUS: Milvus.-This includes several species, the most prominent of which is the COMMON KITE OF EUROPE-the Milan Royal of the French; Nibbio of the Italians; Rother-Milan of the Germans-M. regalis. In some parts of England it is called Puttock. Its length is twenty-six inches; its color above dark brown; rufous-brown below; the tail long and deeply forked. It sails gracefully in the air, now describing circles, and anon with outspread tail remaining stationary. It pounces on its prey, consisting of moles, mice, leverets, rabbits, unfledged birds, and the young of the gallinaceous tribe especially. It was formerly a great scourge to the poultry-yard. It will also eat frogs, snakes, and fish. The nest, made of sticks and lined with soft materials, is usually built on the fork of a tree in a thick wood. The eggs are two, sometimes 30 VERTEBRAT A. THE KITE. three, of a dirty white, with a few reddish-brown spots at the large end. The female lays early in the season, and she often makes a vigorous defense when her nest is attacked. This species is common in Middle Europe and Northern Asia. It was formerly used in falconry. The BLACK KITE, M. oetolius, is common in Russia, and is found in the Caucasus and in Africa; the PARASITIC KITE, M. parasiticus, is smaller than the common kite, and is found both in Europe and Africa. Other species are the GOVINDA KITE, M. Govinda; AUSTRALIAN KITE, M. affinis; the ARABIAN KITE, M.,Egyptius. Genus BUZZARD: Buteo.-These birds have a short bill wide at the base, wings long and wide, tail rather wide, claws strong. There are nearly thirty species, inhabiting all countries. The COMMON BUZZARD of Europe-Buse of the French, Falco Pojcna of the Italians,'lause-Falk and Wald-Geyer of the Germans-B. vulgaris, is twenty-two inches long; the head is large and the body heavy. Above, the color is chocolate-brown; grayish-white beneath. The feathers are soft and downy in texture, and as this bird preys late in the evening, it is deemed an approximation to the owls. Its flight is low, and much of its time is spent in sitting on trees, in wooded districts, awaiting its prey, which consists of small quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, insects, and earth-worms. Its nature is slothful and cowardly, but it is very devoted to its young. If the female be killed, the male will rear the brood. In England it builds its nest in the fork of a tree; in Scotland on the brows of rocks and precipices. It seems to be capable of some education, and such is its turn for incubation, that in a state of partial domesticity, it has built a nest, and hatched the eggs of liens, taking care of the young as if they were its own. This species is common all over the wooded districts of Europe, and in some parts it is abundant: it is found in Northern Asia, and in the northern parts of North America, though here it seems rare. Richardson states that it arrives in the fur countries, from the South, in the middle of April, very soon afterward begins to build its nest, and, having reared its young, departs about the end of September. Here it haunts the low alluvial points of land which stretch out under the high banks of rivers, and may be observed for a long time motionless on the bough of a tree watching for some small quadruped, bird, or reptile, to pass within its reach. As soon as it espies its prey, it glides silently into the air, and sweeping easily but rapidly down, seizes it in its claws. When disturbed, it makes a short circuit, and soon settles on another perch. One of Sir John's specimens had two middle-sized toads in his crop. It builds its nest on a tree, of short sticks, lining it with deer's hair. The eggs are from three to five in number. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 31.:-~= THE COMMON BUZZARD OF EUROPE. The Falco albidus, and F. versicolor, are varieties of the Common Buzzard. The following additional foreign species are from the catalogue of the British Museum: The AFRICAN BUZZARD, B. tachardus; the LONG-LEGGED BUZZARD, B. rufinus; the JACKAL FALCON, B. jackal; the NORTH AFRICAN BUZZARD, B. augur; the HALF-BOOTED BUZZARD, B. plumnipes; the RED-BACIED BUZZARD, B. erythronotus; the BANDED-SIDED HAWK, B. pterocles; the WHITESPOTTED BUZZARD, B. albonotatus; the WHITE-FACED BUZZARD, B. leucops; the EQUINOCTIAL EAGLE, B. equinoctialis; the PAMENA EAGLE, B. nigricollis; the STREAKED FALCON, B. melanops; the WHITE-NECKED FALCON, B. albicollis; the BRAZILIAN BUZZARD, B. scotopterus; the GRAYBACKED BUZZARD, B. polionotus, and B. busarellus. The AMERICAN BUZZARD, or RED-TAILED HAWK, B. borealis, is twenty-two inches long, makes its nest in high trees, lays four eggs of a dark white, blotched with brown; upper parts dark umber brown; lower parts fawn-color. It inhabits the whole United States, and remains through the winter in Pennsylvania. It feeds on birds and small quadrupeds, and frequently carries off hens and chickens from the poultry-yard. The WESTERN BUZZARD, B. Swainsoni, or B. montanus, resembles the preceding, but is rather larger, and has wider wings; length twenty-three to twenty-six inches; found in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, Wisconsin, Missouri, &c. The RED-SHOULDERED HAWK, or WINTER FALCON, B. lineatus, is smaller than the preceding; the upper parts are brown, under parts rufous; tail brownish-black, with transverse bands of white; length twenty-two to twenty-four inches; found in California, Wisconsin, and South Carolina. Other American species are as follows: the B. Bairdii, found in Wisconsin; the BROADWINGED HAWK, or BROAD-WINGED BUZZARD, B. Pennsylvanicus, Falco latissimus of Wilson-a handsome species, found sparsely in the Middle States, and more abundantly in Wisconsin; HARLAN'S 32 VERTEBRATA. THE RED-SHOULDERED HAWK. BUZZARD, or BLACK WARRIOR, B. Harlani, found in Louisiana, Mexico, and Central America; and the CANADA BUZZARD, B. insignatus of Cassin, a small species recently brought to notice. Genus ARCHIBUTEO: Archibuteo; that is, Buzzard, par excellence. Of this there are several species, all similar to those of the preceding genus, but distinguished by a tarsus densely feathered to the base of the toes, yet more or less naked on the hind part. The ROUGH-LEGGED FALCON, or BLACK HAWK, A. Sancti Johannis-Falco niger of Wilson, St. John's Eagle of the British Museum Catalogue-is an abundant species in the Atlantic States, and is found in all the northern parts of North America. Its length is about twenty-two inches; its colors are very variable. The ROUGH-LEGGED BUZZARD, A. lagopus, is similar to the preceding. Above it is light umber-brown, beneath yellowish-white; length twenty-one to twenty-three inches; found in Europe, and probably in the United States, though the bird met with here and regarded of this species, may be the young of the A. Sancti Johannis. The WESTERN ROUGH-LEGGED BUZZARD, or CACIQUE-BUZZARD, A. ferrugineus, is twenty-three to twenty-five inches long, and is an extremely handsome species; found in California. The WHITE-BREASTED BUZZARD, A. strophiatus, is a European species. Genus PERNIS: Pernis; this includes the HONEY-BUZZARD-the Bondree of the French, Wespen-Buzard of the Germans-P. apivorus; the length is two feet, the upper parts ashy-brown, beneath, white spotted. It feeds on mice, moles, hamsters, birds, reptiles, wasps, and other insects, also on the larvae of bees, whence it gets its popular name. This species is found sparsely in the central portions of Europe. The CRESTED HONEY-BUZZARD, P. cristata, is found in the Indian Archipelago. Genus CIRCUS: Circus, includes at least a dozen species, mostly foreign, which bear the general name of Harriers. The HEN HARRIER of Europe-the ST. MARTIN'S BIRD of the French-C. cyaneus, is fourteen inches long; general color ashy-gray, but variable; builds its nests in forests in marshy regions; lives on frogs, lizards, rats, partridges, and young aquatic CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 33 520 __ -______ THE AMERICAN MARSH HAWK ATTACKING A FLOCK OF QUAILS. birds; also on house pigeons and poultry. It lays six whitish eggs; inhabits all Europe. The MARSH HARRIER, C. rufus, or C. ceruyinosus, inhabits Europe and the North of Africa. MONTAGUES BUZZARD, C. Montagui, is also a European species. The RANIVOROUS FALCON, C. ranivorus, is found in North Africa. Other species are Quoi's BUZZARD, C. cinereus; the BLACK AND WHITE INDIAN FALCON, C. melanoleucus; the LONG-LEGGED FALCON, C. acoli; the BLACK HEN HARRIER, C. ater; the ASH-COLORED FALCON, C. cinerescens; the PALE-CHESTED HARRIER, C. Swainsonii; JARDINE'S HEN HARRIER, C. Jardinii; the SALVADOR FALCON, C. nmacropterus; and the ALLIED MOOR BUZZARD, C'. assimilis. The AMERICAN HARRIER, or MARSH HAWK, C. Hudsonius, resembles the C. cyaneus of Europe, but it is larger, and its colors are different. It is nineteen to twenty-one inches long; is of a pale gray color, beneath white, with small reddish spots. It is found in all North America. Genus HERPETOTHERES: Herpetotheres.-This term signifies reptile-chaser, and describes the habits of the only species, in respect to food; this is the LAUGHING FALCON of Guiana and the neighboring country, H. cachinnans-the Macagua of Azara. It is brown and white above, and ten inches in length. Its aspect is somewhat owlish. It lives in the borders of forests along rivers and marshes, where it builds its nest of enormous dimensions. When it sees a man approaching its domains, it cries out ma-ca-gua, with a sort of laughing accent. Genus ASTUR: Astur.-This includes several species, distributed in various countries, and generally called Goshawks. They are distinguished by a slender form, the bill short, curved, and festooned; wings moderate; tail long and broad. The COMMON GOSHAWK of Europe-Autour of the French; Sparviere Terzuolo of the Italians; Grosser Gepfeilter-Falck of the Germans -A. palumbarius, is twenty-three to twenty-four inches long, the males usually one-fourth less;; VOL. II.-.5 84 VERTEBRATA. __ _ _ _ _ I THE GOSHAWK. color above dark grayish-brown; beneath ashy white. Its food consists of hares, rabbits, pigeons, pheasants, grouse, partridges, &c. It flies low, makes its nest in a high tree in the edges of forests, and lays three or four eggs in May. It was formerly trained to falconry. The Falcon gentil of the writers on falconry, was probably the young of this species. It is common in all Northern Europe. Other foreign species are as follows: the PIED GOSHAWK, A. melanoleucus; the RADIATED FALCON, A. radiatus; the ONE-BANDED HAWK, A. unicinctus; the NEW HOLLAND WHITE EAGLE, A. Novse Hlollandice; the THREE-STREAK HAWK, A. triuirgatus; the PLUMBEOUS FALCON, A. nitilus; the GRAY-BELLIED FALCON, A. poliogaster; the SPOTTED FALCON, A. leucorrhous; and the (GREAT-BILLED FALCON, A. magnirostris. The AMERICAN GOSHAWK-the BLACK-CAP HAWK of Wilson-A. atricapillus, which has been erroneously regarded as identical with the common goshawk of Europe, greatly resembles that bird, however, but it is of a lighter color, and the bands are narrower and more numerous. It is sparsely distributed in Northern and Eastern North America. Genus ACCIPITER: Accipiter.-This term, from the Latin, signifying Hawk, was used by Linnaeus as the title of the order which we call Raptores; as the name of a genus, we here apply it to the species of small hawks of which the EUROPEAN SPARROW-HAWK-the Epervier of the French-A. nisus, is the type. This bird, which is to be distinguished from the American Sparrow-Hawk, noticed under the genus Falcon, resembles that bird, being about twelve inches in length; dark brown above, reddish below, with numerous cross-bands of dark brown. It haunts wooded districts, and devours large numbers of small birds and small quadrupeds; it is also a great depredator among the chickens of the poultry-yard. It was formerly used in falconry, especially for the hunting of land-rails. It frequently makes use of old nests, especially those of the crow, where it lays four or five eggs of a pale bluish-white, blotched and spotted with dark brown. It is common in Europe and Asia. Other foreign species are the DWARF FALCON, A. minullus, ash-colored above, and white banded with brown below; not larger than our robin, but exceedingly courageous, and contending successfully against crows and shrikes-found in Africa: the TINY FALCON, A. tinus; the STREAKED HAWK, A. virgatus; the RED-THIGHED SPARROW-HAWK, A. erythronemia; the SPECKLED SPAR~~~~-~~~~~~-~~~~~~~-~~~~~~ —~~~~~~~~~-~~~~~~~~~~ ~"!i:( Haws, A. vir~gatUS; the RED-TUIauzD SPRxaow-HxwK, ~1. er~ythronemia; the Sr~.CKnrE SPas CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 35 THE EUROPEAN SPARROW —HAWK. ROW-HAWK, A. tachiro; the RED-BELLIED HAWK, A. rufiventris; the HOODED HAWK, A.pileatus; the MADAGASCAR HAWK, A. Madagascariensis; the NEW HOLLAND SPARROW-HIAWi, A. cirrocephalus; and the AUSTRALIAN GOSHAWK, A. approximan^. The American species are as follows: the AMERICAN BROWN HAWK, or SHARP-SHINNED HAWK, or CHICKEN-HAWK, A. fuscus, twelve to fourteen inches long; very common throughout North America: COOPER'S HAWK, A. Cooperii, eighteen to twenty inches long; dark ashy-brown above, but subject to great varieties of color; found all over the United States: and the MEXICAN BLACKCAPPED HAWK, A. Mexicanus, fifteen to seventeen inches long; dark brownish-black above, beneath light rufous; common in Mexico. Genus POLIORNIS: Poliornis.U-Tnder this genus the British Museum Catalogue presents the following species: the TEESA HAWK, P. Teesa; the PALE HAWK, P. liventer; the GRAYCHEEKED HAWK, P. Indicus; and the DARK-CHEEKED HAWK, P. pyrrhoyenys. Genus GERANOSPIZA: Geranospiza, according to the same authority, includes the SLENDER HAWK, G. gracilis. Genus MICRASTUR: Micrastur, also, according to the preceding authority, includes the PIED SPARROW-HAWK, If. brachypterus; the YELLOW-NECKED HAWK, Jf. xanthothorax; and the CONCENTRICAL SPARROW-H-AWK, M. concentricus. Genus MICRONISUS: Micronisus, according to the same authority, includes the SOOLO FALCON, M. Soloensis; FRANCE'S SPARROW-HAWK, l. Francesii; BROWN'S HAWK, M~. badius; the SHORT-TOED SPARROW-HAWK, M. sphenurus; the RED-LEGGED FALCON, M. Gabar; the SINGLE-STREAKED HAWK, Mf1. monogrammicus. Genus MELIERAX: Melierax.-This includes the CHANTING HAWK, M. musicus, found in Africa; it is ash-colored above and white, rayed with brown, beneath; lives on rabbits, rats, moles, mice, quails, and partridges, and makes its nests on trees. The sexes paiir for life; during incubation the male turns musician, and sings by day and night. Each strain occupies about a minute, when he pauses for a time and then begins again. He is so absorbed while singing that he may be approached, though at other times exceedingly shy. Levaillant having killed a male bird, the female searched for him on all sides, uttering piteous cries; in another case, having killed a female, the husband mounted to the tops of the trees and poured out a mingled strain of lamentation and defiance. Genus CYMINDIS: Cymindis.-This includes two species, the CAYENNE FALCON, C. Cayennensis, and the CROOK-BILLED FALCON, C. uncinatus, both of South America, and both resembling the buzzards. Genus CIRCAETUS: Circaetus.-This includes several species intermediate between the buzzards and eagles. The JEAN-LE-BLANC EAGLE, C. Gallicus, is common over all Europe; its wings 36 VERTEBRATA. THE HARPY EAGLE. resemble those of the eagle; the bill, however, is more sharply hooked, and the talons are shorter. It is brown above and white beneath, spotted with pale'brown. It feeds on lizards, frogs, and serpents, but also carries off hens, ducks, and young turkeys. Buffon raised one of this species, which was rather amiable in its manners, but would never drink when under observation, though it drank freely when it had cautiously looked about, and became satisfied that it was alone. The reason of this seemed to be that in drinking it plunged its head entirely in the water, and therefore took care not to be surprised, by first assuring itself that no enemy was near. The CROWNED EAGLE, C. coronatus, is of Brazil, and is said to be the only bird that ventures to feed on skunks. It devours the armadillos, breaking their shells by carrying them high in air and letting them fall upon the earth. In default of fresh meat-flesh or fowl-it dines heartily on carrion. Other species are the BLACK-BREASTED EAGLE, C. thoracicus; the BANDED FALCON, C. fascwlatus; the BACHA EAGLE, C. Bacha; the SPOTTED BACHA, C. holospilus; and the CHEELA EAGLE, C. Cheela. Genus MORPINUS: Mlorphnus, includes several species, called EAGLE-HAWKS, mostly American. HARRIS'S BUZZARD, M. unicinctus, is twenty-two to twenty-four inches long; the legs are long, the wings short, the tail long, the feet robust; the shoulders and thighs are red; the tail white at its base and tipped with white; the other upper parts deep umber brown; beneath, light brown. It is slow and heavy in its flight, and sluggish in its habits. It is rare in the Middle States, but common at the South; in Texas and Mexico abundant. The South American species are the GUIANA GOSHAWK, 1M. Guianensis; and the RUFOUSHEADED FALCON, M. meridionalis. The M. occipitalis and M. albescens are African species. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 37 X, ifi THE HARPY EAGLE. Genus NEOPUS: Neopus, includes the MALAY EAGLE, N. Malayensis, of a dull brown color, and feeding on reptiles, birds, and insects. It is common in the Malay peninsula and the vicinity. Genus SPIZAETUS: Spizaetus.- These birds resemble the eagle-hawks; the S. urubitinga is found in Guiana and Brazil; it is twenty-five inches long, and lives in mountainous districts, and devours small quadrupeds, wounded birds, and fish. It is easily domesticated so far as to come to its cage to be fed, after having made its tour in the forests. The CRESTED SPIZAETUS or GOSHAWK, S. cristatus or S. ornatus, greatly resembles the harpy eagle, but is of smaller size. Under this genus the British Museum Catalogue includes also the following: the MARTIAL EAGLE, S. bellicosus; the OCCIPITAL EAGLE, S. occipitalis; the TYRANT EAGLE, S. tyrannus; the CRESTED INDIAN EAGLE, S. cirrhatus; the CRESTED BORNEAN EAGLE, S. Borneonensis; and the BLACK and WHITE EAGLE, C. melanoleucus. Genus HARPYIA: Harpyia.-This includes a single species, the HARPY EAGLE-the Aigle destructeur of Sonnini; A, coronada of the Spanish of South America-H. thrasaetus. It is of the size, power, and fierceness of the true eagles. It has a crest of numerous broad, black feathers on the back part of the head, which is raised by excitement and depressed in tranquillity. The back and wings are brownish-black, each feather terminating in a narrow streak of lighter shade; the under surface is pure white; its wings are short, its legs and talons robust, its general aspect severe and savage, with something of the gloomy expression of the owl. It inhabits Mexico and the northern portions of South America. It preys on sloths, monkeys, fawns, and other quadrupeds, and especially the young ones. One of the species, which was being carried to England, killed and devoured a king-vulture which was in the same cage. After its arrival a cat was put into its cage, upon which it struck it with his foot and instantly broke its back. It has been known to break a man's skull by a stroke of its powerful bill. M. D'Orbigny tells of one which, 38 VERTEBRATA. THE EAGLE MASTERED. having been pierced entirely through the body by two arrows of the Indians, still fiercely attacked the persons around him, and was finally dispatched with difficulty. This formidable species inhabits the edges of forests, and is particularly fond of seeking its prey along the banks of rivers; it seems not to fear man, but allows his approach with an air of defiance. Genus EAGLE: Aquila.-This includes the true eagles, of which there are about twenty species, and which may be considered the kings among birds, as are the lions among quadrupeds. Inferior, perhaps, to the true falcons in courage and enterprise, they are still the most powerful and formidable of the feathered tribes. Every thing in their formation and constitution is admirably fitted to maintain this master position which they hold among their class. The bill is strongly hooked, and very acute at the tip; the wings are long, and usually pointed, with the third, fourth, and fifth quills longest; the tail is long, broad, and rounded; the toes are long and powerful; the talons are strong, curved, and acute. They feed not only on such birds and quadrupeds as are the prey of the larger falcons, but upon fawns, lambs, and pigs. They have been known to carry off dogs and foxes, and well-authenticated accounts of their bearing off young children are furnished. In general, they are their own hunters and butchers, but some of the species feed readily on carrion, driving off the vultures and robbing them of their legitimate feast. They generally strike their prey upon the ground, and the stoop is almost instantly fatal to any animal on which they pounce. The mere fall of a body of fifteen or eighteen pounds in CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 39 weight, from an elevation of fifteen hundred or two thousand feet, would be powerful; but the eagle shoots down with a great initial velocity, and as she delivers the whole of her momentum with the claw, she not only dashes the animal to the earth, but plunges the claw into its body up to the toe, dislocating the spine or breaking the skull of the feebler quadrupeds, and therefore usually inflicting instant death. Stern and unsocial in their character, yet confident in their strength and efficient means of defense, the eagles delight to dwell in the solitude of inaccessible rocks, on whose summits they build their rude nest and sit in lone majesty, while with their keen and piercing eye they sweep lhe plains below, even to the horizon. The combined extent and minuteness of their vision, often including not merely towns, villages, and districts, but countries and even kingdoms in its vast circuit, at the same time carefully piercing the depths of forests, the mazes of swamps, and the intricacies of lawns and meadows, so as to discover every moving object-even the sly and stealthy animals that constitute their prey-form a power of sight to which human experience makes no approach. If we connect with this amazing gift of vision the power of flight which enables these birds to shoot through the heavens so as to pass from one zone to another in a single day and at a single flight, we shall readily comprehend how it is that they have in all ages so impressed the popular imagination as to render them the standing types and emblems of power. In ancient times the lion was the representative of kings, but the eagle, soaring in the sky, was made the companion of the gods, and the constant associate of Jupiter himself. In ignorance of the true qualities of these animals, courage and magnanimity, daring and dignity, were regarded as their attributes, and thus they were deemed fitting representatives of the noblest and most exalted of both gods and men. We now know that both the eagle and the lion are butchers, gluttons, and cowards, but such is our inherent admiration of power, that, inasmuch as they are the most destructive of animals, their names are still associated in our minds with something of respect and admiration. The ass is meek, patient, useful, intelligent, but his name, applied to a man, is the most insulting of epithets; the goose is gentle, inoffensive, and one of the very wisest of the feathered creation, but it furnishes the popular mind and tongue with a term significant of something bordering on idiocy. Who so base as not to spurn these degrading terms? Who so sage as not to be flattered by the title of lion or eagle? And after all something may be said in mitigation of even the general charge of destructiveness brought against these prominent members of the carnivorous tribes. The common idea is, "that they are constantly engaged in the work of death and destruction; that the lion in the desert is forever roaring and rending; and that the mountain air can never rest for the wing of the eagle; that her shadow is a constant ensign of dread, and her cry a never-ceasing sound of fear. This is the general notion, but nothing can be wider from the fact, and nothing would be more in opposition to the whole tenor of nature's economy. It is the small powers and the feeble exertions in nature that are never at rest. Those creeping currents of air which we can hardly call breezes, and which tell only upon the leaves of the aspen, are never at rest; but storms are not frequent, and a hurricane, even in what may be called hurricane countries, is an event of comparatively rare occurrence. And it is so among birds. The gentle sparrow is always catching caterpillars, and devours fifty in a day, while the golden eagle does not feed once a day-nay, on the average not oftener than once a week. Even when eagles are on the hunt, they do not occasion much general alarm to those animals upon which they prey. The eagle, when towering in her pride of place, certainly commands in vision, and can command in power of destruction, a very wide horizon; but still her command, even at this time, is one of peace and general safety; and as hawks and buzzards and harriers, which are really far more destructive than eagles, are not very fond of beating the bushes if there is an eagle above them in the sky, it is doubtful whether, upon the whole, the golden eagle may not partake more of the character of a preserver than of that of a destroyer. Even when she has singled out her prey, and is about to stoop at it, the fluttering wings, as she winds herself up to the bent of her power, and the loud note with which she begins her descent, all tend to warn the rest of the animals, so that they lie close; the eagle devours the prey in silence, and she does not stoop again on the same ground during the same day." 40) VERTEBRATA. Nalt rlll bown Are t the \ ail TIE ROYAL EAGLE. The ROYAL EAGLE or GOLDEN EAGLE, o4. chrysaetos or A. f t lvus, the COMMON EAGLE of EUROPE, may be taken as the type of the bl genus' it is mostly of an obscure, blackish I" al w^^brown color, the head and neck being of a golden red, from which it is named; the tail is deep gray, regularly barred, and terminated with blackish-brown; beak fawn color, iris brown, cere a nd feet yel low; th e length thirty-five to forty inches. It lays two to three eggs, of a dirty white, with reddish blotches; the nest is made on the shelving rocks of inaccessible mountain peaks, never upon trees; this is wide and flat, and rudely made of sticks and brambles, without lining. There is a variety totally white; this is the Falco albus of Gmelin, or the White Eagle of Brisson. The Ring-tailed Eagle, long supposed to be a distinct species, is now known OOT OF THE ROYAL EAGLE. to be a young Golden Eagle. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 41 This monarch of the mountain forests, over which he has reigned since the creation, is still found exercising his dominion in the ancient and remote woods of Europe, Asia, and America, but more particularly in the northern parts. Nuttall thus describes it: "Near their rocky nests they are seen usually in pairs, at times majestically soaring to a vast height, and gazing on the sun, toward which they ascend until they disappear from view. From this sublime elevation they often select their devoted prey-sometimes a kid or a lamb from the sporting flock, or the timid rabbit or hare crouched in the furrow, or sheltered in some bush. The largest birds are also frequently their victims, and in extreme want they will not refuse to join with the alarmed vulture in his cadaverous repast. After this gorging meal the eagle can, if necessary, fast for several days. The precarious nature of his subsistence, and the violence by which it is constantly obtained, seem to produce a moral effect on the disposition of this rapacious bird; though in pairs, they are never seen associated with their young; their offspring are driven forth to lead the same unsocial, wandering life as their unfeeling progenitors. This harsh and tyrannical disposition is strongly displayed even when they lead a life of restraint and confinement. The weaker bird is never willingly suffered to eat a morsel, and though he may cower and quail under the blow with the most abject submission, the same savage deportment continues toward him as long as he exists. Those which I have seen in confinement frequently uttered hoarse and stridulous cries, sometimes almost barkings, accompanied by vaporous breathings, strongly expressive of their ardent, unconquerable, and savage appetites. Their fire-darting eyes, lowering brows, flat foreheads, restless disposition, and terrific plaints, together with their powerful natural weapons, seem to assimilate them to the tiger rather than the timorous bird. Yet it would appear that they may be rendered docile, as the Tartars, according to Marco Polo, in 1269, were said to tame this species to the chase of hares, foxes, wolves, antilopes, and other kinds of large game, in which it displayed all the docility of the falcon. " The longevity of the eagle is as remarkable as its strength; it is believed to subsist for a century, and is about three years in gaining its complete growth and fixed plumage. This bird was held in high estimation by the ancients on account of its extraordinary magnitude, courage, and sanguinary habits. The Romans chose it as an emblem for their imperial standard,. and from its aspiring flight and majestic soaring it was fabled to hold communion with heaven, and to be the favorite messenger of Jove. The Tartars have a particular esteem for the feathers of the tail, with which they superstitiously think to plume invincible arrows. It is no less the venerated war-eagle of our northern and western aborigines, and the caudal feathers are extremely valued for talismanic head-dresses, and as sacred decorations for the pipe of peace." The IMPERIAL EAGLE, A. imperialis or A. heliaca or A. mogilnik, was long confounded with the golden eagle; it inhabits the mountain forests of Southern Europe and Northern Africa. The head, which has a light crest, is of a slaty-gray color; the upper parts nearly black, the feathers terminating in lighter shades; under surface, from the breast, white. Other species are BONELLI'S EAGLE, A. fasciata, or A. Bonellii, inhabiting Southern Europe; the ROUGH-FOOTED EAGLE, or LITTIE EAGLE, or SPOTTED EAGLE, or CRYING EAGLE, A. ncevia, or A. maculata, found in the mountain forests of the north, east, and south of Europe, and uttering a continual plaintive cry, from which one of its popular names is derived; the BOOTED EAGLE, A. pennata, the smallest of European Eagles, being only eighteen inches long, found in the south of Europe; GIFFORD's EAGLE, A. armigera, or A. bellicosa, an African species, equal to the Golden Eagle in size; the TAWNY EAGLE, A. ncevioides, the BOLD EAGLE, A. audax, REINWARDT'S EAGLE, A. lfMalayensis; the VULTURINE EAGLE or CAFFRE EAGLE, A. vulturina, of the size of the largest eagles, and approaching the vultures in its form and habits. Genus HALIAETUS: Haliaetus; this term, signifying SEA EAGLE, includes several species called Fishing Eagles, at the head of which may be placed the species most familiar in this country, the BALD EAGLE, or WHITE-HEADED EAGLE, H. leucocephalus. It is thirty-five to forty inches in length; the head above and behind, with the neck, is sometimes white, whence, from its appearance, the term of bald is given to the species; often, however, these parts are light brownish-fulvous, varying, however, in shade, in different specimens; the tail pure white; other parts rich purplish brown. The variations of its color, in different stages of growth, caused VOL. II-6. 42 VERTEBRATA.''i V.$ THE BALD EAGLE. it to be iong confounded with the Great Sea Eagle. It is found along the sea-coasts, lakes, and rivers throughout the Arctic circle, and is met with in the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America. It is common in the lUnited States, and breeds along the borders of the ocean, usually making its nest in a secluded situation, on some lofty pine or cypress; this is composed of large sticks, four or five feet in length, forming a foundation, on which is laid a covering of sods, hay, moss, weeds, pine tops, and other coarse materials, all forming a pile five or six feet high, and four or five in breadth. On this almost hard bed, eggs are laid, usually at long intervals, so that the young are hatched at different periods. Here the young are sedulously fed, principally on fish; they continue to resort to the nest as their home and refuge, long after they are able to fly and provide for themselves. It is common for the old birds to breed year after year, in the same haunts. The pugnacious habits of this bold and powerful bird, have excited the admiration, and stimulated the descriptive powers of many naturalists; but Wilson, in a celebrated passage, has surpassed all others, and excited in the reader emotions of sublimity rivaling those of the actual beholder. " This distinguished bird," says he, " is the most beautiful of his tribe in this part of the world, and the adopted emblem of our country; it is therefore entitled to particular notice. The celebrated Cataract of Niagara is a noted place of resort for these birds, as well on account of the fish procured there, as for the numerous carcasses of squirrels, deer, bears, and various other animals, that, in their attempts to cross the river above the Falls, have been dragged into the CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 43 current, and precipitated down that tremendous gulf, where, among the rocks that bound the rapids below, they furnish a rich repast for the vulture, the raven, and bald eagle, the subject of the present account. Formed by nature for brav-;' -;^:-'-~ —.._-_. ing the severest cold; feeding equally on the K>.- produce of the sea and of the land; possessing powers of flight capable of outstripping' even the tempests themselves; unawed by any thing but man; and, from the ethereal heights to which he soars, looking abroad, at one glance, on an immeasurable expanse of for-,ll0~ ~:i \ests, fields, lakes, and ocean, deep below him, he appears indifferent to localities and to ^\^vVi^ ~ change of seasons; as, in a few minutes, he'\i^ \ M \.. can pass from summer to winter, from the \t \<\ | Rijlower to the higher regions of the atmosphere, yl [14!1~. AJl!y ithe abode of eternal cold, and thence descend, f ~' i'2 at will, to the torrid, or the arctic regions of the earth. He is, therefore, found at all seailllli ~l i^ k~ sons in the countries he inhabits; but prefers 8 ~ ~llllll Ssuch places as have been mentioned above, from the great partiality he has for fish. ~~!i';~'"i~"i' \ ~': "In procuring these, he displays, in a very singular manner, the genius and energy of his character, which is fierce, contemplative, daring, and tyrannical-attributes not exerted I -| Sebut on particular occasions, but, when put forth, overpowering all opposition. Elevated on the high dead limb of some gigantic tree that commands a wide view of the neighborIBNK ^ing shore and ocean, he seems calmly to contemplate the motions of the various feathered tribes that pursue their busy avocations below -the snow-white gulls slowly winnowing the air; the busy tringce coursing along the sands; trains of ducks streaming over the surface; BEAD AND FOOT OF BALD EAGLE. silent and watchful cranes, intent and wading; clamorous crows; and all the winged multitudes that subsist by the bounty of this vast liquid magazine of nature. High over all these hovers one, whose action instantly arrests his whole attention. By his wide curvature of wing, and sudden suspension in air, he knows him to be the fish-hawk, settling over some devoted victim of the deep. His eye kindles at the sight, and balancing himself, with half-opened wings, on the branch, he watches the result. Down, rapid as an arrow from heaven, descends the distant object of his attention, the roar of its wings reaching the ear as it disappears in the deep, making the surges foam around. At this moment, the eager looks of the eagle are all ardor; and leveling his neck for flight, he sees the fish-hawk once more emerge, struggling with his prey, and mounting in the air with screams of exultation. These are the signal for our hero, who, launching into the air, instantly gives chase, and soon gains on the fish-hawk; each exerts his utmost to mount above the other, displaying in these rencontres the most elegant and sublime aerial evolutions. The unencumbered eagle rapidly advances, and is just on the point of reaching his opponent, when, with a sudden scream, probably of despair and honest execration, the latter drops his fish; the eagle, poising himself for a moment, as if to take a more certain aim, descends like a whirlwind, snatches it in his grasp ere it reaches the water, and bears his ill-gotten booty silently away to the woods. 44: VERTEBRATA. "These predatory attacks and defensive maneuvers of the eagle and the fish-hawk, are matters of daily observation along the whole of our sea-board, from Georgia to New England, and frequently excite great interest in the spectators. Sympathy, however, on this, as on most other occasions, generally sides with the honest and laborious sufferer, in opposition to the attack of power, injustice, and rapacity-qualities for which our hero is so generally notorious, and which, in his superior, man, are certainly detestable. As for the feelings of the poor fish, they seem altogether out of the question. " When driven, as he sometimes is, by the combined courage and perseverance of the fish-hawks, from their neighborhood, and forced to hunt for himself, he retires more inland, in search of young pigs, of which he destroys great numbers. In the lower parts of Virginia and North Carolina, where the inhabitants raise vast herds of these animals, complaints of this kind are very general against him. He also de troys young lambs in the early part of spring; and will sometimes attack old sickly sheep, aiming furiously at their eyes." Mr. J. L. Gardiner, addressing Wilson, writes thus:-" The bald eagles remain on Long Island during the whole winter. They can be most easily discovered on evenings, by their loud snoring while asleep on high oak-trees; and, when awake, their hearing seems to be nearly as good as their sight. I think I mentioned to you, that I had myself seen one flying with a lamb ten days old, and which it dropped on the ground from about ten or twelve feet high. The struggling of the lamb, more than its weight, prevented its carrying it away. My running, hallooing, and being very nigh, might prevent its completing its design. It had broken the back in the act of seizing it; and I was under the necessity of killing it outright to prevent its misery. The lamb's dam seemed astonished to see its innocent offspring borne off into the air by a bird. "I was lately told by a man of truth, that he saw an eagle rob a hawk of its fish, and the hawk seemed so enraged as to fly down at the eagle, while the eagle very deliberately, in the air, threw himself partly over on his back, and, while he grasped with one foot the fish, extended the other to threaten or seize the hawk. I have known several hawks unite to attack the eagle; but never knew a single one to do it. The eagle seems to regard the hawks as the hawks do the kingbirds-only as teasing, troublesome fellows." "The intrepidity of character, mentioned above," continues Wilson, " may be further illustrated by the following fact, which occurred a few years ago, near Great Egg Harbor, New Jersey: —A woman, who happened to be weeding in the garden, had set her child down near, to amuse itself while she was at work: when a sudden and extraordinary rushing sound, and a scream from her child, alarmed her, and, starting up, she beheld the infant thrown down, and dragged some few feet, and a large bald eagle bearing off a fragment of its frock, which being the only part seized, and giving way, providentially saved the life of the infant. "The appetite of the bald eagle, though habituated to long fasting, is of the most voracious, and often the most indelicate kind. Fish, when he can obtain them, are preferred to all other fare. Young lambs and pigs are dainty morsels, and made free with on all favorable occasions. Ducks, geese, gulls, and other sea-fowl, are also seized with avidity. The most putrid carrion, when nothing better can be had, is acceptable; and the collected groups of gormandizing vultures, on the approach of this dignified personage, instantly disperse, and make way for their master, waiting his departure in sullen silence, and at a respectful distance, on the adjacent trees. "In one of those partial migrations of tree-squirrels that sometimes take place in our western forests, many thousands of them were drowned in attempting to cross the Ohio; and at a certain place, not far from Wheeling, a prodigious number of their dead bodies were floated to the shore by an eddy. Here the vultures assembled in great force, and had regaled themselves for some time, when a bald eagle made his appearance, and took sole possession of the premises, keeping the whole vultures at their proper distance for several days. He has also been seen navigating the same river on a floating carrion, though scarcely raised above the surface of the water, and tugging at the carcass, regardless of snags, sawyers, planters, or shallows. He sometimes carries his tyranny to great extremes against the vultures. In hard times, when feed happens to be scarce, should he accidentally meet with one of these which has its craw crammed with carrion, he CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 45 attacks it fiercely in the air; the cowardly vulture instantly disgorges. and the delicious contents are snatched up by the eagle before they reach the ground. " The flight of the bald eagle, when taken into consideration with the ardor and energy of his character, is noble and interesting. Sometimes the human eye can just discern him, like a minute speck, moving in slow curvatures along the face of the heavens, as if reconnoitering the earth at that immense distance. Sometimes he glides along in a direct horizontal line, at a vast height, with expanded and unmoving wings, till he gradually disappears in the distant blue ether. Seen gliding in easy circles over the high shores and mountainous cliffs that tower above the Hudson and Susquehanna, he attracts the eye of the intelligent voyager, and adds great interest to the scenery. At the great Cataract of Niagara, already mentioned, there rises from the gulf into which the Fall of the Horse-Shoe descends, a stupendous column of smoke, or spray, reaching to the heavens, and moving off in large black clouds, according to the direction of the wind, forming a very striking and majestic appearance. The eagles are here seen sailing about, sometimes losing themselves in this thick column, and again reappearing in another place, with such ease and elegance of motion, as renders the whole trul- sublime. "High o'er the watery uproar, silent seen, Sailing sedate in majesty serene, Now midst the pillared spray sublimely lost, And now, emerging, down the rapids tossed, Glides the Bald Eagle, gazing, calm and slow, O'er all the horrors of the scene below; Intent alone to sate himself with blood, From the torn victims of the raging flood." Audubon describes a bald eagle pursuing a swan, as follows:-" The next moment, however, the wild trumpet-like sound of a yet distant but approaching swan is heard: a shriek from the female eagle comes across the stream; for she is fully as alert as her mate. The snow-white bird is now in sight: her long neck is stretched forward; her eye is on the watch, vigilant as that of her enemy; her large wings seem with difficulty to support the weight of her body, although they flap incessantly. So irksome do her exertions seem, that her very legs are spread beneath her tail, to aid her in her flight. She approaches; the eagle has marked her for his prey. As the swan is passing the dreaded pair, the male bird starts from his perch, in full preparation for the chase, with an awful scream. " Now is the time to witness a display of the eagle's powers. He glides through the air like a falling star, and, like a flash of lightning, comes upon the timorous quarry, which now, in agony and despair, seeks, by various maneuvers, to elude the grasp of his cruel talons. It mounts, doubles, and willingly would plunge into the stream, were it not prevented by the eagle, which, long possessed of the knowledge that, by such a stratagem, the swan might escape him, forces it to remain in the air, by attempting to strike it with his talons from beneath. The hope of escape is soon given up by the swan. It has already become much weakened, and its strength fails at the sight of the courage and swiftness of its antagonist. Its last gasp is about to escape, when the ferocious eagle strikes with his talcis the under side of its wing, and, with unresisted power, forces the bird to fall in a slanting direction upon the nearest shore." And, again, when two of these eagles are hunting, in concert, some bird which has alighted on the water, this writer says: "At other times, when these eagles, sailing in search of prey, discover a goose, a duck, or a swan, that has alighted on the water, they accomplish its destruction in a manner that is worthy of our attention. Well aware that the water-fowl have it in their power to dive at their approach, and thereby elude their attempts upon them, they ascend in the air, in opposite directions, over the lake or river on which the object which they are desirous of possessing has been observed. Both reach a certain height, immediately after which, one of them glides with great swiftness toward the prey; the latter, meantime, aware of the eagle's intention, dives the moment before he reaches the spot. The pursuer then rises in the air, and is met by its mate, which glides toward the water bird, that has just emerged to breathe, and forces it to plunge again beneath 46 VERTEBRATA. THE YOUNG BALD EAGLE. the surface, to escape the talons of this second assailant. The first eagle is now poising itself ir the place where its mate formerly was, and rushes anew, to force the quarry to make another plunge. By thus alternately gliding, in rapid and often-repeated rushes, over the ill-fated bird, they soon fatigue it, when it stretches out its neck, swims deeply, and makes for the shore in the hope of concealing itself among the rank weeds. But this is of no avail; for the eagles follow it in all its motions; and the moment it approaches the margin, one of them darts upon it." It cannot be very gratifying to us Americans, after reading these pages, to reflect that this bird is inscribed on our national banner: we have only the poor satisfaction to know that Franklin early uttered his protest against it. His words were as follows:-" For my part, I wish the bald eagle had not been chosen as the representative of our country. He is a bird of bad moral character; he does not get his living honestly. You may have seen him perched on some dead tree, where, too lazy to fish for himself, he watches the labors of the fishing-hawk; and when that diligent bird has at length taken a fish, and is bearing it to his nest for the support of his mate and young ones, the bald eagle pursues him and takes it from him. With all this injustice, he is never in CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 47 good case, but, like those among men who live by sharping and robbing, he is generally poor, and often very lousy. Besides, he is a rank coward: the little kingbird, not bigger than a sparrow, attacks him boldly, and drives him out of the district. He is therefore by no means a proper emblem for the brave and honest Cincinnati of America, who have driven all the Kingbirds from our country; though exactly fit for that order of knights which the French call Chevaliers d'Industrie." We can, indeed, account for the taste which led to this choice, for the descendants of those who cherish the lion as their emblem, might naturally select the eagle as theirs. This, however, is only an explanation, not an excuse. Perhaps our legislators who chose the eagle were rather puzzled, for we are told that among the various devices suggested at the time of the discussion upon the subject in Congress, were the shad, the hog, and the turkey. It appears, therefore, that all things considered, in taking the eagle, which is only detestable, we escaped something ridiculous, and therefore, as the world goes, may thank heaven that it is no worse. The WASHINGTON SEA EAGLE; Falco Washingtonii.-This bird is about forty inches in length, and was discovered by Audubon in Kentucky, in 1814, and is described by him as disdaining the piratical habits of the bald eagle, and as flying closer to the earth, and in wider circles. Cassin says, on this subject, that he considers Audubon's description as referring to the young bird, and the adult as yet unknown. He adds, " No specimen precisely corresponding with Mr. Audubon's bird, has been obtained since its discovery, and it has latterly been looked upon by naturalists, especially in Europe, as an unusually large specimen of the young white-headed eagle." The engraving of a bird of this kind, on the preceding page, suggests the probable accuracy of this opinion. The GREAT SEA-EAGLE, or GRAY EAGLE, or CINEREOUS EAGLE, H. albicilla-the Ofiraie of Buffon; the Falco ossifragus of Gmelin-is common in Europe and the high northern parts of North America. Its color is an ashy-gray, lighter on the head and neck; the tail a pure white; the bill a pale yellow; the iris a brilliant yellow. Its flight is less elevated than most other eagles; it feeds on fish, sea-birds, seals, and also on quadrupeds, and hunts by night as well as by day, both on sea and land. It robs other fishing-birds inferior to itself of their prey. Such is its voracity that it sometimes buries its talons in a seal bigger than itself, and, unable to withdraw them, is plunged in the sea and drowned. The Greenlanders eat its flesh, and make amulets of its bills and claws. This species is not found in the United States, and appears only to exist on this continent very sparsely in the arctic regions. The BLACK AND WHITE EAGLE, H. aguia, is a South American species, thought by the inhabitants to be a hygrometer; when it is seen to circle high in the air, and heard to utter a scream, it is regarded as monitory and a sure presage of a storm. The PIscIvoROus EAGLE, H. vocifer, and BLAGRUS EAGLE, H. blagrus, are African species, living along the borders of the sea, and feeding chiefly on fish; the GARUDA EAGLE or PONDICHERRY EAGLE, H. Garuda, or H. Ponticerianus, or H. Indus, is found in India. The latter, called Little East India Eagle by Buffon, is consecrated to Vishnu by the Brahmins. Genus CUNCUMA: Cuncuma.-This, according to the Catalogue of the British Museum, embraces MACE's EAGLE, C. Mccei; the WHITE-BELLIED EAGLE, C. leucogaster; the BLACK AND WHITE EAGLE, C. melanoleucus. These species resemble those of the preceding genus. Genus HALIASTUR: Haliastur.-According to the British Museum Catalogue, the following belong to this genus: the WHITE-HEADED RUFOUS EAGLE, H. leucosternus, and the WHISTLING HA.WK, H. sphenurus. Genus HELOTARSUS: Helotarsus, includes the BUFFOON EAGLE or SHORT-TAILED EAGLE, H. ecaudatus, a small species of South Africa; the plumage is black tinged with red; the tail is of a bright red; the bill black; in flying it has the appearance of a bird with the tail cut off. Levaillant gave it its name from its habit of tumbling like a buffoon in the air. Genus GAMPSONYX: Gampsonyx.-Under this the British Museum Catalogue arranges the FALCON-LIKE HAWK, G. Swainsoni. Genus ROSTRHAMUS: Rostrhamus.-This includes a single species, the FISH-HOOK EAGLE, R. hamatus, so named from the shape of the upper mandible, which bends down in the form of a fish-hook. Its plumage is black, and its length seventeen inches. It is found in South America. Genus GYPOHIERAX: Gypohierax.-This term, signifying VULTURE-HAWK, is descriptive 48 VERTEBRATA......, =. —._ =I = == = = _ THE VULTURE HAWK. of the only species belonging to the genus-G. anyolensis of Gray; the Vultur angolensis of Latham. It is of the size of the goose, the general plumage being white; the middle part of the wings and back black; the bill and tarsi white; the lower part of the neck enlarged into a sack. It is found in Western Africa, and especially at Angola, and may be properly designated the Angola Vulture-Hawk. Genus CARACARA: Caracara.-Under this title we shall include several species, arranged by some naturalists in several different genera, and all partaking somewhat of the vulturine character. They have the general aspect of the hawks or eagles, and carry off their prey in their talons in the manner of those birds, but their habits resemble those of the vultures. Hence they are regarded as a distinct tribe by Le Maout and some others. The prominent species is the CARACARA EAGLE-the Polyborus Braziliensis of Vieillot; the Falco Braziliensis of Latham; Polyborus vulgaris of Audubon; P. tharus of Molina. The length of this bird is twenty-four to twentysix inches; the wings and tail are long; there is a bare place on the breast as in the turkeybuzzard; the back and wings are brown, edged with umber-color; tail grayish-white, banded with brown; neck light brownish-yellow; the fore parts of the body, above and below, banded with brown and white; the hind part, abdomen, and sides, dark brown. This is the most common of the Falconidae found in Brazil and the vicinity; it extends northward to Mexico, and is sometimes met with in the Southern and Southwestern States. Its name of Caracara is derived from.its love-cry, which it utters while turning its head upon its back; it is omnivorous, though it prefers small reptiles, and often walks in the water, seizing upon frogs, young alligators, and the like; it then drags them to the shore and devours them. It is a lazy bird, and therefore, in the vicinity of human settlements, feeds upon the offal it can pick up; it often follows travelers, and though carefully keeping itself concealed in the forests, still waits and watches over their encampments at night, and upon their departure, descends and feasts on the relics of food they may have left. It is usually seen in flocks during the day, but at night they divide in pairs and resume their conjugal avocations. It is very quarrelsome with its kindred, two of them often fighting furiously for the same piece of food; they also rob other birds, and especially gulls, of their prey; but they are still cowardly, and submit to be sadly harassed by birds so insignificant as fly-catchers. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES, 49 THE CARACARA EAGLE. The CHIMANGO CARACARA, Poliborus Chimanzco, inhabits the same country as the preceding, but is much more rare; it is also smaller, being thirteen to fifteen inches long. The CHIMACHIMA CARACARA, P. Chimachima, is fifteen inches long, and is of a dirty yellow above; lives wholly on dead animal matter, and is found only in tropical America. Other species are the LONG-WINGED CARACARA, C. megalopterus, and the SOUTHERN CARACARA, C. australis. Genus IBYCTER: Ibycter.-This term signifies trumpeter, in allusion to the deafening cry of the only species, the RED-THROATED FALCON or WHITE-BELLIED IBYCTER, I. leucogaster; the Falco aquilinus of Gmelin: it is sixteen inches long, and is called Captain of the Big-bills by the natives, because some of its habits resemble those of the toucans. It is of a blue-black above, the belly and rump of a pure white. It is found in flocks in the forests of Guiana and Brazil. Genus DAPTRIUS: Daptrius, includes a single species, the BLACK CARACARA, D. ater, or Falco aterinus of Temminck. Its length is fourteen or fifteen inches, and it is a native of Guiana and Brazil. This species is included in the genus Ibycter in the Catalogue of the British Museum, under the name of I. ater. VOL. II. —7 50 V bRT VE EBIATA. gig THE LAMMERGEYzER. THE VULTURID.E. In noticing the numerous family of Falconidce, we began with the True Falcons, and thence proceeded through the various species of Hawks, Goshawks, Kites, Buzzards, Harriers, and Eagles. until we met with several genera, which, alike by their conformation and habits, combined something of the vigor and daring of the Falcons with the more cowardly and gluttonous qualities of the Vultures. These latter were a natural introduction to the study of the true Vultures; here, however, at the threshold, we are met with one conspicuous instance in which the prominent CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 51 characteristics of the Eagles and Vultures are combined in an intense degree, so that the species referred to has been bandied by naturalists back and forth between the Eagles and Vultures till its true position became a matter of general doubt. At last it has been established among the Vultures, under the generic title of GYPAETOS: Gypaetos, signifying Vulture-Eagle; its specific name is Lammergeyer or Lamb-killer among the Swiss; the Bearded-Vulture of English authors; the Weisskopfige Geier Adler of the Germans —G. barbatus. This is the largest of European birds, being four to four and a half feet long; the spread of its wings about nine feet, sometimes much more. The French expedition to Egypt killed one which measured fourteen feet. It is in fact but little smaller than the condor, and is regarded as having given rise to the fabulous Roc of the Arabian tales. The head and upper part of the neck are a dirty white; back and wing-coverts deep gray-brown; lower parts orange-red. The plumage varies greatly with the age. It builds its nest on inaccessible rocks, and lays two whitish eggs, spotted with brown. Unlike the typical vultures, which are distinguished by their bare necks, indicative of their propensity for feeding on carrion, the lammergeyer has the neck thickly covered with feathers, resembling those of the true eagles, with which it also accords in its bold and predatory habits, pouncing with impetuosity on animals exceeding itself in size; hence the young chamois, the wild goat, the mountain hare, and various species of birds, find in it a formidable and ferocious enemy. Having seized its prey, the lammergeyer devours it upon the spot, the straight form of its talons disabling it from carrying it to a distance. It refuses flesh in a state of putrefaction, unless sharply pressed by hunger. It inhabits the highest mountains of Europe, Asia, and Africa, the chain of the Pyrenees, and the Swiss Alps, Sardinia, Greece, and the Tyrol, the chain of the Caucasus, the Himalaya Mountains, the Siberian and Persian Mountains. It is also found in the lofty mountains of Central Africa, and toward the borders of the Red Sea, principally in the most inaccessible parts of those mountains, and where there is plenty of the larger sort of game. It is especially dreaded in Switzerland, where it is said sometimes to carry off children; but this is not proved. It is asserted with more probability that it sometimes descends upon lambs, calves, goats, and chamois, which it finds on the precipices, and striking them with its breast, dashes them down the rocks, where it afterward devours them. Genus VULTURE: Vultur.-Of these disgusting but useful and necessary birds, there are several genera and many species. The general characteristics are-eyes flush with the head, and not buried under the brow as in the eagles; the tarsi are not covered by protecting plates, but reticulated, covered with small scales let into a sort of network, as they generally are in the wading birds; the beak is long, nearly straight in the greater part of the length of its cutting edges, and hooked only in a portion toward the tip; a greater or smaller portion of the head, and even of the neck, is bare of feathers, and if not absolutely naked skin, covered only with thin, short, and soft down. The power of their talons is by no means in proportion to the size of the birds, and they are not much used as weapons; the bill is the member upon which they chiefly depend, and it has more the character of a cutting than of a killing instrument; their wings are so very long that they are obliged to carry them partially expanded when they walk; they are cowardly birds, and feed chiefly upon carrion, and rarely upon living prey; they often, however, have terrific battles with each other over the carcasses on which they feed, two of them struggling, screaming, and fighting for the same mass of putrid flesh. After they have gorged themselves with food, their craw forms a large protuberance beneath the furcal bone, a flow of fetid humor distils from the nostrils, and they are often in such a state of stupidity and inaction that they are incapable of escape or defense, and one may catch them or knock them down with a stick. Their office in nature is a foul one, and when they have performed it they are foul and offensive birds, but not upon that account the less in character. They are the scavengers of hot climates, and are designed to remove the dead animal matter, which would otherwise breed infection and scatter pestilence over the land. Hence these birds are protected in many of the cities of tropical countries. They have amazing keenness of sight, by which they are able to discern a dead animal while flying over it a thousand or two thousand feet in the air. It is probable that they are assisted by their sense of smell in finding their food, but the sight is their chief dependence. 52 VERTEBRATA. ~k.'/. GROUP OF VULTURES. The GRIFFON VULTURE, or TAWNY VULTURE, IS the COMMON VULTURE of Europe, V. fulvus: the head and neck are covered with close-set, short, white, downy feathers; the lower part of the neck is surrounded with a ruff of long, slender, white feathers, sometimes with a slight yellow tinge; on the middle of the breast is a space furnished with white down. The whole of the body, the wings, and the origin of the tail, yellow-brown or Isabella color; quills and tail-feathers blackish-brown; total length exceeding four feet. The female is larger than the male. The nest of this species is generally formed upon the most elevated rocks, but it often builds on the highest forest trees, and in Sardinia on the loftiest oaks, where the nest of brushwood and roots is more than three feet in diameter. The eggs, which are generally two in number, are of a dull greenish or grayish-white, slightly marked with pale reddish spots, and with a rough surface. Like all the other true vultures, it feeds principally upon dead carcasses, to which it is frequently attracted in very considerable numbers. When it has once made a lodgment upon its prey, it rarely quits the banquet while a morsel of flesh remains, so that it is not uncommon to see it perched upon a putrefying corpse for several successive days. It never attempts to carry off a portion even to satisfy its young, but feeds them by disgorging the half-digested morsel from its maw. Sometimes, but very rarely, it makes its prey of living victims, and even then of such only as are incapable of offering the smallest resistance; for in a contest for superiority it has not that advantage which is possessed by the falcon tribes, of lacerating its enemy with its talons, and must therefore rely upon its beak alone. It is only, however, when no other mode of satiating its appetite presents itself, that it has recourse to the destruction of other animals for its subsistence. After feeding, it is seen fixed for hours in one unvaried posture, patiently waiting until the work of digestion is completed and the stimulus of hunger is renewed, to enable and to urge it to mount again into the upper regions of the air, and fly about in quest of its necessary food. If violently disturbed after a full meal, it is incapable of flight until it has disgorged the contents of its stomach; lightened of which, and freed from their debilitating effects, it is immediately in a condition to soar to such a pitch as, in spite of its magnitude, to become invisible to human sight. In captivity it seems to have no other desire than that of obtaining its regular supply of food. So long as that is afforded, it manifests a perfect indifference to the circumstances in which it is placed. The BROWN VULTURE, V. cinereus, the Vautour Arrian and Vautour Noir of the French; Cinereous or Ash Vulture, and Bengal Vulture of Latham; the Grauer Geier of the Germans, is a CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 53 __ ___ -- THE BROWN VULTURE. native of Europe, and is found in lofty mountains, especially in the vast forests of Hungary, the Tyrol, and the Pyrenees; the south of Spain and Italy; accidentally in Dalmatia; more frequently in Sardinia; in Sicily; rarely in Italy and in Germany. Its food consists of dead animals and carrion, but never of living animals, of which it shows fear. It forms the genus Gyps of Savigny. Mr. Gould notices a deviation in this species from the true or more typical vultures, manifested in the partially bare neck, open ears, curved claws, and powerful beak. THE SOCIABLE VULTURE, or EARED VULTURE, V. auricularis, the Oricou of Levaillant and the French; the Ghaip of the Namaqua Hottentots, has the head and greater portion of the neck red and naked, with the exception of a few hardly discernible hairs; beak horn-colored, tinged with yellow at its base; iris chestnut. The folds of red naked skin originate behind the ears, surround the upper part of them, and then descend several inches, being irregular in their outline and nearly an inch broad at their widest part. The throat is covered with hairs inclining to black. This gigantic species, a fit machine for assisting in the clearing of the soil of Africa from the putrid bodies of elephants, hippopotami, rhinoceroses and giraffes, haunts the caverns of rocks, and is altogether a mountain bird. There its night is passed, and there among the lofty crags it retires to repose when it has sated its appetite. Levaillant saw large flocks of them perched at sunrise on the precipitous entrances to their abodes, and sometimes the extent of the rocky region was marked by a continued chain of these birds. Their tails are worn down by friction against their craggy haunts and by the soil of the plains, in consequence of the laborious efforts which they make to raise themselves into the air; when once on the wing, however, 5V YERTEBRATA. THE SOCIABLE VULTURE. their flight is grand and powerful. They rise higher and higher, till their enormous bulk is lost to human ken; but though beyond the sphere of man's vision, the telescopic eye of the bird is at work. The moment any animal sinks to the earth in death, the imperceptible vulture detects it. Does the hunter bring down some large quadruped beyond his powers to remove, and leave it to obtain assistance-on his return, however speedy, he finds it surrounded by a band of the vultures, where not one was to be seen a quarter of an hour before. This species is a native of South Africa, and has been taken in the neighborhood of Athens. A:...... THF EGYPTIAN VULTURE. Other species of this genus are the PONDICHERRY VULTURE, V. Ponticerianus; the INDIAN VULTURE, V. Indicus; KOLBE's VULTURE, V. Kolbii, found in Africa; the CALOTTE VULTURE, CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 55 I'I' ~ i ___ _ = _ THE KING VULTURE. V. occipitalis, found in Africa; the MONK VULTURE, V. monachus, the V. chincou of Temminck, found in Africa and Asia; the CHAUGOUN VULTURE, V. Indicus of Latham, found in the environs of Calcutta and Pondicherry. Genus NEOPIRON: Neophron.-This includes the EGYPTIAN VULTURE,. percnopterus-the Vautour Ouriyourap of Levaillant; the Rhachamak, or Pharaoh's Hen, of Bruce and others; the Maltese Vulture of Latham. The head and only the front of the neck are covered with a th ats utr fLta.Teha n nytefoto h ekaecvrdwt 56 VERTEBRATA. naked skin of a livid yellowish color; the whole plumage is pure white, except the great quillfeathers, which are black; feathers of the occiput long and loose; cere orange, iris yellow, mandibles blackish; feet livid yellow, claws black, tail very much graduated; length two feet and a few inches. Its plumage varies much, according to age. It does not congregate, except when an all-attractive carcass calls them together, but goes in pairs, the male and female seldom parting company In the districts which the species inhabits, every group of the natives has a pair of these vultures attached to it. The birds roost on the trees in the vicinity, or on the fences which bound the inclosures formed for the cattle. They are to a certain degree domiciled and are harmless The people do them no injury; on the contrary, they are glad to see and encourage them, because they clean the premises of all the offal and filth they can find. In default of other food they eat frogs, lizards, and snakes. They are most common in Africa, but are also often seen in Southern Europe and in Asia. The MONK NEOPHRON, N. monachus, is a species of Western Africa. Genus SARCORAMPHUS: sarcoramphus.-Of this there is a single species, the KING VULTURE, or KING OF THE VULTURES-the iribubicha of Azara, and the Cozcaquauhtli or Queen of the Vultures, of the Mexicans-S. papa. The naked skin of the head and neck is brilliantly colored; beak reddish, with a shade of black; cere bright orange-prolonged between the nostrils into a comb about an inch and a half long-loose in texture, and falling on either side of the bill when the head is erect; back of the head covered with short down inclining to black. On each side behind the eye several broad and deep wrinkles of the skin, whence rises a thick and prominent fold extending obliquely downward along the neck, reddish-brown mixed with blue, and marked with many lines of small black hairs. From the bright-red upper part of the neck the color gradually lessens in intensity, fading into orange and yellow toward the lower part. Round the bottom of the neck is a broad ruff of soft, downy, deep ashy-gray feathers. It is found in all the tropical parts of America, and is frequently met with as far north as Florida. It frequents the plains and wooded hills, feeding on dead carcasses, sometimes making a meal of what the jaguar has left. It often sits aloft on the branch of a dead tree, watching for hours the herds of cattle, and, when opportunity offers, pouncing down on a new-born calf, ere yet it is able to stand M. D'Orbigny saw a poor cow standing with her calf between her legs, and by her horns and her bellowings keeping off a flock of vultures that sought to devour the helpless young animal. The name of King of the Vultures is bestowed partly on account of the red fleshy wattle, which appears like a diadem on his head, and partly also on account of the tyranny which he exercises over the smaller kinds of vultures, which stand aloof not daring to approach, while he is making his gluttonous repast. The SACRED VULTURE, S. sacer; described as found in Florida by Bartram many years ago, has not since been identified. The crown of the head is red; the skin of the neck is bar- and annulated nearly to the breast. The plumage is white or cream-colored, except the quill-feathers of the wings, which are dark brown; the tail is white, tipped with brown. It has been conjectured that this bird may have belonged to some one of the species we have described. Genus CONDOR: Gryphus.-This includes a single species, the CONDOR-the Great Vulture of the Andes; G. typus of Isidore Geoffroy. It is the largest known bird of prey, being about four feet long, with nine feet average expanse of wing, sometimes, however, extending to fourteen; still it is but little larger than the lammergeyer, but there is something in its majestic flight, its ponderous aspect, and the sublime scenery among which it is observed, that makes it appear altogether more gigantic than any other bird. Even to Humboldt, when traveling among the towering Andes-seeing it perched on the steepling cliffs, or nestling upon the mountain heights at the verge of perpetual snow-it had the appearance of a winged giant, and it was not until he had made repeated measurements that the illusion vanished. The real facts in. the case are, however, sufficiently startling. "These birds," says Nuttall, "are known to soar to an elevation almost six times greater than that at which the clouds are ordinarily suspended over our heads. At the immense height of nearly six perpendicular miles, the condor is seen majestically sailing in the ethereal space, watchfully surveying the vast expanse in quest of his accustomed prey. Elevated farther above our planet than any other animal, impelled CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 5 THE CONDOR. by hunger alone, he descends into the nearest plains which border the Andes; but his stay in this region is only for a few hours, as he prefers the desolate and lofty mountains and this rarefied aerial space, in which humanlife would soon become extinct. The rocky eyries of the Peruvian Andes, whose plain is elevated about fifteen thousand feet above the level of the sea, have hence obtained the vernacular name of Condor Nests. Here, perched in dreary solitude on the crests of scattered rocks, these dark, gigantic birds are seen silently reposing like melancholy specters, rousing only from their slumbers at the calls of hunger. Their peculiar residence is the great chain of the high Andes, where they associate, three or four together, upon the points of cliffs, without either fearing or injuring man, so that they may be approached within four yards without showing alarm, or making on their part any attempt at attack or defense. Hardly an instance is really known of their even assaulting an infant, though some credulous naturalists, with the exaggerating privilege of travelers, have given accounts of their killing young persons of even ten or twelve years of age. Their ability for such rapine is not to be doubted, but their natural cowardice forbids the attempt. A pair of condors will sometimes unite and attack the deer, the puma, the vicuna, and the lama, and bring them down by a long and harassing pursuit. They will also sometimes chase the wild heifer, occasionally wounding it with their bill and claws, until the unfortunate animal, stifled and overcome with fatigue, extends its tongue, which these monsters instantly seize and devour as a precious morsel. They also tear out the eyes of their victim, which soon falls prostrate to the earth and expires. The condors then gorge themselves, and afterward rest in stupidity and almost gluttonous inebriation, perched upon the highest neighboring rocks. The formidable hunter, now loaded with his meal, may be driven about without his attempting to fly, and in this state the Indians sometimes pursue them with the lasso and easily take them captive. Thus restrained, the condor makes extraordinary efforts to rise in the air, but fatigued by the attempt, he begins to disgorge himself freely, an effort he appears to assist by lengthening and shortening his neck, and by bringing forward the sheath of his back." VOL. II.-8 VERTEBRATA 58,X _ IIN, TTTE BLACK VULTURE TtS TUY BUZZARD food and a d animal will These birds will approach elings when allured by the scet of food, and a dead animal wi draw down a crowd of these gluttons where none were before visible; they tear and eat with the greatest voracity, pushing with their feet and clapping their wings, and seeming to be in an ecstasyof~ mingled rage and delight. The spectacle of the feeding of the condors in the Garden 110arConaPr' — 1 etadcaP,- h odr 1 CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 59 of Plants, at Paris, which the writer of this has often witnessed-on which occasion these creatures, usually dozing on their perch, are suddenly roused to demoniac frenzy, and scream and fight and gorge themselves with a voracity that seems like madness-is horrible beyond description. The condor has its chosen home in the most elevated peaks of the Andes; but it is also seen in the Cordilleras of Central America and Mexico, and it is said also in the southern part of the Rocky Mountain range. It makes no nest, but deposits its eggs upon the naked rock; these are wholly white, and three or four inches in length. It is said that the female remains with her brood for a year; the young have no feathers; the body, for several months, is covered only with.. very fine down or whitish frizzled hair, which resembles that of young owls. This down disfigures the young bird so much that in this state it appears almost as large as an adult. Genus CATHARTES: Cathartes.-This genus includes several species, all American, three of them found within the boundaries of the United States. That which is most familiarly known is the TURKEY-BUZZARD or TURKEY-VULTURE, C. aura-the Vultur aura of Wilson-which extends from the southern boundary of New York to the West Indies and South America, being abundant in the warm regions and rare in the northern portions of its range. In the Middle States it is partially migratory, the greater part retiring to the south on the approach of cold weather. But numbers remain all the winter in Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey, particularly in the vicinity of the large rivers and the ocean, which afford a supply of food at all seasons. In New Jersey it hatches in May, the deep recesses of the solitary swamps of that state affording situations well suited to the purpose. The female is at no pains to form a nest with materials; but, having chosen a suitable place, which is either a truncated hollow tree, an excavated stump, or log, she lays on the rotten wood from two to four eggs, of a dull, dirty white, or pale cream color, splashed all over with chocolate, mingled with blackish touches, the blotches largest and thickest toward the great end; the form something like the egg of a goose, but blunter at the small end; length two inches and three-quarters. The male watches often while the female is sitting, and, if not disturbed, they will occupy the same breeding-place for several years. The young are clothed with a whitish down similar to that which covers young goslings. If any person approach the nest, and attempt to handle them, they will immediately vomit such offensive matter as to compel the intruder to a precipitate retreat. This species are gregarious, peaceable, and harmless, never offering any violence to a live animal, or depriving the husbandman of his stock. Hence, though ir consequence of their filthy habits they are not beloved, they are respected and tolerated for their usefulness where they are most needed. They generally roost at night in flocks on the limbs of large trees, and they may be seen on a summer morning spreading out their wings to the rising sun, and remaining in that posture for a considerable time. These birds, unless when rising from the earth, seldom flap their wings, but sweep along in ogees, and dipping and rising lines, and move with great rapidity. They are often seen in companies, soaring at an immense height, particularly previous to a thunder-storm. Their wings are not spread horizontally, but form a slight angle with the body upward, the tips having an upward curve. Their sight is astonishingly acute, and they never fail to discover carrion, even when at the distance of several miles from it. When once they have found a carcass, if not molested they will not leave the place until the whole is devoured. At such times they eat so immoderately that frequently they are incapable of rising, and may be caught without much difficulty; but few that are acquainted with them will have the temerity to undertake the task. A man in the state of Delaware, a few years since, observing some turkey-buzzards regaling themselves upon the carcass of a horse which was in a highly putrid state, conceived the design of making a captive of one, to take home for the amusement of his children. He cautiously approached, and, springing upon the unsuspicious group, grasped a fine, plump fellow in his arms, and was bearing off his prize in triumph, when lo! the indignant vulture disgorged such a torrent of filth in the face of our hero, that it produced all the effects of the most powerful emetic, and forever cured him of his inclination for turkey-buzzards. "The vulture," adds Wilson, from whom we have chiefly taken the preceding account, "is included in the catalogue of those fowls declared unclean and an abomination by the Levitical law, and which the Israelites were interdicted eating. We presume that this prohibition was relig 60 VERTEBRATA. Avid. TURKEY BUZZARDS. iously observed, so far, at least, as it related to the vulture, from whose flesh there arises such an unsavory odor that we question if all the sweetening processes ever invented could render it palatable to Jew, Pagan, or Christian." The turkey-buzzard is two feet long, with six feet expanse of wing; the head and neck, for an inch and a half below the'ears, are covered with a reddish, carunculated skin; above the color is black, glossed with green and bronze, with purplish reflections; beneath it is sooty black. The BLACK VULTURE, or CARRION CRow-the URUBU, of South America, Vultur atratus of Wilson-is included in the genus Coragyps, meaning Crow- Vulture, of Le Maout. It is of the size of a small turkey, the body being of a shining black; the skin of the head and neck black and wrinkled. This species is even more abundant than the preceding, extending in its range from North Carolina to Cape Horn. In the towns and villages of the Southern States, particularly Charleston and Savannah, they may be seen, either sauntering about the streets, sunning themselves on the roofs of the houses and fences, or, if the weather be cold, cowering around the tops of the chimneys, to enjoy the benefit of the heat, which to them is a peculiar gratification. They are protected by law, or usage; and may be said to be completely domesticated, being as common as the domestic poultry, and equally familiar. The inhabitants are disgusted with their filthy, voracious habits; but they have a respect paid to them, as scavengers whose labors are subservient to the public good. " It sometimes happens," says Wilson, " that, after having gorged themselves, these birds vomit down the chimneys, which must be intolerably disgusting, and must provoke the ill-will of those whose hospitality is thus requited." These birds are indolent, and may be observed in companies, loitering for hours together in one place. They do not associate with the turkey-buzzards, and are much darker in their plumage than the latter. Their mode of flight also varies from that of the turkey-buzzard: the black vulture flaps its wings five or six times rapidly, then sails with them extended nearly horizontally; the turkey-buzzard seldom flaps its wings, and, when sailing, they form an angle with the body CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 61 =, X,,, TEE BLACK VULTURE. upward. The latter, though found in the vicinity of towns, rarely venture within them, and then always appearing cautious of the near approach of any one. It is not so impatient of cold as the former, and is likewise less lazy. The black vulture, on the ground, hops along very awkwardly; the turkey-buzzard, though seemingly inactive, moves with an even gait. The latter, unless pressed by hunger, will not eat of a carcass until it becomes putrid; the former is not so fastidious, but devours animal food without distinction. It is said they sometimes attack young pigs, and eat off their ears and tails, and we have even heard stories of their assaulting feeble calves, and picking out their eyes. In one of Wilson's journals we have the following:"February 21, 1809.-Went out to Hampstead this forenoon. A horse had dropped down in the street, in convulsions; and dying, it was dragged out to Hampstead, and skinned. The ground, for a hundred yards around it, was black with carrion crows; many sat on the tops of sheds, fences, and houses within sight; sixty or eighty on the opposite side of a small run. I counted, at one time, two hundred and thirty-seven, but I believe there were more, besides several in the air over my head, and at a distance. I ventured cautiously within thirty yards of the carcass, where three or four dogs, and twenty or thirty vultures, were busily tearing and devouring. Seeing them take no notice, I ventured nearer, till I was within ten yards, and sat down on the bank. Still they paid little attention to me. The dogs, being sometimes accidentally flapped with the wings of the vultures, would growl and snap at them, which would occasion them to spring up for a moment, but they immediately gathered in again. I remarked the vultures frequently attack each other, fighting with their claws or heels, striking like a cock, with open wings, and' fixing their claws in each other's head. The females, and, I believe, the males likewise, made a hissing sound, with open mouth, exactly resembling that produced by thrusting a red-hot poker into water; and frequently a snuffling, like a dog clearing his nostrils, as I suppose they were 62 VERTEBRATA. THE CALIFORNIA VULTURE. theirs. On observing that they did not heed me, I stole so close that my feet were within one yard of the horse's legs, and again sat down. They all slid aloof a few feet; but, seeing me quiet, they soon returned as before. They kept up the hissing occasionally. Some of them, having their whole heads and legs covered with blood, presented a most savage aspect. Still as the dogs advanced, I would order them away, which seemed to gratify the vultures; and one would pursue another to within a foot or two of the spot where I was sitting. Sometimes I observed them stretching their necks along the ground, as if to press the food downward." The CALIFORNIA VULTURE, C. Californianus, is a very large species, measuring three and a half feet; the head and neck are of an orange-color and bare, with a few short feathers on the vertex; a ruff of long lanceolate feathers begins at the neck and continues to the breast; the whole plumage is black, with some feathers tipped with brown; the tail is slightly rounded. It is found only on the western side of the Rocky Mountains, where it lives chiefly in the vicinity of rivers, feeding on fish. Other species of this genus are BURROUGH's VULTURE, C. Burrovianus, the smallest of known vultures; its plumage is black, and its length twenty-two inches; it is found in Mexico, and no doubt further south. Probably it exists in California. Genus GYPOGERANUS: Gypogeranus; this includes a single species, G. serpentarius, which can hardly be classed with either the falcons, eagles, or vultures. It is called the SERPENT EATER because it feeds on serpents, and SECRETARY VULTURE because it has a tuft of quills or feathers on the head, reminding one of the quills which clerks or secretaries carry behind their ears. It lives much on the ground, and measures three feet in length; in appearance it is something like CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 63 ^~.. ~^. THE SECRETARY VULTURE. two very dissimilar birds, the eagle and the crane. The color is bluish-gray, with a reddishbrown tinge on the wings. It is found in Southern Africa, and builds on high trees, and lives in pairs, never collecting in flocks. It runs with considerable swiftness, and attacks even large serpents with great courage and dexterity. The following interesting account is furnished by Sparman: " In descending from a mountain into a very deep bog, I perceived, nearly perpendicularly below me, a bird which raised and lowered itself very rapidly, with very extraordinary motions. Although I well knew the secretary, and had killed many of these birds at Natal, it was impossible for me to recognize it in the vertical situation in which I found myself, and I only suspected that it was one from its bearing. Having found means, by favor of some rocks, to approach sufficiently near, noiselessly and without being discovered, I found that this bird was a secretary combating a serpent. The fight was very sharp on both sides, and the skill equal on the part of each of the combatants. But the serpent, which perceived the inequality of its strength, employed that adroit cunning which is attributed to it, in order to save itself by flight and regain its hole; while the bird, divining its intention, stopped it at once, and throwing itself before the serpent by one spring, cut off its retreat. Wherever the reptile essayed to escape there it always found its enemy. Then, uniting skill with courage, it erected itself fiercely, to intimidate the bird, and presented, with a frightful hiss, a menacing gape, inflamed eyes, and a head swollen with rage and poison. Sometimes this offensive resistance suspended hostilities for an instant; but the bird soon returned to the charge; and covering its body with one of its wings as with a shield, struck its enemy with the other, with the bony protuberance of which I have already spoken, and which, like small clubs, overpowered it the more surely, inasmuch as it presented itself to the blows. In effect, I saw it reel and fall extended: then the conqueror threw himself upon it to finish his work; and with one blow of the bill split its skull. At this moment, having no further observations to make, I killed it. I found in its crop, on dissecting it, eleven rather large lizards, three serpents as long as one's arm, eleven small tortoises very entire, many of which were about two inches in diameter, and, finally, a quantity of locusts and insects. The lizards, the serpents, and the tortoises had all received the stroke of the bill on the head." This bird is capable of being tamed, and attempts have been made to introduce it into Martinique, for the purpose of destroying venomous serpents. Other species of this genus have been named as the G. Capensis, G. Gambiensis, and G. Phillippensis, but none of these are established. 04 VERTEBRATA.....:.::~*~ -.. - "~ "~:, r',S _~,~ ~:Y.,'' ~i.',:,'~"ii~ "~~ it9,::t:::'tf:-~% ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ /~J~l %- -r~:_11'"" I:> j.. CA — ~ ~ ~ ~ H RET~EICNHR~R WS Fall~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/~llli lil THE STRIGIDME OR~ OWLS. The two preceding families of Falcons and Vultures are generally active during the day, and hence are called -Diurnal Birds of Prey. We now come to the Owls, which reverse this system, and, sleeping by day and entering upon the duties and pleasures of life by night, are called Nocturnal Birds of Prey. In all ages and countries they seem to have made a powerful impression on the human. imagination, usually of a gloomy and terrific nature. Seldom seen except as dim and,.,~.':~',...~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/ ~.~ ~,~'~~....~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/ 4~~~~~~~~~~c~: t ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5,,:.. ~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~e! -~.L'~r~:~"~..... -'it, ~,,. <~_~j~l ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~!~''- ~ W "~: i~~~~~~~~~~~~i ~~~~~~~si~~~~~~~~~~~~ TttE GRE~.~I~ERICAN HORNED O~~LS.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1~II THSTIGD~ O OLS Th to rcein amlisofFacnsan ulursar gnralyatie uin teda, n hence~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~: are aled~).~a ~d f_~y enwcm oteO~,wihrvret ytm and, sleping by ay and etering pon the uties an pleasurs of lie by n~gt, are clled.L~octirCa ~rds of ~P~~~~~~ey. In ~ ~ ~allae n onre hyse ohv aeapwru mrsino h human ~ ~ ~ ~imaiain sulyoagomyadtrificntreSldmsnexptadma CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 65 flitting specters in the twilight, or in the deeper shadows of night, and then, uttering strange and melancholy cries from the depths of gloomy forests, or ghastly ruins, or perched on the black, crumbling towers of some ghost-haunted castle, accursed in popular imagination-they very naturally became associated with the loathed and dreaded powers of darkness. Their strange forms, their large heads, staring eyes, and uncouth gestures, served to deepen these sinister impressions, so that they came to be regarded as birds of ill omen, and even as messengers of coming doom. Shakspeare says: "Out, ye owls! nothing but songs of death!" and thus expresses the common sentiment of the time. Spencer says, in a similar vein: " The rueful stritch still waiteth on the beere, The whistler shrill that whoso heares doth die." And again: "The ill-faced oule, Death's dreaded messenger." And an old dramatist says: "When screech-owls croak upon the chimney-tops, It's certain then you of a corse shall hear." Pliny had said, ages before, to use the quaint translation of Philemon Holland, "The scritchowle betokeneth alwais some heavie newes, and is most execrable and accursed and unseemly in the presages of publick affaires. Ile keepeth ever in deserts, and loveth not onely such unpeopled places, but also that are horrible and hard of accesse. In summer he is the verie monster of the night, neither crying nor singing out cleere, but uttering a certain heavie grone of dolefull moning. And therefore if he be scene to flie either within cities, or otherwise abroad in any place, it is not for good, but prognosticateth some fearful misfortune. Howbeit, I myself know that he hath sitten upon many houses of privat men, and yet no deadly accident followed thereupon. He never flieth directly at ease, as he would himselfe, but evermore sidelong and byas, as if he were carried away with the wind or somewhat else." Hood, in his poem of the " Haunted House," has grouped the owl with other objects of general horror and aversion, in a manner forcibly to illustrate the popular superstitions to which we allude: "On every side the aspect was the sameAll ruined, desolate, forlorn, and savage; No hand or foot within the precinct came To rectify or ravage. "For over all there hung a cloud of fear; A sense of mystery the spirit daunted, And said, as plain as whisper in the ear,'The house is haunted!' "The centipede along the threshold crept; The cobweb hung across in mazy tangle, And in its winding-sheet the maggot slept At every nook and angle. "The startled bats flew out-bird after bird; The screech-owl overhead began to flutter, And seemed to mock the cry that she had heard Some dying victim utter. "The wood-louse drooped and rolled into a ball, Touched by some impulse occult or mechanic; And nameless beetles ran along the wall In universal panic. "The subtle spider, that from overhead Hung like a spy on human guilt and error, Suddenly turned, and up its slender thread Ran with a nimble terror. "Huge drops rolled down the walls as if they wept, And where the cricket used to chirp so shrilly, The toad was squatting, and the lizard crept On that damp hearth and chilly." VOL. II 9. 66 VERTEBRATA. A clever writer in "Household Words" humorously traces this common prejudice in various languages as follows: "Our polite French ally makes up his mouth and says Hibou, with a strong and spiteful accentuation of the last syllable, which is the obnoxious root of the name in nearly all languages; or he speaks through his nose, as none but a Frenchman can speak, and stigmatizes the poor thing as a Chat-Huant or hooting-cat, a designation at once illogical and illiberal. The soft-voiced Italian chokes with the malicious epithet Gufo; the grave Spaniard, taking a cigarito from his lips, sonorously exclaims Buho; the Lower Austrian imitates the Castilian as well as he can, and cries Buhu; while the German, with wondering eyes and unmeaning face, delivers himself of Eule-which he pronounces very like oily-as if he had hit upon something superlatively characteristic and transcendental. Vulgarity marks the treatment which the owl experiences in England. Madge-howlet is, perhaps, the least ungentlemanlike of the names we give; but a number of offensive adjectives are freely applied to designate a bird quite as estimable as many that enjoy a much better character. In the Highlands of Scotland the owl is served out, so to speak, in barbarous Celtic, as a Corrasyreachag, or a Cailleach-oidhche, words which I defy the least harmonious bird of night itself to pronounce; and the Welsh leave you to choose between Dyllan Wen and Aderyn-y-Corph, both of which, you may be sure, mean something disagreeable. The Red Indians of North America, who know no better, call their owl Cobadecootch and Wapohoo, and the native Australians, who ought to be the last people to sneer at others, derisively say Buck-buck when they speak of the Bird of Wisdom. The Japanese have a canine notion of our friend-perhaps they believe them to be feathered dogs-and whisper Howo-waiwo when he sails across their path. The Arabs, with their deep, gutteral voices, say Khufj; but what word the Persians use I decline to mention. This enumeration might be greatly extended. Enough, probably, has been instanced to show that the owl is not in the slightest degree indebted to mankind for the ordinary politeness that is due to every stranger." Such are the popular impressions which have been entertained for ages in respect to the owlthe offspring of ignorance and that tendency of mankind to fill every space which has not been made familiar by experience, with spirits of darkness. It is the mission of science to dissipate these foul inventions; it is especially the purpose of such a humble work as this to remove the injurious and mischievous fictions which ignorance, the fruitful mother of prejudice and superstition, has woven around many of the objects which God has created and placed in communication, more or less intimate, with mankind. The owl, truly and properly viewed, is calculated to excite not merely curiosity, but gratified wonder: it is so constituted and so adapted to the purposes of its creation as to be the theme of unbounded admiration among naturalists; it is also, in fact, so far from being an enemy of man, that it is in reality one of his best friends; for, living upon vermin that devour our substance, it is the protector of our granaries and larders. Instead of being a gloomy and loathsome monster, it is in fact a cheerful bird, singing, dancing, and rollicking in its daylight of darkness; it is a good liver, and on proper occasions, a merry-maker, roisterer, and Robin Goodfellow-nay, even a buffoon, as our pages hereafter will show. In its moral qualities it is most exemplary. It not only enjoys all the pleasures of making love, of courtship and flirtation, of nest-building, hatching, and raising the young, of hushing the little dears to slumber by gossip and song-which we, who have not an ear for such music, call hooting and screeching-but its parental devotion, in prosperity and adversity, is really worthy of admiration. Connubial faith and felicity are marked features in the owl's domestic life; its providence is proverbial. It is profoundly weather-wise, and by its whoopings, to those who are versed in these things, announces the coming storm. These facts should not be reflected upon in vain. A bird that for six thousand years has been held to be accursed, in the light of modern science is proved to be a good and genial and worthy member of God's creation. Let us be careful how we venture to affirm that any thing God has made, is accursed! To understand the owl, we must regard him from his own point of view. He is made for the night, as we are for the day. Daylight is darkness to him; sunset is his sunrise. During the day he is blind, and nothing can exceed the awkwardness and stupidity of his appearance at such a time. But when evening approaches, his whole being is transformed. He then glides forth CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 67 upon the air, moving as if by volition, bending, winding, and circling hither and thither, noiseless as a shadow, and with the utmost grace and facility. His large eyes-before so vacant-are now full of expression, and like those of a cat, penetrate the darkest caverns, glance into the crannies of rocks and walls, and sweep the whole view with a keen, rapid, and sagacious scrutiny. He is not solitary, for his kindred are with him, and he enjoys all the pleasures of society. He sings, and there are those around who delight in his performance. In short, it was the will of the Creator that even the night should not be wholly barren of life and enjoyment, and so He made the Owl, and various other creatures, to fill this vacuum, and no reflecting mind can fail to remark with wonder and admiration, how perfectly these creatures are adapted to their condition. The form and structure of the owl are so peculiar as to arrest the attention of every beholder. The large, cat-like __ G o head and face, sometimes set off by tufts of ears, constitute their most character7>'!,,1 l};~( istic features. The' render their flight noisel large eyes, directed in front inclosed by their soc, so feathers in the form /^ \~- of a shell, give added /^^g~~~~~~~ -^^' ^^aneffect to the staring 7/- X i//w neath a t7 \ expression of the,./'//, II',1 /t/ countenance. Their "'/^I t/! i' is plumage is soft and f/]J:,fiy-ii....!,,~ andowny, the edges beHEAD OF THE EAGLE OWL. ing recurved so as to l l _I..l / tharender their flight noiseless; the eyes are fixed in \ i / tribes. Their sockets, so that the bird, in following an object /\. \,with its sight, is obliged to turn its head, whence the old joke, that a man by going round and round beneath a tree on which an owl is sitting, will ae it FOOT O- F THE EAGLE OWL. Thee thea mos by gi on mice moles, birds, ~~~and.~ to twist its head off. Though the appe arance of the are te bird is plump, its body is in fact little more than siin and bones. The hearing is said to be more acute than that of any other member of the feathered tribes. The wings are short, the bill hooked, the feet similar to those of other predacious birds. 4 ~ ~~~GenueThe eggs are generally two, sometimes three or four. FOOT OF THE EAGLE OWL. They feed for the most par:t on mice, moles, birds, and insects Most of those found in the United States are in some degree migratory. These are the general characteristics; but among the numerous species there are striking peculiarities. The owls —of which one hundred and forty species have been described, forty of them belonging to our hemisphere-are divided into several families by some naturalists; we shall, however, follow those who divide them only into genera and species, first noticing those which are called Day Owls, and then those which are more strictly Night Owls. Genus SURNIA: this includes those species which resemble in their form, aspect and habits the falconidm, and hence are called Hawk- Owls. Their characteristics are: the head deprived of ears or tuft; the concha small, and without operculum; the bill short; the legs feathered to the feet; the wings obtuse; the tail long and tapering. The species are partially diurnal. The HAWK OWL, DAY OWL, or CANADA OWL, S. funerea, the S. caparacoch of Chenu, the LONG-TAILED SIBERIAN OWL of Buffon, Paypaw Theecawsew of the Cree Indians, the Ood-no 68 VERTEBRATA. THE CANADA OWL. Hceoot of the Esquimaux, is brown and white-spotted above, of various forms; white spots on the borders of the wings, on a brown ground; lower parts white transversely striped with brown; length fifteen to eighteen inches. It is common to both continents, being most abundant at the north, but is often seen as far south as Pennsylvania. Wilson thus describes it: "This is an inhabitant of both continents, a kind of equivocal species, or rather a connecting link between the hawk and the owl tribes, resembling the latter in the feet, and in the radiating feathers round the eye and bill; but approaching nearer to the former in the smallness of its head, narrowness of its face, and in its length of tail. In short, it seems just such a figure as one would expect to see generated between a hawk and an owl of the same size, were it possible for them to produce; and yet is as distinct, independent, and original a species as any other. It has also another strong trait of the hawk tribe-in flying and preying by day, contrary to the general habit of owls. It is characterized as a bold and active species, following the fowler, and carrying off his game as soon as it is shot. It is said to prey on partridges and other birds; and is very common at Hudson's Bay, where it is called by the Indians Coparacoch. We are also informed that this same species inhabits Denmark and Sweden, is frequent in all Siberia, and on the west side of the TUralian chain as far as Casan and the Volga; but not in Russia. It was also seen by navigators near Sandwich Sound, in latitude 61~ north. It is worthy of remark, that, in all owls that fly by night, the exterior edges and sides of the wing-quills are slightly recurved, and end in fine hairs or points; by which means the bird is enabled to pass through the air with the greatest silence-a provision necessary for enabling it the better to surprise its prey. In the hawk-owl now before us, which flies by day, and to whom this contrivance would be of no consequence, it is accordingly omitted, or at least is scarcely observable. So judicious, so wise, and perfectly applicable, are all the dispositions of the Creator." CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. C9 THE VWHITE OWL. The WHITE OWL, SNOWY OWL, or ERMINE OWL, S. harfang, or S. nyctea of Latham, is the TFapohoo of the Cree Indians and the Ookpeeguak of the Esquimaux. The head is small in proportion; bill black, entirely hidden by the hairy feathers at its base; plumage snow-white, but more or less variegated with transverse brown spots or stripes; the younger the bird is, the larger and more numerous are these stripes; very old individuals are pure white, without any brown spots; iris fine orange yellow; feet very well covered, so as to look almost woolly to the claws; tail rounded, not much exceeding in length the extremity of the wings; length twenty-four or twenty-five inches; female considerably larger than the male; young at the time of departure from the nest covered with brown down; the first feathers bright down. It is found in the Arctic regions of the Old and New World, Iceland, Sweden, Norway, Lapland, and the north of Europe generally. The author just quoted says: " This great northern hunter inhabits the coldest and most dreary regions of the northern hemisphere on both continents. The forlorn mountains of Greenland, covered with eternal ice and snows, where, for nearly half the year the silence of death and desolation might almost be expected to reign, furnish food and shelter to this hardy adventurer, whence he is only driven by the extreme severity of weather toward the sea-shore. I-Ie is found in Lapland, Norway, and the country near Hudson's Bay, during the whole year; is said to be common in Siberia, and numerous in Kamtschatka. I-Ie is often seen in Canada and the northern districts of the United States, and sometimes extends his visits to the borders of Florida. Nature, ever provident, has so effectually secured this bird from the attacks of cold, that not even a point is left exposed. The bill is almost completely hid among a mass of feathers that cover the face; the legs are clothed with such an exuberance of long, thick, hair-like plumage, as to appear nearly as large as those of a middle-sized dog, nothing being visible but the claws, which are large, black, much hooked, and extremely sharp. The whole plumage below the surface is of the most exquisitely soft, warm, and elastic kind, and so closely matted together as to make it a difficult matter to penetrate to the skin. 70 VERTEBRATA. ATHENE CONNEVIENS, AUSTRALIA. ATHENE MACULATA, AUSTRALIA. "The usual food of this species consists of hares, grouse, rabbits, ducks, mice, and even carrion. Unlike most of his tribe, he hunts by day as well as by twilight, and is particularly fond of frequenting the shores and banks of shallow rivers, over the surface of which he slowly sails, or sits on a rock a little raised above the water, watching for fish. These he seizes with a sudden and instantaneous stroke of the foot, seldom missing his aim. In the more southern and thickly-settled parts he is seldom seen, and when he appears, his size, color, and singular aspect attract general notice." Genus ATHENE: Athene Cheveche of Le Maout.-The term Athene, being one of the names of Minerva, the Greek goddess of wisdom, is adopted because the owl, from his meditative air and mysterious habits, was popularly supposed to penetrate the future and be possessed of superhuman knowledge, whence he was sacred to Minerva, and was called the Bird of Wisdom. The birds of this genus are without ear-tufts; the facial disk is incomplete; the bill is short; the tail short and square. The name of Bird-Owls is sometimes applied to the species: these are very numerous, probably forty in number, distributed in all parts of the world. The LITTLE OWL OF EUROPE-the Petite Chouette of the French, A. noctua of C. Bonaparteis a small species of the size of a thrush; its plumage is diversified with black and white; it avoids woods, and inhabits old walls and ruinous edifices. It is not wholly nocturnal, but hunts even before and after the twilight. It feeds on small birds, mice, moles, and insects. Its cry is poupou, poupou, and sometimes aime, heme, edme. It makes its nest in old walls, in the roofs of houses, and the crevices of rocks. When taken young it can be easily domesticated, and becomes a very amusing pet. M. Gerard gives a highly interesting account of one that slept with a young cat and went about the fields hunting with it. It was also very loving and familiar with a tame crow. It hunted insects by itself in the garden, and destroyed a prodigious number. The ACADIAN OWL or SPARROW-OWL-called Saw-whet in Massachusetts-A. passerina, is one of the least of its genus, but, like many other little folks, makes up in neatness of general form and appearance for deficiency of size, and is, perhaps, the most shapely of all our owls. Nor are the colors and markings of its plumage inferior in simplicity and effect to most others. It also possesses an eye fully equal in spirit and brilliancy to the best of them. It is a general and constant inhabitant of the Middle and Northern States, but is most numerous in the neighborhood of the sea-shore, and among woods and swamps of pine-trees. It rarely rambles much during the day; but if disturbed, flies a short way, and again takes shelter from the light; at the CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 71 approach of twilight it is all life and activity, being a noted and dexterous mouse-catcher. It is found as far north as Nova Scotia, and even Hudson's Bay; is frequent in Russia, and is more or less common throughout Northern and Middle Europe. In this country it builds its nest generally in pines, half way up the tree, and lays two eggs, which, like those of the rest of its genus, are white. The melancholy and gloomy umbrage of those solitary evergreens forms its favorite haunts, where it sits dozing and slumbering all day, lulled by the roar of the neighboring ocean. It is seven inches and a half long, and eighteen inches in spread of wing; the upper parts are a plain brown-olive; the lower parts streaked with yellow and reddish-bay. The EARTH OWL-the Urucuru of Azara-A. cunicularia, is brown above and white beneath; the feet are garnished with tubercles; the length is nine inches; it inhabits the hot as well as the temperate parts of South America down to latitude 42~ south. It resembles the Burrowing Owl of the United States, and appears to have been confounded with it. It takes possession of the vacant burrows of armadillos, vischacas, and foxes, sometimes even driving out the lawful proprietors by entering the premises, and by its intolerable odor forcing them to quit. These birds live in pairs, and when disturbed utter a prolonged cry of tchii, tchii, tchii. They live on mice, Guinea pigs, reptiles, and insects. The SOCIABLE BURROWING OWL, A. socialis-A. hypugcea of C. Bonaparte-is nine or ten inches long, and has a moderate-sized head; the entire upper parts are a light yellowish-brown, every feather more or less spotted with white; under parts white, with transverse bands of reddish-brown. This curious species lives in large communities in various localities east and west of the Rocky Mountains, in the United States, particularly in Oregon, California, and on the Platte River, in Nebraska, Arkansas, Texas, and New Mexico. The most remarkable feature in its history is its association with the prairie marmots, of which we have given an account at page 362. Among the other species of this abundant genus are the BRAMAH OWL, A. Brama, found in India; the CHESTNUT-COLORED OWL, A. castanoptera, of Java; the NAKED-FOOTED ATHENE, A. nudipes, of the island of Porto Rico; the COLLARED OWL, A. torquata, and the CABOURI OWL, A. pumila, both of South America. There are several Australian species. Genus BUBO: Bubo.-This includes the largest and most remarkable species of owls, as well in Europe as America, and which stand at the head of several genera of what are called Horned Owls, the latter name derived from the ear-tufts, which are prominent, and have a resemblance to the ears of a cat. The general form of the present genus is robust, head large, eyes large, wings long and wide, tail moderate, claws strong and curved. The EAGLE-OWL or GREAT-EARED OWL-the Hibou Grand Duc of the French-B. maximus, is a transatlantic species, being common in Lapland, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, and rare in England, France, and Italy. It is also met with in Northern Asia, and as far south as Smyrna. The head is ornamented with two tufts of feathers, black in the center and red at the edges; the body above is of a yellowish-red, varied with gray and black; below it is of a light red, with brown spots; the length of the body is two feet. It lives on hares, rabbits, moles, mice, rats, partridges, and reptiles. Its loud hoot, huehou, houhou, bouhou, pouhou, in the silence of night, is very startling. It makes its nest in the crevices of rocks and remote ruinous buildings, where it lays two eggs of pure white. Like all the owls, this species is an object of antipathy to other species of birds, many of which harass it by their bills and their clamor, if it is so imprudent as to wander forth in the daytime. As an illustration of the attachment of these owls to their young, the following anecdote is related by a Swedish gentleman, who resided several years on a farm near a steep mountain, in the summit of which two eagle-owls had built their nest: " One day, in the month of July, a young bird, having quitted the nest, was caught by the servants. The bird was, considering the season of the year, well feathered; but the down appeared here and there between these feathers, which had not yet attained their full growth. After it was caught it was shut up in a large hen-coop, when, to his surprise, on the following morning, a fine young partridge was found lying dead before the door of the coop. It was immediately concluded that this provision had been brought there by the old owls, which had no doubt been making search during the night for their lost young one. And such was indeed the fact, for night after night, for fourteen days, was this same ^72 VERTEBRATA. THE EAGLE OWL. mark of affection repeated. The game which the old ones carried to it consisted chiefly of young partridges newly killed, but sometimes a little spoiled. On one occasion a moor-fowl was brought so fresh that it was actually warm under the wings, and at another time a putrid lamb was deposited." The GREAT HORNED OWL, or CAT-OWL, B. Virginianus, (see engraving, page 64,) is two feet long; the horns three inches, consisting of thirteen or fourteen feathers; the eyes golden yellow; upper parts dusky, finely penciled on a tawny and whitish ground; beneath, elegantly marked with transverse bands of brown on a bright tawny ground, mixed with white. It is found in almost every part of the United States, but is becoming scarce in thickly-settled regions. "His favorite residence," says Wilson, "is in the dark solitudes of deep swamps, covered with a growth of gigantic timber; and here, as soon as evening draws on, and mankind retire to rest, he sends forth such sounds as seem scarcely to belong to this world, startling the solitary pilgrim as he slumbers by his forest fire, "Making night hideous." Along the mountainous shores of the Ohio, and amid the deep forests of Indiana, alone and reposing in the woods, this ghostly watchman has frequently warned me of the approach of morning, and amused me with his singular exclamations, sometimes sweeping down and around my fire, uttering a loud and sudden Waugh 0! Waugh 0! sufficient to have alarmed a whole garrison. He has other nocturnal solos, no less melodious, one of which very strikingly resembles the half-suppressed screams of a person suffocating or throttled, and cannot fail of being exceedingly entertaining to a lonely, benighted traveler, in the midst of an Indian wilderness! "This species inhabits the country round Hudson's Bay, and extends even to the arctic regions, where it is often found white. It has also been seen white in the United States; but this has doubtless been owing to disease or natural defect, and not to climate. It preys on young rabbits, squirrels, rats, mice, partridges, and small birds of various kinds. It has been often known to prowl about the farm-house, and carry off chickens from roost. A very large one, wing-broken CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 73 while on a foraging excursion of this kind, was kept about the house for several days, and at length disappeared, no one knew how. Almost every day after this, hens and chickens also disappeared, one by one, in an unaccountable manner, till, in eight or ten days, very few were left remaining. The fox, the mink, and the weasel, were alternately the reputed authors of this mischief, until one morning, the old lady herself, rising before day to bake, in passing toward the oven, surprised her late prisoner, the owl, regaling himself on the body of a newly-killed hen! The thief instantly made for his hole under the house, from whence the enraged matron soon dislodged him with the brush-handle, and without mercy dispatched him. In this snug retreat were found the greater part of the feathers, and many large fragments, of her whole family of chickens. "There is something in the character of the owl so recluse, solitary, and mysterious; something so discordant in the tones of its voice, heard only amid the silence and gloom of night, and in the most lonely and sequestered situations, as to have strongly impressed the minds of mankind in general with sensations of awe and abhorrence of the whole tribe. The poets have indulged freely in this general prejudice, and in their descriptions and delineations of midnight storms, and gloomy scenes of nature, the owl is generally introduced to heighten the horror of the picture. Ignorance and superstition, in all ages and in all countries, listen to the voice of the owl, and even contemplate its physiognomy with feelings of disgust, and a kind of fearful awe. The priests or conjurers, among some of our Indian nations, have taken advantage of the reverential horror for this bird, and have adopted the Great Horned Owl, the subject of the present account, as the symbol or emblem of their office. "Nothing is a more effectual cure for superstition than a knowledge of the general laws and productions of nature; nor more forcibly leads our reflections to the first, great, self-existent CAUSE of all, to whom our reverential awe is then humbly devoted, and not to any of his dependent creatures. With all the gloomy habits and ungracious tones of the owl, there is nothing in this bird supernatural or mysterious, or more than that of a simple bird of prey, formed for feeding by night and reposing by day." Mr. Cassin regards the following as varieties of the preceding, or very closely allied species: B. Atlanticus, B. Pacificus, B. Arcticus, B. Magellanicus. The EASTERN HORNED OWL, B. Orientalis, is found in Java and Sumatra. Genus SCOPS: Scops.-The birds of this genus are marked with horns or ears, and resemble the preceding, but are much smaller; the European SCOPS-EARED OWL, S. Europoeus-PetitDuc of the French-is of the size of a thrush, its colors being ash and fawn, beautifully mottled with black, gray, and white. It is common in Central and Southern Europe, and feeds on insects and small quadrupeds. It is capable of domestication, and becomes very familiar. It is migratory, arriving in Europe in the spring and departing in September; it spends the winter in Africa and Asia. The SCREECH-OWL, RED OWL, MOTTLED OWL, S. asio, is one of the most common species in the United States, and inhabits the whole of North America; its head is proportionally large; the ear-tufts prominent; the plumage above ashy-brown, the feathers lined with dark brown; under parts ash-white, lined with brownish-black; the length nine or ten inches. Tie solemn stare of this bird contrasts ludicrously with its small size. Wilson says: " This nocturnal wanderer is well known by its common name, the Little Screech-Owl, and noted for its melancholy, quivering kind of wailing in the evenings, particularly toward the latter part of summer and autumn, near the farm-house. On clear moonlight nights, they answer each other from various parts of the fields or orchard; roost during the day in thick evergreens, such as cedar, pine, or juniper trees, and are rarely seen abroad in sunshine. In May they construct their nest in the hollow of a tree, often in the orchard in an old apple-tree; the nest is composed of some hay and a few feathers; the eggs are four, pure white, and nearly round. The young are at first covered with a whitish down. " I kept one of this species for several weeks in the room beside me. It was caught in a barn, where it had taken up its lodging, probably for the greater convenience of mousing; and, being unhurt, I had an opportunity of remarking its manners. At first it struck itself so forcibly against VOL. II —10. 74 VERTEBRATA. THE SCOPS-EARED OWL. the window as frequently to deprive it, seemingly, of all sensation for several minutes; this was done so repeatedly that I began to fear that either the glass or the owl's skull must give way. In a few days, however, it either began to comprehend something of the matter, or to take disgust at the glass, for it never repeated its attempts, and soon became quite tame and familiar. Those who have seen this bird only in the day can form but an imperfect idea of its activity, and even sprightliness, in its proper season of exercise. Throughout the day it was all stillness and gravity —its eyelids half shut, its neck contracted, and its head shrunk, seemingly, into its body; but scarcely was the sun set, and twilight began to approach, when its eyes became full and sparkling, like two living globes of fire; it crouched on its perch, reconnoitered every object around with looks of eager fierceness; alighted and fed; stood on the meat with clenched talons, while it tore it in morsels with its bill; flew round the room with the silence of thought, and perching, moaned out its melancholy notes, with many lively gesticulations, not at all accordant with the pitiful tone of its ditty, which reminded one of the shivering meanings of a half-frozen puppy. This species is found generally over the United States, and is not migratory." The WESTERN MOTTLED OWL, S. McCallii, according to Cassin is a newly observed species, seven and a half inches long, found in Texas and Northern Mexico. It resembles the preceding, but is smaller. Genus ASCALAPHIA: Ascalaphia.-This includes the GREAT SHORT-EARED OWL of Europe, Strix Ascalaphus of Vieillot; its length is fourteen inches; its plumage of a whitish-red of various shades, with tints and rays of a brownish-black; on the wings and beneath the body it is marked with large zigzag b ands and blotches of the same colors, finely barred on the general ground. Its range is from Italy to Egypt, being common in the latter country. Its generic as well as specific name is derived from the mythological story of the unhappy youth who saw Proserpine eat some portion of a pomegranatatestiin th, and testifying to the fact, doomed her to a perpetual exile in the infernal regions; in return, the vengeful queen transformed him into an owl. Genus CICCABA: Ciccaba.-This includes the HUHUL, C. huhula of Wagler, and Strix lineata of Shaw, a beautiful species, found in Guiana, where it is called the Day Owl. Genus PHODILUS Phodilus.-This term signifies Afraid of the light, and characterizes the typical species, the KALONG OWL, P. badius-Strix badia of Horsfield, found in Java. Genus EPHIALTES: Ephialtes, includes the WHITE-CHEEKED OWL, -E. leucotis of C. Bonaparte, found in Senegal. Genus NYCTAETUS: Nyctaetus, includes the MILK OWL, N. lacteus,of the size of the eagleowl, and found in Senegal. Genus KETUPU: Ketupa.- hiis term means Night-Eagle, and is applied to the species, BLOKETUPU, its popular name in Java, where it is found. It is the K. Javanensis of Lesson, and Strix ketupa of Horsfield. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 75 THE GREAT SHORT-EARED OWL. Genus SYRNIUM: Syrnium.-This term means Birds of Night, and the genus includes several species, called Chats-Huant or Hooting-Cats by the French. The HULOTTE or WOOD-OWL, S. aluco, is somewhat larger than the common European owl, but has similar manners and habits. It is found in the great forests of Europe, where it feeds on squirrels, bats, mice, &c. The BARRED OWL, CANADA OWL, or CLOUDED OWL, S. nebulosum, is very common in the United States, especially about the region of Pennsylvania. It is sixteen or seventeen inches long, of a pale brown above, marked with transverse spots of white; head large, and mottled with brown and white; the under parts streaked with brown on a yellowish ground. It feeds on mice and small quadrupeds, though it occasionally catches a fowl or a young rabbit. It is frequently seen flying by day, and is then harassed by various kinds of birds. Its hoot of Waugh! Waugh! at night, in the thick forests, is doleful in the extreme. The OURAL OWL, S. Uralense, is a large species, twenty-one inches long, and inhabits the north of Europe and Asia. The GREAT GRAY OWL, or CINEREOUS OWL, S. cinereum, is a large species, found in the northern parts of both continents; its upper parts are smoky brown, nearly every feather more or less mottled with ashy-white; under parts smoky brown, also mottled with ashy-white. The length is twenty-six inches. It is the largest species of owl known in the United States. It is found rarely in New England, breeds in Canada, Wisconsin, and Oregon, and is met with all across the continent farther north. The PAGODA OWL, S.pagodarum, is an East India species, seventeen inches long, vulgarly called Oumne-.Kolan. Genus NYCTALE: Nyctale.-This, whose name signifies Lovers of darkness, includes a single American species, TENGMALM'S OWL, N. Tengmalmi, ten and a half inches long, and found in the northern parts of our continent. The WHITE-FRONTED OWL or KIRTLAND'S OWL, N. albifrons, resembles the Acadian Owl, and has been regarded by some as identical with it. It is eight inches long, and is found in Canada. 76 VERTEBRATA. Genus OTUS: Otus.-This includes several species, marked by movable ear-tufts. The LONG EARED OWL OF EUROPE-Hibou of the French; Hibou Moyen Duc of Temminck-is fourteen or fifteen inches long, and feeds on small quadrupeds, as rats, moles, mice, and small birds. Its general color above is light brown, marked with streaks of blackish-brown; beneath, mixed grayish white and pale brown, streaked with umber. It is common in England, France, and throughout all Europe. The AMERICAN LONG-EARED OWL, O. Wilsonianus, resembles tie preceding, and has been regarded as the same species, but it is somewhat larger and darker colored, and is doubtless distin ct. It is one of the commonest owls of the Northern and Eastern States, breeds in Pennsylvania, and is found as far north as Hudson's Bay. The SHORT-EARED OWL, O. brachyotus, is fourteen inches long, and is distinguished by a small.head; it feeds on small quadrupeds and small birds, and being migratory in England, coming from the north in October, is called the Woodcock Owl. The AMERICAN SHORT-EARED OWL, or MARSH OWL, Strix brachyotus of Forster, is like the preceding, and has been regarded as the same species; Cassin thinks, however, that it is larger and darker colored, and that it is probably distinct. It is common throughout Northern America, being migratory in the United States, as is the case with the American Long-eared Owl, coming from the north in November and departing in the spring. Genus STRIX: Strix.-This includes the EUROPEAN BARN-OWL, S. flammea, which may be considered as the type of the genus Strix, which embraces the true owls; it is the.Effraie and Petit Chat-huant Plombe of the French; Barbagianni, Alloco Commune e Bianco of the Italians; Schleierkauz, Perlschleierkautz, and Perl-Eule of the Germans; Barn-Owl, White Owl, ChurchOwl, Gillihowlet, Howlet, Madge-Howlet, Madge-Owl, Hissing-Owl, and Screech-Owl of the English; and Dylluan Wen of the Welsh. The upper parts are bright yellowish, varied with gray and brown zigzag lines, and sprinkled with a multitude of small whitish dots; face and throat white; lower parts in some individuals-rusty white, sprinkled with small brown dots; in others bright white, marked with small brownish points; in others again without the slightest appearance of spots; feet and toes covered with a very short down, more scanty on the toes; iris yellow; length about thirteen inches. There are varieties, some whitish and some entirely white. It is common in most parts of Europe. Montagu says that this species is never known to hoot. Mr. Yarrell states that it screeches, but does not generally hoot. Sir W. Jardine declares that he shot one in the act of hooting, and that at night, when not alarmed, hooting is its general cry. It hisses, and, like other owls when annoyed or frightened, snaps its bill loudly. It was said to snore, but this sound is now regarded as the grumbling of the young ones when hungry. Rats, mice, shrews, young birds, and beetles Corm their food, and the mice especially suffer when the White Owl has a young brood to sustain. Tt has been seen to catch fish. It is almost domesticated in Europe, especially in England, inhabiting even populous towns, and is particularly attached to towers, belfries, the roofs of churches, and other lofty buildings, which afford it a secure retreat. Every one will remember the fine descriptive lines of Gray, referring, no doubt, to this species-,, from yonder ivy-mantled tower, The moping owl does to the moon complain Of such as, wandering near her secret bower, Molest her ancient, solitary reign." Macgillivray tells us that the barn-owl chooses for his place of repose some obscure nook in an old building, the steeple of a church, a tower, a dove-cot, or a hollow tree. There he remains from sunrise to sunset, in a nearly erect posture, with retracted neck and closed eyelids, dozing away the hours in which, from the structure of his eyes, he is unable to approach his prey, and waiting for the return of twilight. If approached in this state, instead of flying off, he raises his feathers, hisses like an angry cat, clicks his bill, and thus threatens the intruder. Should he by an accident be driven abroad, he seems dazzled and bewildered. Incapable of distinctly perceiving the objects around him, he flits about with an unsteady flight, and is glad to betake himself to some dark retreat, where he may be sheltered from the light, as well as from his numerous enemies. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. THE AMERICAN BARN-OWL. But although the barn-owl is so imbecile by day as to suffer itself to be insulted with impunity by the pettiest aggressor, it assumes a very different character when darkness restores to it the faculty of clearly distinguishing objects. By watching near its haunts, or taking one's station in the neighborhood of some farm-steading frequented by it, one may dimly see it advance with silent and gliding flight, skimming over the fields, shooting along the hedge-bank, deviating this way and that, and now perhaps sweeping overhead, without causing the slightest sound by the flappings of its downy wings. On perceiving an object, it drops to the ground, secures its prey in a moment, and uttering a shrill cry, flies off with it in its claws. In a little time it returns, and thus continues prowling about the farm-yard for hours. The nests of this species are very rude; the eggs three or four in number; these are laid at different times, so that the hatching of the young is often several weeks apart. It is capable of THE AMERICAN BARN-OWL. But although the barn-owl is so imbecile by day as to suffer itself to be insulted with impunity by the pettiest aggressor, it assumes a very different character when darkness restores to-it the faculty of clearly distinguishing objects. By watching near its haunts, or taking one's station in.the neighborhood of some farm-steading frequented by it, one may dimly see it advance with silent and gliding flight, skimming overthe fields, shooting along the hedge-bank, deviating this way and that, and now perhaps sweeping overhead, without causing the slightest sound by the flappings of its downy wings. On perceiving an object, it drops to the ground, secures its prey in a moment, and uttering a shrill cry, flies off with it in its claws. In a little time it returns, and thus continues prowling about the farm-yard for hours. The nests of this species are very rude; the eggs three or four in number; these are laid at different times, so that the hatching of the young is often several weeks apart. It is capable of 78 VERTEBRATA. domestication, and becomes very amusing. Waterton, the celebrated naturalist and traveler, had a large colony of these owls at his country-seat, Walton Hall, in England. They became very numerous, and were by no means shy, so that their natural history was very easily studied. Among the curious facts furnished by him in respect to this species are the following: " When one of these birds has young, it will bring a mouse to its nest about every twelve or fifteen minutes. But in order to have a proper idea of the enormous quantity of mice which it destroys, we must examine the pellets which it ejects from its stomach in the place of its retreat. Every pellet contains from four to seven skeletons of mice. In sixteen months from the time when the apartment of the owl in the old gateway was cleaned out there has been a deposit of above a bushel of pellets." From this it appears that the barn-owl is an uncommonly good liver; it may be added, that although the farmers have generally been an enemy of this owl, it is no doubu one of their greatest benefactors. This bird, as it appears, is not confined to Europe, but extends to Asia; it inhabits Tartary, where, according to Pennant, "the Moguls and natives almost pay it divine honors, because they attribute to it the preservation of the founder of their empire, Genghis Khan. That prince, with his small army, happened to be surprised and put to flight by his enemies, and forced to conceal himself in a little coppice; an owl settled on the bush under which he was hid, and induced his pursuers not to search there, as they thought it impossible that any man could be concealed in a place where that bird would perch. Thenceforth they held it to be sacred, and every one wore a plume of the feathers of this species on his head. To this day the Kalmucs continue the custom on all great festivals, and some tribes have an idol in the form of an owl, to which they fasten the real legs of one." The AMERICAN BARN-OWL, S. Americana, was long considered as identical with the preceding, but though it resembles it, it is larger, measuring sixteen inches. It is found throughout the United States-very sparingly in New England and the Middle States, but being more abundant in the South and West; it is also found in Mexico and Canada. It is less accustomed to dwell in the vicinity of towns and villages than the barn-owl of Europe, and instead of making its retreat in churches and ruins, it lives chiefly in old trees. In other respects it is exceedingly like the European bird we have just described. The PIGMY OWL, S. infuscata, is the smallest North American species known, being but six and a half inches long: found in Oregon and California. The BooBooK or BUCK-BUCK, S. bookbook of Latham, is an Australian species, which may be heard nearly every night during winter, uttering a cry corresponding with that word. Although this note is known to every one, the bird itself is known but to few, and it has cost naturalists considerable time and trouble before they could satisfy themselves respecting its identity. The cry of the bird is somewhat similar to that of the European cuckoo, and the colonists have hence given it that name. The lower order of the settlers in New South Wales are led away by the idea that every thing is the reverse in that country of what it is in England, and the cuckoo, as they call this bird, singing by night, is one of the instances which they point out. The CAPE OWL, S. Capensis, is found in the regions near the Cape of Good Hope. It has been sometimes confounded with the barn-owl, which is abundant there, and is called Doodvogel, but it is a distinct species. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 79 ~JI ORDER 2. PAS S. ORDER 2. PASSERES. The term Passeres is derived from the Latin Passer, a Sparrow; its signification here is not very obvious, but it may be taken as meaning a group of birds that perch like the sparrow; in other words, the Passeres are Perching-Birds, and this order is the same as the Insessores-a term derived from the Latin insessus, and meaning perching-of many authors. It includes not only a great number of genera and species, but a great diversity of kinds, some very unlike others. They approach closely to the scansorial or climbing birds, which, in fact, might perhaps with propriety be united with them to form a single order, as the principal distinction consists in the structure of the feet, which in the Passeres possess four toes-three directed forward and one backward. This distinction is, however, more apparent than real, as several of the passerine birds have the power of turning one of the toes backward at pleasure; and the cuckoos can turn one of their hind toes forward. The tarsi and toes are always scutellate, and the hinder portion and sides of the former are usually covered with a single horny plate, which is also sometimes the case with the anterior surface of this part of the leg. The legs and feet are generally slight, and the claws, although curved, never constitute powerful hooked talons, as in the predaceous birds. The power of flight is possessed in great perfection by most of these birds; the wings are large and powerful, and the crest of the sternum very well developed. The primary quill feathers of the wing are generally ten in number; but the first of these is frequently wanting, or very small The tail is usually composed of twelve quill feathers. The bill is very variable in form, sometimes elongated and slender, sometimes stout and conical, or depressed and opening with a very wide gape. The upper mandible is frequently more or less toothed near the tip. From these peculiarities in the form of the bill the primary classification of these birds most generally in use is derived, each form being characteristic of a group or sub-order. Thus the birds in which the bill is more or less depressed, with a very wide gape, are called Fissirostres, and feed upon insects, which they capture on the wing. Those which have the bill elongated and awl-shaped are called Tenuirostres, and feed upon soft larvae and the juices of flowers; and those with a somewhat conical bill, but toothed, and usually more or less hooked at the tip, are called Dentirostres, and feed principally upon insects and fruits. Those with a stout conical bill, in which the upper mandible is not distinctly toothed, are called Conirostres; in these the bill is usually employed in crushing the hard seeds which constitute their food. The oesophagus of these birds is usually dilated into a sort of crop; the stomach forms a powerful muscular gizzard, and the intestine is furnished with two cceca, generally very small. Many of them have also a complicated muscular apparatus at the lower larynx, which enables them to produce charmingly modulated notes. 80 VERTEBRATA. THIE EUROPEAN GOAT-SUCKER. FlISSIROSTRES. The first group of the Passerine birds, that of the Fissirostres, is characterized by having the gape-line continued far back, usually reaching under the eyes. They are generally insectivorous birds, and many of them take their prey on the wing; the gape is accordingly usually furnished with bristles, which, by enlarging the space occupied by the mouth, greatly facilitate the capture of insects. This group includes the Goat-Suckers, Swallows, Motmots, Todies, Eurylaimince, Rollers, Trogons, Puff-birds, KIingfishers, Jacamars, and Bee-Eaters. THE CAPRIMULGID2E OR GOAT-SUCKERS. The birds of this curious family, often called Night-Swallows, have some resemblance to the owls in their large heads, large eyes, and mottled covering, and also in their nocturnal or crepuscular habits and their noiseless flight. Their bill is short and weak; the tarsi are short, and frequently covered with plumes; the feet are small and weak, and hence these birds, instead of sitting across the perch and grasping it with their feet, sit lengthwise upon it. The middle toe is. t very long, and the claw is pectinated, or toothed like a comb. The use of this has been a matter of dispute: ""' S V some say that it serves to hold fast beetles and other i<'-.:i"'\tt'x'"\ \,,,'"'\ <; slippery insects, and others that it is employed to comb the birds' whiskers. They live upon moths, bee-,,?',:,'.,',~, ties, and other insects, which they generally pursue during the twilight, sometimes well into the night, their large visual organs collecting sufficient light for them to perceive their minute prey long after it is invisible to the eye of man. The enormous gape of their mouths, aided by bristles springing from each side of the upper mandible, furnishes a capacious trap for securing their game. The form and extent of the mouth are so extraorHEAD AND FOOT OF THE GOAT-SUCKER. dinary, that ages ago the people of Greece and Italy, CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 81 seeing these birds flying around the goats among the hills and rocks at nightfall, fancied that they sucked their milk, and hence their popular name. Even the learned and philosophic Aristotle partook of this prejudice. In his Natural History he says: "The bird called lEgothelas is a mountain bird, a little smaller than the cuckoo. It lays two or three eggs, and is of a slothful nature; flying upon the goats, it sucks them; they say when it has sucked the teat it becomes dry, and the goat becomes blind." This superstition continued with many people almost to our own time. It is scarcely necessary to say that it is one of the thousand idle and mischievous inventions which have sprung up in the long darkness of ignorance, but which modern science las dissipated. In the United States, few of these popular superstitions have prevailed, because they mostly originated in foreign countries long previous to the settlement of America, and because, also, the founders of society here were mostly enlightened people, little likely either to entertain or perpetuate traditions and legends contradicted by their own observation and experience. It is a noticeable fact, that while among the rural populations of England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Spain, Italy, Germany, &c., a great variety of popular superstitions are in vogue even to the present day, in respect to bees, birds, cattle, cats, dogs, &c., they either never existed among our native population, or are now almost entirely repudiated. Genus CAPRIMULGUS: Caprimulgus.-This includes the COMMON EUROPEAN GOAT-SUCKER, C. Europceus-the Calcabotto Piattaglione, Porta Quaylie, and Cova-Terra of the Italians; TetteChevre, Engoulevent Ordinaire, and Crapaud Volant of the French; Milchsauger, Geissmilcher, Nacht Rabe, Nacht Schwalbe, and Tag-Schlafer of the Germans; and Goat-Sucker, Night-Jar, Jar —Owl, Churn-Owl, Fern-Owl, Dor-Hawk, Night-Hawk, and Wheel-Bird of the English. Its color above is ashy-gray, thickly streaked and spotted with yellowish-brown; beneath yellowishbrown; length ten inches. It feeds on insects, flies, moths, and beetles. Its powers of flight are wonderful, exceeding even those of the swallows; the jarring sound, which gives name to the bird, is uttered sometimes while flying, but usually when it is at rest; it seems to be produced in the same manner as the purring of a cat, and resembles it, though much louder. One of them, emitting this sound while sitting on the cross of a small church, communicated a sensible vibration to the whole building. It appears that goat-sucking is not the only crime laid to this bird. White, of Selborn, informs us that "the country-people have a notion that the fern-owl, or churnowl, or eve-jar, which they also call a Puckeridge, is very injurious to weanling calves, by inflicting, as it strikes at them, the fatal distemper known to cow-leeches by the name of puckeridge. Thus does this harmless, ill-fated bird fall under a double imputation, which it by no means deserves: in Italy, of sucking the teats of goats, whence it is called the Caprimulgus, and with us, of communicating a deadly disorder to the cattle. But the truth of the matter is, the malady is occasioned by a dipterous insect, which lays its eggs along the chines of kine, where the maggots, when hatched, eat their way through the hide of the beast into the flesh, and grow to a very large size." This bird is generally known throughout Europe, but is most abundant in the south. It is migratory, spending the winter in Asia and Africa. The C. ruficollis is a North African species, sometimes found in Spain, where it is called Samala. Genus ANTROSTOMUS: Antrostomus.-This includes several well-known American species, among which is the WHIPPOORWILL-C. vociferus of Wilson-A. vociferus: it is about ten inches long, and is covered with feathers sprinkled and mottled with brown, red, black, and white; the tail with zigzag and herring-bone figures of black; across the throat is a band of whitish; the breast black, powdered with ferruginous; the belly of a lighter shade; the bristles on the cheek longer than the bill; tail rounded. Though comparatively few persons have ever seen this bird, it is almost universally known by its cry throughout the rural districts of the United States. It is migratory, arriving in the Middle States and New England in May; its song is now heard soon after sunset, at first faintly and remotely, in the deep forests, but in a few evenings it grows familiar, and issues from a neighboring copse, or the trees in the garden, or perhaps from the roof of the house. The bird is now a regular acquaintance. Every morning and evening his shrill and rapid repetitions are heard from the adjoining woods, and when two or more are calling out at the same time, as is often the case in the pairing season, and at no great distance from each other, VOL. II-11. 82 VERTEBRATA. THE WHIPPOORWILL. the noise, mingling with the echoes from the hills, is really surprising. Strangers, in parts of the country where these birds are numerous, find it almost impossible for some time to sleep; while to those long acquainted with them, the sound often serves as a lullaby to assist their repose. These notes seem pretty plainly to articulate the words which have been generally applied to them, whip-poor-will, the first and last syllables being uttered with great emphasis, and the whole in about two seconds to each repetition; but when two or more males meet, their whip-poor-will altercations become much more rapid and incessant, as if each was straining to overpower or silence the other. When near, you often hear an introductory cluck between the notes. At these times, as well as at almost all others, they fly low, not more than a few feet from the surface; sometimes they are seen skimming about the house and before the door, alighting on the wood-pile, or settling on the roof. Toward midnight they generally become silent, unless in clear moonlight, when they are heard with little intermission till morning. If there be a creek near, with high, precipitous, bushy banks, they are sure to be found in such situations. During the day they sit in the most retired, solitary, and deep-shaded parts of the woods, generally on high ground, where they repose in silence. When disturbed, they rise within a few feet, sail low and slowly through the woods for thirty or forty yards, and generally settle on a low branch or on the ground. Their sight appears deficient, except at night. They are rarely shot at or molested, and from being thus transiently seen in the obscurity of dusk, or in the deep umbrage of the woods, their particular markings of plumage are so little known that they have been confounded with the Night-Hawk, which they resemble in general appearance. The female begins to lay about the second week in May, selecting for this purpose the most unfrequented part of the wood, often where some brush, old logs, heaps of leaves, &c., have been lying, and always in a dry situation. The eggs are deposited on the ground, or on the leaves, not the slightest appearance of a nest being visible. They are usually two in number. The young ones have the appearance of crumpled leaves or heaps of dirt, and easily escape observation. This species is found throughout eastern North America from Canada to Florida, and also in Cuba. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 83 THE CHUCK-WILL S-WIDOW. The CHUCK-WILL'S-WIDOW, A. Carolinensis, is about twelve inches long; general form robust entire body dark brown, minutely dotted with reddish-fulvous, and every feather having longitudinal stripes of black. Its eggs, usually two in number, are laid on the ground, generally in the woods. It is common in the Southern and Southwestern States, and is the largest of the genus in America. Flying low, and skimming a few feet above the surface of the ground, it settles on logs and fences, from which it pursues the flying moths and insects on which it feeds; sometimes sailing nearer the earth, it alights to pick up a beetle, or flutters round the trunk of a tree in search of any insect that may be crawling on the bark. Like the species above described, it commences its singular serenade of Chuck- Will's- Widow in the evening, soon after sunset, continuing the cry, with short interruptions, for several hours, and renewing it toward morning till the opening dawn. The tones are slower, louder, and more full than those of the whippoorwill, and may be heard on a still evening for half a mile. The species is particularly numerous in the vast forests of the Mississippi, where, throughout the evening, its echoing notes are heard in the solitary glens, and from the surrounding and silent hills, becoming almost incessant during the shining of the moon. In rainy and gloomy weather these birds remain silent in the hollow log which affords them. and the bats a common roost and refuge by day. When discovered in this situation they ruffle their feathers, open their enormous mouths, and utter a murmur, almost like the hissing of a snake, to intimidate the intruder. The Indians have many superstitions in relation both to this bird and the whippoorwill. NUTTALL'S WHIPPOORWILL, A. Nuttallzi, is seven inches long, and is found in western North America. Its habits are not particularly known. 84 VERTEBRATA, i. r THE FORK-TAILED PSALURUS. THE NIGHT-HAWK. Genus PSALURUS: Psalurus.-This includes a very extraordinary South American species, P. macropterus: it has a bright, ruddy demi-collar ornamenting the back part of the neck; the tail is excessively long, and deeply forked; the two external tail-feathers in the male are much longer than the others. It is a native of Paraguay and Brazil. Genus CHORDEILES: Chordeiles.-This includes several American species, one of which is the PISK or NIGHT-HAwK, C. Virginianus, familiarly known in all the United States, in Mexico, and the West Indies. It is nine to ten inches long; upper parts brownish-black, variously mottled; a conspicuous white transverse bar on each wing, above and below; when the bird is seen flying over, this appears like a large circular spot; tail-feathers brownish-black, banded with ashy-white. The Night-Hawks usually arrive from the south in May. The eggs, two in number, are laid on the ground, sometimes in the woods, often in a corn-field. As soon as incubation commences, the male keeps a most vigilant watch. He is then more frequently seen playing about in the air over the place, even during the day, mounting by several quick vibrations of the wings, then a few slower, uttering all the while a sharp, harsh squeak, till, having gained the CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 85 highest point, he suddenly precipitates himself, head foremost, and with great rapidity, down sixty or eighty feet, wheeling up again as suddenly, at which instant is heard a loud, booming sound, very much resembling that produced by blowing strongly into the bung-hole of an empty hogshead; and which is doubtless produced by the sudden expansion of his capacious mouth while he passes through the air, as exhibited in the upper figure in the engraving. He again mounts by alternately quick and leisurely motions of the wings, playing about as he ascends, uttering his usual hoarse squeak till, in a few minutes, he again dives with the same impetuosity and booming sound as before. The object of this performance, which is confined to the male, is not known. When the weather happens to be wet and gloomy, the night-hawks are seen abroad at all hours of the day, generally at a considerable height; their favorite period, however, is from two hours before sunset, until dusk. At such times they seem all vivacity, darting about in the air in every direction, making frequent short, sudden turnings, as if busily engaged in catching insects. Even in the hottest, clearest weather, they are occasionally seen abroad, squeaking at short intervals. They are also often found sitting in the highway, or along the fences, basking in the sun. Near the sea-shore, in the vicinity of extensive salt marshes, they are likewise very numerous, skimming over the meadows, in the manner of swallows, until it is so dark that the eye can no longer follow them. When wounded and taken, they attempt to intimidate you by opening their mouth to its utmost stretch, throwing the head forward, and uttering a kind of guttural, whizzing sound, striking also violently with their wings, which seem to be their only offensive weapons; for they never attempt to strike with the bill or claws. About the middle of August they begin to move off toward the south, at which season they may be seen almost every evening, from five o'clock until after sunset, passing in widely-scattered multitudes, all steering toward the south. Other species of this genus are the C. sapiti, common during the summer in Texas; C. Henryi, found in New Mexico; C. Brasilianus and C. acutipennis, &c. Genus SCOTORNIS: Scotornis.-This includes the AFRICAN LONG-TAILED NIGHT-JAR, S. climaturus, thirteen inches long, of a light brown, varied with dark freckles; common in Senegal. Genus MACRODIPTERYX: Macrodipteryx.-This includes the LONG-SHAFTED GOAT-SUCKER or PENNANT-WINGED NIGHT-JAR, M. Africanus. This bird is mottled with brown and white, and is eight inches long; its most remarkable feature is a feather from ten to fifteen inches long, inserted in each wing, immediately between the primary and secondary quills. This feather consists of a shaft naked for two-thirds its length, and webbed for the remainder. It appears to be a mere ornament, as no use is known for so strange an appendage; it is extremely flexible, moving with the least breath of wind, and therefore offering no obstruction in flight. This species is found in Sierra Leone. Genus PROITHERA: Proithera.-This includes the DAY GOAT-SUCKER, P. diurna, ten inches long; of Brazil and Paraguay. Genus PODARGUS: Podargus.-This includes several species: the GOLD RIVER GOATSUCKER, P. humeralis, is a large bird, variegated with ashy-brown and dirty yellow above; tesselated beneath with black stripes and dirty-yellow bands; length twenty inches. It has the power of shifting its outer toe backward, and captures its insect prey by creeping about on the trees; found in Australia. The MOR2-PORK BIRD, P. Cuvieri, is also an Australian species, its name being derived from its cry, " More pork! More pork/!"-loudly and distinctly uttered in rapid succession in the forests. This is considered a bird of ill omen by the colonists. Genus NYCTIBIUS: Nyctibius, includes the GREAT IBIJAU —the Great Flying Toad of Buffon -N. grandis. It is of the size of a barn-owl, its length being twelve inches; plumage brown, speckled with black; it haunts solitary places, and lives in hollow trees. The POTOO BIRD, N. Jamaicencis, resembles the common goat-sucker in appearance; its disposition is sedentary, it being frequently seen perched on a post or dead tree looking out for its insect prey. 86 VERTEBRATA. Nli"iv ~ ^^'l'.'' THE GOLD RIVER GOAT-SUCKER. THE GREAT IBIJAU. Genus STEATORNIS: Steatornis.-This includes the OIL-BIRD or the GUACHARO BIRD, S. caripensis. It is about the size of a common fowl, and is strictly nocturnal in its habits, passing the day and breeding in dark caverns, from which it only issues in search of food, in the twilight. Its food, however, is very different from that of its allies: it consists of fruits and seeds; and the Indians assured Humboldt that the bird never pursues insects. The young become exceedingly fat, and at a certain season-that is, about midsummer-they are collected by the natives and boiled down for the sake of their oil, which is said to resemble olive-oil, and to be of such an excellent quality that it will keep for more than a year without becoming rancid. These birds make a horrible noise when their caverns are invaded, and as their abodes are generally regarded with a superstitious dread by the Indians-who believe that the spirits of their ancestors dwell in themin their pursuit of the young birds for their "oil harvest," as they call it, they seldom venture far from the entrance. The principal resort of these strange birds is the cavern of Guacharo, in the valley of Caripe, in Venezuela. This cave has a grand entrance, fifteen hundred Yeet above the level of the sea, and extends four thousand feet into the bowels of the mountains. In the hidden apartments of this gloomy temple, these birds roost by thousands during the day, issuing forth only at night. They have been also found at Bogota, and in the islands of Guadeloupe and Trinidad. Trinidad. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 87 -// lI J /,I THE EUROPEAN HOUSE-MARTIN. THE ESCULENT SWALLTOW.-(See p. 91.) THE HIRUNDINIDE OR SWALLOWS. The birds of this pleasing and interesting family have a short, depressed, triangular bill, a wide gape furnished with short bristles, wings long and pointed, tail more or less forked, three toes before and one behind. They are slender and elegant of form; their flight is easy, and displays a thousand graceful evolutions in the air as they pursue their winged prey, often for hours together, sometimes rising to a great elevation, and sometimes skimming along the surface of the land, or gliding over the waters, drinking as they pass. Several of the species-which are widely distributed throughout the world-have a fondness for living in the immediate vicinity of man, even in his barn or his house; the eggs are four to six, and there are usually two broods in a season. Genus HIRUNDO: Hirun=.________ = do.-This includes several speTHB COMMON= EUROPEAN SWALL. == cies. The COMMON SWALLOW OF EUROPE, H rustica, is six ~A __ —-__-_ =X_ = Hand a half inches long; above -__X_=_ ____________ it is black, with violet refleca____ —_- ___ m____ tions; the throat reddish-brown; ->_-__ _.... _____ _ the breast brown; the belly _____==__ M ________ _ w__ white; white and buff-colored _ - _ varieties not uncommon; the tail deeply forked. It is mi-__- ______ gratory, arriving in Europe in -__- ___ _-_ April, and departing for -Africa....3~~~~~~~_ and Asia, where it spends the winter, the latter part of OctoBy=____ _ = ber. It builds its saucer-shaped.___ __________ nest of pellets of mud, moulded _______....._=,~ with straw, often in the throat TEE COi3O' EUROPEAN SWALLOW'. Of a chimney, on some angle of 88 VERTEBRATA. a brick or tile. Hence this bird is called Hirondelle de Cheminee by the French. It builds, however, in various other situations, as in the mouths of old wells and unused mines, under the roofs t~. of barns and sheds, in belfries, sometimes in the fork of a dead tree. A few years ago a pair of them built, for two successive summers, under the sponsons of the paddle-wheels:-'/ ' of a steam-tug at Carlisle, England, and succeeded in rearing their young, despite the daily trips of the boat. It is a pleasing and /'~~/.q tfamiliar bird, and may be easily tamed. It is distributed throughout Europe in summer.''';.~ ~~}'\$ i.. \ The HOUSE-MARTIN or WINDOW-SWALLOW, H. urbica, is five and a half inches long; {t 0/I/!~ I! E~! o above black, with violet reflections; beneath I,:g I~' l lwhite-white varieties being sometimes ob/;/ I ii,llll r'i tained; it builds its nests often near the lower 4jg/ I W 5^J^^T l Ycornice of windows, and beneath the eaves of 1/! granaries and stables. Like the rest of the t^~~/5~/ ~family, it has great art in making its nests ^~~~~/ / ~adhere to the faces of walls, and White tells i // us of one that built against a pane of glass. NEST OF THE COIMMON EUROPEAN SWALLOW. The eggs are four or five in number; there are usually two broods in a season; sometimes as many as four. This bird is intimately woven with associations of country life in England; almost every poet has celebrated it. Shakspeare says, beautifully and descriptively: " This guest of summer, The temple-haunting martlet, does approve, By his loved masonry, that heaven's breath Smells wooingly here. No jutting frieze, Buttress, or coignes of'vantage, but this bird Hath made his pendent bed and procreant cradle: Where they most breed and haunt, I have observed, The air is delicate." Other European species are the RUFULINE SWALLOW, H. rufula-called Rousseline in Franceseven inches long, known in the south of Europe and the north of Africa; and the MOUNTAIN SWALLOW, H. rupestris, which builds in the crevices of rocks in the high peaks of the Alps and the Pyrenees. The AMERICAN BARN-SWALLOW, H. rutfa, resembles the common swallow of Europe, being seven inches long; upper parts steel-blue, with purple and green reflections; under parts chestnut color. They arrive among us in April, and depart in October. The enthusiastic Wilson says: "There are but few persons in the United States unacquainted with this gay, innocent, and active little bird. Indeed, the whole tribe are so distinguished from the rest of small birds, by their sweeping rapidity of flight, their peculiar aerial evolutions of wing over our fields and rivers, and through our very streets, from morning to night, that the light of heaven itself, the sky, the trees, or any other common objects of nature, are not better known than the swallows. We welcome their first appearance with delight, as the faithful harbingers and companions of flowery spring and ruddy summer; and when, after a long, frost-bound, and boisterous winter, we hear it announced that'the swallows are come,' what a train of charming ideas are associated with the simple tidings! "The wonderful activity displayed by these birds forms a striking contrast to the slow habits of most other animals. It may be fairly questioned whether, among the whole feathered tribes which heaven has formed to adorn this part of creation, there be any that, in the same space of time, pass over an equal extent of surface with the swallow. Let a person take his stand, on a fine summer evening, by a new-mown field, meadow, or river-shore, for a short time, and, among CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 89 the numerous individuals of this tribe that flit before him, fix his eye on a particular one, and follow, for a while, all its circuitous labyrinths-its extensive sweeps-its sudden, rapidly reiterated zigzag excursions, little inferior to the lightning itself-and then attempt, by the powers of mathematics, to calculate the length of the various lines it describes. Alas! even his omnipotent fluxions would avail him little here, and he would soon abandon the task in despair. Yet, that some definite conception may be formed of this extent, let us suppose that this little bird flies, in his usual way, at the rate of one mile in a minute, which, from the many experiments I have made, I believe to be within the truth; and that he is so engaged for ten hours every day; and further, that this active life is extended to ten years-many of our small birds being known to live much longer, even in a state of domestication-the amount of all these, allowing three hundred and sixty-five days to a year, would give us two million one hundred and ninety thousand miles —upward of eighty-seven times the circumference of the globe! These birds commonly build in barns, often attaching their nests to the rafters. They are cupshaped, and consist of mud, laid in regular strata, mixed.with hay, and lined with feathers. It usually requires a week for them to construct one of these, during which period they manifest the most industrious activity. The eggs are usually four in number, and there are two broods in a season. Two popular errors in regard to this bird have extensively prevailed: one was, that if a swallow was killed by any one about the barn, the cows would give bloody milk; another, that they buried themselves in deep, miry ground, and lay in a torpid state during the winter. These fallacies are now wholly discarded. x F, THE BANK-SWALLOW OR SAND-MARTIN. The BANK-SWALLOW or SAND-MARTIN, H. riparia, is common to Europe, Asia, and America; its length is five inches; the upper parts are grayish-brown; under parts white. It appears to be the most sociable with its kind, and the least intimate with man, of all our swallows, living together in large communities of sometimes three or four hundred. On the high, sandy bank of a river, quarry, or gravel-pit, at a foot or two from the surface, they commonly scratch out holes for their nests, running them in a horizontal direction to the depth of two and sometimes three feet. Several of these holes are often within a few inches of each other, and extend in various strata along the front of the precipice, sometimes for eighty or one hundred yards. At the extremity of this hole a little fine dry grass, with a few large downy feathers, form the bed on which their eggs, generally five in number, and pure white, are deposited. The young are hatched late in May, and then the common crow, in parties of four or five, may sometimes be seen watching at the entrance of these holes, to seize the first straggling young one that should make its appearance. From the clouds of swallows that usually play round these breeding-places, they remind one at a distance of a swarm of bees. Other American species are the REPUBLICAN or CLIFr-SWALLOW, H. opifex, noted for associaVOL. II.-12 90 VERTEBRATA. ting in large numbers, and building groups of gourd-shaped nests on the faces of cliffs; found throughout the United States: WILSON'S WHITE-BELLIED SWALLOW, H. bicolor, a very handsome species, also known throughout our country; the THALASSINA SWALLOW, H. Thalassina, the most beautiful of the family, found in New Mexico, California, and Mexico; the ROUGH-WINGED SWALLOW, H. serripennis, found from Pennsylvania to Louisiana; and the H. fulva, common in Jamaica. Genus PROGNE: Progne.-This includes many species, and among them the PURPLE MARTIN, P. purpurea, seven and a half to eight inches long; the entire plumage black, with a silky purple and bluish luster. This well-known bird is a general inhabitant of the United States, and a particular favorite wherever he takes up his abode. Wilson says: "I never met with more than one man who disliked the martins and would not permit them to settle about his house. This was a penurious, close-fisted German, who hated them because, as he said,'they ate his peas.' I told him he must certainly be mistaken, as I never knew an instance of martins eating peas; but he replied with coolness, that he had many times seen them himself'blaying near the hife, and going schnip, schnap,' by which I understood that it was his bees that had been the sufferers; and the charge could not be denied." This sociable and half-domesticated bird arrives from the south late in April or early in May; its summer residence is universally among the habitations of man, who, having no interest in his destruction, and deriving considerable advantage, as well as amusement, from his company, is generally his friend and protector. Wherever he comes, he finds some hospitable retreat fitted up for his accommodation and that of his young, either in the projecting wooden cornice on the top of the roof or sign-post, in the box appropriated to the bluebird, or, if all these be wanting, in the dove-house among the pigeons. In this last case, he sometimes takes possession of one quarter or tier of the premises, in which not a pigeon dare for a moment set its foot. Some people have large conveniences formed for the martins, with many apartments, which are usually fully tenanted, and occupied regularly every spring; and, in such places, particular individuals have been noted to return to the same box for successive years. The Purple Martin, like his half-cousin, the kingbird, is the terror of crows, hawks, and eagles. These he attacks whenever they make their appearance, and with suck vigor and rapidity that they instantly have recourse to flight. So well known is this to the lesser birds and the domestic poultry, that, as soon as they hear the martin's voice engaged in fight, all is alarm and consternation. To observe with what spirit and audacity this bird dives and sweeps upon and around the hawk or the eagle is astonishing. There are several species of this genus belonging to South America, one of which, the WESTERN MARTIN, H. chalybea, is sometimes seen within the southern boundaries of the United States. Genus CYPSELUS: Cypselus.-This includes several species, called Swifts, of which the AMERICAN CHIMNEY-SWALLOW or AMERICAN SWIFT, C. acutus-the Acanthylis Pelasgia of Linneus-is a well-known species. It is four to six inches long; the whole body deep brown, with a greenish luster on the head and neck; the wings very long, extending beyond the tail. The flight of this bird, like that of the other species of the genus, is bold, vigorous, and rapid, the wings being bent downward, and kept in constant motion. This laborious flight is kept up, with little interruption, from dawn to twilight, that is, for fourteen hours. The great peculiarity of the species is, that it builds its nest and rears its young, often hundreds together, in chimneys, not of deserted but inhabited houses, though they avoid those in which a fire is kept. The nest is of a singular construction, being formed of very small twigs, fastened together with a strong, adhesive glue or gum, which is secreted by two glands, one on each side of the hind part of the head, and mixes with the saliva. With this glue, which becomes hard as the twigs themselves, the whole nest is thickly besmeared. The nest is small and shallow, and attached by one side or edge to the wall, and is totally destitute of the soft lining with which the others are so plentifully supplied. The eggs are generally four, and white. There are two broods in the season. The young are fed at intervals during the greater part of the night. The noise which the old ones make, in passing up and down the funnel, has some resemblance to distant thunder. When heavy and long-continued rains occur, the nest, losing its hold, is precipitated to the bottom. In 1857, during a long season of wet, cold weather in June, four hundred and eighty of CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 91 -... - - — _ -71 THE COMMON EUROPEAN SWIFT. these birds, young and old, were precipitated down a single chimney in Woodbury, Connecticut. In this case all died, but often the young scramble up along the vent, to which they cling like squirrels, the muscularity of their feet, and the sharpness of their claws being remarkable. The COMMON SWIFT of Europe, C. apus, resembles the preceding in form and manner of flight, but it builds in cavities under the eaves of houses, in holes about steeples, old towers, and walls. The ALPINE SWIFT, C. Alpinus, surpasses other species in speed, and feeds on insects very high in the air. It is found in summer in the high mountains of Southern Europe, and has been occasionally found in Great Britain. Its length is eight inches and a half. Genus COLLOCALIA: Collocalia.-This includes the ESCULENT SWALLOW, C. esculenta, the fabricator of the celebrated birds' nests which enjoy such a high repute among the Chinese for their excellence as an article of food. These are composed of a mucilaginous substance, usually more or less mixed with fragments of grass, hair, and similar materials; they are attached to the surface of rocks in caverns, and the birds always build in great numbers together in the same cave. It was formerly supposed that the mucilaginous matter employed in the construction of the nests was obtained from sea-weeds eaten by the birds, but it is now ascertained beyond doubt that the substance in question is secreted by greatly developed salivary glands. These birds are found in great abundance in all parts of the Eastern Archipelago, and also on the continent of India; the nests are collected in great quantities, and constitute an important article of commerce with China. Almost all our knowledge of the mode in which the harvest of nests is managed is derived from the island of Java, which produces about two hundred and fifty-six hundred weight annually. The nests are collected in Java at three different periods, namely, in March, September, and December. The interval of six months, from March to September, gives the birds time to rear two broods, and the quantity of nests is consequently greater than at the other two periods of collecting, but the produce is generally of inferior quality; the lesser intervals between the collection in September and that in December, and again between the latter and that in March, scarcely allows the birds to get their progeny out of the nests, and many young ones are accordingly destroyed at these periods, but the nests are of superior quality, and very white. The prices paid for these nests in the Canton market vary greatly, according to the quality: those of the best and purest sort fetch the enormous price of three thousand five hundred Spanish dollars the pecul, or about twenty-five dollars a pound; the second quality brings two thousand eight hundred Spanish dollars per pecul, and the third not more than one thousand six hundred dollars. In some parts of China, however, as much as forty dollars has been paid for a catty of bird's nests, or rather more than one pound and a quarter. These expensive articles are principally employed in making soup, but they are also made use of in various ways, and are regarded as a great delicacy by the Chinese epicures. 92 VERTEBRATA. THE COMMON ROLLER. THE RED-TAILED JACAMAR.-(See p. 96.) THE CORACINAE OR ROLLERS. This family comprises not only the Rollers proper, but three other sub-families, which we shall notice under four generic heads. Genus ROLLER: Coracias.-This includes several species, which subsist on fruits and insects. One species, the COMMON ROLLER of Europe, C. garrula, is thirteen inches long, light brown above and bluish-green below; the tail-feathers are a greenish-blue. It is a handsome bird, noisy and restless, very shy, and living in the depths of the forests. In Germany it is called Birkhaher or Birch-Jay. It breeds in the holes of trees, and sometimes in holes which it excavates in the banks of rivers. THE GREEN TODY. Genus TODUS: Todus.-Of this there are three or four species; the best known is the GREEN TODY, T. viridis. It is a very common bird in some of the West Indian Islands. It is about the size of a wren; all the upper parts are of a vivid grass-green color, the neck and throat red, the breast whitish, and the belly yellowish. It is a bold and familiar bird, paying little attention to the presence of man, and exhibiting great confidence when in captivity, seeking its insect prey CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 93 in the room with the greatest freedom. Its holes for nestling are dug in banks to the depth sometimes of eight inches or a foot. Genus MOTMOT: Prionites or Momotus.-Of this there are several species in tropical America; they are heavy in form and slow in movement, living retired in the depth of the forests, where they remain perched on trees near old buildings, the head drawn back between the shoulders, and every now and then emitting a sort of hoarse croak. In the morning and evening, however, they show a greater degree of activity in pursuit of the insects which constitute their principal sustenance; these they take by pouncing upon them after a short flight. They do not confine themselves to such small game, but seem able to prey upon lizards and small snakes, and even occasionally upon small birds. They are said to take these larger objects in the bill, throw them up into the air, and swallow them as they fall. Fruits also form a portion of their food. They are remarkable for a curious sort of mutilation which they are supposed to practice on themselves. The two middle feathers of the tail are considerably elongated, and in most specimens, the barbs are wanting on a portion of the stem a little before the tip, so that a portion of the shaft is left quite bare at this point. There seems to be no other way of accounting for this than by supposing that the birds, probably from some mistaken notion of elegance, deliberately pick off the barbs of this part of the feathers. The best known species is the BRAZILIAN MOTMOT, M. Brasiliensis, which is about the size of a thrush, and of a deep, rich, green color, with the forehead bluish, the back of the head violet, and the crown black. Other species are the HOUTOU MOTMOT, P. momota, and the TUTU MOTMOT, P. tutu. THE JAVA EURYLAME. Genus EURYLAIMUS: Eurylaimus.-Of this there are several species, noted for their large bill; they are nearly allied to the todies, their principal difference consisting in the structure of the feet, the outer toe only being united to the middle one. The nostrils also are placed near the base of the bill. They are generally of small size, but adorned with beautiful and brilliant colors, and live in the most retired parts of the countries occupied by them, principally in marshy places and along the margins of lakes and rivers. They inhabit Java, Sumatra, and New Guinea. They are usually seen in small flocks, and feed for the most part on insects and worms, although the stomachs of some of the species have been found to contain nothing but vegetable substances. Their nests, which are composed of small twigs, are suspended from the extremities of the branches of trees, usually those overhanging the water, and the number of eggs is said to be only two. The JAVA EURYLAME, E. Javanicus, has the head and neck of a bright venous red; the back and wings black, flamed with golden yellow; the under parts venous red. There are beside several genera of allied birds, inhabiting the same regions, as the Cymbirrhynchus, Erolla, and Corydon. 94: VERTEBRATA. THE TROGONS OR COUROUCOUS. These splendid birds are found in the tropical regions of both hemispheres, but most of the species inhabit South America. They frequent,- l —- | |.| i ~the thickest parts of the forests, where they feed X i<|'. if X ~ Zprincipally upon insects, which they capture on Iti.n the wing and sometimes pick fiom the bark of trees. Some of the species, however, derive their chief nourishment from fruits and berries. /7/ ( ^ They lay their eggs in the holes of rotten trees, upon the debris usually found in such situations, 11111111? III~ Aa\ and, like the woodpeckers, frequently enlarge 111118,?y,)) litVthe holes by means of their strong bills. Their liBBi~ ^\cry is peculiar and melancholy, resembling the word couroucou, which has hence been applied to them as a vernacular name. Their bills have 111 11 tufts of bristles at the base; their plumage is,: -- ort- tadorned with bright colors, and often most brilliantly metallic, and the beauty of their appearance is frequently greatly enhanced by the elegance of their long tails. They vary considerd 1ure from their\ ably in size, some of the smallest being little'":: l lll 1 rees o\ larger than a sparrow, while the largest are of lill^V mM'the size of a pigeon. The ancient Mexicans Ul'!iw,,< 1^made exquisite feather pictures of the plumes of these birds, and Montezuma was so delighted e with them that he kept an extensive aviary of dfthem. has the plumage of a beautiful bronzed golden green color; the two middle feathers of the tail, oiBn thewing, atbi htwhich are much longer than the body and very broad, give it a peculiarly graceful appearance. It is a native of Guatemala, and is called by the inhabitants, Quesal: its gorgeous plumes are much sought after by the natives of that country as ornaments; formerly they were only allowed to be worn by persons of the highest rank. They are exceedingly difficult to procure, from their usually frequenting the highest trees of the forest, and when the collector has succeeded in shooting them, they generally lose a portion of their light plumage in their fall, while the extraordinary tenderness of their skins renders the operation of skinning them a most difficult matter. Nearly forty species of Trogon are known, three-fourths of which belong to tropical AmerRESPLENDENT TROGON —MAL AND FEMALE. ica; one species to Africa, and the rest to Asia and the Asiatic islands. The habits of some of these are as remarkable as their plumage; we are told that the young of the T. Narina, of South America, immediately follow their parents on the wing, after being hatched. One species, T. Mexicanus, is found on the Rio Grande. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 9. TUH BUCCO VERSICOLOR. THE RED-THROATED TAMATIA. THE BUCCOS, BARBETS, OR PUFF-BIRDS. In this group the bill is very stout and conical, and inflated at the base, which is furnished with several tufts of strong bristles; the tip of the upper mandible is curved or hooked; the nostrils are concealed by the plumes and bristles of the forehead; the toes are arranged in pairs, in the same way as in the scansorial birds, with which they were formerly placed. The name of Puff-Birds is applied to them from the manner in which their plumage is puffed out, a character which gives them a dull, heavy appearance. This aspect is in accordance with their mode of life, as they are solitary and melancholy birds, inhabiting the recesses of the forests of tropical America, where they perch upon the branches of trees to look out for the insects which constitute their food. They are said to perch in the same spot for months together. They also occasionally creep upon the bark of trees in search of insects, supporting themselves with the tail-feathers when in this position, like the woodpeckers. They nestle in holes of trees. There are several genera and many species. The Genus BUCCO: Bucco, includes the BUFF-FACED BARBET, B. chrysopogon, which is of gray plumage, lives in small flocks, and is found in Africa and Asia; also, the B. versicolor, found in Sumatra. The Genus BARBICAN: Laimodon; this name indicates the resemblance in the species both to the Barbets and the Toucans: the BARBARY BARBICAN, L. dubius-Pogonias major of Cuvier -is black above and red beneath; the flanks yellow. It is an exceedingly brilliant bird. Genus BARBACOU: Monasa.-The species of this are of solitary and sedentary habits, and resemble the cuckoos. The WHITE-FACED IBARBACOU of Brazil, M. personata, is one of the best known species. It is of the size of a thrush. The Genus TAMATIA: Tamatia, includes the PIED BARBET, T. macrorhynchos. Swainson says: " There is something very grotesque in the appearance of all the puff-birds, and their habits in a state of nature are no less singular. They frequent open, cultivated spots near habitations, always perching on the withered branches of a low tree, where they will sit nearly motionless for hours, unless indeed they descry some luckless insect passing near them, at which they immediately dart, returning again to the identical twig they had just left, and which they will sometimes 96 VERTEBRATA. frequent for months. At such times the disproportionate size of the head is rendered more conspicuous by the bird raising its feathers so as to appear not unlike a puff-ball; hence the general name they have received from the English residents in Brazil, of which country all the species, I believe, are natives. When frightened, this form is suddenly changed by the feathers lying quite flat. They are very confiding, and will often take their station within a few yards of the window. The two sexes are generally near each other, and often on the same tree." The length of this species is about eight inches; plumage black and white, the belly being tinged with buff. The RED-THROATED TAMATIA, T. maculata, is of a reddish-brown, and is found in Guiana. THE GALBULIDES OR JACAMARS. This group includes several genera and several species: they are very handsome birds, adorned with bright colors, green being predominant. They are peculiar to tropical South America and the West Indies, where they generally lead a solitary life in the forests, perched upon trees watching for insects, on which they prey. The Genus JACAMAR: Galbula, includes the COMMON JAcAMAR, G. viridis; it is of a brilliant golden-green, eight inches long, and is found in Cayenne. The RED-TAILED JACAMAR, G. ruficauda, inhabits the island of Trinidad. It is of a golden-green color above; the throat white; the breast red; the tail golden-green and red. (See p. 92.) fiv' THE EUROPEAN KINGFISHER. THE KINGFISHERS OR HALCYONID.E. In this family, which, according to some authors, includes the barbets and jacamars, the bill is long, straight, angular, and pointed; there are various species, feeding principally on fish, which they catch by darting suddenly down upon them from some perch on whlich they sit watching for their prey; they also eat small crustacea, reptiles, and insects. They make their nests in holes and in cavities along the banks of rivers and lakes. Genus ALCEDO: Alcedo.-This term is the Latin for kingfisher, and the genus includes the COMMON KINGFISHER of Europe, A. ispida-the Martin Pecheur of the French; Mfartino Pescatore of the Italians; and Gemeine Eisvogel of the Germans: probably the Halcyon of the Greeks. Its length is about seven inches; the upper part of the head, the wing-coverts, and a stripe on each side of the neck, are green, covered with light-blue spots; the upper part of the back is dark green, the lower part and rump bright blue; the throat, and a streak on each side of the neck, are yellowish-white, and the lower parts pale chestnut. The'quill-feathers of the wings are greenish-black, and those of the tail deep blue. All these colors have the metallic brilliancy of the tropical birds. It is found throughout Middle Europe, living in the milder parts, and even in England, all the year. Its flight is rapid and darting, like an arrow. It is a solitary bird, in CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 97 BELTED KINGFISHERS. habiting the banks of small streams, and perching upon the branches of trees overhanging the water, to watch for its finny prey, stickle-backs and minnows forming the greater part of its ordinary meal. For the purpose of breeding it takes possession of a hole in the bank formed by some burrowing animal, and adapts it to its use; here it appears to resort to disgorge the bones of the fishes which it has swallowed, for the floor of the holes frequented by it is always found covered with these remains, and it is upon them that the female lays her eggs. These are usually from five to seven in number, and of a delicate pinkish-white color. Among the ancients the most extraordinary ideas were entertained with regard to the nests of the kingfisher, and these crept into the writings of the older English poets. It was believed that the bird made a floating nest on the sea, and that during the period that she was engaged in hatching her eggs, the water always remained so smooth and calm that the mariner might venture on his voyage without danger of being exposed to any of the perils of the deep; in fact, some of the ancient writers attributed to this little bird the power of allaying the violence of the waves. The period of incubation was accordingly known as the "Halcyon days," and the same term is still often employed metaphorically to express any period of uninterrupted happiness. Some of the modern superstitions connected with the kingfisher are scarcely less curious: it has been supposed that if the body of the bird is suspended by the bill its breast will always indicate the north; that when suspended and accurately balanced, its bill will always point in the direction of the wind, although the bird may be kept in-doors; and that the possession of its head and feathers furnishes a protection against witchcraft, a security for fair weather at sea, and a certain means of securing the affections of a coy or disdainful sweetheart. These superstitions still hold their ground in some parts of Great Britain. Genus CERYLE: Ceryle.-This includes various species in different parts of the world, and VOL. II.-13 98 VERTEBRATA. among them the BELTED KINGFISHER, C. alcyon: this is a general inhabitant of the United States, and, with a single exception, is the only species known to this country. It is twelve inches long, of robust form, the upper parts and a belt across the breast light ashy-blue, beneath white. On the head the feathers are often lifted into a crest. Wilson, in his happy vein, says: "Like the lovelorn swains of whom the poets tell us, he delights in running streams and falling waters; not, however, merely that they may soothe his ear, but for a gratification somewhat more substantial. Amid the roar of the cataract, or over the foam of a torrent, he sits perched upon an overhanging bough, glancing his piercing eye in every direction below for his scaly prey, which, with a sudden, circular plunge, he sweeps from their native element, and swallows in an instant. His voice, which is not unlike the twirling of a watchman's rattle, is naturally loud, harsh, and sudden, but is softened by the sound of the brawling streams and cascades among which he generally rambles. He courses along the windings of the brook or river, at a small height above the surface, sometimes suspending himself by the rapid action of his wings, like certain species of hawks, ready to pounce on the fry below; now and then settling on an old, dead overhanging limb to reconnoiter. Mill-dams are particularly visited by this feathered fisher, and the sound of his pipe is as well known to the miller as the rattling of his own hopper. Rapid streams, with high perpendicular banks, particularly if they be of a hard clayey or sandy nature, are also favorite places of resort for this bird; not only because in such places the small fish are more exposed to view, but because those steep and dry banks are the chosen situations for his nest. Into these he digs with bill and claws horizontally, sometimes to the extent of four or five feet, at the distance of a foot or two from the surface. The few materials he takes in are not always placed at the extremity of the hole, that he and his mate may have room to turn with convenience. The eggs are five, pure white, and the first brood usually comes out about the beginning of June, and sometimes sooner, according to the part of the country where they reside. They are very tenacious of their haunts, breeding for several successive years in the same hole, and do not readily forsake it, even though it be visited." The TEXAN GREEN KINGFISHER, C. Americana, is only about seven inches long, and is well known in South America; it has been seen in Texas on the Rio Grande. Several other species of the genus are known in Mexico and South America. THE BLACK-BANDED DACELO. Genus DACELO: Dacelo.-This includes several species, found in various parts of the world, and called.Martin Chasseur by the French; they are noted for a large, heavy bill, and for feeding on earth-worms, larvae, and insects, instead of fish. Their haunts are marshy and humid spots in forests. The BLACK-BANDED DACELO, D. atricapilla, is a large species, found at the Cape of Good Hope. The GREAT BROWN KINGFISHER or GIGANTIC DACELO, D. gigantea, is eighteen inches long; CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 99 its color olive-brown above and white beneath; it is called the Laughing Jackass by the colonists of the Cape, on account of its loud, uncouth song. The whole number of known species of kingfishers is about ninety; the preceding descriptions of some of the most remarkable will give a general idea of the whole. While some of these birds are as large as a crow, there are others of the genera Ispidina and Ceyx which are not larger than a chipping-bird, yet dive and catch fish, proportioned to their size, like their larger relations. THE MEROPID1E OR BEE-EATERS. 6'. These birds are confined to the eastern hemisphere, in the tropical parts of which they are most abundant. They have a long, curved bill, and are generally adorned with brilliant colors, among which green is most common. They live on insects, which they capture in the air, and are especially fond of wasps;and bees, whence their English name of Bee-Eaters, and their French name of Gu pier. Genus MEROPS: Aferops.-This includes the COMMON BEE-EATER of Europe, which is ten inches long, of a very slender form, and long, slender bill: it is brownish-red above, the lower parts different shades of green. It migrates in large numbers from Africa to the south of Europe, usually in flocks of twenty to thirty. They are of gregarious habits, often being seen soaring about in company like swallows. Their nests consist of holes about six inches deep, which they excavate in the clayey banks of rivers and lakes; the eggs are from five to seven. They frequently utter a warbling note. In TE' ABEETR t, ~ ~their manner of flying and seizing their prey they THE NAMAQUA BEE-EATER. resemble the fly-catchers. This is the only species known to Europe; others are found in Africa and Asia: the NAMAQUA BEE-EATER, Rhinopomastes Cyanomelas, is of an azure-blue above and black beneath; found in Western Africa. There are still other genera and other species, TENUIIROSTRES. In the birds of this group the bill is always slender, although very variable in its length and form, being sometimes perfectly straight and sometimes much curved. The tip of the upper mandible is usually entire and acute. The toes are elongated, especially the hinder one, and the outer toe is usually more or less united to the middle one at the base. Their food consists principally of insects, which they generally capture on plants and trees, rarely on the wing or on the ground. The majority are destitute of the peculiar arrangement of the lower larynx, by which the beautiful songs of the Dentirostral birds are produced. This group includes several remarkable and interesting families, as follows: the Rifle-Birds, the Plumed Birds or Epimachince, the Hoopoes, Guitguits, Sun-Birds, Humming-Birds, Honey-Eaters, Oven-Birds, Creepers, Nuthatches, and Wrens. THE RIFLE-BIRDS. These are exceedingly beautiful and brilliant birds, found only in Australia. Genus PTILORIS: Ptiloris.-Of this two species are known; the common species, the PARADISE RIFLE-BIRD, P. paradiseus, is the most gorgeous in its plumage of the Australian birds. It is of a rich velvet-black, with the head and neck of a most brilliant bluish-green. The feathers of the lower surface are bordered with rich olive-green, and the two central tail-feathers are me 100 VERTEBRATA. tallic-green. The female is dull and somber in its colors. This bird is found in the southeastern portion of Australia, where it climbs upon the trunks of trees in the same manner as the Creepers, which it resembles in its general habits. Little is known of the mode of life of the other species. THE PLUMED BIRDS OR EPIMACHINE. gt^^^. ^These have usually been associated with I. i^'' ithe birds of Paradise, which they rival in l,\...:,:ij the splendor of their plumage. Some of X^^i~l them are furnished with long, dazzling plumes, similar to those which distinguish these brilliant birds. The species are very few, and almost confined to New Guinea and the adjacent islands; one species is found in New Zealand, and two in Australia.. ~ Genus EPIMACHUS: Epimachus of Cuvier, corresponding to the Promerops of Brisson, and the Rhinopomastes of Smith. <^ ^ X - ^'-. ^This includes the F. albus, which is of a -,Il At11J " t ^ Sk^ fine metallic violet-black color, with a broad 55.~- f',^^^ { >,~ ^^1^ ^- collar of feathers margined with emerald/ Ti(,\>,@, D o >-< green at the base of the neck. Long floatSS^ 1 -^ Ping plumes spring from the back and rump; they are of a white color, and very long, with long, silky, distant barbs, and twelve of the lower plumes are terminated by long 11^'!. Ha \have included various other analogous gen-....A...~:: i}} ^era, such as the Soui-Manga, Guitguit, -Di-'^^III^^" H o^~1^10131 at ^~?'^ &c., under the name of Certhiadce; we shall Hacker of the Germans; Piccio Jampichino ~.:~z:_:~,-::: &ceum, Nectarinia, Melithrebtus, er urnarius, "1 before the sptat, and the nt is hid. trived that the bird at will can remove the ire position; the tail feathers at the ends are bare, and operate as a support; these are beautiful adaptenus tCEoR IA te pe iar motios o te ts re include s -m ~ ~ ~ ~ ki~tin which six/~ateilbGridpereau or the French; a leinste BaumHacker of the Germans; Piccio Rampichino:':, part. slende, and curved; length six and a half inhes; head and bneck; above, streaked withee the se black and yellowis-bropwn; a whcite line above d ~' ~ each eye; back and rump tawny; coverts n w r i dusky brwh te saow t n twish-white; brea&stc and follows in their rear, gleaning up thos ises e ore power s a a most restless and activeexposed; for its own slenderon inrvated bill seems neqal to the altask of pernetrating into even the decayed wood; though itup amay innd behi about the runs and branc f he trees, there aintent ong picking up its in se ct food. ut even t of the others. As the party advances through there woods frommon it is not easily seen, forour little gleaitner root of the tree, and directs his course, with great nimbleness, upward to the higheye. At one insthes, sonetimes spirally, often in a direct line, moving rapidly and unshiformly along, with hie s tail bent to the tree, and oit is beforet ne of th e sopec tator, and the fr ur next is hidpap rm ti Grt den from his view by the intervening trunk or THE COMRON CREEPER OF EUROPER. passed in a moment. The toes are so contrived that the bird at will can remove their positi on; the tail feath er s at t he ends are bare, and operate s a support; th ese are bea utiful adaptations to the peculiar motions of the bird. Its note is monotonous, and often repeated. It builds its nest in hol e of a decayed tr ee; this is formed of dry rass, l in d with small feathers, in which six or eight eggs are deposited. While the female sits sh e is reg olrly fed by he male bird. It is found throughout the continent of Europe, migrating in October to the southern parts, but is permanent in Great Britain. The AMERICAN BROwN CREEPER, C. Americana, is five and a half inches mong; upper part of the head deep brown; back brown; both streaked with white. This has been supposed to be the same as the European creeper, but it is now held to be distinct. Wilson thus describes itt "In winter it associates with the small spotted woodpecker,, nuthatch, titmouse, &e., and often follows in their rear, gleaning up those insectso which their more powerfi bills had alarmed and exposed; for its own slender, incurvated bill seems unequal to the task of penetrating into even the decayed wood; though it may into holes, and behind scales of the batrk. Of the titmouse, there are, generally present, the individuals of a whole family, and seldom more than one or two of the others. As the party advances through the woods from tree to tree, our little gleaner seems to observe a good deal of regularity in his proceedings; he alights on the body near the root of the tree, and directs his course, with great nimbleness, upward to the higher branches, sometimes spirally, often in a direct line, moving rapidly and uniformly along, with his tail bent to the tree, and not in the hopping manner of the woodpecker, whom he far surpasses in dexterity of climbing, running along the lower side of the horizontal branches with surprising ease. If any person be near when he alights, he is sure to keep the opposite side of the tree, moving round as he moves, so as to prevent him from getting~ more than a transient glimpse of him. The best 110 VERTEBRATA. method of outwitting him, if you are alone, is, as soon as he alights and disappears behind the trunk, to take your stand behind an adjoining one, and keep a sharp look-out twenty or thirty feet up the body of the tree he is upon, for he generally mounts very regularly to a considerable height, examining the whole way as he advances. In a minute or two, hearing all still, he will make his appearance on one side or other of the tree, and give you an opportunity of observing him. These birds are distributed over the whole United States, but are most numerous in the Western and Northern States; their haunts are in the depths of the forests, and in tracts of large timbered woods, where they usually breed, visiting the thicker settled parts of the country in fall and winter." The C. albifrons is found in Texas; it is five and a quarter inches long, dark brown spotted. The WALL-CREEPER of Europe, Tichodroma muraria, seeks its insect food on rocks and in walls; it is chiefly found in the mountainous parts of Southern Europe; it is permanent though rare at Rome, being sometimes seen on the exterior walls of St. Peter's. The TREE-CREEPERS, Dlendrocolaptince, found in the vast forests of South America, resemble the species we have described; the form of the bill, however, is variable, in some cases being very long and bent downward. The Synallaxinwe are an allied group, but which not only devour insects upon the trees, but worms and snails on the ground. They are remarkable for the large size of their nests, those of one species measuring three or four feet in length. THE COMMON EUROPEAN NUTHATCH. THE SITTINGE OR NUTHATCHES. Genus SITTA: Sitta.-This includes several species. The COMMON EUROPEAN NUTHATCH the Pic Mapon of the French, and Blauspecht of the Germans-S. Europcea, is a small bird, five inches long, blue-gray above, below rufous-brown. It runs with facility up ard down the branches and trunks of trees, its head often down, but having no assistance in this from its tail-feathers. It sleeps with the head down, and generally alights in that position. It is almost constantly in motion, its food consisting of berries, insects, larvae, and nuts. It derives its name from the hatches or hammerings which it makes on nuts, either for obtaining insects or the kernels. Its call in the spring is a clear, shrill whistle. The nest is made with a few dry leaves in the hole of a tree. If the hole is too large the bird reduces it by plastering up a part with mud. The eggs are five to seven in number. This bird is common throughout Europe. Other foreign species are the S. rupestris, S. Syriaca, S. Uralensis, and S. Asiatica; there are also cdosely allied species in the Indian Archipelago and Australia. The WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH, S. Carolinensis, is five inches long; the head and back of the neck are glossy black; the back bluish-black; beneath white. It is found from Mexico to Maine, and is one of the birds that enliven our forests after the cold season has commenced and other birds have departed. It feeds on spiders, insects, larvae, &c. Other American species are the RED-BELLIED NUTHATCH, S. Canadensis; the BROWN-HEADED NUTHATCH, S. pusilla; and the CALIFORNIA NUTHATCH, S. pigmcea. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 111 L, THE GREAT CAROLINA WREN. THE COMMON EUROPEAN WREN. THE TROGLODYTINAJ OR WRENS. This family includes a number of small, lively, familiar birds, some of them living around the habitations of man, and feeding upon insects and seeds. Genus TROGLODYTES: Troglodytes.-This includes several species: the COMMON WREN of Europe —Roytelet of the French; Fiorracino of the Italians; Cutty, Katy, or Kitty- Wren of the English- T. Europoeus, is an active, lively little bird, and appears, in Europe, to share with the robin in the affections of the country people. It frequents hedges, gardens, and bushy places, flitting from bush to bush with a direct flight, and feeding principally upon insects of various kinds, and also occasionally upon seeds and fruits. In spring and summer the male has a very sweet song, which is exceedingly loud and rich, especially when we consider the smallness of the pipe producing it. These birds are very familiar, and seek to be near the habitations of man, although they do not exhibit the same degree of confidence as the robin, but generally conceal themselves very quickly when approached too closely. Nevertheless, in the winter, when cold weather renders it somewhat difficult to keep up the vital heat in such a diminutive body, these birds often roost in cow-houses, for the sake of the warmth generated by the cattle. Most of them, however, shelter themselves in holes at this season, roosting in considerable numbers together, so as to keep up the heat by close packing. For the same purpose they often frequent their nests of the preceding summer; and it has even been said by some authors that the male occupies himself while the female is sitting, with preparing several nests, to afford shelter to the brood in the coming winter. The wrens pair about the middle of the spring, and early in April commence the construction of their nests. These are placed in very various situations, but principally in holes and crevices in walls, banks and trees, and also in thatched roofs, amongst climbing plants, or even on the branch of a tree. They are made of various materials and lined with feathers: the number of eggs is seven to twelve. It is calculated that these birds bring food to their young ones two hundred and seventy-eight times in a day, with an insect each time. They produce two broods in a season. This species is common throughout Europe, and permanent in France and England and the contiguous countries. The AMERICAN HOUSE-WREN, T. cedon, or T. fulvus, is migratory in the United States, arriving from the South early in May. It is brown, banded with dusky; its length is about four inches; it builds its nest sometimes in the wooden cornice under the eaves, or in a hollow 112 VERTEBRATA. cherry-tree; or frequently in small boxes, fixed on the top of a pole in or near the garden, to which latter he is extremely partial, for the great number of caterpillars and other larvae with which it constantly supplies him. If all these conveniences are wanting, he will put up with an old hat nailed on the weather-boards, with a small hole for entrance; and, if even this be denied him, he will find some hole, corner, or crevice about the house, barn, or stable, rather than abandon the dwellings of man. Wilson tells us that in the month of June a mower hung up his coat under a shed, near a barn; two or three days elapsed before he had occasion to put it on again; thrusting his arm up the sleeve, he found it completely filled with some rubbish, as he expressed it, and, on extracting the whole mass, found it to be the nest of a wren completely finished, and lined with a large quantity of feathers. In his retreat he was followed by the little forlorn proprietors, who scolded him with great vehemence for thus ruining the whole economy of their household affairs. The eggs are six or seven, and sometimes even more, of a red-purplish flesh color, innumerable fine grains of that tint being thickly sprinkled over the whole egg. They generally raise two broods in a season. This species has a very merry, rollicking song, and displays great antipathy to cats, especially those which venture near their nests. They are exceedingly useful to man, on account of the immense number of insects which they destroy. Other American species are the GREAT:'!1',! CAROLINA MOCKING-WREN, T. Ludovicia1 ii i li^^ I^^ nus, five and a half inches long; noted for its extraordinary musical powers, displayed,'~lh1''^t,{ K in imitating various other feathered songI,',~lll~.,;~ ~ sters, and found from New York to Florida; 11111i^^ ^^ ^theo on WREN, T. Americanus, resembling the house wren, and found from Maine to ~1fi' 11'~ / Carolina; the COMMON WINTER WREN, T. 1^ l A/ In hyemalis, closely resembling the European.U,, wren, and once erroneously supposed to be f /'j / identical with it; BEWICK'S WREN, T. Belj^ /: /.~-~~~ ^wickii, five inches long, and found in LouisiA,~^ ~ ~ana; the ROCKY MOUNTAIN WREN, T. obsoletus, found on the Arkansas River; the MARSH WREN, T. palustris, four and a half //X/ /,p, A, inches long, and found in the Middle States..1.// v-> v in summer; the SHORT-BILLED MARSH W/:"..//.-_ WREN, T. brevirostris, found in summer iW 7 bfrom Massachusetts to the Southern States; --........the WHITE-THROATED WREN, T. Mexicanus,.... a Mexican species, five and a half inches long, and recently observed in California; and PARKMAN'S WREN, T. Parkmanii, found: | l\\ \D on the Columbia River. Of all these species THE EMU WREN. the House Wren is the only one that seeks familiarity with man. Genus STIPITURE: Stipiture-This includes, among nearly a dozen other closely-allied Australian birds, the EMU WREN, S. malachurus, called Waw-gul-jelly by the natives of New South Wales, where it is found. It haunts marshy districts, is shy and recluse, has short wings ill adapted for flight, runs very fast, is very active, often carrying its tail erect and sometimes retroverting it in a ludicrous manner. The body of this bird is about two and a half inches, and the tail three times as long. This consists of six spreading feathers, the barbs of which are of a loose structure, like the feathers of the emu, whence the popular name of the bird.. The nest is ballshaped, and is placed in a tuft of grass; the eggs are usually three. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 113 THE GREAT BUTCHER-BIUD. DENTIROSTRES. The leading characteristic of this group consists in the presence of a distinct notch on each side of the extremity of the upper mandible, which is also usually more or less hooked. The tarsi are generally slender, and covered with broad scales, as are also the toes, which are usually long, and frequently armed with curved and acute claws. The outer toe is always more or less united with the middle one, and this is also the case in some instances with the inner toe. These birds are amongst the most predaceous of the passerinae: the nourishment of the greater proportion consists principally of insects; some of them, however, capture and devour small vertebrated animals. Berries and fruits likewise constitute a part of their food, but they appear very rarely to eat seeds. They are all furnished with the singing apparatus at the lower larynx, and it is to these birds that our sweetest and most celebrated songsters belong. The divisions of this entire group are as follows: the LANIID^, including the Shrikes; the AMPELIDE, including the Piprince or Manakins, Drongo Shrikes, and Campephagince or Caterpillar-Eaters, Gymnoderince or Fruit-Crows, Umbrella-Bird, Bell-Bird, Chatterers, and Cotingas; the MuSCICAPIDn, including the Fly- Catchers, Tityrince or Becards, Tyrant Fly- Catchers, Alectrurince or Cock-Tails; the TURDIDE or MERULIDIE, including the Bulbuls, Orioles, Babblers, True Thrushes, AntThrushes, and Ouzels; the WARBLERS, including the Wagtails, Pipits or Titlarks, Bush-Creepers, Titmice, Robins, Wheat-Ears, Redbreasts, Shamas, Indian Robin, and Bluebird; the TRauE WARBLERS, including the Nightingales, Tailor-Birds, &c. THE LANIID2]E OR SHRIKES. In this first family, the bill is elongated, strong, straight, and compressed, with the tip of the upper mandible more or less hooked, and armed on each side with a tooth; the base of the bill is usually as high as broad, and the gape is furnished with bristles, of which about five spring from each side of the base of the upper mandible. The wings are of moderate size; the tail is long and rounded; the tarsi are stout, usually elongated; the hind toe long, broadly padded beneath, and the claws are long, curved, and very acute. The strong hooked bill and curved claws of these birds give them a very well-marked resemblance to the raptorial birds, and the similarity is almost equally striking in the habits of many of the species. They not only prey upon the insects, worms and mollusca, which constitute the principal part of the animal food of the passerine birds, but also frequently attack and destroy small birds and quadrupeds. This resemblance led Cuvier to place the shrikes at the head of the passeres, close to the raptorial birds; and Lin 114 VERTEBRATA. 33ir, THE FISCAL SHRIKE. naeus and some other authors went still further, and included these birds with the hawks and owls in a single order. They form only two divisions-the Laniidce, or shrikes, and the Thamnophilince, or bush-shrikes. Genus SHRIKE: Lanius.-This includes the GRAY SHRIKE, or GREAT BUTCHER-BIRD-Pie Grieche of the French, Grossere Veuntoder of the Germans-L. excubitor, the largest and most common species in Europe. It is about nine inches long; the upper parts of a light ash-gray; the wings, tail, and a band around the eye, black; the lower parts white. Its cry is troui, troui, which it repeats constantly, while it perches upon the tall trees. It is a vigorous and courageous bird, driving off the crows from its nest, and feeding upon insects which it takes on the wing, and upon mice, moles, and small birds. It has the habit, in common with the other species, of sticking its prey-such as grasshoppers, beetles, birds, mice, &c.-upon thorns, that it may pull them to pieces more easily. Hence these birds are popularly called Butcher-Birds; also NVine-iKillers, from a popular belief that they kill and stick up nine creatures every morning, before beginning to devour their meal. This species builds its nests in trees, and lays five or six eggs. It is stationary in southern Europe. Bechstein says: "The call of the shrike is like the gihr! gihr! of a lark. Like the nutcracker, he imitates many single notes, but does not succeed in the song of other birds. His own flute-like tone is very beautiful, resembling the whistling of the gray parrot. In producing it, his throat is distended like that of the tree-frog. It is to be regretted that he sings only in pairing time-from March to May-and that the song is interrupted by harsh and croaking passages. Both sexes sing. The bird might possibly be taught to speak, as it sometimes utters notes closely resembling the human voice." " All small birds have an antipathy to the shrike, betray anger, and utter the moan of danger when it approaches their nests. I have often heard this signal of distress, and cautiously approaching to learn the cause, have frequently found that this butcher-bird occasioned it. They will mob, attack, and drive it away, as they do the owl, as if fully acquainted with its plundering propensities. Linnaeus attached to it the trivial epithet of'Excubitor,' a sentinel; a very apposite appellation, as this bird seldom conceals itself in a bush, but sits perched upon some upper spray, or in an open situation, heedful of danger, or watching for its prey." The RED-BACKED SHRIKE, L. collurio, is a bird of passage, spending the winter in Asia, and arriving in Europe in May. It is seven and a half inches long, and is the most common species. It is generally seen in pairs, frequenting hedge-rows and the borders of woods. It is called Ecorcheur, or Flayer, by the French. The other foreign species are, the ITALIAN SHRIKE, L. minor, eight inches long, found in the south of Europe; the WOODCHAT SHRIKE, L. rutilus, seven inches long, common in all Africa, and visiting the south of Europe in summer; the BACBAcKIRI CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 115 THE CRESTED PARDALOTTE. (See page 117). THE FALCONELLE (F.Jfonltatus.) SHRIKE, L. Bacbackiri, an African species, resembling the thrush in appearance; and the FISCAL SHRIKE, L. collarip, also found in Africa, and resembling the gray shrike in appearance. In predaceous habits the last surpasses all the other species. The NORTHERN SHRIKE or GREAT AMERICAN SHRIKE, L. Septentrionalis, is an American species, nine inches long, and so closely resembling the European gray shrike as to have long been esteemed identical; but it is now believed to be distinct. Wilson says: "The form and countenance of this bird bespeak him full of courage and energy; and his true character does not belie his appearance, for he possesses these qualities in a very eminent degree. The species is by no means numerous in the Middle States; though most so during the months of November, December, and March. Soon after this, it retires to the north, and to the higher inland parts of the country to breed. It frequents the deepest forests; builds a large and compact nest in the upright fork of a small tree, composed outwardly of dry grass, and whitish moss, and warmly lined within with feathers. The female lays six eggs, of a pale cinereous color, thickly marked at the greater end with spots and streaks of rufous: she sits fifteen days; the young are produced early in June, sometimes toward the latter end of May,.and during the greater part of the first season are of a brown ferruginous color on the back." The habits of this species in respect to their food, and the impaling of insects, mice, and birds on thorns,:are the same as those of the European Gray Shrike. The LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE, L. Ludovicianus, is somewhat smaller and darker colored than the preceding, and is confined to the Southern States. It is protected on the rice plantations, because of the great number of mice it destroys. It sits, for hours together, on the fence, beside the stacks of rice, watching like a cat; and, as soon as it perceives a mouse, darts on it like a hawk. It also feeds on crickets and grasshoppers. Its note, in March, resembles the creaking of a signboard in windy weather. It builds its nest generally in a detached bush, much like that of the mocking-bird. Two other species are mentioned as belonging to the high northern regions of our continent: the L. excubitorides, and L. elegans. Most of the shrikes appear to have considerable powers in imitating the calls of other birds. Several closely allied species of shrikes are found in the East Indies and South America. There are also several genera of Thamnophilince or Bush-Shrikes. The typical species is the T. Vigorsii, found in South America, and called Batara by Azara. It is the largest of the shrikes, 116 VERTEBRATA. THE BATARA. THE MAGPIE SHtIIKE. being thirteen inches long. The upper parts are black, broadly banded with fulvous; beneath it is whitish brown. Other species belong to Africa and Asia. Gfenus BETHYLUS: Bethylus.-This includes the MAGPIE SHRIKE, B. picatus~Lanius picatus of Latham —found in Guiana and Brazil. It resembles the magpie in appearance. In Australia, there are three genera of shrikes: those of the Genus FALCUNCUTLUS, feed on insects, in order to obtain which they strip the bark off the trees with their strong bills. The FALCONELLE, F. frontatus, is of the size of a sparrow, and in its form and markings resembles the great titmouse of Europe. Another Australian species, the Oreoica cristat, is distinguished for hopping about on the ground, which is rare with other members of this genus. It has a sort of ventriloquial power of voice, commencing a song in a low tone, which seems to come from a great distance; but it gradually increases in strength, till the listener at last discovers that the bird is very near at hand, perhaps immediately over his head. This kind of ventriloquial power, however, by which the hunter is often deceived, is possessed by many other birds. THE AMPELIDJE OR CHATTERERS. The Ampelidce embrace several groups, resembling the True Chatterers in certain respects, and hence they are associated with them. For the most part they belong to the warm parts of the world, and live on insects. THE PIPRINJE OR MANAKINS. This group is composed of numerous beautiful birds, mostly of small size, all of which, except the Calyptomena viridis, found in Sumatra, inhabit the tropical regions of the American continent. They live in small flocks, in the hot, moist forests which spread over those torrid countries, and feed upon insects and fruits. They are exceedingly active in their movements. Genus RUPICOLA: Rupicola.-~Of this is the COCK OF THE ROCK, R. aurantia, about the size of a pigeon, and of a fine orange color, with the quills of the wing and tail blackish. It is distinguished by a singular crest of feathers arranged in two planes, rising from the sides of the head so as to meet in the middle, forming a semicircular wedge-like ornament, which projects in -> THE BATARA. THE 1AGPI' SHLIKE. of a pigeon, and of a fine orange color, with the quills of the wing and tail blackish. It is distinguished by a singular crest of feathers arranged in two planes, rising from the sides of the CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 117 THE COCK OF THE: ROCK. t^^^.~ Ch ^I^; ^' ^' This includes the GREEN CALYPTOMENA, Cv,.ridis, f te color of the green leaves among which it liii I(.....b ds, th Clyptua pristata, I| ~ ~ i rd lie Cn yelow sz of a spaekredw the ~! i.. t[ fiP? h'sti, hs l thet a der'evs collo re, bac,ing'n t b!i^jr! fl tested with a gigantic kind of spider, which often I' i,,!,',; II, /,l': THE COCK OF THE ROCK. front over the bill. The upper tail-coverts are also remafrkably elongated, curved, and decomposed' so as to form an elegant tuft upon the rump This bird is fou nd in Guiana ly, where it frequents the rocky shores of the streams; hence its common name. It forms a nest of fragments of wood and dry grass in the holes of the rocks, and lays two white eggs. A second species, falls. Peruviana, a.lso of a bright orange color, has been found in Peru and Mexico..~.:, pe ttGenus CALYPTOMENA: Calyptomena.PA",'):;."".. This includes the GREEN CALYPTOMENA, C. viridis, of the color of the green leaves among which it -~~"~: I lives, and therefore seldom seen; found in Java /'[\':~< and Sumatra. Other species of Pipriu3 aire South American, and much smaller birds; the Calyptura eristata, is red, olive, and yellow; size of a sparrow: the.Pipra strigilata, has the head bright red and upper parts green; size of a wren: P. aureole, of the same size; color red, back wings'and tail black: the Metopia galeata, black, head and neck red: the N' I~.~+.,,:,..~..-.',-.:(~ ~~ iii' CRESTED PARDALOTTE, P. cristatus, has a red crest, io -'e tupper parts olive-green; three inches long; above ""~''~~y gra- gy, undulated with yellow; rump, throat, and' ~, ~~breast yellow. This species lives along the borders of mall streams that dash down the rocks of the higher mountains. These remote places are infested with a gigantic kind of spider, which ofen attacks this little bird suddenly, with his pois%onaous fangs, in the throat, and it instantly falls a prey to the insidious destroyer. THE a EN CA LP ci.x The THrcK-HE~s, or.Packyehalnceae, a re 118 VERTEBRATA. closely allied to the manakins, but differ from them in the structure of their feet, the outer toe being united to the middle one at the base. They are found in both hemispheres, but are most abundant in Australia and Polynesia. They are small birds, inhabit woods and forests, and feed on fruits, seeds, buds, and insects. One of the Australian species, _Eopsaltaria Australis, is called the YELLOW ROBIN by the colonists; another species found in Van Diemen's Land-the Pardalotus punctatus, called the DIAMOND-BIRD, on account of the spots on its head-excavates a horizontal passage two feet long in the trunk of a tree, at the end of which it builds its nest. This bird frequents the gum-trees, and freely approaches the habitations of man. Several species of the genus Leiothrix are found in India; they feed on insects, and for the purpose of seizing these, are often occupied in carefully examining the opening buds of the trees, whence they are called Bud Hunters. THE CRESTED DRONGO. THE DICRURINE OR DRONGO SHRIKES. These approach the true shrikes; they are found only in the eastern hemisphere, and are particularly abundant in the East Indies and the islands of the Asiatic Archipelago. Many of them are exceedingly beautiful birds; their average size is about that of a thrush, and they appear to migrate from one part of the country to another with the monsoons. The commonest of the Indian species, the Dicrurus macrocercus, has received the name of KING CRow, from its habit of persecuting the crows, which it follows with the greatest perseverance and clamor, pouncing down upon them every now and then, but apparently seldom striking them. The principal food of this and most of the species consists of insects, especially grasshoppers, for which they watch from some elevated perch, and on perceiving one, immediately dart down upon it. For this purpose they not unfrequently establish themselves on the backs of cattle, sheep and goats, whilst these animals are grazing. They fly with great rapidity, and often capture insects on the wing. Some of the species appear only to have a harsh, screaming note, but others are said to be charming songsters; and one species, the Dicrurus Paradiseus, has received the Hindoo name of "Huzar Dustan," or "Bird of a thousand tales," from a belief that it is able to imitate the song of all other birds. The Dicrurine live in the jungles, and build their nests, which are composed of grass, twigs, moss, and lichen, in the forks of trees. Their architectural powers appear to be very variable, as the nests of some of the species are described as carelessly put together, while others are said to be very neat. The eggs are from three to five in number, of a white or whitish color, usually spotted with reddish-brown. The CRESTED DRONGO, Laniusforficatus of Gmelin, is an African species, black, with a green reflection, of the size of a thrush; they unite in flocks of twenty or thirty, and in attacking the bees present a very animated appearance, their cry of pia, griach, griah, being constantly repeated. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 119 THE CAMPEPHAGINJE OR CATERPILLAR-EATERS. These birds, like the Dicrurinse, are almost exclusively confined to the warmer parts of the Old World-Africa, and India-only the single genus Ptilonogonus being found in America. They have the bill short, the claws much curved, and live principally in woods and forests; but some of the species are also found about hedges and gardens. They are seen either singly or in small flocks, hopping about upon the trees, and prying inquisitively into every part of the foliage in search of their food, which consists almost entirely of soft insects, and especially of caterpillars. They also pick up ants and beetles, and in pursuit of these are not unfrequently seen upon the ground; fruits and berries are said also to form part of the diet of some of the species. The nests are built high up in trees; they are of small size, and composed of lichens, roots, and thin stalks. The eggs are few in number, sometimes only two, of a pale color, with brown streaks. II \\F'All THE UMBRELLA-BIRD. THE BLOODY PAVAO. THE GYMNODERIN.E OR FRUIT-CROWS. Another and an interesting group is that of the Gymnoderince or Fruit-Crows, consisting of some remarkable birds, which have been arranged by different authors among the chatterers and the crows. They have a stout, straight, depressed bill, with the ridge of the upper mandible curved, and its tip notched; the wings are long and pointed; the tail of moderate length, and rounded; the claws long, curved, and acute. They are peculiar to South America, and are of considerable size, some of the larger species being equal, in this respect, to our common crows. They feed principally upon fruits, and occasionally on insects. Some of the species have the face or part of the neck bare of feathers, and hence are called Bald-Heads: one species, the Gymnocephalus calvus, is called the CAPUCHIN BALD-HEAD. Another species, the BLOODY PAVAO, Coracina scutata, is fifteen inches long, and is entirely black, with a blood-red cuirass of feathers on the neck and breast, appearing like a bloody wound; it has a cry of bou, bou, bou, which in the deep forests of Brazil sounds like the horn of a herdsman calling his flock. Another species is the renowned UMBRELLA-BIRD, Ceplhalopterus ornatus, of a beautiful glossy black color, giving out bluish reflections; it has a superb tuft of blue, hair-like, curved feathers on the top of the head, and also a plume of blue feathers depending from a fleshy process on the neck. This bird is of the size of a crow, feeds principally on fruits,, and has a loud, deep note, whence it is called by the natives Ueramimbe or Piper-Bird. It is found in the regions of the Rio Negro. Another celebrated species is the ARAPUNGA, or CAMPENERO, or BELL-BIRD, Arapunga alba, found in the wild forests of Guiana; it is about twelve inches in length, and of a pure white color. It is dis 120 V ERTEBRATA. tinguished by a singular fleshy cylindrical appendage, often furnished with a few small feathers, which rises from the base of the bill. Its voice is peculiar, resembling the deep tolling of a bell. According to Waterton, it may be heard at a distance of nearly three miles during the heat of the day, when most of the feathered inhabitants of those tropical forests are hushed in silence. THIE WAX-WING. THE CHATTERERS. The Ampelince or True Chatterers have the gape wide, the bill broad at the base, depressed near the tip, and distinctly notched; they are found in both hemispheres. Genus BOMBYCILLA: Bombycilla-Ampelis of some authors.-Of this there are several species. The EUROPEAN WAX-WING-Jaseur of the French; Garrulo di Boemia of the Italians; Gemeine Seidenschwantz of the Germans; Silk-Tail of the English-B. Garrula, is known throughout the northern parts of both continents. It is a very handsome bird, about eight inches long, of a general grayish color, with a large patch on the throat and a band on the head of black. The crest on the crown of the head and the lower tail-coverts are brownish-orange; the primary wing-coverts are tipped with white; the primary and secondary quill-feathers are black, tipped with yellow, as are also the quills of the tail; and the tertiaries are brownish-purple, tipped with white. Four of the secondaries, and from one to four of the tertials, according to the age of the bird, are terminated by small horny expansions of the shaft of the feathers, resembling, both in color and texture, red sealing-wax. The name of Bohemian Chatterer, commonly applied to this bird, appears to be peculiarly inappropriate, as it is by no means more abundant in Bohemia than in other parts of Europe, and its actual home and breeding-place is probably within the arctic circle. It is a winter visitor to France, England, &c. In Europe it feeds upon the berries of the mountain ash, hawthorn, and ivy, which are all to be found abundantly during the winter upon the plants producing them; in the high northern latitudes of America, to which it is here chiefly confined, though sometimes found as far south as Philadelphia, it eats the berries of the juniper. It also occasionally feeds upon insects, which it captures on the wing in the same manner as the fly-catchers. The AMERICAN WAX-WING, or CEDAR-BIRD, or CHERRY-BIRD, B. Carolinensis, is a familiar bird in all parts of the United States, migrating to the north in summer and the south in winter. It closely resembles the preceding, though it is smaller. It is known in all North America, from Canada to Mexico, and feeds upon different kinds of berries, especially those of the red cedar and cherries, and also upon insects. It bleeds in June, sometimes building in the cedars, but more commonly in orchards. The nest is composed of grass, and the eggs, which are three or four in number, are of a dingy bluish-white color, variously spotted with black. When berries are abundant, as in the autumn and the beginning of summer, the birds become very fat, and are then in considerable esteem for the table. They fly in compact flocks of twenty to thirty; the CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 121 term Chatterer is wholly inapplicable to them, as they have only a faint chirp, generally uttered as they rise to fly. Nuttall tells a curious instance of politeness which he noticed among them one having caught an insect gave it to his neighbor; this took it and gave it to another, and he to another, and so it went round for some time before it was devoured. The JAPANESE WAX-WING, B. phoenicoptera, resembles the American species, but is smaller, and is without the wax-like appendages. THE COTINGAS. These are considered as allied to the preceding, and comprise several genera, remarkable for the splendor of their plumage. The Piauhaus, so called from their cry, live in flocks in South America, and feed on insects. The GREAT PIAUHAU, Coracias militaris of Shaw, is entirely purple, The True Cotingas inhabit humid places in South America. The SCARLET COTINGA, Ampelis carnifex, is seven inches long, scarlet above, and reddish-brown below. The POMPADOUR COTINGA, A. Pompadora, is a reddish-purple; the BLUE COTINGA, A. cotinga, splendid ultramarine, with a violet breast. Our common bluebird resembles these, and was formerly included in the group. a%~~~'' THE COLLARED FLY-CATCHER. THE MUSCICAPID]zE OR FLY-CATCHERS. In this extensive and interesting family, which closely resemble the shrikes in their habits, the bill is generally straight, broad, and depressed at the base, with the gape wide, and furnished with long, stout bristles springing from the base of the upper mandible. The wings and tail are long, and the legs short and weak, with the toes more or less elongated. They are small birds, feeding for the most part upon insects, which they take upon the wing. They establish themselves in some elevated position, from which they dart off after their prey, returning again to their post to swallow it. The larger species, however, like the Shrikes, are not content with such small game, but make war upon the smaller vertebrate animals. They include five groups, or sub-families, the Vireos, the True Fly-Catchers, the Becards, the Tyrant Fly-Catchers, and the Cock-Tails. THE VIREOS OR GREENLETS. This is a group of small American birds, of which the general plumage is usually more or less tinted with green or olive. They have a short, straight bill, and the bristles of the gape are short and weak; the wings are long and pointed, and the toes of moderate size, the lateral ones being about equal, and both more or less united to the middle one at the base. They migrate from the tropical regions of America-Brazil, Guiana, and the West Indian Islands-to the United States, arriving here about the month of May, and returning southward in August and September. Some of them have an exceedingly sweet warbling note, while the song of others appears to have little merit. They feed almost entirely upon insects, some apparently preferring VOL. II.-1 6 122 VERTEBRATA. beetles and other hard-skinned species, while others principally devour the small insects which they take on the wing, and others, again, appear to have a predilection for caterpillars, for which they search the leaves of the trees. They also occasionally eat berries. They build their nests sometimes in trees, sometimes in thick bushes, forming them of dry leaves, grass, fibrous roots, moss, and lichens, &c. Genus VIREO: Vireo.-This includes several species, often called Greenlets. The RED-EYED FLY-CATCHER or WHIP-TOM-KELLY, V. olivaceus, is a very numerous and familiar species, even venturing into parks, gardens, and yards of cities, where it rears its young and sings its song. Wilson says: "In Jamaica, where this bird is resident, it is called, as Sloane informs us, Whip-tom-kelly, from an imagined resemblance of its notes to these words. And, indeed, on attentively listening for some time to this bird in his full ardor of song, it requires but little of imagination to fancy that you hear it pronounce these words,'Tom kelly, whip-tom-kelly!' very distinctly." But Mr. Gosse, who has furnished us with several excellent works on Natural History, and heard this bird often in Jamaica, states that its notes bear a very close resemblance to the syllables "John-to-whit," pronounced with an emphasis on the last syllable; an evidence of a fact we have before noticed, that two persons, in attempting to write down the notes of birds, rarely give precisely the same syllables. The other noted species of Vireo are as follows: the WHITE-EYED FLY-CATCHER, V. Noveboracensis, a small species, but a loud singer, noted, as Wilson says, for introducing fragments of newspaper into the construction of its nest, whence some of his friends proposed to call the bird the Politician: the YELLOW-THROATED GREENLET, V. flavifrons, five and a half inches long, and of a greenish-olive color: the SOLITARY GREENLET, V. solitarius, four and a half inches long, dusky-olive color: the WARBLING FLY-CATCHER, V. gilvus, a pleasing singer: all the preceding common in the United States: the V. altiloquus, occasionally visiting Florida, and having some curious notes: the BLACK-HEADED FLY-CATCHER, V. atricapillus, recently discovered in Texas, seven and a half inches long, above dark olive-green, below white. To these may be added the V. Bartrami, found in New Jersey and Kentucky: the V. longirostris of the Antilles: the V. belli of the upper Missouri. THE TRUE FLY-CATCHERS. In these the form of the bill closely resembles that of the Vireos; but this organ is rather longer, and has the ridge slightly flattened at first, but curved toward the tip. The gape is furnished with bristles; the wings are long and pointed, and the toes are short, the outer lateral toe being longer than the inner one. These birds, which exhibit the characteristic habits of the family in their greatest perfection, are pretty generally distributed over both hemispheres, but more especially in the tropical regions. The species which occur in the temperate and colder regions, generally are summer birds of passage. Genus MUSCICAPA: Muscicapa.-This includes the SPOTTED FLY-CATCHER, MJ. grisCola, the most familiar and abundant European species, six inches long, of a brownish tint above, with a few dark spots on the head, and dull white beneath; it is common during the summer in England, France, and generally over Europe. In England its nest is usually placed in a hole in a wall, in a faggot stack, or an out-building, but the branches of trees trained against a wall are sometimes selected for its reception. A pair have also been known to build on the head of a garden-rake, which had been accidentally left standing near a cottage; another pair built in a bird-cage; but the most curious instances of caprice in this matter are those of two pairs of these birds which selected street lamp-posts for the purpose of nidification. Among other foreign species are the PIED FLY-CATCHERa, M. atricapillc, common in the south of Europe: called Bec-figue or Fig-Pecker by the French, because it catches insects on the fig-trees, and, it is said, eats the figs when ripe; the COLLARED FLY-CATCHER, M. albicollis, subject to very great changes of plumage; and the M. scita, an extremely small species of Southern Africa. The Crested Gobe Mfouche of Buffon-M. coronata of Latham-is a handsome South American species, which is noted for catching butterflies which flutter around the cotton-plants. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 123 There are several species of Fly-Catchers familiarly known in the United States; the PHOEBE-13IRD or PEWEE FLY-CATCHER, M. nunciola or i. fusca, visits us in summer from the south, its... i favorite haunts being by streams of water, under or near bridges, in caves, &c. Near such places he sits on a projecting twig, calling out, pe-wee, pe-wittitee, pe-wee, for a whole morning; darting after insects and returning to the same twig; frequently flirting his tail, h-As^', ^-> -:?.-....like the wagtail, though not so rapidly. He is six and a half inches long, of a - dusky olive above, lower parts a delicate ByIt' \~~~~ yellow. On the top of the head the lJ "\^ feathers form a loose crest, which is common to many of the family. Other species are the WOOD PEWEE, M. rapax THE PHOEBE BIRD. or M. viens, greatly resembling the preceding: the SHORT-LEGGED PEWEE FLY-CATCHER, M. phoebe, a rare species, found in Labrador and the Fur Countries: the GREENCRESTED FLY-CATCHER, M. querula, or M. acadica, a small species, keeping to the woods, and little known: the YELLOW-BELLIED FLY-CATCHER, M. flaviventris, found on Long Island: the ARKANSAS FLY-CATCHER, A1. verticalis-the chlowu-ish-pil of the Chinnooks-resembling the kingbird in its habits, greenish-brown above and yellow beneath, with a bright red crest; found on the west of the Rocky Mountains: COOPER'S FLY-CATCHER, M. Cooperi, resembling the Pewees, and found in the Atlantic States from Texas to Maine: the RocKY MOUNTAIN FLY-CATCHER, M. nigricans, seven inches long, dark sooty brown above and greenish-white below; found in California and Mexico: TRAILL'S FLY-CATCHER, M. Trailli, resembling the wood pewee, found on the Arkansas: the LEAST PEWEE, M. pusilla, five inches long, found in Labrador and the fur countries: the SMALL-HEADED FLY-CATCHER, M. minuta, found in the Southwestern States; and the AMERICAN REDSTART, M. ruticilla, a very lively and handsome species, six and a half inches long, variegated with red, brown and yellow; found throughout the United States..~_...._ _=_._ _ t, -, A. THE KING OF THE FLY-CATCHERS. The SAVANNAH FLY-CATCHER, M. Savana, is fourteen and a half inches long, including the tail, 124: VERTEBRATA. which is deeply forked, and more than twice the length of the body; the back is ash-gray, the rump bluish-black, wings and tail brownish-black, lower parts white; found in the Southern States. The SWALLOW-TAILED FLY-CATCHER, M. forficata, is eleven inches long, the tail long and forked; upper parts gray, lower parts white before and rose-colored behind. Other species are named as found in Texas, as follows: M. Saya, M. Texensis, M. La~e.urcntli, M.fulvifrons, M. Derhami, M. belli, M. leucomus, M. Brasieri, M. rubifrons. Genus PTILOGONYS: Ptilogonys.-This includes TOWNSEND'S PTILOGONYS, P. Townsendi, combining somewhat the qualities of the Fly-Catchers and Thrushes; it is eight inches long, of a dull brownish-gray color, and is found on the Columbia River: also the BLACK FLY-CATCHER, P. nitens, figured by Cassin, seven and a half inches long, of a glossy black color, with greenish reflections; found in California, Mexico, &c.: the PIPIRY FLY-CATCHER, P. dominicensis, eight inches long, and resembling the kingbird; found in Florida. Genus CULICIVORA: Culicivora.-This includes the BLUE-GRAY FLY-CATCHER or GNATCATCHER, C(. coerulea, about five iLches long, and found abundantly in Texas. Genus FLUTVICOLA: Fluvicola.-This includes several South American species, as the F. comata, F. nigerrima, &c. Genus MUSCIPETA: Muscipeta.-This includes the KING OF TIE FLY-CATCHERS, the Todus regius of Latham, a superb South American species, with a tall transverse crest of reddish-fawn feathers; the body is a deep brown, the breast white spotted with brown. (See p. 123.) Genus TCHITREA: Tchitrea.-This includes the PARADISE FLY-CATCHER of India, T. Paradisi, found in the jungles of India, and though its body is but six inches long, has Ad/ i <^ upper parts of the body a reddish-brown, the breast yellow, on the top of the head a yellow crest. It is found in Brazil, feeds on butterflies, and is popularly called Bem-..) e te-veo, from its habitual cry. THE ALECTRURINAE OR COCK-TAILS. X XF.: SIn these birds the bill is broad and depressed at the base, convex toward the point, which is more or less hooked; the nostrils are rounded and exposed; the tail is elongated, compressed, and capable of being raised in a very singular manner, which has caused these birds to be THE TRICOLORED ALECTBEtRUS. compared to Little Cocks, and the scientific name of Alectrurus applied to the typical genus may, perhaps, be translated Cock-tail. The tarsi are slender, 126 VERTEBRATA. and the toes armed with long, curved, and acute claws. These birds are peculiar to South America, and in their general habits resemble the fly-catchers. Many of them perch upon trees and bushes, and thence dash off into the air in pursuit of insects on the wing; others are never seen in the neighborhood of woods, but appear to prefer fields in the vicinity of water, where they rest on the rushes and other aquatic plants. It is in the male only that the great development of the tail above alluded to is seen; the feathers of this part exhibit several peculiarities of structure. The two external feathers have the barbs much broader on one side than on the other, and the two central feathers, which are the most elongated, frequently have the barbs decomposed, and the termination of the shaft naked. They are small birds, the TRI-COLORED ALECTRURUS, A. tricolor, being only six inches long. THE TURDID}E OR THRUSIIES. This family, the numerous species of which feed on insects, worms, and fruits, and usually move on the ground by hopping with both feet at once, includes several interesting and well-known groups, as the Bulbuls, Orioles, Babblers, True Thrushes, Ant-Thrushes, Warblers, Titlarks, Bush-Creepers, Titmice, Robins, Nightingales, Tailor-Birds, &c. THE BULBULS. These birds belong chiefly to India, though a few are found in Africa; their sprightliness renders them general favorites; several species are greatly admired as songsters; they inhabit woods, jungles, and gardens, and feed on fruits and seeds, and occasionally on insects. One species, the Pycnonotus jocosus, is easily tamed and taught to sit on its master's hand. Great numbers may be seen in the bazaars of India. Another species, the Pycnonctus hcemorrhous, is kept for fighting. The under tail-coverts are red, and it is said the combatants endeavor to seize and pull out these feathers. The eggs are three to four in number, of a whitish color, with dark blotches. THE ORIOLES. These live in woods and shrubby places, usually in pairs, suspending their nests at the extremities of the branches of trees. The males are generally beautiful birds, a golden-yellow being the predominant color in their plumage. Their food consists of insects and fruits. They are, for the most part, inhabitants of tropical countries; but a single species, the GOLDEN ORIOLE, Oriolus Galbula, (see page 6,) migrates into Europe, in the southern parts of which it is abundant. It is of a bright yellow color, with the wings and tail black; the female is greenish-yellow above, and whitish beneath, with the wings and tail brown. It is about the size of our common robin. Its voice is loud, and has been compared to the sound of a flute; Bechstein says it resembles the word puhlo. The names given to the bird in different European languages are supposed to be, to a certain extent, imitations of its note. The Spaniards call it Turiol, the French Loriot, the English Oriole; and two of the German names are Pirol and Biilow. The note of some of the Indian species is described as very similar to that attributed by Bechstein to the European bird. A nearly allied species, the MANGO-BIRD or GOLDEN ORIOLE of India, Oriolus Kundoo, is said to have a loud, mellow, plaintive cry, resembling pee-ho, and MrPearson says of the BLACK-HEADED ORIOLE, 0. melanocephalus, which is common in Bengal, that it has a monotonous, low note, resembling "one lengthened, full-toned note on the flute," which is so constantly repeated during the spring that it is a positive nuisance. Most of the other species of the group resemble the golden oriole, both in character and habits; but one species, the REGENT-BIRD or KING HONEY-EATER, Sericulus chrysocephalus, of Australia, is remarkable for having the tip of the tongue terminated by a pencil of fine filaments like that of the honey-eaters, among which this bird has indeed been placed by some authors. The male is one of the most beautiful of Australian birds; its plumage, which is very glossy and satin-like, is variegated with two colors, deep black and brilliant yellow, the latter tinged with orange in some places. The female is dingy in its appearance. The Regent-Birds are found in the warmer parts of the Australian continent, where they inhabit the recesses of the forests, and appear to be exceedingly shy, feeding upon fruits and seeds. Our beautiful birds, the Baltimore and Orchard Orioles, belong to the Icterince, and will be noticed under that head. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 127 THE BABBLERS. This group, called Timalince, are small, noisy, gregarious birds, belonging to Asia and the Asiatic Islands and Australia; they live exclusively in the forests, feeding on insects; some of the species on fruit. Many of them have a sweet song, and some are excellent imitators of other birds. Some are noted for a singular cry, which resembles a loud human laugh, and this peculiarity has obtained for two or three of the species the names of the Laughing Crow and Laughing Thrush from the Europeans in India. The cry of the LAUGHING THRUSH, Pterocyclus cachinnans, is said by Dr. Jerdon to be a peculiar "sort of cracked Punch and Judy laugh," which is no sooner commenced by one than several others take up the chorus. The Garrulax leucolophus, or Laughing Crow, is also said to produce a sound closely resembling the human laugh. Some of these birds, as, for instancethehe BLACK-FACED THRUSH, Garrulax chinensis, are tamed, and are amusing pets. The Malacocircus Malcomi of India is noted for its courage, and the SPOTTED GROUND-THRUSH of Australia, Cinclosoma punctatum-ccalled Ground-Hawk at Hobart Townis greatly esteemed for its flesh. THE TURDINIE OR TRUE THRUSHES. Of these the species are numerous in all parts of the globe; they generally frequent fields and pastures in search of food, but retire to the woods and thickets for security when roosting, and during the breeding season. Their nests are usually very neatly made, composed of grasses, twigs, and moss, frequently lined with a thin layer of mud, within which is another layer of soft vegetable substances for the reception of the eggs. The latter are usually five or six in number, variable in color, but commonly freckled with dark spots. The food of the thrushes consists both of animal and vegetable matters, such as insects and their larvae, worms, snails, fruits and seeds. THE BLACKBIRD. Genus TURDUS: Turdus.-This includes numerous migratory species, visiting temperate countries either from the south in summer or from the north in winter, and popularly known for their song and their pleasing habits. Many of them, which are not found in America, are still rendered interesting and familiar to American readers from the constant allusions to them in English literature. One of the best known is the BLACKBIRD, T. merula-the Merle Noir of the French; Mulo of the Italians; and Schwarz Drossel of the Germans; it is about ten inches long, which is nearly the size of the Purple Grakle, which we call Blackbird in this country. Its color is black, the bill yellow; but albinos, entirely white, are sometimes known. It breeds early in the spring, usually forming its nest in a thick bush; the eggs are four or five in number. It frequents hedges, thickets, plantations, and gardens; is shy, restless, and vigilant, and if disturbed takes wing with a cry of alarm. It feeds on larvae, snails, worms, insects, and fruits. The song is loud and 128 VERTEBRATA. THE SONG THRUSH. vigorous, and oft repeated; it also imitates the notes of other birds, sometimes crowing like the cock, or taking up parts of the song of the nightingale. It is often kept in cages, but is most admired when at liberty in the open air. The SONG THRUSH or THROSTLE, T. musicus-the Mavis of the Scotch, and often alluded to in Scottish verse; the Grive of the French; Tordo of the Italians; and Sing Drossel of the Germans-is found in every part of Europe, haunting the gardens and the woods and meadows, especially near streams, and everywhere admired for its charming song. It feeds on worms, insects, snails, and fruits. The nest is made of green moss externally, mixed with fine root-fibers; it is lined within with cow-dung and decayed wood, the lining forming a cement so perfectly spread that it will hold water; eggs are four or five, of a light blue, the larger end having a few small black specks or spots; the first hatch generally comes forth in April; there are generally two broods in the year; both the cock and the hen sit, but the former less than the latter; the male often feeding his mate on the nest. A holly, a thick bush, a dense and somewhat high 6hrub, or a fir, is usually selected; but the bird has been known to breed in an open shed. It is frequently kept in cages, and is taught to perform various simple airs. THE RED-WING THRUSH. The RING OUSEL, T torquatus, resembles the preceding, though it is a trifle larger; the color is black, with a crescent-shaped mark of pure white across the chest. It is a good singer, builds on or near the ground, lays four or five eggs, and sometimes flies in small flocks. It is a winter visitor from the north to the south of Europe. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 129 The RED-WING THRUSH, T. iliacus, migrates from the north to the south of Europe in winter, spending the latter season in England, France, and other parts where the climate is mild. Its favorite resorts are parks, and pleasure grounds ornamented with clumps of trees. They usually feed on worms, snails, and other soft-bodied animals, and therefore, when the ground happens to be covered with snow for a length of time, many of these birds perish. In summer this thrush migrates far north, to Norway, Lapland, and even the Faroe Isles and Iceland, where it breeds. Its song is pleasing, and it is sometimes called the Norway Nightingale. The upper parts of this bird are olive-brown: the under parts dull white, streaked with brown. From the preceding engraving, it will be seen that this bird, in its form and markings, bears a striking resemblance to our robin in its first autumn plumage. The MISSEL THRUSH, T. viscivorus —Merle Draine of the French-is also called in various parts of Great Britain Gray Thrush, Holm-Thrush, Screech-Thrush, Stormcock, and Shrzte. The male and female exhibit little difference: the top of the head and almost all the upper surface of the body are nearly uniform clove-brown; wings and wing-coverts umber-brown; all the under surface of the body white, tinged with yellow, and covered with numerous black spots, the whole length about eleven inches. This is one of the largest of the species, and although not very common anywhere, it is very generally diffused; it is rather a shy bird, frequenting small woods and the high trees in hedges bounding large meadows. It remains in Middle and Southern Europe all the year. The name Stormcock is given to it from its habit of singing during storm and rain. It begins to build in April, and fixes its nest in the fork of a tree; the eggs are four or five in number, of a greenish-white color, spotted with red-brown. It feeds on worms, slugs, &c.; also fruits, especially those of the mistletoe, from which it derives its common English name. THE GOLDEN THRUSH OIt WHITE'S THRUSH. WHITE'S THRUSH, T. Whitei-T. varius of Temminck-is a native of Japan and Java, but migrates into Southern Europe in summer, and has been taken a few times in the British Islands. It was first killed in Hampshire, and named after White, the celebrated naturalist of Selborne. Its color is brown-olive, with a golden reflection, above; below it is yellow, marked with crescent-shaped spots. The FIELDFARE or GRAY THRUSH, T. pilaris, has the head, hind neck, and wings, gray; fore part of the back chestnut; fore neck and breast reddish-yellow; lower wing-coverts and axillary feathers pure white; young of the year with duller tints, the feathers of the sides light, with a pale brown or dusky border within the white margin. This bird is migratory in the British Islands, coming from the north to spend the winter, and. is one of the latest species that thus makes its appearance. The RocK THRUSH, T. sarxatilis, has the neck and head bluish-gray; the back black, spotted VO. IT. -1 7 130 VERTEBRATA. THE ROCK-THRUSH. in the middle with white; the under parts reddish; its food consists chiefly of insects in summer; in winter it devours figs and other fruits. It lives in Southern Europe, ascending to the tops of the high mountains in summer, and coming down to the lower slopes in winter. It frequents old edifices, and sometimes enters the towns, and loves to perch on the naked branches of decayed trees. It builds its nests in the crevices of rocks, or in old towers, laying four to five eggs. The BLUE THRUSH, T. cyaneus, is eight and a half inches long, and its color is of a deep blue; t inhabits Europe along the borders of the Mediterranean. The AFRICAN RoCK-TiRusii, T. rupestris, is an African species, resembling the rock-thrush. The SPY-THRUSH, T. explorator, is eight inches long, of a brown color above, and maroon beneath; it lives upon mountains, and inhabits Africa. Other African species are the T. reclamator and T. importunus, T. aurigaster and T. strepitans. There are still other species, especially in India, among which we may name the T. erythrogaster; several of the species of this part of the world inhabit the mountains, at an elevation of five or six thousand feet above the level of the sea. The most celebrated American thrush-indeed, the most celebrated of all thrushes-is the AMERICAN MOCKING-BIRD, T. polyglottus-the Mimus polyglottus of Boie and Baird. It is about nine or ten inches long; brownish-ash above, and beneath a brownish-white. It is considerably larger than its rival the nightingale, but its colors are equally modest. It is migratory, and usually begins to build its nest in the Southern States, where it is very abundant, early in April; in the Middle States, beyond which it seldom ventures, in May and even June. Its nest consists of sticks, intermixed with straw, hay, and wool, lined with fine roots; the eggs are four to five. Wilson has drawn the portrait of this bird with great spirit and felicity. lie says: "The plumage of the mocking-bird, though none of the homeliest, has nothing gaudy or brilliant in it, and, had he nothing else to recommend him, would scarcely entitle him to notice; but his figure is well proportioned, and even handsome. The ease, elegance, and rapidity of his movements, the animation of his eye, and the intelligence he displays in listening and laying up lessons from almost every species of the feathered creation within his hearing, are really surprising, and mark the peculiarity of his genius. To these qualities we may add that of a voice full, strong, and musical, and capable of almost every modulation, from the clear, mellow tones of the wood-thrush, to the savage scream of the bald eagle. In measure and accent he faithfully follows his originals. In force and sweetness of expression he greatly improves upon them. In his native groves, mounted on the top of a tall bush, or half-grown tree, in,the dawn of dewy morning, while the woods are already vocal with a multitude of warblers, his admirable song rises pre-eminent over every competitor. The ear can listen to his music alone, to which that of all the others seems a mere accompaniment. Neither is this strain altogether imitative. His own native notes, Which are easily distinguishable by such as are well acquainted with those of our various song CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 131 " /e('1!'' MOCKING-BIRDS DEFENDING A NEST FROM A RATTLESNAKE. birds, are bold and full, and varied seemingly beyond all limits. They consist of short expressions of two, three, or, at the most, five or six syllables; generally interspersed with imitations, and all of them uttered with great emphasis and rapidity, and continued, with undiminished ardor, for half an hour or an hour at a time. His expanded wings and tail, glistening with white, and the buoyant gayety of his action, arresting the eye, as his song most irresistibly does the car, he sweeps round with enthusiastic ecstasy-he mounts and descends as his song swells or dies away: and, as my friend Mr. Bartram has beautifully expressed it,'he bounds aloft with the celerity of an arrow, as if to recover or recall his very soul, expired in the last elevated strain.' While thus exerting himself, a bystander, destitute of sight, would suppose that the whole feathered tribes had assembled together on a trial of skill, each striving to produce his utmost effect, so perfect are his imitations. He many times deceives the sportsman, and sends him in search of birds that perhaps are not within miles of him, but whose notes he exactly imitates; even birds themselves are frequently imposed on by this admirable mimic, and are decoyed by the fancied calls of their mates, or dive with precipitation into the depth of thickets, at the scream of what they suppose to be the sparrow-hawk. "The mocking-bird loses little of the power and energy of his song by confinement. In his domesticated state, when he commences his career of song, it is impossible to stand by uninter 132 V E R E BRAT A. THE AMERICAN ROBIN, OR MIGRATORY THRUSH. ested. He whistles for the dog-Caesar starts up, wags his tail, and runs to meet his master. He squeaks out like a hurt chicken-and the hen hurries about with hanging wings, and bristled feathers, clucking to protect its injured brood. The barking of the dog, the mewing of the cat, the creaking of a passing wheelbarrow, follow, with great truth and rapidity. He repeats the tune taught him by his master, though of considerable length, fully and faithfully. He runs over the quiverings of the canary, and the clear whistlings of the Virginia nightingale, or redbird, with such superior execution and effect, that the mortified songsters feel their own inferiority, and become altogether silent; while he seems to triumph in their defeat by redoubling his exertions. "This excessive fondness for variety, however, in the opinion of some, injures his song. His elevated imitations of the brown thrush are frequently interrupted by the crowing of cocks; and the warblings of the bluebird, which he exquisitely manages, are mingled with the screaming of swallows, or the cackling of hens; amid the simple melody of the robin, we are suddenly surprised by the shrill reiterations of the whippoorwill; while the notes of the killdeer, blue jay, martin, Baltimore, and twenty others, succeed, with such imposing reality, that we look round for the originals, and discover, with astonishment, that the sole performer in this singular concert is the admirable bird now before us. During this exhibition of his powers, he spreads his wings, expands his tail, and throws himself around the cage in all the ecstasy of enthusiasm, seeming not only to sing, but to dance, keeping time to the measure of his own music. Both in his native and domesticated state, during the solemn stillness of night, as soon as the moon rises in silent majesty, he begins his delightful solo, and serenades us the livelong night with a full display of his vocal powers, making the whole neighborhood ring with his inimitable medley." The AMERICAN ROBIN is familiarly known from Texas to Labrador, and throughout this vast region is a universal favorite. It is a totally different bird from the Robin Redbreast of England, being nine inches long, and therefore nearly twice the size of that celebrated little pet. It is in fact a thrush, and is about the size of several English thrushes, and has their manners; it is called the MIGRATORY THRUSH by naturalists, T. migratorius, on account of its wandering habits. The bill is strong, and of a yellow color; the head, back of the neck, and tail, black; the back and rump ash-color; the wings black, edged with light ash; the breast of the male a deep orange-red. The colors of the female are somewhat fainter. It arrives from the south early in the spring, and usually builds its nests in the orchards; its eggs are five, and of a beautiful sea-green color. It feeds on worms, caterpillars, cherries, wild cherries, currants, and, various other berries. It frequently produces two broods in a season. It has a pleasant, lively song, and during the period of rearing its young, the most confiding manners; and hence it is not only tolerated, but protected and cherished by general consent. After the family cares are.over, CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 133 it remains mn flocks around the woods and dells till November, when it migrates southward, yet moving only so far as may be necessary for obtaining food. Many of them remain during mild winters in the forests of New Jersey, though in general the greater part proceed as far as the Southern States. In autumn, throughout New England and the Middle States, being fat and greatly relished, thousands of them are killed for the table. The BROWN or FERRUGINOUS THRUSH, T. rufus-the Thrasher of New England, and French Mocking-Bird of the Middle and Southern States-is the largest of our thrushes, being eleven and a half inches long. It has a varied and beautiful song, not of imitated but original notes, -sually poured out at evening from the top of some tree near its nest. Its haunts are in low, thick bushes, where it seeks concealment, though often seen glancing from one bush to another. Its food consists of worms, caterpillars, and berries, and it rears two broods in a season. Its colors are bright reddish-brown above; lower parts yellowish-white, beautifully marked with spots running in chains. It is easily tamed, and is not only a fine songster, but displays great intelligence. During the warm season it extends from Florida to Canada. The WOOD-THRUSH, T. melodius, inhabits the whole of North America, from Texas to Hudson's Bay, arriving in the Middle States in May, and retiring in October. It is eight inches long; above fulvous-brown, below white, tinged with buff. It is shy, living in pairs in low, thick-shaded glens and hollows. Its nest is of withered leaves and stalks of grass, mixed with mud, and nicely plastered, the interior being lined with fine fibrous roots of plants; the eggs are four to five. This is one of our most pleasing songsters. The GOLDEN-CROWNED THRUSH or OVEN-BIRD, T. aurocapillus, is a summer visitant throughout most of the TUnited States; it is six inches long, of a yellow-olive above and white beneath. It is shy and retiring, and sits and runs along the ground like a lark. Its nest is sunk in the ground on some dry, bushy bank, being oven-shaped, and made of dry blades of grass; it is covered exteriorly with leaves and twigs, to match the surface around, for the purpose of concealment. It rears two broods in a season, and not unfrequently becomes the foster-parent of young cow-troopials, whose mothers surreptitiously deposit their eggs in the nest. Its food consists of insects. The AQUATIC THRUSH, or NEW YORI WARBLER, T. aquaticus, haunts the borders of streams, and often wades in shallow rivulets in search of aquatic insects, moving its tail as it follows its prey, and chattering as it flies. It is six inches long, dark olive above, and extends its migrations throughout the United States. The CAT-BIRD, T. felivox or T. lividus, is one of our most familiar birds, coming from the south in spring, and breeding in bushes and thickets, from which it frequently utters its cry, resembling the vigorous mewing of a cat, at the same time assuming an appearance of the greatest agitation and anxiety. It is nine inches long, of a dark slate-color, and paler beneath. Its food consists of insects, beetles, and various garden fruits, especially cherries. It is a fine songster, its notes resembling those of the ferruginous thrush, though they are often made up in part of blended imitations of other birds. This song, often heard late in the evening as well as early in the morning, is very pleasing. Yet the cat-bird is a common object of persecution, especially to boys in the country, who seldom let an opportunity slip to hurl a stone at it. This arises, no doubt, from a sort of impertinent familiarity which this bird assumes, and from its caterwaul, which, as it is uttered from its bushy retreat, often appears like a meditated personal insult to the passer by. The catbird is also a notorious cherry thief, and, taking the best, naturally provokes hostility. The CURVED-BILLED THRUSH-Toxostoma rediviva of Gambel-is eleven and a half inches long, light brown above, breast and sides light brown, tinged with rufous; an exquisite and powerful songster, equal to the brown thrush; found in California and New Mexico. The TAWNY THRUSH, T. Wilsonii, is ten inches long, and of a tawny-brown above and white below; it comes from the south in May, and has no song but a sharp chuck. The HERM1T-THRUSH, T. solitarius, is seven inches long; deep olive above, and dull white below; is stationary in the Southern States. The VARIED THRUSH, T. ncevius, is ten inches long; above leaden-gray, below reddish-orange; found in California and the fur countries. The DWARF THRUSH, T. nanus, is six inches long; olive-brown above, beneath grayish-white; found on the Columbia River. 134 VERTEBRATA. THE FORMICARIN2E OR ANT-THRUSHES. These, to the East Indian species of which Buffon gave the name of Breves, resemble the true thrushes, but inhabit tropical portions of both hemispheres, where they live chiefly on insects, and devour large quantities of ants, whence their name. Their wings are generally short, and some of the species, as the Pitta Nipalensis, for instance, have such limited powers of flight that a man can easily overtake them. Those of the genus Pitta, which are peculiar to the eastern hemisphere, are adorned with exceedingly brilliant plumage, azure-blue being the prevalent tint. Of this is the GIANT PITTA, P. gigas, of the size of a magpie, and of a brilliant green color: found in Sumatra. The numerous South American \'?',\^ ---.f::.'....~ ~ species are of more sober colors, mostly brown,it a n y - A d o- and white. They obtain their living chiefly ______ -, from the enormous ant-hills of the regions in -- i fwhich they live. Griffith says of these birds, V,,:~~~ =-. ~__~~:.. "they are essentially gigantic wrens." Of the genus CINCLUS there is a single THE GIANT PITTA. European species, the well-known WATEROUSEL or DIPPER, C. aquaticus. This is eight inches long, dark gray above, the neck white, the belly brownish-red. Its wings are longer than those of most others of the group, and it flies steadily and rapidly. Its haunts are along the borders of clear streams and lakes; it swims with ease, and dives freely into the water, and walks about on the bottom with facility, even making its way against a strong current. Its food consists of small shell-fish and insects. The nest is oven-shaped, and made on the banks of streams: the eggs pure white, five or six in number. ~ -^\ -^ \^">'.^ <~: THE BLACK DIPPER, OR EUROPEAN WATER-OUSEL. There are one or two other species known in Europe and Asia, and one in America, the BLACK DIPPER, C. Pallasii: this resembles the common European dipper, but is of a darker color, and is without the white mark on the throat. It is found in Mexico and parts of Upper Canada. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 135 ur~~~ -_ -. THE PIED WA-GTAIL-FEMALE. THE SYLVIDE OR WARBLERS. This is a very extensive family, including the Wagtails, Titlarks, Bush-Creepers, Titmice, Robins, Nightingales, and True Warblers-noted for their sprightliness. and many of them for their fine musical powers. THE MOTACILLINE OR WAGTAILSS This group includes a large number of species of small birds, belonging to Europe, Asia, and Africa, generally of sober colors, but beautiful in form. Some are fine songsters; all are distinguished for vivacity and sprightliness of air and manner. The bill is moderately long, straight, and slender; the wings long and pointed; the tail nearly twice the length of the body, and remarkable for a constant jerking motion, which has given these birds their common name. They live in meadows and pastures, run swiftly, and have an exceedingly graceful, buoyant, and undulating THE GRAY WAGTAIL. flight. On alighting upon the ground, they spread the tail, and while running along, constantly vibrate the body and tail in a very singular manner. Their food consists of insects and worms; their nests are made upon the ground, amid herbage and stones, and they lay from four to six spotted eggs. Their note is short and shrill, and is often repeated as they run about in search of their prey. They frequent streams and pools, and may often be seen wading in shallow brooks. This habit of dabbling in the water has given them the name of Lavanditres, or Washer-women, in France. 136 VERTEBRATA. These birds are common in Europe, several species being known in Great Britain. The genus MOTACILLA includes the PIED WAGTAIL, M. Yarrelii, which is seven inches long; upper parts, sides, and flanks, black, variously marked with white; breast, belly, and under tail-coverts, white. It is a very sprightly bird, ever in motion, running about or moving from place to place by short, undulating flights, uttering a cheerful note, and alighting again on the ground with a sylph-like buoyancy, and a graceful, fanning motion of the tail. This species remains in Southern Europe throughout the year. Other species are the WHITE WAGTAIL, Ml. alba, a summer visitor to Britain; the GRAY WAGTAIL, A. boarula, chiefly confined to Southern Europe; the GRAY-HEADED WAGTAIL-called Bergeronnette in France-M. fiava, common in Central and Northern Europe, but rare in Great Britain; the YELLOW WAGTAIL or RAY'S WAGTAIL, M. Rayi, avoiding wet lands, and seeking arable fields; a rare species throughout the continent; the WHITE-WINGED WAGTAIL, M. lugubris, is found in Eastern Europe; the KING-KING, M. speciosa, is but four and a half inches long, and belongs to Java. There are still other species in Asia and Africa, and it may be remarked that those we have noticed as found in Europe are also, for the most part, found in these other divisions of the eastern continent. THE MEADOW PIPIT. THE PIPITS OR TITLARKS. These birds resemble the wagtails, and also make a close approach to the larks. They feed on seeds and insects. Of the genus ANTHUS there are several species. The MEADOW PIPIT or TITLARK, A. pratensis-Farlouse des pres of the French-is six inches long; grayish-red above, and yellowish-red below. It frequents stony and arid slopes, lives on insects, worms and slugs, makes its nest in the sand against a rock or stone, and lays four to six eggs. The female has the habit of many other birds, that of pretending to be wounded, so as to draw off attention from her eggs or her young, when a stranger approaches them. It is a summer visiter throughout the temperate parts of Europe. Other species are the TREE-PIPIT, A. arboreus, found as a summer visitor in wooded and cultivated districts from Italy to Denmark; the ROCK-PIPIT, A. petrosus-the Field-Lark, A. campestris of Bewick, Pipi-Rousselin of the French-inhabiting flat shores along the sea; is found in the maritime parts of Southern Europe: RICHARD'S PIPIT, A. Ricardi, frequents old pastures; found in Europe along the Mediterranean, and rarely in France and England; and A. ASpinoletta-A. aquaticus of Bechstein-common throughout Europe. These are all migratory. The AMERICAN PIPIT or TITLARK, A. Ludovicianus-the Brown or Red Lark of Nuttall-is six and a half inches long; upper parts grayish-brown; beneath dusky white; breast spotted with black; eggs four to five; builds in mountainous districts; winters in Louisiana, and migrates northward as far as latitude 63~ in summer. It breeds in Labrador and the fur countries. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 137 THE MNIOTILTINE OR BUSH-CREEPERS. These are small birds, found in both hemispheres, residing in woods and thickets, and feeding on insects, worms, and spiders. In pursuit of their prey they creep about upon the bushes with great facility, examining every leaf, and poking their heads into flowers to capture the minute insects that seek shelter among the petals. They are very sociable, and assemble in flocks, frequently mingling with other birds. Their nests are very curious, sometimes arched over, and sometimes suspended by fibers of bark to the thin twigs of trees. One of the most common species is the Zosterops palpebrosus, common in India. This is often seen with its forehead powdered with pollen, acquired during its inspection of the flowers. THE LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE. THE PARINGE OR TITMICE. These lively and courageous little birds, called Mesange by the French, are common to both continents. In England they are popularly called Tits, Tomtits, and Titmice; in America, Chickadees, from the call or cry of one of the most common species. About fourteen European species are known, twelve in North America, and several in India, the Himalaya Mountains, Japan, New Zealand, and Australia. They are found principally in wooded districts, where they feed upon insects and larvae, which they capture both upon the bark and leaves of the trees and shrubs. In search of these they may be seen clinging in every variety of attitude to the branches and twigs; and when thus engaged, from the sprightliness of their whole behavior, they are exceedingly pleasing objects. They are seen engaged in this manner in gardens, where they climb about the fruit-trees in every direction, and often destroy a good many buds in their search for insects contained in them. They build their nests in various situations-in cavities in walls, in hollow trees, and on the branches of trees. The Genus PARIJS: Parus, contains several species: the GREAT TITMOUSE, P. major, is somewhat less than six inches long; the upper parts are greenish-ash; the breast, sides, and flanks, dull sulphur-yellow. It inhabits woods, the vicinity of gardens, and sheltered situations, in summer, feeding often on seeds. In winter it approaches the habitations of man, and closely examines the thatch of old buildings in search of the small flies that harbor there. In September the VOL. II.-18 138 VERTEBRATA.'" THE GREAT TIT. THE BLUE TIT. amatory notes of the male may be heard, sometimes resembling the noise made in sharpening a saw. The nest, formed of moss, and lined with hair and feathers, is usually placed in the hollow of a tree, or the hole in a wall. The eggs are from six to nine in number. This species is a constant resident throughout the different parts of Europe. The BLUE TIT, P. coeruleus, is an exceedingly common species, distributed like the preceding throughout Europe. Its length is four and a half inches. Its body is variously marked with blue, black, and white. It usually builds in a hole in a wall or a tree, the nest being made up of a profusion of moss, hay, and feathers. The eggs vary from six to twelve. If its nest is invaded by a school-boy, the bird hisses like a snake or an angry kitten. If the ravager perseveres he is sure to have his hand severely bitten. Hence one of the popular names of this bird in England is Billy-biter. It is reproached by the gardeners for destroying the buds of plants, and hence many of them are killed. The CRESTED TIT, P. cristatus, is four and a half inches long, its colors black and brown above, and whitish-fawn below. It is a northern species, being common in Denmark, Sweden, Russia, and also in the mountainous and wood-covered portions of Germany and Switzerland. The BEARDED TIT, P. biarmicus, is a little over six inches long, and is one of the larger species; it is fawn-color above, and grayish-white, tinged with yellow, below. It has beneath the base of the beak, on each side, a beard or whisker-three feathers of one inch long. It is common in Middle Europe. The COAL-TIT, P. ater, is four and a half inches long, and is variously colored with black, white, brown, green, and gray. It is an exceedingly pretty bird, roving from tree to tree in search of insects and seeds, sometimes associating in flocks with other small birds. They are widely distributed throughout Europe, and are residents all the year in the temperate portions of it. The MARSH'TIT, P.palustris, is of the size of the preceding. It is ashy-brown, tinged with green, above; the under parts grayish-white. It is common in certain localities throughout Europe, and like most of the species we have described, is plentiful in the vicinity of London. The LONG-TAILED TIT, P. caudatus, is the most noted of the species. It is about five and a half inches long, half that length consisting of its tail. It is black above, the under surface grayish-white. The various names which this species has acquired in England is good evidence of its notoriety: Bottle-Tit, Bottle-Tom, Long-tailed Farmer, Long-Tail Mag, Long-Tail Pie, Poke CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 139 THE CRESTED TIT. THE BEARDED TIT. Pudding, Hucckmuck, and Mum-Ruffn, of the English, are among its popular designations there. The Italians call it Pendolino; the French Mesange a la Longue Queue and Perd sa Queue; the Germans Langschwanzige Meise; and the Welsh Y Benloyn Gnyffonhir. This species is found throughout Europe and Northern Asia, and remains through the winter in England. Pennant, speaking of their flight, says that from the slimness of their bodies and great length of tail, they appear like so many darts cutting the air. Yarrell describes the habits of this interesting little bird as follows: "The nest of this species is another example of ingenious construction, combining beauty of appearance with security and warmth. In shape it is nearly oval, with one small hole in the upper part of the side by which the bird enters. I have never seen more than one hole. The outside of this nest sparkles with silver-colored lichens, adhering to a firm texture of moss and wool, the inside profusely lined with soft feathers. The nest is generally placed in the middle of a thick bush, and so firmly fixed that it is mostly found necessary to cut out the portion of the bush containing it, if desirous of preserving the natural appearance and form of the nest. In this species the female is known to be the nest-maker, and to have been occupied for a fortnight to three weeks in completing her habitation. In this she deposits from ten to twelve eggs, but a larger number are occasionally found; they are small and white, with a few pale red specks, frequently quite plain, measuring seven lines in length and five lines in breadth. The young family of the year keep company with the parent birds during their first autumn and winter, and generally crowd close together on the same branch at roosting-time, looking, when thus huddled up, like a shapeless lump of feathers only. These birds have several notes, on the sound of which they assemble and keep together: one of these call-notes is soft and scarcely audible; a second is a louder chirp or twitter; and a third is of a hoarser kind." The PENDULINE TITMOUSE, P. pendulinus, is four and a half inches long; reddish-gray above; lower parts whitish, with rosy tints; lives along the sandy borders of rivers, and builds a flaskshaped nest at the extremity of some willow twig or other flexible branch of a tree; found in Southeastern Europe. The CAPE TITMOUSE, P. Capensis, found at the Cape of Good Hope, has the head, throat and belly black; the rest of the body cinereous: it is noted, like the preceding, for its elaborate nest. 140 VERTEBRATA. The P. xanthogenys is a native of the Himalaya Mountains, five and a half inches long, has a full crest of black feathers, back olive, cheeks yellow, sides of the chest and flanks yellow; a broad black line passing down the throat; is somewhat smaller than the great tit. Among the American species we may first noVil t.h v ^5^- tice the BLACK-CAPPED TITMOUSE, P. atricapillus, familiarly known by the name of C7hickadee, from its common cry, and sometimes called Snow-Bird, from its appearing about the houses in flocks upon the first flights of snow. It is five and a half inches long; the top of the head and neck black; the rest of the upper parts lead-colored; beneath yellowishTHE " P.. —.. vawhite. It is a perm anent resident among. av~~~~~during us; active, noisy, and restless; hardy beyond "..scenes any of his size, braving the severest cold of m'....n~ore, our continent as far north as the country round Hudson's Bay, and always appearing ^l8llmost lively in the coldest weather. T he males have a variety of very sprightly notes, lays sx which cannot indeed, be called a song, but -^ spckrather a lively, frequently repeated, and often THE P. XANTHOGENYS. varied twitter. They are most usually seen during the fall and winter, when they leave the depths of the woods and approach nearer to the scenes of cultivation. At such seasons they abound among evergreens, feeding on the seeds of the pine-tree; they are also fond of sunflower seeds, and associate in parties of six, eight, or more, attended by the nut-hatch, the crested titmouse, brown creeper, and small spotted woodpecker, the whole forming a very nimble and'restless company, whose food, manners, and dispositions are pretty much alike. About the middle of April they begin to build, choosing the deserted hole of a squirrel or woodpecker, ations being generand sometimes, with incredible labor, dig~ ~~~ging out one for themselves. The female ~ ~~b~f~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~lays six white eggs, marked with minute States; the LONG-TAILED CHICKADEE, P. septen apecks of red; the first brood appear about below ashy-whitethe beginning of June, and the second toward the end of July; the whole of the family continue to associate together during winter. They traverse the woods in regular progression, from tree to tree, tumbling, chattering, and hanging from the exSON BAY TITtremities of the branches, amining about aTHE COMMON caIcKADJlx. the roots of the leaves, buds, and crevices of the bark, for insects and their larvae. They also frequently visit the orchards, particularly in fall, in the same pursuit, trees in such situations being generally much infested with insects. This species is very widely distributed throughout North America. The CAROLINA TIT or CAROLINA CHiICKADEE, P. Carolinensis, a little over four inches long, black above and grayish beneath, and frequenting marshy situations, is found in the Southern States; the LONG-TAILED CHICKADEE, P. septentrionalis, six inches long, body ashy-brown above, below ashy-white, is found in Missouri and the Rocky Mountains; the MOUNTAIN-TIT, P. monta.nus, five inches long, body above cinereous, below ashy-brown, is found in California; the HuDSON BAY TIT, P. Hudsonicus, five inches long, above ashy-brown, below ashy-white, found by CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 141 Dr. Brewer breeding in Maine; and P. rufuscus, four and half inches long, body and sides chestnut color, beneath ashy-white, found in Oregon and California. The following American species.are arranged by Cassin under the genus Lophophanes, designed to include those which are characterized by a crest: the PETO or TUFTED TITMOUSE of Nuttall, P. bicolor-called Crested Titmouse by De Kay and Audubon-six and a half inches long; dark bluish-ash above, and soiled-white beneath. According to Nuttall it has a great variety of note, among which peto, peto, peto; kai-tee-did, did, dit, did, and whip-tom-kelly, are occasionally heard. This author, as well as Mr. Gosse, expresses surprise that the name of Whip-tomkelly should have been given to the red-eyed vireo, as it seems to him impossible that such sounds could, by the liveliest invention, be made out of its song. This species is spoken of by De Kay as occurring throughout the northern regions of Europe and America. It is, however, distinct from the common Crested Titmouse, P. cristatus, which we have described. The BLACK-CRESTED CHICKADEE, P. atricristatus, is six inches long; above cinereous; beneath ashy-white; flanks reddish-brown; inhabits Texas and Mexico. The PLAIN-CRESTED CHICKADEE, P. inornatus, is five and a half inches long; cinereous above, inclined to olive; below ashy-white; found in California. The TEXAN CHICKADEE, P. annexus, is five inches long; cinereous above, tinged-with olive; below ashy-white; found in Texas. By the same author the following are arranged under the genus Psaltria: TOWNSEND'S CHICKADEE, P. minimus, four inches long; found in Oregon and California; and the BLACK-EARED CHICKADEE, P. melanotis, four inches long; found in Texas and Mexico. THE EUROPEAN ROBIN REDBREAST. ERYTHACINE OR ROBINS. This name includes several genera and many species, distributed over the eastern hemisphere. They feed principally upon insects and worms, and to some extent on fruits. Genus ERYTHACUS: Erythacus.-This includes the ROBIN, E. rubecula, so familiarly known in England, and so often alluded to in English literature. It passes there under the various names of Robin Redbreast, Robin Redstart, Robinet, and Ruddock; in France it is called Rouge Gorge, Marie-Godrie, and Maroyette. It is a constant resident throughout the temperate parts of Europe; is five and a half inches long; above olive-brown; upper part of the breast reddish-orange; lower part of the breast and belly white. It is little more than half the size of the migratory thrush, which we call Robin, and sometimes Robin Redbreast. The song of the European robin is sweet and plaintive; it rises early and goes to bed late; breeds early in spring; makes its nest of moss, leaves, and grass, lined with hair and feathers; lays five to seven yellowish-brown eggs; and loves to dwell and nestle near to man-in the hedges around the house, and the trees of the garden. It is easily tamed, and its air of sprightliness and confidence renders it a great favorite. 142 VERTEBRATA. In severe weather it approaches the house, and picks up the crumbs around the door; if tolerated, it hops into the house, with a cunning expression of doubt and familiarity in its full, expressive eye, and soon makes itself at home. It is probably the most universal feathered favorite in the countries it inhabits. Genus ACCENTOR: Accentor.-This includes the HEDGE-AccENTOR, HEDGE-WARBLER, or HEDGE-SPARROW, A. modularis-called.........Traine-buisson in France-an abundant:_=';,..'<-:\.~tr European species, which, like the robin, blives in the vicinity of man, making its spe-:: —'-.'~-~fo~?', cial haunts in hedgerows and gardens. Its::.......The....': song is short but sweet; the length five and a half inches; the upperparts brown,:_.f parts fawn-color. In g';beneath steely-gra; it lays six eggs, of THE INCHATk Vt placedois hegratory,utd. stew oreyn is cupies the forests in summer, and seeks a larger species, living in the high Alps. GenLus SAXiCOLA: Saxicola, in-i~ 11': eludes several species, all of which are migratory. The STONECHAT, S. rubicola tegdihadtl in nthe Traquet Patre of the French-is atsomewhat smeller than the robin, and THE HEDGE ACcENTOR. frequents heaths covered with furze and brushwood. In pursuit of its insect food, it frequently is seen creeping from one stone to another, while it utters a chattering sound; hence its popular English names of Stonechat and Stoneclini. It builds rather a large nest, and lays five or six eggs. It is common in summer throughout Southern and Middle Europe, and is also found in Northern Asia. The WHINCIIAT, S. rubetra -the Traquet Tarier of the French-is five inches long, with a mixture of pale and dark brown above; under parts fawn-color. In general, this't t nybird is migratory, but a few remain in its~ popular~ England throughout the year. Its five~ o r six eflight is undulating, and it flits from bush to bush, perching on one of the topmost twigs. Furze commons are its favorite haunts; hence it is often called Furzechat, and as the farze is called whin, it thus also obtains its common title. Worms, insects, small fishell-molluscs, and slugs, form its principal food, but it also eats berries. The nest is formed of dry grass-stalks and a little moss, the lining being finer bents or stalks; it is usually THiiE Wu:INdIAr. clplaced on the ground. The song is very pleasing, and resembles that of the goldfinch; and the bird will sing not only during the dlay, but in the evening, and sometimes at night. This species become, like the wheat-ear, very fat in August, and, though smaller, are equally delicate for the table. The WHEAT-EAR or FALLOWoHAT, S. urnanthe-the Traquet Motteux of the French-is a migratory species, arriving in Europe toward the middle of May, and leaving toward the close of CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 143 THE WHEAT-EAR. THE WIEAT-EAR. September. It is six and a half inches long; the upper parts fine light gray; beneath pale buffywhite. It frequently makes its nest in old walls, or in the recesses of rocks. This consists of dry grass, shreds, feathers, and rubbish. The eggs are five or six in number, and of a delicate pale blue. The male has a gentle and pleasing song. Immense numbers of this bird are taken by the shepherds on the downs along the southern coast of England toward the close of summer. One person has been known to capture eighty-four dozen in a day! The mode in which they are taken is singular from its simplicity. A chamber is formed by cutting out an oblong piece of turf, which is then laid over the hole formed in the opposite direction, so as to be supported by its ends, and two passages are also cut in the turf leading into the chamber. Through these the birds run for shelter at the least alarm; but in the middle of the chamber a small, upright stick is placed, supporting two running loops of horse-hair, so arranged that it is almost impossible for a bird to pass through the chamber without getting his neck into one of the nooses. This species is found in Greenland, and probably inl North America, being calleC the AMERICAN STONE-CHAT, S. oenanthoides, by Cassin. Genus PHCENICURA: Phoenicura.-This includes the REDSTART, P. ruticilla, a summer visitor to Europe, five and a half inches long, lead-gray above, beneath pale chestnut. It is a sweet and indefatigable singer, and may be heard as late as ten o'clock at night, and as early as three in the morning. The skirts of woods, lanes and meadow hedgerows, orchards, gardens, the old ivied wall of a ruin, are all favorite haunts. The male shows himself, as if proud of his pretty plumage, while he is uttering his soft, sweet song, vibrating his tail the while, on some low branch of a tree, or weather-beaten stone, nor does his music cease as he flies to another station to continue his strain. A crevice in a wall, a hollow tree, a nook in a building, or sometimes a hole in the ground, receives the nest, the outside of which is rough and rich with moss, and lined with hair and feathers. Four, six, and even eight greenish-blue eggs are deposited, and the first brood, for there are generally two in a season, are frequently fledged by the second week in June. The 144 VERTEBRATA. food consists of worms and insects, fruit and berries. In confinement this bird becomes exceedingly tame, and if brought up from the nest, is the most sensible and attached of all the small birds. THE BLACK REDSTART. The BLACK REDSTART, P. tithys, is five and three-quarter inches long, and resembles the preceding. The BLUE-THROATED WARBLER, P. Suecica, migrates to Europe from the south in the breeding season. Genus KITTACINCLA: Kittacincla, includes the INDIAN NIGHTINGALE, i. macroura-called Shama by the Bengalese. This bird inhabits the recesses of the forests, and is thought to equal the European nightingale in musical gifts. It sings during the night, when other birds are silent; many thousands of them are kept in cages by the natives of Calcutta, and in order to make them sing they are covered over with folds of cloth. In this condition the Mahometan ladies carry them about in their drives, the birds all the time filling the air with their delicious melodies. The DAYAL, Copsychus saularis-called Magpie-Robin by the English residents in Ceylonseems to take the place of the English robin in their affections, though it is rather noted for its pugnacious disposition. Another species, the INDIAN ROBIN, Thamnobia fulicata, is a great favorite both with the natives and the colonists. THE BLUEBIRD. Genus SIALIA: Sialia.-This includes the AMERCAN BLUEBIRD, sialis which s, six and three-quarter inches long; the wings full and broad; the whole upper parts of a sky blue; the breast chestnut; the belly white. It is a summer bird in the United States, coming with the CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 145 earliest spring, and retiring to the south in the autumn. Its food consists of insects and spiders in summer, and berries in winter; its nest is usually made in the hollow limb of a tree, the rail of a fence, or a box about the house or garden, kindly provided by the farmer; the eggs are five to six, of a pale blue color. Nothing can exceed the loving gentleness of these birds in their intercourse with each other. Wilson says: "The usual spring and summer song of the bluebird is a soft, agreeable, and oft-repeated warble, uttered with open, quivering wings, and is extremely pleasing. In his motions and general character he has great resemblance to the robin redbreast of Britain, and had he the brown-olive of that bird, instead of his own blue, could scarcely be distinguished from him. Like him, he is known to almost every child; and shows as much confidence in man by associating with him in summer as the other by his familiarity in winter. He is also of a mild and peaceful disposition, seldom fighting or quarreling with other birds. His society is courted by the inhabitants of the country, and few farmers neglect to provide for him, in some suitable place, a snug little summer-house, ready fitted and rent free. For this he more than sufficiently repays them by the cheerfulness of his song, and the multitude of injurious insects which he daily destroys. Toward fall, that is, in the month of October, his song changes to a single plaintive note, as he passes over the yellow, many-colored woods; and its melancholy air recalls to our minds the approaching decay of the face of nature. Even after the trees are stripped of their leaves, he still lingers over his native fields, as if loath to leave them. About the middle or end of November few or none of them are seen; but, with every return of mild and open weather, we hear his plaintive note amid the fields, or in the air, seeming to deplore the devastations of winter. Indeed, he appears scarcely ever totally to forsake us, but to follow fair weather through all its journeyings till the return of spring." The WESTERN BLUEBIRD, S. occidentalis, is seven inches long; upper parts light blue, chestnut-red, and grayish-white; has a sweet and varied song; found west of the Rocky Mountains. The ARCTIC BLUEBIRD, S. Arctica, is seven and a quarter inches long; azure blue above; whitish-gray beneath; found on the Columbia River. THE NIGHTINGALE. THE SYLVINJ3 OR TRUE WARBLERS. This sub-family presents several genera and numerous species in both hemispheres. They are small, lively, active birds, generally living among trees and bushes, feeding chiefly on insects, but sometimes also on fruit and seeds. Their nests are usually cup-shaped, and neatly constructed; the eggs vary from five to eight; two broods are usually produced in a season. They are migratory, and generally gifted with the power of song; indeed, we find several of the species pre-eminent in this respect. VOL. II.-19 146 VERTEBRATA. Genus SYLVIA: Sylvia.-This includes the NIGHTINGALE-a word from the Saxon meaning Night-singer-S. luscinia-Luscinia of the Romans; Usignuolo of the Italians; Rossignol of the French; and Nlachtigall of the Germans-the most celebrated of feathered songsters. It is a small bird, about the size of a bluebird; six inches long, and weighs half an ounce, yet its voice in the night can be heard a mile, as far as the loudest voice of man. Its color is a rich brown above, with a reddish tinge on the rump and tail; throat and middle part of the belly grayishwhite; the sexes alike. It spends the winter in the warm parts of Asia and Africa, and migrates into Europe, even as far north as Sweden, in April and May. The males proceed first, and on arriving in the regions they intend to occupy, pour out their sweetest and most seductive songs to attract the females. The pairing being arranged, they proceed to their household cares. Although they shun observation, yet their haunts are in gardens and thickets near the abodes of man. They are abundant in the pleasure-grounds around London, and in the parks and gardens in the vicinity of Paris. Florence, in the vocal season, that is, in May and June, rings with them. Nevertheless, they hide themselves in their coverts, placing their nests sometimes in the fork of a tree, often on a wall, and still more frequently on the ground. Withered leaves, particularly those of the oak, very loosely conjoined with dried bents and rushes, and lined internally with fine root-fibers, form the structure. The eggs, of an olive-brown, are four or five in number. After the young are hatched, generally in June, the melodious song of the male ceases, and is succeeded by a low croak, varied occasionally with a snapping noise; the first is considered to be meant for a warning, and the last a defiance. The food consists of insects, such as flies and spiders, moths and earwigs. The song of the Nightingale has long been the standing theme on which poets have exhausted their eulogiums. Buffon's description has ever been regarded as a most felicitous, though perhaps extravagant eulogium. Bechstein says in a more sober tone: "The nightingale expresses its various emotions and desires in different notes. The least significant of them seems to be the simple whistle, Witt! but if the guttural syllable Krr! be added, as Witt Irr! it is the call by which the male and female mutually invite one another. The expression of displeasure or fear is the syllable Witt, repeated several times, and, at last, followed by KErr! That of pleasure and content, either with its food or mate, is a sharp Tack! like the sound produced by striking the tongue smartly against the roof of the mouth. In anger, jealousy, or surprise, the nightingale, like the black-cap and others of its species, utters a shrill cry, resembling the call of the jay, or the mew of a cat. This may also be heard in the aviary, when a bird, by the use of it, endeavors to. interrupt and confuse a rival in the midst of his song. And, lastly, in the pairing season, when the male and female entice and pursue one another through the trees, they utter a soft twittering note. "Such are the tunes which both sexes are able to produce; while the song, the variety and beauty of which has raised the nightingale to a pre-eminence over all other singing birds, is the prerogative of the male alone. The bystander is astonished to hear a song, which is so sonorous as to make his ears tingle, proceed fiom so small a bird, and his astonishment is not lessened when he discovers that the muscles of the larynx are stronger in the nightingale than in any other singing bird. But it is not so much the strength, as the delightful variety and ravishing harmony of the nightingale's song, which render it the favorite of every one who has not altogether lost the sense of the beautiful. Sometimes it dwells for a minute or more on a passage of detached mournful notes, which begin softly, advance by degrees to a forte, and end in a dying fall. At other times it utters a rapid succession of sharp, sonorous notes, and ends this, and the many other phrases of which its song consists, with the single notes of an ascending chord. There are, of course, various degrees of proficiency in the nightingale, as in other birds; but in the song of a good performer have been enumerated, without reckoning smaller distinctions, no less than twenty-four separate phrases, capable of being expressed in articulate syllables and words.* "It is a pity that the period during which the nightingale sings is so short, as even in a wild state it sings only for three months, and not with equal vigor during the whole of that short time. * See p. 13; where the result of an attempt to put the Nightingale's song into words is given. CLASS II. AYES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 147 It is heard most frequently from the time of its arrival till the young birds break the shell; after that period it sings less, and with less energy, as its principal attention is necessarily directed to the feeding of its brood. About midsummer its song ceases altogether, and one hears in the woods only the twittering of the young birds, in their attempts to acquire the paternal song. In confinement, birds which have been taken when old begin to sing as early as November, and do not become entirely silent till Easter. The young birds, however, which have been reared from the nest, will sometimes, if placed under good instruction, sing for seven months in the year. If not hung where they can hear a good singer, they never acquire their natural song perfectly, but intermix with it notes of other birds; while, on the other hand, if possessed of a good voice and memory, they sometimes improve upon the instructions of their teacher. This, however, is a rare occurrence, as out of twenty young birds reared in the aviary, it is doubtful if even one prove a thoroughly good singer. The best are those which are caught in August, just before their migration, and which, in the following spring, are put under the tuition of an accomplished singer." The GREAT NIGHTINGALE, S. philomela of Bechstein, is six inches and a half long, dark brown above, and light below; its song is less varied and less agreeable than the preceding; found in the eastern countries of Europe, and in Asia, along the borders of the Mediterranean. The WOOD-WARBLER, S. sylvicola: this is five and a quarter inches long; olive-green, tinged with sulphur-yellow, above; beneath white; common in Middle and Southern Europe. The WILLOW-WARBLER, S. trochylus, is five inches long; dull olive-green above; beneath yellowish-white; common throughout Europe. This is the Willow Wren or Sylvia trochylus of Nuttall; the Regulus trochylus of De Kay: said to be found also in the Southern States. The MELODIOUS WILLOW-WARBLER, S. hippolais, is five and a half inches long; green, tinged with ash-brown above; beneath sulphur-yellow; distinguished for its pleasing and varied song; found throughout Europe. The CHIFF-CHAFF, S. rufa, is four and three-quarter inches long; ash-brown above; dull brownish-white beneath; found throughout Europe. The RAYED WARBLER, S. nisoria of Bechstein Fauvette Epervier of the French-is six and a half inches long; inhabits the north of Europe; the S. provincialis is four and half inches long; is permanent in Southern Europe, and is accidentally found in France; S. Cetti-Rossignol des Marais of the French-five inches long; found in Europe on the borders of the Mediterranean; the S. fluviatilis, five and a half inches long; found on the borders of the Danube. THE GRASSHOPPER-WARBLER. Genus SALICARIA: Salicaria.-This includes several species of Warbler, among which we may name the GRASSHOPPER-WARBLER, S. locustella, deriving its name from its incessant cricketlike note; five and a half inches long; greenish-brown above; pale brown, spotted, beneath; found throughout Europe; the THRUSH-LIKE WARBLER, S. turdoides, eight inches long; light brown above; white beneath; found in Middle and Southern Europe; the SEDGE-WARBLER, S. 148 VERTEBRATA. phragmitis, four and three-quarter inches long; reddish-brown above; buff below; noted for singing at night, and imitating the notes of other birds; SAVI'S WARBLER, S. luscinoides, five and a half inches long; reddish-brown above; pale brown beneath; a rare species in Southern Europe. The REED-WARBLER, S. arundinacea, five and a half inches long; pale brown above; pale buff below; has a pleasing and varied song, sometimes repeated at night, and is noted for making its nest upon several branchA'~ ~ic~~s es of reeds rising out of the. (5],; i water this being formed by ~[~~~.q;i rr~ ~ 1/..:/ winding long grass horizontally round and round, with a mixture of wool and small reed: h branches, the whole being lined,/...'with fine grass and long hairs; found in Middle and Southern - ",s.Europe; the Rurous SEDGE-!'_,x "i'.'. _.,__'7'"".~-.WARBLER, S. galactotes, is seven ___ O Eiinches long; fawn-color above; South. er ndelicate fawn beneath; found in Southern Europe. THE REED-WARBLER. Genus CURRUCA: Curruca. -This includes the BLACK-CAP WARBLER, C. atricapilla, five and three-quarter inches long; the head black; body ash-brown above; white beneath; inferior only:,~ -......<~..... to the nightingale in the quality of its song; found throughout Europe: 8'": —:' the GARDEN-WVARBLER or GREATER PRE'TrTYCHAPS, C. hortensis, six inches " long; brown above; brownish-white 4;l ~beneath; and noted for its wild and rapidbutmellow song; foundthroughout Europe: the COMMON WHITETHROAT, C. cinerea, five and a half inches long; reddish-brown above; beneath pale brownish-white, tinged with rose; a numerous and common.. species throughout Europe: the LESs},~'r':'~qT::.':' ~~~ER WHITE-THROAT, C. sylviella, five and a quarter inches long; smoke-'gray above; beneath white, tinged with red; found throughout Europe: the ORPHEUS WARBLER, C. Orphea,'' i~~~t~~~~ ~six and a half inches long; ashy-gray ~,;~~;.......' ~above; beneath white, tinged with "~"-;': —'-4,\~~ ~~~gray. - ~.: Genus MELIZOPHILUS Melizo-.::...philus.-This includes the DARTFORD WARBLER, FURZELING, or FURZEWREN, M. ]artfordiensis, named from being found near Dartford, in THE GOLDEN-CRESTED REGULUS. England; five inches long; found in Southern Europe; a permanent resident in England, France, &c. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 149 Genus REGULUS: Regulus.-This includes the GOLDEN-CRESTED REGULUS or KINGLET, R. cristatus-Roitelet huppe of the French-an exceedingly minute species, three and a half inches long; yellowish olive-green above, and yellowish-gray beneath, the crown of the head being adorned with a yellowish crest, bordered on each side with black. It lives in the woods, and may often be seen associating with tits and creepers. Its nest is a cup-shaped structure of moss, frequently lined with feathers; found throughout Europe: the FIRE-CRESTED WREN, R. ignicapillus, is somewhat smaller even than the preceding, its colors being somewhat more brilliant; also common in Europe: the DALMATIAN REGULUS, R. modestus, is four inches long; greenish-yellow above, beneath pale yellow; found in Southern Europe. The AMERICAN GOLDEN-CRESTED WREN or KINGLET, R. satrapa, is four inches long; olive-color above; grayish-white tinged with yellowish-brown beneath; found from Mexico to Labrador; breeds in the latter region; migrates into the United States in September, where it spends the winter. These birds associate in groups, each composed of a family, and are seen feeding in company with titmice, nut-hatches, and brown creepers. They are extremely lively and playful, often seizing their insect prey on the wing, as well as upon the leaves and bark of the trees. The RUBYCROWNED KINGLET, R. calendula, is four and a quarter inches long; dull olive above; under parts grayish-white; found in the same regions as the preceding. CUVIER'S KINGLET, R. Cuvierii, is four and a quarter inches long; grayish-olive above; grayish-white beneath; found in Pennsylvania. THE TAILOR-BIRD. Genus ORTHOTOMUS: Orthotomus. This includes the TAILOR-BIRD-Sylvia sutoria of Latham; 0. Benneti of Sykes- an East Indian species, nearly five inches long, of an olive-green ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_ F —~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\ q 3~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ir L~~~~~~~~~~' ~?,.., \7 in ~:r~ 7~ 7.7-':"7-.7d-:~~~~~~~~iii THE TAILOR-B~~~~IiRD. 150 VERTEBRATA. above and white beneath; top of the head bright red. This bird more than any other approaches human art in building its nest; it usually picks up the dead leaf of a tree and regularly sews. it to a living leaf by the edges, thus forming a sort of pendulous pouch, which is of course supported by the foot-stalk of the leaf which is still attached to the parent tree. In some cases, however, it employs two contiguous living leaves. The thread used in this operation is in some cases spun from raw cotton by the bird, in others common cotton thread is made use of; and some nests exhibit both these materials. The pouch thus formed is left open at the top, and the bottom is occupied by the nest itself, which is usually composed of cotton and flax, neatly woven together, and lined with horse-hair. In these ingenious little cradles the Tailor-Birds lay their eggs and bring up their young, secure-through the slenderness of their communication with the tree that supports them-from the attacks of the monkeys, snakes, and other enemies, who would otherwise frequently destroy their hopes., Their food consists of insects, which they capture either upon the bark and leaves of trees, or upon the ground. There are still other species. \ THE PINC-PINC. Genus DRYMOICA: Drymoica.-This includes the PINC-PINC, D. textrix, found in Southern Africa; it is about the size of a wren, which it resembles in its constant activity and the incessant jerking of its tail, at the same time crying pine, pine, pinc; it is black and brown above, and brown and red below; its nest is externally more than a foot in diameter, consisting of the woolly parts of plants woven compactly together, with an opening in the middle, three inches in width. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 151 K' i,I " ~, -:' ~": THE SPOTTED WARBLER. The SPOTTED WARBLER, 1). maculosa, is a familiar species in Southern Africa; it is a great favorite with the colonists, who permit it to enter their houses and freely pick up the crumbs. THE CISTICOLE WARBLER. 152 VERTEBRATA. THE BLUE-WINGED YELLOW WARBLER. It is six inches long, its color brown above and yellowish-white beneath. This genus also includes the CISTICOLE WARBLER, D. cisticola, four and a half inches long, and celebrated for the ingenuity with which it builds its nest. This is placed in a tuft of strong, coarse grass, and is purse-shaped, with an opening at the side. Genus EPTHIANURA:.Epthianura.-The species of this belong to Australia, of which an example is the WHITE-FRONTED EPTHIANURA, dark gray above, white beneath; forehead, face, and throat white. The American Warblers are very numerous, about forty species being known in the United States; far the greater part are migratory, as are their congeners in Europe, moving to the north in spring and to the south in autumn; most of them, however, spending the gay season among us, and enlivening our spring and summer landscapes by their lively sports, their cheerful labors, and their delicious songs. They are embraced by naturalists under the family name of Sylvicolidce, and ranged under several genera. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 153 Genus TRICHAS: Trichas, includes the Ground- Warblers. The YELLOW-THROAT, T. Marilandica, is five inches long; olive-green above; beneath yellow; makes an oven-shaped nest, similar to that of the Golden-crowned Thrush; lays from four to six eggs; ranges from Mexico to fifty degrees north. This is one of the species in the nest of which the cow-bunting often deposits one of its eggs, in the manner of the European cuckoo. The nest is placed on the ground, and partly sunk in it, and is oven-shaped. The MOURNING-WARBLER, T. Philadelphia, is five and a half inches long; olive-green above, yellow beneath; a rare species, of shy and solitary habits; little known: MACGILLIVRAY'S GROUND-WARBLER, T. Macgillivrayi, six inches long; olive-green above, bright yellow beneath; found on the Columbia River: DELAFIEILD'S WARBLER, T. Delafieldi, five and a quarter inches long; olive-gray above, beneath yellow; found in California. Genus HELINAIA: Helinaia.-This includes the Swamp- Warblers, according to Audubon, and is equivalent to the Vermivora of De Kay, and nearly the same as the Dacnis of Cuvier, which includes the Pit-Pits of Buffon. The BLUE-WINGED YELLOW WARBLER, H. solitaria, is four and three-quarter inches long; grass-green above, bright yellow beneath; found from Louisiana to New Jersey. It frequents gardens, orchards, and willow-trees, and makes its nest in a tussock of long grass, occasionally shielded by a briar, in the form of an inverted funnel. After its northern migration in summer, it retires to tropical America to spend the winter. The WORM-EATING WARBLER, H. Pennsylvanica, is five and a half inches long; of a deep olive-green above; beneath buff; found from Carolina to the fur countries. SwAINSON'S WARBLER, H. Swainsonii, is five and a half inches long; the upper parts rich brown; under parts brownish-gray; found in the Middle and Eastern States. The PROTHONOTARY WARBLER, H. protonotarius, is five and a half inches long; yellowish-green above, pale yellow beneath; found in the Southern and Western States. The GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER, H. chysoptera, is four and a quarter inches long; light ash-gray above and white beneath; found in the Middle and Western States. BACHMAN'S WARBLER, H. Bachmani, is four inches long; brownish-olive above, breast yellow, sides greenishgray, tail-coverts white; found in South Carolina. The CARBONATED WARBLER, H. carbonata, is four and three-quarter inches long; upper parts dusky and dull yellowish-green, fore part of the back and sides dusky, lower back yellowish-green, under parts yellow; found in Kentucky. The TENNESSEE WARBLER, H. peregrina, is four and a half inches long; yellow-olive above, whitish-cream color beneath; found in the Southern States. The ORANGE-CROWNED WARBLER, H. celata, is five and a half inches long; brownish-green above, olive-yellow beneath; found from Mexico to Labrador. The NASHVILLE WARBLER, H. rubricapilla, is four and a half inches long; upper parts brownish-green, beneath greenish-yellow; found in the Southern and Western States. Genus SYLVICOLA: Sylvicola.-This includes the Wood- Warblers. The SUMMER YELLOW-BIRD, S. cestiva, is five inches long; pale yellowish-green above, beneath yellow; common throughout the Atlantic States. The nest, formed externally of hemp, flax, or woolly substances, is strongly fastened to the forked branches of a small tree, usually near a house. It is then lined with hair and feathers. Into this, as it sometimes happens, the insidious cow-bird drops its egg, in the expectation that it will be hatched by the unsuspecting proprietor of the nest. But the little bird perceives the imposition, and weaves above it a matting which covers it, and prevents its receiving the warmth necessary for incubation. The engraving at page 154 represents a section of such a nest, with the parasitic egg below and the lawful eggs above. The YELLOW-CROWDED WOOD-WARBLER, S. coronata, is five and a quarter inches long; ashygray above; breast and sides variegated with black; rest of the lower parts white; found throughout the United States. AUDUBON'S WARBLER, S. Audubonii, five and three-quarter inches long; in color resembling the preceding; found on the Columbia River. The BLACK-POLL WARBLER, S. striata, is five and a quarter inches long; bluish ash-gray, streaked with black above; lower parts white; found from Texas to Labrador. The YELLOW-THROATED WARBLER, S.pensilis, is a beautiful species, five and a half inches long; upper parts grayish-blue; throat yellow; breast and lower parts white; found from Texas to New Jersey. The BAY-BREASTED WARBLER, S. castanea, is five and a quarter inches long; the head chestnut-red; back bluish ash-gray; lower parts white, tinged with reddish; found from Texas northward. The CHESTNUT-SIDED WARBLER, S. icterocephala, is five and a half inches long; bluish-ash above; lower parts white; found from Texas VOL. II.-20 154 VERTEBRATA. 6 THE SUMMER YELLOW-BIRD AND THE COW-BIRD. (See page 153.) northward; the PINE-CREEPING WARBLER, S. pin?s, is five inches long; light yellowish-green above, yellow beneath; found from Texas to Maine. The HEMLOCK WARBLER, S. parus, is five and a half inches long; yellowish-green above; breast yellow; rest of the lower parts white; common in the Middle States. The BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER, S. virens, is five inches long; upper parts light yellowish-green; fore part of the neck black; lower parts white, tinged with yellow; found from Texas to Newfoundland. The CAPE MAY WARBLER, S. maritima, is five and a half inches long; head and part of the back yellowish-olive; other portions above yellow; lower parts yellow, streaked with black; a rare species; found in New Jersey and Vermont. The BLUE-GRAY WARBLER, S. cerutlea, four and a half inches long; upper parts fine light blue; lower parts white; found from Texas northward. The BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER, S. Blackburnice, is four and three-quarter inches long; black, streaked with white, above; breast dull yellow; the rest white; found from Texas northward. RATHBONE'S WARBLER, S. Rathbonii, is four and a half inches long; general color bright yellow; found in Mississippi. The YELLOW RED-POLL WARBLER, S. petechia, is four and a half inches long; yellowish-olive, streaked with brown, above; lower parts yellow; an abundant species from Texas northward, spending the winter in the Southern States. The BLUE YELLOW-BACKED WARBLER, S. Americana, is four and a half inches long; light blue above; breast yellow; lower parts yellowish-white; it is a beautiful species; found throughout the United States. The HERMIT WARBLER, S. occidentalis, is three and a half inches long; the upper parts bluish-gray; throat black; breast and abdomen white; found on CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 155 the Columbia River. The BLACK-THROATED GRAY WARBLER, S. nigrescens, is five inches long; upper parts bluish ash-gray; portion of the breast black; the lower parts white, tinged with gray; found on the Columbia River. The BLACK-THROATED BLUE WARBLER, S. Canadensis, is five inches long; light blue above; white beneath; and found from Texas northward. The BLACK AND YELLOW WARBLER, S. maculosa, is five inches long; neck and head ash-gray; back and upper tail-coverts black; lower parts and rump yellow; found from Texas northward. The PRAIRIE WARBLER, S. discolor, is five inches long; upper parts yellowish-green; lower parts bright yellow; found from Texas to Massachusetts. The BLUE MOUNTAIN WARBLER, S. montana, is four and a half inches long; upper parts greenish-olive; lower parts yellowish-olive; found in the Blue Mountains of Virginia, and west of the Rocky Mountains. The CONNECTICUT WARBLER, S. agilis, is five and three-quarter inches long; olive-green above; breast ash-gray; rest of the lower parts bright yellow; a rare species; found from Connecticut to New Jersey. The ORANGEBREASTED WARBLER, S. olivacea, is found in Texas and Mexico. KIRTLAND'S WARBLER, S. Kirtlandii, is found in Ohio. Genus MNIOTILTA: Mniotilta.-This includes the BLACK AND WHITE CREEPING-WARBLER, M. varia, five and a half inches long; the back and breast streaked with black and white; found throughout the United States. It builds its nest on the ground, lays from three to five eggs, and seems to combine the habits of the creeper and warbler. Genus MYIODIOCTES, or WILSONIA: Myiodioctes.-This includes the Fly-catching Warblers: the HOODED WARBLER, i. imitratus, is five and a half inches long; upper parts yellowisholive; beneath yellow; found in the Middle and Southern States: the CANADA FLY-CATCHER, M. Canadensis, is five and a quarter inches long; ash-gray above; beneath yellow; found in the Western States: BONAPARTE'S WARBLER, M. Bonapartii, five and a quarter inches long; upper parts grayish-blue; lower parts ochre-yellow; found in Kentucky: the KENTUCKY WARBLER, M. formosus, is five and a half inches long; upper parts yellowish-olive; beneath bright yellow; common in the Southern States; rare in the W'estern: WILSON'S WARBLER, M. WZilsonii, is four and a half inches long; upper parts yellowish-green; beneath bright yellow; found from Texas to Labrador. CONIROSTRES. In the birds of this division,* as already stated, the bill is of a more or less conical formsometimes short, very thick at the base, and rapidly diminishing at the tip; in other cases it is more elongated and tapering, and sometimes slightly curved. The tip of the upper mandible is usually entire, but occasionally there is a slight tooth on each side near the extremity. The wings are generally rather long and pointed, the tarsi long, and the toes of moderate length, the outer one being frequently united at its base to the middle one. This group includes the essentially granivorous birds, but a considerable number of the species are not confined to a grain diet; many of them feed upon fruits and insects, and larvae form a portion of the nourishment of most of the species. Some appear to feed upon almost any animal or vegetable substances that come in their way, these constituting the greater part of the order of Omnivores, according to some naturalists. Among the families and sub-families included in this extensive division are the following: the FRINGILLIDE, including the Weaver-Birds, Grosbeaks, Tanagers, Sparrows, Linnets, Finches, Buntings, Larks, Bull-Finches, Cross-Bills, and Plant-Cutters; the STURNIDE, including the Glossy Starlings or Bower-Birds, Grackles, Ox-Peckers, the True Starlings, Meadow-Lark, Blackbirds, Baltimore Oriole, Orchard Oriole, Red-winged Oriole, Cow-Bird, and Boblink; the BUCERIDE or Horn-Bills; the MUSOPHAGID or Plantain-Cutters; the CoLIIDE or Colies; the CORVIDAE, including the Piping- Crows, the Jays, the Tree- Crows, the True Crows, the Raven, Rook, Jackdaw, Magpie, Chough, Birds of Paradise, &c. THE FRINGILLIDhE. Under this head we shall include the vast family of the Finches, a group of birds which in* Cuvier, to whom we are indebted for the divisions of Conirostres, Dentirostres, Tenuirostres, and Fissirostres, which we have adopted, added a fifth, that of the Syndactyli, in which the two outer toes are united for the greater part of their length; this group, however, included birds of very different descriptions, and has since been suppressed by many authors. 156 VERTEBRATA. eludes an immense number of species, exhibiting a great variety of structure and habit. The, are characterized by having a short, stout, conical bill, with an acute tip, of which the upper mandible has no notch at the extremity. The tongue is rather fleshy, with the tip horny, and usually more or less slit. The oesophagus forms a small crop, and the stomach a powerful gizzard, indicating, with the peculiar form of the bill, that the food of the birds consists principally of grain. The toes are of moderate length, armed with long curved claws, that of the hinder toe being often longer than the rest. The wings are rather short, and somewhat pointed at the extremity, and the tail is composed of twelve - "^:... v I!I~ ^ ^' feathers. These birds are active on the,, J'IlJ-r, wing, their flight being usually effected by "^ d:i:'~'fi^^ aid a series of jerks or undulations. On the iJ, tground they generally progress by hop-,/! P7..ping with both legs at once. They always ~JlEliy pair, and their nests are usually beautifully z^^ ^}^ ^- constructed; some of them are in fact most - b'\\U —-,,/"~- A' elaborate and ingenious structures. - ^THE PLOCEINzE OR WEAVER-BIRDS. \-')q'~- ~.~ ~, These birds, the Tesserins of the French'k,\ ~-some of which are so renowned for their ingenious architecture-are mostly inhabitants of Africa, but a few species are found in India and the islands of the eastern arch-, l! ^l^' "\ ipelago. They are all small birds; their 7 M//, / /' 4I' 1 food generally consists of insects and seeds;. —! \" \ (^'\4j but one species-those of the genus Textor -p - Y 1 uP) W^'b 1|g ~f —accompany the buffaloes and perch on Vll' 4!l&! vl/7/- their backs, for the purpose of picking off 1^'~, —" ^^^j\^ " -the parasitic insects that infest them. enus VIDITA: Vidua.- This includes II B'louwer parts pale buff. The bird is about the size of a canary, but in some specimens the\ tail-feathers of the male are a foot in II X 1length. Those of this species are fa\ paCvorites for cages, on account of their exII "'&1^ \ ff^/f^^^ traordinary and notungraceful appearance; e'l thery are found in Senegal and South Af1X~ 7F.^~ ~rica. The RED-BELLIED WVHIDAH-FINCH, / V. erythrorhynchus, is a smaller species, \ inhaiting Senegal. te Gtenus EUPLECTES: Euplectes.-t his 11 f g little, except their nests, but these are cu/ IBFT,l ~ rious enough. They are most ingeniously woven of grass in the shape of a chemist's \ retort, and are suspended from the branch of a tree over a lake, pool, or river, with the mouth down and nearly touching the THE WIDOW-BIRD. water. The object of this arrangement is to protect the eggs and young from the monkeys and serpents which abound in these regions. Genzus PLOCEUS: Ploceus. This includes the REPUBLICAN WEAVERS or SOCIABLE WEAV CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 157 ERS, P. Abyssinicus-the Loxia socia of Latham; Philetcerus lepidus of Smith-which unite in several hundreds and build a kind of roof or thatch, beneath which they construct their nest. Sometimes a structure of this sort reaches the enormous extent of ten feet square. Each nest is entered from the under side, and is distinct from every other. Paterson, who had an opportunity Mt W /4, _ NESTS OF SOCIABLE WEAVERS. NESTS OF THE GENUS EUPLECTES. of examining some of these bird-towns, thus describes the operations of the winged citizens: " The industry of these birds seems almost equal to that of the bee. Throughout the day they appear busily employed in carrying a fine species of grass, which is the principal material they employ for the purpose of erecting this extraordinary work, as well as for additions and repairs. Though my short stay in the country was not sufficient to satisfy me by ocular proof that they added to their nests as they annually increased in their numbers, still, from the many trees which I have seen borne down by the weight, and others that I have seen with their boughs completely covered over, it would appear that this is really the case. When the tree that is the support of this aerial city is obliged to give way to the increase of weight, it is obvious that they are no longer protected, and are under the necessity of building in other trees. One of these deserted nests I had the curiosity to break down, to inform myself of the internal structure of it, and found it equally ingenious with that of the external. There are many entrances, each of which forms a regular street, with nests on both sides, at about two inches' distance from each other. The grass with which they build is called the Boshman's grass, and I believe the seed of it to be their principal food, though, on examining their nests, I found the wings and legs of different insects. From every appearance, the nest which I dissected had been inhabited for many years, and some parts were much more complete than others. This, therefore, I conceive to amount nearly to a 158 VERTEBRATA. proof that the animals added to it at different times, as they found it necessary, from the increase.,... e. I'"_,-,of their family, or rather of the nation and com> k 2SY~.#^~~-b amunity."!i]\\,' xt Dr. Smith states that the banks of the Orange l \\n\: X11' i /River appear to constitute the southern limit of.: the range of this species, which was only ob-; tained in great abundance in the districts around 41i,~ ^ Latakoo, far from water. "The most striking pe-,, f''* A culiarity," he adds, "observed in this species is j~~~''~iA'''\#t'lX/\! the extraordinary manner in which a number'WVsi;1i /,M#~t'#/lW ~of individuals associate, and build their nests under a common roof. When a nestling place'!,i A l has been selected, and the operation of building ct^ u se't h e 7i sthe nests is to be commenced ab initio, the com1,' i,,/.~[~i1'] 1 onu munity immediately proceed conjointly to conIz ll~ll'h!..'':? l " all; that being accomplished, each pair begin!- X -, struct the general covering w hich int erests them l X..: /'/. to form their own nest, which, like the roo they " _:. ".N erconstruct of coarse grass; these are placed side i <- by side against the under surface of the general. \ covering, and by the time they are all completed, "^, ^w l,,the lower surface of the mass exhibits an appear-!'wia; th:ance of an even horizontal surface, freely perforated by small circular openings. They never use the same nests a second time, though they.. —~7~.,of? thcontinue for many years attached to the same roof. 1i/fW')!! -'""\ /'^/^V nests are formed upon the lower surface of those t fu gof the preceding year, which then form an addi-' 111^ a ^ntion to the general covering. In this manner till at last the weight often becomes such as to _~ l:':> t~incause the destruction of its support; uponwhich a new building is selected. They appear to prefer constructing these nests upon large and lofty;~he'~ P.~ i b g st t trees, but where such do not occur, they will even "' condescend to form them upon the leaves of the arborescent aloe, as occasionally happens toward the Orange River. The commencement of the roof is firmly interwoven with the branches of the trees to which it is intended to be suspended; and often a great part of a principal t^~d ibranch is actually included within its substance. These birds are of a reddish-brown, and of the \^~~ ~ size of a bull-finch. Each female lays from three \T-~~ Bto four eggs, which are of a bluish-white color, and freely mottled toward the large end with small brown dots. When once this species has attained maturity, it never afterward exhibits any change in respect to colors. The male has no summer tints which he throws aside in winter, as is the case in rEuplectes. Seeds, and occasionally NESTS OF THE BENGAL WEAVER-BIRD. small insects, constitute the food." The P. _faviceps, inhabiting the southeast coast of Africa, forms kidney-shaped nests, attached to CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 159 the branches of trees over the water; these are so closely woven as completely to exclude the weather; the IP. Capensis builds similar nests, sometimes five or six being suspended from a single branch. There are still other African species, noted for the peculiar forms of their nests and the ingenuity displayed in erecting them. The Textor erythrorhynchus is a South African species, of the size of a sparrow, which chiefly subsists on parasitic insects which it picks out of the backs of buffaloes. It is said also to give notice to the wild buffaloes of the approach of danger by suddenly flying up in the air. The Buphaga Africana and B. erythrorhynchus feed in a similar manner from the back of the rhinoceros. The BENGAL WEAVER-BIRD, Loxia Bengalensis, is five inches long, brown above and yellowish-white beneath, and builds its nest in the shape of a purse, suspending it over the water to the outer branch of a tree, the entrance being from below. The next year the bird builds a new nest, suspending it from the bottom of this, and the next year another, and so on, so that five or six nests are sometimes seen strung together. -,.-, I'HE GREEN GCiOb3B^AK. THE GROSBEAKS. These birds have the bill very large, broad, and thick, and the mandibles nearly equal; they generally inhabit the woods of mountainous countries, and are shy and wild in their nature. They feed on seeds and fruits, and are fond of the kernels of stone-fruit, which their powerful bills enable them to break with facility. Genus COCCOTHRAUSTES: Coccothraustes.-This comprises the COMMON GROSBEAK of Europe, or HAw-FINCH, C. vulgaris-Pinson Gros-Bec of the French. This bird is seven inches long; is of different shades of brown and gray, variegated with black and white; its eggs are olive-green, five to six in number. It feeds on pollen-stalks, laurel-berries, &c.; found in most parts of Europe; permanent in Italy. The GREEN FINCH or GREEN GROSBEAK-Gros-Bec Verdier of the French-C. chloris, is six inches long; upper parts of an olive-yellow; pale yellow beneath; frequents gardens, orchards, small woods, and cultivated lands; has a harsh, monotonous cry, makes its nest on low bushes or hedges, lays from four to six white eggs, and is common throughout Europe. It feeds on seeds, and sometimes on insects. Under the genus Loxia Bechstein includes the following: the PARADISE GROSBEAK. L. ery 160 VERTEBRATA. throcephala, six inches long; found in Angola: the DOMINICAN GROSBEAK, L. Dominicana, size of the English lark; found in Brazil: the GRENAwhol. lwe. aDIER GROSBEAK, L, orix, size of a sparrow; found::-: / at the Cape of Good Hope: the CAPE GROSBEAK, _ I''2 -~ -~ ~L. Capensis, six inches long; found at the Cape: =__e_____ _ - ^^1^ the CAFFRARIAN GROSBEAK, L. Caffra, size of a n 7 ea, size of the preceding; found in Angola: YELLOW-BELLIED GROSBEAK, L.flaviventris, five inches long; found at the Cape: the GowRY GROSDEAK, ^^\^^! L. punctularics, four and a quarter inches long; /___ i found in Java: the BANDED GROSBEAK, L.fasciata, 1/ 7^ ^l size of the preceding; found in Afiica: the BROWN-.THE......INOCHEEKED GROSBEAK, L. canoira, four inches long 7 found in Mexico: the ALACCA GROSBEAiK, L. ialacca, four and a half inches long: the BLACKCLOUDED GROSBEAK, L. nubilosa, size of a housesparrow; found in Africa: the RED-BILLED GROS-:'~ ~?'~': BEAK, L. sanguizfinirostris, found in Africa. The CARDINAL GROSBEAK, C. cardinalis-Pitylus cardinalis of De Kay-is an American bird, __ -— _ \ anoted for its beautiful song, and sometimes called ________1~~ ~the VirginiaC Nightingale. Its length is eight inches; the whole upper paIrts dusky red, except THE HAW-FINCH. the sides of the neck and head, which, with the whole lower parts, are a clear vermillion. The chin, front, and lores are black, the head being ornamented with a high, pointed crest. It passes under the various names of Redbird, rested Redbilrd, andcl Mexican Tanager. It is frequently kept in cages; is a permanent resident from Maryland to Mexico, and oc-:... casionally seen as far north as Massachusetts. /ce By The Cl vespertina, yellow above, white bej -neath, is eight inches long, and found in Texas and the Western States. The TEXAN 1C' (JARDINAL-BIRD - Gardinalis sinuatus of' Cassin-is a new and beautiful species. Genus COCCOBORITS: Coccoborus.This includes the BLUE GROSBEAK, C. ceruleus, six and a half inches long; blue above, yellowish-brown beneath; a shy and beautiful bird; found from Texas to New York. The ROsE-BREASTED GROSBEAKC, C. Ludovicianus, is seven and a half inches long; black and rose-color; found as above. The C. melanocephalus, is eight and a half inches long, head black, body orange-yellow; found in the Rocky Mountains and Texas.,/ 7; 9NWN "atilillpillg Genus GEOSPIZA: GUeospiza.-These birds belong to the Gallipago Islands, and THE CARDINAL GROSBEAK. are remarkable for the manner of seeking their food upon the ground. They dig up roots and seeds from the depth of six inches in the CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 161 ii THE CHEWINK. soil; in the dry season they eat a portion of a species of cactus. Two or three other similar genera are found in these islands-all resembling the grosbeaks. Genus PIPILO: Pipilo.-This includes the CHEWINK, or GROUND-ROBIN, or GROUND-FINCH, P. erythrophthalma-the Towhee Bunting of Pennant-seven and a half inches long; above black; wings with one or two white bars; breast white; abdomen pale red; sides reddishbrown. It is a common, humble, and unsuspicious bird, living in thickets along the borders of woods, where it may often be seen scratching up the withered leaves for worms and their larvae, as well as seeds and gravel, frequently crying at the same time taw-wee, taw-wee, taw-weet. It flies with a jerking motion, and a frequent flirt of the tail. It conceals its nest on the ground, lays four or five eggs, and is a general inhabitant of Canada and the United States, migrating to the north in the spring and retiring in the autumn. The CANON-FINCH, P.fusca, is nine inches long; olive-brown above; middle of the abdomen white; other lower parts cinereous; makes its nest in the thick branches of a cedar or dwarf oak; haunts shady gorges in mountainous districts; spends much of its time on the ground; its note a simple chirp; found in California and New Mexico. The P. arctica builds its nest on the ground; found in Utah. The P. Aberti is found in the same region. THE TANAGRIN2E OR TANAGERS. This is a very extensive sub-family of splendidly Bl~,~^~~z~ M colored birds, peculiar to America, and mostly confined to the southern portion of it. Of about two hundred and twenty species, one hundred and ninetythree belong to South America, the remainder to Mexico and Central America; three or four are wellknown summer visitors to the United States. They have a curved bill, slightly arched at the tip; their wings and flight are short; they usually collect in troops; feed on insects and fruits; and build their nests on the branches of trees. Most of them have a pleasing song, and some are remarkable for their vocal powers. By,, Genus EUPHONIA: Euphonia. —This comTHE SCARLET TANAGER. - prises the ORGANIST TANAGER, E. musica, four VOL. II.- 21 162 VERTEBRATA. inches long, the plumage beautifully varied with black and orange; a native of the West Indies. It is celebrated for its charming song. Genus PYRANGA: Pyrangza.-This includes the SCARLET TANAGER, or BLACK-WINGED SUMMER REDBIRD, or FIRE BIRD, P. rubra, six and a half inches long, the plumage a brilliant scarlet, except the wings and tail, which are black. It arrives among us from its tropical home in April, and extends its migrations to Canada and Nova Scotia. Its food consists of insects, wasps, hornets, wild bees, and beetles; also berries and grapes. This gaudy sylph, as if conscious of its attractions, seeks to hide them in the thickest woods, where it rears its brood. The nest is on the branch of an oak or other tree, and is of slight texture; the eggs are three to four. During incubation the male delivers a highly musical, meandering ditty, often continuing it for hours. The young are attended with the most assiduous care by the parents. These birds depart for the south in August. The SUMMER REDBIRD, P. cestiva, is seven and a half inches long, the whole plumage vermilion: it is a most beautiful and brilliant bird, resembling the preceding in its habits: found from Texas to Canada. The LOUISIANA TANAGER, P. Ludoviciana, is seven inches long, of a greenish-yellow color, head crimson-red, back, wings, and tail black; found in Louisiana. ----------— D TUE COMMON SPARROW OF EUROPE. THE SPARROWS. The Sparrows, Linnets, Finches, and Buntings greatly resemble each other, and are often loosely grouped together under the general name of Finches; they are also frequently confounded one with another in popular language. We shall proceed to notice them separately. Genus PASSER: Passer.-This includes the COMMON SPARROW of Europe-Moineau of the French; Passero of the Italians; Haus-Sperling of the Germans; House-Sparrow of the English-P. domesticus: it is six inches long, brown above, beneath pale wood-brown. It is permanent throughout Europe, and is a universal attendant upon man, building its nests as well around the palace as the cottage, in the city as the hamlet. The eggs are five or six, and several broods are reared in a season. Fecundity is indeed one of the characteristics of this bird. The food consists of seeds, insects, caterpillars, young vegetables, and soft fruits. It is a universal favorite, not for any merits of song, but for its lively, confiding manners, and the cheerful ideas its presence imparts. This bird is also known throughout all Northern Asia. Genus FRINGILLA: Fringilla.-This includes the WOOD-SPARROW or TREE-SPARROW of Europe, F. montana of Temminck, Passer montanus of Yarrell, which is somewhat smaller than the preceding; its color above brown spotted with black, and gray beneath. It lives more aloof from the habitations of man, and in winter may be seen mingling with other sparrows, finches, and buntings. It is found throughout the northern parts of the eastern continent. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 163 THE WOOD-SPARROW. The RING-SPARROW, F. petronia, is six inches long, grayish-brown above and white beneath; found in Middle Europe. The AMADAVADE, or AMADUVAT, F. amadava, is a small kind of sparrow, scarcely four inches long, brown above and paler beneath, spotted with white; the rump red, the tail and wings black, the bill bright red. It is common in Southern Asia, and is imported into America and Europe in large numbers. It has a pleasing song, and if twenty or thirty are in a cage together they will all sit on one perch and sing in succession. The JAVA SPARROW, Oryzornis oryzivora, five inches long; of a delicate bluish color; feeds on rice; it has a monotonous song of two notes; it is a native of Southern Asia and Java; many are imported into Europe, the bird being valued for its beauty. The American species of Sparrow are not numerous: the SONG-SPARROW, F. melodia, is one of our more common and pleasing species. It is six and a half inches long; above it is streaked with red and brown; lower parts white. It builds on the ground under a tuft of grass; eggs four or five; two or three broods reared in a season. Wilson says: "It may be said to be partially migratory, many passing to the south in the month of November, and many of them still remaining with us in low, close, sheltered meadows and swamps, during the whole of winter. It is the first singing bird in spring, taking precedence even of the pewee and bluebird. Its song continues occasionally during the whole summer and fall, and is sometimes heard in the depth of winter. The notes, or chant, are short, but very sweet, resembling the beginning of the canary's song, and frequently repeated, generally from the branches of a bush or small tree, where it sits chanting for an hour together. It is fond of frequenting the borders of rivers, meadows, swamps, and such like watery places; and if wounded, and unable to fly, will readily take to the water, and swim with considerable rapidity. In the great cypress swamps of the Southern States, in the depth of winter, I observed multitudes of these birds mixed with several other species; for these places appear to be the grand winter rendezvous of almost all our sparrows." The CHIPPING-BIRD, F. socialis —Emberiza socialis of De Kay-is five inches long; frontlet black; ash-colored above; beneath white. Wilson says: "Though destitute of the musical talents of the former species, it is, perhaps, more generally known, because more familiar, and even domestic. He inhabits, during summer, the city, in common with man, building in the branches of the trees with which our streets and gardens are ornamented, and gleaning up crumbs from our yards, and even our doors, to feed his more advanced young with. I have known one of these birds attend regularly every day, during a whole summer, while the family were at dinner under a piazza fronting the garden." The FOX-COLORED SPARROW, or FINCH, F. iliaca, is seven and a half inches long; above varied with reddish-brown and ash; beneath white: found from Texas to Labrador. 164 VERTEBRATA. THE SONG-SPARROW. The GRASS-BIRD or BAY-WINGED SPARRow-Fringilla graminea of De Kay-is five and a half inches long; above gray, varied with dusky; breast and flanks streaked with brown; nest placed on the ground; ranges along the Atlantic States from Texas to latitude 57~ north; many winter as far north as Pennsylvania. This is the Grass-Finch of Nuttall, and the Bay-winged Bunting of Audubon. The WHITE-CROWNED SPARROW —F. leucophrys of De Kay-six and a half inches long; the head white; above brown and white; beneath pale ash; it is a northern species, migrating south in winter, as far as 28~. The WHITE-THROATED SPARROW, F. Pennsylvanica, is six inches long; above rufous, black and olive-brown; beneath slate color; found, in winter, in Maryland and Pennsylvania; in summer, from Texas to Canada. Other species are the F. bicolor, seven inches long; found on the Western prairies: F. atricapilla, eight inches long; found on the Rocky Mountains: F. cinerea, six inches long; found in Texas and on the Columbia River: F.'ownsendii, seven inches long; found in the Rocky Mountains: F. Mfortoni, five and a half inches long; found in California: F. Texensis, four and a half inches long; found in Texas: F. Harrisi, seven inches long; found on the upper Missouri. Several of the preceding are ranged by Audubon and some others under the name of Finches. Genus STRUTHUS: Struthus.-This includes the COMMON SNOW-BIRD of Europe and the United States: the SNOW-BUNTING, or SNOW-FOWL of England-Snow-Flake of. the Hebrides; Tawny-Bunting of Pennant-S. hyemalis-Plectrophanes nivalis of Yarrell-six inches long; color bluish-black; abdomen and lateral tail-feathers white; it is a shy, timorous bird, seldom seen except during snow-storms, when it appears in flocks around the houses. At this time it presents much diversity of plumage, some being almost white, and others partially white. It is a northern CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 165 -'"'" -~"-:-'"'~ "~ —~" Z "/~V' THE COMMON SNOW-BIRD. bird, common to both continents, being found as far north as Greenland, Spitzbergen, the Faroe Islands, and Lapland. It migrates southward, always by night, on the approach of winter, and some go as far as England and France in Europe, and Virginia in America. Although they mostly breed in high northern regions, still some nests are found in most of the northern Atlantic States. The eggs, usually four, are yellowish white, spotted. These birds feed on grass-seeds, berries, insects, and larvme. The S. Oreganus, six inches long; reddish-brown above; black below; is found on the Columbia River and in Texas. THE COMMON LINNET OF EUROPE. THE LINNETS. Genus LINOTA: Linota.-This includes the COMMON LINNET of Europe, L. cannabina-Linotte of the French-four and three-quarter inches long; chestnut-brown above; breast red; under partslpale wood-brown. It is a gay and active bird, with a sprightly and agreeable song, its voice being loud and flute-like; it is fond of the seed of flax, whence its popular name; it feeds also on various other seeds. The nest, made of twigs and grass, lined with wool, is usually placed in a furze or other bush. It is common all over Europe; it is familiarly known in England, whence we find constant reference to it in English literature. The variations of plumage which occur in this bird at different seasons and periods of life, have caused it to be known by the various names of the Brown, Gray, and Rose Linnet; it is also called the Whin Linnet, the Greater Redpole, and 166 VERTEBRATA. the Lintie or Lintwhite, the last two being terms applied to it in Scotland more particularly; in the poetry of Burns, and other sweet singers of the north, these names frequently occur: "I wadna gie the Lintie's sang Sae merry on the broomy lea, For a' the notes that ever rang From a' the harps o' minstrelsie. Mair dear to me, where bush or breer Amang the pathless heather grows, The Lintie's wild sweet note to hear, As on the ev'nin' breeze it flows." The Linnet is a permanent inhabitant of Middle and Southern Europe, frequenting the sea-shore in mid-winter. The MEALY REDPOLE, or RED-POLL, L. canescens, is five and a quarter inches long; it has a mixture of dark and light brown above; beneath pale brownish-white, streaked with brown; crown crimson; Yarrell says it feeds on the seeds of forest trees, and De Kay on berries; it is distributed throughout the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America; found, though rarely, in England, where it is sometimes called Stone-Redpole. It appears occasionally in the Tnited States as far south as New York and New Jersey. The LESSER REDPOLE, L. linaria, is four and a quarter inches long; a mixture of dark and light brown above; breast red; under parts brownish-white; feeds on the buds of trees. It is a hardy northern species, found in both continents, inhabiting even Lapland, Greenland, and Spitzbergen, and is a permanent resident of the Fur Countries. In the winter, numbers of them migrate southward, proceeding in the United States as far as Pennsylvania, at this time moving in considerable flocks; in Europe it proceeds south as far as Rome and Sicily. This and the preceding are arranged by Audubon and De Kay under the generic name of Linaria. The MOUNTAIN LINNET, L. montium, is five inches long, the tail being of unusual length; dark and light brown above; dull brownish-white beneath; feeds on small seeds; inhabits Europe generally; moves from the northern regions in winter to the south in flocks with sparrows and snow-buntings. It frequently repeats the note twite, twite, whence this word is one of its popular English names. THE COMMON GOLDFINCH OF EUROPE. THE FINCHES. Genus CARDUELIS: Carduelis.-This includes the COMMON GOLDFINCII or THISTLE-FINCH of Europe Chardonneret of the French- C. clegans, five inches long; top of the head black; above brown; beneath white. It has a gay plumage, lively habits, and an agreeable song, and is a general cage favorite; it frequents gardens; builds its nest in a thick bush; eggs four to five. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 167 This bird, as well as linnets and canaries, has been taught to perform various ingenious tricks; it is common throughout Europe. The SISKIN, C. spinus, is four and a half inches long; greenish-olive above, streaked with dusky black; beneath yellowish-green; feeds upon seeds. It is an. attractive bird in regard both to its plumage and its song, the latter being generally little more than a continuous chirrup, resembling the noise made by a stocking-loom, a peculiarity which renders it a favorite with stocking-weavers. It imitates the songs of tits, larks, and chaffinches, but does not seem able to learn to whistle a tune. It sings throughout the year, except during the moulting season, and by its continual twittering invites all the birds in the aviary to sing. When taken, it feels the loss of freedom so little as to eat as soon as put into the cage, and on the second day to manifest no sign of alarm if any one approaches. It may be taught to draw water, and many tricks of a similar character; and in winter may be trained to come and go, by placing the cage outside the window, and strewing poppy and hemp-seed before the open door. It generally comes back, and brings several comrades with it. It breeds in confinement, and paired with canaries produces a hybrid valued for its song. The Siskin is a northern European bird, migrating to the south in winter, and returning in the spring. The CANARY-BIRD or CANARY-FINCH-Fringilla Canaria of Bechstein-is a native of the Canary Islands, where it breeds on the banks of rivulets. It is said to have been introduced from thence into Europe in the sixteenth century by a ship bound for Leghorn, and which foundered near the island of Elba. Being here set at liberty, they bred on this island; from thence they were taken to Italy, and in the course of years spread over Europe. The original color of the bird was gray, inclining to green on the lower parts of the body, but this has undergone a complete alteration from domestication and change of climate. The length of this bird is five inches; mules have been obtained by breeding with the goldfinch, siskin, green-finch, serin-finch, linnet, lesser redpole, and citril-finch, and these hybrids propagate their kind. The canary has always been a favorite cage bird, not only on account of the beauty of its plumage and the excellence of its song, but also for its docility, affectionate disposition, and the readiness with which it breeds in confinement. Another source of gratification connected with this bird is the observation of its peculiarities of disposition. Some are melancholy, others lively; some of a peaceful, others of a quarrelsome disposition; some docile, others stupid; some eager to pair, others delighting in solitude, &c. Their chief recommendation, however, consists, beyond doubt, in their loud, lively, and various song, which is continued throughout the year in some cases, even in the moulting seasons. Some, which are very much esteemed, will sing even at night, if a light be placed near their cage; a peculiarity which, though natural in some, is in most the result of long training. The singers of the Tyrol, so called from the country where they are caught, which imitate the nightingale's song, are considered to hold the first rank; and next to these the English canaries, which have acquired the warbling of the wood-lark. In Thuringia those are most esteemed which, instead of a sonorous song of their own, have been taught to descend through the notes of an octave in a clear silvery tone, occasionally introducing a trumpet-like song. Buffon contrasts the canary and nightingale as follows: "If the latter is the enchantress of the woods, the former is the musician of the chamber. The first owes all to nature; the second derives something from our arts. With less strength of organ, less compass of voice, and less variety of note, the canary-bird has a better ear, greater facility of imitation, and more memory; and as the difference of genius, especially among the lower animals, depends in a great measure on the difference that exists among them with regard to the perfection of their senses, the canarybird, whose organ of hearing is more attentive, and more susceptible of receiving and retaining foreign impressions, becomes accordingly more social, more tame, and more familiar. It is capable of gratitude, and even of attachment; its caresses are endearing, its little humors are innocent, and its anger neither hurts nor offends. Its education is easy; we rear it with pleasure, because we are able to instruct it; it leaves the melody of its natural note to listen to the harmony of our voices and instruments; it applauds, it accompanies us, and repays the pleasure it receives with interest. The nightingale, more proud of its talent, seems willing to preserve it in all its purity; at least, it appears very little to value ours; and it is with the greatest difficulty 168 VERTEBRATA. it can be taught to repeat any of our airs. The canary can speak and whistle; the nightingale despises our words as well as our song, and never fails to return to the warbling of its own wild wood-notes. Its pipe is a master-piece of nature, which human art can neither alter nor improve; that of the canary-bird is a model of more pliant materials, which we can mould at pleasure. This last, therefore, contributes in a much greater degree to the comforts of society; it sings at all seasons; it cheers us in the dullest weather; and even adds to our happiness-for it amuses the young, and delights the recluse; it charms the tediousness of the cloister, and exhilarates the soul of the innocent and the captive." "The breeding and rearing of these charming birds," says Bolton, "forms an amusement of the most pleasing kind, and affords a variety of scenes highly interesting to innocent minds. In this country, no less than in the old German Fatherland, and amid the green valleys of the Tyrol, many enthusiastic canary fanciers may be met with. There are societies in London-and some of them have existed for more than a century-for promoting the breed of canaries, and amateurs distinguish upward of thirty varieties: these varieties are separated into two great divisions-the Plain and the Variegated; the former being called Gay Birds or Gay Spangles, and the latter Fancy Birds or Mealy Birds; these latter are esteemed the strongest, and have the boldest song. Jonkcs or Jonquils is also a term applied to those of a pure yellow. There is also a variety called the Lizard, the plumage of which is of a greenish-bronze throughout, excepting the upper part of the head, which is covered by a patch of clear yellow, and this variety is looked upon as the nearest of kin to the original stock." The AMERICAN GOLDFINCH, C. tristis, is four and a half inches long; general color yellow; wings and tail black, varied with white; feeds on the seeds of the sunflower, lettuce, thistle, &c.; the nest is made on trees or tall bushes; eggs four to five, pure white, with reddish-brown spots at the smaller end. It is found from the tropics to the Fur Countries, and is a familiar bird at all seasons in the United States, and is often seen about the gardens. It has the various popular names of Yellow-Bird, Thistle-Bird, Lettuce-Bird, Salad-Bird, &c. Many are taken in trap-cages; their song is feeble, but plaintive and pleasing; in confinement they become familiar, and hence they are favorite cage birds. The PINE-FINCH, C. pinus, four and a half inches long; varied with olive-brown and black; beneath lighter shade; feeds on the seeds of the pine, birch, thistles, &c.; found from Florida to Maine; permanent in the Middle States. Other species are the C. Magellanicus, found, though rarely, in Ohio; C. psaltria, found in Louisiana and Arkansas; C. Mexicanus, found in California; C. Stanleyi, also found in California. The CITRIL-FINCHrFringilla citrinella of Linnaeus-is five inches long, its plumage greenishgray, tinged with ashy-gray, and blackish; found in Southern Europe, where it is a cage bird. The SERIN-FINCH-Loxia serinus or Fringilla serinus of Linnaeus; Serin Vert of the French -has often been confounded with the preceding; it is four and a half inches long; general color greenish-yellow; noted as a lively and indefatigable singer. It is migratory, and spends the summer in Middle Europe; some remain through the cold season. The GLOSSY FINCH-F. nitens of Linneus-is four inches and a half long; plumage blue-black, or coal-black, with a gloss of steel; found in Cayenne. The BRAZILIAN FINCH-F. granatina of Linnmeus-is four inches long; brown above, the rump blue; beneath chestnut-color; found in Brazil. The BLUE-BELLIED FINCH —F. Bengalensis of Linnaeus-is four and a half inches long; ashybrown above; blue beneath; found in Guiana. Other foreign species are the LIVER-COLORED FINCH, F. hepatica, of Western Africa; the GREEN GOLDFINCH, F. melba, of Brazil; and the ANGOLA FINCH, F. Angolensis, of Angola. Genus ERYTHROSPIZA: Erythrospiza.-This includes the PURPLE FINH —the American Linnet of Nuttall-E. purpurea; it is six inches long; in full plumage, the male is rich crimson above, deepest on the head and neck; the back streaked with dusky; beneath white. This is a winter bird of passage, coming to us from the north in September and October, and in very severe seasons proceeding, in considerable numbers, as far as the Southern States, and even to CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 169 THE PURPLE FINCH. Mexico. Audubon often saw small flocks of them in Louisiana, from April to November. In May, it moves to the northern regions of the continent, though some linger by the way, and are often seen in New England and Northern New York throughout the summer, building their nests and carrying on their household affairs. This species has a habit of erecting the feathers of its crown like a crest; hence it is sometimes called the Crested Purple Finch. It feeds on the buds and berries of evergreens during winter and on insects in summer. The AMERICAN IHOUSE-FINCHI, Carpodacusfamiliaris ofCassin, is six inches long; above brownish red; beneath white and brown; resembles the preceding; common in New Mexico; abundant and familiar in California, where it is called Buzriones. Its song is exceedingly tender and melodious. Other species are the E. frontalis, six and a quarter inches long; found in the Rocky Mountains, and E. tephrocotis, six inches long; found in the Northern Regions. Genus AMMODROMUS: Ammodromus.-This includes the SWAMP-FINCH or RED GRASSBIRD, A. palustris, five and a half inches long; bay above, beneath bluish-ash; it makes its nest on the ground; feeds on grass-seeds and aquatic insects; found from Texas to Labrador. The SEA-SIDE FINCH, _A. maritimus, is eight inches long; olive-brown above; gray beneath; feeds on marine crustacea and sea-shore insects. Found in maritime parts of New England and the Middle States. The QUAIL-HEAD, A. caudacutus, is five inches long; olive above; soiled white beneath; the head, when the bird is seen on the ground, resembles that of the quail; it is found in salt marshes, where it breeds, as also the preceding. The WESTERN SWAMP-SPARROW, or BROWN-HEADED FINCH, A. ruficeps, is six inches long; chestnut-brown above, beneath pale-ashy; found in California. Other species are A. Macgillivrayi, five and a half inches long; found in Texas: A. Bachmani, six inches long; found in the Carolinas: and A. Lecontii, five inches long; found in Missouri: A. Lincolnii, five and three-quarters inches long, found from New York to Labrador. VOL. II. —22 170 VERTEBRATA. The LONG-TAILED SWAMP-SPARROW, Ai. rostratus of Cassin, is six inches long; dull brown above, beneath dull white; found in California. Genus SPIZA: Spiza.-This includes the INDIGO-BIRD, S. cyanea, five and a half inches long; blue, with greenish tints; one of our most beautiful summer visitors; feeds on caterpillars, worms, grasshoppers, and seeds; the nest is usually on a low bush; the eggs four to five, white. It breeds in the United States; returns to Mexico and South America in winter. Other species are the PAINTED BUNTING, S. ciris, five inches long; colors purplish-blue and yellowish-green; found in the Southern States, and the LAZULI FINCH, S. amcena, five and a half inches long; blue above and white beneath; found on the Columbia River. THE EMBERIZIN1E OR BUNTINGS. These have a conical, acute bill; wings of moderate size; the hind toe larger than the inner one, and the claws slender. They are generally distributed in both hemispheres; feed more on the ground than the Fringillinae, and build their nests in low bushes or tufts of grass. Like the finches, they collect in large flocks in the winter, and frequent the open fields. Their food consists of seeds and insects. THE ORTOLAN OR GREEN-HEADED BUNTING. Genus EMBERIZA: Emberiza.-This includes the ORTOLAN or GREEN-HEADED BUNTINGBruant Ortolan of the French-E. hortulana, six and a quarter inches long; reddish-brown above; beneath reddish-buff; frequents light sandy soils; builds on the ground, and lays five to six eggs. It is migratory, and breeds in the north of Europe; in moving southward, about August, great numbers are taken in England, France, Germany, &c., in nets, and fattened for the table, they being esteemed a great luxury. To hasten this process, they are shut up in a room artificially lighted, so as to offer no distinction between night and day, and fed with oats, millet, and bread, mixed with spice. Booth says: "These birds are fed up till they become lumps of fat of three ounces in weight, some of which are potted or otherwise preserved, and exported to other countries." The ortolan is kept in cages on account of its handsome appearance and pleasing song. The YELLOW HAMMER of Europe-properly Yellow Ammer, the latter word signifying bunting in the German-E. citrinella, is a handsome bird, seven inches long; head, neck, and cheeks lemon-yellow; back and wings reddish-brown, tinged with yellow; under surface of the body bright lemon-yellow; common throughout Europe, from the Mediterranean to Norway; in Eng CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 171 land it unites in winter with flocks of chaffinches and green-finches, and feeds on grain-seeds and insects. It is a pleasing singer, though its notes are few and repeated five or six times in quick succession. In Italy great quantities are caught, with the ortolan bunting, for the table. The BLACK-HEADED BUNTING or REED-BUNT1111^9a d^^8 ^ING. E. schoeniculus, is six inches long; above black; beneath white, streaked and clouded with brown;,-i'' <^.;common throughout Europe; a summer visitor to the north. The CIRL BUNTING, E. cirlus-the Bruant Zizi of the French-is five and a half inches long, with chestnut, black and yellow above, dull yellow be/i/ / 4neath; common in the south of Europe; migrates "b. i, of pasg,, inhabit to the north in summer. i /( i t -. Other foreign species of Bunting are as follows:' long; ash-colored, spotted with black, above; the 4y breast rusty-red; is a rather rare species; inhabits'$I~ ~ / 7~~ ~.~l northern Europe; migrates southwardly in midf/'"~'f//" /winter. The COMMON or CORN-BUNTING of Europe, The FHB. miliaria, is seven and a half inches long; redbrown, wt:n dish-gray above; yellowish-white below; inhabits | th it b ig o E an Europe and Northern Asia; is sedentary in Ger-.....at~~~ many. The FooLIsin BUNTING-Bruant Fou of T BUNTING osthe French-E. cia, is six inches long; brownish~~~~~~~~,i ered, spotted with black, above; rust-color below; it is fond of solitude, and easily caught in traps, whence its name; inhabits Southern Europe. The sTHE GCIRL BLUNTING,. c sSPARROW-BUNcTING, E. passerina of Bechstein, is five inches long; red, olive, and black above; greenish-white, spotted with brown, beneath; a bird of passage, inhabiting the mountains of Europe in summer. Among the American buntings, some of which pass among us in popular language for sparrows, there are none of particular celebrity. They are all migratory, and feed on seeds, sometimes on insects; they live in pairs, often moving in small flocks. The BLACK-THIRO TED BUNTING, E. Americana, is six and a half inches long; back grayishbrown, with longitudinal streaks; beneath yellow and white. In its flight and notes it closely resembles the corn-bunting of Europe; the nest is neatly made of grass, usually beneath a tuft of herbage, and partly imbedded in the soil; the eggs are five or six, dull white, blotched with umber. It is migratory, breeding in summer throughout the United States, but most abundantly at the South. TOWNSEND'S BUN-TING, E. Townsendii, is five and a half inches long; bluish-gray, marked with black, above; below grayish-white; migratory; found in Pennsylvania and the Rocky Mountains. The LARK-BUNTING, F. grammaca, is six and a half inches long; light grayish-brown above; below yellowish-white; migratory; found on the upper Missouri and eastern declivities of the Rocky Mountains. The SAVANNAHI BUNTING-Fringilla savanna of Wilson.-F. savanna, is a very abundant species, resembling the sparrows, and in winter associating with the field-sparrow and bay-winged sparrow. It confines itself principally to the ground, where it runs with great agility, lowering its body as if to evade your view, and when in danger, hiding as closely as a mouse; it seldom takes wing unless much alarmed or suddenly surprised. In winter, however, it comes familiarly and fearlessly about the house and garden, sitting on fences and low buildings. It is five and a half inches long; reddish-brown, spotted, above; lower parts white. Its nest is made on the ground, at the foot of a bush or tuft of grass; the eggs are four to six; there are usually two broods in a season. This bird has a few notes, frequently uttered, but no song; it is common throughout the United States; very abundant in the South in 172 VERTEBRATA. winter. The CLAY-COLORED BUNTING, E. pallida, is five inches long; light yellowish-brown above; beneath grayish-white; found on the Rocky Mountains. The YELLOW-WINGED BUNTING-the Yellow-winged Sparrow of Wilson —E. passerina, five inches long; light grayishbrown above; beneath yellowish-gray; migratory; found from Texas to New England. HENSLOW'S BUNTING, -E. Henslowi, is five inches long; pale brown above; yellowish-gray beneath; found throughout the United States; winters in the Southern States. The FIELD-BUNTING-the Field-Sparrow of Wilson —E. pusilla, is six inches long; above chestnut and blackish-brown; beneath grayish-white; abundant in summer from Texas to Maine. The TREE-SPARROW or CANADA BUNTING, E. Canadensis, is six and a quarter inches long; above brown, bay, and yellow; beneath cream color. This is a nortlern bird, but migrates to the south in winter; it breeds as far south as Maine. It frequents trees, where it hops and dances and sings, and sweetly too, often mixing with the White-throated Finch. In severe weather it is often seen in the elm-trees of Boston; its migrations are not farther south than Pennsylvania. This bird, which passes for a sparrow, is one of the commonest of its genus in New England. The BLACK-THROATED FINCH, E. bilineata of Cassin, is five inches long; ashy-brown, with olive, above; under parts white, tinged with ashy and olive; found in Texas and New Mexico. Genus PLECTROPHANES: Plectrophanes.-These birds are sometimes called Lark-Buntings: the most noted species is the LAPLAND SNOW-BUNTING-Lapland Song-Sparrow of Nuttall; Lapland Lark-Bunting of Selby-P. Lapponicus, six and a half'inches long; summer plumage, head, chin, and breast black; beneath white: the winter plumage is, upper part of the head black, edged with rufous; neck black, the feathers tipped with white. This is an arctic bird, common to Europe and America; in the depth of winter it moves southward as far as England on the other side of the Atlantic, and as far as Pennsylvania on this. It is often seen in very severe seasons in New England, feeding upon the seeds on exposed pieces of ground, that have been swept clear of snow by the wind. It is found usually in small numbers, sometimes mixed with the roving snow-birds; at other times it visits us in large flocks. It feeds on seeds, berries, grass, leaves, buds, and insects; the nest is placed on the ground; the eggs are five to seven. Sometimes immense flocks of these birds are seen in Central Europe in the fall and winter, mingled with larks. The WHITE SNOW-BIRD-sometimes called the White Bird-P. nivalis, is seven and a half inches long; the colors vary in different species; the common colors are brown, striped with black, above;beneath white. It is to be distinguished from the Common Snow-Bird —Struthus hyemalis-though like that it is most abundant in the northern regions of both continents. It usually appears in New England and the Middle States after a severe snow-storm. It has been known in a few cases to breed in Maine and Massachusetts. Its nest is placed on the ground; the eggs four to five; the food grass-seeds, insects, and minute shells. Other species are the P. pictus, length six inches; found in the northern regions of North America; P. ornatus, found on the prairies of the Platte River; McCowN's BUNTING, P. McCownii, six inches long; found in Texas, New Mexico and California; and P. Smithii, six inches long; found in Illinois. THE ALAUDINJE OR LARKS. This group includes several interesting birds, mostly of the eastern hemisphere. They are peculiarly birds of the fields, meadows, and open places, and are distinguished by their vigilance and their musical powers. They build on the ground, usually produce two broods in a season, are generally birds of passage, and in Europe immense numbers are caught for the table in their migrations. Genus ALAUDA: Alauda.-This includes the SKY-LARK or FIELD-LARK-Alouette of the French; Lodola of the Italians; Feld-Lerche of the Germans-the most celebrated song-bird of England, and after the nightingale, the most celebrated of Europe, generally. It is seven inches long, the tail being three inches; it is in size about equal to the boblink. The forehead and poll are rusty-yellow, spotted with blackish-brown; when the bird is excited the feathers of the crown erect themselves into a crest. The back is brown, blackish-brown, and gray; the lower parts dingy white. The female, as in most of the passerine birds, is a trifle smaller than the male. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 173 SKY-LARKS. Black and white varieties are sometimes seen. The nest is placed on the ground, and often under the shelter of a tuft of grass; the eggs are four or five, and whitish-gray. The poet says: "The daisied lea he loves, where tufts of grass Luxuriant crown the ridge; there, with his mate, He founds his lowly house, of withered bents And coarsest spear-grass; next, the inner work With finer and still finer fibers lays, Rounding its corners with his speckled breast." This species feeds on insects, larvae, ants' eggs, and various kinds of small seeds. Its flesh ranks among the greatest of delicacies; traps and nets of many kinds are employed for its capture. It is sedentary in Middle and Southern Europe, and begins its song early in the spring, and contines it till late in the autumn, generally singing while rising or falling perpendicularly in the air, altough ite varies notes are occasionally poured forth while sitting on the ground. So powerful is the voice lodged in this little body, that its sound may be heard long after the songster is quite out of sight; and even then a practiced ear can distinguish those peculiarities in the song which mark whether the bird is still rising, r r or gradually descending. The Lark sings for about eight months in the year, and as his notes are remarkable for their power and vivacity, he is agreat favorite as a cage-bird. In the summer his lay commences before three o'clock in the morning, and continues till after sunset. He is also very long-lived; Yarrell mentions an instiance of one of these birds livn inn a cage for nineteen years and a half. Mudie notices a correspondence between the movements of the lark, when it climbs up to the sky by its winding flight, and its notes, as follows: " When the volutions of the spiral are narrow, 174 VERTEBRATA. and the bird changes its attitude rapidly in proportion to the whole quantity of flight, the song is partially suppressed, and it swells as the spiral widens, and sinks as it contracts; so that, though the notes may be the same, it is only when the lark sings poised at the same height that it sings in a uniform key. It gives a swelling song as it ascends, and a sinking one as it comes down; and even if it take but one wheel in the air, as that wheel always includes an ascent or a descent, it varies the pitch of the song. "The song of the lark, besides being a most accessible and delightful subject for common observation, is a very curious one for the physiologist. Every one in the least conversant with the structure of birds must be aware that, with them, the organs of intonation and modulation are inward, deriving little assistance from the tongue, and none, or next to none, from the mandibles of the bill. The windpipe is the musical organ, and is often very curiously formed. Birds require that organ less for breathing than other animals having a windpipe and lungs, because of the air-cells and breathing-tubes with which all parts of their bodies-even their bones-are furnished. But those diffused breathing-organs must act with least freedom when the bird is making the greatest efforts in motion-that is, when ascending or descending; and in proportion as they cease to act, the trachea is the more required for the purposes of breathing. The sky-lark thus converts the atmosphere into a musical instrument of many stops, and so produces an exceedingly wild and varied song-a song which is perhaps not equal, either in power or compass, in the single stave, to that of many of the warblers, but one which is more varied in the whole succession. All birds that sing ascending or descending have similar power, but the sky-lark has it in a degree superior to every other." Main says: "No bird sings with more method: there is an overture performed, vivace crescendo, while the singer ascends; when at the full height, the song becomes moderato, and distinctly divided into short passages, each repeated three or four times over, like a fantasia, in the same key and tune. If there be any wind, he rises perpendicularly by bounds, and afterward poises himself with breast opposed to it. If calm, he ascends in spiral circles; in horizontal circles during the principal part of his song, and zigzagly downward during the performance of the finale. Sometimes, after descending about half way, he ceases to sing, and drops with the velocity of an arrow to the ground. Those acquainted with the song of the sky-lark can tell, without looking at them, whether the birds be ascending or stationary in the air, or on their descent, so different is the style of the song in each case. In the first, there is an expression of ardent impatience; in the second, an andante composure, in which rests of a bar at a time frequently occur; and in the last, a graduated sinking of the strains, often touching the subdominant before the final close. The time and number of the notes often correspond with the vibration of the wings; and though they sometimes sing while on the ground, as they are seen to do in cages, their whole frame seems to be agitated by their musical efforts." The strong attachment of this species to their young has been the slluject of remark by many naturalists: Mr. Blyth records that "some mowers actually shaved off the upper part of a nest of the sky-lark without injuring the female which was sitting on her young; still she did not fly away, and the mowers levelled the grass all around her without her taking further notice of their proceedings. A young friend of mine, son of the owner of the crop, witnessed this, and about an hour afterward went to see if she was safe, when, to his great surprise, he found that she had actually constructed a dome of dry grass over the nest during the interval, leaving an aperture on one side for ingress and egress, thus endeavoring to secure a continuance of the shelter previously supplied by the long grass." To no bird, perhaps not even the nightingale, have the English poets paid such frequent homage as to the sky-lark; from Chaucer downward, there is scarcely one of them who has not repaid the ecstatic music of that "bard of the blushing dawn"-the "herald of the morn," as Shakspeare hath it-with a strain as full of gladness and melody; and not from the poets only has it received these tributes of admiration: grave divines, such as Jeremy Taylor and Bishop Hall, have made it the theme of their high discourse; the former says that " it did rise and sing as if it had learned music and motion from an angel." Wordsworth's lines, though often quoted, are so descriptive, and yet so poetical, that we cannot omit them: CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 175 "Ethereal minstrel! pilgrim of the sky! Dost thou despise the earth, where cares abound? Or, while thy wings aspire, are heart and eye Both with thy nest, upon the dewy ground? Thy nest, which thou canst drop into at will, Those quivering wings composed, that music still. "To the last point of vision, and beyond, Mount, daring warbler! That love-prompted strain-'Twixt thee and thine a never-failing bondThrills not the less the bosom of the plain! Yet might'st thou seem, proud privilege, to sing All independent of the leafy spring. "Leave to the nightingale the shady woodA privacy of glorious light is thine, Whence thou dost pour upon the world a flood Of harmony with rapture more divine. Type of the wise, who soar-but never roam, True to the kindred points of heaven and home." THE CRESTLD LARK. The CRESTED LA —RK Alouette Cochevis of the French-A. cristata, is six and three-quarter inches long; brown above and pale yellow beneath. The crest of a few elongated feathers pointing backward, is reddish-brown. It visits Northern Europe in summer, is sedentary in Southern Europe, and is common in Northern Africa. It feeds on worms and grain, and may be often seen on the roads near Paris picking among the manure, and flying at the approach of a traveler. The WOOD-LARK-Alouette lulu of the French-A. arborea, has a slight crest, is over six inches long, wood-brown above, pale yellowish-brown beneath. Its song is greatly admired, and is often poured forth at evening, as if in rivalry of the nightingale. "What time the timorous hare trips forth to feed, When the scared owl skims round the grassy mead, Then high in air, and poised upon its wings, Unseen the soft-enamored wood-lark sings." Blyth says: "In hot summer nights wood-larks soar to a prodigious height, and hang singing in the air." Bechstein says: "The wood-lark not only excels all other larks in the beauty of its song, but, in my opinion, surpasses in this respect all German birds whatever, except the chaffinch and the nightingale. Its tones are flute-like, and the varying phrases of its song have all a melancholy and tender expression. It sings either perched on the top of a tree, or flies upward almost beyond the reach of sight, and remains poised on its outstretched wings, often warbling for an hour together. In confinement it always sings on its perch." 176 VERTEBRATA. THE SHORE-LARK. The SHORT-TOED LARK, A. brachydactyla, is a small species, five inches long, of a sandy-brown above, beneath whitish; common in Southern Europe. The SHORE-LARK, A. alpestris, is six inches long, and found in the north of Europe and Asia. Specimens have been occasionally met with as far south as France and England. The HORNED LARK, A. cornuta, is an American bird, until lately confounded with the preceding; it is seven inches long; the male has an erectile crest; color, dusky brown above; breast reddish-brown; the nest placed on the ground; the eggs olive-white. This is a beautiful species, and one of our winter birds of passage, arriving from the north in the fall, usually staying with us the whole winter, frequenting sandy plains and open downs, and is numerous in the Southern States, as far as Georgia, during that season. They fly high, in loose, scattered flocks, and at these times have a single cry, like the sky-lark. They are very numerous in many tracts of New Jersey, and are frequently brought to Philadelphia market. They are then generally very fat, and are considered excellent eating. Their food seems principally to consist of small, round, compressed black seeds, buckwheat, oats, &c., with a large proportion of gravel. They are said to have a pleasing song. Other American species are the BROWN LARK, A. rufa, six inches long; brown-olive above; brownish-ochre beneath; habits similar to the preceding; the A. minor, found in Texas; and the A. Spraguei, found on the upper Missouri. THE BULL-FINCH. THE PYRRHULINE OR BULL-FINCHES. Thes rs rat re birds greatly resemble the grosbeaks in some respects, and especially in the size and CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 177 form of the heads and bills; they occur in both hemispheres, principally in temperate countries, and feed upon seeds, the hardest shells of which are seldom able to resistthe force of their firm, strong bills. Genus PYRRHULA: Pyrrhula.-The COMMON BULL-FINCH of Europe-Bouvreuil of the French; Gimpel of the Germans-P. Vulgaris is seven inches long; the top of the head and the under part of the chin a velvety black; the throat, back, and shoulders gray; the rump white; the breast crimson; the lower parts white. There are white, black, and speckled varieties; hybrids with canaries are often produced. It is a robust and clumsy-looking bird; conceals its nest in furze or hedges; lays from two to six bluish-white eggs; feeds on seeds of ash, maple, beech, and furze; also on the seeds of weeds and grasses, and on the buds of trees, thus often doing great damage. On account of this habit it is called Pick-a-bud in England, where it is also called Coal-hood, Red-hoop, Tony-hoop, Alp, Pope, Nope, &c. In confinement it is a docile bird, and though its natural note is harsh as the creaking of a door or wheelbarrow, it may be trained to whistle many airs in a soft, pure, and flute-like tone. It is very common in England, and we see it often referred to in English books it is found throughout Europe at all seasons. THE PINE-GROSBEAK. The PINE BULL-FINCH or PINE GROSBEAK the Bouvreuil Duc-bec of the French; P. enucleator of Yarrell; the Corythus enucleator of Audubon and De Kay-is eight and a half inches long; general colors bright carmine, with a vermilion tinge; that of the female yellowish-brown above; beneath ash-gray. It is found in the northern parts of both continents. It resembles the bull-finches in its form, and the cross-bills in some of its habits. It feeds on the seeds and buds of various kinds of trees; builds a nest of sticks on the branch of a tree, lining it with feathers; the eggs are four or five. It breeds in this country from Maine northward; in severe seasons it comes southward in small flocks, sometimes abundantly as far as Massachusetts, and more rarely as far as Pennsylvania. The appearance of a flock of these birds, the males with their splendid red attire, and the females with their more sober but still beautiful plumage, is quite striking. They are excellent food. The male has a pleasing song, and in confinement will often sing at night. Genus LOXIA: Loxia.-To this belong the COMMON EUROPEAN CROSS-BILL-Bec croise of the French-L. curvirostra, which has a strong bill, the mandibles of which are crescent-shaped, and cross each other at the points. It inhabits the northern regions of Europe, and lives principally in the forests of fir; it feeds on pine-cones, and also on the seeds and nuts of other trees, its bill enabling it to break the shells of these with facility. It is nearly seven inches long, and is subject to great changes of color, the males of a year old being red, and those that are older of a greenish-yellow, spotted with white, and having a grayish tinge over the whole plumage. These birds move southward in winter, and are periodically seen in considerable flocks in England. VOL. II.-23 17i VEIRTEBRATA. THE PARROT CROSS-BILL. The AMERICAN CROSS-BILL, L. Americana, resembles the preceding, and has generally been considered identical with it; there is no doubt, however, that it is distinct. It is seven inches long; the male is red, passing into whitish beneath. It feeds on the seeds and buds of trees, and is a northern bird, but breeds in a few instances as far south as Pennsylvania. Other species are as follows: the PARROT CROSS-BILL, L. pityopsittacus, seven inches and a half long; general color tile-red, with dusky streaks below. It is somewhat larger than the common cross-bill, but resembles it in its habits. It is occasionally seen in England and France. The EUROPEAN WHITE-WINGED CROSS-BILL, L. bifasciata, is six and a quarter inches long; brickred, orange, and grayish-brown above; reddish-orange beneath; a rare species. The AMERICAN WHITE-WINGED CROSS-BILL, L. leucoptera, is generally of a crimson-red, with wings and tail black, the former having two white bands; length six inches. It is a northern species, rarely moving farther south than Northern New York. This has been long deemed identical with the preceding, but it is no doubt a distinct species. THE PHYTOTOMINIE OR PLANT-CUTTERS. These birds are distinguished by having the ~Tj:~i~..> i.~z~~ ~! margins of their mandibles finely serrated; the:. ~^ 3~&-2/,~?' ebill is short, conical, and stout, as in the bull~-^ T~,,~ %, ~,,v^^-l. i finches. They are found only in the temperate regions of South America; the typical species, Phytotoma rara, is a native of Chili. They frequent the wooded parts of the country, and feed -" upon buds, fruits, and herbage, which they cut /.'! away with their bills, and thus often do great 7.~'~ ~lR.. g damage when they visit the cultivated grounds. The amount of the injury is greatly increased by I~'COV-.'nxc, rthe circumstance that the birds mischievously cut?"/~~,'er.~e "",/ off quantities of buds, fruits, &c., for the mere K /J{ f r",s pleasure of throwing them down; and for this f/'ie.dl, x J./b., n reason the peasants wage a constant war with, 0 -4' spxi' a -~ "~s'.' "/"";!}" them, which, according to Molina, at the time he -7lng ea.'',';....~,,,s,:'f wrote, was rapidly diminishing their numbers. ~'4')i~ ~:.' 9 - ~'.'t They also occasionally feed on insects. Their cry,'vIliy'oS T_- E consisting of rara, rara, rara, is said to be exceed-'' o-_~ w:7 e..:. "^''g bingly disagreeable, resembling the noise made by ThE CMILIAN PLANT-CUTTER, P. ara. grating the teeth of two saws together. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 179 THE EUROPEAN STARLING OR STARE. THE STUIRNIDJ. This family includes several remarkable groups, as the Bower-Birds, Grackles, Beef-Eaters, Tree-Starlings, Pastors, Meadow-Larks, Crow-Blackbird, Baltimore and Orchard Orioles, CowBlackbird, Red- Wing Starling, &c. In their general characteristics we may include an elongated and compressed bill, wings long and more or less pointed, the toes long and strong, especially the hind one; they feed on insects, worms, fruits, and seeds; they are generally gregarious; are docile and tractable in captivity, and exhibit some of the peculiar sagacity of the crows. THE PTILONORHYNCHINE, OR BOWER-BIRDS, OR GLOSSY STARLINGS. These birds are peculiar to the eastern hemisphere. The majority, including the Choucaries and Pirolles, are found in India, Australia, and the intervening islands, but Africa also possesses a few species belonging to the genus Juida. They inhabit the hot regions of that continent, where they fly in large flocks, feeding principally on fruits, and often attacking the gardens and vineyards, to which they do great damage. They also devour insects and worms, and are sometimes seen perched on the backs of cattle, searching for the parasitic insects among the hair. They are generally showy birds, with a metallic luster upon their plumage, are rather larger, than the common starling, and have a much longer tail. They nestle in rocks and holes of trees, and lay five or six eggs. The Bower-Birds of Australia belong to the genera Ptilonorhynchus and Chlamydera. These are remarkable for the habit of making a sort of bower, which has nothing to do with their nidification, but merely serves as a sort of playing-ground, in and around which they assemble for amusement! They inhabit the forests, and the bower is placed under the shelter of some large tree. Mr. Gould describes the construction and use of that of the SATIN BOWER-BIRD, P. holosericeus-Kitta holosericeus of Timminck, the Kitte Veloute of the French-in the following words: "The base consists of an extensive and rather convex platform of sticks firmly interwoven, 180 VERTEBRATA. on the center of which the bower itself is built; this, like the platform on which it is placed and with which it is interwoven, is formed of sticks and twigs, but of a more slender and flexible description, the tips of the twigs being so arranged as to curve inward and nearly meet at the top; in the interior of the bower the materials are so placed that the forks of the twigs are always presented outward, by which arrangement not the slightest obstruction is offered to the passage of the birds. For what purpose these curious bowers are made is not yet, perhaps, fully understood; they are certainly not used as a nest, but as a place of resort for many individuals of both sexes, which, when there assembled, run through and around the bower in a sportive and playful manner, and that so frequently that it is seldom entirely deserted." A still more extraordinary structure of the same description is formed by the SPOTTED BOWERBIRD, Chlamydera maculata, an inhabitant of the interior of Australia; it is thus described by Mr. Gould. The bowers "are considerably longer and more avenue-like than those of the satin bower-bird, being in many instances three feet in length. They are outwardly built of twigs, and beautifully lined with tall grasses, so disposed that their heads nearly meet; the decorations are very profuse, and consist of bivalve shells, crania of small mammalia, and other bones. Evident and beautiful instances of design are manifest throughout the bower and decorations formed by this species, particularly in the manner in which the stones are placed within the bower, apparently to keep the grasses with which it is lined fixed firmly in their places; these stones diverge from the mouth of the run on each side, so as to form little paths, while the immense collection of decorative materials, bones, shells, &c., are placed in a heap before the entrance of the avenue, this arrangement being the same at both ends." Mr. Gould adds, in evidence of the labor that must be bestowed by the birds upon the construction of these apparently useless assembly rooms, that he frequently found them at a distance from any river, so that the shells and small stones employed in their fabrication must have been transported from a considerable distance. It appears also that the birds collect no other bones than those which have been bleached in the sun; and as it is certain that as they feed almost entirely upon fruits and seeds, these remains of other animals cannot be regarded as relics of their victims. THE MINO-BIRD. THE GRACKLES.* The birds of this group are found in India and the Indian Isles, where they inhabit the jungles. Genus GRACULA: Gracula.-To this belongs the MINO-BIRD, G. religiosa-Eulabes Javanus of Viellot; Mainatus Sumatranus of Lesson, and Minor Grackle of Bechstein; this is twelve inches long; the color is a deep velvety-black; a white space in the middle of the wing; bill and feet yellow; behind the eye spring fleshy caruncles of a bright orange-color, and extend beyond * The genus Grackle, as now restricted by most naturalists, includes only the present group. Cuvier's genus of this name included many others. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 181 the occiput. It is found in Java, Sumatra, and the great Eastern Islands. Insects and fruits form its food; it is easily tamed, and learns to whistle and talk with facility. It is fond of cherries and grapes. If a cherry be brought and shown to it, and not given to it immediately, it will cry like a child. It will also sing and chatter like a parrot. With the natives it is a special favorite; it is sent to China in great numbers; it is also sometimes brought to Europe and America, and is kept as a pet in cages. Marsden says that it has the faculty of imitating human speech in greater perfection than any other of the feathered tribe: Bontius tells the following story: there was, when he was in Batavia, an old Javanese woman, the servant of a Chinese gardener, who kept one of these birds, which was very loquacious. Bontius was very anxious to buy it, but this the old woman would not listen to. He then begged that she would at least lend it to him that its picture might be taken, a request which was at last granted with no very good grace, the ancient Mohammedan dame being under great apprehension that Bontius would offer the abomination pork to her beloved bird. This he promised not to do, and had the loan of the Mino, which kept continually saying, " Orang Nasarani Catjor Macan Babi." This, being interpreted, means, "Christian Dog, Eater of Pork;" and Bontius came to the conclusion that the unwillingness of the old woman arose not only from the fear of her bird being desecrated by an offer of swine's flesh, but also from the apprehension that he or his servants, irritated by its contumelies, would wring its neck. M. Lesson gives an account of one he saw at Java which knew whole phrases of the Malay language. The Javanese call this bird Meo and Mancho; another species Eulabes Indicus, is said to exist, of the size of the European blackbird. THE BUPHAGINE OR OX-PECKERS. This group includes only a few species of birds, inhabiting the warmer parts of Africa, and belonging to the genus BUPHAGO. The best known is that of the COMMON OX-PECKER or BEEFEATER, so called from its habit of perching on the backs of cattle, and extracting the larvae of the bot-flies, by which those quadrupeds are commonly infested. The French call it Pique Boeuf; the scientific name is B. Africana. Singular as the diet we have mentioned may seem, it is said to constitute the principal nourishment of these birds, and the bill is certainly peculiarly adapted for gently squeezing the parasites out of the tumors caused by their presence. The cattle are said to allow the birds to perch upon them without any signs of unwillingness, which is indeed the case in respect to several other species which devour the insects found there. The Common Ox-Pecker is a small bird, about eight or nine inches in length; its plumage is reddish-brown above and yellowish-white beneath; the legs are brown and the bill yellowish, with the tips of both mandibles red. It is generally seen associated in small flocks of seven or eight individuals, and is exceedingly shy. THE STURNINE OR TRUE STARLINGS. The True Starlings are for the most part inhabitants of the eastern hemisphere, only the genus Sturnella belonging to America. In these the bill is usually elongated, rather slender, and tapering, the wings and tail rather short, the toes long and stout, and furnished with acute claws. Genus STURNUS: Sturnus.-This includes the COMMON STARE or STARLING of Europe, S. vulgaris-Etourneau of the French-a well-known, handsome, sprightly bird, often tamed, and as it can be taught to whistle tunes and articulate a few words, it is a favorite pet. It nestles in holes of rocks and buildings, and in hollow trees; the nest is composed of twigs, straws, grass, and roots; the eggs are four, of a pale blue tint. It is eight and a half inches long, of a black color, with violet and green reflections, and spotted with buff. After breeding time, the starlings assemble, often in immense flocks, and roost among the reeds in fenny districts, sometimes crushing them down by their weight, like grass after a storm. They are common in Europe, and we often see them mentioned as familiar birds in English books. They are stationary, except that in severe winters they move for a short distance southward. They have particular haunts, where they assemble in vast multitudes. From October to March, many thousands of them roost in a mass of thorn-trees in the Zoological Gardens of Dublin. Genus PASTOR: Pastor.-This includes the RoSE-CoLoRED PASTOR-Martin Roselin of the French-P. roseus, resembling the starlings, and, like them, found living in the vicinity of cattle and 182 VERTEBRATA. THE ROSE-COLORED PASTOR. sheep, and frequently mounts on their backs to find the insects imbedded in their hair and wool. It is a great destroyer of locusts, and on that account is held almost sacred in some parts; found in Asia, Africa, and Southern Europe. The Pastor tristis is a closely allied species, found in the Philippine Islands, and having been transported thence to the Mauritius by the colonists, has destroyed nearly all the insects of the island. Genus PHILESTURNUS: Philesturnus.-This includes the CARUNCULATED PHILESTURNUS, P. carunculatus, a New Zealand species, brown above and dirty white below. It is very bold, and a great babbler. THE MEADOW-LARK. Genus STURNELLA: Sturnella.-This includes one of our handsomest and most familiar birds, the MEADOW-LARK-in Virginia the Old Field-Lark-S. Ludoviciana, ten and a half inches long; body above varied with chestnut, deep brown, and black; neck and breast of a bright yellow, with a large cravat of black. It is migratory, coming to us in summer, and breeding in the meadows as far north as 56~. Its nest is carefully concealed beneath a tuft of grass, being arched over level with the ground. The eggs are from four to five, and white, spotted. It lives on seeds and insects. It is a shy, suspicious bird, and being very alert and swift of flight is shot with some difficulty. It is tough, but is esteemed for the table. It has none of the docility of the European starling, but has a tender and plaintive song during the breeding season, usually uttered at morning and evening from the top of some tall tree. The S. neglecta inhabits Western America. Genus QUISCALUS: Quiscalus.-This includes the COMMON.CRow-BLACKBIRD, Q. versicolor CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 153'"'"' THE CROmW-BLACKBIRD. -Gracula quiscala of Wilson-twelve to thirteen inches long; glossy black, with metallic, vio, let, steel-blue, and green reflections upon the head, neck, and breast; green and blue reflections upon the wings and tail. It has a long, straight bill, with the nostrils placed in triangular grooves on each side of the base. The wings are pointed, and the hind toe is long, and armed with a strong curved claw. From the interior of the upper mandible a sharp, bony process descends into the mouth, resembling the broken blade of a penknife. This is supposed to assist in breaking up the food. The tail is long and graduated, with the sides curved upward, whence the name of Boat-Tails has been given to this species. They range from the Gulf of Mexico to fifty degrees north. In the Southern States they are constant residents; in the Middle and Eastern States they are migratory. They appear in loose flocks in April, and, alighting upon the tall trees in the villages, utter a cheerful salutation, as if rejoiced to return to their native haunts. They breed in the orchards and cultivated grounds, making large nests of grass and mud upon trees, and laying five or six dull green eggs, blotched with olive. They feed on grubs, caterpillars, moths, beetles, and grain of various kinds. They are great depredators upon the fields of Indian corn in all their stages, tearing up the planted seed as soon as the infant blade makes its appearance, and devouring the milky kernels upon the ears when they have thus far advanced toward maturity. Scarecrows 184 VERTEBRATA. of every imaginable form are spread over the fields of Indian corn as soon as planted, partly intended for the crows, but more especially for these greedy and impudent marauders. When the breeding season is over they gather in immense flocks, usually roosting in the thickets of the swamps; at this time filling the whole air with their notes. In October they take their departure. Their flesh is dark and rank, and unfit for the table. They have some rather pleasing notes, which they will practice in confinement. They may be tamed, and taught to articulate a few words. Of late they appear to be much less abundant than formerly. They have almost deserted some districts where they abounded not many years ago. THE RUSTY CROW-BLACKBIRD. The RUSTY CROW-BLACKBIRD, Q.ferrugineus, is nine and a half inches long; of a rusty black color above, ash beneath; resembles the preceding, and is distributed through the same regions, but is less common. Other species are the GREAT CROW-BLACKBIRD, Q. major, sixteen inches long; glossy black; tail eight inches long and wedge-shaped; found in the Southern States; and the Q. Breweri, ten inches long; glossy black, with purple reflections; found on the upper Missouri. THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE. THE ICTERIN1E OR TROOPIALS. Genus ICTERUS: Icterus-nearly corresponding to the Xanthornus of Cuvier.-This includes several remarkable species, which may be considered American Starlings, though they bear various other names. Some of them are gregarious in their habits, whence they have been CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 185 called Troupiales by the French and Troopialsby the English. The most interesting species is the BALTIMORE ORIOLE-ranged by Le Maout under the generic name of Carouge-I. Baltimore, familiar in all the orchards of the United States. It is seven to eight inches long, of a golden-yellow color, with the head, neck, wings, and tail black; the female yellowish-olive; the food consists of flies, beetles, and caterpillars, and in the destruction of these it is very useful. It has various names, all of which are descriptive, as Golden Oriole; Hang-Bird, Fiery Hang-Bird, Golden Robin, and Baltimore Oriole, this latter title, it is said, having been bestowed because its black and yellow colors resemble the livery of Lord Baltimore, which was familiar to the colonists of Maryland in the early days of the settlement, that noble family having founded the colony. These birds appear among us from their far southern home in May; their arrival is hailed by young and old as the harbinger of spring and summer. Full of life and activity, these fairy sylphs are now seen glancing through the boughs of the loftiest trees, appearing and vanishing like living gems. The same curious fact exists in respect to them as in respect to many other birds: in the long migration from the south-often several thousand miles-the sexes have been separate; the males arrive several days before the females, not in flocks, but singly. At this time they fill the air with their notes, which, however, are shrill and plaintive, as if their joy was incomplete. Soon their partners arrive, and after many battles between the lovers, the pairing is completed, and amid frolic and song the nest is begun. This is usually the period when the apple-orchards are in bloom, and nothing can afford a picture of more enchanting and vivid beauty than these brilliant birds, in the midst of perfume and showering blossoms, sporting, singing, and rollicking-nay, sipping the honey and feasting on the insects, as if these bowers were all their own. At this time the notes of the male are often a low whistle, or now and then a full trumpet tone, one following the other in slow or rapid succession; even the female sings, though with less melody. Many of the notes of both are colloquial, and it is not difficult for a listener to fancy that he hears questions and answers between the lively couple, with occasional side observations in various keys, indicative of approbation or reproach, admiration or contempt. If a dog or cat chances to approach the neighborhood of the nest, a volley of abuse, in a sharp, rapid tone, is sure to be poured out upon the intruder. The ingenuity of the Golden Robin in building its nest has always excited admiration. Nuttall says: " This is a pendulous, cylindric pouch, of five to seven inches in depth, usually suspended from near the extremities of the high drooping branches of trees, such as the elm, the pear, or apple-tree, wild cherry, weeping-willow, tulip-tree or button-wood. It is begun by firmly fastening natural strings of the flax, of the silkweed or swamp-holyhock, or stout artificial threads, round two or more forked twigs, corresponding to the intended width and depth of the nest. With the same materials, willow-down, or any accidental ravelings, strings, thread, sewing-silk, tow, or wool that may be lying near the neighboring houses, or round the grafts of trees, they interweave and fabricate a sort of coarse cloth into the form intended, toward the bottom of which they place the real nest, made chiefly of lint, wiry grass, horse and cow-hair, lining the interior with a mixture of slender strips of smooth vinebark, and rarely, with a few feathers, the whole being of a considerable thickness, and more or less attached to the external pouch. Over the top, the leaves, as they grow out, form a verdant and agreeable canopy, defending the young from the sun and rain. There is sometimes a considerable difference in the manufacture of these nests, as well as the materials which enter into their composition. Both sexes seem to be equally adepts at this kind of labor, and I have seen the female alone perform the whole without any assistance, and the male also complete this laborious task nearly without the aid of his consort, who, however, is in general the principal worker. I have observed a nest made almost wholly of tow, which was laid out for the convenience of a miale bird, who, with this aid, completed his labor in a very short time, and frequently sung in a very ludicrous manner while his mouth was loaded with a mass larger than his head. So eager are they to obtain fibrous materials, that they will readily try at, and even untie, hard knots made of tow." The eggs of this bird are four to five, white, with a bluish tint, and faint brown lines and spots at the larger end. It raises two broods in a season. It is easily tamed, and is docile and playful in confinement. It has a turn for mimicry, and often adopts for its song the notes of other birds. VOL. II.-24 186 VERTEBRATA. The ORCHARD-ORIOLE, I. spurius, is six and a half inches long; color bright bay; head, neck, back, and wings black, it feeds on crickets, grasshoppers, spiders, and larvae, and occasionally on young fruits and berries. It builds its nest like the preceding, though it is not so pendulous, it being firmly attached all around its margin. The eggs are bluish-white, speckled with brown. This species ranges from the equator to the State of Maine, though it is rare in Northern New England; at the south it is even more common than the golden robin. Beside these there are several other species in South America, some of which build their pendulous nests in considerable numbers upon the ORIOLE A EPN IN S Isame tree. Mr. Edwards, in his voyage up the Amazon, saw forty-five nests in one small tree, of the two species, Cacicus icteronotus and C. hcmorrhous. Some of them were two feet in length, with an opening near the top. These were woven of grass, and one nest often depended from another, so that the tree was entirely covered and concealed, except only some of the topmost branches. These nests are built in this manner to protect them from thie snakes and monkeys that abound in these hot climates. The RED-WINGED ORIOLE, I. phoniceus, is seven, and a hal' inches long, color black, lesser tail-coverts red; the female striate with ai;~;.~?' brown and whitish. It is called by the various names of Swamp-Blackbird, Red-winged Blackbird, Red-winged Starling, and CornThief. Its range is from Mexico to Nova Scotia; it is migratory north of Maryland, -^u~ b y heir i_-D and stationary south of it. The nests are ORIOLE AND SERPENT IN SOUTH AMERICA.. built in swampy places, on low bushes, or in a tussock of grass, the eggs are three to five, white, tinged with blue, and marked with faint purple streaks; two broods are produced in a season; the food consists of insects and their larva, and also green corn and wild rice, with other TilE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD. S"leds. In September they gather in immense flocks, and often do great' damage to the crops, especially on the plantations of the Middle and Southern States near the sea-shore. During the CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 187 breeding season the male has a few plaintive notes, usually uttered when some danger is apprehended from an intruder; the bird possesses a high ventriloquial power; often its voice seems to come from a point near at hand, while it is in fact at the distance of ten or fifteen rods. When assembled in flocks, the whole troop join in a chorus, especially at morning and evening, and often fill the whole air with their somewhat discordant anthems. These birds pair, but yet a sort of partial polygamy prevails among them; they readily submit to confinement, and cheerfully sing their monotonous ditty in reward of attentions bestowed upon them; in some instances they have been taught to articulate words. Their flesh is not greatly esteemed. Among numerous species of birds which have of late been brought within the list of those belonging to our own country, in consequence either of the extension of our territories, so as to include Texas, New Mexico, and California, or the new researches that have been made in these regions, we may mention the BLACK-HEADED ORIOLE, I. melanocephalus, beautifully figured by Cassin. It is nine inches long; head black, back and rump yellowish-green, wings black, under parts bright yellow; found in Texas and Mexico. Other species are as follows: 1. xanthocephalus, nine inches long; general color black; head, neck, and breast yellow-orange; found in Missouri and Texas: I. tricolor, nine inches long; bluish-black; lesser wing-coverts carmine; found in California: I. gubernator, nine inches long; glossy bluish-black; found on the Columbia River: I. Bullockii, seven inches long; biack; back, rump, and belly yellow; found on the Columbia River: 1. Audubonii, eight and a lalf inches long; black and greenish-yellow; found in Texas: I. vulgaris, black and yellow; found in South Carolina; and J. cucullatus, seven and a half inches long, found in Texas and Mexico. THE COW-BLACKBIRD. Genus MOLOTHRUS: Molothrus.-This includes the COW-BLACKBIRD called by the various names of Cow-Pen-Bird, Cow-Troopial, and Cow-Bunting-M.pecoris; it is seven inches long; the head and neck blackish-brown; the rest black. It is perpetually migratory and gregarious, moving to the north in April, and usually at night, and retiring to its southern home in October. Most of them pass the winter in the tropical regions; some, however, remain in the Southern States. While most other birds pair in spring, these release themselves from all hinderance in their wanderings, and continue to live in flocks, and in a state of general concubinage. Of all the feathered tribes, this and the European cuckoo, with a few of its congeners belonging to the eastern continent, and one South American species of Molothrus, allied to the one we are describing, are, so far as we know, the only ones that do not build nests and rear their young. This, it is manifest, is not an accident or a vice; though they continually resort to deception to procure the hatching of their eggs, it is the result of a system springing from a universal and abiding instinct. The whole family, from the beginning, has been a race of foundlings. This seems like a caprice in nature, or rather a contradiction of its general principles; but such views are, doubtless, the result of our ignorance. The number of nurses selected by this vagrant is considerable, the great favorites being the Red-eyed Fly-Catcher, the White-eyed Fly-Catcher, the Maryland Yellow-Throat, the Chipping 188 VERTEB3IATA. Bird, the Song-Sparrow, the Meadow-Lark, Yellow Wrarbler, Blue-Gray Fly-Catcher, Goldencrowned Thrush, and Wilson's Thrush. When the female is disposed to lay, she steals through the bushes and brambles till she finds the nest that suits her; she then slyly and quickly deposits her egg, and immediately proceeds back to the flock. The strange egg is often a subject of wonder or surprise to the lawful proprietor of the nest; sometimes it causes a desertion of the premises; more commonly, however, it is duly hatched, and the young one carefully reared. Sometimes the athletic parasite stifles the legitimate offspring, in which case the lifeless remains are removed by the parents, who yet-unconscious of the cause of the mischief-continue to feed and cherish it as their own child. When fully fledged, the young bird departs and skulks about for a time, when at last, guided by instinct, he joins the flock of his kith and kin. They are now seen in small parties around the cattle in the cow-pen or the pastures, feeding on the seeds and worms which they pick up among the fodder or the excrements of these domestic animals. They seem to have an affinity with the red-winged blackbirds, and often large flocks of the two kinds may be seen together, sometimes feeding in the fields of corn and rice, and sometimes wheeling and winding in blackening masses through the air. The cow-blackbird has no song, and possesses few attractive qualities; in confinement it utters a low, guttural splutter, intended for music, at the same time strutting before the spectator with the affected airs of a turkey-cock. THE BOBLINK. Genus DOLYCHONIX: Dolychonix.-This includes the D. orizivorus, one of our most curious, eccentric, and amusing birds, the harlequin of the meadows, known at the north by the names of BOBLINK, or BOB-O'-LINK, or BOB-O'-LINCOLN, to which may be added the various titles of Reed-Bird, Rice-Bird, Rice-Bunting, May-Bird, Meadow-Bird, American Ortolan, ButterBird, and Skunk-Blackbird. It is six and a half inches long; color black; head and rump white, tinged with yellow. This is the full spring costume of the male; the female is brownishblack and yellow above, dull yellow beneath. This is nearly the appearance of the young birds, and also of the mnale in autumn. These birds migrate northward in spring, proceeding by night, and retire in October, flying by day. They feed on crickets, grasshoppers, beetles, spiders, and seeds of various kinds, particularly those of grasses. Their range is from Mexico to Canada. The eggs, four or five in number, are bluish-white, spotted, and placed in a nest on the ground, usually in the meadows. The "song of the male," says Wilson, " while the female is sitting, is singular and very agreeable. Mounting and hovering on wing, at a small height above the field, he chants out such a jingling medley of short, variable notes, uttered with such seeming confusion and rapidity, and continued for a considerable time, that it appears as if half a dozen birds CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 189 of different kinds were all singing together. Some idea may be formed of this song by striking the high keys of a piano-forte at random, singly and quickly, making as many sudden contrasts of high and low notes as possible. Many of the tones are, in themselves, charming; but they succeed each other so rapidly that the ear can hardly separate them. Nevertheless, the general effect is good; and, when ten or twelve are all singing on the same tree, the concert is singularly pleasing." The manner in which this bird strikes the pop lar imagination is happily illustrated by two of our most eminent writers, Irving and Bryant; and although we have already noticed it at some length (see p. 12), we surely need offer no apology for giving these accurate and felicitous delineations: "The happiest bird of our spring," says Irving, "and one that rivals the European lark in my estimation, is the Boblincon or Boblink, as he is commonly called. He arrives at that choice period of our year which, in this latitude, answers to the description of the month of May, so often given by the poets. With us, it begins about the middle of May, and lasts until nearly the middle of June. Earlier than this winter is apt to return on its traces, and to blight the opening beauties of the year; later than this begin the parching and panting and dissolving heats of summer. But in this genial interval nature is in all her freshness and fragrance;'the rains are over and gone, the flowers appear upon the earth, the time of the singing birds is come, and the voice of the turtle is heard in the land.' The trees are now in their fullest foliage and brightest verdure; the woods are gay with the clustered flowers of the laurel; the air is perfumed by the sweet-brier and the wild rose; the meadows are enameled with clover-blossoms; while the young apple, the peach, and the plum begin to swell, and the cherry to glow among the green leaves. "This is the chosen season of revelry of the boblink. He comes amid the pomp and fragrance of the season; his life seems all sensibility and enjoyment, all song and sunshine. He is to be found in the soft bosoms of the freshest and sweetest meadows, and is most in song when the clover is in blossom. He perches on the topmost twig of a tree, or on some long, flaunting weed, and as he rises and sinks with the breeze, pours forth a succession of rich tinkling notes, crowding one upon another like the outpouring melody of the sky-lark, and possessing the same rapturous character. Sometimes he pitches from the summit of a tree, begins his song as soon as he gets upon the wing, and flutters tremulously down to the earth, as if overcome with ecstasy at his own music. Sometimes he is in pursuit of his paramour; always in full song, as if he would win her by his melody, and always with the same appearance of intoxication and delight. " Of all the birds of our groves and meadows, the boblink was the envy of my boyhood. He crossed my path in the sweetest weather and the sweetest season of the year, when all nature called to the fields, and the rural feeling throbbed in every bosom, but when I, luckless urchin! was doomed to be mured up during the livelong day in that purgatory of boyhood, a school-room. It seemed as if the little varlet mocked at me as he flew by in full song, and sought to taunt me with his happier lot. Oh, how I envied him! No lessons, no task, no hateful school; nothing but holiday, frolic, green fields, and fine weather. Had I been then more versed in poetry, I might have addressed him in the words of Logan to the cuckoo:'Sweet bird! thy bower is ever green,'Oh! could I fly, I'd fly with thee, Thy sky is ever clear; We'd make, on joyful wing, Thou hast no sorrow in thy note, Our annual visit round the globe, No winter in thy year. Companions of the spring!' "Further observation and experience have given me a different idea of this little feathered voluptuary, which I will venture to impart for the benefit of my school-boy readers, who may regard him with the same unqualified envy and admiration which I once indulged. I have shown him only as I saw him at first, in what I may call the poetic part of his career, when he in a manner devoted himself to elegant pursuits and enjoyments, and was a bird of music, and song, and taste, and sensibility, and refinement. While this lasted he was sacred from injury; the very schoolboy would not fling a stone at him, and the merest rustic would pause to listen to his strain. But mark the difference. As the year advances, as the clover blossoms disappear, and the spring fades into summer, he gradually gives up his elegant tastes and habits, doffs his poetical suit of 190 VERTEBRATA. black, assumes a russet, dusky garb, and sinks to the gross enjoyments of common, vulgar birds. His notes no longer vibrate on the ear; he is stuffing himself with the seeds of the tall weeds, on which he lately swung and chanted so melodiously. He has become a'bon-vivant,' a'gournand;' with him now there is nothing like the'joys of the table.' In a little while he grows tired of plain, homely fare, and is off on a gastronomical tour in quest of foreign luxuries. We next hear of him, with myriads of his kind, banqueting among the reeds of the Delaware, and grown corpulent with good feeding. He has changed his name in traveling: Boblincon no more, he is the Reed-Bird now, the much sought for titbit of Pennsylvania epicures; the rival in unlucky fame of the ortolan! Wherever he goes, pop! pop! pop every rusty firelock in the country is blazing away. He sees his companions falling by thousands around him. "Does he take warning and reform? Alas, not he! Incorrigible epicure! again he wings his flight. The rice-swamps of the South invite him. He gorges himself among them almost to bursting; he can scarcely fly for corpulency. He has once more changed his name, and is now the famous Rice-Bird of the Carolinas. "Last stage of his career: behold him spitted with dozens of his corpulent companions, and served up a vaunted dish on the table of some Southern gastronome. " Such is the story of the boblink: once spiritual, musical, admired, the joy of the meadows, and the favorite bird of spring; finally, a gross little sensualist, who expiates his sensuality in the larder. His story contains a moral worthy the attention of all little birds and little boys, warning them to keep to those refined and intellectual pursuits which raised him to so high a pitch of popularity during the early part of his career; but to eschew all tendency to that gross and dissipated indulgence which brought this mistaken little bird to an untimely end." Bryant speaks in a gayer humor: " Merrily swinging on briar and weed, "Six white eggs on a bed of hay, Near to the nest of his little dame, Flecked with purple, a pretty sight: Over the mountain, river, and mead, There as the mother sits all day, Robert of Lincoln is telling his name: Robert is singing with all his might: Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, Spink, spank, spink; Spink, spank, spink; Snug and safe is that nest of ours, Nice good wife that never goes out, Hidden among the summer flowers, Keeping home while I frolic about, Chee, chee, chee. Chee, chee, chee. "Robert of Lincoln is gaily drest, "Soon as the little ones chip the shell, Wearing a bright blue wedding-coat, Six wide mouths are open for food; White on his shoulders and white his crest, Robert of Lincoln bestirs him well, Hear him call, in his merry note: Gathering seeds for the hungry brood: Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, Spink, spank, spink; Spink, spank, spink. Look what a nice new coat is mine, This new life is likely to be Sure there was never a bird so fine, Hard for a gay young fellow like me, Chee, chee, chee. Chee, chee, chee. "Robert of Lincoln's Quaker wife, "Robert of Lincoln at length is made Pretty and quiet, with plain brown wings, Sober with work and silent with care; Passing at home a patient life, Off is his holiday garment laid, Breeds in the grass while her husband sings: Half-forgotten that merry air: Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, Spink, spank, spink; Spink, spank, spink; Brood, kind creature, and never fear Nobody knows but my wife and I Thieves or robbers while I am here, Where our nest and our nestlings lie, Chee, chee, chee. Chee, chee, chee. "Modest and shy as a nun is she, "Summer wanes-the children are grown, One weak chirp is her only note; Leisure and frolic no more he knows; Braggart and prince of braggarts is he, Robert of Lincoln's a hum-drum crone, Pouring boasts from his little throat: Off he flies, and we sing as he goes: Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, Spink, spank, spink; Spink, spank, spink; Never was I afraid of man, When you can pipe that merry old strain, Catch me, cowardly knaves, if you can, Robert of Lincoln, come again, Chee, chee, chee. Chee, chee, chee." CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 191 Such is the Bobolink of our meadows, and such has he been from "creation's dawn"-a gay, rollicking fellow, satisfied with himself, and therefore content with the world around him. We, in our conceit, imagine that he lives in our fields because he loves us, and that he sings because his song pleases us; but the fact is, that he prefers our meadows only because they afford him food and shelter. He is not indebted to man for his existence, nor dependent upon man for his happiness. No doubt that he and his kindred migrated to these temperate zones, and built their nests and poured out their ditties, just as they do now, in the dim ages of the past, long, long before civilized man had settled or even discovered America. The morning and the evening hymn of these birds filled the air when only the stolid Indian was their listener, or even before, just as at the present day. The other familiar birds-robins, sparrows, bluebirds, orioles, fly-catchers, swallows-which nestle around our houses, are attracted to these places, not by any sympathy with man, but by the fruits he produces, and the worms and insects that flourish in the rich soil which he creates; perchance in some cases by the protection which the presence of man affords to them and their offspring, from hawks, owls, eagles, and other enemies. Birds are quick observers; if by chance one of them finds a feast in a field, in his visits to it he is noticed, and thus becomes a telegraph to others. In the spring of 1858 I had a rich garden-lot plowed up and laid down to grass, sowing it first with oats and then with grass-seed. In a week it was the general resort of birds of many kinds-robins, orioles, cat-birds, blackbirds, sparrows, linnets, and finches. The circumstances permitted me to observe their proceedings, and I readily perceived that the orioles, seeing the robins attracted to this spot, followed them; the cat-birds followed the orioles, the blackbirds followed the cat-birds, and so on. A group of school-boys are not sooner informed of a deposit of nuts, than are the birds, of a harvest of seeds or insects. Thus it is that cultivated districts become the chief resort of many species, especially during the breeding season. By the facilities of support thus afforded, many kinds of birds may be, and doubtless are, increased in numbers; many, certainly, are thus drawn around the abodes of man. But by far the larger part of the birds throughout the world are never seen by man. Not a twentieth part of the world's surface is occupied even by the thousand millions of human inhabitants. The morning-that daily miracle of the universe-that diurnal creation of a world of light out of the chaos of darkness-rises upon the surface of the boundless sea, the lone mountain, the remote wilderness, scattering on every side its light, and everywhere waking its anthem of life, though man is not there to witness it, or to participate in it. The depths of the ocean are illumined with gems and coral, and fishes of purple and gold, yet from these boundless realms man is forever banished. The gorgeous trogons of Central America, the superb macaws of Brazil, the glittering touracos of Africa, the satin bower-birds of Australia-the myriads of feathered tribes, either glorious in the splendor of their plumage or the melody of their songs-have enlivened their native haunts for thousands of years without the presence of man; nay, the very instincts of many of these birds, endowed with surpassing beauty, lead them to hide their splendors in the remote, undiscovered recesses of the wilderness. Here, in these hermit retreats, they flourish, singing, sporting, and spreading their golden feathers to the sun, so long as man is not there; when he approaches, they dwindle away and perish; for man, in respect to many of the feathered tribes, is not their friend, but their enemy and destroyer. In the Astor Library is a magnificent work by Gould on the birds of Australia-seven volumes, folio-and all these diversified tribes-some of them of a splendor of plumage that defies description-have remained till the present century unknown to civilized man. Nay, whole races of birds, with all their shining feathers and delicious melody, have lived, flourished, and passed away, ages before man was an inhabitant of the earth. It is manifest that man, in a physical sense, is not necessary to the great movement of life and light, of majesty and dominion, in the universe. He is only a humble incident in creation; the birds sing and the trees wave, equally unconscious of his presence and his absence. They were not made for him, nor he for them; all are subservient to the Creator. How strange, how mysterious, how humiliating is the state of man, self-banished, by atheistic doubt or infidelity, from the great Author of Life and Light, since he, and he alone, of all created things, can know his isolation and appreciate his condition; how glorious his hopes and expectations, when viewed in that Mirror of Faith which carries him beyond this transient being-this alliance with birds and beasts-into everlasting communion with his Maker! 192 VERTEBRATA. / 2,_____/ /,,' /', ___ __ 1 IT THN FLUTE-PLAYING CASSICAN. THE HOODED-CROW OF EUROPE. THE CORVIDIE OR CROWS. This family includes not only the typical crows, but a number of other groups, as the PipingCrows, the Jays, the Tree-Crows, the Magpies, Choughs, Jackdaws, and Paradise Birds. These are all omnivorous, feeding on fruits and animal substances of various kinds. THE STREPERINJE OR PIPING-CROWS. These birds-the Cassicans of some authors; the Baritas of Cuvier-belong to Australia and the adjacent islands: they are distinguished from the other Corvidse by the form of the nostrils, each of which consists of a long, narrow slit in the substance of the bill, and is usually completely exposed. The bill itself is long and compressed, broad at the base, where the ridge projects upon the forehead, and the tip is more or less notched. They are restless, noisy, and omnivorous like other crows, but, unlike them, they have some musical notes. One species, the FLUTE-PLAYING CASSICAN, Gymnorhina tibicen, is of a grayish-brown color, and is very voracious, even devouring small birds. The WAKENING CASSICAN, Coracias strepera of Latham, is found in Norfolk Island; it never sleeps at night, but keeps the country round awake by its sonorous cries. THE GARRULINXE OR JAYS. Genus GARRULUS: Garrulus.-This includes the COMMON JAY OF EUROPE-the Gaza Verla of the Italians, the Geai of the French, and Holz-Hdher of the Germans-G. glandarius. It is a very beautiful bird, sixteen inches long, of a light reddish-brown color, with the primary wing-coverts bright blue, elegantly banded with black. The feathers of the fore part of the head are whitish, spotted with black, and elongated so as to form a crest, which the bird can erect at pleasure; the quill-feathers of the wings and tail, and a streak on each side of the chin, are black. It is common throughout Europe; inhabits thick woods, and is shy in its habits. It feeds to a great extent upon vegetable matters, such as acorns and beech-mast, and in summer often visits gardens, tempted by the cultivated fruits. It also feeds on insects and worms. Its nest is formed in tall bushes, or in the lower branches of trees; but always-well concealed among CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 193 zg,'/ cA? THE EUROPEAN JAY. THE EUROPEAN NUT-CRACKER. (See p. 195.) the leaves. It is cup-shaped, formed of small sticks, and lined with finer materials, such as small roots and grass; the eggs are five or six in number. It is of a lively disposition, and has a trick of concealing objects and laying up stores like the magpie. It is capable of some education, and has great powers of imitation. In a state of nature it has been known to mimic the voices of other animals so exactly that it was difficult to believe that the creatures personated were really absent. Montagu says, that in the spring the Jay will sometimes utter a sort of song, which he describes as soft and pleasing, but into which it introduces at intervals the bleating of a lamb, the mewing of a cat, the note of a kite or buzzard, the hooting of an owl, and even the neighing of a horse and similar sounds. In confinement, of course, a wider field is opened for the bird's talents for mimicry; and it usually takes advantage of its position to pick up and repeat every sound with which it is familiar. Thus Bewick mentions a Jay that imitated "the sound of a saw so exactly that, though it was on a Sunday, we could hardly be persuaded that there was not a carpenter at work in the house." Mr. Yarrell also refers to one of these birds, in the possession of a surgeon in Berkshire, which, before it was twelve months old, imitated the ordinary household sounds with astonishing accuracy. He would give what might be called a Poultry-yard Entertainment, imitating the calling of the fowls to feed, and all the noises of the fowls themselves in perfection; but the crowing of the cock was not managed so well. The barking and noises of the house-dog were imitated in a style that could not be, distinguished from the original. Among several other foreign species of Jay are the G. infaustus, somewhat smaller than the preceding, found in Northern Europe; and the G. lanceolatus and G. bispecularis, both of India. In America the jays are more numerous than in the other hemisphere, though they chiefly belong to the warmer regions of this continent. The prevailing hues are different shades of blue, variegated with white, black, or yellow. They generally possess the characteristics of cunning and the turn for mimicry belonging to the European jay. The prominent species in the United States is the BLUE JAY, G. cristatus. This is eleven inches long; light purplish-blue above; beneath white, with a faint bluish tinge. It is migratory in New England, but becomes sedentary in' the Middle States; found from Texas to Canada. Wilson says: "This elegant bird is distinguished as a kind of beau among the feathered tenants of our woods, by the brilliancy of his VOL. II.-25 194 V ERTEBRATA. dress; and, like most other coxcombs, makes himself still more conspicuous by his loquacity, and the oddness of his tones and gestures. He is an almost universal inhabitant of the woods, frequenting the thickest settlements as well as the deepest recesses of the forest, where his squalling voice often alarms the deer, to the disappointment and mortification of the hunter; one of whom informed me, that he made it a point, in summer, to kill every jay he could meet with. In the charming season of spring, when every thicket pours forth harmony, the part performed by the jay always catches the ear. lie appears to be among his fellow-musicians what the trumpeter is in a band, some of his notes having no distant resemblance to the tones of that instrument. These he has the faculty of changing through a great variety of modulations, according to the particular humor he happens to be in. When disposed for ridicule, there is scarce a bird whose peculiarities of song he cannot tune his notes to. When engaged in the blandishments of love, they resemble the soft chatterings of a duck, and, while he nestles among the thick branches of the cedar, are scarce heard at a few paces' distance; but he no sooner discovers your approach than he sets up a sudden and vehement outcry, flying off, and screaming with all his might, as if he called the whole feathered tribes of the neighborhood to witness sonic outrageous usage he' had received. When he hops undisturbed among the high branches of the oak and hickory, they become soft and musical; and his calls of the female, a stranger would readily mistake for the repeated screakings of an ungreased wheelbarrow. All these he accompanies with various nods, jerks, and other gesticulations, for which the whole tribe of jays are remarkable. "This bird builds a large nest, frequently in the cedar, sometimes on an apple-tree, lines it with dry fibrous roots, and lays five eggs, of a dull olive, spotted with brown. The male is particularly careful of not being heard near the place, making his visits as silently and secretly as possible. His favorite food consists of chestnuts, acorns, and Indian corn. He occasionally feeds on bugs and caterpillars, and sometimes pays a plundering visit to the orchard, cherry-rows, and potatopatch; and has been known, in times of scarcity, to venture into the barn, through openings between the weather-boards. In these cases he is extremely active and silent, and, if surprised in the fact, makes his escape with precipitation, but without noise, as if conscious of his criminality. "Of all birds, he is the most bitter enemy of the owl. No sooner has he discovered the retreat of one of these, than he summons the whole feathered fraternity to his assistance, who surround the glimmering solitaire, and attack him from all sides, raising such a shout as may be heard, in a still day, more than half a mile off. When, in my hunting excursions, I have passed near this scene of tumult, I have imagined to myself that I heard the insulting party venting their respective charges with all the virulency of a Billingsgate mob; the owl, meanwhile, returning every compliment with a broad, goggling stare. The war becomes louder and louder, and the owl at length, forced to betake himself to flight, is followed by his whole train of persecutors, until driven beyond the boundaries of their jurisdiction. "But the blue jay himself is not guiltless of similar depredations with the owl, and becomes in his turn the very tyrant he detested, when he sneaks through the woods, as he frequently does, and among the thickets and hedge-rows, plundering every nest he can find of its eggs, tearing up the callow young by piecemeal, and spreading alarm and sorrow around him. The cries of the distressed parents soon bring together a number of interested spectators-for birds in such circumstances seem truly to sympathize with each other-and he is sometimes attacked with such spirit as to be under the necessity of making a speedy retreat. " He is not only bold and vociferous, but possesses a considerable talent for mimicry, and seems to enjoy great satisfaction in mocking and teasing other birds, particularly the sparrow-hawk, imitating his cry wherever he sees him, and squealing out as if caught; this soon brings a number of his own tribe around him, who all join in the frolic, darting about the hawk, and feigning the cries of a bird sorely wounded, and already under the clutches of its devourer; while others lie concealed in bushes, ready to second their associates in the attack. But this ludicrous farce often terminates tragically. The hawk, singling out one of the most insolent and provoking, sweeps upon him in an unguarded moment, and offers him up a sacrifice to his hunger and resentment. In an instant the tune is changed; all their buffoonery vanishes, and loud and incessant screams proclaim their disaster. N "~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~'_K:.:'-" "'""' ~":.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~" i~ I'K.1>,,,,,. ~~~~~~~~:. ~ N>XXN'N K~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\\\\\\\\\\\ "'N>~ K~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ""~:s "' K'K "~s~"' N~F~ie K> K~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'K. K //~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i NN<~~'K~~~~~~~: 7 II'K K~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,I ~~~~~~~~~:- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~''~~\'\'\\'K\\~'K~~~~~~~~'~ /,~'-~;'7 >'K'K \ "> NK\ ~~i~~_~~4BLU JAYC~~~m~6_~~~S~_; CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 195 "Wherever the jay has had the advantage of education from man, he has not only shown himself an apt scholar, but his suavity of manners seems equalled only by his art and contrivances, though it must be confessed, that his itch for thieving keeps pace with all his other acquirements. Dr. Mease informs me, that a blue jay, which was brought up in the family of a gentleman, had all the tricks and loquacity of a parrot; pilfered every thing he could conveniently carry off, and hid them in holes and crevices; answered to his name with great sociability when called on; could articulate a number of words pretty distinctly; and, when he heard an uncommon noise, or loud talking, seemed impatient to contribute his share to the general festivity, by a display of all the oratorical powers he was possessed of. "Mr. Bartram relates an instance of the jay's sagacity worthy of remark.'Having caught a jay in the winter season,' says he,'I turned him loose in the green-house, and fed him with corn, the heart of which they are very fond of. This grain being ripe and hard, the bird at first found a difficulty in breaking it, as it would start from his bill when he struck it. After looking about, and, as if considering for a moment, he picked up his grain, carried and placed it close up in a corner on the shelf, between the wall and a plant-box, where, being confined on three sides, he soon effected his purpose, and continued afterward to make use of this same practical expedient.''The jay,' continues this judicious observer,'is one of the most useful agents in the economy of nature for disseminating forest trees and other ruciferous and hard-seeded vegetables on which they feed. Their chief employment, during the autumnal season, is foraging to supply their winter stores. In performing this necessary duty, they drop abundance of seed in their flight over fields, hedges, and by fences, where they alight to deposit them in the post-holes, &c. It is remarkable what numbers of young trees rise up in fields and pastures after a wet winter and spring. These birds alone are capable, in a few years' time, to replant all the cleared lands."' The CANADA JAY, G. Canadensis, is ten inches long; head black; back leaden-gray; beneath light leaden-brown. It is a northern bird, but found occasionally in the winter as far south as New York, where it is called the Carrion-Bird. The G. Stelleri is generally of a blue color, head and neck blackish; tail long; whole length twelve inches; found in Mexico. The G. Floridensis is eleven to twelve inches long; back light yellowish-brown; head, wings, and tail blue; beneath gray; found in Florida and the Western States. The:G. ultramarinus is twelve inches long, blue and brownish-olive; found in California. The MEXICAN JAY, Cyanocorax luxuosus, beautifully figured by Cassin, has the head blue and black, and the body a parrot-like green; it is above twelve inches long, and found in Texas and Mexico. PRINCE MAXIMILIAN'S JAY, GymnoJitta cyanocephala, also figured by Cassin, is ten inches long; color ashy-blue; found in New Mexico and Nebraska. There are several other species in North America. Among the South American species are the GREAT CRESTED JAY, C'yanocorax pileatus, C. violaceus, C. azureus, Cyanocitta ornata, &c. Genus NUCIFRAGA: Nucifraga.-To this belongs the NUT-CRACKER, N. caryocatactes-the Casse noix of the French: size of the European jay; color umber-brown, dappled with white spots; nestles in hollow trees; the eggs five or six; feeds on insects, the seeds of pine, and berries; sometimes on young birds and eggs; it cracks nuts in the same manner as the nut-hatch; found in Central Europe; rare in England. There are varieties of pure white and yellowish-white. THE CALLEATINE OR TREE-CROWS. In these birds the upper mandible is not toothed at the tip; the bill is short, with the ridge much elevated at the base, and considerably curved; the wings are short and rounded, the tail long, the tarsi covered with transverse scales, and the two lateral toes are unequal. The species are peculiar to the eastern hemisphere, of which they generally inhabit the warmer regions. The typical species, Callceas cinerea, sometimes called the NEW ZEALAND CROW, in its habits resembles the ordinary crows, feeding on fruits, insects, and occasionally on small birds; its general color is a greenish-black, and on each side of the head there is a small wattle of a bright blue tint. THE CORVIN1E OR TRUE CROWS. These, like the preceding, are destitute of the teeth at the tip of the upper mandible, the ridge 196 VERTEBRATA. THE GREAT CRESTED JAY. (See p. 195.) of which is more or less curved; the wings are long, and very slightly rounded, the tail variable in form, the tarsi long, and covered with transverse scales, and the two lateral toes are equal. Some of this species are undoubtedly the most intelligent of the feathered races. Genus CORVUS: Corvus.-At the head of this stands the RAVEN, C. corax, among the most remarkable of the feathered races. It is two feet long; its color black, tinged with violet. Like all the corvine birds, it has a high, round, knife-shaped beak, provided with bristles at the base, which incline forward. It is common to the northern parts of both continents; builds in wooded districts; lays from three to five eggs of a soiled-green color, spotted with olive-brown. Its food consists of dead animal matter, even carrion, with worms, grubs, reptiles, birds' eggs, fish, and shell-fish. It is also charged with carrying off young ducks and chickens from the farms that chance to be near its haunts. It is exceedingly intelligent, and can be taught to articulate words; it lives to a great age, a hundred years or more it is said, and from early periods of history has been connected with various popular superstitions. In the Bible we are told that at the end of forty days, after the great flood had covered the earth, Noah, wishing to ascertain whether or no the waters had abated, sent forth a raven, which did not return into the ark. This is the first historical notice of this species. Though the raven was declared unclean by the law of Moses, CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 197 THE RAVEN. yet, when the prophet Elijah provoked the enmity of Ahab, by prophesying against him, and hid himself by the Brook Cherith, the ravens were appointed by heaven to bring him his daily food. But, though thus honored, this bird seems in all ages to have been considered ominous of evil. In the days of auguries and divination, it was used by the priests as the instrument of foretelling future events, and all its actions, its flight, and every modulation of its croakings, were watched as the awful suggestions of prophecy. In most cases, the managers of these oracles were impostors, using them only as means of gaining an ascendency over the people; the latter, however, were real believers, and in some cases their credulity was so great that individuals ate the heart and entrails of the raven, under the idea that its prophetic faculty would thus pass into their possession! Taking advantage of the superstitions which even yet are associated with the raven, the poet Poe has produced a poem to which this bird gives title, and which, by its spectral images, produces a striking effect on the imagination: "Open here I flung my shutter, Ghastly, grim, and ancient raven, When, with many a flirt and flutter, Wandering from the nightly shoreIn there stepp'd a stately raven Tell me what thy lordly name is, Of the saintly days of yore: On the night's Plutonian shore?'Not the least obeisance made he, Quoth the raven,' Nevermore!' Not an instant stopp'd or staid he, * But, with mien of lord or lady, Perched above my chamber door- "'Be that word our sign of parting, Perched upon a bust of Pallas, Bird or fiend,' I shrieked upstarting; Just above my chamber door;'Get thee back into the tempest, Perched and sat, and nothing more. And the night's Plutonian shore! Leave no black plume as a token "Then this ebon bird beguiling Of that lie thy soul hath spokenMy sad fancy into smiling, Leave my loneliness unbroken, By the grim and stern decorum Quit the bust above my door; Of the countenance it wore: Take thy beak from out my heart,'Though thy crest be shorn and shaven, And take thy form from off my door'Thou'-I said-' art sure no craven, Quoth the raven,'Nevermore!"' There is perhaps no bird more widely distributed over the surface of the globe than the raven. A British writer says it "croaks as gravely as with ourselves on the shores of the Black and Cas 198 VERTEBRATA. pian Seas, visits our Indian metropolis of Calcutta, forces its way over the guarded shores of Japan, dwells among our busy descendants of America, ranges from Mount Etna to the Iceland cold of Hecla, and braves the rigor of the arctic regions as far as Melville's Island." Captain Ross speaks of it as "one of the few birds capable of braving the severity of an arctic winter;" and Dr. Richardson says that "it frequents the Barren Grounds of the most intense winter cold, its movements being directed in a great measure by those of the herds of reindeer, musk-oxen, and bisons, which it follows, ready to assist in devouring such as are killed by beasts of prey or by accident. No sooner has a hunter slaughtered an animal than these birds are seen coming from various quarters to feast on the offal; and considerable numbers constantly attend the fishing sta tions, where they show equal boldness and rapacity." The raven is rarely seen in the Eastern States, but is common in the West, and especially in the vicinity of Niagara, and thence northward to the Fur Countries. TUE CARRION-CROW OF EUROPE. The CARRION-CROW OF EUROPE, C. Corone~-Corneille Noire of the French-in England passes under the various names of Flesh-Crow, Gor-Crow, Black Crow, Corby-Crow, and Hoody. It is eighteen inches long, its plumage black and highly glossed, with purple reflections above and green beneath. It is naturally intelligent, and living in the vicinity of man becomes exceedingly wary; it readily distinguishes between a man with a gun in his hand, and from whom it flies in fear and terror, and a man on horseback, whom it permits to approach more nearly without signs of alarm. It inhabits at all seasons Germany, France, Spain, Great Britain, and Italy. Temminck says it is a native of Japan. It lives in pairs all the year, and seldom more than two are found together, unless at a feast of carrion. Its partiality to animal food, even though it be in a putrid state, has given it several of its popular names. It attacks lambs and small quadrupeds, as well as young birds; it also eats shell-fish on the sea-shore. In default of meat it eats grain, potatoes, and has been known to feed on green walnuts. It is an early breeder, and commences building its nest in February. The female lays four or five eggs of a pale bluish-green, spotted and speckled with two shades of ash-color and clove-brown. Its voice is harsh, but in captivity it becomes tame and familiar, and shows a great deal of amusing cunning. The following ballad is descriptive of some of the more remarkable characteristics of this bird: "The Carrion Crow is a sexton bold, He raketh the dead from out the mould; He delveth the ground like a miser old, Stealthily hiding his store of gold. Caw! caw! CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 199 "The Carrion-Crow hath a coat of black, Silky and sleek like a priest's, on his back; Like a lawyer he grubbeth-no matter what wayThe fouler the offal the richer his prey. (Cw! caw the Carrion- Crow Dig / dig! in the ground below / "The Carrion-Crow hath a dainty maw, With savory pickings he crammeth his craw; Kept meat from the gibbet it pleaseth his whim, It never can ]hang too long for him. Caw! caw "The Carrion-Crow smelleth powder,'tis said, Like a soldier escheweth the taste of cold lead; No jester in mime hath more marvelous wit, For wherever he lighteth he maketh a hit. Caw! caw! the Carrion- Crow / Dig! dig! in the ground below!" The AMERICAN CROW, C. Americanus, is somewhat smaller than the preceding; it differs from that species also in having a more sonorous voice, and in being gregarious in its habits. In color, form, and food it is similar. Its length is seventeen inches; its color a shiny, glossy blue-black; the color of the female is somewhat duller; the food consists of grains, insects, carrion, fiogs, tadpoles, lizards, small fish and shell-fish. Wilson says: " This is perhaps the most generally known, and least beloved, of all our land birds; having neither melody of song, nor beauty of plumage, nor excellence of flesh, nor civility of manners to recommend him; on the contrary, he is branded as a thief and a plunderer-a kind of black-coated vagabond, who hovers over the fields of the industrious, fattening on their labors, and, by his voracity, often blasting their expectations. Hated as he is by the farmer, watched and persecuted by almost every bearer of a gun, who all triumph in his destruction, had not heaven bestowed on him intelligence and sagacity far beyond common, there is reason to believe that the whole tribe would long ago have ceased to exist. It is a constant attendant on agriculture, and a general inhabitant of the cultivated parts of North America. In the interior of the forest he is more rare, unless during the season of breeding. He is particularly attached to low, flat corn countries lying in the neighborhood of the sea or of large rivers; and is more numerous in the Northern than Southern States, where vultures abound, with whom the crows are unable to contend. About the middle of March they pair, and soon begin to build, generally choosing a high tree; their nests are formed externally of sticks, wet moss, thin bark, mixed with mossy earth, and lined with large quantities of horsehair, to the amount of more than half a pound, some cow-hair, and some wool, forming a very soft and elastic bed. The eggs are four, of a pale green color, marked with numerous specks and blotches of olive. During this interesting season the male is extremely watchful, making frequent excursions of half a mile or so in circuit to reconnoiter; and the instant he observes a person approaching, he gives the alarm, when both male and female retire to a distance till the intruder has gone past. He also regularly carries food to his mate while she is sitting, occasionally relieves her, and, when she returns, again resigns up his post. At this time, also, as well as until the young are able to fly, they preserve uncommon silence, that their retreat may not be suspected. " It is in the month of May, and until the middle of June, that the crow is most destructive to the corn-fields, digging up the newly planted grains of maize, pulling up by the roots those that have begun to vegetate, and thus frequently obliging the farmer to replant, or lose the benefit of the soil; and this sometimes twice, and even three times, occasioning a considerable additional expense, and inequality of harvest. No mercy is now shown him. The myriads of worms, moles, mice, caterpillars, grubs, and beetles, which he has destroyed, are altogether overlooked on these occasions. Detected in robbing the hens' nests, pulling up the corn, and killing the young chickens, he is considered as an outlaw, and sentenced to destruction. But the great difficulty is, how to put this sentence in execution. In vain the gunner skulks along the hedges and fences; his faithful sentinels, planted on some commanding point, raise the alarm, and disappoint vengeance 200 VERTEBRATA. of its object. The coast again clear, he returns once more in silence, to finish the repast he had begun. Sometimes he approaches the farm-house by stealth, in search of young chickens, which he is in the habit of snatching off, when he can elude the vigilance of the mother hen, who often proves too formidable for him. "So universal is the hatred to crows, that few states, either here or in Europe, have neglected to offer rewards for their destruction. In the United States they have been repeatedly ranked in our laws with the wolves, the panthers, foxes, and squirrels, and a proportionable premium offered for their heads, to be paid by any justice of the peace to whom they are delivered. On all these accounts, various modes have been invented for capturing them. They have been taken in clap-nets, commonly used for taking pigeons, two or three live crows being previously procured as decoys, or, as they are called, stool-crows. Corn has been steeped in a strong decoction of hellebore, which, when eaten by them, produces a giddiness, and finally, it is said, death. Pieces of paper formed into the shape of a hollow cone, besmeared within with bird-lime, and a grain or two of corn dropped on the bottom, have also been adopted. Numbers of these being placed on the ground, where corn has been planted, the crows attempting to reach the grains are instantly hoodwinked, fly directly upward to a great height, but generally descend near the spot whence they rose, and are easily taken. The reeds of their roosting places are sometimes set on fire during a dark night, and the gunners having previously posted themselves around, the crows rise in great uproar, and amid the general consternation, by the light of the burnings, hundreds of them are shot down. "Crows have been employed to catch crows by the following stratagem: a live crow is pinned by the wings down to the ground on his back by means of two sharp, forked sticks. Thus situated, his cries are loud and incessant, particularly if any other crows are within view. These, sweeping down about him, are instantly grappled by the prostrate prisoner, by the same instinctive impulse that urges a drowning person to grasp at every thing within his reach. Having disengaged the game from his clutches, the trap is again ready for another experiment; and by pinning down each captive successively, as soon as taken, in a short time you will probably have a large flock screaming above you, in concert with the outrageous prisoners below.* Many farmers, however, are content with hanging up the skins or dead carcasses of crows in their corn-fields, in terrorem; others depend altogether on the gun, keeping one of their people supplied with ammunition, and constantly on the look-out. In hard winters the crows suffer severely, so that they have been observed to fall down in the fields, and the roads, exhausted with cold and hunger. In one of these winters, and during a long-continued, deep snow, more than six hundred crows were shot on the carcass of a dead horse, which was placed at a proper distance from the stable, from a hole of which the discharges were made. The premiums awarded for these, with the price paid for the quills, produced nearly as much as the original value of the horse, besides, as the man himself assured me, saving feathers sufficient for filling a bed. "The crow is easily raised and domesticated, and it is only when thus rendered unsuspicious of, and placed on terms of familiarity with man, that the true traits of his genius and native disposition fully develop themselves. In this state he soon learns to distinguish all the members of the family; flies toward the gate screaming at the approach of a stranger; learns to open the door by alighting on the latch; attends regularly at the stated hours of dinner and breakfast, which he appears punctually to recollect; is extremely noisy and loquacious; imitates the sounds of various words pretty distinctly; is a great thief and hoarder of curiosities, hiding in holes, corners, and erevices every loose article he can carry off, particularly small pieces of metal, corn, bread, and food of all kinds; is fond of the society of his master, and will know him even after a long absence, of which the following is a remarkable instance, and may be relied on as a fact: a very worthy gentleman, who resided on the Delaware, a few miles below Easton, had raised a * In New England scare-crows in the form of ragged, beggarly men are generally adopted to save the recently planted corn from the crows and blackbirds, many of these specimens of art displaying considerable humor; sometimes a windmill with a clapper is set in the field; shingles and pieces of tin suspended by a twine, and whirling in the wind, are common. But the cheapest and best defence of the corn-field is no doubt a series of lines of twine strung across the field. A kind of twine for this express purpose is manufactured and sold in the country stores. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 201 crow, with whose tricks and society he used frequently to amuse himself. This crow lived long in the family, but at length disappeared, having, as was then supposed, been shot by some vagrant gunner, or destroyed by accident. About eleven months after this, as the gentleman one morning, in company with several others, was standing on the river-shore, a number of crows happening to pass by, one of them left the flock, and flying directly toward the company, alighted on the gentleman's shoulder, and began to gabble away with great volubility, as one long absent friend naturally enough does on meeting with another. On recovering from his surprise, the gentleman instantly recognized his old acquaintance, and endeavored, by several civil but sly maneuvers, to lay hold of him; but the crow, not altogether relishing quite so much familiarity, having now had a taste of the sweets of liberty, cautiously eluded all his attempts, and suddenly glancing his eye on his distant companions, mounted in the air after them, soon overtook and mingled with them, and was never afterward seen to return." The FISH-CRow, C. ossifragus, is sixteen inches long, black, builds on tall trees; eggs four or five. It haunts the borders of rivers and sea-coasts, and feeds on dead as well as living fish, waterlizards, &c.; it is found often in flocks along the sea-shore from Georgia to New Jersey, and breeds in the latter state. It is less suspicious than other crows, and sometimes becomes familiar near the farms, hopping up on the backs of cattle to feed on the parasitic insects. It attends on the fisheries of New Jersey and the shad-fisheries of the Delaware to devour the offal. It is often confounded with the common crow, but may be distinguished on examination, as it is somewhat smaller, and has the chin naked. Other American species of crow are the WHITE-NECKED CROW, C. cryptoleucus, of the country of the Rio Grande and Gila; and the NORTHWESTERN FISHCROW, C. caurinus, of Washington Territory. The HOODED CROW, C. cornix-Corbeau mantele of the French, and called in England by the various names of the Royston-Crow, Gray-backed Crow, Dun Crow, Bunting-Crow, and HoodyCrow-resembles the preceding in character and habits, though it is said to be more mischievous. It is twenty inches long; the general color shiny black; nape of the neck, back, rump, and under surface of the body a smoke-gray. Its voice is more shrill than that of the common crow, but it lives on the same food, except when near the sea it devours sand-worms, shell-fish, and other marine productions. It is exceedingly intelligent, and when it wishes to break a cockle or mussel shell, it will soar into the air and drop it on a rock, and thus get at the flesh. Many other curious instances of the sagacity of this bird are related. It is found all over Europe, and in some places is very numerous. Sometimes common crows are seen mingled with them; indeed, these two species are said occasionally to breed together, but whether the hybrid product is prolific is not determined. THE ROOK. The ROOK, C. frugilegus, is nineteen inches long, and greatly resembles the common crow, the whole plumage being black, glossed with purple; white, pied, and cream-colored varieties someVOL. II.-26 202 VERTEBRATA. times occur. It feeds on insects and worms, and is supposed to be very beneficial to the farmers by the immense number of noxious creatures which it thus destroys. It constructs its nests in high trees, and often hundreds, and indeed thousands, build in the same wood, constituting what is called a Rookery. This is usually placed near human habitations, and indeed these birds often breed in trees in large cities. A few years since a pair of them built between the wings of the dragon on Bow Church, London; others have built in Manchester, Newcastle, &c. They are diffused over a great part of Europe, and are very abundant in England and Ireland; we often see them referred to in English books. Their intelligence is remarkable; when tamed they become attached to their keeper, and perform lmany amusing tricks. THE JACKDAW. The JACKDAW, C. monedula —the Choucas of Temminck; Corneille des Clochers of the French -is fourteen inches long; color black; smoke-gray on the neck; eggs four to six; the nests are made in church-towers, belfries, steeples, and hollow trees and rabbit-burrows; many of them build in the higher parts of Windsor Castle, and in the churches of large towns in England; flocks are constantly seen in Paris, frequenting the trees in the garden of the Tuileries, and nestling in the churches and public buildings. They are a sociable, cheerful, and active race, flying about from place to place, and filling the air with their cries, which resemble the notes of young crows. They eat indiscriminately insects, seeds, grain, eggs, carrion, fish, shell-fish, and soft garden vegetables. They are said to pair for life. They are cunning birds, have a turn for imitation, and in confinement learn to speak some words. They are distributed throughout Europe and Northern Asia, and are not migratory. Genus FREGILUS: Fregilus.-This includes the CHOUGH or RED-LEGGED CRow, F. graculus of Cuvier, sixteen inches long; color black, glossed with blue; feeds on insects, berries and grain; builds its nest of sticks, lined with wool, in the cavities of cliffs, old castles, and church-towers near the sea. It inhabits the high rocky regions of Middle Europe and Asia, frequents the cliffs of Great Britain along the British Channel, and being common in the mountains of Cornwall, is often called the Cornish Chough. It is intelligent, and when domesticated is an exceedingly amusing creature. Genus PYRRHOCORAX: Pyrrhocorax.-This includes the ALPINE CHOUGH, Chocard of the French, P. Alpinus, fifteen inches long; black, with green reflections; lives in troops in the mountains of Central Europe in summer, and descends to the valleys in winter; habits like the preceding. Genus PICA: Pica.-This includes the MAGPIE-Gazza of the Italians, Pie of the French, and Elster of the Germans-P. caudata, eighteen inches long; the head, neck, back, and upper tail coverts jet black; throat grayish-white; scapulars pure white; wing-coverts and tertials of a CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 203.~.:% ~ -~ —-,.:: v:.-~ THE CHOUGH. (See p. 202.) fine shiny blue; it builds its nest in a high tree or a lofty hedge, formed on the outside of sharp, thorny sticks, within of fibrous roots and dry grass; the top is covered, with an entrance at the side; the eggs are six or seven. It is a beautiful bird, but its character is bad. Its habits are sus-..-'1,.?"!THE MAGPIE. picious, and though seeking the habitations of man, it is always prompted by self-interest. "It is," says Montagu, "a great enemy to the husbandman and the preserver of game, but has cunning 204 VERTEBRATA. enough to evade their wrath. No animal food comes amiss to its carnivorous appetite; young poultry, eggs, young lambs, and even weakly sheep it will attempt to destroy, by first plucking out their eyes; the young of hares, rabbits, and feathered game share the same fate; fish, carrion, insects, fruit, and lastly grain, when nothing else can be got. It is an artful, noisy bird, proclaiming aloud any apparent danger, and thereby giving notice to its associates. Neither the fox nor other wild animal can appear without being observed and haunted; even the fowler is frequently spoiled of his sport, for all other birds seem to know the alarming chatter of the magpie." This bird is easily tamed, and chatters to those who feed him, imitates human voices, and performs many amusing tricks. Like many of the crow family, it has a strange desire to pilfer and secrete small shining objects, especially L..1 1pieces of money, and in this way is extremely mischievous when allowed to go about the house. The affecting story of the "Magpie and the Maid," in which the latter was charged with theft, while the magpie was the culprit, is founded on fact, and is familiar to all. This species is found throughout Europe, and is constantly seen in the meadows and fields of England, France, Germany, and Italy. It is also abundant in this country, though it is confined to the western regions - that is, from Texas, northward through Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, and the British territories to latitude 58~. Some naturalists have supposed it must be a distinct species, as by a strange instinct it remains fixed in the unsettled territories of the West, while in Europe it seems to haunt the abodes of man. It has however, the same size, markings, structure, and habits as the foreign magpie, and is therefore supposed to be of the same species. Travelers in the West are sometimes very much annoyed with them, as they will often penetrate their tents and snatch the meat from the dishes; and if a horse chance to have a sore back, they will descend upon it, and attempt to make a meal of the living flesh. There is another species of this bird, the YELLOW-BELLIED MAGPIE, P. Nuttalli, in California: in the eastern hemisphere there are several closely allied to it, among THE PARADISE PIE. which is the Dendrocitta vagabunda, common in India; and the Picathartes gymno - cephalus, of Africa, which has the neck bare of feathers, and somewhat resembles the vultures in appearance and habits. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 205 Genus ASTRAPIA: Astrapia, includes the PIE OF PARADISE, or Incomparable of the French, A. gularis, a rare species of New Guinea. An idea of its form may be gathered from the preceding engraving, but no conception of the brilliancy of its metallic tints, and the varying play of the light upon the plumage, can be afforded by description.: THE SUPERB BIRD OF PARADISE. THE EMERALD BIRD OF PARADISE. PARADISEIDE OR BIRDS OF PARADISE. This group, which, notwithstanding their brilliancy and the renown which clusters around them, are nearly allied to the Corvidse, belonging to New Guinea and the adjacent islands: here they live in troops in the dense forests, one male surrounded by some fifteen females. The GREAT EMERALD BIRD OF PARADISE, Paradisea apoda, is remarkable for the large bunches of decomposed plumes which issue from the body, and float gracefully in the air, and which are so much coveted by the ladies of Europe and America as ornaments for head-dresses. In the SUPERB BIRD OF PARADISE, P. superba, the feathers rise in wing-like tufts upon the back and neck, giving it an aspect of gorgeous beauty and brilliancy. There are several other species, some of them plain, but the greater part distinguished by these tufts of light, rich, floating plumes. It is to be understood, however, that these ornaments belong exclusively to the males. Formerly these birds were said to live wholly in the air, and hence there was the interest of the marvelous added to that of their surpassing beauty. They are now known to live and nestle in the forests, and to feed on fruits and seeds. The feathers are not only valued in commerce, but they are used as decorations of the turbans of the chiefs of the islands where they are found THE BUCERID2E OR HORNBILLS. The Hornbills are mostly of tolerably large size, some of them being of the stature of a smal. turkey. Their general color is usually a greenish metallic-black, with the tail-coverts and the tail white, or of some other light color; the tail generally has a black transverse band near the extremity. They are inhabitants of the hottest parts of the Old World, and especially of the islands of the Eastern Archipelago and Africa. Their food consists of fruits, and according to some naturalists, also of carrion and small animals, the latter of which they are said to squeeze to death in their enormous bills, and then, throwing them up in the air, catch them and swallow them whole. Lesson states that the African species live on carrion, and those of the East Indies on 206 VERTEBRATA. fruits, and especially on nutmegs, from which, he says, their flesh acquires a delicious flavor. THE_ CRO-WNE-, D TOO. = use They are found in the dense forests and jungles, T Hi where they sit upon the highest branches of the ln:, it is f n. T to trees, often in large troops; their nesting places ___ ___ _gnea are the holes of trees, which, like the parrots and -— ~ _ my toucans, they enlarge for the purpose of nidifica___^\____ iw __ i ation; the female lays four eggs. Their flight is — ___-_ ____ effected by a very rapid motion of the wings,'__.____ __ \_ 1CRET which produces a considerable noise; this is accompaied by a continual clattering of their manll:llillim\k i\ speciedibles, so that the passage of a flight of hornbills. 1 ___ A causes a sound which is said to be productive of very uncomfortable sensations when its origin is -::i1A ^! unknown, as it bears a good deal of resemblance ~ to one of those sudden, violent winds which often rise unexpectedly in the tropics. There are several species: the CROWNED Toci, ~-~- \\ Buceros coronatus, is African, with an enormous:red bill; the body smoke-color above and whitish below. Levaillant saw flocks of five hun-:<.....\\~' i dred of these, with crows and vultures, feeding on the remains of one elephant. The B. cava";,^l'lg_)'; "\~^ tus is of the Himalaya Mountains; the body is u Rh IDO O' of white and blackish-gray; bill large, hooked, ""~_:1 T;\.~1t a~ae~s~~~ -a~~~i~ and having a sort of casque above the beak, which appears heavy, but is light, frail, and easily TH.E CROWNED TOCK. crushed. The RnINOCEROS HORNBILL, B. Rhinoceros, is four feet long, including the bill, which is a foot long: it is found in India. There are still other species. THE MUSOPHAGID_/E OR PLANTAIN-EATERS. These are African birds, and comprise several..... ~ genera; among them are the TouRAcos, which - rA(_V4/' f 11\ )zA: t-\are very elegant birds, feeding on soft fruits; the prevailing colors are brilliant green. The -- // CRESTED TOURACO, Chiizxrhis variegata, is twenty inches long; light gray above; under plumspecies are the. Corythaix Senegalensis, C. erythrolophus, Musophaga violacea, &e. THE OPISTHOCOMID.E OR HOATZINS.'~ /':71 w R /: These birds, of which there is but a single species, the HOATZIN, Opisthocomus cristatus, 5:/"' "! A. }are closely allied to the preceding; they live in |9-I-L large flocks on the banks of rivers and creeks in Brazil and Guiana; they are nearly as large as peacocks, and are simnilar in shape, with a tall crest of narrow feathers on the head. The A'~ a "' i' \ f \bill is thick, short, convex, and bent down at the tip; it feeds on the leaves of a particular treeTHE CRESTED TOURACO. the Arum arborescens; itlays three to four eggs, _ __.:_/.____"-_____ -:"..'..,',,,.'.,.,,.,..' ".?/,!,.;' _ _ _ _ _!/ tr,'114':\ _ _ ___________________ -~ ~ ~ / / > l'~ /A~~~~~~~~~~~... —;H'EfL=:' -.-'.-.: -CC E_- __ —'-~-UCEROS_:V T.' 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' ____ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ _ _ _.1'.!',x~-~~-~-;:',"?~",,,~'.-,~'.,..'~.~.~t....li.~ _~" it, ~b I-'~~~~~~~ /!r, /7, THE CONCAYL IIOR: BILL BUCEROS C \YYATUS ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:-__ —~,~-~ —~ -~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -r —~~~~~~~~~'' —:~ ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~,'~!~ ~~" /~, x ~~.. ~ff,"://i —-"~ —~ —.. ~'._~ ~,;" c;; a:X~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. THE~ CONCAV IIR B L:BUCR SC V T CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 3. SCANSORES. 207 dirty white, red spotted; the flesh is tainted with a strong odor of castoreum, and is therefore unfit for food. THE COLIIDzE OR COLIES. These birds are allied to the Musophagidce; their feathers are soft and silky, and their color greenish-gray, whence they are called Mouse-Birds; they belong to both Africa and Asia; they are gregarious, live upon fruits and buds, and are the scourge of gardens. They walk badly, but climb like parrots; they sleep suspended from the branches of trees, with their heads downward; the eggs are five to six; the flesh is esteemed for the table. ORDER 3. SCANSORES. The principal character by which these birds are distinguished from the Passeres, consists in the peculiar arrangement of the toes, of which two are always directed forward and two backward. This enables them to climb trees with great facility, some of them, as the Parrots, by grasping the smaller branches, and using the feet in the manner of hands, while others, such as the Woodpeckers and their allies, may rather be considered to run upon the surface of the trunks and larger branches in every direction. Some live principally upon fruits and seeds, others upon insects. In most cases, the wings are rather short, and the flight by no means vigorous. The order includes four families-the Cuckoos, the Woocdpeckers, the Parrots, and the Toucans. THE CUCULIDJE OR CUCKOOS. The prominent genus of this family is CUCULUS: Cuculus, which includes the COMMON CucKoo of Europe, C. canorus, fourteen inches long, of a gray tint, the breast barred with brownish-black; it is migratory, arriving in Europe in the spring, uttering very distinctly, and in a tender and plaintive tone, the notes cuck-oo, cuck-oo, very different from the flat notes of kou-kou belonging to our cuckoo. It feeds principally on the large hairy caterpillars of the tiger-moths; it also eats other insects, worms, &c. It builds no nest, but the female deposits her egg, stealthily, in the nest of some other bird-a titlark, thrush, wagtail, robin, sky-lark, or bunting, and it is hatched by the deceived and cheated proprietor with her own brood. The young cuckoo, when he is partly grown, crowds himself under his young foster-brothers and sisters, lifts them up, and tumbles them over the edge of the nest to the ground; here they perish, while he gormandizes all the food the parents can bring. This is not an occasional or accidental proceeding on the part of the cuckoos; it is instinctive, systematic, and universal. What a strange departure from the usual course of nature; fraud, cruelty, and ingratitude in the very cradle of a whole race of birds! The GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO, C. glandarius, is fifteen and a half inches long; it belongs to 208 VERTEBRATA. Northern Africa, but migrates in summer into Southern Europe; it deposits its eggs in the nests of other birds, like the preceding; it even dupes the hooded crow, one of the most cunning of birds, so that it hatches and brings up the young cuckoos with the greatest care, never suspecting the cheat that has been practiced! The Crotophagince is a group of'110111 ~~, birds inhabiting tropical countries, and "E UP feeding on insects and fruits. The / typical genus, CROTOPI-HAGA, belongs to South America and the West Indies,' ~~ - a though two species, the C'. rugirostris ~,~ ~-~'~~: =' and C. Ani, are found within the southorn boundaries of the United States. They are somewhat parrot-like birds, about twelve inches long, live in bands -r a, passin the borders of woods, especially in — ~._- swampy places, and subsist on insects, _______fid larva, small reptiles, and certain fruits Go 4~'~i -~~ -- )..............., and seeds. It is said that several feSD._y _ o- 1t.=.:.=-P;zz,? x r:,":,: males lay in one nest, where they hatch D, — [' and bring up the young together, a sys/ ", ~ term of socialism in curious contrast to the selfish isolation of the true cuckoos. Another species, the CHIANNEL-BILL, ________-,? Scythrops Novce flollandice, is the size of the crow, with a very long tail; it TH.E EUROPEAN GU cKOO. feeds on insects and fruits; found in Australia and the Asiatic Islands. Genus COCCYZUS: Coccyzus.-To this belongs the COMMON AMERICAN CUCKOO, C. Amnericanus, often called the Yellow-billed Cuckoo. It is twelve inches long, of a very slender form; ___x,,~~~~~~ ~grayish-brown above, with greenish re____ i~~~~~ flections; below whitish; its food consists chiefly of hairy caterpillars, cock-i i -:chafers, and the eggs of small birds. It is found from the Eastern United States,.} / -_=4 _ to the Missouri plains. It is migratory, _! -_- appearing among us in May, but seldom passing farther north than Massachusetts; it is shy, and seeks concealment:___...._~-~ [ __-. in the thick foliage of the trees. It........._____~_ ~pairs, and displays great conjugal fidelity; it hatches several broods in a season,. and often has birds of several.,__..~___:____:_ ages in the same nest. It is said to be a bad nest-maker, and an improvident nurse. It seems that something'"-'7~~~ -'-~~'of that defect of character which so ~...,aTHE GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO. debases the European cuckoo, attaches CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 3. SCANSORES. 209 THE YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO. to this, for it often leaves its young to be reared by other birds. The eggs are two to four, and of a bluish-green color, usually very pale. It has a frequent cry of kou, kou, kou, whence it is called Cow-Bird; as these notes are supposed to be uttered most frequently before a storm, it is also called Rain-Crow. It is a curious fact that no less than four specimens of this bird have been seen in England, where it is not indigenous; it is supposed they must have migrated across the Atlantic. THE BLACK-BILLED CUCKOO. The BLACK-BILLED CUCKOO, C. erythrophthalmus, is twelve and a half inches long, and resembles the preceding in appearance and habits; it is also distributed through the same regions. It is less shy, however, and its note is something like worrattotoo; the eggs, three to five, are a bluish-green. This is the St. Domingo Cuckoo of Nuttall. VOL. II. 27 210 VERTEBRATA. These United States species of cuckoo are common in Mexico and South America; in these regions there are several other species: among them is the MANGROVE CUCKOO, C. seniculus, or C. minor, an inhabitant of Cayenne, but often visiting the Southern States. The Saurotherince or (Ground-Cuckoos inhabit tropical America, live much on the ground or in low bushes, and feed on insects, worms, and seeds. One species, the Saurothera vetula, inhabits the West Indies, and is fifteen inches long. The CHAPARRAL-COCK, PRAIRIE-COCK, or PAISANO, Geococcyx Mexicanus, figured by Cassin, is about twenty inches long, the tail being eleven inches; the head has an erectile crest; found in California, New Mexico, Texas, and Mexico. The genus CENTROPUS includes several species of what are called Lark-heeled Cuckoos, from their having the claw of the hind toe elongated, as in the larks; they are also called Pheasant-Cuckoos, from the great length of their tails. These are found in Africa, India, and the Asiatic Islands; they seek their food on the ground, and sometimes devour small reptiles. The Indicatorince or Honey-Guides are a group of small birds of this family, inhabiting the forests of Africa, India, and Borneo. They are fond of honey, and when they discover a hive of wild bees stored with this, they flutter around it, and thus direct the honey-seekers to it. It was formerly said that it would guide them through the woods to the honey, but this is no doubt a fiction. The common species of Southern Africa, Indicator major and minor, construct bottleshaped, pendent nests, with the opening downward. ~-" ""-' > ^ 7/~ "V""" f, C;; THE GREAT BLACK WOODPECKER. THE GREEN WOODPECKER. THE PICIDiE OR WOODPECKERS. These are strong and vigorous birds, possessing a long, sharp bill, with which they bore into the bark of trees and the decayed parts of the limbs and trunks, in search of insects, as well as carve out holes for their nests. They live in forests, and run up and down the trees, often ascending in spiral lines, and continually tapping the surface, to discover the hiding-place of insects and CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 3. SCANSORES. 211 larvae. When they find such a spot they dig into it with great energy, and seize the concealed prize. In climbing they are assisted by the stiff points of their tail-feathers. Their tongue is extensile, and thus facilitates the capture of their insect prey. They feed also on fruits and seeds. Genus PICUS: Picus.-This includes the GREAT BLACK WOODPECKER-Pic Noir of the French-P. martius, sixteen inches long; the body black above, somewhat duller beneath; a bright blood-red spot on the head. Its flight is short, usually limited to a transit from tree to tree; its nest is made in a hollow tree; the eggs are two or three, and ivory-white. On the wing it resembles a crow; its note is loud and harsh. It inhabits Northern Europe, being rare in the south. The GREEN WOODPECKER, P. viridis-Pic Vert of the French; Pico Verde of the Italians; Grin-Specht of the Germans-is called in England by the various names of Woodspite, RainBird, Rain-Fowl, High-Hoe, Hewhole, Awl-Bird, Pick-ca-Tree, Yappingale, Yaffil, Yaffe, Yaffer, Woodwall, Whet-le, and Popinjay. It is thirteen inches long; the neck, back, wings, wingcoverts, and scapulars deep green, tinged with yellow; rump sulphur-yellow; under surface ashgreen. It is a brilliant and beautiful bird; nestles and roosts in holes in trees, which it sometimes enlarges, or even wholly excavates, using its beak as chisel and hammer; the eggs are five to seven, laid on loose fragments of wood; its common note is a loud, harsh sound, which Buffon thought a doleful cry of misery, while others compare it to a vociferous laugh. It is said to be most merry before an impending shower, and hence is called Rain-Bird. It is found throughout Europe. - _ -: ~. =,f GRAY WOODPECKER, P. canus, feeds on ants, and inhabits Northern Europe. The THREE-TOED 7"' rimi O (~~ THE GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER. T'il MIDDLE SPOTTED WOODPECKER. The GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER, P. major, is nine and a half inches long; found through out Europe. The LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKER, P. minor-Petit Pic of the French, and GrasSpecht of the Germans-is five and three-quarter inches long; variously colored with white and black; lives in woods, orchards, and nursery-grounds; is distributed over Europe, and is common in England. The MIDDLE SPOTTED WOODPECKER, P. medius, is a lustrous black above; beneath crimson, and a red spot on the head; found in Southern Europe. The WHITE-BACKED WOODPECKER, P. leuconotus, is ten inches long, and inhabits the north of Europe and Siberia. The GRAY WOODPECKER, P. canus, feeds on ants, and inhabits Northern Europe. The THREE-TOED 212 VERTEBRATA..WOODPECKER, P. tridactylus or P. arcticus, is nine inches long, and inhabits the north _____ ____ _ of Europe, as well as North America, being (if' 9 sometimes found as far south as Pennsylvania. pecker known in the United States, which n~F~~i~~i~~E~~I ~ ~ _ lhave been divided by naturalists into several _genera. Dr. De Kay, however, includes them -~4W in one-that of Picus. The most commonly ekenown is the RED-HEADED WOODPECKER, P. a erythrocepalus, telaneres erythroceheralus o of Linne.eus, eight to nine inches long; head, neck and throat crimson; back, wings, and' tail black; secondaries, rump, and all beneath s nearly white. It is chiefly a summer bird, El ~j though a few remain through the year; it'rYAi 7'feeds on juicy fruits, cherries, apples, pears, Indian corn in the milk, and insects which infest decayed trees. It makes its nest in THE LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKER. holes in dry trees, which it excavates with its bill; the eggs aie about six, and white, with reddish spots at the end; there are two broods in a RED-HEADED WOODPECKERS, season. This bird generally lives in the forests, ut it often visits the orchards and in cherry time CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 3. SCANSORES. 213 is a constant visitor to the cherry-trees. For some unknown cause it is less abundant than formerly in the Eastern and Middle States. THE GOLDEN-WINGED WOODPECKER. The GOLDEN-WINGED WOODPECKER, P. auratus-the Colaptes auratus of Swainson, is a splendid bird, twelve inches long; upper parts brown, spotted with black; a red spot on the head; under side of the wings salmon color; of the tail saffron; belly white, spotted with black; food, wood-lice, ants, larvae, cherries, grapes, berries, corn in the milk, &c. They build their nests in holes in the trees, which they dig out with astonishing celerity; they have been known to excavate a wnining passage through solid oak fifteen inches deep. When at work the strokes of their bill resound through the woods like the hammer of a carpenter. The eggs are about six, and pure white. When the brood take wing, they are exceedingly playful and noisy as they range from tree to tree in the forests or orchards. This bird goes by the various names of PigeonWoodpecker, Wake-up, High-Hole, Flicker, and Yucker; in New York it is called Clape, and by the French in Louisiana, Pique-bois jaune. Found in Eastern North America. Another and similar species is the RED-SHAFTED FLICKER, Colaptes Mexicanus, found in Western North America. The CRESTED WOODPECKER, P. pileatus-Hylatomus pileatus of Linnaeus-is eighteen inches long, and is sometimes called Log-Cock and Wood-Cock in New York; ranges from Mexico to 60~ north. The IVORY-BILLED WOODPECKER, P. principalis — Campephilusprincipalis of Linnaeus -is a powerful and splendid species, twenty inches long; found in the Carolinas and southward. Other species are as follows, according to the Museum Catalogue of the Smithsonian Institution: the IMPERIAL WOODPECKER, Campephilus imnperialis; chiefly in Central America and Southwestern Mexico. The IIAIRY WOODPECKER, P. villosus, Northern and Western Regions: three varieties of this-major, medius, minor. -IARRIS's WOODPECKER, P. Harrisii, from Pacific to eastern slope of Rocky Mountains. DOWNY WOODPECKER, P. pubescens; Eastern United States, toward the Rocky Mountains. GAIRDNER'S WOODPECKER, P. Gairdneri; from Pacific to eastern base of Rocky Mountains. NUTTALL'S WOODPECKER, P. Nuttalli; coast of California. P. scalaris; Rocky Mountains, south of 35~, to Yucatan. RED-COCKADED WOODPECKER, P. borealis; Southern States. WHITE-HEADED WOODPECKER, P. albolarvatus; Oregon and California. BLACK-BACKED THREE-TOED WOODPECKER, Picoides Arcticus; northern portions of United States, to the Arctic Regions. BANDED THREE-TOED WOODPECKER, P. hirsutus; Arctic Regions of North America. STRIPED T-REE-TOED WOODPECKER, P. dorsalis; Rocky Mountains. YEL 214 VERTEBRATA. LOW-BELLIED WOODPECKER, Sphyrapicus varius; Atlantic Ocean to Rocky Mountains, and in Greenland. RED-TIIROATED WOODPECKER, S. nuchalis; Rocky Mountains. RED-BREASTED WOODPECKER, S. ruber; Pacific slope of the United States. WILLIAMSON'S WOODPECKER, S. Williamsonii; Rocky Mountains. RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER, Centurus CGarolinus; Northern America, from Atlantic to Rocky Mountains. YELLOW-BELLIED WOODPECKER, C. flaviventris; Rio Grande Region, in United States, and south into Mexico. GILA WOODPECKER C. uropygialis; Lower Colorado River of the West. CALIFORNIA WOODPECKER, eMlanerpes formicivorus; California and Northern Mexico. LEWIS'S WOODPECKER, M. torquatus; Western America. To these may be added the Melanerpes thyroideus figured by Cassin, found in California and Mexico; and the Dryotomus imperialis of Gould, a splendid species, more than two feet long, and the largest of known woodpeckers, also figured by Cassin; found in the forests which skirt the mountains of Oregon, California, and Mexico. THE WRY-NECK. THE YUNCINE OR WRY-NECKS. This group includes only a few species: the WRY-NECK or CUCKOO'S MATE, Yunx torquillaTorcol of the French-is the most noted; it is a beautiful bird, though its colors are different shades of brown and gray; its name is derived from its habit of twisting its neck about in various directions, which has also given it the title of Snake-Bird. It is six inches long, and feeds largely on ants, which it catches upon its glutinous and extensile tongue; it also eats elder-berries. It makes its nest in a hollow of a tree, and lays about eight eggs. It inhabits Europe, Asia, and Africa; it is easily tamed, and becomes a pleasing pet in confinement. THE PICULETS OR PICUMNINE. These are small birds, closely resembling the woodpeckers, nidifying in holes in trees, which they excavate, and laying only two eggs: found in South America, India, and Asiatic islands. The Capitonince or Barbets are placed in this connection by some naturalists, but we have united them with the Bucconince. THE PSITTACIDiE OR PARROTS. The general form of these birds may be stated as short, strong, and compact, but as deficient in elegance, especially in the short and even-tailed species, in which the great bulk of the head and bill seems disproportioned to the rest of the body. In the Parrakeets this disproportion is in a great degree counteracted by the elongation of the tail, and many of them exhibit an elegance and gracefulness of carriage surpassed by few other birds. The formation of the feet, which are zygodactyle, or with the toes placed two forward and two backward, and in all but a few aberrant species, expressly formed for firm prehension and climbing, evidently points to woods and forests as 800J4Y)JQOD UYV SLOHIJYJ N, M4~~~~~~~ \A / 41 1/7~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~s IME A~~~~~~~~~- ~ ~ _ ________ ('L~ __ ________ _ K~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' ~i /7~ 1 // \~~, J~4~1, -~ __ ______ --- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ K ~-~~ —'\ ~~~~~( ""~~~~~/~~~~ ________~~~~~~~ il~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~7 -;~~2 ___ ______ N'./,($~''~'~. /~-_ spot where I stood. At each successive dis-./:>Q: charge, though showers of them fell, yet the 2-(ska (: sh-^C-^^- ~~~~affection of the survivors seemed rather to ac.Hr ha an, opotui o ob n s increase; for after a few circuits around the hvn so down,::i:i..,,,.., place, they again alighted near me, look ing ar e n lI down on their slaughtered companions with 1: ""'-........'"~J~J such manifest symptoms of sympathy and ~ concern as entirely disarmed me." This is:/ H I sociable nd s on becomes very familiar. i n e, s, of w we o Like the other memb ers of the group, it aron tr prste ad a n deposits its eggs in hollow trees, but is said. -? w ^ rsto carry its sociable habits even into the ~f~' ~ business of incubation, several couples usu-.^1^^.~. Pa ffecductus of Gould, the genus forming a con"~.-', A-dx anecting link between the parrots and cocka-'^ "0 "' atoos, is fifteen inches long; general color deep TUE LONG-BILLED PARROT. red, with yellow, olive, and brown; its voice harsh, like the barking of a dog feeds on fruits and leaves; native of Australia and Norfolk Island. 220 VERTEBRATA. THE LORIANIE OR LORIES. The CERAM LORY, P. garrulus, is ten or eleven inches long; variable in color, though genericaE~~~ ~ally scarlet, with patches of green and yellow, is most common; a native of the Moluccas; very docile and teachable. K^ Ti~~~~ The PURPLE-CAPPED LORY, P. domicella, ten./>Land a half inches long; prevailing color red; a very docile, affectionate, and loquacious species; it talks in a hollow, ventriloquial tone, whistles a rare and costly species; native of the Moluccas and New Guinea. The BLACK-CAPPED LORY, P. Lory, ten and. i" three-quarter inches long; prevailing color scar^^X Xr alet, with black, blue, and yellow; is docile and ~ e-'ILI~ affectionate, like the preceding; a native of the 7,7:;-,' -.\ Philippines. THE PUP/-APE LY THE PARRAKEETS. % ^^IThe ALEXANDRINE PARRAKEET, Palceornis Alf\ tr cexandri of Vigors, may be taken as an example green'acof the long-tailed parrakeets; its length is eighteen to twenty inches; general color emeraldgreen; tail long and graduated, the two middle feathers greatly exceeding the others in length; THE PURPLE-CAPPED LORY. the form, attitudes, and movements elegant; it is a native of India and Ceylon; is very noisy, and may be taught to speak with tolerable distinctness. This species was brought from the East by Alexander, in his famous expedition. THE ALEXANDRINE PARRAKEET. The ROSE-RINGED PARRAKEET, P. Manillensis-Palceornis torquatus of some authors -is fifteen inches long; plumage green, verging on yellow below; the feathers remarkable for the softness of their colors and silkiness of their texture; very beautiful, but rarely learns to speak; found in the Philippine Islands. The RED-CRESCENTED PARRAKEET, Paleornis lunatus, eleven and a half inches long; upper part green, each feather having a black shaft; lower parts green; breast tinged with red. It is a lively species, and learns to speak very distinctly. The LONG-TAILED GREEN PARRAKEET, P. rufirostris, twelve inches long; prevailing color yel CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 3. SCANSORES. 221 owish-green; easily taught to speak, whistle, and imitate the cries of birds and animals; it is, iowever, excessively noisy, and sometimes becomes very wearisome on this account. The RED AND BLUE-HEADED PARRAKEET, P. cunicularis, is ten inches long; prevailing color grass-green; native of South America; a handsome species, but never learns to speak well.: lil A-J i' ~ QThe CARDINAL PARROT, P. cardinalis,twelve - ~:-5 E inches long; head violet, tinged with blue and red; a black band around the neck; upper part. /' I - a m v, of the body dark green; lower part light green. l'' / l, /5 lThere are several varieties, as the Blossom-headed Parrakeet, Rose-headed Ring Parrakeet, and Bornean Parrakeet. They. are noisy birds, but N;., \," A~', - cannot be taught to speak, and are only valued I( ( ^ J i'for their beauty; found in India. K(->',5\:J/ E\l'-\ f. T The LITTLE ROSE-RINGED PARRAREET, P.puli }.? o'e' larius-called G-uinea-Sparrow by the bird-sell"} Hay^ {g ~^~ ^ers-is but six inches long, the size of a cedarbird; general color green; their cry is unpleas"ill gW I; c all,'f I^B ^ant, and they cannot be taught to speak; but they'II -T4 l,\i^^^^i ^ are affectionate to each other and are beautiful and pleasing; natives of Guinea, India, and Java. The LITTLE BLUE AND GREEN PARRAKEET, P. passerinus, four inches long, size of a sparrow; general color green; rump blue; cannot speak; native of Brazil and Guiana. The two preceding belong to the genus Psittacula or Love-Birds, having short, square tails. The WARBLING GRASS PARRAKEET, Melopsittacus undulatus, is found in large flocks in Aus"\ tralia, where they feed on the seeds of grasses; NYMPHILUS NOVA HOLLANDIIE. they are minute, elegant creatures, with long tails, and instead of a screech, have a soft, warbling note. The GROUND PARRAKEET, Pezoporusformosus, of the same regions, is a foot long; beautifully.,.. ~,- V? colored with green, black, and brown; lives entirely on \ \i aa 1\ tthe ground. The Nymphilus Nove Hollandice is also V^,AW/) \~ -i ^one of the ground parrakeets, of the same size as the preceding; general color yellow; so abundant in Australia that, as Mr. Gould tells us, a gentleman shot two hundred in a single excursion. The PIGMY MICROSPITTA, Microspittapygmcea, is four inches long; green above and yellow below; the tail brown. It is said to be the smallest of parrots; found in the Polynesian islands. THE COCKATOOS. The GREAT WHITE CRESTED COCKATOO, Plyctolophus cristatus, is seventeen inches long; the whole plumage /4! ~!~~f~ A i'dwhite, except some slight patches of sulphur-color; the crest on the head five inches long, and is elevated or depressed at will. It is generally kept in a large, ballA1, I''/ ^11 large metal ring, in which it likes to swing. It is very tame and gentle, but is taught to speak with difficulty; LOVE-BIRD, a native of the Moluccas. 222 VERTEBRATA. The SULPHUR-CRESTED COCKATOO, P. sulphureus, Cacatua sulphurea of some authors, is eleven and a half inches long; general color white, with a tinge of sulphur-yellow; easily tamed, affectionate, and fond of being caressed. There are two varieties, differing only in size; the larger is a native of Australia, the smaller of the Moluccas. THE BLACK COCKATOO. THE WHITE-CRESTED COCKATOO. The GREAT RED-CRESTED COCKATOO, P. Moluccensis, is larger than the great white cockatoo; general color white, tinged with pale rose; the crest very large; a beautiful and majestic bird, very gentle, imitating the cries of hens, crowing of cocks, &c., at the same time flapping its wings. Its native cry is cockatoo and derdong; a native of the Moluccas. The RED-VENTED COCKATOO, P. Philippinarum, thirteen inches long; general color white; feathers of the belly and tail-coverts red, tipped with white; tuft only visible when erected; tame and beautiful, but has a harsh cry, and is unable to speak; native of the Philippine Isles. BANKs'S COCKATOO, P. Banksii, is the most rare, costly, and beautiful of the cockatoos; twentytwo to thirty inches long; general color black; feathers on the breast edged with yellow; yellow stripes upon the breast and belly; the crest spotted with yellow; tail feathers marked with crimson and orange; native of Australia. The BLACK COCKATOO, Microglossum aterrimum of Lesson, noted for its enormous bill, is blue-black, and a native of New Guinea. There are other species of cockatoo, especially in the Australian islands, which seem to abound with parrot-like birds, some of which are of very eccentric characteristics. Among them is the Strigops habroptilus, in New Zealand, called Kakcapo by the natives. This seems to be half owl and half cockatoo; it is strictly nocturnal, remaining in holes by day, and going forth only at night. Its food consists partly of roots, and it is constantly grubbing in the earth; so that its beak is like a pig's snout, always covered with mud and dirt. It has a habit of making paths a foot wide, which appear as if made by human art. The natives of those parts of Australia which abound in cockatoos take a singular method of killing these birds. Captain rn Grey, in his " Travels in Australia," says: " Perhaps as fine a sight as can be seen in the whole circle of native sports is the killing cockatoos with the Iiley or boome CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 3. SCANSORES. 223 rang. A native perceives a large flight of cockatoos in a forest which encircles a lagoon; the expanse of water affords an open clear space above it, unencumbered with trees, but which raise their gigantic forms all around, more vigorous in their growth from the damp soil in which they flourish. In their leafy summits sit a countless number of cockatoos, screaming and flying from tree to tree, as they make their arrangements for a night's sound sleep. The native throws aside his cloak, so that he may not have even this slight covering to impede his motions, draws his kiley from his belt, and, with a noiseless, elastic step, approaches the lagoon, creeping from tree to tree, and from bush to bush, and disturbing the birds as little as possible. Their sentinels, however, take the alarm, the cockatoos farthest from the water fly to the trees near its edge, and thus they keep concentrating their force as the native advances; they are aware that danger is at hand, but are ignorant of its nature. At length the pursuer almost reaches the edge of the water, and the scared cockatoos, with wild cries, spring into the air; at the same instant the native raises his right hand high over his shoulder, and, bounding forward with his utmost speed, to give impetus to his blow, the kiley quits his hand as if it would strike the water; but when it has almost touched the unruffled surface of the lake, it spins upward with inconceivable velocity, and with the strangest contortions. In vain the terrified cockatoos strive to avoid it; it sweeps wildly and uncertainly through the air-and so eccentric are its motions, that it requires but a slight stretch of the imagination to fancy it endowed with life-and with fell swoops in rapid pursuit of the devoted birds, some of whom are almost certain to be brought screaming to the earth. But the wily savage has not yet done with them. He avails himself of the extraordinary attachment which these birds have for one another, and fastening a wounded one to a tree, so that its cries may induce its companions to return, he watches his opportunity, by throwing his kiley or spear, to add another bird or two to the booty he has already obtained." ("?:7. /,'" THE ARIEL TOUCAN. HUMBOLDT'S ARA9ARI. THE RHAMPHASTIDIIE OR TOUCANS. These birds are distinguished by their enormous bills, sometimes as large as the body; hence the French name of Tout-bec or All-bill. This feature, however, is very light, its substance being 224 VERTEBRATA. filled with air-cells. They are confined to the hot regions of South America, where they are abundant. They live in considerable flocks in the forests, and sit in company on the trees, making an abominably harsh noise. They are omnivorous, feeding not only upon sweet pulpy fruits, which have generally been considered to constitute their whole nourishment, but also upon animal matters of various kinds, such as fish, eggs, small birds, and reptiles, and the larvae of insects. They are said usually to take their food up in the bill, and throwing it into the air, catch it again with open mouth and swallow it directly. They make their nests in the hollows of trees, and lay two eggs. When sleeping, they take good care of their bills and tails, burying the former in their plumage, and laying the latter flat over their backs, so that they appear like balls of feathers. They have a very odd way of sitting upon the trees and moving their bills, at the same time uttering an unceasing cry, whence they are called Preachers. Mr. Gould records no less than twenty-two species; the following will give a general idea of the whole. Genus RHAMPIIASTOS: Rhamphastos.-To this belongs the BRAZIL TOUCAN, R. tucanus, twenty inches long, the bill six inches; the upper parts are black, with bronze reflections, and various markings of red, crimson, orange, and green. The brilliant feathers were formerly used as decorations by the ladies of Peru and Brazil. The ARIEL TOUCAN, R. ariel-R. maximus of Cuvier-is black, with brown reflections, having various splendid markings of orange, citron-green, and lively red; it is twenty-one inches long; found in Brazil. Genus ARA9ARI: Pteroglossus, includes the long-tailed species, in distinction from the preceding, which have short tails. To this belongs HUMBOLDT'S ARAyARI, P. Humnboldtii, seventeen inches long; bill four, tail graduated; upper surface olive; head, back of the neck, throat, and chest black; under surface pale straw-yellow. The P. pluricinctus is twenty inches long; the bill four and a half. Both of the above are natives of Brazil. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 4. COLUMBE. 225 THE RING-DOVE. ORDER 4. COLUMBl. These resembie the gallinaceous birds, and some authors have included them in the same order; in their structure, however, there are some peculiarities. The oesophagus speedily widens into a large crop, situated on both sides of the alimentary canal; which, during the breeding season, is furnished with numerous glands for the secretion of a milky juice; this, mixing with the food in the crop, softens it so as to render it more fit for the nourishment of the young birds, which are fed for a considerable time with food regurgitated by their parents. The gizzard is very powerful, the intestine long and slender, and the cceca small. The Columbae, in general, are arboreal in their habits, but most of them seek their food on the ground, and they all, notwithstanding the shortness of their legs, walk with ease and considerable celerity. Their wings are long and wide, and their flight, as might be expected, is strong and sustained. In their mode of drinking they differ remarkably from all other birds; for, instead of taking up a small quantity of water in the mouth, and then swallowing it by raising the head, they immerse the bill in the water, and drink without stopping until they are satisfied. The pigeons generally nestle in trees or in the holes of rocks; rarely on the ground. The young, when hatched, are quite helpless, and require to be fed carefully by their parents for some time, during which they remain in the nest. The duty of incubation, and the care of the young, is shared by both parents. These birds arc found in all the warm and temperate parts of the globe, but it is in the warmer regions that they occur in the greatest abundance. There, also, many of the species attain a splendor of plumage which rivals almost any thing else that we meet with among the feathered inhabitants of the air, and of which our native species, although by no means deficient in beauty, can give us no idea. Everywhere the doves are regarded with more or less favor, doubtless owing in a great measure to their reputation for conjugal fidelity, and the peculiarly melancholy sound of their voice, which is universally a plaintive cooing. These characters, coupled with the continual exhibition of all the signs of a most tender affection between the sexes during the breeding season, induced the ancients to consecrate the dove to Venus. In many Christian countries, also, the dove is regarded as sacred, because under its form the Holy Spirit is described as having descended upon our Saviour at his baptism. THE DIDUNCULIDE. This family includes only a single genus, DIDUNCULUS, and a single species ). strigirostris, found in the Navigators' Isles. hey are the size of a ruffed grouse; upper surface chestnut-red; VOL. II.-29 226 VERTEBRATA. lower parts black, glossed with green; they fly in pairs or small flocks, feed on fruits and berries, roost on the branches of trees, and build their nests on the rocks. The natives keep them as tame pets. THE DIDID2E. Genus DIDUS: Didus.-This, the only genus of the group, included the DoDo, D. ineptus, now extinct. This was larger than a swan, sometimes weighing fifty pounds; the bill was /I~O' 1|1 - || long and strong; the feet short and stout; the wings, furnished only with soft, decomposed plumes, were short, and incapable of enabling the bird to fly; the tail was ornamented with a similar tuft of feathers; the general color a blackish-gray; the plumes of the wings a light O t o la ash-color. When the island of Mauritius was ered,,which TX_ r a discovered in 1598, this bird was quite abund=them 8boant there, ns well as in the neighboring island of Bourbon; but it has been gradually extirpated, and now some paintings, made of it long THE DODO. ago-two heads, a foot, and a few feathers-are the only existing memorials of this remarkable bird. On the little island of Rodriguez, near the island of Mauritius, some bones have been discovered, which are supposed to have belonged to three allied, but all probably extinct species, one of them the Dodo, another the SOLITAIRE, Didus solitarius, twice the size of that bird, and the third Didus N.azarenus, smaller than either. THE GOURIDEf These birds, called Ground-Pigeons, of which there are several genera, are found in the warm parts of both hemispheres, and some are of considerable size. The GOURA CROWNED PIGEON, Goura coronata, is nearly of the size of a turkey, lives in flocks, feeds on seeds, and rarely perches on trees. It is kept in the poultry-yards of Java, where it is a native, but does not breed in Europe or America. The NIcoBAR PIGEON, Calcenas Nicobarica, is an exceedingly beautiful species, the tail-feathers resembling those of the domestic cock. Its general color is purplish-black; the feathers of the neck long, pointed, and glossed with blue, red, and gold; the wings are blue, the back golden-green, the tail white. It is found in India. The BRONZE-WINGED GROUND DOVE, Phaps chalcoptera, is fifteen inches long, and coos so loud that its note is compared to the bellowing of a cow; found in the Australian islands.' The GROUND DOVE of the United StatesColumba passerina of Audubon; Chamaepelia passerina of Swainson-is a beautiful species, six and three-quarter inches long; color, light purplish-red, above; reddish below; fond in the South Atlantic and Gulf States. TIlE COLUMBIDE OR TRUE PIGEONS. Of these birds, called Pigeons and Doves, there are many species; they live in wooded places; and roost on trees; they feed usually on the ground, picking up seeds of all kinds, young herbage, and roots; in autumn some eat fruits. We can only notice, very briefly, the prominent species. They lay two eggs, and soften the food for the young with a milky substance in their crops. Genus COLUMBA: Columba.-This includes the EUROPEAN STOCK-DOVE-Pigeon sauvage of the French-C. (Jnas, thirteen inches long; general color gray; breast red. It frequents mountainous districts. The RING-DOVE, C. palumbus-Ramier of the French, Ringel-Taube of the Germans-is seventeen and a half inches long, and is one of the largest of the European wild pigeons; general color gray; neck beautifully iridescent. In England it is called WoodPigeon, Cushat, and Queest. The RocK-DovE, C. livia, is naturally wild, inhabiting high rocks near the sea-coast, in the ~ \\ \\~ v I - - -~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - - - - -~~~~~~~~~., —,? 16~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~, WE/~ ___~~~~~ — _______ TIi, -' Il~ A',.'OE/ N IGOS ggst~ la~a~ff~u b~s~ i ~ ~Hs~r n- \ ~s3~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i4) ~~~~~~~~~~~~~i/ -V \( F~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~SI_==~__)_-_ _I~~ ~~ 4 — w ~5/.-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ /1 ~~~~''K-. ~~~rll ~ < DOESAD IEOS CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 4. COLUMBLE. 227 THE GOURA CROWNED PIGEON. cavities of which it lives a great part of the year. It is widely distributed, and like all the preceding species, is common in Europe and Asia. From this the Domestic or House Pigeon is derived, this being now cultivated in nearly all parts of the world, and especially in eastern countries-Egypt, Persia, &c. Its prolificness is marvelous; it is said that one pair may produce fourteen thousand seven hundred and sixty young, in four years. The varieties which have been produced from this species are almost endless; we may, however, enumerate the following: The Monk is a crested pigeon. The head and crest are white; the rest of the body yellow, red, blue, or black. The Shield-Pigeon is only occasionally crested. The plumage is white, with the exception of the scapulars, wing-coverts, and hinder pen-feathers, which are yellow, red, blue, black, or silvery-gray. The Swallow-Pigeon is pure white, except the wings and a round spot on the top of the head, which are yellow, red, blue, black, or silvery-gray. It sometimes has a crest. The Striped Monk is black, with a white poll, and white stripes across the wings. The WhiteHead is like the monk in every respect, except in having a white tail. The Marked Pigeon is white, with the exception of a small streak on the forehead, and another on the tail, which are dark red, or almost black. The Starling-necked Pigeon is blackish-blue, with white stripes across the wings, and a narrow white streak on the breast. The Veiled Dove is white, with the exception of the head, neck, and foremost pen-feathers, which are black, red, or yellow. The Striped Starling-necked White-Head is the handsomest of all. It is black, with a white poll and tail, and white stripes on the wings and breast. There are besides these, many other varieties of the domestic pigeon, which, however, are said by some naturalists not to be originally derived from the wild rock-pigeon, but to be themselves indigenous in different parts of the world. Among these are the Trumpeter-Pigeon, so called from its peculiar cooing; it is crested, and generally has its feet covered with feathers. It is met with 228 VERTEBRATA. /\ -:. -Ki), I1..... -. - e-t I 7ii P1*~ i THE STOCK-DOVE. THE ROCK-DOVE. in all colors, but is often mottled with black and white. It is a good breeder. The Tumbler, which derives its name from the fact that it overbalances itself in its flight, is almost as large as the stock-dove. Its beak is short, and the naked circle of the eye is red. The Jacobine-Pigeon is a small bird, with a short beak, and having at the top of the neck a collar or stripe of long feathers. In color it resembles the shield-pigeon. The Peacock or Fan-tailed Pigeon is like the swallow-pigeon in color, but has the power of spreading out its tail like a peacock. The Perriwigged Pigeon resembles the veiled pigeon in color, but has a high forehead, a short beak, and a crest, which passes down the sides of the neck and breast like a wig. The Pouter is a large pigeon, of various colors. It has a high forehead, a short beak, and possesses the power of inflating the crop to a very large size. The Turkish Pigeon is a large bird, of various colors, which has the membrane of the beak, as well as the circle of the eyes, very thick and wrinkled. The Carrier-Pigeon is supposed by some to be a distinct species, though it is generally regarded as a variety of the house-dove. All the tribes of pigeons are not only swift of flight, but they have an intense love of home, and a remarkable power of discovering their way home from long distances. These capacities are possessed in a high degree by the carrier, and hence it has been celebrated from the remotest antiquity. Anacreon immortalized it as the bearer of epistles. Pliny mentions its use by beleaguered cities. When Modena was invested, he says: " Of what avail were sentinels, circumvallations, or nets obstructing the river, when intelligence could be conveyed by aerial messengers?" In the time of the Crusades these birds were extensively employed by the people of the invested cities; and there are instances mentioned in which the pigeon was captured by the besiegers, and made the bearer of a very different message from that with which it was originally charged. In some cases hawks were kept by the besieging parties for the express purpose of being flown at and intercepting the carriers. These birds have been also used for the purposes of commerce as well as those of war. When the Turkey Company of England was flourishing, and a number of English merchants were resident at Aleppo, the grand emporium of the trade, carrier-pigeons were employed to bring intelligence from the port to the city. Sanderoon, t he port of Aleppo, is distant ab out eighty miles, as the bird flies. The pigeon cavould bring itelligences ove r thi s di stance in about three hours, while it could not come by any other ch annerl n much less than the same number of days. Thus, th ose merchants who em-.other channel in mnuch less than the same number of days. Thus, those merchants who em CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 4. COLUMBE.9 229 ployed pigeons could, upon the arrival of ships, obtain information which they had abundant time to turn to advantage. One case is mentioned, upon authority which there is no reason to doubt, where a merchant killed one of these pigeons by accident, and learned from the billet which it bore that there was a great scarcity of galls in England. Taking advantage of this, and buying up nearly the whole quantity in the market, he at once cleared a sum which in those days was considered an ample fortune. In the East, intelligence was in former times communicated by these pigeons much in the same manner as was done by telegraphs in later periods. Slight towers were built along the line, at thirty or forty miles distant from each other, and pigeons were employed in flying from tower to tower. These wore a very small box of gold, of extreme thinness, suspended from the neck; and, as the pigeon wore this box always, it could carry the message and bring back the intelligence. Sentinels were kept constantly watching on the towers, and, as each flew from its own tower to the next and back again, the information, though not so expeditious, certainly could be rendered much more effective than that which the common telegraph afforded. In modern times these birds have been used in Europe by stock speculators between the principal cities. In the United States they were employed a few years ago to carry European news from Halifax to Boston, on the arrival of the steamers there; they were also used between Sandy Hook and New York to announce the arrival of vessels; but the electric telegraph has destroyed their vocation. The performances of these birds will, however, always remain an interesting phenomenon. It is true thatthey were carefully trained by being taken out and let loose, at first half a mile from home, then a mile, frIfi))S l d v' then two, four, six, ten, twenty miles,./ r /' &c. Those used at Aleppo, to which, /,,' /,^we have alluded, were trained all the - way to Scanderoon; that is, the whole _ _ i / extent of their journey. Only those which showed great aptness were deemed fit for use; and of those is-=_':_ - e n an which were required to achieve a flight of over two hundred and fifty take into account these facts, and con__________ ___________ _ sider the amazing reach of the sight of birds, there is nothing very won-,________ derful in the performances of carrieri esting as showing the use man may magke of the powers and instincts of T —~.~-; —-- birds; but the untaught migrations'='___-__ ~of young birds from the northern to the southern zone, displays an infinitely higher and more mysterious instinct. 3-", L-c~ ~ The TURTLE-DOVE, C. turtur, probably the Dove of the Scriptures, is one of the most beautiful of the species, and has been celebrated for its graceTUR~TLE DOVES. ~ful form, its gentle manners, and its mournfully plaintive notes. Its length is eleven and a half inches; general color above greenish-brown; chin, neck, and breast pale wood-brown; beneath white. The Domestic Dove or Pigeon of Europe, has been transplanted to this country, and is bred 230 VERTEBRATA. here in large numbers. Other species of Columba known in the United States are as follows: C. fasciata, sixteen inches long, purplish-gray, found in the Rocky Mountains; C. leucocephala, fourteen and a half inches long, slate-blue, head white, found in the Keys of Florida; C. zenaidaZenaida amnabilis of Bonaparte-a beautiful and gentle species, twelve and a half inches long, brownish-ash, found in Florida and the West Indies: C. flavirostris, found on the lower Rio Grande: Melopelia leucoptera; Scardafella squamosa: Oreopeleia Martinica and Starncenas cyanocephala, all found in the Southern Territories of the United States and the West Indies. Genus ECTOPISTES: Ectopistes.-This includes the COMMON WILD PIGEON of the United States-often called the Passenger Pigeon —E. migratoria, sixteen to eighteen inches long, bluishgray above, breast reddish-brown: the food consists of beech-nuts, acorns, berries, rice, seeds, &c. It ranges throughout North America from 25~ to 62~ north. It builds a slight, flat nest of sticks, and lays two eggs. It is migratory, moving to the northwest in vast flocks in April and returning to the South in August and September. The migrations are variable as to time and numbers; latterly they have been less multitudinous than they were fifteen or twenty years ago. Audubon noticed a continuous flight for three days; the whole number of birds, according to this calculation, amounting to one billion one hundred and fourteen millions! As every pigeon consumes half a pint of food daily, the consumption of these each day would be eight millions seven hundred and twelve thousand bushels! Wilson gives the following graphic account: " The roostingplaces are always in the woods, and sometimes occupy a large extent of forest. When they have frequented one of those places for some time, the appearance it exhibits is surprising. The ground is covered to the depth of several inches with their dung; all the tender grass and underwood destroyed; the surface strewed with large limbs of trees, broken down by the weight of the birds collecting one above another; and the trees themselves, for thousands of acres, killed as completely as if girdled with an axe. The marks of their desolation remain for many years on the spot; and numerous places could be pointed out where, for several years after, scarcely a single vegetable made its appearance. When these roosts are first discovered, the inhabitants, from considerable distances, visit them in the night with guns, clubs, long poles, pots of sulphur, and various other engines of destruction. In a few hours they fill many sacks and load horses with them. By the Indians a pigeon-roost or breeding-place is considered an important source of national profit and dependence for that season, and all their active ingenuity is exercised on the occasion." "This breeding-place differs from the former in its greater extent. In the western countries, namely, the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana, these are generally in back woods, and often extend in nearly a straight line across the country for a great way.. Not far from Shelbyville, in the State of Kentucky, about five years ago, there was one of these breeding-places, which stretched through the woods in nearly a north and south direction, was several miles in breadth, and was said to be upward of forty miles in extent. In this tract almost every tree was furnished with nests wherever the branches could accommodate them. The pigeons made their first appearance there about the 10th of April, and left it altogether with their young before the 25th of May. As soon as the young were fully grown, and before they left the nests, numerous parties of the inhabitants from all parts of the adjacent country came with wagons, axes, beds, cooking utensils, many of them accompanied by the greater part of their families, and encamped for several days at this immense nursery. Several of them informed me that the noise was so great as to terrify their horses, and that it was difficult for one person to hear another speak without bawling in his ear. The ground was strewed with broken limbs of trees, eggs, and young squab pigeons, which had been precipitated from above, and on which herds of hogs were fattening. Hawks, buzzards, and eagles were sailing about in great numbers, and seizing the squabs from the nests at pleasure, while, from twenty feet upward to the tops of the trees, the view through the woods presented a perpetual tumult of crowding and fluttering multitudes of pigeons, their wings roaring like thunder, mingled with the frequent crash of falling timber; for now the axemen were at work, cutting down those trees that seemed to be most crowded with nests, and contrived to fell them in such a manner, that in their descent they might bring down several others; by which means the falling of one large tree sometimes produced two hundred squabs, little inferior in size to the old ones, and almost one heap of fat. On some single trees upward CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 4. COLUMBAI. 231 of one hundred nests were found. It was dangerous to walk under these flying and fluttering millions, from the frequent fall of large branches, broken down by the weight of the multitudes above, and which in their descent often destroyed numbers of the birds themselves; while the clothes of those engaged in traversing the woods were completely covered with the excrements of the pigeons." On another occasion* the writer of these pages has treated of this subject as follows: "The story told by Wilson and Audubon as to the amazing quantity IL_ of pigeons in the West, was re\i&~_.'. alized by us in Connecticut half' _ -=at Ace~-~';'-'-~r,-: —. the skies, from the rising to the setting sun, and this in the 2- __= -: _ ""st... county of Fairfield. I may here -.. add, that of all the pigeon tribe.;i X'-~ —7-"-:: —-__ ~- -A-this of our country-the pasthe same time The ris unquestion-he I- I\;.egatobbly r superior to any other for thsen g er pigeon isAll the specwiftest __1~~e lnaf the eastern, as well as theon WILD_ _ /S L1S>iTcr-lm~,,quently takes to marshy islands, over",'I.~''d:F ivy/C34:j grown with rushes or osiers. In the *t summer the pheasants roost on the ground, but during the latter part of / t~: the autumn and winter they pass the ~~- ~,/ night upon trees. They feed upon'grain and seeds of various kinds, inter~">~~ /~41 mixed with fruits, blackberries, sloes, baws, acorns, green herbage, roots, and insects. In their movements they Ah 27 -:.., closely resemble the common fowl, a-/:h wwalking and running in the same manT'~ ~, ner, and with great swiftness-in fact, p W ~~~~rarely taking wing unless pressed with ('(~i ~immediate danger. They are polyga-,' i': mous, and the males and females only associate during the breeding season, which is in the spring. At this time the males, which have kept together during the winter, separate, each taking,:<, up a particular station, where he coltk,~..!i(>~ —~ ~ lects a number of females round him''.,- by strutting about, clapping his wings, i_'.-and crowing. The females deposit from KM'`~~T:_"_~~ - E~liten to fourteen eggs among long grass ___(~ ~.,Ti',-'"or bushes, the nest consisting merely of a small hollow lined with dried leaves;,raE COMMON PHEASANT OF EUROPE. they are then deserted by the male, and the whole labor of incubation and bringing up the young brood is left entirely to them. In' C.,.'/ THE, IN-N:KE.PEASNT CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 5. RASORES. 251 captivity the pheasant will breed with the common fowl and guinea-fowl, and in a wild state hybrids of these with the black grouse have been met with. The RING-NECKED PHEASANT, P. torquatus, is a Chinese species, twenty-nine inches long, and marked by a white band around the neck. The GOLDEN PHEASANT, P. pictus, and the SILVER PHEASANT, P. nycthemerus, are exceedingly brilliant and beautiful; they are found wild in China, and are common in European countries in a domestic state. J4 THE ARGUS PHEASANT. Genus ARGUS: Argus.-To this belongs the ARGUS PHEASANT, A. giganteus, surpassing in size and splendor all the other species. It is more than five feet long, and is remarkable for the length of the secondary quill feathers of the wings, which often exceed two feet in length; being adorned with a series of ocellated spots along their whole length, they give the bird an indescribable magnificence when the wings are expanded. It is a native of Sumatra and India. Among the other species of these elegant birds are the IMPEYAN PHEASANT, Lophophorus Irmpeyanus-size of a hen turkey, and found in Nepaul-and HASTINGS' TRAGOPAN, Tragopan.Hastingsii, from the northern range of the Himalaya Mountains. The latter is distinguished by a crest, and two fleshy horns rising from the back of the head; a mass of fleshy wattles cover the under part of the neck. The habits of these birds resemble those of other pheasants. Genus GALLUS: Gallus.-This includes the COMMON FOWL, Gallus domesticus, the most valuaole of all birds to man. This has been under his protection from time immemorial; and the 252 VERTEB'RATA.. id HASTINGS' TRAGOPAN, OR HORNED PHEASANT. THE IMPEYAN PHEASANT. earliest historical records-the curious paintings of the Egyptians-show that this and most of our ordinary domestic animals were as completely domesticated at that early period as in our own day. THE KIJLM COCK. The original stock of the Domestic Fowl has been sought among the various species of Wild CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 5. RASORES. 253 COCHIN CHINA FOWL. Jungle Fowls in India, Java, Sumatra, &c. The KULM COCK, G. giganteus, also called the Gigantic Cock, is twenty-six inches high; it is found domesticated in the Deccan, and is supposed to have been brought from Java or Sumatra. The BANKIVA COCK, G. Bankiva, is smaller, and has the form of the Bantam; it is found frequenting the borders of forests in Java. The JUNGLE COCK of English sportsmen in India, G. Sonneratii, is abundant in the woods of the Western Ghaut Mountains and some other parts of India; there are several varieties or species. This is a remarkably fine and spirited race. Other wild species are the FORK-TAILED Fowil of Java, G. furcatus; and the BRONZED COCK, from the interior of Sumatra, G. ceneus. Which of these remarkable birds may claim to be the original father of the Domestic Fowl of the civilized world, it is impossible to determine. It is suggested, by good authority, that, probably, the Bankiva Cock is the original stock, but that this has been modified by multiplied mixtures with other species through a period of many thousand years. One thing is certain-the domestic fowl, like the domestic pigeon, has within it a principle of variation, which has resulted in an almost indefinite number of permanent varieties, which reproduce and propagate themselves. " The courage of the Domestic Cock is proverbial,, and has become emblematic; his gallantry is admirable, his sense of discipline and subordination most exemplary. See how a good gamecock of two or three years' experience will, in five minutes, restore order in an uproarious poultryyard. He does not use hard means of coercion when mild will suit the purpose. A look, a gesture, a deep chuckling growl, gives the hint that turbulence is no longer to be permitted; and if these are not effectual, severer punishment is fearlessly administered. Nor is he aggressive to birds of other species. He allows the turkey to strut before his numerous dames, and the guinea-fowl to court his single mate uninterrupted; but if the one presumes upon his superior weight, and the other on his cowardly tiltings from behind, he soon makes them smart for their rash presumption. His politeness to females is as marked as were Lord Chesterfield's attentions to old ladies, and much more unaffected. Nor does he merely act the agreeable dangler; when occasion requires, he is also their brave defender, if he is good for any thing." The good qualities of the hen are even more conspicuous; her diligence in laying her eggs, her 254 VERTEBRATA. admirable patience in hatching them, her industrious care and assiduous labor in feeding her chickens, and her courage and energy in defending them, have always excited admiration. Of the Domestic Fowl there are numerous varieties, each of which possesses some remarkable characteristics. The importance of poultry as a source of national wealth* has attracted great attention of late years, and consequently the various breeds of fowls have been the theme of careful investigation. The following are the most noted varieties: The pure SHANGHAI FOWL: this is an enormously large bird. The cock stands twenty-eight inches high; weighs from ten to twelve pounds; is hardy, productive, and of a docile temper, and its flesh is tender and jiicy. There are many varieties and several inferior kinds. The COCHIN CHINA FOWL resembles the preceding, but is somewhat smaller; its qualities are similar. The MALAY FOWL stands twenty-six inches high, and weighs from ten to twelve pounds. The eggs are large and oval, and two of them are equal to three from the common breed. The cock is noted for his courage. The flesh does not take the first rank. The PHEASANT MALAY FOWL, a variety of the preceding, is a useful and ornamental kind. The GUELDERLAND FOWL, brought from North Holland, is jet black; they are good layers; their flesh excellent; they are inferior to none for beauty or utility. The DORKING FOWL, which has been called the Capon Fowl of England, is of various colors. The white breed is the most noted; they are hardy, prolific, easily raised, and the flesh is excellent. The colored Dorkings are supposed to be mixtures with other breeds. The SPANISH FOWL is black, and the hens are noted for continuous laying, without a disposition to sit. With many it is a favorite breed., 2 i GAME FOWLS. The GAME FOWLS are instinctive fighters, even the chickens, before they are fully fledged, being often stone blind from wounds received in their contests. Their chief use, in former times, has been as combatants in the cock-pit. This amusement is of some antiquity, and was formerly * The following memoranda will be sufficient to establish the value of domestic poultry, in the light of political economy: ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF EGGS. In France (produced)................. 8,000,000,000 In the United States, estimated........... 6,000,000,000 In Paris (consumed).................. 160,000,000 Annually imported into England from France, 60,000,000 In London, estimated................. 350,000,000 " " " Ireland, 75,000,000 In New York, estimated................ 150,000,000 Value of Poultry of the United States, estimated, $40,000,000; of France, $70,000,000; of Great Britain, $55,000,000. CLASS iI. AVES: ORDER 5. RASORES. 255 pursued with great eagerness by all classes, the highest as well as the lowest.* It is now chiefly given up in this countryt and in England, to gamblers of the most degraded class. In Mexico and South America, however, it is still practiced, and we are told that even the priest does not disdain, after the ministrations of the pulpit, and on the Sabbath, to bring his fighting-cock to the pit, and take his chance in the game. The POLISH FOWL is said to be quite unknown in Poland, taking its name from some fancied resemblance between its tufted crest and the feathered caps of the Polish soldiers. The general color is black; the distinguishing feature is a full, parasol-shaped crest. The hens are good layers, but bad sitters. They are rather ornamental than useful. Other varieties are the Bolton Gray, the Hamburgh, the Chittagong, the Rumpless or Rumpkin, the Silky, the Negro, the Frizzled or Friesland, the Cuckoo, the Blue-Dun, the Lark-crested, the Bantams of several kinds, &c. Indeed, the subject of Poultry is almost a science, and there are numerous books devoted to its practical and scientific elucidation. THE PAVONINE OR PEA-FOWL. Genus PAVO: Pavo. —To this belongs the most splendid of birds, the PEAOCK,, P. cristatus: the male of this species is noted for its long, lustrous tail, which it occasionally spreads, glittering * From a work on cock-fighting we extract the following, referring to a period of some two centuries ago: " Cocking was kept up with great spirit at Newcastle, England. At one of their last meetings, the cockers at the above place, in point of extent, exceeded every thing of the kind known in Great Britain. Upward of two hundred cocks were fought, and the fighting generally good, particularly the cocks of Baglin Hill and Lockey, which all won great majorities. A remarkable circumstance occurred on the Saturday before fighting. A match was made for twenty sovereigns between Parker and Reed, feeders, and won by the latter, after a hard contest. Parker's cock, however, came round so soon after, that his party made a second match, to come off on the following Monday, for a like sum, which was again won by Reed, after a severe battle-a circumstance, perhaps, unknown in the annals of cocking. It is also calculated that, at the termination of the races, which finished with cocking, upward of one thousand cocks met their deaths. Newcastle, therefore, challenged the world for cocking. Cheltenham, Chester, Gloucester, Norwich, Lancaster, Preston, Stamford, &c., &c., were celebrated for their cocks. The patrons were the Earl of Derby, Sir William Wynne, Ralph Benson, Esq., &c., &c." t Since this was written, we have met with the following in the newspapers, referring to San Antonio, in Texas: 256 VERTEBRATA. ~ ~ I ItI:.I'/ <, %:"-. THE PEACOCK. with hundreds of jewel-like eye-spots, producing an unrivaled effect of grace and beauty. The form of the bird is also exceedingly elegant, and the general plumage of the body exhibits rich metallic tints, that of the neck particularly being of a fine deep blue, tinged with golden-green. The female, however, is of a much more sober hue, her whole plumage being usually of a brownish color. The voice of the peacock is by no means suitable to the beauty of its external appear"Mexifcan amusements, in the shape of cock-fights and fandangoes, help to elevate and refine the people of San Antonio-such as choose to participate. Every Sunday, just after mass at the old Mission Church, there is a cock-fight, generally numerously attended. The pit is located in the rear of the church, about one square distant. On last Sabbath, going past the church door about the time of service, I observed a couple of Mexicans kneeling near the door in a pious attitude, which would doubtless have appeared very sober and Christianlike, had not each one held a smart game-cock beneath his arm! Pious souls! They had evidently paused a moment on their way to the cock-pit, in order to brush over their little short-comings for the past week." CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 5. RASORES. 257 ance, consisting of a harsh, disagreeable cry, not unlike the word paon, which is the French name for the bird. Although naturalized as a domestic bird in Europe and America, the peacock is a native of India, where it is still found abundantly in a wild state; and the wild specimens are said to be more brilliant than those bred in captivity. The date of its introduction into England is not known, but the first peacocks appear to have been brought into Europe by Alexander the Great, although these birds were among the articles imported into Judea by the fleets of Solomon. They reached Rome toward the end of the Republic, and their costliness soon caused them to be regarded as one of the greatest luxuries of the table, although the moderns find them dry and leathery. This, perhaps, as much as the desire of ostentation, may have induced the extravagance of Vitellius and Heliogabalus, who introduced dishes composed only of the brains and tongues of peacocks at their feasts. In Europe, during the middle ages, the peacock was still a favorite article in the bill of fare of grand entertainments, at which it was served with the greatest pomp and magnificence; and during the period of chivalry, it was usual for knights to make vows of enterprise on these occasions, "before the peacock and the ladies." In the present day, however, the bird is kept entirely on account of the beauty of its appearance. In a state of nature peacocks frequent jungles and wooded localities, feeding upon grain, fruits, and insects. They are polygamous, and the females make their nests upon the ground among bushes; the nest is composed of grass, and the number of eggs laid is said to be five or six. They roost in high trees, and even in captivity their inclination to get into an elevated position often manifests itself; and they may frequently be seen perched upon high walls, or upon the ridges of buildings. The JAPAN PEACOCK, P. Jcaponensis, improperly called the JAVANESE PEACOCK, P. Javanicus, resembles the preceding, but has a much taller crest: found only in Japan. Genus POLYPLECTRON: Polyplectron.-To this belongs the THIBETIAN PEACOCK, P. Thibetanus, a very beautiful species, the head ornamented with a crest, and a long tail, not erectile, but capable of very wide expansion: found in Northern Thibet. ^sga^EB^' -,,)' ^? THE MOUND-BIRD OR BRUSH-TURKEY. THE MEGAPODIDDE OR MOUND-BIRDS. These consist of several species, some in India and some in Australia, and having very peculiar habits in relation to their nests and incubation. Genus MEGAPODIUS: Megapodius.-To this belong several species, inhabiting the shady VOL. II.-33 258 VERTEBRATA. forests of India, and laying their eggs in holes in the sand, which they cover over, and leave them to be hatched by the sun. An Australian species, the JUNGLE-FOWL, M. tumulus, collects together a vast heap of vegetable matter, in which it deposits its eggs; it then covers them over with sand, and the heat of the sun creates a sufficient fermentation to hatch them. Some of these mounds are fifteen feet high and sixty in circumference I Another species, called the Native Pheasant by the Australians, the Leipoa ocellata, deposits its eggs in a mound, like the preceding, three feet high and nine feet in diameter. The BRUSH-TURKEY of Australia, Talegalla Lathami, of the size of a turkey, lives in small flocks in the bush; several pairs of birds unite to build the mound, which consists of grass and leaves; these they grasp and bring together with their feet, scraping and clearing the ground as with rakes. A single mound will contain from two to four cart-loads of these materials. In this mass several females make their nests, about a foot from each other. THE GALEATED CURASSOW. THE CRACIDE OR CURASSOWS. Of this group there are several species, all bearing some resemblance to the turkeys. Genus CRAX: Crax. This includes the COMMON CuRASSOW, C. alector, three feet long, and nearly as large as a turkey; it is of a shiny black color, collects in small companies, and feeds on seeds and fruits. They are found in Brazil and Mexico, where they have been domesticated. Another and smaller species, the RED-KNOBBED CURASSOW, C. Yarrellii, is found in Peru, where it is called Peury. Genus OURAX: Ourax.-This includes the GALEATED CuRASSOW or Hocco of Mexico, O. Pauxi, black above, with green reflections; has a pear-shaped knob of a stony hardness on the crown, of a lead color and two inches high, being nearly as large as its head; lives in the forests, and roosts on trees; mingles readily with other gallinaceous fowls. There are still other species of curassow in Northern South America. Genus PENELOPE: Penelope.-This includes the GUAN, P. cristata, thirty inches long, and resembling the curassows; common in Brazil and vicinity. It is here called YAcou, from its note, which is very loud, and often rings through the forests, especially when several unite in the clamorous cry. This species is domesticated in Brazil, and also in Holland. The TEXAN GUAN, Ortalida polyocephala- Ortalida McCalli of Baird-figured and described by Cassin, is the only one of the Cracidce found within the boundaries of the United States; it is twenty-four inches long, the tail seven inches; dark greenish-ash above; beneath dull yellowish-green; native of Texas, New Mexico, and Mexico. In the latter country it is called Chiac-chia-lacca. Another species of Guan is the Ortalida Motmot, called Pheasant of Guiana; it lives in small families, and has a loud note, which sounds like Parrakcoua. r)q -Jr! Wr~i/!C~ ~~~H ALAE UASW I~~liiTH CRAID., OR URASOWS CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 6. CURSORES. 259 _ A *.-': * - OSTRICHES. ORDER 6. CURSORES. Of the Cursores or Runners, which have been included by many authors among the Grallatores, the Common Ostrich is a prominent example. They are nearly all large birds, with strong and generally elongated legs; the wings, on the contrary, are always reduced to a rudimentary condition, although the bones in number and form agree with those of the wings of other birds. In consequence of this small size of the wings, these birds are quite incapable of flight, and the only use they ever appear to make of them is to spread them out as if to catch the air, and thus aid them in running. In accordance with this deficiency of the power of flight, the bones are almost entirely destitute of the air-cells which in the ordinary birds give so much lightness to the: 1 —nd-ian;~~111~~~11~:;~~~.:~ ~ ~~~~~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~le ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Ailgly -ella, c i\ ~~~~~~~~OSRCHS i: ~ ~ ORE.CUSRS OfteCroe r unr hc av enicue b ayatosamn h rla tores, the Common Ostrich is a prominent example. They are nearly all large birds, with strong~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I an eeal lnae es hewns ntecnrraealasrdcdt uietr codto lhuhth oe n-ubr n omarewthtoeo h igso terbrs 7 ZD~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1CL Incneuneo hssalsz ftewns heebrsaeqieicpbeo lgt n h onl ue he eer ppartomae o temistospradthm utas f o ath he ir ad hu ai hm nrnin.I ccra? ewt hi eiiec fth oero lghteboe r alotetreydsiut fteai-el hihi h odnr irszvFso c ihtest h 260 VERTEBRATA. skeleton; and the sternum is reduced to a simple convex shield, without any trace of the keel, which in other birds gives attachment to the powerful pectoral muscles. To compensate for this deficiency, however, the great size and muscularity of the legs render the pace of these birds in running exceedingly swift. These curious adaptations afford striking illustrations of the devising Wisdom and Sagacity, as well as the care and attention, which presided over the Creation of animals-looking into every detail of structure, and providing for each condition and every want and necessity, of every species-the smallest as well as the greatest. The pelvis in these birds is of large size, and the two sides of the arch unite at the pubis, which is not the case in any other species. The anterior toes are strong, either two or three in number, and terminated by strong nails. The hinder toe is entirely wanting, except in the genus Apteryx, in which this organ is present in a rudimentary condition. The plumage is of a very peculiar character, the barbs of the feathers being always separate, and often exhibiting a close resemblance to hairs. The bill is usually rather short, depressed, and somewhat triangular; but in the Apteryx it is elongated and cylindrical, with the nostrils placed at the tip. The head and neck are usually naked, or covered only with a short, downy plumage; the head is sometimes furnished with a horny crest, and the neck with fleshy wattles. THE STRUTHIONIDLE. This family includes the Ostriches, the largest of known birds: in these the bill is broad, depressed, and triangular, with the apex obtuse, and the nostrils placed in a groove; the hinder toe is entirely deficient. The legs are very long, especially the tarsi, which are covered with scales. The plumage varies considerably in its texture in the different species, all of which frequent the desert plains of the countries inhabited by them. Genus STRUTJ IO: Struthio.-Of this there is a single species, the OSTRICH-Thar Edsjanmnel, or Camel-Bird, of the Orientals, so called from its obvious resemblance to the camel; the Struzzolo of the Italians, Strauss of the Germans, and Autruche of the French-S. camelus, the largest of all existing birds. It inhabits the sandy deserts of tropical Africa, and has been celebrated since the most remote antiquity.* It measures from six to eight feet in height; its feet consist only of two toes; its head and neck are nearly naked; the general plumage is very lax, and the quill-feathers of the wings and tail are particularly remarkable for the length of their barbs, which, although furnished with barbules, are completely separate from each other; these are the well-known ostrich-feathers, which, from their elegance, are so highly prized as ornaments. The ostriches live together in small flocks, feeding upon grass, grain, the tops of plants, &c.; like the gallinaceous birds, which they resemble in their food, they have an enormous crop and a strong gizzard. In confinement, however, they appear to devour indiscriminately almost any thing that comes in their way, as they have been fiequently known to pick up and swallow pieces of leather, wood, stones, and even metal. Valisnieri found in the stomach of one of these birds a farrago of grass, nuts, cords, stones, glass, brass, iron, tin, copper, lead, and wood, and among the stones one weighing over a pound. An ostrich in the London Zoological Gardens was deformed and afterward died from swallowing part of a parasol. These hard substances are probably taken to assist the action of the gizzard. The African ostrich is polygamous, the male usually associating with from two to six females. The hens lay all their eggs together-each ten to twelve-in one nest, this being merely a shallow cavity scraped in the ground, of such dimensions as to be conveniently covered by one of these gigantic birds in incubation. An ingenious device is employed to save space, and give at the same time to all the eggs their due share of warmth. Each one of the eggs is made to stand with the narrow end on the bottom of the nest and the broad end upward, and the earth which has been scraped out to form the cavity is employed to confine the outer circle, and keep the whole in the proper position. The hens relieve each other in the task of incubation during the * The ostrich is generally understood to be the bird designated by the terms Joneh or Jaanah and Rin(mim in the Scriptures-Levit. xi. 19; Dent. xiv. 15; Job xxx. 29; Isaiah xiii. 21; xxxiv. 13; xliii. 20; Jer. 1. 39; Lament. iv. 3; Mic. i. 8; Job xxxix. 13. In many of these passages, Jer. 1. 39, and Isaiah, for instance, our version reads " Owls," and in Leviticus does not mention the ostrich, but the general opinion seems to be in favor of the ostrich being intended. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 6. CURSORES. 261 day, and the male takes his turn at night, when his superior strength is required to protect the eggs or the newly-fledged young from the jackalls, tiger-cats, and other enemies. Some of these animals, it is said, are not unfrequently found lying dead near the nest, destroyed by a stroke from the foot of this powerful bird. The eggs weigh about three pounds, and are regarded as a great delicacy. The cry of the ostrich, at a distance, sounds like the voice of a lion, and is frequently mistaken for it. When pursued it runs with such rapidity as speedily to outstrip the swiftest horse, and the hunters, therefore, either relieve one another in the chase, or bewilder the bird by approaching it in several directions; but the pursuit is not always unattended with danger, as the ostrich sometimes attacks its enemies, striking out with its feet with great force. It will carry a man on its back without much diminution of speed. In captivity it often becomes tame and gentle with those to whom it is accustomed, but generally exhibits more or less enmity toward strangers, whom it will endeavor to knock down and trample underfoot. Genus RHEA: Rhea.-This includes the AMERICAN OSTRICH, R. Americana, called also half the size of the African species, from which it also differs in having the head covered with feathers, and the feet furnished with three toes. It is of a nearly uniform gray tint, and the feathers of the wings and tail, although elongated, possess none of the beauty of those of the true ostrich; they are only employed in the manufacture of light dusting-brooms. It is very abundant in the great plains of trop ical America, where it is pursued on horseback, and captured either by the lasso, or by throwing at its legs an instrument formed of two heavy balls or stones, attached together by a leathern thong. Mr. Darwin, who had frequent opportunities of observ-'....in. ing therse birds, says tha t they take the Genus DROMAI S: Dromius.This includes thewater readily, and swim across broad and 11~w:1 -~~~~~~ rapid rivers, and even from island to psland in bays. 7~feathers. iThey are said to be polygamous; the Iparts of thmale bird prepares the nest, collects the eggs, which are frequently laid by the females at random on the ground, and per/ — - forms all the duties of incubation. Mr. 7,,- z —--- Darwin confirms these observations, and says that four or five females have been seen TH PATAGNIAN RHEA. to lay in the same nest, and that the male when sitting lies so close that he himself nearly rode over one. At this time the males are said sometimes to be very fierce, and they have been known to attack a man on horseback, trying to kick and leap on him. Another species, the PATAGONIAN RHEA or PETISE, 1. Darwinii, is found in Southern Patagonia; it is of a dark, mottled color, and about half the size of the Rhea. Genus DROMAIUS: Dromaius.-This includes the Emeu of New Holland, D. Novce Hollandice, which is nearly as large as the African Ostrich, measuring from five to seven feet in height. It has three toes on each foot, and these are furnished with nearly equal claws; the head is covered with feathers, but the throat is naked, and the plumage of the body closely resembles long hairs, hanging down on each side of the body from a central line, or parting. The neck is covered with feathers. The birds are abundant in the southern parts of Australia; but in the more populous parts of the British colonies there, they are now extinct. They are much sought for, both by na 262 VERTEBRATA. tives and Europeans, for the sake of their flesh, that of the young birds being described as very delicate, while that of the old ones is compared to beef. Their eggs also are eaten; and it is said that during their breeding season, the natives of some parts of Australia live almost entirely upon Emeu's eggs. The old birds are hunted by trained dogs, which have been taught to avoid the powerful kicks of their quarry, by running up alongside of the bird and then springing suddenly upon its neck. They are monogamous, and the males, as in the case of the Rhea, perform the duties of incubation. The eggs are nearly as large as that of the Ostrich, but of a dark color; and the young, when first hatched, are rather elegantly striped with black and whitish-gray. A - -- --- THE CASSOWARY. Genus CASUARIUS: Casuarius.-To this belongs the Cassowary, C. galeatus, an inhabitant of the islands of the Eastern Archipelago. It stands about five feet in height, and is distinguished from the other members of the family by the possession of a peculiar horny crest or helmet upon the head, by the wings being furnished, instead of feathers, with about five cylindrical stalks destitute of barbs, and by the large size of the claw on the inner too. The head and neck are naked and wattled, and these parts are of a bright red color, variegated with blue. The body, which is very stout, is covered with long pendent feathers, which resemble hair even more closely than those of the Emeu. It feeds upon fruits, herbage, and seeds, and, like the Ostrich, swallows hard substances, probably to assist the action of the gizzard. The eggs are of a greenish tint. The MOORUa, C. Bennetti, is a very curious bird, recently discovered in New Caledonia, and a specimen of which is in the London Zoological Gardens. Its habits are similar to those of the cassowary; it has, however, no horny crest; its cry is Mooruk, whence its name. Its history is yet very imperfect. APTERYGIDJE. Genus APTERYX: Apteryx.-This includes two species of birds, inhabitants of New Zealand: the A. Australis and A. Oweni. These are distinguished by the elongated slender form of the bill, which bears the nostrils at the tip of the upper mandible, by the comparative shortness of the legs, and the presence of a short hind toe, furnished with a strong claw. The wings are perfectly rudimentary, and concealed under the feathers, which resemble those of the Emeu. ::~,~,::t,.i.: ~/',!!.~:, ~rb i —,i~~~~ _'L'. -g I-" ICf ~t if"/.6' \I i: i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~!:,,I'~i,II,,,,,,:~...,,, Y,I,,(: D.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,',:'!,.!I ~'" "'5 I i ~; illrTIi, e, llI i Ii)'' i ~~~~~~.~I~! i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~':;)i::'% "ii i~ I ~,%rT~,: I ~,li,~~,l,~l,>??'~i,.~ ii'..'..l,~iji,~ii':," i,' ~'''.~h,',,~'l, j I 1Fjj~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~jill'I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r c'iiri~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~rllij~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i,,II i I i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,' b Pi~ r, i ir~rI r j'.~ IlrI\:1i,,;:I Sjb1'1 )~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~w.)1 q' ~t1~ c3~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~:' " ""r'~ "~ "" j ij "' i;!'ii'~p:'~.>",,.: t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ i'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,,. ~,,~._ ~-> }, ~:-.. Ij ji ~,1\ _, ~....r r.?eil l J, ",i, - clii rjibi liii(;(riiriliailiC -T j 1 Iir / 1Iijli! \ CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 6. CURSORES. 263 THE HIOORUK. They are nocturnal in their habits, feeding upon insects, running with great rapidity, and delending themselves vigorously with their feet. The name of Kiwi-Kiwi is given to them by the a!:X - <-a =<<;-9l'l; \They feed principally upon THE MOOR-HEN, y Some hathem ad.e solitar (Venus GALLIN\\LA: Gal7linulja.ii e thbuild a large nest ngoo drie blneath un m slate-of graassey and seedgs alng ans upon the ground amongs thick ___ _ h.*.. Somerba e; the eggs vary considerably in number, and the young are able to run, and frequently to swim, as soon as "THE A ~. ot-HE,'n they are hats. he enus GALLINULA:TH Gallinula.-This embraces the European MooR-COOT.IEN r WTER-HEN, Poule d'eau of the French, G. chloropus, thirteen inches long; upper parts olive-brow in Florbeneath uniform slate-gray. It lives among the eeds and sedges alung the bans of rivers and lakes, feeding on insects, worms,' ___-_.......nollusca, and seeds. It is often —: sidseen on rivers, ponds, and lakes -— ~~ ——'-:71 7- -~~"""'"1 ~~~i4 swimming with a nodding mo-4- ---- tion of the head. When disturbed they will take a short flight, but prefer a retreat to the rushes and sedges. They sometimes perch on trees over hanging the water. This species is partially domesticated in some parts of England, and sevteral broods have been hatched (genus_____~~~ /G~ALLIUinA the canal of St. James' Park, London. It is widely distribneathI u uted over Europe, Ansia, and Africa. It is sedentary in Eng-.........-~ ~ land. There are several species in the UnitedStates. The PURPLE THE COMMON EUROPEAN COOT. GALLINULE, G. fartinica, is fourteen inches long, general color a rich violet-purple. It passes the summer in Florida, Georgia and Louisiana. retiring farther south with its brood in autumn. It is a vigorous, active 268 VERTEBRATA. bird, concealing itself in the coarse herbage of the marshes, and taking wing with reluctance. While in the Southern States it frequents the rice-fields, rivulets, and fresh-water ponds, in company with the Florida species. It is occasionally seen in the Middle and Southern States. The FLORIDA GALLINULE, G. galeata, closely resembles the European species, already described, as well as the Javanese species, G. ardosiaca. It is fourteen inches long, and is common in the West Indies and Florida; accidental in the Middle and Northern States in summer. Genus FULICA: Fulica.-This includes several species, called Coots, which resemble the gallinules, but they are more exclusively adapted to an aquatic life; they live in salt as well as fresh water, and are seldom seen on the land. They are nocturnal in their habits, the old birds being rarely seen by day; they walk awkwardly on the land, and take wing with difficulty; sometimes they dive into the mud rather than rise from the water. The COMMON COOT of Europe, F. atra, is sixteen inches long; whole plumage sooty-black, tinged with slate-color, though white varieties are sometimes seen. It is widely distributed over Europe and Asia; stationary in England. The CINEREOUS COOT, F. Americana, is similar to the preceding, and was formerly supposed to be the same species; it is found in all the temperate parts of North America, and breeds over an extent of fifty degrees of latitude. The nest is secreted among the rank herbage on the surface of the water, and contains about eight eggs. The food consists of insects and mollusca, with abundance of gravel. During the winter it migrates southward, but only so far as may be necessary to obtain food; during this season they accumulate in the inundated, marshy districts of Florida in immense numbers, where they are very noisy, chattering by night and day. Glenus RALLTUS: Rallus.-To this belong the True Rails. The COMMON WATER-RAIL OF E uR OP E, R. aquaticus, is ii\!i) /i, ~ - ~,~.___~ eleven and a half inches long, CO'N EUROPEAN WATER-RAIL. p - olive-brown above, dull gray gnans resembles the European waterbelow; it is found in marshy; ls ag f r districts, and delights to dwell among the rank vegeta tion -J_.._~:~:~::~~ggs, ~of shallow pools and water~ ~ ~iof its springcourses. If surprised, it ffies.~~~~its loud~, harshort dcis boms tance with its legs ~it`~hanging down. It feeds on l: A'*:.~,:, "/'"'~worms, snails, slugs, and veg-.....-, etable matter. The nest is -:... made of sedge and common /1~.... "....-. -.. grass, on the ground; the eggs'~,'5'....i are six to eight, and spotless white. It is common throughCOMMON EUROPEAN wATER-RAIL. out the southern parts of Europe and some portions of Asia, where it is stationary; a few are seen in Northern Europe in summer. There are several American species of this genus. The VIRGINIA RAIL or MUD-HIEN, P. Virginianus, resembles the European water-rail; it is nine and a half inches long; black, sprinkled with brown, above; rufous beneath; feeds on worms, aquatic insects, fish, small mollusca, and seeds; lives along fresh-water streams and in morasses, and is occasionally seen on the sea-coast. It is migratory, and has a sharp cry, frequently uttered at night during the breeding season. The nest, situated in the wettest part of a marsh and fixed upon a tussock of grass, contains six to tenll Aggs, of a dirty white. It is found in the entire temperate portion of North America. The CLAPPER RAIL or SALT-WATER MARSH-I-IHEN,. crepitans, is fourteen inches long; above black, spotted with olive; beneath rufous; resembles the preceding, but is larger. In the course of its spring migrations northward, in the hours of twilight, it is often heard on its way uttering its loud, harsh cry. This becomes almost incessant after it has settled in its marshy tenement, and is particularly vehement before a storm. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. 269 The FRESH-WATER MARSH-HEN, R. elegans, is a large and beautiful species, nineteen inches long; upper parts streaked with brownish-black and light olive-brown; beneath bright orange and greenish-brown. It frequents fresh-water marshes and ponds in the interior, as well as along ^_ —?..?,:'~. ~, the coast, from Texas to New Jer^ \a ^^ ^,^ OXy gometsey; very abundant in the Southwestern States. It feeds on seeds, ~Ii ~ ~~~.el ~~~~~insects, tadpoles, leeches, and small whr/ it(:, appar i.t eig p — -d crawfish; the nest is made on the -n ri, grtround, being raised six or eight Other- species — are the LITTLEinches by a mass of withered leaves Xt —es / and grass; eggs eight to ten. ^^ < —- - ~ ~ J Genus PORZANA: Porxanat. — TE7 This includes the COMMON RAIL of inch erious names of Ccr olin a b Rail, Soree reedy swamps and lagoons throughout the temperate portions of ther United States. Its flesh is greatly prized, and it is much sought for by the sportsmen of the Midle and Southern States, where it appears in large numbers in autumn, being particularly English Rail-P. Cathe shorolina-:'1..../: —'.""' ~.~.~ ~:'-ii-~: Ortyyometra Carolina of De Kay and Audubon, allus arnear theirlinus of ~~TOther species are the AMERICA CAROLINA RAIL.fe Middle an Su Bonaparte; it is nine and a half inches along brownolive above, beneath varied with white, black, and ash. It breeds in the vast reedy swamps and lagoons throughout the temperate portions of the United States. Its flesh is greatly prized, and it is much sought for by the sportsmen of the Middle and Southern States, where it appears in large numbers in autumn, being particularly abundant along the shores of the Atlantic rivers, near their mouths. Other species are the LITTLE BLAX RAIL, _P. Jamaicensis, found in the Middle and Southern States along the Atlantic shores, and the YELLOW RAIL, P. Noveboracensis, found in Eastern North America. Genus CREX: Crexw —This includes several species of Rail, called andi~: are~Cra ames in England. The promi-.~~,/.~'c-' —->~~.- ~~,/~.~~~-~. q- >:-?:: —-_ dnent species is the CORN-CRAKE,,.:jig~~~::.'>::; ~X:.:(: "the English, the Roi des Cailles?!-I'~':~-'~',* —~i' ~"'V'of the French, Re di Quaglie of hi the Italians, and isWachtel-KUnig Ote of the Germa ns; C. pratensis. It "'' Cot.. is seven inches long, mottled above w/ with dark brown, ash and reddish, breast olive, abdomen white. It (>11s ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~: // is very shy, lives in grassy mead-.: ows, fields of young corn, and i':: osier-beds; feeds on worms, snails,'- ~ -— ~~-~- ~~~.w",. -': insects, larve, seeds, and grain; ~_____ - makes its nest on the ground, and /i-:7' It, lays from ten to twelve eggs. It "'.-%,~ /\1..~,~~ ~is not easily flushed, but runs ALAND-BAI L. rapidly before a dog. The young are covered with a blackish down, and are almost immediately able to follow the mother upon being hatched. This species inhabits Europe generally; it is found in Greenland, and is accidental on the coasts of the United States. Other species are the SPOTTED CRAKE, C. porzana; LITTLE CRAKE, C. pusilla; BAILLON'S CRAKE, C. Baillonii; all found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. 270 VERTEBRATA. THE OCYDROMUS AUSTRALIS Genus OCYDROMUS: Ocydromus.-This includes the 0. Austrahls Rallus trogodytes of Gmelin-seventeen inches long; color brown; it flies badly, but runs with great swiftness, never takes to the water, scratches the earth like a hen, and feeds on worms and grubs. Found in New Zealand. j g_ THE NOTORNIS MANTELLI. Genus NOTORNIS: Notornis.-To this belongs the Notornis Mantelli, a species of peculiar CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. 271 interest; found in New Zealand, that strange land which is said to have but two indigenous quadrupeds-a rat and a badger-but which produces several very original and remarkable birds. We have already spoken of the Diornis giganteus of this island, nearly twice as large as the ostrich. The bones of this, as well as of some smaller species, had been found, but they were supposed to be extinct. In 1849, however, a party of seal-hunters, who were pursuing their avocations in Dusky Bay, having observed the trail of a bird in the snow with which the ground was then covered, determined to give chase. Proceeding in the direction of the footsteps, they at at last caught sight of the object of their pursuit. Their dogs gave chase, and finally, after a long hunt, the bird was captured alive, in the gully of a sound behind Resolution Island. It ran with great speed, uttered loud cries, and violently attacked the dogs. But, notwithstanding the long struggle, it was caught uninjured and taken on board ship, where, after having been kept alive for three days, it was at length killed and eaten, the sailors who partook of the meal describing the bird as most delicious food. Fortunately, these nautical epicures, who certainly were no great naturalists, did not pluck their bird, but skinned it, and Mr. Walter Mantell, son of the celebrated geologist, Dr. Mantell, being there, procured it, and thus we have a tolerably correct account of the bird. It was evidently a species of Rail, somewhat larger than a common fowl; the head, neck, breast, and flanks were of a brilliant purple; the back of a dark olive. It could not fly, but ran with great swiftness. This proved to be one of the smaller species above referred to, and received the name of 2Notornis Mantelli. Probably the race is nearly extinct. Nay, Dr. Mantell believed this bird to be the last of its tribe. We are familiar with the fact that in remote eras, races have existed and have passed away; but to be in at the death, as it were, of a species, is somewhat startling, and naturally suggests curious, if not painful inquiries, as to the purpose of creations which are thus left to perish. So far as we know, creation has ceased upon this earth; there is no renewal of races that have died out, as there is no production of new ones that have never existed. We can see reasons for the disappearance of the iguanodon, the megatherium, the icthiosaurus and the mastodon, for they were gigantic and oppressive disproportions to the average of animal life; but why a gentle and beautiful and useful soecies like the notornis should be permitted to perish, is beyond the scope of hullan reason. THE JACANA. Genus PARRA: Parra.-To tnis belongs tne JACAN, P. acana, which is very numerous in Brazil. It has the wings armed with spines; the legs are long; the body light; the toes and claws exceedingly large, so that the bird can run with great ease on the floating leaves of aquatic plants. The claw of the hind toe resembles the blade of a lancet, whence this bird is called the surgeon. In running upon the leaves its feet sink a little, and hence it is said to have the appearance of walking on the water. Its food consists principally of vegetable substances. Other species are found in India and Africa. Another genus, analogous to the gallinules, is that of the 272 VERTEBRATA. Porphyrio, one species of which, P. hyacinthinus, is very beautiful, and found in Southern Europe as well as parts of Africa and Asia. THE HORNED SCREAMER. Genus PALAMEDEA: Palamredea.-To this belongs the KAMICHI or HORNED SCREAMER, P. cornuta, larger than a grouse; the plumage greenish-brown above, with a reddish spot on the shoulder; two strong spurs on the edge of each wing, and a pointed, triangular flexible horn, about three inches long, on the top of the head. Another remarkable peculiarity is, that the skin is separated from the flesh by a considerable interval, occupied by a loose, cellular structure, which is filled with air, so that the skin crackles under the pressure of the hand. The same curious arrangement is found in some gannets and cormorants. This bird is common in Guiana and Brazil, where it lives in pairs, in marshy places, feeds on grains and aquatic herbs, and makes the air resound with its loud, wild cries. It is called Camnouche in Guiana, and Anhima in Brazil. The CHAJA, Chauna chavaria, is a closely-allied species, thirty-two inches long, and has a clarionlike note, uttered by night and day, whenever it is excited by a noise. It is domesticated with other fowls by the natives of Paraguay and Colombia, where it is found. THE SCOLOPACIDE OR SWIPES. This family includes several allied groups, as the Phalaropes, True Snipes, Sandpipers, Curlews, THE PHALAROPES. Genus PHALAROPUS: Phalaropus.-This contains the NORTHERN or GRAY PHALAROPE, -phalarope of the French-P. platyrhynchus or P. hyperboreus. The females are a little the largest; medium length eight inches; general color pearl-gray above, white beneath; feeds on thin-skinned crustaca and aquatic insects; eggs usually four. They procure their food principally upon the water, on which they alight like ducks, and float as light as gulls, and move about in search of food. The sight of a bank of floating sea-weed induces them to alight upon it, where Merrill~~~~a ~~~ M01-911~~~~~~~~~p~~ search of food. The sight of a bank of floating sea-weed induces them to alight upon it, where CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. 273 THE GRAY PHALAROPE. they walk about as much at their ease as on land. Their notes are weet, weet, tweet, uttered in a sharp, clear tone. In their spring and autumn migrations they assemble in flocks, and are often seen feeding on floating beds of sea-weed, a hundred miles from land. They breed in high northern latitudes of both continents during the summer, at which time they are seen in pairs. About August they move southward, and pay transient visits to the maritime parts of Europe, as well as to the Atlantic borders of the United States. They are said, also, to be found in California and Oregon. Other species are the RED PHALAROPE, P.fulicarius, smaller than the preceding, resembling it, however, and distributed in the same countries; and WILSON'S PHALAROPE, P. Wilsoni, a beautiful species, ten inches long; irregular in its migrations, and rarely seen; distributed throughout temperate North America. THE TRUE SNIPES.' d.a...' a''Genus SCOLOPAXe Scoo-',,i. ~,, f/A.-lopax.-The most noted spe-,;,$TH ~,.:EE,>..'~_,,~ - cie is the EUROPEAN WOOWODcocnK —s g casse of the French, K ~~~~worms,~Beccaccia of the Italians, and ~!~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~VOL.....!".. Jcaldschnepfeof the Germans /:~'-~[~'~~' ~';~' ~ ~':" ~-S. rusticola. It is thirteen; ~~~~ Ki~~~/~~ ~~~~ ~inches long; weight fifteen;P~~~~~.., to twenty-seven ounces; females a little the largest; ~!',., ~~'a~~_~~i~& B~ g'color various mixtures of brown; bill very long and straight; the eye large; the ",'/~"".:~ ~, ~~~~~.. - eggs three to four, yellow= n* ~:;) ~ish-white, blotched and spotted with gray; habits nqc-.': ~ ~.k_._k::/7L, ~ turnal, reposing during the EUROEAN -- ~ day, and seeking its food, THE EUROPEAN WOODCOCK. consisting chiefly of earthworms, at night. It is guided in its search by smell, and strikes its long, sensitive bill with unerrVOL. II. 35 274 VERTEBRATA. ing certainty into the mud, where its prey is hidden. It also devours snails, slugs, small beetles, &c. It migrates by night in March and April, to high northern regions, where it breeds, and returns in August. It is one of the most noted of game birds, and great quantities are killed in the countries where they make a short stay in their migrations. It is common throughout Europe; a few breed in Great Britain. The nest is loosely made of dead leaves in a dry, warm spot among herbage. The female is attentive to her young, and when surprised will often carry them off in her claws, one at a time, to a place of safety. The AMERICAN WooDcoc —S. minor of Bonaparte, Philohela minor of Gray —is but a trifle smaller than the preceding, which it greatly resembles in form and habits. It, however, does not proceed so far north for incubation. It appears in the Middle and New England States in March and April, and departs for countries south of the United States in October and November. It breeds from Maryland to the St. Lawrence. As in the preceding species, they are able to select their food by scent; they often feed in the night, and their eyes are set back in their head so as hardly to be used for the purpose of seeking the objects on which they feed. Their haunts are marshy thickets, where they turn over the fallen leaves and probe the mud, in pursuit of their prey; Whenever surprised in their hiding-places they rise in a hurried manner, but soon drop to the ground, then running along and lurking whenever they consider themselves safe. They are greatly esteemed as game, and are hunted with pointers or setters, and shot on the wing, They are common in the markets of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia from August to the 1st of November. The COMMON EUROPEAN SNIPE or ENGLISH SNIPE-Becassine of the French-S. gallinago, is ten and a half inches long, the beak two and three-quarters; dark-brown spotted above; sides and neck pale-brown;.-. breast and belly white. They _:~-= —_~___ ~ ~ —..t breed in fens and marshes, Northern______ Europe, = _______=___ _ _ Iceland are migratory, moving Other f s to the North in March and jor;..... to the South in November. ___.__________ofp___ar__t____ __ sMany of them, however, re~ Fr-h-/h in s main andc breed in inter-Oisther_..o... of Euope in e mediate stations, througIh the _ _ t isummier. During incubation tthe male bird is often heard mate. He also frequently ascends in a circling fligsht to _ ~French isan immense elevation, s ometimes beyond the reach of vision, and then descends ____.:.: with great velocity, uttering, at the same time, a kind ~ —~ —~ —~ __~ _~.~ — ~....'.... /,~..,~'~- of plaintive, whistling sonrd, which is accompanied by a trembling motion of the wings. This takes place morning and evening, and sometimes during the day. It is found in all Northern Europe, Iceland, and Greenland; in winter it migrates to Egypt and Asia Minor. Other foreign species of Snipe are the GREAT SNIPE, DOUBLE SNIPE, or SOLITARY SNIPE, S. major; twelve inches long; a fine species; habits like the preceding; found sparingly in various parts of Europe, from Italy to Sweden; and the JACK-SNIPE, S. gallinula-Bgcassine sourde of the French —eight inches long; solitary in its habits, and breeds as far north as Sweden, and visits the South of Europe in the winter. The GRAY SNIPE, BROWN SNIPE, OR RED-BREASTED SNIPE —S. noveboracensis of De Kay, Macroramphus griseus of Bonaparte, Becassine grise of the French —is ten to eleven inches long; upper surface variegated with different shades of chestnut CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. 275 THE DOUBLE, OR SOLITARY SNIPE. and black; beneath reciash chestnut barred with black. They move northward in April, and breed in the northern regions of this continent, amid the reedy and marshy borders of the great lakes, feeding on leeches, worms, insects, and small mollusca, which they extract from the mud with their long, dextrous bills. They move southward in July and August, now gathering along the sea-shore, and appearing in large flocks, performing their aerial evolutions over the marshes, sometimes uttering a short, rapid note, and sometimes a loud, querulous whistle. At this period...!_ GRAY SNIPE. large numbers of them are killed in the Middle States, their flesh, like that of the other snipes, being of exquisite flavor. This species, which is known in some parts by the name of Dowitchee, Quail Snipe, and Brown Snipe, is distributed over the temperate parts of North America, and a few specimens are seen in Europe from Sweden to Great Britain. The COMMON AMERICAN SNIPE —S. Wilsoni of De Kay, S. gallinago of Temminck, often called Wilson's Snipe, and also English Snipe, from the fact that it closely resembles the Euro 276 VERTEBRATA pean bird of that name-is eleven inches long; brown and reddish above; beneath white; feeds on worms, leeches, and aquatic insects; migrates northward in March and April, and returns in July and August; breeds from Virginia to 55~ north. It has the same habit as the English Snipe, -which somewhat resembles the practice we have described as belonging to the Night-HIawk-of making wide and lofty sweeps in the air, and then swiftly descending with a wailing, hovering sound, often heard in the gray of the morning and evening, and when the birds are invisible, and therefore seeming to come from spirits of the sky. It is almost nocturnal in its habits, and conceals itself with assiduity in the rank grass and herbage of the marshes which it frequents. Like many other birds of this family, it may be decoyed, while in flight, by an imitation of its call. Some of them remain among us until the frost hardens the earth and compels them to depart. Another species, the Macroranzphus scolopaceus, is found throughout the temperate parts of North America. SABINE'S SNIPE, S. Sabini, is a rare European species, little known. THE CURLEW SANDPIPERS. TRINGINE; OR SANDPIPERS. This family consists of small birds resembling' the snipes, but having longer legs. They live in the neighborhood of water, and some of them swim with facility. They are migratory, breeding high in the North, and proceeding usually in flocks to the South in autumn. They run and fly rapidly; feed on worms, insects, and mollusca, which they extract from the soft, oozy soil of marshes. There are many species in Europe and America. Genus TRINGA: Tringa.-The CURLEW SANDPIPER, T. subarquata, is about eight inches long; chestnut and black above; breast and belly reddish-chestnut. It breeds in Northern Europe and Asia, as well as in North America; in winter it is found in Africa, from Barbary to the Cape, and in the United States, along the Atlantic coast to Florida. It is, however, always a rare species. The GRAY-BACK of the United States, called KNOT in England, T. canuta, is ten inches long; variegated above with black and brown, and beneath reddish-chestnut; abundant in Western Europe and Eastern North America. The BUFF-BREASTED SANDPIPER, T. rufescens-Tryngites rufescens of Baird-eight inches long; grayish-yellow above; beneath yellowish-red, spotted; found in Europe and North America. The BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER, T. platyrhyncha, six and a half inches long; above varied with black, rufous, and gray; beneath grayish-white, tinged with buffish-red; rare, but distributed throughout Europe. The LITTLE STINT, T. minuta, is six inches long; gray above; under surface white, with a dusky band across the neck; found CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. 277 throughout Europe. TEMMINCK'S STINT, T. Temminckii, five and a half inches long; ash-gray $f^~~~~ ~~above; under parts white; found!V~~~i'~\ ~in Europe, North Africa, and In-''IC 9 xil ac -' i_;adia. The DUNLIN, T. variabilis, called also Purre, Stint, Ox-Bird, o t^ Seaig Snipe, &c.-ais eight inches.,:- — ^: ~: -J:' —~"long; above black, rufous, and THE BROADIgray; beneath black and white; _ _ab_ ~ found throughout Europe and sembles the Dunlin; found throughot NNorth America. This is the acci a E. Te RED-BACKED SANDPIPER, T. aaaTH E DO NLIN. long; dark brown above; grayish-white beneath; found pina of Audub on. he PURPLE SANDPIPER T. rmaritirna-the Knot of Bewick WSANDPIPER, T. pu-wsil~~la' or T, - W-iss eight and a half inches long; plumage bluish-lead color; found iwhite. It pervadestn Europe and North America; abundant from Maine to New York in spring and autumn. SCHINZ' SANDPIPER-O-. Schinzii of Gould and othersis six and a half inches long dark ash above; grayish-white beneath; resembles the Dunlin; found throughout North America; common in New Jersey in autumn; accidental in Europe. The PECTORAL SANDPIPER, T. pectorais, —. maculata of Vieillot, and THE DUNLIN. sometimes called Jack-Snipe, Fat-Bird, Meadow-Snipe, Short-tNeck, &c.-is nearly nine inches long; dak brown above; grayis-wshite beneath found in North America and common along the Atlantic shores of the United States; accidental in Europe. WILsON's SANDPIPER or LEAST SANDPIPER, T. pusilla or T. Wilsoni, is four and a half inches long; above black; beneath white. It perv ades th e whol e of North America, and is well known on the coast by the names of Peep and Ox-Eye. To this long list of Sandpipers may be added the T. Cooperi of Baird, found on Long Island, and the T. Bonapartii of Schlegel, found in North America east of the Rocky Mountains. CURLEWS, TATLERS, STILTS, AVOCETS, GODWITS, ETC. Genus NUMENIUS: Xumenius.-This includes the Curlews, distinguished by a long, slender bill, curved downward. As among the snipes and sandpipers, so with the curlews the females are somewhat the largest. The COMMON CURLEW of Europe is the Courlis of the French, Ciarlotto 278 VERTEBRATA. ~.ji:THE CURLEW.= THE CURLEW. of the Italians, and Keilhacke of the Germans, N. arquatus; the female is twenty-four inches.ong, the male twenty-two; variegated above with brown, black, and white; beneath with pale and dark brown and white, streaked and spotted. Its nest is carelessly made of a few leaves; the eggs are four, and pear-shaped; the young run as soon as hatched. It lives along the sea-shore, and feeds on worms, slugs, small testaceans, and insects; its cry of courlie, courlie, has given it its English and French names. In Scotland it is called Whaup, which is a name for a goblin which is supposed to have a long beak and go about the houses after nightfall; hence we can understand the Highlander's prayer to be saved from witches and warlocks and " a' long-nebbed things." This species is widely distributed throughout Europe, Africa, Asia, and even the Asiatic and Australian Islands, visiting high northern regions in summer to breed, and moving southward as compelled by the freezing of the waters and marshes, where they obtain their food. Many proceed to the tropics, and others linger in more northern regions. Their flesh is excellent, and they are eagerly sought by the sportsmen, but are very difficult of approach. The WHIMBREL, N. phceopus, is eighteen inches long, variegated above with brown, grayishblack, and grayish-white; beneath nearly white. In England, it is sometimes called Half Curlew and Jack Curlew; geographical distribution nearly as the preceding. The HUDSONIAN CURLEW, V. Hudsonicus, sometimes called Jack Curlew, and also Shortbilled Curlew, is eighteen inches long; above brownish-black; beneath white, tinged with buff; its nest is built on the ground; the eggs four. It is migratory; appears in the Middle States in large flocks in the month of May; frequents the salt marshes, and feeds on small worms, land and marine insects, fry, minute shell-fish, and seeds of aquatic vegetables. At a later period, in June, accompanied by the long-billed species, it feeds on dewberries, crow-berries, &c. About this period it assembles from different parts of the marshes in a vast company, and moves away to the northern regions, usually setting out about an hour before sunset, and proceeding in a long angular phalanx, and cheering the way by a constant whistling. In consequence of their sympathy for each other, they readily descend at the call of their kindred, and this fact is taken advantage of by sportsmen to bring them within gunshot, by imitating their cry. During the latter part of August and first of September they arrive along the coast of New England and the Middle States, now frequenting the upland pastures as well as marshes, feeding on grasshoppers and CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. 279 berries. They soon depart, moving away to the south in large flocks. Their flesh is excellent, and they are tolerably abundant during the season in the larger city markets. The ESQUIMAUX CURLEW, or LITTLE CURLEW, or DOUGH-BIRD, N. borealis-the Small Esquimaux Curlew of Nuttall-is fourteen inches long; blackish-brown above, mottled with rufous-brown -,'%fkt ~ and gray; beneath yellowish-gray, soeligr.il_ oeme. It fls' i- =nif n streaked. Its range is very expart of_ NothAe. "It itensive-from Paraguay to 70 X____ neatnorth. It is common along our'~d~ ~-_:.-coasts from August to November,,Q/?: borders of_:_" rivwhen it proceeds southward. It inss an is a great delicacy, and much ~sb at tnr, and is foun in Europe and sought after by sportsmen. The LONG-BILLED CURLEW, N. s Sn d longirostris, known along our coast. ~.;~-' by the names of Sickle-Bill and ^ ( K:.....ward the tip; the color blackish-! -..' ~~ ~brown, spotted with reddish and gray above; beneath reddish-buff; —';qC __i - its food consists of small mollusca, insects, berries, worms, and crabs; ~ ~ /'vX:,-,' ~common on the coasts of the Middle States from the middle of AuTHE SPOTTED RED-SHANK. gust to the middle of September; some linger till November. Its flesh is indifferent food; distributed throughout the temperate parts of North America. It is supposed there may be two or three species confounded in this one. Genus TOTANUS: Totanus.-This includes several birds called Tatlers, which resemble the snipes and sandpipers, but have longer legs. The SPOTTED RED-SHANK1 T. fuscus-the Chevalier brun of the \\i...... < &lFrench-is twelve inches long; ash-gray above, be<\<3 AtE:SV V neath white. It inhabits the sea-shore, as well as the borders of rivers and lakes, feeding on worms, insects, and small testacea, and in search of these, burying itself to the breast in nud; it is migratory, ___ ~~~ -: breeds at the north, and is found in Euro. e and Asia. -.~'w~he COMMON RED-SHANK, T. calidris —- Chevalier yambette of the French —is te n and a half inches,'i"~ /':":~-'t ~ long; brown, with black spots, above; beneath white, with brown spots; spread over Europe; sed-.u -: entary in France.'"'; J a= ~:' BARTRAM'S TATLER, T. Bartramius-named Bartram's Sandpiper by Wilson, and known along our coast by the various names of Gray Plover, Grass-:><;t5 ~ Z 4 4 7t~9 -Plover, Upland-Plover, and Field-Plover-is twelve -~ inches long; ferruginous, with small black streaks, THE COMMON RED-SHANK. above; beneath white; found on the Atlantic coast, from Texas to Nova Scotia; accidental in Europe. This is the Actiturus Bartramius of Bonaparte. 280 VERTEBRATA. The YELLOW-SHANK TATLER, T. flavipes~-Gambetta flavipes of Bonaparte, known by sportsmen under the name of Yellow-Legs-is nine and a half inches long; above bluish-brown, varied with white, gray, and rufous; beneath white, streaked with gray. It is a common game bird along the coasts, ranging from Mexico to Labrador; accidental in Europe. The GREEN SANDPIPER, T. ochropus, is nine and a half inches*long; dusky-green above; beneath white, streaked with dusky lines; found in Europe, Africa, and Asia. The WVOD SANDPIPER, T. glareola, and SUMMER SNIPE, or COMMON SANDPIPER, T. hypoleucos, belong to the eastern hemisphere. The SPOTTED SANDPIPER, T. macularius-Tringoides macularius of Gray, Spotted Sand-Lark of De Kay, and popularly known by the names of Peet-weet, Teeter, Tiltup, Tipetail, and Humility -is seven to eight inches long; glossy olive-brown, varied with blackish-white above; whitespotted beneath; frequents small streams and the borders of lakes, and feeds on insects and worms. Its cry is peet-weet, peet-weet; it has a constant tilting motion of the body, which has given it a long list of titles. It is familiarly known throughout the United States; ranges from Mexico to Labrador; accidental in Europe. The GREEN-SHANK TATLER, T. glottis-Florida Greenshank of the Smithsonian Catalogue -is twelve inches long; green and brown above; beneath white; common in Europe and Asia; and is found occasionally on our coasts from New York to Florida. The TELL-TALE TATLER or GODWIT, T. melanoleucos-Gambetta melanoleuca of Bonaparte, and called in this country the Stone-Snipe, Varied Tatler, Big Yellow-Leg, and Winter YellowLeg-is thirteen and a half inches long; blackish-brown above; lower parts soiled and spotted white; found from Mexico to Canada. The WILLET, T. semipalmatus —Ereunetes petrificatus of Illiger, and sometimes called Semipalmated Snipe, and Stone- Curlew-is fourteen inches long, but varies much in size; marked with black, rufous, and grayish above; beneath gray, and tinted with brown; found in South America and temperate parts of North America. 4_ _ THE AVOCET. The SOLITARY TATLER, T. chloropygius, or Rhyacophilus solitarius —sometimes called Solitary Sandpiper and also Jack-Snipe, Wood-Tatler, and Green-Rump Tatler-is eight and a half inches long; deep brown above; beneath light gray; found in Mexico and temperate parts of North CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. 281 America. The WANDERING TATLER-Heteroscelus brevipes of Baird-is found along the Pacific coast and Northeastern Asia. Genus RECURVIROSTRA: Recurvirostra. This includes the Avocets or Avosets. The AvoCET of Europe, R. avocetta-sometimes called Scooper and Cobbler's-awl-Duck in England-is a very curious bird, with a long bill, turned upward, and appearing like a thin piece of whalebone; legs long and semipalmated, furnishing a support in walking over the mud; length eighteen inches; color white, with black on the wings and neck; food, worms, aquatic insects, and thin-skinned crustacea, which the bird seizes with admirable dexterity in the mud with its slender, sensitive bill. The nest is made in a depression in a dry part of the marshes; eggs two. It has an incessant cry of twit, twit. It is migratory, and distributed in Europe, Africa, and Asia; breeds in Great Britain. There are two or three other foreign species. The AMERICAN AvocET, R. Americana-called Blue-Stocking in New Jersey-is eighteen inches long; color white; tail tinged with pale ash; back and wings black; bill four inches long, and unlike the preceding, turns up along nearly its whole length, and at the tip turns down, and ends in a fine point; ranges from the tropics to 68~ north; breeds in New Jersey; migrates north in May and south in October. Genus HIMANTOPUS: Himantopus.-This includes the Stilts, remarkable for the length of their legs. The EUROPEAN or "# -— 4;"~ \iBLACK-WINGED STILT, Ha. mnelan_ X --- Xt{) opMterus- Echasse of the French-_9= -boris about fourteen inches long; the ~/';,' _. __. __ _ legs extremely long and slender; it ident_..i...... runs easily on the land, and flies StLt, ongsnks and with great swiftness. It frequents Genu LIMOSA: isa~Th inc the borders of the sea, and feeds on:- -- worms and small mollusca, and upward and long..e. long gmakes its nest in marshes, laying four bluish-green eggs; found, though not abundantly, in Eastern b I\ pbrown; rangesiEurop e; migrates to Asia and AfED STILT of Australia is described six to twenty, and running along den,r;by Groina oulth d fens of ir E ndwh th e bicatirng nas o fcsn lt i'i" /the streams, and often knee-deep brown above; bein water, with admirable ease and'-S WThe AMERICAN STILT, H. nigriIr reu>ent collis, is thirteen and a half inches' -/'i, —. — -long; general color dark sooty brown; ranges from Mexico to THE BLAC-WINGED STILT. Massachusetts, and is a winter resident from Carolina southwardly. De Kay says: "It is known under the various names of Tilt, Stilt, Longshanks, and Lawyer. The origin of this last popular name, which is most in use, I have not been able to discover. There appears to be nothing unusual in the length of its bill." Genus MICROPALAMA: JMIicropalcnma.-This includes the LONG-LEGGED or STILT SANDPIPER, f. himantopus; nine inches long, and found throughout North America. Genus LIMOSA: Limosa.-This includes the Godwits, noted for long bills slightly turned upward, and long legs. The BLACK-TAILED GODWIT, L. melanura, is sixteen inches long; dark brown above; beneath white, barred with rufous brown; found throughout Europe in spring and summer; frequent on the fens of Lincolnshire, England, where the bird-catchers occasionally fat them on bread and milk for market. The BAR-TAILED GODWIT, L. rufa, is a European species, chiefly distinguished from the preceding by having shorter legs. VOL. II. —36 282 VERTEBRATA.....~:"- The MARLIN, L. fedoa-also called Great Marbled Godwit, Red Curlew, Straight-billed CurNY~~~~~~c:< lew and Dough-Bird-is sixteen ~f~<~"I~~ and a half inches long; above,,;I,'~',.~~~ ~,~;~ brown varied with rufous and ~~~i'ff~-~ ~._ gray; beneath pale reddishbrown or buff; feeds on aquatic insects, leeches, small grubs, shell-'-m~- "'m!i fish and worms; breeds at the /i~ ~ North; returns in large flocks in "'~' \~.~;'(y ~~ ~ August, and remains in the Mid-' dle States till November; ranges throughout temperate North \ America.,,~"j,\ I rl~// The RING-TAILED MARLIN, L. H udsonica-called Goose-Bird E around Boston-is fifteen and a half inches long; found in Eastern North America; common in New Jersey. Genus MACHETES: Macher'" tes.-This includes the RUFF, M. pugnax, the only known species; twelve inches long; weight of BLCK-TAILED GODWITS. the bird, when fat, ten ounces; above of a shining purplish-black, barred with chestnut; beneath white. The male is distinguished by a ruff or tippet of feathers ____-:. around the neck, these falling off in June, attended by an entire _- change ofplumage. It is farther =_% noted for a remarkable pug__ -------- i~~nacity, very opposite to the general peaceful disposition of the....______~___..~, grallatorial birds, as is also the:= —— __' ~ —— ~ i ~!''~practice of polygamy in which it ____ _________________~~1-~ — indulges, and which is indeed the ___i cause of the continual fighting that goes on during the breeding season. Montagu, in describing a conflict between two of these birds, says, "Their actions in IA,! fi ife h t,; n —~~~fighting are very similar to those of a game-cock; the head is / ~~%4~~[6. lowered, and the beak held in a / \&\:~~ horizontal direction; the ruff, \j and indeed every feather, more -or less distended, the former -..~~'sweeping the ground as a shield -.. -~.~~,~.._-to defend the more tender parts; THE RUFF. the auricles erected, and the tail CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. 283 partly spread-upon the whole assuming a most ferocious aspect. When either could obtain a firm hold of the bill, a leap succeeded, accompanied by a stroke of the wing; but they rarely injured each other." These birds, with the females, called Reeves, are taken alive in the fenny districts of England, and fattened upon bread and milk or boiled wheat, before being sent to market, where they fetch from thirty shillings to two guineas, or more, per dozen. They are also imported into London from Holland. They are migratory, and the range is extensive over Europe and Asia. A specimen of this is said to have been found on Long Island. THE ARDEIDIE OR HERONS. This family includes several groups of remarkable birds, generally of stately forms, stalking majestically along, or standing sedately still, watching for their prey. Their legs are long and slender; the bill long and strong; the wings large and powerful. They frequent the margins of water, feeding upon small aquatic animals of various kinds. They are generally migratory, some of them performing very long journeys. Genus PLATALEA: Platalea.-This includes the Spoonbills, distinguished by the very singular form of their bills, which are flattened, gradually narrowed from the base to a little beyond the middle, and expanded at the extremity into a flat oval disc. The toes are connected by membranes at the base. The COMMON WHITE SPOONBILL-P. leucorodia of Europe, Cucchiaorone of the Italians, Spatule of the French, Lbffel Gans of the Germans-is about thirty or thirtyTHE ROSEATE SPOONBILL. two inches in length, and is generally distributed over the continent of Europe, but is a rare bird in England. It is found in Africa, as far south as the Cape of Good Hope, and in India. It is migratory in its habits, retreating to the South of Europe and North Africa during the winter, and advancing far to the north during the summer to breed. One of its favorite summer residences, however, is Holland, where it occurs in great numbers. Its food consists of small fishes, mollusca, worms, and insects. The ROSEATE SPOONBILL, P. aajaa, is two feet six inches long; plumage of a beautiful rosecolor; the wings carmine. It is common in the West Indies, Guiana, Mexico, and the southern parts of the United States. It lives along the sea-coasts and the mouths of rivers, where it is seen 284 VERTEBRATA. moving about in quest of shell-fish, marine animals, small snails, and fish. In pursuit of these it sometimes swims and dives. This species, as well as the others, live in communities during the breeding season, and often feed by twilight. Genus IBIS: Ibis.-Of this there are several species. The GLOSSY IBIS, I.falcinellus-I. Ordii of Bonaparte-is two feet long; of a dark green above, and a fine reddish-brown beneath; the whole plumage being silky and glossed with purplish bronze. It frequents the borders of rivers, lakes, &c., and feeds on worms and mollusca. It is common in Southern Europe, and parts of Africa and Asia. It is supposed to be the Black Ibis of the ancients. This species is occasionally found in the United States. Some authors, however, believe the ibis met with on this continent to be distinct from the European one, though closely resembling it. The SACRED IBIS, I. religiosa, is twenty-three inches long; plumage white; the wings tipped with black; found throughout Africa, and occurs abundantly in Egypt, where it was regarded with great veneration by the ancient Egyptians, who kept them in their temples, and embalmed them after their death; thousands of their remains are still found in the burial places amid the ruins of ancient Egypt. Various reasons have been given for this custom, some saying that the Ibis destroyed the noxious serpents which were so numerous in that country; others that there was supposed to be some analogy between the plumage of the bird and one of the phases of the moon; while a third opinion is that the birds were regarded with favor, because, their annual migration into Egypt taking place at the period of the rising of the Nile, they were considered as the harbingers of that event. This bird, often called the WH-ITE IBIS —. alba of De Kay and others-is also found, though rarely, in the Gulf Atlantic States. The SCARLET IBIS, 1. rubra, is twenty-three inches long, of a fine scarlet color, and is found along the shores of tropical America; is occasionally seen in the southern parts of the United States. It is sometimes domesticated and associates with the poultry. The WOOD IBIS, Tantalus loculator, is according to Wilson, three feet two inches long, of which the bill forms nine inches; general color white; quills dark glossy green and purple. Its haunts are along the margins of rivers, and amid marshes and meadows; found from Brazil to the Southern States. -.. I ICICONINE, INCLUDING ADJUTANTS, JAj~~~~~~ ~~BRIUS, STORKS, &c. Genus CICONIA: Ciconia.-This in-........ celudes the Storks, which are large birds, spring and f reai t r, tnchiefly inhabiting the warmer regions of ______ >!gS the earth, where they frequent marshy places, __-_:- Ai". ~,. —.. feeding upon reptiles, batrachians, fishes, and other small animals, not excluding small -~:\!W"i k:g\~% ~<-~ (, quadrupeds and birds. Many of them devour _ — _,~,~Tim?. " 1 indiscriminately almost any thing that comes in their way, including garbage of all kinds; hence, like the vultures and other carrioneating animals, they are regarded with great \ A d favor by the inhabitants of warm climates. 1ii~ g( i:j: II v.Several species perform long migrations, visTEE WHITE STRIES i7iting temperate and cold climates during the summer; but the majority appear to be','!~ i:. / permanently resident in warni countries.....~]''The best-known species is the WHITE i ~ ~ ~ STORK, C. alba, which is about three feet and a half in length, and is of a white color, ---- -~:(,~,,~:z.... with the quills and coverts of the wings.*',-',,~ " -'J"~" ~ black, and the bill and feet red. These birds THE WHITE STORK. risit the central parts of Europe in the spring, and remain there during the summer, departing usually in the month of October for their ~-N- __ ____ —-- -.... _-=_:,,, ~~~~ —:- I!~~~~~~~~,.:.:,.::......... >::,,:,, Aml THE SACRED IBIS. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. 285,.d ~,, GA-n.., THE MARABOUT STORK. (See p. 286.) winter-quarters in Asia and Africa. They are very common in Holland and parts of Germany. Their services in the countries frequented by them, in the destruction of vermin of all kinds, prevent their being the objects of any molestation; they are, therefore, generally very fearless of man, and frequently build their nests on the tops of the houses in the very centers of towns; indeed, in many places, the inhabitants place wooden boxes or frames on the tops of their houses to induce these birds to build there; and the man whose house is selected by one of them for this purpose, always considers himself particularly fortunate. They return annually to breed in the same place, and manifest great delight on again taking possession of their deserted home. The nest is formed of a mass of sticks and other coarse materials, in which the bird lays three or four eggs, which are hatched in about a month, and the young are then tended with great care by both parents, who feed them by inserting their bills into the mouth of the young bird, and disgorging some of the half-digested food from their own stomachs. The old birds manifest the greatest attachment to their young, which has rendered them objects of admiration in all ages. A most remarkable instance of this occurred in the conflagration of Delft, where a female stork was observed, after repeated attempts to carry off her young, to prefer remaining with them to 286 VERTEBRATA. perish, rather than leave them to their fate. They are also generally regarded as patterns of conjugal fidelity. The BLACK HERON, C. nigra, is somewhat smaller than the preceding, and is more rare; found in Eastern Europe. Genus LEPTOPILOS: Leptopilos, includes the ADJUTANT, L. Argala, which inhabits India and the Asiatic slands. It often stands as much as five feet in height, and measures seven feet and a half from the extremity of the bill to that of the toes. It has a large, slightly bent bill; the head and neck are nearly bare, and in front of the neck is a large pouch, which hangs down like a dewlap, and is capable of being inflated. Its voracity is extreme; it devours every thing that comes in its way, and swallows a rabbit, a cat, or even a leg of mutton, at one mouthful; and, from its services as a scavenger, its presence is encouraged in Calcutta and other large towns; it is even sometimes domesticated. Great care is necessary to keep provisions out of its way, as otherwise they would quickly disappear. In a wild state these birds live in companies, generally frequenting the mouths of rivers, where, at a distance, they look not unlike a party of men engaged in picking up shell-fish on the beach. The MARABOUT STORK, Leptopilos marabou, is found in the tropical portions of Africa, where it frequents the vicinity of the negro villages, and assists the vultures in their filthy avocation of clearing away garbage. It is even more singular in its ugliness than the Indian species; but it is from this bird that the beautiful plumes known as Marabout feathers are obtained. These feathers grow under the wings. Genus MYCTERIA: Mycteria.-This includes the Jabirus, which are little inferior in size to the Adjutants, and which they resemble in their mode of life. One species, which has the head and neck bare, is found in South America; those of the old world have those parts of the body clothed with feathers. Genus ANASTOMUS: Anastomus.-This includes the Open-Bills, of which there are several species, and which are about the size of the common Stork: they inhabit the warmer regions of Asia and Africa. A species found at the Cape, the A. lamelliger, which is of a brown tint, with a purplish metallic gloss, is remarkable for having the tips of the stalks of nearly all the feathers terminated by a shining black horny disc of an oblong form. THE ARDEINYE OR TRUE HERONS. These resemble the Storks, but are smaller, and some are of diminutive size. They are solitary in their habits, frequenting the margins of lakes and rivers, or marshy places in which there are numerous pools of water, wading into the shallows in search of their prey, which consists principally of fish, and often standing motionless for a long time, watching until some fish passes within their reach, when they suddenly dart out the neck with great rapidity, seize their prey with their strong bills, and generally swallow it at once. Occasionally, either by design or accident, they transfix the fish with one of the mandibles; and Mr. Yarrell has given an account of a case in which a heron struck its beak through'the head of an eel, piercing both eyes, when the eel, finding itself unable to escape, coiled itself round the neck of the heron so tightly as to prevent the bird from breathing, and they were both found dead in this situation! They walk gravely, and with a certain amount of elegance, and possess great power of flight, although they rarely fly very fast. At the breeding season they usually quit their customary solitude, and collect into communities of variable number. Their nests are broad and flat, formed of sticks, twigs, and similar materials, and placed sometimes on the ground and sometimes on trees. At this period they also frequently leave the sequestered spots in which they pass the greater part of their time, and approach nearer to the habitations of man, often building their nests in the large trees surrounding some old mansion. Most of these birds are migratory. Their flesh was formerly much esteemed, and pursuing them with falcons was one of the highest sports of the middle ages. The heron was then called Heronshow, and not to know the hawk from the heronshow was deemed an evidence of great stupidity. Hence we have the vulgar proverb, not to know a hawk from a handsaw. Genus ARDEA: Ardea.-This includes the common European species, the GRAY or CRESTED HERON, A. cinerea, upward of three feet in length, of a bluish-gray tint above, white beneath, and NM~ ~~~~~ —~_- -~ —--- g~ ~~~~~ - -1 —-= —-- - MOR ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c Mg!:L5~~~~~~i~-~-~~i —-=by~~~~~~~~jiY ~~~~~~NM~~~~~~~~, J A B i, u.FLA ING CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. 287 THE GRAY HERON OF EUROPE. furnished with a black crest attached to the back of the head. This bird is very common throughout Europe in summer, and a few remain during the winter in Middle and Southern Europe; the greater part, however, spend this season in the warmer parts of Africa and Asia. It frequents the lakes, rivers, and inland morasses during the breeding-time, and usually betalkes itself to the estuaries and sea-coasts in the winter. It is generally an indolent bird, commonly capturing its prey by -"x. -& / \ ~;~ \' standing in the water until some fish passes close "~-~,:~. t;1,i', t,& — % i enough to it to be seized by darting out the head. It also feeds upon frogs, newts, crustacean, V >\\!txtil t\\\ul3 1 /: / -, and insects, and occasionally upon small birds i- a \\ and quadrupeds. It always swallows its prey entire. It often feeds at night, as is also the case with many of the family. Other foreign'species are the PURPLE HERON, A.purpurea, twenty-nine inches long; slate-gray above; dark maroon and slate-gray beneath; The GREATfound in the warmer parts of Europe, Asia, and,. \ Africa: the GREAT WHITE IERON% A. alba, three feet long; plumage white; common in I,[',,'~',,::.q~l Southern Europe, and rare at the north; found ii in parts of Asia: the EGRtET HERON or LITTLE EGRET, A. yarzetta, plumage white; common in S"'uIu outhern Europe and in parts of Asia: the: (5!(~{:"~~\\! BUFF-BACKED HERON, A. russata, two feet long; __ _~'plumage white, except the head and upper part _-_. ___.....of the neck, which are buff; occasional in Europe; common in India: the SQuAcco HERON, THE PURPLE HERON A. comata, nineteen inches long; reddish-brown, buff, and white above; beneath white. The GREAT BLUE HERON% 4. A erodias, is four feet long; general color bluish-ash. "It 288 VERTEBRATA. _ ____ _ __ 1_ _. __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. _. - THE GREAT WHITE HERON OF AMERICA. (See p. 290.) is," says Wilson, "a constant inhabitant of the Atlantic coast, from New York to Florida; in deep snows and severe weather, seeking the open springs of the cedar and cypress swamps, and the muddy inlets occasionally covered by the tides. On the higher inland parts of the country, beyond the mountains, they are less numerous, and one which was shot in the upper parts of New Hampshire was described to me as a great curiosity. Many of their breeding places occur in both Carolinas, chiefly in the vicinity of the sea. In the lower parts of New Jersey they have also their favorite places for building and rearing their young. These are generally in the gloomy solitudes of the tallest cedar swamps, where, if unmolested, they continue annually to breed for many years. These swamps are from half a mile to a mile in breadth, and sometimes five or six in length, and appear as if they occupied the former channel of some choked up river, stream, lake, or arm of the sea. The appearance they present to a stranger is singular-a front of tall and perfectly straight trunks, rising to the height of fifty or sixty feet, without a limb, and crowded in every direction, their tops so closely woven together as to shut out the day, spreading the gloom of a perpetual twilight below. On a nearer approach, they are found to rise out of the water, which, from the impregnation of the fallen leaves and roots of the cedars, is of the color of brandy. Amid this bottom of congregated springs the ruins of the former forest lie piled in every state of confusion. The roots, prostrate logs, and, in many places, the water, are covered with green, mantling moss, while an undergrowth of laurel, fifteen or twenty feet high, intersects every opening so completely as to render a passage through, laborious and harassing beyond description; at every step you either sink to the knees, clamber over fallen timber, squeeze yourself through between the stubborn laurels, or plunge to the middle in ponds made by the uprooting of large trees, which the green moss concealed from observation. In calm weather the silence of death reigns in these dreary regions; a few interrupted rays of light shoot across the gloom CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES 289 THE EUROPEAN NIGHT HERON. and unless for the occasional hollow screams of the herons, and the melancholy chirping of one or two species of small birds, all is silence, solitude, and desolation. When a breeze rises, at first it sighs mournfully through the tops; but as the gale increases, the tall, mast-like cedars wave like fishing-poles, and rubbing against each other, produce a variety of singular noises, that, with the help of a little imagination, resemble shrieks, groans, growling of bears, wolves, and such like comfortable music. On the tops of the tallest of these cedars the herons construct their nests, ten or fifteen pair sometimes occupying a particular part of the swamp. The nests are large, formed of sticks and lined with smaller twigs; each occupies the top of a single tree. The eggs are generally four, larger than those of a hen, and of a light greenish-blue, without any spots. The young are produced about the middle of May, and remain on the trees until they are full as heavy as the old ones, being extremely fat, before they are able to fly. They breed but once in the season. If disturbed in their breeding place, the old birds fly occasionally over the spot, sometimes honking like a goose, sometimes uttering a coarse, hollow, grunting noise, like that of a hog, but much louder. " The principal food of the great heron is fish, for which he watches with the most unwearied patience, and seizes them with surprising dexterity. At the edge of the river, pond, or sea-shore, he stands fixed and motionless, sometimes for hours together. But his stroke is quick as thought, and sure as fate, to the first luckless fish that approaches within his reach; these he sometimes beats to death, and always swallows head foremost, such being their uniform position in the stem ach. He is also an excellent mouser, and of great service to our meadows in destroying the short-tailed or meadow-mouse, so injurious to the banks. He also feeds eagerly on grasshoppers, various winged insects, particularly dragon-flies, which he is very expert at striking, and also eats the seeds of that species of nymphte usually called spatterdocks, so abundant along our fresh-water ponds and rivers." The BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT-HERON, A. discors-Nyctiardea Gardeni of Baird-is twenty-five inches long; general color white; has a light crest; derives its name from its nocturnal habits, being usually seen flying at night or in the evening, and utters a sonorous cry of quaw or quawk, whence it is often called the Quawk or Qua Bird. It is very similar to the NIGHT-HERON of Europe, Nycticorax Gardeni of Yarrell. VOL. II.-3 7 290 VERTEBRATA. THE COMMON BITTERN OF EUROPE. Other American species are the AMERICAN GREAT WHITE HERON-A. leuce of De Kay, Ardea egretta of Wilson, Audubonia occidentalis of Bonaparte-forty inches long; snowy white, frequently with a tinge of yellow; closely resembles the Great White Heron of Europe, and was formerly supposed to be of the same species; found from New Jersey south to the West Indies: the WnHITE-CRESTED HERON or SNOWY HERON, A. candidissima-~Garzetta candidissima of Bonaparte-twenty-two inches long; snowy white; found on the coast of the Middle and Gulf States, and across to California: the BLUE HERON, A. ccerulea-Florida ccerulea of Baird-twentytwo inches long; color slate-blue; found from New Jersey south to the West Indies: the LouISIANA HERON, A. Ludoviciana-Demiegretta Ludoviciana of Baird-rare in the Middle and common in the Southern States: and the YELLOW-CROWNED NIGHT-HERON, A. violacea-Nyctherodius violaceus of Baird-found in the Gulf States and South America. There are several smaller species of heron, usually called Bitterns, and ranged by some naturalists under the generic name of Botaurus, of which the following are the principal. The COMMON BITTERN OF EUROPE, A. stellaris-Botaurus stellaris of Gould-is twenty-eight to thirty inches long; upper parts brownish-buff, irregularly marked with black and reddishbrown spots; under surface buff, with streaks of brown. It feeds at night on frogs, lizards, small birds, and fishes; during the day it usually conceals itself among flags, rushes, or other rank vegetation. It has a peculiar booming cry, which, in connection with its nocturnal habits and character, makes a gloomy impression on the mind. Goldsmith says: "Those who have walked in a summer's evening by the sedgy sides of unfrequented rivers, must remember a variety of notes from different water-fowl; the loud scream of the wild goose, the croaking of the mallard, the whining of the lapwing, and the tremulous neighing of the jack-snipe. But of all these sounds there is none so dismally hollow as the booming of the Bittern. It is impossible for words to give those who have not heard this evening call, an adequate idea of its solemnity. It is like the interrupted bellowing of a bull, but hollower and louder, and is heard at a mile's distance, as if issuing CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. 291 ~~~~ —...-_,'i'W /1 THE AM3ERICAN BITTERN. from some formidable being that resided at the bottom of the waters. This is the bittern, whose windpipe is fitted to produce the sound for which it is remarkable, the lower part of it, dividing into the lungs, being supplied with a thin, loose membrane, that can be filled with a large body of air and exploded at pleasure. These bellowings are chiefly heard from the beginning of spring to the end of autumn, and are the usual calls during the pairing season." It is found in Southern Europe and in parts of Asia and Africa. The LITTLE BITTERN, B. minutus, is thirteen inches long; it is a native of Southern Europe, the southwestern parts of Asia, and the greater part of Africa. The AMERICAN BITTERN, A. minor or B. lentiginosus, is tweinty-six inches long, of a rusty yellow color, mottled with brown. In its habits it resembles the European bittern, having a similar booming cry. It is familiarly known by the names of Poke, Indian Hen, Indian Pullet, Look-up, Stake-Driver, and by the French in Louisiana, Garde-soleil. It ranges throughout nearly the entire continent of North America; accidental in Europe. Other American species are the GREEN HERON, A. virescens or Butorides virescens, which is seventeen inches long; it has a slight crest; glossy green above, chin and throat whitish, spotted with brown. It lives in marshy situations, feeding on small reptiles and fishes. It has received the vulgar names of Poke, Chalk-Line, Fly-up-the- Creek, and, to speak the truth, the questionable epithet of Schytepoke is very commonly applied to it. It is found throughout the United States. The LEAST BITTERN, A. or Ardetta exilis, is ten inches long; chestnut above and white beneath; found throughout the United States. There are still other species on the remote western frontiers of North America. THE BOAT-BILLS, &c. Genus CANCROMA: Cancroma.-This includes the BOAT-BILL or CRESTED SAVACOU, C. cochlearia, which is about the size of a domestic hen. Its beak resembles a boat reversed, having a strong ridge or keel down the middle of the upper mandible, and the sides spread out and bowed. In the male, the upper part of the neck and breast are dirty white; the back and lower part of the belly rusty-reddish. The legs and feet are brown. From the head depends a long crest of feathers, falling backward. The female has the top of the head black, without the elon 292 VERTEBRATA.. _ THIIE BOAT-BILL. gated crest; the back and the belly rusty-reddish; the wings gray; the forehead and rest of the plumage white; the bill, legs, and feet brown. This species inhabit Cayenne, Guiana, and Brazil, and chiefly frequent such parts as are near the water. Here they perch on the trees which hang over the streams, and like the kingfisher, drop down on the fish that swim beneath. They also feed on reptiles and crabs, whence the French name of Crabier or Crctb-Eater. Night is the season of their activity. Their sight is acute, and their stroke surprisingly rapid. Their body is light, their wings ample, and their flight lofty. Genus BAL(ENICEPS: Baloeniceps.-Of this we know but a single species, B. rex, an extraordinary bird, found along the borders of the White Nile, in Eastern Africa. Its height is three feet nine inches; its color is of an ashy-gray above, and light gray beneath. Its habits are little known, but it is believed to live in marshes and to feed on mollusca and reptiles. THE CIIARADRIIDJE OR PLOVERS. Of these birds there are several genera and numerous species, widely distributed throughout the world. They are in general gregarious, feeding in flocks. They are less strictly aquatic in their habits than the preceding families, some of them, indeed, frequenting the margins of rivers, lakes, and ponds, or the sea-shores, while others are found upon moors and pastures, and even in plowed fields. Most of them perform considerable migrations, visiting the high northern latitudes during the summer for the purpose of breeding. They generally lay their eggs in a mere cavity in the sand or gravel, and the young run about soon after they are hatched. Several species are well known in this country, and are among our most interesting game birds. OYSTER-CATCHERS AND TURNSTONES. Genus H/EMATOPUS: lHcematopus.-This includes the Oyster-Catchers. In the EUROPEAN OYSTER-CATCIER, H. ostralegus, the hind toe is wanting; the bill is much longer than the head, CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. 293 IN N slightly bent upward, pentagonal at the base, and compressed into a thin plate toward the apex, which is abruptly truncated. It is a handsome bird, about eighteen inches in length; its plumage is variegated with black and white, whence the name of Sea-Pie, which is occasionally applied to it in England. It is commonly found on the sea-coasts, where it wades about seeking its food, consisting principally of mollusca and young crabs. It is said to detach limpets from the rocks with great facility, and its bill, from its peculiar form, appears particularly adapted for opening large bivalves, such as the oyster, and from this, no doubt, its common English name is derived. It appears, however, that it generally contents itself with the smaller bivalves, which it is able to swallow whole, together with worms and marine insects. The Finns hold this bird in detestation, for they say it gives notice to the seals when the hunters are approaching. It is distributed throughout Europe in summer, but is stationary in England, Southern Europe, and North Africa. It pairs in spring and unites in flocks in winter. The AMERICAN OYSTER-CATCHER,,. palliatus, is seventeen inches long; above black and ashcolor; beneath white; feeds on oysters and marine bivalves; breeds from Texas to Labrador; common on our Atlantic coasts; sometimes called Flood Gull; flesh tough and unsavory. BACHMAN'S OYSTER-CATCHER, H. niger, is found on the Northwestern coast of North America, There is, perhaps, another species in the same regions-H. ater of Baird, H. Townsendi of Audubon. Genus STREPSILAS: Strepsilas.-This includes the Turnstones, which receive their name from their habit of turning over the stones with their bills, as they walk along the sea-shores, to find insects and small crustacea, on which they feed. The COMMON TURNSTONE of Europe, 294 VER T EBRATA. z-,_ TEIE EUROPEAN OYSTER CATCHI'ER. S. interires, is nine inches lolg; black, red, gray, and white above; breast black; beneath white. It is a handsome bird, and distributed over nearly all parts of the world. It visits Southern;-~:~ -8s-~-~~~~ ~~~'~'~-xx:~""s'~~ ~1....~......~~: Europe in August, and retires to the north in May. In our " - ~ —i~-, ~ ~ Middle States it arrives from the south in April and proeeeds north in May. It returns in =:~ _ ~i'~ ~ ~ ~,.~~ eg-: —'}zSeptember, and soon proceeds \7f'~ 1~'~~ coafst gunners it is known by - l the naesofBrant-Bird, HeartTHE TURNSTONE= foot Snipe, the latter given to it because it feeds on the eggs of the horsefoot, Lirnzuus poly-'.'.-______,\-.... p...emus. The BLACK TURNir GLSTONEc S. inelan ocephaoll.s, is be at found S in u estern North Amer-'M ica. \ITHE TRUE PLOVERS. Genus C HA R1ADRIUS:. Chcradrius.-This includes the I GOLDEN PLOVEa of Europe, (C. pluvialis, which, like the rest of' _____a~ f the family, is a bird of powerful flightand is consequently widely --- /:~:1 —'-'distributed. It is eleven inches long'; greenish-black above, the feathers tinged with golden yellow; the under suerface blaclk subject, however, to very dis THE GOLDEN PLOVER tinct changes of plumage. They breed at the North of Europe, and proceed in large flocks to the South in autumn. Many of CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. 295 them remain through the winter in the southern parts of England, France, and Italy. They frequent moors, heaths, downs, and wide, open fields. Many also are seen along the sea-shores. The AMERICAN GOLDEN PLOVER, C. Virginicus, is ten and a half inches long, mottled above with black and greenish-yellow; beneath marked with large patches of black. On this continent it ranges from 23~ to 70~ north, and is popularly known to sportsmen by the names of FrostBird and Green-Back. Nuttall says: "They arrive on the coast of the Middle and Northern States in spring and early autumn. Near to Nantasket and Chelsea Beach, they are seen, on their return from their inclement natal regions in the north, by the close of August, and the young remain in the vicinity till the middle of October, or later, according to the state of the weather. They live principally upon land-insects, or the larvae and worms they meet with in the saline marshes, and appear very fond of grasshoppers. About the time of their departure they are, early in a morning, seen sometimes assembled by thousands, but they all begin to disperse as the sun rises, and at length disappear high in the air for the season. They usually associate, however, in small flocks and families, and when alarmed while on the wing, or giving their call to those who are feeding around them, they have a wild, shrill, and whistling note, and are at most times timid, watchful, and difficult to approach. Though they continue associated in numbers for common safety during the day, they disperse in the evening, and repose apart from each other. At day-break, however, the feeling of solitude again returns, and the early sentinel no sooner gives the shrill and well-known call, than they all assemble in their usual company. At this time they are often caught in great numbers by the fowler, with the assistance of a clap-net, stretched before dawn in front of the place they have selected to pass the night. The fowlers, now surrounding the spot, prostrate themselves on the ground when the call is heard, and as soon as the birds are collected together, they rise up from ambush, and by shouts, and the throwing up of sticks in the air, succeed so far in intimidating the plovers that they lower their flight, and thus striking against the net, it falls upon them. In this and most other countries, their flesh in the autumn, and particularly that of the young birds, is esteemed a delicacy, and is often exposed for sale in the markets of our principal towns." This species has been supposed identical with the European Plover, but it is now generally regarded as distinct; it is supposed, however, to be identical with the Asiatic Plover, known in India, the Asiatic Islands, and New Holland. The DOTTEREL, C. norinellus, is nine and a half inches long, varied above with brown, ash, buff, and white; breast fawn, belly black. Its migrations resemble those of the C. pluvialis. They are regarded as silly birds, and hence a foolish person is in England called a dotterel. They are greatly esteemed for the table, and many are taken in nets. Drayton alludes to its habits, and to the popular idea that it imitates the actions of the fowler, as follows: " The Dotterel, which we think a very dainty dish, Whose killing makes such sport as no man more can wish. For as you creep, or cower, or lie, or stoop, or go, So, mocking you with ease, the apish bird doth do; And acting every thing, doth never mark the net, Till he be in the snare which men for him have set." Other foreign species of Plover are as follows: the RINGED PLOVER, C. hiaticuCa, eight inches long; distributed throughout Europe, and for a long time erroneously considered as identical with our Ring-Neck: the KENTISH PLOVER, C. cantiantus, seven inches long; common in Middle and Southern Europe: and the LITTLE RINGED PLOVER, C. mninor, resembling the C. hiaticula; found throughout Europe. The AMERICAN RING PLOVER, C. semnipalmatus-Aegialitis semipalmatus of Bonaparte-is seven inches long; brownish-ash above, beneath white; frontlet and ring over the breast, black; breeds as far north as Labrador, and is common on our shores from August to October, after which it migrates southward. Some, however, are stationary in the Southern States. It is often called Ring-Plover, and, as we have stated, has been supposed identical with the European Ringed-Plover. The PIPING-PLOVER, C. mnelodus-A. melodus of Ord-is six and a half inches long; found along the eastern coast of the United States, and is known among our fowlers by the names of Beach-Bird and Beach-Flea. It appears among us in April and disappears in October. 296 VERTEBRATA. WVILSON's PLOVER, C. Wilsonius or A. Wilsonius, seven inches long; breeds from Connecticut to Texas. The KILDEER-PLOVER, C. vociferus or A. vociferus of Linnmeus, is brownish-olive above; rump orange; beneath white. It takes its name from its cry, kildeer, kildeer, constantly repeated; breeds from Texas to Massachusetts; in summer is seen on gravelly plains in the interior; in winter it lives along the sea-shore; feeds on worms, nocturnal insects, and grasshoppers. Its flesh is little esteemed. The MOUNTAIN PLOVER, A. montanus, is found in Western North America. Genus SQUATAROLA: Squatarola. —This includes the GRAY PLOVER, S. cinerea-S. Helve-ica of Linnmus —twelve inches ___-_ = ____ long; found throughout North _________ _X_ America, and the sea-coasts of =___-_....._: most northern and temperate;.............: - regions. It is called Whistling-!_li Plover Bull-Zead and Black-::- 4=:-Jj\:i:_ —<~ \ bellied Plover by sportsmen..........,,,aTEE lialt~.,'..'..i," Genus APIIRIZA: Aphriza. - This includes the SURF-BIRD, A. virgata, of the Pacific coasts of North and South America, and the Sandwich Islands. Genus CALIDRIS: Calidris.-This includes the SAND- ERLING or SANDERLING PLOVER, C. arenaria; eight inches long,.and regarded by some naturalists as rather at Sandpiper than a Plover. It is sually found along GenTs GLAREOLA: LAPWINGo;. Tiinldsevr the sea-shore, often running upon the edge of t.he surf and feeding on small marine worms, small fishes, and crustaca. It is ashgray above, beneath white, and is found throughout the temperate regions of Eu_____:~-:::'_.rope and North America; also in South?::-_-~ _- - ~ (:__- America.'__ _.}.___Genus VANELLUS: Vanellus. —This _________________________ ~includes the LAPWING or PEEWIT, V. eristatus —Dixhuit of the French-twelve 3~~~~~~ -~~~-.inches long; above varied with green, ~-,p ~ ~~~ — m~- I':/;'t-=r-black, and reddish-chestnut; breast black; belly white; a numerous species distributed throughout Europe and parts of Africa and Asia. The name of Peewit is given to this species from its cry; the slow flapping of its long wings is the origin of its other designation. Genus (EDICNEM-US: UEdicne2nus."~'~:~~~~i~~~~ This includes the GREAT PLOVER, (E. cre pitans-also called Thick-Knee, Stone Curlew, &c. It is seventeen inches long; pale brown above; brownish-white be- ~ _: ~ ~neath; common in summer throughout Southern Europe; retires to Africa for the THEl THIlCK-KNEE OR GREAT PLOVER. winter, and is found as far south as the Cape. Genus GLAREOLA: Glareola. —This includes several species called Pratincoles, having a CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. ~097 slender form, long wings, and a cer=_: __ l__..... tain swallow-like appearance. The __________ ____ ~ ~COLLARED PRATINCOLE of Europe, __ —.......-=-:J-:- ~ — ~ --,'_ 7G. Cpratincola —the Sect Partridge of the French —runs and flies with _____ _:_~ ~great swiftness, and feeds on aquatic ___________________ =_______ insects, often taking them on the wing; found in the temperate parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Genus CURSORIUS: Cursorius. — This includes the CouRsERs, *ti'~ ~~/'1which are noted as running with /i ~. great swiftness, and of which there ii / / / __'noutare several species. The CREAMt COLORED COURsER, C. Eurqop~ceuzs, is.....'~~~/'l~':~~'~ Mten and a half inches long, and (k;/// ~7/'/ Xl resembles the plovers in its habits; / ].Ctfound in Middle Europe. It is ~.<. 7 j I K 7Xtl*t!!$N',nd7 but sometimes called the Cream-colored ~ 1 \~~i, ci~ Plover. /7E BU3ARUENTHE BUSTARDS. /,,-~-~" These birds are generally of iarge " size, and live upon heaths and dry plains, in various parts of the east4'"~~~~~:'.,;i. " ern hemisphere. Theyrun rapidly and fly well, although they rise with difficulty. Their food consists principally of -worms and insects, with a few reptiles, and even small namimalia., and birds. Green vegetables also appear to constitute a part of their diet. They are said to be polygamous, and the males take no part in incubation,butretreatto marshy places, while the females lay and hatch their eggs among tall herbage, frequently in corn-fields. During the breeding sea________-_~~~~~~ -./son the males are seen in fine days, displaying themselves like turkey-cocks, j spreading their tails, drooping their wings, and dilating their throats. /' " ~~1' i!Genus OTIS: Otis..-This includesthe GREAT BUSTARD, O. tarda, forty-five _........ inches long; pale chestnut, barred with,,___-_~ —-: black above; beneath white. It feeds on "5~:\.~" ~ ~-~\.~ ~green wheat, grapes, trefoil, and other vegetable substances. The nest is a de-'~ ~4 _~_. ~pression in the bare ground; the eggs are two, and olive-brown; the flesh is excellent, and it is often seen in the mar-:___' I?~ ~ ~~11 -ilr kets of countries where it is found. It is common in Southern Europe, and was for_- merly abundant in some parts of England, but has become nearly extinct there. THE B~LA-~CK B~,ILLEJ~`nV9BD. BRbTARDMACQUEEN'S BUSTARD, 0. M[acqueeni, VOL. I1. 38 298 VERTEB RATA. inhabits the dry sandy plains of Afghanistan, where it is sometimes seen in flocks of five _____,___ ~or six. It flies heavily and for short distances, soon alighting and running. Its flesh is exceedingly tender, and so covered with fat, that the skins are dried and preserved with great difficulty. It appears to stray widely from its home, as two......__ specimens have been killed in ~_:_~-;~~ ~England, and one or more in Denmark. In the crop of one'J'i~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~of them were found caterpillars, snails, and beetles. This birdhasa crest, and on the sides;i~~f~4~~UrBR~f~61S~-~-i: of the lower part of the neck, a series of long plumes; upper surface sandy-buff; beneath light gray. The BLACK-nILLED BUSTARDI 0. nigr-icep2s, is four and a half feet long; pale gray above and whitebeneath. It isfound MACQUEEN'S BUSTARD. in various parts of India, and is very abundant in the Deccan _.___-_____...._-__...._-one Englishman having shot......____ -~~'~~ --- ~ —nearly a thousand there. It _~-~' —~-: lives in large flocks, and is _______ —-~ ~esteemed one of the greatest delicacies of the table. The BLuE BUSTARD, O. CCerulescens, is a small African ~,i'r~~ -";-:'% —' ___species, twenty inches long. DENHAM's BUSTARD, O. Denhamnzi, is another African spe- cies, three feet nine inches long; ~.,~ r"~h\\, \\~-?: —~: found in Central Africa, and habitually associating with the'K'K~ ~ gazelles. BURCHELL'S BusT~-:i;~',?~':~Lu;.,~8j~L~[~ ~ -: ARD, 0. Kori, called the Wilde \ Paauw by the colonists, is \'\\'~.: >found on the Orange River;.;;~; ~~~.~~~~ stands five feet high. The flesh ~'-!-resembles that of the turkey. The TROTTING BUSTARD, 0. "-"~/~: —f~cr %%:?'houbara, is a native of North "2~' Africa and Arabia. The LITTLE EUROPEAN " BUSTARD, 0. tetrax, is seven-,4~;~ ~ ~ ~ t; 5teen inches long; pale chestTHE LITTLE EUROPEAN BUSTARD. nut, streaked with black above; CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. 299 beneath white; habits similar to the preceding; common in Southern Europe; rare in the Northl; occasionally seen in England. ":J/ F,: THE COMMON EUROPEAN CRANE. THE GRITIDAE OR CRANES. These are large and stately birds, most of them living exclusively in warm climates. The food is various, comprising insects, reptiles, worms, and fish; some species likewise frequent plowed and newly-planted fields to pick up seeds, as well as living prey. They dwell in fields, marshes, and along the margins of ponds, but always roost in trees, where they also nest, as well as on the ground. When incubation commences, the nest is raised to the height of the body with grass and reeds; they are said to lay but two eggs, on which each alternately broods in a standing posture, the legs striding the nest. They migrate in vast flocks, and perform very extensive periodical journeys, passing along in the higher regions of the atmosphere; they often move in the night, and usually in troops arranged in long triangular lines, guided by the shrill voice of their leader, which, re-echoed by the timorous and unseen ranks, affords often the only indication of the ~:.;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~s'~ ~ ~~ -1 lnAnPAX11.11 -IT Ia "A111Q,11 C I- ~inr1 AA-II bl 711- 1 300 VERTEBRATA. THE NUMIDIAN CRANE. course of their passage. Subject to less excitement, they pass along silently and at a great elevation in fine weather, but lower their flight, and become clamorous at the approach, or during the existence, of a storm. Milton, describing these migrations, says: "Part loosely wing the region, part, more wise, Plying, and over lands with mutual wing, In common, ranged in figure >- wedge their way, Easing their flight; so steers the prudent Crane Intelligent of seasons, and set forth Her annual voyage, borne on winds the air Their aery caravan, high over seas Flotes, as they pass, fann'd with unnumber'd plumes.' Genus GRUS: Grus.-The COMMON CRANE OF EUROPE, G. cinerea, is four feet long; bluishash above; beneath ash-gray. It migrates to the north of Europe and Siberia in spring, remains there and breeds in summer, and in the autumn returns to Africa and Southern Asia for the winter. It feeds on worms, insects, reptiles, mollusca, and sometimes on grain. Its nest is usually made among reeds and tall lerbage, in the marshes which it frequents; it, however, occasionally builds on ruined edifices. In its migrations it flies, like wild geese and swans, in the form of a wedge, frequently uttering a loud cry. The AMERICAN CRANE, G. Americana, is four feet six inches long; crested; color bluish-ash; feeds on crabs, shell-fisl, eels, and various kinds of fruit. It is stationary from the Carolinas southward; in summer it migrates as far north as New Jersey. It is often called Whooping Crane on account of its wild, sonorous cry, which has been compared to the whoop of savages when rushing to battle. Nuttall says: "In February, and in the early part of the following month, I heard their clamorous cries nearly every morning around the enswamped ponds of West Florida, and throughout Georgia, so that many individuals probably pass either the winter or the whole year, in the southern extremity of the Union. It is impossible to describe the clamor of one of these roosting flocks, which they begin usually to utter about sunrise. Like the howling monkeys of South America, a single individual seemed at first as if haranguing, or calling out to the assembled company, and after uttering a round number of discordant, sonorous, and braying tones, the address seemed as if received with becoming applause, and was seconded with trumpeting hurrahs." The SAND-IHILL CRANE, G. Canadensis, is forty-eight inches long; color yellowish-gray; found from Mexico to the Arctic Sea. It is called the Brown Crane and also the Canada Crane. Cassin mentions a species in New Mexico, G. fraterculus. Genus ANTHROPOIDES: Anthropoides.-This includes the NUMIDIAN CRANE, A. virgocalled Demoiselle by the French-three feet long; general color slaty-gray; migratory; food, grain, seeds, small fishes, mollusca, and insects. Africa appears to be its home, but it is found in parts of Asia, and is occasionally seen in Southern Europe. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. 301 1 -.\ 1..., /I THE BALEARIC CRANE. Genus BALEARICA: Balearica.-This includes the CROWNED CRANE, B. yavonina —Ardea;avonina of Linnseus; also called the Balearic Crane, from the notion that it was the bird to which the- ancients gave that name. It stands four feet high; its color is a bluishslate; it has a loud, hoarse, trumpet-like ~__. ---- note, is easily reconciled to captivity, and readily mingles with common poultry; found in Northern and Western Africa. Genus PSOPIlIA: Psophia.-To....._ __,,__...~2_ this belongs the TRUMPETER, called Agami by the natives of tropical America, in the forests of which it is found in flocks; it is twenty-two inches long, and has a loud, hollow cry of too, too, i too, too, the sound being made without opening the bill. 7,~ xGenus CARIAMA: Cariamna.-To -_-?:__~ i A.',,~ -this belongs the CARIAMA, C. cristatus, found in the lofty plains of Brazil and Paraguay. It is thirty inches long;,,;':i~h~~~~~~ ~earthy-brown above, whitish below; it runs with great swiftness, and is exceedingly shy and watchful. It feeds on ____: ~'i~\\l \ lizards, insects, and molluscous animals. ____ ~It is easily domesticated, and will live sociably with the other tenants of the poultry-yard. Genus AR A M US: Aramus.-To THE CARIAMA. this belongs the CRYING-BIRD, A. scolopaceus, two feet long of a reddish-brown color; common in tropical America; found occasion 302 VERTEBRATA. ally in Florida. It is sometimes called Courlan and also Aramus. It feeds on frogs and insects, lives alone or in couples, perches on elevated trees, and has a piercing cry of carau, carau, carau, which may be heard for half a mile. f,! GULLS, ETC. GUILLEMOT. SNAKE-BIRD. CORMORANT. CRESTED PENGUIN. FRIGATE-BIRD. ORDER 8 NATATORES. The most striking character of the lNatatores, or Swimming-Birds, is derived from the structure of the feet, which are always palmate, that is, furnished with webs between the toes. There are always three toes directed forward, and these are usually united by a membrane to their extremities; but in some cases the membrane is deeply cleft, and the toes are occasionally quite free, and furnished with a distinct web on each side. The fourth toe is generally but little developed, and often entirely wanting; when present it is usually directed backward, and the membrane is sometimes continued to it along the side of the foot. These webbed feet are the principal agents by which the birds propel themselves through the water, upon the surface of which most of them pass a great portion of their time; and by the same means many species dive to a considerable distance below the surface in search of their food, which consists almost entirely of fish, mollusca, and other small aquatic animals. The feet are generally placed very far back, a position which is exceedingly favorable to their action in swimming and diving, but which renders their progression on the land somewhat awkward. In some instances the feet are situated quite at the hinder extremity of the body, which then assumes an upright position when on land. The body is generally stout and heavy, and covered with a very thick, close, downy plumage, which the bird keeps constantly anointed with the greasy secretion of the caudal gland, so that it is completely waterproof. The wings exhibit a very great variety in their development. In the Penguins they are reduced to a rudimentary condition, destitute of quills, and covered with a scaly skin, forming flat, fin-like organs; while in some other species the wings are of vast size and power, and the birds pass a great part of their lives in the air. Between these two extremes we meet with every intermediate degree of development. Those species which are endowed with the greatest power of flight are usually incapable of diving, although they frequently take their prey by plunging suddenly into the water, from the air. The form of the bill is also very variable: in some it is broad and flat, in others deep and com CLASS II. AVES: ORDEI 8. NATATORES. 303 _____________________ 8 ___ __________ —--::~iI~111', ~ ~ ~ ~ -~~~-~=-~;r=-=1 —;7 —~-']',!1_, =,,.=l l?:.,-'.,,%~ _____ ~;7~}______. ____________ - _ E~l = -= 2~~~_-~~~~~ C~ HAUNTS OF SEA-FOWL-TRE GREAT NORTHERN DIVER, GUILLEMOTS, PUFFINS, ETC. pressed and in others lono and slender. The mandibles are sometimes sharp and smooth, sometimes furnished with denticulations or lamelise at the margins. The texture of the bill also varies; but these differences will be referred to in characterizing the families. Most of these birds live in societies, which are often exceedingly numerous, inhabiting high northern and southern latitudes. Many of them prefer rocky boasts, in the clefts and crannies of which they lay their eggs, often on the bare rock, but generally selecting the most inaccessible 304 VERTEBRATA. situations. The nest is always of a very rude description; but some species have the instinct to attach their nests to aquatic plants in such a manner that, although it is securely anchored to one spot, it is capable of rising or falling, in accordance with any change that may take place in the level of the water. The immense number of birds that live on the water, and are hence called Water-fowl, absolutely baffles human comprehension. Not only the rivers and lakes-especially those remote fiom the abodes of man-teem with them, but the boundless shores of the ocean are peopled with multitudes which no man can number. On numerous islands they have heaped up mountains of Guano,* which are now taken from their native beds and distributed over Europe and America. As affording a vivid idea of the immense collections of sea-fowl on the rocky borders of the ocean, we copy the following descriptionf of Ailsa Craig, an island on the west of Scotland: "It was a naked rock, rising nine hundred and eighty feet abruptly out of the sea. A little level space projected on one side, with a small house on it. We could not conjecture the use of a habitation there. The captain of the steamer said it was the Governor's house. We asked him what a governor could do there.'Take care of the birds,' he replied;'and he pays the Marquis of Ailsa, the proprietor, who takes his title from the Craig, fifty pounds rent for the privilege of taking them.''What sort of birds?' we asked him.'Sea-fowl of all sorts,' he said.'They inhabit the Craig, and ye'll may be see numbers of them. They are quite numerous. The marquis has threatened prosecution if people fire upon the Craig from the vessels. They have been in the habit of firing to alarm the birds, to see them fly.' He had been himself governor of the Craig, he said, some years before, and had great sport and some danger in killing the birds. His way of killing them was with a club, and he told us how many thousand-we dare not say how many-he had killed in a single day of a famous kind of goose. He had let himself down to a quarter of the cliffs where they haunted, to get the young and eggs, and the old ones attacked him, and he fought them with his club till he was covered with blood-theirs and his own. He had a good mind, he said, to give them one gun, just to let us see them fly, as we were strangers. As he had been the marquis's governor, he said, he would venture that he would overlook it in him. He ordered his boy to bring the musket. The boy returned and said it was left behind at Glasgow.'Load up the swivel, then,' said the captain;'it will be all the better. It will make quite a flight, ye'll find. Load her up pretty well.' "The steamer meanwhile kept nearing the giant Craig, which was a bare rock from summit to the sea, and all of a dull, chalky whiteness, occasioned as the captain said, by the excrement of the birds. We saw caves in the sides of the mountain, and down by the water; the retreats, our informant told us, in former times, of the smugglers, who used to frequent the Craig, and carry on an extensive trade from these places of concealment. We had got so near as to see the white birds flitting across the black entrances of the caverns, like bees about the hive. With the spyglass we could see them distinctly, and in very considerable numbers, and at length approached so that we could see them on the ledges all over the sides of the mountain. We had passed the skirt of the Craig, and were within a half mile, or less, of its base. With the glass we could now see the entire mountain side peopled with the sea-fowl, and could hear their whimpering, household cry, as they moved about, or nestled in domestic snugness on the ten thousand ledges. The air, too, about the precipices seemed to be alive with them. Still we had not the slightest conception of their frightful multitude. We got about against the center of the mountain, when the swivel was fired. The shot went point-blank against it, and struck the tremendous precipice as * The beds of GUANO, found in various places, consisting of the excrement, bones, and feathers of sea-fowl, afford evidence of the enormous quantities of birds collected in these haunts. On the Lobos or Chinchca Islands, in the Pacific, fourteen miles west of Peru, the beds are more than a hundred feet thick, and although numerous vessels are constantly employed in transporting it to Europe and America, to be used for manure, it is supposed that the deposit will last for a hundred years. The fertilizing properties of this were known to the ancient Peruvians, and it was extensively used by them in their agriculture. It was long neglected by the Spanish Peruvians, but their attention has been lately turned to it, and now it is one of the chief sources of revenue to the state. It is estimated that the whole value of the deposit is five hundred millions of dollars! No doubt the accumulation has been going on for thousands of years; but still, its almost incalculable magnitude shows that myriads of birds must have contributed to such a result. t By Nathaniel P. Rodgers. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 8. NATATORES. 305 from top to bottom, with a reverberation like the discharge of a hundred cannon. And what a sight followed! They rose up from that mountain-the countless myriads and millions of seabirds-in a universal, overwhelming cloud that covered the whole heavens, and their cry was like the cry of an alarmed nation. Up they went-millions upon millions-ascending like the smoke of a furnace-countless as the sands on the sea-shore-awful, dreadful for multitude, as if the whole mountain were dissolving into life and light, and with an unearthly kind of lament, took up their line of march in every direction off to sea! The sight startled the people on board the steamer, who had often witnessed it before, and for some minutes there ensued a general silence. For our own part, we were quite amazed and overawed at the spectacle. We had seen nothing like it ever before. We had seen White Mountain Notches and Niagara Falls, in our own land, and the vastness of the wide and deep ocean, which was then separating us from it. We had seen something of art's magnificence in the old world,'its cloud-capt towers, its gorgeous palaces and solemn temples;' but we had never witnessed sublimity to be compared to that rising of seabirds from Ailsa Craig. They were of countless varieties, in kind and size, from the largest goose to the smallest marsh-bird-and of every conceivable variety of dismal note. Off they moved, in wild and alarmed rout, like a people going into exile-filling the air, far and wide, with their reproachful lament at the wanton cruelty that had broken them up and driven them into captivity. We really felt remorse at it, and the thought might have occurred to us, how easy it would have been for them, if they had known that the little smoking speck that was laboring along the seasurface beneath them, had been the cause of their banishment, to have settled down upon it and ingulfed it out of sight forever. "We felt astonished that we had never before heard of this wonderful haunt of sea-fowl, and that no one had ever written a book upon it. It struck us as really one of' the wonders of the world.' And not us alone; others, not at all given to the marvelous, declared that it surpassed every thing they had ever before witnessed. We supposed the mountain must have been quite deserted, fiom the myriads that had flown away; but lifting the glass to it, as we were leaving its border, we were appalled to find it still alive with the myriads left behind. They kept leaving and leaving, until our steamer had got far on beyond the Craig, and till we could no longer discern their departure with the telescope; and it was miles off into the dusky Irish Sea, before we saw the ebbing of their mighty movement, and that they were beginning to return. We felt relieved to see them going back. It had scarcely occurred to us, in our surprise, that they were not leaving their native cliffs forever. Slowly and sadly they seemed to return, while the eye sought in vain to ken the outskirts of their mighty caravan. And Ailsa Craig had sunk far into our rear, and quite sensibly diminished in the distance, before the rearmost of the feathered host had disappeared from our sight." And this is but one of hundreds, nay, of thousands, of rocky recesses along the interminable boundaries of the ocean, filled with myriads of sea-fowl. Numerous islands among the Hebrides; others to the north-the Shetlands and Orkneys; the high beetling cliffs of North America, fiom Nova Scotia to Greenland; the southern coasts of Africa; the bleak dizzy craigs around Cape Iorn; the lofty cliffs that hang frowning over the sea on either side of Behring's Straits-breasting the shock of the Pacific that has sundered, and still sunders the two continents; these, and a multitude of other wild rocky ledges, are, like Ailsa rock, the abodes of millions upon millions of sea-fowl: geese of many kinds, ducks, guillemots, grebes, divers, puffins,. sheer-waters, terns, gulls, petrels, cormorants, frigate-birds and pelicans. And beside all this, there is no part of the ocean, however distant from the land, where some species are not found; in many places, especially in high northern latitudes, the face of the waters is covered with them. What is loneliness and desolation to man, is peace and abundance to them. Often in crossing the cold and tumultuous waters that roll to the north and east of the Grand Banks, have we seen whole troops of seafowl, tossing on the sea, yet screaming with delight, and seeming to overflow with enjoyment.* * Nor are the swimming birds the only ones that traverse the great waters. A graphic writer has furnished us with a sketch of the Visitants of Ships at Sea, which is too amusing and too instructive to be omitted. We therefore give it in a note: "All persons who have made long voyages, especially in land-locked seas and on board of sailing-vessels, must VOL, II.- 39 306 VERTEBRATA. The natatorial birds are divided into six families: the ANATID^, including the Flamingoes, Swans, Geese, Ducks, &c.; the COLYMBIDA, including the Grebes, Divers, Guillemots, &c.; the ALCADIE, including the Penguins, Auks, Puffins, &c.; the PELICANID2, including Pelicans, Cormorants, Frigate-Birds, Gannets, Darters, Tropic-Birds, &c.; the LARID0E or Gulls; and the PROCELLARID.E, including the Albatross, Fulmars, Petrels, &c. remember, painfully, the wearisomeness of protracted calms. But travelers who have a turn for natural history, often find amusement in circumstances which kill others with ennui. At particular seasons of the year, a ship has no sooner been two or three days out at sea, than the passengers observe birds of various kinds perched upon the rigging. Fatigue is generally supposed to be the cause of these visits, though we cannot always have recourse to this explanation, since even when the shore is near at hand, these little explorers of strange things will come and display their beauty to the mariner, reminding him of green woods and sunny glades, in the midst of vast billows and the watery deep. " We believe that hawks and falcons are not usually reckoned among migratory birds; yet it is certain that they sometimes cross the Mediterranean where it is broadest, as well from Africa to Europe as from Europe to Africa. One day in summer, lying almost midway between Marmorice and Greece, we observed a golden falcon coming up swiftly from the south, and resting upon the top-gallant-sail-yard. As he remained there a considerable time, we inferred that he meant to make the passage to Europe in our company; and a young sailor went up to do the honors of the ship, and invite him to descend. Having evidently had enough of flying, the falcon made no objection. IIe suffered himself to be taken without the least resistance; and when brought down to the deck looked about him, as we thought, with tokens of pleasure. Perhaps he detected the smell of meat; and certainly when some was offered to him, the voracity with which he fell upon it suggested the probability that we were indebted for the pleasure of his company to hunger rather than weariness. " Being treated with much kindness, he showed no desire to quit us, though allowed his full freedom. He flew fore and aft, soared up to the vane, and then, when he thought proper, came down like an arrow. "Every body on board was amused with him, and loved to gaze at his large, bright, piercing eyes as he watched every thing around him, or turned up quick glances at the clouds. We began to think him as tame as a kitten, and gave him, by way of peace-offering, bits of meat with our fingers, and some of the bolder among us even ventured to stroke his speckled breast. This, however, was not done without some apprehension, for he had sharp claws, and his beak was formidable. " When he had already been with us eight or ten days, we came in sight of Etna, towering ten thousand feet into the blue firmament, and with its deep snowy cap, looking like a stationary cloud. The falcon no doubt saw it much sooner than we did; but he had been kindly treated, and was doubtless loath to break hospitable ties. But when liberty or servitude was the question, he could not long hesitate; and after wheeling twice or thrice about the ship, as if to take an affectionate leave of us, he rose aloft; plunged into space, and disappeared in the direction of the great mountain. We could not blame him, though, as he had grown friendly and familiar, we much regretted his departure. "Some of the old Dutch navigators being, like the rest of their countrymen, possessed strongly by the love of gardening, often used to make the attempt to indulge in the pleasures of horticulture on board ship. They made large, long, and deep boxes, filled them with fine earth, and raised for themselves cresses and other salads during their voyages to the east. When the keen-eyed birds perceived, as they could from a great distance, these little floating patches of verdure, they often alighted on the vessels to examine them. But most of the visits paid to ships by birds are owing to precisely the same motive as makes wayfarers pause at an inn on the road-they have traveled far, and need a little repose. " Unfortunately, sailors have formed a strange theory respecting the appearance of birds in the neighborhood of their vessels, on their sails, or among the rigging. They look upon them as the sure forerunner of storms. Even the most observant travelers are sometimes betrayed, by putting confidence in seafaring men, usually full of prejudice and superstition, into sharing this belief. An able naturalist, sailing out of the Baltic, observed, just before losing sight of the island of Gothland, a small gray bird of the sparrow tribe, following the ship, upon which the captain said they should certainly have bad weather. Accordingly, in less than half an hour the wind rose, the sea ran high, and the waves broke fiercely over the bulwarks. The same writer remarks that in the North Sea, the Baltic, and on the coast of Spain, whenever birds came on board, a tempest was sure to follow, which led him to infer that the petrel is not the only bird whose visits portend storms. "Navigators in the Indian Ocean sometimes observe upon the yards and rigging of their ships, unknown birds of the richest plumage, which come to them when they are so far out at sea that nothing but experience could prove the possibility of a bird's flying to so great a distance. There are two species of cuckoo, natives, it is said, of Hawaii, which are known to fly across the ocean all the way from Australia to New Zealand, a distance of a thousand miles, without once resting, because there is no land between on which they could alight. As swift birds, however, fly at the rate of one hundred and fifty miles an hour, they can perform this formidable passage in less than five hours and a half. "An eastern mariner once related to us a curious anecdote of a bird-visitor which he had many years before on board his ship. Having left the vicinity of Danger Island, he sailed along almost due east for upward of a thousand miles, when, early one morning, he observed among the cordage, a bird in shape like a swallow, but of the most exquisite and delicate colors; its breast was bright azure, its tail green, its wings scarlet; from its head rose a golden crest, and its eyes were surrounded by a circle of pink feathers. It had been subdued, no doubt, by means of hunger, to a temper of the greatest tameness. He held out to it a little rice upon a plate. The bird descended, perched upon his arm, and ate with extreme voracity. It was evidently much used to man, took fright at no one, but at dinner walked coolly about upon the cabin-table among the plates and dishes, now taking a bit from one hand, and Fje: Iii~:il.% [;,i( ll1......... -.... N i jig~~ ~~~~. F,...:.....................;I ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ i! H III iii'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i " ~'~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~......".... 121 \ 81 I! I I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,,?. ~n IN~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'~,, A.V\. ii n,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~M Mills~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i ~~~ ill, Q "``~~~~~~~~~j, l li:;iii~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ie 7~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,oil~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Iraqi~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~a rr~~~~~~~~lii!!l~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~l~~~~~iliii~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,~~~~~i~~~~~ii~~~~~~~iiii'il~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~tlil~~~~~~~~~~~i;i U,;I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 0,i. s~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N1 CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 8. NATATORES. 307 THE ANATID1E. This family, includes a very large number of important and interesting birds, of which the Duck is the type. The distin-.............==;-:.. ~ guishing characteristic is the - e____ _ _ bill, which is usually of a flatTHE MALLserAve to sift or strain the mud -___...launchin which they gunerally seek single lesson, and yet as d ustheir food. The feet ae fur-es - — only-~'i nished with f toes, three of a e,wc generally inabitats of the fresh waters and, for the most partwhich are directes and fohallow lard and united by a web; the fourth is directein which thackward, usually e of ally consists of worms, mollsmsa, and aquati insets, all size and quite fremud bye. They a y of te l t the bil; trost of th e admirable s ewimers, fand now from another. Happening by chance to approach te c r live and move touht the wbter uith hihe u tmost securit ease, and grace. Such is their adaptation u to water te at the young bis " At l h t s a a a sll il, w d i s immediately ame beiard, aned ere in will i run to i and fearlessly prayer tnch themselves upon its bosom, rowing themselves along with their webbed feet, without a ingle lesson, and yet as dexterously as the most experienced boatman. This order includes not only the Duc s of mhich there are many kinds, but Ggeese, respet, Fintheir prejdices, o. These ain generally inhabitae ts of the fresh waters, and, for the most part, prefer ponds and shallow lak In which they ca investigate the bottom with their peculiar bills a aouter, thactually diving beneat the surface; yet at somei seasons the are found along the borders of the sea. Their food nerally consists of worms, mollusc a, and auatic insects, which they sepailrate fron the muid by the agenc of the lamel at the margis of the bill; but mosro of them s also fe w e ed pon seeds, fruits, now from andother. appenin by chance to approach the cabin-dr noiselessly, when, as e thouht, the bird supposed itself to be alone, he heard it singing in the most plaintive manner, and att ineete rvalsp talkin in an unknown language atinching it more narrowly, h e observed that it was standing before a looking-glass, and holding a tender colloquy with its own image. On his entering the, it seemed ashamed, and few to the other side of the ca ir in fer. "At length the ship arrived at a small island, where, during its stay, several chiefs came on board, and were invited into ansthe abin. The m was arsurprised to behold them fall on their knees, bow their heads, and muttered prayer to th is bird. Upon inquiry, the mariner found it was the air god, s who, having gone out on the ocean for an airing, aaelost this rway, and owed his preservation to the wa fortunat sce of meeting with a ship. The chiefsend offered a large sum of money for his ransom; but the generous mariner, respecting their prejudices, or else pitying their weakness, restored them their divinity, without eve ra chargin for his board and e lodging "In Europe-though the plumage of the birds be less brilliant, which may account, perhaps, for their being held small gallinwule and a kestrel hawk rer caught at a distance of four hundred and tenty-fofr miles fiom land. " It is highly probableem at, if our naval ofcers were in general fonder of natural history, we should obtain fro in less respect-uships sometimes present the appearance of a moving a viary. A vessel sailing through the Bay of Biscay, a considerable distance from land, became the resting-place of a goldfinch and chaffinch; snipes, also, and a white owl, flew round the ship; and, what was more surprising, a hawk appeared in the midst of large numbers of swallows and martins. To explain this phenomenon, we must suppose that the migratory instinct subdues for a season the instinct of ferocity, otherwise the white owl and the hawk would have feasted forthwith upon their companions. Finding themselves to be fellow-travelers with smaller and more defenseless birds, and looking upon the ship as a wandering caravansary, they respected the rites of hospitality, and for several days lived among their inferiors with equal gentleness and condescension. Another visitant to the same ship was a hen redstart, which entered through the port-holes over the guns, and was daily fed by the sailors. Having reposed as long as was needful, these little wayfarers took their leave-we may presume on their way to Africa, since the ship seems to have been descending from a higher to a lower latitude, and thus afforded the emigrants a welcome lift. On board the same vessel a small gallinule and a kestrel hawk were caught at a distance of four hundred and twenty-four miles from land. "It is highly probable that, if our naval officers were in general fonder of natural history, we should obtain from them extremely curious particulars respecting the habits of migratory birds. The oldest of the Greek poets alludes, in many parts of his poems, to the migration of cranes, which are so strong of wing that it may be presumed they 308 VERTEBRATA. and other vegetable substances. The migrations of these, as well as many other birds, have alike excited the admiration of the philosopher and the poet. Bryant expresses the thoughts they suggest in the following beautiful stanzas: "Whither,'midst falling dew, "All day thy wings have fanned, While glow the heavens with the last steps of day, At that far height, the cold, thin atmosphere, Far, through their rosy depths, dost thou pursue Yet stoop not, weary, to the welcome land, Thy solitary way? Though the dark night is near. "Vainly the fowler's eye "And soon that toil shall end, Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong, Soon shalt thou find a summer-home, and rest As, darkly painted on the crimson sky, And scream among thy fellows; reeds shall bend Thy figure floats along. Soon o'er thy sheltered nest. "Seekest thou the plashy brink "Thou'rt gone-the abyss of heaven Of weedy lake, or marge of river wide, Hath swallowed up thy form; yet on my heart Or where the rocking billows rise and sink Deeply hath sunk the lesson thou hast given, On the chafed ocean-side? And shall not soon depart. "There is a Power whose care "He who, from zone to zone, Teaches thy way along the pathless coast, Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight, The desert and illimitable air- In the long way that I must tread alone, Lone wandering, but not lost. Will lead my steps aright." never have reason to alight for rest on ships. After having passed the winter amid the warm marshes of the White Nile, or those of the Tigris and Euphrates, they traverse the scented valleys of Syria, and move in spring along the picturesque shores of Asia Minor. A learned traveler has an extremely interesting passage on their migration northward. A company of cranes, returning from their winter-quarters, flew in orderly array over Smyrna, on the 9th of March, northward. Another soon followed, and then many; some by day, when they were seen changing their figure and leader; some by moonlight, when they were heard, high in air, repeating their noisy signals. The same writer, sailing in autumn southward from the Hellespont, again saw his old friends on their way to their winter-quarters. Being near Tenedos) he says he was amused by vast caravans or companies of cranes passing high in the air from Thrace, to winter, as he supposed, in Egypt. He admired the number and array of their squadrons, their extent, orderly appearance, and apparently good discipline. "Other migratory birds of strong wing scorn the aid of man in their flight, and dart from one continent to another, depending exclusively on the force of their own pinions. Thus the pelicans, though birds of great weight, ascend into the atmosphere, and forming themselves into, one compact wedge, cleave the air like an arrow, and traverse the whole Mediterranean at one ifight. They present a sight of rare beauty when preparing for their departure. Differing in this from many other birds, they commence their journey in the morning, collecting in myriads on the marshes of the Nile, and soaring aloft with a scream, they form a vast canopy overhead, while the sun, playing on their white feathers, delicately tipped with pink, reminds the traveler of the snows of the higher Alps, which are often rendered rosy by the touch of dawn. "These powerful birds, as we have said, need no other resting-places in their migrations than such as have been supplied them by nature. It is otherwise with the smaller winged tribes. These, when caught by the foremast blast of high winds, in their attempt to cross the sea, invariably take refuge in ships. A Swedish naturalist, entering the Mediterranean early in the morning, observed that the motcilla hispanica-a beautiful species of wagtail-almost immediately came on board. It had become conscious of the approach of a storm, and endeavored to escape from it by flight. Observing beneath it the white sail of a vessel, while, Africa was a long way off, it descended boldly, to make friends, and demand hospitality of the Swedish mariners. They seem, however, to have thought more of the high winds, which the arrival of these little pilgrims portended, than of the beauty or habits of their visitors. The wind which brought these aerial voyagers was a strong northeaster, and, it came accompanied by thunder and lightning, things little familiar to Scandinavians, in the month of October. But it being the migratory season, the birds would not defer their journey on account of stress of weather; but mounting amid atmospheric and electric currents, undismayed by the thunder's roar or the lightning's flash, they sought to fulfill faithfully the behests of nature. In the morning, however, the waves were covered with the bodies of larks and wagtails, which had been killed by the fury of the elements during the night. Two only of these species reached the ship in safety. "Sometimes birds seem to be induced by mere curiosity or love of mankind, to put out from their native shore and alight on ships at sea. The sparrow, it is well known, has an inveterate fondness for hopping and chirping about human beings, whether on land or water. It will even cling to the dwellings, long after the dwellers therein have passed away, and sit sadly on the eaves at dawn, as if expecting the appearance of some new inhabitant. We are not at all surprised, therefore, to find the African sparrow, on beholding a vessel, flying out to it, in order to take a crumb with its inmates. Sicily abounds with sparrows, which, during winter, sun themselves in large troops upon the beautiful old ruins of Grecian temples, where they will go round with you, as if they were quite interested in the antiquities. As soon as they see a ship, they fly away to it in great multitudes, as if delighted to examine any thing new; and on reaching it, flit about the sails, perch upon the yards, masts, and rigging, descending frequently to' share the meals of the sailors, in whose rough humanity they place the most complete confidence. "Many species of birds love to construct what Shakspeare calls'procreant cradles' on the islands of the Mediterranean. JEgina is a favorite spot, where, but for the policy of the inhabitants, they would multiply so as fast to produce a famine. Accordingly, as soon as the breeding season sets in, the worthy natives disperse themselves over the island, peer into every nook and cranny of the rocks, in search of the nests of doves, pigeons, and partridges, CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 8. NATATORES. 309 THE FLAMINGO, SWANS, ETC. Genus PHCENICOPTERUS: Phoezicopterus.-This includes the Flamingoes, remarkable for their long legs, long neck, and large and powerful mandibles, bent downward from the middle. They have frequently been grouped with the Grallatores, but in their habits and mode of life they approach more nearly to the Natatorcs. They live upon the sea-shore, where they feed upon mollusca, crustacea, and young fishes, for which they dabble about in the mud and sand with their broad bills, in exactly the same manner as a duck, and when thus employed the object of the peculiar conformation of the bill is plainly seen. When the neck is turned downward to reach the ground in the most natural position, the bent apical portion of the upper mandible is necessarily directed downward; this, then, takes the place of the lower mandible in the duck, and serves to scoop and feel about in the mud. The tongue also assists wonderfully in the process of straining the muddy water, and retaining the food; it is furnished with numerous spines on its surtace, and these are pressed by the mere weight of the tongue against the lamnelle of the upper mandible when the animal is feeding with its head in this reversed position. They are very gregarious birds in their habits, collecting into large troops in the marshes, where they follow the rise and fall of the tide in their search for food, so that they are often seen extending in single file over a considerable space. The COMMON FLAMINGO of Europe, P. antiquorum, stands about five feet in height, and is of a fine rose-color, with bright red wings; when several are seen in line they appear like a regiment of British soldiers. While the community is engaged, in seeking the means of subsistence, certain of its members are employed in the capacity of sentinels, to give notice of the approach of danger; this is done by a loud cry, like the sound of a trumpet, on hearing which the whole will take wing and escape to some place of greater security. They also migrate in large flocks, flying in an angular line, like that formed by geese and swans in their migrations. They make a most singular nest of mud, in the shape of a hillock, with a cavity at the top; in this they lay two or three white eggs, and then sit astride upon the top with one leg on each side. The young are able to run within a few days after their exclusion from the egg. This species is found in the south of Europe, especially in Sicily, Calabria, and Sardinia, but it is more abundant in the warm regions of Africa and Asia. They are exceedingly beautiful birds, their plumage being of the most delicate character, and their flesh is said to be equally good. Flamingoes were among the objects of the extravagance of the Roman epicures, and a dish of the tongues of these birds was regarded as a great delicacy. The AMERICAN FLAMINGO-P. Chilensis of Molina-P. ruber of Wilson-is of nearly the same size and habits as the preceding, with which, in fact, it is confounded by many naturalists. It is found on the Pacific as well as the Atlantic coasts of tropical America; also in the West Indies, and on the border of Florida. A smaller species, P. minor, is said to exist in South Africa. Genus CYGNUS: Cygnus.-This includes the Swans, of which there are several species, and which are among the most graceful of birds; few objects in nature are more beautiful than a whose eggs they collect and take away, or destroy on the spot without mercy. In this part of Greece the partridge is reckoned among singing birds. Its note, they say, is extremely sweet; and contrary to the instincts of its kind, at least as observed elsewhere, it perches at night. Now and then the solitary thrush —a peculiar species-alights on the barks that ply among the Cyclades. The Turks set a high value upon this bird, whose song is unrivaled save by that of the nightingale. "It has been suggested by an able naturalist, that a most interesting Fauna might be written on the visitors of ships at sea; and the waters of our own coast would supply considerable materials for such a work. If sailors could be induced to apply their leisure hours to the study of natural history, they would be able to furnish the world with innumerable curious particulars respecting the habits of birds. Perhaps the most interesting scene for such observations is the Mediterranean, because of the vernal and autumnal voyages made by all the migratory birds across its waters. About the Lipari Islands alone it would be easy to find materials for an instructive chapter, since many rare birds are often found resting, as if on shipboard, upon their vitrified cones and pinnacles. But when the swallow touches at these isles, it must be for pleasure, not through weariness, since it would be easy for it, with its strong wings, to proceed onward to Sicily. Yet it may often be seen diving, so to speak, through the white smoke of Vulcano, or skimming along the rocky shores of Felicudi. Having performed these feats to its satisfaction, it plunges away toward the Faro, as if in search of the misty glories of the Fata Morgana." 310 VERTEBRATA. FLAMINGOES. large swan moving in its usual majestic manner over the smooth surface of the water. Such is their beauty, that for centuries many of them have been domesticated in Europe, and used as ornaments on lakes, rivers, and reservoirs, in the pleasure-grounds of palaces, villas, and chateaux. Their wings are very long and powerful, and many of them perform long migrations, during which they always fly in single lines. Their diet is principally of a vegetable nature, consisting of grass, roots, and seeds; but they are said also to feed upon worms and aquatic insects. Swans are gregarious at all seasons. The nest, which is very bulky, is composed of grass, rushes, and coarse herbage, and placed on the ground, generally among the sedges near the water; and several observers have stated that the swan, when sitting, has been known to add considerably to the materials of her nest, so as to raise it sometimes as much as two feet or two feet and a half, in anticipation of heavy rains, which swelled the waters to such an extent that the nest, if left in its original condition, would have been completely submerged. The male remains in company with the female during the period of incubation, and assists in the care of the young after their exclusion from the shell. Yong n Swans arc called C(7yg-:ci. CLASS II AVES: ORDER 8. NATATORES. 311..-L - ------ - _ _, _ _~II_ —-~ —--— ~ —-J TUE MUTE SWAN. It is a curious fact that swans live to a great age; in some instances, it is said, to nearly a hundred years. The HOOPER or WHISTLING SWAN, C. ferns of Ray, C. musicus of Bechstein, is the Cygne Sauvage of the French, Cigno Salvatico of the Italians, Singschwan of the Germans. It derives its popular name from its loud, sonorous cry of hoop, hoop, hoop, often repeated. It is supposed to be the swan of the ancients, which was said to utter a sweet and plaintive song when dying. This, as well as some other species of swan, has a low, soft note, but not reserved for the moment that precedes death. This species is frequently domesticated in the north of Europe; in a wild state its migrations extend over Europe, its winter haunts, however, being in the warm parts of Asia and Africa. It is about twice the size of a goose, and is perfectly white. The MUTE SWAN, C. olor, is somewhat larger than the preceding, and is of a more graceful carriage; it is in fact the species chiefly domesticated as the ornament of rivers, lakes, and fountains. It is four feet eight inches to five feet long, and weighs about thirty pounds. Its nest is formed on the ground, usually on an island, near the edge of the water, and consists of a large mass of reeds, rushes, and other coarse herbage; the eggs are six or seven, of a dull greenishwhite. During incubation the male guards the female with jealous care, and inflicts serious blows with the beak and wings upon any intruder. The young cygnets are led, or sometimes carried on the back by the female, to the water, as soon as hatched. No spectacle can be more pleasing than a pair of swans with their train of cygnets reposing or gliding upon the water. This bird is found wild during summer in Northern Europe; in winter it migrates to the south; it is stationary in Greece, Asia Minor, &c. It has long been domesticated in England, and formerly extensive swanneries existed on the Thames and other sheets of water. In 1625 no less than two thousand swans, in one flock, were to be seen upon the Avon! The swan was considered a bird-royal, and no person was permitted to keep them, except by royal grant. The king had swanneries and swanherds, not only on the Thames, but in various other parts of the kingdom. All the swans were marked, each owner having a particular sign. The statutes regulating the swanneries would fill a volume. There are still several large swanneries upon the Thames, chiefly belonging to the crown and to the "Dyers and Vintners'" companies. They are annually 312 VERTEBRATA. marked on the bills by men called Swan- Uppers or Swan-Hoppers. There are also swanneries in other parts of the kingdom. At Norwich, according to Yarrell, the swans, about seventy in number, belong to the city, and are presided over by a public swanherd. The young birds are esteemed a great delicacy for the table. The following reciDe is the standard guide for their cookery: TO ROAST A SWAN. Take three pounds of beef, beat fine in a mortar, Put it into the Swan-that is, when you've caught her; Some pepper, sauce, mace, some nutmeg, an onion, Will heighten the flavor in gourmand's opinion. Then tie it up tight with a small piece of tape, That the gravy and other things may not escape. A meal paste, rather stiff, should be laid on the breast, And some whited brown paper should cover the rest. Fifteen minutes at least ere the Swan you take down, Pull the paste off the bird that the breast may get brown. THE GRAVY. To a gravy of beef, good and strong, I opine, You'll be right if you add half a pint of port wine; Pour this through the Swan-yes, quite through the belly, Then serve the whole up with some hot currant-jelly. BEWICK'S SWAN, C. Bewickii, is nearly four feet long, and white, having somewhat the air air and manners of a goose on the water; it is migratory, breeding in summer in the north of Europe, and spending the winter at the south. The POLISH SWAN or CHANGELESS SWAN, C. immutabilis, is another wild species, fifty-six inches long, plumage white, and in habits resembling the preceding. A male of this species paired with a female Mute Swan at Knowsley, and a hybrid brood was the result. These, however, did not pair either among themselves or with others. Formerly swans were all supposed to be white, and "white as a swan" was equivalent to " white as snow;" but Australia, amid its anomalies, has furnished to natural history a BLACK SWAN, C. atratus. It is nearly the size of the swans we have described, and has similar manners, but it is entirely black, except a few white feathers on the wings. It is abundant in Van Diemen's Land, and along the Swan River country in Western Australia. The AMERICAN SWAN, C. Americanus, formerly supposed to be the same as the Ilooper Swan of Europe, is about five feet five inches long, white, and breeds in the high northern regions of this continent. It is often seen in spring-the flock arranged in a triangular line, and high in air-winging its way to the distant lakes, where it builds its nest and rears its young. Many of these birds spend the winter as far north as Chesapeake Bay; it is said to be abundant along the western shores of North America. The TRUMPETER-SWAN, C. buccinator, is fifty-three inches long, white, and has a harsh, trumpetlike note; habits similar to the preceding. It is this species which furnishes the swan-skins imported into London by the Itudson's Bay Company; it is, however, chiefly known from the Mississippi Valley to the Pacific. THE ANSERINIE OR GEESE. Genus ANSER: Anser.-To this belong the principal species of Geese, which, as is well known, are migratory, move in flocks, and feed upon vegetable substances along the borders of salt as well as fresh waters. The DOMESTIC GOOSE-Oie ordinaire of the French-is too familiar to need description. It is derived from the Gray Lag-Goose, the Common Wild Goose of Europe. It is not mentioned in the Bible, but it was known to the ancient Egyptians, and is figured abundantly on the monuments, showing that it was anciently used for food, as in our own times. It was held sacred by the Romans, because it was said, by its cackling at night, to have alarmed the sentinels of the Capitol upon the invasion of the Gauls, and thus to have saved the city. It is generally esteemed a foolish bird, yet it displays courage in defending its young, and instances of attachment and gratitude have shown that it is not deficient in sentiment. Its utility to man has rendered it an object of careful cultivation. The quantity raised in England is really astonish CLASS II. AVES: OIDER 8. NATATORES. 313 S_____ l~~ Iing. Pennant says: "Tame ^,Z.-..... -~ —____-____ — _ _ __ geese are kept in vast multitudes in the fens of Lincoln___________~~to theshire; a single person has frequently one thousand old ______z _- geese, each of which will rear seven so that toward the end to habituate them early to what they are to come to. Iof the season lie will become aster of eight thousand. I During the breeding season,,~.... 5/~J~-~.- ~~~~~~~these birkds are lodged in the same houses wcith the inhabitants, and even in their very bed-echalmsbers;e in every ap artment are three rows of coarse ~_I~of - -,'another; each bird has its sepThe GRAY LAGGOOSE,.arate lodge divided fom the other which it keeps possession THE CANADA GOOSE O WILD GOOSE OF AMRICA. b hn of during the time of sitting. A person called a Gozard, that is, Gooseherd attends the flock, and twice a day drives the whole to water; then brings them back to their habitations, helping those that live in the upper stories to their nests, without ever misplacing a single bird. The geese are plucked five times in the year; the first plucking is at Lady-Day, for feathers and quills, and he same is renewed four times more between that and Michaelmas for feathers only. The old geese submit quietly to the operation, but the young ones ar e very noisy and unruly. I o nce saw thi s perormed, and observed that goslins of six weeks old were not spared; for their tails were plucked, as I was told, to habituate them early to what they are to come to. If the season proves cold, numbers of the geese die by this barbarous custom. When the flocks are numerous, about ten pluckers are employed, each with a coarse apron up to his chin. Vast numbers of geese-sometimes two or three thousand in a flock-are driven annually to London to supply the markets, among them all the superannuated geese and ganders-called the' Cagmags'-whicbh, by a long course of plucking, prove uncommonly tough and dry. The feathers are a considerable article of commerce; those from Somersetshire are esteemed the best, and those from Ireland the worst." The liver seems to have been a favorite morsel with epicures in all ages, and invention appears to have been active in exercising the means of increasing the volume of that organ. The pate de /oie d'oie de Strasbourg is not more in request now than were the great goose-livers in the time of the Romans. This bird lives to a great age, sometimes seventy years or inore. The GRAY LAG-GOOSE, A.f ereus, is thirty-five inches long; upper parts ash-brown and ashgray; under parts white. It is migratory, proceeding to the northern parts of Europe and Asia in summer, and to the south in winter. This is the Common Wild Goose of England. Other foreign species are the BEAN GoosE, o. segetum: the PIN.K-ooTED GoosE, A. brachyrhynchusV the RED-BREASTED GOOSE, A. ruficollis: the EGYPTIAN GOOSE, A. _z0Jgy2tiacus: the SPURWINGED or GAMBO GoosE, A. Gambensis. There are several species in Asia not here enumerated. The following are found on both continents: the WVHITE-FRONTED or LAUGHING GoosE, A. albifrons, is twenty-seven inches long; common in Europe and in the North Ameriean Fur Countries, but rare along our coasts: the BERNICLE GoosE, A. leucopsis, twenty-five inches long; was formerly supposed to he bred from bernicles, whence its name; found in Europe; abundantly in the Baltic, and occasionally, it is said, in Hudson's Bay: the BRENT GoosE, A. torquatus, a small species, twenty-one inches long; common in both Europe and America. On our coast it is a favorite game bird, known by the name of Brant. The SNow-GoosE, d. hyperboreus, is twenty-eight inches long, and is known on our coast by the names of White Brant and Blue-winged Goose. VOL. II.-40 314 VERTEBRATA. The CANADA or CRAVAT GoosE, A. Canadensis, the Wild Goose of this country, is a fine specie, forty inches lon. often ME —- -I~ BP:Tseen in spring and autumn in large triangular flocks, high in _____ /air, and led by an old and expeequivalent to tn e cry of the watchman of the ship or the birds are killed in Canada, as well as along or coasts, where city assembl's well " Often this sound comes upon the ear at Dnight when the flock are invisible; nay, even in the daytime, large ocks, and remain till driven to more southernwhe they are beyond the reach ~~~~~ ~ ~~-\-~- _:..,of vision, it is frequently heard, THE BRENT GOOSE. seeming to come fGOOSE.om the sy. Immense numbers of these noble birds are killed in Canada, as well as along our coasts, where they assemble in the autumn in large loks, and remain till driven to more southern climates by the season. & v meof thse flocks in certain districts, and afforded a in considerable partnumbers onof the sea-shoreod of theLucky Bay and Goose struck it down with their spears. At present, it is chiefly confined to the northern parts of the island. Specimens have been in the London Zoological Gardens. ~~~~~~~~~~~i ~~n:~ ~~ ~~ ~~~:~ CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 8. NATATORES. 315 HUTCHINS'S GOOSE, A. Hutchinsi —called Mud Goose on Long Island-is twenty-five inches long; breeds along the Arctic Sea, and is common upon our coasts. Some have supposed it a hybrid between the Brant and Wild Goose. Mr. Linsley, in his Catalogue of the Birds of Connecticut, states that it is not unfrequently taken there in spring, and is called the Southern Goose, because it does not winter there. The following are in the catalogue of the Smithsonian Institution: WHITE-HEADED GoosE, A. coerulescens; found in North America: A. frontalis, interior of North America: WHITE-CHEEKED GooSE, Bernicla leucopareia, west coast of North America: BLACK BRANT, B. nigricans, Pacific coast of North America; rare on the Atlantic coast: PAINTED GOOSE, Chloephaya canagica, Aleutian Islands. MALLARDS. THE TRUE DUCKS. These closely resemble the preceding group in their general conformation, and in the form of the bill. They all frequent fresh water, where they feed upon the worms, mollusca, and larvae which they pick out of the mud. A considerable portion of their food, however, consists of vegetable matter, such as grass, roots, seeds, &c. They are gregarious in their habits, and generally migrate in large flocks. The males are larger than the females, and often adorned with beautiful colors, while the females are usually of a more uniform and sober tint. In winter, most of them resort to the borders of the sea. They moult twice in the year, in June and November; in June, the males acquire the female plumage to a certain extent, but they regain their proper dress at. the second moult, and retain it during the breeding season. The nest is usually placed on the ground among reeds and sedges near the water, sometimes in holes or in hollow trees, but rarely among the branches. The eggs vary from about eight to fourteen in number, and the young are active from the moment of their exclusion, and soon take to the water, where they are as much at home as the old birds. As the flesh of ducks is greatly valued, immense numbers of the wild ones are shot or taken in other ways. In England large quantities are ca-ptured by decoys, consisting of a piece of water situated ~~~~I ~ ~ ~ ~ \,7 7-~lYI~~~I ~r~IIIU WV ~IV~C~N VVhlVLUN-^ 316 VERTEBRATA. in the midst of a quiet plantation, from which six semicircular canals are cut, which are roofed _____ -^ over with hoops and covered in =~_ ~ —~ ~~ /-~~-.... with netting. Into this vast shelte i_ ntrap the ducks are enticed by. aayoung aducks trained for the pr-,_~__ ___ ~pose.''~; -~_-_ —-= —— ~-' —_"and greatl Genus ANAS: Anai s.-To varieties. It is twenty-four ~ inches long, and marked with It,,requentsthe la,, e of the interiormoa l gre en, chestnut, and white. It is an inhabitant of all the counshelr inetothr witwi tries of Europe, especially tomwaard the north, and is also abundant in North America. i ere it is migratory, passing to the North in spring and returnTHE SHOVELER. ing to the South in autumn. It frequents the lakes of the interior as well as the sea-coasts. It is plentiful in Great Britain at all seasons merely quitting the more exposed situations at the approach of winter and taking shelter in the valleys or, in case of a severe winter, visiting the estuaries. In a wild state, the mallard always pairs, and dur~____________~ -ing the period of incubation the male, although he takes no part..____ -____......._ —__:__:: Iin the process, always keeps in ~~-~~-~ — ~ _-~__,:_ the neighborhood of the femn ale;. _...________:____________ ~_____________ __ - m-and it is singular that half-bred =~ ~:~......-'- birds between the wild and tame — =-c-_ varieties always exhibit the same - _ = X3 =poonhabit, although the ordinary doM estic drakes are polygamous, _________- always endeavoring to get as many wives as they can. -________________________!The SHOVELER, A. clypeata,._______________ ______ -- — called also Broad-Bill and ~~ -'~-~~ — — ~,Spoon-Bill-is seventeen inches -~-~_ — = —~:-"- long, and greatly prized for its THE GADWALL. flesh; it is also a very beautiful species. It occasionally visits the sea-coast, but is more commonly met with on lakes and rivers, particularly along their muddy shores, where it spends a great part of its time in searching for worms, &c. The female makes her nest on the ground, with withered grass, usually in the midst of tufts of rushes, and lays from ten to twelve eggs. The young are said to be at first very unshapely, having most enormous bills. The shoveler is found in Europe and America. The GADWALL or GRAY DucX, A. strepera, is nineteen inches long, and is common to Europe and America; very abundant in some countries; common in India. Its flesh is excellent. Wilson says " it is a very quick diver, so as to make it difficult to be shot; it flies also with great rapidity, and utters a note not unlike that of the mallard, but louder; is fond of salines and ponds overgrown with reeds and rushes; feeds during the day, as well as in the morning and evening." CLASS 11. AVES: ORDER 8. NATATORES. 317 The PINTAIL DTCK, A. acuta, is, including the tail, twenty-six to twenty-eight inches long; common in Europe and America. -A ~-~~~....The EUROPEAN WIDGEON, A. _ ommon in Europe, and accidental on the Atlantic coast of'US. _ -. Mthe -United States. The AMERICAN TIDGEON or - BALDPATE, A. Americana-Ma___-_ reca Aericana of Gmelin —is;-:~: whonineteen inches long; common — o on in North America; accidental in ='-=a_:~'ot of JThe BLACK DUCK, A. obscurn the ~~ r ~\ \::y.1_: are used for flight, as well as for proBrith I s i hcgression when the bird is under water. ta lIt swarms in the high regions of the At-m a delic-, prtic l fd Pal i mfi antic and Pacific, and is common alon! —___ 4 othe rocky coasts of Great Britain. Ray says "It lays, sits, and brings up its iareb itangtsupontheireggswith ryoung on the ledges of the craggy cliffs They presentrugged an theeply iented cliffson we shoe iruds themselvngs an their biatlerds along rangthllllll~,~i-eBa tesland steep rocks by the sea-shores, that /an clt are broken and divided into many, as it m~ade.frm abve. heavent were, stairs or shelves, together with the cliffmel a del y, prtaic ry fr snleads, tho f coulter-nebs and guillemots. The anksi;n:abitants tale th-z sprpt hin - w ch, o men are wont to compare these rocks, -~r~~~~~~~~~~ ~with the birds sitting upon them in breedindre,,, above th.e-.~_~ ing time, to an apothecary's shop-the they seim l "cen anda deeply int ledges of the rocks resemblin the shelves, Showscar so ta in as g e iand the birds the pots. About the Isle of Mtan are very high cliffs broken in this md ARCTIC PUFFINv. to let down men by ropes from the tops of the cliffs to take away the eggs and young ones. They take also the birds themselves when they sare sitting upon their eggs, with snares fastened to the ends of long poles, and put about the necks of the birds. They build no nests, but lay their egs upon the bare ocs." The gathering of the eggs of sea-fowl, as well as the birds themselves for their feathers, along the steepling rocks of the Hebrides, the Shetlands, and the Orkneys, and other places around the British Islands, in which the adventurous fowlers are swung over the cliffs, five hundred or a thousand feet above the waves, has often been described as one of the most perilous of human pursuits. Nuttall, speaking of the multitudes of auks on the Isle of Wight, says: "The eggs being esteemed a delicacy, particularly for salads, the fishermen and other indigent and adventurous inhabitants traverse the precipices in search of them. Some of these stupendous cliffs are six hundred feet above the yawning deep which lashes and frets them into gloomy caverns. Seaward they present rugged and deeply indented cliffs, on whose rude shelvings and ledges the birds arrange themselves by thousands, and without further preparation lay their eggs, which lie as it were strewed without precaution by hundreds in a row, no way attached or defended by the rocks, so that in a gale of wind whole ranks of them are swept into the sea. To these otherwise inaccessible deposits, the dauntless fowlers ascend, and passing intrepidly from rock to rock, collect the eggs, and descend with the same indifference. In most places, however, the attempt is made from above. The adventurer is let down from the slope contiguous to the brink of the cliff by a rope, sustained by a single assistant, who, lowering his companion, depends on his personal strength alone to support him, which, if failing, the fowler is dashed to pieces, or drowned in the sea which roars and heaves below." A similar scene near the coast of Dover is thus graphically described by Shakspeare: "(,1tHow fearful Appear like mice; and yon tall anchoring bark And dizzy'tis to cast one's eyes so low! Diminished to her cock; her cock a buoy The crows and choughs that wing the midway air Almost too small for sight. The murmuring surge, Show scarce so gross as beetles! Half way down That on the unnumber'd idle pebbles chafes, Hangs one that gathers samphire, dreadful trade! Cannot be heard so high. I'll look no more, Methinks he seems no bigger than his head; Lest my brain turn, and the deficient sight The fishermen that walk upon the beach Topple down headlong." The LITTLE AUK, A. alle of Linnoeus, J2ergulus melanoleucos of Ray, is ten inches long, and in .~~~~t —.~ ____~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ II~~~~~-I~ _~~ \,\__ \\\ \\\ \\,/ _ -~~~~~~~~~~~~~M, 7 / \ \\ ~~~ __ >_Si\ ___,~~~~~ (,,. _ -~____ i i / / \ / Al G R ETA K, A Z O -B, A N D P U F I NS..I GREAT AUK, RAZOR-B ILS, AND PUFFINS /j