7 (r
~
'y'
4',,i~j~<~
4'~ ~; {'~'
(
) ( #1
~
~ j{
'i';
~~J<jj~~~A~ <~;' <~
~~ ~
7'
I
V"",
A BOOK FOR EVERY AMERICAN!
THE
AMERICAN FARMER'S
NEW AND UNIVERSAL
RP,,
AN IIMPROVED AND COMIPLETE GUIDE
TO THE
TREATMNIENT OF SOILT,S; TIlE OPERATIONS OF PRODUCTIVE FIELD HUSBANDRY
KITCIIIEN GARDENING; DAIRY PRACTICE; FRUIT GROWING; MANAGEMENT
AND DISEASES OF ANI,IALS, FOWLS AND BEES; CULTURE OF FLOWERS,
ORNAMENTAL, TREES. &c.; CONSTRUCTION OF FARMI BUILDINGS; GRAFT ING, BUDDING, PR'UNING, TRAINING; THE GREAT DISEASES OF
TREES AND PLANTS; INSECTS lNJURIOUS TO ANIMALS,
FI',UIT-TREES, GRAIN, ETC.
TIFE WHOLE EMBODYING
P1 AIN, PRACTICAL, AND COMPREIiENSIVE DETAIL OF AGRI CULTURAL ECONOMY, IN ALL ITS DEPARTMENTS,
THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES
AND THE CANADAS.
ILLUSTRATED BY UPWARDS OF
THREE HUNDRED SPLENDIDLY EXECUTED ENGRAVINGS.
BY PRACTICAL AGRICULTURISTS.
P H I L A D E L P HI A:
COWPERTHWVAIT, DESILVER, & BUTLER.
i
I
t
i
Ii
I
I
- 4
Flri1
A
I
1854.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1851, by
EDWARD LIVERMORE,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.
PRINTED BY SMITH & PET1ERS,
Tranklin Buildings, Sixth Street below Arch. Philadelphia
INTRODUCTION.
IN presenting to the American public a work on AGRICULTURE AND
THE VARIOUS ARTS AND SCIENCES CONNECTED WITH ITS MORE PER FECT KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICE, we feel that we should hardly be
satisfied with the common prize of authorial ambition, -the mere
approval of our book by the community at large. We should be
far better pleased, could the volume be the means of so stimulating
scientific inquiry and advancing the noble cause of Agriculture, that
the very work itself should soon be superseded by the improvements
it may cause.
It would be an easy, and by no means disagreeable task, to occupy,
as is sometimes the practice with authors, a score of pages, or more,
- in the form of a Preface or Introduction, - in demonstrating the
importance of agriculture to mankind in the light of political economy, and especially its vital connection with the continued advancement, in prosperity and power, of this mighty republic; and, from
such premises, it would not be difficult to deduce abundant facts,
principles and suggestions, valuable, in a social and economical point
of view, alike to the cultivator of the soil and to all other classes of
citizens. The value of many of the more difficult arts and sciences
may, indeed, be appropriately dwelt upon, in text-books devoted to
their discussion, from the fact that their importance is, as yet, far
fromn being generally acknowledged, or their principles adequately
understood. But who can be so blind, in this day of light, as to
need any studied accumulation of evidence to show the value and
magnitude of agriculture and its kindred employments? Argument
can hardly enhance them; eloquence, in its selectest phrases, can
add no adornment to them. The earth itself is not more the foundation on which we stand, than the cultivation of the soil is the
foundation of all national existence, all political stability, all social
Si - 1. - - < "N.k -
INTRODUCTION.
and mental progress. What government-what community- could
be sustained, what form of public or domestic happiness could be
enjoyed, without food, clothing and shelter? And do not all the
means of food, clothing and shelter, come out of the earth? and,
with very inconsiderable exceptions, are they not the result of
manual toil and culture? A few things are of spontaneous production, but the limits of spontaneous production are soon reached.
Without other resources, nine tenths of the present population of the
globe would perish before another annual revolution of the sun.
The agriculturist, then, feeds and clothes and shelters the world.
Further improvements in this great department of human effort
would enable it to feed and clothe and shelter the world with more
adequacy, with greater comfort, with a higher ornament. Advanced
still further, other tens and hundreds of millions of beings might
rejoice in its bounties; and human imagination cannot assign a
limit beyond which the creative, or, at least, the sustaining power of
agriculture cannot go, in filling the ranks and improving the races
of mankind. The correctness of these views, however, it has been
presumed, is the conviction of every intelligent agriculturist in this
country; and if to this were added a due appreciation and improvement, on his part, of the means afforded him zealously to fulfil the
duties and responsibilities of his vocation, the speedy attainment of
comparative perfection in husbandry pursuits would no longer be
problematical. To the realization of this end, - so earnestly to be
desired, - these pages, it is humbly hoped, will contribute in no
small degree.
But, in addition to expatiating upon the political and physical
relations of agriculture to mankind, it is not unusual for authors or
editors of agricultural books, in order to excite, on the part of farmers
and the community in general, an increased interest in the cause of
agriculture, - as well as to commend their own labors to public
favor,- to indulge in elaborate encomiums on the moral dignity of
rural pursuits, and their adaptedness to ennoble the lives and characters of those who engage in them. Such encomiums are just, and,
in their proper place, useful and gratifying. No reflective mind,
however, whether that of a farmer or a tradesman, needs to be
informed of the tendency of constant communion with the works and
IV
INTRODUCTION.
phenomena of nature to purify the thoughts, and thus exert a largely
restraining influence upon the dark passions of the human soul.
No man works more in the immediate presence of his Creator than
the husbandman. He sees Himrn not only "in the cool of the day,"
but in every waking moment; - in the purity and fragrance of the
circumamnbient atmosphere, - in the untamed grandeur of Nature's
mountains, rocks, fields, forests, and gushing waters, - in the germination of every seed, - in the growth of every leaf and of every
blade of grass, - by these, and numberless objects besides, is he
impressed, not only with the power, wisdom and goodness, of Him
who "causethli the grass to grow for the cattle, and herb for the
service of man," but' with the gracious course of His providence,
which rewards every discovery of His laws, and eavery act of obedience to them. It is uttering no harsh judgment, then, when we say,
briefly, that the man who can live and labor, surrounded by so many
and so palpable attestations of a beneficent and controling Power
above, without realizing the nearness of his relations to that Power,
or without hymning in his heart devout ascriptions of praise and
gratitude, is a sad example of the derangement which sometimes
characterizes man's moral machinery. And if, with the Book of
Nature thus unfolded so luminously before him, his feelings fail to
be voluntarily awakened to a just sense of the honorableness of his
employment, and of his duty to improve every means and facility
that will enable him to become skilful and thrifty in his calling, no
words of rhetoric, however eloquent, will be able to arouse them.
There is one topic, which, if its discussion here were compatible
with the extent of space required for the purpose, might, perhaps, be
advantageously presented at some length;-this is, the necessity
that exists for the formation, throughout the country, of exclusively
Agricultural Libraries, to comprise every standard work, whether of
American or foreign authorship, and be accessible, at all times, to
farmers and others. This powerful means of advancing the science
of farmning has hitherto been almost totally neglected; and, with the
exception of a few private collections, - foremost among which may
be named the splendid library owned by that enlightened and distin.
guished friend of agricultural improvement, Hon. John W. Lincoln,
of Worcester, Mass.,- this species of literature, in a collective form,
V
A*
INTRODUCTION.
is extremely scarce, and, consequently, the farmer's opportunities for
intellectual progress in his profession are few and limited. The
consideration of this interesting topic, however, as well as of those
which have previously been alluded to, belongs more appropriately
to the pages of a work differing somewhat, in its objects, from this
volume.
Beyond, therefore, the simple assurance, to those into whose hands
this work may fall, that it is the result of patient and laborious study,
diligent investigation, and enlightened scientific experiment, confirmed by careful and discriminating practice, - and that it embraces
within its scope every important topic or subject treated of by the
most eminent practical writers on Agricultural Economy, in all its
ramifications, - introductory comment on the design and character
of this volume is unnecessary.
To those for whose use and benefit it has been prepared, - the
AGRICULTURIST - the MARKET GARDENER - the DAIRY FARMER -
the FRUIT GROWER - the STOCK RAISER- the POULTRY BREEDER -
the BEE KEEPER -the FLORIST- and the RURAL ARCHITECT,
this volume is respectfully dedicated, with the earnriest'hope that it
will prove to them a substantial and profitable aid.
VI
CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
RONTISPrECE (GEosdTR smEP).
FRONTISPIECE (ILLUSTRATIVE).
AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS
Fig.
4. ROOT-GRUBBER -MODE OF OPERATING,....
9. EUROPEAN DIRT-SHOVEL ".....
11 APPEARANCE OF BADLY-PLOUGHED LAND,..
12. PLOUGHING WITH DOUBLE TEAM,......
14. DIAGRAM OF RIDGE-PLOUGHING........
15. " " "........
16. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF RIDGE-PLOUGHING,.
17. ILLUSTRATION OF CASTING, IN PLOUGH1NG,..
18. "
19. ILLUSTRATION OF CLEAVING, IN PLOUGHING,~
20. DIAGRAM OF CROSS-PLOUGHING........
28. EARTHS AND SPRINGS,..................
29. DRAINING PEAT LANDS..........
So. ". - ~. o....
31. DRAINING CLAY LANDS,.............
34. MEADOW WATERING,............
35. CATCH-WORK IRRIGATION,.........
55. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF POTATO-DRILLS,..
56. 1. { X; X
76. MODES OF SUPPORTING RUNNING PLANTS,.
83. TURNIP CULTURE..............
GRAINS, GRASSES, VEGETABLES, HERBS, ETC.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF WHEAT........
CLASSIFICATION OF WHEAT BY THE GRAINS,
" " BARLEY." " "
DIFFERENT KINDS OF BARLEY,
THE RYE PLANT........
DIFFERENT KINDS OF OATS,..
THE INDIAN CORN PLANT,..
" BUCKWHEAT...
MILLET "..
" HEMP C..
" FLAX.. ".~
* " LUCERN "..
SAINFOIN "..
TARE..
* This cut, and the two which succeed it, represent plants which, though extensively cultivated in some countries, are grown only to a very limited extent in the United States; they
are described in this work merely for the purpose of making the agricultural or farming
information, contained in these pages, as complete as possible.
p.g..
6
: 9
. 12
. 13
15
: 1 6
. 17
. 17
. is
. is
. 19
. 34
35
: 35
. 37
. 40
. 41
. 71
: 172
01
,122
36.
37.
41.
42.
44.
46.
48.
54.
58.
59.
60.
62.
63.
64.
44
..........
44
50
51
63
56
59
67
75
77
80
83
85
86
:...
:...
....
CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF CLOVER.............
MEADOW OR GREEN GRASS............
TIMOTHY, CAT'S TAIL, OR HERD'S GRASS......
ORCHARD GRASS, OR COCK'S FOOT "......
MEADOW FESCUE......
RAY OR RYE.....
RED TOP, HERDDS GRASS, OR FOUL MEADOW GRASS,.
SWEET-SCENTED VERNAL GRASS,.........
PONY GRASS..................
HoP PLANTS, MALE AND FEMALE..........
THE MOREL PLANT,.....................
THE MUSHROOM PLANT,..............
VARIETIES OF THE MUSTARD PLANT,........
THE PEA PLANT,................
RHUBARB PLANT,..............
"' CORIANDER..............
CARAWVAY
8." LAVENDER..............
CORIANDER
"8 lC UORICE..............
LAVENDER......
"~ PARSLEY..............
LI" UAFFRON "RICE..............
PARSLEY
SAFFRON.........
FRUITS.
EARLY HARVEST APPLE:...............
RED ASTRACHAN "....................................
WILLIAMS'S FAVORITE APPLE,............
[01.JUNEATING.............
JUNEATING
102.SUMMER QUEEN.............
SUMMER O UIEEN
1.MAIDEN'SSBLUSH ".............
MAIDENr,S BLUSH
10.GRAVENSTEIN ".............
GRAVENSTEIN.
105. RAMBO ".............
R~AMBO
YELLOW BELLFLOWER.............
.ESOPUS SPITZENBERG ".............
[08.BALDWIN.............
E?SOPUsS PITZE.NBE.RG
BALDWIN
HUBBARDSTON NONSUCH................................
WESTFIELD SEEK-NO-FURTHER APPLE.........
ROXBURY RUSSET APPLE,..............
GOLDEN PIPPIN...............
LADY "...............
HARRISON "..................... 17
RED SIBERIAN CRAB APPLE.............
EARLY APRICOT,..................
PEACH...................
BRUSSELS "..................
THE BARBERRY........ ~~~~...........
THE BLACKBERRY,.......... ~ ~~........1
BLACK HEART CHERRY............ ~....
AMERICAN AMBER "..........~~ ~......
DOWNER'S LATE E................
EARLY WHITE HEART CHERRY......... ~...
THE CRANBERRY,..................
WHITE CURRANT,.................
BLACK..........................
MELLINGrS CROWVN BOB GOOSEBERRY,........ ~..
HOUGHTON'S SEEDLING..........
BLACK HAMBURGH GRAPE,..............
MUSCAT OF ALEXANDRIA (RED AND WHITE) GRAPE,..
CATAWBA GRAPE,..................
ISABELLA..................~
THE MELON,.....................
vni
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89'
90.
.. 87
.. 89
.. 90
.. 90
.. 91
.. 91
.. 91
.. 92
.. 92
. -110
..114
..114
. -115
. -117
..119
. -124
. -125
..126
..127
..128
..129
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
1 08.
109.
110.
ill.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
1 18.
I I 9.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
135.
165
166
166
167
167
168
169
169
170
171
171
172
173
173
174
174
175
176
176
177
177
178
179
180
180
181
181
182
184
185
187
187
189
189
190
190
192
I
...
...
...
CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
136. TRIE MU-LpERRY,...........
137. JAL'E LISSE N-ECITARINE........
133 I's VIOLET "..............
139. G.Os 5IIGNONNsE PEACH........
140. ALBEY'GE.............
141. cI! AIA(DALEN. ".......
)112. LAkg tIEATHI;.......
143. B-KRTLETT PEAR...........
144. NVI-rER NELIS PEAR,..........
145. SECI.EL..........
146. BEUREE BOSC.........
147. l1USCADINE ".........
148. JEFFERSON PLU,..I,..........
149. GREEN GAGE "..........
150. PURPLE FAVORITE PLUiM,.......
1-1. BLEECKER'S GAGE ".......
152. DUANE'S PURPLE.......
153. FROST GAGE ".......
154. APPLE-SHAPED QUINCI'........
155. FASTOLFF RASPBERRY,........
156. FRANCONIA "........
157. LARGE EARLY SCARLET STRAWVBERRY,.
158. HOVEY'S SEEDLINC " ~
159. SWAINSTONE'S ".
160. Ros PHENIX ".
161. PROLIFC HAUTBOI. "
162. CUSHING "2
163. THE FIG...............
164. " LE.ION,............
165. LIMIE,...............
166. " OLIVE...................
167. ORANGE,......................
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
EXPLANATORY SKELETON OF THE OX,..
PRIZE DAIRY NATIVE COW " KAATSKILL,"
DEVON BULL............
ox...............
............ *..
COW,................2
SHORT-HOP.NED BULL..........
1CO v,.........
9HER.EFORD COW............
AYRSIIIRE BULL............
" COWV...........
NEW LEICESTER COW,........
NEW LEICESTER SHEEP........
COLTSWOOD SHEEP,...........
SOUTH-DOWN EWVE AND LAMIB,....
BLACK-FACED OR HEATH SHEEP..
5IERINO SItEEP,...........
EXPLANATORY SKELETON OF THE PIG,.
CHINA HOG,..............
BERKSHIRE HOG,...........
SUFFOLK ".............
SIAMESE SOW AND LITTER.......
EXPLANATORY FIGURE OF THE HORSE,.
ARABIAN HORSE,..................
AMIERICAN. RACE HORSE.......
.............6
ix
193
11)4
1 )4
197
198
200
201
201
2',) 2
203
2 0 i,
205
2 0 ti
207
208
210
2 t I
212
214
215
216
216
217
217
218
219
220
220
221
170.
171.
172.
173.
174.
176.
177.
178.
179.
1 so.
Ill.
t -32.
l,i4.
18-5.
1 6.
1 i7.
1 9.
190.
191.
192.
193.
194.
195.
196
i97.
231
233
234
235
2,36
237
233
239
240
241
2-11
242
249
250
251
252
252
255
257
258
258
259
262
263
264
264
ROAD
CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
NORMAN (EUROPEAN) HORSE,...
THIBET GOAT,..........
NEWFOUNDLAND DOG,........
SHEPHERD'S "......
TERRIER......
DOMESTIC FOWLS.
A.-SHANGHAI................
BANKIVA COCK,...............
DORKING FOWLS,..............
JAGO OR SPANISH FOWLS,...........
CRESTED OR POLAND"...........
BANTAM COCK,..............
OSTRICH OR COCHIN-CHINA FOWLS,.......
TURKEY..................
' TOULOUSE GOOSE,..................
COMMON.................*3
ROUEN OR RHONE DUCK,..............
2 ENGLISH OR AYLESBURY WVHITE DUCK,.....
2 MUSCOVY DUCKS..............
RURAL STRUCTURES, MECHANICAL OPERATIONS, ETC.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF DRAINS...........
FLOWER-POT HIVE,...............
TOP FOR A "...........3
HUISH'S "...............
GILMORE'S BEE-HOUSE,.................
CONSTRUCTION OF GILMORE'S HIVE.......
225. " " " "...........
BACK-SIDE OF " ".......
BOXES IN " ".......3
ARRANGEMENT OF " ".......
*. *...
ARBOR, FOR A GARDEN,.............
GARDEN SEAT,.................
FOUNTAIN FOR A GARDEN,...........
SUN-DIAL, " " "...........
GROUND-PLAN OF A FARM-IIOUSE,........
2 " " " ONE-STORY HOUSE,......
MODEL OF A MEDIUM-SIZED "......
GROUND-PLAN OF A " ".....
SIDE ELEVATION OF A MEDIUM-SIZED HOUSE,...
UPPER FLOOR " " " "...
2.IODEL OF A LARGE FARM-HOUSE......................X
SIDEo ELEVATION OF A LARGE FARIM-IHOUSE,....
GROU-ND-PLAN " " " "
LBED-CIIA5IBER FLOOR OF A LARGE FARM-HOUSE,
r TUDOR COTTAGE................
2 IODEL OF DOUBLE COTTAGE STRUCTURE......
2.GROUND-PLAN OF DOUBLE COTTAGE STRUCTURE,)
BED-CIIAMIBER FLOOR OF" " "..
29MODER ATE-SIZED COTTAGE...........
PLAN OF DAIRY APARTMENTS,.........
2 IMODEL OF A COMPLETE DAIRY,.........
GIOUND-FLOOR OF A COMPLETE DAIRY,.....
SIDE ELEVATION OF A ".........
UPPER FLOOR " " " "......
iMODEL OF THE WASHINGTON BAIRN,..........
x
1 98.
199.
200.
201.
202.
.. 265
.. 268
.. 270
.. 270
.. 27'
203.
203.
204.
205.
206.
207.
20S.
209.
210.
211.
212.
213.
214.
.. 290
291
:: 292
.. 293
.. 294
.. 294
.. 296
.. 300
..303
..304
..309
.. 309
.. 310
....
32.
220.
221.
222.
223.
224.
225.
226.
227.
229.
229.
230.
246.
247.
248.
249.
255.
256.
257.
253.
259.
260.
261.
262.
263.
264.
265.
266.
267.
2 6,i.
269.
270.
271.
272.
273.
274.
275.
332
333
334
334
335
336
337
337
338
339
340
379
379
380
381
399
400
400
401
401
402
402
403
403
404
405
405
406
406
407
408
410
411
411
412
414
CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.I
CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
MODEL OF BUEL'S BARN................4
END AND SIDE VIEW OF BUEL'S BARNS......4
ARRANGEMENT OF CATTLE-SHED........
APARTMENT AND APPARATUS FOR BOILING FOOD,.
PIG-HOUSE,...................
IMPROVED NEST, FOR HENS............
PLAN OF BUILDINGS FOR A LARGE FARM,.....
2314." " " "g" SMALL " ~.....4
CELLULAR WALL-WORK, FOR GREENHOUSE,....
MODE OF BUILDING STONE WALL,........
2 "1 " " GATES...........
HORTICULTURAL AND FLORICULTURAL OPERATIONS.
236. PLAN FOR A FLOWER-GARDEN.............
240. " " " "...................
241. " ","............
243. 9 tI
244. Is
242. " "c ".............
243, c,,,..............................6
244. " " " " ~...................
245. WEEPING-WILLOW ARBOR,.....................
289 THE PROCESSES OF GRAFTING............
290. GRAFTING THE VINE,.................
291. THE PROCESSES OF BUDDING............
297. TRAINING THE GRAPE-VINE IN A POT,........
298 BALLOON-TRAINING OF THE ROSE,..........
299. SPIRAL-CYLINDER TRAINING,............
300 SPURRING-IN TRAINING,..............
301 CONICAL OR QUENOUILLE TRAINING,.........
302. FAN TRAINING, IN ITS FIRST STAGE,.........
303. " " " " ADVANCED STAGE,......
304. HORIZONTAL TRAINING, IN ITS FIRST STAGE,...
305. " " " ADVANCED STAGE,...
* FARMING IMPLEMENTS, MACHINES, UTENSILS, ETC.
1. ROUNDED SHOVEL,..........
2. SQUARE SHOVEL...........
3. SPADE,...............
6. ROOT-PULLER................
6. BRAMBLE-HOOK,...........
7. PARING PLOUGH,...........
8. DIRT-SCRAPER, OR GROUND-LEVELER, ~
10 PREMIUM PLOUGH, EAGLE NO. 1,....
13. " WITH LOCK-COULTER,
21. "C SUBSOIL PLOUGH,.......
22 SCOTCH HARROW,...........
23. GEDDES HARROW,..........
24. FIELD ROLLER.............
25. LARGE SIX-PRONGED MANURE FORK,..
26. SMALL-SIZED " I..
27. IMPROVED EXPANDING CULTIYATOR,..
33. MACHINE FOR IRRIGATING,......
38. HORSE-DRILL,............
* The publisher would acknowledge, in this place, his obligations to those eminent manufacturers of Agricultural Implements, Messrs. RUGvaOLss, Nouass, MASON & Co., Boston,
and Messrs. MARTIN & Co., Blackstone, Mass., for the use of several of the cuts of superiol
farming utensils which ornament these pages.
xi
276.
277.
279.
280.
281.
292.
283.
284.
285.
286.
287.
.. 415
.. 416
.. 420
.. 423
.. 425
.. 4.30
.. 43-?.
.. 433
.. 435
.. 438
.. 439
..362
..365
..366
..366
..366
..366
..378
..446
.. 448
. -453
. - 466
..467
.. 470
.. 471
.. 471
. - 472
. - 473
. - 474
. - 474
5
5
5
7
8
8
9
10
13
19
22
23
24
27
27
28
39
47
....:'
::::........
WHEEL, AND DRAFT-ROD,
.........:::
CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
39. MACHINE FOR DIBBLING WHEAT.........
40. FAN-MILL FOR CLEANING GRAIN.......
43. HUMMELLING MACHINE,...........
45. MACHINE FOR CLEANING SMUTTY GRAIN, &C..
47. GRAIN CRADLE,...............
49. CORN PLANTER,...............
50. UNIVERSAL CULTIVATOR,...........
51. CORN CRACKER...............
52. CORN SHELLER................
53. CORN AND COB CRUSHER,...........
57. BROOM-CORN SCRAPER,............
61. RIPPLING MACHINE, FOR FLAX,.......
74. SCYTHE...................
75. REVOLVING HORSE HAY-RAKE,.........
84. VEGETABLE CUTTER,.............
91. CHEESE PRESS,.........................
92. SELF-ACTING PRESS,.............
93. THERMOMETER CHURN)............
94. CYLINDRICAL CHURN,.. t.........
95. GAULT'S CHURN................
96. FRUIT GATHERER,..............
97........... *......
126. CRANBERRY RAKE,...........................
168. Ox CHAIN AND BULL RING,..........
169. HAY AND STRAW CUTTER,..........
175. OX YOKE,.................
183. LACTOMETER..................
233. INSTRUMENT FOR FUMIGATING BEE-HIVES,...
234. GARDEN RAKE,...............
235. SYRINGE.............
237. ROLLER,..............
238. GRASS-EDGE PARER,.............
239. GARDEN TROWEL,..................
250. GRASS-EDGING AND LADIES' GARDEN SHEARS.
251. SCISSORS, FOR CUTTING FLOWERS.......
252. MACHINE FOR WATERING GARDENS......
253. BRIAR OR BILL HOOK,.............
254. PRUNING SHEARS,....................
278. IMPROVED BARN-DOOR ROLLERS........
283. GRAFTING CHISEL,..............
292. PRUNING CIHISEL,...............
293. 1 SCISSORS,...................
294. BUDDING AND PRUNING KNIVES,...........
295. POLE-PRUNING SHEARS..................
296. LOPPING AND SLIDING PRUNING SHEARS)....
BEES AND OTHER INSECTS, AND THEIR OPERATIONS.
215. QUEEN BEE,...................
216. DRONE "...............
217. WORKING BEE,..............
218. FORM OF THE BEE'S STING,.......
219. OPERATIONS OF BEES IN THE CELLS,....
231. COMIB, OR HEXAGONAL CELLS, OF BEES,..
232. SWVARMING OF BEES,............
306. HORSE SOT-FLY AN-D LARVA........
307. WIRF-WORM, LARVA, AND ANATOMYl...
308. II ESSIAN FLY AND ITS OPERATIONS,....
309. WHEAT MIDGE, LARVA, AND OPERATIONS,.
{i0. CABBAGE MOTH AND CATERPILLARS....
Ul
47
49
62
55
68
62
64
65
66
66
74
82
93
95
123
135
135
136
137
137
164
165
183
225
229
236
245
348
359
360
362
363
363
382
388
390
391
391
416
443
455
456
456
457
459
-31P
.319
-319
. 321
.322
.341
.34,1
.51:11
.517
.519
.52f.523
CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
ONION FLY, LARVA, &C........
BLACK-VEINED WHITE BUTTERFLY,
WINTER MOTH,...........
APPLE WEEVIL.............
3 PEAR "...........
PEAR CHERMES,...........
PLANT-LOUSE OR APHIS......
VINE SCALE INSECT.........
LOCUST,..............
B
xin
311.
312.
313.
314.
315.
.316.
317.
318.
319.
... 525
... 526
... 531
... 5 3 C,
... 536
... 640
.. - 541
... 544
... 650
:....::
-fl,
I
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION,.........................i
CLASSIIED LIST OF ENG RAVINGS,...............v
CHAPTER I.
SOILS:-THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
C OXPOSITION OF BOILS- CLA SSIFICATION - QUAITIS- B ETION
BETWEEN THE SOIL AND SUBSOIL- MEANS OF INCREASING THEIR PRODUCTIVN
POWE,RS AND RENDERING THEM FIT FOR CULTIVATION, VIZ,-ALTERING THE
PROPORTION OF THEIR INGREDIENTS - CLEARING -PLOUGHING - HARROWING
- ROLLING - MANURING - DRAINING - IRRIGTG....... 1
CHAPTER II.
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
WEAT- BAIEY - RYE - THE OAT - INDIAN CORN - BUCKWHEAT - THE P TATO - BROOM CORN - MILLET- IIEMP - FLAX - LUCERN - SAINFOIN - THE
TARE-CLOVER-THE G RASS................ 43
CHAPTER III.
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
EGETABLES: - ARTICHOKE - ASPARAGUS - BORAGE - BEAN - - BEET BORECOLE
- BROCCOLI - CABBAGE - CARDOON - CARROT - CAULIFLOWER - CEER -
CHIVE- CORN - CORN-SALAD - CRESS- CUCUMBER - DANDELION- EGG-PLANT
- ENDIVE - GARLIC - HOP - HORSE-RADISH - LEEK - LETTUCE - MOREL -
MUSHROOM - MUSTARD - ONION - OKRA- PARSNIP - PEA - PEPPER - PUMP EIN - RADISH - RAPE - RHUBARB - SALSIFY - SCORZONERA - SEA-KALE -
SHALLOT - SKIRRET - SPINACH - SQUASH - TOMATO - TURNIP. HERBS, &C.
- ANISE - BALM - BASIL - CARAWAY - CAMOMILE - CORIANDER - CHERVIL
- DILL - FENNEL - FOXGLOVE - HOREHOUND - HYSSOP - LAVENDER -
LIQUORICE - MARJORAM - MINT - PARSLEY - PENNY-ROYAL- PEPPERMINT -
PURSLANE- ROSEMARY - RUE- SAFFRON - SAGE- SAVORY -TANSY - THYME;
- WITH A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS........ 98
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IV.
THE DAIRY.
DAIRY IMPLEMENTS - MANAGEMENT - MILK- BUTT R-MAITNG — cHEEsMAKING;
- I-NCLUDING ALL THE MOST CELEBRATED AND ESTEEMED MODES,.. 134
CHAPTER V.
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
STANDARD KINDS - APPLE - APRICOT - BARBERRY - BLACKBERRY - CHERRY -
CRANBERRY - CURRANT - GOOSEBERRY - GRAPE - MEDLAR - MELON - MUL BE$RY - NECTARINE - PEACH - P EA R - PLUM - QUINCE - RASPBERRY -
STRAWBERRY. MISCELLANEOUS KINDS:- ALMOND - BLUEBERRY- BUTTER NMT- CHESTNUT - FIG - FILBERT - LEMON - LIME - OLIVE - ORANGE -
POMEGRANATE - SHELLBARK- WALNUT - WHORTLEBERRY; - WITH A MONTHLY
CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS................164
CHAPTER VI.
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
E lREARING, BREEDING, DISEASES, AND GENERAL CARE OF - THE BULL - THE
OX - THE COW - SHEEP - SWINE - THE HORSE - THE ASS - THE MULE - THE
GOAT- THE DOG,- IN ALL THEIR STANDARD VARIETIES;- WITH A MONTHLY
CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS................225
CHAPTER VII.
POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS.
THE RAISING, BREEDING, DISEASES AND TREATMENT, OF THE COMMON BARN FOWLS;
ALSO - THE TURKEY - THE GOOSE - THE DUCK - IN ALL THEIR IMPORTANT
VARIEs,..................... 291
CHAPTER VIII.
BEES.
DIFFERENT CLASSES OF BEES - POSITION OF THE APIARY - HIVES AND BOXES -
OBTAINING STOCK- SWARMING- THE HONEY HARVEST- MANAGEMENT DURING
WINTER AND EARLY SPRING- HOW TO TREAT THE PRODUCE OF THE HONEY
HARVEST- THE ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF BEES,....... 318
CHAPTER IX.
FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC.
THE CULTURE OF FLOWERS - PLANS FOR FLOWER-GARDENS - DESCRIPTION OF
STANDARD VARIETIES OF FLOWERS - ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS - ORNAMENTAL
T -; WITH A MONTHLY FLORICULTUIAL CALENDAR,.... 359
XV1
XVII
CHAPTER X.
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
tHE CONSTRUCTION OF FARM-DWELLINGS AND COTTAGES - DAIRIES - BARNS -
STABLES - CART-SHEDS, AND IMPLEMENT-HOUSES- GRANARIES - CATTL-SHEDS
- PIGGERIES - POULTRY-HOUSES - ARRANGEMENT OF THE FARMERY - GREEN HOUSES - FENCES AND GATES,............... 398
CHAPTER XI.
HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
THE IMPROVED MODES OF GRAFTING - BUDDING - PRUNING - TRAING, 442
CHAPTER XII.
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.
BLIGHT OR BLAST - CANKER OR CARIES - CONSUMPTION - CONTORTION - DROPST
- ERGOT - HONEY-DEW - CURL - MILDEW - POTATO-ROT - SMUT,. 477
CHAPTER XIII.
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
INSECTS WHICH LIVE CONSTANTLY ON OR IN DOMESTIO ANIMALS, AND PRO AGATE ON THEM- INSECTS WHICH INJURE GRAIN- INSECTS INJURIOUS TO
CULINARY VEGETABLES- INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, SHRUBS,
AND VINES - INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FLOWER-PLANTS - INSECTS INJURIOUS
TO MEADOWS,................... 512
LNDEX....................... 553
DEFINITION OF WORDS, -SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND PECULIAR,
-COMMONLY USED IN CONNECTION WITH AGRICULTURAL AND
KINDRED SUBJECTS.................. 575
CONTENTS.
B*
I
CHAPTER I.
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
TIlE CO()!POSITION OF SOILS-TIIEIR CLASSIFICATION- QUALITIES -RELATION
RETWidEN TIIE SOIL AND SUBSOIL-MIEANS OF INCREASING THEIR PRODUCTIVEI
POWLERS, AND RENDERING THE3[ FIT FOR CULTIVATION, VIZ., -ALTERING THIl
ROPPOORTION OF TIIEIR INGREDIENTS -CLEARING- PLOUGIIING -HARROWING
- ROLLING - IANUR-PING - DRAINING - IRRIGATING.
GENERAL REMARKS.
NOTIIING is more true than the fact, that, from the vague manner in whicl
oils are usually described by writers assuming to instruct those who cul.ivate tlhe soil, it is often difficult for a farmer, who reads accounts of agricultural operations in any other section of the country than that in which he
resides, to judge what relation the soil which is the scene of such operattions bears to that which he himself cultivates. A certain acquaintance
with a few of the plain principles and laws of chemistry in connection with
the composition of soils is, therefore, very desirable; for it is only in the
accuracy in which soils are described, and their composition and character
ascertained and understood, that a knowledge of the best methods of remnedying their defects, and improving them by the application of different matters,
can be acquired. It will be consistent, then, with the design of our work,
to give some account, in the first place, of the
I. -COMPOSITION OF SOILS.
Though various in fertility and texture, all soils are resolvable into tlte
Some constituent parts. They consist of earthy and organic matters in:,
::te of combination. What is commonly called earth may be considere i
.i: tao points of view, either as mixed or unmixed with animal and vegetilie reruains. As originally produced from the crumbling or decompositio,
)f rocks, earth is, of course, destitute of any of these matters; but they verv
o,)on enter into its composition, and exist in a considerable proportion in all
soils not completely barren.
The principal mineral substances which enter into the composition of
reocks and soils are silica,- found in quartz, flint, and sand; alumina,- -
leading ingredient in the composition of clays, giving them that softness,
I
A
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
plasticity, and adhesiveness, for which they are distinguished; lime,- constituting the numerous varieties of limestone, marl, chalk, and marble;
magnesia, -existing in various states of combination with acids and other
earths, and is found in various mineral springs. Thus, where silica prevails,
as in the case of many sands, the earth may be called silicious; where clay
prevails, the soil may be called aluminrious; where lime exists in quantity,
ts in the, case of chalk, the soil is calcareous; and where magnesia prevails
lo such an extent as to impart its distinctive nature to the soil, it may be
called macrnesian. Besides these, there is the oxide of iron, forming a
constituent part of soils, though its influence on their productive powers has
not been definitely ascertained
II.-CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.
Having spoken of the ingredients in soils, we will now classify them
according to their peculiar properties and the kinds of crops they are
severally best adapted to produce. The grand divisions arc as follows: Clayey Soils. -These are distinguished for the adhesion of their parts,
and the retention of moisture. Farm lands of this description,- the richer
(lays, we mean, -generally produce crops of great abundance and of
superior quality, but at extra cost. Much attention is necessary to the choice
of suitable seasons for conducting the operations of tillage on these soils:
if too dry, it turns up in hard masses, difficult of being made fine enough for
sowing; and if too wet, it is worked into mortar, and cannot be reduced by
the harrow. At the first ploughing, the clay comes up in large clods; but
the oftener it is acted upon by the imniplements of tillage at the proper time,
the more is its cohesion broken, and the more easily ca,ii the roots of plants
penetrate. They must be worked when the clods can be crtsh.ed by the
roller.
Sandy Soils.- These are distinguished by their small deg'ee of adhesiveness; and, with the aid of manures and consolidating substances, to counteract their poverty and their susceptibility to drought, no land pays better for
improvement. The richer class of sands is fitted for the production of every
kind of herbage and grain, bulbous and tuberous rooted plants.
Gravelly Soils. -Between the gravelly and sandy soils there is a close
resemblance, both containing a large portion of undecomposed rocky matter.
The loose texture of gravelly soils renders them unfit for the production of
wheat and beans, but they are admirably adapted to barley and oats.
Peaty Soils. - While other soils consist, primarily, of the worn-off
portions of rocks, combined with various animal and vegetable matters, it is
otherwise with the peat soils. The matter comprising the soils of this class
varies exceedingly, but in all cases it retains the general characteristics of
2
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
its origin, from the quantity of the stems and other parts of plants which it
contains, either entire, or in a partial state of decay. At the surface, it may
be fibrous, and of a brownish-gray color; and lower, it may he friable, of a
light-brown color, and with few fibres. Still lower, it may be compact, of
a deep-brown color. Wherever wood, stems, or grass of any kind, goes to
waste, or falls down and is decomposed, its remains are changed into moss,
if the necessary degree of humidity be present; and, a certain temperature
being essential in producing this change, it is only in the cold and temperate
parts of the earth that peat is formed.
Loam Soil. - Under this denomination is included that kind of soil which
appears to be an intimate mixture of all the others. It is friable in its cow
position, and neither liable to be parched in summer, nor drenched and chilled
with surface water in winter. It is suitable for every kind of crop, and
every system of husbandry.
The arrangecment of the different kinds of soils which we have now made
is sufficient for every practical purpose. There is, however, a more important and interesting distinction to the farmer, and this is
III.-THE QUALITIES OF SOILS, AS DETERMINED BY THEIR COM PARATIVE PRODUCTIVENESS.
The fertility or powers of production of any soil may be judged of from
its natural produce; in part from the kinds of plants which are peculiar to
it, and in part from the luxuriance with which they grow-more certainly by
the latter. The soils of the poorest class produce mosses, low and stinted
plants, and heaths. As the soil improves in quality, the grasses become
intermixed with these inferior orders of vegetation; and as improvement
advances, the grasses increase in quantity, value, and variety.
Cultivation and local circumstances having such influence on the peculiar
vegetation of any particular section of country, little confidence can be
placed in lists of plants indicative of different soils. We therefore pass to
n. sider the
IV.-RELATION BETWEEN THE SOIL AND SUBSOIL.
Clayey Subsoil. - The value of the soil for agricultural purposes is
affected, in a great degree, by the nature of the subsoil upon which it lies.
A retentive, clayey subsoil is in general highly injurious to vegetation; for,
where the soil rests on a subsoil of this quality, it is constantly soaked with
water., and is tilled with difficulty. The retention of an undue quantity of
moisture diminishes the beneficial action of the manures which have bees
applied to the land, and the crops on such soils make but little progress
Ihence, their grain is of inferior quality, and, when in grass, their herbage
is oarse.
3
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
Porous Subsoil. -A porous subsoil absorbs all superfluous moisture
Below clay, and the different varieties of loam, an open subsoil is particularly desirable. It is favorable to all the operations of husbandry; it tends
to correct any undue absorbent power in the soil above; and it promotes the
beneficial action of manures, contributes to the growth and preservation of
seeds in the soil, and insures the future prosperity of the plants. Hence it
is that a thinner soil, with a favorable subsoil, will produce better crops thanr.
a deeper one, resting on wet clay, or on cold or non-absorbent roclk.
Quality of Subsoil. -But not only is the soil affected by the depth and
texture of the subsoil, but by its quality. There are cases when, from
natural revolutions, that which is properly the soil forms the lower stratum
or layer, as, for instance, where the original surface has been covered by the
sand; but, in general, the lower stratum is far less suited to the nourishment
of plants, and in many cases contains matter which, if too abundant, is
greatly injurious to vegetation.
Depth of the Soil. - Whether the subsoil be retentive or porous, the soil
which rests upon it should be of good depth; and in proportion to that depth
will it be affected by the nature of the subsoil. If a retentive subsoil is
placed very near the surface, not only is the soil too shallow for the purposes
of vegetation, but it is too easily affected by the alternations of dryness and
moisture; and if, again, a porous subsoil be very near the surface, the roots
of the plants, as in the other case, not only have not sufficient space to
extend themselves, but the moisture of the soil is too easily exhausted by
heat, to the injury of vegetation.
V. -IMEANS OF INCREASING THE PRODUCTIVE POWERS OF SOILS,
AND RENDERING THEMI FIT FOR CULTIVATION.
Having now explained the composition, varieties, and qualities ot soils, and
the connection between them and the subsoil, or lower strata, we shall proceed to point out the various means which it is necessary for the farmer to
use, in order to maintain and increase their fertility, and render them fit for
the grand purpose of cultivation. These grand means are as follows: 1. ALTERING THE PROPORTION OF TIlE DIFFERENT INGREDIENTS IN THEl
SOIL.- This is done by ascertaining the composition of the soil, and then
adding to, or subtracting from, the ingredients in which it is deficient, or
with which it superabounds. If a sterile soil is found to contain any of the
salts of iron, or any acid matter, it may be ameliorated by applying quicklime. A soil of good apparent texture, containing sulphate of iron, will be
sterile; but this may be remedied by a top-dressing with lime, which converts
the sulphate into manure. If there be an excess of limy matter in the soil,
it may be improved by the application of sand or clay. Soils too abundant
4
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
in sand are benefited by a dressing of clay, marl, or vegetable matter. Light
sands are improved by using peat, and peats by a dressing of sand; though
the former is in its nature only a temporary improvement. When peats are
acid, or contain iron, limy matter is necessary in bringing them into cultivation. The best natural soils are those of which the materials have been
derived from different strata or layers of the earth, which have been minutely
divided by air and water, and are intimately blended together; and, in im-.
proving soils artificially, the cultivator cannot do better than imitate the
processes of nature. To do this, the necessary materials are seldom far
distant; coarse sand is often near by, and beds of sand and gravel are
common below clay. The labor of improving the texture or constitution of
the soil, by thus changing the character of its ingredients, is repaid by a
great and permanent advantage,- less manure is required, and its fertility
and productiveness insured.
2. CLEARI.NG. It is seldom that the operation of altering the proportion
of the different ingredients of the soil can be performed to any extent until
after it has been cleared; nevertheless, we have chosen this arrangement of
Fa.th. 2.
our suloject, believing it to be the one best adapted to promote the end which
we have in view, namely, a plain and intelligible presentation of principles,
acts, and modes.
1*
I
ii,
1
1
i
'I
ii
0I
1
1,1,i I
I
5
Fig. 1.
Pig. 3.
11
I
I 11
II
I
i
,.1 iL
iI
i'll
ll;.
f
11
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
That the chief part of waste and uncultivated lands might be turned to
advantage, is undoubtedly true. Land covered with furz; the soil of
ancient forests, overrun with this plant, or covered by stagnant water; those
moving sands, which are often carried from place to place, in some sections
of the country, by the wind; neglected tracts, which yield nothing at all,
or, at most, but a scanty return; in short, almost all kinds of land are susceptible of some kind of tillage, and capable of yielding certain varieties
of produce. But operations of this nature are not always attended with
profit, the land often costing as much, or more, in the end, as it would
have been necessary to give for such as was already in a state of cultivation.
Definite Plan of Operations. The first thing to be done is carefully to
determine on the manner in which the land about to be cleared can best be
turned to account; then to lay down a plan of operation, drawn up with due
regard to the nature of the soil and the ends proposed to be derived from it;
and, finally, to precisely and perseveringly adhere to such plan. It is important that the improvement of the land should be commenced at that part
which is most capable of being converted into meadow or pasture ground,
even though it should be determined to submit this land to the plough at
some future period; by so doing, a supply of manure will be insured, and
the fertility of those portions of land afterwards cleared will be increased.
Clearing Forests. -It is upon the soil of forests that operations of this
nature are usually performed, and it is upon such soils that they are attended
with the greatest advantages and success, both as regards the person by
whom they are undertaken, and society in general. The soil of forest land
I
6
Fig. 4.
t.4
. N
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
generally contains a sufficient quantity of nutritious matter to enable it to
produce both crops of fodder and of corn, even without being manured with
dung; and, consequently, will yield an immediate return for the expenses
of clearing, without being exhausted by so doing.
The extirpation of trees and bushes often requires a great deal of labor;
and, to do it more easily, several machines have been invented. Trees
must be grubbed up by the roots; and it saves labor to cut the roots below
the ground, while the tree is standing, and draw the tree over by means
of ropes fixed to the top; the stem becomes a lever, by which the roots are
more easily drawn out. Useless shrubs are readily cut down, and serve for
fuel. Their roots are seldom difficult to grub up; a simple and very powerful instrument for this purpose is a very strong iron three-pronged fork, the
prongs twenty inches long, and a strong handle, twenty feet long, fixed
firmly into it, to the end of which a rope is fastened; this is driven slantwise under the roots, and, by means of a log as a fulcrum, it forms a lever
when pulled down by the ropes. Figure 4 represents this instrument;
and the succeeding cut is that of an implement now much used for the
same purpose, the claws being attached to the bush close to the ground, and,
by means of cattle fastened to it by a chain, the bushes or roots are easily
drawn.
C,learin!g Waste Lands. - Next to the soil of forests, waste lands and conltion pasturages are most generally cleared. Land of this description is
usually in a most disordered condition, the surface being rugged and uneven,
and covered with stumps of trees, and bushes, &c. After disposing of the latter,
according to the mode just described, recourse may be had to the operation
of half-ploughing, for the purpose of raising the furrow-slices of the turf.
This may be performed with any plough which has a broad, sharp share,
held in a somewhat inclined position, so that on the side on which the yet
unturned earth is situated the share may enter rather more deeply, and on
that next the mould-board the divided furrow-slice may be very thin, -so
much so, indeed, that the lower angle of the ploughshare may merely graze
the surface of the ground. When the soil thus prepared has remained fior
7
Fig. 5.
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
some time in this state, a strong harrow should be passed over it in a con
trary direction to the ploughing, in order to tear in pieces and break up
those slices raised by the plough. The ground will be covered with roots
Fig. 6.
aind fibres, and these must be burned. A bramble-hook, like that above, is
also frequently used in cutting brush or brambles.
Paring and Burning. - Comparative experiments prove that paring and
burning is one of the best methods employed in clearing uncultivated lands
of a marly nature, though many disapprove of the practice. The operation
consists in paring off the turf to a depth of two or three inches, - generally by
a breast-plough, worked by hand, or by a turf-paring plough, drawn by a
Fig. 7.
horse,- allowing it to dry, and then burning it in heaps. The result is a
mixture of burned earth, charred vegetable fibre, and the ashes of that part
which is entirely consumed, thus producing a powerful manure, impregnated
with alkaline salts and carbonaceous matter, which, it is well known, are
very powerful promoters of vegetation. Insects are also killed by the process. It is very easy to ascertain whether any soil will be improved or not
by paring and burning. A few sods may be taken and exposed to heat in an
iron pot closely covered over; the heat should not be so intense as to produce light, but should be kept up for a considerable time, till the sods are
consumed. If the ashes are red, and the whole is a fine powder, with particles of charcoal in it, the soil from which it was taken may be safely pared
and burned, especially if it forms a mud with water, and the earth is not
readily deposited. But if it feels gritty, lets the water readily through, andi
soon settles when mixed with it, burning will not be advantageous.
Levelling Uneven Surfaces.- Frequently, when the surface of newlycleared land is uneven, it is necessary, in the first place, to smooth and level
8
oe~||~
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMIENT.
it, in order to cultivate it more easily. When the inequalities of the sur
face cannot be reduced by a more simple process, it may be done, when the
soil is loose and sandy, by an instrument like the following; or by another,
which is much used in Flanders, consisting of a wooden shovel, shod with
iron, and having a long handle; about the middle of this shovel, which is
convex, are two hooks, one on each side, to which chains are fixed, which
unite at the bar, to which the traces of a horse or horses are to be attached
a rope fixed to the end of the handle completes the instrument. A man
accustomed to the use of it raises the handle, and the shovel enters the
ground, and is filled by the horse going on. By depressing the handle, the
load is made to slide on the rounded bottom of the shovel, till it arrives at the
place where it is to be deposited. By letting the handle go, retaining the
rope, the whole is upset instantly, turning over on the edge; the handle
strikes on the bar, and the load is left behind in a heap. By pulling the
Fir. 9.
rope, the whole instrument resumes its original position, anId is brouht iback
to the place from which the earth is to be taken again, witliolt i: loss of
9
pi-. S.
FARBIER'S HAND-BOOK.
time, or the slightest stoppage of the horses. About five cwts. of oose
earth may be thus moved at each time. This instrument, which is now
being superseded by others is seen in the preceding cut.
Removing Stones.- The removal of large stones often increases the dit
ficulty of clearing an uncultivated soil to a considerable extent; and yet they
must be removed, at least, as far below the surface of the soil as the plough
penetrates in its course, otherwise it is wholly impossible to till the ground
properly. When they cannot be used for any valuable purpose, they may
be sunk into the ground to a depth at which they will not interfere with any
of the operations of agriculture. For this purpose, a trench deeper than the
stone itself is dug all around it, and it is laid in the hollow thus formed.
The width and depth of this hollow must be greater than the breadth and
depth of stone, and its shape must be so contrived that the stone, when
turned over, may not present either of its angles or edges to the ground.
Very large stones must be blasted, especially if they are going to be used in
building. The most useful mode of conducting this operation consists in
the use of gunpowder; but it should be done by those who understand the
operation, and with proper instruments. Another method consists in heating the stone to a high degree, by means of a fierce fire applied to one part
of it only, which will cause it to expand. When the stone has been thus
made intensely hot, water is poured upon it to make it crack, the effect
being increased by powerful blows given with very heavy hammers. A
third method consists in piercing the stone in the direction of its veins, and
introducing into the hole a cleft cylinder of iron, and then driving a wedge
of the same metal in between the two halves of the cylinder. Finally, a
quantity of water may, during the winter season, be introduced into a hole
made in the stone to a sufficient depth, the aperture to be then closed with
a stopper closely driven into it. The water contained in this hole, expanding as it freezes, exerts a force sufficient to break in pieces the strongest stone.
3. PLOUGHING. - Ploughing is justly considered the most important of
ICE:
agricultural operations, as on the manner in which this is performed
depends the facility of executing all succeeding operations on the same piece
10
.'Pig. I O.
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
of land. The plough acts as a wedge, separating a portion of the soil, and
turning it over at the same time. The manual operation of holding the
plough in a proper position, and directing the horses or cattle which draw
it at the same time, is only to be acquired by experience; when once
attained, it is, perhaps, the most agreeable and healthful of agricultural
exercises, the body being kept upright, tie arms and legs brought into
action, and also the eye and the mind, to keep the furrow straight and of
regular width and depth, and the voice to speak to the animals.
In the performance of this operation it is requisite,
First. That the lines traced by the plough should be perfectly straight and
parallel with one another; the furrow slices all equal, and uniformly turned
up, so that they may not overlap each other, or form any inequalities on the
surface of the ground. If the slices are not of equal breadth, the operation
becomes more difficult, because at every deviation from the straight line the
resistance which the earth opposes to the instrument becomes increased.
Second. That the plough advance at a regular and uniform depth, and
on a line parallel to the surface of the soil; that is to say, that it do not, as
is the case when it is not well guided, sometimes cut thick and at others
thin slices.
Third. That the plough empty the furrow as completely as possible, so
that the earth may not fall in again, after the instrument has passed; and
that the portion of soil not yet raised, but which has just been divided by
the ploughlishare, may form not an acute, but a right angle with the bottom
of the furrow on which it borders.
Fourth. That the furrow-slice be turned up at an angle of about 40
degrees, or so as to form with the surface of the ground, or the bottom of
the furrow, an angle of from 40 to 50 degrees, which is in most cases the
best inclination.
Fifth. That the divided slices be always of the same breadth'; and that
it be such as is required by the nature of the soil itself, and the purpose of
the operation.
Sixth. That they likewise preserve the depth which it is desirable to
give them.
Seventh. That the ridges or heaps of earth between the furrows be of a
suitable length and breadth, and that their sides be parallel to one another,
so that they may not terminate in a point; for such a form tends to increase
the labor of ploughing considerably, by rendering it necessary to turn frequently.
Eighth. That the ploughs be placed one after another, on different parts
of the land to be ploughed, so that the operation may be executed in the best
possible order, and with as little loss of time as possible.
11
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
Ninth. That the horses or cattle be harnessed as near to the plough as
they can be placed without retarding their free and easy movement; for the
nearer they are to the point of draught, the less exertion will be required to
overcome the resistance.
Tenth. That when ploughing with a pair abreast, the most powerful
horse should be worked in the furrow; but, if the team be harnessed in line,
and there be any difference in the height of the cattle, the tallest should be
put foremost, if he be in every respect equal to the other.
Eleventh. That, when at work, they should be kept going at as regular
and good a pace as the nature of the work will permit; for they are thus
more manageable, and the draught easier, than when slow. By attending to
this, the heavy soil will cling less to the coulter, and the land will work
more freely.
Twelfth. That, the breadth and depth of the furrow being ascertained, the
plough should be held upright, bearing equally all along on a straight sole,
and be made to move forward in a regular line, without swerving to either
side. The edge of the coulter should be set directly forward, so that the
land-side of it may run in a parallel line with the land-side of the head, and
in such a position that their slant or sweep may exactly correspond.
Thirteenth. That the ploughmnan should walk with his body as nearly as
possible upright, without leaning on the stilts, and without using force to
any part, further than may be absolutely necessary to keep the implement
steadily in a straight line. He should also be sparing of his voice, and of
correction to the team: of the former, because too much cheering and ordering only confuse the cattle, and because punishment, when often repeated,
at length loses its effect.
how to hold the Plough. - In ploughing, the instrument ought to be held
vertically. If it is inclined to the left-hand side, the same work is performed in appearance, though not in reality, a portion of the ground below
not being tilled at all, but left thus:
Fig. 1.
Construction of the Plough.- In the construction of ploughs, whatever
be the sort used, there are a few general principles that ought invariably
to be attended to; such as the giving the throat and breast - or that part
which enters, perforates, and breaks up the ground- that sort of long, narrow, clean, tapering, sharpened form, that affords the least resistance in
passing through the land; and to the mould-board that kind of hollowed out
and twisted form, which not only tends to lessen friction, but also to con
12
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
tribute &,' atly to the perfect turning over of the furrow-slice. The beam
and m~'te should also be so contrived as that the moving power, or team,
~ /ffl
may be attached in the most advantageous line of draught. With such an
instrument, the farmer can cultivate his land to advantage.
De,th of Ploughing. This depends on the kind of crop to be cultivated,
and other circumstances. In the field, all that can be arrived at is a klind
of approximation to the true proportions. When the sods arc considerably
too wide in proportion to their depth, the ploughmnan will be admonished
of this by their lying too flat, and too slightly overlapping one another.
When their depth is considerably too great ill proportion to their width,
they will stand too upright, and be apt to fall back again into the furrow.
The medium depth of good ploughing may be held to be seven inches, but
this varies, according to the kind of crop to be cultivated, and the nature
of the soil. The plough with lock coulter, wheel, and draft-rod, like the
annexed, is most suitable for deep ploughing.
Ridges. - The first operation ill the forming of ridges is striing tilie furrows. Let it be supposed that a field has been laid level by previous
ploughlings, and that the marks of former ridges being obliterated, the lines
of the new ones are to be laid out. The usual breadth of ridges is from
15 to 18 feet, and sometimes more. We may assume, in the following
descriptions, fifteen feet to be the width of the ridges.
2
13
Fig. 12.
Fig. 13.
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
Let a steady ploughman be furnished with three or more poles of wood
shod with iron, 8 or 9 feet in length, and divided into feet or half feet.
The first operation is to mark off, at two sides of the field, what is termed a
head-land. This is merely a ridge formed parallel to the side of the field,
on which the horses are to turn; to afford sufficient space for which, these
ridges may be 18 feet wide. The lines of them are marked off before
the other ridges, in order that the ploughman may know, on arriving at the
end of the ridge, when to turn his horses. After the rest of the field is
ploughed, the headlands themselves are ploughed, and formed into ridges.
In the following diagram (Fig. 14), representing a field, let E F, G H,
represent the lines of the headlands, drawn parallel to A B and c D, the
sides or boundaries of the field, and at the distance from each of these sides
of 18 feet. These lines the ploughman marks out by running a straight
furrow with his plough, parallel to the two sides.
Let him now, beginning at the side of the field A D, parallel to which it
is intended to run the ridges, measure off with his pole E a, 71 feet. At
the point a, let him place one of his poles. This is the point at which he
is to enter his plough. But, leaving his horses, in the mean time, let him
walk on to a convenient distance, as to I, and there, in like manner measuring off I b, 7h feet, let him set up his second pole at b; and then, at the
flurther end of the field, on the line of the headland, at c, let him place his
third pole. He has now three poles placed in a line; but if, from the length
of the field, or inequalities of the surface, more than three poles are necessary, more must be used, as there must be so many poles in sight as that
itie ploughman may be enabled to direct his plough, by means of them, in a
straight line. He now returns to his plough, and enters it at the first pole,
at a, keeping the other two poles in a line, so that hlie may be enabled to
l)ough directly towards them. Having entered his ploughl at a, he stops
Ills horses, and measures off 15 feet to d, where he plants the pole. He
then returns to his plough, which is standing at a, and drives his horses,
keeping the two poles before him as a guide, to the second pole, b. IHaving
done this, and leaving his plough standing at b, he measures off from b to e,
15 feet, and there lihe plants his pole. He then returns to his plough, and
proceeds forward, making his furrow in a straight line, to the last pole, c,
where, in like manner, lie stops his horses, and, measuring off 15 feet, he
plants his pole at f.
In this manner he has placed his poles in a straight line, at the distance
of 15 feet from their last position, and parallel, as before, to the line of the
fence. lie now turns his horses sharp about, and returns by the furrow
which he has just drawn, c b a. By this second ploughiig lie throws the
earth out in an opposite direction, so that he has formed a completely open
14
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMIENT.
farrow. In returning, he takes care to correct any inequality or crookedness
that may have taken place through the unsteady motion of the horses in his
first track.
The poles being now placed in a line, d e f, he brings his plough to d,
enters it, and stops it there. He measures off 15 feet with his pole, from
d to g, and fixes his pole at g; and then he proceeds with his plough to e
and f, repeating the same operation with his poles as before, and returning
by the track of his last-made furrow, from f to d. In this manner he proceeds throughout the whole field, forming parallel open furrows, at the distance from each other of 15 feet. These furrows are to form the centres of
the future ridges.
The field is now prepared for being ploughed into ridges, and the manner
of doing so is this: The ploughman, beginning at the left-hand side of the open furrow,
ploughs his first furrow-slice towards it. He then, returning by the opposite side, performs the same operation, causing the first two furrow-slices to
rest upon each other. Thus, in forming his first ridge, he begins at the side
of a, and, ploughing in the direction from a to c, he turns his first furrowslice into the open furrow a c. When he arrives at c, he turns his plough
right about, and returning from c to a, he lays his second furrow-slice upon
the first one, as at c, Fig. 15.
Fig,. 14.
B..
G - H.. i e
I
.. e J e
i
l
" I
F - - - 1
c -t -i - D
In this manner he continues, always turning to the right-hand side, and
laying his furrow-slices towards the centre of the ridge, until he has reached
16
FARMEIIE RS HAND-BOOK.
the boundary of the ridge E H, on the one side, and the line o s, half-way
between c a and df, on the other. He has thus formed a ridge, of which
c a is the crown or centre, and H E and o s the termination. By procee(ling in this manner throughout the field, the whole is formed into ridges, of
which the first-marked furrows are the centres.
It has been said that the ploughman continues turning his horses to the
right, and that thus, after having proceeded from a to c, he returns from c to
a, and so on, always ploughing around a c, as a central line. When, however, he has proceeded from a to c, he may turn his horses left about, ant
return from f to d, and so on, always laying his furrow-slices towards a C
aiidf d, respectively. In this manner he will have ploughed the half of two
adjoining ridges, and terminated at the space o s, half-way between them.
This method, it will appear, has the same effect as turning the horses right
about, and is the most convenient in practice.
In Figure 15, in which c c, c C, c c, are the centres of the ridges, the
manner in which the successive furrow-slices have been laid upon each
other is shown.
By this laying of the earth towards the centres, the ridges acquire a certain curvature. By ploughing the earth away from the intervals A B, D E,
F G, H I, the ground is hollowed at these parts, which now form the ope7i
furrows. It is by these open furrows that the water which falls upon J e
surface finds a passage.
Figl. 15.
C D C
C H
C E C G C
A certain, though not a great, degree of curvature, is given to the ridge by
this ploughing. It is frequently, however, necessary to give it a yet greater
degree of curvature and elevation. This is done by ploughing the whole
ridge a second time, and in a similar manner.
16
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
Gathering.- The plough is first driven along the centre of the ridge
from c to c, forming an open furrow. Successive furrow-slices are then
laid towards this furrow, in the same manner as in the previous ploughing.
This is done with the successive furrow-slices, until the plough reaches
the open furrows A B, D E, F G, H I. In this manner the whole ridge is
ploughed, and an increased elevation and curvature given to it. This
operation is termed gathering.
In performing the operation of gathering, it is important that the ridge be
formed with a uniform curvature, so that it shall not have what is technically termed a shoulder, or hollow part, on each side of the crown. It is to
prevent this defect that the open track is made along the crown, before the
first two slices are laid together; by which means the ploughman is better
enabled to lay them upon each other in such a manner that they shall not
overlap and form a protuberance at the crown of the ridge. A transverse
section of the ridges, when gathered, will appear thus:
Fig. 16.
B C E C G C I C
Casting. - A ridge being already formed, it may be wished to plough it
again, and yet to preserve it at the same curvature and elevation. In this
case, the plough is to enter at the open furrow, and to lay the successive
furrow-slices towards it, until the two adjoining edges are ploughed. By
this means, all the slices of the same ridge lie in the same direction, and the
curvature and elevation of the whole remain as before. This operation is
termed casting, and the manner in which the furrow-slices rest upon each
other will appear in the following cut.
Fig. 17.
D C E C G C I C
In the operation of casting, two methods may be pursued. The first two
furrow-slices, as those of E and I, may be laid resting on each other, as ia
Fig. 17, in which case the two ridges will be formed, as it were, into one
large ridge; or else the open furrows at E and I may be preserved by
keeping the first two furrow-slices at a little distance from each other, and
preserving the space between them, as in Fig. 18.
When land is ploughed in this manner, the ground is taken from one
side of each two adjoining ridges at G, and laid towards the other; E and l;
that is, it is gathered towards one side and gathered from the other. It
2* B
17
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
this manner, the ground at the open furrow G, from which we gather
becomes more bare of earth than the open furrows E and I, towards which
P.g. 18.
B C E C G C I
we gather. When, therefore, we wish to cast a ridge twice in succession,
we reverse the former mode of ploughing; we gather towards the open
furrow G, and from the open furrows E and I, and thus the ridge is restore,
to its former state.
Cleaving.- In this operation, the plough commences at the open furrow,
lays the first slice towards it, and then returning by the other side of the
open furrow, lays the second slice upon the first, as in the following figure.
When it has reached the centre, it stops, and begins with another pair of
ridges, and ploughs the half of each pair together in the same manner. In
this way the open furrows of the ridges become the centres, and the former
centres become the open furrows. When we wish to level a ridge, we
cleave it.
F7g. 19.
B C E C G C I C
Cross Ploughing.- This, as the term denotes, is ploughing in a direction crossing that of the former ridges and furrows. The workmen place
themselves at equal distances from one another, as thirty or forty yards, at
the side of the field at which they are to begin to plough. Each then runs
a straight furrow across the field, as from A to D, from B to E, from c to
F. Each then returns, as from D to A, from E to B, from F to c, laying
always the successive furrow-slices towards the right hand, until each man
arrives at the termination of his allotted space, xx, xx, xx, xx. There has
been thus formed, by each workman, one great ridge, but so extended that
it may be said to be without curvature. The ploughmen, we perceive, turn
from left to right, around the first furrows A D, B E, C F. But they may
also turn from right to left. Thus, in going from B to E, the ploughman
lays his first furrow-slice to the right hand. When he arrives at E, lihe
may turn his horses left about, and proceed to a, and, returning from D to
A, lay his first furrow-slice to the right hand towards D A. Turning left
about, then, at A, he proceeds in the direction B E, and so on, always turning
left about until he has arrived at the middle space o, when the whole spaco
between A D and B E will have been ploughed. Sometimes, for conven
18
C
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
ience and the saving of distance, he may plough, in the first place, around the
central line B E, by turning from left to right, and then plough the remainder
of the interval by turning from right to left.
Fig. 20.
X X
A D
X X
a -.
- r
0.
These are matters of detail, somewhat difficult, perhaps, to be described
clearly, but so simple in themselves, that they need only be seen in the field
to be thoroughly understood.
Subsoil Ploughing.- Loosening the subsoil by a plough, without turning
F'g. 21.
it, has been strongly recommended, of late years, as a great improvement in
tillage. A heavy plough is first run along the field some six or eight inches
deep, and a subsoil plough (see Fig. 21) follows in the bottom of the
19
x
F
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
furrow, deepening it to fourteen or sixteen inches in all. This differs from
trench ploughing, in which the subsoil is cast up and mixed with the sur
face, by which the soil is either benefited or injured, according to the
nat,.re of the subsoil. The principal effect of subsoil ploughing is, that the
earth is deepened to a considerable depth, and root culture is much improved; the soil is also considerably drained, and if moor-pans exist in it, may
be reclaimed from sterility. It is, therefore, a useful process in stiff soils
imperfectly drained, but, in loose gravelly or sandy soils, subsoil ploughing
is often very injurious.
Fallowing.- In support of fallowing, it has been urged, that by no other
management has land produced so much corn - so much human food, which
ought to be the great object; that the work required in the operation is at a
time of year when no pressing demand for labor exists, when there is often
little or nothing for men or horses to execute; that the land can be effectually prepared for an early sowing of wheat, which is very desirable; and that
if fallowing (we now refer to complete summer fallows) were to be superseded by spring or early green crops, a greater number of teams on any
given extent of farm would be required to get through the work in proper
season; and that the transition from this practice, where it is regularly
established, would be highly inconvenient.
Fallows are of two kinds,- the entire or naked fallow, and the half fallow.
In proportion to the progress of green-crop culture will be the relinquishmerit of the system of entire summer fallowing, which, after a farm has been
once put into proper order, and with a regular rotation of ameliorating and
cleansing crops, alternating with grain crops, is quite unnecessary. Unless
on the first occupation of an exhausted and dirty farm, and without the means
of manuring for fallow crops, the system of an entire summer fallowing is
indefensible. Even on the strongest clay land, good, deep, and very early
autumnal ploughing, with the subsequent spring culture well executed, and
manure, ought to be sufficient for the production of crops. If the soil be
of too tenacious a quality for turnips, it will yield potatoes, beans, or cabages, and the horse-hoeing process will render it friable, and fit for the
ensuing crop of wheat.
The full benefit of fallowing lies in loosening the adhesive particles of soil,
and in the admission of air, so essential to vegetation; in suppressing, for a
season, the productive powers and energies of the earth, and in destroying
the vitality of weeds, and dissolving them altogether, by exposure to the influeicee of the sun and atmosphere: but all these effects may be produced by
half-fallowing and green-crop culture. On friable soil there is no excuse
for the former kind of fallowing, whatever may be urged in favor of the
practice on strong chalky or clayey land. The number of ploughings and
20
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
harrowings must be regulated by the nature of the soil. Four good plough.
ings, (exclusive of the first in the preceding autumn,) and as many harrowings, ought to suffice for the most stubborn soils. If a fallow crop -
suppose turnips -is to be put into the ground, three summer ploughings
olght to suffice.
Why is it that one good, thick-standing crop is always followed by
another? Why is lea-wheat better if the clover has been mowed twice than
i it had been depastured. Why is land found to be in better heart after a
heavy green crop than it is after bearing a white crop? The answer to all
these questions is the same, namely, the soil has been completely shaded
from the summer's sun. If a heap of stones be suffered to lie on a fallow
field throughout the summer, and be not removed till seed-time, the spot will
not only be visible by a much stronger growth of corn in the first, but for
several years afterwards. Add to this what was said by an agricultural
philosopher, that if he could cover his fallow fields for the whole summer
with boards, his next crop would be doubled. But there are many circunmstances which may affect the surface of some soils differently from others.
A thick crop of tares or of clover makes the surface moist and mellow when
ploughed up, and thus may be beneficial to the seed sown immediately; but
there is a certain benefit to a heavy soil, arising from exposure to the dews
and a warm sun, which cannot be denied, and which often equals a coat of
manure.
In all cases of fallow, the first ploughing should be given immediately
after harvest, and as deep as the quality of the soil will permit, with a
strong team, if the land be very stiff and retentive of water; and in all cases
the field should be well ridged and deeply furrowed. Immediately after the
stirring time of spriiing-work is over, if fallow crops are to be sown, the
second ploughing is to take place, and in the same direction with the former
one, lest, by cross-ploughing, a fall of rain should stagnate on the surface;
but in light soils a cross-ploughing is preferable, even at this early time.
The third ploughing should be executed in June, and at this time always
across the original direction of the ridges; harrowing with a heavy break,
if the land require it, should regularly succeed the summer ploughing,
(with rolling, if necessary,) and the harrowing is to be executed by repeatedl
double turns, crossing those of the previous ones, until the land is sufficiently
pulverized to admit of the easy collection of weeds, with the harrow, the
couch-rake, or prongs.
It is of great importance, at this period of the summer-fallow, to drag to
the surface and collect as large a portion as possible of the roots of vivacious
weeds in the ground; for this being the period of active vegetation, every
21
FARMFER'S HAND-BOOK.
part of these roots which is left in the ground will grow again and extend
itself.
4. HARROWING. - In conducting this operation, the harrows pass over the
ridge either longitudinally or across. At the end of the ridge they are
F/g. 22.
turned, and generally pass again over the same ground. This is called a
double turn of the harrows. When they do not return over the same
ground, but pass to another space, they are said to give a single turn.
When land is to be pulverized and cleaned of root-weeds, the operation
consists of repeated double turns of the harrows in different directions. The
root-weeds, being dragged to the surface, are collected by the hand, and
carried off the ground or burned. The plough prepares the ground for the
action of the harrow, and the plough and the harrow acting by turns, the land
is pulverized and cleaned.
Besides the cleaning of the ground, a purpose in harrowing is to cover the
seeds of the cultivated plants. The number of harrowings to be given for
this end depends on the state of the ground and other circumstances. When
the surface is matted together by the roots of. plants, as in the case of land
ploughed when in grass, repeated double turns are required to cover the
seeds in a proper manner.
The operation of harrowing is best performed when the land is dry.
Harrowing when the land is wet is to be avoided, both on account of the
,ess efficiency of the operation, and of the injury done to the ground by the
22
..... IL
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
treading of the cattle. In the case of covering seeds, however, in unfavorable
seasons, it is often necessary to harrow the ground when in a wet state. In
extreme cases of this kind, the practice has been sometimes resorted to of
attaching several harrows to a beam stretching across the ridge, and causing
the animals to walk in the open furrows.
There are several kinds of harrows in use; but the Geddes pattern, represented below, is, by many, considered superior. The Scotch harrow is
exhibited in the cut immediately preceding the one below.
Fig. 23.
!,:. t,
5. ROLLING. This operation, which, however, should not be attempted
when the land is so wet as to clog the roller, is highly conducive to the
vegetation of crops- especially wheat- by reducing the rough parts of the
surface to a mouldered state, and thus earthing up the stems of the plants,
while it renders the surface level and compact. Its use, in closely compress
ing the particles of earth on light, sandy soils, by excluding cold wind or a
parching sun from the roots of young corn, is extremely great, and may be
23
i
I
i
i
FARIMER'S HAND-BOOK.
repeatedly performed to grain crops in the spring months, as long as it can
be continued without breaking the stems. A heavy roller is essential to the
success of corn in tenacious soils, by closing up the fissures which dry
weather occasions, and is useful for breaking down clods on fallows, in aid
of the harrow, which then more easily separates them, and disengages
weeds, bringing them to the surface.
If the roller be heavy,- as it ought to be, in order to be really useful,and require two horses, they should not be in line, unless the roller be
constructed with only single shafts; independently of the disadvantageous
application of power in this case, the trampling of eight legs, instead of four,
in the same track, will make, under particular circumstances, impressions
which the roller will not so readily remove as if only the footsteps of a
single horse in the track were imbedded. This is, of course, perfectly
immaterial in preparing fallows for the succeeding plough and harrow,
though it may be of some weight in the case of sown crops, where the
surface is not to be stirred again.
Fig. 24.
On grass lands heavy rolling is highly efficacious, particularly if the
surface has been rendered uneven by the treading of cattle, or by any other
causes. On dry, absorbent land, when under grass, rolling will be most use ful after rain, if not so immoderate as to cause injury from the feet of the
animals during the process; and the earlier in the morning the better, in
order to destroy vermin. Meadows are served by rolling immediately after
the hay is removed, in order to press the seeds that had been diffused ove,
24
7-.- I. I
Y"A
r
I
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
the surface into the earth, and thus promote their vegetation. The usual
way of moving the roller, is to begin at one end of the field, and to leave at
each bouting all interval precisely of the breadth of the roller, (in order to
allow a sufficient sweep for the roller in each turning, without injuring the
head-rig by tearing it, or distressing the horses,) and alternately to roll
these intervening portions. WYhen the land is in ridges, the rolling should
be across them.
The box which is seen attached to the roller represented on the preceding
page, is to receive stones, &c., picked up in the field, and also for giving
weight to the roller according to the work required.
6. MANURING.- This important subject will be treated of in its relation
to the composition of manures and their application to the different soils.
Action of Manures.- Manure acts upon the soil in two ways: First, by
communicating to it those juices which are calculated for the nutrition of
plants and vegetables; and, secondly, by the chemical action which it exercises on those substances contained in the soil, decomposing them, and
re-combining them under new forms, and thus facilitating their introduction
into the suckers of plants; and, perhaps, also by communicating that degree
of energy and activity to vegetation, which enables it to take up and appropriate the suitable nutritive juices.
NActural Manures. - All animal bodies, as dead carcasses, flesh, intestines,
the refuse of the shambles, &c., when in a state of putrefaction, may be
converted into manure; and manures thus formed are far more active than
any other. Yet, in general, the excrements and urine of animals, obtained
from them while living, are set aside for manure, because a large quantity
can thus be procured, and at much less cost. It is found very advantageous
to mix these exerementitious substances with the remains cf vegetable
matters, for by this means the latter are made to putrefy more rapidly, and
do not lose so much of their actual substance, while, also, the feirmentation
of the animal bodies, which would otherwise be carried on with too great
rapidity, is somewhat retarded. Manures thus formed are called "natural
mnanures," in order to distinguish them from others which are termed "artificial." Besides, they are the kind best known, and, indeed, among many
persons, are the only description which is known and used.
Those excrements which are voided by animals through the intestinal
canal are composed not only of the food which they have taken, and of that
portion of its filaments which could not be decomposed, but also of minute
particles of the body of the animal itself, which are deposited in the
intestinal canal after having performed their office. They consequently
may be said to be entirely composed of animalized substances, and, even in
animals fed almost entirely on vegetables, will be found to possess more of
3
25
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
the animal than the vegetable nature. The properties of the dung, however,
depend, to a certain extent, on the manner in which the beasts are fed, and
their condition and breed. Hence arises the striking difference which
exists between the dung yielded by cattle put up to fatten, or which are in a
good state of keeping, and that which is voided by lean, badly-fed animals.
Urine.- It is generally customary to mix urine with the solid excrements.
This liquid, which is, in fact, composed chiefly of water, likewise contains a
substance which is peculiar to itself, and various other very active matters,
particularly ammonia. These matters are most beneficial when mixed up
with the solid excrements, and collected by means of litter, or of substances
peculiarly adapted for the purpose, which substances decompose one another,
and give rise to the formation of new compounds. Common manure is composed of these two kinds of excrements, and of those vegetable substances
which are used as litter, as straw, fern, or dry leaves,-chiefly the first of
these three. This mixture is commonly termed stable-manure.
The Various Kinds of Excrement. - WVhen horse-dung, in a proper state
of moisture, is exposed to air of a moderate temperature, it soon enters into
fermentation; and if it is not watered, instead of assuming the form of a
thick paste or black-butter, as it is called, it becomes powdery, and wastes
away, leaving scarcely anything but ashes behind. Manure produced by
horn-cattle also begins to ferment very soon, provided that it is close and
uniform in consistence, and contains only its proper moisture; but its fermentation is less rapid than that of horse-dung, and, therefore, requires no
watering, and does not waste away. Its effect on land is also more lasting,
though less rapid. When placed in the soil, it does not appear to produce
any very sensible increase of the temperature, and on this account it is
adapted peculiarly for the manuring of warm soils. Sheep-dung, when kept
in a compact heap, decomposes rapidly; but wherw't is loosely heaped, it
decomposes much more slowly. When placed iii the soil, or dropped
upon it by the sheep, it produces a speedy and energetic effect, oftentimes giving too much vigor to the first crop, when it is used abundantly.
The quality of pigs'-dung depends greatly on the kind of food they consume,
also on the manner of collecting it. If the liquid portion of the excrements
are mixed with the straw in such a manner as to prevent any running off,
and the dung is placed in a situation favorable to its decomposition, a very
active compound is produced. Poultry-dung can be obtained generally only
in small quantities, but it is very active, and of great value. It is very different from that of quadrupeds, and contains a peculiar substance, mainly
resembling the white of an egg. This kind of manure, in order to have its
due effect on the soil, must be divided as minutely as possible, and be spread
over the ground, without burying or covering it up.
26
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
Night-Soil.- Human excrements, or night-soil, make a very active ma
nure. The best way of using it is to form it into a kind of compost, by
mixing it with other substances, and especially by making it into heaps with
turf, and adding a small quantity of burnt lime. By mixing and mingling
it thoroughly with these substances, it loses its fetid odor, and should then
be spread over the ground, without covering or burying. A powerful manure
is manufactured from night-soil, called poudrette, on account of its form being
that of a powder.
Management of Manures.- Dung should be left in the stable as long as
possible, for its quality is thereby improved. But it should not be done at
Fig. 25. Fg. 26.
l
the expense of the cleanliness and comfort of the cattle, or keeping the stable
dry. If the dung is suffered to remain under the cattle, great care must be
taken that it does not collect in larger quantities under their hind than
under their fore feet, for that would keep them in an unnatural attitude.
In ordinary circumstances, it is more convenient to mingle the different
species of dung uniformly in the heap, so that the defects of one sort of
manure may correct those of another; and the result will be a regular and
well-digested compound.
As to the time when manure should be carted into the fields, and the state
in which the manure should be, it is pretty well ascertained that manure
should not be removed whilst in a high state of fermentation, because at that
i
I
27
I
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
period an important part of some of its most active properties would evapo.
rate; but before fermentation has commenced, or after it has subsided,
it appears to lose little by exposure to air, beyond what it regains in
another manner.
There are visible advantages attending the spreading upon the land fresh
strawy manure, and to leave it till the ploughings of spring commence,
taking care, however, that the water does not wash away the juices, and
carry them beyond the field, but that it merely allows them to penetrate the
earth. This method of covering the soil during winter renders it much
more friable, and remarkably fertile.
The practice of leaving the manure on the land in small heaps, as it is
unloaded from the carts, is not judicious. The decomposition will be very
irregular, the valuable gases will be carried away by the wind, the most
valuable portion of the juices will all be absorbed by the soil immediately
beneath the heap, and the places where these heaps have been will be
marked by the rank growth of the crop, whilst the surrounding parts
present an impoverished appearance.
The proper time for carting manure varies much with the circumstances
and economy of the farm. Winter manure is best suited for seed crops,
whilst fresh litter is particularly adapted to potatoes, especially in clay soils,
b)ecause it diminishes their tenacity, and allows the plant to come in contact
with the atmosphere. Other crops, and especially cabbages, do better with
decomposed manures; this being, on light lands, essential to their success.
Afterwards, the manure for beans and peas may be carted, and this can
Fig. 27.
either be buried or spread over the soil. To heavy clay lands a larger
portion of manure must be given at a time, because they can bear it without
risk of the crops being laid. Upon a light, hot soil, the manure is quickly
decomposed, and a very abundant supply may have a bad effect, in causing
28
C A-=~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IIII
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
the crops either to fall or to scorch up. In mixing fine manures with the
soil, the improved expanding cultivator (Fig. 27) is very useful.
Forming Composts. - In the formation of composts, two methods are
pursued. In the one, the several matters of which they are composed are
divided into different layers, and placed one above the other; at the bottom
of the heap a bed of turf or of earth is placed, five or six feet larger oni
each side than the extended heap; then a layer, about a foot thick, of the
freshest dung that is to be had; above this another layer of turf or earth.
If there are any other matters capable of putrefaction, they are placed upon
this bed, which is covered with another layer of dung, and so on, till it has
arrived at a height of five or six feet; it is then covered with another layer
of earth. Quick-lime is often mixed with these composts, but the lime must
not be in immediate contact with the dung, because it causes it to decompose too speedily and to too great an extent. Place it between two layers
of earth, or between earth and any other substance difficult of decomposition. When the sides of the bed of the dung-hill have become saturated
with the liquor from tie heaps, they are turned over and spread upon the
surface. The compost then heats, and fermentation commences, and it is
left till this fermentation ceases. When no more heat is felt in the interior
of the heap, it is turned over, so that the part which was above becomes
the bottom, and that which formed the sides is turned into the middle.
Sometimes a fresh bed of earth is placed below the heap. The heap, when
turned over, is long and narrow, resembling a roof, in order that it may be
more exposed to the air; because it is thought that by this means it is
increased in weight and quality.
In the other method which is pursued in forming composts, the various
substances are all brought to the place where the dunghill is to be made,
and are deposited separately around it. The bed of earth for the bottom of
the heap is then formed in the middle; the laborers then surround the heap,
and each, with a shovel, throws the substances as they lie around it into the
bed, by which means the whole mass is equally mixed throughout. Thus
loam, earth, tufts of grass, moss, the leaves of trees, particularly of pine
trees, saw-dust, and the remains of animal or vegetable matter, and very
often, in addition to this, lime, ashes, soot, and fresh litter, are all incorporated, and the mixture wetted with the liquid which drains from the
manure, or with urine. This dunghill should, like the former, be allowed
to remain quiet till the fermentation is past, when it should be turned over
several times.
Litter.- Where there is a scarcity of straw, various vegetable substances
are used for the purpose of absorbing and retaining the exerementitious
matters, and forming a dry bed for the cattle, as well as for increasing the
3*
29
FARIMER'S HAND-BOOK.
quantity of the manure. The litter in most general use, after straw, is the
leaves of trees, especially the pine; and when once the decomposition has
taken place, the dung is even superior in quality, because the pine-tree
leaves contain a far greater proportion of nutritive juices than the straw.
Oak-leaves are not so good, and when mixed with manure before they are
decomposed, must not be removed from the heap for a considerable period.
The leaves of beech, walnut, and chestnut trees are apparently not greatly
beneficial to vegetation, since little or no grass usually grows under them;
but, when mixed with dung, they soon lose their baneful properties, and
rapidly decompose. Alder, willow, and poplar leaves decompose quickly,
but they possess little consistence, and tend only slightly to increase the
volume of the excrements which they receive. Heath, broom, reeds,
rushes, aquatic plants, moss, fern, &c., may be used as litter, when nothing
else can be obtained.
Applying Liquid ~anure. - The liquid manures, which should be
carefully attended to, are specially devoted to those crops which will bear
rich ameliorations. Some farmers reserve them for clovers and other
artificial meadows, or for natural pastures. They are never so advantageous as when applied to sandy soils, which they render tolerably
consistent, and more adapted for the retention of moisture; but the use of
liquid manure will never replace that of dung on hard or clayey soils.
Folding.- Besides the various animal manures which we have named,
there is that which arises from the folding or cotting of sheep or cattle on
arable land. This practice is most usually followed with sheep. It is
questionable, however, whether this close confinement of sheep be favorable
to their health and fleece. It is only the strongest and most vigorous breeds
that can support it. And, independently of the difference in the health of
animals, folding at night in common, littered, combines all the advantages
of folding on arable land, with this exception, that the latter method saves
the labor and expense of carrying the manure.
Dead Bodies, Bones, fc.- Animal bodies, when dead, form a peculiarly
accive manure. If these are collected together in trenches, or enclosures
walled around, covered with quick-lime, mixed with earth, and subse
quently, when they have lost their putrid and offensive smell, which is
soon carried off by the lime, the whole mixture be stirred and mingled
together, an exceedingly active manure will be obtained. Even bones
are softened by the admixture of quick-lime, and when powdered and
applied to land, produce a wonderful effect. Fish, covered with lime and
mixed with earth, are very fertilizing. Horn, hoofs of animals, shamble
refuse, hair and wool, sugar scum, and all kinds of filth, are good for
manuring. Guano, which consists simply of the excrement of sea-fowls, is
30
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
also a powerful manure, but must be applied more abundantly than is com monly supposed, in order to be effective. It should not be applied in
immediate contact with seeds, requires considerable moisture, and, if well
mixed with three or four times its weight of finely sifted earth, and suffered
to remain some weeks in this state before it is used by the drill, or applied
broadcast, its effects will be more considerable.
Vegetable Manures. -Purely vegetable manures are not nearly so active and
energetic as those of animal origin; but, on the other hand, their effects are
more durable. There cannot be a doubt that all those weeds which are
allowed to produce their flowers, and then buried by the action of the
plough, tend to augment the fertility of the soil. There is not a single
vegetable substance, even down to the stubble which most crops leave
behind them, which does not restore some portion of mould to the soil; and
nothing tends to improve land more than the turf or accumulation of herbage
which is successively formed during a number of years. Those plants,
however, which are cultivated for the purpose of being buried as vegetable
manure, should be such as will shoot up and flourish with all possible
rapidity. The seed must not be expensive; but of such a nature as that a small
quantity will sow a considerable surface, -must be well adapted to keep the
soil loose, and must be disposed to putrescence. There is no plant which
combines these qualities so largely as what is called corn spurry; also rape,
peas, vetches, beans, and buckwheat. Sea-weeds and pond-weeds may
likewise be entered in the class of vegetable substances which yield an
active and energetic manure; also the weed which is found at the bottom of
rivers, ponds, and other places in which stagnant water has remained for
any length of time. Peat is a substance which may also be employed for
the amelioration of land, especially light, friable soils.
Mineral Manures. - Of late years there has been considerable discussion
concerning lime as a manure. This substance, especially when it has
been recently calcined, or is, in other words, what we call quick-lime,
absorbs the carbonic acid which is contained in the atmosphere which
surrounds it, and afterwards communicating it to the plants, doubtless
furnishes them with some nourishment: but this nutrition is very slight;
the property to which it owes the chief power in promoting vegetation is
that of decomposing the various inert vegetable or animal substances which
it meets with in the soil, and transforming them into nutritive juices
adapted to the nature of plants.
The use of marl is always attended by evident and beneficial effects,
especially when clayey marl is applied to a sandy soil; and advantageous
results have been obtained even when, after several years of rest, the land has
appeared so exhausted and sterile as scarcely to be worth the trouble of
31
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
sowing it. It is likewise advantageous to make use of marl mixed with
duniig, and with peat and mud, in the form of a compost.
The effects of gypsum are much greater on dry soils than on those which
are moist or damp. It is chiefly used in the cultivation of clover, or other
plants of a similar nature. It is applied both in a calcined and an uncalcined
state, without much difference in its effects, unless, indeed, a heavy rain falls
immediately after this substance has been spread in the former state, when
the powder will be converted into hard, strong lumps, and rendered useless.
The most important point is to see that the gypsum is powdered as fine as
possible, and strew it when there is but little wind.
Ashes, of various kinds, are much used, especially abroad. When
thoroughly burned, ashes are composed of earths and potash, to which are
sometimes added metallic oxides and different salts. Lime is always the
predominating earth which enters into their composition, even when the
plants whence they are derived have not sprung from a lirny soil. Bleachers' and soap-boilers' ashes are much preferred.
7. DRAININOG.- As a certain quantity of moisture is essential to vegetation, so an excess of it is highly detrimental. In the removal of this excess
consists the operation of draining.
The Causes of Wetness in Lands.- The successful practice of draining
depends, in a great measure, on a proper knowledge of the structure of the
earth's upper crust; that is, of the various layers of which it is composed,
as well as of their relative degrees of porosity, or capability of admitting or
rejecting the passage of water through them, and likewise the modes in
which the water is formed, and conducted from the high or hilly situations
to the low or level grounds. To perform properly the business of draining,
attention should not only be paid to the differences in regard to the situation
of the lands, or what is commonly called drainage land, but also to the
nature, distribution, and depth of the materials that constitute the soils or
more superficial parts of them, as upon each of these some variety, in respect
to the effects arising from water retained in them, may depend. Wetness
of land, so far as it respects agriculture, and is an object of draining, may
generally depend on the two following causes: first, on the water which is
formed and collected on or in the hills or higher grounds, filtrating and
sliding down among some of the different beds of porous materials that lie
immediately upon the hard strata or layers, forming springs below and
flowing over the surface, or stagnating underneath it, -and, secondly, on
rain or other water becoming stagnant on the surface, from the retentive
nature of the soil or surface materials, and the particular nature of the situation of the ground. The particular wetness which shows itself in different
situations, in the forms of bogs, swamps, and morasses, for the most part
32
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATIENT.
proceeds from the first of these causes; but that superficial wetness which
takes place in the stiff, tenacious, clayey soils, with little inclination of
surface, generally originates from the latter. The most certain and expedi tious method of draining, in such cases, is that of intercepting the descent of
the water or spring, and thereby totally removing the cause of wetness.
Tais may be done where the depth of the surface, and consequently of the
splring, is not great, by mnaking level drains of con-siderable length across the
leclivities of the hills, about where the low grounds of the valleys begin to
lorm, and connecting these with others made for the purpose of conveying
the water thus collectced into the brooks or rivulets that may be near.
W\here the spring has naturally formed itself an outlet. it may frequently
only be necessary to bhre into it, or rendler it larger, and of miore depth,
wahich, by afibrding the water a more free and open ).passage, mily evacuate
and bringl it of il more quickly, or sink it to a level so greatly below that of
the surface of the soil as to prevent it from flowing into or over it.
Bo,,,y Lands, andl theic True Line of the Sl,'ing.-In the drainage of
boggy or wet grounds, arising from springs of water beneath them, it is
necessary to be fully acquainted with the nature and disposition of the strata
composing the higller grounds, and the connection wrlic(h they hlave with
that which is to be rendered dry. The line of springs becing ascertaiined,
and also some knowledge of the under surface, a line of drain should be
marked out above or below them, according to the nature of the strata, and
cxeavate(l to such a depth as will intercept the water in the porous strata
;b.ore it rises to the surface. The effect of sulch drains will often be greatly
Leightened by b)orii(, holes in their bottom with the auger. Where water
issues forth on the suirfice at more places than one, it is necessary to determine which is the real or principal spring, and that from which the other
outlets are fed, as by remtnoving the source, the others must of course be
rendered dry. it may sometimes happen that where the highest are the
strongest outlets, they may be the main or leaditing springs; those which
show theimselve, lower down in the land beiing merely firmed by the water
of the main sp)ring overflowing, and findingr itself a passage from an opening,
or the porous iiature of the materials of the soil near to the surface, arid from
heing o)struceted sonewhlat fuirther down in the ground by some impenetrable
Iv:ter.'Itis circumstance must, therefore, be fully ascertained before the
lines for the ditches or drains are marked out. InII cases where the bat!iks or
JSilllg grounds are fir)rned in an irregular nianner, and from tie nature of
the situatioii, or the force of the water underneath, springs aboutid around the
l,ases of the Inrotiuberances, the ditches made for the purpose of drainiii should
Alwvays ) carried up to a much higher level in the side (if the elevated
Around thian that in which the wetness or water arlpesars as fir even as to
c
33
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
the firm, unchanged land. Where there is a difficulty in ascertaining the lile
of the spring, and consequently that of the cross drain, either from its not
showing itself upon the surface, or from there not being any apparent outlet,
it may generally be met with in carrying up the conducting drain for conveying away the water; as soon as the operator discovers the spring, he
need not proceed any further, but form the cross drain on the level thus discovered to such a distance on each side of the tail, or terminating part of the
strata, of whatever sort, that contains the water, as the nature of the land,
in regard to situation or other circumstances; may demand. The following
figure, representing an uneven surface, will illustrate the nature of the strata
which produce springs.
Fig. 28.
Suppose A A a porous gravel, through which the water filtrates readily;
B B a stratum of loam or clay, impervious to water. The water which
comes through A A will run along the surface of B B towards s s, where
it will spring to the surface, and form a lake or bog between s and s. Suppose another gravelly or pervious stratum under the last, as c c c, bending as here represented, and filled with water running into it from a higher
level; it is evident that this stratum will be saturated with water up to the
dotted line E F F, which is the level of the point in the lower rock, or
impervious stratum, D, where the water can run over it. If the stratum
B B has any crevices in it below the dotted line, the water will rise through
these to the surface, and form springs rising from the bottom of the lake or
bog; and if B B were bored through and a pipe inserted, rising up to the
dotted line, as c o, the water would rise and stand at o. If there were no
springs at s s, the space below the dotted line might still be filled with
water rising from stratum c c c. But if the boring took place at G, the
water would not rise, but, on the contrary, if there were any on the surface,
it would be carried down to the porous stratum c c c, and run off.
Thus in one situation boring will bring water, and in another it will take it
off. This principle being well understood, will greatly facilitate all drainings of springs. Wherever water springs, there must be a pervious and an
impervious stratum to cause it, and the water either runs over the impervious surface, or rises through the crevices in it. When the line of the
springs is found, as at s s, the obvious remedy is to cut a channel with a
sufficient declivity to take off the water in a direction across this line, and
34
E = W~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
sunk through the porous soil at the surface into the lower impervious earth.
The place for this channel is where the porous soil is the shallowest above
the breaking out, so as to require the least depth of drain; but the solid
stratum must be reached, or the draining will be imperfect. It was by attending to all these circumstances that Elkington acquired his celebrity in
draining, and that he has been regarded as the father of the system.
Drains, and Peat Lands.- When the drains cannot be carried to a
sufficient depth to take the water out of the porous stratum saturated with
it, it is often useful to bore numerous holes with a proper auger in the
bottom of the drain through the stiffer soil, and, according to the principle
explained in the preceding figure, the water will either rise through these
bores into the drains, and be carried off, and the natural springs will be
dried up, or it will sink down through them as at G, in the section, if it lies
above. This method is often advantageous in the draining of peat-bogs,
which generally lie on clay or stiff loam, with a layer of gravel between the
loam and the peat, the whole lying in a basin or hollow, and often on a
declivity. The peat, though it retains water, is not pervious, and drains
may be cut into it which will hold water. When the drains are four or five
feet deep, and the p)eat is much deeper, holes are bored down to the clay
below, and the water is pressed up through these holes, by the weight of
the whole body of peat, into the drains, by which it is carried off. Figures
29 and 30, represent a common case of this kind; h h (Fig. 30) are the
sides of a hill; the swampy lot, below, is filled with springs, which
are, however, drained by running a ditch (b b) across it, and sinking
FW. 30.
Fig. 29.
K Z'I.-\\\\
,=2
~~~~~~a4-Sllll~pM~~tg
holes into the subsoil. One of these holes is seen in Fig. 29 (a b), and the
manner in which it conveys the surface water away. The bottom of the
35
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
drains is sometimes choked with loose sand, which flows up with the water,
and they require to be cleared repeatedly; but this soo1l ceases after the first
rush is past, and the water rises slowly and regularly. The surface of the
peat, being dried, dressed with lime, and consolidated with earth and gravel,
soon becomes productive.
WVhen a single large and deep drain will produce the desired effect, it i
much better than when there are several smaller, as large drains are mo'
lasily kept open, and last longer, than smaller ones; but this is only the case
inl tapping main springs, for, if the water is diffused through the sutrroundin,
.,oil, numerous small drains are more effective. But, as soon as there is
nLfiicient body of water collected, the smaller drains should run into larger,
:,nd these into main drains, which should all, as far as is practicable, unite into
(ione principal outlet, by which means there will be less chance of their being
choked up. When the water springs into a drain from below, it is best to
lill up that part of the drain which lies above the stones, or other materials
whichl form the channel, with solid earth well pressed inii, and made imperx ious to within a few inches of the bottom of the furrows in ploughed land,
or the sod in pastures; because the water running along the surface is apt
to carry loose earth with it, and choke the drains. When the water comes
i! by the sides of the drains, loose stones, or gravel, or any porous material,
should be laid in them to the line where the water comes in, and a little
above it. over which the earth may be rammed in tight, so as to allow the
horses to walk over the drain without sinking in.
Iard Soils. -Another branch in the art of draining is the removal of
water from hard soils which lie flat, or in hollows, wthere the water from
rfin, snow, or dews, which cannot sink into the soil, runs along the surface
. nd stagnates in every cavity or depression. In this case a number of drains
are required to lay the surface dry. There is often a layer of light earth
immediately over a sub-layer of clay, and after continued rains this soil
becomes filled with water, like a sponge, and no healthy vegetation can
take place. To meet this, numerous drains must be made in the subsoil,
and even the draining tiles or bushes, which may be laid at the bottom of
ihe drains; loose gravel or brolken stones must be laid to within a foot of
the surface, so that the plough shall not reach them. The water will
gradually sink into these drains and be carried off, and the loose wet soil
'ill become firm and dry.
Direction of Drains. - It is very seldom that a field is absolutely level
ilie first thing, therefore, to be ascertained, is the greatest inclination, and its
eirection. The next object is to arrange drains so that each shall collect as
much of the water in the soil as possible. Large drains, except as main
rains, are inadmissible. The depth should be such only that the ploughl may
36
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
not reach it, if the land is arable, or the feet of cattle tread it in, if it be in
pasture. All the drains which are to collect the water should lie as nearly
at right angles to the inclination of the surface as is consistent with a sufficient fall in the drain to make them run. One foot is sufficient fall for a
drain three hundred feet in length, provided the drains be not more than
twenty feet apart. The main drains, by being laid obliquely, across the
fall of the ground, will help to take off a part of the surface water. It is
e -ident that the drains can seldom be in a straight line, unless the ground
be perfectly even. They should, however, never have sudden turns, but be
t nt gradually where the direction is changed. The flatter the surface and
the stiffer the soil, the greater number of drains will be required. It is a
common practice with drainers to run a main drain directly down the slope,
however rapid, and to carry smaller drains into this alternately on the right
and left, which they call herring-bone fashion. But this can only be
approved of where the ground is nearly level, and where there is very little
fall for the main drain. A considerable fall is to be avoided as much as
possible, and every drain should lie obliquely to the natural run of the water.
It generally happens that, besides surface water, there are also some land
springs arising from a variation in the soil; these should be carefully ascertained, and the drains should be so laid as to cut them off.
Clay Land.- In draining clay land, where there is only a layer of a fewv
inches of looser soil over a solid clay, which the plough never stirs, the
Fig. 31.
~
~
drains need not be deeper than two feet in the solid clay, nor wider than
they can be made without the sides falling in. The common draining tile,
which is a flat tile bent in the form of half a cylinder, and which can be
made at a very cheap rate, is the best for extensive surface draining. In
solid clay it requires no flat tile under it; it is merely an arch to carry the
loose stones or earth with which the drain is filled up. Loose round stones
or pebbles are the best where they can be procured, and in place of them,
bushes, heath, or straw may be laid. In grass land the sod may be laid
4
37
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
over the drain, after it has been filled up, so as to form a slight ridge over
it. This will soon sink to a level with the surface. To save the expense
of stone or tiles, drains are frequently made six inches wide at the bottom;
a narrow channel is cut in the solid clay, two or three inches wide and six
deep (a), leaving a shoulder on each side to support a sod, which is cut so
as to fit the drain, and rest on the shoulder (b); this sod keeps the earth
from filling the channel. It is filled up as previously described. Where
the clay is not sufficiently tenacious, the bottom of the drain is sometimes
cut with a sharp angle, and a twisted rope of straw is thrust into it. This
keeps the earth from falling in, and the running of the water keeps the
channel open; the straw, not being exposed to the air, remains a long time
without decaying. It is a common mistake to suppose that in these drains
water enters from above;-it rises from below.
Varieties of Drains.- The different sorts of drains in use may be classed
in two divisions, -drains of conveyance alone, and drains of conveyance
and collection jointly. In the former, all that is necessary is a channel or
passage for the water, of sufficient dimensions, which may be formed by pipes
of different kinds, arched or barrel drains, and box or walled drains. We
give cuts of these, as follows:
Fg. 32.
8. IRRIGATING.- Watering poor land, especially of a gravelly nature, is
one among the many useful means resorted to by intelligent farmers to
improve it and make it fit for cultivation. Land, when once improved by
irrigation, is put into a durable state of fertility, and becomes so productive
as to yield a large bulk of hay, and the after-math is also valuable. In favorable situations, it produces very early grass, which, on that account, is doubly
valuable.
The main object of irrigation in tropical climates seems merely to be to
carry to the ground that quantity of water which is necessary for the growth
38
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
and nourishment of the plants to be produced; but this species of irrigation
is very different from that to which the term is applied in this country. In
temperate climates, the purpose is not merely to supply the deficiency of
,wvater in the soil. The whole art of irrigation may be defined to be, the
supplying a sufficiency of water during all the time the plants are growing,
anid, secondly, never to allow this water to accumulate so as to stagnate.
The supply of water must come from natural lakes and rivers, or from
we-lls and ponds. As the water must flow over the land, or in channels
thlrough it, the supply must be above the level of the land to be irrigated.
This is generally the main object to be considered; and the taking of the
level is, therefore, the first step towards irrigating. The improved hydraulic
ram, seen in the annexed cut, is an excellent machine; H represents the
spring or brook; c, drive or supply pipe, from spring to ram; G, pipe
conveying water to house, or other point required for use; B D A E I, the
ram; J, the plank or other foundation to which the machine is secured.
Fig. 33.
Chlannels. -Along the banks of running streams nature points out the
declivity. A channel which receives the water at a point higher than that
to which the river flows, may be dug with a much smaller declivity than
that of the bed of the river, and made to carry the water much higher than
the natural banks; it may thience be distributed so as to descend slowly, and
wlater a considerable extent of ground, in its way to rejoin the stream. This
is a common mode of irrigation, and the shape, size, and direction of the
channels, are regulated by the nature of the surface, and other circumstances,
which vary in almost every situation.
39
FARIMER'S HAND-BOOK.
Kind of Soilsfor the Purpose. - The soils most suitable for being watered
are all those which are of a sandy or gravelly nature, as the improvement is
not only more immediate, but the effect more powerful, on those than on any
other descriptions of land. It is of advantage that the soil should be incumbent on a warm and absorbent bottom; for the subsoil of watered meadows
is considered of more importance than the quality or depth of the surface
soil. The best watered meadows are sometimes those in which the soil is
only a few inches in depth, especially when the bottom is porous.
Waters Best Adapted.- With regard to the quality of the waters most
suitable for irrigation, those of rivers which flow through a rich and cultivated country are to be preferred, as they are enriched by the animal and
vegetable matters which they receive in their progress, and which are
contained in them in a state of solution. A considerable portion of these
matters is left on the surface of the land by the waters passing over it, and
it is thereby greatly enriched. Water from bogs is considered inferior, from
the antiseptic (resisting putrefaction) quality communicated to it from the
peat. Water impregnated with iron has sometimes been used with good
effect.
Fig. 34.
i
,ii
Meadow Watering. -The above diagram represents a watered meadow.
A is the main conductor, B the wear placed across the river to intercept the
course of the water, and c c c c are the feeders taken off as directed from the
main conductor, at right angles to it, by which a constant flow of water is
I
I
i
I
I
I
i
I
40
i
i
I
i
I
I I
I
I
I
I C
I --
i
t
1 4
i
I
i
I
c
d
d
SOILS: THEIR NATURE AND TREATMIENT.
maintained over the surface. The water is then carried off the meadow by
means of the small drains e e e e, passing between the intervals of the former.
and communicating with the main drain d d, which again conveys the water
to the river. The dimensions of these smaller drains are seen to be greatest
where they respectively join the main conductor and main drain, being then
about four inches deep and eight or ten inches wide, and gradually diminishing to a point, as seen in the figure. The dimensions of these drains, however, as well as the distance between them, must be regulated by the exten
of the ground to be gone over, and the nature of the soil. It is frcquently
necessary that the water should be collected and conveyed to another mai]
conductor for watering a meadow in a lower situation; and when slight
inequalities occur in the surface, or when it is wished to convey an additional quantity of water in any particular direction, stops are used for the
purpose, which consist of small pieces of sods placed in the drains to cause
the water to flow over.
Preparing the Surface. - In the preparation of the surface for irrigation,
it is usual to form it into low ridges, the feeders being on the crowns of the
ridges, and the drains for carrying off the water in the furrows. The plan
illustrated in the preceding figure is designed only for situations in which
Fig. 35.
the inclination is not considerable. In the irrigation of lands with confid.
erable inclination of surface, the feeders cannot be carried along lengthwise
4*
41
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
as in the former case, but across the line of descent, so that the water flowing from one is intercepted by the next lower, and so on until it has covered
the whole of the meadow. This is termed catch-work irrigation. The
preceding figure is an example of irrigation where the soil is very porous,
and gently inclined, the supply of water being abundant. A main carrier
is led from the sluice (a) directly across the declivity (b), and side feeders
(c) taken out from it at regular distances. These feeders' have stops of
turf, at regular distances (d), by which means the water is dispersed. After
watering a space of from twenty to forty feet in breadth, it is again collected
by the small drains in the furrows, and returned lower down to another
feeder.
The Time to Operate.- The process of floating the meadow commences
generally in the month of October, or as soon as possible after the aftermath has been consumed, or the last crop of hay removed. The water is
first kept upon the ground for periods of a fortnight or three weeks at a
time. It is then let off, and the ground left perfectly dry, for five or six
days; and this process of alternate flooding and drying is continued for
some time, care being taken to let off the water when it begins to freeze.
As the spring advances and the grasses shoot forth, the periods of watering
are shortened, so that the flooding shall not last more than a few days at a
time.
The formation and arrangement of surfaces for irrigation, however simple
in principle, are, in practice, among the most difficult operations of agricultural improvement. Whoever, therefore, contemplates the execution of this
kind of work to any considerable extent, will find it desirable to consult a
person experienced in the matter.
42
CHAPTER II.
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
WHEAT -BARLEY -RYE -THE OAT - INDIAN CORN - BUCKWHEAT- THE PO
TATO -BROOM CORN-MILLET - - HEMP - FLAX - LUCERN - SAINFOIN - THE.
TARE - CLOVER - THEI GRASSES.
WHEAT.
Classification. -Writers on agriculture enumerate something like one
hundred varieties of wheat; but the nice distinctions which are necessarily
made in multiplying the sorts to such an extent are but of slight importance to the majority of farmers. The best mode of classifying the plants
included in this order is by natural marks, that is, by the ear and by the
grain. In this way confusion is avoided in describing the ear and the
grain. The farmer who grows the wheat plant, and sells it in the grain,
should be acquainted with both; but the baker, who is only acquainted with
the grain, need know nothing of the ear. Were he, however, to receive an
ear of each variety of grain he purchased, he would be best able to describe
at once, to the farmer, what particular variety afforded him the flour best
suited to his purpose.
An examination of the ears of wheat proves that they may be consistently
divided into three classes, as represented in the following figure, and distinguishable thus a is a close or compact eared wheat, which is occasioned by the. spikelets
being set near each other on the rachis, and this position makes the chaff
short and broad. The second class of ears is seen at b, the spikelets being
of medium length and breadth, and placed just so close upon the rachis as
to screen it from view; the ear is not so broad, but longer than a; the chaff
is of medium length and breadth. The third class is seen at c, the spikelets of which are set open, or so far asunder, as to permit the rachis to be
easily seen between them; the ear is about the same length as the last
specimen, but is much narrower; the chaff is long and narrow. In d is
represented a bearded wheat, to show the difference of appearance which
the beard gives to the ear. The term bearded is applied the same as spring
wheat; beardless wheat, however, is as fit for sowing in spring as bearded,
and the bearded may be sown in winter.
FARSIER'S HAND-BOOK.
In regard to classifying wheat by the grain, three heads may comprise all
the varieties. (See Fig. 37.) The first class (a) is where all the grains
Ri. 36.
\ \\\\\ /
are short, round, and plump. The second class (b), where the grains are
long and of medium size. The third class (c), where the grain is large
Fog. 37.
a C
and long to a greater degree than the last class. These three sorts are
represented according to their natural size.
44
I I
I
I
d
b
a
b
aZ
THIE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
Best Varieties for Cultization. - The following are the names of the
kinds of wheat most esteemed and cultivated in this country. lThite Flint:
This is one of the most valuable kinds in the northern states. The heads
are not too long, but well filled, with thirty to forty grains; the kernel is
white and flinty, large, and with thin bran; the flour is very superior; the
l)erfect wheat weighs from 63 to 67 pounds the bushel. lairmon's 4rh'ite
Flint: A variety improved from the above; the berry is larger, bran very
thlin, flour superior; this and the above are little injured by the I-essiain
f.y, and will stand a good deal of wet weather. VWhite Provence: Heads
riddling and bald, chaff bluish, berry large and white, bran thin, flour
good; it is early, but the straw is small, long, soft, and liable to fall. Old
Genesee Red Chaff: An old favorite, but liable to rust and the fly; red
chaff, bald, long straw, berry white and large, bran thin, superior flour.
Kentucky TVhite-bearded, Hutchinson or Canada Flint: White chaff, bearded,
heads short but heavy and well filed, shells readily, berries round, short
and white, flour very good; it litters a little; the straw is strong, but liable
to injury from insects. Indiana Wheat: White chaff, bald, berry white
and large, bran thin, berry not so flinty as the white flint, but the straw is
lairger and lo:ser; shells easily; is attacked by the insects, atid it is more
].able to be -winter-killed. A variety of white wheat is much esteemed inll
western New York, which resembles an improved Indiana; it is called
.etch Wheat. Virginia White 3lay: White chaff, bald, and resembles
the white flint in its growth and straw, though the heads are more cliumped,
the berry s ends out more, and shells easier; berry whlite and hle.rd, bran
medium thick, flour good; matures early. Wheatltind Red: Red chaff
b)ald, heads of mediumn length, red berry, good flour, very hardy, bright and
large straw, ripens early. Red Bearded: Red chaff, beards standing out
from the head, berry white, good flour, hardy, succeeds well after corn, or
on light soils. 3~iediterranean: Light red chaff, bearded, berry. red and
long, flinty, bran thick, inferior flour. Blue Stem: Has been grown in
Mirginia for about thirty years; white chaff, bald, berry white, bran thin,
superior flour, straw fair size and good product. The Yorlcshire or FEnglish
Filnt, or Zo7CC'S W'heat: Recently introduced; similar in its leading feateres to the old Genesee. Tire Egyptian, Smyrna, Reed, Alany-spited, or
lWlil(i Goose T-hcat: A hardy variety, with a thick straw, which prevents
its lodging.
The red wheat is usually grown upon the strongest clay land, and degenerates when sown upon a soil of a lighter description. It is hardy, and so
meuch better adapted to insure the production of a crop on wet and adhesive
soils, that it is very generally sown onl that class of lands; but, on all the
4,5
FARIMER'S HAND-BOOK.
better class of soils, the white or smooth-chaffed wheat is preferable, the
thinness of the husk rendering it more valuable to the miller.
Winter wheat is sometimes confounded with spring wheat, the only dis tinction being in the different periods of ripening. The produce of wheat
sown in the spring acquires the habit of ripening earlier than the produce
of that sown in autumn. This distinction is not, however, an absolute or
permanent one.
Soils.- The soils best adapted for the culture of wheat are the rich clays
and the heavy loams, though these are not, by any means, the only descriptions of soils on which it may be cultivated. Before the introduction of
turnips and clover, all soils but little adhesive were thought unfit for wheat;
but even on sandy soils it is now extensively cultivated, after either of these
crops. Such soils, however, are not constitutionally disposed to the growth
of wheat; nor will they, under any management, bear such a frequent repetition of it as those already mentioned. To bring wheat to perfection, a
dry and warm season is required.
Time for Sowing.- The season of sowing wheat depends on the crop to
which it succeeds. It is sown before winter, when the land can be then
prepared for its reception, as after fallow or potatoes; and it is sown in
spring after turnips, cabbages, and such other crops as are not removed off
the land till that season. The time of sowing must depend, also, on the
state of the land, as well as the season. It is, however, generally recommended to put it into the ground as early as may be convenient in autumn;
and on strong soils it is not unfrequently sown in the latter end of September, in the course of October, and the beginning of November.
Seed lTheat. - Seed wheat is prepared by a process termed pickling,
before being sown. This is intended to prevent rust, of which it is a preventative. Various substances are employed as a pickle to wash the seed,
the most common and useful being a solution of common salt in water,
sufficiently strong to buoy up a fresh egg. After being freed from all
foreign substances, the seed is dried, and, if not sown immediately after,
must be spread thinly over the floor, to prevent its heating.
Culture.- When the seed is sown broadcast, it is covered by the action
of the harrows sufficiently to cover the seed. A double turn along the
ridge, a double turn across, and again a single turn along, will generally
suffice, and oftentimes less than so much. As soon as the seed is harrowed in, the whole should be water-furrowed, to carry all excess. of
moisture off the land, by means of the double mould-board plough, with
one horse, passing along the furrows of the field, and the furrows of the
head-lands. Open furrows are also to be drawn through such hollow parts
as the water might stagnate in, care being taken to sink all inequalities,
46
T'lR HEAVy OR FIELD CRp
la t a Psage may be
Of the IuroWs edfof the aiatede to ru ot 4
14eared out aOfte fedwith
adlle lina those of the
ly t h r o u g th e h e a d a n d a e ] n t e r s e o ~t o
The seed is ht f'Oi of, psouil 1 e headlands.
the land, ~ s broad c ast; after h l; ing in the seed m 1ad p e
.iu, Wn PerhaPs- so, hroWhich a shallow ay.
O'ue, ]lant whea a slight har....
plantureat rye, India...i The horse-odriPlhn' is given to
~' on e., on alokn,_. _ " no uch in
~ iisOf ]andq o
Ig. 38.
The dibbling ofbeen tried n
tia,d larom there.is
"d'antag,'e to be d,,-cfu.lt h e eare~ grat
It) rish a ndhighiWheath een epeciall yo doubt that the sre s
vorable mode f r s t here es_cith
enoughfWith t " mall -he uystem, wni t ~.rcere aen d
"~~~~~ te cnoug wdt a e.,
"eed, Which may bhe common diabrble One man being able ng of seed.
them~~~~~~~~~~~~ae h'l
ich in e.y be done by co 0 keep three pers;,., to itake hole,
machine,: ded~~~~~~~~~'oit,,g th
by cilden.Annexed is- a,iur sh
"~ueof one of
ildren. annexed is a re of Ofle o
"g. 39.
FARMEIER'S HAND-BOOK.
Quantity of Sed. -The quantity of seed necessarily depends on the
time and mode of sowing, and the state of the land; land sown early
requiring less seed than the same land when sown late, and poor land being,
at all times, allowed more seed than rich; also, when sown broadcast,
more seed is given than when either dibbled or sown in drills. The
quantity, therefore, varies from two bushels, or less, to as many as four
\WTinter wheat, when sown in spring, should always have considerable seed.
Good and improved soils require less than soils not so good, and on the
former the plants are less liable to be injured during the winter, and gener.ally all come to maturity.
After-Culture. -The after-culture of wheat, or culture of the growing
crop, is chiefly confined to harrowing, rolling, hoeing, and weeding. liar
rowing is found beneficial in penetrating the crust which is formed on
tenacious soils, and raises a fresh supply of mould to the roots of the plants.
Rolling in spring should be practised on dry, porous soils, which are frequently left in so loose a state by the winter frosts, that the roots are thrown
out of the ground, and perish. hoeing is performed when tihe row-culture
is adopted, to pulverize the intervals between the rows, and to check the
growth of weeds.
Cutting, an(d iorresting. - The grain should be cut immed(Iately after
the lowest part of the stalk becomes yellow, while the grain is yet in the
dough state, and easily compressible between the thumb and finger. If cut
at this timne, it will yield more in measure and weight, and a larger quantity of sweet, white flour. If early cut, a longer time is required fior curing,
l)efore storing or threshing. The latter operation is usually done, by
extensive w-heat-growers, with a large machine, taken into the field, and
driven by horse-pow-er; with moderate farmers, a small single or double
hlorse-machline, or hand-threshing in winter.
If the rain is perfectly ripe, and the straw thoroughly dried, and the
sheaves free from grass or weeds, wheat may be cut and stacked or housed
the same day. It must, however, be effectually cured in the fields. To
savie it from wetting, some farmers lay it in the form of a cross, surmounted
w\ith a sheaf so disp)osed as to throw off any slight showers that may fall;
others place it in shocks, the sheaves two and two, stanIIding on their )titts,
ilie heads of the sheaves inclined to each other, and the tops spread out so
Ss to shield the standing sheaves as much as possible; others, agail, place
,tir whea-t in the same position as the last, with the exception tlhat all of
iie shock is left standing, and no sheaves are placed over the heads. Unless very dry, it should be laid on scaffolds, when taken into the bari, to
irevent heating and moulding. When placed in a stack, it sliouli( 1f, well
elevated from the ground, and, if the stack be large, a chimney of latt;iee or
4-19
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
open-work should be left from the bottom, extending to the top, to produce
circulation. The straw or chaff yields good fodder, when cut or mixed
with meal or roots; it is also good for bedding cattle, for manure, and
should never be wasted. The fan-mill, for cleaning grain, is too well
known to be described in this place.
F/r. 40.
Enemies of Wheat.- Wheat is subject to various diseases, principally
the mildew, smut, and rust. Mildew is indicated by the presence of certain
minute plants of the order of fungi, which grow upon the stem and leaves,
and doubtless feed upon and exhaust the juices of the plant. The prevalence of heavy fogs or mist, drizzling rains, and sudden changes of temperature, have been assigned as the cause of mildew, and it has been found
that open, airy situations are much less subject to it than low sheltered
lands. To remove this destructive agent, the use of salt is highly recommended The quantity of salt per gallon is eight ounces, and the application is more effectual if frequently repeated, and does no injury to the
plants. If the application is not made during a cloudy day, it is best to
defer it until evening.
When wheat is infected with the smut, the farina of the grain, together
with its proper coverings, and part of the husk, is converted into a black
5 D)
49
-— I "i 11
I
5
D
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
soot-like powder. This disease does not affect the whole of the crop, but
the smutted ears are sometimes very numerously dispersed through it. If
the seed be prepared in the way already described, the disease will rarely
prevail to such an extent as to affect materially the value of the crop.
Rust is another very prevalent disease, nearly allied to the mildew. It
appears in the form of a brownish dust upon the stem, leaves, and seed,
and, like the others, is produced by a parasitical plant.
The roots of the wheat plant are liable to be attacked by grubs and
worms, the larva of various beetles; among these are the wire-worm, and
the red-headed large white grub, the larva of the May-bug, cockchaffer,
or black bug. These often do much injury, and late ploughing is the best
mode of destroying them, by thus exposing them to the frosts; when they
appear in the summer, they are sometimes destroyed by being attracted
towards large fires, kindled for the purpose, and perishing in them. But
the insects that attack the wheat while growing and in the %ar are by far
the most powerful enemies which it encounters. These insects are the
Hessian fly and the wheat fly. The former has a black head, thorax, and
wings, with a brownish body; the latter is of smaller size, of a yellow
color, and clear wings. (See Chapter on INSECTS.)
BARLEY.
Classification. - The natural classification of barley by the ear is obviously of three kinds,- four-rowed, six-rowed, and two-rowed, as in Fig. 42.
In Fig. 42, a is the four-rowed, or bere or bigg; c is the six-rowed;
and b the two-rowed.
When classified by the grain, there are two kinds, bere or bigg, and
barley; and though both are awned, they are sufficiently marked to constitute distinct varieties. In the bere (Fig. 41, a), the median line of the
bosam is so traced as to give the grain a twisted form, by which one of its
sides is larger than the other, and the lengthened point is from where the
awn has been broken off. In the barley (b), the median line passes
straight, and divides the grain into two equal sides, and whose shortness
and plumpness give to it a character of superiority. Both kinds are represented below, natural size:
Fig. 41.
a
50
aP
b
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
Fg. 42.
/;
a c b
In this country the two-rowed and the six-rowed are the varieties generally cultivated, the two-rowed being the kind most esteemed.
Kind of Soil. - The best soil for barley is a rich loam finely pulverized.
It will neither grow well on a sandy or a soft soil, nor on strong clays, such
as are suitable for wheat. It is rarely made to succeed summer fallow,
wheat being, in an especial degree, suited to follow that process, and it
being also the more valuable crop. For a like reason it seldom succeeds
potatoes, as wheat may advantageously be sown at the period of the removal
of the potato crop from the ground. But it succeeds turnips with greater
propriety than any other crop, the turnip crop being cultivated on the
lighter soils, which are the proper soils for barley.
Barley ripens early in autumn, and it may, therefore, be sown later than
any of the other corn crops in the spring. The best season may be said to
be in the month of April or beginning of May. An increased quantity of
straw is produced by late sowing, but the grain is surer the more early tha
the crop is sown.
II
.II
II t
I,
I
I
51
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
Preparing the Land. - The preparation of land for barley is similar to
that for wheat. After turnips, or other green crop removed in the spring,
the land is to be ploughed once, after which the seed is to be immediately
sown. Two ploughings, however, will be necessary when barley succeeds
any of the grain crops removed before winter, and, in this case, the land
should have been drilled up after the removal of the crop, to keep it dry.
As it is found of great importance, with a view to speedy and equal vegetation, that the ground should be fresh and moist at the time of sowing, barley
should then be sown as soon as possible after the seed-furrow is given.
Sowing.- The modes of sowing barley are either broadcast or in rows.
The broadcast system is almost universally employed in the cultivation of
this plant, unless in lands much infested with annual weeds, where drilling
and hand-hoeing, and, sometimes, horse-hoeing, may be adopted with
advantage. The quantity of seed varies from two and a half to three bushels to the acre, according to the kind of seed used, the nature of the soil,
and the time of sowing. Liberal sowing is most profitable; and, when
sowvn late in the season, and in dry weather, the seed is sometimes steeped
in water for a day, to promote a more early and uniform germination.
Culture.- The seeds of the clovers and grasses are sown simultaneously
with the barley, the succeeding crop being invariably grass. In this case,
the smaller seeds are sown immediately before the last turn of the harrows,
and that turn covers them in. The land is to be rolled afterwards, in order
to exclude drought, pulverize the soil, and cover the clover and grass seeds.
Harvesting.- In the harvesting of barley more care and attention are
requisite than in the case of any of the other grain crops, even in the best seasons; and, in unfavorable seasons, it is almost impossible to save it without
injury. Owing to the brittleness of the stem after it has reached a certain
period, it must be cut down; for when it is suffered to stand longer, much
Fig. 43.
,oss is sustained by the breaking off of the heads. On that account, it is cut
at a time when the grain is soft, and the straw retains a great proportion of its
52
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
natural juices, and consequently requires a long time in the field before
either the grain is hardened or the straw sufficiently dry.
Threshing and Dressing. -The threshing and dressing of barley are
attended with more labor than is the case with any other grain, owing to the
tenacity with which the covers adhere to the seeds. After being threshed
in the ordinary way, it is a frequent practice to put the threshed grain a
second time through the machine, accompanied by a portion of straw.
Should this not accomplish the work effectively, then the hummelling
machine (Fig. 43) is used.
Uses.- Barley is used in Europe as a staple article of food. It is
inferior, however, to wheat and rye. In this country it is principally used
for malting and brewing, and for distilling. When ground, it is good for
fattening stock, though more especially swine.
Enemies.- The diseases of barley are few. It is sometimes attacked by
the larvae of certain flies. It is also subject to smut, but of quite a different
character from that which affects wheat, and one which, it is found, cannot
be prevented by pickling and liming.
RYE.
Varieties. — Of rye, there is, strictly speaking, only one variety,
although it is usually divided into winter and spring rye; but these are
produced merely by the different periods of sowing, and resemble each
other so much, that, when sown together, they cannot be distinguished.
ig. 44.
Soil. - The soil for rye may be inferior to that chosen for wheat, and it
will succeed with less culture and manure. The soils best suited to its
5*
53
i
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
growth are those which contain the greatest proportion of sand, and there
are instances on record in which it succeeded on land containing eighty-five
per cent. of this substance. Those soils, however, which contain a less
proportion of sand are preferable; for, though it will grow upon ground of
the poorest description, yet the produce will be more abundant upon good
land, provided it be not of a clayey nature. In this country it is grown in
the north-eastern and middle Atlantic states, and on the light lands of
Ohio and Michigan; and, as the supporting elements of wheat become
exhausted in the soil of the rich agricultural states of the West, rye will in
a great measure take its place on their lighter soils.
Time for Sowing. -Rye may be sown either in the autumn or in
spring, and, as in the case of wheat, the period of ripening is affected by
that of sowing. The quantity of seed may be two bushels and a half to the
acre, but, when grown for straw plait, this quantity is more than doubled.
As it vegetates more slowly than wheat, it should be sown when the soil
is dry; otherwise, the grain is in danger of rotting in the ground before it has
completely germinated.
Culture.- Rye, being sown upon light and poor soils, obtains less attention in its production than wheat; it also suffers less from being sown upon
the stubble of another corn crop, or even upon its own; and it is therefore
not unusual to grow it successively two years upon the same land, but this
is somewhat contrary to the principles of good husbandry, and cannot be
recommended for imitation.
The after-culture, harvesting, and threshing of the crop, are similar to
those of wheat. The horizontal fan-mill, for cleaning grain, has been somewhat popular in the Eastern States.
The period of flowering is more decisive of the prospect to be entertained
regarding the success of rye than in the case of any other grain; and, until it
be past, no opinion can be correctly formed on the subject. The ripening
of the grain is earlier than that of wheat, and is denoted by the straw losing
somewhat of its bright yellow color, becoming paler, and the knots of the
straw losing their green color. The corn then sheds easily from the ear.
When allowed to stand until very ripe, a shower of rain will occasion it to
sprout.
Product and Uses.- The produce of rye is nearly the same as that of
moderate crops of wheat, but seldom amounts to those which are very large;
the quantity of straw is greater than that of any other grain. It grows to a
greater height than the straw of wheat, and, though thinner in the stem, is
stronger; but being hard and wiry, it is not esteemed for fodder, and the
chief use of it is for thatch. It is also valuable to brick-makers, and is
extensively used in the manufacture of straw hats. For the latter purpose,
54
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
it is sown very thick, pulled green, and blanched by exposure to the air. It
is also used both in the brewery and distillery; and in many parts, after
undergoing a species of bruising or coarse grinding, it is used alone, or
mixed with barley, oats, beans, peas, or tares, which have undergone a
similar operation, and formed into a kind of coarse bread, for feeding domestic animals, particularly horses. Its bread contains a less proportion of
nutritive matter than that of wheat, but it is found to keep longer, and forms
about the only bread eaten by the inhabitants of some countries where the
soil and climate are unsuited for the growth of wheat. It contains a greater
quantity of nutritive matter than either barley or oats, and the husk
possesses an aromatic and slightly acid flavor, which renders it agreeable to
the palate. The bran should not, therefore, be entirely separated from the
flour, for, if the grain be ground fine, and divested of the husk, the bread will
be deprived of much of its pleasant taste. When intended for consumption
in the farmer's family, it is usual to mix a certain portion of wheat with
the seed before sowing, or the mixture may be made after they are ground
into flour, which is the better practice. The proportions may be one third
of rye and two thirds of wheaten flour, and this combination makes a
sweeter bread than that made solely of wheat.
F/g. 45.
Enemies.- Rye is subject to most of the diseases which attack the order
of plants to which it belongs, such as rust, mildew, burned-ear, and smutball. But there is one remarkable disease, which, although it is sometimes
found in wheat, is much more common in rye. It is called the ergot, the
French name of a cock's spur, which the diseased grain resembles in shape.
55
FARBIER'S HAND-BOOK.
By some perversion of the vital functions of tile plant, the embryo, o0
germen, instead of growing into a regular seed filled with farina, shoots out
a long, black, fungus-like substance, several times the length of a common
seed, which rises above the chaff, and has the appearance of a slender pyramid, slightly bent on one side. This substance is soft, and easily broken or
cut, and is uniform in its internal texture, without any husk or skin over it
It is not only destructive to the grain, but very poisonous when eaten mixed
with the flour.
Figure 45 is Pilkinton's machine for cleaning smutty grain, and to take
out chess, onions, and heavy grit.
THE OAT.
Varieties.- Of all the cultivated grains, oats are the easiest of culture,
and the most certain and prolific in their product. There are several
varieties. Fig. 46 represents two of the most marked and useful.
'fg. 46.
a
That represented in the cut a is the White or Common Oat, known by
its white husk and kernel, and is the kind most commonly cultivated. The
Siberian or Tartarian Oat (b) is a black or brown grain, thin, rather small,
and turned mostly to one side of the panicle or ear. The straw is large
and reedy, but it is usually very productive, and is well calculated for poor
soils and exposed situations. The Red Oat, known by its brownish-red
husk, thin and flexible stem, and firmly attached grains, is an early variety,
suffers but little from winds, makes good meal, and suits exposed situations
56
b
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
and late climates. The Poland Oat is known by its thick, white husk,
awnless chaff, solitary grains, short, white kernel, and short, stiff straw;
it requires a dry, warm soil, and is very prolific; the black Poland oat is
regarded as one of the best varieties. The Dutch Oat has plump, thin skinned, white grains, mostly double, and the large ones sometimes awned.
It has larger straw than the Poland, but in other respects resembles it. The
Potato Oat has large, plump, rather thick-skinned, white grains, double
and treble, and with longer straw than either of the few preceding varieties.
The Georgian Oat is a large-grained and very prolific variety. The
Imperial Oat is the heaviest raised in the United States, and by many is
preferred to all others; it is a clean, bright, plump, heavy grain, yielding
a large proportion of flour and nutritive matter. It is hardy, and yields
well in the Northern and Middle States. The Eygptian Oat is grown
in large quantities south of Tennessee, and is very well adapted for the
South.
Soil.- The soil for the oat may be almost any kind whatever, from the
stiffest clays, to moss, or bog, provided it be laid sufficiently dry. They will
produce well on reclaimed bog and mountain; but as these usually grow
straw luxuriantly, especially if they have been improved by paring and
burning the surface, a green crop should be taken the first year, which will
allow time for the active properties of the ashes to subside; and the following year oats may be considered a certain and productive crop.
Preparing the Land. - The preparation of the land for oats is less than
for any other crop. It is almost always the first crop on newly broken-up
lands, and, as it succeeds best on a soil not too finely pulverized, it is sown
after a single ploughing. In regular rotations, oats are chiefly sown after
grass. It is sometimes sown upon land not rich enough for wheat, that has
been previously under green crop. One ploughing is generally given to the
grass lands, which should be done as soon in spring as the state of the
weather and the other labors of the farm will allow. When oats succeed a
green crop, the preparation of the land is the same as that for wheat.
Sowing and Culture.- The period for sowing oats is generally from the
beginning of March to the middle of April. The month of March is considered by many to be the best for seed-time. They are sometimes sown in
February, also in the autumn; but the crops sown at a later period of the
season have, in most cases, been greatly more productive. The quantity
of seeds is from four to six bushels to the acre. In sowing oats, the
quantity must be regulated by the shape and size of the grain, as well as by
the condition of the soil. Land sown with potato oats, for instance, requires
less seed, in point of measure, than when any of the other sorts is used;
first, because this variety litters better than any other, and, having no awns,
57
FARMER'S HIIAND-BOOK.
a greater number of grains is contained in a bushel. Some varieties, too,
are more leafy than others, and require to stand further apart; in general,
however, four bushels will be necessary on medium soils, and, in poor,
upland soils, as many as six may be required.
Grass-seeds may be sown in spring with oats, in the same manner as with
wheat or barley. The young clover and grass are, however, in danger of
being smothered by the oat crop, unless when it is sown very thin. If,
therefore, through necessity, this system should be adopted, the oats should
be sown thin, on well-prepared land, and the smaller seeds harrowed in
when the plants are sufficiently strong to bear the surface being stirred.
When the land is in a highly pulverized state, it may be better to sow the
seeds of the clovers and grasses immediately before giving the last turn of
the harrows for covering the oats.
Being usually sown after grass land, oats are more apt to be overrun
with thistles, and other large weeds, than any other crop. These are to be
cut over with the weed-hook, or pulled up by the weeding clips, before the
crop comes into ear.
Reaping. - The reaping of oats is performed with the scythe or sickle.
It may, with great convenience, be performed with the scythe, and should
be done when the grain becomes hard and the straw of a yellowish color.
Fig. 47.
The crop should be cut before it is dead ripe, to prevent the shedding of the
grain, and to increase the value of the straw for fodder.
Enemies.- The diseases of the oat are few. Sometimes it is attacked
by smut, but more commonly by the wire-worm, or larvae of insects, which
generally abound in newly broken-up lands. To guard against these, delay
ploughing the land, especially if long in grass, until immediately before
sowing.
58
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
INDIAN CORN.
Varieties. -The varieties of corn cultivated in this country are quite
numerous, distinguished by peculiar characteristics of the grain, cob,
&c., and are frequently enumerated and described as follows:
.ig. 48.
Yellow Corn.-The Yellow Gourdseed, so called from the resemblance
of its long narrow grains to the seed of the gourd; this has 24, and occasionally even more rows. The genuine King Philip, with 8 rows; a hardy
plant. The Sioux, or yellow flint corn, with 12 rows; also the Sioux
variety grown in Pennsylvania; also the Sioux and Gourdseed mixed, 16
rows.
White Indian Corn.- This includes the White Flint, White Flour Corn,
and White Sugar or Sweet Corn, and the White Gourdseed. The Genuine
White Flint is the twelve-row corn, raised in Virginia. The White Flint
nas 10 rows. The Early White Flint, and White Flour Corn, has 12 rows.
The Peruvian Corn has 8 rows. The Pennsylvania -called, in Maryland,
Smith's Early White- has 8 rows. The New Jersey has 8 rows. The New
York, 10 rows; and Mandan Indian Corn. The Early Sugar Corn, with
shrunken grailns, has 12 rows.
Blood-Red Indian Corn. - Varieties are as follows: - Common-sized
Hemetite, with 12 rows and red cob; red cob with white grains; red cob
with yellow grains; red cob with brown grains; red cob with white
gourdseed; red cob with gourdseed and yellow flint; white cob with red
59
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
grain; speckled red and yellow grains on a white cob; the same on a red
cob: the dwarf Hoemetite, commonly called Guinea corn; blue corn with
10 rows; the celebrated Dutton corn, &c., &c.
Of these numerous varieties, some are best adapted to the Southern States
- the white and yellow gourdseeds; others to the Middle States - the
gourdseed and flint varieties, pure or mixed; whilst the heavy flinty grained kinds are almost exclusively cultivated in the Northern and Eastern
States, to which they are specially adapted by their disposition to grow and
mature with great rapidity, and thus accommodate themselves to the short ness of northern summers. Like all early maturing corn, they are dwarf ish, though very productive. The effect of the longer and warmer sum mers, in more southerly situations, is to favor greatly the growth of the
stalk. The time taken by different varieties in growing and maturing dif fels exceedingly. In the Southern and Middle States the crop occupies the
ground from five to seven months, whilst in the Northern and Eastern States
the ears come to maturity in three or four months.
Among the varieties of corn cultivated for special purposes are the White
Flint, used for making hommony; the Flour Corn, with a round, thick grain,
filled with a snowy white powder, resembling starch, much used for grinding up with buckwheat, in the proportion of about one fourth or one fifth of
the corn, giving the buckwheat-meal a lighter color, and otherwise improving it; the Early Jersey truck corn, a middle-sized ear, with white and
rather flinty grains, the earliest corn raised for the market, - two kinds,
the white and the red cob; and the Small Flinty-grained corn, usually
raised for parching or popping.
Preparation of the Land for Planting. - In the Middle States corn is
planted in all conditions of the land; but in Virginia and Maryland it generally follows the wheat crop, upon which all the farm-yard manure has been
spread. In the upper portion of Delaware and in Pennsylvania, the crop is
generally put upon a grass sward or clover lay. Where the soil is a stiff
clay, much labor is bestowed in ploughing deep, then rolling, and reducing
to the finest tilth by means of harrows. As a general rule, after a sward
has been turned, care is taken not to harrow so deep as to reach and drag up
the sods, which are suffered to lie and decompose, thus furnishing nutriment
to the corn, and keeping the ground loose and favorable to the spreading of
the roots. Many farmers spread lime upon the land intended for corn, in
the autumn or winter, previously to ploughing. Others put the lime dressing on the ploughed ground.
Season for Ploughing. - With regard to the best time for ploughing,
this must depend much upon the character of the soil. Late fall or wintel
ploughing has been thought useful in turning up and exposing to perish the
60
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
grubs and other insects which have retreated below the surface for winter
quarters; but in Pennsylvania this practice is now generally abandoned in
favor of spring ploughing.
The roller, when used, must be drawn in the direction of the furrows,
and never crosswise. Then follows the drag-harrow, in the same direction,
being the last instrument which, on flushed ground, is employed preparatory
to planting. The harrowing should be continued until the surface of the
inverted sward is completely broken up and pulverized.
In the Middle States, it is customary to prepare the ground for corn by
a method called listing, or double furrowing; that is, ploughing so as at
first to turn two furrow-slices together, leaving a middle space, which is
afterwards ploughed out by turning an additional furrow on each side.
This places the ground in narrow lands or ridges, consisting of four furrow slices, with deep intervening trenches. The width from the middle of one
land to the other is generally about four feet. In signing out for planting,
a plough is run across these narrow lands, so as to strike out rows generally
four feet apart. The plough which performs this cross-ploughing is immediately followed by a boy who drops four, five, or seven grains of corn
directly opposite the middle of each of the ridges, and the operation of planting is completed by a man who covers the seed with a hoe. Corn should
be planted as early in the spring as the weather will permit. The usual
time of planting in the Floridas is early in March, whilst in the Eastern
States it cannot be done, as a general rule, before the middle of May.
Planting. - After rolling, and then harrowing well, the rows are struck
out very shallow, and the corn is planted in hills, 3, 4, 4i, or 5 feet apart,
or dropped in rows from three to five feet asunder, so as to leave the stalks,
when thinned out, about one or two feet apart. In this last case, the tillage
has of course to be conducted in the direction of the rows, and never crosswise, as is practised when the grain is in hills at regular distances When
the growth is high, and the soil rich, the rows should be further apart than
where the growth is low, as is the case with the Northern varieties, which
may be planted three feet apart.
Manuring. - Whenever manure can be spared for the corn crop, it will
always make a good return. It may be spread broadcast upon the land
previously to ploughing, or, what is better, spread upon ground that has
been flushed up in the autumn or winter, and then lightly ploughed in. In
the Northern and Eastern States, where the summers are short, a liberal
quantity of manure is generally required to assist in forcing the crop to
early maturity. When not enough is at hand to afford a good dressing
broadcast, it is advisable to apply a portion of short manure to each hill
ist before planting. Ashes are an excellent manure for Indian corn, and
6
61
FARM1ER'S HIAND-BOOK.
may be merely dropped upon the hills. It is common to make a mixture of
these with lime and plaster; but there is no doubt that the main benefit of
the mixture proceeds from the live ashes. Poudrette is also applied, and
with good effect- one gill to each hill; it pushes the young corn forward
with such rapidity as to place it very soon beyond danger from the grub,
cut-worm, and other insect depredators. The same end may also be promoted by soaking the seed twenty-four or thirty-six hours in solutions of
saltpetre, urine, the drainings of the stables and the cattle-yards. Strong
solutions of copperas, blue vitriol, are sometimes used. To protect the seed
against its enemies, some farmers soak the seed twelve to twenty hours in
hot water, in which are dissolved a few ounces of crude saltpetre, and then
add (say to eight quarts of seed) half a pint of tar, previously warmed and
diluted with a quart of warm water. The mass is well stirred, the corn
taken out, and as much plaster added as will adhere to the grain. This
impregnates and partially coats the seed with tar.
Number of Grains to the Hill, and Depth of Planting.- Where there is
reason to apprehend much mischief to the young plants from blackbirds,
crows, vermin, and other insects, it is best to drop from four to seven grains
to each hill, so that some two or three may have a chance to escape. The
deficiency is usually attempted to be made up by replanting other grain, but
the product of this replant is too often feeble, and so late in maturing as to
be frequently injured by the frost in autumn. A better plan is to replant
with the surplus of other hills, though this requires a damp and very favorable condition of the weather. As to the proper depth of covering for the
seed, much difference of opinion exists. All covering which exceeds four
or five inches must, under ordinary circumstances, be considered extravagant and injurious. It cannot be doubted, that where the mould is of a light
texture, moderately deep covering answers best, as a general rule. To
cover deep where the soil is a heavy clay loam, would either cause the
grain to rot, prevent it from rising, or dispose it to come up twisted, unless
opportunely assisted by rain, to soften the packed covering.
Tillage. - The corn once planted, its tender blade pushes through the
62
Fig. 49.
90
TIHE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
ground, usually in about a week or ten days, and even sooner when the
seed has been soaked. Although the field is generally left at rest until the
plants have all fairly risen above ground, before tillage of the crop is commenced, some begin with the harrows even before the corn is up. The
first objects to be effected are to keep the ground stirred and free from grass
and weeds. Where danger is apprehended from worms, by which it is so
frequently attacked, many maintain that the tillage should not commence
very soon, so that, some other vegetation being allowed to start up, the
young corn will thus be in a measure spared; whereas, if the ground is
perfectly clean, the worms, having nothing else to feed upon, will, of course,
destroy all the young corn. Instances may occasionally occur where this
practice may prove disadvantageous, but, as a general rule, the young corn
cannot be kept too clean, or the ground about it too loose.
The modes of tillage vary exceedingly, not only with the variations ill
soil and climate, but with the views of different persons in the same
locality. On stiff clay soils, there is no doubt that harrowing just before
the proper time for the corn to come up favors this process, by loosening
the tenacious soil, especially where a timely rain does not occur to softell
the earth. After the corn appears, the harrow should be kept going until
the ground is rendered perfectly loose, hands following with hoes or
short rakes, to clear the corn which may be covered. Then comes the
plough, which, in the Southern and lower portion of the Middle States, is
often used to turn a furrow from the young corn. This operation is termed
bar-ploughing, because the bar of the plough is run next to the plants. A
few days after this, the process is renewed, and the mould-board being
turned next the corn, the loose earth is thrown back again. Many think
that this second ploughing, called moulding, ought not to be left longer
than a few hours before the earth should be turned back again. In some
places ploughs are still used for this purpose with wooden motid-boards,
as these serve best to push the loose earth before them, crumbling and
spreading it about the plants more advantageously than ploughs furnished
with smooth and polished iron mould-boards. Some use narrow, deep-cutting ploughs, which do this work with comparatively little labor to the horse,
and render the soil near the corn much more permeable by the roots, and at
the same time quickly accessible to the rain and atmospheric influences.
Whatever tends to favor the extension of the roots downwards, serves to
place the crop beyond the vicissitudes of the season. There is, perhaps, no
plant which withstands the effects of drought so well as Indian corn, whilst
young; but when its top blades begin to be heavy, its demands for moisture
increase so as to cause it to suffer greatly from very dry weather. Heat and
moisture are the great promoters of its growth.
63
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
The farmers in some of the finest districts in Pennsylvania have, of late
years, made much less use of the plough, in cultivating their corn, than
formerly. They now generally content themselves with moulding, or
throwing a single furrow on each side of the young plants, leaving a space
of from three to three and a half feet untouched. The space left is afterwards worked by means of shovel-ploughs, and cultivators (Fig. 50), which
completely destroy the grass and loosen the ground. This mode of culture
is more easily and economically performed than the old plan of ploughing
the whole space between the rows, and leaving the surface completely level.
If the land be sufficiently loose and deeply stirred, there is little use in hilling it. It is sometimes said that corn requires hilling to support it. Nature
disproves this, by the stiff, bracing roots thrown out by this plant at the
time they are wanted, and for this very purpose. On wet lands, planting
on ridges and hilling may be advisable, but such lands should not be chosen
for corn. If wet, drain thoroughly, in the first place. Allow no weeds to
grow, and do not fear to stir the surface in dry weather. Many farmers
deem the use of the plough altogether unnecessary, and even injurious, and
conduct the tillage of the corn crop throughout, first with the drag-harrow, and successively with the cultivator, horse-hoe, and hand-hoe.
Thinning and Suckering.- As quickly as possible after it is ascertained
that the plants are in a thrifty condition, and no longer in danger of being
destroyed by the cut-worm and other enemies, they are thinned out, so as
to leave only two or three in a hill. Or, should they stand in rows or drills,
the plants are left apart one or two feet. The operation of suckering takes
place some time after thinning, and consists in tearing off the side-shoots
which often sprout from the bottom of the main stalk. It is thought, however, by many, that this practice is more hurtful than beneficial, injuring
64
Rig. 50.
_l
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
the growth and development of the corn, and lessening the product of both
fodder and grain.
Harvesting the Crop.- This is done differently in different parts of the
country. In the Northern and Eastern States and Pennsylvania, the corn
is usually cut off at the surface of the ground, as soon as the grain has
become glazed, or hard upon the outside, and, whilst the blades are stil
green, put immediately into shocks, and thus left some time standing in the
field. The corn, after becoming sufficiently dry, is husked and cribbed, and
the stalks, with all the attached fodder and husks, are used for provender.
In the Southern and southerly portions of the Middle States, the corn is
commonly husked in the field, the stalks having previously had the blades
stripped below the ears, and the tops lopped off above the ears. When,
therefore, the ear has been separated, the naked stalk is left standing with
the husk, which is soon after eaten by the cattle. In some parts of the
Western States, where the crops are extremely luxuriant, with the absence
of facilities to get the grain to market, it is common to husk out and secure
enough of the corn for family use, and then turn the hogs and cattle into
the field, to consume the remainder. Cracked corn is obtained by means of
the machine called the corn-cracker, and is valuable in many cases..
By the first of these methods, the crop may be secured before the autumnal
rains, with all its valuable fodder, and the ground cleared in time for a
winter crop of wheat or rye. The juices retained by the stalk are sufficient
to nourish the corn to maturity. By the second mode, there is always a lbss
in the grain product, which is never so well filled after the blades and tops
have been removed in a green state.
6* E
65
Fig. 51.
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
Preserving Corn.- This is usually done by stowing away the ears,
cleared from the husks, in small or narrow granaries, called cribs, the sides
and ends of which are constructed of logs or laths, so as to leave spaces of
about an inch, or more, for the circulation of air.
The engravings below represent a corn-sheller (a), and a corn and cobcrushing machine (b), now much in use. The first-named is made with a
wooden frame, easy to be repaired, and will shell from one hundred to one
hundred and fifty bushels of corn per day. The crusher is used at the South
and West for the purpose of cracking or crushing the corn and cob together,
preparatory to grinding between mill-stones.
Fig. 52.
b
Diseases and Enemies. Besides the birds, cut-worm, wire-worm, &c.,
that we have already alluded to, corn suffers from other diseases, the chief
one being a dark or blue-black spongy growth, which sometimes takes the
place of the blighted ear of corn. The mass sometimes grows till five or
six inches in diameter, and is to be considered a luxuriant or rank species
of fungus. As the species of what are called parasitic plants, to which
this belongs, are so readily destroyed by applications of common salt, there
is reason to believe that soaking the seeds well in salt water, previously to
planting, or scattering salt over the grounds, will prevent this disease.
A reddish kind of rust sometimes appears on the leaves, but seldom does
66
,Fg. 53.
I -.. o. -i,,12!
a
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
much apparent injury to the ears, unless it becomes extensive. However,
the same rust sometimes fixes upon the stalks, and causes them to decay.
When this is near the ear, or the decay is extensive, the plant produces but
little grain. The cause is attributed by some to bruises and wounds inflicted by inconsiderate cultivation, especially as the tassel, wrapped in its
own leaves, may be seen formed in the plant when it is quite young. It
sometimes happens, as the effect of storms, that the pollen is blown or beaten
off the tassel before all the silk has protruded from the ear. The consequence of this is a failure in the development of grains in the extremity, or
other portion where the silk was deficient. It has been urged, among the
reasons for allowing the suckers to grow, that, being later in tasseling
and less exposed to high winds, they assist to promote the process of fecundation after the tassels of the main stalks have shed their pollen. As an
evidence of this, it has been stated that the earliest ears are always best
covered with grain, while those which push late often exhibit a quarter or
a half of naked cob, -the consequence of imperfect impregnation.
BUCKWHEAT.
Description. -This is the grain produced by the Polygonum fagopyrum
(a), tartaricum (b), and a few other species.
.Fg. 54.
&ils. - This plant thrives well on soils which are too poor for all other
kinds of grain, either of the spring or summer varieties. It grows on dry,
sandy soils, provided onlv that the drought be not felt precisely at the time
67
I
r
FARRMER'S HAND-BOOK.
when the plant stands most in need of moisture; it then yields as plentiful
a crop as any other kind of grain; but if the ground be in a situation somewhat more accessible to moisture, the crop is so much the more to be
depended upon. It also thrives on heath and marsh lands, provided the
latter have been previously drained. It is cultivated to great advantage on
clearings of this description, and is very useful in preparing the soil for the
reception of other kinds of grain. In sandy districts, buckwheat is the only
crop which succeeds when sown alternately with rye; in such situations, it
takes the place of other fallow crops; it is also sown on lands where rye
has been grown. It, however, thrives better as a fallow crop on land
which has been used as pasturage, or left in repose for a few years. On
richer soils the plant grows more vigorously, but only in the stalk, rarely
producing so much seed as when grown on proper soils. A small quantity
of manure is advantageous to it, but a large quantity makes it grow too
strong in the stem. When the land on which buckwheat is to be grown
requires manuring, it is usual to give it only half the usual quantity, the
remainder being reserved till after the harvest. Manure furnished by furz
is particularly well adapted to this kind of grain.
Culture. - The sowing of buckwheat, even on the lightest soils, must
always be preceded by two ploughings, in order to destroy the weeds. On
account of its sensibility to cold, - the slightest hoar-frost injuring it,the sowing must be deferred till all danger of cold nights is over. The
middle of May is recommended; and, if sown later, it is liable to be
attacked by the white frosts of autumn, before its seed is ripe. The quantity of seed sown on a given extent of ground is about half of that used in
sowing wheat; sowing more thickly is injurious.
The success of buckwheat is considerably affected by the weather to which
it is exposed in the several stages of its growth, - more so, perhaps, than
any other grain. It requires dry weather immediately after sowing, and
springs up during the time of the greatest drought; but, after putting forth
its third leaf, it requires rain, in order that its leaves may be developed
before the appearance of the flower, which soon follows. During the long
time for which it continues in flower, this plant requires alternate rain and
sunshine to facilitate its growth and enable its flowers to set. The flowers
drop off during thunder-storms, or even on the occurrence of electrical phe nomena unaccompanied by rain. Violent easterly winds also cause it to
wither before its flowers are set. After flowering, the plant again requires
dry weather to bring all its seed to maturity at the same time, and insure
an early harvest. The success of buckwheat is therefore somewhat preca rious, depending not only on the general state of the weather throughout
the season, but also on the time of sowing, a week earlier or later often
68
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
making a great difference. By sowing it in three or four different portions,
at different times. a crop may be made sure of. The seed should be simply
covered up with the harrow, and not in furrows, and requires no further
attention than guarding it against the depredations of birds, to which it is
very subject.
Harvesting. - The ripening of the grain is very unequal, for the plant is
continually flowering and setting. It must, therefore, be cut at the time
when the greatest quantity of grain is ripe. It sometimes happens that the
first flowers do not set, or that they produce nothing but barren seeds, des titute of farina, while those which come out later yield better seed. But
the grain will ripen, and even the flowers set, while the crop is lying on
the ground after cutting, especially if rain fall. This occulrrence is, therefore, considered favorable.
The produce of buckwheat is, therefore, uncertain. When it is sown
after a corn crop, one good harvest may be expected in about seven years;
in the same interval, three medium and three bad harvests may be expected.
But when sown on land which has been left in repose, or laid down to grass
for a few years, we may reckon upon one good crop out of two.
Uses. - Buckwheat furnishes an important article of food for man. As
a fodder-plant, too, it is excellent, and, when cultivated for this purpose,
may be depended upon as well as any other plant. It may either be given
to cattle as green-meat, or else made into hay. It dries but slowly, but
does not spoil when left on the ground without being turned. The cultivator who wishes to raise it for this latter purpose should choose a year in
which the plant has been particularly successful, in order to obtain a good
supply of seed; this, he will find, will yield him as good a return as any
other. When raised for this use, it may be sown on the stubble of a corn
crop, or, still better, after vetches which have been mown early in the season to be consumed as green-meat.
Another purpose to which buckwheat has been applied, and for which it
appears, from the usual rapidity and exuberance of its growth, peculiarly
adapted, is the ploughing down, to add fertility to the land. This can be
done when the soil is too far exhausted to produce clover for a similar
purpose. It is one of the most economical and convenient manures which
the farmer can employ. A small quantity of seed, costing a mere trifle,
sows a large surface, and gives a great crop. When in flower, first roll,
and plough it in, and it will be soon converted into manure. This crop is
recommended as an effectual destroyer of that frequent pest of the field,
called couch-grass, quick-grass, &c. For this purpose it must be sown as
early in the season as frost will permit, and, as soon as it gets into flower,
69
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
rolled down, and turned under with the plough. Another crop is then
sown on top of the first, and harrowed in; and, if the season be not unfavorable, it will ripen and afford a harvest before frost sets in.
THE POTATO.
Propagating. - The potato may be propagated from its seeds, and it is
in this way that new sorts are obtained; or it may be propagated by plant ing the tubers, in which case plants similar to the old are produced. The
approved practice is either to plant the tuber entire, or cut it into pieces, so
that one eye shall be upon each, the tubers to be planted being those which
were taken up before the stems had begun to decay in autumn.
Varieties.- The varieties of the potato are numerous, the most obvious
distinctions being the early and the late. First: the earliest kind, used by
gardeners, generally termed forced potatoes, and not intended for fieldculture. Second: early kinds, which may be subdivided according to their
order of ripening, as - the Early Shaw, American Early, Early Champion,
and others, being the earliest sorts in cultivation; the Early Red, Cape of
Good Hope Kidney, and the Bread Fruit, an intermediate class. Third:
the later kinds, forming the common subjects of cultivation in the field,
such as the Red Apple, Bedfordshire Kidney, Lancashire Pink, and numerous others. Fourth: those of a large kind, but coarse, as the Late Champion, Ox Noble, and the Surinam.
Soils. - The soils best adapted to the potato are of the drier and lighter
class. In wet clays the return is inferior in quality and productiveness.
Deep, dark peat, often produces large crops; and it is one source of great
value in this plant, that it can be cultivated successfully even on soils of a
peaty character.
Culture and Tillage. - In the common course of farming, potatoes are
cultivated by the plough, but they are frequently, also, and this, in many
cases, with great convenience, cultivated by the spade; thus, in woods in
new countries, in plantations and steep banks inaccessible to the plough, or,
in certain cases, in peat too soft to bear the treading of cattle, the spade may
be beneficially substituted for the plough. Its cultivation, however, upon
he larger scale of farm-culture, must necessarily be performed by the
plough and the working cattle upon the farm.
The potato forms a good preparative crop for any of the cereal or eatable
grains, and it may follow any crop of corn. Sometimes potatoes are planted
upon land newly broken-up from grass; in this way they may be cultivated
beneficially in regard to produce; it is, however, a deviation from the
general rule, that the potato should follow a crop of corn and be succeeded
70
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
by one. As in the case of preparing land for the summer fallow, the land
intended for potatoes is to be ploughed before winter, receiving a furrow of
eight or nine inches in depth. The ploughing should be lengthwise, so as
to keep the ridges dry, and prepare the ground for early tillage in the
spring, at which time, as soon as the other labors of the farmer will allow,
and the land is sufficiently dry, it is to be cross-ploughed, and harrowed by
repeated double turns of the harrow in every direction. The roller also, if
necessary, is to be employed to reduce the soil, and all the root-weeds are
to be carefully collected by the hand, and carried away to be formed into a
compost. The land is next to be ploughed in a direction crossing the last
ploughing; or, rather, the ploughs may cross the field diagonally, because,
as it is always desirable to make each alternate ploughing cross the previous one, and as the next ploughing which forms the drills will be in the
direction of the former ridges, all the ploughings will thus be made to
traverse each other. When this second ploughing is given, the land is to
be again harrowed and rolled, if necessary, and all the root-weeds are to be
industriously collected and removed as before.
The proper manure for the potato is common farm-yard dung, but any
other putrescent manure that can be obtained may be applied. As soon as
the dung is spread along the hollows of the drills, the potatoes are to be
planted. The potato-sets should be cut ten or twelve days before planting
them, by which the cut part acquires a skin or hard surface. The sets are
placed directly upon the dung in the row, about ten inches from one another. The planters, carrying them in baskets, gently place them upon
the dung, directed by the eye, as nearly as possible, at the distance required.
A transverse section of the drills, with the dung and potato-sets placed
upon it, will appear thus:
Fig. 55.
,. ~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
The sets are now to be covered by splitting each drill so that the top of
the new drill formed is immediately above the bottom of the old one, and
this simple series of operations completes the planting of the potato. The
usual period of planting is during the month of April, continued till the
middle of May. The early potatoes should be planted earlier. 4.
In a fortnight or more after planting, the whole field is to be harrowed.
The effect of this tillage is to partially level the ground. When the plants
have got above ground, and appear distinctly in rows, the horse-hoe is to
71
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
pass along each interval; and, following this, the hand-hoers, each with the
common hoe, are to hoe the rows of plants carefully, cutting up all weeds,
&c. After an interval, as a fortnight or more, the horse-hoe, with sidecoulters, is again to pass along the intervals. Immediately succeeding this,
the hand-hoers are to follow as before. This is generally sufficient to clean
the land in an effectual manner, though sometimes, when there are many
weeds, a third hoeing may be necessary. The last operation is raising the
earth to the stems of the plants. This is done by a double mould-board
plough passing once along the intervals, and throwing up the earth towards
each row. A transverse or cross section of the ground will then appear
thus: -
ig. 56.
This, in all cases, completes the culture of the potato, the crop requiring
no further attention until the tubers are ready to be taken up, when ripe,
which may be done with a three-pronged fork, shovel, or a plough with the
coulter detached, in dry weather and before frost.
It has often been recommended to pinch off the blossoms of the late potatoes, so as to prevent the formation of seeds, and to obtain a greater crop.
Uses.- The starch or fecula of the potato may be obtained separately by
simple means. It is perfectly nutritive, but does not undergo the panary
or bread fermentation. It may be mixed with the flour of wheat in a given
quantity, so as to produce good bread.
It may be given in its raw state to nearly all our domestic animals. It
requires merely to be washed, which is done by various simple means. But
although potatoes may be given to live stock in their raw state,- and it is
frequently convenient to give them in that state,- yet various benefits may
arise from giving them steamed or boiled, and in this state they are relished
by every class of domestic animals, affording food in a high degree nourishing. Even the dog will fatten upon them. Steamed potatoes, mixed
with cut straw or hay, may be given to horses of every kind; but it is
observed that steamed food is not generally so good for ruminating as for
72
4t.4
kr
4
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
other animals. To hogs they are given with the best effect; also to poultry,
mixed with meal.
Diseases.- The chief diseases of the potato are the curl, the worm, and
the scab. The curl is indicated by the curling of the leaves, and their consequent diminutive size. To avoid this, seed from newly reclaimed or
mountain land must be used. Using unripe tubers is also said to be a preventative of the disease, and especially such as have not produced seeds.
The worms sometimes attack the tubers in the ground, and greatly injure
them in certain situations; but they may be destroyed by spreading some salt
on the ground before planting. The scab must be remedied by giving good
tillage to the land.
Independently, however, of the curl, and every other known enemy, a
very extraordinary failure has taken place, since 1832, in the potato crop,
extending, in many cases, over entire districts, and, in others, partially confined to portions of particular fields. This is generally termed the potato
rot, and will be found treated at length in Chapter XII.
BROOM CORN.
Varieties. -According to Allen, a distinguished writer on agricultural
subjects, there are four or five species of the broom grass. There are
several varieties, of which the pine-tree kind is regarded the poorest, or the
least advantageous for cultivation; yet, as it is the earliest, being three
weeks earlier than the large kind,- in a short season, when its seed will
ripen, while the seeds of the other kind fail to ripen, this may prove the
most profitable crop. The North river crop is ordinarily the best crop,
being ten days earlier than the large kind, and yields about seven hundred
pounds of brush to the acre - the brush meaning the dried panicles, cleaned
of the seed, with eight or twelve inches of the stalk. The New Jersey, or
large kind, yields about one thousand pounds of brush per acre. The stalks
and seed are large. In good seasons this is the most profitable crop.
Alluvial lands are best adapted for the broom corn, more especially if
warmly situated, protected by hills, and well manured.
Method of Planting.- The broom corn is planted in rows, about two and a
half or three feet apart, so that a horse may pass between them with a plough,
or cultivator, or harrow. The hills in each row are from eighteen inches to
two feet apart, or further, according to the quality of?he soil. The quantity
of seed to be planted is estimated very differently by different farmers. Some
say that half a peck is enough for an acre, while some others plant half a
bushel, and some a bushel, in order to make it sure that the land shall be
well stocked. The rule with some is to cast a teaspoonful, or thirty or
forty seeds, in a hill. The manure at the time of planting should be put
7
73
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
into the hill, and old manure or compost is preferred, as being most free
from worms.
Culture.- The broom corn should be ploughed and hoed three times,the last time when about three feet high, though some hoe it when it is six
feet high, and when they are concealed by it as they are toiling in the field.
The number of stalks in a hill should be from seven to ten; if there are only
five or six stalks, they will be larger and coarser, and if there are about
eight, the brush will be finer and more valuable. In the first hoeing, the
superfluous stalks should be pulled up.
Harvesting.- As the frost kills the seed, the broom corn is harvested at
the commencement of the first frost. The long stalks are bent down at two
or two and a half feet from the ground, and by laying those of two rows
across each other obliquely, a kind of table is made by every two rows, with
a passage between each table for the convenience of harvesting. After
drying for a few days, the brush is cut, leaving of the stalks from six to
twelve inches. The longer it is cut, of course, the more it will weigh; and,
if the purchaser does not object, the benefit will accrue to the farmer. However, the dry stalk weighs but little; if its weight is excessive, the purchaser sometimes requires a deduction from the weight. As it is cut, it
is spread on the tables, still further to dry. As it is carried into the barn,
some bind it in sheaves, which is a great convenience for the further operation of extracting the seed. Others throw the brush into the cart or wagon,
unbound.
Fvg. 57.
a
t
d
Scraping. - The process of extracting the seed is called "scraping the
brush." Two iron horizontal scrapers are prepared, - one movable, to be
elevated a little, so that a handful of brush may be introduced between
them. The upper scraper is then pressed down with one hand, and the
brush drawn through with the other, the seed being scraped off. This is
74
b
c
f
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
the old method. A newly-invented scraper is superseding the old one. It
is an upright instrument, of elastic wood or steel, inserted in a bench of convenient height for the operator. The form (Fig. 57) is as follows: a is a
piece of wood or steel, immovable; b and c are pieces which are elastic,
movable to the right and left at the top, but fastened to the central piece
below. The degree of elasticity may be regulated by wedges in the plank
d andf- wedges in the hole through which the pieces pass. A quantity
of brush is taken in the hand, and brought down upon the top of this instru
ment. As it is forced down and drawn towards the body, it separates the
elastic sticks from the central piece, but their elasticity presses sufficiently
on the brush, so that the seed is scraped off. The advantage of this scraper
is, that both hands may be applied to the brush, instead of only one hand,
as in the other kind, and the elastic power of nature is substituted for the
pressure of one of the hands. The instrument also seems to double the
scraping surface.
Uses.- For the manufacture of brooms it is unsurpassed. The seed is
also used for feeding horses, cattle, and swine. It is ground and mixed
with Indian meal, and is excellent food. It weighs forty pounds a bushel.
MILLET.
Varieties. - There are two kinds of Millet cultivated: the German Millet
(a) and the Cultivated Millet (b). The cultivation required by both is
about the same.
Eg. 58.
soil.-Millet requires a warm, rich, sandy, well-pulverized soil. It
succeeds better when sown after some crop which has been abundantly
75
.I!
! I
11
I
ii 4
cl.
I
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
manured than it does when sown immediately after an amelioration of
undecomposed manure. The soil must be tilled to a considerable depth
for its reception, and ploughed three times, besides harrowing, rolling, and
weeding. It is generally very successful on newly-drained land, provided
it is in good condition, and also land which has been left in repose for
several years; in the latter case, a single ploughing is sufficient, if the soil
is afterwards harrowed, and well broken-up with a roller, before the seed is
put into it.
Sowing. -Millet should be sown in May; a harrow is then passed
lightly over the soil, and, where the ground is dry, a roller must also be
used. The seed must be wholly ripe, perfect, and free from disease.
Culture.- As soon as weeds make their appearance among millet which
is just shooting above ground, they must be eradicated; thorough weeding
is an indispensable operation in the culture of millet.
Great attention is also requisite to seize on the exact time when the plant
attains maturity, especially with common millet, which ripens very
unequally, and is very liable to shed its seed. Those who only cultivate
millet in patches cut off the spikes as they ripen, and carry them home in
sacks; but as this can only be done where this plant is cultivated but little,
the reaping must be commenced as soon as the greater part of the plants are
ripe, and performed in a careful manner with a sickle. The plant must not
be left on the ground in swaths, because, if rain comes on, and it gets wetted,
it sheds its grain. It should, on the contrary, be immediately carried
to the barns, and there threshed, and freed from all impurities and foreign
substances. The grain should then be spread, in very thin layers, over the
floor, and stirred about every day with a rake, until perfectly dry; otherwise, it will become heated and bitter. The straw is tied up, even though
moist, and carried into the air to be dried; if not properly dried, it will
become mouldy on being stacked. This straw is much esteemed as provender for cattle.
Although, when cultivated to any great extent, it is not possible to cut off
the ears separately as they ripen, it is well to gather all those in this manner which are to be used for seed. Grain which ripens thoroughly, and of
which proper care has been taken, shoots up evenly, and produces perfect
plants, free from disease, and especially from smut, which frequently manifests itself in this grain where proper precautions have not been taken.
That portion of millet which is intended for seed should also be preserved
i. a dry and airy place,'and should be threshed when wanted.
76
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
HEMP.
Fg. 69.
&oils. - The soils which produce this article best are those which are
fresh, or which have lain some time in grass or clover. Manuring is not
much practised, clover being used in place of it. Deep, black, putrid vegetable lands, which have a low situation, and somewhat inclined to moisture,
as well as the deep, mellow, loamy or sandy sorts, are well adapted. Mellow, rich, clayey loams do well, and so does old meadow-land.
The preparation of the ground, for sowing the seed, is by the plough and
horses, until the clods are sufficiently pulverized or dissolved, and the surface of the field is rendered even and smooth. Scarcely any other crop better
rewards diligence and careful husbandry. Fall and winter ploughing
is practised with advantage - it is indispensable in old meadows, or old
pasture-grounds.
Culture.- Plants for seed are ordinarily reared in a place distinct from
that in which they are cultivated for the lint. The seeds intended to reproduce seeds for the crop of the next year are sowed in drills about four
feet apart. When they are grown sufficiently to distinguish between the
male and female stalks, the former are pulled and thrown away, and the
latter are thinned, leaving the stalks separated seven or eight inches from
each other. The male plant alone blossoms, and, when agitated, throws
off farina, a yellow dust or flour which colors the ground, or any object
with which it comes in contact. A few of the male plants had better be
left, scattered through the drill, until the farina is wholly discharged, for an
7*
77
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
obvious reason. Between the drills a plough is run sufficiently often to
keep the ground free from weeds and grass, and between the stalks in each
drill the hoe is employed for the same object. The seed plants are generally cut after the first smart frost, between the middle or last of September and the middle of October, and carried to a barn or stackyard, where
the seeds are easily detached by the common thrail. After the seeds are
threshed out, spread them on a floor, to cure properly and prevent their rotting, before they are finally put away for use the next spring. The seeds
- whether to reproduce seeds only, or the lint - are sowed about the same
time, which time depends on the season, though it is generally agreed that
all the month of May, and about the 10th of it especially, is the most favorable time.
When the object is to make a crop of hemp, the seeds are sown broadcast.
The usual quantity is a bushel and a half to the acre, though some use
more. When the seeds are sown, they are ploughed or harrowed in;
ploughing is best in old ground, as it avoids the injurious effect of a
beating rain, and the consequent baking of the earth. It is also beneficial
afterwards to roll the ground with a heavy roller.
Gathering. -After the seeds are sown, the labors of the cultivator are
suspended until the plants are ripe, and in a state to be gathered - everything, in the intermediate time, being left to nature. If the season be favorable until the plants are sufficiently high to shade the ground, (which they
will do in a few weeks, at six or eight inches height,) there is a strong
probability of a good crop. When they attain that height, but few articles
sustain the effect of bad seasons better than hemp.
It is generally ripe and ready to be gathered about the middle of August
varying according to the time of sowing. Some sow at different periods, i t
order that the crop may not all ripen at the same time, and that a press
of labor, in reaping it, may be thus avoided. The maturity of the plant is
determined by the evaporation of the farina, already noticed, and the leaves
of the plant exhibiting a yellowish hue; it is then generally supposed to be
ripe, but it is safest to wait a few days longer.
Two modes of gathering the plants are practised, -pulling and cutting;
the latter is now generally preferred. When pulled, it is done with the
hand, which is better for the protection of an old leather glove. The
laborer catches twenty or thirty plants together, with both hands, and, by a
sudden jerk, draws them without much difficulty. The operation of cutting
is performed with a knife, often made out of an old scythe, resembling a
sickle, - not so long, but broader. This knife is applied much in the
same way as the sickle, except that the laborer stoops more. But, whether
pulled or cut, the plants are carefully laid on the ground, the evener the
i
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROP.
better, to cure, which they do in two or three days, in dry weather. When
cured, the plants are set up in the field in which they were produced, in
shocks of convenient size, the roots or butt-ends resting on the ground, and
the tops united above by a band made of the plant itself. Previously to
putting them up in shocks, most cultivators tie the plants in small hand
bundles. Before the shocks are formed, the leaves should be rapidly
knocked off, with a rough paddle or hooked stick. The shocks are collected
together and formed into stacks, which are sometimes permitted to remain
over a year.
Rotting. -Two methods of rotting are practised - the dew-rotting and the
water-rotting. When dew-rotted, the plants are usually spread down from
the middle of October to the middle of December. A farmer who has a
large crop on hand puts them down at different times, for his convenience in
handling and dressing them. Autumnal rotting is more apt to give the lint
a dark and unsightly color than winter rotting. The best ground upon
which to expose the plants is meadow or grass land. The length of time
they ought to remain exposed depends upon the degree of moisture and the
temperature of the weather that prevail. In a very wet and warm spell,
five or six weeks may be long enough. To determine whether they have
been sufficiently rotted, a handful is taken and broken by the hand or applied
to the brake, when it can be easily ascertained, by the facility with which
the lint can be detached from the stalk, if it be properly rotted. If the fibres
remain on the ground too long, they lose some of their strength, though
a few days longer than necessary, in cold weather, will do no injury. If
they are taken up too soon, that is, before the lint can be easily separated
from the woody part of the stalk, it is harsh, and the process of breaking is
difficult. Snow-rotting, that is, when the plants, being spread out, remain
long enough to rot, (which, however, requires a greater length of time,)
bleaches the lint, improves the quality, and makes it nearly as'valuable as
when water-rotted.
Breaking and Dressing.- After the operation of rotting is performed,
the plants are again collected together, put in shocks or stacks, or under
some covering. Breaking and dressing are best performed in February and
March; and the best sort of weather, frosty nights, and clear, thawing
days. The brake cannot be used advantageously in wet or moist weather.
The usual daily task of an able-bodied hand at the brake is eighty pounds
weight, though this depends on the weather and the condition of the stalks.
The quantity of net hemp produced to the acre is from six hundred to one
thousand pounds, varying according to the soil and the season. It is said
that the quantity which any field will produce may be anticipated by the
average height of the plants throughout the field. Thus, if the plants will
79
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
average eight feet in height, the acre will yield eight hundred weight of
hemp, each foot in height corresponding to a hundred weight of the lint.
Hemp exhausts the soil slowly, if at all; and nothing cleanses and prepares
the earth better for other crops than hemp, especially for small grain or
grasses. It eradicates all weeds, and, when it is taken off, leaves the field
not only clean, but smooth and even.
FLAX.
Varieties. - The most important species of this plant - the only one forming the subject of cultivation -is the common flax, which has been applied
to the making of cloth from time immemorial.
F/g. 60.
&its.- The soils best suited to the growth of flax are those which contain a large proportion of vegetable matter in their composition. Strong
clays do not answer well, nor soils of a gravelly or dry, sandy nature. If
the soil be too much enriched by the application of manures, the flax will
grow too luxuriously, and produce a coarse fibre; and if it be deficient in
fertility, the produce will be scanty and unremunerative. Soils of the alluvial
formation are peculiarly adapted; also land having a black, mossy surface, or
what is called gray land, and where the lower part of the soil is clay, resting
on a retentive subsoil. Crops of flax of considerable value have often been
reaped from land on which the produce of oats was inferior.
In the preparation of the soil for flax, it is of importance that it should be
reduced to a fine tilth, and be free from weeds. When the previous crop
has been grass, a single ploughing only is given, which is to take place early
in winter; when the period of sowing arrives, the land is to be well har
so
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
rowed, to prepare it for seed. When flax succeeds a corn crop, the land is
also ploughed early. Two ploughings are generally required in the spring.
Cutlture. -In the culture of flax, the broadcast system is universally
adopted, and, after sowing, a double turn of the harrows is given to cover the
seeds. In most cases it is advantageous that the whole should be rolled,
and, in damp situations, water-furrowed. When it succeeds any of the
green crops, the grass-seeds and clover-seeds are sown at the same time as
the crop. In this case the preparation of the land is easy.
The period of sowing is in the month of April or May. The quantity of
seed sown will depend, in some measure, on the object in view in cultivating
the plant. When the quality of the fibre is regarded rather than the quantity,
thick sowing is advisable; but if it be intended to save the seed of the crop
for the purpose of reproduction, it should be sown thin, in order that the
plants may have room to throw out their shoots, and to have free access of
air in the blossoming and filling seasons. Three bushels of seed may be re garded as the proper quantity; but if fine fibre must be produced, an
additional quarter of a bushel may be added; when the seed is regarded, two
bushels or two and a half may be sufficient to the acre. The quality of flax seed is easily ascertained, and it is important that every farmer should be a
judge of the different kinds. That which is fresh and proper for sowing
should be smooth, slippery, bright, plump, and so heavy as to sink in
water; it should also taste sweet, and, on being broken, it should appear of
a light yellowish-green color, and oily.
The after culture of flax is chiefly confined to weeding.
Gathering. -The state of ripeness at which the crop is to be taken up
depends on the object in view in its cultivation. If to produce seeds, then
a degree of ripeness is essential greater than when the quality of the fibre
is the desideratum. In the latter case, it is well to pull the flax when it is
somewhat green; in the former case, the state of ripeness is denoted by the
seed vessels becoming hardened, the stems assuming a yellow hue, and the
leaves beginning to fall. When the seeds are not intended for sowing again,
though intended to be saved for consumption on the farm, the best period of
pulling is shortly after the plants have attained maturity with respect to the
formation, but not to the full ripening of the seeds. Flax should never be
pulled when it is in the least degree damp; and, when it is pulled, the
greatest care should be taken to sort it, keeping every kind by itself. When
pulled up, the plants are bound into sheaves or bunches, binding with the flax
itself.
Rippling.- In the process of rippling, which is the next operation, a
large cloth should be spread upon the ground, with the ripple placed in the
centre of it. The rippling machine (Fig. 61) is an instrument like a comb,
F
81
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
with iron teeth, fixed upon a plank. The flax is separated into handfuls, and
then drawn once or twice through the teeth of the machine, and thus the capsules or seed-vessels are separated. These capsules or pods should be spread
in the sun to dry; and those seeds which separate from the pods without
bruising are the best and ripest, and may be set apart for sowing. The
capsules are then broken, either by treading or threshing, and the seeds
carefully winnowed and cleaned.
F,. 61.
Watering.- The next process is the separation of the fibres from the
stem by steeping the flax in water, by which the softer part partially undergoes the putrefactive fermentation; the best water being that which is clear,
soft, and in standing pools. The bunches of flax should be built in the
pool in nearly an upright position, the root-ends being uppermost. They
are kept under water by means of stones. When the flax is properly
watered, it will sink in the pool, and the fibres will separate freely from the
stalk. In warm weather, eight or ten days will sometimes be enough, and
only a few more, in any case; but, if the fibres adhere to the stem, so as to
be separated with difficulty, it must be continued in the water longer.
When sufficiently watered, it is taken out of the pool; and when drained, is
taken to a grass field, and spread thinly over it in rows, lying on the grass
not more than eight or ten days, and, when brittle, is taken up and again
bound into sheaves or bunches, and then left till thoroughly dry, when they
are sent to the mill, or carried home, or stored till wanted.
Uses.- Besides the fibre of the plant, its seed is of considerable importance, being highly nutritive, and beneficial to every species of animal. It
is given in the form of a jelly, mixed with various other matters. Given to
calves, it is an excellent substitute for milk; to horses and cattle it may be
given, mixed with bruised oats, bran, or cut hay, and straw; but when
intended for cattle, the chaff need not be separated from the seeds, but be all
boiled together.
LUCERN.
Description.- This plant has a perennial root, and grows, when cultivated, from a foot and a half to two feet high, and more. It is covered with
82
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
leaves, downy below, and slightly so on the upper surface; bears a flower
of a fine purplish violet, and flowers in June or July.
IV. 62.
Soil.- The soil adapted to its growth is deep, and of the lighter class,
with a free or kindly subsoil.
Culture and Tillage. -Two methods of raising this plant have been
recommended and practised. The one is sowing it broadcast, in spring,
sometimes along with a corn crop, in the same manner in which clover is
sowed, and sometimes without a crop; and the latter is the better practice,
lucern not being suited to grow freely under the shade of other plants. The
other method is, cultivating it in rows. Lucern, like other cultivated
forage plants, gradually gives place to the grasses and hardier plants.
When cultivated in rows, and carefully hoed, these native plants can be
kept down, and the lucern preserved for a long period in the ground. But,
when sown broadcast, this cannot be done in the same degree, and the
lucern does not generally endure beyond nine or ten years. This is the
main advantage which the row system possesses over the broadcast, in the
cultivation of this plant. The best period of sowing lucern is about the
middle of April. When sown broadcast, the quantity of seeds to the acre
may be sixteen or eighteen pounds; when sown in rows, ten pounds.
fhe soil should be well prepared, by deep ploughing, and a previous
summer fallow, or fallow crop, such as potatoes, turnips, or carrots. But
when it is wished merely to possess a few acres of lucern for the convenience
of soiling, it is better to have the ground deeply trenched, and well manured.
When drilled, the rows need not be more than eighteen inches apart, which
will give room for tilling the intervals by the horse or hand hoe. After
83
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
the seeds are sown, care must be taken to keep down, by means of the hoe,
all weeds that spring up amongst the plants and in the rows. In the month
of August of the first year, when in flower, the crop may be mown, and, after
this first cutting, the shoots may be kept down, by a slight pasturing with
sheep, but not while the soil is wet, nor continued till a late period. Early
in the following spring, the ground is to be horse or hand hoed, so that all
weeds may be kept down, and the earth stirred about the roots of the plants.
In the month of May the crop will be ready for the first cutting. After
being cut, it is to be horse-hoed in the intervals. It will now grow very
rapidly; and, when ready for cutting, is to be cut again, and, after each
cutting, hand-hoed. In this manner it may be mown four or five times in
the season. It does not, however, arrive at its full growth till its third year,
after which it will yield rich and early foliage. But it requires to be manured
at intervals, as every fourth or fifth year; the manure may be farm-yard
dung, spread upon the surface after the last cutting in autumn, or early in
spring. When the system of broadcast is adopted, the difference in the
method of tillage is, that, in place of horse and hand hoe, the common harrow is used, which, passing over the surface, stirs the soil about the roots of
the plants, and drags up and destroys weeds; the lucern itself, having a strong
root striking downwards, is not torn up by this rough treatment, but is
benefited by the stirring of the soil around its roots and stems.
Uses.- This plant is eminently wholesome and nutritive. It is well
suited for milch cows, causing them to yield good and abundant milk, and is
perfectly adapted to the feeding of horses, which is one of the most common
purposes to which it is applied. It may be used with the like advantage for
the soiling of any kind of stock, and is valuable for the early feeding which
it supplies, being in this respect considerably before the clovers.
SAINFOIN.
Description and Habits. -This is a deep-rooted plant, with a branching
stem, bearing spikes of beautiful flowers. It grows wonderfully on rocky
soils, stretching its roots to a prodigious depth amongst the crevices of rocks
and open strata. It is, in truth, on dry rocky soils that the chief advantages
of the cultivation of sainfoin are seen. Like lucern, although in a lesser
degree, it is choked, and ultimately extirpated, by the prevalence of the
grasses; but in a soil perfectly suited to it, as in a chalky down, it will
have a duration, perhaps, as long as any other plant. Although best
adapted to the limy soils, it will also grow upon any light soil which has a
free or open subsoil; but on moist clays it will only last a few years, - some
times not above two.
84
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
Clture. - Sainfoin may be sown with a crop, in the same manner as the
tlovers and grasses. In the following season, it may be mown for hay or
green forage, although it does not attain its full maturity until its third year.
When this mode of management is adopted, the sainfoin should be mixed
with one or more of the clovers, the most suitable being white clover, which
will add to the weight of the produce, without materially interfering with
the growth of the sainfoin. It should be sown broadcast, rather than cultivated in rows, and the seeds should be of a good and tried kind, perfectly
fresh.
E'. 63.
It does not bear such frequent cutting as lucern. When used for soiling,
it may be cut twice; when used for hay, it should be cut once, and the
after-math depastured. It may be used for herbage as well as for forage,
and many farmers prefer depasturing it in the first year, so that in the
second it may have attained its full growth before it is mown. When made
into hay, it should be cut just when it comes into full flower. It is not very
apt to be injured by heating, and therefore may be put up more quickly than
other hay plants.
If ground is to be mown for successive years for forage, then, on such
soils as are suited to it, it is a good crop, being easily grown, hardy, and
productive. Such a mode of cultivation, however, cannot be commended.
When sown merely to produce one crop of hay, and then to be depastured for
such a period as may be thought suited to the nature of the soil, it answers
well; but in this case it is recommended that it be sown with a proportion
of white clover and rye grass.
8
85
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
THE TARE.
Description. -This is an annfiual plant, hardy, and comprising several
varieties, one of which is distinguished by producing yellow seeds. The
FW. 64.
varieties are chiefly two, the winter and spring tare, in choosing between
which, everything must depend on the intention of the crop. If the object
is to have early feed, the winter variety is to be preferred; but where the
land is foul, and requires to be two or three times ploughed in spring, or
where a late crop is desired, or a crop for seed, then the spring variety will
generally deserve the preference.
Soil. -The best adapted is a clay, but they will grow in any rich soil,
not over dry. In a moist climate, the haulm grows so luxuriant as to rot
at bottom; and in one over dry, it is deficient in length. A dry season is,
on the whole, preferable.
Preparing the Soil. - This seldom consists of more than one ploughing,
if for autumnal sowing; and of a winter and spring ploughing, when to be
sown in spring.
Time of Sowing. - The winter variety is sown in September and October, and the first sowing in spring ought to be as early as the season will
permit. The mode of sowing is mostly broadcast.
Culture.- The quantity of seed to an acre is from two and a half to three
and a half bushels, according to the time of sowing, and whether they are to
be consumed green or left to stand for a crop. When intended for seed, less
is sown than when grown for soiling or drying the haulm.
86
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
CLOVER.
Varieties. - There are three principal varieties, - Dutch clover, purple
clover, and cow-grass, the most approved kind being the common red or
broad clover, which is extensively cultivated in the United States, some
F-g. 65.
times alone, and occasionally with other grasses. With timothy it makes
hay of a very excellent kind. especially for neat cattle.
Culture.- The seed is usually sown with winter wheat or other grain
crops, late in February or in March, whilst the ground is still subject to
freezing and thawing, and the seed can thus gain admission into the soil.
Or it may be sown with the oat, or other spring or summer crop, in which
case, having the advantage of being harrowed in, it can generally be sown
with even greater success than when put with a crop of winter grain. Too
little seed is generally applied, the quantity required being from ten to fourteen pounds per acre.
Clover is frequently turned under in the fall, to enrich the ground preparatory to a crop of wheat, or in the ensuing spring for the benefit of Indian
corn. The best time for turning down is in the rankest and most juicy
stage of its growth. Being a biennial plant, clover, of course, leaves the
field after the second year, unless allowed to seed itself. When timothy
has been sown with it, it obtains possession of the field, where it is generally allowed to remain two or more years longer, affording the richest of
all kinds of hay for horses, although for neat cattle the mixture of red clover
and timothy is generally preferred.
Clover hay, when fed unmixed to horses, often produces a cough. This
can always be removed by substituting timothy for a few weeks, after which,
87
I
FARMER'S HAND-BOON.
the feed may consist of half clover and half timothy, with little or no danget
of producing cough. When the clover hay is fed from large troughs or
mangers, instead of racks above the head, horses escape the cough.
The first year's growth of clover is sometimes mown for hay and sometimes pastured, and the second crops devoted to hay and furnishing seed.
When the second crop is pastured in spring, the stock must not be turned
on before the ground has become so firm that hoofs will not sink into the
sod, nor until the growth is such as to enable the cattle to thrive. The
pasturage may be continued from the middle of April or first of May, for
about six weeks, when the cattle are to be withdrawn, and the second crop
allowed to go to seed for saving.
The common practice of spreading clover hay from the swath causes the
leaves and blossoms to dry and crumble before the haulm or stems are sufficiently cured. In this way, either the finer parts of the hay are lost, or
the crop is housed with so much moisture as to cause it to heat, and often
to spoil. It should only be spread when it has become wet with rain in the
swath, and should be gathered again before the leaves dry and crumble.
Both these evils may be avoided, and labor saved, by curing the grass
wholly in swath and cock. The clover should be left to wilt in the swath,
and when partially dried, either to turn the swaths or to make grass-coks
the same day, so as to secure the dried portions from the dew. These
grass-cocks are allowed to stand one, two, or three days, according as the
weather is, and as the curing process has progressed, when they are
opened at nine or ten o'clock on a fair day, the hay again turned over
between eleven and three, and, soon after turning, gathered for the cart.
Some care is required in making the cocks. The grass is collected with
forks and placed on dry ground between the swaths, in as small a compass
as possible at the base, say two or three feet in diameter, and rising in a
cone to the height of four or five feet. The advantages of this mode of
curing clover are - 1. The labor of spreading from the swath is saved.
2. The labor of the hand-rake is abridged, or may be wholly dispensed
with, if the horse-rake is used to glean the field when the hay is taken off.
3. It prevents, in a great measure, injury from dew and rain; for these
cocks, if rightly constructed, (not by rolling,) will withstand a rain of some
days, without heating, or becoming more than superficially wet. 4. Clover
hay made in this way may almost invariably be housed in good condition;
and, if rain falls after the grass is mown, the quality of the hay is much
superior in cocks to what it would be under the old process of curing.
Many prefer mowing the clover before it gets very ripe, as then so much
of the seed would not be shaken off during the operations of curing, removing, &c. As the hay of the seed-crop is seldom considered of much value,
88
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
except for litter and manure, it is frequently left long in the field to become
thoroughly dry, so as to insure it against heating in the mow or stack, as
this would be far more injurious to the seed than exposure to weather.
Besides mowing the seed-crop in the usual manner for hay, several other
methods have been devised. The one most usually resorted to in Pennsylvania is the employment of a scythe and cradle to cut off the heads, which
are caught by a kind of bag attached to the lower fingers, the rest being
removed. Or, the upper fingers being removed, the lower ones may be
placed sufficiently close to catch the heads. Many contrivances are in use
for gathering the heads in the field.
In getting the seed from the heads, it has been common to employ the
flail; and, to clear it from the husk and chaff, recourse has been had to a
clover-mill, worked either by water, steam, or horse power.
The old method of threshing out clover-seed by the flail, or by the tramping of horses, has been generally regarded as very tedious and disagreeable;
so much so, indeed, as to have discouraged most farmers from attempting to
gather the seed at all; but the introduction of threshing-machines has obviated all difficulty of this kind.
THE GRASSES.
Varieties.- The species of grass which may be regarded as most valuable
in our meadows arfd pastures are: - 1, Meadow or green grass; 2, Timothy; 3, Orchard grass; 4, Meadow fescue; 5, Blue grass; 6, Ray
grass; 7, Red-top; 8, Sweet-scented vernal grass. These, among the
almost infinite varieties, are considered about the most valuable
First, - Meadow or Green Grass, also called Spear or June Grass, highly
esteemed for hay and pasture. It is a native variety, and abounds through
8*
I
89
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
the country, but does not perfect itself north of the Ohio valley. It with
stands the frost, and prefers a warm, dry, limy, or rich upland soil.
Second, - The Timothy, Cat's Tail or Herd's Grass. For the Northern
States this is unsurpassed, flourishing in all soils except such as are wet,
F-. 67.
too light, dry, or sandy; is easy of cultivation, hardy, and very productive
For milch cows and young stock, it should be cut while it is juicy. May
be sown upon wheat or rye, in the spring or early fall.
Third, - The Orchard Grass, or Cock's Foot, a native variety, well suited
Pi. 68.
9fhi
to good arable lands. Should be cut before wholly ripe, and be fed closely
Will grow in all parts of the United States.
Fourth,- The Meadow Fescue; likes a rich, boggy soil, is quite produce
90
I.-.
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
tive and forward, the grass being of a kind much relished by cattle, either
green or hay.
Fifth, -The Blue Grass, or Flat-stalked Meadow; an early dwarfish
grass, growing in the Middle and Northern States. It is hardy, but is
more valuable for pasture than hay.
Sixth, -The Ray Grass, or Rye Grass; extensively grown in some parts
fi. 70.
of Europe, but does not do so well in this country, except in elevated and
humid districts.
Seventh, -The Red-top, Herd's Grass, Foul Meadow, or Fine Bent; a
native perennial variety, valuable for hay and pasture, on lands adapted to
its growth, which are reclaimed swamps and other moist grounds. This
91
. 69.
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
grass and timothy are fit for the scythe about the same time, and, there
fore, fit to be sown together.
Eighth, -The Sweet-scented Vernal Grass. This is a foreign perennial
grass, of dwarfish habit, sown principally on grounds intended for pasture,
.ig. 72.
on account of the very early feed it affords, and for its growing quick atet
being cropped. It is delightfully fragrant.
ig. 73.,
In addition to the preceding varieties, there is the Pony Grass (Fig. 73),
which is considered one of the best winter grasses for the Western States
92
. 7 1.
I
I i
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
It grows in close, thick, elevated tufts, and continues green through the cold
season.
Lands Alternately in Grass and Tillage.- In laying down lands to grass,
the most important primary object is duly to prepare them for the reception
of the seeds. The soil ought to be brought into the highest possible degree
of fertility; for, although land may be too rich for the production of some
crops, it is quite otherwise in the case of grass. Besides being rich, the
land should also be well pulverized by tillage; otherwise, the irregularity of
the surface will not only occasion an irregularity in the produce of the crop,
but it will be liable to be damaged by excessive droughts, before the plants
can have extended their roots, or become firmly settled in the land.
The time of sowing the seeds of the cultivated grasses depends on the
nature of the land, the state of the weather, and the kind of crop amongst
which they are sown. When sown with corn, the seed-time is invariably
in the spring. The autumn is preferable when they are sown exclusively
by themselves. This practice has been recommended, in the case of laying
down lands to permanent grass, as being calculated to afford a thicker and
better sward. The value of the grass crop is, no doubt, in some degree,
affected by the exhaustion of the soil occasioned by the production of the
preceding crop of corn, but not in a degree commensurate with the latter;
besides, the period in the rotation at which the smaller seeds should be
sown is immediately after the land is manured, and, in this case, the severity of the corn crop is felt. After being sown, the seeds quickly germinate,
and, in favorable situations, they will have attained a considerable height
before the commencement of the corn harvest; and when the corn is cut
down close to the ground, they are cut and winnowed with the straw, and add
considerably to the value of the latter for fodder. After harvest, the ground
may be slightly pastured with calves and sheep; throughout the winter the
land is to remain untouched. In the succeeding spring, clear the land of
93
Fig. 74.
PFARMER'S HANI)D-BOOX.
stones, and afterwards the surface is to be raked to break down the stubble
of the preceding crop, and further to prepare the land for the action of the
scythe towards the first of June. When, however, the crop is set apart for
pasturage, the earliest and richest herbage is to be obtained in the second
year.
Soiling. - When the practice of soiling, or cutting the crop and consum ing it in a green state, is pursued, the part containing a large quantity of
the clovers should be chosen, while that in which the grasses predominate
may be made into hay. The crop may be cut for soiling earlier than for
hay. Soiling is in many cases advantageous; in others, it is not. Certain
animals do not thrive unless enjoying the air and exercise attendant on pasturage, and, in most cases, a portion of the farm is unavoidably in pasture,
as, for instance, grass land in the second and third year. Soiling and
depasturing may be somewhat combined by turning animals out to the
pastures during the cool parts of the day, and feeding them in the house
towards noon.
Haying. - The portion of the crop which is not cut for soiling is made
into hay. The period when the crop should be cut down, when intended for
hay, is just when the plants have attained their full size; and the flowers,
which just then are coming on, should not, in any degree, have begun to
fade before the crop is cut down. The plants are laid in swaths by the
action of the scythe, and as soon as these are dried on the top, they are
completely turned over by a fork in such a manner as not to break or spread,
and these swaths may be put into cocks in the evening, which are afterwards made into ricks or conveyed to the stack. When not dry enough to
be carried from the small cocks to the stack, it must be formed into large
cocks or ricks in the field, there to stay until fit to be stored in a larger
stack. In forming the stacks, a layer of straw is usually spread over the
bottom, or stand, and the hay is then regularly spread and trodden down,
observing to keep the middle of the stack well raised. In this manner, it is
carried up to the height of several feet, projecting slightly to the eaves, so
as to overhang the sides, to guard the lower part from rain. The roof is
then raised to a considerable height in a slanting form, with gable ends;
and, being thus formed, the loose hay which projects from the sides and
ends of the stack is pulled, until all is smooth and regular, and the stack is
then bound down with ropes. Salt, in small quantity, is sometimes strewed
upon the hay, as the building of the stack proceeds, to stop fermentation and
ender the hay palatable. Immediately after the hay is removed from the
field, cattle may be turned in for several days. The length of time which
the land is afterwards continued in grass depends on the course of cropping
practised on the farm. According to the alternate husbandry, it cannot be
94
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
longer than one or two seasons, for, under any circumstances, it is not good
management to keep land more than three years in grass. The revolving
horse hay-rake is in extensive use, and is highly commended.
Lands Permanently in Grass. - The management of lands of this de.
scription is somewhat different from that of grass land merely interposed in
the course of cropping of arable lands, to prevent the exhaustion of the
nutrient parts of the soil consequent upon incessant tillage. From the short
period which the land is, in the latter case, in grass, manure is seldom
applied to the surface, though often indispensable in the former. Various
other operations are also performed to remedy those defects which are
natural consequences resulting from lands being long kept in grass. Such
lands naturally divide themselves into two classes -those fit either for
mowing or pasture, and those fit for pasture only.
Perennial Grass Lands fit for Mowing, or Mfeadow Lands.- Under the
term meadow are included all such lands as are kept in grass chiefly for the
sake of the hay crop, though occasionally, and at particular seasons of the
year, it may be depastured. The value of the natural meadow depends
much on the situation, as well as on the quality, of the land. There are
three descriptions of these meadows; those on the banks of streams and
rivers, those on the uplands or more elevated grounds, and bog meadows.
The meadows situated along the banks of rivers and streams are, in general, by far the most valuable, and should never be converted into tillage.
The principal defects to which such lands are liable are the oozing out of
the springs towards their junction with the higher grounds, and the over
95
Fig. 75.
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
flowing of the stream or river; the former evil is to be remedied by drain.
ing, and the latter by embanking.
Upland meadows require more attention than valleys and holms, being
more difficult to drain, and requiring frequent manuring. The roots of
grasses never strike deep into the soil; and thus, deriving their nourishment
chiefly from the surface, the utility of top-dressing is obvious. The irregular surface of uplands is frequently much injured by superfluous moisture,
and the surface is generally covered by inferior herbage and by mosses, the
remedy for these being simply a course of tillage.
Boggy land is generally least valuable. When thoroughly drained, the
culture of herbage plants is about the most profitable way of occupying it.
When under tillage, its cultivation is very difficult; but when so far
improved as to warrant its being laid down in grass, large crops may be
obtained at comparatively small expense.
More than one crop is rarely obtained from the natural meadows. The
time of cutting the crop is later than that of the cultivated meadow, the
proper time being just before the formation of the seed. After being cut,
the grass is allowed to remain for a short time in the swath, and is then
scattered evenly over the surface of the ground. If the weather be fine, the
grass is soon formed, with the rake, into what are called wind-rows, which,
after standing a few hours, may be formed into cocks of small size, by
simply grasping a quantity of the grass, which had been previously shaken
in a heap, and placing it on a part of the surface that has been raked. The
next day these cocks are again spread abroad, then formed into wind-rows,
and again put into cocks, of a larger size, in the evening. In a day or two
these will be ready for putting into ricks, if the weather be fine; if it be
not, a much longer time may be required, and the cocks will have to be
again shaken out and re-formed into larger, before the hay is ready for the
rick.
In certain situations, the raising of hay on the natural meadow will be
found the most simple and economical way of occupying such lands as are
suited to it. Frequent manurings are, however, essential to their productiveness, the best manure being composts of lime, to be applied in the spring.
Permanent Pastures. - The drainage of lands permanently in grass
greatly improves them. Cuts are made along the hollows of the field,
which convey the water to the most convenient outlet, and small drains,
formed either by a plough or spade, open into them. These need not be
more than a foot deep, though numerous, especially in hollow places.
Having removed the surface water, the tendency to rot will be removed.
Weeds, shrubs, and mosses, should be thoroughly removed, which can be
done by the hand, the plough, by draining, and by a course of tillage.
96
THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS.
Lime applied to the surface of grass lands, either alone or combined with
other matters, is beneficial, after superfluous moisture has been removed.
When, from frequent rolling and the treading of animals, the surface of
grass lands gets into a tenacious state, scarifying will go far to remove the
evil. This operation is quite useful before any top-dressing is applied.
The time of stocking pastures in spring must depend on the season; and
the state of growth which it is desirable the plants should attain before
being stocked must, in some degree, be determined by the condition and
description of the animals to be employed in consuming the herbage,whether they are only in a young state, or approaching to fatness,- whether
milch cows or sheep, or a mixture of animals of different species. The
great objects to be aimed at are, that the stock, of whatever kind it may be,
shall be carried forward faster or slower, according to the object in view,
and that none of the herbage shall be wasted.
9
.
97
a
CHAPTER III.
THiE KITCHEN GARDEN.
VEGETABLES: - ARTICHOKE - ASPARAGUS - BORAGE - BEAN - BEET - BORECOL
- BROCCOLI - CABBAGE - CARDOON - CARROT - CAULIFLOWER - CELERY -
CHIVE - CORN - CORN-SALAD- CRESS - CUCUMBER - DANDELION -EGG-PLANT
- ENDIVE - GARLIC - HOP - HORSE-RADISH - LEEK - LETTUCE - MOREL -
MUSHROOM - MUSTARD - ONION - OKRA - PARSNIP - PEA - PEPPER - PUMP KIN - RADISH - RAPE - RHUBARB - SALSIFY - SCORZONERA - SEA-KALE -
SHALLOT - SKIRRET - SPINACH - SQUASH - TOMATO - TURNIP. HERBS, &C.:
- ANISE - BALM - BASIL - CARAWAY - CAMOMILE - CORIANDER - CHERVIL
- DILL- FENNEL - FOXGLOVE - HOREHOUND - HYSSOP- LAVENDER LIQUORICE- MARJORAM- MINT- PARSLEY- PENNY-ROYAL- PEPPERMINT -
PURSLANE - ROSEMARY-RUE - SAFFRON-SAGE - SAVORY - TANSY - THYME;
- WITH A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS.
I. VEGETABLES.
ARTICHOKE. - There are only two or three varieties of this plant cultivated, the Globe and the Green. The heads, in their immature state, and
before their blue, thistle-like flowers open, are cut and boiled in salt and
water, the edible part being the fleshy substance on the bottom of the scales,
which, to be relishable, has to be dipped in a nicely-prepared sauce of
butter and spices, though it is frequently eaten as a salad in a raw state.
Culture, Sc. - The artichoke is propagated from seed or from offsets.
If by the former, sow the seed in rows a foot apart, as soon as the frost is
out of the ground. Thin the plants to a foot apart, in the row; and, in the
fall of the year, put out the plants in clumps of four, in rows three feet
apart, and the rows six feet asunder. They will produce their fruit the
next year. When winter approaches, earth the roots up well, and before
the frost sets in, cover all well over with litter. Open it at the breaking
up of the frost, dig all the ground well between the rows, and level the
earth down from the plants. The young ones, or offsets, which grow out
from the sides, must be pulled off; and, if a new plantation is wanted, they
may be set out, and will bear late the same year.
ARTICHOKE (JERUSALEM).-This is a small sunflower, with nutritious
~ubers, less in size than potatoes.
..*.
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
Culture, Sc.- It is usually propagated by sets from the roots, in April,
and grows in any soil which is moist, sandy, and light. It is cultivated like
the potato. When raised for its tuber, it is liable to become troublesome,
from the germinating power of even the smallest piece left in the soil. It
keeps in the ground all winter, or may be preserved under sand. In the
Middle States it thrives well. It yields from 150 to 200 bushels of roots,
which are eagerly devoured by swine, and, when steamed or boiled, are quite
palatable.
ASPARAGUS. - There are two principal varieties, the purple-topped and
,he green-topped, the first-named being generally preferred.
Culture, 4c. - In the making of asparagus-beds, a proper soil is the
first thing needed -one not too wet, nor too strong, nor stubborn, but moderately light and pliable, and well manured. The situation should be one
exposed to the sun, ranging east and west. The seed may be sown from
the middle of February to the middle of April,- usually about the last of
March. Plant five or six inches apart, one inch in depth, putting two seeds
in each hole, or sow in drills made the same distance asunder. When the
weather is dry, water the beds moderately; also destroy all weeds. Towards the end of October, as soon as the stems are wholly withered, cut
them down, and spread them over the ground mixed with dung. The next
spring, every other plant must be transplanted into a bed, twelve inches
apart, if it is intended that they should attain another, or two years' further
growth, before being finally planted out; or, they may be planted immediately in the beds for production. Many gardeners judiciously sow the seed
in beds where they are to remain for production. The best time for the
final removal is the end of March, if the soil be dry and the season forward.
The beds for regular production should be three feet wide; the usual practice is to trench the ground two spades deep, and then cover deep with wellrotted manure. Growing asparagus in single rows three feet apart, giving
no dung in winter, merely clearing off the stalks and weeds in the fall, and
pointing over the surface about two inches deep with a fork, leaving it
rough as possible, is a mode highly commended. In the spring, when the
surface is quite dry, it is raked down, and about two inches of soil drawn
over the crowns from each side of the rows. When the gathering is nearly
over, the ground is stirred again, to loosen the tramping made in gathering
the crop. The hollow between the little ridges is then filled up with a
powerful compost, and the whole is then drenched with liquid manure.
This is summer cultivation.
In May, or early in June, the beds are in full production of young shoots,
which, when from two to five inches high, are fit for cutting, and as long as
the head continues compact and firm. Cut carefully. The seed is usually
99
..;,...
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
ripe in September; collect it; and, when the pulp and husk decay, clean
the seed with water, and then dry it.
Forcing.- In forcing asparagus, such plants may be inserted in hot-beds
as are five or six years old, and are of sufficient strength to produce vigorous shoots. To plant old shoots for the main forcing crop is, however,
erroneous. The first plantation should be made about the first of October,
and, if it works well, will begin to produce in the course of four or five
weeks, and continue to do so for about three. The hot-bed may be made in
the usual way, and topped with six inches of light rich earth, and kept at
about 60~ in the day time, and never below 50~ at night. In planting, a
furrow is drawn the whole length of the frame; against one side of it the
first row or course is to be placed, the crown upright, and a little earth
drawn on to the lower end of the roots; all round on the edge of the bed,
some moist earth must be banked close to the outside roots.
The foliage of this vegetable is liable to be destroyed by the larva of two
beetles, and the only remedy is to pick off and destroy the affected parts.
BORAGE. -Its fresh leaves are boiled for a dinner dish, or are used in
salads. It is aromatic, and therefore sometimes used to flavor wine.
Culture, fc.- A very fertile soil is not necessary; a light and dry
one is best suited. It is propagated by seed, sown in March or April, in
shallow drills, half a foot apart. Transplanting is but little advantageous
or necessary.
BEAN. - The best varieties are the Early Dwarf, Early Mazagan, and
the Early Long-pod, the Broad Windsor, and the Dutch Long-pod. The
first is early, the second is later, the third is very prolific, the fourth is large
and well-flavored, and the fifth best suited for a late crop. The bean comes
up in a week, ten days or a fortnight.
Culture, sac. -The times of sowing, and the situation, for the earliest
crops, are the same as for the pea. The seeds may be deposited in drills, an
inch and a half or two inches deep, covered and pressed down. It is sometimes customary to plant beans in the same rows with cabbages, and also
with potatoes; a bean being planted alternately with every potato-set, or
cabbage-plant. All the routine culture consists in destroying the weeds,
slightly earthing up the stems, stirring the soil, and watering in very dry
weather. A very late crop may be obtained by cutting over a summer crop,
a few inches above the ground, as soon as the plants have come into flower.
New stems will spring from the shoots in abundance, and continue bearing
till frost.
The Kidney Bean includes the common dwarf (our bush bean), growing
twelve or eighteen inches high, and the runner growing ten or twelve
feet. For the dwarf sorts, the first sowing may be made in the beginning
100
:-!....,,..
I' I'
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
of April, the second about the middle of the month, and after that till along
towards August. The rows may be two feet asunder, and the beans depos
ited in drills from two to three inches apart, and covered to the depth of
one to one and a half inches. The routine culture consists in watering in
dry weather, where that operation is practicable, and using lime-water, if,
which is often the case, the plants are attacked by snails or slugs.
The twining sorts, being rather more tender than the dwarfs, are not
sown until later in the season. If the soil is in good condition, and the
culture thorough, one sowing in May will produce plants which will continue bearing, from the middle of June, till the plants are destroyed by the
frosts; but the green pods should be gathered before the seeds formed in
them begin to swell. The rows should be in the direction of north and
south, should be at least four feet apart, and the beans should be placed in
shallow drills, three inches asunder, and covered about two inches with soil.
Where the plants come above ground, they may be slightly earthed up, and,
in another week, when they begin to form runners, they should be sticked
with branches or rods, of six or eight feet in length. In many cases, the
scarlet runner may be planted where it will not only produce excellent
crops, but afford shelter or shade to a walk, a grassplat or a cucumber-bed.
Where sticks or rods are scarce, wires, or even twine, may be substituted,
and in this way the scarlet runner may be trained against wooden walls,
pales, or other fences, or made to cover walls. The following (Fig. 76)
FEg. 76.
Re... _~._
is a good mode of arranging thread or cord for the support of scarlet run.
ners. Take half-inch and two-inch wide laths or rods, join them at the top
so as to leave the ends a few inches beyond the junction, and stick th
9*
101
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
lower ends into the ground, just within the lines of the plants. Connect
these triangles by similar rods at the bottom, about three inches above
the soil. Take a cord, fix it firmly to the lower bar, carry it over the upper
bar, which is placed in the cross formed by the long ends left, as seen in the
figure. Make a loop a yard long, carry the cord again over the plank (that
is around it), and fix the other end to the lower rod on the other side. In
like manner, go on through the whole length, making the loops all of the
same length, and through these suspend a long stick or bar (the section of
which is shown at the right hand), and to this bar hang bags of sand, as
many as may be wanted. Train the plants up the strings, and when they
are well grown, the whole will be covered; and when in flower, the appearance will be very fine. By this method, the cords, being fixed at the lower
bars, will not pull the plants out of the earth, the tension and contraction of
the cords being counteracted by the bar suspended in the loops, which is
raised or lowered by every change of atmospheric moisture. Very abundant
crops, however, may be obtained without any resort to staking, by merely
stopping the plants after they begin to form pods.
For general cultivation, the Early Mohawk, Early Six-Weeks, Early
Valentine, Yellow Six-Weeks, Late Valentine, and the Lima, are highly
thought of, and very extensively grown in this country.
BEET. - Among the more common and useful varieties of this vegetable
are the French Sugar, or Amber, Mangel- Wurtzel, Green, Yellow Turnip
rooted, Early Blood Turnip-rooted, Early Dwarf Blood, Early White Scarcity, Long Blood Red.
Culture, dc. - Sow beets from the early part of May until June, in
drills about three inches apart, thinned to ten or twelve inches in the row.
For early use, a small bed of the early turnip-rooted may be sown as soon
in the spring as the ground can be fitted for the seed, and these will give
good roots in June or July. For fall or winter use, or for general crops,
beets should not be sown too early, for such, if suffered to stand, become
stringy and fibrous, and not unfrequently shoot up to seed.
A rich, deep soil, is best for the beet, and for all top-rooted plants; and
they should, after thinning, be kept free from weeds. They should be
gathered before severe frosts occur, and may be pitted or put in cellars for
winter use. The thinning of beets must be done while they are young, and
the young plants are excellent for greens.
Within a few years the culture of the sugar-beet has received much atten.
tion in this country, not only for the purpose of sugar-making, but on am
count of its being one of the most valuable roots grown for the feeding of
animals during the fall, winter, or spring months.
The ground should be prepared by deep ploughing or harrowing, until it
102
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
is fine. Open two furrows with the plough two feet apart, and put in a suf ficient quantity of manure, according to the state of the ground; cover the
dung with the plough by throwing a furrow of earth upon it, ridging as
high as can be well done; level the surface of the ridge over the dung, tak ing care that there is a full proportion of earth over the manure for the seed
to vegetate in. Sow with a drill or by the hand, and complete the process
by rolling.
To Keep Beets.- To preserve beets during the winter, put them in a dry
cellar, with dry sand between them, taking care to expose them a day pre vious to the air, to carry off the moisture. In quantities, they may be pre served out-of-doors as follows: Take them up three weeks before the hard
frost comes, cut off their leaves, let them lie two or three days upon straw or
boards; then lay a little straw upon the ground, and, in a fine, dry day, place
ten bushels of beets - those that are good - upon it, in a conical form. Put
a little straw smoothly over the heap; then cover the whole with six or
eight inches of earth, and place a green turf on the top, to prevent the earth
from being washed by rain from the point, before the frost sets in. The
whole heap will freeze during the winter, but the frost will not injure the
beets.
BORECOLE.- The main varieties are Green Scotch Kale, German Curled,
Purple, Jerusalem, and Thousand-headed Cabbage. The last two grow to
four feet, and yield large numbers of sprouts.
Culture, 4-c. - Sow the seed in May; plants are set out in July. They
are better when touched slightly by the frost, and may be kept in the same
manner as cabbages, during winter. The stocks, in spring, send out numerous tender shoots; and one ounce of seed will produce nearly four thousand
plants.
BRoccoLi. -This vegetable is similar to the cauliflower in growth,
appearance, and flavor, but it is cultivated more easily, and is more certain
to head.
Culture, fc. -The Early White and the White Cape are considered
superior, but the Purple Cape is the kind most cultivated. The seeds of the
last are sown towards the end of May, in the Middle States, and later for
winter supplies. In July, or when the plants are large enough, transplant
into very rich, dunged, and mellow earth; plant eighteen to twenty-four
inches apart each way, moisten the earth frequently with liquid manure,
and hoe and keep clean during their growth. If attacked by the "Black
Fly," a solution of brown or soft soap is good to destroy them.
CA BBAGE. - This is one of the most ancient and useful of all the cultivated
vegetables.
Culture,,c. -The best soil is a strong, rich, substantial one, more
103
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
clayey than sandy, though it will grow in any soil, if it be well worked and
manured. They are grown either from hot-bed plants, or from seed in the
open ground. If the seed of the earlier sorts has been sown in a hot-bed,
they will be ready for removal when two or three inches high. In this
case, as soon as the season will permit, prepare a bed, by digging out the
ground a foot deep, four feet wide, and to as great a length as the extent of
your operations will require. Fill this up with dung, cover with earth to
the depth of four inches, and set your plants upon it in rows four inches
apart, and two inches apart in the row. Water them lightly, and, if convenient, shade them for a day or two, and shelter them at night.
In the open ground, put your seed rows at six inches distance, and put the
seeds thin in the row; when up, thin them to three inches in the row, and
when two or three inches high, in order to perfect them, they may be taken
from the seed-bed, and put into fresh-dug, well-broken ground, at six inches
apart, every way. This is called pricking out.
Where their distances will allow, it is better to dig between the cabbages
once or twice during their growth; and all the larger sorts should, about
the time that their heads are beginning to form, be earthed up.
Varieties.- The varieties of cabbage are numerous. The earliest is the
Early Dwarf, then the Early Sea Green, then the Early York. The Sugar
Loaf, a sweet and rich variety, comes in in July and August. For winter
use, the Dwarf Green Savoy is much esteemed. For Drum Heads or other
large kinds, sow and transplant same as the Savoy. The Red Cabbage is
treated in the same manner as the Green Savoy.
To keep Cabbages. - To preserve cabbages through the winter, lay out a
piece of ground four feet wide, and as long as the quantity to be preserved
may require; dig on each side of it a small trench, a foot deep, and throw
up the earth on the four-feet bed, the top of which should be made level and
smooth. Lay some poles or rails at a foot apart lengthwise upon the bed,
then put some smaller poles, or stout sticks, across, on the rails or poles,
putting these last at five or six inches apart. Upon these lay corn-stalks, or
twigs, or brush, not very thickly, but enough so to cover all over. Then,
just as the frost is about to set in, take up the cabbages, knock off the. dirt
from their roots, take off all dead or yellow leaves, and also some of the outside ones, put the cabbage-head downwards upon the bed, with the roots
sticking up, and cover them nearly up to the root with straw. Do not pack
them so that they will touch each other much; and secure the straw from
the operation of the wind. Out of this stack the cabbages may be taken
green and good in the spring, when the frost breaks up, and from this stack
a supply may be obtained through the whole winter.
Diseases. - The diseases of the cabbage consist of clubbing of the roots
104
Is
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
which arises from worms, and is produced by growing them too long in one
locality; lice, which are destroyed by infusion of tobacco, lime-dust, and
salt; and cut-worms and slug,s, which should be caught and destroyed before
sunrise, - or soot, tobacco, lime, &c., should be worked in about the roots
with a trowel.
CARDOO.N. -This is a species of artichoke, comprising some half a dozen
principal varieties.
Culture, Sc. - The stalks of the leaves being thick, fleshy, and crisp,
are blanched, and used for salads, soups, and for stewing. Sow about the
last of April, in deep, light, moderately rich soil, in trenches about six
inches deep, twelve wide, and four feet apart, from centre to centre. Drop
three or four seeds together, at intervals of eighteen inches, and when they
come up, thin them out to single plants. Water frequently in summer, and
in a dry day, about the end of October, commence the operation of blanching,
by tying up the leaves with twisted hay-bands, after which earth may or
may not be heaped around them, in the manner of earthing celery, according
as they are to be used early or during winter.
CARROT. - There are several varieties of carrot, among which may be
enumerated the Early Orange, Early Horn, and Altringham, for the table;
and the Long, Lemon-colored, Blood-red, and Large White, for larger crops.
Other varieties are also highly thought of.
Culture, rfc.- The general culture is the same as that of the beet,
requiring a deep soil, well manured and worked. The main crops should
not be sown earlier than the middle of May, - though some may be sown a
month earlier,- as early carrots, like early beets, are apt to throw up seed
stalks, which render the vegetable worthless. For extensive culture, the
earth may be thrown into ridges two and a half feet apart, manure spread in
the furrows, and the ridges split and thrown back upon the manure, and the
seed sown on the top of the ridges, after partial leveling. A light rlling is
useful, to press the earth about the seed. The carrot will vegetate sooner,
and come forward more rapidly, if the seed, previously to sowing, is mixed
with sand or sandy loam, and kept moist until it begins to germinate, when it
must be sown and at once covered. The plants should be about four or five
inches apart in the rows, kept clear, and will be fit to gather late in the fall.
They may be preserved by being buried in sand, or in a cellar, but must be
kept secure against frost.
CAULIFLOWER.- This is an improved variety of the cabbage, the flowers
constituting a compact and delicious mass. The varieties cultivated in this
country are the Early White, Late White, and Purple.
Culture, Sc. - For spring eating, sow about the middle of September.
Prepare the ground by opening small trenches, and dig in some earth in good
105
FAFRMER'S HIAND-BOOK.
compost, to receive the plants. When of a proper size, the plants should
be pricked out in a careful manner, and for them the warmest part of th6
garden should be selected. Being very tender, they should always be put
under glass in severe weather. They should not, however, be covered until
the weather is severe, and in the mean while the hoe should be frequently
used between them, in order to keep the earth dry about their stems. Too
much covering weakens them. From their beds they may be planted out
in rows, like cabbages, only at rather greater distance, and taking care to
move a little earth along with them, about the middle of spring.
CELERY. - Of this vegetable there are the White, the Red, the Hollow,
and the Solid, the Hollow White being considered the best.
Culture, Tc.- Sow about the middle of April, in a rich, moist soil; if
not rich, make it so by mixing in fresh vegetable mould, or short, well-rotted
manure. Dig deep, and rake it fine and smooth. The seed should be sown
liberally all over the surface, and beat the bed evenly and firmly with a
clean spade; then sift on a covering of a quarter of an inch of earth, and it
will vegetate as soon as cabbage-seed.
In the operations of after-culture, when either the plants left in the seedbed, or those removed, are from six to twelve inches high, or when the
latter have acquired a stocky growth, by four or five weeks' nurture in the
intermediate bed, transplant them into trenches for blanching. For this
purpose, allot an open compartment. Mark out the trenches a foot wide,
and from three to three and a half distant, and dig out the trenches a foot
wide, lengthwise, and six or eight inches deep. Lay the earth dug out
equally on each side of the trench, put about three inches of rotten dung into
the trench, then pare the sides, and dig the dung and parings with an inch
or two of the loose mould at the bottom.
Trim the tops and roots of the plants, and then set them in single rows
along the middle of each trench, allowing four or five inches distance from
plant to plant. Give the plants water, from time to time, and let them be
shaded till they strike root and begin to grow. When eight or ten inches
high, draw the earth up to them, in dry weather, taking care not to bury
the hearts; repeat the earthing once in ten days, till the plants are fit for
use.
CHIVE. - This is used as an excellent substitute for young onions in
spring salading. A single row, a few yards long, will supply a family.
Culture, -c. -A light, moderately rich soil, is preferable. Plant in
Slay or June, in rows eight or nine inches apart, and four or five in a row.
Plant off-sets from the bulbs, keep free from weeds, and in autumn they will
appear in large bunches, which may be dug and stored for winter.
CORN. - This useful plant has been fully treated in the preceding chapter,
106
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
as one of the heavy or field crops. There are, however, two or three
varieties used expressly for the table, which may be appropriately noticed
in this place. These varieties are Adams' Early, Sweet or Sugar, and
Early White Flint.
Culture, -fc.- Sow in hills about three and a half feet asunder, from
about the last of April to the first of July. The land should be rich, and
each hill manured, and only two or three stalks in a hill; the side-shoots
or suckers should be removed, and the land should be well dug and hoed.
CORN SALAD. - This is also called Lambs' Lettuce, and is raised for
winter and spring salads, for which purpose it has long been known.
Culture, tc.- It will flourish in any soil not very heavy, and is propa gated by seed sown in the spring, in drills six inches apart, or broadcast
and raked in. Should always be eaten when young.
CREss.-There is the Garden Cress, or Pepper Grass, the Indian Cress,
and the Water Cress. The first is well known.
Culture, cc. - Garden Cress requires a moist soil, and, if possible, a cool
situation. The Indian Cress must be sown in April, in a good strong soil,
in rows three inches apart, with sticks upon which the plants may climb.
The fruit is full-sized in August, when it is taken green and pickled in
vinegar. The Water Cress is a creeping, amphibious plant, cultivated
along streams, in rows, about eighteen inches apart. It is prolific, hardy,
may be often cut, and is of an agreeable flavor.
CUcUMBER. -The most noticeable sorts are the Early Short White
Prickly, Long Early Frame, Manchester Prize, Kerrison's Long White
Spine, and the Long Prickly. The growth of the first-named is four to six
inches, sea-green color, forces well; the second-named grows from six to
ten inches, is a good bearer and fine variety; the third grows sometimes to
a prodigious length, dark-green color, and superior as respects quality and
productiveness; the fourth is similar to the third-named; the fifth grows
about ten inches, and is a great bearer.
Culture, Tic. -For open air raising, cucumbers should be planted in
hills about four feet apart, early in May; those intended for pickling may
be planted later. Before planting, prepare the ground by mixing wellrotted manure with the earth of each hill. Two or three plants are enough
to a hill. The seed should be sown about half an inch deep; the plants
must be kept free from weeds, and in very dry weather they should be
watered. Some allow the plants to take their own course; others shorten
the stem by pinching off the buds; while others bury the runners at short
distances, and thus obtain new roots from the buried joints.
To have cucumbers earlier than by the ordinary way, make a hole under
a warm fence, and put some hot dung in it. On this put six inches of
107
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
fine, rich earth, and sow some seeds in it. Cover at night with a carpet,
mat, or other article. When the plants come up, and before they show the
rough leaf, plant two in a flower-pot, or small tub, or pail; or let the seeds
be originally planted in such as these, or, what perhaps is better, in some
large turnips, scooped out and filled with earth for the purpose. The first
pots may be put into a bed prepared for them, and covered as before, where
they are to stand until cucumbers sown in the natural ground come up,
when they may be turned out with the ball of earth and planted. Or, if
planted in turnips, put the whole into the ground, and then treat the plants
as if originally sown in the open ground. In this way the fruit may be had
much earlier than usual.
Forcing.- To force cucumbers, begin ten weeks before the fruit is
needed. The Short Prickly, Long Green, and White Spines, are preferred
for this purpose. The seeds should be two or three years old, and should
be sown in pots placed over a warm bed. Apply tepid water, and take care
that no cold air enters the frame. When the second leaves are expanded,
transplant into larger pots; place three together. When one month old,
carry to the fruiting-bed. The latter is made on a dry spot, with fresh
dung, well turned and forked, and four feet high. As soon as the bed is
settled, and in regular fermentation, add six inches of fine mould, and if it
remains mellow, it will answer; but if fire-fanged, or caked, more will be
necessary. The mould should be hilled to within eight inches of the glass
frame, and set three plants from the pots in it, transplanting with the ball
of earth; these are enough for one frame. Use warm water to them, and
darken until they are well rooted. The temperature should be from seventy
to eighty degrees, -the steam being allowed to escape as it rises. As the
heat lessens, add fresh dung outside, cutting away the old. Form a bank,
two feet wide and one foot high, against the back of the frame. Give the
plants air and water in the morning. As the roots enlarge, add fresh,
good mould.
Enemies.- The striped bug eats the young foliage; the flea-beetle, a
small, black insect, destroys the small plants, as also does the squash-bug,
a large insect, with brown upper wings and orange belly; the black worm
cuts down the young plants, and can only be caught in the morning, as it
retires into the earth during the heat of the day. Several species of aphis
annoy the plants. The large insects must be caught in nets or with the
hand; soot, tobacco-water, solution of whale-oil soap, infusion of wormwood, Mayweed, pennyroyal, and slacked lime, are all used with advantage.
Some allow hens to run among the vines.
DANDELION.- This is a hardy plant, growing spontaneously in this and
other countries, and much used as a wholesome table-green.
108
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
Culture, (-c. -It may be propagated either by seeds or roots, in a
moderately well-prepared soil. The flowers may be cut off as fast as they
appear, to prevent the dispersion of the seed and weakening the plant.
EGG PLANT. - There are two varieties of this plant, the white-fruited
and the purple, the latter kind being preferable.
Culture, -c.- It may be raised by sowing the seed on a slight hot-bed,
the beginning of April, or in March; and towards the latter part of May
they should be planted in a rich, warm piece of ground, at the distance of two
and a half feet asunder, every way, for the purple, or two feet for the white
kind; and if kept clean, and a little earth be drawn up to their stems, when
about a foot high, they will produce plenty of fruit. Or, the seed may be
sown about the end of April, on a warm border, and planted out finally the
beginning of June.
ENDIVE. - This is a salad plant, of which there are two sorts, the Curled
and the Plain, the last being the best for use. It is the same as Chicory.
Culture, -fc.- The soil most favorable to the endive is a light, fresh,
moist loam. It is sown in drills a foot apart; when the plants come up,
they must be thinned to a foot apart in the row. Hoe the ground fre quently, and keep it clean between the plants. Before using as a salad, it
must be bleached, by carefully gathering the leaves with the hands into a
conical form, and tying them with matting or soft string. This must be
done in dry weather, when the plants are of good size, and they will be fit
for use after they have remained in the tied state about a fortnight, and
will keep till spring. The time of sowing for the spring is as soon as the
weather will permit; for the winter, about the last of July or first of
August.
GARLIC.- This vegetable has been in use for a long time. It has a very
pungent odor. The varieties cultivated are the large and the small.
Culture, tic.- It is grown by planting the small bulbs, or root, in drills
two inches deep, six inches apart, and four inches from plant to plant, early
in the spring, on light, rich ground. It should be well hoed. The bulbs
attain their full size about the first of August, when the leaves wilt.
Hop. - Perhaps our account of this plant should have been included in
the preceding chapter. Under all the circumstances, however, we concluded to give it its present place, believing such an arrangement the best
one, on the whole.
The hop is a perennial-rooted plant, with an annual twining stem. The
female blossom is the part used, and the female plant is the only one cultivated. The male (a) plant and the female (b) are both represented in
Fig. 77.
Culture, -fc. - The soils most favorable are clays, and strong, deep loams,
10
109
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
with a dry and friable subsoil. In preparing it, the weeds should be wholly
destroyed, and the ground well pulverized. The ridges should also be made
.-. 77.
a_
level, and dung liberally applied. The most effectual preparation is trenching, either by the plough or by manual labor. The mode of planting is
generally in rows, making the hills six feet distant from each other, this
distance giving a free circulation of air, and admitting the sun's rays unobstructed. The planting season is in February or March; but if bedded
plants, or such as have been nursed for one summer in a garden, are used,
then, by planting in autumn, some produce may be had in the succeeding
year. When root sets are used, as on the occasion of grubbing up an old
plantation, October is the right time. The plants or cuttings are procured
from the old stools, and each should have two joints or eyes; from the one
which is placed in the ground springs the root, and from the other the stock
or bind. They should be made from the most healthy and -strong binds,
each being cut to the length of five or six inches. Those to be nursed are
planted in rows a foot apart, and six inches asunder, in a garden, and the
others at once where they are to remain.
After-culture.- The after-culture of hops, besides the usual processes of
hoeing, weeding, stirring, and manuring, includes earthing up, staking,
and winter dressing. Hoeing may be performed with a horse implement;
stirring, though usually done with a three-pronged fork, may be done with
a plough; manuring is either with well-rotted stable dung, or compost,
either in spring or fall. Some spread the manure between the rows, others
lay it on the hills. It would seem, however, that the best time was the
spring, and then it should be turned under by the plough. Earthing up is
performed the first May after planting, whether that operation be performed
110
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
in spring or autumn. In dressing the hop plants, the operations of the first
year are confined to twisting and removing the haulm, to which some add
earthing up in autumn. The yearly operation of staking or setting the
poles commences towards the end of April, or at whatever period, earlier
or later, the shoots may have risen two or three inches. Two or three
stakes are usually put to a hill. Tying the shoots or vines to the poles is the
last operation in the after or summer culture.
Taking the Crop.- Taking the crop is a most important operation. The
time for picking varies; light soils and dry situations are earliest; even in a
yard of a few acres, situated on a side-hill, the highest ground is often ready
for picking some days before the lower; and sometimes, from the poverty
of the land, the middle, or, it may be, the lower part, is ripe first. In
commencing picking, too much care cannot be taken in gathering those first
that are ripe, and not picking those that are largest, as is often the case.
The time of picking may be known by their change of color, from a deepgreen to a light-yellow tinge. If they have seeds, the hop ought to be
gathered as soon as the seed turns brown; but the certain indication of
picking-time, to those who are familiar with the plant, is when the lupulin,
or small globules of the bright yellow resin, are completely formed in the
head of the hop, at the bottom of the leaves, and the leaves are readily
rubbed from the stem. The lupulin, or flowers of the hop, as it is commonly
called, is the only valuable part, and if gathered too early, before it becomes
perfect turpentine, it soon dissipates and loses its fine aromatic flavor, and
all its medicinal qualities. Hence, gathering hops too soon is a total loss,
and instead of imparting a palatable, pleasant flavor, and giving its fine
tonic balsam to ale, they are unquestionably an injury, and ought not to be
used; and if gathered too late, the lupulin drops out, and the hop is of no
value; but the experienced cultivator takes the medium, - commences when
the hop is first ripe, has everything prepared -his hands, kilns. baskets,
bagging, &c. Five or six days ought to finish the process of picking and
curing, if his yards ripen about the same time. The hop should be picked
clean, without leaves or stems, and, if possible, without dew on them; nor
pressed too close, nor put in too large quantities, before going on the kiln,
or they will heat.
Drying.- With regard to drying, no rule can be given for the thickness
they ought to be spread on the kiln, or even for the length of time necessary
to dry them. A skilful operator is the only safety in this process. Care
ought to be taken that the kiln draws well, as much depends on its draft;
the steam should not be allowed to fall back on the hops, and must pass off
freely. Preparatory to putting the hops on the kiln, it must have a fire put
in, made perfectly dry, and fumigated by burning brimstone, to take away
ill
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
all the bad smell; and when perfectly sweet, a layer of hops put on, say
eight or ten inches deep, and this may be increased or lessened as the operator finds the draft. The time used in drying will also depend on the
quantity of hops on the kiln, and on the draft,- say from eight to sixteen
hours; but they must not be removed from the kiln until the core or stem
is crisp and well dried; they must then be put upon a floor, and occasionally
turned, until the leaf becomes tough, when they are ready for bagging.
The fuel used for drying must be of the sweetest kind, and perfectly charred;
and the best is beech, birch, hickory, or maple. Pine may not be used
under any circumstances, nor any brimstone, only as before directed. When
the fire is once put into a kiln of hops, it must never be permitted to slacken
or go out, until they are dried. The fire should never be so hot as to burn,
or leave the least taint of fire on them.
Assorting. Hops should be carefully divided into three equal parts or
parcels,- the first, second, and last pickings. If six days are consumed in
picking, let the hops of the first two days, the third and fourth days, and
the last two days, be kept separate, bagged and marked; each parcel will,
by this method, be more valuable to the brewers, and enhance the price
of those that should thus be brought to market, if skilfully picked and
cured.
The scorching or burning the hops on the kiln is a serious injury, and
should be carefully guarded against during the process of drying.
HORSE-RADISH.- This plant is cultivated for its roots principally.
Culture, c. It thrives on any soil tolerably good, but prefers a deep,
mouldy, rich and mqist soil. If manure be necessary, vegetable substances
are the best for that purpose. It is propagated from seed and sets, the
latter obtained by cutting the main root and offsets into lengths of two
inches; the tops or crowns of the roots form the best, those taken from the
centre never becoming so soon fit for use, or of so fine a growth. Each set
should have at least two eyes, for without one they refuse to vegetate. The
dest time for planting is in October, for dry soils, and in February, for moist
ones. The sets must be inserted in rows eighteen inches apart each way.
The ground should be trenched between two and three feet deep, the cuttings being placed along the bottom of the trench, and the mould turned
from the next one over them, or inserted to a similar depth. The shoots
make their appearance in May or June. The only culture required is to
hoe and rake the ground, and destroy the weeds. In taking up the roots,
it should be done regularly, instead of a root here and there, as is often
practised.
LEEK. -This is a vegetable which, for certain purposes, is used as a
112
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
substitute for the onion. The variety most esteemed is the London Tall,
or Musselburg Flag.
Culture, f c.- The culture of the leek is similar to that of the onion,
only it requires more water. Put the rows eight inches asunder, and thin
the plants to three inches apart in the row. Hoe frequently between the
plants until the middle of July, then take them up, and cut their roots off to
an inch long. Make trenches for them like those of celery, only not more
than half as deep, and half as wide apart. Manure the trenches with rotten
dung, or other rich manure. Put in the plants as you do celery plants, and
about five inches asunder. As they grow, earth them up by degrees, as you
do celery; and at last you will have leeks eighteen inches long, under
ground, and as thick as your wrist. Three leeks planted out for seed will
ripen in August, and be enough for the next year.
LETTUCE. - This is a hardy annual plant, comprising many varieties,
of which the following are among the best: Brown Dutch, Large Indian,
White Silesia, Green Hammersmith, Early Cabbage or White Butter, Royal
Cape, Grand Admiral, Mag,num Bonum Cos, Brighton Cos, Ice Cos, White
Cos, and Green Cos. The cabbage lettuces are round-leaved, growing in a
compact, full head, of squat form, close to the ground. All the Cos lettuces,
in their general growth, are more or less upright, of an oblong shape.
Both kinds have white, close, firm heads, when in perfection; the varieties
reach maturity from June till September.
Culture, sac.- All sorts grow freely on any rich, mellow soil, where the
subsoil is dry. Raise it on beds set apart for it, keeping the varieties sep arate; but, to multiply the supplies throughout summer, portions may be
sown, thinly intermixed with principal crops of leeks, onions, carrots, and
spinach, which will come off before the lettuces are fully grown. Sow
from February to July, for the main summer or autumn crops. For an
early crop, sow in the beginning of February, on a gentle hot-bed; and
when the plants are one or two inches high, in March or April, prick a
portion either into a warm border, or else let them be shielded with mats,
during nights and bad weather, transplanting to a slender hot-bed, to bring
them more forward. According to their progress in April or May, transplant them into the open garden, from six to twelve inches asunder, to
remain for heading.
MOREL. -This is a species of mushroom much esteemed in Europe.
Culture, 4sc. -It is seldom that morel undergoes a regular process of
garden culture, though this may be done by collecting the spawn in June,
and planting in dung-beds or ridges. It grows on wet banks, in the woods,
and in moist pastures, and should be gathered when dry. Used to flavor
gravies, &c.
10* ~~~~H
113
10*
H
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
. Fi. 78.
MUSHROOM. -This plant grows spontaneously and very luxuriantly, anc
numbers several varieties, some of which, however, are very poisonous.
Eig. 79.
Culture, d-c. - In some parts of Europe, the mushroom is cultivated with
great care and pains-taking, in hot-beds and otherwise. In this country it
is not much raised artificially, and none but those familiar with the different
species should collect the article at all, on account of the great resemblance
between the good and the poisonous kinds. The edible mushroom has a
grateful flavor. The crown or hat is at first hemispherical, then convex, and
at last flat, fleshy; about two to five inches broad; white, or very light
brown, slightly scaly, the scales soft and fibrous; gills pink, changing to
brownish black; the flesh, when divided, changes generally to a reddish hue.
MUSTARD.- There are two species of this plant in cultivation, the Black
(a) and the White (b). They are annuals.
Culture, fc. -In cultivating white mustard, for spring and summer
consumption, sow once a week or fortnight, in dry, warm situations, in
February and March, and, afterwards, in any other compartment. In sum
114
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
mer, sow in shady borders, if it be hot, sunny weather. Generally, sow in
shallow, flat drills, from three to six inches apart; scatter the seed thick
Fig. 80.
and regular, and cover in thinly with the earth, about a quarter of an inch.
To furnish gatherings in winter or early in spring, sow in frames or under
hand-glasses, and when the weather is frosty, or very cold, in hot-beds.
This species is cultivated chiefly as a small salad, and is used like cresses,
while in the seed; when these are newly expanded, they are mild and
tender, but when advanced into the rough leaves, they eat rank and disagreeable. In many parts, the seed of the white species is preferred for
mustard, giving a whiter and milder flour than the black. It is also used
medicinally, cleansing the stomach and bowels, and bracing the system at
the same time.
The black mustard is chiefly cultivated in fields for the mill. It must be
sown in April, in drills, from six to twelve inches asunder, or broadcast,
and rake or harrow in the seed. When the plants are two or three inches
in the growth, hoe and thin them moderately where too thick, and clear
them from weeds. They will soon run up in stalks, and in August return
a crop of seed ripe for gathering.
ONION. -The best varieties are the New England White, Large Red,
Yellow or Silver-skinned, Yellow Dutch, Strasburgh or Flanders, and Madeira,
the Yellow or Silver-skinned and Large Red being the best for a general
crop, and the New England White for the table and pickling.
Culture, ~c. -For a general crop, the ground should be well prepared
by digging in some of the oldest and strongest manure that can be got.
Plant in April or May, sowing the seed moderately thick, in drills one inch
115
4
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
deep and twelve inches apart. When the plants are up strong, they should
be hoed, and three times during the early part of their growth. Those beds
that are to stand for ripening should be thinned out, while young, to two or
three inches apart. When the greenness is gone out of the tops of onions, it
is time to take them up, for from this time the fibrous roots decay. After
being pulled, they should be dried, and then removed to a place of shelter.
The small onions may be planted in the following spring. Even an onion
which is partly rotten will produce good bulbs, if the seed-stems be taken off
as soon as they appear. Most of the varieties are propagated by seed. The
potato onion, however, does not produce seeds, but increases by the root.
One onion, slightly covered, will produce six or seven in a clump, partly
under ground. The bulbs are generally planted in the spring, twelve to
eighteen inches apart, though they are apt to yield better when planted in
autumn, as they will survive the cold, if covered with dung, litter, &c.
OKRA.- This plant is not much in general use in this country. There
are two varieties, the large and the small podded or capsuled.
Culture, ac. -It may be sown, with certainty of success, at the time of
planting Indian corn. Draw drills about an inch deep, and four feet asunder,
into which drop the seeds at the distance of eight inches from one another,
or rather drop two or three in each place, lest one should not grow, and
cover them an inch deep. As they advance in growth, earth them up like
peas, and they will bear well.
PARSNIP.- The choice sorts of this vegetable are the Guernsey or Common, and the Sugar or Hollow-Crowned, the latter being the best garden
variety.
Culture, f c. - Like the carrot and beet, the parsnip requires a light, rich,
dry soil, and the sooner the ground is prepared in the spring, and the seed
put in, the better the roots will be, as a long season is necessary to their
perfection. Sow the seed in drills, the same as carrots, and left, in thinning,
eight inches apart in the rows. They must be kept clean by frequent hoeings, and in the autumn are fit for use; but as they improve in quality by
being exposed to the frost, and will remain in the earth without injury, those
intended for spring use are left in their beds, and are usually found in a fine
state in the spring months. The seed of this plant vegetates with some
difficulty, and in a light, dry soil, should have the earth pressed upon them
with a roller immediately after sowing.
PEA. -The varieties of this useful and nutritious plant most commonly
cultivated for market and garden use are the following: Extra Early, Early
May, Early Frame, Early Charlton, Bishop's Early Dwarf, Blue Marrow,
Woodford Marrow, Sugar Pea, Knight's Dwarf Marrow, New Mammoth,
Early Washington, Early Double Blossom, and Early Warwick.
116
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
Culture, fc.- Sow as early in the year as the ground can be worked,
in double rows, four feet apart, covering about three inches. Manure
Fg. 81.
moderately, and dig it in well. As the early crops appear, draw the soil
over them; and as they advance from half an inch to three inches high, and
when the weather is dry, draw the earth to the stems, and continue to hoe
and earth up, as it will assist the peas to bear plentifully. When they are
six or eight inches high, place a row of sticks or brush, about five feet long,
in the middle of the double rows, and a few smaller ones on the outside of
each row. Sow again from the middle to the end of April, for use in July
and August.
The crop is readily collected by a short scythe and horse-rake, or by hand.
It should be done while the haulm is of a yellowish green, or the peas
scatter. The haulm in this state is a very valuable rough fodder, if carefully housed. The grain is threshed out, and forms excellent provender for
stock and poultry.
Enemies. -The pea is subject to but few diseases. The pea-bug punctures the pod when very young, and deposits an egg. Very few crops
entirely escape them, except such as are sowed about the middle of June.
It is therefore best to sow a part about that time, for seed, or to keep a
sufficient quantity over one year.
PEPPER. -The varieties grown for pickling and kitchen use are the
Sweet or Bell, the Cayenne, and the Tomato or Flat.
Culture, tc. - Sow a small portion of seed, thinly, half an inch deep, on
a hot-bed or in a pot, in April, and transplant in June, on good soil, twelve
inches apart, and eighteen inches from row to row. As they grow, hoe
117
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
frequent]y, earthing up the stems. When sown in the open ground, the
time is the same; let the soil be light and warm, and transplant when three
to four inches high.
PUMPKIN.- The best varieties of pumpkin are the Cashaw, Family, Connecticut Field, White Bell and Valparaiso.
Culture, sc. -The best time for sowing is about the middle of May.
It will grow in any dry and well-worked soil. It has been usual with
farmers to grow their pumpkins in the corn-field; but whether this is a good
practice or not, is somewhat doubtful. A good crop of pumpkins must
necessarily take from the sustenance which would otherwise go to nourish
the corn. When planted with Indian corn, they may be put between the
hill of corn of every fourth row and every fourth hill, upon a shovel full of
rich manure, two seeds in a hill. When the plant is grown by itself, let
the hills be eight or nine feet apart; two or three plants in a hill are
sufficient, though it will be more advisable to put in more seed, to provide
against accidents, and the surplus plants can be withdrawn. To preserve
the crop pure, the seed should not be taken from plants growing near
squashes.
RADISH.- There are two species, the long and the round; and of these
there are several varieties, which are named below.
Culture, 4'c.- For the early crops, use the Long Scarlet Short Top; the
Long,almon, similar to the preceding, but of lighter color; the Scarlet
Turnip Rooted, and White Turnip Rooted. Frequent sowings are necessary,
as the foregoing soon become pithy and shoot to seed; in flavor they differ
but little. At the same time the early kinds are sown, make a sowing of
the Yellow Turnip and Summer White, which are fine kinds, withstand the
heat, and are firm and crisp even in hot weather; frequent sowings of these,
as well as the White Spanish, or Black Spanish, as most liked, should be
made during the summer months. The two latter kinds, solwn in autumn.
keep well in winter, if secured from frost.
Forcing. - In forcing radishes, a moderate hot-bed is necessary, the
earth about eight inches deep, on the surface of which the seed is to be sown
as soon as the violent heat has abated, and an additional half-inch sifted over
it. Keep the temperature at about sixty-five degrees, admit the air except in
the evening, and, when the earth is dry, give a light watering. The seedlings are generally up in a week, and in six weeks may be drawn.
RHUBARB. - The principal varieties are Buck's New Scarlet, of a deep
red; Tobolsk, very early; Goliah and Admiral, large size; Elfort, Wilmot's
Early Red, Myatt's Victoria, and Australian.
Culture, fc. -The seeds should be sown in April, in a border, and
scattered thinly in drills, two inches deep, and a foot asunder, slightly
118
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
covered with soil. When the plants appear, they should be thinned out to
about six inches from each other, and afterwards to a foot. A light, dry
soil, is excellent.
Fig. 82.
As soon as the leaves are decayed, the seedling plants should be taken up
with care, and planted out in rows, two feet apart, and the same distance
between the plants. A shady spot is preferable, as the stems will be finer
and better when not too much exposed to the sun. Give an annual topdressing of well-rotted manure.
A simple method of forwarding rhubarb is by turning over the plants, as
they stand in the open ground, empty barrels or boxes, which may be surrounded by coarse litter or stable manure.
RAPE. - This is a plant of the cole kind, not much cultivated in this
country.
Culture, Tc.- It is hardy, and will grow on land not very rich. It
belongs to the cabbage or turnip family, but never heads. Of the two kinds
most commonly cultivated, one is biennial,- sown one summer and harvested the next,- whilst the other is a spring or summer crop. For
garden culture, rape is propagated by seed, and, like mustard, may be sown
at any period of the year, when in request, being allowed a separate bed.
The seed, which is produced in great quantity, ripens in July and August,
and must then be cut and laid on cloths to dry, as it is very apt to shed.
SALSIFY. - This plant is also called Vegetable Oyster; its flavor, when
properly cooked, being very similar to that of the oyster.
Culture, sc. -Deep and humid soils are the most favorable. After
digging and smoothing, the square intended for it should be formed into four
119
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
feet beds, and the seeds be sown and covered in rows, eight or ten inches
apart. This should be done as soon as the frosts are over in the spring, for
the earlier the sowing, the finer will be the crop. Two hoeings, and
frequent watering when the weather is very dry and hot, are necessary.
The plants attain their full size in autumn.
SCORZONERA.- A plant mostly grown in Europe, for its roots, to use in
soups, &c.
Culture, Sc. - It is raised very much as is salsify. If the seeds be
sown in April, in a good deep soil, the roots will attain perfection in
autumn, and continue good through winter. They last three or four years,
but it is better to raise a few from seed every year.
SEA-KALE.- It grows wild in Great Britain, but is extensively raised in
gardens.
Culture, Sc. - It will succeed well in any dry and deep soil. A bed
may be composed for it of one half drift sand, one third rich loam, and
one third small gravel, road-stuff, or coal-ashes. If the soil be wet, drain
it; and if poor, manure it well. Propagate by seed; and if the weather in
June and July be very hot, water plentifully. It flowers about June, and
the seed ripens in August. The signal for cutting is when the plants are
three inches above the surface.
SHALLOT. -A plant often used as a substitute for the onion, having a
stronger taste, but not leaving so strong an odor as that plant.
Culture, sc. -Each offset of the root will increase, if planted in a
similar manner to its parent. The planting may be performed in October
or November, or in the spring - March or April. The first is the best
season, if the soil lies dry, as the bulbs become finer; but otherwise, the
spring is preferable, for excessive moisture destroys the sets. Plant six
inches asunder each way, in beds four feet wide, in drills.
SKIRRET.- The root is composed of fleshy tubers, joined together at the
crown or head, and used in cookery.
Culture, f c. - It grows freely in a light, moderately good soil. It is
propagated both from seed and offsets of established roots. The former
mode is preferred. Sow about the middle or last of April, in small drills,
eight inches apart. When the plants are one or two inches high, thin
them to five or six inches asunder. They will continue to grow until the
end of autumn, and may be used all along. Those left to reach maturity
will be good for winter use, also for spring, till the stems run. When
grown by offsets, take only the young outward slips.
SPINACH.- There are two varieties, the Round-leaved or Smooth-seeded,
and the Prickly-seeded. The New Zealand is also a species highly
regarded.
120
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
Culture, 4c.- The Smooth-seeded is better for spring and summer use,
and the latter for autumn sowing. Sow broadcast or in drills; when drilled,
it is easier kept clean, and more readily gathered for use. The drills should
be twelve inches apart, the plants four inches apart in the rows. If sown
thicker, thin out, when young, as wanted, leaving plants at proper distances.
For spring and early summer use, sow early in spring, and occasionally
afterward; for the early autumn supply, sow at close of summer, and for
the main winter crops, about middle of autumn. Before very cold weather,
give a light covering of straw, cedar-brush, or anything that will lay lightly
and partially protect it; otherwise, the frost will injure.
SQUASH. -The kinds most suitable for cultivation are the Early Bush,
Vegetable Marrow, Lima, Cocoa-nut or Acorn, and Green Striped.
Culture, fc. - Dig deeply patches of earth, at the distance of four or
five feet each way, mixing in well-decomposed manure, in liberal quantities.
In each patch or mound of earth plant about half a dozen seeds, and when
the plants are well grown, remove all but two or three of the best. Sow
about the middle of April; or, for early crop, start them in pots or hot-beds.
TOMATO. -The kinds most usually grown are the Large Smooth Red,
Large Red, and Cherry-shaped. The yellow tomato is not much raised.
Culture, dfc.- The best soil is one that is light, rich, with a dry subsoil. Sow the seed in April, scattering it thin, and not burying more than
half an inch below the surface. The plants soon appear, and when of two
or three weeks' growth, they must be thinned to three inches apart, and
those removed, if wanted, pricked at the same distances, in a similar bed
to that from which they may be removed. On the approach of frost, pull
up some of the plants, root and all, which are well laden with fruit, and
hang them up in a dry, airy apartment. In this manner it may be continued
in perfection after the natural season.
It is recommended to cover the earth around each clump with-straw or
litter, which prevents rapid evaporation in hot weather, and protects from
heavy rains. Some brush-wood stuck around the plants, to support them, is
also useful.
TURNIP. -The principal sorts are the Early Yellow Dutch, Early Redtop Dutch, White Norfolk Globe, Yellow Aberdeen, and Early White Dutch,
together with the valuable Ruta-baga, or Swedish Turnip.
Culture, 4-c. - The soil should be thoroughly ploughed, harrowed, and
rolled; the weeds should be well raked up, and everything done to bring it
into a state of good tilth. As drilling or sowing the seed in rows is most
generally practised, the soil should be thrown into ridges by a plough, the
ridges having a sharp top, and being at the distance of from twenty to thirty
inches from top to top. After the ridges are formed, the manure is hauled
11
121
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
on the ground, thrown out at convenient intervals, and immediately placed in
the furrows. A section with the manure deposited in the furrows is shown
in Fig. 83, a. As fast as the manure is distributed in the furrows, it should be
covered, which is effected by splitting the ridges with either a double or a
single mould-board plough, forming a new ridge on which the seed is to be
sown, directly over the manure. A section of the new ridges is represented
(b). The rolling and seed-sowing (c) succeeds this operation; then the young
plants, with the earth hoed away from them (d), are seen; after this, the
plants further advanced, covering the soil with their leaves, and enjoying the
dung with their roots, (e); and, finally, the plants full-grown.
Fig. 83.
in/
i \!s \ t \
c
-.......,,
,", ""'""' "" /"'"' a "k,,.,,
e
The Swedish turnip, or ruta-baga, has a decided advantage over all other
varieties of turnip as cattle food, being the most nutritive, and retaining its
soundness and richness much the longest. When given to cattle, it should
be cut, by means of the vegetable cutter. A grass lea is best for this
variety. If an old sod, plough it in autumn or early in spring, and manure
and completely pulverize before planting. If a young clover lea, the
manure may be spread, ploughed under, the ground harrowed, and the seed
immediately put in. Sow at the rate of one to -two pounds tne acre. In
the after-culture, the objects aimed at are to keep the crop clean, to thin the
plants to eight or ten inches, and to keep the surface of the soil mellow.
The turnip should be the last crop gathered, because it grows the longest,
is least liable to suffer from frost, and is liable to be injured by fermenting,
when collected in heaps for winter. If buried in pits, the roots should be
raised above the surface of the ground, and laid,up to terminate in a ridge,
122
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
so that when they are covered with straw and earth, the heated or impure
air of the pit will concentrate at the ridge on the top, where it should be
suffered to pass off freely through holes made for the purpose.
Fzg. 84.
Enemies. - The turnip-flea is a great scourge. To avoid it, it is recommended, first, that the germination of the seed be hastened by all natural
means, as applying some portion of stimulating manure, sowing when a
proper degree of moisture exists, and in close connection with the manure,
to secure at once the benefit of it to the roots, if possible, making most of
the season, when favorable. Second. That a liberal quantity of seed be
SOwn, in drills, which will hasten the vegetation after it has come up.
Third. That the land be well cleared, the weeds wholly eradicated, and the
soil well supplied with manure suited to its character. Fourth. Select
good seed, and test it before sowing, to see how many germinate, and how
soon.
Uses. - The root is an excellent food for every species of farm-stock, and
is very extensively used for fattening beef, mutton, and pork. When milclx
cows are fed with ruta-baga, it should have a little salt sprinkled upon it.
123
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
II. HERBS, &c.
ANISE. -This is a half-hardy annual, used for garnishing or seasoning,
and much esteemed for that purpose.
Culture, 4c.- Sow during April, in pots buried in a hot-bed; remove to
a warm, light border, in May; thin the plants to six inches apart. The seed
is ripe in August and September.
BALM.- The balm is a hardy plant, with square stems, rising two feet
high or more, with large leaves growing by pairs at each joint.
Culture, fc.- It is propagated by parting the roots, preserving two or
three buds to each piece, or by slips, either in autumn or spring. Plant in
any bed of common earth, from eight inches to a foot apart, watering, if the
weather be dry. Gather when the plant is coming into flower; and when
the leaves are entirely free from moisture, dry them, and, when cool, press
into packages.
BASIL.- The Sweet-scented and the Dwarf Bush are the two varieties.
Culture, 4c. - A rich, light soil is the best. Sow the seed, in a gentle
hot-bed, early in April; to be thinned, and those removed pricked out
at the close of this latter month in a similar situation, to be finally removed
in the course of May or June, when the weather is settled, in open ground.
When thinnmed, the seedlings must be kept at three inches apart, and those
removed pricked out at a similar distance. Water at every removal, and,
during the growth, hoe, and keep clear from weeds. Gather seed from the
earliest raised plants.
CARAWAY. - A biennial plant, with a taper root, stems rising from a foot
Fig. 85.
and a half to two feet, spreading branches, and finely-cut deep-green leaves
124
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
Culture, Sc. - A clayey loam is the best soil, which should be well
ploughed; sow in March, directly after the plough, harrowing well. In
ten weeks after, hoe, and repeat hoeing two or thllree times before cutting,
which may be done in July; after which, thresh it upon a cloth.
CORIANDER. - A small-rooted annual, with branchy stems.
z. 86.
Culture, Sc. - Sow on a light, rich soil, in the fall, with fresh seeds,
twenty pounds to an acre. Thin the plants to six or eight inches apart
every way, and in the spring stir the soil with a hoe. The seed ripens in
August, when it must be carefully cut and gathered. A few strokes of the
flail will get the seeds out clean.
CAMOMILE. - This is a well-known creeping plant, cultivated for its
flowers.
Culture, Sc.- The double-flowered variety is the most commonly grown,
but the single possesses more of the virtue of the plant, according to its
weight. It only requires a poor soil, planted in rows a foot apart, and
hoed between. It will produce abundance of flowers annually, from June to
September.
CHERVIL. - The Parsley-leaved and Fern-leaved are raised by the Europeans, but in this country the plant is not much attended to.
Culture, Sc.- Sow the seed in early autumn, as soon as it is ripe; sow
in drills eight inches apart, or broadcast; thin the plants to eight inches
asunder, and keep free from weeds.
DILL. - It is cultivated for its leaves and blossoms, which are used for
pickling, and in soups and sauces.
11*
125
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
Culture, sc.- Soil rather dry; sow as soon as the seed ripens, in drills
a foot apart; thin to about ten inches asunder, after three or four weeks'
growth; keep clear of weeds; and, for seed, cut in September.
FENNEL.- Resembles the dill, but is larger; grown for its stalks and
leaves.
Culture, f c.- Three or four plants are sufficient for any garden. The
variety called the Finochio may be grown in rows, on light, rich soil, and
earthed up to the height of five or six inches, which blanches the stalks in
ten days or a fortnight. Water in very dry weather.
FOXGLOVE.- A medicinal plant, comprising two varieties, the Large and
the Small.
Culture, *c.- When raised in gardens, it is easily propagated by seed.
It prefers a gravelly, sandy, or chalky soil. Every part of it is poisonous.
HOREHOUND. - This herb has a white, hoary appearance, and a very
bitter, though not unpleasantly aromatic, flavor.
Culture, c.- Any common soil is adapted to this plant, and it is readily
increased by divisions of the roots, or by seeds.
HYssoP. - There are three varieties, the White, Red, and Blue- distinguished by the color of the flowers. The last is the most common.
Culture, Sac.- A dry soil is the most appropriate one. It is propagated
by seed and slips of the branches and young shoots, as well as by offsets
May be sown from early spring until June; rooted offsets may be planted in
March, April, August, and September; cuttings of the branches in April
and May, and slips of young shoots in June or July. Sow broadcast, or in
drills, six inches apart, and not deeper than an inch.
LAVENDER. - A dwarf, odorous shrub, of three or four years' duration.
Fig. 87.
Culture, f c.- The soil should be a poor, dry, limy gravel; the seeds being
126
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
sown in a garden in spring, may be transplanted in September or March
following, in rows two feet apart. The second season they will yield
flowers, and a full crop the fourth, after which the plants will continue productive for years. The spikes are gathered in June, and dried in the shade.
LIQUORICE. - The liquorice is a deep-rooting plant, with stems four or
five feet high.
'. 88.
Culture, Sfc.- The soil should be a deep, sandy loam, trenched two or
three feet deep, and manured; the plants consist of the side roots, having
eyes or buds. Plant in the fall or spring, in rows three feet apart, and from
eighteen inches to two feet in the row; hoe, stir, and weed, and carry off
the stems every autumn, after they are completely withered.
MARJORAM.- The Sweet Marjoram is a biennial plant, and long in use
as a seasoning for soups, and for other culinary purposes.
Culture, o-c.- This species, being somewhat tender, is commonly sown
on a slight hot-bed towards the end of March, or on a warm border about
the middle of April; in the former case, transplanting it into rows one foot
apart, and the plants six inches distant in the row; and in the latter case,
thinning them out, without transplanting.
MINT. - The Common or Spear Mint is a creeping stemmed plant, the
young leaves of which are much used in salads, soups, &c.
Culture, 4-c.- Propagate by dividing the roots before they begin to grow
in the spring, and bury in shallow drills, or slip off the young shoots when
they are three or four inches long, and plant in beds a few inches apart.
To produce tender stalks and leaves, water liberally. To dry, cut the
stalks when just coming into flower.
127
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
PARSLEY. - A well-known biennial, with a large, sweet tap-root.
There are two varieties, the Plain-leaved and the Curled-leaved, the
latter the best.
Fi. 89.
Culture, tc.- Sow at monthly intervals, from February until middle of
June, in drills nine inches apart; when of tolerable growth, thin to nine
inches asunder, and keep clear of weeds. For seed, cut in July or August;
dry, and beat out.
PENNY-ROYAL.- There are two kinds, the Trailing and the Upright.
Culture, 4c. -It is grown by dividing the roots in the spring. The
best soil is one that is strong and moist. It is of very easy cultivation.
PEPPERMINT. - A well-known creeping-stemmed plant, growing spontaneously.
Culture, sc.- It may be propagated by dividing the roots early in the
spring, and planting in a soft, rich soil. The stalks are gathered when in
full flower.
PURSLANE. - There are two sorts, the Green and the Golden, the latter
being used mostly as a garnish, and the former for a salad; also for potherbs and pickles.
Culture, 4c. - Where a constant supply is required, the first sowing
should be made on heat in February, and the others monthly, on a warm
border, till August. The shoots are gathered when from two to five inches
high, and well furnished with leaves.
ROSEMARY.- The Green, Golden-striped, and Silver-striped, are the varieties cultivated, the first-named being the most used.
Culture, f c. - The best soil is a poor, light, limy one. Propagate by
128
12 9
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
cuttings and rooted slips, during any of the spring months, or by layers in
the summer. Sow in March or April, in drills one inch deep, and six
inches apart. The slips and cuttings must be five or seven inches long, and
planted in rows eight or ten inches apart. Water liberally at the time of
planting, and occasionally afterwards.
RUE.- An evergreen shrub, making a beautiful garnish for table dishes.
Culture, sc.- It thrives best in a poor, clayey soil, and is propagated by
slips, cuttings, and seeds, in the spring, the seed being sown in drills one
inch deep, and one foot apart. The slips or cuttings may be planted on a
poor, shady border, and watered occasionally.
SAFFRON. - This is also called the Autumn Crocus, and is a bulbous
Fig. 90.
rooted perennial, which has been long cultivated for its medical and culinary
uses.
Culture, sc. - Plant the bulbs on a prepared soil, not poor nor a very
stiff clay. Plant in July, in rows six inches apart across the ridges, and:
three inches distant in the rows. The flowers are gathered in September,
the stigmas picked out, together with a portion of the style; these are dried
Ibetween layers of paper, under the pressure of a thick board, to form into
cakes.
SAGE. - The varieties are the Common Green, Wormwood, Varziegated
Green, Variegated Red, Painted or Parti-colored, Spanish or Lavenderleaved, and Red.
Culture, tc.- It is propagated by seeds or cuttings, and the plantation
ought to be renewed every two or three years; otherwise, the winter may
destroy it.
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
SAVORY. - There is the Winter or Perennial Savory, and the Summer
or Annual Savory, the latter being preferred, on account of its more agreeable fragrance.
Culture, sc. - The Winter savory is propagated by seed, cuttings, or
divisions, -most frequently by the latter mode. The Summer is sown in
drills, one foot apart, in the open garden, in March or April.
TANSY.- The Curled or Double Tansy is the kind chiefly grown for
culinary use.
Culture, sac. - The kind of soil is not very material. It is raised by
rooted slips, or divisions of its roots, planted in spring and in autumn, in
rows a foot apart each way. A little manure will increase the productiveness, but is not wholly necessary.
THYME.- The Common and Lemon Thyme are the two varieties.
Culture, sc.- The Common is readily increased by seeds, cuttings, or
divisions, and the plants should be renewed, by one or other of these modes,
every year, in the spring. The Lemon is a trailing evergreen, used for the
same purposes as the preceding.
KITCHEN GARDEN CALENDAR.
JANUARY.- Artichoke: secure from frost, if not yet done. Asparagus:
plant on a hot-bed twice in the month, to keep up a succession. Carrot.
sow on a slight hot-bed. Caulifower: sow in a box, and place in a forcing-house, if the autumn sowing failed. Celery: protect during severe
weather. Cucumbers: prepare a seed-bed for sowing next month, renew
the linings of the fruiting-beds, and keep them made up above the surface
of the soil in the frame. French Beans: sow in pots, for forcing. Mint
and other Herbs: take up and plant in pots or boxes, and place in a forcinghouse. Potatoes: plant on a slight hot-bed. Radishes: sow on a slight
hot-bed, or in the same frame with potatoes. Rhubarb: take up old roots,
and plant in boxes or pots, and place them in a forcing or mushroom house.
FEBRUARY.- Beans: plant in boxes for turning out next month; also
sow in the open ground, if the season be open. Cabbage: sow on a warm
border. Carrots: sow on a warm border. Cauliflowers: prick out those
sown in boxes last month on a slight hot-bed,- sow on a sheltered border.
Celery: sow in boxes, and place in a forcing-house, for a first crop. Cucumbers: plant from the seed-bed, and afterwards keep the heat by night
70~ to 75~, and by day, 75~ to 85~. French Beans: earth up former sowings, and sow again. Lettuce: sow on a warm border. Mushrooms: make
beds and spawn at 80~. Onions: sow in boxes, and place in a forcinghouse, for planting out in April. Peas: sow in boxes, and in the open
130
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
ground. Potatoes: plant on a slight hot-bed and on a warm border. Rad
ishes: sow on a warm border. Sea-Kale: cover up. Spinach: sow. Tur nips: sow.
MARCH.- Artichokes: make new plantations. Asparagus: make new
beds,- top-dress the latter end of the month. Basil: sow. Beans: plant
twice in the month. Beets: sow. Cabbag,es: fill up vacancies in the
autumn plantations. Capsicums, or Peppers: sow seed. Carrots: sow the
main crop. Herbs: make new beds. Horse-Radish: make new plantations. Jerusalem Artichokes: plant early in the month. Leek: sow.
Lettuce: prick out on a slight hot-bed those sown last month in boxes.
Mushrooms: make beds for summer use. Onions: sow the main crop.
Parsley: sow. Parsnips: sow the main crop. Peas: sow twice, - earth
up early crops. Potatoes: plant main crop. Radishes: sow twice. Salsify:
sow. Savoys: sow beginning and end. Scorzonera: sow. Shallots and
Garlic: plant the beginning of the month. Spinach: sow. Turnips: sow
on a sheltered border.
APRIL.- Beans: plant twice, and earth up the early crop. Borecole:
sow. Broccoli: sow the winter varieties. Brussels Sprouts: sow beginning of the month. Cabbages: prick out the February sowing. Cardoons:
sow for early crop. Cauliflowers: plant out those wintered in frames.
Celery: prick out the early sown on a slight hot-bed. Cucumbers: sow to
plant out on ridges. French Beans: sow the beginning of the month.
Lettuce: fill up the autumn plantations. Onions: transplant the autumn
sowing, and also those sown in boxes in February. Peas: sow twice in the
month, earth up, and stick early crops. Radishes: sow twice in the month.
Spinach: sow first and third week. Turnips: thin, and sow the latter end.
Vegetable Marrow: sow the middle of the month.
MAY. - Basil: plant on a rich sheltered border. Beans: top the early
crops, - plant twice in the month. Beets: thin to fifteen inches apart.
Borecole: prick out of the seed-bed. Broccoli: prick out those sown last
month, and make another sowing of the winter kinds; also Cape and Granges, the last week. Cabbages: plant out the February sowing. Cauliflowers:
earth up, and water with liquid manure,- take off the hand-glasses. Cucumbers: prepare ridges for out-door crops. French Beans: make sowings
the first and last weeks. Leeks: transplant. Lettuce: transplant early
sowings, - sow twice in the month. Onions: thin them to nine inches
apart. Peas: make two sowings. Potatoes: earth up the early crops.
Radishes: make two sowings. Spinach: sow the middle of the month,thin former sowings. Scarlet Runner: sow beginning and middle of the
mnonth. Turnips: make a sowing, if not done the end of last month.
JUNE. -Asparagus: discontinue cutting. Beans: put in the last crop
131
.0
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
-top and earth up former crops. Broccoli: sow Cape and Granges
Cabbage: sow seed for Coleworts. Capsicums: plant out on a warm
border. Carrots: thin to two inches apart. Celery: transplant into
trenches for an early crop. Cucumbers: plant under hand-glasses
Endive: sow for an early crop. French Beans: make a sowing the middle
of the month. Leeks: transplant. Lettuce: transplant. Peas: complete
the sowing of the marrow varieties. Potatoes: earth up. Radishes: sow
as in last month. Savoys: transplant for an early crop. Scarlet Runners:
make the last sowing. Spinach: sow twice. Tomatoes: turn out against
walls. Vegetable Marrow: plant under hand-glasses.
JULY.- Borecole: transplant. Broccoli: transplant. Brussels Sprouts:
transplant. Cauliflower: transplant from the April sowing. Cabbage: sow
in the last week for a crop to come in in May. Celery: transplant into
trenches. Endive: make a second sowing. French Beans: earth up, and
make the last sowing the latter end of the month. Lettuce: make a sowing
the first and last week. Peas: make two last sowings of early sorts. Radishes: sow on a cool border.
AUGUST.- American Cress: sow to stand the winter. Borecole and
Broccoli: transplant the main crop. Cabbage: sow for main spring crop,
-transplant for Coleworts. Carrots: sow to stand the winter. Cauliflowers: transplant to come in during autumn,- sow for the main spring
crop. Celery: transplant into trenches, and earth up for blanching. Endive: make the last sowing, and transplant from former sowings. Lettuce:
sow for standing through the winter,-transplant from former sowings.
Onions: sow for standing through the winter. Radishes: sow the winter
varieties. Savoys: transplant the main crop. Scarlet Runners: earth up
and stick. Spinach: sow the main winter crop. Turnips: sow the winter
crop.
SEPTEMBER. -Cabbages: prick out from last month's sowing. Celery:
earth up for blanching. Chervil: sow for winter use. Curled Cress: sow
for winter use. Endive: transplant, and tie up for blanching. Mushrooms:
make beds for winter use. Onions: pull up and house them when dry.
Parsley: cut down a portion of the spring sowing. Potatoes: take up the
early sorts. Purslane: sow for winter use. Shallots and Garlic: these
should now be taken up. Dig up vacant ground.
OCTOBER.- Artichokes: tie up the leaves for producing the chard. Asparagus: cut down and winter dress Beets: dig up and lay in sand. Cab.
bag,es: plant out for the main crop. Cardoons: tie up the leaves for blanch.
ing. Carrots: take up the main crop. Cauliflower: prick out under
hand-glasses, and into frames. Cucumbers: make beds, and sow seed for
early crops. Lettuce: plant out for the main spring crop. Parsnips: take
132
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
up and preserve in sand. Potatoes: take up the main crops. Tomatoes:
gather the unripe fruit, and lay in a forcing-house. Dig and trench ground
during dry weather.
NOVEMBER. -Artichokes: cover the roots with litter. Beans: sow first
crop. Cauliflowers: protect those which have formed heads from the frost.
Celery: take every favorable opportunity to earth it up. Cucumbers: ridge
out the plants in the fruiting-beds. Endive: preserve from frost. Horseradish: dig up for winter use. Jerusalem Artichokes: take up for winter
use. Peas: sow for an early crop. Salsify: dig up for winter use. S&orzonera: dig up for winter use. Sea-Kale: clear away the decayed stems
and leaves. Preserve culinary vegetables from frost.
DECEMBER.- Asparagus: take up roots for forcing. Celery: protect
during severe frosts. Cucumbers: attend to the linings of the beds. French
Beans: plant in pots for forcing. Mushrooms: keep a moist and steady
temperature in the house. Radishes: sow on a hot-bed for early use. Rhubarb: take up roots, and pot for forcing. Sea-Kale: take up roots carefully
for forcing. Small Salad: keep a succession, by sowing once a week.
Prepare materials for hot-beds.
12
133
CHAPTER IV.
THE DAIRY.
DAIRY IMPLMENT - MANAGEMENT- MILK - BUTTER-MAKING Crt'EEF,w MAK ING; INCLUDING ALL THE MOST CELEBRATED AND ESTEEMED MODES.
IMPLEMENTS.
General Rernarks. -The construction of dairy-houses is, naturally, the
first subject to be presented, in a chapter like this. The reason why it is
here omitted is, in order that it may be included in the chapter on RURAL
ARCHITECTURE, thus enabling us to give consistency and completeness to
the plan of this volume. We begin, therefore, with remarks on some of the
implements or utensils employed in dairy operations. These comprise
milk-pails, shallow pans or cooling dishes for holding, sieves for straining
the milk when taken from the cow, dishes for skimming the cream, churns
for the making of butter, besides scales, prints, and boards, for weighing,
measuring, and ornamenting it; also ladders, vats, tubs, curd-breakers, and
presses, for the manufacture of cheese, together with vessels large enough
to hold the whey or butter-milk. Almost all of these, except the churn and
press, are so generally similar, and so familiar to all, as to require but little
description. The material of which most of these are formed is wood,
though many dishes are made of earthen-ware, lead, tin, freestone and
slate, and not unfrequently of brass.
It being generally conceded that the dairy husbandry of England is the
most perfect in the world, we shalJ incorporate as much information relative
to its management in that country, in the present chapter, as will be compatible with the limits assigned to this department.
Presses.- The cheese-presses act upon the curd by pressure, and are there
usually made of stone, of different weights, proportioned to the size of the
cheese. They are most generally raised by a block and tackle, but are frequently made upon the principles of the lever, and there are various constructions, placed in frames of wood, also of iron. A very common machine,
of an extremely simple form, used in many dairies which produce such
small cheeses as not to require great pressure, is that of a movable beam,
fixed by a pivot in an upright post, and having hooked on at the other end a
THE DAIRY.
weight which presses in this manner on the cheese-vats underneath (Fig.
91). There is also the Patent Self-Acting Press, which is much used. It
Fig. 91.
(>
lb
is light, but strong, and is substantially a table on which to turn the cheese;
go forcing screws, nor lifting heavy weights, but the cheese creates a con
Fig. 92.
stant and regular pressure, of twelve times its own weight, whether large
or small; and, if a greater pressure is needed, one pound laid upon the
135
4
I
I
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
cheese or table adds twelve pounds increased pressure, and so on. The
cheese is not removed from the press until the pressing is completed.
Churns.- The churns are closed vessels, into which the cream, or the
whole milk, being put, a piston, or a wheel in the form of a fan, is quickly
and regularly moved, either up and down, or by turning, according to its
form, so as to separate the oily particles of which the butter is composed.
They are generally made of the best oak, and of various sizes. Much improvement has been made, within a few years, in the construction of churns,
figures of three of which we annex.
The Thermometer churn (Fig. 93) is constructed so that the cream or milk
is readily brought to the desired temperature without mixing wvater or other
substances, and the temperature certainly and definitely determined, which
proves invaluable in making butter. There is a double bottom, made in the
form of a semi-circle, of two sheets of zinc, or other metal, placed one above
the other, the cream to rest upon the uppermost; between the two sheets
forming the bottom is a space or chamber, into which may be introduced
cold or warm water, as may be required, to increase or diminish the temperature of the cream or milk. The water is easily applied by means of a
common tin tunnel, through an aperture or hole in the side of the churn.
Another improvement is a thermometer permanently placed in one end of
the churn, secure from injury, marked at sixty-two degrees, and which is
always visible, so that the operator may know when the cream or milk is
brought to the proper temperature. If too warm, the mercury will rise
136
THE DAIRY.
above the mark, and cold water should be applied in the chamber described;
if too cold, the mercury will fall below the mark, when warm water must
be used in the same manner. The cream or milk should be stirred or agitated, by turning the crank, while the water is being introduced, to give an
Fi. 94.
equal temperature throughout. When the thermometer indicates that the
cream or milk is of the proper temperature, the water may be drawn out
through the tube placed for the purpose, when the churning should be
performed by giving the crank about forty revolutions to the minute.
Kendall's Cylindrical Churn (Fig. 94) is simple in its construction, and
F/g. 95.
I L': _. - -XSSS
combines all the advantages of other cylindrical churns, with this improve.
ment, that the revolving dasher can be taken out in a moment, whenever
12*
137
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
it is required to be cleansed. There are five size%, from two to twenty
gallons.
The Gault Churn is an article much in use, and in some respects a superior machine. Fig. 95 represents the top lifted up to receive the cream or
discharge the butter. Tillinghast's is also an almost incomparable churn.
Cleanliness in Dairying. The form of these utensils is, however, a matter of secondary importance, compared with their being kept extremely
clean, which is the chief requisite in all the operations of the dairy; and,
therefore, those which can be most readily cleaned are the best to be employed, whatever may be their shape. Those who superintend dairy operations should be clean and careful, and the floor of the dairy should be kept
perfectly dry; for water thrown down in hot weather will rise again in
steam, and affect the milk with its humidity.
MILK.
Managemnent of Milk. - When the milk has been drawn from the cow, it
should be carried as gently as possible to the dairy, and after being there
strained through the sieve, it must then be deposited in shallow pans or
coolers, not exceeding three or four inches in depth, where it is left to collect the cream, which rises to the surface within a few hours, according to
the temperature of the air. Those who are particularly nice, either in the
consumption of the raw cream, or for the making of butter, skim it, perhaps,
within twelve hours; but it is more generally left full twenty-four, or even
thirty-six hours, according to the state of the season, when intended for
butter, and is then not unfrequently skimmed again.
The chief component parts of milk are those which, when separated, are
known as forming butter and cheese, the residue of which is called whey.
These parts are known, however, to vary in percentage, according to the
quality of the milk; and, to determine this point, what is called a lactometer is in use. It consists of glass tubes placed upright in a wood frame;
these tubes are divided and subdivided, by marks, into equal spaces; they are
filled to equal height, each with the milk of a particular cow, when, after
remaining a proper time, the quantity of cream in each is readily seen
through the glass, and the exact difference determined by the marks; this,
however, does not show whether the caseous matter (of which cheese is
formed) or the butyraceous matter (or oily substance producing cream)
predominates. The following observations may be assumed as a summary
of its management: First- Of the milk that is drawn from any cow at a
time, that which c,rones off at the first is always thinner and of a poorer
quality than that which comes afterwards, the richness continually increase
138
THE DAIRY.
ing, to the last drop drawn at that time. Second-If milk be put in a dish
and allowed to stand till it throws up cream, that portion of cream which
rises first to the surface is richer in quality and greater in quantity than
what rises in a second equal portion of time; the cream that rises in the
second interval of time is greater in quantity and richer in quality than
that which rises in a third equal space of time; and that of the third than
the fourth, and so on; the cream that rises decreasing in quantity, and
declining continually in quality, so long as any rises to the surface.
Third -Thick milk always throws up a smaller proportion of the cream
it actually contains to the surface than milk which is thinner; but that
cream is of a richer quality. If water be added to that thick milk, it will
also afford a considerably greater quantity of cream than it would have
done if allowed to remain pure; but its quality is at the same time greatly
debased. Fourth- Milk which is put into a bucket, or other proper vessel,
and carried to any considerable distance, so as to be much agitated, and in
part cold, before it is put into the milk-pans to settle for cream, never throws
up so much nor so rich cream as if the same milk had been put into the
pans directly after it was milked. Fifth- If it be intended to make butter
of a very superior quality, it will be, in such case, advisable to separate the
milk that is first drawn from that which comes last, and the quality will be
improved in proportion to the smallness of the last-drawn milk that is
obtained. The first-skimmed cream should also be used, as it is always
richer than that which rises last.
BUTTER.
General Remarks.- This is formed either by cream alone, or with the
whole milk, unskimmed; but although such different modes of manufacture
might seem to warrant very different results, yet they have very little perceptible effect on the quantity or quality, though the profit on the produce
of the dairy may be affected, in large towns, by the greater demand for
skim-milk or butter-milk. There is also another kind, which is much inferior, and made from the cream of whey, after the cheese has been taken
from the milk; but the process of making is nearly the same.
Creamn Butter.- When butter is to be made from cream alone, the milk
is, in winter, usually skimmed as often as four, and in summer two or three
times, or until it will afford no more cream; and this should be first separated from the edges of the pan, to which it firmly adheres, by means of an
ivory or silver-bladed knife, run closely around it. The cream should then
be carefully drawn to one side and lifted off with a skimming-dish, which
is generally pierced with small holes; an act which requires some dexterity,
139
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
both to avoid the leaving of any cream behind, and to pi.,... taiy pt r'-jn
of the milk being mixed with it. Some persons, indeed, have leaden cool ers, with a plug in the bottom, which allows the milk to escape to a large
vessel underneath, while it leaves the cream at top; but the former practice
is most usual.
The length of time which the milk should stand before it is skimmed
must depend both upon the temperature of the air at the time, and the views
of the dairy operator. In moderately warm weather, if very fine butter be
intended, it should not be suffered to remain more than six or eight hours;
for ordinary good butter, it may be safely allowed to stand full twelve hours,
and during cold weather, much longer. The cream is then put into a deep
vessel, in which it is frequently stirred, every day, with a wooden spoon, in
order to prevent coagulation, until sufficient be collected to form a churning.
No vessel can be better adapted for this purpose than one in the under part
of which, close to the bottom, there is a faucet and peg for draining off,
from time to time, any thin, serous part of the milk that may chance to be
there generated; for should this be allowed to remain, it acts upon the
cream in a powerful manner, and greatly diminishes the richness and quality
of the butter. The inside of the vessel should be covered with a bit of close,
fine silver-gauze, to keep back the cream, while the whey is allowed to pass.
Many persons imagine that no butter can be of good quality except that
which is made from fresh cream; the fact, however, being, that the formation of butter takes place only after the cream has attained a certain degree
of acidity, and no butter of even tolerable quality can be obtained from
cream that is not more than one day old. The length of time which the
cream should be kept before it acquires that degree of acidity which is
requisite for the best butter, depends so much upon the weather, that no
fixed rule can be laid down. In fact, so little nicety is observed, in this
respect, by practical farmers, even those who have a high reputation for
making good butter, that few of them ever think of observing any precise
rule with regard to the different portions of their cream, seeing they in general make into butter all they have collected since the former churning;
the time which should intervene between one churning and another being
usually determined by local or accidental circumstances. If the cream be
very carefully kept, and no serous matter be allowed to lodge about it, a
very great latitude may be safely admitted in this respect. It is, indeed,
certain, that cream which has been kept three or four days in summer is in
excellent condition for making into butter, and that from three days to seven
may be found in general to be the best time for keeping cream before churning. The cream from every milking should, however, be kept apart until it
is become sour, and not be mixed up with sweet cream,- at least, not until
140
TIHE DAIRY.
the moment of churning, -for the mixture occasions fermentation, which,
though partly prevented by the stirring, is liable to render the cream putrid.
When, however, the herbage is coarse, or the cows are fed on roots, or
artificial grasses, the sooner the cream is churned, the better will be the
butter. Sometimes the milk is allowed to stand until the cream becomes
clotted, or, as it is termed, "carved," to a proper degree of acidity, which
generally takes place, in warm weather, within a day or two; and, in winter,
it is placed near the fire, in order to forward that process.
Clotted Cream. -The mode of procuring the genuine clotted or " clouted
cream," which is said to produce one fourth more cream than by the common
way, is as follows: The milk, while warm from the cow, is strained into
either large, shallow brass pans, well tinned, or earthen ones, holding from
two to five gallons, in which should be a small quantity of cold water, which
prevents burning, and causes the cream to be more completely separated and
thrown to the top. The mnorning meal of milk stands till about the middle
of the day; the evening meal, until the next morning. The pans are now
steadily carried to and placed over a clear, slow fire, which, if of charcoal,
or over a stove, the cream is not so apt to get an earthy or smoky taste as
when the milk is scalded over a turf or wood fire. The milk must not boil,
as that would injure the cream. The test of its being sufficiently scalded
is a very nice point; the earthen pan, having its bottom much smaller than
the top, allows this point to be more easily ascertained, because, when the
milk is sufficiently scalded, the pan throws up the form of its bottom on the
surface of the cream. The brass pan, if almost as big at the bottom as at
the top, gives no criterion to judge by, but the appearance and texture of
the cream at the surface, the wrinkles upon which become smaller, and the
texture somewhat leathery. In summer, it must be observed, the process
of scalding ought to be quicker than in winter, as, in very hot weather, if
the milk should be kept over too slow a fire, it would be apt.to run or
curdle. This process being finished, the pans are carefully returned to the
dairy, and, should it be the summer season, they are placed in the coolest
situation; if on stone floors, the better; but should it be the winter season,
the heat should rather be retained, by putting a slight covering over the
pans, as cooling too suddenly causes the cream to be thin, and consequently
yields less butter, the mode of making which is this: The cream should,
in hot weather, be made into butter the next day; but in winter it is thought
better to let the cream remain one day longer on the milk. The cream,
being collected from the pans, is put into wooden bowls, which should be
first rinsed with scalding, then with cold, water. It is now briskly stirred
round one way, with a nicely-cleaned hand, which must also have been
swashed in hot and then in cold water; for these alternate warm and cold
141
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
ablutions of bowl and hand are not only for the sake of cleanliness, but to
prevent the butter from sticking to either. The cream, being thus agitated,
quickly assumes the consistence of butter; the milky part now readily separates, and being poured off, the butter is washed and pressed in several cold
waters; a little salt is added to season it, and then it is well beaten on a
wooden trencher until the milky and watery parts are separated, when it is
finally formed into prints for the market.
In the common way of making butter from cream, the dairies churn the
whole quantity at once; but in many dairies, celebrated for the quality of
their butter, only the first skimmings are used in making the best kind, the
mode pursued being as follows: The milk, after standing twenty-four
hours in large shallow coolers, lined with lead, is skimmed; the skimmed
milk is then drawn off from the leads into other vessels of increased depth,
but unlined, in which it is left from twelve to twenty-four hours, during
which time it is skimmed two or three times; this is called" doubling;" it
is then "trebled," or put into tubs, or still deeper vessels, where it is occasionally skimmed, so long as any appearance of cream is found to form upon
the surface; after which, it is given to the pigs. The butter which is made
from the after-skimmings is paler and inferior to that made from the cream
cast up within the first rising; it is therefore generally churned apart.
Whole-Milk Buitter.- If butter be made from the whole milk, the process,
in the best dairies, in which the consumption of butter-milk is considerable,
is to place the milk, when drawn from the cow, in coolers on the floor of a
clean, cool, well-aired milk-house, from twelve to twenty-four hours, till it
has cooled to the temperature of the milk-house, and the cream has risen to
the surface; these coolers are next emptied, while the milk is yet free from
acidity, into a clean, well-scalded vat, of size to contain the whole milking,
or two milkings, if both are sufficiently cooled, where it remains till churned.
If another milking, or meal of milk, be ready before that which has begun
to become sour, that second meal may be put into the same vat; but if the
first has soured, or is approaching to acidity, before the second quantity has
completely cooled, any further admixture would lead to fermentation, and
injure the milk. It is necessary that the whole milk become sour before it
is churned, but the whole of it must become so of its own accord, and by no
means forced into acidity by any mixture of sour milk with that which is
sweet. The utmost care should, however, be taken, not to allow the coagulum, or curd, of the milk in the stand-vat, to be broken till the milk is about
to be churned. If it be not agitated, or the "lapper" (as it is termed in
dairy language) broken, till it is turned into the churn, it may stand from a
day to a week without injury.
Churning. - The operation of churning, whether it be cream or whole
142
THE DAIRY.
milk, is done in the same manner; but the latter, from being so much the
larger quantity, is of course so much more laborious, that in large dairies
churns moved by machinery are frequently used, and which, besides the
advantage of performing the work with great regularity, also produce a
larger quantity of butter. The whole milk, besides, requires more time
than that of cream to complete the process - from two to three hours being
considered necessary to effect it with due deliberation, while that of cream
is generally finished within less than an hour and a half. The operation
should, in warm weather, be very slow, for if it be done too hastily, the
butter will be soft and white; the churn should, therefore, be cooled by
being previously filled with cold water; but in winter it should, on the
contrary, be performed quickly, and the churn should be warmed. The
motion of the churn should be, in each case, regular, and whatever may be
the degree of velocity, the stroke of the fan, or piston, ought always to be the
same, until the butter is formed, or said "to come." The air which is
generated in the churn should also be occasionally allowed to escape, or
it will create froth, which impedes the process.
The temperature of the milk-house should be kept, as nearly as possible, at
about 55~, or at least between 50~ to 60~; and cream, when churned alone,
should not be higher, for if kept at a high temperature in the process of
churning, it will be found inferior in appearance, taste, and quality; but
milk and cream, when churned together, it is generally thought, must be
equalled to about 70~ to 75~, before the latter can be separated from the
milk, which is consequently the common practice. This is done by one
person pouring gradually a small quantity of warm water into it, while
another is churning; for if the work be carried oil while too cold, the milk
is said to rise in the churn, air-bubbles are thrown up with a rattling noise,
and the milk becomes pale; whereas, if conducted at a proper heat, it does
not swell, but is easily worked, and remains at the proper straw-color. A
thermometer, it may therefore be imagined, should always be hung up in
every dairy; yet, strange to say, it is an instrument seldom seen in any of
them; the only scale which the dairy-maid knows is at her fingers' ends, and
although she invariably trusts to her hand for trying the heat, it is yet surprising with what correctness she usually judges. Practice, it is said,
makes perfect; and it is astonishing with what accuracy many operations,
which are supposed by theorists to demand the aid of science, are performed,
through experience, by the merest child in science. Notwithstanding, however, the accuracy which experience may produce, it is not to be compared
with that denoted by scientific experiment, nor can it be acquired without
great loss of time, which might otherwise be avoided.
The whole milk, as well as the cream when churned separately, must
143
FARMER'S HAND-BOO1I.
become sour before it is churned; but this must be effected merely by the
state of the atmosphere, or by being kept exposed to the fire, in order to
bring on fermentation. It is therefore kept in a large vat, or tub, until the
milk is turned into curd, or lapper, and if that remains undisturbed, the
churning may be deferred for some days longer; the warm water must not,
therefore, be added until the curd is broken. In some dairies, the milk is
put into a pan, or vat, and well stirred with a wooden spoon, or ladle, two or
three times a day, to prevent the cream from separating from the milk; and
this sort of stirring, or partial churning, is continued till the milk becomes so
thick and clotted that the ladle stands erect in it, after which, it is put into
the churn for an hour or so; cold water is also poured in, to help collect the
butter and separate the milk from it.
Washing Butter. - In most places, the butter, when taken from the
churn, is washed in repeated waters, in order to extract the milk, until the
water comes out pure. This, however, is a practice not generally com mended, for it has been found, by long experience, that butter retains its
sweetness much longer when no water is used in making up. When it is
taken out of the churn, it is well worked with the hand, which presses out
most of the milk; it is then beaten with a cloth, or rather a cloth is
repeatedly pressed down upon it, which absorbs all the remaining milk.
The less it is beaten or worked, however, the better; for the more it is
kleaded, the more tough and gluey will it become; and a slight quantity of
salt may be added to flavor it.
Salting. - If the butter be salted for market, after the whole of the milk
has been carefully pressed out, it should be well mixed, by working it in by
the hand, with finely-powdered salt; for if care be not taken in mixing it
equally, the butter acquires different colors - yellow where the salt has
fallen, and white where it has not- which kind is, of course, inferior. The
operation should be performed immediately, for, if deferred, as it commonly
is by country dealers, and farmers who do not churn enough to fill a firkin at
once, the butter loses a portion of its firmness and flavor. Should, however,
there not be enough to fill up a package, the butter should never be put into
the firkin in layers, but the surface should be left every day rough and
broken, so as to unite better with that of the succeeding churning. The
quality may also be in a great measure preserved by giving it a partial
salting, and covering it over with a clean linen cloth, dipped in pickle, and
placed in a cool situation.
The quality of salt should be strong marine, free from the brine of mineral
salt. The quantity may be that of about ten ounces to fourteen pounds of
butter, -rather more or less according to the length of time which the butter
is intended to be preserved; but it is generally thought that the butter made
144
I'HE DAIRY.
during the summer months is the fittest for salting, and that the sort which
is made in the latter part of the season, not taking it so well, requires rather
more. Some farmers use saltpetre, in the proportion of half an ounce of salt
with one eighth of saltpetre to the pound of sixteen ounces; and, although
this forms a valuable pickle, if the salt be really good, yet it unquestionably
would be much improved if four ounces of raw sugar were to be added to
each pound weight of salt. A compound of one part sugar, one part nitre,
and two parts of the best Spanish salt, beat together into a fine powder, and
mixed thoroughly with the butter, in the proportion of one ounce to the pound,
has been found to keep the butter in every respect sweet and sound, during
two years that it was in cask. It is also said to impart a rich marrowy
flavor that no other butter ever acquires, and tastes but very little of the salt.
When the butter is cured, it is then tramped firmly, with a round wooden
stick, into the firkin, which is filled up to the head, and then covered over
with a little of the purest salt.
CHEESE.
General Remarks.- As butter is made from the oily part of the milk
which rises to the surface in the form of cream, so cheese is composed from
the curd, or coagulated milk, and may be obtained from the caseous part
alone, after the milk has been skimmed. If thus deprived of the cream, this
"skim-milk" cheese is, however, of a poor quality; and if intended to be
good, the whole milk should be used, without any loss of cream; for, if any
portion of it be abstracted, the cheese will be proportionably less rich,- consequently, less palatable, and of inferior value. The mode of making, too,
though in the main points apparently the same, yet is subject to more
variety of minor details in the practice than that of anything formed of one
material, and thus many different qualities are carried to market, each
bearing some distinct character of its own. That many of those kinds which
are by connoisseurs thought indifferent might, by other management, be
more nearly assimilated to the superior sorts, there can be little doubt;
these peculiarities, however, have, in some cases, attached a certain degree
of value to their flavor, while in others it would seem to be imparted by the
natural grasses grown upon the soil. This applies more especially to some
places. It is well known that where brine-springs most abound the cheese
is always esteemed to be of superior quality.
Rennet.- Different Modes of Preparing and Treating. -Although
cheese may be made from the curd which has been formed by the coagulation of the milk when it turns sour, yet, when thus obtained, it is hard and
ill-flavored; means have, therefore, been found to curdle it with "rennet,"
which is made from the gastric juice of animals, but more especially from
13 K
145
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
that found in the maws or stomachs of sucking calves, that have been fed
entirely upon milk. These maws, or "vells," as they are sometimes
called, are occasionally preserved, along with the curd contained in them
by salting; but the more usual mode is to employ the skins of the stomach
bags alone, the method being to put a few handfuls of salt into and around
the stomachs, which are then rolled up and hung near the chimney to dry,
after which, they are put by for a long time before they are used. If the
skin be good, a bit of it no larger than a half-dime, if put into a tea-cup,
filled with water, with a little salt, during about twelve hours before it is
wanted, will form a stock sufficient for eighteen or twenty gallons of milk;
but their manner of preservation and use is extremely various, and, as the
quality of the cheese depends more upon the application of the rennet than
upon any other part of the manufacture, we shall here state some of the
most approved modes of its preparation.
Most dairy-maids are of the opinion that if the curd, or chyle, were not
removed from the maw of the calf, it would communicate a harsh taste to
the cheese; and some intelligent operators never use the vells until they are
a year old, for, if newer, the rennet made from them causes the cheeses to
heave, or swell, and to become full of eyes, or holes; and it is well known
that, if too much be used, or if it be unusually strong, it will occasion the
cheese to heave, probably by causing fermentation. It is, therefore, some
times prepared by adding to every six vells two gallons of brine, and two
lemons, the latter doing away with any unpleasant smell, and giving it an
agreeable flavor. A large quantity should be made at a time, and it should
never be used until it has stood at least two months.
Another mode is, to take the maw of a newly-killed calf, and clean it of
its contents; salt the bag, and put it into an earthen jar for three or four
days, till it form a pickle; then take it from the jar and hang it up to dry,
after which it is to be replaced in the jar, the covering of which should be
pierced with a few small holes to admit of air, and let it remain there
for about twelve months. When wanted for use, a handful each of the
leaves of sweet-briar, dog-rose, and bramble, with three or four handfuls of
salt, are to be boiled together in a gallon of water for a quarter of an hour,
when the liquid is to be strained off and allowed to cool. The maw is then
to be put into the liquid, together with a lemon stuck around with cloves;
and the longer it remains in it, the stronger and better will be the rennet,
half a pint, or less, of the liquor, is sufficient to turn fifty gallons of milk.
Another mode practised is, when the rennet-bag is fit for the purpose,
let two quarts of soft water be mixed with salt, wherein should be put
almost every sort of spice and aromatic herb that can be procured; and must
boil gently until the liquor is reduced to three pints, when it should be
146
THE DAIRY.
strained clear from the spices, and poured, in a tepid state, upon the maw,
and a lemon may be sliced into it. It may remain a day or two, after which
it should be strained again, and put into a bottle, where, if well corked, it
will keep good for twelve months or more, and give the cheese a pleasing
flavor.
Still another practice is this: when the maw comes from the butcher, it
is always found to contain a chyly or curd-like matter, which is frequently
salted for present use; but when this chyly matter is taken out, and the
skin cleaned from slime, and every apparent impurity, by wiping or a gentle
washing, the skin is then filled nearly full of salt, and placing a layer of
salt upon the bottom of a mug, the skin is placed flat upon it. The mug is
large enough to hold three skins in a course, each of which should be
covered with salt; and when a sufficient number of skins are thus placed in
the mug, it should be filled up with salt, and put, with a dish or plate over
it, into a cool place, until the approach of cheese-making season in the following year. The skins are then all taken out, laid for the brine to drain
from them, and, being spread upon a table, they are powdered on each side
with fine salt, and are rolled smooth with a paste-roller, which presses in
the salt. After that, a thin splint of wood is stuck across each of them, to
keep them extended while they are hung up to dry. In making the rennet,
a part of the dried maw-skin is, in the evening previously to its being
used, put into half a pint of luke-warm water, to which is added a little salt.
In the morning, this infusion- the skin being first taken out - is put into
the tub of milk; but so great is the difference in the quality of these skins,
that it is difficult to ascertain what quantity will be necessary for the
intended purpose. A piece the size of half a crown, cut from the bottom
of a good skin, will commonly be sufficient for a cheese of sixty pounds'
weight, though ten square inches of skin are often found too little. It is
customary, however, to cut two pieces from each skin, one from the lower,
the other from the upper part; but the bottom end is the stronger.
An improved mode is, to take all the maw-skins provided for the whole
season, pickled and dried as before, put them into an open vessel, and for
each skin pour in three pints of spring water; let them stand twenty-four
hours, then take out the skins and put them into other vessels; add for
each one pint of spring water, and let them stand twenty-four hours, as
before. On taking the skins out the second time, gently stroke them down
with the hand into the infusion, and they are then done with. Mix these
two infusions together, pass the liquor through a fine linen sieve, and add
to the whole a quantity of salt rather more than is sufficient to saturate the
water, that is, until a portion of salt remains undissolved at the bottom of
the vessel. The next day, and also the summer through, the scum, as it
147
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
rises, is to be cleaned off, and fresh salt should be added. Somewhat less
than half a pint of this preparation will generally be sufficient for sixty
pounds of cheese; but, when for use, the whole should be well stirred up.
In some places, however, so far from washing away the chyle contained
in the maw of the calf, pains are taken to increase it as much as possible,
by giving to the animal as much milk as it can be made to swallow, a few
hours before it is killed; for, the chyle being formed by the mixture of the
gastric juice with the food, and that gastric juice being the coagulating
power, both are therefore carefully preserved, and are considered as thus
forming a stronger rennet than can be drawn from the bag alone. When
the stomach or bag is taken from the calf's body, its contents are examined,
and if any straw or other food be found among the curdled milk, such
impurity is removed; but no part of the chyle is suffered to be lost. At
least two handfuls of salt are put into the bag, and upon its outside, after
which it is rolled up in salt, and hung near a fire, where it is always
allowed to hang until it is well dried; and it is understood to be improved
by hanging a year, or longer, before being infused. When rennet is
wanted, the "yirning," as it is sometimes called, with its contents, is cut
small, and put into a jar, with a handful or two of salt, and a quantity
either of soft water that has been boiled, and cooled to about 65~, or
of new whey taken off the curd, is put upon the bag in the jar. The
quantity of water, or whey, to infuse the bag, is more or less, according to the quality of the yirning. If it is that of a new-dropped calf,
that has not been fed, three pints will be enough; but if he has been fed for
four or five weeks, a couple of quarts may, at least, be put on the bag to
wash; it should, however, be observed that the yirning of a calf four weeks
old yields more rennet than that of one twice that age. After the infusion
has remained in the jar from one to three days, the liquid is drawn off, and
a pint more water, or whey, put on the bag in the jar;. and that, after
standing in mash one or two days, is also drawn off, and, with that of the
first infusion, strained, if any impurities appear in the liquor; the whole
being put up in bottles for use as rennet, and the bag being thrown away,
without ever being put into the milk. Some put about a drachm of whiskey
into each quart bottle of the rennet; and it may be either used immediately,
or kept for as many months as may be convenient. A table-spoonful of
rennet thus made will, it is said, coagulate thirty gallons of milk; but its
great superiority over our common practice is, that it will curdle the milk
in five or ten minutes. As to the chyle occasioning a harsh taste to tho
cheese, the reverse is the fact. It must, however, be admitted, that, unless
great care be employed in the immediate preparation of rennet thus made,
148
THE DAIRY.
the curd is extremely apt to become rancid, and thus impart a certain degree
of rankness to the cheese.
Whole-milk Cheese.- The mode of making sweet-milk cheese - that is,
cheese made of milk which has not been skimmed - is, to put the ladder
across the cheese-tub, with a large canvas-cloth covering the whole, in order
to prevent the falling of milk upon the floor, or any other matter into the tub,
and above this is placed the sieve through which the milk is to be strained.
It should be of the temperature of 90~ to 95~; and if below 85~, a portion of
it should be placed in a deep brass pan, which is then immersed in the water,
which is kept hot in the wash-house. By this means the whole is warmed
equally, and it is of the utmost importance that attention be paid to it; for, if
the milk be not warm enough when the rennet is put- to it, the curd will be
tender, and the cheese will bulge out at the sides; and, if too hot, it will
cause it to swell or heave, and become spongy, both of which defects are
injurious to its appearance and quality. The rennet is then at once added to
the milk, which is thus coagulated at its natural heat; but many farmers
have not cows enough to form a cheese at every milking, and it must, therefore, be then allowed to cool. In doing this, it of course throws up cream,
which is not unfrequently taken off for butter, while the second meal, of
whole milk, is used along with that which has been already skimmed; but
if the cheese be intended to be of fine quality, the cream must be also added.
This, however, should be at the same time skimmed; for the milk, when
cooled, must be afterwards heated to full 90~ in the summer, and to a higher
temperature in cold weather; and, were the cream to be warmed to that
degree, it would be melted, which would cause a considerable portion of the
fatty or butyraceous matter to be lost in the whey. It is, therefore, generally thought the best practice to gradually bring it to a liquid state by the
admixture of moderately warm milk, before it is poured into the cheese-tubs.
The curd is then broken into small pieces, and the whey being thoroughly
squeezed out, it is salted, wrapped in a cloth, and placed in a chessart, of
such size as may be convenient, or is usually made in the neighborhood; it is
then pressed with weights proportionate to its size, and turned occasionally,
until it becomes sufficiently firm to be taken out of the mould, and placed
either on a cheese-rack, or on the floor of the cheese-room, where it is occasionally turned, and dry-rubbed with salt, and remains until fit for the market.
Drying.- New cheese requires to be hardened by gradual drying before
it becomes fit for market; and the cheeses, when taken out of the mould,
are, for this purpose, spread in a single layer on the floor of the cheese-loft,
where they are daily turned by hand, in order to expose each surface alternately to the air. This, on a large dairy-farm, is a slow and laborious
operation, which, as it devolves upon hired help, sometimes prevents themr
13*
149
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
from paying proper attention to that essential duty. A machine has, therefore, been invented to remedy this inconvenience, called a Swing Frame,
which consists of a dozen strong shelves framed together, and having bars
nailed from top to bottom of one side of the back of the shelves, in order to
prevent the cheeses from falling out while in the act of turning. The frame
is suspended on two strong pivots, one of which is let into the wall of the
room, and the other is supported by a strong post. Two catches keep the
frame upright, and prevent it from being turned more than half around.
By first filling the shelf immediately below the axis of the frame, and then
placing the cheeses alternately on the two nearest shelves above and below
that which has been already filled, the preponderance of one side over the
other can never be more than the weight of one cheese; the whole power,
therefore, required to turn the machine, cannot, in any circumstances, be
greater than this and the friction of the pivots. The cheeses, in the act of
turning, drop upon those shelves, which, in the former position of the frame,
were above them, and, having been exposed to a current of air for twenty
four hours previously, have become perfectly dry. The benefits of the
machine are, that, by means of it, fifty-five cheeses are turned in the same
time which is required for turning two by hand; that a room thus furnished
will hold treble as many cheeses as when they are laid on the floor; that
the shade afforded by the shelves, together with the current of air which
passes between them, has the effect, in hot weather, of preventing excessive
sweating, and consequently loss both in weight and quality, as well as
diminishing the necessity of rubbing the cheeses; and, lastly, the ripening
of the cheeses is hastened, so that, on an average, they are ready for market
five weeks earlier than usual.
The Store-room. - The store-room should be kept temperately warm,
and the shelves on the floor upon which the cheeses are laid should be
strewed with dry moss, or fine hay, as the cheeses, when new, are otherwise apt to adhere to the boards, and thus acquire an unpleasant appearance.
At a more advanced stage they may be laid upon straw; but, at first, it
would sink into the surface and deface them. The dried leaves of the
tutsan, or of the yellow star of Bethlehem, and the twigs of the common
birch-tree, are also thought to assist in preventing the depredations of
mites.
Green WVhey.- The whey which runs from the curd without pressure
is called "green whey," and is received from the cheese-tub into pans
covered with a cloth, under which they are held, until it deposits a sedi
ment, which is added to the curd, after which it is poured into the cistern;
while that which is pressed by hand from the curd is termed "white
whey," and contains a considerable portion of oily matter; so much so, that
150
THE DAIRY.
ith is in some cases kept apart, and set for cream. Most generally, however,
the green and white are both scalded together, until they throw up a substance in appearance between cream and curd, which is skimmed off so long
as it rises, to be churned for whey-butter, the difference between which and
milk-butter is something in favor of the latter.
MODE OF MAKING THE CELEBRATED CHEESES.
In all our dairies the same main points are admitted to be essential; but,
although the means of attaining them are nearly alike in similar sections
of country, yet in others they differ materially in the minutiae; and as upon
these much of the art of cheese-making depends, we give the details of the
modes employed on some of the most celebrated descriptions of cheese,
believing that it will be of material value to every American farmer, to be
acquainted with the modus operandi of producing the finest articles of dairy
labor.
Cheshire Cheese. -The Cheshire cheese is generally made with two meals
of milk, even in dairies where two cheeses are made in a day; indeed, in
the beginning and end of the season, three, four, and even five or six
meals, are kept for the same cheese. The general custom is, to take about
a pint of cream, when two-meal cheeses are made, from the night's milk of
twenty cows. In order to make cheese of the best quality, and in the
greatest abundance, it is, however, admitted that the cream should remain
in the milk; for whether the cream that is once separated from it can by
any means be again so intimately united with it as not to undergo a decomposition in the after process, admits of a doubt. The more common practice is, to set the evening's milk apart till the following morning, when the
cream is skimmed off, and three or four gallons of the milk are poured into
a brass pan, which is immediately placed in the furnace of hot water, and
made scalding hot; then half of the milk thus heated is poured upon the
night's milk, and the other half is mixed with the cream, which is thus
liquefied, so as, when put into the cheese-tub, to form one uniform fluid.
This is done by the dairy-woman while the others are milking the cows,
and the morning's milk being then immediately added to that of the evening, the whole mass is at once set together again for cheese.
The rennet and coloring being then put into the tub, the whole is well
stirred together, a wooden cover is put over the tub, and over that is thrown
a linen cloth. The usual time of "coming," or curdling, is one hour and
a half, during which time it is frequently to be examined. If the cream
rises to the surface before the coming takes place, as it often does, the
whole must be stirred together so as to mix again the milk and the cream;
and this as often as it rises, until the coagulation commences. If the dairy
151
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
woman supposes the milk to have been accidentally put together cooler than
she intended, or that its coolness is the cause of its not coming, hot water,
or hot milk, may be poured into it, or hot water in a brass pan may be par tially immerged in it. This must, however, be done before it is at all
coagulated, for the forming of the curd must not be tampered with. If it has
been set together too hot, the opposite means, under the same precautions,
may be resorted to; but the more general practice is to suffer the process
to proceed,' hot as it is, until the first quantity of whey is taken off, a part
of which, being set to cool, is then returned into the tub to cool the curd.
If too little appears to have been used, it renders the curd exceedingly bitter, and therefore an additional quantity may be put in; but this must be
done before the coagulation takes place, for, if added afterwards, it will be
of little effect, as it cannot be used without disturbing the curd, which can
then only acquire a proper degree of toughness by having some heated
whey poured over it. For coloring, Spanish'annatto is the drug usually
employed, little more than the quarter of an ounce being sufficient for a
cheese of sixty pounds. Other coloring matters are, however, used, such as
marigolds boiled in milk, which gives a pleasant flavor, and carrots also
boiled in milk and strained, which imparts a rich color, but a rather strong
taste. The annatto is generally put in by rubbing a piece of it in a bowl
with some warm milk, which is afterwards allowed to stand a little, in
order to drain off the sediment, and is then mixed with the entire quantity.
Within an hour and a half, as already mentioned, if all goes on well, the
coagulation will be formed -a point which is determined by gently pressing the surface of the milk with the back of the hand; but in this test
experience is the only guide, for the firmness of the curd, if the milk be set
hot together, will be much greater than that from milk which has been set
cold together. If the curd be firm, the usual practice is to take a common
case-knife, and make incisions across it to the full length pf the blade, at
the distance of about one inch, and again crosswise in the same manner, the
incisions intersecting each other at right angles. The cheese-maker and
two assistants then proceed to break the curd, by repeatedly putting their
hands down into the tub, and breaking every part of it as small as possible,
this part of the business being continued until the whole is uniformly broken
small. It generally takes up about forty minutes, and the curd is'hen
left, covered over with a cloth, for about half an hour, to subside.
The bottom of the tub is now set rather a-tilt, the curd is collected to the
upper side of it, and a board is introduced, of a semi-circular form, to fit
loosely one half of the tub's bottom. This board is placed on the curd, and
a sixty-pounds' weight upon it, to press out the whey, which, draining to the
lower side of the tilted tub, is ladled out into brass pans. Such parts of the
152
THE DAIRY.
curd as are pressed from under the board are cut off with a knife, placed
under the weighted board, and again pressed; the operation being repeated
again and again, until the whey is entirely drawn from the curd. The
whole mass of curd is then turned upside down, and put on the other side
of the tub, to be pressed as before. The board and weight being removed,
the curd is afterwards cut into pieces of about eight or nine inches square,
piled upon each other, and pressed both with the weight and hand; these
several operations being repeatedly performed, as long as any whey appears
to remain in it.
The next thing is to cut the curd into three nearly equal portions, one of
which is taken into a brass pan, and is there by two persons broken extremely fine, a large handful of salt being added, and well mixed with it.
That portion of curd being sufficiently broken, is put into a cheese-vat,
which is placed to receive it, on a cheese-ladder over the cheese-tub, the
vat being furnished with a coarse cheese-cloth. The second and third portions of the curd are treated in the same manner, and emptied into the vat,
except that into the middle portion eight, nine, or ten times the quantity
of salt is usually put. By some, however, each portion is salted alike, and
with no more than three large handfuls to each. The breaking takes up
more or less time, as the cheese was set together hotter or colder; half an
hour is, perhaps, the longest.
The curd, when put into the cheese-vat in its broken state, is heaped
above the vat in a conical form; to prevent it from crumbling down, the
four corners of the cheese-cloth are turned up over it, and three persons,
placing their hands against the conical part, gently, but forcibly, press it
together, constantly shifting their hands when any portion of the curd is
starting from the mass, and folding down the cloth upon it. So soon as the
curd adheres together so as to admit of it, a small square board, with a
corner of the cloth under it, is put on the top with a sixty-pounds'weight,
or a lever, such as that which has been described, is pressed upon it. Several iron skewers are at the same time stuck in the cone, as wvell as through
holes in the side of the vat, from which they are occasionally drawn out and
fixed in other spots, until not a drop of whey is discharged. The weight
and skewers are then removed, and the corners of the cloth are held up by
hands, or by a wooden hoop, while the curd is broken as small as possible,
half way to the bottom of the vat, and the same operation of pressing and
skewering is repeated. The four corners of the cloth are then taken up,
while the vat is drawn away, and rinsed in warm whey; a clean cloth is
then put over the upper part of the curd, and it is returned inverted into the
vat; it is then broken half way through in the same manner as before,
which several operations occupy from three to four hours.
153
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
When no more whey can be extracted by these means from the cheese, it
is again turned in the vat, and rinsed as before in warm whey. The cloth
now made use of is finer and larger than the former, and is so laid that on
one side it shall be level with the edge of the vat, and on the other wrap
over the whole surface of the cheese the edges being put within the vat,
thus perfectly enclosing the entire mass. In this stage of the business the
cheese is still higher than the edge of the vat; and, to preserve it in due
form, recourse is had to a binder, about three inches broad, either as a hoop
or as a cheese-fillet, which is a strong, broad, coarse sort of tape, which is
put around the cheese, on the outside of the cloth, and the lower edge of
the binder pressed down within the vat, so low as that the upper edge of it
may be level with the surface. The cheese is then carried to the press, and
a strong, smooth board being placed over it, the press is gently let down
upon it, the usual power of which is about fourteen or fifteen hundred
weight. In most dairies there are two presses, and in many three or four,
of different weights, the cheese being by some put first under the heaviest,
and by others under the lightest.
As soon as the cheese is put into the press, it is immediately well skewered, the skewers being of strong wire, eighteen or twenty inches long,
sharp at the points and broad at the other end, the vat and binder having
holes, seldom more than an inch asunder, to receive them. As the press
always stands near the wall, only one side of the cheese can be skewered at
the same time, and it must therefore be turned half way round, whenever
that is necessary; but this occasions no inconvenience, as the skewers must
be frequently shifted, and many more holes are made than skewers to fill
them. In half an hour from the time when the cheese is first put into the
press, it is taken out again, and turned, in the vat, into another clean cloth;
after which it is returned to the vat, but is by some persons previously put
naked into warm whey, where it stands an hour or more, for the purpose of
hardening its coat. At six o'clock in the evening, the cheese is again
turned in the vat into another clean cloth, and some dairy-women prick its
upper surface all over an inch or two deep, with a view of preventing
blisters. These, however, if they occur, can be remedied by opening them
with a penknife and pouring hot water into the incision; then press down
the outer rind, put on a little salt, and place a piece of slate with a halfpound weight upon it. At six o'clock in the next morning, it is again
turned in the vat, with a clean cloth as before, and the skewers are laid
aside; it is also turned two or three times more, both morning and evening,
at the last of which finer cloths are used than those at first, in order that as
little impression as possible may be made on its coat.
After the cheese has remained about forty-eight hours under the press, it
154
THE DAIRY,
is taken out, fine cloth being used merely as a lining to the vat, without
covering the upper part of the cheese, which is then placed nearly mid-deep
in a salting-tub, its upper surface being covered all over with salt. It
stands there generally about three days, is turned daily, and at each turning
well salted, the cloth being changed twice in the time. It is then taken out
of the vat, in lieu of which a wooden girth, or hoop, is made use of, equal
in breadth to the thickness nearly of the cheese, and in this it is placed on
the salting-bench, where it stands about eight days, being well salted all
over, and turned each day. The cheese is then washed in lukewarm water,
and, after being wiped, is placed on the drying-bench, where it remains
about a week; it is then again washed and dried as before, and after it has
stood about two hours, it is smeared all over with about two ounces of
sweet whey-butter, and then placed in the warmest part of the cheese-room.
On the cheese coming into the salting-house, it is, in some dairies, taken
out of the vat, and after its sides are well rubbed with salt, is returned into
the vat with a clean fresh cloth under it; the top being covered with salt,
it is placed on the salting-benches, turned and salted twice a day, and the
cloth changed every second day. On the salting-benches it is continued
seven or eight days, when it is taken out of the vat, and with a wooden
hoop, or cheese-fillet, around it, is put into the salting-tub, and managed as
before described.
While it is remaining in the warmest part of the cheese-room, it is,
during the first seven days, rubbed every day all over, and generally smeared
with sweet butter; after which it should for some time be turned daily, and
rubbed three times a week in summer, and twice in winter.
The details of this process, however, apply only to cheeses of sixty pounds'
weight, and the quantity of salt used to them is uncertain. The greatest is
about three pounds each; but much of it is wasted, and whether the cheese
acquires much saltness in the salting-house, dairymen themselves-are doubtful, though much salt is there expended. Respecting the heating of the
milk, the practice must evidently vary according to the weather. The
sponginess and heaving of the cheese, which are sometimes complained of,
are faults which are to be attributed more to inattention on the part of the
operators than to want of actual skill,- the remedy being careful breaking,
good thrusting, frequent skewering, and powerful pressing; they not improbably arise partly from the use of cold and warm milk, which, if mixed
together, will generate air. Those of pungency and rankness, which are
commonly imputed to impurity in the rennet, and by some to the want of
salt, may be also more properly ascribed to the fermentation occasioned by
the imperfect discharge of the whey.
Gloucester Cheese. When the curd is sufficiently firm for breaking, it
155
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
is gently and slowly cut crosswise, to the bottom of the tub, at about an inch
apart, with a three-bladed knife of fourteen inches long. When it has stood
five or ten minutes, to allow it to sink a little, and the whey to come out as
clean as possible, some of the whey is dipped out of it with a bowl, and the
curd is again cut. This must also be at first done slowly, and with strokes
at a considerable distance from each other, for, if performed hurriedly, a
great sediment of curd will be found in the whey-leads; it should, however,
be gradually quickened, and the strokes taken nearer and nearer every time,
one hand with the skimming-dish keeping the whole in motion, and turning
up the lumps suspended in the whey, while the other cuts them as small as
possible. This process may occupy a quarter of an hour.
The curd is now allowed to settle during a quarter of an hour, when the
whey is taken from it, and poured through a very fine sieve placed over the
whey-leads, the curd being then cut into lumps, from which most of the remaining whey escapes. The curd is then pressed down with the hand into
vats, which are covered with large cheese-cloths of fine canvas, and placed
in the press for half an hour, after which they are taken out, and the curd
put into a mill, which tears it into small crumbs, and saves the laborious
part of squeezing and rubbing it with the hands, while it also retains that
portion of the oily matter which would be otherwise lost to the cheese, and
thus occasions a great improvement in the making.
In this pulverized state it is customary to scald the curd with hot whey,
though some consider the cheese richer when not scalded, for this washes
out a part of the fat. The whey should, nevertheless, be completely extracted, and the curd fitted into the vat as compactly as possible, being
rounded up in the middle, but only just so much as that it can be pressed
down to a level. A cheese-cloth is then spread over the vat, and a little
hot water is thrown over the cloth, as tending to harden the outside of the
cheese, and prevent it from cracking. The curd is now turne(d out of the
vat into the cloth, and the inside of the vat being washed in whey, the inverted curd, with the cloth around it, is again returned to it; the cloth is
then folded over, and the vat put into the press, where it remains about two
hours, after which it is taken out and dry cloths applied, which should be
repeated in the course of the day; it is then replaced in. the press until the
cheese is salted, which is generally done within twenty-four hours after it
is made.
The salting is performed by rubbing the entire cheese with finely-powdered salt; for if the curd be salted before being put into the vat, its particles do not intimately unite, and although it may become a good cheese, it
is loose and crumbly, and never becomes a smooth, close, solid mass, like
that which has been salted after it has been made; but this is never done
156
THE DAIRY.
until the skin is closed, for if there be any crack in it at that time, it will
not afterwards close. The cheese is after this returned to the vat and put
under the press, in which more cheeses than one are placed together, care
being always taken to put the newest lowest in the press, and the oldest
uppermost. The salting is repeated three times, - the cloths being removed
after the second, in order to efface their marks, - and twenty-four hours are
allowed to intervene between each; thus the cheese is within five days
taken from the press to the cheese-room, though in damp weather it should
remain somewhat longer. There it is turned every day for a month, when
it is ready for cleaning, which is done by scraping with a common knife,
the operator sitting down to perform the operation. When it has been
cleared from all scurf, it is rubbed all over with a woollen cloth dipped in
paint made of Indian red, or Spanish brown, and small beer; and as soon as
the state of the paint will permit, the edge of the cheese. and about an inch
on each side, are rubbed hard with a cloth, every week. The quantity of
salt is generally about three and a half pounds to the hundred weight, and
one pound of annatto is enough for half a ton of cheese.
The true characteristics of the double Gloucester cheese consist in its great
richness, together with the mildness of its flavor, and that waxy texture
which makes it cut, even in thin slices, without crumbling; while its oily
matter is retained in toasting, by merely softening itself, without being
burned.
Stilton Cheese. - This article, so proverbial for its richness, is made by
putting the night's cream, without any portion of the skimmed milk, to the
milk of the following morning; but those who wish to make it very fine
add a still greater quantity of cream, and of course the richness of the cheese
depends upon the amount which is used. Butter is also said to be sometimes mixed with it. The rennet is then added, without any coloring; and,
when the curd has come, it is taken out without being broken, and put whole
into a sieve, or drainer, where it is pressed with weights until entirely
cleared of whey. When dry it is put, with a clean cloth, into a hooped
chessart, and placed under the press, the outer coat being first salted.
When sufficiently firm to be removed from this mould, the cheese is placed
upon a dry board, and tightly bound in a cloth, which is changed daily, in
order to avoid all danger of cracks in the skin, until this is found to be
tolerably well coated, after which it is no longer used, and the cheese requires no further care than being frequently turned upside down, and occasionally brushed.
The cheeses of this kind, although not much larger than the crown of an
ordinary sized hat - the form of which they much resemble - and not weighing more than about a dozen pounds, yet require nearly two years to bring
14
157
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
them to maturity; for they are not generally thought sufficiently mellowed for
use until considerably decayed; and, in order to forward their ripeness, it is
said that, besides their being placed in damp but warm cellars, they are
sometimes wrapped in strong brown paper, and sunk in a hot-bed. It is
also stated that the flavor of an old cheese may be communicated to a new
one, of whatever species, by some portions being intermixed with it. This
is done by extracting small pieces, with the sample-scoop, from each cheese,
and interchanging them; by this means, the new one, if well covered up
from the air, will in a few weeks become thoroughly impregnated with the
mould, and with a flavor hardly to be distinguished from tbe old one. The
cheeses selected for this operation should, however, be dry, and the blue
mould should be free from any portion of a more decayed appearance.
Dunlop Cheese.- The Dunlop has acquired a high reputation for its mild
richness, and is made as follows: When so many cows are kept on one farm
as that a cheese of any tolerable size may be made every time they are
milked, the milk is passed, immediately as it comes from them, through a
sieve into the vat, and, when the whole is collected, it is formed into a curd
by the mixture of the rennet. Where, however, the cows are not so numerous as to yield milk sufficient to form a cheese at each meal, the milk of
another meal is stored about six or eight inches deep in coolers, and placed
in the milk-house. The cream is then skimmed from the milk in the coolers, and, without being heated, is put into the curd-vat, along with the milk
just drawn from the cows, and the cold milk, from which the cream has been
taken, is heated so as to raise the temperature to about blood-heat. This,
indeed, is a matter of great importance; and though in summer 90~ may be
sufficient, yet, upon the average of winter weather, 95~ will be generally
found requisite. If coagulated much warmer, the curd becomes too adhesive, much of the butyraceous matter is lost in the whey, and the cheese
will be found dry, tough, and tasteless; but if too cold, the curd, which is
then soft, does not part readily with the serum, and the cheese is so wanting in firmness that it is difficult to be kept together; indeed, even when the
utmost pains are taken to extract the whey, and give solidity to the cheese,
holes- which, in dairy language, are termed " eyes," "whey-drops," and
"springs "-frequently break out, rendering them either rancid or insipid.
About a table-spoonful of the liquid rennet is generally thought sufficient
for twenty-five gallons of milk, and the curd is usually formed by it within
twelve or fifteen minutes, though in some dairies - of course, in consequence
of the difference of strength in the rennet- it does not come from three
quarters of an hour to an hour, though double the quantity of rennet is used.
The curd is then broken with the skimming-dish, or with the hand, and the
whey ought to be taken off as speedily as possible, though without pressing,
158
THIE DAIRY.
as the least violence has been found to make it come off white, and thus
weaken the quality of the cheese. The best method of separating the whey
from the curd is, in the first instance, to lift the edge of the cheese-tub, and
let the whey run off slowly from it into a vessel placed underneath. The
tub is then let down to stand a little, after which it is turned one fourth
round, and another collection emptied off; thus, by turning the tub a fourth
time round every time, it is found to part from the curd more pure and
quickly.
When quite freed from the whey, and the curd has acquired a little consistence, it is then cut with the cheese-knife, gently at first, and more
minutely as it hardens, after which it is put into the drainer (which is a
square vessel, with small holes in the bottom, and a cover to fit inside), on
which the lid is placed, with a cloth thrown over it; and a slight pressure
- say from forty to fifty pounds, according to the quantity of curd- being
laid on, it is allowed to stand from fifteen to twenty minutes, or half an
hour. It is then cut into pieces of two inches square, the whey is again
discharged, and the weight, being doubled, is replaced. The process of
cutting it smaller every half hour, and increasing the weight until the pressure is upwards of a hundred pounds, is continued for three or four hours.
It is then cut very small, and minutely salted, half an ounce being sufficient.
A clean cheese-cloth, rinsed in warm water and wrung out, being then
placed in the chessart, the cheese is turned upside down, and laid, with increased weight, under the press, during the whole night. Next morning,
and during the three or four days which it must remain in the press, it is
daily turned repeatedly, dry cloths being each time used, and the weight is
gradually increased, until the pressure amounts to at least a ton.
When ultimately taken from the press, the cheeses are generally kept
during a week or tell days in the farmer's kitchen, where they tire turned
three or four times every day, and rubbed with a dry cloth. They are then
removed to the store-room, which should be in a cool exposure, between
damp and dry, without the sun being allowed to shine upon them, or yet a
great current of air admitted; this gradual mode of ripening being found
essential to prevent the fermentation and heaving of the cheese, as well as
the cracking of the rind; but attention must be paid to rub them with a dry
cloth, and turn them daily for a month or two, and twice every week afterwards.
Practical Suggestions.- Such, then, are the most usual modes of manufacturing the world-renowned cheeses to which we have alluded, in which
the difference employed is in some cases very striking and important.
T'hus, in the preparation of rennet, the bag itself is in some places used,
159
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
while elsewhere the liquid decoction extracted from it is so much stronger
that it occasions the curd to coagulate, as we have just seen, within fifteen
minutes; and in other places, it occupies an hour and a half, and not unfre quently more than two hours. Now, it is not only the delay which is thus
disadvantageous; for it is well known that the degree of heat at which the
curd is set is one of the nicest points in cheese-making, and we can hardly
imagine how that can be properly regulated, if it be allowed to stand so long
cooling in the cheese-tub.
The temperature to which the last night's milk is heated when there is
not sufficient to make a cheese that one meal, and the mode in which the cream
is managed, differ also in various dairies; nor does there appear any objection to the practice of making the last night's milk into cheese, provided it
be so gradually heated as that the cream does not run the risk of being converted into oil, as it does if too suddenly heated; yet we believe that, when
once separated from the milk, the cream can never again be so completely
blended with it as to be entirely retained in the curd when set; it consequently runs off with the whey, and leaves the cheese of inferior quality.
The skewering of the curd, as practised in some dairies. is unknown in
most other places; and the labor of several persons employed for three or
four hours in thrusting or hand-pressing it into the vat is an operation
which is generally managed in other dairies with a couple of maids, and in
one quarter of the time.
The heaving of the cheese is attributed to the imperfection of its fermentation, occasioned in a great measure by the store-rooms- though commonly placed over the cow-house- not being sufficiently heated, so as to
occasion its sweating; yet, in the account of the Dunlop cheese, objection
is made to heated stores, as causing an improper degree of fermentation.
The rankness of flavor, which is mostly attributed to the impurity of the
rennet, is by others ascribed to the nature of the pasture. In this, both suppositions may be right; for it must be evident that it may be readily
occasioned by the use of a large quantity of badly-prepared rennet; and we
learn from the management of one of the dairies, where every means were
taken to avoid the fault, that the cheese still maintained an unpleasant taste
of the same description, which could, therefore, have only arisen from the
herbage. It was, however, at length uniformly overoome by throwing
about half a tea-spoonful of saltpetre into the pail before the cows were
milked. The cracks which frequently take place in cheese are also by
many persons supposed to proceed from lime having been used as a manure
upon land laid down to pasture, and afterwards fed by cows; but this is
probably a mistake, for it rarely occurs in the Dunlop sort, though perhaps
as much lime has been applied to the soil where that description is made as
160
I
TITE DAIRY.
to any other. It is more probably owing to the cheese being exposed, before
it is dry, to too much draught of air.
The mode of salting is also very differently conducted in several dairies;
in some the practice being to cure the cheese after it has been removed
from the vat, while in others the salt is minutely mixed into the curd previously to its being put into the vat. Both practices, nevertheless, appear
to be attended with equally good effects, but the latter certainly occasions
less trouble, without any waste of salt.
Skim-milk Cheese. -This article, made of milk from which the entire of
the cream has been taken, is, of course, more or less palatable in proportion to the time during which the milk is allowed to stand; for if that be so
long as to deprive it entirely of the butyraceous or oily matter, it becomes
indigestible, and so hard that, in some places, where large quantities of it
are made, it is said that, instead of being cut with a knife, it is usually
chopped with a hatchet.
The milk should, if possible, not be allowed to become sour; and the moment it has been skimmed, it should be heated to no more than animal heat,
or about 90~; for, if put together too hot, its toughness will be increased,
and as the curd coagulates more readily than that of full-milk cheese, the
same degree of heat is not necessary. This is the chief perceptible difference
in management, except that the curd is more difficult to be broken, and that
the cheese needs less of the press; but in all other respects the mode of
making is the same. It will also be sooner ready for use than whole-milk
cheese of the same weight.
Cream Cheese.- This being, in general, only wanted for immediate use,
is, in fact, little else than thick, sweet cream, dried by being put into a
small cheese-vat of about an inch and a half in depth, perforated with small
holes in the bottom, to allow any portion of the milk which may be mixed
with it to escape. It is also covered with rushes, or the long grass of
Indian corn, so disposed as to admit of its being turned without being
handled, and it is never pressed except gently by the hand between cloths.
It is thus kept in warm situations to sweat and ripen; for, if once penetrated
by frost, or even chilled, much of its mellow richness is lost, and it becomes
comparatively insipid. The extreme of heat should, however, be equally
guarded against, or it becomes rank; and, therefore, some judgment is
requisite in the time for using it in perfection.
evew Cheese. - New cheese is only made in the early part of summer,
when the cows have been turned out to grass, and is formed entirely of new
milk, with about one third of warm water added before the rennet is put to
it. The whey is then gently poured off, and the curd is carefully kept
entire until put into a vat of considerable diameter, but only about an inch
14* L
161
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
in depth. It is very gently pressed for a few hours only, and when
removed from the vat, it is covered with a cloth, which is frequently
changed, and so soon as the skin is formed it is considered fit for use.
Parmesan Cheese.- This is prepared as follows: The cows are kept in
the house nearly the whole year round, and fed during the summer with
cut grass, and in the winter upon hay. The weight of these cheeses
varies from sixty to one hundred and eighty pounds; it consequently
requires a great number of cows to produce one of even the smallest weight,
and as the farms in that territory are not large, the dairymen club together.
The mode of making is this: The summer cheese, which is the best, is
made of the evening milk, after having been skimmed in the morning, and
at noon, mixed with the morning milk, which is also skimmed at noon.
Both kinds of milk are poured together into a large copper cauldron, of the
shape of an inverted bell, which is suspended on the arm of a lever, so as to
be moved on and off the fire at pleasure. In this vessel the milk is
gradually heated to the temperature of about 120~, after which it is removed
from the fire and kept quiet for a few minutes, until all internal motion has
ceased. The rennet is then added, which is composed of the stomach of a
calf, fermented together with wheaten meal and salt, the method of using
it being to tie a piece, of the size of a hazelnut, in a rag, and steep it in
the milk, while held in the hand, and squeezing it from time to time. A
sufficient quantity of the rennet thus soon passes through the rag into the
milk, which is now to be well stirred, and afterwards left at rest to
coagulate.
Within about an hour the coagulation is complete, and then the milk is
again put over the fire, and raised to a temperature of 145~. During all the
time it is heating, the mass is briskly stirred, till the curd separates in small
lumps, when a part of the whey is taken out, and a few pinches of saffron
are added to the remainder, in order to color it. When the curd is sufficiently broken, nearly the whole of the whey is taken out, and two pailfuls
of cold water are poured in. The temperature is thus lowered, so as to
enable the operator to collect the curd by passing a cloth beneath it, and
gathering it up at the corners. It is now pressed into a frame of wood,
placed on a solid platform, and covered by a round piece of wood fitting into
the mould, with a heavy weight at top. In the course of the night it cools,
parts with the whey, and assumes a firm consistence. The next day one
side is rubbed with salt, and the succeeding day the cheese is turned, and
the other side rubbed in like manner, this alternate salting being continued
for about forty days. After this period, the outer crust of the cheese is
pared off, the fresh surface is varnished with linseed oil, the convex side is
colored red, and the cheese is fit for market.
162
THE DAIRY.
Potato Cheese.- Cheese, which is said to be of very fine quality, is
partly formed from potatoes, being made in the following manner: - The
potatoes of a large, white kind, are those to be preferred, and after being
boiled, they are peeled, when cool, and reduced to a pulp, of equal consistence, either by being grated or ground in a mortar. To five pounds of
this pulp there is added one pound, or about a pint, of sour milk, with the
usual quantity of salt to impart a flavor; the whole is then kneaded together,
and, being covered up, is allowed to remain for three or four days, according
to the season. At the expiration of this time, the pulp is again kneaded,
and placed in one or more small wicker baskets, in order to get rid of the
superfluous moisture; the pulp is then moulded into form by being placed
in small pots, in which the cheeses are allowed to dry in the shade during
about fifteen days, after which they are put in store. The older they are,
the better they become; and, if kept dry, they will keep for a great number
of years. Three kinds of this cheese are made: the first, or most common,
according to the above proportions; the second, with four parts of potatoes
and two parts of curdled milk; and the third, with two parts of potatoes
and four of milk. Ewe-milk is as frequently employed as that of cows, and
imparts a pungent taste, which to many palates is found agreeable.
Green or Sage Cheese. - The method pursued in the making of this
article is, to steep over night, in a proper quantity of milk, two parts of
sage, one part of marigold-leaves, and a little parsley, after they have been
bruised. On the following morning, the greened milk is strained off, and
mixed with about one third of the whole quantity intended to be run or
coagulated. The green and white milks are run separately, the two curds
being kept apart, until ready for vatting; these may be mixed, either evenly
and intimately, or irregularly and fancifully. The management is the
same as for common cheese.
163
CHAPTER V.
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, &c.
STANDARD KINDS: - APPLE - APRICOT - BAR BERRY - BLACKBERRY - CHERRY
- CRANBERRY - CURRANT - GOOSEBERRY - GRAPE - MEDLAR - MELON -
MULBERRY - NECTARINE - PEACH - PEAR - PLUM - QUINCE - RASPBERRY
- STRAWBERRY. MISCELLANEOUS KINDS: - ALOND-BLUEBERRY - BUT TERNUT - CHESTNUT - FIG - FILBERT - LEMON - LIME - OLIVE - ORANGE -
POMEGRANATE - SHELLBARK -WALNIUT -WHORTLEBERRY; -WITH A MONTHLY
CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS.
THE APPLE.
Propagation. - The apple may be propagated by seeds, cuttings of the
branches or roots, by layers, suckers, in arching, grafting, or budding; but
the last two modes are principally for continuing varieties, and seeds are
used to obtain new varieties.
Soil and Situation.- It will grow in any common soil, neither too sandy,
gravelly, nor clayey, on a dry subsoil, and a free exposure.
Mode of Bearing, -c.- The apple bears invariably on the old wood,
often on that of the preceding year; and the blossoms continue being produced from terminal and lateral spurs, or short, robust shoots, many years.
These spurs require to be thinned out when they become crowded, to be
shortened when they become too long, and to be cut in when they become
so old as to produce smaller fruit than is desirable.
Pruning. - The object of this is to admit the light and air among the
branches, to preserve the symmetry of the head by causing it to spread
equally and in the same form and manner on every side, and to eradicate
diseased branches. (See chapter onr GRAFTING, BUDDING, PRUNING, &C.)
Fig. 96.
I',
Gathering and Keeping. - The common mode of keeping, by those wlho
grow apples in large quantities for the market, is to lay them in heaps in
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
tool dry cellars, and cover them with abundance of straw. They may be
kept in a cellar, packed in barrels, the interstices filled with dry sand, so as
E/g. 97.
to exclude the air. Table apples may be spread upon shelves, or packed
in sand, fern, or straw, in jars.
VARIETIES.
Summer Apples.
Early Harvest. - This is one of the earliest varieties worthy of cultiva
tion; its form is flat, medium size, bright straw-colored skin, flesh tender
Fig. 98.
and sprightly. In the Middle and Western States it grows well, and is
much esteemed. Ripens in July and August.
Red Astrachan.- This is a fruit of extraordinary beauty. It bears abundantly, the fruit being rather above the middle size, and very smooth and
fair, roundish, a little narrowed towards the eye. The prevailing color is
deep crimson, with sometimes a little greenish yellow in the shade, and
occasionally a little russet near the stalk, and covered with a pale white
bloom. Stalk rather short, and deeply inserted. Flesh white, crisp,
moderately juicy, of a rich, acid, agreeable flavor. Ripe in August, and
does not keep a long time after gathering. Hardy, vigorous, and productive. Adapted to various soils and climates. Fig. 99.
165
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
i. 99.
Fi'g. 100.
166
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
Williams's Favorite. - This is a moderate grower and a good bearer,
requiring a strong soil to perfect it. It is large and handsome, and ripens
from the last of July to the first of September, Skin very smooth, nearly
covered with a fine dark red. Flesh yellowish-white, of mild and agreeable
favor. Fig. 100.
.'g. 101.
/i
Fr. 102.
167
IFARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
Juneating. -This is an old, favorite variety, of small size, flat form,
long and thin stalk; color a pale green, turning to light yellow when ripe;
the skin has an oily feel; the taste is pleasant. Bears abundantly in
good ground, ripening from the last of June to the middle of July. Fig. 101.
Summer Queen.- A popular apple, of the finest quality and appearance.
Large size; color fine, rich, yellow ground, mixed with red striped; long
stalk; large tree; great bearer; flesh rich, yellow, and agreeable flavor.
Best on sandy soil. Fig. 102.
.Mg. 103.
Maiden's Blush.- An apple of large size and great beauty; has a yellow
ground, bright red cheek; form flat; smooth skin; flesh white, tender, and
sprightly; ripens in August, hardy, and great bearer. Fig. 103.
REMARKS.- The above comprise some of the most universally esteemed
Summer apples; to which may be added the following well-established sorts,
out of hundreds contained in the nursery catalogues:- American Summer
Pearmain, a staple sort in New Jersey; Benoni; Cole, large and handsome; Early Red Margaret, a capital fruit, ripe in July; Early Strawberry,
much esteemed in New York; Large iYellow Bough, a fine dessert fruit;
Summer Rose, dessert; Sapson; Tucker; Manomet Sweeting; Spice Sweet:
Red Quarrenden.
Fall Apples.
Porter. - A large and popular variety, very productive; skin bright
yellow, with a blush; flesh fine-grained and juicy; ripens last of Septem
ber to October.
168
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
Fall Pippin.- A fine kind, quite popular in the Middle States. Large
size; round; skin smooth, oily, bright greenish-yellow, slightly speckled;
flesh white, tender, juicy, of a superior flavor. Ripens from last of October to December.
Gravenstein.- Vigorous tree, and very productive. Fruit large; color
clear straw or yellow, with stripes of red; flesh pale yellow, crisp, delicious
FZ. 104.
Fig. 105.
15
169
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
flavor. A fine fruit for dessert, cooking, or cider; ripe in September and
October. Fig. 104.
Rambo. -Sometimes called Gilpin, Romanite, Bread and Cheese, and
,Sek-no-flrther. Popular in Middle States. Does well on a light sandy
soil. Size not large; flat; skin smooth; color variegated flesh greenishwhite, tender, rich, slightly acid. Productive, ripening last of October to
late in the season. Fig. 105.
Yellow Bellfower.- A much-admired fruit, rather preferring a sandy
soil. Fruit large, oblong; skin smooth; color pale yellow, with a blush;
flesh juicy, tender, sub-acid. A good bearer, ripening in November.
Fig. 106.
REMARKS.- The five preceding varieties are among the choicest Fa/i
apples. There are others of nearly equal value, such as the Golden Sweet;
Richardson; Summer Bellftower, of New York; Bars, of Rhode Island;
Lyman's Large Summer, of Connecticut; Winthrop Greening, of Maine;
Early Joe, of New York; Mexico, of Connecticut; Superb Sweet, of Massachusetts; Fairbanks; Sassafras, or Haskell Sweet; Fall Wine; Lowell;
Moses Wood; Jersey Sweeting; Leland Pippin; Pommne Royal, of Ohio;
170
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
FPgi1 07.
Fig,. 108.
171
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
Lyscom; Magnolia; Thompkinsl; Jewett's Red, Fameuse; Golden Ball;
Hurlut, Belmont; Herefordshire Pearmain.
Winter and Spring Apples.
Esopus Spitzenberg. - This apple possesses great beauty and exquisite
flavor. Large size; skin fair and smooth; color bright red, with small
spots; flesh yellow, rich, juicy, and sprightly; good bearer. Fig. 107.
Baldwin. -Also called Pecker, and Steele's Red Winter. Ranks very
high in the northern markets. Fruit large, roundish; color yellow and
dull red, streaked and dotted; flesh pale-white, crisp, highly flavored.
Good bearer, ripening from November to April. Fig. 108.
Hubbardston Nonsuch. - A superior variety. The tree grows large,
vigorous, and handsome; bears abundantly. Fruit large, globular, or coni
Fig. 109.
cal; color yellow, with stripes of pale red, flesh yellow, juicy, rich, sweet.
relieved by a slight acid. Ripens in November and December.
Westfield Seek-no-further.- Same as the Seek-no-further of Connecticut
-wan old and valued fruit. Size large; round; color pale red and green,
with slightly yellow dots; flesh white, tender, and rich. Fig. 110.
172
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
Newtown Pippin. - The Green and the Yellow are two distinct varieties
of this apple. It grows well in the Middle and Western States. Size
medium; flesh fine, firm, crisp, juicy, very superior flavor.
E.g. 110.
Fig. 111.
Roxbury Russet.- Very popular, and extensively grown. Medium size,
15*
173
FARMER'S HAND-BOOCK.
roundish, somewhat flat; skin dull green or brownish-yellow; flesh greenish white, compact, slightly acid, but rich flavored. Ripe in Dec. Fig. 111.
Rhode Island Greening.- Also called Jersey; and Burlington Greening.
A very large fruit, flat at its base and summit; color yellowish-green, with
dark spots; flesh yellow, tender; rich, juicy, acid flavor; ripens from September to March; bears abundantly. A universal favorite.
Golden Pippin. -Beautiful dessert apple. Small, round, symmetrical;
gold color, with dark dots; flesh yellowish; rich, sprightly flavor; great
Fig. 112.
bearer, flourishing best on a strong sandy loam. Ripens November to
March.
Lady Apple. - Superior for the table. Fruit small, but beautiful; rather
flat; skin smooth; color yellow and red; flesh firm, white, well flavored.
Fig. 113.
REMARKS. -It would be easy to extend the foregoing list of Winter and
Sring apples, had we the room requisite. We have described the most
desirable standard sorts for cultivation in this country, and subjoin the
174
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
names of other varieties of note: Detroit; Northern Spy; Blue Pearmain;
Peck's Pleasant; Swaar; WVaxen Apple; King; Gloria Mundi; Norton's.
.Ielon; Golden Reinette; Hollow Crown Pearmain; Ladies' Sweeting; Danvers Winter Sweeting,; Fort Miami; Wood's Greening; Vandevere; Jonathan; Minister; Old Nonsuch; Prior's Red; Leicester Sweeting; Tolman
Sweeting; American Golden Russet; Little Pearmain; Tewksbury Wint(r
Blush; Raule's Janette; Rockrimmon; Never Fail.
Cider Apples.
The most valuable kinds for the manufacture of cider are the Harrison
(Fig. 114) and Camfield, extensively raised in the Middle States, being rich
Fig. 114.
in flavor, and bearing very abundantly; HIugh's Virginia Crab, small size,
but very productive; and the Red Streak.
Crab Apples.
Red Siberian.- A beautiful tree, and a great bearer. Fruit small, about
the size of a cherry, growing in clusters; color bright red, when matured;
175
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
globular form, long and thin stem. Excellent for preserves. Ripe in Set
tember.
g. 115.
Yellow Siberian. - The tree, its habits and appearance - excepting the
color of the fruit -is similar to the preceding. The color of the fruit is a
fine, clear yellow, or a rich golden hue. Ripe in September and October.
THE APRICOT.
Propagation. -The apricot-tree may be raised from the stone, like the
peach, or by budding, either on its own or plum stocks.
Soil and Situation.- The soil which suits the apricot best is a rich black
mould, though some recommend a light loam. It thrives better in the
Middle States than at the North, where, when propagated, it needs shelter.
VARIETIES.
Early Apricot.- This variety is round-shaped, little inclined to oblong,
with a furrow running from the stem to the head; color bright yellow, with
.g-. 116.
a red cheek; flesh yellowish white, rich, juicy, finely flavored It ripens in
the month of July, which is one of its chief merits.
176
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
Large Early.- This is a fine fruit, which also ripens in July. The fruit
is of medium size, somewhat oblong; color orange, rather pale; flesh strawcolor, rich, juicy, easily leaving the stone. An excellent sort
i. 117.
Peach. - This is the largest, and by many considered the finest, of all the
varieties. The form is round, with compressed sides; color a yellowish
Fig. 118.
fawn on the shady side, slightly colored with red towards the sun; flesh
vellow, sprightly, juicy, and highly flavored. Ripens in August. Fig. 117
177
FARMER'S HAND-BOOE.
Brussels.- The most hardy tree, and, perhaps, the most certain, in our
climate. It is a large, long fruit; color a pale yellow, with a portion of
red, and some spots; flesh a pale yellow, firm, rich, tender, and juicy; clear
at the stone; does not grow mealy; ripens in July. Fig. 118.
REMARXS. - Of the other cultivated sorts, the Mloorpark and Red Masculine are the most valuable and popular; besides these, there are the Breda;
Black; Roman- good for the North; White Masculine; Turkey. There
are also some varieties exclusively ornamental.
THE BARBERRY.
Culture, -c.- But little need be said respecting this well-known shrub,
which grows spontaneously in this country and in Europe, bearing a small
acid berry, much used as a pickle and preserve. It is readily propagated by
seeds and suckers, in a light, rich soil.
Fig. 119.
VARIETIES.
Common Red.- This is the variety most known, and its appearance and
habits are too familiar to require any description here. Its color, when
fully ripe, is a deep scarlet, with a slightly dark tinge.
toneless.- This variety is not common, and is produced mostly by cultivation. When free from seeds, it is, of course, the best kind for preserves.
THE BLACKBERRY.
Propagation.- The Blackberry grows spontaneously, and in great profusion, so that it is seldom cultivated. This, however, is sometimes done,
by planting the seed in rich soil, and manuring pretty freely, or by setting
out layers.
IIE
PRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
Fg;. 120.
VARIETIES.
Trailing. - This variety is produced on a low shrub, with trailing
branches. The fruit is large, roundish-oblong, and ripens in July. The
best for all purposes.
High. - This is an erect shrub, growing to the height of eight or ten feet.
The fruit (Fig. 120) is generally somewhat smaller than the Trailing,
and, though highly esteemed, is not so rich and highly flavored as the firstnamed. Sometimes raised in gardens.
White.- Not much known - has white fruit.
Double White Flowering, and Double Pink Flowering. -These are ornamental varieties, growing very luxuriantly, and making a splendid appearance when trained on walls and fences. Not so common in the Northern
States as elsewhere.
THE CHERRY.
Propagation.'- The Cherry-tree is propagated by seeds and by suckers,
when stems are wanted; by seeds alone, when new varieties are wanted; by
scions, when working on old subjects; and by buds, when the trees are
young. If intended for dwarfs, bud the plants at two, and if for standards,
at four, years of age. The spring succeeding this operation is the time for
transplanting.
Soil and Situation. -This tree will grow and thrive in a diversity of
soils, but prefers a deep loam, in a free exposure. A wet soil is not adapted
for its healthy growth and bearing; neither should the soil be too rich, as it
will then become thrifty in wood, without corresponding fruitfulness.
VARIETIES.
Black Heart - also known as Davenport's Early Black, New May Duke
Ansell's Fine Black, Spanish Black Heart, Black Russian, and Black Caroon
179
FARMER'S'AND-BOOK.
fi. 121.
is an old and esteemed variety: fruit large, heart-shaped; color dark purple
to deep black; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, well-flavored. Ripens last of June.
May Duke- also known as Early Duke, Holman's Duke, and June Dukeis one of the choicest and most thrifty sorts, and very extensively cultivated.
The fruit is roundish, growing in clusters; color red; flesh soft and juicy,
rich, and of fine flavor. Ripens in June.
Fg. 122.
Bigarreau.- Yellow Spanish, White Bigarreau, White Tartarean, by
some. Size large to very large, heart-shaped and flattened; color pale
180
i1t
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
yellow, or straw, slightly dotted; flesh yellowish tinge, firm, juicy, and
sweet. Ripens towards the last of June, and is a superior sort.
American Amber.- Early Amber, and New Honey, by some. Fruit
medium size, growing in clusters of three or more; color dark pink, when
ripe; flesh rich, sweet, amber color. Ripe in June. Fig. 122.
Elton. - Size quite large, and heart-shaped; tree hardy, with dark red
footstalks to the leaves; skin rather thin; color somewhat variegated, with
pale straw and red in streaks; flesh firm, juicy, and sweet; ripens in June,
and bears abundantly. Much esteemed.
Black Eagle.- A foreign sort, very popular in some parts; size about
medium; heart-shaped, somewhat globular; color purplish-black; flesh
tender, juicy, and well-flavored. Ripens in July.
Ox Heart. - A long, large, heart-shaped cherry, with a dark red skin;
flesh rich, firm, with a fair flavor. Ripens early in July.
Black Tartarean. -Also known as Black Russian, Ronald's Large Black
Heart, and Black Circassian. A large and superior fruit; heart-shaped;
color blackish-purple; flesh dark, firm, sweet, excellent flavor. Fine
bearer, and is ripe about the first of July.
Downer's Late. -Fruit large size, oval. Skin smooth, light red; flesh
firm, juicy, sweet, and delicious; ripe in early part of July, lasting a considerable time. Certain and productive bearer.
F/g. 123.
Early White Heart. - A very early sort, ripening near the end of May.
Size rather small, and oblong heart-shaped; skin waxy white, tinged with
Fg. 124.
a pale red; flesh firm, sweet, and finely flavored' not so productive as the
May Duke, and some others
I1
181
_'
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
REMARKS. - The other established and standard sorts are the Doctor, Belle
de Choisy, Napoleon Bigarreau, White Tartarean, Morello, Knight's Early
Black, Florence, Downton, Manning's Mottled, Holland Bigarreau, Elliott's
Favorite, Hyde's Seedling, and Kentish.
THE WILD CHERRY comprises several varieties, the best kind being the
Black, which is ripe in September or October, and is used for various medicinal purposes. The Choke Cherry is another kind, bearing a red berry,
which matures earlier than the first-named.
THE CRANBERRY.
General Culture, sc. -Comparatively speaking, the cultivation of the
cranberry has not been reduced to any very certain and well-defined system. It is a native fruit, growing on a low trailing vine, found in bogs,
meadows, swamps, and other wet lands. The berry is round, red, and
quite acid, the finest variety being found in this country, where it commands
a high price.
Ai. 125.
_i
Some persons enumerate three kinds, only one of which, sometimes ~tlled
the Bell, is adapted to a dry soil. It grows, in a wild state, on the border,
of cranberry bogs, spreading its way to upland soils, and is much larger
than the other kinds, in its wild state. Persons engaging in the cultivation
of this fruit may begin with the Bell; by commencing with those which
have been cultivated, or naturalized to a dry soil, they will much soon, rr
182
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
accomplish their object, and with much less trouble and expense, as the
plants multiply and increase abundantly. From one or two thousand plants,
enough may be obtained, in two or three years, to plant a very large surface
of ground.
Select a moist soil, not liable to bake; loamy soils, which are moderately
dry, and contain a mixture of sand, are well adapted for the purpose. The
soil should be prepared by ploughing, harrowing, and making it even, and
should be marked out in drills eighteen or twenty inches apart, putting
the plants in the drills about six inches apart; hoe them slightly, till the
roots become clinched, when further cultivation is unnecessary. In two or
three years the plants may be expected to run together and cover the whole
soil. It will yield from one hundred and fifty to four hundred bushels per
acre, the size being two or three times as large as the wild, and of a superior
flavor, and keeps sound from the harvest of one year to that of the next.
The fruit is generally gathered in September, with wire-tooth rakes made
F. 126.
for the purpose (Fig. 126). One man may gather from thirty to forty
bushels per day, with the aid of a boy to pick up the scattered fruit.
The roots may be planted either in spring or fall; the former from the
time when the ground can be worked till the middle of May, and the latter
in October and November.
In some places, low and coarse meadows, of no value, have been drained
and planted with the cranberry, and are thus made very profitable. After
183
FARMER S HAND-BOOK.
draining the land well, and removing all brush and shrubs, the soil is
ploughed, though it is usually sufficient to cover the surface with a heavy
top-dressing of sandy soil, and then make holes four feet apart, into which
the sods, or square bunches of the cranberry-roots, are planted. Some
cranberry-growers think it expedient to flow such lands, the water being let
on about the 20th of October, and remain till the 20th of May, or till the
frosts have disappeared, in order that the blossoms may not be cut off in the
spring, by appearing too early.
To keep Cranberries.- When the fruit is to be exported, it is put, in a
perfect state, into tight barrels, filled with water, and headed up, by which
means they are kept sound and good.
Fig. 127.
7'
THE CURRANT.
Propagation. -The best method of propagation is by cuttings, - the
184
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
shoots of the last summer's production, of straight, clean growth, shortening each from about ten to twelve or fifteen inches long, according to its
strength.
Plant in rows about two feet asunder, and about nine inches apart in the
rows; let no limbs grow nearer than six inches to the ground; prune every
year, giving free access to the sun. To cultivate on an extensive scale, set
Fig. 128.
16*
1Is
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
the bushes in rows, six or eight feet between each bush, with intervals of
proper width for passing across the rows.
Soil and Situation.- A strong, rich, deep loam brings the fruit to its
highest state of perfection, but it will thrive in a much poorer soil.
VARIETIES.
Red Dutch, - also known as Morgan's Red, and Red Grape, - is a largesized currant; color red; rather mild flavor; grows in long clusters.
White Dutch. -White Leghorn, White Crystal, Morgan's White, Reeve's
White, by some. Size large; skin slightly yellowish; flavor mild; quite
hardy. A variety much esteemed for the dessert. Fig. 127.
Black Naples. - This is considered the best of the black varieties, being
larger and more prolific. It is not so well suited to a southern clime.
Champagne.- A pale-red fruit, large, and quite acid. Not of superior
quality.
May's Victoria.- This is a newly-introduced sort, bearing a large berry,
of a brilliant red color. The flavor is very superior, and the bush is very
productive. By many persons it is esteemed the best of all the colored
kinds. Fig. 128.
REMARKs. -The other notable varieties are Knight's Early Red, Common Black, and Striped Fruited. The varieties described above are, however. the best.
THE GOOSEBERRY.
Propagation.- The mode by cuttings is usually adopted for continuing
varieties, and that by seeds for procuring new ones. Plant the cuttings in
autumn.
Soil and Situation. - Any good garden-soil, on a dry bottom and well
manured, will suit the gooseberry; that which is soft and moist producing
the largest fruit. The situation should not be under the drip of trees overmuch shaded or confined, otherwise the fruit will be small, ill-flavored, and
the plants apt to mildew. Keep well pruned.
VARIETIES.
Capper's Top Sawyer. - A large, round, hairy fruit; branches somewnat
drooping; ripens somewhat late; considered very fine.
Melling's Crown Bob. - Berry of large size, oblong, bright red, hairy,
good flavor, rather late. It is highly recommended by growers, as an excellent sort, and profitable to cultivate in gardens or elsewhere. Fig. 129.
lS6
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
ing. 129.
Houghton's &edling. -This variety is said not to mildew under any
circumstances. It grows very thrifty, and bears abundantly, though the
F -g. 130.
berry is not so large size as some others; flesh soft and sweet; skin delicate; color dark. A very superior sort, if not the very best. Fig. 130.
Woodward's Whitesmith. - Large, white, roundish, erect branches, fine
flavor; considered an excellent kind.
Coleworth's White Lion. -White, roundish-oblong, downy; ripens late;
excellent flavor, branches drooping, good bearer.
Crompton's Sheba Queen. - Fruit good size, rather early; form roundish
oblong; downy; good flavor.
Early Green Hairy. - Fruit small, round, and hairy; deep green; flavor
excellent; ripens quite early.
Red Warrington. Fruit large and roundish; excellent flavor.
REMARKS. -Farrow's Roaring Lion, Parkinson's Laurel, Keene's &eed.
ling, Early Sulphur, Yellow Ball, Early White, White Honey, Pitmaston
Green Gage, Old Rough Red, Hill's Golden Gourd, Prophet's Rockwood,
Nixon's Green Myrtle, and Wellington's Glory, are also well-known sorts.
187
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
THE GRAPE.
Propag,ation. - Vines are propagated in the open ground by layers and
by cuttings. The former is the readier mode, if the shoots be laid down in
pots, and planted out in summer. The latter mode is much the better. To
provide cuttings to be planted at the proper season, select, at the autumnal
pruning, a sufficient number of shoots of the preceding summer's growth,
such as are well ripened, of a medium size, and moderately short-jointed.
Cut them into convenient lengths of six or eight buds each, leaving at
the ends not less than a couple of inches of the blank wood for the protection of the terminal buds. Stick these temporary cuttings about nine inches
in the ground, in a warm and sheltered situation, where they will be protected from the severity of winter. The best time to plant them out is about
the last of March, or fore part of April.
Soil and Situation. -A light, porous, rich, sandy loam, not more than
eighteen inches deep, on a dry bottom of gravel, stones or rocks, is the best.
The warmer the aspect, the greater perfection does the grape usually attain.
Warmth alone is not, however, sufficient; shelter from the withering influence of the wind is equally necessary.
Culture, cfc.- Manure composed of bones, whole or crushed, the horns
and hoofs of animals, as well as their carcasses, cuttings of leather, woollen
rags, feathers, hair, urine, blood, - indeed, almost every variety of manure
may be used to fertilize and enrich the soil occupied by the vine. If very
rich manures are used, they should be mixed with turf and sand, otherwise
so much benefit does not accrue.
Pruning.- In pruning the vine, always cut upwards, and in a sloping
direction; always leave an inch of blank wood between the terminal bud,
and let the eye be cut on the opposite side of the bud; leave as few wounds
as possible, and let the surface of every cut be perfectly smooth. In cutting
out an old branch, prune it even with the parent limb, that the wound may
heal quickly; prune so as to obtain the quantity of fruit desired on the
smallest number of shoots possible; never prune in frosty weather, nor when
frost is expected; never prune in the spring, as this causes bleeding, and
therefore a wasteful and injurious flow of sap; prune as soon after the first
of October as the gathering of the fruit will permit.
Training,. - To train a vine on the surface of a wall is to regulate the
position of its branches, the principal objects of which are, to protect them
from the influence of the wind; to bring them into close contact with the wall,
for the purpose of receiving the benefit of its warmth; to spread them at
proper distances from each other, that the foliage and fruit may receive the
full effects of the sun's rays; and to retard the motion of the sap, so as to
188
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
secure the formation of fruit-buds. The flow of sap, it must be remembered,
is always strongest in a vertical direction, and weakest in a downward one;
on this account, serpentine training is preferable, being calculated to check
the too rapid ascent of the sap, and to make it flow more equally into the
fruiting-shoots, and those intended for future bearers.
VARIETIES.
Black Hanmburgh. -A well-known variety, but more adapted to the vinery
than for out-of-door culture. The bunches are quite large size; berries
large, roundish, slightly oval; skin thick, deep purple or nearly black;
flavor rich and sweet. A productive and valuable sort.
Miller's Burgundy. - A very hardy and fruitful grape, very popular, and
extensively grown. Its leaves are very thick, covered on both sides with a
thick down. The bunches are small, but solid; skin thick, of a blue-black
color; flesh tender, juicy, and pleasant.
F/g. 132.
Muscat of Alexandria. -There are the White and the Red Muscat, the
former (a) being large in the berry, of oval size, and fruiting in long, large
189
Fig. 131.
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
bunches; the skin is thick; flesh firm, juicy, musky flavor, very agreeable
eating; hangs a long time on the branches. The Red resembles the White,
except in color (b). Ripens finely on walls. Fig. 132.
Catawba.- This is a native sort, highly esteemed. It is hardy, vigorous,
and productive; large bunches; color deep purple and palish-red; thick
skin; pulp sweet, rich, finely flavored. Ripens first part of October. Superior for wine, or eating, and succeeds well in any tolerably fair situation.
Isabella.- A hardy plant, very productive, and, in this country, almost
universally grown. Bunches large, rather loose; berries fair size, oval;
Fg. 134.
skin thick, purplish black; flesh soft to firm, juicy, sweet, aromatic. A
most valuable variety, rather late at the North, but seasonable in the Middle
and Western States.
Alexander.- Known also as the Schuylkill Muscadel. A certain and prolific bearer; large, bluish-black berry; oval; skin thick; flesh firm, sweet,
musky flavor. Not so thrifty at the North as the two previous sorts.
Scuppernong. - Distinguished by its diminutive leaves; grows wild in
some parts of the United States, and is in considerable use as a wine fruit,
for which purpose it is esteemed one of the best. The White and the Black
are scarcely dissimilar in any particular, except their respective colors.
The bunches are rather small; berries large, pretty round; thick skin;
flesh sweet and juicy, with a musky taste and flavor.
REMARKS. - There are numerous other varieties worthy of an extended
190
.~.. 133.
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
notice, on account of their peculiar adaptedness to particular sections, and
their distinctive uses, such as-the Royal Muscadine, Early Black July,
Black Prince, Bland, Ohio, Lenoir, Diana, Winnie, Clinton, Cunningham,
Warren's Madeira, Elsinburgh, Norton's Virginia, White Swveetwater, Black
&Seetwater, Black, Grizzly, White Frontignan, and Missouri.
THE MEDLAR.
Propagation.- It is raised by grafting, by layers, also by seed, planted
while fresh, and in the fall. The seed does not germinate for some time;
the layers will root in autumn: the pear is the best stock upon which
to graft. Tree low; fruit round, size of a plum; pulp thick, with five
stones.
Soil and Situation.- Any common soil will answer, but a well-drained,
retentive loam, suits it best. Gather the fruit in November, and spread
singly upon sand.
VARIETIES.
Blake's Large. - A variety not very frequent, though by some thought
one of the best.
German or Dutch. -The tree is very irregular, dwarfed; fruit large,
and, all things considered, the best of all the sorts.
Nottingham.- This is small-sized, and of a quick, pungent flavor.
Stoneless. - Not so good quality, but may be preserved better than the
other kinds.
THE MELON.
Propagation, sc.- Propagated by seeds, planted in shallow hills, five or
six feet apart each way. From six to ten seeds in a hill will suffice, and
the soil which covers them should be about half an inch deep. When up,
thin the plants to two or three in a hill, and draw the earth up to them.
Hoe, and keep free from weeds.
Soil and Situation.- Melons require a warm, dry, rich soil, with a small
quantity of manure in each hill. They are easily raised in almost every
part of the country, though they flourish better in the Middle and Southern
States than further north.
VARIETIES.
Water-melon.- The sub-varieties of this sort are the Imperial, Carolina,
New Jersey and Spanish; also, the Citron. These are well-known kinds,
and are extensively grown. By many they are considered as forming a dis
191
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
tinct species of fruit, of themselves. The first-named is a productive sort,
nearly round; color palish-green, and white; flesh pink, rich, pleasant
The Carolina (Fig. 135) is a very popular variety; large size; oblong;
color green and white; flesh red; sweet, agreeable flavor.
i/g. 135.
Musk-melon.- A delicious fruit, a native of Persia. The varieties are
numerous, easily propagated from seeds. The principal sorts are the Keising,
an egg-shaped, light straw color, highly flavored variety; Green Hoosainee,
a superior and prolific sort; Large Germek, round, sea-green colored, richly
flavored, and productive; Early Canteleup, ripens early and bears well,
rather small-sized, thin skin, orange-colored flesh, juicy, and of good flavor;
Nutmeg, green-fleshed, large, roundish oval, tender, sweet, pleasant flavor.
Besides these, the Green Citron, Palermo, Orange Canteleup, Black Rock,
and Sweet Ispahan, are good kinds, worthy of cultivation.
THE MULBERRY.
Propagation. -It may be propagated by seed, sown in a warm border,
but this mode is rarely pursued; by layers - lateral shoots obtained by
heading down the tree near to the ground; by cuttings, having two thirds
of their length old wood, and one third yearling; or by lopping off a straight
branch, eight feet long, from a large tree,- the nearer the trunk the
better. Make it clear of every little stem, then dig a hole four feet deep,
plant the naked branch firmly in the ground, leaving around it a cavity to
hold water, when the season is dry. In two years it will bear fruit.
Soil and Situation.- It prefers a moist, deep, loamy soil, and a some
what free exposure to the south. The soil should not be cold, or wet, and
should be well drained. It may be trained against a wall, but this requires
much space.
192
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
VARIETIES.
Red. - This is a common variety, growing wild in the United States.
The fruit is of a deep-red color, and of excellent flavor.
Black. - This variety hails from Asia Minor, but thrives in a northern
.rg. 136.
climate. The-berry is large and long, black, and of a rich aromatic taste
It is used in making wine, or cider, mixed with apples.
REM,ARES.- The Johnson is a new variety, and it bids fair to sustain the
high character given it by Professor Kirtland. Fruit large, oblong, of a
mild and pleasant flavor. Of the White Mulberry there are several sorts;
not, however, so valuable for their fruit as for silk.
THE NECTARINE.
REMARES.- The nectarine is not uncommonly classed with the peach,
as a distinct variety, the peculiarities consisting in the fruit being smooth
and naked, without fur or down, and the flesh being firmer. There is no
doubt of their identity, as the seed of the peach sometimes produces the netarine, and vice versa. It is propagated and grown the same as the peach
(which see).
VARIETIES.
Boston. - Also known as Lewis's and Perkins's Seedling. Originated in
Boston, where it was raised from a peach-stone. The fruit is very handsome, of medium size, and heart-shaped; color bright yellow and red;
flesh firm, sweet, pleasant. One of the best varieties for general cultivation.
Red Ronman. - One of the most hardy. It is a large, handsome, red
17 N
193
17
N
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
cling-stone; color dark next the sun, the shaded side yellow; flesh juicy,
sweet, and vinous. Ripe in August and September. A good bearer.
Fig. 137.
Jaune Lisse, or Roussanne.- A small, round fruit; skin yellow, a little
spotted with red towards the sun; skin smooth; flesh yellow, firm, sweet,
highly flavored. Ripens in September and October. Fig. 137.
Fig. 138.
Elruge.- A fine fruit, very popular. Medium size; roundish; palegreen, deep-red next the sun; flesh palish-white, tender, juicy; ripe in
September.
194
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
Early Violet. -Medium size; green, and purplish red; flesh pale yellow, and pinkish; soft, rich, sweet, agreeable flavor. Ripe last of August.
Good bearer; very superior.
Musk Violet. -This fruit is of large size; color a yellowish-white, a
fine red violet towards the sun, with whitish spots; flesh yellowish-white,
firm, vinous, sweet and musky. Ripe in September. Fig. 138.
REMARKS.- Hunt's Tawney, Downton, New White, Broomfield, PitmastIn's Orange, and Duc du Tellier's, are recommended to growers.
THE PEACH.
Propagation. - It may be propagated by planting the stone in the fall,
at a depth of two or three inches, and in one or two years they will be of
sufficient size to transplant. A common way of increasing them is by budding on the plum stock or the bitter almond; usually inoculated on the
peach stock. Plant from ten to twelve feet apart, and the land may be cultivated with manured crops of corn, potatoes, vines, or pulse.
Soil and Situation.- A rich, sandy loam is the best,- a natural or artificial soil of this description. It is best not to manure much, except when
the land is also occupied by other crops, like those just mentioned.
Culture, -tc.- When transplanted, they should not be very large,
generally not more than two years' growth. Good varieties are obtained by
budding; grafting is thought, on the whole, to be hardly of much benefit.
VARIETIES.
Early York.- One of the earliest and most generally cultivated varieties.
Size medium, roundish, slightly oval; skin thin, somewhat dotted; color
red; flesh greenish-white, tender, rich, lively flavor. Ripens middle or
last of August.
Red Cheek Mdlocoton. - A large yellow clear-stone, with a red cheek;
flesh rich and juicy; ripens in September, - sometimes earlier.
Gross Alignonne.- A large, round peach, flattened at the ends, divided
by a deep furrow into unequal parts; the stem small, a small point at the
blossom end; skin covered with a thin fine down; color a clear green,
approaching to yellow, deep brownish-red towards the sun; flesh fine, melting, juicy, delicate and white, tinged with red near the stone; the juice is
sweet, vinous and sprightly. Ripens in August. Fig. 139.
George the Fourth. - Medium size, globular form; color pale yellow
and dark red; flesh melting, rich, superior flavor. Ripens in September.
Coolidge's Favorite. -Fruit large and roundish; skin smooth, white,
195
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
with red towards the sun; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, finely flavored. Hardy,
and a good bearer, ripening early in September. Much thought of.
Alberge. - Size medium; yellow skin, with dark red cheek; flesh yel.
low, tinged with red, melting, rich, sweet, and vinous flavor. It is deeply
Fig. 140.
indented by a seam running from the stem to the blossom end. Ripens last
of August.
196
Fig. 139.
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
Bergen's Yellow.- Large size, round, slightly depressed; color red and
orange, dotted; flesh yellow, tender, rich and luscious; good bearer, and
ripens first of October. A valuable sort.
Morris WMite.- Fruit large, round or oval; color white, greenish,
slight purple tinge; flesh white, tender, rich, and sweet. Ripe middle of
September.
Oldmixon Freestone. -A beautiful, large, flat peach, with a white skin
and red cheek; flesh rich, juicy, luscious. Ripe in August.
Red Magdalen.- Medium size; round, flat next to the stem; color a fine
red towards the sun; flesh white, reddish near the stone, sweet and sprightly.
Ripens in September. Hardy and productive.
Crawford's Late. - Fruit large, round, and handsome; yellow in the
shade, deep red towards the sun; flesh yellow, reddish near the stone,
juicy, tender, rich, finely flavored. Ripens about the last of September or
first of October.
Red Rareripe.- An excellent fruit, frequently called Morris's Red Rareripe; size quite large, round; color red and white; flesh tender, rich,
melting, highly flavored. Ripens in August.
Yellow Rareripe. - Size large, globular; color yellow, and purplish red;
flesh yellow, red near the stone; tender, juicy, vinous flavor. Ripens in
September.
Noblesse.- A large and handsome clingstone; skin white, with a pale
blush, and some dark brownish spots; flesh rich and highly flavored.
Ripens in September.
17*
197
Fig. 141.
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
Lemon Freestone.- A pale yellow, whitish fruit; medium size; flesh
juicy, tender, melting, and highly flavored. Ripens in September.
Monstrous Cling.- A large, roundish-oval fruit; color palish-yellow.
with deep red tinge; flesh solid, juicy, and sweet. Ripens in October.
Late Heath. - Large, oblong, terminating in a point at the head; color
rich cream-colored white, sometimes faintly blushed; flesh rich, tender,
juicy, and melting. Hardy, and ripens in September, lasting into Nover.
her.
Early Tillotson. - A medium size, round fruit; color yellowish white,
red, with dots; flesh white, red near the stone, juicy, melting, excellent
flavor.
REMARKs.- The varieties, besides those mentioned above, worthy to be
recommended for general cultivation, are the Jaques, White Imperial, Pres.
ident, Late Admirable, Ward's Late Free, Golden Ball, Hysl,op's Cling, Old
Newington, Malta, Nutmeg, Belle de Vitry, Incomparable, Catharine, Chancellor, and Late Purple.
198
Fig. 142.
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
THE PEAR.
Propagation.- The pear may be propagated by layers or suckers, but
not so readily by cuttings. These modes, however, are productive of very
indifferent plants, and are usually rejected in favor of raising from seed, and
grafting or budding; by seed, either for the purpose of obtaining new varieties, or to produce pear stocks. But, as the varieties of the pear do not
reproduce themselves from the seed, and seedlings are slow in giving their
fruit, the pear is principally grown by scions and buds. These are placed
on pear or quince stalks, according as taste or interest may invite to early
and small crops, of fine quality, or to later and more abundant ones, of inferior character. In the former case, the stem of the quince is advantageously
employed, and in the latter, that of the common pear, and without any material difference in the operation, excepting that the feebler the stem, the
nearer to the earth should be placed the scion or bud.
The second year after budding or grafting, the plants may be removed to
the places where it is intended they shall stand.
Soil and Situation.- Though the pear-tree may be made to grow almost
anywhere, still it succeeds poorly on the north sides of hills, or in stiff, dry
soils, and still worse on those having a wet subsoil. Some of the later and
finer varieties require a deep, substantial loam, occasionally refreshed with
a dressing of well-rotted dung; and some of the best aspects the garden can
furnish are also desirable.
Culture, tc. - Cultivated as standards and pyramids, the young trees
should be left, in a great degree, to regulate their own shape. To produce
a well-balanced tree, shorten the wood of the deficient side, and leave the
other to itself. Trees of other forms, and intended for walls and espaliers,
require more labor and management, and a degree of both summer and
winter pruning; the former of which consists in rubbing off all foreright,
ill-placed, spongy shoots, before they become hard, while the latter consists
in sparing all such well-placed and thrifty laterals as may be necessary for
preserving the form given to the head of the tree, and cutting away all
others close to the branch from which they grow. If the older wood be
diseased or redundant, cut it away also, or shorten it down to some healthy
and promising shoot.
When an old tree becomes unproductive, either cut down within about
two feet from the ground, and train up anew some selected shoots which
may have pushed from the stump, or take off at its base every branch which
does not want at least twenty degrees of being perpendicular, and all spurs
from such other branches as by this rule will be left. Into these retained
branches, at their subdivisions, and at different distances from their bases,
199
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
quite to their extremities, grafts must be carefully inserted, which, when
about twelve inches long, must be trained downwards between the branches.
VARIETIES
Bartlett.- One of the most valued sorts, and grown in almost every part
of the country. Fruit large, pyramidal; color yellowish at maturity, thin,
.Fg. 143. D
and smooth; flesh white, delicate, buttery, sweet, juicy, highly flavored.
Hardy, productive, keeps well, ripens in October. It stands about number
one among all the pear-tribe.
Madeleine.- Medium size; pale yellow, sometimes with a blush towards
te sun; form obovate, tapering to the stalk; flesh white, tender, juicy,
refined flavor; one of the best and earliest pears; hardy, and a good bearer.
Dearborn's Seedling. -A valuable early sort; small, symmetrical;
color light yellow, with a few dots; flesh white, tender, sweet, and sprightly
flavor. Is quite productive, early, ripening from the middle to last of
August.
Winter Nelis.-A fine winter variety; size rather above medium;
roundish-obovate; color pale straw, slightly brown; flesh white, soft,
sugary, rich, musky-flavored; ripe in December; not very productive, but
excellent. Fig. 144.
200
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
I%. 144.
iSg. 145.
\\\,?\
201
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
Seckel.- Size generally small; form regular, round at the blossom end,
contracting gradually towards the stem; color sometimes yellow, with a
bright red cheek, and at other times a,.omplete russet, without any blush
flesh melting, juicy, exquisitely flavored. Ripe in Sept. and Oct. Fig. 145.
Tyson. -A medium-sized fruit; color light straw, with brownish blotches
flesh lightish-white, rich, sweet, fragrant; ripens in September.
Beurre Bosc. - Fruit large and long; color light cinnamon russet; flesh
F1 46.
white, rich, tender, delicious. A moderately productive variety, ripening
in October and November. Fig. 146.
202
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
Bloodgood.- Large size; form oval; color dull yellow, with darkish
spots; flesh soft, melting, agreeable flavor; early and prolific. Ripens in
August.
Flemish Beauty.- Fine large fruit; color dull yellow and brownish;
flesh yellowish tinge, sweet, tender, juicy, sugary, musky flavor. Ripe in
October. One of the best sorts, though not so much cultivated as it deserves.
Golden Beurre of Bilboa.- Medium size, oblong, roundish at the crown,
contracted towards the summit; color light yellow, with russet spots; flesh
tender, melting, rich, excellent flavor. Ripens in October, and very fruitful.
Summer Frank Real. - Medium size, obovate, thickest in the middle;
color light yellow, with brownish-green dots; flesh melting, rich, finegrained, sweet, and of superior flavor. Ripens in September; hardy;
fruitful.
Muscadine. -Medium size, roundish, symmetrical; color yellowish-green,
with dots of brown; flesh white, buttery, rich, musky flavor. Ripens in
;. 147.
September, bearing abundantly, and is altogether a very valuable sort.
203
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
REMARKS. -There are many other varieties which might be strongly
recommended, but we can only give the names, without attempting to give a
full description. Among the Summer, or early sorts, worthy of being noticed, are the Summer Melting, Stevens's Genesee, Honey, Jargonelle, Beurre
d'Amaulis, and the Rousselet de Rheims; of the Autumn sorts, among the
best are the Belle Lucrative, Marie Louise, Swan's Egg, Cushing, Frederic
of Wurterburg, Fulton, Saint Michael, Bleeker's Meadow, and Belle et Bonne;
of the Winter sorts, the most desirable are the Colmar, Columbia, Vergouleuse, Pound, St. Germaine, Glout Morceau, Easter Beurre, Beurre Diel, and
Passe Colmar.
THE PLUM.
Propagation. - The plum, like other stone-fruit, is mostly propagated by
budding, the stocks being the free-growing plum, either raised from seed,
or, more commonly, from layers or suckers.
Soil and Situation.- The plum naturally does not grow in so light a
soil as the cherry, nor in so clayey a soil as the apple; and in a state of
culture, a medium soil, on a dry subsoil, is found to be the best. Only the
finer kinds are planted against walls.
Culture, fc.- All the varieties produce their blossoms on small spurs,
which are protruded along the sides of the shoots of one, two, or three
years' growth, - generally in the course of the second or third year. These
spurs, if duly thinned, and, when necessary, cut in, will continue bearing
for five or six years, or longer. Standard trees require very little pruning,
beyond that of occasionally thinning out the branches, which should be done
before midsummer, to prevent the gum from appearing on the wounds.
Plum-trees against walls or espaliers are generally trained horizontally.
Old trees may be renovated by heading in or cutting down. The plum is
forced in the same manner as the peach.
VARIETIES.
Jefferson. -A superior dessert sort. Fruit large, oval, contracting
towards the stalk; color bright, deep yellow, with a purplish-red cheek, and
a whitish bloom; flesh orange, quite juicy, richly flavored. Ripens from
the middle to the last of September; a good bearer. Fig. 148.
Green Gage. -Of this plum there are several varieties. The size, in
good soils, is large, the form round, and the skin green; the flesh is green,
melting, juicy, and exquisitely flavored. Ripens in August and September.
Fig. 149.
Washington.- A well-known variety; originated in New York State;
large, oval; color bright yellow, with red dots; flesh yellow, sugary, excellent eating. Hardy; shy bearer; ripens in September.
204
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
.i/g. 148.
.g. 149.
205
18
FARMEPR'S HAND-BOOK.
Coe's Golden Drop.- Thrifty growth; good bearer; fruit large and
handsome, oblong; color greenish-yellow, with violet and crimson dots;
flesh orange color, rich, juicy, finely flavored. Ripens in September.
Purple Favorite. -Large size; roundish; color light brown, with a
shading of purple, and bright yellow dots; flesh greenish, soft, sweet, and
-fg. 150.
excellent flavor. Ripens last of September, and bears well.
Red Gage.- Known also as Long Scarlet, and Scarlet Gage. Medium
size; oblong, tapering towards the stalk; color brilliant red toward the sun,
and yellowish in the shade, covered with a light purplish bloom; flesh yelow, rich, and sweet. Ripens first of September.
Morocco.- Medium size; round; deep purple; flesh slightly yellow,
tender, sweet, richly flavored. Ripens about the last of August.
Drap d' Or. -Cloth of Gold, by some. Small, round; color rich, brilliant
yellow, reddish toward the sun; flesh yellow, sweet, not so juicy as some
kinds. A clearstone; ripens in August; a pretty fai bearer.
Yellow Egg.- Large size; oval, narrowing at both ends; color yellow,
whitish dots, anid a thin white bloom; flesh somewhat coarse, yellow,
slightly acid. Ripens in September. A better cooking than eating plum.
Bleecker's Gage.- Medium size, nearly round, very regular; color dark
yellow, with deep red spots; flesh yellow, sweet, finely flavored. Ripens
in September. The tree is hardy, productive, and the fruit much esteemed
in some parts. Fig. 151.
206
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
FSg. 151.
A
Dwne's Purple. -Large size; oval, or oblong, bulging on one side
Fg. 152.
207
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
color reddish-purple toward the sun, palish-red in the shade, with a few
yellow specks, and a lilac bloom; flesh light brown, juicy, lively, slightly
acid. Ripens middle of August.
Royal Hative.- Also called Early Royal. Medium size; round; color
purple, with dark yellowish spots and streaks, blue bloom; flesh yellow,
tender, richly flavored. Early, thrifty, productive; ripens early in September.
M' Laughlin. - Large size, round; color brownish-yellow, with a red
tinge; flesh melting, juicy, fine flavor, though not superior. Ripens in
August.
Frost Gage.- Fruit rather small; roundish; color dark purple, with
brown dots; flesh greenish-yellow, juicy, saccharine, agreeable flavor.
Fig. 153.
Ripens in October; moderately productive: a good sort for cooking purposes.
REMARKS.- We have enumerated the most valuable sorts, though there
are others more adapted, perhaps, to certain localities, or preferred by amateurs; such as the Imperial Ottoman, Elfrey, nSmith's Orleans, Flushing
Gage, Red Diaper, Lombard, Black Dawson, Huling's Superb, Blue Dwarf
Gage, and Prince's Imperial Gage.
THE QUINCE.
Propagation, dfc. - The quince is, as all know, a low, much-branched,
crowded, and irregular tree, blossoming in May or June, and ripening its
fruit in October or November. It is generally propagated by layers, but
cuttings root without difficulty. The best standards are produced by grafting, at the height of five or six feet, on the pear, the thorn, or the mountain
ash.
The quince is generally planted in the orchard, in some part where the
208
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
soil is good, and not very dry; it bears on two years' old wood, and requires
little pruning, except thinning out irregular, crowding, or decaying
branches. The fruit is kept by packing in sand or dry straw.
It is said that the quince will grow on any soil that will give good corn
or potato crops. The soil should be well prepared by ploughing and subsoil ploughing, and a clean furrow obtained, in the bottom of each furrow
manure being thrown. After this, planting should commence,- spring or
autumn answering equally as well. The holes should be dug twice as
large as the roots of the tree, and a foot and a half deep, and to each tree a
liberal supply of good compost manure should be given. The branches
should be shortened in, one half of the last year's growth, before the trees
are set, and the roots should be saturated with water before being covered
over with the earth. Press the earth moderately about the roots, and leave
the soil around the trunk concave, like a saucer, to catch the showers.
This will secure life and thrift to the trees.
In orchard planting, the trees should be put out in rows twelve feet apart,
the trees ten feet asunder. This will be near enough, in good soil, prepared as above. In three years they will bear, and will continue to do so
for thirty years. The open space between the trees may be profitably
cropped with potatoes, and so forth.
The pruning should be done in the autumn, just after the fall of the leaf.
The operation consists in cutting out as little as possible, mainly old or
decayed wood(l, or any quite superfluous branches.
In November, fork in around the roots of each tree five or six shovelfuls of fresh stable manure; and when the spring opens, plough the ground
between the rows, and lightly stir beneath the trees. Directly after this,
give the whole a broadcast spread of salt, at the rate of ten bushels to the
acre, or just a light coat, sufficient to half conceal the ground under each
tree. The best salt for this purpose is the refuse salt of the packinghouses.
VARIETIES.
Apple-shaped. - This is also called Orange, a well-known, favorite
variety. Fruit large, much resembling an apple in shape; color brilliant
yellow; flesh solid, and of fine flavor. A very good bearer, and much
esteemed as an excellent cooking variety, on account of the flesh becoming
soft when stewed. Fig. 154.
Pear-shaped. -Medium size, oblong, contracting towards the stem, and
in general form very similar to a pear; color yellow; flesh firmer and
yields less when cooked than the Apple-shaped. It is not so finely flavored
as the Apple, and not generally so much esteemed.
18* o
209
FARMER'S HAND-BOO.
Fig. 154.
Portugal. -This variety is more juicy, less harsh, better colored and
flavored, than the two preceding. Fruit large, oblong; color mild yellow;
not very productive. A very superior variety, though not so much raised
as it deserves.
REMARKS.- There are two or three ornamental varieties, but they are
not of sufficient importance to be described at length.
THE RASPBERRY.
Propagation, 4 c.- The only mode of propagation is by suckers, except
by seeds, which is only resorted to for new varieties. The suckers are
separated in autumn, either by taking up the whole plant and dividing it,
or by slipping them off from the sides and roots of the main stock. They
may be planted at once where they are permanently to remain, in rows
from north to south, four feet apart every way. They will grow in any
good garden soil, but it is most prolific in fruit, and the fruit is better
flavored, in a dry, substantial soil, and an open situation. In making a
plantation, three or more suckers are allowed to each stool, and planted it
a triangle at six inches apart. The plants will produce fruit the first year;
210
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
but, if this fruit, or even a third part of it, can be dispensed with, the
suckers for the succeeding year will be greatly strengthened by cutting the
stems of the newly-set plants down to within six inches of the ground.
The future treatment consists in going over the stools every year, early in
May, and selecting six or seven of the strongest suckers from each stool
for next year's bearing wood, and destroying all the rest, unless they are
wanted for a new plantation. In autumn, as soon as the fruit is all gathered, the stems which have borne it should be cut down to the ground, to
give light and air to the suckers; but as these are liable to be injured by
the frost, they should not be pruned till the following March. They may
then be shortened to two thirds or three fourths of their length, by cutting
off the weak wood at the extremities of the shoots.
VARIETIES.
Fastolff. - This is a very superior variety, considered by many the best
Fig. 155.
211
if
I!
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
of all the reds. Fruit extra large size; roundish-conical; color brilliant red,
purple tinge; flesh rich, melting, finely flavored. It is not so much grown
now as it undoubtedly will be when it is better known; besides, the plants
are scarce and high-priced. It is well adapted to the United States.
Yellow Antwerp. -White Antwerp, and Double-Bearing Yellow, by some.
A large, conical berry; color lightish-yellow; flesh sweet, very pleasant
flavor. Worthy of cultivation.
American Black.- A well-known popular variety; size rather small, in
its native growth; color quite dark; flesh rich, juicy, acid flavor.
Red Antwerp. -Also called New Red, True Red, and Howlan7d's Red.
Large size; conical; color pale red; flesh sweet, juicy, excellent. It is
early, productive, and ranks first-rate for eating and cooking.
Franconia - Fruit large; obtuse-conical; color purplish-red; flesh firm,
rich, tart, lively. Hardy, productive; not so early as others, but superior
for preserving. Fig. 156.
Fig. 156.
REMARKs. - The White Antwerp is an excellent sort, as is also the
Cushing, and the Ohio. These, with the varieties previously described,
constitute the principal cultivated kinds, the others being generally inferior.
THE STRAWBERRY.
Propagation and Culture.- The usual time for transplanting strawberry
plants is August. That time is chosen because they have then done bearing,
and have made offsets, if the season has been favorable, of strong pla.its, set
from their runners. Plantations made at this season will bear sonme fruit
the next summer. But, if good, vigorous plants can be obtained in MIay of
the preceding season, it should be planted then, as it saves nearly a year,
the plants being ready to bear abundantly the next year.
Gardeners have different habits and opinions as to trimming the plants,
212
FRUITS. FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
when they are put out. Some cut off all the old leaves, preserving only
those in the centre of the plant. Others take off the dead or decayed leaves
only, and plant with all the old healthy leaves on the plant. Many persons
cut the roots in before they put them into the ground; -all dead substances
should be cut off, but not the roots. When the plants are put.out, they
should be kept free from weeds, and the ground should be kept loose about
them. If the plants are strong, put but one to form the stools; if weak, put
two.
As regards the distance at which plants should be set, cultivators differ.
The common red strawberry, which is found in all our gardens, may be put
eight inches apart, in rows nine inches or a foot from each other, and
allowed to form a matted bed of about two feet wide, with a foot-path of a
foot wide between them. But the larger and finer sorts should be planted
in stools, in beds four and a half feet wide, with a path of fifteen inches or
more between the beds. In these beds the plants should be set, by a line,
fifteen to eighteen inches apart, both ways, taking care that they do not run
together.
The objection generally made to this mode of cultivation is, that the fruit
is exposed to injury by lying upon the ground, where it is bruised, and
covered with dirt, every time it rains. This, however, may be prevented
by a little care. Moss, or straw, or the leaves of trees, may be put around
the stools, so as to prevent the fruit from lying on the ground, and to prevent
the moisture around the plant from evaporating.
The strawberry may also be propagated by seeds; and, if sown immediately after gathering, will produce plants which will come into bearing
the following year.
Soil and Situation.- The best soil is one that is light, warm, and
gravelly; and the manure to be applied should be vegetable, rather than
animal. The common practice is to manure the ground with rotten dung,
with a view to increase the size and quantity of the fruit; but, in doing this,
the flavor of the fruit is destroyed in proportion to the richness of the soil;
besides, high manuring produces strong, luxuriant vines, and little fruit.
Rotten leaves, decayed wood, ashes, in small quantity, mixed with other
vegetable substances in a compost heap, will make better manure for strawberries than any animal substance whatever. As the vines which bear this
fruit require great moisture to bring the fruit to its proper size, the soil and
situation must not be too dry.
Forcing. - Select for this purpose, in the middle of August, a sufficient
number of the best runners, from approved kinds, to have choice from, and
plant them six inches apart, in beds, upon a strong border, in a dry and
sheltered situation. As soon as the leaves have withered, mulch them
213
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
lightly with manure; and if very severe weather occur, protect them for a
time with straw. They must be kept, the following spring, free from weeds
and runners, removing also any flowers as they appear. Towards the latter
end of May, or beginning of June, whenever dull or rainy weather may
occur, remove them carefully into forty-eight-sized pots, putting one, two or
three plants into each pot, according as the object may be, whether quality
or quantity. Place them, when potted, in a situation where they can be
readily shaded for a time, and receive regular supplies of water, if
necessary. About the latter end of July, or early in August, these pots
wvill be filled with roots, when theplants must be re-potted into flat thirtytwo-sized pots, and at this time plunged in old tan or coal-ashes. The best
mode of plunging them is to form beds wide enough to contain five rows of
pots, when plunged, upon a hard or gravelly surface, to prevent them rooting through, the sides supported by slabs of the same width as the depth of
the pots, and filling them up with old tan or ashes; the plants remain here
until wanted to take in, and are easily protected from severe frosts. It will
be found an excellent plan to preserve the latest forced plants, which are
not much exhausted, for forcing the first, the next season. These, from their
long period of rest, and well-ripened buds, are predisposed to break earlier
and stronger than the others; some of them; if the autumn is moist, will be
excited, and produce flowers, which must be immediately pinched out. They
should have their balls carefully reduced, and be re-potted in larger pots,
early in August, protecting them from the late autumnal rains, and from
frost.
VARIETIES.
Duke of Kent. - Fruit rather small size; roundish-conical; color bright,
deep red; flavor tart, and moderately good. It is, on the whole, considerably inferior to other sorts, but is an early ripener,- say the last of May, or
first of June.
Large Early Scarlet.- This also is an early fruit, and superior to the
Fig. 157.
11
214
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
Duke of Kent. Medium size; roundish-oblong; color brilliant red; rich,
sprightly and excellent flavor. A certain and abundant bearer.
Red Wood. - An old and favorite sort; size small; round; color scarlet;
flesh sweet, finely flavored. Productive, ripening in midsummer.
Black Prince.- Also known as Black Imperial. Fruit large, handsome;
roundish; color darkish-red; flesh rich, finely flavored. Hardy and prolific.
Hovey's Seedling. -One of the finest and largest, and well suited to a
northern climate; form roundish-conical, regular; color dark red; texture
and flavor very fine. A good bearer, ripening about the middle of June.
The fruit, with commonly good culture, weighs about a quarter of an ounce,
Fg. 158.
and is an inch and a quarter in diameter. It produces better if grown near
some variety having perfect stamens, sueh as the Early Scarlet, or Ross
Phoenix.
Swainstone's Seedling.-A comparatively recent sort, well thought of
by those who have grown it. Large size; ovate-conical; color light, shiny
scarlet; flesh compact, delicious flavor. Not over productive. Fig. 159.
Ross Pheenix. - Large size to very large, with numerous seeds; form
generally more or less coxcombed or flattened, and surface uneven; color
dark crimson; flavor and texture very fine for a large variety. Productive; ripens in June, and is considered nearly equal to Hovey's Seedling.
Fig. 160.
Prolific Hautbois.- Large size; conical; color purplish-red; flesh rich,
juicy, tender, highly flavored. It bears very well, ripens early, and has as
good a reputation as any of the Hautbois variety. Fig. 161.
215
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
i'g. 160.
Cushing.- Fruit very large; round, some of the berries with a short
neck; color light scarlet; flesh juicy, tender, finely flavored; good bearer
Fig. 162.
216
Fig. 159.
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
Fiog. 161.
Fi. 162.
REMARKS. -The Hudson's Bay, British Queen,
Wood, Bishop's Orange, Downton, Elton, Methven
and Myatt's Pine, are esteemed varieties.
MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS, NUTS, &c.
ALMOND.- There are two kinds, - the common or sweet, and the bitter.
The varieties best deserving culture are the Tender-shelled, the fruit of
19
. I
I
217
v
Mite A lpine, Mitd
&arlet, Boston Pine,
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
which is small; the Sweet, which is larger; and the Jordan, also large and
sweet. These, and all the other kinds, are propagated by budding on the
plum, and sometimes on seedling almonds for dry situations.
BLUEBERRY.- A well-known dwarf bush, bearing a small berry, tender,
juicy, blue color, ripening in July and August, and much used for tarts and
puddings. Not much cultivated; grows wild in abundance.
BUTTERNUT. - This is a species of walnut, growing in different parts of
the United States, and sometimes called Oil NVut and White Walnut. Its
wood is used for various mechanical purposes, and its bark possesses various medicinal qualities. The fruit is eaten, but is more valuable as a
pickle.
CHESTNUT. -The true, sweet chestnut-tree thrives in any but moist or
marshy soils. It is long-lived, and grows to a great size. Its wood is hard
and durable, and used for various purposes; the fruit is eaten raw, or boiled
or roasted; the bark, for tanning, is superior to oak. It is raised from the
seeds, planted in the fall; the second year they are transplanted, and fine
varieties are extended by grafting. The Spanish or Portuguese chestnut
succeeds well in this country, producing fruit, in about seven years, from the
seed. Its growth is more rapid than the native kind. It may be budded
on the common chestnut, but is apt to overgrow the stock.
FIG. -The figs most suitable for a garden are the large white Genoa, the
rig. 163
early white, the Murray, the small brown Ischia, and the black Ischia. Figs
may be propagated by seeds, cuttings, layers, suckers, roots, and by ingraft
218
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
ing; the best mode being by layers or cuttings, which bear the first ox
second year. A warm climate is required for out-door culture.
FILBERT. -There are several varieties, -the Red, the Wh4ite, the Barcelona, or Large Cob, and the Frizzled. Filberts require a deep, light, but
naturally fertile soil, without putrescent manures. They are propagated
most easily from suckers, and should be well pruned. They bear in the
fourth or fifth year.
LEMON. -A small tree, with ovate-oblong leaves, pale-green, with a
winged stalk. Flowers red externally; fruit pale yellow, with a juicy and
F"g. 164.
very acid pulp. Generally raised from seed in the Eastern countries. In
this country it may be raised at the South in the open air.
LIME. -The lime has obovate leaves on a wingless stalk, small white
flowers, and roundish, pale-yellow fruit, with a nipple-like termination.
The leaves and general habit of the plant resemble those of the lemon;
but the acid of the pulp of the fruit, instead of being sharp and powerful, is
flat and slightly bitter. The figure (166) represents the South American lime.
OLIVE.- The olive grows on a branchy, low, evergreen tree, requiring a
warm climate and dry soil. The fruit is much in use for pickles, and in
Europe a rich oil is extracted from the pulp, the fruit being first broken in
a mill, and reduced to a sort of paste. It is then subjected to the action of
a press, and the oil swims on the top of the water in the vessel beneath. In
pickling, the fruit is simply preserved in salts and water. Fig. 165.
219
/,~~~~~~~~
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
F/g. 165.
Fig. 166.
ORANGE. - The orange thrives only in a warm climate, though it is quite
generally raised in hot-houses in cold latitudes; more, however, for ornament and curiosity than for use. It rarely grows to any considerable height;
has deep green leaves, and, when fruited, makes a fine appearance. May
be raised by seed or by cuttings. The principal varieties are the Bcrg,amot,
the Blood-Red, the Saint Michael's, Seville, China, Nice, Tangerine, Mandarin. Fig. 167.
POMEGRANATE. -A small, low tree, in its form and habits not unlike the
common hawthorn. It is propagated by layers and cuttings, and by grafting
on the common sort; or, it may be trained in the fan manner. The chiet
220
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
io.. 167.
sorts are the Sweet, the Acid, and the Subacid; besides which, there are
some ornamental varieties. The fruit is about the size of a common apple,
and is very handsome; skin hard; color yellowish-orange, with a deep-red
cheek. Grows in the Middle and Southern States Besides a dessert fruit,
it is also used medicinally.
SHELLBARK. -Also called Shagbark, and Hickory Nut. A large and
towering tree, with oval leaves; fruit roundish, sweet and relishing. The
wood is much used for different mechanical purposes.
WALNUT.- Also called Madeira Nut. A tree of stately proportions,
bearing in great quantity a large-sized and superior nut. May be propagated by seeds, and by grafting on the hickory nut. Excellent dessert
fruit, and makes a good pickle. The kernel is four-lobed.
WHORTLEBERRY. - A small, dwarfshrub, comprising several varieties, and
known generally by the name of Huckleberry, and Bilberry. It produces a
round, sweet berry, much used in cooking, and also eaten raw. It grows
wild, and is seldom cultivated in gardens.
FRUIT CALENDAR.
JANUARY.- Vinery: commence forcing for fruit in June; begin with a
temperature of 50~, and gradually increase it, the first month, to 60~.
Peach-house: commence forcing for fruit in May; begin with a temperature of 50~. Chlerry-house: commence forcing with a temperature of
45~, by night. Figs: plants in pots may now be placed in a vinery.
Strawberries: take plants in pots into a forcing house or pit twice in the
19*
221
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
month. Prune the Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry, Gooseberry, Currant, and
Raspberry, if the weather is not severe. Nail and tie wall and espalier
trees.
FEBRUARY. - Vinery: increase the heat above that for the preceding
month. Peach-house: cease syringing when the trees are in flower. Cherry house: give air at every favorable opportunity. Fig-house: commence
forcing where the trees are planted in the borders. Melons: sow seeds for
early crop. Strawberries: take into the forcing-house for succession.
MARCH. -Peach-house: remove all fore-right shoots from the trees, and,
when the fruit is set, syringe them. Cherry-house: increase the heat, after
the bloom is set and stoned. Fig-house: water freely, both at the root and
over-head. Melons: plant out from last month's sowing. Strawberries:
give air freely while in flower. Prune and nail Peaches and Nectarines, and
afterwards protect them with nets, or other covering. Graft fruit-trees.
APRIL.- Vinery: when the grapes are set, keep a very moist temperature, and commence thinning them immediately. Peach-house: partially
thin the fruit before stoning; afterwards, thin to the quantity required to ripen
off; -syringe the trees daily in fine weather, and smoke them occasionally,
to keep down insects. Fig-house: when the shoots have made three or
four joints, stop them, to cause them to produce fruit in the autumn. Melons: allow several of the main shoots to reach the sides of the frame before
being stopped. Disbud Peaches and Nectarines.
MAY. - Vinery: keep the laterals stopped to one joint; take away all
useless shoots. Peach-house: when the fruit begins to ripen, withhold
water both at the roots and overhead,- at the same time, admit air freely.
Cherry-hotse: raise the temperature to 700 when the fruit is swelling off.
Fig-hou?se: as the first crop approaches maturity, only sufficient water
should be given to prevent the second crop of fruit falling off. Melons:
regulate the vines at an early stage of their growth; after the fruit is set,
put pieces of slate beneath it. Continue to disbud wall-trees; remove
their coverings when danger from frost is over, and wash the trees with
soap-suds when the fruit is set. Thin the fruit of the Apricot.
JUNE.- Vinery: as the fruit approaches maturity, keep a dry atmosphere
-a few leaves may be taken off, or tied on one side, where they shade the
fruit. Peach-house: suspend nets or mats beneath the trees, and place in
them some soft material, for catching the falling fruit. Cherry-house: when
the fruit is gathered, give the trees several good washings, to destroy insects,
- the house should also be smoked. Figs: those in pots must be duly
supplied with water. Melons: ridge out late crops; give air freely to
ripening fruit. Summer-prune Vines against walls. Finally, thin Apricots
Set traps for wasps. Net Cherry-trees.
222
FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC.
JULY.- Vinery: carefully avoid raising a dust when the fruit is ripe;
give air freely. Peach-house: when the fruit is all gathered, give the trees
several good washings over-head, and give abundance of air till the leaves
begin to decay, when the lights may be removed. Cherry-trees: if in pots,
these should now be placed in a shady situation. Fig-house: when the first
crop is gathered, water the trees liberally, to bring forward the second crop.
Melons: pay proper attention to the plants in the open air. Finally, thin
wall-fruit. Prune and -tie espalier trees. Bud fruit-trees. Pot Strawberry
runners, for forcing. Mat Currants and Gooseberries, to preserve theni.
Stop the shoots of vines against walls, two joints above the firuit.
AUGUST. -Vinery: syringe the vines, and give them a root-watering
after the fruit is cut, to prevent the leaves decaying prematurely. Peachhouse: the light may be taken off the early house, and used for the purpose
of forwarding Grapes against walls. Fig-house: syringe the trees frequently, to keep down insects. Make new plantations of Strawberries. Cut
down the old canes of Raspberries, when the fruit is gathered. Keep the
shoots of wall-trees nailed in, -displace all laterals. Stop the laterals of
vines to one joint. Continue to bud fruit-trees, as in last month.
SEPTEMBER.- Vinery: the lights of the early forced-house should now be
left open night and day; or they may be taken off, if repairs are required.
Peach-house: if any vacancies are to be filled up, take out the old soil, and(t
replace it with fresh, ready for planting next month. Protect out-door
Grapes from wasps, by bagging the bunches. Gather fruit as it ripens.
Expose wall-fruit to the sun and air, to give it flavor and color. Continue
to make new Strawberry plantations, as in last month.
OCTOBER. - Vinery: as soon as the leaves have fallen from the vines,
prune them, take off the loose, rough bark, and wash them. Peach-house:
fill vacancies with trees from the walls in the open garden; take up and
plant carefully. Pot Cherry-trees for forcing. Withhold water from Fi,gtrees when the fruit is gathered. Melons: keep up the heat of the beds, to
forward the ripening of the late fruit. Gather any remaining fruit. Plant
fruit-trees of all sorts. Prune Currants and Gooseberries.
NOvEMBER. -Vinery: protect the border where the vines of the early
forcing-hiouse are growing outside. Peach-house: prune and dress the trees
as soon as the leaves are fallen. Cherry-house: if the lights have been
taken off, they should now be replaced, but left open night and day, unless
the weather is severe; the trees should now be pruned. Pot Fig-trees for
forcing. Continue to plant all sorts of fruit-trees, as in last month. Protect
Fig-trees. Prune the Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry, Filbert, Gooseberry, and
Currant, as in last month; also nail and tie those against walls, and espaliers.
223
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
Look over the fruit and the fruit-room. Mulch newly planted fruit-trees,
to protect them from frost.
DECEMBER. - Vinery: put on the lights, if they have been removed, so
as to protect the vines from severe frost. Peach-house: after the trees are
tied to the trellis, take away a little of the loose, dry-top soil; slightly dig
the border, so as not to injure the roots, and add some fresh soil. Cherry
house: fix the trees to the trellis, and make preparations for forcing next
month. Fig-house: the frost should be kept out, and if the trees need any
pruning, it should now be done. Continue to nail and prune in mild
weather. Partially unnail the shoots of Peach and Nectarine trees. Protect
Strawberries in pots, and all fruit-trees intended for forcing. Dig fruit
quarters where pruning is completed.
224
CHAPTER VI.
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
THE REARING, BREEDING, DISEASES, AND GENERAL CARE OF- THE BULL- THE OX
- THE COW - SHEEP - SWINE - THE HIORSE-THE ASS -THE MULE - THE
GOAT - THE DOG - IN ALL THEIR STANDARD VARIETIES;- WITH A MONTHLLY
CAILENDAR OF OPERATIONS.
I. HORNED OR NEAT CATTLE.
Breeding and Rearing.- The objects to be kept in view, in breeding cattle, are a form either well adapted to fatten, for producing milk, or for
labor. These three objects have each of them engaged the attention of
Fig. 16S8.
agriculturists; but experience has not altogether justified the expectation
that has been entertained of combining all these desirable properties, in an
eminent degree, in the same race. That form which indicates the property
of yielding the most milk differs materially from that which we know, from
experience, to be combined with early maturity and the most valuable carcass; and the breeds which are understood to give the greatest weight of
meat for the food they consume, and to contain the least proportion of offal,
are not those which possess, in the highest degree, the strength and activity
required in beasts of labor. A disposition to fatten, and a tendency to yield
a large quantity of milk, cannot be united. The form of the animal most
remarkable for the first is very different from that of the other;-in place
P
I
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
of being flat in the sides, and big in the belly, as all great milkers are, it is
high-sided and light-bellied, -in a word, the body of the animal well
adapted to fatten is barrel-formed, while that of the milker is widest downwards.
Procreating Age.- The age at which bulls should be employed, and the
number of seasons they should be allowed to serve, as well as the age at
which the females should begin to breed, are points regarding which practice is by no means uniform. Sometimes the bulls are pretty commonly
allowed to leap while yearlings, and, if good stock-getters, are kept on as
long as they can serve,- perhaps till they are ten or twelve years old; in
some places they are employed only three seasons, for the first time at two
years old. The females, in many instances, bring their first calf at the age
of two years, but more commonly, perhaps, not till they are a year older.
Period of Gestation.- The period of gestation with cows has been found
to be about forty weeks. Cows seldom bring more than one calf at a time.
When they produce twins, one of them a male and the other a female, the
latter, which is called a free martin, is commonly considered incapable of
procreation, though there are a few instances to the contrary.
Time of Impregnation.- The most desirable period for putting cows to
the bull is midsummer, in order that they may be dropped in the spring,
and have the whole of the grass season before them. Where no regular
system is followed, and cows are sent to the bull merely because they are
in heat, calves will be dropped at all seasons; but excepting when the fatting of calves is an object of importance, it is probably the most advantageous time, as the calves, having all the grass season before them, become
sufficiently strong for enduring the change to a less agreeable food in the
ensuing winter. A calf newly weaned seldom thrives well during that
period, unless it is pampered with better food than usually falls to the share
of young animals. By midsummer the cows are readier to take the bull
than at any other season, and will bring calves in proper time. If a cow
goes till after May before she calves, the calf will be too weak the winter
following, and the dam will not be so ready to take the bull again, but will
often grow barren.
Rearing. -The mode of rearing calves differs in different places. The
best method, according to some, is this: The calves suck a week or a fortnight, according to their strength; new milk in the pail, a few meals; next
new milk and skim-milk mixed, a few meals more; then, skim-milk alone;
or porridge, made with milk, water, ground oats, &c., and sometimes
oil-cake, until cheese-making commences, after which, whey porridge, or
sweet whey, in the field; being careful to house them in the night, until
warm weather sets in. This method of suckling is not, however, free from
226
DOMESTIC OR FARMI ANIMALS.
objection; and, in the ordinary practice of rearing calves, it is held to be
a preferable plan to begin at once to teach them to drink from a pail. The
calf that is fed from the teat must depend upon the milk of its dam, however scanty or irregular it may be; whereas, when fed from a dish, the
quantity can be regulated according to its age, and various substitutes may
be resorted to, by which a great part of the milk is saved for other purposes,
or a greater number of calves reared on the same quantity.
When fed from the pail, two gallons a day, for about three months, is
enough; but after it is three weeks old, it is best to give substitutes. When
reared with skim-milk, it should be given about as warm as cow's milk
when first drawn. If over-cold, the calves will purge, which, however,
may be remedied by putting two or three spoonfuls of rennet into the milk.
When dropped during the grass season, calves should be put into some
small home-close of sweet, rich pasture, after they are eight or ten days
old, not only for the sake of exercise, but also that they may the sooner
take to eating grass. When they are dropped in the winter, or before the
return of the grass season, a little short, soft hay or straw, or sliced turnips,
should be laid in the trough or stall before them.
The treatment of young cattle, from the time they are separated from
their dams, or able to subsist on the common food of the other stock, must
depend upon the farm on which they are reared. In summer, their pasture
is often coarse, but abundant; and in winter, all good breeders give them
an allowance of succulent food along with their dry fodder. The first winter they have hay and turnips; the following summer, coarse pasture; the
second winter, straw in the fold-yard, and a few turnips once a day, in an
adjoining field, just sufficient to prevent the straw from binding them too
much; the next summer, tolerably good pasture, and the third winter, as
many turnips as they can eat, and treated as fatting cattle.
Castrating. -There used to be a strange difference of opinion among
farmers as to the time when this operation should be performed. In some
places it is delayed until the animal is two years old: but this is done to
the manifest injury of his form, his size, his propensity to fatten, the quality
of his meat, and his docility and general usefulness as a working ox. The
period which is now pretty generally selected is between the first and third
months. The nearer it is to the last of the first month, the less danger
attends the operation.
Mode.- Some persons prepare the animals by the administration of a
dose of physic; but others proceed at once to the operation when it best
suits their convenience, or that of the farmer. Care, however, should be
taken that the young animal is in perfect health. The mode formerly practised was simple enough: - a piece of whip-cord was tied as tightly as
227
FAKRMER'S AND-BOOK.
possible around the scrotum. The supply of blood being thus completely
cut off, the bag and its contents soon became livid and dead, and were suffered to hang, by some careless operators, until they dropped off, or were
cut off on the second or third day. It is now, however, the general practice to grasp the scrotum in the hand, between the testicles and the belly,
and make an incision on one side of it, near the bottom, of sufficient depth
to penetrate through the inner covering of the testicle, and long enough to
admit of its escape. The testicle immediately bursts from its bag, and is
seen hanging by its cord.
The careless or brutal operator now firmly ties a piece of small string
around the cord, and having thus stopped the circulation, cuts through the
cord half an inch below the ligature, and removes the testicle. He, however, who has any feeling for the poor animal on which he is operating,
considers that the only use of the ligature is to compress the blood-vessels
and prevent after hemorrhage; and therefore saves a great deal of unnecessary torture, by including them alone in the ligature, and afterwards dividing the rest of the cord. The other testicle is proceeded with in the same
way, and the operation is complete. The length of the cord should be so
contrived that it shall immediately retract into the scrotum, but not higher,
while the ends of the string hang out through the wounds. In the course
of about a week, the strings will usually drop off, and the wounds will
speedily heal. It will be rarely that any application to the scrotum will be
necessary, except fomentation of it, if much swelling should ensue.
A few- but their practice cannot be justified -seize the testicle as soon
as it escapes from the bag, and, pulling violently, break the cord, and tear it
out. It is certain that when a blood-vessel is thus ruptured, it forcibly contracts, and very little bleeding follows; but if the cord breaks high up, and
retracts into the belly, considerable inflammation has sometimes ensued, and
the beast has been lost. This tearing of the cord may be prawtised on smaller animals, as pigs, lambs, and rabbits, as their vessels are small, and there
is but little substance to be torn asunder; but, even there, the knife, somewhat blunt, will be a more skilful and humane substitute. This laceration
should never be permitted in the castration of the calf or the colt.
The application of torsion, or the twisting of the arteries by means of a
pair of forceps which will firmly grasp them, promises to supersede every
other mode of castration, both in the larger and the smaller domesticated
animals. The spermatic artery is exposed, and seized with the forceps,
which are then closed by a very simple mechanical contrivance; the vessel
is drawn a little out from its surrounding tissues, the forceps are turned
round seven or eight times, and the vessel liberated. It will be found perfectly closed; a small knot will have formed on its extremity; it will retract
228
DOMIESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
into the surrounding substance, and not a drop more blood will flow from
it; the cord may be then divided, and the bleeding from any little vessel
arrested in the same way. Neither the application of the hot ironi or of the
wooden claws, whether with or without caustic, can be necessary in the
castration of the calf.
Fattening. - The common method of fattening Calves is, to allow them
to suck, as by this method the object is probably not only sooner, but more
effectually, attained, than by any other means. The period necessary varies
from five to nine weeks, - the time being much shorter where milk is very
valuable. Another method is, to give them the milk to drink, morning an(d
evening, warm from the cow; the quantity being increased accordiIg to
their age and strength. In whatever way they are managed, they should be
kept in pens in a close house, and well littered, kept clean, and enijoy a due
quantity of flesh air. Meal, linseed boiled into a jelly, and such like articles, are also given to calves while fattening.
,:11!1''',l, I
. "; 0 0; 1: A: -
I IIi L 0
The food on which Cattle are fatted is grass in summer, commonly on
pastures, but sometimes on herbage cut and consumed in feeding-houses or
20
229
I,4. 1 6t9.
FARBIER'S HAND-BOOK.
fold-yards; and in winter, on turnips, along with hlay or straw, oil-cake,
carrots, potatoes, &c. The hlay or str aw is muclh more beneficial when cut
by one of the niachinles now used for that purpose.
The age at wN-hichl cattle are fattted depends on the circumstance of their
being employed ill breeding, in labor, for the dairy, or solely for the
butcher. In the latter case, the most improved breeds are fit for the shambles whlen about three years old, anid very few of any large breed are kept
more than a year longer. As to cows and working oxen, ill most instances
the latter are put up to feed after working three years, or ini the seventh or
eighth year of their age. In general, it may )be said that the snmall ])reeds
of cattle are fattened on pastures, though sometimes finished off on a few
weeks' turnips; and large cattle, at least in somne parts, are chliefly fatted
in stalls or fold-yards, by means of turnipis, and other likle sublstaiices.
HIoW TO JUDGE OF CATTLE FORt VARI()OUS OBJECTrS AND PURPOSES.
The Bull. - The head should be rather long, and the miuzzle fine; eyes
lively anrid prominentt; ears long anid thin; horns ide(lc; ueck risinig with a
gentle curve from the shoulders, and small and fine where it joins the head
shoulders moderately broad at the top, joining filll to his chine or crops
and chest b)ack-ard(s, and to the neck-vein forwaris; bIosonl op)en; breast
broad, and projectiing well befobre his lecs; armus, or tirc-iii-hs, muscular,
and tapering to ills kucee; legs clean, a.(d very fili-boiol (; eline arid chlest
so fill as to leave no hollows behild tlle slhoulders; 1s lis strong, to keep
his bellv from sinking below thle level of Itis brCeast; l,:,(k, or ](in, broad,
straight, and flat; ribs rising one above another in such a marner that the
last rib shall be rather the higrhest, leaving olnly a small space to thie hip)s
or hookls, tihe x-hole formirig a roui-(nd or l)arrel-lilke carcass; 1ips slhoiurld be
w-ide-placed, roulnd, and a little higher thlan the back; the qttarters, firom the
hip to the rump, long, tapering gradually from the hips bacliwar(l, and the
turls or pott-bones not protuberant; rumps close to the tail; t il lbroad, wellhaired, and in a horizontal line wvith his bacl.
Bulls should be constantly well fed, arld kept in proper enclosures.
Thle Ox. - The head ought to be rather long, and muzzle fine; countenance calm and placid; horns fine; neck light, particularly where it joins
the head; breast w-ide, arid projectliug well befiore the legs; shoulders
moderately broad at the top, and the joints well in, anrid, when the animal is
in good condition, the chine so full as to leave noI hollow behind them;
the fore flank well filled up, anrid the girth behind the shoulders deep;
back straight, wide, and flat; ribl)s broad, and the space lbetween them and
the hips small; flank fuill and heavy; belly well kept in, and not silnking
low in the middle; hips round, wide across, and on a level w-ith the back
2 -oi 0
DO)IESTIC On FARSM ANISALS.
itself; the hind quarters, that is, from the hips to the extretnity of thlt
rumip, long and straight; the rump points fat, and comingr well up to thi
tail; tie tw-ist wide, and thie sean in the middle of it so well filled, that the
whole may very nearly form a plane, perpendicular to the line of the back;
the loiver part of the thigh small; tail broad and fat towards the top, but
the lower part thin; legs long and strong; feet and hoofs broad and hardy;
and, when the animal is in fine condition, tile skin of a rich and silky
., )pearaftce.
Pi-. 170.
Skeleto7n of the Ox.
m, The ligamnent of the neck, and its
attachmeints.
un, The atlas.
a, The denitata.
p, The orbit of the eve.
q, Tie' vertebra, or bones of tie neck.
r, The bones of the back.
s, The bones of the loins.
t, The sacrunm.
Us, The bones of the tail.
v 4' w, The haunch and pelvis.
x, The eight true ribs.
y, The false ribs, with cartilages.
z, The sternum.
1, The scapula, or shoulder-blade.
a, The upper jaw bone.
t, The nasal bone, or bone of the nose.
c, The lachrymal bone.
d, The malar, or cheek bone.
c, The frontal, or forehead bone.
f, The horns, being processes or contin * uations of the fiontal.
g, The temporal bone.
h, The parietal bone, low in the tempo ral fossa.
t, The occipital bone, deeply depressed
below the crest or ridge of the head.
j, The lower jaw.
k. The grinders.
4 The nippers, found on the lower jaw
alone.
2.31
I let,
I
I (, l
I
21
11
I11 i
i
-fS-l
6
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
10, The two smaller pasterns to eadn foot.
11, The two coffin bones to each foot.
12, The navicular bones.
13, The thigh bone.
14, The patella, or bone of the knee.
15, The tibia, or proper leg bone.
16, The point of the hock.
17, 17, The small bones of the hock.
18, 18, The metatarsals, or larger bones
of the hind leg.
19, 19, The pasterns and feet.
2, The humerus, or lower bone of the
shoulder.
3, The radius, or principal bone of the
arm.
4, The ulna, its upper part, forming the
elbow.
5, The small bones of the knee.
6, The large metacarpal or shank bone.
7, The smaller or splint bone.
S, The sessamoid bones.
9, The bifurcation at the pasterns, and
the two larger pasterns to each foot.
The Cow. Wide horns; head and neck thin; dewlap large; full breast;
broad back; large, deep belly; the udder capacious, but not too fleshy;
the milk-veins prominent, and the bag tending far behind, teats large and
long; buttocks broad and fleshy, tail long and pliable, legs in good proportion, and the joints short. To these may be added a gentle disposition, and
free from vicious tricks.
Age of Cattle.- This is determined by the teeth and horns. At the end
of about ten years, they shed their first four teeth, which are replaced by
others, larger, but not so white; before five years, all the incisive teeth are
renewed. These teeth are at first equal, long, and pretty white; but, as the
animals advance in years, they wear down, and become unequal and black.
These animals likewise shed their horns at the end of three years,
and are replaced by other horns, which, like the second teeth, continue.
The manner of the growth of these horns is not uniform, nor the shooting
of them equal. The first year,-that is, thie fourth year of the animal's age,
-two small pointed horns make their appearance, neatly formed, smooth, and
towards the head terminated by a kind of button. The following year this
button moves from the head, being impelled by a horny cylinder, which,
lengthening in the same manner, is also terminated by another button; and
so on, for the horns continue growing as long as the animals live. These
nuttons become annular joints or rings, which are easily distinguished in
the horns, and by which the age of the creature may be easily known,
counting three years for the point of the horn, and one for each of the joints
or riigs. The cow is useful for twenty years,- much longer than the bull.
Names of Cacttle at Different Ages.- A young castrated male, aftet tihe
first year, is called a stot, stirk, or steer; at five years old, an ox. A
female, after the first year, is called an heifer, or quey; at five years old, a
cow; and afterwards a castrated female is called a spayed heifer or cow.
Bullock is the general term for any full-grown cattle, male or female,
fat or lean.
232
DOMIESTIC OR FARMl ANIMIALS.
DIFFERENT BREEDS.
XNATIVE. - Thle best of American native stock is, almost without exception, descended from some one or other of the imported sorts, but which, on
account of the antiquity or uncertainty of its origin, or the remote resemblance which it bears to any of the standard breeds, occasioned by various
crossings, cannot be distinctly referred to any particular and well-knowil
pedigree, and is, therefore, called native, with such fancy designation as
may please the raiser. The niumber or quantity of this kind of stock is
therefore very large, and, of course, comprises about as many (lifferenlt
qualities, -some very superior, however, as in Fig. 171, of the Katsalskill,
a prize dairy cow, of Dutlchess County, New York. When kept simply onIL
.ig. 171.
grass, this cow gave thirty-eight and a half quarts of milk per day, yielding
nearly twenty-three pounds of butter per week, which is good proof that
the beautiful appearance of the animal was consistent with her good
qualities.
In some parts of our country, especially in the Eastern States, the prevailing stock is believed to be derived from the North Devons, many of the
fine points and qualities of which they possess. Thle most valuable working
oxen are usually of this breed, thus affording the excellent beef to be found
in the Boston. New York, and Philadelphia markets. By means of this
stock, and the improvement constantly being made in it by the importations
made from the old country, the cattle of the Middle and Western States are
20*
233
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
b)eing vastly improved. In the West, the shlort-horned animals have been
generally preferred, but the Durhams are now coming into vogue very extensively, on account of their superior adaptedniess to travel to the Eastern
markets without sensibly deteriorating in weight and quality. The Einglisli
lierefords are now beingi paid particular attention to, as they are supposed to
i)e well calculated for the Western graziers; the WTest highland breed is
also recommended.
DEvoN..-The true Devon cattle are gentle, agile, and peculiarly adapted
to active labor. Their shoulders have that obliquity which enab)les them to
lift freely their fore extremities; and their quarters belhlid are relatively
long, a characteristic connected with the power of active motion. Their
bodies, too, are light, and their limbs long, muscular to the hock and knee,
gtid below these joints sinew-y. They have the faculty of muscular exertion
in a high degree, trot well in harness, and -will ke.p pace with a horse in
the ordinary labors of the farm.
Devon Bull. - The figure below represents a fine specimen of a genuine
Fig. 172.
Devon bull. The horn of the Devon bull oulght to be neither too low nor too
higfh, tapering at the points, not too thick at the root, and of a yellow or
waxy colo,r. The eye should be clear, brighbt, and prominent, showing much
of th e uite. and it ought to have around it a circle of a variable color, but
234
DOMIESTIC OR FARMi ANI.IALS.
usually a dark orange. The forehead should be flat, indented, and small,
the purity of the breed being very much determined by the latter clharacteristic. The cheek should be small, the muzzle fine, the nose clear yeliow,
the nostril high and open, the hair curled about the head, and the neck quite
thick. Excepting in the head and neck, the form of the bull does not
materially differ from that of the ox, but he is considerably smaller. There
ire some exceptions, however, to this rule, as the two figures which follow
indicate, these representing the oflsprinig of the bull exhibited in Fig.
1i72.
Fig. 173.
Devon Ox. - The head of the Devon ox is quite small, with a great
breadth of forehead; clean and free from flesh about the jaws; prominent
eye; vivacious countenance; long and thin neck; light in the withers; the
shoulders a little oblique; breast deep; bosom open and wide; fore-legs
wNide apart; the point of the shoulder rarely seen; no projection of bone, is
in the horse, but a kind of level line running on to the neck; skin, notwitlistanding the curly hair. exceedingly mellow and elastic; color a blood rel,
which is usually indicative of purity of breed, though there are many
animals, of great excellence, of a chestnut hue, and even bay brown. Those
of a yellowish hue are said to be subject to steal (diarrhlea). The prece(ldin,
figure is an accurate likeness of an ox beginning to fatten, but his character
235
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
istic points not yet concealed. The cut below is that of a working Devon
ox, embodying almost all the good points which have been enumerated.
Ft,-. 174.
A selection from the most perfect animals of the true breed, -the bone
still small and the neck fine, but the brisket deep and wide, and down to the
knees, and not an atom of flatness all over the side, - or one cross, and only
one, with the Hereford, and that stealthily made, - these have improved the
strength and bulk of the Devon ox, without impairing, in the slightest
degree, his activity, beauty, or his propensity to fatten.
x~' "''Jill
Devon Cow. -There are few things more remarkable about the Devoiinshire cattle than the comparative smallness of the cow. The bull is a great
deal less than the ox, and the cow almost as much smaller than the bull.
This is somewhat of a disadvantage, on the whole, a roomy cow being very
desirable for breeding. But, though small, the Devon possesses that roundness
236
1,
FIig. 175.
DO.NIESTIC OR FARMI ANIMALS.
and projection of the last two or three ribs, which renders it more roomy
than a careless examination would lead one to suppose. She is particularly
distinguished for her full, round, clear eye, the gold-colored circle around
the eye, and the same color prevailing on the inside skin of the ear; countenance cheerful, the muzzle orange or yellow, but the rest of the face having
nothing of black, or even white, about it; jaws free from thickness, and the
throat free from dewlap. The points of the back and the hind quarters differ from those of other breeds, having more roundness and beauty, and being
free from most of those angles by which good milkers are sometimes distinguished.
The following is a portrait of a Devoni cow, rising four years old. WVith
- (. 176.
regard to size, she is a faivorable specimen, and it will be seen at once how
much more roomy and fit for breeding she is than even her somewhat
superior bulk would at first indicate. She is, perhaps, in a little better
condition than cows generally are, or should be, in order to yield their full
quantity of milk.
REMARKS. -The qualities of the Devon cattle may be referred to three
points - their working, fattening, and milking.
Where the ground is not too heavy, the Devonshire oxen are unrivaled
at the plough. They are quick, active, docile, and capable. They are
usually taken in to work when about two years old. If kept idle till five
I Xffi
237
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
or six years of age, they will be stinted in growth. At six to six and a
Ilf, they reach their full stature. At nine years, or older, they decline in
valltie.
With regard to their disposition to fatten, they have few rivals here.
They do not, indeed, attain the great weight of some breeds, but, in a giveil
iine, they acquire more flesh, and with less consumption of food; and their
fitsli is beautifuil in its kind, pleasing to the eye, and to the taste.
For milking, the Dev-ons are inferior to several other breeds. The milk
is g-ood, yielding more than an average proportion of cream and buttter, but it
is deficient in quantity. Some, however, deny that the latter is true.
DUI IIAI, OR SHORT-IO RN.- -Thle short-hlorned, sometimes called the Dutch
breed(l, is known by a variety of names, such as the Holderness, the Teesw-ater, the Yorkshire, Durham, Northumitberland, and others. Applying the
points of judging live-stock to the shlort-horns, it is found, that for quantity
and well-laid-on beef, the short-horned ox is quite full in every valuable
Fi,. 177.
part. In regard to quality of beef, the fat bears a due and even predominating proportion to the lean, the fibres of which are fine and well mixed. and
even marbled with fat, and abundantly juicy. The fine, thin, clean bones of
the legs and head, with the soft, mellow touch of the skin, and the benign
aspect of the eve, indicate in a remarkable degree the disposition to fatten:
while the ui.;.irm colors of the skin, red or white, or both combined in
238
DOMIESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
various degrees, mark distinctly the purity of the blood. They are at once
distinguished from any of the other breeds by their additional size, and their
more square and massy form. Their bones are exceedingly small, compared
with the size of the animal; their skin possesses that peculiar touch so
characteristic of a good feeder; they arrive early at maturity; and, fiirther,
they combine the valuable qualities of milkiIng and fattening in an unsoirpassed degree.
Fig. l177 exhibits one of the truest specimens of Short-horned bulls, al(d
may be relied on for its faithful delineation.
The Short-horned cow gives a large quantity of milk, and is, iln all
respects, a superior animal. Having given some account of the excellent
qualities distinguishing the breed generally, we close with presenlting a lifelikeness of one of the female species.
Fig. 178.
HEClF~ORDSIIIn. The Herefordshire w hite-faced breed may )e t!}i, distinguished: The countenance cheerful, pleasant, open; the forehead l)road
eve full and lively; horns bright, taper, and spreading; head small; chatl
l(ean; neck long and taperiing-; chest deep and full; bosom broad, andt( pr(ojrcting forward; shoulder-bone thin, flat, full, and mellow in flesh; loin
1,road; hips standing wvide, and level with the chine; quarters long, and wide
at the neck; rump even with the level of the back, and not drooping, nor
standing high and sharp above the quarters; tail slender and neatly haired;
i)-irrel round and roomy; the carcass throughout deep and well-spread; ribs
broad, standing flat and close on the outer surface, forming a smooth, even
barrel,- the hindmost large and full of length; round bone small, Snug, and
239
FAR2IIER'S HAND-BOOK.
not prominent; thigh clean, and regularly tapering; legs upright and short
below the knee, and hock small; feet of middle size; flank large; flesh
everywhere mellow, soft, and yielding pleasantly to the touch, especially on
the chine, the shoulder, and the ribs; hide mellow, supple, of a middle
thickness, and loose on the neck and huckle; coat neatly haired, bright ana
silky; color a middle red, with a bald face, characteristic of the true breed.
They fatten to a much greater weight than the Devons, and at an early age.
They are far worse milkers, however, than the latter, but will thrive and
grow fat where a Devon would scarcely live. A cross of the Devon and
Hereford will often improve each other, the former acquiring bulk and
hardihood, and the latter a finer form and activity.
The Hereford cow (Fig. 179) is apparently a very inferior animal.
Not only is she a poor milker, but her form is defective, -small, delicate,
and ill-made. She is very light-fleshed when in common condition, and
Fg. 179.
beyond that, while she is breeding, she is not suffered to proceed; but when
she is actually put up for fattening, she spreads out, and accumulates fat at
a most extraordinary rate.
The Hereford ox fattens speedily at a very early age, and it is therefore
generally more advantageous that he should go to market at three years
old than be kept longer to be employed as a beast of draught.
240
e _, -,, _
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
AYRSHIRE.-Thisbreedhasbeen much improved. It is short in the leg,
the neck a little thicker at the shoulder, but finely shaped towards the head;
the horns are smaller than those of the Highland breed, but clear and
smooth, pointing forwards, and turning upwards, tapering to a point.
/Rg. 181.
21
241
q
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
They are deep in the carcass, but not round and ample, and especially not
so in the loins and haunches. Fig 180 represents an improved Ayrshire
bull.
It is said that the Ayrshire farmers prefer their dairy bulls according to
the feminine aspect of their heads and necks, and wish them not round
behind, but broad at the hook-bones and hips, and full in the flanks.
The Ayrshire cow is a valuable dairy cow, the quantity of milk yielded
by her being very great, considering her size. Five gallons daily, for two
or three months after calving, may be considered as not more than an average; three gallons daily will be given for the next three months, and one
gallon and a half during the succeeding four months. Three gallons and a
half of this milk will yield about a pound of butter; thus fully establishing
the reputation of the Ayrshire cow, so far as the dairy is concerned. Fig.
181 represents one of these beautiful animals.
NEW LEICESTER. - This breed mnay be substantially distinguished by the
following characteristics: The fore end long, but light to a degree of ele
Fig. S182.
gance; neck thin; chap clean; the head fine, but long and tapering; eye
large, bright, and prominent; the horns of the bulls comparatively short,
of the oxen extremely long, as are, also, those of the cow, and most of them
242
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
hang downward by the side of the cheeks; shoulders fine and thin as to
bone, but thick as to flesh, without any protuberance of bone; girth small,
compared with the short-horns and middle-horns; chine quite full when fat;
loin broad, hip quite wide and protuberant; quarters long and level, the
nache of a middle width, and the tail set on variously; round bones small,
but thighs fleshy, tapering; legs small, clean, somewhat long; feet neat,
middling size; the carcass as nearly a cylinder as the natural form of the
animal will allow; ribs standing out full from the spine; belly small; hide
middling thick; color various, - the brindle, the finch-back, and the pye, are
common. The fattening quality, when the breed is in a state of maturity,
is indisputably good. As grazier's stock, they rank high. The principle
of the utility of form has been strictly attended to. As dairy stock, their
merit is less evident. As beasts of draught, many of them are sufficiently
powerful, and are more active than some other breeds used for the plough,
or on roads; but their horns form something of an objection to such use of
them. Fig. 182 is that of a New Leicester cow.
REMARKS.- Some of the other most noted breeds, which are coming into
extensive favor in this country, are the Holderness, the Galloway, the Sussex, the Alderney, the Suffolk, and the Kyloe; these, however, we do not
design to notice in detail, but shall close our notes on neat cattle with a few
remarks on some of the characteristics and general management of
DAIRY COWS.
Qualities.- We have already expressed, in the preceding pages, the
general opinions entertained as to the adaptedness of particular breeds for
dairy purposes.
Where butter is the main object, such cows should always be chosen as
are known to afford the best and largest quantities of milk and cream, of
whatever breed they may be. But the quantity of butter to be made from
a given number of cows must always depend on the size and goodness of
the beasts, the kind and quantity of food, and the distance of time from
calving. The form of animals that are best fitted to arrive at early maturity
and secrete fat, differs in some respects from that which indicates a disposition to secrete and yield milk. A dairy cow, like a feeding animal,
should have a skin soft and mellow to the touch, -should have the.back
straight, the loins broad, the extremities small and delicate; but she need
not, as in the case of the feeding animal, have the chest broad and prominent before. She should rather have the fore-quarters light, and the hindquarters relatively broad, capacious, and deep; and she should have a large
well-formed udder. There should be no breeding in-and-in, as in the case
of a feeding stock. The purpose in rearing cows for the dairy is not to pro
243
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
duce animals that will arrive at premature age, but such as are hardy and
of good constitution. By long attention to the characters that indicate a
disposition to yield milk, the breed of Ayrshire has become greatly more
esteemed for the dairy than other animals much superior to them in size and
feeding qualities.
Feeding.- WVith respect to the manner of feeding dairy cows, the most
economical, perhaps, is feeding them entirely on green forage during the
summer, and on roots in winter. But, as to the effect of food, notwithstanding all that may justly be said respecting the nutritive properties,of
peculiar roots and artificial grasses, no food can excel that of good natural
pastures, for milch cows; for not only do they yield a greater quantity of
milk when fed on pastures, but the flavor of grass butter may always be
distinguished, by its superior richness and delicacy, from that which has
been made from milk produced from soiling in the house. This, however,
should not deter the farmer from feeding his dairy stock in that manner, for
the difference in the quality of the produce is not so great as to counterbalance the many advantages resulting from a due extent and proper kind
of soiling. But in a country where cultivation has not been carried to its
fuillest extent, and a considerable proportion of the land is necessarily
devoted to the production of grass, the cows may be kept, with great
advantage, on the pastures, during summer.
Keeping in Good Condition. - Dairy cows should be kept constantly in
good condition. When they are suffered to fall off in flesh, particularly in
the winter season, it is impossible that they can be brought to yield a large
quantity of milk, by getting them into better condition in the summer
months. When cows are lean at the period of calving, no management
afterwards is capable of bringing them to afford, for that season, anything
near the proportion of milk they would have yielded if they had been supported in proper condition during the winter. Food of the most nourishing
and succulent kinds should, therefore, be regularly given, in suitable proportions, in the cold, inclement months, and they should be kept tolerably
warm, and well supplied with pure water. It will be equally conducive to
the health of cows as to that of feeding cattle, to comb them regularly, and
to make such other arrangements as are conducive to cleanliness.
Milking. - In summer, the cows are milked in the field, or they are
driven gently home to their stalls, and milked there. The cows, when in
full milk, should be milked three times a day, and, at other times, twice in
the day will suffice. On the physiological principle of the secretions of
animals being increased in proportion as the secreted fluid is more frequently
withdrawn, the propriety of frequent milkings is apparent, in order to
increase or maintain the supply of milk produced by cows. There can be
244
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
little doubt but that, by accustoming the secretory organs to more frequent
action, such a habit may be established in them as will afford a larger proportion of milk in a given time. But, in order to effect this in the most
perfect manner, it will be necessary to have the cows highly fed, to observe
the greatest regularity and exactness in the hours of milking, and to be
careful that every drop of milk is drawn away each time. If any milk is
allowed to remain in the udder after the operation of milking, it is well
ascertained that the cow will yield a smaller quantity at the next milking.
A milch cow is usually considered in her prime at five years old, and
will generally continue in as good milking state until ten years old, or
upwards, depending much on the constitution of the animal, - some cows,
like other animals, exhibiting symptoms of old age sooner than others.
Ascertaining the Quality of Milk.- The value of milk, and the proportion of either butter or cheese that it produces, depends much upon its
quality. As the milk of some cows is so greatly superior to that of others,
where regularity is observed, it is important that the milk of each should
be placed by itself until its quality is ascertained. This is effected by
churning it separately; but a more expeditious and convenient method is to
ascertain its strength by means of the lactometer, an instrument which we
have described in the chapter on the dairy, and a cut of which we annex.
II. SHEEP.
Rearing, 4fc. - The ewe may breed when fifteen or eighteen months old,
and at the same age the ram may also be employed to the extent of forty or
fifty ewes, and, when older, to seventy or eighty.
The young lambs should be brought forth at a time when there will be a
sufficient supply of food for the dam to enable her to yield a copious supply
of milk; and also for the lambs, as they advance in growth. The usual
21*
'245
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
period is from the middle of October to November, in which case the ewes
will begin to lamb soon after the beginning of March. No preparation is
necessary, except, for a few weeks before, to place the ewes on somewhat
better pasture than usual.
The period of lambing having commenced, the attendant should carefully
observe every ewe that appears to be in labor. The attendant should not
be in haste to render assistance, until the strength of the ewe appears to be
declining. If she is to be driven to the fold, it must be done gently as possible. Before assistance is given, first see that the feetus is coming in a
proper position, which is with the head crouched between the fore-legs; if
wrong, it must be turned to the proper position. In the case of twin lambs,
the one which is least advanced must be put back, and the extraction of the
other assisted. If the fcetus be dead, it should be extracted immediately.
The keep of sheep after lambing, when rich pastures, or other kinds of
grass lands, cannot be reserved, should consist of turnips, or other kinds of
green food. The ewes should also have a dry, quiet, and sheltered pasture,
protected from the severity of the weather. High feeding should be allowed
them, but not while pregnant.
Castrating. - Castration of the male lambs should be performed when
they are ten days or a fortnight old. They should be in perfect health, and
the weather fine, but not warm. An incision is made into the scrotum on
each side, through which the testicles are successively protruded, and they
are taken away by severing the spermatic cord.
Weaning.- The period of weaning differs according to the locality of
the farm, and the quality of the pasture. In a mountainous situation, and
where the land is inferior, weaning often takes place when the lambs are
not more than three months old, for it requires all the intermediate time to
the beginning of winter to bring the ewes either ready for the ram or fatted
for the market. The time is generally from the first to the middle of July,
and the lambs are simply separated from the ewes. It is necessary to take
away a portion of the ewe's milk, at intervals, to prevent injurious distension of the udder. Dry them by degrees.
After being weaned, the lambs are named according to their sex and age.
The males are called hoggets, or hogs, the rams being termed tu-hogs, the
castrated males wether-hogs, and the ewes ewe-hogs.
It is important that the lambs be put into a good pasture in the summer,
to make up for the loss of the milk of the dam. When the grass begins to
fail, they are to be supplied with turnips plentifully, which, with hay, are
to be their food during winter.
Shearing.- This is an annual operation, usually taking place at the end
of May or first of June, - the precise period depending on the state of the
246
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
animals, those in a high condition being ready sooner than those that are
lean,- the wool coming off readily at that time, when plucked, this being
the proper criterion. About a week previously to shearing, the animals
are to be washed, to free the wool from all impurities. Everything being
prepared, a sheep is handed to the first operator, who seizes it and pulls it
into the water, and immediately turns it over on its back, holding the arm
of the fore-leg with the left hand, and grasping a portion of the wool at the
side of the head with his right hand, turning the sheep over from side to
side, at the same time pulling it gently backwards and forwards from and to
him, at every successive turning; the wool waves up and down in the direction of the length of the body, and swirls round the body, first in one
direction and then in another; the sheep is then handed to another operator,
who repeats the process and hands the animal to another person, and he who
handles it last examines the fleece.
After being washed, the sheep are put into a clean grass field; the fleece
will soon dry, after which the sheep may be shorn; though it is better to
wait about a week, in order that the oil may be brought again into the
wool, without which the latter loses its peculiar lustre with the loss of the
volk.
When the sheep are to be shorn, they are put into some enclosed space;
a winnow-cloth, or large sheet, of some kind, is spread on the floor, and
fastened down at the corners. The shearer then sets the sheep on its rump,
in which position it is kept by resting against his legs. In this position, the
wool is removed from the head and neck, and the operator afterwards clips
in a circular direction from the belly to the back; the animal is then laid on
its side, and kept down by the leg of the shearer, who clips the fleece all
around the back. All dirty portions of the wool about the tail and belly ought
to be removed by the shears, and kept by themselves. The outside of the
fleece is folded inwards, beginning with the side, and narrowing the whole
fleece into a stripe of about two feet in breadth. This stripe is then rolled
firmnly up, from the tail-end towards the neck, the wool of which is
stretched out and twisted into a rope, and wound around the fleece, to give
it a cylindrical shape. The clippings are steeped in water and washed by
the hand, and afterwards dried in the sun.
In using the shears, they should be held close to the sheep, with their
points a little elevated; every stroke should be short and narrow, to make
a clean clip. Keep the shears sharp by a whetstone.
Different names are again applied to the sheep after being shorn. They
are now shearlings, shearling-wethers, shearling-ewes, and shearling-tups
or rams; the wethers are also called dinmonts, and the ewes gimmers.
The ewes, or gimmers. are kept on the pastures during the second season
247
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
and such as are intended for breeders receive the ram at the proper season.
The wethers, or dinmonts, are fit for the butcher soon after being shorn.
But it is only in the case of the more improved breeds being reared, and the
supply of food of the last description, that the dinmonts are thus disposed
of at this early period. More frequently they are kept on the farm for
another winter, when the management is the same as during the first year.
The dinmonts, however, are frequently sold fat before they have completed
the entire winter's feeding; and when not disposed of at this period, they
are sold after being a second time shorn.
The details of the rearing and treatment of sheep on arable farms have
now been given at length. But frequently, instead of the animals being
produced and fattened on the farm, the operations of the farmer may be
either confined to breeding sheep and disposing of them before they become
fat, to pass into other hands before they come to the butcher, or they may
be confined to fattening sheep, always purchasing the stock from the
breeder. In situations, however, where the breeding and feeding of sheep
can be carried on with equal advantage, they may, with economy, be combined on the same farm.
Animals for the Market. - But instead of rearing all the animals to the
age of one or two years, the lambs are sometimes disposed of fat during the
first summer. In this case, they are fattened merely on the milk of their
dams. In certain cases, however, the ewes are made to produce the lambs
at those seasons which are found to suit the adjacent markets best, and the
lambs are fed in the house.
Food.- Grass in summer, and turnips and hay in winter, form the chief
food of sheep, and they are seldom difficult to procure in favorable
situations. In the absence of turnips, the different roots cultivated on the
farm may be substituted with advantage. Salt should always be supplied
to sheep.
Sheep in Mlountainous Sections.- The management of sheep in mountainous sections sometimes differs, in some respects, from that described. The
food is here not so abundant, nor so good, and the sheep must be of hardy
constitution. The period of putting the ram to the ewes is also somewhat
later, in order that the lambs may not be brought forth until the season is
advanced, and the herbage well sprung up. During the winter, when not
too severe, the sheep are kept on the pasture, and in stormy weather they
have an allowance of hay, and roots when they can be produced. The
operations of lambing, castrating, weaning, and shearing, are the same in
both cases.
Smearing.- The operation of smearing may be regarded as peculiar to
the mountain races of sheep. This is performed with a view to destroy the
248
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
vermin, and protecting the animals from the inclemency of the weather. It
is, however, injurious to the wool, but doubtless destroys vermin, and
prevents diseases of the skin. The usual substances employed are tar and
butter, - a gallon of the former to six pounds of the latter,- which is
sufficient for twenty sheep. Combinations of tar with other substances are
also employed, such as oil, soda, and even potatoes boiled and pounded, the
effect of which is to render the tar more easy of separation from the wool.
Whatever composition is used, it should be rubbed in streaks on the skin,
without daubing the wool. The usual time of doing it is in the first part
of November.
Signs of Good Health.- The appearances which show the sheep to be in
good health are, a rather wild or lively briskness; a brilliant clearness in
the eye; a florid, ruddy color on the inside of the eyelids, nostrils, and
gums; a fastness in the teeth; a sweet breath; a dryness of the nose and
eyes; easy and regular breathing; coolness in the feet; dung properly
formed; fleece firmly attached to the skin, and unbroken; and the skin
exhibiting a florid-red appearance. A discharge from the nose or eyes
indicates having taken cold.
VARIETIES.
LONG-WOOLED. -The long-wooled sheep are of the largest size. The
F/g. 184.
New Leicester or Dishley breed stands deservedly at the head of the list;
end, indeed, for symmetry of shape, early maturity, and attaining to a con
249
0 i
/;' ) I.') (
i t;e )
,/,I q,,,
s
k
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
siderable size, it stands unrivaled. The preceding figure is a very fail
specimen.
This breed owes its origin to the late Mr. Bakewell, a celebrated breeder,
of Dishley, in Leicestershire, England. It is inferior, in size and quality of
wool, to many of the larger varieties, but for early maturity and aptitude to
fatten it has not been surpassed. It should have a tapering head, long, and
hornless; eyes prominent, and a quiet expression; ears thin, long, directed
backwards; neck full and broad at its base, gradually tapering towards the
head, particularly bare at the junction with the head; the neck seeming to
project straight from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible
deviation, one continued horizontal line firom the rump to the pole; breast
broad and full; shoulders broad and round,-no uneven or angular formation,
no rising of the withers, no hollow behind the situation of these bones; arm
fleshy throughout, even down to the knee; bones of the leg small, standing
wide apart, -no looseness of skin about them, and rather bare of wool;
chest and barrel deep and round; ribs forming a considerable arch from the
spine; the barrel ribbed well home; carcass gradually diminishing in width
towards the rump; quarters long and full; legs medium length; pelt moderately thin, soft, elastic, covered with a good quantity of fine, white wool.
The principal races of this breed are the New Leicester, the Lincolnshire,
Teeswater, Devonshire Notts, Romney Marsh, and the Coltswood. Fig
185 is a portrait of one of the latter.
Fig. 185.
SHORT-WOOLED. -The short-wooled varieties of sheep are very numerous,
250
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
and are also distinguished generally by smallness of size. They are
hardier than the larger sheep, yet, with few exceptions, not so well calculated for the exposed and mountainous sections. The Cheviot and SouthDown are very generally diffused varieties of this class, both kinds being
hornless. Fig. 186 is a South-Down ewe and lamb, of the most improved
sort.
F/g. 186.
_-_ -_
The points in this valuable breed are principally as follows: -The head
should be neither too long nor too short; the lip thin; the neck moderately
long, thin next to the head, and tapering towards the shoulders; breast
wide and deep, projecting forward before the fore-legs, which indicates a
good constitution and disposition to feed; the shoulders not too wide
between the plate-bones, but on a level with the chine; chine low and
straight from the shoulders to the tail; the ribs should project horizontally
from the chine, as the animal will then lay its meat on the prime parts; the
sides high and parallel; rump long and broad; the tail set on high, and
nearly on a level with the chine; hips wide; ribs circular, and barrelshaped; legs neither very long nor very short; the bones moderately fine.
BLACK-FACED.-The Black-faced or Heath sheep are distinguished by
black faces and legs, and large and spirally-twisted horns. The female is,
however, frequently hornless. The fleece is long, coarse, and shaggy,
extending over the forehead and lower jaw. This is an active and hardy
race, capable of subsisting in the most exposed situations, producing mutton
of excellent quality, though not generally fattened till four or five years old.
251
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
Their wool is not so valuable as that of the Cheviots. Fig. 187 represents
one of the black-faced race.
,ig. 187.
MERINO. -This celebrated and most useful breed are distinguished by
the fineness and felting quality of their wool, and the weight yielded by
each sheep,- the ease with which they adapt themselves to the climate, the
readiness with which they take to the coarsest food, their gentleness and
tractability. Their defects are their unprofitable and unthrifty form,
voracity of appetite, a tendency to barrenness, neglect of their young, and
Fig. 188.
inferior flavor of the mutton. The wool, lying closer and thicker over the
body than in most other breeds of sheep, and being abundant in yolk, is
covered with a dirty crust, often full of cracks. The legs are long, yet
252
. ~ ~~ -7
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
small in the bone; the breast and back narrow, and the sides somewhat fiat;
the fore-shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and too much of their weight is
carried on the coarser parts. The horns of the male are comparatively
large, curved, more or less spiral; head large, but forehead rather low.
A few of the females are horned, but, generally speaking, are destitute.
Both male and female have a peculiar coarse and unsightly growth of hair
on the forehead and cheeks; the other part of the face has a pleasing and
characteristic velvet appearance. Under the throat there is a singular
looseness of skin, which gives them a remarkable appearance of throatiness, or hollowness in the pile; the pile, when pressed upon, is hard and
unyielding, on account of the thickness with which it grows upon the pelt,
and the abundance of the yolk detaining all the dirt and gravel which fall
upon it, though, when examined, the fibre exceeds in fineness, and in the
number of serrations and curves, that which any other sheep in the world
produces. Fig. 188 is a representation of the Merino breed.
III. SWINE.
Breeding and Rearing. - These animals arrive early at maturity. The
sow is fit to receive the male when little more than eight months old, and the
latter is capable of propagating at the same early period; but neither of
them should be allowed to be used for the purposes of breeding until they
have completed their first year, and the male should be admitted only to a
limited number of females for some time after. The period of gestation in
the sow is about sixteen weeks; and the number of young produced at a
birth varies from five to ten or twelve, sometimes even to eighteen or
twenty, and two litters are produced in the year, or even five in two years.
She is ready to receive the male soon after the birth of her young, but the
period of impregnation should be regulated by that at which it is desirable
the young should be produced. The winter is a bad season. The periods
of impregnation should be about the beginning of October and April, as the
young will then be produced in February and August, so that the last litter
will have gained full strength before the approach of winter.
The pregnant sow should be separated from the herd, but should not be
entirely confined. The period of bringing forth will be generally known by
the animal carrying straw in her mouth to make her bed some time previous;
and she must then be well littered with short straw, for, when profusely
littered with long straw, the young pigs are liable to be injured or killed by
the mothers, while they are nestling unperceived under the straw.
Treatment of Dam and Young. - The young animals, being extremely
tender, are liable to be destroyed immediately after their birth by the mo
22
253
FARMER'S HAND-BOOB.
tion of the dam; and, to guard against this, they should be watched, and
the young ones removed from her as they are brought forth. During the
first and second day after the birth of the young, or until they acquire
strength, they should be removed from the dam, and only occasionally
admitted to suck. While nursing, she should be well fed, and the pigs
accustomed to feed from a trough on milk, whey, or any liquid food,
mixed with a little meal or bran.
Castrating.- The males may be castrated when about a month old; and
a like operation, though not absolutely necessary, may be performed, at the
same age, on such of the females as are not intended for breeding.
Weaning.- The period of weaning is regulated by the manner in which
the young pigs have been fed; and, when they have been liberally supplied
with food, it need not be deferred longer than six or seven weeks; for, when
delayed beyond this, the sow will be in low condition as the time of bringing
forth her young again approaches.
Treatment after Weaning. - When weaned, the young pigs should be
fed three times a day on nutritious and chiefly farinaceous food, combined
with milk or whey; and, in a few weeks, they will consume the ordinary
roots cultivated upon the farm. In some instances, the young pigs are disposed of while they are sucking, especially when the number brought forth
is greater than the dam can perfectly support; and, when intended for being
killed, they are then termed porkers, or roasters.
The young pigs, after being weaned, are sometimes allowed to go at
large through the pastures, and have to depend on these chiefly for their food.
In this case, they frequently do great injury to the fields. The best plan is
to confine them in pens, allowing them occasionally to go through the feeding-yard, to pick up any refuse food scattered through it; and, in addition to
this, supply them with a little green food, as clover during summer, and
turnips or potatoes during winter.
Food.- The food of swine may be of a more varied character than that
of any other animal. Every kind of animal refuse, as that of the dairy and
kitchen, is eagerly consumed by them; - roots, raw or boiled; different
kinds of seeds; brewers' grains, and the wash of the distillery. It is important that they should be liberally and regularly supplied with food. They
ought to be fed three times in the day; and the troughs should be emptied
before a fresh supply is given, and washed out occasionally, so as to keep
them clean. The hog delights to wallow in the mire, but prefers a clean
bed at night. The food should be varied -liquid and solid.
Disposition of the Carcass. - The flesh of the hog may be disposed of in
two ways. The one is to yield pork, and the other to produce bacon. Ii
254
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
the former case, the age seldom exceeds six or eight months and in the
latter, ten or twelve.
When the substances employed in fattening have been juicy rather than
nutritious, the flesh will be much improved by feeding with bran-meal,
nixed with the other food, for some time previous to killing the animals.
This is more essential in producing bacon, as it tends to harden the flesh,
and render it of that mellow firmness which constitutes the essential property
of fine hams and bacon. Some time previous to the period of killing the
animal, therefore, the food may consist of about two thirds of steamed potatoes, or other roots, and one third of ground pease, barley, oats, or bran,
enlarging the quantity of farinaceous food as the animal fattens.
An important matter in the management of swine is the preservation of
the flesh after the animals are killed. In the case of pickling pork, the
carcass is cut in pieces, and packed. A solution of salt in water is prepared,
strong enough to swim an egg, which is to be boiled, and, as soon as it has
cooled again, it is poured on the pork, so as to cover it. The vessel is now
closed up, and the pork ready for market.
In the making of bacon, the hams or legs are separated from the flitches
or sides, as close to the latter as possible without injuring their appearance.
The body is then separated from the head, and cut longitudinally in the
direction of the back-bone, and then transversely between the second and
third ribs. The hams and flitches are then laid on boards, sprinkled with
Fig. 189.
Baltpetre, and covered with salt, - better if rubbed in by the hands. Put them
in a cool place, and in this state let them remain about a week, after which
2,ib
IT K I
t
A
, i-I
B
I
b —, k — -N
O..
I& 7
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
they should be turned, and an additional quantity of salt sprinkled over
them. In about two or three weeks from the period of the first salting, they
may be hung up in the chimney of the kitchen, or in a smoke-house, to dry.
In Westphalia, and some other places noted for the flavor of the hams produced, sugar is commonly used in curing, in the proportion of about one
pound of sugar to three of salt, and two ounces of saltpetre. The sugar
assists in preserving the meat, rendering its fibre mellow, and corrects the
extreme pungency which is often occasioned by the too free use of salt. In
every case, after the hams and flitches have remained hanging a sufficient
time to dry them, they are taken down, and packed up in seeds from the mnill,
or sawdust, in which they remain until required for use. The proper period
for curing bacon is during the cold weather.
In order that those who are unacquainted with the anatomy of the pig may
possess the means of informing themselves in regard to that subject, we give
the preceding skeleton, explained as follows: -
b. Humerus - the round shoulder bone.
c. Sternum —the breast bone.
d. Ulna — the elbow.
e. Radius- the bone of the fore-arm.
f. Os inaviculare-the navicular bone.
g. g. Phalanges, vel ossa pedis- the first
and second bones o f the f oot.
h. Phalanges, vel ossa pedis -the bones
of the hoof.
A. Maxilla inferior, vel posterior - lower
jaw.
B. Dentes - the teeth.
C. Ossa nasi - the nasal bones.
D. Maxilla superior, vel anterior — uppe
jaw.
E. Os frontis-the frontal bone.
F. Orbiculus - the orbit or socket of the
eye.
G. Os occipitis- the occipital bone.
i. i. Pelvis (ossa innominata)-the haunch
bones.
j. j. Os femoris- the thigh bone.
k. k. Patella —the stifle bone.
1. 1. Tibia —the upper bone of the eg.
m. m. Tarsus (one of which is the (N)
os calcis) — the hock bones.
n. n. Os naviculare - the navicular bone.
Oo. o. Digiti, vel phalanges (ossa pedis) the first digits of the foot.
p. p. Digiti, vel phalanges (ossa pedis)
-the second digits of the foot.
The, Trunk.
H. Atlas - the first vertebra of the neck.
I. Vertebrae colli, vel cervicales-the
vertebrae of the neck.
J. Vertebre dorsi, vel dorsales - the ver tebrae of the back.
K. Vertebrae lumborum, vel lumbales the vertebrae of the loins.
L. Ossa coccygis-the bones of the tail.
VARIETIES.
CHINA.- The Chinese breed was originally obtained from Asia. There
are two distinct species, the white and the black; the former better shaped
256
7'he Head.
Hind Extremities.
Fore Extremity.
a. Scapula-the shoulder-blade.
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
than the latter, but less hardy and prolific. Both are small-limbed, ears and
head fine, round in the carcass, thin-skinned, and the head so imbedded in
the neck, that when quite fat, the end only of the snout can be seen. They
seldom reach a very great weight; they are rather difficult to rear, and the
sows are bad nurses. Their flesh is somewhat tender for bacon, has rather
too large a proportion of fat, and their hind-quarters are so deficient in proportion to the size of the other parts, that they cut up to considerable disadvantage for hams. But their great aptitude to fatten, and the extreme
delicacy of their meat, - which, when young, is unrivaled,- render them
very valuable.
Fg. 190
The black race are thrifty, and fatten on a comparatively small quantity
of food; which valuable properties are so desirable that, notwithstanding
their small size, they are crossed with other breeds to a very considerable
advantage, producing several kinds possessing properties superior to those
of the parent stock. They are also very prolific.
There is also a mixed breed, patched with black and white, -some with
thick, pointed ears, like the true species, which they otherwise resemble in
form, while in others the ears are rounded, and hang down.
BERKSHIRE. - The Berkshire hog is of a reddish-brown color, with black
spots; the head well placed, with large ears, generally standing forwards
though sometimes hanging over. He is short-legged, small-boned, and of a
22* R
257
258 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
rough, curly coat. Their bacon is very superior, and the animals attain to
a great size.
Fig. 191.
F/g. 192.
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
The crosses of this breed are so numerous, that any attempt to distin
guish them, and particularize as to their merits, would be futile. Fig. 191.
SUFFOLK. -The Suffolk breed has been long in repute as a hardy and
prolific species, though generally of only moderate or rather small size; and
when crossed with either the Berkshire or Dishley breed, produces animals
which are in very general esteem. They fatten quickly, but their shape is
not considered altogether valuable for making bacon. Fig. 192 is an example of an animal of this breed.
WOBURN.-The Woburn breed is white, mixed with various colors, wellformed, round in the carcass, small limbed and headed, hardy, and very
prolific, and so kindly disposed to fatten, that they are said to have attained
to nearly twice the weight of some other hogs, within the same given period
of time.
SIAMESE.- The widely-diffused breed known by this term, on account of
its origin, is worthy of notice in this place. The animals are small, and
have a cylindrical body, with the back somewhat hollow, and the belly
trailing near the ground, on account of the shortness of the limbs. The
bristles are soft, the color is usually black, and the skin externally of a rich
copper-color. The ears are short, small, and somewhat erect. The animals are not over-hardy or prolific, and the females do not yield the same
259
Fig. 193.
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
quantity of milk; but they arrive very soon at maturity, they fatten on a
small quantity of food, and their flesh is white and delicate.
IV. THE HORSE.
Rearing and Breeding.- In the breeding of the horse, it is important
that the parent, of either sex, be free from disease; for the diseases, as well
as the good properties, of the animal, are transmitted to their offspring. In
breeding, attention should be paid to the female as well as to the male
parent, else disappointment may result with respect to the form and properties of the progeny.
A mare is capable of receiving the male at an early age; but it is an
error to commence breeding from any mare before strength has been acquired, and her form developed,- which will rarely be sooner than at three
or four years of age. The mare comes into season in spring, and goes with
young about eleven months, although with an irregularity, even to the extent of several weeks on either side of that period. The most convenient
time for her receiving the male is in May, that she may foal in April, when
the herbage begins to spring. From the time she receives the male till that
of foaling, the farm mare may be kept at her usual work. She will give
notice of the period of foaling, by the extension of the udder, and other
symptoms, and she may then be released from work. In general, little
difficulty or danger attends the parturition of the mare. She rarely requires
assistance; but, should difficulty really arise, from the particular position
of the fcetus, it is well to obtain the assistance of a practised hand, lest the
mare be injured by unskilful and violent means. As soon as the mare has
foaled, she should be placed with her young, either in a house, or, what is
better, in a pasture-close, with a shed to which she may go at all times. It
is necessary, at this period, to supply her with nourishing food. It is better that the mother be kept in a field, and permitted to suckle the young
undisturbed. But yet she may be put, without danger or injury, to moderate work, within a short time after foaling. For a time, the foal should be
shut up in a house during the hours of work, which then should not be too
long; but, after the colt has acquired a little strength, it may be permitted
to follow the mother even when at work in the field. Many, indeed, do
not approve of this practice, on account of the chance of accidents to the
foal. But accidents seldom occur, and the foal has an opportunity of taking
milk more frequently, is the better for exercise, and becomes used to the
objects around it. In nine days or more after foaling, the mare will be
again in season, and may receive the male.
Weaning. -In six months, the foal is to be weaned, which is done merely
by separating it from the dam. It is then best put in a field. The mother
260
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
is then put to her ordinary work, and treated as usual. At the time of
weaning, and during all the period of its growth, the foal should be liberally fed. Bruised oats, meal, or any farinaceous food, may be given to it.
It is not necessary or proper that it be pampered, but it is important to its
growth and vigor that it be supplied with sufficient food.
Castrating. -The male foal intended for agricultural purposes must be
castrated, and the best time for the operation is at one year old. Some do
it before weaning, but it is better that it be delayed till the masculine form
of the animal has been more developed. The details of this operation must
be left to the experienced practitioner. Little improvement has been effected
on the old mode, except the opening of the scrotum, and the division of the
cord by the knife, instead of the heated iron.
Training and Management of Colts. - If the colt be intended for the saddle, it is well that from this period it be accustomed to gentle handling by
the person who feeds it, to render it docile and good-tempered. Anything
like harshness is to be carefully avoided. The colts are kept in their pastures during the summer, and when these fail before winter, the animals
may be put into a yard with sheds, and plentifully littered with straw.
They may receive straw for half the winter, and hay towards spring, when
the straw becomes dry and unpalatable; and turnips, or any green food,
should be supplied freely in the winter. They should have a piece of
ground on which they may run in winter, on account of their health and the
state of their feet. As early in spring as the pastures will allow, they are
to be turned out to graze in the fields, where they are to be kept during
summer, and in the following winter treated in the same manner as before.
They are also to be treated in a similar manner in the following summer and
winter, after which, that is, when three years old, they will be in a condition
to be broken in; and, if draught-horses, employed in the work of the farm,
they may be taken up for training even in the third autumn of their age,
though at this period the work should be very gentle.
A farm-horse usually receives little training; but the colt should have
a bridle with an easy bit put upon him for a few days, and allowed to
champ it for an hour or two at a time, in a stall. The harness being then
put upon him by degrees, he may be trained to the different labors required
of him. In general, the farm-horse, working with his fellows, is easily
made obedient. But when a farm-horse is four or five years old before he
is put to work, or if he is a stallion, or if he shows any vice, he should
have more training. And if a valuable horse, and fit also for the saddle
and the carriage, the more training the better. In every case, gentleness
and kind treatment are to be strictly observed in the management of the
colt. Hle is first to be taught his duties, and corrected afterwards only
261
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
when necessary to secure submission, fear being the feeling which controls
the animal. The farm-horse demands, neither in the training nor in the
feeding, that nicety which is required in the case of the horse designed for
rapid motion or irregular labor. He must be kept.in good order, never to
be worked beyond his power, and never be allowed to fall, in condition,
below the work which he is to perform.
Food.- The food of the horse consists of herbage, or green forage; of
dried forage, as hay and straw; of various farinaceous substances, as oats,
16 The Chest.
17 The Ell,ow.
18 The Arm.
19 The Plate-vein.
. 20 The Chestinut.
21 The Knee.
22 The Slitik.
23 The Back Sinews, or
7 TMain Tenid)ns.
24 The Fetlock-joint.
25 The F etlock.
26 The Pastern.
27 The Coronet.
28 The Hoof.
29 The Quarters.
30 The Toe.
31 The Heel.
Th le Body.
32 The Reins:
33 The Fillets.
34 The Ribs.
35 The Belly.
36 The Flanks.
1 The Forehead.
2 The Temples.
3 Cavity above the Eyes.
4 The Jaw.
5 The Lips.
6 The Nostrils.
7 The Tip of the Nose.
8 The Chill.
9 The Beard.
10 Th~e Neck.
11 The Mane.
12 The Fore-top.
13 The Throat.
14 The Withers.
15 The Shoulders.
262
.P-. 194.
I
23
2
Tlte Hind-part.
37 The Rump.
39 The Tail.
39 The Buttocks.
40 The Haunches.
41 The Stifle.
42 The Thighs.
43 The Hoclc.
44 The Instep.
45 The Point of the Hock,
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
peas, and beans; and of the juicy roots, as the potato, the turnip, the carrot,
the parsnip, and the beet. Of the grains given to the horse, the mnost general, and best adapted to his strength and spirit, is the oat. It is, for the
most part, given to the horse without any preparation, though it is better
masticated and digested when bruised. Two gallons per day, or nine
pounds, are considered to be good feeding, when the horse is on dry food,
and not on hard work; when on hard work, the quantity may be increased
to three gallons, and when on light work and green food, it may be reduced
to one gallon, and sometimes altogether withdrawn. But, on an average,
ninety bushels in the year will be sufficient, in every case, for the working
horse of a farm. Meal is a refreshing feed to a horse on a journey, and a
safe one when the chill is just taken off the water. Beans, when bruised.
are excellent food, tending to correct laxativeness.
Fig. t94 is explanatory of the name and situation of the external parts
of a horse.
VARIETIES.
ARABIAN. The celebrated Arabian breed of horses, of which the figure
presented below is a fine portrait, are more compact than the horses of
13arbary, having a rounder body, shorter limbs, with more of sinew, or
Fg. 195.
what is termed bone. Yet they are of the smaller class of horses, very
little exceeding, on a medium, fourteen hands, or fifty-six inches, in height.
As compared with the horses of countries abounding in grasses, their aspect
is lean, their form slender, and their chest narrow. But their slimness is
not inconsistent with muscular force; and their movements are agile, their
natural oace swift, and their spirit is unmatched. The power of their deli
263
FA,-FRMER'S HAND-BOOK.
cate limbs is indicated by the well-marked muscles of the fore-arm, and the
starting sinews of the leg. The shoulder is sufficiently oblique; the withers
FM. 196.
264
W. 197.
fg1,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
are elevated; the back is moderately short; the quarters are good; the
head is well formed; the forehead broad; ears somewhat long, but alert;
eyes full and clear; veins prominent. They are remarkably gentle and
docile, patient, playful, obedient, and intelligent. They subsist on very
scanty fare.
AMERICAN. - The Mexican horses are derived from Spain, and seem in no
other respect inferior to the European than a less careful management may
account for. The horses of Canada, chiefly of French lineage, are coarse
and small, but hardy, muscular, and useful. Those of our own country are
of every variety, derived originally from England, but crossed by the modern
racer, and by the horses of Syria and Arabia. On this account, we have a
very mixed race of horses, many of which are excellent. Such has been
the attention paid to the race breed in our country, that the best and fastest
trotting horses (see Fig. 196) in the world are now to be found in the
United States. Among the American roadsters, the Morgan family stand
number one. They are exceedingly compact, deep-chested, strong-backed,
fore-legs set wide apart; head small, high and graceful; eyes fine, and well
set. The family comprises several varieties, among which the Goss and
the Gifford rank very high. We give an engraving (Fig. 197) of one of
these animals, which is a fair sample of the average quality.
EUROPEAN. -Of the European breeds, the present Norman horse is the
Fig. 198.
23
265
I'-"~
A _ _ ~~~ ~: —--
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
most enduring and hard-pulling. The Clydesdale is a valuable breed of cart
horses, bred chiefly in the valley of the Clyde; they are strong and hardy,
have a small head, are longer necked than the Suffolk, with deeper legs, and
lighter carcasses. The Suffolk Punch are valuable on farms composed of
soils of a moderate degree of tenacity. The preceding figure is that of an
improved Norman draught stallion.
V. THE ASS.
Rearing and Breeding. -In breeding from the ass, the same general rules
apply as in the case of the horse. The male will procreate at the age of two
and a half years, and the female still earlier. The stallion ass should be
the largest and strongest, at least three, but not more than ten, years old; his
legs should be long, his body plump, head long and light, eyes brisk, nostrils
and chest large, neck long, loins fleshy, ribs broad, rump flat, tail short,
hair shining, soft, deep gray.
The best time of covering is the last of May, nor must the female be hard
worked whilst with foal, for fear of casting; but the more the male is
worked, in moderation, the better he will thrive. She brings forth her foal
in about a twelve-month, but, to preserve a good breed, she should not produce more than one in two years. The best age to breed at is from three
years old to ten. When the foal is cast, it is proper to let it run a year with
the dam, and then wean it, by tying up and giving it grass, and sometimes
milk; and, when it has forgotten the teat, it should be turned out into a
pasture, but if it be in winter, it must be fed at times, till it is able to shift
for itself.
Training,. The ass may be broken and trained at the end of the second
year, but should not be worked sooner than the third year. Breaking is
easily effected when two or three years old, by laying small weights upon
his back, and increasing them by degrees.
Age, tc. - The age of the ass is known by his teeth, in the same mannel
as the horse; viz., at two years and a half old, the first middle incisive teeth
fall out, and the others on each side soon follow; they are renewed at the
same time, and in the same order. The anatomy and physiology of the ass
do not differ very materially from those of the horse.
Characteristics.- The ass is naturally humble, patient, and quiet. He is
extremely hardy, both as to the quantity and quality of his food, contenting
himself with the most harsh and disagreeable herbs. In the choice of water,
he is very nice, drinking only of that which is perfectly clear. He requires
very little looking after, and sustains labor beyond most others. lie is seldom or never sick, and endures hunger and thirst most resolutely. The
milk of the ass is the lightest of all milks, and is excellent for persons of
delicate stomachs.
266
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
VI. THE MULE.
Rearing, Breeding, f c. - In the breeding of mules, mares of a large breed
and well made should be employed. They should be young, lively, largebarrelled, small-limbed, moderate-sized head, and a good forehand. It is
well to have the foals, from the time of their being dropped, often handled,
to make them gentle; it prevents their hurting themselves by skittishness
and sudden frights, and they are much easier broken at the proper age, and
become docile and harmless. They may be broken at three years old, but
not hard worked till four. Give them food enough to prevent their losing
flesh and to keep up their growth, without palling their appetites with delicacies, or making them over fat. They should also have sufficient stable
room, and good litter to sleep on, besides being well rubbed down every day,
particularly in cold, raw, wet weather. When three years old, mules are
proper for use.
Mules are now brought to an astonishing degree of perfection. They are
usually strong, well-limbed, large, sure-footed, and capable of carrying great
burdens, and travelling great distances. Some think it surprising that these
animals are not more propagated, as they are so much hardier and stronger
than horses, less subject to diseases, and capable of living and working to
almost twice the age of a horse. Those that are bred in cold countries are
more hardy and fit for labor than those bred in hot. The general complaint
against them is that they kick and are stubborn, but this is owing to neglect
in breeding.
VII. THE GOAT.
Description, /c.- The goat appears to be the connecting link between
the sheep and antelope tribes. It is lively, and though the natural inhabitant
of a mountainous region, is easily domesticated. But it is in wild, rocky
countries, that the goat is chiefly reared. The female gives a great quantity
of milk for so small a creature, and its quality is very superior. She is
readily taught to suckle the young of other animals, and feeds in situations
where the cow could not subsist, which latter is a valuable quality. It
arrives early at maturity, and is very prolific, bearing two and sometimes
three kids at a birth. It does not produce wool, but its hair may be shorn,
and is of some value; and its skin, especially that of the kid, is very valuable. The flesh of the kid, though not much sought after, is equal to that
of the finest lamb.
The male will engender when one year old, and the female at eight months;
but good stock must come by parents not so young. From two to five years
the male is most vigorous, and the female bears her best kids from two to
eight years. Goats bear well the motion and confinement of ship-board, and
give the best of milk.
267
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
VA RIETIES.
There are three principal species enumerated, viz., the wild goat, the
ibex, and the Caucasian ibex; from the first-named the different varieties of
the common domestic goat are believed to have originated. Perhaps the
most celebrated and valuable of all the various breeds is the Thibet
1' 4 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1
(Fig. 199), on account of the soft and delicate wool they produce, and which
falls off in the warmer seasons. These goats are long-bodied, large hooked
horns, stout limbs, and very long glossy hair. The color is frequently milkwhite, but more generally brown, with points of a golden hue.
VIII. THE DOG.
Rearing, Breeding, c. -In breeding, for first-rate animals, ascertain the
pedigree for at least four generations. The male should be not less than
two years old, and the female at least fifteen months. The male need not
be rejected as unfit until his eighth year, if healthy and vigorous, nor the
female, under similar circumstances, till her sixth year. The female goes
268
Fig. 199.
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
with young sixty-three days, and has from four to thirteen young at a birth.
The dam may be allowed to breed only three times in two years, and to rear
not more than five puppies; the whelps should not be suckled longer than six
weeks, and five, or even four, is long enough, if necessary to remove them.
After weaning, feed them moderately with porridge, mashed potatoes, with
skim milk, or new milk, to dilute the mess; let it be fresh and cool. They
should also have a bed of clean straw, fresh water, and an open, airy place
for exercise and sport.
At about four months old, the first set of teeth begin to drop out, and are
replaced by the permanent set. About the twelfth month, the tusks have
acquired their full length. At two years old, a yellow circle appears around
the base of the tusks, gradually developing itself more and more, till the
third year, when the edges of the front or cutting teeth begin to be worn
down, and the little nick, or the crown of the lateral incisors, to disappear.
As the fourth year approaches, the tusks lose their points, and the teeth
begin to decay. As soon as his eighth year has passed away, a few gray
hairs show themselves around his eyes, and at the corners of the mouth.
At the age of twelve to fourteen years, confirmed infirmity sets in, and the
animal does not survive long after.
The dewdlaws- the fifth toe upon the hind foot- should be removed,
if removed at all, with a pair of large, sharp scissors; let the pup be held by
one person, while another feels for the proper place to cut, which must be
done with decision. Cropping, which is, equally with the previous operation, a very cruel one, must be done, if done at all, by drawing the ears over
the head until the points meet; then, with a very sharp pair of scissors, cut
both points off to the desired length; and, with a single cut to each, from
below upwards, cut away the hinder portion of the flaps of the ears up to the
point. In a week the ears will be well. In training dogs, gentleness does
more than harshness and violence can effect.
VARIETIES.
NEWFOUNDLAND.- The true breed of Newfoundland is a dog of moderate
stature, seldom exceeding twenty-six or twenty-seven inches in height; longoodied, broad-chested, shaggy coat; pointed, wolfish muzzle; ears small, and
inclined to be semi-erect; color usually black, with a shade of brown through
it, and occasionally some white. The large dogs of the Newfoundland
breed, which have been improved by crossing with the mastiff, are more
showy, but less valuable.
The Newfoundland are remarkably docile and obedient, faithful, goodnatured, and ever friendly to man. They will defend their master and their
master's property, and suffer no person to injure the one or the other; and,
23*
269
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
however imminent the danger, will not leave them for a minute. They seem
only to want the faculty of speech, in order to make their good wishes and
feelings understood, and they are capable of being trained for almost all the
purposes for which every other variety of the canine species is used. They
are a famous water-dog, and have saved many human beings from drowning.
Fig. 200.
SHEPHrERD. -The shepherd's dog of Scotland stands about twenty-one
inches in height at the shoulder, is very gracefully shaped, muzzle pointed,
Fig. 201.
270
a n t _~~~~~~~~~~~ -
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
ears half erect, coat long but fine and silky, tail and hams fringed with hair,
and the color usually black and tan, or sandy yellow. The animal is
remarkable for his sagacity, and his disposition to tend live stock appears
to be inherent and hereditary. The English shepherd's dog is larger and
stronger than the Scotch, and has much of the appearance of a cross with the
great rough water-dog. It is coarser in the muzzle and in coat, and is destitute of tail. It is, however, equally sagacious.
DROVER. -The drover's dog bears considerable resemblance to the sheepdog, and has usually the same prevailing black or brown color. He possesses
all the docility of the sheep-dog, with more courage, and sometimes a degree
of ferocity, arising from improper training and uses.
SETTER.- The setter, or land spaniel, comprises several varieties. lie is
by some sportsmen preferred to the pointer; and where water is to be got at
occasionally, during a day's shooting, he is undoubtedly superior. In disposition the setter is more affectionate than the pointer, but requires more
training, and that of a mild and gentle character.
TERRIER.- The terrier is a dog of very great utility, and of very varied
form and size. They all have one common characteristic, which makes them
Fig. 202.
extremely useful, which is, a determined hostility to those animals termed
vermin, as foxes, otters, polecats, rats, mice, &c.
DISEASES OF THE FOREGOING ANIMALS.
Abscess.- As soon as the abscess is brought to a head, let the matter be
evacuated, either naturally by a bran-poultice, or by opening with a broadshouldered lancet. Keep the part clean, trim the hair, and inject into the
wound a little tincture of myrrh and aloes. If the cavity does not soon fill
up, inject, once or twice a day, a wash of a half-ounce of bluestone, with half
a pint of water.
Apoplexy.- For Horses, bleed two gallons from a vein at once, remove
the dung with the hand, and give the following mixture: Barbadoes aloes
271
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
1 oz., Epsom salts 6 oz., water 2 pts. For apoplexy or staggers in
Cattle, bleed from four to six quarts, till the beast is faint, and give, every
six hours, a mixture of Epsom salts 1. lbs., linseed oil 1 pt., warm water
3 pts., with only half the quantity of salts and oil, till they are well purged;
after which, give, twice a day, tartar emctic 2 scruples, powdered nitre A oz.,
gruel 3 pts., -mixed for use. For apoplexy in Sheep, bleed a quart, and
give, for a purging drench, Epsom salts 2 oz., linseed oil 2 oz., warm water
4 oz.; repeated every six hours, if the bowels are not well opened, and give
once or twice a day tartar emetic 10 grs., nitre 2 drs., gruel 2 oz.,- mix for
use. For apoplexy or staggers in Pigs, bleed, and then open the bowels
with Epsom salts and sulphur.
(Alteratives.)- These are medicines which operate without producing
very decided evacuations. For Sheep, mix together one ounce of Ethiop's
mineral, 2 ounces of nitre, 4 ounces of sulphur; - give about two drachms
daily, till the animal is cured. For the Cow, the dose is from a half to a
whole ounce daily. For the Horse, one ounce to an ounce and a half, made
into a ball with soft soap. If there is any tendency to grease, add to each
ball one drachm of powdered resin. In cases of weakness, two drachms of
gentian powdered, and one drachm of ginger powdered. For Dogs, flour of
sulphur 12 oz., powd. nitre 2 oz., Ethiop's mineral 1 oz., treacle sufficient
to make a mass; give a piece the size of a nut to a walnut, according to the
size of the dog.
Black Quarter.- Also known as Quarter Evil, Quarter Ill, Black Leg,
Blood Striking, The Blood Joint Felon, or Inflammatory Evil. - Symptoms
- extension of neck, red eyes, breath hot, muzzle dry, pulse quick, heaving,
moaning, loss of appetite, lameness. Bleed copiously, then give a strong
purgative dose, composed of 1 lbs. Epsom salts, 1 pint linseed oil, 3 pints
water. The wearing a seton, occasional doses of physic, and frequent
careful examinations by the owner, are better than all else to prevent this
disease. In Sheep, bleed from the jugular vein till the sheep falls, and give
Epsom salts 2 oz., linseed oil 2 oz., gruel 4 oz., till the bowels are well
relieved; then give, twice a day, tartar emetic 10 grains, camphor 20 gr.,
nitre 2 dr., gruel a wineglass full.
Black Water.- Also called Red Water, Brown Water, Black Water,
Moor Ill, &c. -Symptoms-bloody urine, loss of appetite, languor, apathy,
seclusion, constipation. Bleed copiously; then give Epsom salts 1 lb., in
2 qts. water, every six hours, in half-pound doses, till the bowels are
relieved. Inflammation of the Kidneys, and Inflammation of the Mucous
Membrane of the Bladder or Urethra, resemble this disease. The first-named
is rare; the second may be treated by bleeding, with a dose of Barbadoes
aloes, in powder, 6 to 8 dr., powdered gum Arabic 1 oz., in a pint of water.
272
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
Red Water in Sheep- bleed freely, and give for a drench, Epsom salts 2
oz., linseed oil 1 oz., warm water 4 oz.,- mix for a dose.
Bog Spavin.- For this well-known disease in horses, a blister is the
only means of cure.
Bone Spavin.- Disease of the hock joint: remedied by rest, or cessation
from hard work, or putting to moderate work on soft ground. The bony
deposite, or inflammation, may be removed by repeated blisters. Use a hot
iron only as a last resort.
Botts are grubs, which, in the spring, trouble horses. To kill these,
some use common salt in the animal's food, or as an injection. But when
once the worm has attached itself to the animal's stomach, it is difficult to
remove them.
Bowels, Inflammation of.- In case of inflammation of the external and
muscular coats of the bowels of Horses, bleed freely till fainting is produced,
and give the following purge, - Barbadoes aloes 4 dr., powdered gum Ara bic 4 dr., hot water i pint; dissolve, and add a pint of linseed oil, and
repeat the dose in eight hours. The belly should be stimulated with the
following liniment,- mustard i lb., spirit of sal-ammoniac 2 oz., water
enough to make it creamy. A fever-ball may be given twice a day, made
of powdered foxglove ~ dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., nitre 3 dr., with linseed
meal and treacle or soft soap sufficient. For inflammation of the mucous
membrane of the bowels, produced from an over-dose of physic, give for a
purge -prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered bark 2 dr., powdered opium 1 dr.,
powdered ginger 1 dr., gruel 3 pints,- mix. For inflammation of the
bowels of Cattle, bleed freely, and give for a purge- Epsom salts 1 lb., hot
water 1 qt.; dissolve, and add linseed oil 1 pt., to be repeated in six hours,
till the bowels are well relieved, with injections of warm gruel. For the
same disease in Dogs, bleed, put into a warm bath, and give castor-oil 2 oz.,
syrup of buckthorn 1 oz., - mix for a dose.
Brain, Inflamrnation of.- Of the staggers in Horses there are two kinds,
the Sleepy or Stomach, caused by over-feeding, which must be treated by
removing the stomach's contents by the stomach-pump, then bleed, and give
an opening ball. Mad staggers arise from inflamed brain; bleed from 4 to
6 qts., and repeat this in six or eight hours, and give the following ball,Barbadoes aloes 8 to 10 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., calomel 1 dr., and treacle,
inject with warm water and linseed oil. For inflammation of the brain
(frenzy or lough) in Cattle, bleed till the anima faints, and give for a
purge -Epsom salts I lb., hot water 1 qt.; dissolve, and add linseed oil 1
pint, - mix for a dose, and repeat every 6 hours till the bowels are relieved.
For Sheep, bleed freely from the jugular vein, and give for drink- Epsomru
salts 2 oz., hot water 4 oz.; dissolve, and add linseed oil 2 oz., - mix for use
s
273
FARMdER'S HAND-BOOK.
Brittleness of Hoof. - Mix 3 oz. oil of tar with 6 oz. of common fish-oil,
rub this well into the crust and the hoof.
Broken Knees. - Bathe the wounds with warm water, and apply, for a
tincture, (Egyptiacum i oz., friar's balsam 1 oz., tincture aloes and myrrh
1 oz, -mix for use. The knee of the horse should be bandaged.
Broken Wind. - This is the rupture of some of the. air-cells of the lungs,
and is prevented, rather than cured, by occasionally feeding the horse with
nutritious food, and avoiding great exertion just after he has been fed, so as
not to distend the belly and press upon the lungs.
Bronchitis is catarrh, extending to the entrance of the lungs. Symptoms -hard and rapid breathing, and coughing up mucous matter. Bleed
according to the violence of the disease, and blister the brisket and sides
with blister ointment well rubbed in, and give for a ball- Barbadoes aloes
2 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., nitre 4 dr., sulphur 2 dr., with treacle; repeat
till the bowels are acted on, assisted by warm and frequent injections, and
give, twice a day, a ball made of- tartar emetic 1 dr., powdered foxglove
dr., camphor 1 dr., nitre 3 dr., with sufficient treacle.
(Calves, Diseases of.) - For Diarrhea, give two or three times a day 2 or 3
table-spoonfuls of- prepared chalk 4 oz., powdered canella bark 1 oz., laudanum 1 oz., water 1 pt. For Costiveness, dissolve 2 to 4 oz. - according
to age - of Epsom salts in 2 qts. of water, and inject into the stomach by
means of the stomach-pump, and, in need, repeat in half doses every 4 hours.
For Canker in the Mouth, give a dose of Epsom salts, and wash with mel (Egyptiacum 1 oz., friar's balsam 1 oz.
Canker in Horses' Feet.- Pare the hoof, destroy the fungus by means of
the butyr of antimony, and apply tincture of friar's balsam 1 oz., and tincture
of aloes and myrrh A oz., mixed together.
Canker of Ears, in Dogs. - Apply an ointment of burnt alum in fine
powder 1 dr., white vitriol in fine powder 1 dr., spermaceti ointment 4 oz.
Capped Hock. - A Horse affection, produced by a bruise. Apply early
and repeatedly a blister.
Catarrh (common), or Hoose (common cold).- In slight cases, for Cattle,
house, and give a dose of Epsom salts. If severe, bleed, and then give Epsom salts A lb., ginger 2 dr., powdered aniseed 2 oz., gruel 3 pts. For
Influenza, bleed 3 to 6 qts., and give for a purge -Epsom salts 1 lb.,
powdered coriander seeds 1 oz.; dissolve in 3 pints warm gruel. In a
Horse, give immediately additional warmth, some mashes, and a ball or two,
each dose, made of- camphor 2 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., powdered nitre 4
dr., and sufficient linseed meal and soft soap to make a ball; if severe, bleed
and, when better, give daily-powdered nitre 2 dr., do. aniseed 1 oz., do.
caraway seeds 1 oz., do. gentian i oz., do. ginger 2 dr.;-boil ten min
2'74
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
ntes in a quart of ale, and give new milk warm. In Sheep, bleed, and give
for a purge, Epsom salts 2 oz., powdered aniseed 2 dr., -mix, and give in
a little warm gruel.
Catarrhal Fever. - Symptoms, in Horses, shivering, hot mouth, hot skin,
heaving of the flanks, cough, nose red, and discharging a watery,matter.
If attended to early, bleed moderately, and repeat this if the pulse increases
and legs get cold. Keep the bowels open by giving a mixture of Barbadoes
aloes 2 dr., gum Arabic A oz., water 1 pt., for a dose; inject with warm
gruel, and repeat the physic in 12 hours, if necessary. If the throat is
sore, apply a blister of powdered cantharides 1 oz., resin ointment 4 oz.,
mix for use. Hot mashes are excellent, and a constant supply of gruel
then, for cooling medicine, give camphor 2 dr., nitre 4 dr., tartar emetic
1 dr., soft soap sufficient to make a ball. This disease must not be con founded with inflammation of the lungs.
Choking. Use a flexible tube gently; if the choking matter can be felt
externally, pour a pint of sweet oil down the throat, and rub outside with
the hand.
Colic. - Laudanum 1 oz., spirits of sweet nitre 2 oz., do. of turpentine
2 oz., linseed oil 1 pt.,- mix. Apply hot water, by means of flannels, to
the belly, and give an injection of Epsom salts ~ lb., linseed oil 4 oz., water
4 qts., - mix. If these do not operate well, in half an hour, bleed.
Contracted Foot.- Place the animal in wet clay during the day, or turn
him into a moist pasture, properly paring away the sole and the toe, and
lowering the heels.
Cough.- Give, in a ball, gum ammoniacum 2 dr., powdered squills 1 dr.,
camphor 1 dr., soap 2 dr., made into a ball with syrup. If very bad, bleed
moderately.
Crib-Biting. - Indicates unsoundness, and tends to colic. Put a strap
tight around his neck, or let him wear a muzzle of such a sort as vill not
prevent him from eating, but will disenable him to seize hold of the manger.
Cud, Loss of.- Give, for a drink, when no particular disorder is apparent, Epsom salts A lb., powdered gentian i oz., do. caraway seeds 1 oz., do.
ginger 2 dr.,-mix, and give in warm gruel.
Curb. - A bony excrescence in the inner side of a horse's hind leg.
Give, for a cooling lotion, to reduce the inflammation,- afterwards applying a blister, - sal ammoniac 2 oz., powdered nitre 2 oz., vinegar 1 pt.,
water 1 qt., -mix for use.
Diarrhea. - An excessive discharge of fcecal matter. First give an
aperient, either one pint of linseed oil, or, in a quart of water, A lb. Epsom
salts, 2 dr. powdered ginger, - mix for a dose; then give, for an astringent
275
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered catechu 3 dr., do. opium A dr., do. ginge!
2 dr.,- mix, and give in a quart of warm gruel.
Distemper in Dogs. - Mix tartar emetic 20 gr., calomel 20 gr., opium
5 gr., and give, in a piece of butter, from 2 to 6 gr., according to size.
Distention of the Rumen, or Grain Sick.- First use the probang, then
give 1 pt. of linseed oil; also give injections of warm water.
Dropsy.- In the Horse,- give a diuretic ball of powdered resin 2 dr.,
Castile soap 2 dr., sulphur 4 dr., powdered gentian 2 dr., oil of juniper A dr.,
treacle sufficient to make a ball, once or twice a day. When great debility
exists, add a tonic made as follows -powdered gentian 2 dr., do. ginger
1 dr., do. resin 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., powdered nitre 3 dr., oil junipel
dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball, -to be given once or twice a day.
Dysentery, or &Scouring Rot.-Dangerous and generally fatal disease.
Take a small quantity of blood, and 1 pt. linseed oil, or Epsom salts A lb.,
powdered caraway seeds 2 oz., to be given in 1 qt. of gruel; afterwards,
night and morning, an astringent of prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered catechu
4 dr., do. canella bark 2 dr., do. opium 2 scruples, do. gentian 2 dr., do.
ginger 1 dr.,-mix, and give in thick gruel.
Epilepsy, or Fits.- Animals subject to fits should not be rode nor driven.
If a Cow, either reduce her food or hasten her departure to the butcher. If
a Sheep, the best treatment is to leave the action of the over-excited nervous
energy to cease of itself.
Eye, Inflammation of. -In Horses, if on account of cold, give in a ballemetic tartar 1l dr., nitre 3 dr., linseed meal and soft soap sufficient to form
a ball; and frequently foment the eye with hot water. If it does not abate,
use for a lotion - Goulard's extract 1 dr., spirit of wine 1 dr., soft water
A pt., - mix, and bathe frequently with a small piece of sponge. If it does
not arise from cold, bleed, and give a dose of physic first, and then give the
balls and use the lotion as above. In Cattle, bleed, and then give, for a
purge, Epsom salts 1 lb., caraway seeds 1 oz., water 3 pts.,-mix; the
eye to be fomented with hot water frequently, and then use for a lotionGoulard's extract 2 dr., laudanum 2 dr., water 1 pt.,-mix, and bathe with
a sponge; when the inflammation has abated, use the following -purified
white vitriol 10 gr., soft water A pt., - mix for use.
Eyes, Weak, in Dogs. - Apply, for a wash, white vitriol 8 gr., soft water
pt., -mix together, and apply, with a piece of linen rag, several times a
day.
Farcy.- One of the stages of glanders. Symptoms, -buds or knots on
the sides of the face, inner part of thigh, or on the neck; great swelling of
the legs and muzzle, cracked heels, bad discharges from the nose, &c. Use
a lotion made of-blue vitriol 1 oz., white do. 1 oz., water 1 pt.,-mix;
276
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
the ulcers to be bathed with this, night and morning, at the same time using
balls made of- bluestone 1 dr., powdered gentian 2 dr., liquorice powder
3 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball, to be given twice a day. After giv ing the above for two or three weeks without relief, then give corrosive sub limate 10 gr., gentian powder 2 dr., liquorice do. 4 dr., treacle sufficient to
form a ball; give every morning, and if it produces purging or sickness,
discontinue at once. If green food is not to be had, give carrots.
Feet, Inflammation of. - Symptoms in a horse, - fidgetiness, fever, moaning, lying down. Bleed freely at the toes, and apply soft linseed meal
poultices to the whole foot, removing the shoe and gently paring the hoof;
give for a dose -camphor 2 dr., nitre 4 dr., emetic tartar 1 dr., soft soap
sufficient to make a ball; if severe, bleed afresh, and the third day, if no
relief comes, apply a blister.
Fever in the Horse.- Symptoms,- dulness, cold extremities, bad appetite, constipation. Bleed, and give for a ball - Barbadoes aloes 6 to 8 dr.,
powdered ginger 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., treacle sufficient, &c.; give bran
mashes and warm water, and perhaps an injection of warm water, i lb.
Epsom salts, A pt. linseed oil. Afterwards give, night and morning, for a
ball, tartar emetic 1 dr., camphor 1 dr., powd. nitre 2 dr., linseed meal and
treacle enough to form a ball.
Fistulous Withers.- Require to be treated like Poll Evil.
Flooding.- A discharge of blood from the uterus of the cow, after calving. Apply very cold water to the loins. If it continues, raise the cow's
hind parts, give 2 dr. opium every hour, keep the patient quiet, take her
calf.
Fly in Sheep.- Appear in May. If the head is sore after the maggots
are killed, apply a plaster of bees' wax 2 oz., 1 lb. pitch, spread on warm
linen. To destroy the maggots, rub together sal-ammoniac 2 oz., corrosive
sublimate i oz., dissolved in 2 gals. hot water, and applythe same. -
Feet, Diseases of. - Pumiced feet may be palliated by bar shoes. Tread,
or overreach,- wash out the dirt carefully, and apply a little friar's balsam,
and in bad cases a poultice. Pricked or Wounded Foot may often be cured
by paring down the sole to the quick, and applying a little tow and friar's
balsam to the place; if matter has formed, apply a poultice. Thrush,
make a paste, of powdered blue vitriol 2 oz., do. white vitriol 1 oz., rubbed
down with lard 2 lbs., tar 1 lb.; apply some of this, on a little tow, deeply
into the cleft, over night, to be removed in the morning. Foot Rot, in
Sheep,- applya liquid, of powdered verdigris 4 oz., blue vitriol i oz.,white
do. h oz., soft water i pt., mixed together, and add nitric acid 1 oz., butyr
of antimony I oz.; pare away the horn, and apply with a feather to the part
affected. Foul Foot, -after cutting away the fungous flesh, and using
24
277
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
butyr of antimony, apply a tincture of friar's balsam 1 oz., butyr antimony
1 oz., - mix for use; also give a dose of salts.
Garget.- Inflammation of the internal part of the udder. At first, allow
the calf to suckle, and rub about her udder; if unsuccessful, bleed a little,
and then give, for a drench, Epsom salts 1 lb., aniseed powdered 1 oz.,
warm water 3 pts.; bathe the udder, thrice a day, with hot water, and after
each bathing rub with yellow basilicon 4 oz., camphor 1 oz., rubbed downii
with a little spirits of wine, strong mercurial ointment 2 oz., soft soap 16
oz., mixed well together.
Glanders. - Symptom, - peculiar thin, light, glutinous discharge from
left nostril. Give, for a ball, bluestone 3 oz., dissolved in water, powdered
myrrh 3 oz., do. nitre 8 oz., linseed meal and soft soap sufficient to make
the mass into 24 balls; give one night and morning, and inject the ulcers
night and morning with a weak solution of chloride of lime, by means of a
syringe, at the same time giving the horse green food.
Grease. -An inflammation of the horse's heel, stopping the greasy matter
from exuding on its surface. Wash with soft soap and water; then apply,
for an ointment, yellow wax 2 oz., sweet oil 8 oz.; melt together, and add
sugar of lead in very fine powder 2 dr.; use a little after each bathing.
Give bran mashes, a diuretic ball, every 3d or 4th day, at the same time
having green food, if possible. If not attended to, the inflammation extends
and the heel cracks; poultice it with carrots boiled soft, or with linseed
meal; apply the following caustic,- bluestone 2 dr., alum 2 dr., water 1
pt. When the inflammation has subsided, leave off the poultice, and apply,
for an ointment, yellow resin 4 oz., do. wax 4 oz., sweet oil 1 qt.; melt
together, and add calamine in very fine powder h lb.,- stir till cold.
Griping. -Mix senna-leaves 12 oz., guaiacum-wood 2 oz., elecampaneroot 2 oz., aniseed 2 oz., caraway do. 2 oz., coriander do. 2 oz., stickliquorice 2 oz., stoned raisins 8 oz., rectified spirits of wine 3 pts., soft water
3 pts. Let this mixture stand two weeks, occasionally shaking it; dose
for a Calf, 2 or 3 table-spoonfuls,- for a Horse, i pt.
Grogginess.- In Horses, a peculiar knuckling over of the fetlock-joint,
and tottering of the fore-leg. No cure.
Heart, Inflammation of. -Not common. The only remedy is copious
bleeding. It is indicated by quick pulse, rapid action of the heart, heard
even at a distance.
Healing Dogs' Ears.- Melt together yellow resin 2 oz., do. wax 1 oz.,
sweet oil i pt., and when it begins to cool, stir in 4 oz. powdered calamine;
apply it to the sores.
Hide-bound.- Hardness of the skin of the Horse. If there be no other
disease, give a mild physic-ball, of Barbadoes aloes 5 to 6 dr., powdered
278
D)OMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
ginger 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball. After this
has operated, give every day, with bran mashes, green food, regular exercise,
and good grooming, a ball made of powdered black antimony 2 oz., do. nitre
2 oz., do. yellow resin 1 oz., do. gentian 2 oz., flour of sulphur 2 oz., treacle
sufficient to make eight balls.
gloove.- Symptoms in Cattle,- the animal ceases to eat, is distressed,
breath oppressed, moaning, belly blown up; brain is next affected, tongue
protrudes. Introduce, as often as the belly swells, an elastic pipe down the
throat into the stomach, which liberates the gas and relieves the animal;
when relieved, give a dose of Epsom salts 1 lb., caraway seeds 2 oz., ginger
oz., gruel 3 pts., and then, to give tone to the stomach, for three or four
mornings, give a dose of Epsom salts 4 oz., powdered gentian 1 oz., do. ginger
a oz., do. caraway 1 oz., gruel 3 pts. In Calves,- introduce the elastic
pipe. In Sheep, use the elastic pipe, or probang, same as for cattle, and
give a dose of Epsom salts 2 oz., powdered ginger 1 dr., caraway 2 dr., in
pint of warm water.
Hydrocephalus, or TVater in the Head, in Sheep. - Give moderate doses
of Epsom salts combined with ginger and gentian; for a Sheep, the dose
mnay be-Epsom salts 2 oz., gentian 1 dr., ginger A dr., in a i pt. warm
water.
Jaundice, or Yellows. - Symptoms in Cattle, - yellow eyes, urine, and
skin. If there be fever, bleed lightly, and then give Epsom salts 1 lb.,
powdered ginger 4 dr., warm water 3 pts.; after the bowels are well
opened, give every day, for a purge, madder 1 oz., flour of sulphur 2 oz.,
powdered caraway seeds 1 oz., Epsom salts 2 to 4 oz., warm water 3 pts.
In Sheep, - give repeatedly, for a purge, Epsom salts 2 oz., powdered ginger
a dr., do. aniseed 2 dr., warm water i pt.; if this be too weakening, give
powdered gentian 2 dr., do. bark 1 dr., do. ginger ~ dr., warm water i pt.
Joint Felon, or Rheumatism. - Give for a drench, to keep the bowels
open, Epsom salts A lb., powdered caraway seeds 1 oz., flour of sulphui
4 oz., warm water 1 qt.; also give, once or twice a day, tartar emetic 1 dr.,
camphor ~ dr., nitre 2 dr., aniseed powder 1 oz., well rubbed together, and
given in 1 qt. thick gruel; if the joints continue much swollen, use for a
liniment - spirits of hartshorn 2 oz., opodeldoc 2 oz., camphor liniment 4
oz., laudanum 1 oz., - mix for use.
Kicks, and other Bruises. - Foment the parts freely with hot water; if
the skin is broken, apply a tincture of friar's balsam 2 oz., tinct. of aloes
and myrrh 2 oz.,-mix for use.
Kidneys, Itiammation of. - In Horses, - bleed freely, every 6 hours, it
requisite; and give. for a ball, Barbadoes aloes 8 to 10 dr., powdered ginger
2 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball; the operation of the physic to be as
279
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
sisted by injections of warm water and 4 pt. linseed oil, frequently thrown
up, the loins well fomented with hot water, and afterwards apply a mustard
poultice, with bran mashes and linseed tea.
Lameness of Shoulder.- Foment frequently with hot water, bleed a little
from the plate vein, and give a dose of physic; and in obstinate cases apply
a blister, or a liniment of opodeldoc 4 oz., laudanum I oz., sweet oil 4 oz.,
spirits of hartshorn 4 oz., -mix, and after each fomenting with hot water,
rub well in.
Lampas.- In Horses, - a swelling of some of the bars of the mouth.
Give a few mashes, aided by a gentle alterative; in need, make a few moderate cuts across the bars.
Lice in Cattle. - Result from poor keep. Use, for ointment, strong
mercurial ointment 2 oz., lard i lb., - mix, and rub where the lice are found.
Liver, Inflammation of.- Symptoms - fever, reclining on the right side,
fulness on that side of the belly; urine yellow or brown, and sometimes
bloody. If there is much fever, bleed a little, and give - calomel 1 dr.,
powdered opium 10 gr., do. ginger 2 dr.; rub together, and give in 1 qt.
gruel, and repeat it twice a day; give, in 6 hours after first dose, a purge of
Epsom salts 8 oz., water 1 qt.; dissolve and add linseed oil 1 pt.; repeat
till the bowels are open. If purging takes place from the first, give the
calomel, opium and ginger, and give the drench as in diarrhoea, at the same
time blistering the right side; if great weakness ensue, give, for a tonic,
powdered gentian e oz., do. caraway seeds 1 oz., do. aniseed 1 oz., Epsom
salts 4 oz., - mix, and give in 1 pt. warm brandy. For Sheep, bleed moderately, and keep the bowels open by a drench made of Epsom salts 2 oz.,
powdered ginger 1 dr., warm water 4 oz.
Locked Jaw.- In Horses,- bleed till the circulation is evidently affected,
so as to administer a strong purging ball or drink, assisted by injections of
one pt. linseed oil to one gal. warm water, at the same time applying a strolng
blister from the poll to the rump, and even on the side; when the physic
begins to act, give an anti-spasmrnodic of powdered opium 1 dr., do. aniseed
2 dr., camphor 1 dr.; rub the camphor down with a little spirit of wine, and
mix with the opium and aniseed, and beat into a ball with treacle. In Cattke, -bleed till the beast threatens to fall, and give, for a drink, Epsom salts
1 lb., flour of sulphur i lb., warm water 2 qts.,- mix, and repeat in A lb.
doses every 6 hours, assisted by injections every 4 hours, composed of Epsom salts h lb., linseed oil A pt., warm water 4 qts.; when well operated,
give 1 dr. opium, dissolved in warm water, twice a day, and put a seton in
the dewlap. For Sheep, -bleeding, and physic,- either Epsom salts or
linseed oil.
Mallenders and Sallenders.- A scurfy eruption in the legs of horses.
280
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
Give a diuretic ball every third night, and dress twice a day with ointment
made of tar 4 oz., suet 4 oz., -melt together, and add sugar of lead 1 oz.,
-stir till cold.
Maltge.- For a Horse, give a physic-ball of Barbadoes aloes 6 dr., calomel
1 dr., powdered ginger 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., oil of caraway 20 drops,
treacle sufficient to form a ball. After the mange has set, give the following
alterative balls: powdered black antimony 2 oz., do. nitre 2 oz., Castile
soap 2 oz., flour of sulphur 8 oz., soft soap enough to make the mass into 8
balls; give one of these every night, and use an ointment of flour of sulphur
8 oz., strong mercurial ointment 2 oz., soft soap 4 oz., train oil 1 pt.; rub
well together, and then rub it in, with the hand, over the parts affected,
using it moderately; repeat, and, if needful, add 2 oz. of spirits of tar. In
Cattle, use a drench, of Epsom salts i lb., flour of sulphur A lb.,- mix, and
give in 3 pts. of thin gruel every third day, and use the same ointment as for
horses. In Dogs,- mix for use, and rub in carefully, with the hand, upon
the affected parts, an ointment of flour of sulphur 1 lb., soft soap 4 oz., oil
of tar 1 oz., train oil h pt.
Megrims in Horses. - Is the mildest form of determination of blood to the
head. Give present relief by drawing a penknife deeply across the bars of
the mouth, and set them bleeding; then wash well, and give a dose of
physic, with green food. When the physic has operated, give every night
an alterative ball, made of flour of sulphur 5 oz., powdered nitre 5 oz., do.
resin 11 oz., do. black antimony 3 oz., liquorice and soft soap sufficient to
make 12 balls.
Miscarria,ge.- In Mares, often arises from over-exertion, or accidents,
or stinting in food, or high feeding and idleness. When, therefore, the beast
is near her time, separate her from the rest, and put her in some convenient
quiet place. When there is danger of slipping the calf, the cow should be
taken from the pasture or stable the over-night, and from 2 to 3 or 4 qts. of
blood drawn; and give for a purging drink, repeated in about 8 or 10 days,
Epsom salts 1 lb., nitre 2 oz., ginger and aniseed, in powder, 1 oz. each, treacle 4 oz.; pour 3 pts. hot water upon these, and give when new-milk warm;
after it operates, give for one drink,- alum in powder 4 oz., nitre 1 oz., grains
of paradise, and aniseeds, fresh powdered, 1 oz. each, solid opium cut small
3 dr., treaci- 4 table-spoonfils; put this into a pitcher, pour 1 qt. hot water
upon it, cover it down till new-milk warm, and then give it to the beast. If the
calf is slipped, separate the cow from the herd, and give, for a drink, spermaceti 2 oz., spirits of turpentine 1 oz., one egg-yelk; beat these together,
then add grains of paradise, and caraway seeds, fresh powdered, 1 oz. each,
treacle 4 oz.,- mix in 1 qt. warm gruel, add a wine-glass of gin, and give it,
new-milk warm, every third day, for 3 times. In Sheep, must be prevented,
24*
281
FARMER'S HAND-lOOK.
as in the two former cases, by careful attention to their habits, feed, and
condition. If the ewe is afterwards attacked with fever, she may be treated
as for fever; if very weak, give doses of ginger 2 dr., gentian 1 dr., Epsom
salts 1 oz., in warm water.
Nasal Gleet.- In Horses, give a ball, night and morning, made of blue
vitriol 1 dr., dissolved in water; powdered gentian 2 dr., do. ginger 1 dr.
treacle and meal enough to form a ball. Inject the nose with a solution of
chloride of lime.
Navel ill. - When the navel bleeds, tie a ligature a short distance from
the belly; a pledget of lint, dipped in friar's balsam, over it, confined with
a bandage, and changed night and morning; and keep the bowels open with
linseed oil; then give a cordial drink, in a little gruel, once a day, made of
powdered caraway 2 dr., do. gentian 1 dr., do. ginger A dr.
Palsy.- In the Horse, if from violence or accident, give a dose of physic,
foment the back or loins with hot water, and rub in, for an ointment,
opodeldoc 4 oz., spirits of turpentine 4 oz., do. of hartshorn 4 oz., mixed
together; if necessary, after three or four days, apply a mustard liniment.
In Cattle, keep the bowels well open by a drench made of Epsom salts 1 lb.,
powdered caraway 1 oz., do. aniseed 1 oz., do. ginger 2 dr., -mix, and
give in 1 qt. warm beer, and use same liniment as for horses. In Sheep, keep
the bowels well open with a drink of Epsom salts 2 oz., warm water 3 oz.;
dissolve, and add linseed oil 1 oz.,- mix together.
(Pigs, Diseases of.) - For the common diseases of pigs, give flour of sulphur 1 lb., madder a lb., powdered nitre 41 lb., do. black antimony 2 oz.,
-mix, and give one or two table-spoonfuls in their food for a dose.
Pneumonia, or Inflammation of the L?tngs.- In Horses, bleed freely till
fainting begins; then give, for a fever-ba]l, tartar emetic 1 dr., powdered
foxglove A dr., do. nitre 3 dr., linseed meal and soft soap enough to form a
ball, to be given two or three times daily. After the force of the fever is
reduced, it may be necessary to apply extensive blisters to the brisket, and
to the sides under the elbows, the hair being shaved close, and the ointment
made of powdered Spanish flies 1 part, lard 4 parts, resin 1 part; melt the
lard and resin together, then add the Spanish flies, and rub the ointment
well in with the hands for 1 of an hour. In Cattle, the treatment is
similar; bleed freely, and, if needful, repeatedly; give a dose of salts, and
then the following-tartar emetic 1 dr., camphor 1 dr., nitre 4 dr., in 1 qt.
thick gruel. If the blister-ointment fails, hot water and a hot iron may be
used.
Poisons. -For Cattle, affected by the yew-tree, hemlock, dropwort,
black henbane, and wild parsnip, give 1 lb. Epsom salts in 2 qts water; use
the stomach-pump, injecting and copiously withdrawing water. Symptoins,
282
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
- sudden swelling, thirst, refusal of solid food, grinding of the teeth, pawing, and rolling as in pain.
Poll Evil.- First bleed, administer a dose of physic, and apply cold
lotions. If these fail, use poultices and warm fomentations, and then introduce a seton skilfully.
Ring-bone.- In Horses, an enlargement of the postern joint; - apply a
blister over the ring-bone, formed of powdered cantharides 1 oz., resin
ointment 4 oz., -mix for use.
Rheumatism. - In Dogs, use for an embrocation, camphorated oil 2 oz.,
spirits of hartshorn 1 oz., laudanum A oz., -mix for use.
Roaring. In the early stages, a blister, bleeding, cooling medicine,
may succeed in recovering; when confirmed, it is cureless. It is an
unnatural contraction of the windpipe and larynx.
Rot. - An affection of the lungs and liver, with a dropsical tendency.
Symptoms,- if, in warm, sultry, and rainy weather, sheep that are grazing
on low and moist lands feed rapidly, and some of them die suddenly, there
is reason to fear that they have contracted the rot; this suspicion will be
further increased, if, in a few weeks afterwards, the sheep begin to shrink,
and become flaccid in their loins,- by pressure about the hips at this time a
crackling is sometimes perceptible; now, or soon after, the countenance
looks pale, the skin is pale red, and the wool easily separates from the felt,
and, as the disorder advances, the skin becomes dappled with yellow or
black spots; about this time, the eye loses its lustre, becoming white and
pearly, and to this succeed debility and emaciation. For a cure, both turpentine and common salt have sometimes been used with success; the
latter is good to prevent, as also are aromatic vegetable substances, - parsley, for instance, - also give them, when feeding on watery plants, some
hay, corn, or oil-cake.
Round-bone, Sprain of. -Foment well and often with hot water, then
blister.
Saddle-galls, Sit-fasts and Warbles.- Allow no pressure on the parts
affected; then dress with common salt dissolved in water, and the brine
mixed with one fourth its bulk of friar's balsam.
Scab in Sheep.- This is owing to the presence of minute insects. Use
for a lotion, corrosive sublimate 1 oz., sal-ammoniac 4 oz., spirits of turpentiiie 1 pt., hot water 2 gal. Dissolve the sublimate and sal-ammoniac in
the water, and then add the turpentine; separate the wool, remove the scab,
and apply the lotion.
Scoui in Lambs.- Mix, and give one or two table-spoonfuls once or
twice a day,- prepared chalk 2 oz., powdered canella bark 2 dr., tincture
of eatechu A oz., laudanum A oz., water 1 pt.
283
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
Sore Teats in Cows. - Before milking, bathe the teats well with warm
water; after milking, use for an ointment, wax 2 oz., lard 6 oz., -melt
together, and add sugar of lead in very fine powder 2 dr.; stir till cold.
Splint. -Caused by inflammation of the shank-bone: its growth is
attended by heat, tenderness, and pain. If it produce lameness, cut the
hair off close, and rub in, for three or four nights, a little strong mercurial
ointment; then blister the part with blister ointment, and repeat it if necessary. When the inflammation from the blister has subsided, turn him out.
Staling, Difficulty.- In the Horse, give bran mashes, green food, and
plenty of gruel; if this fails, take a little blood, and give a mild dose of
physic.
Staling, Profuse; or, Diabetes. -In Horses, bleed, give a dose of
physic, and then twice a day give an astringent ball, made of powdered bark
oz., do. opium A dr., do. coriander 2 dr., treacle enough to form a ball;
give green food, or a few carrots.
Stifle Lameness.- Foment frequently with hot water; give a mild dose
of physic, and let the animal rest.
Strangles.- Symptoms, - a cough, discharge from the nostrils, and also
one of a soapy nature from the mouth, swelling under the throat, loss of
appetite, fever. Give mashes and green food, and apply to the throat, over
the tumor, a blister of powdered cantharides I oz., yellow basilicon 4 oz.,
oil of thyme 2 dr., - mix for use. When the tumor has formed, open it with
a lancet, and dress with a tincture of friar's balsam 2 oz., tincture of myrrh
and aloes 2 oz., -mix. When the tumor begins to heal, give a mild dose
of physic. It is not often necessary to give medicine, if much fever exists.
At the commencement of the disease, give, for a ball, tartar emetic 4 dr.,
powdered nitre 16 dr., linseed meal and soft soap enough to make 4 balls.
Surfeit.- A skin complaint in horses. Bleed a little, give mashes and
green food, and a ball, made of- powdered black antimony.2 oz., do. nitre
2 oz., do. resin 1 oz., do. gentian root 2 oz., flour of sulphur 4 oz., soft
soap enough to make 8 balls.
Swelled Legs. - Give regular exercise, and assist by hand-rubbing, and
by bandages wrapped rather tightly around the legs. Give no diuretic
balls.
Thick-wind.- Feed moderately, give green food occasionally, and
gentle exercise.
Thorough-pin.- In Horses, a swelling above the hock. Apply a blister.
Ticks or Lice in Sheep.- Apply carefully, for a wash, powdered arsenic
lb., soft soap 7 lbs., soft water 4 gals.; boil this till the arsenic is dissolved, and add as much soft water as will dip 50 to 70 sheep.
Turnsick, or Goggles, or Giddy, or Dunt. -A complaint of the head,
2S4
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMIALS.
proceeding from the presence of hydatids in the brain, lodged in a sac or
bladder, which presses upon the brain. It is beyond the reach of medicine
or mechanical operations. Sturdy is a name often given to this disease, as
well as to Water in the Head, but they are distinct. Treat by examining
the skull for a soft spot on the bone, where the water is collected. Perforate the skull with a trocar, accompanied by a tube, through which the
water may escape; after which, apply a few drops of essence of myrrh to
the aperture; shelter the animal and dress the wound.
Ulcers.- Bathe 2 or 3 times a day, with a solution of chloride of lime,
and use an ointment of yellow basilicon 4 oz., powdered verdigris i oz.; rub
together for use.
Warbles.- Foment with hot water, and when the tenderness has abated,
apply a lotion, of strong vinegar 1 pt., rectified spirit of wine 2 oz., extract
of Goulard 1 oz., spirits of turpentine 1 oz.,- mix together for use.
Warts.- Cut them off close with a pair of scissors, and touch the roots
with lunar caustic.
Womnzb Inflammation.- It occurs in Cows, after calving or bulling.
Symptoms, - great irritation anJ pain. Bleed, and give for a drench,
Epsom salts 1 lb., powdered caraway seeds 2 oz., warm gruel 3 pints.
Bathe the womb with Goulard water, or vinegar and water mixed equally.
In Sheep, bleed and open the bowels with Epsom salts in 2 oz. doses.
Worms.- In the Horse, unless they abound, let them remain. If they
descend into the rectum, inject a quart of linseed oil, or salt and water. If
a strong dose of physic is intended to be given to the patient, when it has
set, give a ball every morning, fasting for a week, of tartar emetic 8 dr.,
flour of sulphur 6 oz., powdered ginger 8 dr., treacle sufficient to make 8
balls. In Dogs, give, for a drench, spirits turpentine 1 to 4 dr., castor-oil
2 to 8 dr.,- mix for a dose according to size.
Wounds.- Foment frequently with hot water, and apply a tincture of
friar's balsam 2 oz., compound tincture of myrrh and aloes 2 oz.; if
unhealthy granulations arise, wash, previously to using the tincture, with
bluestone 1 oz., soft water 1 pt. Wounds generally heal better without
sewing, if it can be avoided. For Dogs, tincture of myrrh and aloes 2 oz.,
friar's balsam 1 oz., - mix these together, for use.
LIVE STOCK CALENDAR.
NOVEMBER.- The month of November may be said to be the commencement of the farmer's year. By this time the labors of his harvest have been
concluded, and his produce has been secured; and he is now proceeding to
prepare the ground for the crop of another season, if the weather be sufficiently open for him to do anything more before the next spring.
2 gr
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
The cattle may be supposed to consist of cows; of a certain number of
calves; of a certain number of the steers and heifers of the preceding year,
termed, therefore, one-year-olds, as having completed their first year, but
now approaching to the end of their second year; of a certain number of
steers and heifers which have completed their second year, and are therefore
termed two-year-olds, though now approaching the end of their third year;
and of a bull. The two-year-old steers and heifers are now arrived at matu rity; the heifers intended for breeding have received the male in the course
of the season, and the older steers are ready for final breeding.
As the month of October had advanced, the pasture had begun to fail; and
before the termination of the month, the various cattle had been put in their
respective houses, yards, and stalls. The cows which had borne calves in
the early part of the year had been put in the cow-house and tied in their
respective stalls, -straw, and a limited proportion of succulent food, as
turnips, having been supplied to them. The calves which were born in the
early part of the year had been put in one or more yards with sheds, had
been well littered, and had received straw, and a full allowance of turnips.
The steers and heifers of the preceding year, now turned their first year,
and approaching the end of their second year, had also been put into yards
with sheds. They had likewise been plentifully littered, receiving straw,
with a full allowance of turnips.
The older cattle -those that have completed their second year- had been
treated thus: - Such of them as were heifers, to be retained for breeding,
had been separated from the males in the preceding spring; had received
the male as they came into season, in spring and the early part of summer;
and, being with calf, had been put into yards with sheds, to be tied to their
respective stalls, when within a few weeks of calving. The steers again,
which are now to be finally fattened, had either been tied in stalls, or put in
pairs into yards with sheds, in either case receiving a full supply of turnips, or other nourishing food.
The bull had been put into a shed or yard by himself, receiving straw for
provender, and a sufficient supply of turnips.
Such may be supposed to be the arrangement of the cattle at the conmmencement of the month of November. The same treatment with respect
to them is to be continued during the entire month; -the cows and heifers
are to receive straw, with a modified allowance of turnips- the calves and
steers straw, with a full supply of turnips.
The sheep again, consisting, it may be assumed, of a regular breedingstock of ewes, may be supposed to have been arranged and treated thus:The ewes, consisting partly of sheep that had borne lambs, had, by the 10th
of October, the rams admitted to them. At the beginning of November, the
28:6
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
rams and ewes are still pasturing together, receiving no other food but grass,
and by the middle of the month the rams are withdrawn.
The lambs born in the spring, now termed ewe and wether hogs, had,
on the failure of the pastures in October, been penned on turnips. At the
beginning of November, they continued penned on turnips, they being
attended to as well as the sheep, and the pens being shifted when necessary.
The horses, in the month of October, had been put upon their full allowance of hay and corn. At the beginning of November they are receiving
full feeding; but before the middle of the month, when the hours of labor
become short, the hay may be withdrawn, and the allowance of oats reduced
one half.
By the beginning of the month the colts had been put into their yards, or
into a paddock with a shed, receiving straw as provender, with any succulent roots, as turnips and potatoes.
The swine and poultry are receiving their usual food. The pigs are fattened at all times, and the poultry receive their regular supplies of food in
their yard; and as the same method of management continues throughout
the year, the feeding of this class of stock need not be again adverted to.
DECEMBER.- The cows are in the cow-houses; the young cattle in their
yards; the feeding cattle in their houses or yards, as before; and they are
all kept and treated in the same manner throughout the month. The ewes
are, as before, on grass; but in snows, or hard frosts, they receive an allowance of hay. The ewe and wether hogs are penned on turnips as before,
and are kept so during the month. The hours of daylight, and consequently
of labor, being short, the horses are still fed on straw, and receive their
modified allowance of corn. The colts are in their yard or paddock, receiving straw, with an allowance of green food, and are kept so during the
month.
J ANUARY. - The cattle are still in their houses and yards, and are fed as
during the last month; turnips being brought, and a store kept in reserve,
as formerly. Some of the cows may calve during this month, or towards
the end of it. They are to be well attended to at this time, and the calves
separated from them at the birth, and fed on new milk three times in the
day. The ewes are on grass-land, if the weather be not too severe, receiving hay when the weather renders it necessary. The ewe and wether hogs
continue penned on turnips, as during the previous month. The horses are
on straw, and are receiving their short allowance of corn. The colts are in
their yard or paddock, and are fed as before.
FEBRUARY. -The cattle are in their houses and yards, and are fed as
during the last month. The cows will calve during this month. and must
be carefully attended to. The ewes are on grass, if the weather is not too
287
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
rigorous; and after the middle of the month, they may have turnips carried
to them, so as to prepare them for the lambing season by the middle of
next month. The ewe and wether hogs are penned on turnips as before.
By the middle of the month, if not sooner, the horses should be put upor
hay, and receive their full allowance of corn, in preparation for their work
in spring. In place of straw, the colts may now receive hay.
MARCH. -The cattle are still in their yards, and feeding as before
During the month all the cows may be supposed to have calved. The additional calves required are to be purchased, the best and earliest that can be
obtained. The ewe and wether hogs are on turnips, as before. The ewes
will now begin to lamb. They have been hitherto receiving turnips, but as
they lamb they are transferred with their young to new grass. The male
lambs are castrated in lots. The horses are on full work, and are receiving their full allowance of hay and corn. The colts are receiving hay.
APRIL. - The cattle are in their yards, and fed as before; the calves are
receiving milk, with such nourishing substances in addition as may enable
the milk of each cow to bring up two calves. The ewes are now on new
grass, with their lambs. At the commencement of the month, the ewe and
wether hogs are still on turnips, but by the middle of the month they are
removed from turnips and put on grass. The horses are at full work, and
receive a full supply of hay and corn. The colts that have reached their
third year may now be taken up and trained to work; or they may be
allowed another summer's grass, and be taken up for training in autumn.
Mares will foal this month.
MAY. - At the commencement of this month, the cattle may yet be in
their yards, and be fed as formerly. By the middle of the month, the former
year's calves, now yearling steers, and the two-year-old steers, if the grass
is sufficiently advanced, are turned out to pasture; the cows are turned out
to pasture, and if there are any of the two-year-old cattle which are heifers
from which it is wished to breed, they must be separated from the steers of
the same age, and placed amongst the cows, and when they come into season, if they have not already done so, they must receive the male. During
this month, the older cows should all have received the male, so that they
may calve in the following February. With respect to the feeding oxen
now turned their third year, and consequently three-year-olds, these may be
fed during the month, as long as there are turnips sufficient for them. During this month, the mares should all have received the male, so that they
may foal in the subsequent month of April. The colts are turned out for
the season to grass. As the weather becomes warm, the sucking calves
may be turned out to a small paddock. After being weaned in their fourth
month, they are turned out to feed for the remainder of the season, along
2S9
DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS.
with the cows and feeding stock. The sheep of all kinds, at the commencement of the month, were on grass, and they continue to be pastured in their
respective fields during the month. By the end of it, the fat sheep, if ready,
may be washed and shorn, or else these operations are deferred till later in
the season.
JUNE. -The cows and steers are pastured in the field during the month.
All the calves will be weaned during this month, and turned out to graze
for the remainder of the season. Such of the cows, heifers, and mares, as
have not received the male, now receive him. At the beginning of the
month the horses should receive green forage, and towards the middle of it
they may be put at night in the pasture-field. At the beginning of the
mnonth, the ewes with their lambs, and the ewe and wether hogs, are at
grass in their respective enclosures; and at or before the beginning of the
month, they are washed, and in eight days afterwards shorn. In ten days,
or as soon as convenient after shearing, the wether-hogs, now dinmonts, an:d
such of the ewe-hogs, now gimmers, as are not to be retained on the farm
for breeding, may be sold.
JULY.- The cows, oxen, and weaned calves, are at grass, and are kept
so during the month. The horses continue to receive green forage during
the day, and may be permitted to pasture in the fields at night; and this
method of feeding may be continued during the month. But their work
having become easy towards the middle of the month, their allowance of
corn may be lessened. At the commencement of the month the ewes, with
their lambs, are in their former fields of grass; by the middle of the month
the lambs are weaned; and from this time forward, the lambs, now termed
hogs, are kept separate from the breeding ewes.
AUGUST. - The cows, steers, and calves, are at grass, and are kept so
during the month. The ewes are at grass in their own fields, and the ewe
and wether hogs in theirs. The old ewes that are to be sold may naw be
selected from the rest of the flock, and marked for that purpose; and, at
the same time, all the other sheep may have their distinguishing mark put
upon them. The horses are receiving green forage, and, when the first
crop of clover is consumed, other feed may be furnished. They may still
l;e allowed to be in the fields at night.
SEPTEMBER. -The cows, calves, and steers, are all at grass, and are
kept so during the month. All the sheep are likewise at grass during the
itonth; but before the end of it, the old ewes which had been marked for
sile may be sold. The horses are kept on green forage. As the month
advances, they are taken up from grass at night, and kept in the stable
ai.d, at the end of the month, they are put again on hay and hard food.
OCTOBER.- At the beginning of the month, the cows, calves, and steers,
25 T
2SS
FARMIER'S HAND)-BOOK.
are at grass; but as the month advances, the cows may be taken up at night,
and receive green forage in the house. Before the 10th of the month, the
rams are admitted to the ewes and gimrniers. At the commencement of the
month, the ewe and wether hogs are at grass, hut towards the end of it,
when the pastures fail, they are penned on turnips. Towards the end of the
month, too, as the pastures fail, the cows, calves, and steers, are put finally
into their respective winter houses and yards.
CHAPTER VII.
POULTRY, OR TIIE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS.
THIE RAISING, BREEDT)ING, DISEASES ANT) TREAT.IENT, OF THE COMMON BARN
FOWLS; ALSO-THIE TURKEY-TIIE GOOSE-TIIE 1)UCK-IN ALL TIIEIR IM PORTANT VARIETIES.
I. COMMON BARN FOVIWLS.
VARIETIES.
Fig. 203 A.
i, I1 J:?Ii
290
POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS.
SHANGHAI (Fir. 203 A). -The preceding excellent representations are
actual portraits, drawn from life. They were imported by William C. Rudman, of Philadelphia, and are now (1854) in the possession of W. J. McGowan.
The cock, 15 months old, weighed 12 pounds, and the hen, 11 months old,
weighed 9 pounds.
BANKIVA.- This fowl is a native of Java, has a red indented comb, red
wattles, and ash-gray legs and feet. The cock has a thin indented or sca]loped comb, and wattles under the mouth; the tail a little elevated above
the level of the rump, and the feathers disposed somewhat in the form of
titles. Neck-feathers long, hanging, rounded at the tips, and of the finest
gold color; head and neck fawn color; wing-coverts are dusky-brownish
and black; tail and belly black. The hen is of a dusky ash-gray and yellowish color, comb and beard much smaller than the cock, with no feathers
on the neck besides the long hackles. The annexed cut represents a cock
of this variety.
~r. 203.
DUNGHILL. - This is the commonest form of the domestic fowl. The cock
291
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
has a large thin comb and wattles, and the brilliant plumage of the wild
species; but the best hens are generally of dingy colors, though there is
almost infinite variety in their shades; the white ones are better for the
table than for laying. The legs of the common fowls should be short, white,
and shining, and their bodies round and plump.
GAIE.- This kind of fowl is rather slender in the body, neck, bill anl
legs, and the colors, particularly of the cock, very bright and showy. The
flesh is white, tender, and delicate, and the eggs small, but, like the flesh,
much esteemed for superior delicacy; and therefore, for more reasons than
one, it would be better to raise them for domestic use than for the cock-pit.
DORKINO.- This valuable variety has acquired a great popularity, and is
easily distinguished. Their flesh is exceedingly juicy, white, and delicate, and they have the advantage of feeding rapidly, and growing to a
very large size, when properly managed. Capons and poulardes are fre
Fig. 204.
quently made of these fowls, growing to an enormous size when castrated.
The feathers are almost always white, and their legs short and remarkably
smooth.
MALAY, OR CHITTAGONG. -These fowls have remarkably long legs and
large bones; their flesh is, however, finely flavored, when they have been
properly fattened, and their eggs are so large and rich that two of them are
equal to three of those of ordinary fowls. The color of the feathers is black,
or very dark brown, streaked with yellow, and the legs are large and coarse.
292
POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS.
The fowls are tall, strong-beaked, and powerful; the cock has a loud and
harsh crow. It is said that a cross breed between the Malay and the common fowl produces a breed very superior to either of its progenitors.
PADUAN, OR JAGO. -There are numerous hybrids and varieties of the
Jago fowl, one of the most interesting being the Spanish fowl, represented
in the following figure. The body and tail feathers are of a rich black,
F/g. 205.
with occasionally a little white on the breast. The cock is a most majestic
bird; its deportment grave and stately; and it is encircled with a ring of
brown feathers, from which rises a black tuft which covers the ears. There
are similar feathers behind the comb, and beneath the wattles. The legs
and feet are of lead-color, except the sole of the foot, which is yellowish.
The every-day or ever-laying fowls are the same as the Hamburgh, or
Dutch. They are, however, evidently only a variety, or hybrid, of the
Jago fowl, with the nourishment that was required in that species, and in
some of its varieties, to form a tuft of feathers, expended in an enormous
comb and wattles. These fowls are very large, their feathers blackish, with
an iridescent green. The wattles and combs, even of the hens, are unusually large, and the caps under the ears are very large, and of a bluish
white.
CRESTED.- This variety is known by a densely-tufted crest and a small
comb; it is also variegated with fine colors, but it agrees in other respets
with the common dunghill fowl. The different varieties of this fowl are the
white fowl with a black crest, the black fowl with a white crest, and the
white fowl with a large beard. Of these, the Poland or Polish fowl, repre 25*
293
FARMER'S HND-BOOK.
sented below, is the best known, and it appears probable that it is a hybrid
between the Crested and the Spanish fowls. These fowls are very hand
Fig. 206.
some, and excellent for the table; the hens are good layers, producing
large and finely-flavored eggs, but they are bad sitters.
BANTAM. - This is a small variety, with short legs, most frequently
feathered to the toes, so as sometimes to obstruct walking. The full-bred
Fig. 207.
Bantam cock should have a rose comb, a well-feathered tail, full hackles, a
proud, lively carriage, and ought not to weigh more than one pound; the
294
POULT.'Y, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWVLS.
uankin-colored and the black are the greatest favorites. If of the latter
color, the bird should have no feathers of any sort in his plumage. The
iiankin bird should have his feathers edged with black, his wings barred
with purple, his tail-feathers black, his hackles slightly studded with purple, and his breast black, with white edges to the feathers. The hens
should be small, clean-legged, and match in plumage with the cock.
DWARF, OR CREEPER. -This variety, which is not larger than a pigeon,
differs from the bantam chiefly in size and in the shortness of its legs. The
Acaho is very small, with a circle of feathers about the legs, a thick tail,
which it carries straight, and the ends of the wings black. In addition to
this, there are some who are obliged to leap, from their legs being so short;
they are the size of a dunghill fowl, and kept as being very fruitful; the
hens will hatch thirty eggs at a time.
RUn EKIN.- This is now considered a distinct species. It is distinguished
by the want of a tail, by the comb not being, in the wild birds, indented,
and by the wattles being blood-colored rather than scarlet; the feathers are
all of a dusky orange in the wild birds, but finely variegated in the tame
ones.
FRIZZLED.- A native of Java and Japan. Distinguished by having all the
feathers turned and frizzled, being smaller than our common species, more
wild, and less suitable for domestic purposes. Flesh firm and delicate.
SILKY. - This is also a distinct species, according to modern writers. It
has the whole body covered with feathers, the webs of which are so disunited as to appear like hairs or glossy silk; the general color is white, and
the legs covered wholly on the outside, quite to the toes. As in other varieties, individuals of this sort differ in respect to color.
RUSSIAN, OR SIBERIAN. This breed seems to differ chiefly from others
in having considerable tufts of brown or dark loose feathers springing from
each jaw, and others, longer or fuller, from the lower jaw. In the hen
there is an upright tuft, spreading from the back of the head, of the same
silky texture. Independently of these, the cock has the usual comb and
wattles, and the hen a small comb also. This sort varies in color, one
variety being white, with the ends of the feathers glossy blue or black,
giving it a spotted appearance, and the legs being covered with fibrous or
downy feathers; another has the plumage of the game fowl, a fine tawny
orange, spotted with black.
BARBARY. -This African variety is generally of a pale or dun color,
spotted about the neck sparingly with black, and the feathers at that part
very full; on the crown is a large, full tuft of feathers, the same in color
with the body.
JAVA. Resembling the Malay in shape, but somewhat colored like the
295
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
Dorking. It is probably a cross between the two. In qualities it resembles
the Malay, but is not so valuable as a cross with other breeds.
OSTRICH, OR COCHIN CHINA. - This variety of fowls completely surpasses,
Fig. 208.
in size and power, the general run of poultry. Their general color is rich,
glossy brown, deep bay; on the breast is a marking of a blackish color
296
OM
POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS.
and of the shape of a horse-shoe; the comb is of a medium size, serrated,
but not deeply so, and the wattles are double. Besides their gigantic size,
however, these fowls possess other distinctive characteristics, the most striking of which is, that the wing is jointed so that the posterior half can, at
pleasure, be doubled up, and brought forward between the anterior half and
the body. The eggs are large, chocolate-colored, and of a very delicate
flavor.
GENERAL TREATMENT.
Raising, Breeding,,c. - Hens, if left to their own impulses, would produce one brood early in spring, the other in autumn. They begin to lay in
February, sooner or later, partly according to the time of molting, which
means the shedding of the feathers, at which time they lose their high tone
of health, and cease to lay. The season of molting is late in the autumn,
and in consequence of the change in their constitution, while the juices of
the body are promoting the growth of new feathers, no egg secretions are
formed. The molting period, after the third year of the hen's life, becomes
gradually later and more tedious; young poultry molt in spring; no fowl
are fit for the table at such time. The hens lay abundantly in February and
MAarch, which are usually quite as cold as November and December, while
in the latter, unless they have molted very early in autumn, they rarely
yield an egg. Reaumur warmed his fowl-houses by artificial heat, but got
no eggs. Yet a stock of poultry, by judicious treatment, may be rendered
prolific during the entire year, by having very early and successive summer
broods, as the pullets (which do not molt in the first year) will lay towards
the close of the year. The first brood may be obtained in January, by careful management. Hot food- boiled potatoes are as good or better than any
other - should always be given, in the winter months, to the hens which are
on the laying list, and which should be kept as dry and warm as possible.
i-urnber of Hens for a Cock. - Every experienced fowl-keeper knows that
those eggs only are prolific which are produced by hliens which have had constant intercourse with the male, though, for the purposes of the table, they are
better without this intervention, as they are more easily preserved in a state
of freshness. Some writers recommend twelve to twenty females for each
cock, while others consider half that number more desirable. The fact is,
much depends on climate, and the season of the year, a dry and genial temperature favoring a greater number of the hens to the male.
Qualities of a Good Cock. -In selecting a cock, he is considered to have
every requisite quality, when he is of a good middling size; when he carries his head high, has a quick, animated look, a strong and shrill voice,
short bill, a fine red comb, shining as if varnished, large wattles, and of the
297
.1, -,, 11
: 11 ".
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
same color as the comb, the breast broad, the wings strong, the plumage
black, or obscure red, the thighs very muscular, the legs thick, and furnished with strong spurs, the claws rather bent, and sharply pointed. He
ought also to be free in his motions, to crow frequently, and to scratch the
ground frequently for worms, not so much for himself as for his hens. He
ought, withal, to be brisk, spirited, ardent, and ready in caressing the hens,
quick in defending them, attentive in soliciting them to eat, in keeping them
together, and in assembling them at night.
Selecting Hens. -It is only requisite to have them of middling size, dark
colored, bright eyes, short legs, blue feet, and neither disposed to crow nor
be passionate. Hens that are long-legged, - and of course ill-formed for
sitting, - with small body, and very limited compass of wings, should be
kept, if kept at all, exclusively for laying. The best age is from two to
four years.
Sitting. - The hen testifies her desire to hatch by making a clucking
noise, searching for eggs to sit upon, and by general restlessness and feverish agitation. When this tendency is not naturally excited, some humane
breeders endeavor to promote the disposition by stimulating applicationsnettles, for instance- to the belly. Hens that have molted very early will
often sit before November, and this is a point gained when chickens are
wanted about Christmas. The eggs for hatching should be fresh, and free
from all offensive smell, and preserved in bran, with their larger endwhich contains the air-bag - uppermost, and under a warm temperature,
for three weeks before they are set. Examine the eggs, by holding them
between the eye and a candle, and if the vacancy caused by the air-bag at
the blunt of the egg appears to be a little on one side, it will produce a
hen; if this vacancy be exactly in the centre, it will produce a cock. From
nine to fifteen is the number usually placed under the hen, according to her
size. Her nest should be of clean, soft, and short straw, if possible on the
floor, and facing the south, and corn and water should be placed within her
reach; but the food should be removed as soon as she satisfies herself.
Many hens feed but once a day, and some would starve themselves sooner
than leave their eggs in search of food.
Hatching. - The hen sits for three weeks. About the twenty-first day the
chicks chip the shell with the upper bill, which is fuirnished with a horny
scale at the end, and gradually extricate themselves from confinement; frequently they do not disengage themselves from it in less than twenty-four
hours, or even more; but it is generally much better not to assist them in
breaking the shell, for if this be done before they have taken in the necessary
supply of sustenance, by the yelk passing into their bodies through the
navel, they will certainly die. It may, however, sometimes be necessary
to afford them aid, for it sometimes happens that their bodies adhere, from
299
0
POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS.
bad hatching, to the shell, and that their naturally revolving movements do
not tend to disengage them. They must, in this case, be very tenderly
relieved by the hand.
On the day after they have been hatched, the chicks may be removed from
the nest to a basket, or some similar receptacle, lined with wool, or such
soft, warm substance, though it is perhaps better not to remove them from
the original nest. For a fortnight they are fed with crumbs of bread soaked
in milk, and thenceforth every day, for some time, with yelks of eggs, curd,
grits, &c., and after a few days they may be allowed to peck about in warm
spots with their mother, but must be guarded from wet. They will soonI
feed greedily on meal, crumbs, &c., mixed with a small portion of potatoes,
beet-leaves, parsley, or cabbage.
Fattening.- Fowls in a natural state, picking up what they can get at
the barn-door, are, perhaps, the best-flavored and most wholesome for the
table; but as it is common, and almost necessary, to practise fattening, we
will treat of that matter.
The most approved coops are those which are divided into solitary chambers, so narrow as to prevent the fowl from turning around, and with an
opening in the rear part for the discharge of the excrement, perfect cleanliness being indispensable, with meal and milk in a trough, and a little
gravel or brick-dust, to promote digestion, at front. Another practice is,
to cram them with a paste made of flour, or meal, milk, and hog's lard, or
kitchen-grease, introduced by means of a tube, or by the fingers. In the
course of a fortnight chickens may be rendered sufficiently fat, and of great
weight.
Caponizing,. - The number of capons fattened in some countries is
enormous. The season for emasculating the cocks hatched in the previous
spring is the autumn, and the operation is performed as follows: -A trans
verse incision, about an inch and a quarter long, being made in the lower
part of the belly, the fore-fingers are introduced to take out the parts, with
the aid of a pair of sharp scissors to cut the cord, and so carefully as not to
injure the entrails; the orifice is then rubbed with oil or butter and stitched
up, and in three or four days the bird is well. They are fattened in a
month or six weeks.
Health of Fowls.- The indications of good health are, a florid color of
the comb, and bright eyes free from moisture, dry nostrils, and bright, glossy
plumage.
II. THE TURKEY.
VARIETIES.
The diversity of color is about all that constitutes the difference of
varieties of this bird; - the black, the white, tle copper-color, the brown,
299
FARMER'S IAND-BOOK.
the bronze. the dusky-gray, &c. As to the relative value of the ordinary
varieties, there is some doubt. The bronze and copper-colored varieties
F'g. 209.
are generally small, and difficult to rear; but their flesh is very delicate.
The brown and ashy-gray are not particularly remarkable, but the black
are decidedly superior as regards hardiness, rearing, acquiring flesh, and
the quality of the flesh; they are also very prolific.
GENERAL MANAGEMENT.
Ceeping, -c. - W ith respect to the best mode of keeping turkeys, it is
necessary to let them have a large, roomy shed, protected from the weather
and from moisture. The perches should be high, and a ladder should be
supplied, as the birds, when fat, are otherwise apt to injure themselves in
their descent from a lofty perch. During warm weather they may be permeitted to select their own roosting-places on the trees about a farm, but
should be well watched, lest they stray away, and, in cold weather, get their
ender toes frost-bitten.
The turkey provides itself with food from the roads and hedge-rows:
snails, slugs, and wormns, are among the number of its dainties, and the
nearest pool serves to slake its thirst. It should, however, be kept away
from the grain-fields.
Qualities. - In selecting a turkey-cock, see that he is large, stout, proud,
30O
POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS.
and majestic. Both cock and hen should have short legs, full shapes, and
general vivacity and energy in all their movements, and be healthy. A
turkey-cock is in his prime in his third year; the hen is in her prime
younger, say in her second year.
Laying.- One fecundation, it is said by some, will render all the eggs
of that laying fertile, while others allow one cock to every dozen or fourteen
hens. The approach of the laying season is known by the increased liveliness and proud strut of the hen, and a peculiar self-satisfied cry. This
usually takes place in March. When these symptoms are noticed, a nest
should be provided, and a true or false egg put into it, to induce the hen to
commence laying there, for she prefers a secret place. The time when she
lays is usually the morning; some lay daily, others only every second day.
When the turkeys are to be let out in the morning, examine the hens, and
keep in such as are about to lay, in order to secure the eggs. While the
hlien is laying, the cock should be kept from her, as he would ill-treat her
and break the eggs. The eggs must be taken away as soon as laid, and
they will keep till the hens cease laying, if put in a basket and kept dry.
The hen-turkey will hatch other eggs than her own.
Sitting. -The same barbarous stimulus, of flogging with a sprig of nettle,
prescribed for hen-fowls not readily disposed to sit, has been tried for turkeyhens; and also a dose of brandy and water to make them drunk when they
are placed on the eggs, to insure their sitting on their becoming sober.
The dark-colored turkeys are preferable.
Any number of hens may be placed under the same shed, at short dis
tances from each other, taking care that they are kept quiet and dark, as well
as warm. The nest may be formed of a circular pad or roll, stuffed with
matted straw, and about fifteen inches in diameter; the inside being filled
with soft bruised straw, on which the eggs are laid, which, being secured
by the border, will not roll about when the hen makes a motion to' get in
and out of her nest, or turn her eggs.
Ilatching. -When several hens hatch at the same time, commencing
together, it is obvious that if any accident should happen to one of them,
the eggs may be at once transferred to some of the other nests, the evening
being the proper time for this, so that on the morrow the new-comer may
appear to be of her own family.
On the thirty-first or thirty-second day, the chicks, as in the case of
fowls, will chip and break their shells, and get out, unless prevented by the
adhesion of the body to the pellicle of the shell. When (and this direction
equally applies to all poultry) a small hole is perceived in the shell, through
which the bill can be seen, and the chicken appears unable to break through
the shell completely, the shell should be slightly and gently broken on the
26
301
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
outside, and lifted up with the point of a pin, but with care not to touch the
chick.
Treatment of the Youtng. - A few drops of wine are frequently given to
reanimate drooping chicks, and some recommend bread soaked in wine for
them at first; but the natural warmth of the mother's body is the best
physician, and this they should as quickly as possible enjoy, as the external
atmosphere is so cold compared with that in which they previously existed.
The early feeding of young turkeys is very similar to that which we have
recommended for fowls. Egg is a favorite food for them. They may very
soon have nettles and parsley made into balls, with groats or meal boiled to
the consistence of stirabout, which they learn to peck from the hand. As
the mother is very stupid, and does not teach her little ones to search for
food, a keeper is necessary for young turkeys, in order to feed them frequently, to take them out airing after the dew is off the ground, and place
them in shelter, either from the hot sun or rain, for six weeks, when they
become pretty hardy, and can eat boiled potatoes mixed with their meal.
The membranes of the neck and head now shoot the red, as it is termed,
and at this critical period poults require very high feeding. After harvest,
turkey poults - which name they receive after two months - are driven in
large flocks to pasture and stubble fields, where they learn to pick up insects
and grains of corn; and then they are quite independent of the maternal
wing, and flock with the older turkeys, and roost with and accompany them.
But care should be taken to have shade or shelter always at hand for them
during the sultry hours of the day, and when rain is falling.
Fattening. - After six months, turkeys may be crammed like fowls, with
the same kind of food, but need not be so closely confined, though a dark
place is recommended for them. It requires six weeks to render turkeys
perfectly fat, and it would be barbarous to confine them in pens so long;
they may be left in close farm-yards. To have very large turkeys, cocks
should be kept over for fattening until they are nearly two years old; but a
young hen-turkey in spring is much better in flavor.
Feeding. - In their ordinary run about the farmer's yards and fields,
turkeys nearly feed themselves sufficiently; if not, they will do so by
scattering among them, in the morning, oats or corn. Boiled potatoes or
Swedish turnips greatly assist in the support of a flock of turkeys.
III. THE GOOSE.
VARIETIES.
TOULOUSE. -The varieties of the common domestic goose are very
few. Amongst these varieties is that of the Toulouse, chiefly remarkable
for its vast size. Its color is a slaty blue, marked with brown bars, and
302
POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS.
occasionally relieved with black - the head, neck as far as the beginning
of the breast, and the back of the neck as far as the shoulders, of a
dark brown; the breast is slaty blue; the belly is white, as also the under
Fig. 210.
surface of the tail; the bill is orange-red, and the feet are flesh-color. The
Toulouse is of a mild and easy disposition, which conduces to the chance of
his early fattening, and that also at little cost. The flesh is said to be
tender and well-flavored.
CHINESE. -The Chinese goose is a well-known variety, including several
sub sorts, among which is the Hong Kong, considered the same as is called
by the name of Poland, having a large, horny knob on the bill and forehead,
the prevailing color gray, with a longitudinal stripe of deep brown running
above the back of the neck,- the legs red. There are also the Black-legged
Chinese, also knobbed, and usually with a white edg,e around the knob,
somewhat similar to that of the wild breed called the White Fronted, - and
the White Chinese, a very handsome bird, knobbed as the rest, of a snowwhite color, and with legs of a bright orange-red.
These geese are inferior in size to the Toulouse, but, nevertheless, very
fine birds, and worthy the attention of the breeder. The white variety,
especially, with red legs, is very beautiful; the flesh is also good. They
feed well, fatten easily, and are very prolific.
COMMON.- Of our ordinary and well-known domestic geese there exist
but two sorts, whose only distinction seems to rest in their relative size,
they being divided into the large and small; and by some, accordirg to their
color, into the white and the -ray. These divisions are, to a certain extent,
303
Aft
I -
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
arbitrary; as out of the one clutch may be generally found the several varieties, both as to size and color, that are sought for. The best sorts are
Fi. 211.
those which vary least in color. Gray is the best; mixed colors will not
prove so prolific, and the young will be more difficult to feed up to the required standard.
GENERAL MANAGEMENT.
In France, geese are put up in thirties in the same lodge, with roofs and
partitions to separate them, never allowing more than eight under one roof.
All damp must be avoided, for geese at all times are fond of a clean, dry
place to sleep in, however much they may like to swim in'water. It is
not a good plan, on the whole, to keep geese with other poultry; for, when
confined in the poultry-yard, they become very pugnacious, and will very
much harass the hens and turkeys. It is recommended to pasture geese in
marshy or moist ground, and to sow for them vetches or tares, meliot,
clover, chicory, and lettuce, of which they are very fond. Grass they
should also have, and they are satisfied with the poorest. In allowing geese
to range at large, it must be remembered that they are very destructive to all
garden and farm crops, as well as to young fruit-trees. To prevent their
getting through the gaps in fences, hang a stick across their breasts.
Food.- Did geese require to be always fed in the poultry-yard, it would
cost more than they are worth to keep them, for they are voracious feeders.
All sorts of vegetables, food, and grain, agree with them, but they do not
304
POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS.
thrive well without grass. The refuse of the cabbage of a market-gardeni
would maintain a great many geese at a very small cost, but it is very
doubtful whether they would keep long in good health, when fed either on
cabbage, mangel-wurzel leaves, chicory, endive, lettuce, or other green
food. This, indeed, is apt to render their bowels too open, and even to
bring on scouring, unless alternated with boiled or steamed potatoes, given
warm, or with the meal of oats, peas, beans, or maize, beaten up with
boiled potatoes, carrots, or turnips.
The stubble-fields of any sort of grain are excellent pasture for geese, for
there they not only find grass and other herbage, but the grain which may
have been scattered, and which would otherwise be lost; while their dung,
though at first acrid and apt to injure, will, when it has been mellowed,
much enrich the ground.
Pairing.- It has been ascertained by M. St. Genis that geese will pair
like pigeons and partridges; and, in the course of his experiments, he re marked that, if the number of the ganders exceed that of the geese by
two, and even by three, including the common father, no disturbance nor
disputes occur, the pairing taking place without any noise, and no doubt by
mutual choice.
It is usual, in books, as well as in practice, to assign six geese to one
gander. In some places, the small farmers who keep two or three geese
keep no gander at all, but turn their geese, at the breeding season, for a
short period, among the ganders of some larger establishment near them.
This, however, must render the eggs of doubtful fertility, though, no doubt,
it would not be practised, if it were found to be an unprofitable plan. The
gander to be selected should be of a large size, of a fine white, with a lively
eye, and an active gait; while the breeding goose ought to be brown, ashgray, or parti-colored, and to have a broad foot. The gray geese are supposed to produce the finest goslings, while the parti-colored ones produce
better feathers, and are not so apt to stray from home.
Laying.- When well kept, geese will lay thrice a year, from five to
twelve eggs each time; and some more, when they are left to their own
way: but if the eggs be carefully removed as soon as laid, a goose may be
made, by proper feeding, to lay from twenty to fifty eggs without intermitting. They begin to lay early in spring, usually in March; and it may be
known when an individual is about to lay, by her carrying straws about to
foirm her nest with; but, sometimes, she will only throw them about.
When this is observed, the geese should be watched, lest they lay in some
by-place, and the eggs be lost. It is an essential precaution, as soon as it
is perceived that geese want to lay, to coop them up under their roof, where
nests made of straw have been previously prepared. If they can once be
26* U
305
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
induced to lay in this nest, they will continue to do so till their number of
eggs is completed. In order to have early goslings, geese should be brought
to lay early by keeping them in a warm, clean place, and feeding them on
stimulating food.
Hatching. - When a goose, at the laying of each egg, is observed to keep
in her nest longer than usual, it is a pretty sure indication that she is desirous of hatching. It is a popular but incorrect opinion, that a goose always
knows her own eggs, and will not hatch any others.
The nest for hatching should be made of straw, lined with hay, and
from fifteen to twenty eggs will be as many as a large goose can conveniently cover.
The goose sits for two months, and requires to have food and water placed
near her, that she may not be so long absent as to allow the eggs to cool,
which might cause her to abandon her task. Some put vinegar in their
water, and others lift them off their nests to make them drink; but this is
not necessary.
It is an economical way of getting a great number of goslings, to employ
turkey-hens to hatch. The common fowl has been equally praised for filling
this important function; but the eggs of the goose being very large, and
their shell very hard, a hen is not bulky enough to hatch more than eight
or nine. The turkey-hen, therefore, deserves to be preferred, because she
can hatch fourteen or fifteen. This function of the goose being thus filled
by another, she is not kept from laying, and yields eggs in abundance.
Goslings. -Like turkey-chickens, goslings are a month in hatching,
and must be taken from under the mother, lest if, feeling the young ones
under her, she might perhaps leave the rest of the tardy brood unhatched.
After having separated them from her, they must be kept in flat wicker
pens, or baskets, covered with a cloth, and lined with wool; and when the
whole brood is come forth, the first hatched may be returned to the mother.
In some places, when the eggs of the goose are on the point of being
hatched, it is customary to break the shell a little, to give air to the gosling,
and to help its coming out. Perhaps this practice, though dangerous to
turkey-chickens, is less so to the goose's egg, whose shell is commonly
very hard. On the first day after the goslings are hatched, they may be let
out, if the weather be warm, care being taken not to let them be exposed to
the unshaded heat of the sun, which might kill them. The food given them
is,prepared with bran, raspings of bread, &c., which, if soaked and boiled in
milk, or curdled milk, and lettuce-leaves, are still better.
Afterwards, advantage must be taken of a fine warm sun to turn them out
for a few hours; but cold and rain being very hurtful to them, they must in
bad weather be cooped up, and prevented from mixing with the larger one
306
POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS.
unless they have strength enough to defend themselves against any hostile
attack, to which new-comers are usually exposed. To such goslings as are a
little strong, bran may be given twice a day, morning and evening, continu ing to give them this food until the wings begin to cross on the back; and
after this, green food, which they are particularly fond of, may be mixed
with it, such as lettuce, beet-leaves, and the like.
Fattening.- Like other fowls, geese may be brought, by proper manage ment, to a great degree of fatness; but the period at which they are the fat test must be chosen to kill them, otherwise they will rapidly become lean
again, and many of them would die. Geese may be fattened at two different
periods of their life, -in the young state, when they are termed.green
geese, and after they have attained their full growth. The methods at each
period are very nearly the same.
For fattening geese, - boiled oats, given thrice a day, with plenty of
milk, will, it is said, fatten them well in a month. For stubble geese,
besides oats, give split beans, with meal and water, cooping up in a quiet,
dark place, as is done with fowls. The London feeders, when they receive
goslings in March, begin feeding them on meal, from the best barley and
oats, made into a liquid paste. They are afterwards fed on dry corn, to
render their fat firmer. Full-grown geese are kept particularly clean, have
regular exercise, and are fed with proportional quantities of dry, soft, and
green food. Cabbage and lettuce alone will fatten young geese, bought in
the end of June. Some persons recommend steamed potatoes, witha gallon of buckwheat or ground oats to the bushel, mashed up with the potatoes,
and given warm. This, it is said, will render geese, cooped in a dark,
quiet, cool place, fat enough in three weeks. The French mode of fattening
consists in plucking the feathers from under the belly, giving them abundance
of food and drink, and cooping them up more closely than is practised with
common fowls, cleanliness and quiet being above all indispensable. Tlfe best
time is in the month of November, or when the cold weather begins to set
in; if it is longer delayed, the pairing season approaches, and prevents their
becoming fat. When there are not many geese to fatten, they are put into
a cask having holes bored in it, through which they may thrust their heads
to feed; and being naturally voracious, the love of food is greater than the
love of liberty, and they fatten readily. The food consists of a paste, made
of barley-meal, ground maize, and buckwheat, with milk and boiled potatoes.
In Poland, a similar method is practised, the goose being put in an earthen
pot without a bottom, and of a size not to allow the bird to move. The
same food as that just mentioned is given in abundance, and the pot is s8
placed that the dung may not remain in it. The process is completed in a fort
307
PARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
night, and the geese are sometimes so increased in size that the pot has to
be broken to get them out.
When the great number of geese to be fattened renders the preceding
plan inconvenient and too expensive, they are taken from the stubbles or
pasture, and cooped up, twelve together, in narrow pens, so low that they
can neither stand upright nor move in any direction. They are kept
scrupulously clean, by often renewing the litter of the pens. A few feathers
are previously plucked out from the rump, and from under the wings. The
portion of maize required for once feeding is boiled and put into a feedingtrough, with clean water, in a separate vessel, and they are permitted to eat
whenever they feel inclined. At the commencement they eat a great deal
constantly, but in about three weeks their appetite falls off. As soon as this
is perceived, they are crammed, at first twice a day, and, towards the end
of the process, thrice a day. For this purpose a tin funnel is used, with a
pipe five inches and a half in length, and less than an inch in diameter, with
the end sloped off like the mouth-piece of a flageolet, and rounded at the
edge, to prevent its scratching the throat when it is introduced. A small,
round bag is adjusted to the pipe, through which grain is introduced into the
crop. The operator sits squat upon the ground, holds the goose with one
hand, introduces the pipe of the funnel into the mouth of the goose with the
other, and presses in the food till the crop is filled. Water is at the same
time given to the geese to drink, and must always be left near them, as the
cramming renders them very thirsty. A woman who is dexterous will
cram ten geese in an hour. In less than a month, a goose may in this way
be fattened to an enormous bulk.
Sometimes a lean goose is confined in a small coop made of fir, narrow
enough to prevent it from turning, while there is a place behind for passing
the dung, and another in front to let out the head. Water is supplied in a
trough in front, having some bits of charcoal in it to sweeten it. A bushel
of maize is considered enough of food for a month. It is soaked in water
the day before it is used; and the goose is crammed morning and evening,
while it is allowed, during the day, to eat and drink as much as it chooses.
About the twenty-second day, a quantity of poppy-oil is mixed with the
maize. In a month, it is seized with difficulty of breathing, and a lump of
fat under each wing indicates that it is time to kill it, lest it should be choked
with fat, and die.
By this process, the liver of the goose is increased so much that it will
weigh from one to two pounds, and will, besides, yield about three pounds of
fat, much employed, in French cookery, for dressing vegetables.
308
POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS.
IV. THE DUCK.
VARIETIES.
ROUEN, OR RHONE. - There are numerous species and varieties of the duck,
Df great diversity of size and color, though it is not usual to domesticate, except for curiosity, more than two or three of these. The tame variety most in
request is the dark-colored Rouen or Rhone duck, originally from France,
but now sufficiently common. These ought to be of the largest size, for, if
they are small, it is probable they are not far removed from the original wild
breed, and in that case will not only be very apt to stray away, but will be less
prolific in eggs, though both the eggs and the flesh will be higher flavored.
ENGLISH, OR AYLESBURY WHITE. -This variety, though handsome and
strong, is inferior in flavor, the flesh being too light-colored, and chickeny, as it
is termed. Great numbers of this variety are, however, raised and fattened,
attaining to a large size.
Fig. 213.
309
Rig. 212.
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
MuscovY. - This duck is a distinct species, and not a mere variety, much
larger than the common duck, and distinguished by a sort of red membrane,
covering the cheeks, and extending behind the eyes, as well as by the
musky odor exhaled by the rump gland. In a wild state, the drake is of a
brownish-black color, with a broad white patch on the wings, the female
being smaller and more obscurely colored. In the domestic state it exhibits
every variety of color, like the common duck. The Muscovy duck is easily
fattened, and a prolific breeder; and hence, though it is also a voracious feeder,
Fig. 214.
it may be rendered profitable to rear. The male is very ready to pair with
the common duck, producing, by the cross, a hybrid or mongrel breed.
GENERAL MANAGEMENT.
The Duck Pond. - In order to keep ducks properly, a pond should be
provided for them, if there be no water convenient; and it is important, if
the pond will admit of it, to have a small island in it, planted with rushes,
osiers, and other aquatic plants and shrubs, though some recommend to have
no plants in the way.
Food. - Ducks may be left to provide for themselves a considerable part
of the year. They live chiefly on grain strewed about the poultry-yard,
the siftings and sweepings of barns, all sorts of mealy substances, the
residue of breweries and boiling-houses, herbage, vegetable roots, fruits, -
everything, indeed, suits them, provided it be rather moist. They are particularly fond of boiled potatoes, and these have been substituted, with profit,
for maize and barley. They are partial to being in meadows and pasture
310
POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS.
grounds. Every sort of flesh or offal is much to their liking, and forwards
their growth admirably. Ducks are so very greedy that they often endeavor
to swallow a whole fish, or a frog, which heats them extremely, if they do
not immediately throw it up. Particularly fond of meat, they eat it with
avidity, even when it is tainted. Slugs, spiders, toads, garbage, insects, all
suit their ravenous appetite. Among all the fowls of the poultry-yard, ducks
are of most service in gardens, by destroying a quantity of vermin, which
usually do irreparable damage; but their voracity brings with it inconven iences which balance this advantage, except in the case of ducklings,
which are not so apt to eat young plants.
Pairing and Laying.- One drake is said to be sufficient for eight to ten
ducks, while others limit the number to from four to six. In a wild state
there is only one duck to a drake, and, therefore, we should say, the fewer
the better, -the chief difference of the tame duck from the wild arising
from more abundant and regular food.
Ducks begin to lay towards the end of February, and sometimes earlier;
but so far from laying the limited number of about sixteen eggs, some will
lay as many as fifty, and even nearly double that number. They do not,
however, usually continue to lay later than the month of May, unless they
be very well fed, -the great secret of rendering them prolific, provided
they do not become too fat.
At the laying season, ducks require to be looked after, inasmuch as they
are not so easily brought to lay in the nests prepared for them as common
fowls, but will stray away to hedges and other by-places to lay, and will
even sometimes drop their eggs in the water. When they succeed in laying
out their number of eggs without their nest being discovered, they will
hatch them, and not make their appearance till they bring their young
family home to the yard, except in cold, raw weather. As ducks usually
lay either at night or very early in the morning, it is a good way to secure
their eggs, to confine them during the period when they must lay, - a circumstance easily ascertained by feeling the vent. It will accordingly be
requisite, at the approach of the laying season, in spring, to give them food
in a particular place, three or four times a day, to prevent them from wandering; and when once they can be got to lay in a nest prepared for them,
they will probably continue to do so, without laying away.
Duck Eggs.- The eggs of the duck are readily known from those of the
common fowl by their bluish color and larger size, the shell being smoother,
not so thick, and with much fewer pores. When boiled, the white is never
curdy, like that of a new-laid hen's egg, but transparent and glassy, while the
yelk is much darker in color. The flavor is by no means so delicate. For
onmelets, however, as well as for puddings and pastry, duck eggs are much
311
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
better than hen's eggs, giving a finer color and flavor, and requiring less
butter.
Hatching and Care of Ducklings.- The domestic duck is not naturally
disposed to hatch; but in order to induce it- to do so, towards the end of
laying, two or three other eggs may be left in each nest, taking care every
morning to take away the oldest laid, that they may not be spoiled. From
eight eggs to ten may be given, according to the size of the duck and her
ability to cover them, taking particular care not to sprinkle them with cold
water, as some authors wrongly advise. The duck requires some care
when she sits; for, as she cannot go to her food, attention must be paid to
place it before her-and she will be content with it, whatever be its quality.
It has even been remarked, that when ducks are too well fed, they will not
sit well.
The first broods of the season are usually the best, because the heat of
summer helps much to strengthen the ducklings,- the cold always preventing the later broods from getting strong.
The duck is apt to let her eggs get cold, when she hatches. The ducklings are no sooner excluded than the mother takes them to the water,
where they dabble and eat at the very first, and many of them perish, if the
weather is cold.
All these reasons often induce poultry-keepers to have duck's eggs
hatched by hens or turkey-hens; and, being more assiduous than ducks,
these borrowed mothers take an affection for the young, to watch over
which requires great attention, because, as these are unable to accompany
them on the water, -for which they show the greatest propensity as soon as
they are excluded,- they follow the mother hen on dry land, and get a
little hardy, before they are allowed to take to the water without any guide.
It is likely that, if a considerable quantity of eggs could be collected
together, to make one large brood, the art of hatching chickens in an artificial manner, applied to ducks, would be attended with greater success than
with chickens, as they are less difficult to rear. It would be sufficient to
keep them shut up for twelve days in a duck-house made on purpose, and
where it would be proper to leave a few buckets of water for them to dabble
in, -or a tank might be provided for them, the water of which might be kept
slightly warm by the pipes used to heat the buildings of the poultry-yard.
At the expiration of this time they might be set at liberty, and they would
get on surprisingly, provided they had a pond or a little ditch in the enclosure, where they might be turned in, or a small rivulet running through it.
Ducklings can do without a mother as soon as they are excluded. Their
food, for the first days, may be crumbled bread sopped in milk, and a little
ale or cider. Some days after, a paste may be made for them with a bunch
312
4
POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS.
of nettle-leaves, boiled tender, chopped up very small, and of a third of the
flour of maize, buckwheat, or barley.
As soon as they have a little strength, a good deal of pot-herbs may be
given them, raw and chopped up, mixed with a little bran soaked in water,
barley, mashed acorns, boiled potatoes, beaten up with a little fish, when it
can be had. All these equally agree with ducklings, which devour the different substances they meet with, and show, from their most tender age, a
voracity which they always retain. To strengthen the young ones before
they take to the water, they must be secured under coops during eight or
ten days, and taking care to put a little water under the coops.
When ducklings have been hatched uider a common hen, or a turkeyhen, they are not allowed to go to the water till they become a little hardy
by remaining on land; but the moment they see water, they naturally
plunge into it, to the great alarm of their foster-mother, who cannot follow
them. It is necessary, to prevent accidents, to take care that such ducklings come regularly home every evening; but precautions must be taken
before the ducklings are permitted to mingle with the old ducks, lest the
latter ill-treat and kill them, though ducks are by no means so pugnacious
and jealous of new-comers as common fowls uniformly are.
Fattenin,g.- Butchers' offal is excellent for fattening ducks, as it does
not give the flesh the rank, disagreeable flavor, which it imparts to pork.
Acorns, on the contrary, while they are good for fattening, injure the flavor
of the flesh, and barley renders it insipid, or woolly.
As the duck is both a voracious feeder and fond of liberty, it will fatten
very well when allowed to roam about, provided it has abundance of food;
but it expedites the process of fattening to have recourse to coops, quiet,
and darkness. Ground malt, mixed with water, is said to be an excellent
food for fattening, though it is expensive. In Lower Normandy, where
great numbers of ducks are reared and fattened, the poulterer prepares a
paste with the flour of buckwheat, made into gobbets, with which they
are crammed thrice a day, for eight or ten days, when, though not full fat,
they are sufficiently so for use. In some places, when ducks have been
rendered tolerably fat by being at large, they are cooped up by eights or
tens, in a dark place, whence they are taken out morning and evening to be
crammed. This is done by a girl, who crosses their wings on her knees,
opens their bill with her left hand, while with her right she stuffs them
with boiled maize. Many ducks are suffocated by the operation, and killed
outright; but their flesh is not the worse for the table, provided that they be
immediately bled. It requires a fortnight to complete the process, which
incmreases the size of their liver enormously, and oppresses their breathing in
27
313
9
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
a distressing manner. The sign of their being sufficiently fat is, when the
tail opens like a fan, from the fat pressing on the roots of the feathers.
DISEASES OF THE FOREGOING FOWLS.
The most common diseases to which fowl are liable are, Molting, Pip,
Roup, Asthma, Diarrhea, Indigestion, Apoplexy, Fever, Consumption,
Gout, Corns, Bloody-flux, Costiveness. They are also liable to accidents,
producing Fractures, Bruises, Ulcers, Loss of Feathers, &c. All these
we will treat of in the above order.
Molting. -While, as being a natural process, of annual occurrence, it
can scarcely be called a disease, yet it must be treated of as if it really were
one, from consideration of the effects which it produces. It is most dangerous to young chickens. With adult birds, warmth and shelter are usually
all that are required, united with diet of a somewhat extra stimulating and
nutritious character.
In a state of nature, molting occurs to wild birds precisely when their
food is most plenty; hence, nature herself points out that the fowl should,
during that period, be furnished with an extra quantity of food. After the
third year, the period of molting becomes later and later, until it will sometimes happen in January or February. Of course, when this occurs, every
care as to warmth should be bestowed. The use of Cayenne pepper alone
will generally suffice; and if this simple treatment does not help them
through, they can seldom be saved.
The feathers will at times drop off the fowls, when not molting, to a
very considerable extent, rendering them often nearly naked. This is a
disorder similar to the mange in many other animals; and the same sort of
treatment, viz., alteratives, such as sulphur and nitre, - in the proportions
of one quarter each, mixed with fresh butter, - a change of diet, cleanliness,
and fresh air, will generally be found sufficient to effect a cure. Be careful
not to confound this affection with molting. The distinction is, that in the
latter case the feathers are replaced by new ones as fast as they are cast; in
the former this is not so, and the animal becomes bald.
Pip.- A disease to which young fowls are peculiarly liable, and that,
too, chiefly in hot weather. The symptoms are, a thickening of the membrane of the tongue, especially towards the tip. This speedily becomes an
obstruction of sufficient magnitude to impede the breathing; this produces
gasping for breath, and at this stage the beak will often be held open. The
plumage becomes ruffled and neglected, especially about the head and neck.
The appetite gradually goes, and the poor bird shows its distress by pining,
moping, and seeking solitude and darkness.
The cause of this disease is want of clean water, and feeding upon hot
314
POULTRY, OR TH VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS.
food. To cure it, most writers recommend the immediate removal of the
thickened membrane. It is better, however, to anoint the part with fresh
butter or cream. Prick the scab with a needle, if you like, and give internally a pill, about the size of a marble, composed of equal parts of scraped
garlic and horse-radish, with as much Cayenne pepper as will outweigh a
grain of wheat. Mix with fresh butter, and give it every morning, keeping
the fowl warm. Keep the bird supplied with plenty of fresh water; preserve
it from molestation by keeping it by itself, and it will generally get well,
if the disease is attended to in time. Do not cramn the mouth with snuff;
when, however, the disease depends on the presence of a worm, forcing
tobacco-smoke down the bird's throat is beneficial.
Roup. - The disease to which this term is improperly applied is an
inflammation of the tail gland. The true Roup is much analogous to influenza in man, and even more so to the well-known distemper among dogs.
The symptoms are, a difficulty of breathing, constant gaping, dimness of
sight, lividity of the eyelids, a discharge from the nostrils that gradually
becomes purulent and fetid, loss of appetite, and extreme thirst. Sometimes this disease appears to occur independently of any obvious cause; but
dirt, too hot feeding, and want of exercise, are amongst the most usual.
As to treatment, we will record a case related by an intelligent farmer.
A cock, of about four or five months old, apparently turned out by somebody to die, came astray, and was in the last stage of roup. The discharge
from his mouth and nostrils was very considerable, and extremely pungent
and fetid, while his eyes appeared to be affected with an inflammation similar to Egyptian ophthalmia. The cock was placed at the fireside, his
mouth and nostrils washed with soap and warm water, his eyes washed
with warm milk and water, and the head gently rubbed with a dry cloth.
Internally he was given long pellets, formed of barley meal and flour equal
parts, mustard and grated ginger equal parts, and half the first-named. He
was also given to drink lukewarm water, sweetened with treacle. In three
days this bird began to see, and in a week his sight was almost wholly
restored. A little mustard was still given him in his water, and then some
flour of sulphur. He had also a pinch of calomel in some dough. He was
gradually brought out, so as to inure him to the cold, and in a month was
as well as ever. Having molted late, the same bird caught cold at the first
frost, and suffered a relapse, from which, however, he was recovered by
warmth alone.
Other poultry-keepers recommend a modification of the above, - warmth
and cleanliness, as matters of course; - but, for pellets, - powdered gentian 1 part, do. ginger 1 part, Epsom salts 14 part, flour of sulphur i part,
-made up with butter, and given every morning.
315
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
If the discharge should become fetid, the mouth, nostrils, and eyes, may
be bathed with a weak solution, composed of equal parts of chloride of lime
and acetate of lead. Fomentation with an infusion of camomile flowers is
highly beneficial.
The other affection, that improperly passes under this name, viz., swelling of the tail-gland, may be treated as a boil. If it become inconveniently
hard and ripe, let the pus or matter out with a penknife, and it will soon get
well.
Asthma.- This is characterized by gaping, panting, and difficulty of
breathing. We need not go far to seek for a cause. Our poultry are originally natives of tropical climates; and, however well climatized they may
appear, they nevertheless require a more equable temperature than our
climate, unaided by artificial means, can afford. Hence, coughs, colds,
catarrh, asthma, pulmonary consumption. To remedy it, give warmth,
with small repeated doses of hippo-powder and sulphur, mixed with butter,
and add Cayenne pepper.
Diarrhoea is occasioned by damp, and sometimes by improper food.
Remove the bird into dry quarters; change the food; if it become very
severe, give chalk; add a little starch, mixed with Cayenne, to porridge,
and give it warm.
Indigestion. -, Caused by over-feeding, and want of exercise. Remedy
by lessening the quantity of food; turn the fowl into an open walk, and give
some powdered gentian and Cayenne in the food.
Apoplexy.- Symptoms - staggering, shaking of the head, and a sort of
tipsy aspect. Some persons have, from ignorance of the true cause of this
affection, treated it as proceeding from intestinal irritation, and prescribed
castor-oil, with syrup of ginger, &c. Scanty food, and that of light quality,
and the application of leeches to the back of the neck, constitute an effectual remedy,- the knife, however, is the truest one.
Fever. - Fowls are frequently subject to febrile affections. The mode of
treatment is simple-light food and little of it, change of air, and, if necessary, aperient medicines, such as castor-oil, with a little burnt butter.
- Consumption. - If not incurable, change of air and warmth is about the
only means of doing any good.
Gout.- Its effects are obvious. Pellets of colocynth may be used; but,
if the fowl had been killed before becoming so old, it would have been
better. Sulphur may be found useful.
Corns. -These may generally be extracted with the point of a pen-knife
If ulcerated, as will often occur when neglected, touch with lunar-caustic
wd you may thus succeed in establishing healthy granulations.
316
POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS.
Bloody-flux generally proceeds from an aggravated diarrhoea. Rice
boiled in milk, or starch, usually effects a cure.
Costiveness.- This affection will, in general, yield to castor-oil and
burned butter. The diet should be sparing. Thin porridge will be found
useful.
Fractures and Bruises.- In the case of fractures, the best way, in most
cases, is to put the fowl to death, without loss of time. The same may be
said of bruises.
Ulcers.- These may be kept clean, dressed with a little lard, or washed
with a weak solution of sugar of lead, as their aspect may seem to indicate.
If they appear sluggish, they may be touched with bluestone.
Loss of Feathers. - The accidental stripping of the feathers must not be
confounded with the mangy affection already treated of. The difference
will be seen by examining the state of the skin where it is exposed.
27*
317
CHAPTER VIII.
BEES.
DIF CL ASSES OF BEES- POSITION OF THE APIARY-HIVES AND BOXW OBTAINING STOCK - SWARMING - THE HONEY HARVEST - MANAGEMET DURING
WINTER AND EARLY SPRING- HOW TO TREAT THE PRODUCE OF THE HONW
HARVEST - THE DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES.
I. DIFFERENT CLASSES OF BEES.
The Queen.- The number of bees contained in a hive will, of course,
vary with their condition, and the accommodations they possess; whatever,
however, be their numbers, their occupations are alike, and are similarly
distributed amongst the three classes composing the inmates of the hive.
These classes are, first, the Queen-bee, the sovereign of the community, and
literally the prolific parent of her subjects. The queen-bee reigns alone;
but one of her sex is permitted to exist in a hive at the one time, and to
her protection and comfort are the energies of the other bees to be directed.
The queen-bee may be recognized by her greater length of body, which is
.i. 215.
of a blackish color above, and of a yellowish tint beneath. She is usually,
but not by any means invariably, of a larger size than either of the other
classes; her abdomen contains two ovaries, or receptacles for eggs; and her
sting is of a curved form. The queen-bee commences depositing her eggs
when five days old; during the heat of the season she lays from one hundred
and fifty to two hundred eggs per day, and lays with little or no intermissioi
from early spring to the middle of autumn
BEES.
Tae Drone.- The second class of bees are the drones. These are larger
in the body than either the queen or the working-bee. Their head is rounder,
proboscis shorter, eyes fuller, and no sting. They also make more noise in
flying than the other bees. The drones are the males of the hive; by
Fig. 216.
them the queen is impregnated and her eggs fertilized, though this latter
may be said to be a point not yet definitely settled by those who have invest
tigated the subject.
During the summer the drones remain dispersed through different parts
of the hive, in a state of idleness; but towards its close they assemble
together in companies, as if preparing for their impending fate, which they
await in patience, or rather, perhaps, in motionless lethargy. At the end
of summer, in August or the end of July, they are ignominiously expelled
from the hive, and even slain, by the workers, as if they, being no longer of
any utility to the community, should not be fed from the store during
winter.
The Working-bee.- The third class is the working-bee, the most interesting of all. It is considerably less than either the quen-bee or the drone;
it is about half an inch in length, of a blackish-brown color, covered with
closely-set hairs all over the body, which aid it in carrying the farina it
gathers from the flowers; and on the fore-arm, as it were, of the hind legs,
Flg. 217.
is a cavity, of cup-like form, for the reception of the little kneaded ball of
pollen. It is the working-bee which collects honey and pollen, and which
forms the cells, cleans out the hive, protects the queen, looks after the condition of the young brood, destroys or expels the drones, when those are no
tonger necessary to the well-being of the community; who, in short, performs
319
I
. q
FARAIER'S HAND-BOOK.
all offices connected with the hive and its contents, save only those which
have reference to the reproduction of the species. The working-bees are of
no sex, and are furnished with a horny and hollow sting, through which
poison is ejected into the wound it makes. This poison is of an acrid
character, and of great power in its effects, proving fatal to insects, and
instances are on record of its proving so to horses and cattle, and even to
human beings. When human beings, however, are stung, they can instantaneously obtain relief by pressing upon the point stung with the tube of a
key; this will extract the sting, and relieve the pain, and spirits of harts
horn will at once remove it.
Structure of the Bee. - It is composed, like insects generally, of three
parts - the head, thorax or chest, and abdomen. The shape of the head
varies somewhat, as also does its size, in the three classes; it is attached to
the thorax by a thin ligament, and the thorax is attached in a similar manner to the abdomen. In front of the head are two eyes, which
are protected by hairs from any substances that might otherwise injure
them, and on the top of the head are three smaller eyes. This visual
apparatus renders the bee's power of sight a very extended one. Two
feelers spring from between the front eyes, and curve outwards on each
side; these are endowed with a very acute sense of touch, and doubtless
perform many of the offices of eyes in the dark recesses of the hive. It
is probably by the assistance of these delicate and highly sensitive organs
that these insects form their combs, fill their cells, and feed the young.
The mouth of the bee is composed of a pair of jaws, which open vertically,
and act -opening and shutting -to the right and left. These are ftlirnished with teeth atetheir extremities. The mouth is also furnished with a
very minute tongue, and with a long, slender instrument, called a proboscis,
or trunk, resembling in form and use that of the elephant; it is composed
of numerous cartilaginous rings, fringed with minute hairs. This instrument does not, however, act as a tube, but by rolling about and attaching to
the hairs which fringe it whatever substances the insect wishes to convey
to the mouth. From about the base of the proboscis also arise the labial
feelers, as they are called, which are also furnished with a hairy fringe.
The bee has three pairs of legs, of which the posterior are the longest,
and the anterior the shortest. These are formed and articulated much like
the same limbs in man, and are attached to the thorax; at their extremities we find two little hooks, which appear like sickles, or reaping-hooks,
and have their points opposed to each other. By means of these the insect
suspends itself to the top of the hive, or in any other position it may desire.
To the superior portion of the thorax are attached four wings, consisting
of two pair, of unequal size. These wings are hooked together, in order
320
BEES.
that they may act simultaneously, and not only serve to convey the insects
from place to place, through the air, but, by the humming, buzzing noise
their motion produces, to give notice of their departure from, and return
to, the hive, as well as possibly to animate their fellows in their mutual
labors.
Interiorly the thorax contains the cesophagus, or gullet, which traverse,
i ts exten-t on its wa y into the abdomen, where it dilates into, first, the honeybag, Mhich is furnished with two pouches posteriorly, and a muscular apparatus, by whic h it is enabled to give forth its saccharine contents; and,
secondly, into the true stomach, in which digestion goes on, for the nourishment of the insect, and the secretion of wax. Next to the stomach is
situated the sting; this consists of two darts in a sheath. The whole appa
Fig. 218.
ratus enters the wound, and the two small darts then enter still further;
these are barbed, and, on the insect withdrawing them, aid in widening the
puncture, and thus afford greater room for the introduction of the poison.
At the base of the sting the bag containing the poison is placed.
The bee respires by means of spiracles, or breathing-holes, situated in the
thorax, beneath and behind the wings. Through these air is admitted into
the thorax, for the purpose of oxygenating the circulating system, - a fact
which proves the necessity for duly ventilating the hives or bee-boxes.
II. POSITION OF THE APIARY.
The details of the domestic operations of the bee in the cells, - a figure
of which is seen in Fig. 219,- we do not intend to present in this place, but
proceed to speak of those matters more particularly pertaining to the plan
of management pursued by the bee-keeper or farmer.
Aspect. -The most favorable aspect for the hives or boxes is southwesterly, which, however, may advantageously be modified or varied
recording to the season. In spring, for instance, the aspect would be more
improved by inclining more to the west; in autumn, the reverse. The
reason for this is, that the morning sun is prejudicial to the interests of the
hive,- the bees receiving the light and going forth too early, - a thing,
f,ljectiocTable on two accounts; first, that, especially in early spring, the
lawn is too cold, and will occasion the death of numbers, if they are induced
w
321
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
to venture forth; and, secondly, because the bees, if they commence opera
tions so early, become wearied before they have performed a good day's
work. and the afternoon is a more advantageous period for their labors.
F-Pg. 219.
Location.- The place for fixing the stand should be a dry soil,- and a
sandy one is better. It should slope towards the front, in order to carry
off the surface water produced by occasional rains, and should not, on any
account, be exposed to the droppings from the eaves of houses, or even
hedges. Shelter is essential, especially behind and on the east of the
hives, -a house or high wall is the best; it is also recommcnded that tlihe
stand be placed in a sort of small, open shed, well painted on the outside, to
protect it from the weather; a few shrubs about the stand are also good as
additional shelter. Some recommend high trees for the purpose of keeping
the air calm, lest the bees should be blown down, when returniing home.
High trees are not advisable. Bees are seldom blown to the ground by mere
wind, but even when they are, they can, in a great majority of cases,
recover themselves; whereas, if blown amongst trees, they will be sure to
be whipped so violently by the branches, that they are absolutely hurled to
the ground with such force as to render their recovery hopeless. The bees
also fly lowz, on their return, when they arrive at the immediate neighborh,io(l
of their stand, and, consequently, high trees would be not only useless, ])ti
inconvenient. Whatever trees, therefore, are planted in the immediilf,
vicinity of the hive. should he of low size, with btishy heads, in order l-,.t
the swarms which settle on them may be more easily hived.
Avoid a site near mills or other noisy places, or the neilghborhood of
offensive odor, as factories and the like; and if, as occasionally may happen.,
322
BEES.
the stand be placed against the garden wall, behind which is the farm yard, let not a dung-hill be built againist the opposite side, as it may cause
a desertion of the boxes. Do not place the sta(nd where there are rat or
mouse holes.
W1ater is essential to the well-being of bees; it must, however, be pre sented to them judiciously, or it will prove a greater evil than a good. If
there is a shallow, ripplingi brook through the garden, so much the better;
if' not, place near the stand small, shallow pans of water, adll( put solie
pcebbles in them. This water should be changed( daily. It is obj(etiolaible
to have a pond or canal in tihe neighborhood; tlhouisiilS l e(s o w cs ill }ee lo,t
every season throughli such a means, as they will be c(,iostanltly blown into
them lwhen returnintig hleavily laden to the hive, especially in the eveniig,
when wearied, after the toil of an itidustriously-s)penlt day. The pebbles in
the trooughs are for the bees to rest on while drinking.
It is wN-ell if the garden is abundantly planted with suchl shrubs a!id
fltowers as afford honey, in order to prevent, as much as possible, thle neee sity of the bees constantly traveling to an inconvenient distance in search
of food. It is well also to so contrive as to have a succession of such foo(t,
adapted to the season,-a matter comparatively easily mnanaged, and of some
consequence to the well-being of the bees. Among these plants may be
enumiierated broom, furz or gorse, thyme, especially lemon-thlyme, clover,
crocus, heltilis, fruit-trees, mustard, nignonette, sage, single roses, ra(li.-,lies, -:ross, parsley, peas, parsnips, marigolds, violets, lilies, lauru,tall (1.,-dils, celery, caildiflow'ers, asparagus, sunflowers, wNall-flowers,
i)()ra, e, i,tr etches, bucl,kwh-leat.
Iliv-es she,: 1on Ino account be so placed as to be exposedl to the noonday
Seal' this v ill injIre the honey and melt it, and will raise the temperature
of the hive so as to produce unwiished-flr swvarming, besides otherwise
i. Iii)tyi,iir and il]jnrin7f the bees. A few shrulibs, therefore, should be so
I,lI;teced as to c.st tiheir sladow across the stand d(oring the hteat of d(lay. LIet
the shr ubs be of stclh a description as the b,ces are fond of, and they may
also be diepoe~d so as to give the apittry a pleasing atid picturesque
a l~)(aralee.
B.:-/ho'lscs are only fit for keeping the bee-boxes in during winter one,
two, or thrc. s'ts of collateral lboxes, are as many as any mnoderate heekI.eper ill desire, or be able conveniently to attend, and these can be kept
(eIch in a little shed by itself. Bee-hives shol(il never be placed close to
each other, as they must necessarily be in the bee-houses recommended by
some, tar bees are naturally very irritalile and plgoiacious insects, and if
twNo colonies be kept too near each other, battles will ensue, and the wecaket
hive be injured or destroyed.
323
FARKMER'S HAND-BOOK.
III. HIVES AND BOXES.
Requisites. -The old straw, conical-shaped hive, is too well known to
need description, and, perhaps, too unprofitable to be worthy of it. The chief
objects to be effected by the use of a suitable receptacle for bees are, first, the
power of depriving them of their honey at pleasure, and w,ithlout injury to
them; secondly, the obtaining of it in its pure and uncontaminated form;
thirdly, the means of enlarging their accommodation when necessary, and
the consequent prevention of swarming.
Different Kinds of Hires and Boxes. - Among other hives of considerable
merit, that called the Nutt hive is worthy of being noticed and explained,
and the opinions of Mr. Nutt, the inventor, are of sufficient value to be
presented in this place. According to Mr. Nutt, bee-boxes should be from
eleven to twelve inches square inside, and nine or tell inches deep in the
clear. The best wood for them is by some said to be red cedar, - the
chief grounds of preference of which wood are, its keeping away moths,
and its being a bad conductor of heat. But of whatever kind of wood beeboxes are made, it should be well seasoned, perfectly sound, and free from
what carpenters term shakes. Good, sound red deal answers the purpose
very well. The sides of the boxes, particularly the front, should be, at the
least, an inch and a half thick; for the ends, top, and back part, good deal,
one inch thick, is sufficiently substantial; the ends that form the interior
divisions and openings must be of half-inch stuff, well-dressed off, so that
when the boxes and the dividing tins are closed,- that is, when they are
all placed together, -the two adjoining ends should not exceed five eighths
of an inch in thickness. These communication ends - the bars of which
should be exactly parallel with each other - form a communication or
division, as the case may require, which is very important to the bee, and
by which the said boxes can be immediately divided, without injuring any
part of the combs, or deluging the bees with the liquid honey, which so
frequently annoys them, in extracting their sweets from the piled or
storified boxes. The receptacles or frame-work for the ventilators, which
appear upon each side of the end boxes,- the one with the cover off,
the other with it on, -must be four inches square, with a perforated
flat tin, of nearly the same size; and in the middle of that tin must be a
ro,,nd hole, to correspond with the hole through the top of the box, in the
centre of the frame-work just mentioned, an inch in diameter, to admit the
perforated cylinder tin ventilator, nine inches long. This flat tin must
have a smooth piece of wood, well made, to fit it closely, and to cover tlhe
frame-work, so as to carry off the wet; then placing this cover over the
square perforated tin, the box will be secure from the action of wind and
324
BEES.
rain. The perforated cylinder serves both for a ventilator and also for a
secure and convenient receptacle for a thermometer, at any time when it is
necessary to ascertain the temperature of the box into which the cylinder is
inserted. Within this frame-work, - and so that the perforated flat tin,
already described, may completely cover them, - at each corner, make a
hole with a three-eighths'centre-bit, through the top of the box. These four
small holes materially assist the ventilation, and are, in fact, an essential
part of it.
We next come to the long floor, on which the three square bee-boxes which
constitute a set stand collaterally. This floor is the strong top of a long,
shallow box, made for the express purpose of supporting the three bee-)oxes,
and must, of course, be superficially of such dimensions as those boxes, when
placed collaterally, require; or, if the bee-boxes project the eighth part of an
inch over the ends and back of this floor-box, so much the better; because, in
that case, the rain or wet that may at any time fall upon them will drain off
completely. For ornament, as much as for use, this floor is made to project
about two inches in front; but this projection must be sloped, or made an
inclined plane, so as to carry off the wet from the firont of the boxes. To
the centre of this projecting front, and on a plane with the edge of the part
cut away for the entrance of the bees into the pavilion, is attached the
tlighting board, which consists of a piece of planed board, six inches by
three, having the two outward corners rounded off a little. The passage
from this alighting board into the pavilion (not seen in the plate, it being in
the centre of the side not shown) is cut, not out of the edge of the box, but
out of the floor-board, and should be not less than four inches in length and
about half an inch in depth, or so as to make a clear half-inch way under the
edge of the box for the bee passage. This is preferable to a cut in the edge
of the box, because, being upon an inclined plane, if at any time the wet
should be driven into the pavilion by a stormy wind, it would soorr drain
out, and the floor become dry; whereas, if the entrance-passage be cut out
of the box, the rain, that may and at times will be drifted in, will be klept in,
tand the floor be wet for days, and perhaps for weeks, and be very detrimental
to the bees. In depth, the floor-box, measured from outside to outside,
should be four inches, so that if made of three-fourths'-inch deal, there may
be left for the depth of the box part two inches and a half. Internally it is
divided into three equal compartments, being one for each bee-box. Admission to these compartments, or under-boxes, is by the drawer, or drawerfronts, or blocks, which will be described presently.
The bottom, oropen edge, of each of the boxes, should be well planed, and
made so even and square that they will sit closely and firmly upon the aforesaid floor, and be as air-tight as a good workman can make them. In the
2Z8
325
FARMIER S HAND-BOOK.
floor-board ate made three openings, one near the back of each box. These
openings are of semilunar shape (though any other shape would do as well),
the straight side of which should not exceed three inches in length, and will
be most convenient if made parallel with the back edge of the box, and about
an inch from it. They are covered by perforated or by close tin slides, as
the circumstances of the apiary may require. The drawer, the front of which
appears under the middle box, is of great importance, because it affords one
of the greatest accommodations to the bees in the boxes. In this drawer is
placed, if necessity require it, a tin made to fit it; and in that till another thin
tframe, covered with book-muslint, or other fine strainer, which floats on the
liquid deposited for the sustenance of the bees. Hiere, then, is a feeder,
contailling the prepared sweet, in the immediate vicinity of the mother hive,
and without admitting the cold or the robbers to annoy the bees. W,\hen the
drawer thus prel)ared with bee-food is closed, the tin placed over the semilunar aperture must be drawn, which will open to the bees a way to their
food in the drawer beneath. The heat of the hive follows the b)ees into the
feeding departiment, which soon becomes the temperature of their native
domicile. The box-fronts on each side of the feeding-drawer are foined of
a bit of talc suspended over a hole on the outside, tlltus permitting egress,
but precluding ingress. By means of this contrivance, thile number of bees
may be increased without altrminig or annoying thenm, and they canll likewise
escape when being deprived of one or other of the collateral boxes. This
contrivance further precludes the intrusion of insect enemies.
Tie centre is perforated on the top, and over the hole a bell-gl;,iss is placel,
\ hich, when the hive is filled, the bees fill with honey which is of the
purest description. Wooden fittings or covers are provided for the protection of these glasses.
The bees, being placed in the centre box, or pavilion, soon commence
operations, and speedily fill it with honey. When full, which may be ascertained by looking through a window. fixed in the back of the box, the till
slide which separates it from the bell-glass must be drawn; this is best (tonlo
on a warm dlay, and the comb should previously be cut throoli withl a tlhin
w-ire. Before taking off the glass, the operator should pause for a fei,w
minutes, to observe whether there be any unusual stir among the imprisoned
bees; for if they do not appear alarmed, the queen is alllong them, and
inl that case the slide must be withdrawn, and the operation postpol.ed(l to
another day.
In taking away the glass, envelop it in a silk handkerchief, and remove it
about ten yards from the boxes; then place it a little on one side, so as to
permit the imprisoned bees to escape, which they will do in a few minutes.
\Vhen occasion requires, the bees are to be similarly admitted into the side
326
BEES.
boxes, by drawing the slides; but in removing one of these boxes some pre cautions require to be used. For instance, open the ventilator the night
previous; this will, by lowering the temperature of the hive, and admitting
.I current of air, induce the bees to leave the box thus treated, and to congreg,ate in the pavilion. Then put down the slide D, and let the bees remain
for ten minutes or so in darkness. If the queen be not in the box to be
taken, any bees that may remain in it will be restless anid in confusion. If
she should be there, the commotion will be in the centre box. If the queen
should be in the box intended to be taken, draw up the slide again, and she
will soon leave it. Having emptied the full box, return it to its place. According to this system, fumigation is unnecessary, -a child, even, may manage
the boxes with ease and safety. The centre box, called, on account of its
being the breeding place, the pavilion of nature, is never to be meddled with.
Any person of common ingenuity can form for himself a set of collateral
boxes, by taking as a stand a piece of strong wood - deal, obtained from an
old door, or other waste timber; let it be about four feet long and about two
feet wide, as thick as can be procured; place it on four legs, and let the
edge project over the legs, in order to prevent the incursion of insects; plane
the upper surface smooth. Mlake three boxes, each about ten inches square,
with, of course, no bottom, and have the edges of the bottomless portion
planed smooth, so as to lie as close as possible to the board. Cut away a
portion of the bottom of one side of each box, and in that designed for the
centre box do so on two opposite sides; these are for communication. Get
two sheets of tin, or thin wood,- a piece of a broken tea-chest will do admirably, - and place one between each of the collateral boxes and the centre
one, so as to cut off communication between them, until it is desired to open
it, w-hen, of course, one of them is withdrawn, and, at the same time, the
side box, thus opened, will be pushed close to the central one. Let the
stand-board be on an inclined plane, sloping towards the front, so as to throw
off w-et, and let the said board project a couple of inches, to serve the bees
as a place on whichl to alight. Make a sniall hole, about half an inch, or
rather less, inI diameter, in front of this centre box, partly in the box and
partly in the board, for the ingress and egress of its inhabitants. Paint the
boxes externally, but do so a considerable time before they are required for
use, anld encompl)ass them with the best sort of rough shed that can be convenriently put up; bore a hole, with a centre-bit, in the top of each box, and
place a glass vessel over it. When it is necessary to fieed the bees, it can
be (lone by attaching a feeder to the entrance door, and the holes for the bellglasses will afford ample means of ventilating. In case they should not,
however, have a hole at the back of each box, stopped with a cork, which
can be with(ra-wn for the admission of air when necessary. Take care that
321
FARMIER S HAND-BOOK.
the cork be not pushed entirely through the wood of the box, or it will be so
cemented by propolis that it cannot, perhaps, be drawn out without injury
or disturbance to the combs.
Another mode of forming bee-boxes is as follows: Let them be of as good
quality as possible, so as to effectually preserve their contents from either
extreme heat or cold, dampness, or any sudden changes of temp)erature.
The size of the centre box should be about tell and one half inches cube,
inside measure; and it would be of advantage to have six bars fixed across
the top of it, from front to back, which should be one and one-eighth inches in
width, half an inch in thickness, and half an inch apart-the ends of each
of which should be neatly rabbl)eted into the front and back of the box. Over
the bars should be laid a piece of thin gauze, and upon it the top or covering-board of the box, which may have a circular hole in the middle of it,
securely stopped by a good cork-buiing, to be removed for the purpose of
placing a small bell-glass over the hole, as occasions require. The side
boxes may be made and used of different sizes, if desired, and to contain froin
350 to 1100 cubic inches each. If the smaller sizes are adopted, the entrance
to them must be along the hollow part of the b)ottoii-board; but it would be
considered more complete to have the side boxes of the same width and
depth as the centre one, and to have them well fitted and secured together
during the honey-gathering season. The entrance from the centre to the
side boxes may then extend along the under edges of each of them from
front to back, and about three-eighths to one-half an inch in depth; there
should also be a perpendicular one, three inches long and( half an inch wide,
up the centre of the end of each of the boxes, the upper part of which should
reach to within three incheg'of the top of the box inside.
The use of bars to the top of boxes is frequently of much service to the
apiarian, as he can thereby occasionally remove a few of the old combs
from the box, and can, at any time, have an opportunity of examining the
state of the interior of the boxes. Before using a new box with bars, as
above, a piece of pure and clean brood-comb should be neatly fixed to each,
on every alternate bar, which may be readily accomplished by the assistance
of a long and smooth piece of heated iron- the comb, being rubbed for a
few seconds.on the iron, should immediately be applied to the bar, and will
then, in a short time, firmly adhere to it.
The use of hites of straw is by many persons still continued and approved
and there is no doubt that, when properly made and judiciously manage(,
the returns from them will often equal, or surpass, those fromn some of the
more fancy-shaped and costly wooden boxes.
The size of the straw hive should be from sixteen to seventeen inches iin
diameter, and twelve to thirteen inches in height; and they should have a
328
BEES.
narrow, flat, and thick top of wood, with a circular hole and cork-buug in
the centre of it, similar to that for wooden boxes. The outer box, in which
the stock-hive and side boxes are enclosed, having been made wider than
the interior hives or boxes, should have a partition from front to back, on
each side of the stock-hive, and the interstices round the centre hive filled
up with dry sawdust, powdered charcoal, or other suitable materials, which
will be of service in preserving the temperature of the hive in a congenial
and uniform state. The communication from the straw stock-hive to the
side boxes should be along the hollow centre of the bottom-board; three or
more circular holes should also be made in the bottom-board on each side,
in such manner that each of them may be covered with a bell-glass, or that
one of the larger side hives or boxes may be placed over them, as may suit
the wishes or convenience of the apiarian. When glasses arc used, they
should be well covered with some soft woollen materials, and a hive or box
should then be placed over them, to effectually exclude the light, and preserve them from accidents of any kind, and sudden changes of temperature.
It is advisable to have the outer box well made, with a neat and substantial
roof to carry off the wet, &c., and it should be made of such breadth as to
leave a space of one half inch on each side of the stock-hive.
A well-informed writer observes, that, if the bees are kept in a straw
hive, it should be of a large size, and well made, and should be stocked
with a strong swarm at the usual period of the year. It should be then
p)laced on the centre of a stout bottom-board, made long enough to hold a
small hive or box on each side of it, and having hollow communications
from the centre hive to the side ones, which can be opened or closed at
pleasure. When the bees require room in the spring or summer months,
the entrance from the centre to one of the side hives must be opened, and
after they have fairly taken possession of it, it must be properly ventilated
by a hole previously formed on the top, and covered with a piece of perforated zinc, keeping the temperature between 65~ and 75~. The three hives
should have a well-made wooden covering over them, with a span-shaped
roof to carry off the wet, &c., and an opening at the back for the purpose
of examining the progress of the bees; the outer box should be well
painted, and water-proof, and will greatly assist in regulating the temperature of the hives, and in protecting them from extreme cold, dampness, or
sunshine.
It matters not much of what wood the boxes are made, provided it is
sound, thoroughly seasoned, and well put together. Different opinions are
entertained as to the size of bee-boxes; but much depends on the number
of bees they are to contain, and on the honey locality; there must also be a
reference to the proposed mode, of working them, for, where no swarming
28*
329
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
is permitted, a larger hive may be advantageously used. A good size is
twelve inches square, and nine inches deep within, the thickness throughout
being not less than an inch. The top of the box ought to project on all
sides nearly three quarters of anll inch, for better protection and appearance,
and as allfording convenience for lifting. On the top a two-inch hole should
be cut in the centre, for pl-acig a bell-glass, and for the purpose of feed(ling;
and another hole, to receive a ventilator, may be made near the back window, that position beiiing better for inspection, and -less in the way of the
bees, than the centre of the hlive, which is, or ought to be, the seat of
breediing, and should not be disturbed. A window may be placed at the
back and front, five inches highl and six or seven inches wide. The best
and neatest way of securing the windows is by a sliding shutter of zinc.
This passes into a rabbet to receive it, cut, on the remiainiljig three sides, at
the back of the lower edge of the moulding. To prevent any wet from
lodging at the bottom moulding, an opening or two may be easily cut
through, onl the under side, to allow its escape. Place the hive under some
cover or shed, as a protection from wet and heat.
The "Lcaj' lircc," invented by IIiber, consists of eight frames, each
eighteen inches high and ten inches wide inside, hlaving the uprights and
top cross-pieces one and a half inches broad, and one thick, so that the eight
frames, when placed close togelier, constitute a lhive ei(gliteen inches high,
twelve inches between end and end, and ten inches between back and front,
all inside measure. The friames are held together by a flat sliding-bar on
each side, secured by w-edges and pills. To the first and eighthl of these
frames is attached a frame with glass, and covered with a slhutter. The
body of the hive is protected by a sloping roof, and the entrance is made
through the thicikness of the floor-l)oard. Some dislike the sliding-bars,
with their pins and wedges, because, in drawing them out, all the frames
are liable to open, and the observer is exposed to some hazard of annoyance
from the bees issuing out at every joint; as a substitute for them, place
hinges on one side, and a hook-anid-eye oni each frame on the other, and
thus any particular leaf m-ay be opened without meddling with the rest. In
taking honey from this hiv-e, the bee-master has the whole interior completely under his eye, and at his disposal; and can choose what comibs best
suit his ptrpose, both as to quantity and quality, taking care, however, to
do so only tt such periods as will leave the bees time to replenish the
vacancy beilore the termination of the honey season. It is also well adapted
for artificial swarming. By separaLtilig the hive into halves, thle honey,
brood-combs, and bees, will, geierailly speakingf, be equally divided; and
by supplyilig each half with fotur empty frames, there will be two hives,
rne half eimpty, equal in number of bees, of brood, and even of stores. One
330
BEES.
of the new hives will possess the queen, and, if the operation has been
performed at the proper timre,- that is to say, a week or ten d(Iys b(fore the
period of natural swarming, - the probability is, there will be a roval brood
comingi forward in the other; at all events, there will be i)lcnty of eggs and
larvae of the proper age for forming an artificial queen.
WVith regard to the use of sticks or cross-pieces, some obje(t to them, as
only an annoyance to the bees; and there is little fear of the combs falling,
except in very deep hives,- at any rate, it may be preventedl )y contracting
the lower part a little. The best way of doing this is by w-orking a
wooden hoop inside the bottom band of the hive; it should be perforated
through its whole course, and the perforations made in an oblique direction,
so distant from each other as to cause all the stitches of the hive to range
in an uniform manner. The hoop gives greater stability to the hive, preserves the lower edge from decay, and affords facility in moving it. A
circular piece of wood (turned with a groove at the edge, to retain it in its
place) should be worked into the crown, having through it an inch-and-ahalf hole. With a little ingenuity, the bees may be fed through this opening,- a better method than the ordinary one, at the bottom of a hive. A
piece of wood or tin will commonly cover the hole; but at times, especially
in winter, it may be used for the purpose of ventilation, and allowing the
impure air of the hive to escape. In this case, a bit of perforated zinc or
tin should be placed over it, which, when stopped up by the bees, can be
replaced by a clean one. An earthen pan is a common cover to a straw
hive; and this may be slightly raised by wedges on the four sides, to permit a small space underneath. Of whatever material the outer covering
consists, it must project so far on all sides as to protect the hive from the
least moisture. This cannot be too much guarded against; and whether
of wood or straw, all hives ought to be well painted at the beginning, and
kept so.
To have a sinmple and chcap hive, get a common straw hive, of somewhat
larger dimensions than commoni, and cut it across (about one third of its
length) from the upper or conical end; fit to this end a round piece of wood
about an inch in thickness, having in its centre a hole about an inch and a
nalf in diameter, fitted with a corkl or bung. Take another hive of ordinary
dimensions, and place it over this. This is called catping. Wihen, during
the proper season, the bees have filled the lower part of the hive, and show
symptoms of requiring more room, you have only to draw out the cork, and
place the cap over the board. This acts as a bell-glass, and the honey
which will be collected in it will not be inferior to that procured from the
most costly set of bee-boxes. A coating of Roman cement on the exterior
surface of these hives will render them almost everlasting.
331
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
Glass hives are not to be recommended. Bees love darkness, and hate
light or observation. In a state of nature they seek some hollow, vacant
spot beneath a bank or rock, the cleft of a tree, or some similarly dark and
secluded place.
Huish is of the opinion that straw is the best material for making hives,
because it is clean, wholesome, dry, impervious to the efliets of the
weather; and being a warm advocate for the deprivation of a hive, in preference to the massacre of the bees, the particular shape of the hive became
a matter of the first consideration, and secondly, so to construct it that the
use of the sticks could be entirely abolished. In some parts of Greece, the
hives resemble exactly a large flower-pot, and he considered that that shape
offered to him every advantage which hlie was desirous of obtaining. The
combs, being begun at the top, would necessarily be larger tlhanl at the
bottom, and thus, acting on the principles of the wedge, they would be
prevented from falling down, and the extraction of them from the top would,
in comparison from the bottom, be a matter of great facility. In order,
however, to effect the extraction of the combs from the top, it was evident
that that advantage could not be gained were the top of the hive to be of
one piece, for as such it could not be lifted without moving the whole mass
of the combs, which, in the first place, would be next to an impossibility,
and, in the second, would tend to the utter ruin of the hive. Having, therefore, constructed a hive of the shape of a flower-pot, making the diameter
of the base not much smaller than that of the top, he placed a projecting
band at the top, on which he placed seven bars, according to the annexed
figure. These bars are fastened to the band of straw by small wooden
pegs, which are easily drawn out when a honey-comb is to be extracted.
-Pi,. 220.
With the knowledge that bees will not construct their combs on an insecure
foundation, he placed a piece of network over the bars, of which the meshes
are of a middling size, by which, in a degree, the bees were forced to attach
their combs to the bars, and thereby rendering their extraction more easy.
Over the network he placed a board of five divisions, attached to each other
332
BEES.
by hinges; so that any part of the interior of the hive could be exanmined
without exposing the whole. The network was evidently an annoyance to
tile bees, for in almost every instance the greater portion of it was nibbled
away. In the lapping-board nine holes were made, over which plates of
perforated tin were put, in order that the perspiration might escape, which
prevents the combs assuming that black appearance which is in general so
great an eyesore. According to this construction, the deprivation of the
hive is very easily effected, and may be accomplished by the most timid
person. The hive being covered with a top, according to the annexed cut,
it is taken off, and one of the side flaps being lifted up, the position of the
Fig. 221.
comb immediately exhibits itself. If it has not been constructed exactly
parallel with the bar, the opposite side may be examined, and that comb
selected for extraction which presents the greatest facility. It is, however,
necessary that the operator should have in readiness a pair of bellows, to
the orifice of which is attached a small tin box, with the lid and bottom well
perforated, into which some old rags or dried leaves, in an ignited state,
must be placed; and thus, being provided with the object most dreaded by
the bees, - namely, smoke, - as soon as the flap is opened, and the bees
present themselves, they can be driven away; and should they show any
disposition to return, the repetition of the smoke will curb in them all'future
inclination to annoy the operator.
The makle of Mr. Huish's hive was originally round. It was. however,
soon discovered that that shape carried with it the disadvantage of having
the side combs very small; and, therefore, after much trouble, hlie succeeded
in bringing it nearly to the square, by which the side combs are nearly as
large as those in the middle. Fig. 222 represents the hive.
Of late years, many new plans for bee-hives have been presented to the
public, some of which are great improvements on the old modes of construction and management. Among these may be named Beard's, Colton's,
Cutting's, Weeks', and Miner's; a still more valuable invention is that
recently patented by Arza Gilmore, Esq., which is commended by many
of our most intelligent and skilful apiarists, as one combining, in an emi
333
5 —
F-: —-: —-- -
.i
i- -
FAR,MER'S HAND-BOOK.
nent dec'ree, all the requisites of a perfect hive, and its introduction is
becoming mnore general than that of any other article now in the market.
Rig. 222.
The followiPg is a perspective view of a bee-house, or apiary, on Mr. Gil.
more's plan.
Fig. 223.
The above shows the front, with the openings for the bees - a door at the
end, leading into the apartment back of the hives, where you can go, and
examine the boxes, and inspect operations, unmolested. These houses niay
334
,,. I
amEaa
On the tops of all of them are slats or gratings made of wood, aboutt an inch
in widthl, aidl about a quarter of an inuch apart. They sl)ohl!t be,part far
eniouli to hct the bees pass through easily, but not so far apart as to allow
hem to lilid coimb that vould project through the cgratii, and connect with
comb blo(w. The o)bject is to be able to remove parts of the comb in the
I I
iI
I
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
hive when it gets old, and by sliding in a new section of hive, give them a
chance to renew it. In this way, all the comnb may be renewed in each hive,
from time to time. There is much advantage in this, for the bees are not
only more healthy and active with new, freshly-made comb, but, in process
of time, the cells, where the larvae are raised, become narrow and filled up
with bread, and the exuvia of the growing young; hence, bees bred in such
places are not so large and strong. This arrangement of hives enables the
bee-breeder to remove the old, and give the bees a chance to manufacture
new. These sections of the hive are held together by bits or small cleats
of wood, represented by c c c, which are fitted into slots cut in the edge of
each section, and held in their places by small wood screws. On the top
of the hive, as at e, is an orifice or hole, which may be closed by a slide,
and also a similar one on the sides, at d. These are for the purpose of
allowing the bees to pass from hive to hive, as they are placed in contact
with each other, and should be four or five inches square. They can thus
pass through the opening e, in the top, into the hive above, or into the hives
on either side, through the opening d, in the sides.
I%-. 225.
These sections, when put together, represent the front of the hive. It
will be perceived that holes, or notches, are cut on each side of the cleats
c c c, to allow the bees to pass and repass into and out of the hives, as is
usual in common hives. Any number of hives are placed in contact with
each other, side by side, and on the top of each other; and there is a communication throughout the whole, as above named, through the openings c
and d.
336
ol
CL
CL
BEES.
The next cut represents the back-side of the hive, where are seen the
cleats c c c, and the openings e and d. In addition to these are holes f f,
eight in number, bored with an inch or an inch-and-a-half bit. They are
i:iade to allow the bees to pass from the main hives into the boxes, which
Fig. 226.
e
0
; 3 ~~~~~~(
,re placed in contact with them, having an opening of the same size, to
match. These boxes are made of thin, light wood, having a pane of glass
inl front, through which it may be seen whether they are filled with honey
or not, before taking them away. They are seven and a half inches long,
and four and three-fourths' inches high. The cut g represents the glass
Fig. 227.
front; f f showing the opening on the back-side, corresponding with the
hole f, in the main hive. These boxes are kept in their places by means
29 x
331
FARHIER'S HAND-BOOK.
of a rack, similar to the rack or case in which small drawers are placed.
This is shown in the succeeding cut, and is extensive enough to cover the
whole of broadside of the hives- s s s s representing slides of wood, tin, or
zinc, by which the communication between the hives may be cut off when
desired.
These are the movable parts of the apiary. We will now proceed to
arrange them in the house or room in which they are to stand. In order to
E. 228.
~s
illustrate this arrangement, the interior of the house is seen with the badand ends removed, thus exposing the fixtures within. A A A A is the floor
of the house; B B B B is the front side. In order to let the bees pass out
and in, small openings or doors are made, either in the form of a long opelning, as in the shaded part represented by c in the upper part, or in the
square shaded parts, e e e c, below. Long openings are preferable. All
these openings are furnishcd with sbutters or slides, by which they may be
f
338
,;,i,
l
BEES.
completely closed, at will. The best arrangement for this is to have a long
opening with a groove at the top and bottom of it, so as to return the slides
Fig. 229.
I
I
.I
.I
339
0
.,
I.
, I
I.
I,Q
t
'
CP
-\
O'
q
Ql
FARDiER'S HAND-BOOK.
when put in. By these, any part of the opening can be shut, and openings
left just where you wish, which is often essential in directing the bees to
Fig. 230.
_. i[
p
i
J, -
_'
[ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~. 7 -r;l.
I
340
a~~~~~~Q R
WW\9Xt~r I
\
m
BEES.
ilch part of the hives as you wish. Two wide shelves, c c c c, are then
placed in the house, the fronts resting against the side of the house, and the
ends attached to posts or scantlings, which hold them firmly in their place.
Below the lower shelf, at D, is a closet sufficiently large to hold a common
bee-hive. This has a door, to shut tight and keep it dark, and a small
opening in the front. The use will be explained below. The dotted lines
on the shelves represent the spaces covered by the hives, when in place;
o o o represent slots or openings through the shelf, corresponding with the
openings in the top of the lower tier of hives, allowing the bees to pass
through into the upper tier.
We will now place the hives, and the rack or case to hold the boxes, in
their places, which will be represented in the last architectural figure, where
A A A A show the floor of the house, B B B B the front side, h h h the tops
of the upper tier of hives, o o o the ends of the slide regulating the passage
from hive to hive. After they are all placed, the boxes are darkened by being
covered with a curtain or shutter. These tiers of hives are represented as
not extending the whole lengthl of the house, but stopping two or three feet
short of the right-hand end. At this end, the hives are perforated with
holes, and a rack or case put up, which contains glass tumblers, lying on
their sides, with their mouths applied to the holes in the hives. The bees
enter these, and fill them with honey; a partition is put up at the end of
the shelves to keep the bees from entering the other part of the house, and
windows, w w, placed there, so that a spectator can stand and look into the
gallery in front of the hive, and see the bees pass and repass into and out
of the house. The hives are placed back a foot, or a foot and a half, from
the side of the house, which leaves free space for the bees, and enables them
to attack moths, or other intruders. We will suppose that you have the
hives and fixtures all arranged, and one swarm of bees at work in them;
Fig. 231.
you may then add as many swarms as you can procure, in the following
manner: You place the hive containing the swarm that you wish to add to
29*
341
FARMIIER S HAND-BOOK.
the swarms in the apiary, into the closet D, at the bottom of the house -
shutting the door, making all dark except the small opening in front. In a
short time, the bees will leave the imprisoned hive, and unite with the
swarm in the house, and work quietly and peaceably with them. When
booxes are taken from the cases, they will contain a few bees. Place thcm
in the dark closet D, and they will soon leave, and unite with the other
bees in their work.
The preceding cut represents a portion of the comb, or hexagonal cells
of the bee, and also a cell for the production of the queen-bee, cut open, to
show the difference of its form and size.
IV. OBTAINING STOCK.
Spring Stock.- A stock of bees may be procured either in the spring or
autumn. The former period is, perhaps, to be preferred, because it is the
fitting time for the removal of stocks from the old-fashioncd, awkward hives,
to the more improved modern rcceptacles; but it is more difficult to ascertain the exact condition of the stock which may be purchased ill spring than
in autumn. If, during the months of May or June, a purchase is to be
made. the garden, or other locality, in which the hive intended to be purchased stands, should be visited about mid-day; stand opposite to it, and
observe attentively the actions of its inhabitants. If they crowd busily in
and out of the hive, giving evidence of their industry by the laden appei'ance of their legs, and altogether showing a busy earnestness in their toils,
the hivNe may safely be bought, and if obtained before swarming has taken
place, so much the better.
Autumn Stock. -If the object be to obtain an autumnal hive, it is well
to ascertain, by observing the stand and the ground around the hive, that
the massacre of the drones has taken place. Observe the actions of the bees
-see that they are lively and industrious; and if, on your too near aI)I)roach, one or two bees dash at the face, it may be regarded as a sign of
Xvigor. Some writers speak of the necessity of purchasing only such stocks
as are in nice new hives. This is necessary to be attended to, but is not si
important if the interior of the hive be filled only with honey-colnb, and
with no old, w-orn-out comb, the accumulation of years. If there is reason
for doubt on the subject, fumigate the hive in the evening; then, turning
upl) the hive, the character of its contents may readily be ascertained. If
the comb l)e black, have nothing to do with the stock; the genuine color
of the comb is white, and, consequently, the lighter it is, the better the
stock.
To Secture Good Hives.- Unless the party can be depended on, it is best
never to send the hive to receive a swarm; otherwise a second swarm may be
342
BEES.
furnished instead of a first swarm - a comparatively valueless stock for just
the very thing desired. The first swarm begins the formation of the combs
at the middle of the apex of the hive; the second does so at the side.
The person who intends to erect an apiary should purchase a proper
number of hives at the latter end of the year, when they are cheapest. The
hives should be full of combs, and well stored with bees. The purchaser
should examine the combs, in order to know the age of the hives. The
combs of that season are white; those of a former year are of a darkish-yellow; and when the combs are black, the hives should be rejected, because
old hives are most liable to vermin and other accidents. If the number of
hives wanted have not been purchased in the autumn, it will be necessary
to remedy this neglect after the severity of the cold is past in the spring.
At this season, bees which are in good condition will get into the fields
early in the morning, return loaded, enter boldly, and do not come out of
the hive in bad weather, for when they do, this indicates that they are in
great want of provisions. They are on the alert on the least disturbance,
and by the loudness of their humming we judge of their strength. They
preserve their hives free from all filth, and are ready to defend them to the
utmost.
The summer is an improper time for buying bees, because the heat of the
weather softens the wax, rendering the comb liable to break if they are not
very well secured. The honey, too, being then thinner than at any other
time, is more apt to run out at the cells, which is attended with a double
disadvantage, viz., the loss of the honey, and the daubing of the bees,
whereby many of them may be destroyed. A first and strong swarm may,
indeed, be purchased, but unless it is permitted to stand in the same garden
until the autumn, it should be carried away in the nig,ht, after it has been
l ived.
V. SWARMIING.
Time of Swarming. -Bees multiply, during the breeding season, with
tstonishing rapidity; it is, therefore, not to be wondered at that the young
brood should speedily produce croiwding in the hive, thus becoming not only
inconvenienced for room, but more than agreeably warm; it is also supposed that the queen becomes alarmed at the number and progress to maturity of the royal larvae, which, indeed, she would fiin kill, were not she
prevented from doing so by the workers. While swarmilig is by no meaLns
o be forced, yet, if symptoms of a swarm present themselves early, say in
April or Mlay, it may be permitted to take place, provided the parent stock
be still sufficiently strong in numbers; otherwvise, it is, of course, highly disadvantageous to the wsell-being of the hive, as w%ell as to the emigranilts.
li'ccl,i);..S o'f Sieraming. - The most certain indications of swarming are,
343
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
the hive appearing full of bees -clusters of them gathering on the outside,
and sometimes hanging from the alighting-board; they also neglect their
Fig. 232.
daily toil, and refrain from going abroad in search of sweets, even though
the weather be very fine. Just before they take flight, the hive is hushed,
the bees are silent, and carefully loading themselves with provender for their
journey. For two or three nights prior to swarming, a peculiar humming
noise may be heard within the hive; the second swarm is announced by a
different sort of buzzing, being, according to some writers, the result of a
contest as to which of the two queens shall lead off from the hive. The old
queen leads off the first swarm.
To Prevent Swarming. - If a swarm be about to quit the hive, the slightest change of weather will prevent their doing so, but nothing so effectually
as a shower of rain; hence, an excellent mode of preventing it, when the
bees cluster on the outside of the hive, is by syringing them with water from
a common metallic syringe. WVhen a swarm leaves the hive, if it do not
344
BEES.
settle on some tree or bush, but remain in the air, and there is fear of its
going off to too great a distance, it may be brought down by throwing up sand
or dust, which the bees mistake for rain, or by firing a gun, which they
mistake for thunder; hence the old fashion of following a swarm with the
noise of fire-shovels and frying-pans. It is necessary to be diligent in at
once securing the swarm, fior the bees send out scouts previous to swarming,
whose duty it is to select a proper habitation for the colony. On this
account, it is a good plan, when a swarm is anticipated, to leave an empty
hive, previously smeared on the interior with honey, in soime couvenicnt
place, but not too near the old one.
To Sccurei a Sitc-ai- that hlas Setiled.- When the swarm settles. the bees
collect themselves in a heap around the queen, handing to each other by
means of their feet. Wheni thus suspended from a tree (Fig.'232) they may be
secured by holding an empty hive under them, and tapping the branch from
which they are suspended. They should, in this case, be sprinkled with
honey and ale, and confined for about twelve hours. When a swarmn divides
into two or more bands, and settles separately, it is probable that there are
two queens. In this case one of them must be secured. If, through inattentioni, a second swarm comes off, as soon as it is hived, secure the queen, and
return the swarm to the hive; indeed, when deprived of its queen, it will
usually immediately return of its own accord. MAany persons suppose that
the greater the number of swarms, the richer will be the hives in August
The very reverse of this, however, is the case; for when a hive is weak in
numbers, a sufficient number of bees cannot be spared to go forth for honey,
and hence they will be scarcely able to collect enough foir their actual support, far less to collect any surplus for their master's benefit.
Effccts of Scarming. Brigs, a distinguished apiarist, remarks
that the swarming of bees is a subject on which much misconception prevails. Most persons who keep their bees on the old straw-hive plan, and
suffocating system, appear to anticipate their swarming with much anxiety,
and thirnkl that the greater number of swarms, -firsts, seconds, thirds, &c.,
- that they obtain from their old hives during the summer, the more remunerative will they prove to the owner at the end of the season; whereas the
reverse of the above practice is much nearer of being the best system to
flllow. It is proved that June is the principal month for swarming, in
ordinary seasons; and it is in June and July that the greatest quantity of
honey is stored up by the bees, when managed judiciously. When the
swarmning is assisted and encouraged during June and July, the old stocks
are considerably weakened, and the swarms are employed in buiilding combs
in their new hives, collecting pollen, and attending to the yonlig brood, until
the best part of the honey-storing season is over; so that, at the honey
345
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
harvest in autumn, it will frequently require the contents of five or six old
stocks, or late swarms, to produce as much honey as might have been obtained from one colony on the system of management which is recommended.
To Avoid Sicarinig,, in the Case of Collateral Boxes. - In collateral boxes,
and in capped hives, swarming may be prevented by affordiing the bees
additional accommodations, and reducing the temperature; and for this end,
it is recommended, by most apiarists, that the hive or box should be furnished with a thermometer, as well as a ventilator. Those, however, who do
not possess these accommodations, may manage well enough, by proper
observation and attention to the symptoms which have been detailed. When
these appear in a collateral box-hive, open one of the partitions, and admit
the bees into a new apartment; if all be full, take off a box, empty and
restore it. In the case of a capped hive, remove the bung, and admit the
bees to the cap; if full, remove, empty, and restore it. The most favorable
degrees of heat for the prosperity of the brood are from 75~ to 90~ in the
stolck-hiv-e, and from 65< to 75, in the side boxes. Thie hleat, in a prosperotis hive, is sometimes upwards of 70~ it December, and vwij], in hot summer weather, sometimes rise to near 120~, at which time the combs are in
great danger of being damaged, and of falling to the floor of the hItive; this
may, however, be prevented, by giviing extra room when required, and by
shading the hives from extreme heat, as previously directed. And again,
it should always be borne in mind that all operations with bees should be
performed as carefully and speedily as circumstances will permit, so that the
bees will scarcely know that their habitation has been meddled with. After
hiring a new swarm, if unfavorable weather follow their departure, feed
them, otherwise they will be starved; indeed, it would be well if each new
swarm were always fed for a few days, as this will assist them in gaining
strength in numbers and in store, before the principal part of the honey
season goes over. The weight of a good swarm should be from five to
seven pounds, taid all uinder five pounds in weighlt should be united to otlhers.
In hivipg a s-warmn, it is w-ell to be protected with a proper bee-dress. Some
persons are particularly ulnhatp)y in possessing those qualities which render
them disagreealle to bees.'The main objections are, excessive timidity,
and likewise, with some, an unpleasant odor, in some instances the result
of personal itegliFence, but frequently of peculiarity of constitution. The
remedies are, a bIee-dress for the former, and the use of some strong perfitm(,
which the bees like, and which will effectually conceal whatever is offensive
to them.
Some writers on bee management have suggested other modes to prevent
objectionable swarming, besides the collateral boxes and the capped hive.
346
BEES.
Among these plans may be mentioned storifying or piling, and eking. The
latter is speedily disposed of; it consists of adding ekes, or additional bands
of straw, to the bottom of the common hive, according as additional room is
required. The objection is, that, although it may thus answer the purpose
during one season, the next involves as much perplexity as ever.
Acdoaltedozess of the Different Hives. -The objections urged against the
storified hive are, first, that it occasions the bees greater trouble and labor,
rendering their labor less productive; second, the absence of provision for
dividinlg the ordinary cells from the more peculiar and mysterious operations
of the queen, and of course a consequent deterioration of the honey in respect
to purity, besides much inconvenience and waste of time to the poor bees,
-for a laden bee cannot mount up from one box to another, and through a
labyrinth of comb, with anything like comfort and ease; thirdly, in taking
a box of honey, the proprietor cannot be certain of not taking away a
quantity of brood-comb, &c., -though this objection may be classed with that
which rests on the impurity of the honey, with this additional one -that
this also refers to loss of life which the bees, both brood and adult, must
thus sustain; and fourthly, in consequence of these objectionable circumstances, which are the inevitable consequences of the piling system, the
profit accruing from such management will be far inferior to that obtainable
by the system already recommended.
It is said that in piled boxes bees are subjected to unnecessary labor,
w-hichl is so far a waste of time. From piled boxes not nearly the quantity
of honey and wax is procured that may be procured from collateral boxes;
nor is that deficient quantity of a quality at all comparable with the other.
In managing piled boxes many bees are destroyed.
VI. - THE HONEY HARVEST.
Tinme and locle.- Those who possess collateral boxes may begin taking
a box or a bell-glass very early in the season, - indeed, even so early as May
or June; this must be, of course, dependent on the state of affairs, and on
their own discretion. Those who keep their bees in the capped hive may
also get a cap full of honey in or about the middle of June. The real honey
harvest, however. is that which should take place in the beginning or middle
of Aunust. WTith reference to the collateral hives, no instructions need be
added to those given when describing Mr. Nutt's boxes.
Tihe old mode of obtaining honey was, as is well known, by sulffocating the
inmates of the hive. "Futnig,ation" is a word employed by bee-keepers
to express the process in which, by the aid of certain intoxicating snoklie,
the insects become temporarily stupefied; in which state they are perfectly
harmless, aitd may be deprived of their honey without any risk or trouble.
347
FARMIER'S IIAND-BOOK.
They subsequently recover from their stupefaction, and are nothing the
worse for it. The dried fuzz-ball, and the frog-cheese, are mtuch used for
the purpose; but, in their absence, rags steeped in a solution of saltpetre,
or a fewv tobacco-leaves wrapped in brown paper, will do nearly as well.
If tobacco be used, care is necessary, lest the fumigation be carried to too
great an extent, so as to cause the death of. some or all of the stockl. Persons not accustomed to deal with bees should wear an over-all of thin gauze
over the head and breast, and gloves on their hands. With this, and a little
bottle of aqua ammoniae, or aqua potassa, to be used in case of accident, they
can g(o to work with coolness and deliberation.
There should be provided, for the purpose of filmigation, a small tin box,
with a tube ex!ending, from each of two opposite ends; one end of this tube
being so fashioned that it can readily be inserted into the hive, and the other so
Fig. 233.
formed that it can readily be attached to the tube of an ordinary bellows.
The box shotuld be so formed that it can be opened at pleasure. In this box
the matter to be employed in fumigation is first placed, having, of course,
been previously ignited; and the proper end of the tube having been inserted
into the hive at the lower part, ply the bellows gently. The bees begin at
once to feel the effects of the smoke. At first an unusual humming and
commotion will be heard, but in less than ten minutes all will be still.
The bees will fall upon the board under the hive, and lie quite still, as if
dead. The hive may then be removed, and a fresh hive-the interiot well
smeared with honey- may be placed over them, or they may be united to
another stock, which should also be previously ftlmigated, one queen being
removed. Some persons may conceive it to be a difficult matter to come at
the queen. WVhen fumigation is resorted to, she is, of course, easily discovered; but even when it is dispensed with, and the practice adopted which
will presently be described, she is not so very difficult to come at; for, on a
hive being turned up and tappec, the queen is among the first, if not, indeed,
the very first, who makes her appearance. The queen usually lodges near
the crown of the hive, and is, when fumigation is resorted to, one of the
last to fall; she will, therefore, in this case, be found amongst the uppermost bees. In practising fumigation, two persons should act in concert,
each taking a hive and operating upon it, in order that both stocks should
348
BEES.
be simultaneously in a similar condition as to intoxication. The hive must
also be well covered with a cloth, to prevent the escape of the smoke. When
the two stocks have been united in the manner described, it is advisable to
confine the insects to their hive for that night and the following day. Do
not, however, wholly deprive them of air in doing so, or they may be smothered. On the evening of the following day, about dusk, uncover the hive,
and open the entrance. The bees will probably at first tumultuously issue
forth, but, finding the lateness of the hour, will as hastily return. It is
necessary to be cautious at this time.
The most suitable period of the year for uniting weak with strong stocks
is from the middle of August to the latter part of September. This, however, is not a proper time to remove stocks from straw hives to boxes, for
the season is too far advanced. When taken from their warm hive, and
removed into a cold box, bees rarely recover from the effects of the fumigation sufficiently to resume business. May or June is the best time for this
removal, or perhaps still earlier, - say the beginning of April, - before the
eggs of the queen-bees have attained the stage of larvae. If the operation
be performed in cold weather, it is recommended that it be done in a room
where the temperature is about 600. Twelve hours, or thereabouts, suffice
for the recovery of the bees, and they may then be removed with safety to
their ordinary stand.
To prepare the fuzz-balls, put the ball into a piece of stout paper, and
compress it as tightly as you can; tie it up closely in this condition, and put
it in a moderately-cool oven, - about as cool as that from which bread has
just been withdrawn; - let it remain there until it will serve as tinder.
The quantity of the prepared fungus necessary for the fimigation of a hive
is a piece about the size of a hen's egg,-less may, in some instances,
answer, but it is better to have too much than too little. Prior to union,
-even where fumigation has been employed, -the sprinkling with ale and
liquid honey should not, on any account, be omitted.
The system which dispenses altogether with filmigation, called tapping
or drivig,, is spoken of favorably by some writers. It is as fi)llows: -
When daylight has died away, and twilight appears, the bees will all be
quietly reposing, unsuspectingly, in the hive; - let whoever is in the habit
of tending the bees be the agent in the process; -no assistance is necessary;
- let him or her take an old chair from which the bottom is out, - a worn
one is best, as it best fits the reversed hive, - turn up the hive on the chair,
and place over it an empty one, which has been smeared interiorly with
honey, or sugar dissolved in beer; wrap a cloth around the point of junction,
for the first few minutes, and with a stick tap the reversed hive round the
sides, beginning near the bottom, and gradually ascending in your strokes,
30
349
FAr3IER'S HIAND-BOOK.
towards the top; let the strokes be not too rough, lest the combs be
loosened.
Ere this operation has proceeded very far, a humming noise will be
heard, and presently the disturbed bees, more than half asleep, will mount
into the upper hive. If the ascent of the bees appears checked, before all
have left the lower hive, remove the cloth, -which, by the way, is no
longer necessary, when once the ascent has commenced, - and raise the
upper half an inch or so above the lower. This will be found to facilitate
the emigration, and will be unattended with danger. The lower hive
being fully deserted, place that containing the bees on the stand. Some
like to close the aperture for a time, but this is useless.
First Harvest. - The most secure mode of procedure, and the most
approved, is to unite the exiled bees with those of another hive. Remem)er always to leave the bees a sufficient store of honey as food. This is
usually done by setting apart what is called a stock-hive, - a hive well
filled with honey, and capable of containing and supporting more bees.
Turn up this stock-hive, and sprinkle its drowsy inmates, or rather drench
them, with sugar or honey, dissolved in beer. Do the same with the
exiles; and once again invert the abode of the latter over the mouth of the
inverted stock-hive. Proceed in other respects as before; and, by tapping,
d(rive them down. The two families rapidly recover from their surprise,
and the agreeable employment afforded to all their individual members,
of licking the results of the sprinkling from each other's bodies, will
soon produce friendliness, and meanwhile the liquid with which you
have saturated them will prevent their distinguishing betwixt stranger
and comrade. Of course, precaution was taken previously to remove
the queen of the swarm to be united to the stock-hive. This is the first
harvest.
Second Harvest. - By adopting the following approved system of management, a second harvest may be obtained, before placing the bees in their
winter quarters. This latter operation is termed shi,ing.
From the middle of August to the end of September is the usual time
when we perceive the food of bees beginning to fail them. This is the
period for removing them to the "heather," which is then in bloom.
Before moving, ascertain the condition of the hives; for those which are
well stocked with honey should be deprived by the process already detailed,
and this should be done some days prior to removal, for the combs containing the young may have been loosened in the operation, and the
bees should be allowed time to fasten them once again securely in their
places.
Water carriage, when procurable, is the best, as it shakes the hives
350
351
least; but when land carriage must be resorted to, the hives should be car ried on poles, slung on men's shoulders. The journey should be pursured
at night only, and the bees suffered to go forth and feed during the day.
Such is their instinct, that they will readily find their way back; but they
should not be suffered to go forth until at the distance of upwards of ten or
twelve miles from their original home, otherwise they will be lost in
endeavoring to regain it,- a moderate distance induces them to abandon
the idea, and to become reconciled to their new quarters. If traveling by
canal, the hives should be removed from the boat, and placed on stands, at
some distance from the bank, ere the insects are let out, otherwise they will
be lost in thousands by falling into the water on their return.
E,ramining and l'eighing.- About the middle of September, examine
your hives; at all events, do not, whatever be the aspect of the season,
neclect this necessary operation until October; but if the season appear
likely to turn out to be a severe one, set about it even earlier than the time
named. Understand, however, that the bees cannot be deprived of any
honey so late as this.
In glass or observatory hives, and such as are formed on the collateralbox or piled-box principle, there are usually such contrivances as will
admit of inspection of the hive and its contents without handling it. In the
ordinary hive, however, we cannot avoid manually ascertaining the weight
and condition of the stock. In order to do so, a previous acquaintance with
the weight of the hive, and of the probable number of bees which it contains, is necessary; and it would be as well to have the stands so contrived
as to admit of their being raised with the hive for the purpose of weighing,
as, if the latter be forcibly separated from the former, the cement of propolis
gets broken, - the substance which unites the hive to its position on the
stand, - and annoys and troubles the bees.
A hive should contain twenty pounds of honey for its support' during
winter; but it is a mistake to suppose that an increase of numrber in the
hive, produced by union, will require an increase of food. In fact,
precisely the contrary is the case; and the more abundant the stock
of the bees in autumn, the richer and the better able to workl will they be in
spring, - the more forward, therefore, will they be in summer, and the
greater will be the profit. The weight of honey, above named, is, of
course, exclusive of both hive and bees. In one pound-sixteen ouncesthere are about five thousand bees; from fifteen to twenty thousand bees
constitute a strong hive,- that is, from four to five pounds in wei-ht. If,
after making these calculations and deductions, the stocks are f(ound under
w'eight, either supply them with food, or unite two or more together.
A.e will cause hives to weiglh heavier than their-legitimatt. contents
13F,ES.
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
would call for. This is occasioned by an accumulation of bee-bread, and the
cast sloughs which had formerly served as envelopes to the young. In the
ease of old hives, therefore, allow from two to five pounds, according to
age, for these matters. The substances referred to should be occasionally
removed from the hive, as otherwise they will accumulate to such an exent
as to render the hive too small for breeding, and the stock will thus soor
become extinct. Spring is the proper season for removing these substances;
the process is very simple, consisting merely in fumigating the hives, and
thus rendering the bees for the time insensible; then, while they are in this
state, turning up the hive and cutting out a portion of the old comb, - only
cut away half at a time. The following spring, perform the same operation; -the gap made by the knife the previous year will be found completely restored, and the remaining portion of old comb may now be
removed. By this system of constantly inducing a renovation of the combs,
the stock may be preserved in a state of perpetual youth.
Duration of Hires. - The hive, even if made of straw, will last for an
indefinite length of time, if protected externally by a thick coat of whitewash, or, which is better, Roman cement. Some object entirely to paint
being used for this purpose. The cutting of the combs may also be
resorted to in cases where the hives are infested withI moths; under such
circumstances, all the combs that contain the larvae of those insects may be
cut away.
Food for Bees. - With regard to food for bees, honey, when it is on
hand and can be spared, is, of course, the best; but, if you cannot give
honey, substitute for it ale and sugar, boiled gently together in a clean,
well-tinned vessel, over a clear fire, for about five minutes. One pound
and a half of sugar may be added to each quart of ale, and the mixture is to
be skimmed, according as the scum rises to the surface, during boiling;
when the syrup is taken from the fire, add to it about a tea-spoonful of common table-salt for each quart of syrup.
It is bad to be compelled to feed the bees in winter, as, by descending to
the bottom of the hive in order to get at the food, they expose themselves to
cold, and many perish; by early examination in autumn, and uniting weak
hives, together with judicious feeding at that season, if necessary, the winter management will be simplified. Some persons defer feeding until the
bees are absolutely in want. This is wrong; the assistance should be
rendered several weeks before the hive is in a state of positive destitution,
otherwise, when the food is given them, the bees will be too weak to partake of it. The best mode of feeding is, to put the honey, or syrup, as the
case may be, into a shallow box; lay over the sweet liquid a sheet of
strong paper, perforated with holes, through which the bees can suck the
352
BI,ES.
svrip witlout filling into the mess. or )(ecoming clogged by it. Attach thle
[)ox to the mouth of the hive; the bees will soon niake it out, ellter, arnd
tretove the store to their cells. It is bad to lift up the hive fori the p)lr)ose
,f feeding, as, by so doing, the temecrature of the interior is loNwere(l, and
tl stock often destroyed. When the feeder is attached to the entrance of
tlhe hiv-e, all this is obviated.
VII. MANAGEMIENT DURING WINTER AND EARLY SPRING.
Atiti:iino aid Ill'i7tr Care. -One of the most important particulars con ni(ctedl with bee mianagemetit is takinlg care that they are abundantly supplied
%v ith food in autumn, and also takiig- care at that season to ascertain whether
or not they are sufficiently stroag in 7tlutbes, an(l, if not, uiile thle tveak stocks,
so as to form strong oncs. It is b)y such treatment as this that )ees are pre s(rv-e(1 in health and streng(th during the winter, and in a condition to attend
p)roperly to their brood in the erly sl)rlinl.
Fc'edizg-. In a large straw hive, there should be left, at the atitumnal
honey harvest, from twenty to tveity-five, or even, according to the size of
the hiv-e, thliirty pound(ls weight of honey, exclusive of the weight of hive,
sttand, anid bees. If, from any accident, the hive should be fotiundl deficient
i) xveil(ht, you must make tip the deficiency by artificial fee(linrg, either with
hou(t,v or w ith tlhe mixture of l)eer and sugar, as has already be(,n descril)ed.
It is not, hlj)e-cxer. very stron a evidellce of the apia-rian skill of anry otte wrlo
is Co)tii)ll)tlIe(I to fieled his b('es ifi the auttlmni; and, indeed, fw should be
o!ilitol to lo so, but those who use too s/l-1l a hive, and whose swarmns are
rolls (tu(1litlv too v;wek, too feelt)le in point of number, to acquire sltifficient
xwealth d(uringr the proper seasoti for so doing, or from whomi there has been
injudicioutsly taken too much store, at a period too late in the seasoit to admit
of the )ees replenishing the hive.
Va'-orecit-I/, the Entrance, and Corering. - Ithaving ascertained that the
sto(cks a re sili)plie(d with sufficient quantity of food for their support durinrg
the wittwr. or that they are already possessed of enough, the next tlhing is
to tt(orrot, the entrance of the hive so that it will scarcely admit of the
pass:iqe of IImorei than one bee at a time; and towards the middle of Novemit)er the etitrance should be closed nearly altogrether. The hives should( be
coveredl up witlih matting, fern, or other similar substance, in order to preserve
tliem trom rain, frtost, or, the most dangerous of all, the sun's rays of a fine
witter's (ta'. These deceptive rays would afford a temptation to lIt, 1)les
to sally forthl, and the result would be that they would become chilletl by) the
c,tltl. Few w,%outld survive the flight so as to return to the hive' its te,l~:,,'at'iie wold1 fll, aod thte wilole stock would lbe lost. Tht lI;;e( s st dld
rehain titus carefullv covered and closed( until the begiioitig of };c:h
30* ~
353
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
A coating of Roman cement, as previously mentioned, will protect the hives
from cold in winter, heat in summer, from moths, and from wvet. When
there is snow on the ground, the entrances of the hives should be entirely
closed.
Dampness, and Ventilation.- To preserve from internal dampness, during
winter, carefully ventilate, placing a bell-glass, well covered with flannel,
over the aperture on the top of the hive or box, removing it from time to time,
and carefully wiping away from its interior the damp formed by condensed
vapor.
Materials for Covering. - The materials with which hives are covered and
surrounded should consist of dry leaves pressed closely together, or dry and
powdered charcoal or cinders, and may be several feet in thickness, to preserve the bees in a cool and torpid state, and at a regular temperature, in
which state they should be kept as dry, dark, and quiet, as circumstances
will permit.
Spring Care. -As the spring approaches, the winter covering should be
gradually removed, and those hives which have been buried placed in their
summer situations. Small quantities of food should then be supplied, as
occasion requires, until the gooseberry and currant-bushes are in bloom, at
which time it may, in general, be considered that their winter is past.
Warm weather, accompanied with moderate showers, is most agreeable to
them at this period; and it is considered that flowers yield the greatest
amount of mellifluous juices when the weather is calm and suitable as above,
and with the wind blowing from any point of the compass from south to
west inclusive.
Some pursue a mode of preserving bees by interment during winter. It
consists of laying some very dry powdered earth upon the bottom of an old
cask, to the depth of about half a foot, pressed down very hard, and setting
upon this the stool with the hive; then preserving a communication with
the air, by cutting a hole in the cask, opposite to the mouth of the hive, and
placing a piece of reed from the mouth of the hive to the hole in the cask
then covering the hive up with a quantity of dry earth similar to that on
which it stands.
In spring it is only necessary to remove the winter coverings gradually
and with caution; to examine also the state of the bees' provisions, and, if
necessary, feed them. Be cautious in at once giving them liberty, or in
doing so too early, or in unsettled weather. Many bees lose their lives from
neglect of these precautions, simple as they are, and obvious as their necessity must appear to every reflective bee-keeper. It is well, for these reasons,
that the mouth of the hive should face due west, until all these dangers have
passed away; of course, when the working season has arrived, all restraint
354
BEE;
must be removed, the aspect of the hive moved southward, and the insect
left entirely to themselves. When spring feeding is necessary, it is usually
in April, for then the demands of the young brood call for a greater consumption of honey than ordinary; and from want of attention to this circumstance, hives have been lost so late in the season as the month of May.
Spring, also, say about the beginning of March, is the proper time for
transferring stocks from hives to boxes, remembering that the latter should
be previously wvell cleaned out, their interior smeared, and supplied with a
portion of honey, in a proper feeder. As the warm weather approaches,
shade the hives from the sun. If the bees be induced by the heat to attempt
injudicious or ill-timed swarming, and hang in clusters about the entrance
of the hives, if advisable, it can be checked by sprinkling them with some
water. They will mistake this for rain, and retire within the hives to
resume their work.
VIII. HOW TO TREAT THE PRODUCE OF THE HONEY HARVEST.
Removing. -In the first place, remove the store to some room without a
fireplace, for the bees have been known to make use of even that mode of
access in order to come at the honey, which they are able to scent from a
considerable distance. Close all the doors and windows, previously having
in the room whatever implements are wanted- viz., some large glazed
earthen vessels, clean, new, horse-hair sieves, a strainer, some clean linen
cloths, and abundance of water to wash in. Some recommend burning cowdung, or rotten hay, at the doors and windows of the room in which the
work is being done, in order to keep away the bees.
The Combs.- The first care should be to examine the combs, and free
them from all dirt, grubs, young bees, or other foreign matters, remembering,
ot course, to have previously well and thoroughly washed hands. Then cut
the combs horizontally into pieces of an inch wide, and lay them on the
sieve over the glazed earthen vessels; when they have dropped all the
honey that they will yield without squeezing, put them in the cloth already
mentioned, and wring it over another vessel; this will furnish the secondclass honey - that spontaneously yielded is called virgin honey, and is equal
in purity to that obtained from the bell-glass. When all is obtained that can
be by squeezing through the cloth or bag, carefully cover up the two sorts,
put the comb, also well covered, into a vessel by itself, and remove all the
other cloths, vessels, and other utensils, to the apiary, that the bees may lick
them clean.
Obtaining and Preparing the Wax. - The next object is to obtain the
wax. For this purpose, put the combs into a clean vessel, aind add n,s much
soft water as they will foat in - distilled water would be best, but rain
35D
FARMIER S HAND-BOOK.
will answer nearly as well. Place the vessel on a clear and not too hot fire,
and watch it, stirring occasionally, until the comybs be cotml)letely li(utefie(ld.
'Then strain this throutlh a fine canvas bag, into a tub of cold water. The
water first flows throLith, an(l then the bag requires presss,re to niake it yield
the wax. A simple press recommendled is, to have ready a piece of
smooth board of such a lengthl that, when one end of it is placed iu the tub
of cold water, the other end may be convenienitly rested against, iiiid securely
stayed, by your breast. Up)on this inclined plane lay the drilfilig, reeking
strainer, and keep it fromn slipping into the cold water by bringing its uliper
part over the top of the board, so as to be held firmly b)etwceii it and your
breast. If the strainer be made with a broad lieni roundl its top, a piece of
strong tape or cord passed throtugh such hemn will draw it close, and should
be long enough to forirm a stirrup fir the foot, by which an add(litiolnal power
wVill be gained of ke(t)iing the scalding hot strainer in its proper plae on the
board; then, by compressing the bag, or rather its contelnts, with ally convenient roller, the -wax will ooze throiugh, and run down tile board into the
cold water, on the sutrftce of which it w-ill set in thin flakes. Wlhen this
part of the operation is finished, collect the w-ax, pit it into a clean saucepan,
in which is a little water, to keep the wax fiom being( burned to the bottom;
melt it carefully, for should it be neglected, and suffered( to boil our, serious
mischief might ensue, liquidl wax beiing of a very inflaminnmable nature; let it
be melted over a slow fire, and skim off the dross as it rises to the top; then
pour it into such moulds or shapes as may bc dlesired, having first well
rinsed them, in order that you may be able to get the wax, w\hen cold and
solid, out of them, without breaking either the Iiottu(ls or the wax; place
them, covered over with cloths, or with pieces of board(l, whe(re the wax will
cool slowly, because the more slowly it cools, the more solid will it lie, anid
free from flaws and cracks. The wax may be bleached by re-melting it, and
running it several times into very thin cakes, sutlffered to cool, and exposed
to the influence of thie air and sun. This will render it white. Thie honey
may also be clarifiedl I)by placing tihe vessel containing it in hot water, and
continuing to skim as long as any scum arises. In order to preserve it, it
should be stored in jars, well bladdered and otherwise secured, and kept dry.
IX. THE DISEASES AND ENEMIIES OF BEES.
Diseases. - When properly attended to, and managed on the improved
system, bees are neither very subject to disease nor very liable to suffer
from the attacks of enemies. The diseases to which they are subject are
ditirrhcea and d(yseniery. Thie latter is probably only produced by neg(lect
of the former; at all events, we may regard the two atIlctions as springing
from the one cause.
356
BEES.
Columella speaks of diarlirhea as a purging which seizes bees annually, in
the spriing; and conceives it to be occasioned by the bees strfeiting themsclves on the young flowers in their first repast, and recommends giving
them rosemary and honey diluted with water. According to others, this
looseness is occasioned by the bees feedinig on what is called "candied
hoiiey," which is thought to be formed by being too long in the hive, too
stale, and hence sour and unfit for use. To prevent this, examine periodically the hives or boxes, and remove, on each occasion, a portion of the old(
or miouldy combs. The presence of candied honey in a hive is so obnoxious
to bees that it frequently induces themt to desert it.
The candied honey proves fatal to bees in another way beside their being
poisoned by it. When the bees find candied honey in the combs, they,
knowing its prejudicial qualities, if they have other and wholesome store,
throw it out of the combs, and it, of course. fLlls on the bottom-board of the
hive. They can then neither enter nor leave the hive without bedaubing
themselves, and their endeavors to free themselves and their companions
fronm the incumbrance only make matters worse. WVhen bees are found
in this state, it is difficult to relieve theni; but if anything will do so, it is
immersion in tepid water; for this purpose they can be swept into a tub
with the wing of a fo-wl, leave them in the water until insensible, and unite
them, wheni they revive a little, to the bees of another hive, taking care to
serve these latter similairly. Somtie attribute purginig and dysentery to the
bees feeding on too pure honey, which is said not to be sufficiently substantial for them by itself; and the cure recommended is to give them, from
another hive, conmbs well supplied with bee-bread or crude wax.
~,?l('lics. The citezlics of bees are far more numerous than their diseases, includingi, as they do, poultry, mice, lizards, toads, frogs, snails,
slugs, caterpillars, mothls, millipedes, wood-lice, ants, lice, spiders, wasps,
hornets. Foicls should not be permitted in any apiary. They will kill and
eat the bees; and such as they do not destroy, they will annoy and disturb.
Afice do not dare attack the hive w-hile the bees are vigorous; but as the
cold approaches, and the bees become less active, the mouse enters, and,
comnmencing with the lower combs, ascends by decrees as the bees become
torpid, until he either clearis all awy or, biv the smnell of the honey he has
wasted on the board, induces other bees to come and plunder. As soon as
the warm weathler returns, the stlirviviig bees will also leave the hive in
disgust. The recmedv is easy. 13y liaLviuig the straw hives,- if' such are
used, - coated exteriorly withl Romin cement, the mice will be pirevented
fronm nestling in the strawv, w-hence otherwise they would speedily eat their
wayv into the interior; andl, by narrowingv the entrance of the hive in the
mannier already described, the little intruders will be effectually kept out.
If the stands be placed on a single foot, or if the feet are so placed under
357
FIARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
the foot-board as to leave a wide, projecting ledge, no mice can arrive at
the hive. Toads will kill bees occasionally, but not in great numbers; and
the same remarks are applicable to Frogs. Snails and Slurs are not absolutely enemies of bees, as they have no design upon them or their honey in
entering the hive, but merely do so from accident. The mischief done by
them consists in the alarm and confusion they occasion. The bees first
attack the unfortunate intruder, and kill him with their stings; after which,
thley carefully encase him in propolis, effectually preventing putrefaction or
the production of maggots. Caterpillars - especially the wax-ntoths, so
called from the ravages they make amongst the combs as soon as they
obtain entrance - are very injurious. By having the legs of the stand
placed as has been described, no caterpillar can climb up to the hive; but
this will not prevent the moth herself entering and depositing eggs in the
hive; and so prolific are these moths, that a single brood would suffice to
destroy a whole stock. Periodical fumigation, and cutting away such
combs as contain the grubs, are the remedies to be adopted. MIoths are
only nocturnal enemies; during the day there is nothing to fear from their
attacks. Let the entrance to the hive, therefore, be nearly closed in the
evening, and the bees will be protected from their ravages. Some recommend, as a trap for moths, a bottle, or other vessel, with a long and narrow
neck increasing gradually to a wide mouth, and having a light in the neck,
to be placed under the hive in the evening. This will destroy numbers.
Another particular to be attended to is to have the stocks sufficiently strong,
and for this purpose, if the hive attacked be weak, unite to it the bees of
another hive, in the manner already described. The bees are themselves,
if sufficiently strong in numbers, both willing and able to destroy the
intruders. If weak, they will necessarily fall victims. Millipedes, or Woodlice, are often produced by the stand being made of decayed wood, or the
hive being placed too near an old hedge. Let the stand be of new wood,
and strew soot on the ground under and about the hive. This will also
serve in part as a protection against the attacks of Ants. All such ants'
nests as are found in the neighborhood of a hive should be destroyed. Lice
are small parasitical insects, of a red color, which adhere to the body of the
bee, and derive their nourishment from her juices. They are about the
size of a grain of mustard-seed, or rather smaller; Morocco tobacco will
kill the lice, without injuring the bees. Spiders may be gotten rid of by
brushing away their webs wherever met with near the stand. Wasps and(
Hornets are most noxious to bees. Dig up and destroy their nests wherever
they may be met with. Among the Birds most inimical to bees, may he
mentioned sparrows and swallows. Set traps near the hives, baited withl)
dead bees, and hang up a few of such birds as you kill on trees near the
stand.
358
CHAPTER IX.
FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, &c.
rHE CULTURE OF FLOWERS - PLANS FOR FLOWER-GARDENS - DESCRIPTION O0
STANDARD VARIETIES OF FLOWERS - ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS - ORNAMENTS
TREES; - MONTHLY FLORICULTURAL CALENDAR.
I. FLOWERS.
General Remarks. - The pre-requisites of flower-beds and composts are,
depth, friability, and necessary richness. The practice of trenching the
sites of flower-beds to the depth of three feet is found to be of great service;
not that any of the fibrous roots can reach so low, but because the bed
should be quickly drained after much rain, and that in dry weather the roots
may be invited to run as deep as they have a tendency to go. There is
another reason for deep trenching, which is, no doubt, as beneficial to
flowers as it is to all other plants, viz., they receive a greater share of that
genial moist warmth which is at all times rising from the interior of the
earth to its surface. This is a circumstance not enough attended to, and by
many practitioners is quite unheeded; it is, nevertheless, a great assistant to
vegetation. According as we descend, the temperature increases. In the
winter and spring months it is by several degrees warmer at the depth of a
tfew feet than at or near the surface. The ground being opened to that
depth, therefore, permits the ascent of this warm steam in cold weather,
and allows it to rise like a refreshing vapor, when the weather is hot and
dry, in both seasons of much advantage to the roots.
Friability.- That flowers may have every encouragement from the constitutional texture of the compost they are placed on, it is prepared by being
compounded, aerated, and screened, till it is free fromn stones, clods, &c.,
Fig. 234.
and all of a uniform consistence. It should not be liable to knead in working, nor run together under heavy rain. By the addition of sand, rotten
FARSIER S HAND-BOOK.
dungc, or leaf-mould, it must be sufficiently porous to receive, and as readily
discharge, any excess of water, as well as allow the penetration of every
quality fromn the air whichl is beneficial to plants. A gard(len syriige, like
the followingi, will be fobund very convenient in appl)lying water to flowerplants.
Fi. 235.
235.
Enriching. - The high fertility of the soil intel-ded for flowers is one of
the principal provisions to be me(l( for tiheir I)riosi)(rity. In thc compost
every ingredient should be present tllat exl)cril(lce liss discovered to be
useful, and every quality adidedl whichl suteccessfill lpractice sanctions, or
what rational ingenuity llay sutigtest.'I'lhe liuxniiaiutce of the pllanlts depends
on the suitableiess and teinl)eraitiict of thle coiiimpost; and the richness of
the tints depends on the qualities contained in it.
Coverings, fc. - For the deletnic of fine bed-flowers from inclement
weather, and to preserve them in beamty ais long as possil)lc, thile florist who
wishes to excel in the art, ald derive the utitiost satisfitetion from the pursuit, should provide hiuiself with every necessary a,ippendage for the putrp)ose.
The means of temiipor-iry l)rtection agailinst rain, hail, or sltow, and awniligs
for the preservatioli of the fill-bl,l)wil flowers, arc b)oth necessary.
Stages, as well ts l)eds, r(telirc these al))purteinancces. IFCw lovers of
flowers, who take deli,2'lit in tlheir cultivation, can grt(l(re the expense of
proper means for both shade atil( shelter. Commercial florists 1aive arraiinemenits for these purp)oses on 0 in extensive scdle, emiil)ra(ci i, all the adlvantages
of convenience and utility thle aialtleur, or fl,we(r-fnici(e r adol)pts as many
of these conveulieni(es as are sufficient for his imore limited designis.
For all bed-flowers, )particulalrly hiy-tcinthlis and tutlips, the beds slhould be
surrounded by boardinig tfrom one to three feet 1ii1, to ive, foir ease of
examinationi, the necessary elevation to the flowers. Staple)l(s driven in at
the corners and along the sides of this )boardiing serve to admit wooden or
iron hoops, whiclh, connected along the centre and at the elves with slight
laths, form a sufficiently firnm atld etective fi-aire to bear aity ceverilig of
mats or canvas.
Carnation stares are either single or douible,-tlhat is, hl-iviu one or both
sides composed of rraduated silitlves. In tlhe ol(e calse, ta w-ilk in fri'lt is
sufficient; in the other, the walk is carried (ill aLround. Those for auriculas
are sinmilar, both being raised onl fitct, Lelch of whichl stands i1 panllS of water.
to prevent the visits of creepin,g illse( ts.
When the foliage of the l)latits has advanced so fair;is to lbe iIn jeopardy
from frost, &c., the hoop)s are placed, and the coverings got reaidy to bh
360
FLOWVERS, ORNASIENTAL TREES, ETC.
employed as the weather directs. Tulips are, much more than others,
liable to be injured, especially (tduring the monthls of February, Mai.rche, and
April. They are then miost easily damaged by the ol)eraLtitlIs of the
wethlier, or by water resting near, and afterwards freezing aroundl tlhe bud
and, thoughl every care should be bestowed to protect tlc plants from such
casualties, yet they msntt not be dcprived of thc flill air too lon( a time, as
this -would injure by entichl'ng themn. So much is over-covering to be
guarde d atgainst, tlhat some intelligent cultivators use onily stitlll-lmeslied
nets as a defence, w-hich are considere(l sLifficietit.
\Ahtien the flow-ers h)erili to show color, preparations must be made to
erect the awninz. This is intended to shade them finom a severe SUll, atnd
shelter themn from tempest w inds. The flamne shouldl be as li,glht in its coiIstruction as is consistent ith its stlt)ility a(.linst witi(ly wea(tlier. It is
either a permanent crection otf slender columns, eaves-,plate, raft(ers, and
ridge-board, or a temporary framiltg of similar scniitlinrs, screw-bolted
together for the purpose. The latter are preferred by private growers. No
directions need be given for a pern)anient structure, that any coimmon carpenter
can slpply and execute. But for those lwho only need a telmporary thing of
the kind, the followiii, description of a vervy suitablec and convenient one may
be usefil: The bed is surrounded 1)y a fine gravel or sand wailk, two and a
half feet widle on the outside of the walk, oaken trutinks, sixteen inches long,
hiavin2 central openings two inches sq(luare, are sutik and firmly rammed in
the Lrroirclnd, their tops level thlierewith. l'liese trunks have each a capped
sto)pp)r, to be put in w-heti the fritne is ttaken away~v they remnainilng always
iI their places, and serve as sockl(ts to receive light coltumns six feet high,
tilrne(l out of three-inchl-sq(luare stultf, havitig a two-inch-square teinon to fit
into the trunk, and also a smaller tecnon at top, to pass thlrot(gh tlhe eavesplate, and( also receive the foot of the rafter which rests upon it. The
r:tfters meet on a ridge-board, to which they are fastened by a screw-bolt and
tnut. 3Besides the cornier columns, intermediate ones are added, according -is
the leiictlh of the bed requlires. The cativas for the roof is in one piece,
fixed Iv its middle to the ridle-board, the two sides being movable on rollers
or otherwise, and rolled tip or let down at pleasure. The ends and sides
are closed bv cuirtains, and hltitig on headed studs driven into the enld-rafters
and eaves-plate, by eyelet-holes worked in the upper leech of the curtains
at the bottom thley are fastened down by tender-hlooks or ties. Sutich a
framie and awning, if care be taken to lay it up dry in a spare room, will
list for many years, and, when in use, may be made, by ornaments fixed at
the ends of the ridge and at the tops of the columns, not at all an uinsightly
object, even in the flower-garden.
Plan of a Flotver-gardcn. Suipposiing the soil to have been in all
31~~~~~~~~~~1
31
361
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
respects duly prepared, dug over and leveled, the next thing is to determine
upon the plan for the garden. It should certainly be a regular geometric
figure, and planted in masses, each bed containing flowers of one kind, so as
to produce something of the fine effect of a Turkey carpet when looked down
upon.
We will suppose the plan (Fig. 236) to consist of twelve flower-beds on
grass, with a gravel-walk aroiund, which may be bordered on one side by
.2:3.
A2Iz4$yD;\_~
wds of flowers, with little gravel openings, or be plain gravel, as may be
Fig. 237. *
362
FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC.
preferred. The walks should be smoothed and hardened by means of a
garden roller. There may be a conservatory into which the parlor-room
windows facing the south may open, and on the other side there should be
a shrubbery to unite it with the lawn. In the centre of the flower-garden
there may be a fountain. As the flower-garden is to be seen principally from
the dwelling-house windows, the nearest beds should be planted with dwarfflowers, so that those in the back beds may be seen; the shrubbery behind
to consist of laurustinus and arbutus, so as to afford a handsome green background to the flowers in summer, and yet afford a few flowers themselves in
winter and spring, when flowers are scarce in the beds. When the walks
are bordered with grass, an implement like the following, fitted to a straight
handle, is used for paring the edges.
Fig. 238.
Planting.- Get a few pots of Californian and other annuals usually
raised in pots, and plant them, putting three potfuls in each bed. In No. 1,
Fig. 239.
put Phlox Drummondi, the flowers of which are crimson of various shades,
and let the stems be pegged down, so as to spread over the bed. No. 2
may be Lasthenia Californica, the flowers of which are yellow, and the
stems generally procumbent; but they may be pegged down to keep them
in their proper places, that is, to spread completely and regularly over the
bed. No. 3 should be Nem6phila insignis, the flowers of which are of a
beautiful blue, and which will not require pegging down. No. 4 may be
Erysimumn Petrowskianum, the flowers of which are of a brighit orange; but
the stems must be pegged down, or they will grow tall and straggling.
No. 5 may be Nolana atriplicifolia, the flowers of which are blue, and
363
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
resembl)le those of a convolvulus; this is a procinml)elIt Il;llnt, an(l will not
need pegging. No. 6 may be Nel6ph)lila atolnuria, whi(h has white
flowers, and is a dwarf plantt. No. 7 imity be Ti,c)tosiilliin (ltensitlc')ris. a
dwarf plant, with pale purple flowers. No. 8 my 1)e (;iIia liiIeolo-, a
dwarf plant, with nearly white flowers. No. 9 ilay 1)(, iia tricolor, a
dwarf plant, the flowers of whichl atre whtite ani(l very (lark llrlle. No. ll
imay be LeptosiphonI andros(ceus, a dwavtrf plilant, withl lle lilfc flhwcers.
And No. 12, Schizopetalo NVallkeri, the ilox-ers (f xvlli,'ll )l. vliite, and
the steiis must be pegged down. These III all al!tlials. " }i{'li if )rol))erly
treated by pegaieg down, and not l):lat(cl too (-lose, wnill )l'i)/tl(' ii: lass of
flowers it each bed only just above the stnlict(-e of' th(' grl'(, l. fiial w\-ill lhave
a chrliarnng effect from the windox-ws. \Iost of tb li ke aL t;{oor, clayey soil
best, and they will only require turning out of the I)ots, w-itllolt )r(liiiiithig the
ball, into the places prepared for thewn. If it is tloti(rIlt there are too many
white beds, substitute Sanvitolia proeunil)bens, the flowers of which are yellow, for No. 8, - but the sceleds mtst have been sowii the previous atotmni to
bring it forward, as otherwise it will not flower till late in the stiinuter; and
B3artonia aurea, the flowers of vwhich are of a gol(dilii y'llow, may be p)lanted
instead of No. 12. Cladanithos arabicus, formnerly called Aiitlieiiiis ara)ica,
which has yellow flowers, may be planted in No. 8, if Sanvitolia cannot be
obtained. Florists, however, can geoerally fturish these sorts.
Aitumlnal Flot(,ers. -As most of the annuals will heiin to look slal)1)y in
Jully or the early part of ttgust, we give the fiollowxin list of half-hardy
plants for atutti: No. 1, Vrl)erina MIeliiidres, bIright scarlet; No. 2, E,inotlhera Drumtmoidi, yellow; No. 3, I,ol)elia bicolor, blue; No.4, ('aleolalr'ia
rl?o.osa, peged down; No. 5, Verbena Tweed(iiia, crimson; No. 6, conimoin
IVlite Petunia; No. 7, Verh)ena Arraniana, or IHenderson's l)iurple; No.
8, (Caleeolaria integrifolia, yellow; No. 9, Purple Petoiiia; No. 10, Verbena
teoerioides, white; No. 11, Froygmore Pelargonium, l)right scarlet; No. 12,
i\isk p)lant, yellow.
In October the followingl bull)s and other plants may be put in for flowNerilng
in early spring. No. 1, -Van'hon tulips; No. 2, (Cloth of gold, or commonol
yellow crocuses; No. 3, Blue hepl)atica; No. 4, Yellow crocuses, or \Vhite
Alnemone; No. 5, Scilla verna and sil)irica, b)lue; No. 6, Arabis albid(la,
white; No. 7, Doublle pink help'tica; No. 8, Winter aconrite; No. 9, Ptrploe
crocuses; No. 10, Snowdrops; No. 11, Primiroses; No. 12, WVlite lIeptica,
or Arabis alpina.
La!/ino oot the Flocer-,%,'rden. -If the above plan for a garden does not
mneet the fiiny, one can be drawn of any figore desired(l. Ii the first pltee,
the ground mtst be (lii, over, raked, and male perfectlv smnooth. Trlhe
pattern, if a coimpllic(ated one, should then be drawn on paper, covered with
.364
FLOWERS, ORNAMIENTAL TREES, ETC.
regular squares, and tie ground to be laid out mIIust be covered with similar
squares, but larger, the usual proportion being that a square inch on the
piaper represents a square foot on the ground. Tihe squares ol1 the grotin(l
alte usuatlly formied by sticking in woolden pegs at regulalr distances, and
Ifsteniiig strings from peg to peg, till the whole ground is covered with a
kind of lattice-work of string. Each striing is then chalkled, and made to
thlrill by pulling it up shlarply and letting it go agai, whiclh transfers the
chalk fromn the striing to the ground. WThen tlre gron(d is thus nitarkeld with
Nwhite squares, it is easy to trace tupon it, wvithl a shlirp-)-oiiited stick, aniy
pattern wlhich miay have been drawn on the paper; the portionr ill erecl
square o!l the ground beilng copied( ol a larg(er scale from that onl the p11)acr.
Simple patterns, like that of the following figure, consistiing of stralight
lines, need only to be measured, aind pieces of string stretched fromi pegs put
I'ig. 240.
~
~Thffl
~
in at the proper distances, so as to form straight lines, oblongs, squares, triangles, or diamonds. If a circle is to be traced, it is done by getting a piece
of string half the length of the diameter of the circle, with a piece of stick
tied to each end. One stick is then driven into the grotund( in the centre of
the circle, and a line is traced with the stick at the other extremity of the
string, which is drawn out quite tight. An oval is made by tracing two
circles, the circumscribing line of one of which just totuch-es tlre centre of the
other; short lines are afterwards mad(le at tlre top and bottom, and the
central lines are obliterated. A square only requires a peg at each corner,
vwitn a chalkled string drawn from peg to peg; and an oblong, or parallelograrrm, is made by joining two common squares, and taking off the corners,
if required. A heart-shaped pattern is made by drawing a straight line from
31*
365
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
a to b (Fig. 240), and then fixing a peg with a string tied to it half the
iength of the straight line, and another peg at the end, exactly in the middle
EW~. 241.
c Mct
aC -,, AN
of the line, and drawing half a circle with it; then taking a peg with a string
half the length of the other, and another peg to the end, and tracing with it
the smaller half circles, c and d. With the same strings and pegs you may
easily trace, or have traced, the following figures. Even the latter, which
Fig. 242.
appears at first sight a very difficult figure to form on the ground, will be
just as easily traced as the others. It will be observed that in all these
figures the straight line is only to serve as a guide to show the proper places
for fixing the pegs; and that it is only to be formed by a piece of string
stretched by pegs from one end of the figure to the other,'which is to be
removed as soon as the figure is sketched, and which is not to be traced on
the ground at all.
With the aid of these figures, and the pegs and strings, several very
complicated gardens may be formed; for instance, that shown in the following outline. This garden is composed of a bed in the centre for a tree
rose, with a circle of dwarf-roses; a gravel-walk surrounds these; and there
are five heart-shaped beds, which may be planted with scarlet pelargoniams, yellow calceolarias, petunias white and purple, and tall yellow
mimulus; and the crescent-shapea bt)eds wnich are on grass may all be
planted with different kinds of verbenas. This plan is also a good
design for a roscry, -the roses to be planted in the beds, and in the
366
~g. 243.
FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC.
half-crescents, which must be on grass, with gravel-walks between the
grass-plots.
All the beds intended for bulbs and half-hardy plants should be particularly well drained; and the best way of doing this is to dig out the soil to
the depth of two feet or more, and then put in a layer of brick-bats and other
rubbish, to the depth of nine inches or a foot. On this may be placed a
Fig. 244.
I eH
layer of rich, marly soil, in which the bulbs are to be planted. Dahlias,
hollyhocks, and other tall-growing, showy-flowered plants, should have
similar beds prepared for them; but the soil should be made very rich by
the addition of the remains of an old hot-bed, or some other kind of halfrotten animal manure.
Arrangernent of Colors.- In the directions which have now been given
for planning and planting the beds, it has been intended merely to say what
may be done, and not what is absolutely necessary. Indeed, it will be better
for each cultivator to vary the flowers as much as possible, according to taste,
provided care is taken that the plants are, as nearly as possible, of the same
height, or that they rise gradually, and that the colors contrast well. The
rule in the latter case is, always to put one of the primitive colors- red, blue,
and yellow - next another of these colors, or soltme color compounded of the
other two, using white wherever you cannot find any handsome plants of a
color that will suit the bed for which they are wanted. Thus, for example,
361
FARiIER'S HAND-BOOK.
if one bed be planted with red, the next may he pla,ted w itli blue, yellow,
green, hair-browvn, or white, but iiever with allyv sllhadec of pul)llrl)le, as red
enters inito the composition of tihat color; nor with any slithle of r(ed(lisl'
brown; purple, indeed, must always be next to yellow, litair-brow-i or
white, but never next blue, re(l-brown-, or red. Orainge will not look well
near vellow or re(c, and lilac must not pl)l)roachli blue or pifli. A little
practice w'ill generally do more than ally lengthenied d(ettails. Cellierally
spetaking, you may take the same taste to guile the arri(,geitielit of th'
colors of the flowers in the parterre that is usedl in cioosiigr tihe colors of
feima~le (Iress.
]'r(o (olrt /oiv'i-rs. - l When it is settleld whaIt to pIlant ini the beds of the
garden,- supposing the plan of Fiig. 236 to be cilosen, - tile next thing to
be thouliht of is tilhe beds around it. These should, onil the whole, remain
unplanted, unless they are sown with toignotiette, or soimiethiiug of that
kind. The shrubl)eries should consist chiefly of tlhe fin(er kinds of hliardy
evergreens, - at ltt, that which is opposite the wiiid(low-s of the house -
the other shrulbbery may be plaLtited with rhododend(ronis, acacias, and kalmiais, -the rhododlendrons being fltrthest from the wilkh. and carried a little
out into the a(joiningll( grounids, so as to imake a )roken line, projecting iin
some places and receding in others, and here and thiere tixeld with bushes
of phillyrea. alater-lus, hlolly of various kinds, and cralegtis. With regard(
to the beds near the house, let there be a lonicera flexutiosa trainied ovcr each
wini(low, on account of its delightfil fragrance in summer. l,'or a similiar
reason, have chimonanthlis firagrans agtainist the walls betweenl tle windews. and mignonettes and violets in the beds. Tile fliiwirs of the evergreen nmagnolia, and those of the orange, have a sliohlitly ol))ressive
f'raranice, as have those of the heliotrope and thle tuberose; buit thos.
of the mignonette, the lemon-scented verbena, the rose, the violet, and
lonicer:t flexuosa, are refreshing,. at the same time yielding delicious
pierfeie.
C'oli'atioig Bulbs.- In giving some hints on t,e cultivation of flowers,
we,begin with the bull)s, ars thiey flowver first in the spring. The crocuses
anl sitow-drops should be t-lante(l, five or six together, as close as possible,
so as to form little tufts andil thies, when once ilatlited, should never bF
removed, tinless they siioltlt -,row out of b)ounids, so as to spoil tlhe shape
oft the be(l. Thle tulips, oil the contrary, should be ttlei ill s) iS sooln s
tieir leaves begin to decay, a ]if kept in a dry plae till tle proiper timle fir
i,lanting theim inext year.
There are three kilnds of pltiits which are said to have l)iulliotts roots,
tltose whichi are solid. and whicl should be properly c(all(,l ('('ris, - sn('hi
as the crocus, the corni-flag, and maniy of the halfi hard(ly plants with similar
369
FLOWERS, ORNAMIENTAL TREES, ETC.
half-tubular flowers; the tunicated bulbs, which may be peeled off in scales,
such as the onion, the hyacinth, and the tulip; and the scaly bulbs, such as
the lily. Now, the real roots of all these plants are the long fibres sent
down by the lower part of the bulb, which may be seen plainly in hyacinths
grown in glasses, and in any of the kinds, if taken up while in a growing
state; and what is called the bulb is, in all the corms, only a contracted
stem; but, in the tunicated and scaly bulbs, the bulbous part is formed of
a contracted stem and metamorphosed leaves. On examining a hyacinth,
there w-ill be found at the base of the bulb a flat, fleshy substance, called
the root-plate, and this is, in fact, the contracted stem of the plant; while
the tunics or scales are metamorphosed leaves. It will be useful to remem ber these distinctions in cultivating the garden, as all plants having corms
never flower well till they have been allowed to form a mass, which they
will not do till they have been in the ground three or four years. Manv
persons fancy that the Cape bulbs require to be taken up every year, bhL
this is a mistake; all the kinds of gladiolus, ixia, tritonia, and other similar
plants, will live in the open ground, and flower well, if suffered to grow in
masses. and be warmly covered in winter. Some persons practise successfully the plan of manuring the beds of tulips and hyacinths every year, so
that they may be grown together in the same beds without taking up, for
several years in succession.
Rescirc Garden Spot.- It is well, in order to keep the flower-garden in
a proper state, to have what may be called a reserved plot of ground, in
which the plants are to be brought forward, till they are in a proper state
for transplanting into the proper flower-garden. This reserve garden is
generally placed near the stable, both to have it out of sight and for the
convenience of manure, as it must contain hot-beds and frames, for rearing
tender annuals, striking cuttings, and, in short, for performing all those
gardening operations which require to be carried on out of sight. In this
spot the Californian annuals are to be brought forward.
Choose a piece of hard ground,- a walk will do,- or any place that
has been much trodden on, and cover it about an inch thick with light, rich
soil. In this the seeds of the annuals should be sown in September, and
s u f f e r ed to remain till the bulbs have faded, and the annuals are wanted to
cover the beds, which will probably be about April. The annuals must
t h e n be taken up with the spade, in patches, and being removed to the
flower-garden, they must be laid carefully on the beds, so as to cover them
ex a ctly; the spaces between the patches being filled with soil, and
pr e s s e d gently down, so that the surface of the beds may be as even as poss ible. These annuals will come into blossom in lay, but they are killed by
hlie dry heat of summer; and, though they would sow themselves if per z
369
FARMER S HAND-BOOK.
tmitted to seed, it is better to remove them as soon as they have done flower
ihg. The worst of permitting plants to sow themselves is, that early in
autumn the flower-beds will have a very untidy appearance, as the ground
not only becomes rough, but it is covered with dead stalks and leaves,
which have always a most desolate appearance; and these cannot be removed
till the seed has fallen, while the beds must not be forked over and raked, for
fear of destroying the seedlings. It is, therefore, much better, as soon as
the annuals have done flowering, to take them up and throw them away,a supply of seed being preserved by having left some plants in the reserveground for that purpose. A second or spring sowing of the Californian
annuals may be made in the reserve-ground, for use, if needed, in the
autumn.
Culture of Annuals.- Annuals are plants that live only one year, or,
rather, only a few months, for they are generally sown early in spring, and
die as soon as they have ripened their seeds, at the latter end of summer, or
the beginning of autumn. These plants are of three kinds,- hardy, halfhardy, and tender.
The hardy annuals are sown in March, April, or May, but the second
month is to be preferred, if the weather is tolerably open. The ground in
which they arc to be sown is then forked over and raked, and a little round,
firm place is made by pressing the bottom of the saucer of a flower-pot on
the ground, and then scattering a few seeds on the firm place, taking great
care that the seeds do not lie one upon another. The seeds are then firmed,
as the gardeners call it, by pressing the saucer again on them, and some
earth is strewed lightly over to finish the operation. Instead of the saucer
of a flower-pot, regular gardeners perform that part of the process with
their spades. The idea is, to securely fix every seed in the ground before
it begins to germinate, in order to produce a strong and healthy plant.
After the seeds are sown, it is customary to put a piece of stick into the
ground, with the name of the seeds written upon it, to mark the place; or,
if preferred, write the name on a card, or a bit of pasteboard, and stick it
in a notch or cleft made in the stick.
When the seeds have come up, - which, in the spring, is generally from
a fortnight to six weeks after sowing, according to their natures, - the
seedlings may be thinned out, and the supernumerary plants either transplanted or thrown away. If the seedlings are to be transplanted, care
should be taken not to break or injure the roots, and a little hole should be
made with a stick for each seedling in the place to which it is to be
removed; the earth being pressed close to the root at the bottom of the hole
Defore the rest of the hole is filled in, as, if ally hollow place is left around
the root, it will decay, instead of growing. Seedling hardy annuals are,
370
FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC.
nowever, very seldom worth the trouble of transplanting. Many persons
turn a flower-pot over every patch of seeds, from the idea that it will make
them come up sooner, and protect them from birds. It is, however, a bad
plan, as air and light are particularly necessary to seedling plants, and.
when they are even partially deprived of these important agents, they
become drawn up, with weak, slender stems, and thin, discolored leaves.
Some annuals, such as the mignonette and the larkspur, are much
longer before they vegetate than others, and they are better sown in autumn.
Others, such as the Erysimum Perowskianum, the eschscholtzia, and the
coreopsis, will often last two or three years, especially if they happen to be
late in flowering the first season. These also do best sown in autumn; but
they must be protected, if the winter should be severe, by laying a mat over
the bed.
Haf-hardy Annuals.- The half-hardy annuals, such as the French and
African marigolds, the Chinese and German asters, the zinnias, the purple
jacobaea, the sweet sultan, the purple and yellow everlastings, and other
similar plants, may be sown in pots, and plunged into a slight hot-bed in February or March. As soon as they come up, and have got their second pair
of leaves, the earth should be turned out of the pots, and the seedlings, being
carefully picked out, should be transplanted into other pots, three or five in
each, according to the size they are expected to attain when full grown, and
the pots again plunged into the hot-bed. Sometimes they are transplanted a
second time; but they are generally left till May, when they are removed to
the open border, to the places where they are intended to flower. When
they are planted iii the border, they may be transplanted in the ordinary
way, or the ball of earth may be turned entire from the pot into a
hole made to receive it. -This is generally considered the best plan, as it
prevents the plants from receiving any check by their removal. Bromp
ton, ten-week, and German stocks, though quite hardy, make better
plants when treated like half-hardy annuals, as they flower earlier and more
vigorously.
Tender Annuals.- The tender annuals, such as balsams, cock's combs,
globe amaranths, &c., must be sown in February or March, in pots of light,
rich earth, and plunged in a hot-bed. As soon as the plants come up, they
should be transplanted into pots of the very smallest size, one in each pot;
and these small pots should be set in the hot-bed again, as near the glass as
possible, and slightly shaded during sunshine. In a week or two, as soon
as the roots have made their appearance on the outside of the ball of earth
within the pot, -which is known by turning the ball of earth, with the plant
in it, carefully out of the pot, without breaking it, - the plants are shifted
into pots a size larger than what they were in before, and the space filled up
371
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
with light, rich soil. In another week or two the piants must be shifted
again into pots a little larger, always using light, rich mould to fill uip the
pots, and taking care that the pots are well drained, by putting pieces of
broken pot at the bottom. As soon as the plants are shifted, the pots must
be replunged in the hot-bed, and shaded for the remainder of the day. The
shifting and replunging must be continued till the plants begin to show
flower-buds, after which they must neither be shifted nor plunged in the
hot-bed any more, but gradually hardened, by the frame in which they are
placed being left open all day, and, at last, only partially closed, even at
night, till the plants will bear setting out entirely in the open air, unless
they should be intended to flower in a green-house, in which case they may
be removed to the green-house very soon after they have shown flower-buds.
Perennials. - Perennials are those permanent plants which are not
woody, and yet remain in the ground as long as most kinds of shrubs, producing flowers and seeds every year. Perennials are of two kinds, - those
that die down to the ground every autumn, and send up fresh stems from the
root the following spring, -and those which remain green all the year, as,
for example, those that have tuberous roots, such as the dahlia. Bulbs are
also perennials; but of these we have already spoken.
Most kinds of perennials are propagated by dividing the roots; but, in the
case of the dahlia, ranunculuLs, and anemone, care must be taken to choose
only those portions of the tubers that have buds or eyes, as they are called,
as otherwise the tuber, though it will send out fibrous roots, will not produce a stem; and, in dividing fibrous-rooted plants, care must be taken that
the divided part is furnished with buds. Almost all kinds of perennials
may also be propagated by cuttings; and those of pinks and carnations are
called pipings, because, instead of being cut, they are pulled asunder at a
joint, and this gives the separated parts a hollow appearance, like small
pipes. Tubers are frequently taken up every autumn, and those of the ranunculus and anemone are replanted in November or January, the former
season being rather preferable. The tubers of the dahlia are generally
taken up in November, and replanted in May or June.
Mlost perennials are improved by taking up occasionally, and replanting
them in another place. This used to be accounted for by supposing that
plants threw out exerementitious matter, which, after a few years, poisoned
the soil in which they grew; but it is now supposed that, as every plant
requires peculiar earths for its nourishment, they must be removed wheni
,hey have exhausted all the particular kind of earth they want which grows
within their reach. It is rather difficult to explain this without entering
into long details; but it will be sufficient for our present purpose merely to
state the fact that plants do require their roots to have a constant supply of
372
FLOWVERS, ORNAIAMENTAL TREES, ETC.
fresh earth, and, to meet this want, nature has provided that the roots of
trees, and of all plants that are intended to remain several years in the soil,
elongate themselves every year, so as to be continually able to obtain a fresh
supply of nourishment. In gardens, however, the constant digging that is
going on for the culture of annual plants is unfavorable to the elongation of
the roots of the perennials, and consequently it is absolutely necessary that
those plants should occasionally be taken up and replanted. The season for
taking up and replanting perennial plants is either in autumn, after they
have done growing, or in spring, before they begin to shoot; and, if the
soil about the roots looks black and wet, or, as the gardeners express it,
sour, the roots should be washed quite clean before transplanting. When
the roots of plants are divided, it is either done with a sharp spade or a
knife, care being taken, in both cases, to make a clean cut, and not leave any
part bruised or jagged.
Biennials.- These are plants raised from seeds, which do not flower till
the second year, but which generally die as soon as they have ripened their
seeds. Biennials are usually sown in a bed of light, rich earth, in the open
year in the reserve ground, and then transplanted, in September, to the place
where they are to flower the ensuinig year. The finer kinds, such as the
Brompton stocks and hollyhocks, should have a bed or pit prepared for them,
of rich, loamy soil, in which they are planted, with a small quantity of
manure. Wall-flowers, snap-dragons, and Canterbury bells, do not require
any further care than transplanting to the border; and, though they are
called biennials, they will frequently live and flower for a succession of
years.
The Hot-bed.- A hot-bed may be made of any material that will ferment,
so as to produce heat. Stable manure and dead leaves are, however, generally preferred to all other materials, and stable manure is unquestionably
the best. A cart-load of this manure will make a hot-bed sufficiently large
for rearing tender annuals; and when it is taken out of the stable, it consists
partly of the dung of the horse, and partly of what is called long litter,
that is, straw moistened and discolored, but not decayed. When in this
state, if it is thrown together so as to form a heap, a most violent heat is
produced by the fermentation of the straw while decomposing, and, as this
heat would be too powerful for any plant exposed to it, it is necessary to
let the heap remain for a fortnight or so, turning it over two or three times,
during that period, with a fork, till the straw is sufficiently decomposed to be
easily torn to pieces with the dung-fork. When the manure is in this state,
it is fit to be used. The hot-bed should be formed in an open situation, on
a surface raised about six inches from the surrounding ground, with a gutter
or shallow ditch cut around it, to allow the water to drain off. The bed
32
373
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
is then made, and, if only intended for raising annuals and striking cuttings,
it may be five feet long by four feet wide. The manure should be regularly
spread over the lower part of the bed, and in successive layers, made as
smooth and level as possible, till the whole of the cart-load of manure has
been used.
As soon as the bed is finished the frame should be set on it. The frame
consists of a box without a bottom, and with a movable top, formed of a
glazed sash or sashes. A frame for such a bed as has been mentioned will
only require one sash or light; and it should be three feet wide and four
feet long, so that the bed may be half a foot larger than the frame on every
side. The back of the box may be two feet high, and the front one foot, so
that the glass may slope from the back to the front. About two days after
the bed is made, the fermentation will recommence, and a steam will be
observable on the glass. The surface of the bed should now be covered, two
or three inches thick, with light garden mould, and any common seeds may
be sown in this. It is more general, however, to sow the seeds in pots, and
then either to set them on the surface of the bed, or to plunge them into it
up to the rim. No bed for raising annuals should ever be hotter than 60~;
and when it exceeds this heat, the glasses should be left open so as to cool
it. The thermometer for ascertaining the heat should be put on the surface
of the bed, with the glass shut above it; and it should be examined in this
situation, as it will fall a degree or two immediately on being taken into the
open air, if the weather should be very cold.
A hot-bed of two or three lights will require two or three cart-loads of
manure, and will, of course, produce a great deal of heat, from the immense
mass of fermenting materials it contains; and, unless properly regulated,
the plants will turn black, and the leaves be shriveled up, or, as the
gardeners term it, burnt, from the too great heat of the bed. There is also
danger of a hot-bed getting too cold, instead of being too hot; and, when this
is the case, the heat should be renewed by the application of dung-linings,
that is, a quantity of fresh stable manure around the outside of the bedl.
Linings are sometimes made of dead leaves piled up around the outside of
the bed; but, if the hot-beds are to be used only for raising seeds, they will
not want any linings, as it will be advantageous for the young seedlings if
the beds are allowed gradually to become cool as the plants increase in size,
so that they may acquire strength and hardiness before they are turned into
the open ground.
Green-house Plcants. -A few words on the green-house plants that will
be wanted for planting in the open ground in the flower-garden may not be
amiss. Petunias may be all raised from seeds with the other half-hardy
annuals, as seedling plants both grow and flower much more vigorously
374
FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC.
when planted out into the open ground, than plants that have been raised
from layers or cuttings. Celsia or Alonsoa urticifolia may also be raised
from seeds, as may Thunbergia alata, and its white variety. Phlox Drum inondi is almost always raised in this manner, as are the beautiful climbing
plants, Lophospermum scandens and its varieties, Maurandya Barclayana,
Cobea scandens, Eccremocarpus or Calampelis scabra, Rhodochiton volubile,
the beautiful canary-bird flower (Troptolum peregrinum), the most splendid
of the ipomacas, and several other well-known plants.
Geraniums, or pelargoniums, as they are called, being half-shrubby plants,
require to be raised by cuttings. These are generally taken off the points
of the shoots in autumn, and, a good many being put into one pot, they are
plunged into the hot-bed till they have struck root, and then gradually hard ened and placed on the back shelf of a green-house, or in a cold frame, till
the spring, when they are removed to separate pots till they are wanted for
planting out. Some gardeners do not put themselves to the trouble of pot ting them, but keep them in the same pots in which the cuttings were struck
till they are wanted for planting out; but this is an indifferent mode of culture, as, when the plants are kept so long in one pot, they become drawn
up, and do not have the compact, bushy appearance that they have when
properly transplanted early in spring. Verbenas may be either preserved
by cuttings or layers, or raised afresh from seed. The usual way of propagating them, however, is by layers, as they strike root readily at the joints,
if the joints are covered with a little earth. All the other green-house
plants which are wanted to grow for planting out may be treated in the
same manner as those which have been mentioned.
Coldt Frame.- This is a bottomless box of the kind described for a hotbed, but fcrmned of brick or stone, instead of wood. These frames have a
glass sash at the top, bht contain no manure; and they are generally sunk in
the soil, that the warmth of the soil around may aid in protecting the plants
thev contain from the frost. These frames, if they have only one light,
are generally five feet in width, that is, from the back to the front; but, if
they have two or three lights, the width is generally seven feet, as these
are the dimensions of the fiames used for hot-beds in kitchen-gardens. The
green-house plants that are to be preserved in the cold frame are merely set
in their pots close together, and, the glass sashes being then closed, mats
and other coverings are laid on to keep out the frost.
Sometimes green-house plants which are left in the open ground are
preserved from the frost by coverings of wicker-work, like bee-hives, being
put over them, or tin hoops over which mats have been stretched; or, where
the plants are small, a flower-pot may be turned over them, or a hand-glass
used for thl)e same purpose. It is seldom, however, worth while to take
375
IFARMIEIZ'S HAND-BOOK.
much pains to preserve green-house plants that have flowered in the open
air. The ordinary way is to make abundance of cuttings in autumn; to
strike them in a hot-bed, and then, after hardening them by degrees, to preserve them in a small green-house, or in a cold pit, till the time for planting
out next year.
Winter Management.- Many persons inj are green-house plants by keep ing them too warm and giving them too little air during winter, and then
are surprised that their plants become sickly and remain without flowering,
notwithstanding all the care and expense that have been bestowed upon
them. No green-house ought to be kcept at a greater heat, during night,
than from 350 to 400; and in the day-time it should not be allowed to rise
above 500, or at most 52~. When there happens to be sunshine, the fire
ought to be lessened; and whenever the air is not frosty, the windows ought
to be open from twelve till two every day. If a green-house is kept too
warm, it will induce premature vegetation, and the plant will waste its
strength in an attempt to produce flowers and fruit at a season when nature
requires it to be kept in a state of complete repose. Green-house plants
should be watered generally every morning; but in frosty weather water
need not be given every day, and some plants will not require watoring
oftener than once a week. This, however, must depend in a great measure
on circumstances; and, as a general rule, it may be observed that water
may always be given in small quantities when the surface of the earth contained in the pot looks dry. Tha pots should not be allowed to stand in
saucers, as stagnant water is peculiarly injurious in winter. Whenever the
earth in the pot looks black and sodden, the plant should be turned out of
the pot; and, after the black earth has been carefully shaken from the roots,
it should be repotted in fresh soil, an inch or more in the bottom of the pot
being filled in with small pieces of broken china and earthen ware.
In February or.March the plants should be looked over, and rupotted
where necessary; those that are too tall should be cut in, and cuttings made
of their shoots. The young plants, raised from cuttings made ill autumn,
should be repotted in larger pots for flowering; and where the plants (lo not
require fresh potting, but have the surface of their mould become green and
mossy, the moss should be taken off, and the ground slightly stirred with a
fiat stick, taking care, however, not to go so deep as to injure the roots.
When trouble is not an object, all green-house plants are the better for
repotting every year, either in spring or autumn; and when the ball is
taken out of the pot for this purpose, it should be careflilly examined, and
all the decayed parts of the roots should be cut off. Sometimes, when the
ball of earth is turned out, nearly half of it will fall off alnost without touching it; and when this is the case, it will generally be found that there is a
376
FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC.
worm in the pot. Worms do a great deal of mischief to greenhouse plants
in cutting through the roots, as their instinct teaches them to make their
way through the earth straight across the pot and back again, and they cannot do this without tearing the roots asunder every time they pass.
Another point to be attended to in the management of a grceen-house is,
keeping the plants as near as possible to the glass, as, unless this be done,
the plants will become what gardeners call " drawn up," and unnaturally
tall and slender, from the efforts they make to reach the light.
Repoting. -As this process has been frequently mentioned, we here give
the best mode of performing the operation. The pot to which the plant is
to be removed should always have been previously washed quite clean, and
be perfectly dry. Some bits of broken earthen pots should then be put at
the bottom of the pot, the quantity varying from three to four pieces, so as
just to cover the hole, to a mass an inch in depth, depending upon the nature
of the plant. If the plant has not been in a pot before, the roots are then
placed just above the broken bits just mentioned, and the earth is filled in,
the plant being occasionally shaken, so as to allow the earth to get amongst
its roots. The soil in the pots is next consolidated, by shaking it, and then
lifting it up and setting it down again with a jerk; the soil being rendered
firm and neat around the rim of the pot by means of a broad, smooth piece
of stick, shaped somewhat like a table-knife, and called a potting-stick.
When a plant has been in a pot before, and is repotted, or shifted, as it is
called, into a pot a size larger, the plant is turned out of its old pot by putting the hand upon the earth and turning the pot upside down or, if the
ball of earth does not come out readily, striking the rim of the pot against
the edge of the potting-table or shelf. The ball containing the plant will
thus drop out into the left hand; and the bits of earthen ware that adhere
to the bottom of the ball having been picked off, and any part of the root
that appears decayed having been removed, a little mould is put onl the
drainage in the newv pot; and the ball of earth containing the plant having
been placed in the centre, the space between it and the pot is filled in with
light, rich mould, and made firm with the potting-stick. The operation is
concluded by shaking the pot, and then taking hold of the rim with both
hands, and striking the bottom of the pot two or three times, with a jerk,
against the potting-bench. The plant is then watered, and set in the shade
for the remainder of the day.
Hecaths are very difficult plants to manage, but a great improvement has
taken place in their culture within the last few years. They are grown in
a sort of mould, formed by a mixture of peat and sand; and when this earth
is put into the pot, it is mixed with good-sized pebbles, some of which are
suffered to protrude through the surface of the soil. The roots of heath are
32*
377
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
extremely fine and hair-like, and the shelter afforded by the pebbles is so
congenial to them, that, if one of the stones be taken out, a cluster of fine,
white, vigorous roots will be found below it. The plants are always potted
high, so as to let the base of the stem be above the level of the rim of the
pot, as the plants are very apt to damp off, if the collar of the plant be buried
in the ground. Heaths should never be suffered to become too dry, and
never kept too wet. They require very little heat; and many experienced
cultivators never apply fire-heat to their heatheries at all, but merely keep
out the frost by having wooden shutters to the sashes, and covering them
with mats. When growing rapidly, they should be repotted whenever the
roots shall fill the pot; but they should not be shifted too often, and, when
they have attained their full growth, they may be suffered to remain in the
same pots, for a succession of years, without injury.
Garden Decorations.- The decorations usual in flower-gardens are introduced either with a view to utility, to convenience, or simply by way of
pleasing ornaments; which, if managed with taste and skill, may be brought
into according harmony or pleasing contrast with the natural beauties of the
flowers, or with the artificial arrangement of their forms and colors. We
will specify a few of these different ornamental designs, in order to add to
the interest of our remarks in this department. First come arbors, which
may be either purely natural, partly natural and partly artificial, or entirely
Fig. 245.
the result of art. Of the first are those formed by the banyan-fig, in tropieal climes, whose lateral and widely extended branches send down numer
378
FLOWERS, ORNAMIENTAL TREES, ETC.
ous shoots, which fix themselves in the ground. Such are those formed by
our various weeping varieties of forest trees, - the weeping-ash, birch,
beech, elm, willow, and the like. These trees, with their lithe and tenuous
branches, waving with elery breeze, are the most natural, and perhaps the
most delightful, of arbors. To the second kind belong all those which are
formed by the hand of man, aided by some natural suitability of circumstances, or accidental advantages. Thus an aged forest tree may have some
appropriate climbing plant placed at its roots, so as to run through its
branches and foliage, and ultimately descend gracefully from the extremities, until it nearly touches the ground. The construction of the third kind
of arbor depends much on the chances of situation; and many designs, or
minute instructions, would be, therefore, superfluous, as they must be familiar, ill their various forms, to almost every reader. The following figure
represents a pretty design for an arbor of permanent construction.
Fig. 246.
Garden Seats add much to the beauty and attractiveness of a flower-garden
These may be placed either in arbors or under some embowering shade, ol
Fig. 247.
1
379
FARMER'S HIAND-BOOK.
in the open garden; and may be composed of hazel-rods, or straight, small
branches of any other tough wood. Five or more young trees, of the mountain-ash, the oak, or spruce fir, bound together, form good rustic columns,
around which climbing roses may be trained, and the whole covered in with
a light roof, with rampant ivy, clematis, or jasmiine, as in Fig. 217. For
occasional convenience, the various forms of the Turkish tent may be adopted;
and when pitched on a lawn, amongst clumps of flowers in the modern style,
.Fg. 248.
has a very agreeable effect. Besides arbors and garden-seats, vases may
be introduced with good effect; also, fountains, flower-stands, aviaries, and
sun-dials, in all the different styles of workmanship. The latter, when set
in an unshaded part of the garden, and mounted on a column, around which
380
- _- -.
FORBES
FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC.
some flowering plant has been trained to climb, will form a very pleasing
object. WVe give a cut of one of these.
Fig. 249.
DESCRIPTION OF STANDARD VARIETIES OF FLOWERS.
Althea Frutex.- This is a beautiful shrub, requiring a warm and sheltered situation in the Northern States. Sow the seeds in spring, and
protect the young plants during the winter.
Almnond (Double Flowering). -A shrubby plant, bearing beautiful roselike flowers in the spring. It is propagated by suckers.
Amaranthus Tricolor. - An annual plant, with a beautifully variegated
foliage of red, green, and yellow. The seed is found in little tufts about
the stalk, and may be sown in April or May.
Animated Oats.- An annual plant, and resembles the common oats while
growing. The seeds are clothed with a stiff down, and have appendages
like the legs of some insect, with apparent joints. They are affected by the
changes of the weather, and, of course, are continually moving. If they
be wet, they will turn over several times, and twist about. If wet, and
held to a lighted lamp, they exhibit such motions of apparent agorry as an
insect would, placed in a like situation.
Aster, China.- An annual, producing many splendid flowers. There
are several varieties, as red, white, purple, yellow, striped, quilled, &c.
The seed should be sown early in the spring. It flowers late, but is
destroyed by severe frost.
Auricula.- There are several species. It may be raised from seed, but
lik;e does not produce like, in all cases. They are best raised by dividing
the roots, which send out several young plants annually. They are tender,
and, if planted in open ground, they must be well covered, and be kept
from severe frost and rain during the winter. They are well adapted for
pots, to flower in the house.
Azalea Aludifora. -- It is commonly known as the American Honeysuckle,
381
FARMTER'S HAND-BOOK.
and includes several species. It bears abundantly, the flowers having a fino
perfume and making a very handsome show.
Box. - A low, delicate shrub, which may be pruned to any shape to
please the fancy. It is an evergreen, hardy, and suitable for borders. It is
grown by cuttings, or by dividing the roots. If a plant be placed deep in
the earth, and the soil be brought in close contact with the small branches
(being spread as much as possible), they will send out roots, and furnish a
large number of small plants. In trimming this shrub, let the operation be
done well, using the proper utensils.
Brier, Sweet. - A well-known rose-bush, hardy, adapting itself to a poor
soil. The foliage and flowers are bright, and delightfully fragrant.
Canterbury Bell. - A biennial plant, bearing large blue flowers, which
are much admired, and make a fine appearance.
Carnation. - A biennial and perennial, comprising several superb varieties. May be grown by layers. While it is in flower, it sends out
several side shoots near the root; these are pinned down in August, a little
under the earth, leaving the extreme part erect; in a little time they take
root, and the new plant must be severed from the old, and transplanted.
The old plant does not always stand another winter; therefore its branches
are used to continue the species. Carnations are rather tender as to frost,
and must be covered, in the Northern States, to live through the winter.
It is best to put them into large pots, and keep them in a green-house or
parlor, or in some place where they can have air and light during winter.
Cassia Marylandica. - This is a perennial plant, producing many small
yellow flowers, suitable only to stand in a border. It is hardy, and is
propagated by seed.
382
e=-CD~~R
FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC.
Catalpa. -A beautiful tree, raised by seed. Much admired for its
foliage and showy flowers, which are very ornamental in the garden.
Cherry, Double-flowvering.-This is one of the most beautiful trees in
the flower-garden or shrubbery; cultivated the same as the common cherrytree.
Chrysanthemum Indicum. - A fine perennial plant, hardy, flowering
brilliantly late in the autumn, and comprising several varieties. The plants
may remain in the open ground until late in the fall, and then be taken up
and placed in pots. When the frosts appear, keep them in a warm room
until after flowering, and then put the roots in the cellar or open ground.
They will flower in the garden, if carefully attended to. Raise by dividing
the roots.
Clematis, Austrian.- A perennial plant, producing very pretty flowers.
It is best propagated by dividing the roots.
Clethra. - A well-known plant, bearing clusters of fragrant flowers in
the fall.
Columline. - A very common perennial, including different species;
very neat.
Convolvulus. - Many species - annual. Convolvulus major is commonly
called Morning Glory. It is a vine, and a great runner -many colors.
Convolvulus minor, called Beauty of the Night, because it blossoms at
evening- many colors. Sow the seed early in the spring.
Corchorus Japonicus. -A shrub frequently cultivated in green-houses,
but may be grown in the garden. It bears wreaths of golden-yellow
flowers.
Crocus. -A bulbous-rooted plant, hardy, early; colors, blue, yellow,
white, purple, &c. It is grown by the bulbs. A pretty pot-flower.
Citpid's Car, or Monk's Hood. - A fine, vigorous annual, bearing a
profusion of pretty blue flowers, during the summer and fall. Propagated
by a division of the roots. A very neat plant for the flower-garden.
Dahlia.- A beautiful Mexican flower, embracing many varieties of color
and shade. A somewhat sandy or gravelly soil is thought best, in order
to prevent their growing too luxuriant, and to obtain more flowers. They
may be raised by seed, or by a division of the roots. Sow the seed in
March, in pots, and place in a hot-bed or green-house. About the middle
of May, or when there is no danger from frost, plant them out inll the
borders, or wherever they are to stand; and as they increase in height, let
them be well supported by stakes, to prevent the wind breaking them down.
The roots are tuberous, resembling a sweet potato, and should be taken up
in October or November, and preserved through the winter in a box filled
383
FARMIE R'S IIAND-BOOK.
with dry sand, placed out of reach of the frost. Plant only those which
have a bud, and divide the roots carefully.
Daisy.- A small, delicate, perennial plant, producing small but attractive flowers. It is hardy, and will bear flowers through the winter, if kep
in pots or boxes, in the house. Raised by offsets.
Dvaorf Basil.- A very fragrant annual, raised from the seeds.
Eupatorium (Blue). - Perennial; bearing a profusion of beautiful flowers, and propagated most readily by dividing the roots.
Euphorbia Lathyris. - This is a biennial plant, commonly known as the
Caper-tree. It is singular in its foliage. Rather tender. Propagated by
seed.
Fading Beauty, or Morning Bride. An annual plant, producing handsome flowers, which last but a few hours, or less. Plant the seed in spring.
Foxglove. - A handsome flowering biennial and perennial plant, comprising several varieties. Sow the seed in spring, covering lightly with
earth.
Fringe Tree. - A handsome shrub, covered with white flowers. Hardy,
and will grow in any soil, but flourishes best in moist ground.
Geranium. - There are many varieties of this much-admired plant.
Some give flowers, with little or no leaf; others possess beauty of leaf, as
well as of flowers: some give no perfume; others are delightfully fragrant.
It is easily propagated by cuttings from any part of the plant, old wood or
young, and placed in pots. In a green-house, or parlor, they will bloom in
winter.
Garden Angelica. - Perennial; bold and showy when in flower. Raised
from the seed, and well adapted for some situations in the garden.
Glycine. - A perennial vine, bearing variegated flowers. It will grow
on the side of a house or wall to a great extent, making a fine appearance.
It is propagated both from seed and layers.
Golden Coreopsis. - This is an annual, bearing a profusion of rich, brilliant yellow flowers, having a purple centre. It is easily raised from the
seed.
Golden Everlasting.- A somewhat peculiar plant, bearing a late, bright
yellow flower, which, if taken off before the seed ripens, will retain its
brightness for many years. Plant the seed early in the spring.
Hollyhock.- A hardy, perennial plant- showy for a shrubbery. There
are several varieties, -the single, double, white, red, yellow, dark, &c.
Honeysuckle. -This plant is very beautiful in its place: it climbs ul)
houses, and over hedges; it forms arbors and bowers; it blooms in clusters.
There are several varieties. The Italian produces an abundance of changeable flowers early in the season, diffusing a rich fragrance all around. The
384
FLOWVERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC.
Vari,egated blooms monthly, and is very fragrant. The Scarlet Trumpet
also blooms monthly,- scarlet flowers, making a handsome appearance. It
may be grown by seeds and cuttings, but best by layers.
Hyacinth. - A bulbous-rooted plant, and, lie all other plants of this
class, is perennial. It is an early, beautiful, and fragrant flower. It will
bloom in glasses filled with water, in a room, but better in pots of earth.
It is best propagated by offsets. While the parent root is blowing, it
sends out several young ones. They should be planted at a depth of four
inches. There are many varieties of this admired flower, both single and
double; the former have the brightest colors, but the latter are generally
preferred.
Hydrangea. - This is a small shrub, producing large and changeable
flowers, being at first green, then becoming gradually rose-colored, and after wards green, occupying about six months. It is a house-plant -will bear
some frost, but should be kept, during the winter, in a green-house, parlor,
or a cellar where there is some light. Propagate by cuttings.
Ice Plant. - A well-known annual, having a peculiar icy appearance.
Plant the seeds in pots, in the spring.
Irapatiens Balsamina.- Commonly known as Balsamine. A very fine
annual plant, bearing a profusion of gaudy flowers. There are several
varieties,- single and double, rose-colored, red, white, crimson, purple,
find variegated. It commences flowering in July, and continues till cold
weather. Sow the seed in May.
Iris, or Flower-de-lis. - A hardy, perennial plant, comprising many
varieties, both large and small; a favorite plant, raised by dividing the
roots.
La:(ntrenia Indica.- A flowering shrub, which endures the winter of
the Mliddle and Southern States, but requires attention further North.
Labrurntm.- A tall and handsome shrub, loaded, when in bloom, with
yellow flowers. Sometimes called Golden Chain. It is raised from seed,
and requires a warm and sheltered situation.
Larkspur.- An annual plant, of no fragrance, but of great variety of
colors. It makes a pretty appearance, and is raised from the seed.
Laurel (Broad-leaved).- This is an evergreen shrub, bearing flowers of
great delicacy and beauty, being white, tinged with red.
Lilac. - A large, shrubby tree, hardy, and handsome when in bloom,
having large bunches of fragrant flowers. The white and the purple may
be easily grafted or inoculated into each other, and when the shrub, with
a handsome head, is thus managed, some branches producing purple and
others white flowers, the show is very fine. It is raised from suckers, of
which it sends out a great many, but from which it should be freed as much
33 A2
38-5
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
as possible. The Persian lilac is a neater shrub, bearing delicate white
flowers. It is propagated by suckers.
Lily. - There are many varieties of this plant. The White grows three
or four feet high, and bears large, white, sweet-smelling flowers. The
Tiger grows one or two feet higher, producing gaudy spotted flowers. The
Martag,on is similar to the latter, but more delicate: all these are bulbousrooted, and are best propagated from offsets. The Asphodel grows to the
height of two feet, and bears handsome yellow flowers; it is propagated by
seed or offsets. The Lily of the Valley is a small dwarf plant, that thrives
best in the shade, producing small, delicate flowers, of a sweet odor.
Raised by offsets.
Lime Plant.- A singular plant, the stem, foliage, flower, and fruit,
being formed in the earth, and, after the plant has come up, there is
nothing more than the extension of parts. The stems, when from eight to
twelve inches high, branch out in two arms, at the extremity of each of
which is a large palmated leaf. In the fork proceeds the fruit-stem. The
first that is seen in the spring is a delicate membraneous cap, which is soon
burst open by the flower-bud, which is large, round, and white. Next
appear the shoulders and arms, lying close to the stem or trunk; and as the
plant rises, the fruit-stem elongates and the arms elevate themselves. The
fruit is about the size of a large lime,- green while growing, and yellow
when ripe. A moist soil, in a shady situation, is best. Propagate by seed,
or by dividing the roots, which are creeping and jointed.
Lychnadia. - A perennial plant, comprising several varieties, - purple,
white, striped, &c. The plant is hardy, bears an abundance of delicate
flowers, and continues long in bloom. It is best propagated by dividing
the roots.
AMezereon. - This is a small and beautiful shrub, blooming in the month
of March, with a profusion of fragrant flowers. Hardy; yaised by seed.
Musk Geranium. - An annual plant, having a strong musky odor. It
will stand the winter in a common hot-bed. Plant the seed early.
Myrtle (Evergreen). - An evergreen vine, including several species,
bearing a pretty blue flower. A favorite plant for ornamental purposes.
Narcissus. - A bulbous-rooted plant, managed like the hyacinth. It
bears an early, beautiful, and fragrant flower. It is hardy, and well
alapted to bloom in a pot in the green-house or parlor. Raised( by bull)ous
offsets, which increase every year. Polyanthus Narcissus and Jon(uils,
both elegant flowering plants, are propagated and cultivated in the same
manner.
Nasturtium. - An annual plant, with showy flowers. The seeds are
386
I
FLOWERS, ORNABIENTAL TREES, ETC.
enveloped in fleshy pods, and should be sown very early in spring. The
plants should be supported from the ground by bushy sticks.
Passion Flower. - This is a beautiful and celebrated flower, growing on
a perennial vine; the name originating from the large cross in the middle
of the flowier, surrounded by appendages resembling a glory. The plant
has a succession of flowers for a long time. It is tender, suitable for the
green-house, but will not endure a northern winter in open ground. It is
best raised from cuttings.
Peony. - A perennial plant, bearing a gorgeous but short-lived( flower.
There are several species. Propagate from offsets.
Pea (Sweet). -There are many species of this annual, varying in color
and scent. The Everlasting Pea is perennial, and produces many clusters
of showy flowers, which remain in bloom a long time. Plant the seed
early in spring.
Peach (Double Flowering).- A very showy tree, bearing flowers of the
size of a small rose. It is hardy, and managed like other peach-trees.
Pin,. - A well-known perennial plant, fragrant, and embracing many
varieties as respects size and color. A fine flower, and easily grown by
seeds, layers, &c.
Perennial Sun-flower (Double).- A common, but large, fine plant, easily
raised by seed, or by dividing the roots.
Polyanthus. - A hardy, perennial plant, bearing handsome flowers.
There are many varieties, and the plant blooms best in a shady situation;
best propagated by dividing the roots. Polyanthus Nlarcissus is a very
pretty perennial, bulbous-rooted, and easily grown by offsets.
Pyiethrum Parthenzim. - Commonly called Double Fererfew. - A hardy
perennial, producing large quantities of white flowers, and continuing in
bloom a long time. It is easily propagated by the seed.
Poppy. - An annual plant, admired for its great variety in size and in
flower. The double are very showy, but of short duration. E'asily grown
by seed.
Purple Hi/acinth Bean. - An annual runner, bearing large clusters of
purple flowers, much admired. Plant the seeds early, and preserve from
frost.
R,)sc. - Of this deservedly popular flower there are many varieties, as to
size, foliage, beauty, and fragrance. They may be propagated from seed or
by suckers, - the latter being the most certain and easy mode. The
st,ckers should be those which come out near the old stems, during the
sumnimer, and, when planted, should be cut down to four or five inches of the
ground. Plant in October, November, or April. Keep the ground good
and dig it every autumn. They should, except when trained against 3
397
FARMBIER'S HIIAND-BOOK.
-, all, be cut down to a certain height, according to their natural size; for
when the stems and limbs are long, they produce fewer flowers. All the
weak, dead or dying wood should be pruned out close, without leaving any
ugly stubs. The Yellow Rose requires an airy situation and a gravelly soil,
and every autumn one half of the old wood should be cut down within four
inches of the ground; by this means a succession of thrifty, blooming shoots
will be kept up. The Chinese Monthly Rose is grown by cuttings, taken in
the spring and properly placed in moist earth. It is a tender.plant, and
should be taken into a green-house or parlor during the winter. Some of
them, however, are hardy, and withstand the frost. When gathering roses
Fig. 251.
and other flowers having thorny stems, a pair of scissors, combining tweezers
or pincers (Fig. 251), are very useful.
Rose Acacia.- This is a singular shrub, producing many clusters of
flowers, much admired. Propagated by shoots from the roots.
Rose-colored Hibiscus. - A perennial plant, producing very showy flowers,
and making a good appearance in a border. Raised by seed.
Rudbeckia.- A perennial plant, producing many flowers, which are very
durable, and much admired. Propagated best by dividing the roots.
Scarlet Cacalia.- A small annual plant, producing numerous scarlet
flowers. very showy. Easily raised from the seed.
Scarlet Lychnis.- A perennial plant of two kinds, the single and the
double, the latter being very handsome. The former is propagated from
seed, and the latter by dividing the roots.
Snowberry.- A small shrub, producing clusters of beautiful white, waxlike berries, in autumn. Propagated best by suckers.
Spiderwort. -A singular perennial plant, in bloom for a long time. The
blue is more admired than the white. It requires a light covering during
the severity of winter weather. Propagated by dividing the roots.
Spir,ea.- A small shrub, loaded with delicate flowers in the season of its
blooming. Propagated by suckers.
Syringa, or Mock Orange.- A shrub, bearing flowers quite similar to
those of the orange, and making a very pleasing appearance when growing
with other shrubbery. Propagated by suckers.
Strawberry Tree. - This is a handsome shrub, bearing, in autumn, an
3SS
FLOWERS, ORNAMIENTAL TREES, ETC.
abundance of fruit, somewhat resembling the strawberry. The European
is preferred to the American. Grown by seed and by suckers.
Swcet Bay. - This is a very pretty evergreen shrub, well calculated to
stand, in a large pot, in the parlor, during winter. It is propagated very
easily, by suckers.
Sweet William. - An imperfect perennial, producing very beautiful
flowers of small size. It is grown by seed, the plants of which do inot produce flowers like those of the parent plant, except by chance. It may be
propagated by dividing the roots.
Tulip. -In no family of plants has nature so multiplied her beautiful
tints as in this,- there being several hundred varieties. It may be raised
from seed, but the plants do not produce flowers like those of the parent
plant, except by chance. They are raised best by bulbs. After flowering,
the foliage and roots decay, and a bulb or bulbs are formed of the juices of
the old plant. A bulb contains all the parts of the future plant, and soon
becomes as much disengaged from the decayed plant as the ripe acorn is
disengaged from its parent tree. At this time they may be carried, like
many other bulbs, any length of distance, in dry moss or dry sand. They
should be planted out, about three inches below the surface, in a rich soil,
in August or September; after which, they throw out roots, and prepare for
an early appearance in the ensuing spring. If the bulbs be kept through
the winter and planted in the spring, they will not thrive so well that season.
The nicer varieties should be taken up after the decay of the old plants,
every year, air-dried, and kept until September or October, and then
planted.
Violet. - This little plant is perennial; the flowers blue, double, and fragrant, blooming early and long. Propagate by dividing the roots.
II. SHRUBS.
Soil.- With respect to soil, hardy shrubs may be conveniently considered as constituting two great divisions; one requiring any common garden
soil, and the other requiring a large portion of peat or leaf-mould.
With regard to the first division, a rich, light, hazel loam is suitable to
the greater number of the plants, though some will thrive in the poorest
soils; but in this there is great diversity. After having taken out the
original soil of the border, about a foot and a half or two feet deep,
though three feet will do no harm,- fill in the vacancy thus formed with
peat or compost raised above the garden level, to allow for subsequent
sinking.
Seasons and Modes of Planting.- With respect to shrubs that shed their
leaves on the approach of winter, they may be removed with safety as soon
33*
389
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
as the leaves have begun to fall in October. With respect to shrubs which
do not shed their leaves and are evergreen, they may, if carefully taken up,
be planted at any season of the year, provided advantage is taken of dull or
dripping weather. But, notwithstanding, there are particular seasons when
they will thrive better and grow more freely than at others.
If the situation be dry, and the soil light and sandy, evergreens, with
the exception of hollies, should be planted as late in November as the
weather will permit. But in the case of a bad situation, with a soil retentive of moisture, May is the preferable season. Hollies should always be
removed in June.
When the plants are large or rather old, good balls should, if possible, be
taken up with them, and all the fibres of the roots that can be got up without bruising or injury. Whatever may be the state of the weather, it is
important to keep the roots as short time exposed to the air as possible. If
only a few minutes, so much the better. In all seasons, situations, and
soils, the plants should be well soaked with water as soon as the earth
is put about the roots. As soon as a plant has been put into its place, the
earth should be filled in, leaving a sufficient hollow around the stem, and as
far as the roots extend, to hold water, which should then be poured in, in
sufficient quar..,iy to soak the ground down to the lowest parts of the root.
By this practice, which is particularly necessary in spring and autunii
planting, the earth is carried down by the water, and every crevice among
the roots is filled. Care must always be taken to have as much earth about
the roots of the plants as will prevent them from being exposed when thl-e
Fig. 252.
water has subsided. After the first watering has dried up, the earth should
be leveled around the stem of the plant, and as far out as the water lits
been put on, but not trodden. If the plants are large, a second watering is
sometimes necessary, but in ordinary-sized plants one watering is quite siuft
390
FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC.
ficient; and after remaining twenty-four hours, more or less, according to
the nature of the soil, the earth about the stem and over the roots should be
trodden as firm as possible, and after treading should be dressed with a
rakle. The garden engine is now much used, in watering gardens,
nurseries, &c. Fig. 252.
After-management. - If the season be very dry, it will be important to
lay round the roots a quantity of moss, or cut grass. Whilst the plants are
small, care must be taken not to let them be stifled or choked with rankgrowing weeds, nor by the increasing growth of contiguous shrubs, and to
clear away all rubbish that might retard their shooting; also stir the surface of the ground frequently with a hoe, to prevent the surface becoming
hard and caked in dry weather. The branches must be trimmed off, too,
which may be done by means of the implement below, -called a briar or
s)ill hook,- as they grow too large or luxuriant, or overhang and smother
each other.
Fig. 253.
Situation and Arrangement. - Some shrubs thrive best in a dry and elevated situation, and will not grow when crowded amongst others, or in low,
damp ground, where other sorts grow the most luxuriantly. These and
other circumstances must be attended to, in the disposal of the several roots.
The beauty of the plants cannot be displayed, indeed, when they are too
much crowded, as they are then certain to be drawn into unnatural shapes.
The more frequently, therefore, that open spaces can be omitted, the more
Fig. 254.
will the shrubs exhibit themselves to advantage. Keep them well trimmed,
using the pruniing-shlears (Fig. 254) freely, whenever necessary.
391
eNj
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
One of the most important things, in planting shrubs, is to attend partic
ularly to the shades of green, especially where the view from the house of
lawn catches the trees. Flowers, which Pliny elegantly calls the joy of
trees, continue but for a short period in comparison with the duration of the
leaves, and, therefore, the more permanent picture should be executed by
judiciously contrasting the greens. Even the effect of perspective may be considerably increased by the proper arrangement of hues. Shrubs, whose leaves
are of a gray or bluish tint, when seen over or between shrubs of a yellowish or bright green, will seem thrown into the distance. Those, again, with
small or tremulous leaves should wave over or before those with large,
broad-fixed foliage. The light and elegant acacia, for example, has a more
beautiful effect when its branches float over the firm and dark holly, or
sweet bay. When the situation will permit, three or five lilacs may be
grouped together in one place, and as many laburnums in another, so as to
give effect in various parts by a mass of color. The guelder rose should
appear as if escaping from the bosom of evergreens, and not a plant should
be set in the ground without adding to the harmony of the whole.
A shrubbery should be planted as a court or stage dress is ornamentedfor general effect, and not for particular and partial inspection. Boldness
of design, which seems to be more the offspring of nature and chance than
of art and study, should be attempted; but all harshness or too great abruptness must be avoided, by a judicious mixture of plants whose colors will
blend easily into one another. The most beautiful shrubs should, of course,
be planted in the most conspicuous and prominent places; a projecting part
of the shrubbery, for instance, should be reserved for the rhododendron, the
azalea, and other similar sorts, with which may be planted the hardier
heaths. With respect to evergreens considerable judgment is required, in
order to relieve their uniform appearance during winter. This may be done
by skilfully arranging different kinds, and those with variegated leaves, such
as aucuba, japonica, and green holly, or those which retain their brilliant
berries during the cold months, such as pyracantha.
A well-planted shrubbery depends not so much for its beauty on the expense or rarity of the plants it contains, as on the selection of the sorts
which succeed each other in blossoming throughout the year, or whose various-colored fruits grace them for the longest duration of time. It is not,
accordingly, so much the shrubs, exclusively the ornament of the summer
months, which alone require attention, but such also as will contribute to
the gayety of the morning and evening of the year; so that the gloom may
be banished at all times, as much as possible, from the grove, and nature's
repose shortened between the plaintive good-night of autumn and the
cheerful good-morrow of spring. For this purpose, plant the hazel and
392
FLOWERS, ORNAMIENTAL TREES, ETC.
filbert, as among the trees which blossom first; and even the fturz-bush is a
great enlivener of the shrubbery at this dull season, particularly when its
golden blossoms are expanded at the foot of some dark-foliaged evergreen.
Varieties. - Among the numerous kinds of ornamental shrubs may be
mentioned, for a select assortment, - Rose Acacia, dwarf white-flowering
Horse Chestnut, scarlet-flowering Chestnut, Strawberry tree, double-flowering Almond, Snow-ball, Japan Sophora, Spice-bush, Rose of Sharon,
Lilac, Carolina Syringa, Spirea, Mountain Rose, Mountain Laurel, Azalea,
Calycanthus, Honeysuckle, Hawthorn, Prim, Juniper.
III. ORNAMIENTAL TREES.
Varieties.- The most common, hardy, and esteemed ornamental trees
are as follows: Ailanthus, Ash, Horse Chestnut, Rock Maple, Sugar Maple, Cypress, Elm, Larch, Pine, Locust, Willow, Linden, Abele, Basswood, Hemlock, Tulip-tree, Fir, and Spruce.
MONTHLY FLORICULTURAL CALENDAR.
JANUARY.- The chief business of this month is increasing the stock of
potted flowering-plants, some of which will require the assistance of a slight
hot-bed to bring them forward. This is to be understood as a means of
preventing them going back, rather than forcing them prematurely forward, it will also be a means of advancing seedlings fit for pricking out
into other hot-beds, next month. A very moderate degree of artificial heat
is sufficient.
FEBRUARY. The business of this month depends much on the kind of
weather which prevails. If cold, wet, and inclement, very little can be
done in the open garden, except protecting the bed-plants; but if the
weather be remarkably open and dry, something may be done in the way
of preparing the ground for the hardier annuals. A slight hot-bed will be
required to raise seedlings of various sorts of annual flowers, and to receive
seedlings of former sowings; thus, by keeping up a stock of desirable
tilings, in different stages of growth, the garden may be replenished as soon
as the cold season is fairly past.
AIARcH. - This being the first month of spring, renders the garden a
busy scene, especially if the weather be open; and everything recommended
for last month should be continued during the present, with the addition of
many other things of equal importance. The bed-flower plants, particularly
tulips, must be carefully guarded against sharp frosts following snow oT
rain; if the state of the ground permit, all the plots and borders may now
be smoothed by the rake, preparatory to sowing the first general crop of
393
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
hardy annuals. Dalilia-seed may perhaps be sown in pans, and the old
tubers placed in dry leaf-moLld, on a mild hot-bed, or on a bark bed in a
stove, to raise shoots of which young plants are made for flowering. All
green-house plants, which flower so readily and so beautifully in the open
air in summer, should now, if not done in the autumn, be propagated abulndantly by cuttings, on hot-bed heat, so as to be ready for the borders in June.
All the different sorts of what are called tender annuals may now be sown
in hot-beds, to raise plants ready for potting as soon as they are large enough
to handle; all potted flowers, as the auricula, carnation, pinks, stocks,
wall-flowers, &c., should inow receive their spring top-dressing of fresh
compost, to assist them to flower strongly.
APRIL.- The flowers of some of the bulbs have nowv appeared those on
the auricula stage and on the different beds are coming forward, and require
constant care. Tulips and hyacinths will need to be sheltered from wind,
rain, or other injurious weather. Many seedlings which have been kept in
frames will be fit for transplanting. Another sowing of both hardy and
tender annuals may, towards the end of the month, be made to succeed
those sown previously. Seedling dahlias, and all the tender annuals,
require attention to get them forward. Cuttings of dahlias, and the slips
or cuttings of Chinese chrysanthemums, also, must be got forward, by potting singly and keeping them on a little heat, till fairly rooted, and ready to
go into other pots, or to their places in the open air.
MAIv. - Sow another succession of hardy annuals and biennials, and thin
and transplant some of those previously sown. Tender annuals, dahlias,
chrysanthemnums, &c., lately potted and in frames, must be guarded by
mats against the cold of nights, and shaded, till they are well-rooted, from
the sun by day; such as are intended to be put out in the open air should
be gradually hardened by leaving off the shading, propping, and defending
from insects. Carnation-seed may be sown. A small bed of ranunculus
may be planted to flower in Atugust, and new beds of violets made. Rosetrees may now be pruned back, to obtain a late bloom; and all other shrubs
which produce their flowers on the shoots of the present year may, by cutting back at this time, be made to flower again in autumn.
Ju-NE. - All serious fears of the effects of night frosts are now over,
and therefore all the more teol(ier kinds of flowering plants may be planted
abroad with impunity. Dahlias must now, if not done before, be placed in
their blooming stations, with stout stakes for their support. The situation
should be sheltered, but not shady, and is better if treated with a fresh compost of rich loam and road-sand. well mixed, to grow in. Pot off seedlings,
if not already done. Auriculais may nowv be shifted ~and tulip, hyacinth,
and raniunculus beds miay still require attention, to preserve the beauty of the
94
FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC.
late flowers, by shading or other care. Carnations now need attention to
insure vigorous growth and perfect blossoms. Continue to plant out tender
annuals, as well as any green-house plants which can be spared, to add to
the gayety of the garden; transplant annuals previously sown and standing
too thick; sow biennials, and propagate by cuttings every plant of which a
supply may be wanted.
JULv. — Whatever was omitted to be done in June should now be executed without delay. Take up bulbs and tubers when the leaves have withered; sow and transplant annuals to bloom late; propagate pinks, rockets,
carnations, &c. Divide auriculas and repot them, keeping them shaded;
also, all other plants in pots, as Chinese primroses; propagate pansies by
division; sow biennials; prop Chinese chrysanthemums, and lay down
some of the long shoots to make bushy plants of the tops. Regulate the
patches of previously-sown annuals, and shift those of the green-house or
stove. In short, sowing, transplanting, shifting into larger pots, propagating by layers and cuttings, propping, shading, and watering when necessary, form the constant employment of the flower-gardener during this
month.
AUGUST. - If any bulbs which have done flowering yet remain in the
ground, they should now be taken up, dried, and stored in a safe place.
Cuttings of azaleas, ericas, and such similar plants, may yet be put in
those of less woody character, as dahlias, chrysanthemums, geraniums
carnations, pinks, and other herbaceous perennials, may still be rooted.
Roses may be budded. Calceolarias intended to flower late should be cut
in, and at the same time receive a top-dressing of rich compost. Another
bed or two of pansies should be made to bloom before severe frosts set in.
Miginonette should be sown in pots and window-boxes, to stand the winter
in frames. Cyclamen persicum may now be turned out of the pots in which
they flowered, and placed in a dry border to gain strength duriiag their torpid state. Chrysanthemums, dahlias, and all other tall or climbing plants,
should have supports. Carnations, whether on stage, bed, or border, neatly
tied up and shaded, and layering for next year's stock finished. Seedlings
may be bedded out. Shorten the first shoots of the rose-acacia, to cause a
second birth of late flowers. Ranunculuses already planted for blooming
in October must be kept rather moist, and the soil about them pretty firm.
Violets increased by dividing, and place some in a frame for early flowers.
Biennials may still be sown, and bulbs intended to flower in autumn
planted.
SEPTEM.BER. - In this month there is usually much irregularity of growth,
decayed flowers, stems and leaves, required to be cleared away, in order
that the flower-pots may not present the appearance of wildness or neglect.
395
FARSIER'S HAND-BOOK.
Seedlings of biennials and perennials should be thinned, and some of them
placed il pots, or transplanted to beds or places where they are intended to
remain; all cuttings, pipings, or layers, which are sufficiently rooted,
should also be removed to their final or temporary stations. Auriculas
should be freed from dead leaves, the earth on the surface of the pots freshened up, a little compost added, and, if any require to be shifted, it may
nowv be done. The seeds of ranunculus and anemone may be sown in pans
or boxes, if not already done. Dahlias are now in fitll beauty; and the
Chinese chrysanthemums, whether in pots or in the open air, require freqilent watering, not only at the root, but over the leaves, to prevent their
flagging under the sun's heat. Seeds of fine annuals, now ripe, should be
gathered and saved; and valuable green-house plants which have flowered
in the borders should now be repotted. It is now, also, the proper time to
prepare the beds intended for tulips, hyacinths, and ranunculuses, in order
that they may be properly settled by planting-time; and, indeed, much of
the beauty and neatness of a flower-garden the next season depends on the
preparation and disposition made at or soon after this time, whether it be in
improving the quality of the soil or in altering the forms of the beds; and
also many annuals may be sown in pots about this time. to be nursed under
glass in the winter, ready to be turned out early in spring. This is a practice which the florist should repeat frequently during the winter months.
OCTOBER. -Dahlias are still in beauty, and only require firm staking
against the wind. If any new seedlings have not yet flowered, and are expected or promise to prove excellent, they should be guarded by some temporary covering against being nipped by an unexpected night-frost. Chinese
chrysanthemums standing in the open borders are in the same predicament;
their flower-buds may be destroyed before they are open, if not protected by
some slight covering; those in pots can be removed to a place of safety.
Pinks may still be bedded out, and carnation layers potted. These last,
together with all other flowers in pots, must be duly supplied with water.
About the end of the month, prepare a heap of light and fresh sandy loam,
and a sufficient number of proper-sized pots, for the reception of as many
bulbs and tubers, such as polyanthus-narcissus, tulips, hyacinths, irises,
crocus, &c., as may be required for early and late forcing; prepare also the
beds for tulips, hyacinths, anemones, and ranunculuses, to be planted about
the beginning of next month. Dig the plots or clumps intended for the
hardier sorts of bulbs and tubers, which now require to be put in, namely,
narcissus of all sorts, snowdrops, scillas, aconite, &c. Pot roses, Persian
lilac, and the different sorts of American shrubs, and other plants proper for
forcing. Sow some more pots and boxes of mignonette and other flowers,
to go into frames. Perennials may be taken up, parted, and replanted;
396
FLOWERS, ORNAMIENTAL TREES, ETC.
some of the more showy sorts may be potted to go into frames, to advance
their flowering in spring. Roseries may be pruned and regulated, laying
dowsn the long shoots and straggling branches, keeping the whole pretty
close to the ground. Standard roses require to be close-pruned and well
staked.
NOVEMBER. -The previously planted beds for tulips, hyacinths, polyanthus-narcissus, ranunculus and anemones, should all be planted early.
Where these flowers are cultivated in the best style, the collections are
named, and require much precision in placing them in the beds; but when
executed according to the approved rule, the success is never doubtful.
The other business of the season is taking up the tubers of dahlias, marvel
of Peru, or others which would be in jeopardy from frost; pruning shrubs,
as well to keep them in form as to encourage flowering. All dead or decaying stems or leaves should be cleared off, the ground dug, the patches
of perennial flowers reduced, vacancies filled up, edgings repaired, and the
whole garden receive a general brush over, laying all as neatly for winter as
possible.
DECEMBER. -There is little or nothing to be done in the flower-garden
this month. The young seedlings of mignonette, and other flowers in
frames, must not be forgotten; indeed, everything liable to be hurt by frost
must have sufficient protection. A few more pots of bulbs and tubers, and
also another succession of annual flowers, may be sown in pots to go into
frames, and be forwarded for planting abroad in the spring.
34
397
CHAPTER X.
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
CONSTRUCTION OF FARM-DWELLINGS AND COTTAGES-DAIRIES -BARNSSTABLES - CART-SHEDS AND IMPLEMENT-HIIOUSES -GRANARIES -CATTLE-SHEDS
-PIGGERIES - POULTRY-HOUSES -ARRANGEMENT OF TIIE FARMEY-GREENHOUSES- FENCES AND GATES.
I. - FARI-DWELLINGS AND COTTAGES.
THE edifices of this class which are necessary upon the farm are those
intended as residences for the farmer himself, and also for one or more of
the persons engaged in the cultivation of it. The character and extent of
these are regulated altogether by the extent of the farm, and the taste of its
occupier; but even when of the smallest size and simplest construction, the
farmer's house should not be deficient in anything essentially requisite for
the health, comfort and convenience, of even the most luxurious of mankind.
General Principles to be Observed. -The chief condition to be observed, in
the construction of these, is utility; for, in fact, there can be nothing really
ornamental, especially about the class of buildings which is now under consideration, that is not founded on this basis; and the size, style, and character
of the building, are to be modified according to the pecuniary means
available for its construction. As general rules in the erection of farmhouses, it may be observed, that it is always desirable that they should be
placed upon a platform or terrace, with a view of keeping the ground floor
of the several apartments dry, and consequently rendering them warmer and
healthier; that the chimneys should be placed in the interior walls rather
than in the exterior ones, this arrangement being better calculated to retain
the greatest portion of the heat coming from the fires within the house, and,
by the additional heat contained within the central mass of masonry, to
make the flues draw better; and that the ground plan should approach as
near as possible to a square, as being that form which is calculated to affor(d
the greatest accommodation with a given amount of cost.
Plans for Buildings.- Keeping these principles in view, and accommodating them to the particular situation in which the structure is to be erected.
every intelligent farmer will easily make out such a form and arrangement
as may suit his peculiar circumstances.
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
Model of a AModerate-sized Farm-house. - As a model for the construction
of a farm-house containing suitable accommodation for a farmer moderately
well off, the annexed plan may be referred to. From the entrance and stair
case, A, there is a kitchen, B, with back kitchen or store-room, c, and pantry,
Fig. 255.
C, S-X~~~~~
I,, Hi
D. There are two good parlors, E and F; a store-room and cellar, G, which
may be connected with the kitchen, or entered from the outside, as may be
thought necessary. The three small apartments, H, I, K, may be used as
store-rooms for some of the smaller implements. It will perhaps be convenient that one of them should be a water-closet, and another may be fitted
ip as a carpenter's work-shop, in which such jobbing may be done as the
lpersons employed on the farm can do, and thus save the time occupied in
carrying the articles to the workman. On the second floor there are three
good bed-rooms, one above the kitchen, and the others above the front rooms,
with a dressing-closet over the entrance. The apartments on each side of
the kitchen have lean-to roofs, and are not carried to the height of the other
parts of the building.
AIodel of a One-story House.- The ground plan of a house consisting of
one story only, and calculated for the accommodation of a farmer of quite
moderate means, is represented in the following figure. From the vestibule,
A, a door leads to the kitchen, B, from which is partitioned off a small bedroom, c. The bed-room, D, has a dark closet, E, and a light one, F. The
small apartment, G, may be used as a store-room, in the ceiling of which
399
FARMIER'S IIAND-BOOK.
there may be a trap-door, with a suitable ladder reaching to the roof, in
which may be two sleeping apartments.
Model of a Medium-sized House.- The following design is for a farmhouse of medium size, inr which a portion of the front, and the whole of the
kitchen part, are of two stories, and the remainder of one story. Fig. 257
is the front elevation of this house.
Fig. 257.
The ground-plan of this structure is seen in the following cut, which may
be explained thus: A, outer lobby; B, inner lobby; c, dining-room; c,
closet; D, parlor; d, press; E, passage under the stairs; e, press; F, back
400
of/. 256.
F ~~~B
F -.
LI,o -' I
-~Z -1
~~~~ r ~~~~~~~I;
,, j~ ~ ~
71,!
~
B2 ~ L
34* B
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
ig. 260.
~j~~~~\~~<~i~ ~~$
~
~
N
0 l~
Miig. 261.
ji 0 10.
402
'i~;i.. t'
ir/
J 0
zo 20 s0. 50
j~~~~~~xJ ~ ~ ~ ~ r
~~~~~
PM _
~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~;j~~~~~~~~~~~jjj~~~~~~~~~
~ IL]
I
I
- -- i
4
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
passage; G, kitchen; H, back-kitchen or store-room: s, sink; t, oven, u,
boiler; I, coal-house, or wood-house; K, a sleeping apartment; L, storecloset, or pantry; HI, milk-house; m, mn, stone shelves; N, closet under the
stairs, which may be a water-closet.
Fig. 259 represents a side elevation of the same house
The upper floor, as seen in Fig. 260, may be cxplaincd as follows: - N,
stair-landing; o, P, Q, R, bed-rooms; q, press; s, T, closets.
3(l'ol of a Large Farm-hottse, 4-c. - The design which is sccn in Fig.
261 is for a farm-house of the larger class, in which all the main parts of the
building are raised to the height of two stories. First is the front elevation.
A side elevation gives the view as seen in Fig. 262.
The ground plan is represented by Fig. 263, and the bed-chamber floor by
Fig. 264, explained in the manner follow ing. In the ground plan, A is tlhe
outer lobby; B, inner lobby; c, parlor; D, dining-room; E, businessroom; F, store-room; a, principal stairs; iI, passage to domestics' rooms
Fig. 264.
w
I s
- \ B~;i
~~~11
404
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
{. h, back passage; g, stair to domestics' rooms; I, kitchen x, back
kitchlen; L, wood-house;.i, milk-house; N, larder; o, pantry; P, press
R, water-closet; v, kitchen-yard; T, ash-pit; s, water-closet. In the bedlI-hamber floor (Fig. 264), B is the stair-landing; A, E, F, K, bed-rooms; (
irincipal stairs; H, passage; c, dressing-room, or room for various purposes;
(l, domestics' stairs; n, closet; L, domestics' room; I, press; h, landing of'
back stairs.
TIe Tudor Style. -Of late years, the fashion of architecture so prevalent
Fig. 265.
in the time of the TUDORS, and called by that name, has been revived, even
in cottage building, to a great extent, with very pleasing effect. It is, how
Fig. 266.
A
.. I ZZI
m m
405
FARM'ER'S HAND-BOOK.
ever. to he borne in mind that this ornamental style is expensive, and therefore not desirable or practicable with those whose object is to provide
plain and substantial habitations, at the least possible expense. Fig. 265.
Afodel of Double Cottage Structure.- Fig. 266 exhibits two cottages in
juxtaposition,- a front elevation of the whole structure.
The ground plan, seen in Fig. 267, is constructed as follows: - A, the
lobby; B, kitchen; a, recess for bed; c, store-room; c, oven; D, pantry; E,
Fig. 267.
A:
stairs to upper floor; e, closet or cellar under the stairs. The bed-chamber
floor is represented in Fig. 268: - F, the stair-landing; G, bed-room; g,
recess for bed; Ii, bed-room; I, closet.
Fig. 263.
A'
Fig. 206 exhibits the cottag,e as havin, a single fatmily-room or kithenli,
on the lox er floor, and sleeping apartments -above. Ilowever limited tli.s
accommodation mav seem, it is fully equal, if not superior, to that enjoye(
tillllllltttlr= = tlI.IIllill- ~ I I ~ ll.. ltlldill[ l lllllUlll
406
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
by thousands of cultivators of the soil in this country, and incomparably
superior to what is enjoyed by multitudes in the old countries. If we shall
make use of the kitchen for containingr a bed, it gives three distinct rooms
for sleeping, with a small closet wlticli may be used for the saimec purpose.
But the cottage, in place of coutainin, one room below, may contain two, in
which case it will become more comninodious.
3llodi(icatioals of Plans. - With regard to the architectural d(lesign of the
cottage, it has not been deemed necessary here to do more than show such
an elevation as arises from the plan itself. But the architectural designi
may be modified in any wavy. By iving a porch, by making mullions to
the windows, by causing, the eaves to project, and by enlarging the chimneystalkls, a more graceful exterior may be produced. A just taste will lead
the desi,iner of the cottage, as of every other building, to make even its
architectural decorations in harmony with its known uses. A solid and
Fig. 269.
warm dwelling, suited to the wants and conveniences of rural life, is what
we should desire the cottage to be; and the taste will l)e best gratified when
the architectiir,l chliracters of the building are seen to be in accord(lance with
thlese eii(s..''e aItrts oft the cottage on which the art of the designer
407
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
might be appropriately shown are those just referred to. Fig. 269 repro
sents a very neat skietch of a cottage of moderate size and cost.
II. DAIRIES.
General Remarks. - On proper attention to the construction of the dairyhouse materially depends the perfect manufacture of cheese and butter, and
uothing should be spared in rendering it as complete in accommodation for
the different operations as the nature and size of the farm will admit. We
allude not to the elegance of many gentlemen's dairies, nor to some few of
those fitted up at great expense for a large business, but to those upon a
moderate scale, and in every instance where the object is not confined to the
mere consumption of the family. It is, indeed, the more necessary to
remark upon their deficiencies, and give some hints towards remedying
them, as many of them consist of nothing better than an out-shed attached
to the kitchen, and very few are erected with a proper degree of judgment.
Different Apartnicets of the Dairy-house. - The apartments which are
peculiarly appropriate to the dairy-husbandry are, oite for milk; another
for butter in churning, or for scalding, pressing, and salting cheese; and a
third for implements, over which, in cheese-dairies, a store-room may be
placed under the roof.
Site. - The building, though placed conveniently to the house, yet should
be apart from any immediate contact with the odor of the farm-yard, or
other impurity, as well as from any pond of stagnant water, as nothing more
Fig. 270.
____ _ _ __ _;j
0 A
i,, 1 ~
;- A\t\\\7k.
I'\
readily acquires an unpleasant taste or smell than milk and cream. An
uniform temperature being also of extreme importance, the site of the
structure should be such as to be as little as possible affected by the
I
i!
"I
40S
13
I
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
extremes of either heat or cold. The most experienced dairy operators dis agree respecting the degree of temperature most suitable to the production
of cream and the making of butter; but they all admit that the house cannot
be ren(lered too cool during the summer, and in winter it is easy to keep upli
a suflimieit w-armthl. It is recommended by some of the most skilful that
the mtin aspect be open to the north and east; and the building should, if
possille. be shaded, either by other walls or by high trees, from the southI
and sht. The roof should be of a high conical form, or what builders call
a " spen roof," rising from the centre, and projecting downwards broadly
over the sides, to shade the body of the house, which should consist of a
narrow range of rooms, upon the plan of Fig. 270.
To secure a Pro]per Temiperature.- Of the apartments represented in Fig.
270, the middle - that in which the miilk is preserved - is the most important; and, therefore, in order to secure as equal a temperature as possible at
all seasons of the year, by excluding all direct communication with the
external air, the outer walls - as marked black in the plan - should b(
madle of sod and earth rammed firm to the breadth of full four feet in thickness. wlile the other walls of the building need only be constructed of a
sin(cfl t,.ick, or even with lath and plaster, boarded on the outside; nor is
it necessary that they should be more than seven or eight feet high at the
sides. -t funnel should also be run through the centre of the roof to a
couple (,f feet above it, to act as a ventilator, - a valve being fitted to it.
wlhicli. -y meanis of a pulley, can be shut or opened at pleasure; or it inay
be venetilated in a more purely scientific, and perhaps much better mannier, by
means of the recently invented and approved apparatus now so much in ise.
A7rrngr,emen! of thle Apartments.- The arrangement of these rooms will
therefore be thus: - A, the milk-house, with broad shelves all around, for
holding the vessels which contain the milk and cream; and in the middle
is a table for preparing the butter for market. The windows are closed
with lattices covered with gauze wire, to prevent the entry of flies, and
double shutters of wood, to guard against cold in winter; or common wilndowN-s withi single shutters will do. B, the churning-house, with a boiler
in one corner, and on the sides frames for cheese presses and vats, with
large vessels of lead, slate, wood, tin, or earthen ware, for holding the
whey. a}nd pipes for conveying it to a cistern outside, for the use of the pigs.
c, the ws-sh-house for the cleansing and care of the utensils; it therefore
contains a fuirnace with a cauldron for scalding the vessels, and a pumlI
communicating with a well. The outer door or entrance is here, an(l
gtljoiuingr it are placed stands under the verandah formed by the projection
fI the roof, for exposing all the wooden implements which may have bee.
washed to be dried and sweetened by the sun and air.
35
40(i
FAR3IER'S HAND-BOOK.
Store-loft or Upper Rooms. -In cheese-dairies, the store-loft may be
placed immniediately below the rise of the conical roof,- a comimunication
being made by a stair-case in a corner of the wasll-hoLuse,-btt many i:armers
prefer having the loft over the cow-hlouse, with the intention of forwardinig the maturity of the cheese by its warmth. Some large dairies,
however, have roofs in the common form, with lofts and sleeping-rooms
over them; and others, of a moderate size, have the milk-house sunk
about three feet below the ground, with very thick brick and rubble walls,
standing ten feet high, thus admitting of a cheese-loft above. The buildings in the latter case are also constructed differently fromn that already
dlescribed,- the milk-house having three fronts encircled by a verandah, -
thus affording a strong draught of air through the windows, with only one
dloor, while the other rooms are of timbers rising up to the roof, and the
wash-house forms the only mniode of commuinication between both. The
pi)lan, on the whole, has the advantage of having the milk-house entirely
separate from the churning and scalding room, as well as of its being
somewhat cooler in summer; but what it gains in the latter respect it
.oses in the constant equality of temperature, and its construction is more
costly.
Model of a Complete Dairy.- In Figs. 271, 272, a design is given of a
complete dairy, which may either form a part of the farmer's house, or be
distinct from it. The front elevation is as above.
The plan of the ground floor, as seen in Fig. 72, is as fillows: - \ is
.he scullery; a, steami boiler; o, sink in the wiud(low recess, iln li} til}
water can be hea t I5v a st..-ai-ip,c) fiomn tlihe boiler; s, smrill s eoi.Iu
410
Fig. 2 7 1.
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
nicating with the pigs' troughs, in which the whey and other refuse are
thrown; r, r, stone benches, on which the milk-pails are placed before they
Fi. 272.
Fang
;_ *bfi~~ffl~;;A
~;j~~~ ~~>,~ /~/f\-..\
\~~\~I- j - ~,,
_~ —,J_____I____ _',
... ~ X1 I ES
G
are put into the milk-room; E, wood and coal cella,r, with hatch, e, by which
the fuel is thrown in; c, churning-room; c, stone bench for milk-vessels;
Fi-. 273.
p,. cheese-makling room; b, b, b, stone bench, for utensils; D, milk-room;
d, d, stone bench round the room, for milk-vessels; f, table for prep,)r
411
I
PFARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
ing butter, with basin and fountain; G, G, shed along the front of the
building, for drying dishes; F, F, horse-course for moving the churn; H,
)assage from scullery to milk-room; m, stairs down to milk-room; 1, stairs
lp to loft.
Fig. 273 gives a side elevation view of the building. The plan of the
upper floor or lofts, represented in Fig. 274, is thus explained:- A, the
Fig. 274.
t#;~Y;~Th i~#
~;.
~
I]
-;;; ~;; 5l1 f~\r~j4\;f
2i:2L:1s7{YjLi A
II
L~~T
\:!i~~\
!-i
i, iL
. i1
\' I
.~,,. I
store-room over scullery; B, store-room over milk-room;
landing of stairs; D, upper landing; E, cistern; e, closet.
III. BARNS.
Plan of Apartments. - On tillage farms, where grain is produced in large
quantity, the barn is an important part of the buildings of the farm; but on
fairmns where pasturage is almost exclusively practised, the barn becomes
less necessary. In the construction of barns a great change has taken place
sinee the introduction of the threshing-machine. They were formerly constructed of dimensions capable of holding the greater part of the produce
)f the farm. When the flail is used in the operation of threshing, the barn
usually consists of a plain oblong building, without any internal divisions,
and of a size proportionate to that of the farm. It is made to hold one stack
ti
_=
i 1
412
I
".,
,in
IE I
b, b, shelves; c,
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
of corn at a time, and besides the space occupied by the corn, room must be
left for the threshing-floor, on which the grain is placed for the action of the
flail. An essential circumstance in the arrangement of the barn, in this
case, is the formation of the threshing-floor of suitable materials, and in a
convenient situation. It is, for the most part, placed in the centre of the
building, but it may be laid down in any other part that may appear more
convenient. In the construction of these floors, wood, when properly laid
and put together, is probably the best, and the most secure from damp, and
may be arranged so as to be moved at pleasure. The dimensions may be
from twelve to fourteen by eighteen or twenty feet. The materials should
be well seasoned previously to their being put together, in order to guard
against shrinking afterwards; and it is to be observed that the platformi
thus made is to be slightly raised above the other parts of the floor.
When the threshing-machine is emiployed, the barn is conveniently
divided into a number of apartments, to fiLcilitate the work in the operation
of threshing, and to enable the unthreshlied corn to be kept separately from
the grain and straw. The barn for threshing consists of two apartments,
ontie above the other. In the upper apartment is placed the unthreshed corn.
as it is brought from the stack; and in the event of the farmery being placed
in an inclined situation, advantage may be taken of this circumstance, by
placing the entrance to this apartment in the same plane with thie surface of
The ground outside, which secures ready ingress and egress with the corn.
The threshing-machine is placed at one end of this apartment, and it extends
to that below. In this apartment also is placed the table on which the sheaves
are spread out, and the feeding-board at which the person stands who suplies the corn to the machine. The lower apartment is called the dressingbarn, as the grain is received in it from the threshing-machine, and is
there winnowed and prepared for use. The remaining apartment connected
with the barn is that in which the straw is received as it falls frbm the
machine, and when it is stored up for use. It should be of sufficient size to
contain the produce of one stack, at least; and it is desirable that it should
l)e even larger, so that straw may be preserved dry, after beiiing threshed ill
severe weather.
Li,'/ht and Air. -In the construction of the barn it is important that
arrangements be made for ventilation and the admission of light. These
oljects are effected by glazed windows, consisting of two sashes, so that they
may be moved up and down, or by means of what are termed luffer-board
windows, or such as are formed of small slips of wood, instead of glass.
To) prevent the Depredations of Verrnin. - The floors should be formed or
arranged so as to prevent the depredations of vermin. These frequently
make passages into the space below the boards along the edges of the floor.
35*
413
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
ing between it and the walls; but this may be prevented by skirtings of thil
sheet-iron placed around the apartments, and so formed as to overlap the
floor an inch or more. The joining of the skirting with the wall is to be
well filled up with mortar, and the lower part is to fit accurately to the floor.
Model of the l/ashing,ton Barn.- The following is a sketch of tile barn
structure sketched by Arthur Young for General Washington, explained
thus: - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, the barn; 1, 2, 7, 8, the porch of do., with a small
Fig. 275.
16', 17
la 2 S13 12 l13 S 1e
23
.,9 f~
23~~~..'.;, 5 f'o If',; rc
door at 9; 10, 11, the great door at which the carts enter; 12, the threshingfloor, which extends the space of 1, 2, 10, 11; 13, 13, bays, in which the
corn is stowed; 14, 14, 14, 14, sheds for cattle and horses; 15, 15, 15, 15,
mangers, out of which the cattle get their roots, straw, and chaff; 16, 16,
16, 16, passages, between two and three feet wide, for carrying food to the
cattle; 17, 17, 17, 17, doors into the passage; 18, 18, 18; 18, principal
posts on which the sheds rest; 19, 19, 19, 19, gutters of bricks sloped for
coinveying the urine of the cattle to 20, 20, 20, 20, cisterns, from which it is
every day regularly thrown on the dunghills, or made use of otherwise; 21,
21, 21, 21, sheds for various uses; 22, 22, two yards, with each a shed for
shelter, to be applied to any purpose wanted- one for sheep, surrounded
with low racks -another divided for a horse or two, loose, or the other half
for yearling calves; 23, 23, enclosure of pales; 1,2, 8, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, the main
body of the barn, which rises from fourteen to twenty feet to the caves, all
the rest of the shed being placed against it. The quantity of cattle room
may be enlarged by a slight extension of the sheds at each end; and all these
points may be made to vary according to the views, circumstances and wants,
of each farmer.
414
RURAL ARCHITEC'TURE.
Bucl's Barn. -The figure below is the ground-plan of a barn according
to Buel's views; a is the barn-floor, fourteen feet wide; b, b, bays for hay
Fig. 276.
I I, I f
.q 9
c c
e e
I _ I
-q: -.9
9
t- d1
I e
~ C
SI t
r. q
and grain, eighteen feet wide and ninety-two feet long; c, c, stables for cattle and horses, thirteen feet wide in the clear; d, d, passages to stables, four
feet waide; C, e, manigers for feeding, two anid one half feet wide; f,f, great
doors, fourteen feet wide; g, stable-doors, five feet wide, double. Length
of barn, one hundred feet; width, fifty feet; posts, eighteen feet; pitch of
roof, twelve and one half feet; height of lean-to posts, seven feet; pitch of
stablle-roof, eight feet; length of side lean-tos, one hundred feet; length of
end lean-tos, thirty-eight feet. The end view (A) and the side view (B)
are seen in Fig. 277. The barn is framed as if to stand alone, omitting
the lowIer girt at the ends on each side of the large doors. TI'he leantos are then framed on to the barn in the simplest mananer, the passage
beings irOln( the main body of the barn, excepting at the ends, where the
passage is ait the main barn, and the lean-tos there only sixteen feet wide
I
I
i
415
L
Cb
d
.q
FARMIER S HAND-BOOK.
and the manger is fitted up to the main barn. Only one passage is made to
go into the short stables at the ends. Stalls are made seven and one half
FIg. 277.
A mm I ____
~[77 I' im
1 l li;.' [.. I,,,,..l,
feet wide, and boarded between and cIch ox or cow is tied next to the
partition side of the stall, which prevents their getting together, and saves
much room. The doors are sufficiently wide to drive in a pair of oxen
yoked, and large spikes are driven in the plates all round the stables, to hang
harness, yokes, and chains upon. The bottoms of the mangers are raised
416
/:g'. 273.
I_
4w
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
ten inches from the floor and laid double: the sides of the stable are also
!,attened with thin boards inside, which makes them perfectly tight and
warm; windows, with sliding shutters, are made in the sides, to throw out
i}e manure. Girts run parallel with the main floor in the posts, across
w-liche are laid poles, nine feet above the floor, on which hay or grain can be
piled up to the peak. This barn will hold two hundred tons of hay. an(l
f.rty-six yoke of oxen, or one hundred cows or horses. If only ordinary
stolk is kept, the long lean-tos need be onily eighteen feet wide, and the
sito:t ou:es fourteen feet. Granaries can he partitioned off fromn the bays or
st::)lcs, as may be convenient. If a threshing-miachine is used, a part of the
st;)le can accommodate it. On this model barns of any size may be built..
Tlhe improved harn-door roller, of which we give samples, ought to be used
L,y every barn-builder. (Fig. 278.)
IV. STABLES.
ite. Stablles should be placed in such a position that ready access may
Al had to them, without the necessity of passing through courts or yards
where any animals are kept. They may have a court in front for containing
lie dullg and soiled litter; but it is better that they be contiguous to the
vards where the cattle are kept, so that the dung may be mixed with that of
li}e other animals. If circumstances allow, there should be an adjoining
X';stern for holding water. It is better, for the regularity of superintendence,
tl,.t all the farm-hottses be under one roof, and, if more than one stable is
iecessary, that all the stables be together.
Li',!t and Air. -The essential point, in the construction of the stable, is
to afibrd sufficient cubical space for air and ventilation, and sufficient area for
the animals and the workmen who attend them. The most suitable breadtlh
tbr farm-stables is eighteen feet within walls, though sixteen will do, and
se(venteen may be regarded as a convenient medium. There is no great
()bjcction to the extension of the breadth of stables and other buildings,
except the expense of roofing, which, from the greater size of the timbers
necessary, increases in a great proportion with the extension in breadth.
FThie whole space should be left free to the roof, no lofts of any kind being
.suffered to be erected above the horses, so that the benefits of sufficient space
:,nd ventilation may be secured in the fullest degree. No point is mnore
j,ceessary to be attended to than this, in the farm-stable occupied by a great
number of animals.
The proper manner of ventilating stables, as of all apartments where
.:imals are klept, is by openings at the ridge of the roof, by which nlmeans the
heated vapor of the stable is suffered to escape. If these ventilators are of
tlie proper number and size, there is no need of apertures in the walls, as
c2
417
F FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
some recommend, and seem to think necessary. AVWe may )be certain, that
if we allow the heated air to escape above, the colder w-ill descend to occupy
its place. The air within the stable will, indeed, he kept above the medilnln
temperature without, but in no such degree as to injure the health of the
animals. It will suffice, when the horses are out of the stables at work, to
open the windows and doors, so as to remove the efllu-via which have been
evolved from the dung and litter; and, in warm weather, the window-s may
be opened when the horses are feeding. The ventilators may be formed by
frames with lotvre-boards, inclining so as to prevent the entrance of rain.
But they may be simply and conveniently formed by making openings on
each side of the ridge, defenled fromn the weather by the roof-b)oarding and
the ridge-lead. The windows of the stable may be formed wvith a glazed
upper part, and sliding frames, below, as in the catse of those of the granary.
Stalls. -Each hlorse should have his own stall, whichl should be six feet
vwide. Horses are always reluctant to lie down Nwhen they have not sufficient
space, and many will scarcely lie down in the stab)le at all. The partitions
of the stalls should be eight feet long, five or six feet high behind, and seven
in front. They are almost always formed of boards mortised into posts, one
near the wall, and one at the other end of the partition. The hinder post
may be sunk deep in the floor, and be of the heilght of the partition, or it
may be carried up to a beam extendingl along all the stalls; this last method(
of constructioln is both substantial and adapted to the long line of stalls in the
stable, and in this case, also, the hiinder posts are not sunkl into the ground,
but let into stone soclkets.
Rack;s (and J~rc:Tn~rs. Tlie h,)rse r,ceives hic f "i-o?'1re0i racks and mangers.
rThe racl mav'1.}1r I), (le abvted a}oyve tlhe Ii.,o, if' the horse. or rest upo,
the grond. Irt: b ierT p.r clsi, {: ltors,i l'iiile,'.:Ixvl h'3s fio,l i liolitliftlls,
in(d thi;s i llss isonv:i\ e, eel0I tlhan. fi1 /lic aIwvwird positioni
of the rl ks:!ot 1li: ilitrrer. It this way, t,,, it i. lly lieve
that there is 1 v:te o liav than w-henii the rBck is o 1 tlh!',:ou1ld. But,
'however this'~,1)q }I, tlis species of rack is filtlii siiiTieieiitly slitable il
co(mmon pratice' I-t c(losists of two horizontal rails, ilto vhiiieli are fixed
'prig,ilt [Dins, slihlly ineliniing outw.ards from the lower rail. Thej pins may
te two in(lieis in di'ao te1 add three inchles apairt,:tiil tlio lower rail Iiav 1)b( f)our
Gcet six inches from the floor. This rackl should extend the whole widthli of
the stalls, ard the slighter the inclination given to the upright piIls, the better.
It is common to rmakLe smaller rackls of iron, projecting from the wall.'lhe
uil)per rack, for hay, does not stupersede the propriety of having a lower one,
fi)r straw and greeti forage, which are best supplied from a low ralck. It
has been often )roposed that reacks shall lbe altogether (lone awaly with, an(]
the horses fed ent,irely oil cut straw and hay, mix-.ed with farinaccous food.
418
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
There is an apparent economy in this practice, but experience shows, that,
in the case of the farm-horse, it is better that there be a system of rackls, i:l
which food is placed before the animals at all times.
Thile manger is an oblong box, open at top, and placed at one side of the
stall. Its dimensions may be fifteen inches -wide at top), tvwelve inches at
bottom, and nine inches deep. In this box the corn of the ihorse is p)laced a;t
stated times, and in a given quantity; and whenl boiled or prel)pared( food is
-iven, it is lilkewise placed in it. The system of partiallvy i'liin lorses
with' prepared food, as potatoes or turnips boiled, mixe(l witih riniaceous
ifood, is an excellent one. To suit this method(:( of treatmnent. the inin,ger
shouild be of sufficient capacity, as of the dilnensiots albove stated, and two
and one half feet long. Whlat is not occupied l)y the mane(-r is oceipiedl y
the lower rack. The outer edg(le of both the mniller aiid rack should be
iorimed of a continuous bar of stoutt wood, three inliches thick, and four inches
deep. Into this bar is to be fixed a ri(ng, thlrotilih whilch is to pass the end
of the halter which attaches the horse, wNithl a little iron xweight at its
extremity, to keep it tight. Often, however, thlougi not so properly, the
end of the halter is merely tied to the rilln.
V. CAR'T-SItED AND I\IPI,E3IENT-HOUSES.
Site, 4 c. - The injurious effects of the exposure to the w(eather on strlictures of wood are well known, and they have stuggested the utility of placing
the carts and other implements of the farm in situations -where thley would be
free from exposutre. The carts and larger im-nplemenits are usually placed in
sheds openi in fi-.ront, but defended on all other sides. The circrumstances to
I:' attended to in tl,t,ir construction are to place the open side in that direetion whichl is mIost shelterel, and to preserve the implements in it from railn.
It is not, l hoevecr, necssary that the whole of the apartment should be
devoted to that purlpose, an(l it has accordinly beeit found an economical
arrang(eme?nt t(,) e ih* ~ r,ranarv, or some other store-room, al)ove the cartsied. Coo,n, i' l:;ti?'i,t-sheIl ther litay e omet apartitienit for holdin, the smaiil v,: t, l'}tt);h is o 1t l seenred l}y; dooIr:1t(1 lock. One
p;)rt of it Ii,) li' (I:-)'ed to the carlienters' touols.
Vl. GRANAIRIES.
sSite, r'c. - moong the buildings used as repositories, the granary iiiay
1)e menitionc d(l lt, excep)t on the larger class of ftrins, a separate buildiil..l
will Inot be nocrssary for hlolding graini. The most couveiient situatioat
lioweer,i for tl g(raliary, is above the cart-shed. In barns withl threshilrilachinies, it is somnetimes formed immediately above the floor on which tliI
achinaie w-orlks, vhich admits of the corn being immediately raised t)
419
FARKIER'S HAND-BOOK.
fi'om the ground-floor, either by the threshing-machine itself, or by a windlass, easily worked by one man. In this case, as well as in every other in
which the granary is placed over another building, it is always convenient
to) have a windlass to it, either immediately over a trap-door in the floor, or
over a door in the outside wall.
VII. CATTLE-SHEDS.
Uses and Requisites. - Cattle-sheds are used either for lodging milell
c,)ws or young cattle, or for stall-feeding for the butcher. The principal
requisites, in buildings of this description, are to be capable of being
properly ventilated, to be constructed so as to require the least possible
l:tbor in feeding the cattle and cleaning away the dung, and to have the
stalls so formed as to keep the animals dry and clean, with sufficient drains
to) carry away, and reservoirs to collect, the urine and dung.
Arrangement of Cattle-sheds. -The common method of arrangement ill
these houses is to place a long beam of wood, about five feet high and two
feet from the wall, at the heads of the animals; and to this beam the posts
:tre fastened to which the cattle are attached. The usual distance of these
posts is about four feet. A movable ring is placed round each post, from
which a chain is extended round the neck of the cattle, and they feed from
a low manger or trough, formed merely of a raised edge of stone or wood,
between which and the wall the food is placed.
A more perfect arrangement is now adopted. This consists in placing
Fig. 279.
the heads of the animals at such a distance from the wall as to leave a narrow pathway in front, by which the food can be more easily placed before
if
420
x II
I
3)
3 B B
.N A. A
c 0
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
the cattle, and placing each animal in a separate stall, the stalls being
divided by low partitions, just of sufficient size to prevent them from inter fering with each other. A movable ring and chain are also here used for
attaching the animals, the ring being, in this case, moving on a vertical rod,
instead of the wooden post. This arrangement is represented in Fig. 279.
A, A, A, are the partitions between the animals; B, B, B, the upright
iron rods, to which are fixed the rings and chains by means of which the
cattle are tied; C, C, C, represent the raised edges, or curb-stone, of tlhc
manger in front; D, D, D, the partition separating the manger from the path way by which the food is conveyed to the stalls; E, the pathway in front;
and F, that behind the animals.
In the internal arrangement of cattle-sheds for cows or oxen, the animals
may be made to stand either across or along the building. When ranged
lengthwise, the width of the house should be, at least, sixteen feet, and the
space allowed for each of the animals of the larger kind should be six feet.
The distance from the manger to the wall, being the passage for carrying
along the food, may be four feet, to admit the attendant to supply the
animals with their food with facility. A distinguishing feature in the
arrangement of houses in which cattle are tied up is the open gutter
behind, which is rendered necessary on account of the comparatively fluid
nature of the animals' dung. The space between the manger and gutter is
regulated by the size of the animals which are to occupy the stalls. The
gutter is generally made a foot broad, and three or four inches deep, and it
is usually made perpendicular in the sides.
The organization of cattle being less delicate than that of the horse, they
are not so liable to sufler from vicissitudes of temperature as that animal,
and the same precautions for maintaining an uniform temperature in their
houses are not necessary. Complete ventilation is, however, essential;
and, to secure this object, milch cows, as well as young cattle, aye frequently placed in open sheds, care being taken that the open side of the
shed is sheltered from the elements.
The most convenient arrangement, especially in the case of the largersized animals, is probably that in which they stand lengthwise in the house
there being a space in front of the mangers for carrying along the food; a
passage behind them in which the attendant stands in cleaning them out,
and from which he supplies them with litter; a gutter communicating with
a reservoir, from which the dung and urine are conveyed, as occasion may
require. This arrangement is simple and efficient. The animals are supplied with food, and cleaned out with facility; but this is not the only plan
of arrangement by which these objects may be effected. A cow-house, or
cattle-shed, in which the animals stand across the building, will afford the
36
4'-) 1
FARIME t'S HAND-BOOK.
same accommodation as that in which they stand with their heads against
the side wall, at less expense of walling and roofilng, for the passatces before
and behind serve for the accommodation of two sets of cattle.
Cal-lhouses. - The calf-houses are to be placed convenient to the cowhouses, to lessen the labor of carrying the milk to them; )but they should
not be so near as to permit the cow to see or even hear her calf, if' possible.
In the construction of these apartments, the chief requisites are to secure
cleanliness and a proper degree of heat, and to guard( agaliinst daill)ness
which would be injurious to the young animals. To effect the l]ltcr pIur
pose, the floor may be raised some distance from the ground, and fornied of
laths or bricks, placed in such a manner as to allow any li(llidl matter to
pass through; and this artificial floor is to be raised so high above the
surrounding surface as to admit of the intervelning space beiig cleaned out
occasionally, otherwise it would become a receptacle of filth, producing the
most offensive exhalattions. The litter is thus kept dry under the calves;
but it must not be allowed to accumulate for a length of time, for the mass
thus formed would prevent the moisture from getting through.
The interior arrangements of calf-houses are sometimes similar to those
described, and they are, in fact, cow-houses in miniature. A more simple
and equally convenient arrangement consists in placing the calves in separate divisions, each lihaving a manger or crib for holding a small quantity of
hay, or younIg grass, according to the season. The partitions between the
calves should be so high as to prevent their reaching over to one another
for otherwise they suck each other's ears, and often suffer from lumps of
matted hair being thus conveyed to the stomach.
The feeding-cattle may have houses of the same construction as those
described; but they may also be fed in yards with sheds attached to them,
to which they can retire during the night, or ill sternly weather.
Apartmeeit fj)r Boilii, l~ oodl, A.)I)aratus Necessary, aiia tile Alode of
Proceeding. Connected with the cattle-shleds and feeding-vards, there may
be an apartment for boiling or steamingi food, in which a steanlilig ap)pa.ratus
is placed. Any kind of wooden box or barrel will answer for this pulrpose,
so formed as to be readily filled and emiptied. The steami is to be conveye(d
in a pipe to the lower part of the vessel, which ought to have a sliding
hoard at the bottom, to allow the contents to be discharged when ready.
The vessel may be filled witlh water, thoLugh this is not necessary in the
case of succulent roots, as the potato and turilp, because thile steiam is
quickly condensed. But when corn is to be boiled, it should be (over((i
with wNater, to effect the condensation of the steam. An apparatus of this
construction is represented in Fig. 280. It consists of a ftirmac and c(astiron boiler, A, furnished with a safety-valve, to render it secure from danger,
422
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
even in the hands of the most inexperienced person. This boiler may be
inade to supply warm water for other purposes in the farmery, the water
being drawn off by a cock in the lower part of it. It is supplied with water
Fg. 280.
/
I I
~ t2~i~i4\\ I i-
fromt a cistern, B, placed at the height of five or six feet above it. When
filled, the cistern requires no further attention, as the boiler regulates its
suLplly of water by means of a float inside, attached to the valve in the
cisterii. T-o caskls, c and D, are intended to hold the potatoes, turnips,
or other matters to be steamed. The steam is conducted to these from the
boiler Al a pipe branching off to each by stopcocks. As many casks as may
t)e necessary for the supply of food may be attached in the same way.
TlL ese, it las been said, are furnished with slidiiing, hatches in the bottom
br tal ing out the food when ready, and are raised as far from the ground
a,' will admit a barrow or trough to be introduced under them, to receive
'the contents when they are ready to be withldrawn. For boiling grain,
the cask fior hlolding it differs from those used in steaming roots only by
not itigi a lhatch in the bottom, as the hatch could not be easily made
tigllt, i-li(hll is necessary in this ease, as wNater must be mixed with the
grain in the same qulalntity, or nearly, as if it were to lbe boiled in a boiler
inl the conllmon way. It may be added, that the hatch not b)eing tight in
boilinii p)otatoes is an advantage, and even necessary for allowing the condens,,-( steain to run out, and also all the earthy matters froii the skins of
the potitto,s. Inll the figure, one of the casks is represented with the lid
pressed(l down by means of the vertical bar, which is employed for this pur
I
423
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
pose during the operation of boiling or steaming. In the other cask, the lid
is represented as opened, with the vertical bar removed to one side.
There is a steaming apparatus of an improved construction in use, consisting, like that already described, of a metal boiler with safety-valve and
ocks, from which proceeds the pipe which supplies the buckets with steam
I)y stopcocks branching off to each. The buckets, in this case, are composed
entirely of cast metal, made to hold a determinatc quantity, as a bushel or
two bushels, and slide with facility off their stand NwhenI ready to be emptied
and refilled. Barrels, or other capacious vessels, may likewise be attached,
to which additional pipes convey the steam; warm water may constantly be
had from the boiler, and the superfluous steam may be usefully applied for
hleating, and other purposes of domestic economy.
VIII. PIGGERIES.
Site, tc.- The piggery is usually raised as a mere shed attached to the
wall of some farm building, and as near as possible to the kitchen and
dairy, - which are too often connected together, - the sole reason of which
position being the convenience of supplying it readily with wash. A
certain degree of nearness is indeed advisable, for tile saving of trouble; and
in some farmhouses there is a door or window in the back kitchen communicating with the hog-sty, through which the refuse vegetabl)les and wash
can be thrown to the animals without encroaching on time; but the air of a
dairy should be ever preserved quite uncontaminated from any foulness of
scent. Those on a large scale should, therefore, be so constructed as to
divide the range of sties from the dairy-yard by a wvall sufficiently high to
preclude all communication of unpleasant odor; yet having a cistern, with a
irough, or pipes, passed through the wall, so as only to have to cross the
court and place the fluid in the reservoir.
Plan of Construction. - Upon whatever scale the piggery is to be erected,
it should be raised upon a little declination, so as to allow of the drainage
of the urine, to keep the animals dry, and divided into sties of between six
and seven feet in width, and fourteen or fifteen feet long; the back part of
which should be covered with a low roof, and sufficiently large to allow a
Ifatting hog to lie down conveniently. These sties are soimetimes left open
in front; but although ventilation should be attended to, yet, in cold weather,
they should be boarded nearly to the top, allowing only of a door to enter,
and a couple of inches open space at the bottom to carry off the uiine. Tihe
boards, if placed in a groove of tihe frame-work, can be removed at pleasure,
either to clean the sty or to render it cool. The uncovered part, whlich is
used as a court for the animal to feed in, should be boarded in front by a
ow paling, so as to admit the sun and air, and the trough for the victuals
424
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
placed in one corner; but, as he is very apt to put his feet into the trough,
thus soiling and wasting his food, hinged shutters, which give way to the
pig's snout and close on his withdrawing his head, are by some persons
fixed before the troughs, in order to prevent him. Bars are also occasionally nailed at stated distances across the top of the trough, so as to confine
each pig separately to his food, without being able to drive away his fellows. A better mode, however, is to place the trough outside the front
paling of the pen, with a hole in it only just large enough to a(idmit of his
head; by which means waste will be avoided, and the trough caii be filled
and cleaned without entering the court. The sties for breedilng-sovs, and
those used for store-pigs, may be somewhat wider, and the trotugh should,
of course, have a sufficient number of apertures for the little pigs' heads,
together with a separate trough, having a larger opening, for the sow, as
well as high enough to prevent the sucking pigs from getting into it.
Where water can be conveniently obtained, it is a good plan to have a small
spout directed through the sties, not only for their more easy cleansing, but
to afford the opportunity of always allowing the animials to drink. The
building, when not circular, may thus be extended to any length; and if
connected at one end with a boiling-house, and at the other with a cesspool,
into which the drains are emptied, the elevation of the whole will wear the
appearance indicated in the following cut.
Fig. 2S8.
t_~ ~. __..v./....=.
Pigs in Separete Sties, for Fa//ning,. —If many pigs be reared, it is
alw ays advisal)le to keep thlose of ditfeiret ages from each other, -and even
those of the same brood are not of the same strength; they should, theret;)re, be placed in separate sties, not containing more than tltrce or four in
each, antl those of as neaily as possible equal disposition. In the flittti,g
of hogs, however, many breeders feed them siingly in stie(s whllich only
allow thlim to lie down, without being admitted to the court; and some
breeders do not allow them room even to turn. Some of these sties are
built in the form of a cage of planks, one side of which is made to move
36*
425
lFARIER'S HAND-BOOK.
with pegs, so as to fit them exactly, and to be enlarged with their growthl
they arc either placed upon w heels for tlhe convenience of tnoviniig tihem, oI
upon feet a few inciles from the grounld, withl a gently slopitig floor to carry.
off the filth fromn the back door, andl laving holes at thle bottoni for thle water
to drain from, while they feed thronghl a hole in front. Thle more (genera.l
plan, lhowever, is to build the sties in divisions, each to contaiutn.1 )ig, and
to fit him as near as may be; on one side is a rattge of smt:ll trotiirlis, and
on the other a row of sliders, which shut in the pigs. No litter of allly kitld
is permitted, as the stalls are placed upon an intelited platte and swvept out
every day, and the chewing( of their litter is tlhoughlt to be injurious to their
thriving. They are fobund to fatteni more s)eedily, and colise(qteiitly upon
less food, in those sties, than ii the common ones, in which they cani turn
about. This is attributed to tlheir quietude; and it is siuid tlhat hogs half
fat, - weighin~ seventy pound(s, - wh-len put into one of these cages, may
be brought to double their weilght withiti four weekls.
IX. POUtITRY-HOUSES.
Generl71 PCi0ci?pls end, isit:s. -It is well kltown that too much cold
renders fcowls torpid, retardls atid( dimiitslics their layini; that too much
hieat enfee}les tlcm nthat the watit of good water brilngs on m1any disorders;
that too imuch mnoistire itndices rietumatic swellitigs; and that an infected
atmosphere reutders themn sickly atid less prolific, ilnjures their flesh, ailnd
makes the-i dilteicult to rter. ]lroint these circuiim istantces may l)e deduced
the principles upuit wvhich all p,u)ltry-yard(s should be rogulitod. The minor
details, however, differ considerably in diffirent coutritries; and )particularly
the French and Einglish breeders are quite opposed to each other o)l several
points. In presenting, thlerfioro, the different views and miodes of two
people so skilful in reariiin the variotius fow,ls as thle }'reiclt atfid English,
we shall elicit all the most valuable inforimation, with regard tp the subject,
which will be instructive to tlie A'.~trican fitrter.
Accordiinr to to ] it oir ier to inite all thle ad(vantages desirable
in a poultry -N-yi,I it sldticl(l 1c it!.er too( ctltd during winter nior too hot
during suctl erii i tad, if 1)ossitle it siltli(l )be rendered so attractive to the
hens as to )reN-eIlt tilir liyillg in -llny )y-I)Ilie away friom it.''lThe extent
of the place should l )(p)i:,irtiill:ll to tlle inimher of flitls kleitt buit it will
be better too snia'll tlhan too'o, particulirly in wintiter, fior tlle mutittal
imparting of allima.l ]lici.?1'lioro is nt foir of eng elllerillg itnfctious diseases Iby too mtch clrowlili-;t al(l it is fittiii, il ft(-,t, tllhat lwhen foiwls
are crowded into a slmilall s,-c'. their desire for luiyiig coltinues, eveni in
winter.
Situaeion, Form,'c. - The best situation tfr a poullry-hlouse is facing
426
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
the east, - neither too far from, nor too near to, the farm-houlse. Thile form
may be a parallelogram, of twelve feet long by ten lbroad, and as many in
height. The floor must be raised about a foot above the level of the ground,
the walls thick, very rough cast, whitewashed without and within, having
no ellinks, crevices, or cavities, to harbor polecats, wveasels, foxes, rats,
mice, or even insects; and the roof ought to project considerably, in order
to ward ofF rain, moisture being a most destructive enemy to potiltry. The
door ought to be small, with an o)eniing at top for the tiowls to get in and
out, descendiing therefromr by a ladder, to and from the ritosting-place,
which should be on a level with it, having one circular windowv towards the
east, and another opposite the west, both of wire-work, with a storm shutter.
These w-indows are chiefly for ventilation, and must be kept always open
in summer, and as carefully shut in winter, except on fine days, during
sunshine.
Roostiiz,g-pcrches and'ests. - In the interior angles must be placed, upon
ledges or other supports, at ten or twelve inches distance, roosting-perches,
of a square form, for fowls cannot bend their toes so as to grasp firmly a
smooth, round peeli. The intermediate spaces are appropriated for layingnests, each covered with two boards, meeting together like a roof, to protect
the laying hens from the dung of those on the perches, and to prevent them
from being disturbed. These nests are osier baskets, firmly fixed iagainst
the walls, well furnished withI cut rye straw, often renewed, and disposed
so that the fowls mnay not break the eggs on going in or coin g o ut. A
w-atering place is indispensable, and the water ought to be fresh.
To Reezder the Poultry-house Hcallliy. -In order to render the poultryhouse healthy, it will not be requisite to fumigate it by b1)urning aromatic
plants, incense, or benzoin; fire, air and water, alone are quite sufficient for
ventilation and cleanliness. It will be sufficient, therefore, after the fowls
have left their roosts, to open the door and the windows of the poultryhouse, and, from time to timne, to burn a small bundle of straw, for the purpose of causing a circulation of fresh air, and to destroy insects. It will
also be necessary to scrub and washl with cold, or rather hot water, and a
little vinegar, the nest-basket, roosting-perches, and fee(diig,-trotiulghs.
The surfaice of the yard ought to be frequently swept, washed, and it may
be covered with a bed of gravel, or with straw cut small.
The same house ought to be kept exclusively for the common fi)wls, other
roosting-places being provided for the other sorts; for though tihese wvil not
be very dissociable with others through the day, they do Inot like to sleep
under the same roof with species different from themselves. In particular,
they will not suffer capons, even of their own family, to occupy the same
427
FARMIER S HAND-BOOK.
roosting-perch waith themselves. The hens not only show them inidiflerence.
but decided aversion.
Coteicilicnces for Ilatching. -It is important to have in poultry-houses
several small, warm hatching and nursing wards, for hatching the eggs, and
sheltering the newly-hatched chickens. In the ward appropriate(l to the
latter, there ought to be separate cages or coops, where each mother remiains
eight days with her family, after which she is removed into an encliosure to
finish the rearing of them, till they can without danger be trusted by themselves.
Api)?rtetances. - The accessories of the French poultry-house are - a
small trench filled with dry sand and ashes, in which the fowls may roll, to
free themselves from vermin; another small trench, containing horse-dung,
to be frequently renewed, and in which they amuse themselves, particularly
in winter, by scratching for corn and worms; two squares of turf, on which
they may pasture and divert themselves; a thick, bushy hedge, or, what are
better, trees, to furnish shelter from the heat of the sunI, - the best sorts of
trees being the mulberry and the cherry, as they are very fond of the fruit
a shed or coping, under which they may take shelter from rain; stone or
wooden cisterns or troughs, or vessels of some sort, with pure water, in
order to prevent them seeking by chance what is bad or corrupted.
Air and Space essential. -It has been stated that the French poultrybreeders think it advisable to keep their fowls confined in as small a space
as practicable, in order that the warmnth may induce them to lay; in England, on the contrary, a free circulation of air, and abundant space to take
exercise in, are reckoned absolutely essential for poultry. 3otli modes
are, to a certain extent, rilght; for warnth,an a close, warm roostingplace, will certainly produce most eggs, while air and exercise are necessary to rear fowls of a superior description for the table.
Accoimoiodationsfor i'eeping Poul/ry on a Large Scale. Where poultry
are kept on a large scale, an enclosure, varying from half an acre to an acre
in extent, is set apart for their use, enclosed either by a wall or by a fence
of paling, but not by a hedge, as the fowls will get through the latter kind
of fence, and will, besides, be very troublesome in laying their eggs in the
hedge. The enclosure should be well drained; and if it has a strelamn of
water running throtugh it, or a pond in the middle, or at one end, it will be
best. If it has not these conveniences, it should have a pump, with trogilis
for the fowls to drink from, and these troughs should be cleaned every day.
Part of the yard should be flagged, for feeding the fowls on; part covered
with sand or fine gravel, for them to wallow in; part laid with turf, that the
fowls may find insects and earthworms, and eat grass when they feel inclined; and part covered with bricklayer's dust, rubbish, dry mortar, and
428
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
broken oyster-shells, or other similar materials, rammed down, so that the
fo-wls may amuse themselves with pecking and scratching the ground, with out being able to take very much of the limy matters from it at once. Where
convenient, the feeding and wallowing places should be roofed over; but the
rest of the ground should be exposed to the open air. It must be observed,
that, when fowls are kept in small, confined places, they should always be
supplied with some kind of limy matter; as, unless they are, the henis will
first lay eggs without shells, and after a time will cease to produce any
eggs at all. In towns, it is, therefore, customary, with the keepers of
poultry for profit, to mix broken egg-shells with their food, and to give
them brick partly covered with mortar, from some old building, to peck at.
Plan of Construction, and General Management. - The poultry-house
may be built of either brick or lath and plaster, or, as in some places, the
walls may be of plain boards, - but these generally make the houses too cold.
An economical poultry-house may be made of wooden posts and rails, with
the spaces between stuffed with fagots; but brick walls are generally pre terred to all others, where the expense is not an object. The roof should
always be close and secure; and the floor may be of wood, or laid with
bricks or flag-stones, or it may be covered with a mixture of lime and clay,
rammed hard. Whatever the material be, the floor of a Ipoultry-house
should always be a little higher than the level of the yard, to afford facilities
fur keeping it clean. The floor should be swept every day, and washed
once a week, and the walls of the house should be whitewashed inside every
spring, and every crevice carefully stopped. The doors are made of wood,
and should be strong, and be furnished with a lock, to prevent any danger
of the poultry being stolen at night; and there is generally a square hole cut
in tl)e door, either at the top or bottom, for the poultry to go to roost. A
hole at the top of the door is preferable, as it is inaccessible to vermin; and
there should be a ladder on the outside, for the fowls to ascend. Thtis ladder
is composed only of a slanting board, with strips of wood nailed across; and,
when the hole in the door is at the bottom, a similar ladder is placed inside
the house.
All fowls like to roost high, and they should, therefore, have some rails
fixed for them near the roof, so arranged that the fowls on the lower rails
may not be exposed to the droppings from those above. The rails are frequently only branches, or the trunks of young trees; but if made of tinmbers,
they should be nearly square, with only the corners rounded off; and there
may be boxes or baskets against the walls for the fowls to lay in. The best
kind of nests are said to be those made of wood, baskets being calculated to
let in the cold air.
It is well known that fowls, when left to choose a nest for themselves,
429
FARHIER'S HAND-BOOK.
generally fix ip)on a hedge, -where the hen buries herself from observation
tunder the branches of the hedge-plants, and among the grass. This pecoliarity is taken advantage of by some poulterers, and the laying nests are
composed of heath or heather, and branches of hawthorn are trained over
and around them. The follovwing figure represents one of these pleasant
and comfortable nests, with the hen sitting.
2F. 2S2.
X.-ARRANGEMENT OF THE FARMTERY.
Sit(OCio~. - The several buildings of the farm have now been noticed,
and we io\ cone to consider the manner in which they are to be arranged
it the fm;:n,:y. As a whole, it may be considered with reference to its
.itottotiol oil tlih farm; its extent and character rel'ttively to the size of the
frtn., aiiil to thle ind( of culture pursued or crops raisi(l; and its position
relati'vct to t:.t of the frm-house.
F, r'he vc to ny of lab)or, the lbuildings of the tirlm sl}otil(l e) sititated,as
ieair;Is p:-ib! to the centire of the cultivated groundls; for miost of the
prolcc bhtit~(T, int the first )plalce, conveyed to the fitim bttilliings, and.(l the
mlature cerriol fLt'om tlhen to the fields, it is important that tile parts of
the f 0, shotld niot be so distant from the fitrmery, tthat time hall be
wastted b'v the inii t and workilig cattle in traveling. A central sitlattion
redttces the lahbor of carting home produce and carting out matintrc to tlhe
smallest priacticable.).
But altlhough a central situation of the fiarm buildings is as mich is i possible to be aimed at, it is often necessary or expedient to sacrifice this eonvenicice, in order to secure others. A primary object, for iistane, is tihe
obtainting of a sufficient con mmand of water for domestic purposes, and the
use of the live stck; but this cannot be ol)tained in every situation, atd
130
always require a greater comparative extent of accommodation than Itlrge.
On fiarms chiefly appropriated to tie rearing of stock, cou)mparatively few
beildinis are required; and these being chiefly sheds for shelter to the
young cattle, and low shieds with yards for penning sheep whelin required.
Oil a farm situated near a large town, the buildings must always be suited
to this peculiarity of situation. Ihere the rearing and leediug of live stock
may not be carried on at all, and only the raising( of vegetale produce for
sale be attended to. The buildings required on such a iarnm need be few and
simple. No feecdiig and shelter sheds are required, and there is no need for
that extension of the range of butildings which is necessary on a rearing and
.breediugif farm.
Disn osiieo, of toe Difreriit BDiil7oiq,s. The most convenient disp)osition
of the ott-llous!s of a farm, suited to a mixed system of tillage aIud ttle rearing and f iW.li,,~ of live stock, is in the formn of a long rectangle, or a square,
as the cl a ni: Iv, o -pin t one sidl',-generally at the south. - so as to
ad.,:~itI lbe:iiri!;,!}u: C;1a1' in thle yards, anId allow sfivt suic;ieii llc to tlhem
i nt lsIace i to lroiated to the several ii.illings;ii(i
vaSsx ~c 11':'!':~' i'.;'t:t'.v sur' e yar+d1s more, ocui)ietl l,y tIhi liuil( il~,;('.;,r~,i' ~iii::::l l:c w itf the* iniconvetnicnce g iCIh results
tl'ilil il+1: } l,loc,,l too ('lose y totother.
T ihe I -::i -. A its: -~lf +o.' t[:. ios fin)rs part of the rectlanI]. fiiii{IIi liy te
ir.rti'f IJV'''+ }.;:'1 Ii tetcr il ni;o:t ci Ces, tllhat it sIhold I)1' (setlelil,d. It siioiild
l)e plcae l in,'i~,th or o)p.-i I of thle fre-yard, aud soi,i(, of tli wirndowNs in tl!c r:.r of the lione slticld be so arranged that a futll Yiew of the
piroceeedii+r. ini the yard may lie (btained from them.
II givir dri's of thie arrTemenst of the ofle several pirts of the firiecry,
little:otire cI. nIe done than to present usefil examples. Altliotgli 1 cirtain
simihlrity mu eOxist in tlhel form and arrangement in the parts of all such
buildings, yei t t},Cs, it has been seen, must be modificedl accordling to the
,ilrcumstanles of ilie farm itself, the nature of the soil, the situation with
FARIER'S HAND-BOOK.
regard to markets, and many other particulars. No rule that can be given is
of general application; and the judgment of the architect or builder must be
exercised in adapting the size, form, and arrangement of the buildings, to
the nature of the farm and the wants of the occupier.
In the designs which follow, uniformity has been studied wherever
seemed to be practical, without interfering with convenience of arrangement;
but when these qualities could not be combined, the preference has been
riven to the latter; and nothing has been proposed but what has been found,
from experience, to be useful and practicable. It may be remarked, however, that it is quite impossible, especially in the larger class of farm buildings, to get the different apartments arranged so conveniently as could be
wished, consistent with any degree of regularity. The number of designs
might be multiplied to any extent, but this is not at all necessary.
Plan of Buildings for a Farm of One Hundred and Fifty? Acres.- The
following is a ground-plan design of a farmery for a farm of one hundred and
fifty acres arable land. It contains a potato-house, A; house for storing a
Fig. 283.
t3
13
.i", D!, 0, I!
ID 0 20 40 60 c o IOn
supply of turnips or grass, B; two cow-houses, c, c; calf-house, D; house for
mare and foal, E; straw-barn, F; dressing-barn, G; and machinery, H; gangway, or inclined plane to the corn-loft, I; horse-course for the threshing
432
. I,
T, r c
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
machine, K; cart-shed, L; hay-house, M; stables, N, N; spare-house, o;
poultry-house, P; piggery, Q; and shelter-sheds, R, R, R; with yards, r,
r, r. This plan will afford all the accommodation that could be wished for
on a farm of the size for which it is intended.
Plan of Buildings for a Small Farm.- The ground plan of the design ot
a farmery for a small farm is shown in the annexed figure. In it are seep
a court for calves, A; poultry-house, B, open to the cow-house to partakc
Fig. 284.
l, it[!'T... I' [i'I J' T',,[]ii c ll " 1' ItIIII I I Ii T
Ir
8 11 ~~~~l
-x
'\ i
L t il it - 7.,
la a o 20 30
of its heat; calf-house, c; cow-house, D; calf-crib, E; cart-shed, F; stable.
G; barn, H, part of which, I, is to be lofted over; potato-house, K; piggery,
L L, and dung-pit, M.
T/e Stack;-yard.- A situation for the stack-yard should be chosen adjoining the barn, and on the most elevated and exposed side of the farmery.
Its size is regulated by that of the arable part of the farm, and also by the size
of the barn; as the stacks are not to be made larger than what could be
contained at one time by the corn-bay, or end for unthreshed corn; and, consequently, a small barn will require a larger stack-yard than a large one.
The farm, in this case, as in almost every other yard or building of the
farmnery, ought to be rectangular, and as near as may be convenient to that
of a square. The stacks are to be placed in parallel rows, with a sufficient
space between them for a cart to pass along, either to unload when building
the stack, or load when taking the corn to the barn. The stacks are to be
Ilaced on stands, to keep dry and free from vermin.
Drainage of a Farmery.- The system of drainage in a farmery is a
inatter of importance, and it ought to be determined on before any part of the
I)uildings is commenced. There are three distinct systems of drainage
which must necessarily exist in every well-arranged farmery. First, it seli(!m happens that the site for a farmery is so entirely dry as not to require
37 D 2
433
FARMIER'S HIAND-BOOK.
some underground drains around and through it, for carrying off the water,
that either sinks into the soil from the surface and is retained there, or is
found latent in the subsoil, or from some other cause. Second, the water
from the roofs of the buildings should be all collected by gutters at the
caves, and, if not wanted for a well or tank, it should be conducted directly
to the underground drains, through air-traps. Third, a liquid manure tank
is essential for retaining those parts of the manure which would otherwise
flow out of the yards and be lost; and with this the drains from the stables,
cattle-sheds, and yards, are to communicate. These drains must be neither
large nor deep; and they may, in general, be formed of brick or stone,
with a trap near the opening of each, to prevent the possibility of a current
of air passing through them, and the offensive effluvia thereby occasioned.
The manure tank may be of very simple construction, the walls being built
of stone or brick, - or a large cask may be used. It should be covered at
the top, and in the covering there is to be a hole through which the end of
a pump may be inserted.
XI. GREEN-HOUSES.
Away be Easily Construicted.- Very handsome structures may be formed
by adopting the old mode of building. A house with the simple sloping
roof of wood-work may be made both light and airy, if not graceful, provided the moldings of the sashes are made very thin, and the slope of the
sashes laid at an angle of not less than 35~. Such a slope is, indeed, almost
indispensable, as, if the angle be less, the laps of the glasses are apt to
retain water, and cause a drip during rain.
Materials anad Aod o} Bloj din'.- It is:tstotiishiug at how trifling a
comparative expense a grcen-hlos. e or 1goo1 gzlad(l pit may (bc constructed,
provided there be a ta.I(t for w ork (,f rnasotllry ar,ld (arpentry on tlhe part of
the farmer, or gardener, or florist, whlo wishes s,ch a structlure. A greenhouse, whatever may be its materials and struct tre, - whethir it he curvilinear, and of metal or of wood, with a lean-to roof; or glazed on three of its
sides, so as to command a north, south, and eastern exposure,- ought to be
at least fifteen feet long, ten or twelve feet high at the back or in the
centre, and its breadth not less. It shoulldl have La brick;wall around it, of
nine inches in thickness, the height of which can only be determined by the
situation and form of the house; but it is reconlmended that the cellular
mode of laying the bricks be adopted, for a great saving, of materials iS
thereby not only insured, but a plate of air is initerpos(ed between two brick
surfaces, which tends to preserve lunifollrlity of temp eratlure, and some
degree of warmth, within the house. The brickls are laidlI on edge, two and
two fior,ing the front an(l back of the will, with a third ote, also on edge,
434
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
crossing the end of each pair. One course being thus finished, the course
above it is made to break joint with the one below, by laying each pair of
bricks so as their centres may rest upon the centres of the cross brick on
edge of the course below it. Bond is thus secured, and a space formed
between the pairs equal to the difference of the sum of the two bricks on
edge and the length of the one that crosses the ends of the two. Supposing,
the length of a brick to be nine inches, and its thickness three inches, there
will be three inches of space left between the bricks. The alternate ranges
of the brick-work thus constructed will render the wall cellular, and strength
and lightness will be secured. Fig. 285 is a sketch of a portion of two
courses of a cellular wall, by which, if the one be supposed to rest upon the
other, it will be apparent that each joint alternates with the one below it,
and that the cells range throughout in a sidelong oblique direction.
Fig. 2S5.
c l &i# Ic
~~~~~~a
e
In the upper part of the sketch (A), a, a, are two bricks set on edge,
forming the back and front of the wall c, c; b, b, are the two bricks also on
edge, set across the wall at the ends of a, a; d is the space between the
bricks, three inches in width. The part represented by B is of exactly the
same construction as A; and if it were placed on c, c, so as the cross-edge
brick, e, were placed in the middle between the two cross-edge bricks, b, b,
then the interior of the wall would be of a cellular structure, all the spaces
,)f which would be connected together in a regularly zigzag oblique direction to one another.
Arran geen6nt of the Liglhts.- The upright lights above the front walls
ought to swing on their centres, and not be made to slide holrizontally, by
which much rain may be kept out, and the great inconvenietiice arising from
the swelling of the wood in the sash-grooves entirely obviated. A stage,
(ir set of shelves, is generally required, ranging obliquely upwards, fromi
about eighteen inches above the floor towards the back wall, in a direction
nearly parallel to the slope of the glass roof. Another shelf, eightecei
inches wide, made of bars or strips of wood, may be placed immediately
under the swing-lights, against the front wall, for bulbous-rooted plants,
heaths, &c., the grating formed by the bars securing the roots from Lthe
435
a
2 IMM MMi
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
bad consequences attending an excess of moisture; since whatever quality
of water may run through the pots will fall through the spaces between the
bars, and escape. The walk, in this construction, will pass between this
front-sparred shelf and the lower shelf of the stage; it may also proceed
along the back wall, in which case the platform of shelves should be curtailed in breadth, and a shelf or two fixed upon the back wall itself, for
succulent plants. In houses with double glass roofs, the stage ought to be
in the centre, ranging in two slopes, corresponding to those of the lights.
Flutes for Heating. - The flues, or hot-water pipes, must be so situated
as to distribute the heat equally. The circulation of hot water is most
likely to afford this equal distribution, because the temperature of a stream
of water flowing from a boiler, and returning to it, in regular but slow progression, must be subject to comparatively little variation. Hot water also
produces a sweet and innoxious heat. Whenever, then, circumstances
authorize this mode of creating an artificial climate, it ought unquestionably
to be adopted; but it requires some one who is somewhat acquainted with
this species of work, and with the power which radiating surfaces possess
of regulating the temperature of a given number of cubic feet of air.
A brick flue, when placed above the floor, being rather an unsightly
object, it may be advantageously placed under, or rather on a level with;
the floor. A flue, to command a pretty regular temperature, ought to enter
at one end of the house, not many inches within the front wall, proceed
along its whole extent, then take a turn and be brought back about the
centre of the floor, and finally be carried into a chimney above the back
wall at the same end of the house, though at an opposite corner, in which
the fire is situated. The flues are to be so built that air may circulate
around them; hence they must be placed in a channel dug in the ground,
and wholly free from contact with the ground. Exits for the heated air
must be provided for, either by gratings or by spaces left in the floor. The
temperature of the air in the greenhouse will thus be regulated from the
surface of the floor itself to the roof, without the inconveniences of an
incommodious mass of projecting brickwork.
A good flue has been calculated to heat between four and five thousand
cubic feet of air to a temperature sufficient for the safety of green-house
plants. Now, supposing the internal dimensions of a house to be as follows: height at the back, 12 feet, sloping to 6 feet at the front, the medium
being 9 feet; breadth 12 feet, and length 24 feet; 24 X 12 X 9 will produce the sum of 2592 feet, the volume of air to be warmed. If, then, the
calculation of 5000 feet be correct, there can be no difficulty in supportiing
at sufficient degree of heat in a house of little more than half those dimensiois, by a flue of moderate capacity. This may be attained by building
436
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
the outside and inside of the first course along the front wall, with four bricks
aid fiat-z2/ise above each other upon the foundation or base course. These
four bricks will form the depth and the side of the flue, which, with the
mortar-joinits, will be twelve inches in the clear; and by setting the other
side of the flue seven inches apart fromi the first, there will be a channel of
eighty-four square inches in the clear, which will be found amply sufficient
for a flue. The return flue ought to be built of bricks on edge, but not wider
than the first, and both should be covered with flat stones. To secure the
full effect of the flue, the fireplace should be sunk one foot, or more, below
the entrance or mouth of the flue, so as to admit of a rise from the fire to
the flue. This rise should form the neck of the flue, and be brought to
assume somewhat the figure of a hopper. Thus, if the fireplace be eighteen
inches long, twelve inches wide, and as many deep, the neck ought to be so
contracted as that, at its entrance into the flue, it is not above half the
breadth of the fireplace, nor more than eight inches in depth. The flame
of the fuel ought to deliver itself clearly into the flue; and to do this, the
neck should not be much more than a foot in length, - the chief causes of
a bad draught and a smoky chimney arising from the ill-calculated dimensions or shape of the neck. If the neck be short, and regularly contracted,
till it be about half the size of the flue into which it enters, rarefication of
the air will be secured; and if, with these precautions, a moderate rise be
provided, the rush of air will be great, which will render the draught secure
in almost every possible state of the atmosphere.
The flue being built, its joints rendered air-tight, a space, as was before
observed, must be left on each side of it, with openings in the pavement,
for the free egress of the heated air. The base of the flue ought not to rest
on the ground, but upon bricks laid apart, so as to form openings through
which the air warmed by the bottom of the flue may pass into the channels
left on both sides. A flue thus constructed, and carefully built, will be so
efficient that very little fuel need be consumed; every particle of it will
have its effect, and the house will be pleasantly heated, without trouble, loss
of time, or vexatious expenditure.
XII. FENCES AND GATES.
FENCES.
Different Kinds.- The fences of the farm may consist either of stone
wall, or of line fence, or of a combination of the line fence and stone wall,
or of an open ditch, a mound, or a rail.
Building Stone Wall. - The stone wall may either be formed of stones,
built without cement, or it may be built with mortar, like common masonry;
but the last of these methods is rarely practised with the common fences of a
37*
437
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
farm. The cementing of the stones with mortar adds, indeed, to tlhe
durability of the wall, but then the expense is too great in common cases.
I'The wall, therefore, for the ordinary purposes of the farm, may generally be
built of stones alone, though sometimes with a little mortar merely for
cementing the capping, and occasionally for pinning or closing the interstices of the outside.
MIaterials. - The materials for building the dry stone wall, as this kind
of wall is termed, may be of any stones of sufficient durability. Loose
stones taken from the surface, termed land-stones, answer completely, if
they be of proper size, and not too much rounded; but in the latter case
they present too smooth a surface, and cannot be kept in their places without
mortar.
Imnpleiments.- The implements to be used in building stone wall are, a
mason's hammer, a spade or shovel for clearing the ground for a foundation,
a pick or mattock, and a frame of two upright posts fixed together, so as to
correspond with a vertical section of a portion of the wall. The line of the
intended fence being fixed upon and marked on the ground, the stones for
building should be brought forward, and laid down on both sides, if possible, of the line of fence, but, if not, on one side. Pins being fixed in the
centre of the space to be occupied by the wall, the workman proceeds thus:
- He carries his wooden frame to some distance along the line to be built
upon; he sets it perpendicular, which he is enabled to do by means of
a plumb-line attached to it, and he fixes it in this position in a simple
manner, as seen in the figure below. lie then fixes another similar frame
at the place where the wall is to commence; he stretches two cords
between these two frames, on the outside, and as these cords correspond
with the outside of the wall at a given height, he has a guide for building
it of the required dimensions. After having built one portion, he uses only
one frame,- the wall itself serving afterwards the part o;f a franme,- for
Fig. 286.
IASTa
the cords being fixed to both sides of the wall, and then attached to the
frame which is placed in advance, the workman has, as before, a guide by
which he proceeds in building.
Rules to be observed.- The foundation of the wall should be laid on firm
ground; and wherever there is not this to build upon, a solid foundation
438
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
should be made by the spade. In building, the largest and flattest stones
should be used for the foundation; and it is very desirable, if the materials
used will allow, to place stones at intervals, of sufficient size to lie across
the breadth of the wall, so as to bind the wall together, and render it
more secure.
Advantages of the Stone IWall. The advantages of the stone wall, as
compared with the line fence, or hedge, are, that it becomes useful as soon
as made; that it can be formed in any situations, irrespective of soil and
climate; that it requires no nursing, cleaning, and pruning; that it is not
injured or destroyed by the trespasses of animals, and that it occupies little
room
GATES.
Form and Method of Construction.- A necessary part of any kind of
fence is the gate. The properties of a good gate are that it shall combine
lightness with necessary strength, so that an equal quantity of materials
shall produce the strongest gate. The kind of gate which best combines
these conditions is one which consists of horizontal bars, placed at such a
distance from one another as to prevent the passage of animals, and so connected as to be firmly bound together. The number of horizontal rails
should be five, although four may suffice, in low gates. They are mortised
into turo upright bars, which form the ends of the gate. A diagonal bar
proceeds from the hinder and lower corner of the gate to the upper bar. It
abuts upon the hinder upright, and on the upper horizontal bar, and is nailed
to the intervening ones. It may form an angle of about forty-five degrees
Fig. 287.
with the hinder upright and lower bar, so that it may abut upon the upper
bar, at some distance from the fore-part of the gate. It forms, in this position, a strut. - in the language of carpentry, - which is b)etter than when
it forms a tie, according to the common practice;-that is, wIhell it extends
I lI
I
i
I
439
.iI
SI Iii Il
I
... s As,~~~~~~~~~?
~~~~~~~3
I —
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
from the upper hinder corner to the lower bar of the gate. These parts
form the framing of the gate. It is usual, however, to nail two upright
braces to the gate. These are unnecessary for strength, and add to the
quantity of materials, and the number of joinings. The length of the gate
may be nine feet, the height of the upper bar three feet nine inches, and
the lower bar may be six inches from the ground. Fig. 287 describes a
gate constructed on these principles: - A and B are the upright bars; 1,2,
3, 4, 5, the horizontal bars, mortised into the former; D, the diagonal strut,
abutting on the upright bar, B, and on the upper horizontal bar, 1, and nailed
to the other bars, 2, 3, 4, 5.
Hanging.- The gate may be hung upon two hinges, or on one hinge,
-the hilt resting on a stone socket, placed in the ground, as shown in Fig.
87. This latter construction is somewhat the best for the ordinary gates
of the farm; for one of the most common defects of gates is the tendency to
sink down at the fore-part, and trail on the ground. Now, a gate, when we
consider its tendency to sink at the fore-part, may be regarded as a bended
lever, of which the fulcrum is the lower hinge, the power which prevents
its sinking the upper hinge, and the weight the centre of gravity of the
gate. By increasing the distance between the fulcrum and the upper hinge,
we increase the power of the latter to support the gate; and this condition
is fulfilled by placing the heel of the gate on the level of the ground. This
tendency to trail is also lessened by making the gate lighter before, which is
effected by giving the several bars a taper from the hinder to the anterior
part.
The Hinges. The hinge of the gate is best formed by causing the upper
part -which is fixed to the upright bar of the gate -to work in a socket,
which is fixed to the gate-post. The advantage of making the upper hinge
work in a socket is, that while space is given to it to turn, it is firmly supported in its place, and that the means are afforded of causing it to move
smoothly, by pouring a little oil into the socket.
The Latch.- The latch of the gate may be of various forms. The simplest is a little chain, fixed to the front upright bar, which is fastened to a
hook in the gate-post.
Gate-posts. - The gate-posts for the common gates of a farm are better
formed of wood than a pillar of masonry, -the latter being subject to be
loosened by carriages striking against it. The posts, if of wood, should be
well sunk in the ground; and, as they are apt to decay at the surface of the
ground, the sunk portion, and a little above it, should be charred. The
bands of the hinges and latches should pass entirely through the posts, and
be fixed on the opposite side by screw-nuts. The most durable kind of gate
440
RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
post, however, is one of solid stone, which may be advantageously adopted
where the material can be easily obtained.
Sef-shutting Gate. - It is, in many cases, deemed convenient to have a
gate which shall shut of itself, when opened. This may be efiected by simple means. The upper hinge may be of the kind before described, but the
gate below must, in place of the hinge, have two points of support, so that
it shall only be in equilibrio when it rests upon these two points.
441
CHAPTER XI.
IIORTICULTURAL SCIENTIHIC OPERATIONS.
TME IMPROVED MODES OF GRAFTING - BUDDING - PRUNING - TRAINING.
I. GRAFTING.
Uses of Graftitng. - The uses of grafting, in addition to those of all the
other modes of increasing plants by extension, are, 1. The propagation of
varieties or species which are not increased freely by any other mode, such
as pears and other fruit-trees, &e. 2. The acceleration of the fructification
of plants, more especially of trees and shrubs, which are naturally a number
of years before they come into flower. For example, a seedling apple, if
grafted the second year on the extremities of the branches of a full-grown
apple-tree, or even on a stock or young tree of five or six years' growth,
will show flowers the third or fourth year; whereas, had it remained on its
own roots, it would probably not have come into flower for several years
longer. 3. To increase the vigor or the hardiness of delicate species or
varieties, by grafting them on robust stocks. 4. To dwarf or diminish the
bulk of robust species, - such as grafting the pear on the quince or medlar,
the apple on the doucin or paradise stock, the cherry on the perfumed
cherry, &c. 5. To increase the fruitfulness or precocity of trees; the
effects produced on the growth and produce of a tree by grafting are similar
to those which occur when the descent of the sup is impeded by a ligature,
or by the destruction of a circle of bark. The disposition in young trees to
produce and nourish blossom buds and fruit is increased by this apparent
obstruction of the descending sap; and the firuit of such young trees ripens
somewhat earlier than upon other young trees of the same age, which grow
upon stocks of their own species; but the growth and vigor of the tree, and
its power to nourish a successioni of heavy crops, are diminished, apparently,
by the stagnation in the branches and stock of a portion of that sap which,
in a tree growing upon its own stem, or upIon a stock of its own species,
would descend to nourish and promote the extension of tile roots. 6. To
preserve varieties from degenerating, which are found to do so when propagated by culttings or layers. 7. By choosing a stock suitable to the soil, to
produce trees in situations where they coul(l not be growii if oni their own
HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
roots. 8. To introduce several kinds on one kind. Thus, one apple or
pear tree may be made to produce many different kinds. 9. To renew the
heads of trees. Thus, if a fruit-tree is cut down to the ground, or headed
in to the height of ten or twelve feet, and left to itself, it will develop a
great number of latent buds, each of which will be contending for the mastery; and the strength of the tree, and the most favorable part of the season
for growth, will be in some degree wasted, before a shoot is singled out to
take the lead; but, if a graft is inserted either in the collar or stool, or ill
the amputated head, it will give an immediate direction to the sap, the
latent buds will not be excited, and the whole concentrated vigor of the tree
will be exerted in the production of one grand shoot.
Different Kinds of Grafting. -The different kinds of grafting may be
classed as, grafting by detached scions or cuttings, which is the most common mode; grafting by attached scions, or, as it is commonly termed, by
approach or inarching, in which the scion, when put on the stock, is not at
all, or is only partially, separated from the parent plant; and grafting by
buds, in which the scion consists of a plate of bark, containing one or more
buds. The stock on which the scion is placed is, in every case, a rooted
plant, generally standing in its place in the garden or nursery, but sometimes, in the case of grafting by detached scions, taken up and kept under
cover, while the operation is being performed. The two first modes of
grafting are performed when the sap is rising, in spriing; and budding
chiefly when it is descending, in July and August. iUnder particular
circumstances, however, and with care, grafting in every form may be performed at any reasonable period of the year.
Utensils and lMaterials used in Grafting. These are, the common knife, for
he ading down stocks; t he chisel; the grafting-knife and budding-knife; ligatu r e s of different kinds for tying on the scions, and grafting-clay or grafting-wax
f or covering them. The following cut represents one of the best grafting
Fig. 288.
chisels now in use. The ligatures in common use are strands of bast matting,
or of other flexible bark; but sometimes coarse worsted thread is used, or occasionally shreds of coarse paper, or cotton cloth, covered with grafting-wax.
When bast mat is used, it may be rendered water-proof by passing it first
through a solution of white soap, and next through one of alum; by which
443
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
a neutral compound is formed, insoluble in water. These prepared shreds,
before being put on, are softened, by holding them over a small vessel of
burningr charcoal, which the grafter carries with him; and when grafting wax is employed, instead of grafting-clay, it is kept in an earthen pot, also
placed over live charcoal, and the composition taken out and laid on with the
brush. There are compositions, however, which become soft by the heat of
the hand, or by breathing on them.
Grftlt,ng-clay is prepared by mixing clay of any kind, or clayey loam,
fresh horse or cow dung, free from litter, in the proportion of three parts in
bulk of clay to one of dung, and adding a small portion of hay, not, how ever, cut into too short lengths, its use being analogous to that of hair in
plaster. The whole is thoroughly mixed together, and beaten up with water,
so as to be of a suitable consistency and ductility for putting on with the
hands, and for remaining on, in wet weather and dry weather, without
cracking. The beating is performed with a beetle or rammer, on a smooth,
hard floor, under cover, turning over the mass, and adding water, and then
beating afresh, till it becomes sufficiently softened and ductile. The process
of beating must be repeated two or three times a day, for several days; and
it should be completed from three weeks to a month before the clay is
wanted, care being taken to preserve it in a moist state, by covering it with
mniats or straw. The grafting-clay used by the French gardeners is composed
of equal parts of cow-dung, free from litter, and fresh loam, thoroughly
beaten up and incorporated.
Graftin,g-zcax is used by many instead of grafting-clay. There are
various recipes for composing it, but they may all be reduced to two kinds.
1. Those which, being melted, are laid on the graft, in a fluid and hot state,
with a brush. 2. Those which are previously spread on pieces of coarse
cotton, or brown paper, and afterwards wrapped round the grafter in the
same manner as strands of matting. The common composition for the first
kind is one pound of cow-dung, half a pound of pitch, and half a pound of
yellow;w%ax, boiled up together, and heated, when wanted, in a small earthen
pot. For the second kind, equal parts of turpentine, bees-wax, and resin, are
melted together.
Grafting by Detached &ions. -This is the most common mode, and it is
that most generally used for kernel-fruits, and the hardier forest-trees. The
time for grafting hardy trees and shrubs by detached scions in England is
generally in spring, when the sap is rising; but the vine, if grafted before it
is in leaf, suffers from bleeding. In this country, grafting is frequently
performed in the winter time on roots or stocks which have been preserved
in sheds or cellars; and the scion being put on and tied and ciayed over, the
grafted stock is kept till the spring, and then taken out and planted. Plants
444
HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
under glass may be grafted at almost any period; and herbaceous grafting,
when and wherever performed, can, of course, only succeed when the shoots
of the scion and stock are in a succulent or herbaceous state. In all the
different modes of grafting by detached scions, success is rendered more
certain when the sap of the stock is in a more advanced and vigorous state
than that of the scion; for which purpose the scions are generally taken off
in autumn, and their vegetation retarded by keeping them in a shady place
till spring; and the stock is cut over a little above the part where the scion
is to be put on, a week or two before grafting takes place. Tile manual
precautions necessary to success are- to fit the scion to the stock in such a
manner that the union of their inner barks, and consequently of their alburnums (sap),,may be as close as possible; to cut the scion in such a manner
as that there shall be a bud or joint at its lower extremity, and the stock so
that there shall be a bud or joint at its upper extremity; to maintain the
scion and the stock in the proper position for growth, and in close contact,
by a bandage of narrow shreds of matting or cloth; to exclude the air by a
covering of clay or grafting-wax, and, in addition, when the graft is close
to the surface of the ground, by earthing it up with soil, and when the scion
is making its shoot, to tie it to a prop, if necessary; to remove the clay or
grafting-wax, when the scion has made several leaves; to remove the
bandage by degrees, when it appears to be no longer necessary; and to cut
off the heel on the upper part of the stock at the proper time, so as that it
may, if possible, be healed over the same season. The modes of grafting
detached scions adapted for general use are- splice or whip grafting, cleft
grafting, rind grafting, saddle grafting, side grafting, root grafting and
herbaceous grafting.
Splice Grafting. -Splice, tongue, or whip grafting, is the mode most
commonly adopted in all gardens where the stocks are not much larger in
diameter than the scion; and it has the advantage of being more expeditiously performed than any of the other modes described. The stock is first
cut over at the height at which the scion is to be put on, a (Fig. 289), and
a thin slice of the bark and wood is then cut off with a very sharp knife, so
as to leave a perfectly smooth, even surface, b; the scion, which should at
least have three buds, and need never have more than five (the top one for a
leading shoot, the next two for side shoots, in the case of fruit-trees, and the
lower two to aid in uniting the scion to the stock), is next cut, so as to fit
the prepared part of the stock as accurately as possible, at least on one side;
then a slit or tongue, as it is technically termed, is made on the scion, and a
corresponding one in the stock, c. All being prepared, the scion is applied
to the stock, inserting the tongue of the one into the slit of the other, c; then
the scion is tied on with matting, d; and lastly it is clayed over, e; and
38
445
FAR1IER S HAND-BOOK.
sometimes, in addition, it is earthed up, or covered with moss, to serve as a
nonconductor of heat and moisture. In earthing up the graft, the loose
Fl. 289.
'II
I
jj);{i4 I
surface soil should be used at the grafting season, as being drier and warmer
than that which is less under the immediate influence of the sun. When the
scion is placed on the stock with the right hand, the ribbon of bast, by which
it is tied, is brought round the graft from right to left; but when the scion
is put on by the left hand, the bast is brought round from left to right; the
object in both cases being to make sure of the exact coincidence of the inner
bark of one side of the scion with the inner bark of one side of the stock.
The 1)-ll of clay which envelops the graft should be about an inch thick on
every side, and should extend for nearly an inch below the bottom of the
zraft, to more than an inch over the top of the stock, compressing and
finislili,, the whole into a kind of oval or egg-shape form, closing it in every
part, so as completely to exclude air, light, wet or cold. The ball of clay
will anot be so apt to drop off, if the matting over which it is placed is renderel a fitting nucleus for solid clay, by previously smearing it over in a
comparatively liquid state. This envelope of clay, with the earthing up,
pres roes the graft in a uniform temperature, and prevents the rising of the
sap fron being checked by cold days or nights; and, therefore, earthing up
oughlt always to be adopted, in the case of grafts in the open garden, which
are (lfeicult to succeed. When the scion and the stock are both of the same
thic'kness, or when they are of kinds which do not unite freely, the tongue
is sonmetimes omitted; but in that case more care is required in tying. In
this and also in other cases, the stock is not shortened down to the graft,
but an inch or two, with a bud at its upper extremity, is left to insure the
risirng of the sap to the scion; and after the latter is firmly established, the
part of tlhe stock left is cut off close above the scion. When the stock is not
446
HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
headed down till the scion is about to be put on, it is essentially necessary
to leave it longer than usual, in order to give vent to the rising sap, which
might otherwise exude about the scion, and occasion its decay.
Splice Grafting, the Peach, Nectarine, Apricot, Sac.- In splice grafting the
shoots of peaches, nectarines, and apricots, and other tender shoots with
large pith, it i3 found of advantage to have a quarter of an inch of two-years
old wood at the lower extremity of the scion, and to have the stock cut
with a dove-tail notch. In the case of the fruit-trees mentioned, the buds of
the scion on the back and front are removed, leaving two on each side, and a
leader; and when these have grown six or eight inches, their extremities
are pinched off with the finger and thumb, by which means each shoot will
throw out two others, and thus produce in autumn a finely-shaped( tree, with
ten branches. Such trees will bear two or three fruits the second year from
the graft.
Cleft Grafting. -This requires less care than splice grafting, and is
chiefly adopted when the scion is a good deal larger than the stock, and
more especially when grafting stocks of considerable height, or heading
down old trees. The head of the stock being cut over horizontally with a
saw, a cleft is made in it, from two to three inches in length, with a stout
knife or chisel, or with the splitting-knife. The cleft being kept open by
the knife or chisel, or the pick end of the splitting-knife, one or two scions
are inserted, according to the diameter of the stock; the scions being cut
into long wedge-shapes, in a double sense, and inserted into the slit prepared
for them, when the knife or chisel being withdrawn, the stock closes firmly
upon the scions, anrid holds them fast. The graft is then tied and clayed in
the usual manner, and the whole is frequently covered with moss, or some
similar substance. When the stock is an inch or more in diameter, three
or more scions are frequently put on at equal distances from each other
round the circumference, and this is called crowvn grafting. Cleft'grafting
with one scion is in general not a good mode, because, if the split has been
made right through the stock, it is in danger of being injured by the weather
before it is covered with wood by the scion. If the cleft is made only on
one side of the stock, the evil is mitigated; but there still remains the tendency of the scion in its growth to protrude the wood all on one side. In
crown grafting headed-down old trees, the scion is generally chosen of twoyears-old wood, and it is sometimes inserted between the inner bark and the
alburnum, as in what is called Rind Grafting. -In this, great care must be taken to open the bark of
the stck, without bruising it, which is done by the spatula end of the grafting-knife. TIhe scion is prepared without a tongue, and iriser.ted so that its
wood may l)e in contact with the sap of the stock. As in this case both
447
FARMER'S HIAND-BOOK.
edges of the alburnum of the scion come in close contact with the alburnum
of the stock, the chances of success, other circumstances being alike, are
increased. In cases of this kind, also, a longitudinal notch is sometimes cut
out, instead of a slit, and the scion cut to correspond. Sometimes, also, the
scion is prepared with a shoulder, more especially when it consists of twoyears-old wood; and this mode is termed shoulder grafting.
Cleft Grafting the Vine. -This operation is shown in the annexed cut,
in which a is a bud on the scion, and b one on the stock, both in the most
Fisg. 290.
favorable positions for success. The graft is tied and clayed in the usual
manner, excepting that only a small hole is left in the clay opposite the eye
of the scion, for its development. In grafting the vine in this manner,
when the bud b on the stock is developed, it is allowed to grow for ten or
fourteen days, after which it is cut off, leaving only one bud and one leaf
near its base to draw up sap to the scion till it be fairly united to the stock.
The time of grafting is when the stock is about to break into leaf, or when
they have made shoots with four or five leaves. By this time the sap has
begun to flow freely, so that there is no danger of the stock suffering from
bleeding; though, if vines are in good health, and their wood thoroughly
ripened, all the bleeding that usually takes place does little injury.
Saddle Grafting. -This is only applicable to stocks of moderate size,
but it is well adapted for standard fruit-trees. The top of the stock is cut
into a wedge-shape, and the scion is split up the middle, and placed astride
on it, the inner barks being made to join on one side of the stock, as in cleft
grafting. The tying, claying, &c., are of course performed in the usual
manner.
Side Grafting. - This is nothing more than splice grafting performed on
the side of a stock, the head of which is not cut off. It is sometimes practised on fruit-trees to supply a branch in a vacancy, or for the sake of having
448
Ib
HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
different kinds of fruits on the same tree; but it is better for the latter purpose to graft on the side-branches, because, in consequence of the flow of the
sap nriot being interrupted by being headed down, the success of this kind of
grafting is more uncertain than almost any other mode. In grafting the
lateral branches of fruit-trees, it is always desirable, in order to insure success., to have corresponding buds in the scion and the stock.
117td,e Grafting.- This is simply a modification of side grafting.
Wtoot Grafting. - Root grafting is merely the union of a scion to a root,
instead of to a stem. It is sometimes practised in nurseries, by grafting the
apple and the pear on the roots of thorns, tree paeonies on herbaceous poeonies,
&c.
Hcrbaccozis Grafting. — This is applicable either to the solid parts of
herbaceous plants, or to the branches of ligntieous or woody plants, when
they are in an herbaceous state. By this method the melon has been grafted
on the cucumber, the tomato on the common potato, the cauliflower on the
broccoli and the borecole, &c. To do this, choose a vigorous part of a
shoot having a well-developed leaf. In the axil of this leaf an oblique cut
is made. of half its thickness. The point of a melon shoot, so far developed
as to hav-e its fruit quite formed, is then cut off, and pointed at its end, two
inches below the fruit. It is inserted in the cleft made in the stock, always
taking care to spare the leaf until the scion has taken. The remaining part
of tihe operationi is performed with ligatures and grafting-wax.
Grafiing bj Approach, or Inarchlin,. - This differs from grafting by
detached scions, in the scion or shoot not being separated from the plant to
which it belongs, and by which it is nourished, till a union takes place. For
this purpose it is necessary that the two plants which are to formn the scion
and stock be planted, or, if in pots, placed adjoining each other, so that a
branch of the one may be easily brought into close contact with the stem, or
with a branch, of the other. A disk of bark and alburnum is then removed
from each at the intended point of union, and the parts being properly fitted
to each other. so as the inner barks of the respective subjects may coincide,
as in the case of grafting by detached scions, they are bandaged and covered
with clay or grafting-wax. This being done, in a short time, in conseqtuence of the development of the secretion called cambium, the alburnum
of the scion and that of the stock become united, and the scion may be cut
(off below the point where it is united with the stock, leaving the former to
be ironrished only by the latter.
The princ ipal use of grafting by approach is to propagate plants of rarity
:.'(I value which it is found difficult to increase by any other means, and of
which it is not desirable to risk the loss of any part, by attempting an icrease by means of detached scions or cuttings.
38* E 2
449
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
II. BUDDING.
Uses of Budding.-Budding, or grafting by detached buds, consists in
transferring a portion of bark containing one or more buds, and forming the
scion, to the wood of another plant, forming the stock, a portion of the bark
of the stock being raised up or taken off to receive the scion. The buds of
trees are originated in the young shoots in the axils of the leaves, and when
the bud begins to grow, its connection with the marrow sheath ceases; or,
at all events, the bud, if detached and properly placed on the alburnum of
another plant, will become vitally united to it. On these facts the art of
l)udding is founded.
This mode of grafting is chiefly applicable to woody vegetation, and the
scion may, in general, be secured to the stock, and sutifficiently protected
there, by bandages of bast mat, or thread, without the use of grafting-clay
or wax. The union between the scion and the stock takes place, in the first
instance, in consequence of the exudation of organizable matter from the soft
wood of the stock; and it is rendered permanent by the returning sap from
the leaves of the stock, or from those of the shoot made by the bud. All
the different modes of budding may be reduced to two; - shield budding,
in which the scion is a piece of barkl, commonly in the shape of a shield.
containing a single bud, -and fJlute buddling, in which the scion consists of
a ring or tube of bark, containing several buds. In both modes, the bark of
one year is chosen in preference; and the operation is more certain of siccess when the bud of the scion is placed exactly over the satuation of a bud
on the stockl. The shield may, however, be placed on tile initernodes, or a
piece of bark without buds may be put on as a st-ion, and(l yet at vital union
may take place between the parts, because the inarrow ri;ys exist everywhere in the wood, anid it is by them, during the pI)roce,s of organization,
that the layer of wood of onle year, in a growing state, is joined to) that of the
year before. WVhen the bud is placed on the stock, its point is almost
always made to turn upwards, as being its natural position; but, in budding
trees which are liable to gum, the bud is made to point downwards. There
are two seasons at which budding is practised, namely, when the sap rises
in spring when the bud inserted is developed immedi:tely, in the same
manner as in detached ligneous scions; and in the end of summer, when
the sap is descending, the operation being then performed with a budl fornmed
during the preceding summer, which does not develop itself till the folloiwing spring. In budding, the stockli is not generally cut over in the first
instance, as in grafting by detached ligneous scions, but a tight ligatture is
fr(equently placed above the graft, with the intention of forcing a part of the
ascendilng sap to nourish the graft.
450
HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
The uses of butdding, in addition to those of the other modes of grafting,
are, also, to propagate some kinds with which the other modes of grafting
ire not so successful; to perform the operation of grafting with greater
rapidity than with detached scions, or inarching, as in the case of most fruit trees, to unite early vegetating trees with late vegetating ones, - as the
.ipricot with the plum, they being both in the same degree of vegetation
iuringf the budding season; to graft without the risk of injuring the sto(k
in case of want of success, as in side budding,, and in flute bud(ding, without
}ieading down; to introduce a number of species or varieties on the samne
stem. which could not be done by any other mode of grafting without disfilguring the stock, in the event of the want of success; to prove the blIossoiIs
or fruits of anv tree in which case blossom-buds are chosen instead of leatfbuds; and fiinally, as the easiest mode of distributing a great many kindls
on the branches of a tree, as in the case of roses, camellias, and fruit-trees.
Pcrformnin,g the Operation.- In performing the operation, mild, cloudy
weather should be chosen, because, during hot, dry, windy weather, the
viscous surfaces exposed to the air are speedily dried by evaporation, by
which the healing operation is retarded; besides, the bark never rises so
well as it does in weather which is still, warm, and cloudy, but without
rain. The first step is to ascertain that the bark of the scion and that of the
stock will separate freely from the wood beneath them; then procure the
cutting from which the shields or tubes of bark are to be taken. If the
li)dding is to be performed in spring, the cuttings from which the buds are
to be taken slhould be cut- always using the proper kind of knife - from
the tree the preccdiugr autumn, and kept through the winter, by burying
their lower ends in the grotund, in a cool, shady situation, as in the case of
graftiig by) detached scions.'When these cuttintigs are to be used, their
lower ends should lie placed in water, to keep them fresh while the opera
tion of cuittir shiellds or rlies from them is going on. If, on the other
hand, the bud(ling is to be performed in summer, then the cutting from
hichli the t),is are to 1)e toikcn is not to be cut off the I)arenrt tree till just
ibetret t le l:'ti) i t e trfrle The utit iotild be a shoot of
the culrrenlt.ar s w():)l, whiclh ha}e die roir, or i,carly so, and its
l!iaves sh(iild };e cut olt to prevent the waste of sip )y e —ap)orattion, as soon
Us it is takeii fri,n the tree the end of tii he cutting should thet be put in
water to keep it ifresh, and the buds talkent orff as waianted. When the leaven
are cut (,ft; care should be talken to leave part of the petiole of achel, to
handle tihe shield or ring by when putting it on the stock. A slit is next
made in tile stock, or a riting of bark taken off; and the shield or ring from
the ctntilrg, containing a bud or buds whlich are ripe or nearly so, is introduced in the manniier; Ifichi will presently be described. Tyinig the bud (o:
451
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
the stock generally completes the operation, though sometimes grafting-wax
is employed to cover the junction of the shield or ring.
Transmitting Scions. - Scions for budding may be sent a considerable
distance by letter, if the leaves are cut off and the scion closely wrapped up
in oiled paper, or coated over with mastic. They may also be left for
several weeks, by immersing them in honey. When bulk is not an objection, they may be packed up in long grass, or in moist moss, or in several
folds of moistened brown paper, and covered with drawn wheat-straw, to
serve as a non-conductor of heat and moisture.
IVax for Budding. - Prepared wax for budding may be composed of
turpentine, bees-wax, resin, and a little tallow, melted together. It may
be put on in the same manner as grafting-clay, but should not be more than
a quarter of an inch in thickness; or it may be very thinly spread on cotton
cloth, and used in shreds, like sticking-plaster. In this last state, it serves
both as a ligature for retaining the scion in its place, and as a covering for
excluding the air. In very delicate budding or grafting, fine moss or cotton
wool is frequently used as a substitute for grafting-clay or grafting-wax,
the moss or cotton being tied firmly on with coarse thread or fine strands of
b)ast matting. Plastic wax, or grafting-wax, which the heat of the hand,
or breathing on, will render sufficiently soft for use, is thus prepared:take common sealing-wax, - of any color, except green,- one part; muttoin fat, one part; white wax, one part; and honey, one eighth of a part.
The white wax and the fat are to be first melted, and then the sealing-wax
is to be added gradually, in small pieces,- the mixture being kept constantly stirred; - and lastly, the honey must be put in just before taking it
off the fire. It should be poured hot into paper or tin moulds, and kept
slightly agitated till it begins to congeal.
Shield Budding.- This is about the only mode in use in British
nurseries, where it is generally performed in July or August. A cross cutt
and slit are made in the stock, in the form of the letter T, and if possible
through a bud. (Fig. 291, a.) From a shoot of the present year deprived of
its leaves, a slice of bark and wood, containing a bud, b, is then cut out, and
the wood is removed from the slice by the point of the knife. This is done
by holding the shield by the remains of the leaf, with one hand, and enteriIIg the poitnt of the knife at the under extremity of the shield, and between
it and the thumb; and then raising and drawing out the wood by a double
motion outwards frotn the bark, and downwards from the upper to the lower
extremity of the shield. The bud being now prepared, as at c, the bark on
each side of the slit in the stockl is raised up by the spatula end of tihe
bludding-knife, and the shield inserted beneath it; its upper part being cut
straight across, as at d, so as to admit of its joining accurately withl the
452
HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
inner bark of the stock, as at e, so as to receive its descending sap. A
bandage of soft matting is now applied, so as to exclude the air from the
wounded parts, and to show only the bud and the petiole, as at f, and the
Fig. 291.
o i,t h
0 Q,~~~c
operation is complete. At f, the bud is shown developing its leaves, and
at g it has produced a shoot of some length, which is tied for a short time
to the upper part of the stock; but that part of the latter which is shown by
dotted lines is cut off in July.
The portion of wood left attached to the base of the bud should generally
be about a third of the length of the shield; the latter being from an inch to
an inch and a half in length, and the eye should be situated about a third
from the top. Spines, prickles, and leaves should be carefully cut off, or
shortened. Sometimes, in taking out the splinter of wood from the scion,
which is done with a quick, jerking motion, the base of the bud, which is
woody, is torn out also, leaving a small cavity, instead of an even surface;
the surface, when the bud is in a proper state, being either quite even, or
only gently raised above the surrounding bark, in consequence of the woody
base of the bud being left in. WVhen this latter has been torn out, so as to
leave a cavity, it is safest not to use the bud, but to prepare another
though, when the cavity left is not very deep, and a small portion of wood
is seen in it, the bud will sometimes grow. Only those buds must be tal(eii
firom the scionI that are nearly mature, whlich is readily known both by the
size of the bud and by the full expansion and firm texture of the disk of the
leaf, in the axil of which it grows.
Shield Buddiing without a Bud or Eye.- This is used simply to cover a
wound or blemish in one tree by a portion of the live bark of another.
Circular Shield Budding.- Budding with a circular shield, with a portion
of wood attached, is employed to equalize the flower-buds over a tree, by
453
9
Io
FARBIER S HAND-BOOK.
removing some from places where there are too many to other places i,l
which there are too few. With the point of a peniiknife, in spring, cut a
small cone of bark and wood containing a bud, and insert it in an orifice
made in the same manner, securing the edges with graftirng-w-ax. Budldiig
with a shield stamped out biy a punch is considered excellent for budding old
trees, the thick and rtugged bark of which is not suitable for being taken
off with the budding-knife. With a mallet the punch is driven through the
bark of the scion, and then through that of the stock, and the piece Which
comes out of the former is inserted in the cavity formed by the piece taken
out of the latter. S/lielcd budding with a terminal bud is supposed to produce
a more vigorous shoot than when a lateral eye is used, and it is, therefore,
recommended for supplying a leader to a shoot that has lost one.
Flute Budding,. -There are several modifications of this mode of budding,
which is a good deal used, in some countries, for trees that are difficult to
take, - such as the wvalnut and the chestnut, - and for several oaks, as
well as for the wvhite mulberry.
Annular Biddi, g. - This is performed either at the principal movement
of the sap in spring, or at the end of its principal movement in August. In
either case, the top of the stock is kept on; and if the ring of bark contail)ing a bud or buds taken from the scion is larger than the space prepared fior
it on the stock, a piece must be taken firom it longitudinally, so as to make
it fit exactly.
After-caire. The after-care of grafts by budding consists, in all cases, in
remnoviug the baudages or plasters as soon as it is ascertained that the bui(s
or scions have adhered to the stock. This may generally be knowni in two
or three weeks, by the healthy appearance of the bark and its bud or buds,
and by the dropping off of the petiole, which, in the case of the bud, withers
and adheres. The next operation is to head down the stolck to within an
inch or two of the bud, - the stump being left for a week or two as a prop,
to which the shoot produced by the bud of the scion may be tied, till it
acquires vigor enough to support itself. The stump is then cut off in a
sloping direction, close above the bud. In general, any buds which develop
themselves on this stump should be rubbed off; but in the case of very welak
scioIns, one or more buds may be left on the stump, to draw up the sap till
the graft has taken. WVhen buddiug is performed in spring, the stock
should have been headed down before the ascent of the sap; but in autumni
budding, as no shoot is produced till the spring, following, heading down is
deferred till that season, and takes place just before the sap is in motion.
Where a number of grafts by buds are introduced on one stem or on one
branch, heading down can, of course, only take place above the uppermost
454
HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
bud; and in terminal flute budding, it is performed as a necessary part of
the operation.
III. PRUNING.
Uscs of Pruning,.- Pruning consists in depriving a plant of a portion
of its branches, buds, leaves, bark, or roots, in order to produce particular
effects on the part of the plant which remains. The different kinds of
p)runing may be included under knife-pruning, which is applied to small
branches; lopping, which is applied to large branches; clipping, which is
applied to small shoots in masses; and disbudding, disleafing, and disbarking, awhich are applied to buds, leaves and bark. Girdling and felling may
also be incluided. The instruments necessary for these operations are
chiefly the pruning-knife, the bill, the saw, the cutting-shears, and the clip
ping-shears; but there are some other instrumnients, such as the pruningchisel, the girdling-machine, &c., which are occasionally used for peculiar
purposes. The approved pattern of pruning chlisels is seen in the followLig cut.
Pi. 292a.
Prunrting Forest-trees.- In forest-trees pruning is of the greatest use in
modifying the quantity of timber produced. Thus, by commencing when
the tree is quite young, and shortening the side-brainches and encouraging
the leading shoot, the whole of the timber produced is thrown into the mail
stern. On the other hand, should crooked timber be desired, pruning by
destroying the leading shoot, and encoutraging those that have a suitable
direction, teid to attain the end iii view; and, bly the aid of training, this
end can be co)mpletely efected. Trees which are stunted in their growth,
froiy bleitgo hide-lhound (a disease whichi is broulght on by the sudden exposure
of the trees to the w-eatlier after they have been drawn up by shelter, and,
in the case t)f young trees, by beiiig planted of too large a size in proportion
to their roots), may iln general be made to shoot vigoroutsly by being cut
ow-n or lheaded in. Again, trees which are in particular situations, where
it is feared they will grow too large, may be arrested in their growth, or
stunlted. by amputating the larger roots.
Prulninti Oroiamental Trees. - This is chiefly employed to remove diseased branches, because much of the effect of these trees depends on the
develol)ment of their natural form and character.
PrecrinTg Oirna?cntal Shr?is.- Those which are grown for their flowers
produce them of much stronger and brighter colors when the shoots are
455
I
I
FARIMER'S HAND-BOOK.
thinned out, or shortened, or both; and it is useful when the plants are
prevented from exhausting themselves by the removal of decaying blossoms,
lo as to prevent them from maturing their seeds. A pair of pruning-scissors are useful in case of rose-bushes, &c.
Fig. 293.
CJLTh))z~L<
Pruning Fruit-trees and Shrubs. -These, above all other plnts, are
benefited by pruning, which is indeed by fir the most important part of
their culture. The most general object of pruning is to create an abundant
supply of sap during summer, by the production of leaf-shoots, by which the
general strength of the tree is augmented, and to limit the distribution of
this sap when it ascends from the roots in the following spring, by diminishing the number of buds. The effect of this is to increase the vigor of
Fig,. 294.
the shoots or fruits produced by these buds; and if this be done in such a
manner as to obtain also the greatest advantages from light and air, the
pruning will have answered its purpose. If a fruit-tree weure not deprived
every year of a part of the wood or the )buds which it pro(duces, its shoots
and fruits would gradually diminish in size, and though the fruit would be
456
a: ~~~mm,_
E,.I -- -1
:7
:D ~~~~~~~~~~
HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
more numerous, it would be deficient in succulence and flavor, as is found
to be the case in old neglected orchard-trees. The application of pruning
to fruit-trees differs so much, according to the species of tree, that the subject can only be properly treated by taking each class separately. Thus
kernel-fruits, which are produced on wood of two or more years' growth,
require to be pruned in a different manner from such fruits as the peach,
which is produced from the shoots of the current year. The production of
blossoms, or the enlargement of fruits and the acceleration of their maturity
by ringing, is a species of pruning peculiarly applicable to fruit-trees. In
pruning high branches, an instrument called an avarrancator- pole pruningshears -is found to be very convenient. See Fig. 295.
-Pil-. 295.
Pruning Herbaceous Plants. -To herbaceous plants pruning is applicable, not only when they are being transplanted, when both roots and top
are frequently cut in, but also to fruit-b)earing kinds, suchl as tile melon
tribe, the tomato, &c. It is even useful to the cabbage tril)e, when it is
wished that, after the head is cut off, the stem should throw out sprouts,
which is found to be accelerated by splitting it down an inch or two. The
topping of beans, and the picking off of potato-blossoms, are operations
belonging to pruning, as are the cutting off of withered flowers for the
sake of neatness, &c.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF PRUNING.
These mav be included under close pruning, shortening-in, fore-shortening, spurring-in, heading-in, lopping, snag-lopping, lopping-in, stopping,
pinching-out, disbarking, disbudding, disleafing, slitting, bruising or tearing, root-pruning, girdling, and felling.
Close Prurdng. -This consists in cutting off shoots close to the branch
or stem from whence they spring, leaving as small a section as possible, in
order that it may be speedily healed over. In performingr the operation,
care should be taken to make the wounded section no larder than the base
of the shoot, in order that it may be healed over as quickly as )ossil)le; and
at the same timne to make it no smaller, because this would lecvc latent
buds, which would be liable to be developed, and thus occasion the operationi
39
457
F
FARIIER'S HAND-BOOK.
to be performed a second time. This mode of pruning is only adopted
where the object is to produce stems or trunks clear of brancles, or of any
kind of protuberance, as in the case of standard trees in gardenls, especially
fruit-trees, and in the case of forest-trees grown for their timber. If the
branch cut off is under an inch in diameter, the wound will generally heal
over in two seasons, and inll this case the timber sustains no )prtctical injury
but if it is larger, it will probably begin to decay in the centre, and thus
occasion a blemish in the timber.
Sliortening-iZ. - This term is applied when side-shloots are shortened at
the distance of from two to four or five feet from the stein, the cult being
always made to a bud. Exceeding that distance, it is called Jorc-shorticiing,
and is chiefly applicable to timber-trees in hedge-rows; and under that distance it is called sp?trrioz-io. In the culture of fruit-trees, it is applied in
connection wih spulrring-in, to produce trees of coinical forms, wvith branches
which, never b)eiig allow,ed to attain a timber size, are prolific in fruit-bearing spurs. \1lienever the branches exceed two inches in diameter, they are
cut off withinl an inch of the stemin, and one of the young shoots which are
produced there is trained to takle its place.
Forc-shorltcnig,.- -Vhen the lateral branches of a standard tree extend
further than is desirable, a portion of their extremities is cut off; the cut
being al-wa-s made close above a branch of sufficient thickness to form a
leader of suflicieiet strength to keep the branch alive and healthy, but not so
strong as to cause it to produce much timber, or in any way to come into
competition with the trunk of the tree. The ol)ject is to prevent the lateral
branches of the trees from injuriously shading the plants under them; and
hence it is chiefly used in the case of trees in hedge-rows.
Spurring-in. - The apple, the pear, the cherry, the plum, and other
fruit-trees, or fruit-slirubs, produce what are called spurs, or very short
shoots or knobl)s, covered with blossom-btuds, naturally; and the object of
spurring-in prtiiiti is to pro(duce these knobs artificially. This can only
be done with la.eral slioots, to vwhich(It the sap is not impelled with the same
vigor as to the (trowi poinit, because the great object in producing spurs
is to obtaini l( rn,t-bnds, and these are never produced on the most vigorous shoots. X ltera l sioot of the prescent year being prodtceud, nmay be
shortened to two or three visitle buds, either in the beginning of summner,
after that shoot has growNII at few inches in length, or in the following
winter; but the ilriner is in general the better season, because it is not
desirable to encoturage the piod(Iiction of wood, andl, consequenutly, of sap,
but rather to lessen their production, so as to produce stunted branches,
wtvhich are, in fiet, tie sj)urs. The second and third years the shoots produced are shortened in the same. manner as they were the first, and it will
45S
HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
generally be found that the leaf-buds left on the lower ends of the shoots,
when cut down, will the year after become blossom-buds. As by thle process of continually shortening the shoots the spurs in a few years become
inconveniently large, they are, from time to time, cut out, and new spurs
formed by the same process as before; and finally, after a certain time, the
entire branch bearing the spurs is cut out close to the main stemi of the tree,
and renewed, as spurs are, by a young shoot produced from its base. It
must be confessed, however, that pruning has but little to do with the
production of spurs that are prolific in blossoms; that depends fiar more on
adjusting the nourishment supplied by the root to the demands of the fruitbearing branches, to the mode of training, the kind of tree, and other particulars, which, when attended to, spurs are produced naturally.
Iheading-in. - This is cutting off all the branches which form the head
of a tree close to the top of the stem, leaving, however, their base to produce buds. This is done with what are called polled or pollard trees periodicall.y, for the sake of the branches produced as fagot or fence wood, and
with fruit-trees when they are to be regrafted. It is also done with stunted
forest-trees, for the sake of concentrating the sap into a few main shoots,
instead of distributing it over a great many; and it is done in transplanting
trees of considerable size, intended to form avenues, or single trees in parks.
The branches, if under two inches in diameter, are cut off clean with a bill
459
Fig. 2 9 6.
0
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
at one stroke; or, if they are larger, they are first sawn off, and afterwards
the section is made smooth with the bill-axe or the knife, but generally with
what is called the bill-knife.
Lopp?ing. - This term is very generally applied to heading-in, but it is
also as generally used to signify the cutting off large branches from the
sides of stems, and in this sense we shall here treat of it. Lopping is per formed in three manners, two of which are highly injurious to the timber
of the trunk of the tree, and the other not so. The close and snag, lopping
are the modes which are injurious; the only mode of lopping large branches
from the sides of the trunks of trees, without injuring the timber in these
trunks, is to shorten them to a branch of sufficient size to heal the wounid at
its base, or, at all events, to maintain the growth of the whole of the part of
tihe branch left, and prevent decay from reaching the trunk. This mode is
called loppingz-in. Fig. 296 represents one of the lopping or branch shears,
also the sliding pruning-shears.
Cutting Dowtn. - Cutting down the stem or trunk of a tree to the ground
is an important operation, because, in some cases, such as that of resinous
or needle-leaved trees, it kills the tree, while ill others, or what are called
trees that stole, which is a property of most broad-leaved trees, it affords
the means of renewilng the tree. Fruit-trees cannot generally be so treated,
because the graft is for the most part only a few inches above the surface
of the soil; but even with fruit-trees, when they are stunted, there is no
better mode of restoring them to vigor than by cutting them down to the
graft.
Stopping and Pinching-oit. - When the point of a shoot is cut off, or
pinched out, while that shoot is in a growing state, it is said to be stopped
that is, the shoot is prevented from extending its length, and the sap, which
was before impelled to its growing point, is now expended in adding to the
largeness or succulence of the leaves or fruits which may be oil the shoot,
or in swelling or developing the buds, or in some cases changing them from
leaf-buds into flower-bulds. The principal uses of stopping, however, are to
promote the setting and the swelling of the fruit, either on the shoot of the
current year, as in the case of the vine and melon, or at its base, as in the
case of the peach. tMuch of the winter pruning of trees might be prevented
oy stopping the shoots early in summer, provided the state of the tree did
not require that the shoots should be allowed to grow their full lengthl, in
order to send down nutriment to the increase of the roots, in consequence
of which greater vigor is in turn imparted to the stem and branches. In
this case of pruning, as in every other, the state of the tree, and a variety
Df circumstances connected with it, require to be taken into consideration.
Disbar;lng. - This includes two distinct operations,- the removal of
460
HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
coarse, loose, outside bark, to admit of the swelling of the inner bark and the
alburnum by the returning sap, and the removal of a ring of both inner and
outer bark, with a view to the interruption of the returning sap. The
removal of old bark is an operation chiefly performed with old fruit-trees in
orchards, for the sake partly of getting rid of lichens and mosses, and partlvyto
remove crevices which might harbor insects. It is also practised on the
stems of old vines for the latter purpose; one effect of removing the loose
outer bark of any stem being to increase its susceptibility of suffering from
changes of temperature and moisture, it may therefore often be more injuri ous than useful. Disbarking for the tanniier consists in removing the whole
of the bark, and is best performed in spring, when, in consequence of the
abundance of ascending sap, the bark separates easily from the wood.
,croaping trees, to keep them clean, is also considerably practised.
Ringing. - This operation consists in taking off a narrow ring of bark
from a stem or branch, or even from a root, the object of which is to check
the returning sap, and force it to expand itself among the leaves, flowers,
or fruit, which are situated above the incision. The rinig of bark taken off
varies in width from a sixteenth to half an inch or an inch, and its depth is
always equal to that of both outer and inner bark. In general, the width
of the ring talken otff should not be greater than the tree has the power of
re-covering with bark, during the same or the following year. The operation
maybe performed at any season, but its effects will only be rendered obvious
when the plant is in leaf, because at other seasons there is little or no sap
elaborated to be returned. Compressing the bark by a ligature of wire or
cord, or by a mass of Roman cement, put on like the clay of a graft, produces the same effect as ringing. In the case of fruit-trees, it is frequently
executed on the branches to produce blossom-buds, and by the saime means
seedling plants are sooner thrown into blossom than they otherwise would
be. It has little effect on stone fruits; and while it succeeds on the gooseberry, it is said not to do so on the currant. Judiciously applied, it may
often serve as a substitute for root pruning and top pruning.
Disb(udding. - This is the removal of buds early in spring, just when
they are beginning to develop their leaves; and is commonly performed with
the finger and thumb, the object being to lessen the number of shoots or of
blossom-buds to be produced. By lessening the number of blossom-bi(ds, it
will add to the strength and probability of setting of those whli chli remain
and the same increase of strength will take place in respect to the shoots,
whilst, at the same time, the number of these is reduced to an approximation
of that which can ultimately be retained for training. By applying this
mode of pruning judiciously on such trees as the peach, apricot, and plum,
especially when trained against walls, the use of the knife may be in a great
39*
461
FRFARMER'S HAND-B13OOK.
measure dispensed with, excepting for cutting out diseased or decaying
shoots. In removing the buds, care should be taken not to injure the bark
of the shoot. The buds ought not to be all disbudded at thile same time; the
fore-right ones should be first removed, and the others successively, at intervals of several days, in order not to check the circulation of sap by a too
great privation of foliage at once.
Disleafizg. By talking the leaves off a growing shoot as fast as they are
unfolded, no buds are matured in their axils; and thus, while the superfluous
vigor of the tree is expended, no sap is returned to the root. i)isleafing in
this manner the summer's shoots of a tree, as they proceed in growth, has
been found the simplest mode of reducing the strength of an over-luxuriant
tree. When a tree fills the space allotted to it against a wall, and shows a
disposition to still fuirther growth, by throwing up strong vertical shoots
above the wall, and luxurious breast-wood on the main boughs, instead of
checking this disposition by any of the ordinary modes of pruning, some
gardeners assist the tree to throw off the superabundant sap, by disleafing
the breast-wood and vertical shoots, and in the winter pruning all the buds
on such shoots as are displaced, even those on the points, after which they die
off by degrees, and are cut out. Disleafing is frequently practised with fruitI)earing plants, both woody and herbaceous, with a view to admit the sun
and air to the fruit, and sometimes also to assist in ripening wood by stopIting growth.
,~/it/in%a oz(l Splittin e. -These may be classed under modes of pruning,
the first being< occasionally employed to relieve hide-bound trees, - a practice
,,f (ldolbtful utility,- and the second to stimulate the stems to the production
(f roots or shouJ)ts. Ihide-botlnd trees are relieved by slitting the l),ark longitudlinallv fromt the collar as hitt ip the stem and along the Ibrtanclics as may
bee co)si(lered ne(cessary. The lower extremities of cuttillngs are sometimes
slit up), au(l shoots are split or fractured to excite buds.
B,'ui;i;, at el 7T'hiig. - Bruising and teariing off the steis of plants
from their roots are itl some cases fiound to be more eff(ctive than cutting
them of' wittlh a smooth section. A very full crop of pears has been obtained
from trees which beifore had not borne at all, by twistinig and bIreakinig down
the youfit sho()ts late in tlihe autumn, -whlen the wood had become tolrugh, and
after the >ap had retreated. This practice has been found successful with
branches on which ringilji,, had been tried without success, and tlie 1eildecnt
branches continued perfectly healthy.
Cli ppiiig..-This is confitedi chliiefly to common hedges and box edgings.
R.,,,! Pruiru g. - As ilit nourishment of a plant is absorbed fri,,on the soil
by tIte r,oots, it is evidct!t that the stl)ply will be diminished by partially cuttilng oIl its source. The efcr.,ct of cuttilng through the stronger roots of trees
462
HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
is analogous in its first effects to that of ringing; with this difference, that
the returning sap is stagnated throughout the whole tree, instead only in the
parts above the ring. The immediate effect is to check thle luxuriancy of
wood-shoots, and induce the formation of fruit-buds. The operation, however, should not be carried so far as to reduce too much the vigor of the tree,
and prevent the second result,- that of pushing a number of fibrous roots
from those amputated; for, in defect of these, the health of the tree must
decline under the load of, in that case, imperfectly nourished fruit. With
a view to the production of a greater number of fibrous roots, old trees may
be subjected to a cautious root pruning; but it must not be performed on
subjects unable to bear the shockl, or on those in which the power of throwing out fresh roots is very weak. If, however, it is found that fresh roots
have been emitted from one amputation, others may be performed, as the
roots resultiing from each preceding operation come into action. Root pruning is generally performed with a sharp spade, and generally only on the
main roots, at the distance of several feet from the stem, according to the
magnitude of the tree. Though this mode is chiefly empl)oyed to check the
luxuriance of young fruit-trees and throw them into blossom, yet it may be
employed for these purposes with all trees and shrubs whatever.
Gird(ling and Fellin,. -This is very common in this country, not for the
sake of improving the timber, but to destroy life and facilitate the destruction
of the tree. It is strongly recommended to disbark trees in the spring, before
they are to be felled, and the effect of this, in hardening the timbler, is very
great; but, in a hot summer, the exposed alburnum is apt to split more or
less. A better mode has been found to be that of merely cutting out clean
a rim, about four inches in width, of the bark, close to the groiiid. TBy
girdling, the wllde of what would otherwise be mere albur..mnl becomes
'imilar to the lheart-w\ood, and this may be one reason why tie boards mdfle
firom such trees are found liot to warp. Larches are particularly ssceptil)le
to this process.
&.asost.s j/,r Priiini:,. - The seasons fi)r pruning vary:ccording to the
object in view. N\7lc re woo(l is to be cut out or buds re-oved(l, so as to
throw sthenlth into the remaining parts of the tree, the sooner the operation
is performel, after the fall of the ]leaf, the better; becauso. as the sapil is more
or less in mo(tion, and conseqiuently imle)clled( to all the b)ds, thr(llhllout the
whole of tlhe winter, that which would have been employed on tlie shiootl
and buds ci,t off is saved, and those which remain are invi,r:te( by it.
Next to a,ltit mul, - according to the opinions of some of the n)most experienced gri)vwirs,- winter is to be preferred, for the saime reason; I)llt in this
seaCson O ilrl wealther is always to bh chosen, becatuse l,C fa)sts if severe,
will seiz., ('! tlie moisture of newly-niade wounds, and rupture tlit,r surface.
463
4
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
The worst season in which any description of wood pruning can be performed
is the spring, j'ust before the expansion of the leaves, when the sap is rising
with the greatest vigor. The slightest wound made in many plants, both
woody and herbaceous, at this season, especially young, vigorous ones, where
the sap-vessels are large, occasions a great loss of sap, which must necessarily weaken the plant, unless speedily checked by the only effectual mode
in which this can be done, the expansion of the leaves. For disbudding and
ringing, spring is the most suitable season,- at least, for the latter practice,
for nothing is gained by ringing before the leaves begin to expand. Buds
which are to be removed should remain as short a time as possible after they
are formed by the leaves; but as the labor is much greater in taking them off
in autumn and winter, when they are small, than in spring, when all their
parts are more or less expanded, the operation is generally deferred till the
latter season. For disleafing, it is necessary to commence as soon as the
leaves begin to expand, and continue it as long as they are produced. The
advantages of pruningi just before midsummer are, that the wounids may be
partially healed over the same season, and that the sap which would have
been employed in maturing the shoots cut off is thrown into those which
remain. The disadvantages are, that the sap which would have been elaborated by the leaves cut off, and which would have added to the strength of
the tree and its roots, is lost. In the case of trees already sufficiently strong,
this is no disadvantage; but in the case of those which are too weak, it is a
positive loss. The summer season is found better than any other for pruning trees which gum, such as the cherry and the plum, provided too much
foliage is not thereby taken away; and it is also considered favorable for
resinouis trees. The autumn, on the other hand, is considered the best for
trees that are apt to suffer from bleeding, such as the vine, the birch, and
some species of maple.
IV. TRAINING.
Uses of Training.- To train a plant is to support or conduct its stem and
branches in some form or position, either natural or artificial, for purposes of
use or ornament. It is effected partly by pruning and thinning, but chiefly by
pegging down to the ground, tying and fastening to rods, stakes, or trellises,
or nailing to walls. The articles more immediately required are hooked
pegs, ties, nails, and lists, with props of various kinds, and ladders.
Princip les of Training,. The principles upon which training is founded
vary according to the object in view, but they all depend more or less on
these facts: — that the sap of a plant is generally impelled with the greatest
force to its highest point, and that, in general, whatever promotes this tendency encourages the production of leaves and shoots, and whatever represses
464
HIORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
it promotes the formation of blossom-buds. When a plant is to be trained
over thie surface of the ground, it must be borne in mind, that, as the tendency
of the sap is always to the highest bud, the shoots pegged down should be
.lli-owed to turn up at the points, in order to promote their extension. WVhen
the object is to produce blossoms or fruitfulness, a contrary practice shoul(i
I)c follow-ed, and the points of the shoots kept down, or, in the case of upright
,rowN-n plants, trained horizontally, or even in a downward direction. This
should also be done when the oblject is to restrain over-luxuriance, and a
contrary practice when a weak or sickly plant or free is to be invigorated.
AWhenu the object is to economize space, the plants are trained against a trellis,
as occupying length, but very little breadth; and whep it is to increase
temperature, they are trained or spread out against a wall, which prevents
the conducting of heat and moisture from the branches, by acting as a screen
againist winds, and increases heat, by reflecting the rays of thie sun duringi
the day, and giving out heat during the night, and whenever the atmosphert
is at a lower temperature than the wall.
Iaotzual Opcrations of Training. - The tie or the list, by which the shoots
aire fistened to the wall or trellis, should be placed in the internode, and
aIlways immediately behind a bud or joint; because, when tying or nailing
takles place in the summer season, and near the points of the growing shoots,
lthe latter sometimes elongate after being fastened, and if this elongation is
)rei-ented from taking place in a straight line, by the fastening being made
immediately before a bud or leaf, instead of immediately behind it, the shoot
will be forced inii a curved direction, and the bud and its leaf injured. The
)ast tics are gently twisted before being tied into a knot, in order that it naay
l)e the firmer, and not liable to be torn during the operation of tying. ()sier
ties, which are frequently used for espalier-trees, are fastened by twisting
together the two ends, and turning them down in a manner sooner and
easier done than described. In fastening shoots with nails and shreds, when
inv restraint is required to retain the shoot in its position, the pressure must
;-lways be against the shred, and never against the nail, as the latter would
gall the shoot, and in stone-fruits generate gum. The shred ought not to be
[,alced in the hollow of a bend in the branch to be attached; for there it is
worse than useless. On the contrary, the shreds should be put on so ias ti,
!ull the external bends inwards towards the direct line in which it is desirar)le the branch should be trained. Nails an inch in length are sufficienlt foi
,r-dirary branches, but twice that length is necessary for very large ones;
tiey should, in general, be driven into the joints, and not into the backls,
I},,cautse the joints are easily repaired. Shreds of woollen are preferred to
those of any other cloth, or to leather, as being softer, and less influenced( by
Ilie weather. Their length should be such as to contain a shoot double the
F2
46;5
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
size of that for which they are intended, in order that they may never com.
press the shoots so much as to impede the returning sap, and their breadth
may be from half to three quarters of an inch to a whole inch. They should
be folded up a little at each end, so that in driving the nail through the
shred it will pierce four times its thickness, and be in no danger of tearing.
Training Herbaceous a7t(l,irubby Plants it Pots. -These, being in a
highly artificial state, whlen they require training should have straight rods,
or symmetrical frames of laths or of wire-work. A common mode for tho
grape is seen in the annexed cut; formed of rods and rings of stout wire
the whole being painted according to the taste of the grower.
Fig. 297.
I _
Training Hardy Flowering Shirubs in the Open Ground. -Trailing and
creeping shrubs seldom require any assistane from art, excepting when
they are made to grow upright on posts, trellises, or wa lls. The cut which
follows represents a climhing rose, trained ow-in from a ring- which forms
the top to an iron ro l. This is called the balloon maiu,r of training, and
was first applied to apple-trees. When the ro(l is fix(ed in the ground, the
ring at the top shouild sta(nd an inch or two higher tlhan tt.e graft at the top
of the stock, or than the head formed on the stem of tihe plant, if it should
not have been grafted. Six or eight of the strongest shioots are then to be
selected, and tied to the ring with tarred t;wiite and if', fromn their length.
they are liable to blow about, their ends are attached to twine, continued
from the wire to pegs stuck in the grotund, as shown in the figure.
Training Fruit-trees.- By far the most imnportant application of training
is to fruit-trees, whether for the purpose of rendering them more prolific,
improving the quality of the fruit, growing fruit in the oper] air which could
not otherwise be grown, except under glass, or coatiniiog the trees within a
limited space. Fruit-trees are trained eithllr as protubfranot )ushes or trees
in the open garden, or spread out on flat surfice:s against walls or espaliers.
466
'1/
ffi'~~\
\ \\Y I
j I
7
I
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
the weaker must be elevated and the stronger depressed. 3. The shoots oil
tie upper side of an inclined branch wvill always be more luxuriant than
those on the lower side therefore preserve, at the period of pruning or dis t)udding, only the strongest shoots below, and only the weakest above.
4. The lower branches of every tree and shrub decay naturally before the
upper branches; therefore bestow the principal care on them, whether in
dwarf bushes in the open garden, or with trees trained on espaliers or walls.
\When they are weak, cut them out, and bring down others to supply their
place; or turn up their extreme points, which will attract a larger portion
of' sap to every part of the branch.
Differenzt Mlodes of Training Bushes and Trees in the Op)en Garden.These are chiefly the conical form for tall trees or standards, and some
mnodification of the globe or cylinder for dwarfs; but it may be remarked
that unless these and all other artificial forms are constantly watched, to
cheelc the tendency to return to nature, they are much better dispensed with.
By careful attention, some of these artificial forms will bring trees sooner
iato a bearing state, and a greater quantity of fruit will also be produced in a
limited space; but if the continued care requisite for these objects is with(Irawn for two or three years, the growtht of the tree, while returning to its
natural character, will produce a degree of confusion in the branches that
wvill not be remedied till all the constrained branches have been cut away.
Wherever, therefore, fruit is to be grown on a large scale, and in the most
economical manner, in orchards or in the open garden, it is found best to let
every tree take its natural shape. and confine the pruner and trainer to such
operations as do not greatly interfere with it. These are chiefly keeping the
tree erect with a straight stem, keeping the head well balanced, and thinning
out the branches where they are crowded or cross each other, or become
weak or diseased. There are, however, many persons who have small
gardens, and who have leisure or means to attend to all the minutiae of culttre; and to these some of the modes of training protuberant dwarfs and
standards may be of considerable importance, by bringing the trees into a
bearing state sooner than would be the case if they were left to nature, and
by producing much fruit in little space.
Different iModes of Training Fruit-trees against Walls or Espalicrs.
These may all be reduced to three forms or systems -the fan or palmate
torm, which is the most natural mode, and that most generally applicable;
the horizontal system, which is adapted to trees with strong stems, and of
long duration; and the perpendicular system, which is chiefly adapted to
climbers, such as the vine. Trees trained by any of the preceding modes,
against a wall or espalier, are much more under the control of art than caal
ever be the case with trees or bushes in the open garden; because, in the
469
HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
latter case, the whole tree, as well as its branches, is at all times more or
less liable to be put in motion by the wind, whereas against a wall they are
fixed, and have not the aid of motion to increase their thickness. For these
reasons, and also because flat training is applied to trees which, as protuberint bushes in the open garden, would scarcely produce fruit at all, flat trainilg cannot be dispensed with. In making choice of a mode of flat training.
tl.e nature of the tree, the climate, soil, and the object in view, must be
jointitly taken into consideration. Trees of temporary duration, which naturally produce numerous divergent branches, such as the peach and the apricot,
are best adapted for fan training, where the climate is favorable; but in a
cold climate an approach to the horizontal manner may be preferable, by
lessening the quantity of wood produced, and thus facilitating its ripening.
The horizontal system of training produces the greatest constraint on nature,
and is therefore adapted for fruit-trees of the most vigorous growth, and of
large size, such as the pear and apple, which are almost always trained in
this manner, whether on walls or espaliers. For plants producing shoots
having little or no tendency to ramnify, and which are of comparatively short
duration, the perpendicular manner is the most natural and the easiest;
nevertheless, by disbudding and training, plants of this kind can be made to
assume the fan form, and thus be rendered more productive in blossoms and
fruit than if trained in a manner which is more natural to them; and in the
case of the vine, even the horizontal system may be adopted, because its
shoots are of great duration.
Training Dwvarfs in the Open Garden.- These are trained in the form
of hollow bushes, concave, or shaped like cups, urns, goblets, or barrels,
the form being, in every case, produced by training the shoots to a framework of rods and hoops. Dwarfs are also trained in the form of globes,
balloons, cylinders, low cones, pyramids, triangles, and sometimes with the
branches in regular stages, like a girandole. All dwarfs, whether t(5 be left
to nature or trained artificially, are grafted on stocks naturally of humble
growth, such as the quince or the mountain-ash for the pear, &c., &c.
Spiral Cylinders. - Prune and manage the tree so that it shall form from
three to six branches, of as nearly equal size as possible, within about six or
eight inches of the ground; and as soon as the branches are grown from
three to five feet long, fix six rods, or stakes, into the earth, for sul)portiIng
them, in a circle about the root. Each branch is then to be brought down,
and being fixed to the rod near its base, the branch is to be carried round in
a spiral manner, on such an elevation as will form an inclination of about
fifteen degrees, and each branch is to be fixed in the same manner, one aftet
another; thus all will move in the same direction, one above the other, like
so many cork-screws following in the same course, as shown in the annexeci
40
469
FARDIE R'S HAND-BOOK.
figure. As, from this position of the branches, the point bud of each leader
will present the most vertical channel for the sap, the strongest shoot will
fbrm there, and thus afford the means of continuing the leaders to a great
lhight, and for a great length of time, without crossing or obstructing each
Fig. 299.
other, or throwing out useless collaterals; at the same time, by the depressed
position of the leading branches, enough sap will be pushed out on their
sides to formn and maintain vigorous fruiting spurs. As trees trained in this
mannier need never exceed the bounds allotted them on a border or bed,;t
greater number of trees may be planted, and a greater quantity of fruit pro)duced, in a given space, than can be the case when they are trained in ainv
other rialanner. But as pear and apple trees on free stocks may be found to
grow too rude and large, after a few years, those best answer which are
grafted on dwarf-growing stocks. hIowever, to keep dwarf trees from
growing too luxuriant and rude, it is a good practice to take themn up and
replant them every three or four years if this be (lone with due care, as
soon as the leaves are off the trees in the ftidl of the year, it will not injure
them, nor prevent them bearing a full crop of fruit the following year.
Splurring-in. -Choose a tree that has a leading shoot in an upright
direction; having planted it, shorten the side shoot, leaving only two or
three buds, and shorten also the leading shoot, according to its strength, so
that no more buds may be left on it than will produce shoots. The first
summer there will be a produce of shoots, and if before mid-summer the
leading shoot be shortened, it will probably throw out side shoots the same
season. At the winter pruning, all the side shoots may be shortened to two
or three buds, and the leading shoot to such a numbl)er as it is believed will
be developed. These are to be shortened, and the process of shortening is
to be repeated every year, till the tree has the appearance of isig. 300; or
until it has attained the height required, or which the kind of tree is calculated to attain.
4'-i 0
HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS
Fig. 300,
Conical Standards. - Conical standards, or, as they are erroneously called,
pyramidal standards, may be produced from trees partially spurred-in, but
. 301.
the most greral mode is, to cut in the side branches; after passing through
471
A
I
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
several successive stages, the tree is brought to its regular shape, and the
same tree, with the branches of the current year, tied down in the quenouille manner, is represented in Fig. 301. From the experience of French
gardeners, it would appear that trees trained in the conical manner and
tn quenonille do not last longer than ten or twelve years. Copper wire is
ised for tying down the branches, and the lower ends of the wires are
attached to the stouter branches, to the main stemn, to hookled pegs stuck in
the ground, or to a wooden frame fixed a few inches above its surface.
Fan Training. -The maiden plant is to be headed down to four eyes,
pla ced in such a manner as to throw out two shoots on each side, as shown
mn the following figure. The following season, the two uppermost shloots
Fig. 302.
are to be headed down to three eyes, placed in such a manner as to throw
out one leading shoot, and one shoot on each side; the two lowermost shoots
are to be headed down to two eyes, so as to throw out one leading shoot,
and one shoot on the uppermost side. We have now five leading shoots on
each side, well placed, to form our future tree. Each of these shoots must
be placed in the exact position in which it is to remain; and as it is these
shoots which are to form the leading character of the future tree, none of
them are to be shortened. The tree should by no means be suffeired to bear
any fruit this year. Each shoot must now be suffered to produce, besides
the leading shoot at the extremity, two other shoots on the uppermost side,
one near to the bottom, and one about midway up the stem; there must
also be one shoot on the undermost side, placed about midway between the
other two. All the other shoots must be pinched off inii their infant state.
From the third year it may be allowed to bear what crop of fruit the gardener thinks it able to carry; in determining which, he ought never to
overrate the vigor of the tree. All of these shoots, except the leading ones,
must be shortened at the proper season, but to what length must be left
entirely to the judgment of the gardener, it, of course, depending upon the
vigor of the tree. In shortening the shoot, care should be talken to cut
back to a bud that will produce a shoot for the following year. Cut closq
to the bud, so that the wound may heal the following season. The following season, each shoot at the extremities of the leading branches should
produce, besides the leading shoot, one on the upper and two on the under
472
HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
part, more or less, according to the vigor of the tree; whilst each of the
secondary branches should produce, besides the leading shoot, one other,
placed near to the bottom: for the grand art of pruning, in all systems to
which this class of trees are subjected, consists in preserving a sufficient
quantity of young wood at the bottom of tihe tree; and on no account must
the gardener cut clean away any shoots so placed, without well considering if they will be wanted, not only for the present but for tilhe future good
appearance of the tree. The quantity of younig wood annually laid in mus'
depend upon the vigor of the tree. But if any of the leading shoots malifest a disposition to outstrip the others, a larger portion of younIg wood must
be laid in, and a greater quantity of fruit than usual suffered to ripen on the
over-vigorous branch; at the same time, a smaller quantity of fruit than
usual must be left to ripen on the weaker branch. This will tend to restore
the equilibrium better than any other method. The following figure is that
Fig. 303.
\ J I,!/! I
of a tree in a more advanced state, well balanced, and well calculated for an
equal distribution of sap all over its surface. Whenever any of the lower
shoots have advanced so far as to incommode the others, they should be cut
back to a yearling shoot; this will give them room, and keep the lower part
of the tree in order. In nailing, care must be taken not to bruise any part
of the shoot the wNouids made by the knife heal quicklly, but a l)rtise often
proves incurable. In nailing in the young shoots, dispose them as straight
and as regular as possible. Whatever system of training is pursued, the
leading branches should be laid in in the exact position they are to remain;
for -whlerever a large branch is brought down to fill the lower part of the
wall, the free ascent of the sap is obstructed by the extension of the upper
and contraction of the lower parts of the branch. It is thus robbed of part
40*
473
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
of its former vigor, whilst it seldom fails to throw out immediately behind
the part most bent one or more vigorous shoots.
Ilorizoiital Training. -This is practised either with one or two stems,
and either withl the upright stem straight or in a zigzag direction, to stimulate the lateral buds to develop themselves. From this upright stem, the
branches proceed at right angles, - generally at nine inches apart for apples,
cherries, and plums, and from ten inches to a foot, or eighteen inches, for
pears. A maiden plant with three shoots having been procured, the two
side ones are laid in horizontally, and the centre one upright, as in Fig.
304, which shows the first stage of horizontal training. All the buds being
i;g. 304.
rubbed off the latter but three, viz., one next the top for a vertical leader,
and one on each side, as near the top as possible, for horizontal branches.
In the course of the first summer after planting, the shoots may be allowed
to grow without being stopped. In the autumn of the first year, the two
laterals produced are naile(l in, and also the shoots produced from the extremities of the lower laterals, tl-he centre shoot being headed down as before.
But in the second summer, when the main shoot has attained the length of
Fig. 305.
ten inches, or twelve inches, it may be stopped; which, if the plant is in
proper vigor, will cause it to throw out two horizontal branches, in addition
474
HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
to those which were thrown out from the wood of the preceding year. The
tree will be now in its second summer, and will have four horizontal branches
on each side of the upright sten; and, by persevering in this system, four
lhorizontal branches will be produced in each year, till the tree reaches the
top of the wall, when the upright stem must terminate in two horizontal
branches. In the following autumn the tree will have the appearance of
Fig. 305, supposing an apple-tree be the plant to be trained, anid that it
consists of a single shoot from a bud. Let it be planted early in autumn,
and next spring head it down to seven buds. Every bud pushling two or
three shoots, the third and fourth, counting upwards, must be rubbed off
when they are three inches in length; the uppt rmnost shoot must be trained
straight up the wall, for a leading stem, and the remaining four horizontally
along the wall. The leading shoot having attained about fifteen inches ill
length, cut it down to eleven inches. From the shoots that will thus be
produced, select three, one to be trained as a leader, and two as side branches.
Proceeding in this way for seven years, the tree will have reached the top
of a wall twelve feet high. With weak trees, or trees in very cold, late
situations, this practice will not be advisable, as the wood produced from
the summer shoots would be too weak, or would not ripen; but in all
ordinary situations the plan will succeed.
Pcrpcitdicit/ar Trainillg. - This is comparatively little used, excepting
for climbing shrubs, sueCI as roses, the vine, and the gooseberry and currant,
when trained against a wall or espalier rail. The principle is to have two
horizontal main stems on the lowest part of the wall or trellis, and to train
from these upright shoots at regular distances. Sometimes four horizontal
main stems are used, - two at the bottom, and the other two half way up
the wall or espalier; but this mode is chiefly pursued with the vinie.
Colparative Vicit of the Diffcricit Ilaodes oj' Trinigtl,. - Of the various
modes of training explained in the foregoing pages, any modification may
be adopted when circumstances may require, provided the general princi ples are kept in view. Ornamental shrubs are easily managed, because
they have not a tendency to rear themselves by forming a strong stem
but with regard to fruit-trees thle case is otherwise. These, it is well
known, if left to nature, form one strong stem, supporting a top which
reaches the heigllt of twenty, thirty, or forty feet, or more. In order to
attain this, the sap rushes, whilst the tree is young and vigorous, towards
the leading shoot; and if lateral branches occasionally are produced, the
flow of sap is not strongly directed towards them, compared to that whicel is
impelled towards the more upright part. At length, however, a ramifica tion does take place, in comparison with which the leading shoot becomes
less and less predominant, till it becomes ultimately lost among its conl
4-i5
FARIMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
peers. A tolerably equal distribution of sap then results, and a conical oi
spherical top is formed, bearing fruit, not generally in the concavity, where
it would be greatly excluded from light, but at the external surface, where
the fruit itself, and the leaves immediately connected with the buds producing it, can be fully exposed to light, air, and dews. Lateral branclhes are
occasionally produced on the stem, in the progress of its ascent. When the
top is formed, these are placed at great disadvantage, owing to their being
overshaded; and they are then apt to decay, the tree assuming the character of a large, elevated top, supported on a strong, naked stem. Tlhis is the
natural disposition of trees, and to this it is necessary to attend, in order that
it may be counteracted where the natural form of the tree cannot be
admitted. It should be borne in mind that the disposition to form an
elevated naked stein is still strongly evinced in dwarf trees; although subdivided, yet each branch possesses its share of the original disposition, and
its lower and horizontal shoots are left to become weakl, in comparison with
the upper, and those that are vertical.
476
CHAPTER XII.
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.
BLIGHT OR BLA.ST - CANKER OR CARIES - CONSUMPTION - CONTORTION -
DROPSY - ERGOT - HONEY-DEW - CURL - MILDEW - POTATO ROT - SMUT.
BLIGHT, OR BLAST.
Description.-Blight is any disease which seriously damages or prevents
the fructification of a crop. Some of the most familiar and devastating
kinds of it have been fully investigated, and are known to be caused by
insects, by fungi, or by well-defined chemical or meteorological agencies;
and have been described with an accuracy and minuteness which enable us
readily to distinguish them from one another, to designate tlhei by distinctive names, - such as Mildew, Smut, Rust, &c.,- and to point out their
origin, their indications, and their prevention, alleviation, or cure. There
are however, one or two kinds of blight still mentioned by writers under
the name of blight, and which are either principally or wholly ascribable to
meteorological influence; and these may here be noticed.
Dijt'rent Kinds of Blight.- One kind of blight is occasioned by prematurely mild weather, followed by sharp frosts and easterly winds, in spring,
which are liable to arrest the flow of sap from the roots, occasion the young
leaves and shoots to shrivel and die, and cause the arrested juices to swell
and burst the tender vessels, and to become the prey of innumerable aphides.
The general result is either the death of the plant, the destruction of its
growth for the season, or at least the infliction upon it of a great degree of
temporary feebleness. The aphides which feed upon the extravasated
juices, though but a consequence of the blight, are sometimes mistakingly
regarded as the cause of it, and supposed to be wafted by the cast wind.
Unskilful gardeners sometimes aggravate the blight by closely matting up
the trees, or keeping them protected during the day, thus rendering them so
exceedingly tender that even a slight subsequent frost does them material
damage. The sudden evaporation of hoar-frost from the opening leaflets of
a young hedge, by a powerful sun, in a calm vernal atmosphere, sometimes
so utterly destroys the incipient shoots, and kills all the young foliage, as to
produce, in a few days, the appearance of a severe scorching by fire. A
FACMIER S HIAND-BOOI.
hedge thus blighted occasionally remains leafless throughout the summer,
or only shows some feeble symptoms of exfoliation toward the beginning of
autumn; and it ought, in every case, to be left untouched till, by its own
vitality, or without any artificial appliance, it has recovercd strerngthl and
viror.
Another kind of blight sometimes occurs in summer, when farm crops
have attained their full growth, and is usually ascribed to sultry and p(estilential vapor, - the plants being shrunken and shriveled up to less thin
half their former size, with a withered and blasted appearance.'l'lioigh
such instances as this are ascribed -wholly to atmosplhericall ce-uses, a careful inspection of the straw might possilbly detect the presence of mintite
parasitic ftingi.
A third kind of blight, called by many the white b)light, is occasioned by
dleficiency or fuilure of proper nourishment. It occasionally attacks all
Iipids of plants, both wild and cultivated; is most common ill thin, gravelly,
irrcteuti-ve soils, in very dry seasons; and it usually consists in throwing the
plants pre-naturely into blossom, and ripening the ear or pod before the
body, or more than the mere embryo of the seed, is formed. The only
klnown palliatives or preventives of these three kinds of blight are, proper
condition and thorough treatment of the soil.
CANKER, OR CARTES.
Dcs(-rition..-This is a disease in frutit-trees, elms, larches and other trees.
It chicfly corrupts the juices, corrodes the substance, and destroys the vitality
*,f tlih youn shoots and branches of fruit-trees, and it has long been known
andl deplored -,s a most formidable enemy of orchards. Its symptoms vary
consilder~bly in trees of the same species, and very widely in trees of diffcrent nr a. Ii soime instanrces of its attack, a blackl sl)pckcl appears on the
(p)ide:~nis of a tree, assuimes the chartetcr of an erosion, and gr:itlually eats
awe the org.anii,til till thle braicih )becomes utterly eufeel)le(, aind readily
breakls; in other ii ties, a seroftLlonis-lookingi rinr surrounils tlih branch,
and cCtts its \' y iilward till it reaches the pith; and in others, a black and
threal like line of dlisease originates in tle pith itself, and exerts, in the
directiona of thi exterior, a kiilliiig power upon all the branch's flinclions.
t'Fh i; t of tlese, sehowever, is the most c(-)mrnnon commniencing syliplorm of
the (ilis'lSse, ad11( this is usually accompaniedl withI an en)largenmenit of the
ve.ss'.s of the bark, but in some ilnstances is dry, and in others watery.
FI}'e swcllin~ or enlargement of the vessels of the bark, which copstitultes
Eo c),,.sl)i(eu'Os a symptom of some of the ordlinary kiind(s of cnker, inva-ria1lly a',l i iro-ninently attends it in) the apple-tree, invariably butt less promi.
nenti y atteuds it in thle pear-tree, fre(quently but not always attends it in the
418
i
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.
elm and the oak, and very seldom, if ever, attends it in the peach. The
swelling is soon communicated to the wood, which, if laid open to viewv, on
its first appearance, by the removal of the bark, exhibits no marlks of disease beyond the mere unnatural enlargement. In the course of a few years,
less in number, in proportion to the advanced age of the tree, and the
unfavorable circumstances under which it is vegetating, - the swelling is
greatly increased in size, and the alburnum has become cxtensively dead;
the superincumbent bark cracks, rises in discolored scales, and decays
even more rapidly than the wood beneath. If the canker is upon a moderately-sized branch, the decay soon completely encircles it', exteniding
through the whole alburnum and bark. The circulation of the sap being
thus entirely prevented, all the parts above the disease of necessity perish.
The first appearance of the disease in the peach is so very slight, that an
unexperienced observer of it would suppose it to be of no conisequence.
Small brown circular spots constitute the whole of this appearance, and may
easily be cut out with the knife, so as to let the subsequent vegetation be as
vigorous as if they had never existed. But let the spots b)e forgotten for a
few days, and when the observer returns to examine them, they will be
found to have spread far and corroded deeply.
Origin. - The causes assigned for canker have been very various and
conflicting, and the subject of much controversy. Some writers think that
it is occasioned by coldness and churlishness of climate; others regard it
as a tropical disease in the parts immediately affected, brought on by some
bruise or other injury, and exasperated by an unhealthy sap, consequent upon
unfavorablehess of situation, soil and culture; others view it as an effect of
the lodgment of minorte, parasitic fingi, growing from spores, eitlher taken up
from the soil thbo,lgh the spongioles, or received from diffluioi tlhrough the
atmosphere into craels or wo,ntls in the bark; and others tlh-k that it is a
disease in the constitution or whole organic system of trees, t},at it springs
from a v-itiate(l and pca,nt state of all the juies, and that i ill:..gain and
again b)reakl out. i,tlepe.tnlftTly of any external injury or,2cnzcy so long as
the juices rcoatinue to be iunaltere(l.
Opinions as to ftin i bcitl thle cause of canker are execcci:?ly various
and conflictiung. Minullte plarasitic ftlngi unqtuesticlialily attened most
instances of eaiker, and sometitnos exist in such myriads as to impart a
peculiar tirade to the whole stem of ea.nkered trees; ltt vry ditb:ru tt fungi
attack ditlIrent trees, several kinds sometimes attack the a,wnpe d:pe is, and
possibly SOt,e are either causes or aggravations of tanulpo-, wvile inost are
merely ititiolltous effects. The strcataaloresetia. rtp/tiacrs so ccpni',rtly and
greatly tbo-unds on cankered pear-trees, particularly on t'ta ijrgot l!c, the
Windsor, tihe swan's egg, the summer bergamot and the aituniti bIergsmot
479
FAR.IER'S HAND-BOOK.
varieties, and seeming to make their young shoots, and even their older
branches, die away toward the extremity, that it has been regarded by some
close observers as the sole cause of their canker;- a kind of fungus totally
different from this accompanies, and has been thought by some persons to
rouse, precisely similar symptoms of canker in apple-trees.
The opinion that canker is occasioned by the weakness of a tree's consti tution, by a distemper in all its juices, or by a deficiency in its functional
energies, and by a consequent inability to imbibe and elaborate sufficient
nourishment for existing organs, and sufficient matter for the formation of
new parts, - this opinion makes very ample allowance for the malign influ ence of bad climate, bad soil, bad cultivation, bad variety of tree, and all sorts
of accidents and unfavorable circumstances; and, as maintained by some
writers, it even seems to speak of constitutional distemper as a convenient
general expression for the operation of all kinds of conceivable causes.
Johnson maintains that all facts unite in confirming the opinion that canker
arises from the tree's weakness. It matters not whether its energy is
broken down by an unnatural rapidity of growth, by a disproportioned excess
of branches over the mass of roots, by old age, or by the disorganization of
the roots in an ungenial soil; they render the tree incapable of extracting
sufficient nourishment from the soil,- consequently incapable of developing
a sufficient foliage, and therefore unable to digest and elaborate even the,
scanty sap that is supplied to them.
Both soil and subsoil, in spite of the assertion of a few writers to the
contrary, appear to exert a very considerable influence. A wet, retentive
subsoil does not permit sufficient aeration, cannot perform sufficient digestion, and will not allow a sufficiency of perfectly fresh elements of healthy
sap; and therefore must act malignily, not alone as a reservoir of cankering
t-apors, but as an originator of impoverishing and poisonous juices. A deep)
and very rich soil gives trees a plethoric and dropsical habit, aud, in consequence, occasions so powerful a predisposition to canker, that a cure for
this disease in an orchard has sometimes been found in the simple process
of wheeling away one stratum of the soil, and diluting the remaining
stratum. If a subsoil either be ill-drained or consist of ferruginous gravel,
or if a soil be clayey and not kept well drained and porous, all trees which
grow upon it, but especially fruit-trees, are exceedingly liable to becoiicankered. A soil exhausted by long cropping, or charged with the sporidi l
of accumulated growths of minute emphytie fungi, is peculiarly unfavoralble;
and hence an old worn-out orchard, if replanted with fruit-trees, is almost
certain to communicate cankler to even the most vigorous young plants
which can be selected. A cold situation, frequency of raw fois, and the
prevalence of piercing and moist east winds, in the spring, seem to be the
principal cankering elements in climate. Injudicious pruning, bruises,
480
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.
dIamage to the bark, and all similar accidents, if they do not originate
canker, seldom fail to aggravate it. Trees of every age are liable to
canker; but, as a general rule, all become incereasingly so as they tadv-ance
ini age. an.d particutlarly such as hasve had a vigorous growth in their youth.
All graftin7 varieties of fruit-trees, also, become more and more cankeriable
as tlhe n mililti)ly in reproduction, till they eventually acquire such ai
:iecuminilation of peccanlt humor as to be continually diseased, and no lon!,er
propa1:~ tle. The scions of an old variety of friiit-trees merely multily ami
a(,d i1(i1idnal and though they acquire temporary vigor from thle youIng
:did stimulatiiing sap of the stocks on whlcli they are grafted, they l)ecome,
iII a fewv years, as calnkerable and decrep)it as the parent tree. Tlhe golden l)ippin one of the oldest varieties of the apple-tree at present cultivated, is
irecuentlv and severely attacked by the caiiker,- more so, accordillg to
some writers. than any other kind.
RPci?(jl. - The prevention and cure of canker are necessarily various, and
iust, in any one instance, be directed against the special forms which the dis c:ise assumes, or the particular cause by which it is excited. If collness of
climate lbe the only cause which can fairly be assigned for it in any par ticular orchiard, covering with glass is the chief preventative; and this, of
course, cal be applied to only a few select wall-trees. If fingli call, iin any
instance. be ra (t'rded as a chief exciting cause, a proper remedy might
Iroi)al)ly Ihe the free use of the knife, and a subse(ltient copious waslhing
\ith ca.ustic lirne-water. If plethoric or dropsical halits seem to be firmiioz, or have lieadlvy formed, one of the main roots of the tree may be
removed. and an admixture of poor loam, sandy mould, or even of ldrift sanl,
or any other (liluting matter, may be worked into the soil. If mere weikhe.s of constitution, or defect of functional energy, appears to lbe the cause,
while no one kind of exciting influence can be detected or inferred, a very
efficient remedy is, to cut away all the infected parts, and makle a judicious
pruning among the remaining branches; and even if such excitiing circuinstances as unflivorabl)e climate, ungenial soil, or previous bad culture, can
}>e detected. an excellent effect may be produced by the gradiual sawiing and
e,Ittin(r awy-. of exuberant branches and shoots. If canker in a fruit-tree is
At consequeice of old age, it is probably a premature senility, indluced by
i!judl(licious management. Unless in the last stage of decay, a tree imay be
recovered by giving it more air and light, by carefully licading-iii, )rutnillg,
inlmrovi.r the soil, and cleansing the bark. If the soil, by its iiugenial
(laracter. induces the disease, the obvious and only remedy is its ainelior:. ion anuil if the subsoil is the cause of the mischief, the roots mniust be
lirevecnted strikiing into it. In all cases, it is the best practice to remove the
t:'.-root. 5oine persons recommend, and many successfuilly practise, the
41
481
G 2
FARt,IER'S HAND-BOOK.
removal of all decavyed or exuviate(d bark, an(l the applicatiou of vario u.,
liquid wasles. sucl as a solntioi of cinnon salt, or a liluted l(qid iil n)poond of coNwvo-doit a, sol)-su(ls, and urine. W hIen tny bruise or other ierl",
is inflicted, of a kind likely to illce or develop c(;tiker,:t )iCc( of livi
bark firom another tree mirht be (ext (tly fitted into thle ii.isin), i e, the saime
mnariner as in tie operation of lI)udding. The grand preyvetativec of ca(lkcr in
larchl-trees, -hicll are frequtently and(l severely the sutbje(ts of this dise ase,
is to selcct, for plantations, slu( lt stitations in(d soils as shlall iiot subject
the trees to combined coldness and inoistur{.
CONSUMIPTION.
This is the gradual enfeelblement and eventual wasting away and death
If a plant. This must be viewved less as any one disease than as the common or aggregate character of a number of diseases. It oriiniiates varioosly,
in too frequent and profuse flowering, in bad plantig, in imechanical dam
age to the roots, in poverty of soil, in excessive droulght, in severe and sudden vicissitudes of weather, in unusually tempestuous winds, and probably
in some other causes equally distinct; anld it may be supposed to have a
variety in its modes of actioni, or in its distinctive characters, corresponding
to the variety of these causes. The preventative of most kinds of it is manifestly good culture.
CONTORTION.
This is the effrct of the injury inflicted on the leaves of plants by the
puncture of insects, particularly of thef aiphils. TIe leaves of the peach,
the apricot, the nectarine, anil the apple-re,,;re very liable to contortion
The only sure preventative of the evil is t(o di-str.y tl,c litile crc.vtures whicli
cause it.
D)ROPSY.
Dropsy is a watery and diseased swelling ii so rne p.arts of I)lants. It
occurs chiefly in plants of a stuceolent nature, aiid l)rinei:ally in bulbs,
tubers, and fruits. It appears to arise from the ablsorpti (I0 of more moisture
by the spongioles than can be secreted in the plant or thlrown off by the
leaves; and it is known to be caused by excessive inanliriiig, excessive
rtificial watering, and an unusual at)bundance of riin. B3ulbs and roots
affected with it are watery and swelled; fruits are watery ard insipid, and
fall before being ripe; and leaves, thouigh continuing green and a)arectly
sound, suddenly and prematurely fall.
ERGOT.
This is a disease in the growing graii or seed of some of the grasses,
particularly ef rye. It is tCie.ost mystcrious of all the diseases with which
4S2
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.
the cereal grasses are affected; and, after multitudinous and most learned
investigations, continues to be the subject of conflicting opinions as to its
nature, its origin, and its mode of development. IThle substance called the
ergot either issues from between the glumes. and occupies the place of the
grain, or it is the grain itself, in both a monstrous form and a chemically
.*ltered condition. It lengthens to more than double the natural size of the
grain; protrudes beyond the chaff; is angled, groove(l, and furrowed; hlas a
(leecp, purplish-brown color, and often assumes a curved firm, somewhat
resemnbling that of a cock's spur. Its surfatce, who-l see tllnon-h a microscope, is profusely marked with white, shining, transpa,ent, aingitlar dots;
and its interior, when laid open with a sharp instrument, ad seen in water
under a microscope, appears to consist of vwhite floccul ut threads, with
spherical sporules. It has a spongy texture, a heavy, dis,creeal)le odor,
and a nauseous, acrid, burning taste; and when put in contact with the
flame of a candle, it catches fire like an oily substance, and burns like an
almond. It is supposed by some naturalists to 1)e an excrescnei similar to
the oak-apple and the nut-gall, and to be occasioned by the punc(ture of some
insect; by others, to be a monstrous development or morl)id swelling of
the seed, occasioned by some disturbance in the organs of circulation or
secretion; and by others, to be a foreign or super-imposed vegetable growth,
occasioned by a parasitic fungus. The last of these opinions is probably
the best supported.
Whatever be its origin and its physical nature. ergot exerts a dreadfully
noxious power upon the system of any men or brutes who receive even very
small portions of it in their food. It has been ascertained, by experiment
upon many of the lower animals, to produce the most horrible gangrenes,
rotting of the extremities, internal tortures, and agonizing death; it h,s
been known to slough and kill not a few human beings who have eaten
g(rain or flour infected with it.
HONEY-DEW.
Honey-dew. so called, is a clear, colorless, viscid. sweet liquid, foulnd
often on the leaves of plants, and sometimes oni the g.rotiiiil )eoeath them.
It tastes somewhat like honey; it is perfectly tlid inl i irm wetiler, but is
somewhat consolidated or candied in cold woiCtlier; nend, xll eval)orated
from paper, it leaves a gummy mark, not unlikle t.t lIft i)y solution of
gum-Arabic. It appears sometimes in blotches upon leav(es; sometimes iii
suffusionI over the whole surface of the lower leaves; sonmetiues inl glololair
drops, of various sizes; but, in all ordinary instances, it apII)ears merely
upon leaves, and only in such quantity as to seem like exudations on theit
surface. All ants and wasps and bees are extremely fond of it.
4S3
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
The opinions of different writers are very conflicting as to the origin, and
so forth, of honeydew. The most intelligent supposition respectiing it is,
that it is entirely the deposit of minute insects,- small flies, perhaps a
species of the genus thrips, - which emit a sweet clammy liquor on the leaves
of the tree it lives on. This opinion is fortified by the fict of there hlaving
frequeutly been noticed a great concourse of thripses, as well as aphlides, o!i
trees infested with honey-dew. The aphides, however, arc by many persons
considered the chief or sole producers of it, and it accompauies their flights
and colonizations. They differ very widely, in some principal parts of their
economy, from all other animals; and cannot be regarded with greater
wonder as ejectors of a viscid saccharine liquid, than as propagators of their
species through a series of progenies as the efi ct of a single impregnation.
They live wholly on liquid food, and discharge no solid exerements, and
are provided not only with an anal vent, but with twvo long, horn-like rump
tubes, for ejecting such refuse or portion of their food as is unnecessary for
their nourishment. If they were regarded as forming the saccharine matter
of the honey-dew in their interior organism, they would no doubt be a nota
ble exception to the otherwise uniform origin of all saccharine substances;
but, when their peculiar economy of feeding and structure is considered,
they may easily be supposed to act as simple living ducts of the saccharine
matter from the vegetable vesicles in which they find it to the surface of the
leaves on which they deposit it; or, in other words, they receive the saccharine matter ready made in their liquid food, and simp)ly part with undecomposed portions of it in their ejections. The particular species which
deposit most honey-dew are Aphis brassicr, ApIhis raope, Aphis utbui, lriosom7a populi, and Eriosama mai.
Honey-dew possesses an incidental value as an occasional and sometimes
a principal food for bees. But, on the whole, honey-dew is a serious evil,
partly by disfiguring the foliage of fruit-trees, and stickily attracting dust to
plums and cherries, but chiefly by arising, through the medium of the
aphides, from an enormous abstraction of the healthy juices out of plants.
The only effectual preventive or cure of it, of course, is to ward off or destroy
the aphides; and some of the chief means of dealing with the species are
noticed in our chapter on INSECTS. But a weak solution of common salt,
applied to the soil around infected trees, has been found to lbe effectual.
CURL.
This is a disease in potato plants. It is developed before the plants rise
to the surfice of the groun(ld, and it affects them through all the future stages
of their existence. The stem of the infected plants is puny and stinted; the
484
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.
leaves are meagre, sickly and crumpled; and the tubers are small, and, if
used for sets, are certain to propagate the disease. Of the various causes of
this disease assigned by different writers, the true one appears to be the
diminution of the vital energy of the tubers, either by over-ripeiling, by bad
keeping, by sprouting, or by too deep planting. The want of strength to
develop a full, healthy plant, is the disease itself in embryo; and this is
occasioned by any circumstance which diminishes the store of nourishment
contained in the tubers for the support of the young plants.
The means of preventing curl are distinctly suggested by the nature of its
cause; and some of these means will, at the same time, prevent other diseases of the potato, and promote the general health and vigor of the plants.
Tubers intended for sets ought to lie simply matured and not over-ripene(ld;
they ought to be kept, throughout the winter and till the time when they are
wanted, in a condition of dryness, coolness, and exclusion from light and air;
and if, through mismanagement or accident, they be allowed to shoot, or
even to exhibit decided symptoms of begun vegetation, they ought to be
rejected from the uses of planting. The sets ought to be immediately
planted after they are cut, and ought to be kept from exposure, during even
the briefest time, to the play of sunshine, to a very high temperature, or to
the current of a drying wind. The manure ought to be regularly spread
and mixed with the soil, and not laid along a trench, or put in immediate
contact with the sets. Potatoes ought not to be planted, for a succession of
years, on the same field or plot; and the tubers used for planting ought,
every year, or as frequently as possible, to be obtained from another kind of
soil, particularly from a poorer one than that in which they are to )be
planted. When the seed-stock is carefully pitted, and not exposed to the
air, in the spring, the crop has seldom any curl; but where the seed-stock is
put into barns, and other similar places, for months togethler, such crop
seldom escapes turning out in some measure curled; and if but few curl the
first year, if they are planted again, it is more than probable the half of them
will curl the next season.
MIILDEW.
Thle Uce of the TWord or Term. - This is the appropriate name of a
specific, devastating, and dismally common disease in wheat and other
grasses, and is now the only thing meant by the word mil(lew, in the writiiigs of the most intelligent and scientific agricultural writers.
Its attre. - WNVith respect to its nature, all botanists now believe that
mildew, in its normal form, as a spotting and blotching on the stallks of
wheat, is the regular parasitic growth of minute fungi,- Peccinia t rac,inis; and several of the most eminent writers think that the diseases calledl
41*
4S5
FARMIE R'S HAND-BOOK.
rust, red-bag, red-robin, and red-gum, which infest the leaves and chaffscales of wheat, and produce a discoloration similar to that of iron-rust or
of bturning, are simply modifications of varieties of the normal mildew, or
Pto?ci/la i grei lzis.
G,'ot,:th eud( P/cnzo0nc,ca of MUildcv. - Though one of the minutest objects
ii the vegetable world, mildew is so prodigiously prolific and immensely
,tlltitulldinlous as to be one of the mightiest physical scourges, as well as one
of the oldest; and yet, eveln at this adva.iced period, it hardly begins to be
properly understood. The name Puccinia is formed from a Greek word,
which signifies " closely," or" thickly," and alludes to the crowded manner in which the minute fungi are packed in the tufts and patches in which
they grow. A stalk of -wheat, when beg,innii-gi to be mildewed, exhibits a
number of dark-colored spots beneath the epidermis, some of an orange hue
andl others of a dark-b)rown tinge; and, in a short time, it suffers ruptures
,and openings of the outer cuticle, and displays, in protrusion through these,
dark, musty clusters of spores, amassed in dense, diffuse tufts, and often coiifluent into one another, so as to constitute long parallel lines, and commonly
possessing at first a brownsish-yelfowv color, and changing afterwards to black.
Any intellizgent person, w-ith the aid of a proper mticroscope, and of a good
brilliant light, lmay easily show to the farmer the forms and appearances of
mildew. First strip otff a little bit of the affected straw, and let it be viewed
-i an opaque object. The thick clustering of the spores might be easily
pointed out, as well as the way in vwhichl they rupture the cuticle, -a haltinch achromatic olbject-glass, with a low eye-piece, will sutffiee for this;
with a hilgher power, and bits of cuticle and straw cut so thin that the light
may easily be shown through theni from the Irirror, the stomata would be
seen, and the vegetation of the spores on the mycetium in the cavities
beneath them. Lastly, a small piece of one of the darkl patches might be
taken off with the point of a pin, or of a small pelnknllite, and laid on a strlip
of glass. MAoisteni this with a little drop of water, and cover it x itli a small
fragment of the very thin glass sold by opticians for stlch purposes. PlaIe
t on the stage of the microscope, show the light through it, and looik at it
with a quarter of an inchli achromatic. The structure of the spores, the.
division of the chambers, the stalks, and every part of themn, will beconme
distinctly seen.
The P,ecci7ia iagrminis affects, not wheat only, but other cereal grasses,
and even several species of reeds; and it is commoniii to almost all couintries
in the world. A growth of it, when seen unmagnified upon the leaves of
other plants, presents nearly the same appearance as on wheat, and may
instantly be detected by an observer of it upon the latter. It may often be
detected in the lower part of the stalk of wheat, - generally on the shoot-blade,
4S6
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLA.NTS.
ia3 early as the second week of June; but it never makes any very serious
ppearance, nor even affords decided indication of being about to make any
(nsid(erable devastation, till some time in July. If the wAeathler in July be
not and dry, even though the fungus may have recently devastated the dis
trit. it will seldom make an extensive or very hurtful development; but if
the w-eathler in July be close, moist, and cloudy, even tllhough,lll the fiingus
inay have been recently scarce in the district, it will possibly maLke a great
aud somewhat sudden, and very menacing appearance. The farmer, in the
latter case, ought diligently to examainef his whealt crop, especially such az
seems to be strongest and most luxuriantit and if hlie detects any considerable
number of tufts of the fungus upon the stalkls, hle ought promptly to bring
ilto play such methods of treitmentiet as lhave been foutd mrost effectual for
subduing mildew.
\hlien the sporules of pucciia have entered the stomata of wheat, alnd(
effected a lodgment beneath the epidermtis, and begun to vegetate within the
stalk, they both prey upon the tissues tiid intercept a portioni of the sap
which ascends from the spongioles of the roots for the forming and nourish ig of the grain. But the exterior portion or sheath of the grailn is
generally formed before any considerable mildewitig o(cuIrs; and the period
of thle formationi and growth of tihe inner portion, or farinaceous substance, or
flour, is precisely the period of the most general and vigorous development
of the sporules into spores and fuill-grown fiungi; so that, usually in the
proportion of the number of the ftlini which infest a stalk, the grain become
shriveled while growing, and contains comp)rnaratively much bran and little
flour when reaped and threshed. The sanmple of a seriously nmildewed crolp
of wheat, hrn every instance. looks pour to tihe eye, is deficient in flour, and
contains a superabundance of bran.
The Urcdo lizcacis and lUrcdo ruoi,o, tlhough believed to be mere varieties
of Paccinia gria/tis, and thouL}l soinmetintes assumi!i,g appearances closely
akin to thlose which are popu,.larly called mildewN, generally have different
habits, and follow somewilhat dititreint laws, and take from the popular
vocabulariv of farmers the names of rust, red-rLust, red-robin, red-rag, and redgum. The U. li.a:s takes its its,ne -frim tile oblong form of its spores
at(d the U. r?,iigo takes its name friom its reddish-rusty color, and ihas nearly
spherical spores. Both vary in color f'om,i an orange tint to a brownish
hue, and make the parts of plants itifested wvithi thenl to appear as if dusted
with an orange or a brownish llirustiness. They occurt on the old or young
leaves of the plants, on the chaff-scales, and( on the stalks; and they infest
the plants at all stages of their growth, and may be regaqrdedI as occurring
principally on the yonng blades in spring, principally ot thle stalks wlh:t.
developed i5a!out the same time as the P2ucci?ziao gramiiais, or in mixture with
4Si
FARIER'S HAND-BOOK.
it, and principally on the old leaves and on tle glurnes and palea, in autuimn.
'Their presence iii the chaff-scales is indicated by rows and clusters of some what ovular milnute spots; and the matter eomit)ositig themn exudles from the
inner surface like a reddish gummy sublstance. A very destructive fungLus
attacks the common cabbage, and appeus l)upon it:s a limildcew. It appears
upon cabbage-leaves, in clusters re,sembling( sniall white ltelh(s, or speeks,
or frosty incrustations. All the spt)ores are fille(l with sporuil(s, adl burst
when they are ripe, seattering tlhem in every diirectio; auid whenever these
find their way to the leaves of cabhlg).es, they take root upon) them, and propagate.
Provocativcs, Preccntites, ao,l ())'rCC/ic'S. -The extermination of Pucania gramimis, L;'elo lioc(oris, and l,citlo ro,(ig'o, fromi any district or colntry, seems to be impossible. J13tt the mildew calln manil)ifestlybe very greatly
controlled, and, in an aggregite of years upon Iany farm. may be exceedingly diminished. The conditions of soil, of crop, of culture, and even of
climate, lwhich predispose to it, by either rendering it prolific, or giving
high vivacity to its sp)orules, or pro(tluci an a ap)titude in the stoimata of
plants to imbibl)e them, or displ)osiig tile tissues aid juices of the plant to
foster and develop them, may be very powerfully miodified by the skill aled
the arts of enlightened hutsbandry. A. generally lhelthly state of the plant,
without any o-ei-lutxurianee of vegetation, is most likely to secure a crop
against the altticlks of the rust and mildew fungi; but whatever tends to
render the plant sickly, whethler it be excess of heat or cold, drouIrrht or
wet, sudden chliLnCes of temperature, poverty of soil, over-manuring, shlade,
&c., &c.,- nmust be considered as a predisp)osing cause to these diseases.
Wlherever the farimiii( is of the best kind, and whvlere drailnage is good, the
mildew fuLiros will not be found in any alaritingi degCree.
The mildewv fungi multiply and flourish most in a moist atmosphere, in a
subdue(d lilght, and in a gentle warmth; and are therefore most abundant and
destructive in climates and situations whichl are subject to what farmers expressively call " muggy weather." This may appear, at first sight, to be a
cause of mildew entirely beyond the control of farmers. Yet something may
be done to escape it, by practising such methods of culture, and adopting such
times of sowing, and using such varieties of seed-stock, is are best fitted to
frinr the crop into a state of the utmiost possili)le maturity anid vigor ait th,
particular season when the moistles;s or mugginess is, onI the averaie of yea;rs;,
most prevalent. Foggy weather, iIl some cirumstaniees,,seeIIs to )be even a
stronger provocative to mildew than ordinary moist weather; and, when
preceded by a time of great droughlt, occasions an unusually great mildewing of wheat crops.
All soils are very seriously subject to mildew, yet some yield more readily
4199
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.
and abundantly to it than others. Tenacious clays seem to offer it the
greatest resistance, Ind light moorish or light limy soils seem to offer it
but slihlitlv. The soils most liable to have their crops injured, particularly
that of wh-let, are the following, and in the order stated: - 1I)eit or moor,
limy, liuiy loiams, saud, sandy loams, and another kind not ftlilid in any
great b)red(lti. but in patches, chiefly, but not exclusively, in cliyey soils,
the practical Ilriner calls it gray earth. hliateve(r has a tc(l(deii-y to checkl
a quick and (reat loss of heat in the substances w-hich siirrouidiiil vegetables,
particularly their roots, will be best calculated to save themi filom the iljury
iniicted l)y sudden vicissitudes of temperature; coIInse(itueiitl, tlios( eairtlis
w-hich are the worst conductors of hieat, or, in other words, arec the longest
in heatingcr or cooling, will be the most fivorable iii resistin,r iany sudden
alteration, and the vegetable growing on them will be thi( least injured
when so assailed. The improvement of light soils by aLl)uudaiit intermnixtures of clay, therefore,- in addition to the great advantages of better texture and richer supply of inorganic food, - involves the benlcfit of appreciably
and permlanently diminishing liability to miildewv.
All varieties of wN-heat are seriously liable to mildew, lint some are rather
more liablle than others. The white is generally the cearliest alffected, and
the bearded or rivet is generally the latest. Any variety of wheat which
has a comparatively soft epidermis is probably more sul)ject to mildew than
one w'ith a comparatively hard epidermis.
The time of sowing, regarded correlatively to the time of its maturing and
to the principal time of mildewing,ll is important. Early-sown wheat-plants
are more likely than late-sown ones to pass the time of liloominlg before
heinr extensively attacked; and when they can begin to form their seeds
)before thle mil(dev sets in, they suffer far less damagi e from it, or are fitr less
eml)arrassed and impoverished during the process of see(liiig, tlhan if they
vcie aittackled in an earlier stage of their growth. Late-sown plaits, too,
t.re 4rC(,e and sappy at the very season when the chlills and foigs and courses
of mioist w-eatlier, which specially induce mildew, are most abl)undalnt; and
they are therefore, liable to be both vigorously andl very extensively
,ttiacked. Yet, in some cases, early-sown crops, almost or quite as much
is late-sown ones, are preyed upon by mildew.
Rank or excessive manuring, or any combination of cirillms,tliiees which
occasions excessive luxuriance in a corn crop, both invites mildew, and
(greatly invigorates and spreads it. The application of firimi-yird iiiaiiure
immediately before sowing may both make such an evolution of gases as to
attract the sporules floating in the atmosphere, and promote such a temporary plethoric growth in the crop as is eminently suited to the lodgment of
the sporules and the development of the fungi.: Excessive early luxuriance,
4s9
FARIER l'S HAND-BOOK.
whether from immediate manuring, from over-richness of the soil, or from
unusual forwardness and warmthl in the weather, ought to be checked by
feeding down with sheep during a few hours in the day-time, or by any other
method which experience and local peculiarities may suggest.
A clean or a foul state of the ground, during the early stages of the
growth of a crop, has, in all cases, a great influence upon eventual millewing
weeds serve as nests of the miildew fungi, and nurse, and fee(l, and multiply
them, preparatory to extensive and severe attacks upon the corn; and, in all
the early stages of tile growth of drilled wheat, they oughht to b)e completely
kept down, and all the surfitace stratum of the soil, at the same time, kept in
a perfectly sweet and well aerated condition, by the free use of the hoe.
Mildew will seldom prevail to any extent where this precaution is taken;
hut wherever there are niany weeds on the land, the straw will be generally
found more or less affected by it.
Many methods have been recommended to prevent or destroy mildew;
tbut almost all of them are impracticable or worthless. A solution of commnon salt, however, whlen applied, not to the soil, but to the crop itself, in
the manner of either a vapor or a sprinkle bathi, seems to kill the mildew
fulngus, and to operate, if not as a preventive against an attack of mildew,
at least as a cure of actual mildew disease. The wheat on the seaside is
little damaged )by the mildew; yet, within a very few miles inland, the crops
are as much affected as those still further from the sea. The safest quantity
of salt per gallon is eight ounces, and then the application may be rendered
more effectual by frequent repetition, without any danger of injury to the
plants. If the application is not made during a clouded day, it is best to
defer it till the evening.
As to the idea that the barberry has a considerable influence in the commutnication of the mildew to whleat, the conclusion arrived at by those who
have investigated the matter, and whose judgment is entitled to respect, is,
thlat no such iniifluence is exerted or produced by that plant.
POTATO ROT.
Descriplto. - Tihe murrain, or rot, or mildew, orwhatever else the modern
potato disease may be calld(1, exhtil)its a great diversity of phenomena, and
probably comprises many and wide stt)-varieties of character. Its greatfeatures are coiiimenicement iafter the fobrmation, or even towards the ripening, of
the tubers, and total, irretrievable, putrefactive-lookling decay of the whole
plant. It is said by somte persons to begin in the leaf, - Iby others, in the
stem, - and by others, in the tubers; it somnetimes slowly works the plant
to decay through a period of five or six weeks, an(l sometimes scathingly
and scorchingly overwhelmns it in the course of twenty-four hours, or in a
490
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.
single night; and, in not a few instances in which it seemed to have kept
aloof from plants till they were harvested, it has burst out among the tlubers
:nd rotted them in the pit. No descriptions of it, for the present race of
cultivators, are needed; and the very best descriptions of it whllich have
ieen penned are tinged with theory, and controlled by its own diversities,
and are therefore very conflicting yet two brief notices of it, by two- of th(
mnost distinguished observers, may Ie here recorded. That emimen-t ]ulropean agriculturist, Mr. GCeorge Phillips, gives it as his opinionl that the
stem is the part where it commences. He also says: -The first external
appearance of disease was marked by a deepeniing of color, ac(omipaiiied by
an enlargement of the affected part, and succee(led by a weepinl or exudation. As the disease advanced, the part of the stem affected(l became soft
and pulpy, and the color changed to a yellowish-brown. Thie stein was
generally, if not universally, first affected at a joint, or the part from whence
a lateral branch springs, and the leaves above the diseased part bliekened,
drooped, and died. Seven plants (says Mr. Phillips) were forwarded to
me by a gentleman of great practical knowledge, and better specimens for
the purpose could not be desired. The stems were all connected with the
parent sets, so that the foliage, stems, young tublers, roots, and sets, were
complete. The upper part of the stems and leaves of the diseased plants
had the dull and heavy appearance so characteristic of the disease; and
nearly the whole of the stems were more or less affected at one or the other
joints whence the lateral branches sprang from. In some of the plants the
stem was most affected at a particular joint; in others, the smallest branches
and leaves were the most injured. No trace of fiuncgi or insects was discoverable in some of the affected stems beyond the immediate localities of the
diseased joints. The disease in these cases had not extended itself, and was
confined to a space not exceeding one inch of the leiingth of the foot-stalk.
In other cases, the disease had spread both ways for a considerable distance
from the wound, confining itself chiefly to the medulla. FuLngi of the boleti
and stellate kind were observable in all the diseased stems; and at the parts
where putrescence existed, the eel-like animalcula abounded. According
to another learned observer, the disease usually commences in a semi-transparent blotch on the underground parts, which is formed by brown, shiny,
extravasated fluid between the epidermis and inner bark, sometimes only on
one side of the stem or roots; and, if the soil becomes dry and the weather
fair, it penetrates through the bark rather slowly, but progresses rapidly inI
a damp soil, with a close, humid atmosphere. Several of these blotches, in
their transparent state, were marked, as soon as found, with bits of thread,
and it was seen that, sooner or later, according to the circumstances above
mentioned, they assumed a scurvy, opaque appearance outside; but, by cut
491
FARIMERP'S HAND-BOOK.
ting througlh this, the shiny fluid might generally be seen within. The
blotches in the tubelrs chlange ill a similar maiiiier, and ttie progress of the
gai grelie in them is accelerated or retarded by the like circtlniiistiieces.
Similar blotches appear about the same time, or sool after, oi the roots and
cords. Sometimes, how-ever, the leaves are bllotelied first of all. Ma'ny
v-erv lar e plants have been found withl nearly evervy leaf aln the staLlt-s
likewise blotched, the leaves being covered withl biotr\tis, xvil, the roots
and lower parts of the stems remained quite clear but (saiys the same
writer), I have never seen, until the tlith of Octolber, diseased( roots or
cainkered stems supporting healthy foliage. Iteiiee it np))eaus tlhat the disease does not uniformly originate in the uiidergrotund parts, but tihat the
plant is stricken throughout its system by an iung'eiLl, or, rather, by a pernicious state of the atmosphere, - the effects of wllich, as ailnoiigst Iiiiiiials,
breakl out sometimes in one part and sometimes in another. As to the
diseased tubers, at whatever time they were first affected, whletlher in the
field or in the pit, many of them soon became rotten to the core; others
rotted in patches, and acquired an appearance similar to that of an apple
bruised by a fall; and a few, after beiing dried and carefutlly stored, ceased
to be further injured. The diseased parts, in an advalnced stage, commonly
formed irregular ulcers, and emitted an offensive odor; the parts around the
eves, in many instances, became mouldy; and the part next the stem, in
general, was the soonest and most severely afileted. The tainted tubers
were largely employed for the feeding of cattle and hogs, anid are not
reported to have done any injury to their health; and, wvhen boiled, their
tainted portion, in its earliest stage, was sweet-tasted, and had a disagreeable smell.
A report, in the IJighlaniid Society's Transactions, of special communications from intelligenit farmers in most of the affected districts of Scotland, in
1S45, affords the following observations:-The disease appeared chiefly in
the latter part of:ugust, and in September and October, yet broke out in
some places in July, and did not break out in others till the tubers were
lifted and stored; the weather was prevailingly cold and ungenial, but no
precise state of it could be identified with the breaking out of the disease
early varieties, which were matured soon in the season, either escaped the
disease, or were much less affected by it than the later varieties; all varieties whatever, except the earliest ones, were more or less attacked, but in
differelt degrees, and the varieties which escaped best were the Second
Early, the Irish Cup, the American Early, and the Common Cup; potatoes
raised recently from seeds, in the great majority of eases, were as subject to
the disease as those which had long been propagated from the tubers, and,
in malny cases, were even more subject to it, thotlgh this fact militates noth
492
TUE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.
ilg against the desirableness or necessity of raising new varieties from seed,
bult only shows that they must be raised with skill and caution, and under all
the conditions which are essential to real reinvigoration; the extent and pro'ress of the disease were but little influenced by either the previous culture,
tlhe inature of the soil, or the kind of manure; the disease did not appear, at
:ll events, to propagate itself by contagion, or to extend from diseased to)
sound tubers after they were taken from the ground; the most effective
stoIre-heaps were found to be smajl or mod(lerately-sized ones, not too heavily
load(led withl earth; and mixtures of limne, or of other sbIll)stances, withl the
l)otatoes in the heaps, were not found to be more beneficial than the old prac tice of storing the potatoes alone, dry, ald in good condition.
(Causes. - Miany predisposing causes of the disease, both old( and nevw, near
Ind remote, have been assigned by theorists. Among the old ones are allthe
most remarkable which were ever at any time assigned for tlillt and curl,
)particularly degeneracy, over ripeness, bad storing, bad conditions of plant ilIg, high manuring, atmospheric influence, and epidelllic liniaslilata; and
somrne of these have also been regarded as special causes, or as inimmediately
producing the virus, and defining the character of the disease. The chief
of the newly-alleged predisposing causes were the wetnless of the summer
of 181-, the severe frost of Mtarch 1845, the great hieat of the fore part of
the summer of 1845, the uncommon luxuriance of the crop, the luse of some
special manures, and a fancied novelty in the condition of the earth, or sulbterrane heat of the soil and sub-strata. But while some of the alleged predisposing causes were real enough, perhaps, and ought to suggest to all
cultivators the necessity of care and wisdom in all time to come, others are
either doubtful, vague, or wildly fantastical, and no two or more of them
can at all account for the origination of the disease, or point to ally specific
or very promising remedy. The special causes assigned by variots thlieorists, including many of the most distinguished agriculturists, and pllhytologists, and organic chemists, in the world, are as numerous, as conflicting,
and, iwe might add, as aggregately uninstructive, as the alleged predisposing
causes. WVe will, however, give a brief statement of those whichll are most
remarkable for either their plausibleness, their learning, or the degree of
public attention whichl they have excited.
The abnormal chemical condition of the potato-plant, or the too early
arrival of it to chemical maturity, is modestly and suggestingly stated by
Mfr. Fromberg as the most probable special cause. According to his
views, every species of plant appears to require a certain definite proportion
of substances in its organism, to make it operate regularly for its healthy
growthl. Too great a deviation, exceeding a certain maximum or minimum,
will have an injurious influence ipoli the growth, by either accelerating or
42
493
FFARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
retardin it in too'reat a degree. As soon as, in a plant, both the parts
that live in the air and those placed in the soil have obtained their proper
quantity of constituents, the growth is completed. After that, it will take
up nothing, or little more; aInd being continually placed in the midst of substances that are always in a state of decomposition, - which was before a
requisitioni for the growth of the plant, - this state will, after the growth
is cormpleted, communicate itself to the plant and its constituents. This
will be the case, even although the plapt be perfectly sound (and we do
well, therefore, to remove a product from the plant vwhen ripe and fullgrown) but much miore rapidly when it is in a state of ill health. Both
the want of activity of the cells and their contents when the growth is too
languid, and their too great activity when the growthl is too quickl and
strong, will predispose the plant to this chemical cl-hange. The altered
enercrgy of the action of the matter of which it is composed will continue
after the Rrowthlll has ceased, but now it will proceed in another direction
all the p)eculiar properties and combinations of matter which present themselves duri-ng lifetime, and on whose existence the vital actions depend,
l)eiing now obtained and produced, another series of properties exhibit them:elves, and a number of other combinations is formed. If the growth has
b)een too languid, these combinations, necessary for the performance of the
vital finctions, will not be produced in sufficient quantity, and the altered
ctiv it of matter will commence before the growth is completed. In case
1,t o %oth w ere too rapid and strong, the same increased activity of matter
will C(,mbiue after the plant has reached its maximum of growthl, but will
io, of ntiecessity, take another course; the plant absorbing nothing more,
:iid, coue(t,quently, vital action resting, decomposition sets in, and the degree
of its aetion is entirely dependent upon the activity of matter, which again
is det(i uued by the quantity of substances fit for undergoing decomposition
in a certain space, and upon the cooperation of temperature, air, and humiditv. It iilight be of some importance to view, in connection with this, the
early api)earaiiece of the disease in 1846, although it seems uncertain wltether
the tile of ripening or full growth had also arrived sooner. It is a fact
that (dieassed potatoes sprout with remarkable rapidity, whilst the experinents of sonie chemists show that perfectly sound potatoes remain in the
soil witlout any signs of sprouting being perceptible. This fact does not
contradict the above-mentioned idea, and will actually tend to corroborate it,
if it may be proved, by experience, that diseased tubers, although producing
plants that remain healthy for a time, will, however, malke them inherit, as
it were, their own unnatural rapidity and luxuriance of growth, and the
consequences attending these.
Ti e oxidation of the debilitated tissues, the change of azotized matter in
494
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLAN\TS.
I
the stems, and the liability of the incrusting matter to undergo decomposition, have been suggested by Dr. Playfair, the well known I)utchl chemist,
MIulder, and by others, as the most probable special cianscs. B3ut the notion
of oxidation by the agency of the air acting more freely upoI the organic
natter of the weakened cell-walls, does not certainly show a very great
amouit of plihysiological knowledge, which requires that the progress of the
lllenomena should be followed step by step, and which does not permit that
the mentioning of final results, even if they were correct, shouldI serve as
an explanation. The theory of changes of azotized matter either has reference to absolute decomposition or putrefaction,-and then it is closely allied
to the oxidation theory, and partakes fully of its o)jectioniailehess, or it
refers to the transmutation of one nitroogenous proximate principle into another, and, in that case, it is contradicted by the doctrine(s of the protein
compounds. And as to the liability of the incrusting matter to undergo
decomposition, this, if at all probable, does not afford muchl explanation, and
could scarcely serve to suggest means for recovery; for the nature of the
incrusting matter, and its relation to inorganic bases, are at present far too
little known to found a theory on their pretended action.
Putrescenee, resulting remotely from atmospheric action, and proximately
from internal chemical derangement, is supposed by MIr. Phillips to have
been the cause. This theory somewhat combines the precedling ones with
the theory of a series of predisposing causes, and addresses itself very plausibly to the understanding; but it is by no means definite enough,li and can
scarcely, if at all, apply to the cases of sudden and overwhelming outbreak of
the disease, and does not perceptibly lead to any very obvious practica]
conclusion. Mr. P. states, in illutstration of his theory, that the season was
unusually cold, nd ws marked by a continual absence of sunshine, -that
the disease was nmore fatal on heavy wet lands than on li,ght dry lands, and(
'ernerally more so on w-et soils than on dry soils,- that exhallation and
evaporation were at a low point during the months of July and Allugust, -
that the plants eenerllvy throve till after the cold and wet weather set in, and
did not indicate prevailing unhlealthiness till after it had continued ablout two
months,- and that, at the time when the most unfavorable weathler- aplpeared,
the late plants were in fuill work, and were forming their tubers: and he
adds, that a plant cannot elaborate its products without the direct action of
the sunII's rays; and when the vital principle ceases its action, eveli temporarily, a chemical one commences by an oxidation of the carbon and a liberation of carbonic acid, and if this action continue, ammonia is formn(ed. What
is the effect of this? If ammonia be formed in a plant like the potato, which
in its normal state is acid, we have not only a subversion of.he ciilition of
the juices, but we have also an agent equal to effect all that we have seen in
495
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
the disease. But the cliange is a work of time in the plant, and necessarily
involv-es many phlases.
A species of botrytis, hici I.i had not beelnl lIetfore olbserved, and( which has
)been v-arioutsly called B. i /e, B. /'alac and B. dccB slotrir, was supposedl,
)y Professor 5[orren, of L,iege, anld by ianiiy others, to he the special cause.
Some supposed the fiunius to develop itself' fromn the illterior or cellular
tissue, and to extend its ramifica-tiors throlgh the pores or stomata in such
;t way as to close them completely up, andl to nimale the l )lanlt d(lie fi-om want
of perspiration a,nd absorption; others supp)osed it to makle a lodgnuict by its
sporules from w-itlhout, to feed iupon the plant in the nianner of' aii external
parasite and to ro) it to exhaustion of its nourishing sapi; and others, without
troublingn themselves to exl)lain either its habits, its nature, or the chemistry
of its action, supposed it to do its deadly workl simply as a poisoner of the
)plant's juices. AN,hen first observed, the fuingus vwas sa.id to thlrive only on
the living leaves of the potatto-p)lant, sparing even the stems but afterwvards
it was seen to attack )both the stems and the tubers; anii(l soon, and far and
wide, it could not ble traced at all in some diseased plants, and was not
traceable in others till after the disease was olbviously established. The
theory of the fingus was by far the most popular onle in 18 15, and made the
learned part of the agricultural world ring with talk abolitt B(o)irlis i?i/'lstans,
hut it was speedily discovered to be fillacious, and is now universally aban(loned. Yet, though the botrytis was not the cause of the disease, it was
generally a very close attendant on it; and, under peculiar conditions of the
atmosphere, it undoubtedly acts as a very powerful ag(ent in accelerating the
lecay and havoc which the disease begins.
A number of insects - particularly Euptcrir solani, E pctcriar icta, Tlrips
10irnl.tissiO, Ccra)hron carpenteri, a molobrus, an attica, a siiynlthurus, antl
several a])idi(cs- were supposed, by various close observers, to be either
i:riminators of some forms or accompaniments of the disease, or powerful
accelerators of its general progress. Swarms of some of themn seem undoutbtedly to have infested the potato crop, - probally to a degree fir
greater than ever before occurred; and, though not at all lilkely, in even on;'
instance, to have originated the disease, thev must have seriously agtravatesl
it, and perhaps sometimes complicated it, by punctutring the plant's organis.
albstracting its juices, and laying it widely opeh to chemical disarrang(minm,.,
tfungal lodgment, and atmospheric action. A paLrticular theory, however.
selected the Aphis rape or Aphis aesator, as the grand depredator, and eve ni
cried it up as the certain and sole parent of tlie whole. This theory was the
most popular one in En(gland in 1816; insomuch that, for months together,
multitudes talked incessantly of the aphis, and scenied to lave eulie into an
ap)his-maiiia, and would not listen to another theory. Yet, thiouthi both facts
496
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.
,and philosophy now pour derision on this theory, they fully admit every
abounding aphis to be very mischievous, and loudly warn all cultivators i,i
adol)t every preventive or remedial means against it in their power.
Common ca.iiker, or vegetable.aiinrene, exactly similar to the cankller of
flitt-trees, andti to the " damping " or" shanking off" of badly-wintered cauli flowers, and of cucumbers and melon-pl)lants, is believed, by the eminclt MIr.
G rh m,. to have been the true cause. According to him, the potato-plaiut,
havin l been rendered partially inert by the repellent action of cold, wvet, and(
gloo,,my v-eathlier, uncongenial to its natuLre as an exotic from a wariii cliinatte
at that critical period of its growthl when in the course of ord(inary seasons it
-would have been about to acquire a strentgtl and hardness, but durinig which
time it was incapable of perfectly evaporating its redundant juices, for want
of sunshiie, - they accumulated in conisequence, and b)ecanie vitiated by
stagnation in that crude state; and when-e fine hot weather ensued afterwards,
the sudden rush of sap was too great for its debilitated tissues, and the dis eased fluid showed itself at the surface in various places, on the leaves ai(;'
stalks, sometimes it spots not larger than a p)in's head, at others in blotches,
w-',ich rapidly iincreased if the stimulus of heat was kept up; and the virus
of these spots, beiiing of an ulcerous nature, eventually descended into the
potatoes. The only effectual remedy, if it may be so called, is to pull up
the hailm entirely, as soon as the disease has seized on the stalks; cultting
off the hanlm will not be so effectual, in many instances, as the lower paris
of tIhe stalk are often as bad as the upper parts. After all, lhowever, Mlr.
Gcraham himself admits that the disease sometimes b)egins in the tu)ers, aud
even states that it usually commences in the underground parts.
A peculiar atmospheric action, similar to what produces influenza in man,
is sl supposed by Liebig anid Klotzsch to be the special cause. Liebig, il i'e
w-orkl on the Motions of the Fluids in the Animal Body, after explaining the
great importance of the cutaneous and pulmonary transpiration to the life
an(l health of animals, goes on to contend that in plants the transpiratiol'
from the leav-es is the chief cause, aided by the pressure of the atmosphere.
of th he motion of the sap. lie then refers to the old but valuable researches
c,'f Jiles, lwho demonstrated the importance, as well as the extraordi.Lary
power. of the transpiration of plants, and explained the freLquent blight il
(los and other plants, by the action of an atmosphere saturated with mii.st -re anl therefore unfit to support transpiration, in suppressing the tralislir:.tio erom the leaves, and thus arresting the motion of the sap, wAhichl tlhen
I,',tre'es asid leads to the death of the plant. The putrid sap becomes a fert:'e s(il'or t}he seeds of microscopic plants, fuingi, &c., and these are flirtli'
[lrobtafted. by seed, so that the soil may become infested by them. I,iebi,,
'.n proceeds to contend that the potato-plaut is one of those which, like tho
412* iI 2
491
11
FAR3IER'S HAND-BOOK.
hop, suffers greatly from suppressed or impeded transpiration; and that the
potato rot has long been known, and was even very accurately described by
Parmentier, who introduced the potato into France; bhlt that the peculiar
atmospheric condition to which he ascribes the disease had never till of
late years occurred over whole countries, but only locally. tie considers
the real cause of the disease to be an atmosphere loaded with moisture and
cold, these being the conditions most unfavorab)le to evaporation; and he
shows that in 185-, and 1816, when the disease overran Europe, damp,
cold, and rainy weather followed heat and d(roughlt, just at the period of the
most luxuriant growth of the potatoes. This state of the atmosphere he
considers to be the same as that which causes influenza in the human subject,
by suppressing the cutaneous transpiration. Hie further shows that the very
life of a plant depends on the resistance it offers to the destructive influences
of the atmosphere; and that the life and health of plants depend on the
equilibrium of external causes, only oie of which,- the state of the soil,-is
much in the power of the agriculturist. One (lay, or a few degrees of cold,
mnay be decisive as to the life or death of a plant; so that it is of the utmost
importance to strengthen the plant, so as to enable it to resist the external
influences tending to destroy it. Now, Dr. IKlotzsch has come to similar
conclusions, - and shows that, as the potato is cultivated for its tubers, there
is a great loss of hutrient matter if it be allowed to form flowers and fruit;
and he concludes that if this be prevented, the nutrient matter will be sent in
the direction of the tubers and roots, and thus the plant will be strengthened,
and enabled to resist disease. tie proposes, therefore, whenl tihe plants are
from six to nine inches above ground, to pinchl off the ends of the stems and
branches for half all inch only downwards firom thl)e point, and to repeat this
four weekls later. Ini some experiments made by hi'i, in whi(lh tle alternate
rows were tre:tel in this way, the result was, that the rows not so treated
were straggling and sickly, and had scabby tubers, lial)le to ret; while the
rows so treated were bushy, luxuriant, d(lark-green, with very numerous
tubers, clean, and free from all disease whatev-er. But whatever may be
thought of the remedy, or however fair or deserving a subject of experiment
it may be as to the general strengthening of the potato-plant, the alleged
cause seems a great deal more than doubtful. To say nothing of grave
physiological objections to it, the very facts on whlich it rests are contesteld.
-A diminution of temperature to the extent of six or eight degrees is exce(edingly trivial, and must often have occurred in fi)rmer years, when this disease'
did not occur. Nor is the potato-plant of so delicate a texture as to be unal,l
to stand much greater diminution and irretgularities of temperature than wh,t
occurred in 1iS15. The fact that it grows equially well in the Slietland Isles.
with an a,lerage temperature of 46 3, or even in hot-holises, with a temperaturo
19S
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.
Df thirty or forty degrees higher, must satisfy any one that the temperature of
1845, thoughi undoubtedly lower than usual, and irregular in its proglessionr,
cannot account for the failure. The heat of 1846, too, when the disease wi,;
mnore virulent and extensive than in 1845, instead of being below the averagfe,
was actually a little above it; and the fall of rain, as ascertained at a great
nmany places, though unusually fitful, anid sometimes exceedingly heavy, w;.'V
inot aggregately much above the average, and did not anywhere produce ii
excess of cloudiness, or any material excess of moisture.
An atmospheric influence of some less specific or mnore dir?esive kind th;itll
that contended for by Liebig and Klotzsch has b)een rear(led by many d(istingtished British agriculturists as the cause. B3ut tlhe views entertairi(ed
respecting it are at once various, conflicting, and vagule. Some say that It
was merely a decrease in the temperature about the time of ripenilig of the
tuber, by which this disease was caused. Now,, in 18S46, it returned at a
much earlier period than in 1845. Was the time of rip)enilfu h:stened? anid if
so, by what cause? And is there any evidence that such a decrease in terperature took place in 1846? or that it existed everywhere in 184-15 Othler
defenders of the same theory assume that it w-as the sudden change of wet
and cold to hot weather by which this calamity was occasioned; and
others state in addition, that the unripe condition of the seed from the
firmer year, and the protracted cold of the ensuing winter, preventing the
due preparation of the land, were either the aggravating or the chief cause>.
of the disease. Did these circumstances occur in 184,6, and were they
general wherever the disease prevailed? If we further come to the marner in which this atmospheric influence is said to have acted, then -,e t,cet
again several vaolue expressions, and find that unproved things:r-I:ken
fl;)r granted. Some speak of the organism of the potato havin! beLcoTme
r,,pleted wnith moisture, and, therefore, the pores being checked by some
of the above circumstances, exceedingly liable to undergo putrefaction.
(others are of opinion, that one constituent of the orgaiism of the potato hab)een producedl to tthe disladvantagfe, at the expense of, or at lea'st in greater
liop)ortions tiat the others; and t.hat this, no matter in -lhat way, lhas been
tile cause of a weakitened organism, and(l coI.s::quentlyof time lisease. Other,
;i,-ain, explain the action of the atmosphere as merely sa,rv-I, us a vehicle to
miyriads of minute seeds of fungi, which, wlhei the air is in a coitip)arative
rest, should be enabled to enter into the minute pores or stomata, whlilih
exist chiefly on the surface of the leaves. This is merely a mod(ificatice. (of
the fin,gal theory.
Some miasmatic substance, or deleterious gas, or other subtle alid
uniusual body in the atmosphere, is supposed, by Count Gasparin, Milne
and others, to have been the cause. The principal, real, or alleged tacts,
4-99
FARMIER'S tIAND-BOOK.
appealed to in support of this theory, are that the disease was averted from
some localities by screens, shelter, and other means of protection firom the
external air,- that, in the successive years of its ravages, it moved off from
)in-me districts and countries, and made invasion upon others, - that, during
ilie summer and autumn of 1846, it broke out, in a progress from south to
iiorth, on the continent and in Great Britain, as if it proceeded inll a somewliat regular marlch, - and that it did not attack portions of fields which
were exposed to the smokle of steam-engines anid of copper-workls. It is
inferred from the last of these facts that the noxious sutbstance was some
,.crid gas or vapor capable of being neutralized or altered in its nature by
chlorine, common smoke, and the fumes of arsenious and sulphurous acids
and, in support of this view, an experiment of Professor Christison is cited
shlowing that sulphurous-acid gas, when mixed with atmospheric air in the
minute proportion of one part to nine thousand, injures the leaves of a
1mignonette, of a laburnum, and of a larch-tree, placed in it for forty
hours. But, though the gaseous or miasmatic theory accords well with
some of the pheinomena arnd circumstances, it seems violently incompatible
with others. A peculiar state of the electricity of the atmosphere is supp)osed by some persons to have been the cause. Electricity is niiow known
to act a powerful part in all normal vegetation; ordinary electricity acts
co;istaitly, in seening concurrence with all the chemical processes of
decomposition and recombination, both upon plints and within them;
extraordinary electricity, or great and sudden disturbances of the normal
,lectric conditions of the atmosphere, or of the normal relations between the
electricity of the air and the electricity of the earth, seem to produce effects
~ nalogous to those of either invigorating or overwhlelmiiig excitement; and
the electric phenomena of a large portion of the period of both 1S-15 anl
1846, throughout which the potato disease broke out and spread, were not a
little remarkable for at once singularity, unsettledness, violence, and aggregate duration. The results of an experiment in electro-culture, reported to
,lie Royal Dublin Society, were also most arresting; -the rods had been
put up, accordingf to Dr. Forster's method, in a remote part of a potato-field,
in order to test their effect upon the invigoration of the crop, and they
were afterwards neglected or forgotten, in consequence of the apparent seizure
,)f the whole field with the potato disease;-but whenl the spot which they
protected came eventullly to be examined, all the potatoes in it were found
to l)e sound and excellent, while those of the rest of the field had died and
rotted. Other remarkable facts, directly ascribable to electric influence, or
apparently resulting from it, or controlled by it, were observed; and several
theories corresponding to them, but widely differiing as to both the inodus
operandia of the electric influence and the most suitable or ellective means
500
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.
Df averting deleterious effects, were formed and advocated, and have been
received more or less extensively as plausible. The present state of scien tific knowledge, however, is far too obscure to enable any manl to follow outt
a speculation on the supposed connection of peculiar electric-conlditions with
the originating of disease in plants; and the utmost which the speculation
about electricity and the potato can do, is to suggest a hope, that in some
more advanced stage of thle rapidly-careering progress of scientific discovery,
a subject which is now so mysterious and bewildering may come to be per fectly explained.
Renmedies. - WAVe have now gone over all the chief and most plausible
theories; and, since the result is unmixed uncertainty or uitter confusion, we
might seem to have had all our labor for worse than nothling. But, when it is
seen how entirely the most distinguished savans have been baffled, and how
completely all science and experience and observation have been stultified, by
the potato disease, all persons must readily assent to the suggestion that
the potato can no longer be depended on as an extensive and staple article of
sustenance for the human fiamily, and that its loss must be made up by the
substitution of another and more reliable vegetable prodtuction. Whatever
others may say or think, it is certain that, until the cause of this disease is
known, no efficacious remedy can reasonably be expected to be found. It
is the department of science to proceed from fixed points, firom causes into
effects; and every other way is hardly deserving of any other name than that
of empiricism. We would go further still, and say, that even although the
cause were duly known, however indispensable this may be, we could not,
hlowever, from the defective state of our knowledge of the physiology and
pathology of plants, undertake the cure with the same confidence of success
with which the physician places himself before his patient, to attack and
overcome an illness. Beut still, without being acquainted with the catuse of
the disease, a variety of remedies will be tried in vain, and, what is worse,
remedies which may easily injure a plant which has freq(tiently been
unnaturally cultivated. The steeping in dilutite sutlphurie acid, dusting
with lime and gypsum, the application of sulphate of copper, arsenic, &c.,
mnay prove beneficial for the moment; but how all this will affect or alter
the nature of the potato, it is only for future experience to make out. Such
kinrds of treatment will be resorted to, if we proceed upon the belief that a
fuiingus acts as the cause of the disease. - The purpose is to kill the enemy;
but does one always sufficiently consider that the injury intended for it may
not also affect its victim? But if we adhere to the opinion that the unfavorable state of the weather has been the direct cause of the disease, by - no
matter in what way - altering the functions of the plant, then there is certainly something true in Morren's remark, that this theory, in point of
501
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
cu,ring the disease, is dangerous in its effects upon the mass of farmers
evho, being piowerless against such an enemy, may easily fall into that state
of indifference which in former times was too characteristic of their class.
The remedy wvhicl results from the application of the epidemic theory
seems certainly to l)e entirely in the power of the farmer, without )eig
ittended with the injurious effects that may follow firom the attempt If
(iestroyiing the parasite directly, we mean the enclosure of the potatofields, to prevent the supposed introduction of the imagined( seeds of the
parasites by curreits of air. Yet, if this remedy, as is likely, might prove
ineffectual, the opportunity of preserving the crop is gone, and the evil will
rage on undisturbed. But there is something more reasonable in the idea.
to turn the whole attention to the diseased plant itself, -to allow those
plants to be lost that are hopelessly attacked, to be cautious in attemptiing
to employ the less diseased for seed, and to be satisfied withl employing
what has hitherto escaped, either of fine or of coarse varieties. If this be
accompanied with judicious cultivation, - if sound seed, chiefly from
varieties that have sulffered least, be Iplanted in soils similar to those where
the disease has least prevailedl, - and if the methods be imitated of those
who have had small or moderate, but comparatively sound crops, - as well
inl regard to treatmient, kind and quantity of manure, and period of application, as to depth of planting, distance between the plants, and time and
mode of cutting - then something is put into the power of the farmer,
which, being( faithfully copied from the prescriptions of nature, may justify
the perseveriing main in expecting a slow but gradual and continual remedy,
and recovery of what has been lost.
X method w as discovered, about the year 1S10, by M. Zauder, of evadillg
the attacks of all potato diseases, by raising fill-grown tul)bers from seed inone season; and tbis method was reported by Mr. IIogan to the meetiig
of the British Association at Oxford, and was ascertained, from his persona]l
observation of it in two widely separated localities in Germany, to have
proved perfectly efficient as respected its yearly or current success, yet was
declared to need confirmation and improvement, by many experiments, ini
various places, and under various circumstances, befiore it could be relied
on for renderiing seedlings healthy or disease-proof, in years subsequent to
their being produced. The statement of M. Zauder himself, in his owni
laInguage, is as follows: -I firs. raised potatoes from seed seven years ago.
I sowed bn eighth of an ounce, and obtained nearly seven sacks of fill grown, perfectly sound potatoes, although in the same year almost all the
potatoes in the same nei,hborhood were affected by pock-mark and dry-rot.
I have regularly raised potatoes from seed ever since, and they have remained
sound during the whole time and in the year 18S45, when the disease had
502
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.
spread over all Europe, and attained the greatest virulence in this neighbori,ood, those potatoes which I had previously raised from seed, as well as
those of the preceding year, continued perfectly exempt from disease. I
;:.ve given potatoes raised from seed to others, and those have also remained
)erifeietly free from the universally prevailing disease. From an ounce of
seed may be raised upwards of fifty ordinary-sized sacks of potatoes. The
seed is saved in the following manner: the berries should be gathered in
autumni, before the frost sets in, and be preserved in a dry place, where frost
cannot reach them, until the end of January, when the berries should be
broken by the hand, and placed in a tub or other vessel, for six or eight
days, to ferment; water should then be tlhrownvi on theml and well stirred, in
order to separate the pulp and husks from the seed, which should then be
dried and cleanied, and kept in a warm, dry place, until the middle of March.
At the latter time, or in the beginning of April, the seed should be thinly
sown in a hot-bed, and by the middle of May there will be fine healthy
plants, which may be put out into the field; care should be taken to put
them out before they form tubers, and the seed-bed should be kept moderately moist -while they remain in it. They should be planted out after rain,
and be put at about the same distance from one another as potatoes generally stand in the field.
SMUT.
Dcscrilption. - This is a disease of the ears of growing grain, filling the
grain with a fine, sooty-lookling powder, in the room of farina. It arises
ettirely from two minute colliol-mycetouls fungi,-lthe [redo segetum and the
Urccdof,ictda; but it attacks all sorts of cornt grain, and presents a great diversity of appearance, and bears a nuiljer of popular nanes, and has been erroneously ascribed, bv all classes of cultivators, to a great diversity of causes.
Some farmers, seeing only a very few\v ears of a crop) perceptibly affected with
sinut. regard the evil as of small Consequelln,ce, and are totally unfiaware that
when no more than one smutted ear can be founld in a sheaf, the straw of
the apparently sound plants may want so muchl as one third of its average
weight, and the grain so much as three seventhls; and other firmers, who
mnay have a correct opinion enough of the mischievousness of smut, are so
misled by false notions of its cause, as either to reject all suLitable preventives and remedies of it, or to adopt them empirically, anid withlout sufficient
confidence and vigor.
Caos(s and Phetiomie7a. - Some of the miany erroneous causes which have
beein asigned for smut have no connection with it whlatever; and others
are mere continigencies, whiclh either aggravate its symrptomis cor accelerate
its progress. One alleged cause is, deficienit fecundity, ill consequence either
of the!,b]}n beiig walshed a-way with raiiis, or of its uldergoil)g sonice
50,9
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
.hemical chlange of a putrefactive nature; but smut is found to affect tlle
t)rgans of fructification, and either to iimpair or to destroy them, lollg before
the pollien can be formed. A;nothe(r alle,ged cliuse, sanctioned, lonig ago, by
the distinruishlld Jetlro Tull, is iihumidity of the atmnosphlere, or the I)revtlence of tigs, or tlhe l)urstingir out of intense stinshine wlile the crol) is in a
0oist cond(lition; but this notion has be~~i dispro-ved( by some carefully c,)I,lucted appeals to experiment, tand is disproved also by the general fact that
smut is sometimes 1l)z'-rv'4)le in an early stage of the plant's vegeltationi, loni
before it has escaped fi'om, the leafy envelopes. iA third alleged cause is,
excessive moistness of the soil, - and certainly this, thoughl not a cause, is a
very powerful provocative, iniisomnucli that well-drained and thoroughly aerated
soils are incomparably freer from attackls of smut than wet ones; but the
disease occurs on even the driest land, and may often be olbserved as rife in
the dry parts of a field as in the wet parts. A fourtlh alleged cause, sanetioned by such names as Somerville, Walker, and Linnaus, is the hlatching
and feeding of miinute insects; but this opinion has been refuted l)y express
and searching observation, iand may be exploded also by the( general fact
that acari and aphidles, and othler m-inute iinsects, feed mo,re or less oni all sorts
of plants, whether affected by smut or not, and almnost always al)bound on
decaying vegetal)le maltter, or on plants which are in a diseased or enfeebled
condition. A iiftli alleged ceatse is, the abrasion of the seed-corn in the
process of threshiing; but seeds threshed in exactly the same way run to
smut in some seasons, and do not run to it in others; and numerous grains
of wheat of different sizes have been experimentally bruised withl a hlammer, previous to sow in, anld have not been found to produce smuttedi plants.
A sixth cause alleged is, monstrosity of embryo; but niale flow-ers, or miale
parts of flow-ers, as well as femnale ones, are liable to smut, and they have no
embryo. A seventh alleged cause is, deficiency of nourishment, occasioned
by poverty of soil, or by crowdedness of crop; but diseases closely akin to
smut attack the fructification of some perennial plants, whose roots and
stems, from year to year, are so vigorous as to indicate the presence of
ample nutrition. An eighth alleged cause is, fermentation within tie ears
of corn, occasioned by natural humidity, or by excessive slowness of development and deficiency of evaporation; but, if this were a true cause, t
Nwould account for the appearance of smut only after the seeds l)begil to be
formed, and might be expected always to produce the disease in fir gre~itr
extent than it is generally found to exist. Mlost other alleged causes a.re
akin to some of those already named, or are exceedingly fancifll, or COi-.
tfound smut with some other and widely different diseases.
The two species of fungi wvhich produce smut, or whose spores constitate
the fine, powdery, sooty-looking substance of the disease, possess a some
504
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.
what close resemblance to each other, and are usually described under one
general name; yet, not only have they separate specific charlacters, but they
make specifically different developments ill grain plants, and pro(duce esselntially ditfferent economical effects on crops; and they therefore require to
be separately studied, and distinctively understood. The Urc(lo s%,gctum is
much more minute than most other coniomycetous fungi -lwhich ttck gramineous plants; and, in particular, is not half the size of Uic(lofwe/i(a. Its
spores are so extremely small that not fewer than seven millions eight hundred and forty thousand would be required to cover one square inch. It first
so injures the interior portions of the flowers of the plants whicl it attacks
as to render them abortive; it next makes the pedicels or little stalks of the
florets swell and become very fleshy; it next consumes the whole of this
fleshy mass; and it finally comes through the epidermis, and aippears between the chaff-scales in the form of a black, soot-like powder, and looks as
if adhering, by means of some gummy substance, to the yotug ear. It operates alike on vwheat and barley and oats, and is essentially the same in
them all; but it differs widely in aggregate coherence upon wheat and
barley,- and differs also in the microscopic apl)earanlce of its spores, -but
probably owes the differences entirely to the difltrent action of the matrices
in which it grows. It commonly attains maturity some weekls before the
crop which it infests is ready for the sickle; and it then is a light, loose
powder, resembling very fine lampblack, and is swept away and scattered
by the winds, so that, even when it has made great havoc upon a crop, it is
seldom seen to any considerable extent at the time of harvest. It has somelimes been found to attack the leaves and the culms of corni-plants; but, in
general, it attacks only the ear, and this it completely destroys. It is coIIparatively rare in -wheat, and does not seem to occur at all in rye; but is
very common in barley, and still more so in oats. It has also been observed
in several of the forage grasses. Some farmers absurdly think that a little
of it in the barley crop is a good sign; and most regard it as far less mischie-vots than r(do) f.elida. But, in so far as it exists, it is always and
entirely a desolating evil; and it both escapes the observation of superficial
observers, and eludes some of the comnmon methods of pI)reventing or extirI)ating it, )by the early maturation and profuse dispersion of its spores; and
though really a less evil, comparatively, than Uredo fceti(ra, it is a much
greater one absolutely than most farmers suppose.
Grain containing some mixture of smut has not been ol)bse(rvedl to injure
fowls who eat it; and yet, the straw of smutted plants is asserte(l to be d(listastefutl to cattle. The effect of the fungus upon the wholesomeness of crops,
in fact, is little understood, and does not seem to have been tested by any
good published experiments; yet it may be pretty closely estimated by
43
505
FARMER'S IIAND-BOOK.
reference to the known chemical composition of smutted grain. Chemical
analysis has demonstrated that the Uredo se,etumn effects an entire decom position of thl vegetable constituents of the grain it infects, the saline con stituents of the grain remaining nearly unaltered. Parmrnentier, Cornet,
Girod Chautrans, Fourcroy, and Vauguelin, have successively examined it;
and the result of their researches is, that smutted grains of wheat are com posed, first, of about one third their own weight of a green, butyraceous,
fetid, and acrid oil; second, nearly one fourth of a vegeto —inimal sub stance, perfectly similar to that which comes from putrid gluten; third, a
black coal, one fifth of their weight, similar to that which is found in all
remnants of putrefied organic compounds; fourth, free phosphoric acid,
amounting scarcely to more than.004 of the smut,- and fifth, phosphates of
ammonia, magnesia, and limne, in the proportions of a few thousandths. It
is stated tiat, i.n one examination of putrefied gluten, characters were found
very simril:r to thiose of the smut of wheat; and that the products of the one
are so like those of the other, as to render it difficult, in certain cases, not
to confound then togethier. It requires a man to be well practised in chemical experiments, to discern the slight differences that exist between these
two putrefied imatters, because the differences are only delicate shades, not
easily diseerni)le. The contagion attacks especially the gluten, and
precedes, - indeed, prevents, - the formation of the starch; since we know
positively that this fecula, no traces of which are found in the smut of wheat,
suffers no alteration from that septic process, which so powerfully attacks
the glutinous substance.
The U,t-rcdofctida occurs only in the grain of wheat, and is a well-known
and much dreaded disease. It may be detected in the young seed, even in
the very earliest states of the flower-b)ud; and when fully ripe, it most
frequently occLllies the whole interior of the grain. The earliest period at
which -A. Biuer discovered it wvithin the cavity of the ovule of a young plant
of wheat w-as sixtein days before the ear emerged from the base, and about
twenty days tre the sotiund etrs, springing from the same root, were in
!)loom. At tlii-tt early stae, tihe inner cavity of the ovum is very small,
and, after feetindtiiol, is filled with the albumen or farinaceous substance of
the seed, anid alro:dy occupied by many yotung fuingi, which, from their jellylike root or stpawn, adliere to the membrane which lines tIe cavity, and
from which they cart be easily detached, in small flakes, witlt that spawn.
In that state, their very small pedicels may be distinctly seen. At first, the
fungi are of a pure \hite color, anId whlen the ear ettrerges front its base,
the ovum is much erlar(ged, but still retains its original shape; and, the
fungi rapidly multiplyirg, mary of them have then nearly come to maturity
assumed a dark color, and, having separated from the sp)awn, lie loose in
506
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.
the cavity of the ovum. The infected grains continue growing, and the
fungi continue to multiply, till the sound grains have attained their maturity
and full size, when the infected grains are easily distinguished from tihe
sound ones, by their being generally larger and of a darker green color
and, if opened, they appear to be filled to excess with these dark-colored
tfngi. But the grains infected with the U'cdofxtida very rarely )burst, and
these fungi are seldom found on the outside of the graill; buit if a grain
be bruised, they readily emit their offensive smell, which is worse than that
from putrid fish. Vhlien the sound grains are perfectly ripe and( dry, and
assume their light-brown color, the infected grains also clhange, but to a
somewhat darker brown, retaining, however, the same shape which the
ovum had at its formation, the rudiments of the stigma also remaining unaltered. The spores which fill the grain constitute a fine, black, disgusting, fetid powder, and amount to about four millions in a single grain, and
may be easily distinguished and examined through a microscope, and have
then the appearance of articulated globules growing in a bundled manner
upon threads; hut the sporules which they contain, and which prop)agate
the smut in the same general way in which seeds propagate phenogamous
plants, are so surpassingly minute as to be scarcely distinguishable under
very high powers of the microscope, appearing then only like a faint cloud
or vapor in a pufy escape from the spores.
The LUc(7o f(li(la not only destroys all the grains or plants which it
directly attackls, but greatly deteriorates the value of the sound part of the
general crop. The disgusting odor which it emits may be perceived on
passingf through a field where it prevails; and becomes cohesive to the
fingers, and intolerable to the sense, when an infected ear or two are broken
in the hand; and diffuses itself sufficiently throulgh the sound grains, by the
contacts of growing and harvesting, to render the flour made firom them
perceptibly malodorous, and comparatively unfit for bread. Ready piurchasers, however, are found among the manufacturers of gingerbread, &c., in
some countries, who have discovered that the treacle, and whatever else
they mix up with it, effectually disguise the odor of the ftingus; and w-hile
such a mode of employing the tainted flour would be perfectly utnobl)jectionable if the odor were innloxious, it becomes censurable and wicked( when
good reason exists for suspecting the odor to be seriously unwholesome.
The sporules of both Uredo segetumn and Uredo fetida were long believed
and have been proved to find their way into corn-plants, by entering their
spongioles with the moisture, and ascending their interior wvithl the sap.
There is little doubt, according to Johnson, but that the mode in which
smut is imparted to the plant is by its roots imbibing the extremely minute
seeds of the fungus along with the moisture of the soil; and this opinion is
507
FAR,IER S HAND-BOOK.
confirmed by the observation that the disease is most prevalent when the
winter has been mild, and the spring wet, - for in such seasons the al)undant
moisture passing throtugh the soil is most likely to convey the seeds to the
mouthls of the plant's radical fibres. The distinguished Mir. Sidney
remarks, that, thlough the surmise of most observers has been that the
sporules enter by the roots and circulate in the plant, still, no one has yet
seen them grow; nor would this be the normal mod(le of growth. The
spores themselves are undoubtedly too large to enter either by the stotnata
of the leaves or the spongioles of the roots. Some ingenious experiments
have been made, that appear to establish the theory that these contents of
the spores do enter the plant in the way suspected, and growv. The mode
of proceeding was to immerse some seeds of wheat in water containing, bunt.
One of the first appearances was a curious mould, with peculiar spores, that
sprung upon the spores of bunt. The plants which came up fromi these
seeds were evidently affected; but no communication whatever could be
traced between the cells of these plants and the shioots thrown out by the
spores. No intrusion whatever of the mycelium developed by the bttntspores into the wheat could be discovered. This looks, therefore, as if the
fine contents of the spores do certainly propagate the fougus. Professor
Henslam states, that, althoutgh the bunt-flingus confines its attacks to the
young seed, it seems to be a condition essential to its propagation that it
should be introduced into the plant during the early stag,es of its growth, and
that its sporules are most readily absorbed by the root during the germination of the seed from which the plant has sprung. It has been clearly
proved that wheat-plants may be easily infected, and the disease thus propagated, by simnply rubbing the seeds, before they are sown, with the black
Dowder, or spores, of the fungus. It is also as clearly ascertained that, if
seeds thus tainted be thoroughly cleansed, the plants raised from them will
not be infected; an(l this fact is now so well established, that the practice
of washing or steeping seed-wheat in certain solutions almost universally
prevails.
Prevertives. - The chief preventive of smut in wheat is the steeping of the
seed-corn in some suitable solution. The spores which, at the time of threshing, are dispersed'from smutted ears in the form of a fine powder, and which
attach themselves to the sound grains, adhere with considerablo obstinacy by
means of an oily or greasy matter in their own substance, and cannot be thoroughly cleaned away except by means either of an alkali which shall combine
with the oily matter and convert it into soap, or of some powerful substance,
which shall be adverse enough to vegetable life to kill the spores, and yet
not so adverse as to kill or injure the grains. The substances most commonly ec.nmployed in alkaline steeps are lime, and salts of soda, potash, and
509
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.
ammonia; and those of a killing kind most commonly employed arc arsenic,
sulphate of copper, nitric acid, muriatic acid, and sulphuric aci(l. The luse
of poisons, however,- particularly violent ones, is altogethler unnecessary,
and very dangerous, and not a little culpable; and the use even of excessively pungent substances, which are not strictly poisonous, is never so
politic, and perhaps never so efficient, as that of the alkalies, or of common
salt, or of some mixture of saline substances.
The experiments of MIr. Bevan indicate that lime-water is the most
effective of these preparations; and if this be adopted, it may 1)be preparedl
by mixing one pound of fresh lime with three gallons of l)oilin wateir,
allowing these to stand for two hours, and the clear liquor tihen to lbe pollred
off, and immediately used. In this liquid the wheat shoull be soallked for
twelve hours. stirred twice or thrice during the time, and then mixed, upon
a floor, with the powder made by pouring three gallonis of l}oiling water
upon five pounds of lime. Ile remarks flirther, that hlie h:s id no exp)erience of the effects of lime-water as a preventive of tlh( Si, tt; butt, with
stale urine and a solution of common salt, numerous ai (1\t)(I SiVC experimnents were made, the results being, without exception, fitivcli.rtl)]. a.l nearly
similar; and this beiing the case, a preference is to le iven to( common
salt, as being decidedly the best in all material points. ol'!ic ll(,d ol)served
to be the most effective is to wash the seed with pure w;t(lr, l)('Trirg this
off with all the floating grains, and then allowing the seed 1o s(ito fi)r twelve
hours in a solution of common salt, having a strength, oir specific gravity,
sufficient to float a common hen's egg. A solution of sutlpllate of sod(la, in
cooperation with an application of lime, was found b)y M. de Dombasle,
after many experiments, to be the most efficient steep. The solution
requires about 17X lbs. of the sulphate in 22 gallons of water; td as this
salt does not very readily dissolve, the solution ought to be cotinmenced a
day or so before it is wanted, and frequently stirred, till all the salt is dissolved. The grain is to be formed in heaps on the floor, which are to be
completely moistened with the above wash, by means of a watering vessel.
During the time the wash is being poured over the heaps of grain, they
must be kept constantly stirred about, by means of wooden shovels, till the
whole be perfectly moist, whichl is known by the wash running from the
heaps after they are sufficiently saturated. After the grain is well moistened, lime, in powder, is to be immediately thrown over the heaps, in the
proportion of nearly 4,1 lbs. to the 22 gallons of grain; this is done gradtially, while the grain is to be turned over in every direction, so that the
whole may be intimately combined. When this is done, the grain may be
either sown immediately, or kept for some days, in which case it may be
turned over every three or four days.
43*
509
FARaIER'S HAND-BOOK.
The use of any kind of steep, however, is a preventive of smut only as
propaga ted by the adhesion of spores to the grains of the seed-corn, and carn
have no efficienvcy whatever against the germination of spores which lie
lodged in the soil independently of the seed-corn. MAr. Johnson remarks,
in add(lition, that, although it is very apparent that the smut is generally
imparted to a wheat crop by the agency of the seed sown, yet he is by no
means of the opinion that this is the only source of infection. IHe had kept
ears of whleat, that were covered and destroyed by the Urcdo, during more
than twelve months, in a situation where they experienced the vicissitudes
of temperature during all the seasons, unprotected by more than the paper
envelope in which they were suspended in an oit-buildiug. Yet, when the
hr'e(lo that had been thus exposed was mixed with healthy, well-washled
seed-w-heat, this produced diseased plants in a triplicate proportion more
numerous than that not so mixed. This experiment demonstrates that frost
and drought acting in concert with a damp atmosphere, do not destroy the
vegetatiting power of the LTrc(do's seed. Such being the fact, why may not
this seed rcnmain in the soil, ready to impart the plague? W~e know that,
ow ingr to its lightness, this seed floats buoyantly in the air, and may be carried hb win-ds to distant soils, which, in the autumn of the same year, before
:,nv extremitv of cold has been endured, will have to bear the wheat crop
for the fillowing harvest. The opinion that the soil is one source of infection is sust,i'ied by the fact that fields in the vicinity of the sea are rarely
iniLr,d. and never extensively, by the ravages of the smut. Such soils are
impre arnteal more than any other with common salt, and the effect of this
saline co'llp,)ii!d upon the Uredo has been noticed already. The spores of
L'(c(/lo s,cii./,' too, are so generally shed and dispersed before the harvestin7,.t the crop, that they may be supposed to lie lodged in immense
numl)eris in every part of the field, or farm, or district, where they were
prod-eed; aid eeven in so far as they adhere to the grains of barley and
oats in the s e manner in which those of Uredo faeti(/a adhere to the grains
of wh('q tlthe. halve such a peculiarly strong hold in connection with the
int',_,mei's oof tliese grains, that they cannot very readily be reduced or
killed l)y means of stecps. As regards some smutted wheat-lands, therefore.,and especially as regards all smutted barley-lands, and all smutted oatlands, other preventives and remedies must be brought into requisition,
and should be such as to secure the utmost possible cleanness of both the
seed-corn and the land, and will, after all, be found incompetent to effect an
entire cure. The obtaining of seed-corn for any farm from other and distant soils is recommended by Tull, Donat, Lignerolle, and others; but,
however beneficial this may be for securing other desirable effects, it can be
510
-il
THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS.
useful in regard to smut only when the seed-corn is brought from a district
remarkably free from that disease. All the preventives and remedies
which address themselves to the state of the land, or consist in special processes or methods of culture are the same in the case of smut as in the cave
of mildew.
511
CHAPTER XIII.
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
INSECTS WIIICII LIVE CONSTANTLY ON OR IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS, AND PROP AGATE ON TIIE5I - INSECTS WHIIICII INJURE GRAIN - INSECTS INJURIOUS TO
CULINARY VEGETABLES - INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS, FRTUIT-TREES, SHRUBS,
AND VINES - INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FLOWER-PLANTS - INSECTS INJURIOUS
TO MEADOWS.
I. INSECTS VWHICI LIVE CONSTANTLY ON OR IN DO3IESTIC ANIMALS,
AND PROPAGATE ON THEM.
Lice. - Among insects which continually live on domestic animals, propagate on them, and, when their numbers are too great, cause serious injury
to them, the various species of lice hold the first place. These animals are
much to be dreaded wheli they have increased so as to produce the disease
called P/ltiiriasis, and when this settles into a confirmed chronic evil. In
horned-cattle lice have no particular favorite place. They run up and down
over the body of sheep, causing a separation of the wool from the skin.
They swarm in every part of swine, and even grow into the skin, muscles,
&c. They may be occasioned by dirt, insufficient food, or want of bodily
exercise, or by previous disease. The remedy prescribed is, to take a
common pair of bellows, and a bellows-pipe fixed to its side, which is to be
filled with inferior tobacco, and set fire to; one man holds the sheep between
his legTs, another parts the fleece in various places, and a third blows the
tobl)acco-smn.kle on the skin, fumigating by degrees the whole body. The
sheep rmust be kept some time in the open air after this. Ox-lice are to be
expelled by w-ashing with an infusion of Staphysa] gria powder and crushed
pepper in stroll vinegar. Uor lice in swine, use internally the black sulphuret of mercury, mixed with salt, and wash the parts most infested with
arsenic acid.
Ilorse Bot. - The horse bot is the larva of a fly resembling a humble-bee,
with two wings. The female lays her eggs on the shoulders, manes, and
knees of horses, whilch they lick off and swvallow. They lhatch in the
stomach, feed in the larva state all the winter on the mucilage, and in
spring are found in the horse's stomach, sometimes in great numnbers.
They resemble in size and form a date-stone, having two hooks at the fore
end, with which they adhere to the inner coat of the stomach, often pein
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
etrating from i to 4 an inch deep into the white insensible tissue, and
become as if distorted by it. If numerous, they cause violent pain; and, as
they irritate the stomach, and extract a great deal of nourishment from the
Pig. 306.
animal, they necessarily injure digestion. The American arbor vita,
administered inwardly, and the expressed juice of the common elder, either
alone or mixed with tar, will be found effectual in protecting cattle front
hots and intestinal worms. The leaves and young shoots of the arbor vit
aLre to be beaten in a mortar with a little water, and the juice expressed.
The horse is to take a quart, as a preventive remedy, every quarter of a
y,ear, on an empty stomach; and if the animal is very ill, this quantity is to
)e given thrice a week. An effectual mode of preventing the introduction
of the bots into the stomach is also said to be, the washing off the eggs
from the knees, mane, and sides of the horses, or removing them with a pair
,f scissors.
Fun,edament Bot. - The female of this hot lays her eggs on the lips of the
horse, whence they are licked off and swallowed, and thus get into the
stomach. The hot-fly itself is half an inch long, brown, unspotted wings,
dark abdomen, with white base and reddish-yellow extremity. The larva
resembles the preceding, and is also found with it in spring in the stomach
of horses. Their color is not so red, their body has two rings less, and
their hooks are longer and sharper. Their presence is known by the horse
voiding them with excrement, or by their being found on the closing muscle
of the anal opening. When thus convinced of their presence, injections of
animal oil are applied, which kill the larvw, and they are voided.
Ox TlIMrble. -This insect is larger than the house-fly, and resembles the
h.umble-bee. It has brown, unspotted wings, and on the abdomen, which is
crvered at the end with reddish-yellow hair, a black band. The eggs are
laid on the skin of the back of oxen, one at a time. The eggs are hatchedl
l)v the animal heat, and the larvae cause swellings, generally about the si7e
of a pigeon's eg,v and are called warbles - worm-holes. The larva is
with,out feet is dotted on the upper surface with very small grains, which
I 2
513
f.
ll
l 4
I. I -VI"'
FARMIER'S IIAND-BOOK.
appear under the magnifier like short, triangular, yellow priclies, which
create an irritation in the skin of the cattle, and also transport the larva to
another place, when it has left its first station. It lives in the tumor from
August till the next June, then pushes itself through and falls to the
ground. Usually only from four to five tumors are found in one beast.
Young, healthy, and fat cattle are most liable to be selected. The tumors
may in many cases contribute to the health of the cattle, but when very
numerous, the cattle grow lean, and the cows give less milk. To rid cattle
of this torment, enlarge the opening of the tumor with a knife, and press
the sides of the swelling, when the larva protrudes itself. The wound
must be kept clean, and heals without further remedy.
Red Bot. - About the size of the honey-bee; thorax rose-colored; wings
inspotted; abdomen black at the base, whitish-gray, set with yellow hairs
at the further end. The female lays her eggs in the animal's nostrils, and
the larvae cause an itching in these tender parts, - frequently get into the
cavities of the gullet, and cause much pain. They feed upon the mucus
which they find in these parts, and when large enough tickle by their
crawling, and are then thrown out by the sneezing of the animal. Sheep
die when these insects are numerous in them.
Sheep Bot. - The thorax in the winged insect is brownish-black and
dotted with white; the abdomen white, spotted with gray and black; the
forehead ash-gray, covered with many small, deep punctures; the wings
shining and dotted at the base. Lives in sheltered places, where it is
numerous in warm days. The females lay their eggs in the nostrils; more
than three or four are seldom found in one sheep, but they produce the
staggers, and torment the animnal greatly. The symptoms of their presence(
are nausea, weakness sieezilig, slow pace, turning the head, holding it
down, and pushing itself against the nearest object; a slillingii, pus-like
matter flows firom the nostrils, often adhering so firmly to'the apertures as
to close them lip, and cause difficulty of breathing. Besides these, dulness
and iudirt'ereice, swelling of gums and nmoutlh, ulceration and convulsions,
are produced by it. It also makes the sheep turn round frequently, exactly
as if they were infestedl with the hydatids, which occasion the disease
called the gid. The hydatid worm appears in lambs, much sel(lorrer in
yearlings, and still more rarely in full-grownii sheep; it causes no dlefluxion
from the nose, no symptoms of a disease, no sneezing, staggering, &e.; bltt
the sick animal is lost without remedy. But in the disease caused by the
sheep bot, the sheep in many cases cure themselves; the lanil)s are only
attacked when out at pasture; and the diseased state of the pit:itous
tunic of the iose is a clear siren that it is the sheep bot, and no(t the hyilaitid
worm, that aiects them. To remedy sheep thus aiTcted, they are eithei
514
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
laken out alive, by trepanning the skull, as for the hydatids, or an attempt
is made, by injections into the nostril of animal oil diluted with water, to kill
them. Do not put sheep in pastures infested with the flies of sheep bot.
Horse Fly, or Forest Fly. - The fore-part of the body is depressed; head
triangular; abdomen large and roundish, somewhat resembling that of a
spider,-hence it has also obtained the name of spider-fly. The thorax
is speckled with buff; the other parts are brownI; the blunt, membraneous
wings lie crosswise over each other. It prefers the abdomen of the
animals, and attaches itself firmly to it. These flies are produced, or
increase very rapidly, on animals that are unclean, or are in bad condition
and as they torment the animals very much, the followiuig remedy must be
applied, by which they can be got rid of in a day. Of mineral earth, take
S oz., and of lard 1 lb., and make into a salve; rub it on here and there
upon the hair, working it in with a wisp of straw. After twenty-four
hours, wash off the salve with warm water in which brown soap has been
dissolved. Keep the horse from getting cold.
Sheep Tick. - This animal has no wings. The fore part of the body is
very small; abdomen thick-roundish, and proportionally very large. It sits
somnetimes on the skin of the sheep, under the wool, and sucks itself fulll of
l)lood. Its color is pale red, the abdomen lighter, with an irregular white
line on each side, and a red spot on the back. It lays only one egg,
fastened to the wool; it is first white, then brown, and finally the perfect
insect escapes from it. As a remedy for this insect, wash the infested
sheep with a decoction of the crushed or bruised leaves of the common
maple.
Birld S)ider Fly. - Scarcely half as large as the forest fly, apple-green
flat above, and has small, transparent, black-veined wings. It is found
both on large and small fowls, clings firmly to the skin under the feathers,
iand annoys by its greediness for blood. It is difficult to rid the birds of this
insect, for it runs backwards and forwards so fast that it can scarcely be
caiught. It fiinds out the bird, even when covered with the hand, and creeps
unperceived again under the feathers. Many, that are thoughlt to be killed
N-hen taken from the bird, fly back immediately. They leave the bird as
soon as it is dead, as the head-louse leaves a human corpse. Cleanliness is
the only remedy for this insect, and frequently sweeping and whitening the
lihen-hlouse.
II. INSECTS WIIICH INJURE GRAIN.
Gib&ous Ground Beetle. - This is a beetle whicn injures wheat, rve, and
barley. The egg,s are laid together, and not singly, ny the mother; and the
larve are, apparently, three years before tihev undergo their transformation.
515
FARMER'S HIIAND-BOOK.
The length of the full-grown larva is rathter more than an inch; it is flat,
narrow, and nearly of equal width throughriout, the head is very flatly
pressed, armed with strong forceps, like jaws.'lo diminish their number,
it is recommended to catch them by the hand, which may be done by children. The common net - a linen bag, stretched on a hoop of strong wire
-may also be stretched at night on the corn, and the insects feeding on the
ears be caught in it. In the day-time they must be looked for under stones
and clods. In the autumn, when the first slight frosts set in, the farmer
should plough those fields which have had crops of wheat, barley, and rye,
as deeply as possible. Many larvae which have by this time retired to their
winter quarters will thus be turned up in a benumbed state, and will either
be killed by the next frost or devoured by the crows and other birds in
search of food. But this ploughing should be performed for many years
successively, and by all the neighboring farmers simultaneously, or it will
not be efficacious. Those fields which have been sown in autumn should
be strewn with peat-ashes- when peat is to be had, and is used as fuel-in
spring, when the supervening rains will disengage the sulphuric acid, which
will kill the insects.
German or Field Cockchaffer. - An insect injurious to the ears of wheat
and rye. It has a square abdomen, rather flat; its whole length is half an
inch, and its breadth one fourth of an inch; the color of the wing-cases is
mostly brown, but sometimes a small square spot is seen at their base, and
another larger saddle-like spot of the same color in their middle; the head
and thorax of a dark-green; the under side of the body and legs are black.
These insects are found singly, or three or four together, sitting on the
ears, and gnawing the still soft grains of rye, or of wheat. Crows, moles,
and field-mice, are its greatest enemies. The perfect insect can only be
diminished and destroyed by picking it off the plant. Children may be
employed for this purpose, and must collect the insects in bags. The
insects must be crushed or destroyed by putting hot water on them, and
then given to the poultry, which will become very fat by feeding on them.
The hand-pickilng must be early in the morning, while the dew is on the
plants, as then the beetle hangs lazy and benumbed on the ears of corn.
Lined Click Beetle,- Larva, the Wire-worm. - A beetle particularly injllrious to oats. The larva of this beetle -known under the name of the
wire-worm- appears sometimes in great numbers, devastating corn by
attacking the roots. This larva is slender and linear, flat, shining, smooth,
s.lightly hairy, and brown. It resembles the meal-worm. The beetle is
blackish, with gray hairs; the feelers and legs are brownish-yellow, and
the wing-covers striped with gray. The best means of destroying them is
to mow the oats, and plough up the ground frequently, when crows and
516
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
other birds will pick up the larvae. In Fig. 307, a is the larva of Elater
segetis; b, under side of the terminal segment of the body; c, the head seen
from beneath; d, perfect insect, natural size; e, magnified; f, larva of the
Fig. 307.
true wire-worm; g, the larva of ditto, as described by some writers, being
another species.
Winter or Dart Moth. -A moth that injures winter grain. The cater pillar or larva of a moth, which, from its food in the larva state, is called the
winter corn-moth, is one of the most troublesome of the insect tribe. This
caterpillar attacks both the leaves and the roots of the corn; also the roots of
lettuce, turnips, and spinach. It appears generally in August, sitting quietly
on the ground in the day-time, and flying about and pairing at night. When
at rest, its wings are folided together flat over the body, and it is then nearly
an inch long, and half an inch wide. Its colors are dirty-gray, and darkbrown, or earth-color, except on the under wings, which are covered as it
sits, anrid which are sometimes whitish-gray, sometimes cream-color. On tlhe
upper wings a faint, blackish, ringlike mark is seen, and a cone-shaped spot
on a wavy line, a kidney-shaped stain almost in the middle, and towards the
lower edge two other wavy or notched transverse lines. The most simple
and certain mode of extirpating the noxious seed-eating caterpillar from the
soil is, to repair to the fields, and collect the caterpillars as soon as they appear. The only question is, how the hand-picking is to be set about, without
spending time unnecessarily. A person unacquainted with the habits of the
creature would seek for it in vain in his fields. They lie in the day-time
under stones, clods, or buried in the earth; these must therefore be carefully
turned up, in search of the enemy. When they are changing their skins,
they come out of their lurking-places, even in the day-time, and can easily
be gathered. Immediately after sunset they come out in great numbers, and
44
c
517
'b
I
v
I
d
FAR,-AIER'S HAND-BOOK.
feed greedily on the young corn. At this time, therefore, the workl must be
carried on vigorously, and even till late at night, with artificial light.
TVhite-line Dart 3loth. - A moth injurious to buckwheat and autuLmn-sown
grain. The caterpillar is upwards of an inch long, and of the thickness of
a slender writing-quill. On the back it is dirty olive-green, with a mixture
of yellow. The head is brown; the abdomen and feet are dirty-yellow. It
lives in the day-time in the earth, coming out only at night. The remedies
proposed are - hand-picking, applying a strong dressing of lime to the land
in the spring, strewing the ground with ashes, rolling the fields with heavy
rollers, and lastly, driving flocks of sheep over the field.
Botys. - -A moth, the caterpillar of which is injurious to millet. It is
destroyed as follows: -As soon as the millet is reaped and carried away,
let the stubble be pulled up, and burnt in a heap, with the caterpillars in it.
Cor l Moth. -A moth injurious to grain laid up in magazines. The
perfect insect or moth measures, from the head to the tips of the wings, from
six to seven lines. The body is brown, with a little white on the back; the
head has a thick tuft of whitish hairs; eyes black; upper wings more or
less white, with brownish and dusky dots, v-arying in form and size. The
most decided and certain mark is a spot of the same color at the base,
followed by an almost square spot on the outer border; behind this, in a
slanting direction, runs a band-shaped spot almost through the whole breadth
of the wings. Behind this are two dots on the anterior border, and just
above the tips of the wings a larger brown spot. The posterior border is
furnished with long brown and white mottled fringes. The under wings
are smaller and shorter, brownish, with long fringes at the posterior edge.
This insect appears as a moth in May, June, and July, in buildings where
grain is stored; it rests in the day-time, and only flies about at night, attacking rye, oats, barley, and wheat. The remedies proposed are - to fill up the
cracks and holes, sprinkle the floor with a mixture of strong white-wirne
vinegar and salt before laying up the corn, sweeping the floor and walls
thoroughly before stowage, and, if the moth has laid her e,gs on the grain,
common salt may be mixed with the grain. Other remedies are recommended, such as garlic, tobacco, wormwood, hemp, hops, elder-flowers,
turpentine, and brimstone.
Corn -l Yeil.-A small insect, linear-shape, narrow rostrum, tlc elytra
marked by impressed lines of dots. The female deposits her e,ggs upon corn
in granaries, and the young larva at once burrows into the grain, of which it
eats the interior. Various plans have been suggested for its destruction
perfect ventilation and a constant shifting of the grain are great preservatives.
H;ssian Fiy. - A- small midge, injurious to wheat. Its body is covered
with short black hairs; the thorax is much arched, smooth, and shiling;
518
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
the scutellum projecting, rounded posteriorly; the breast sometimes golden,
yellow; the abdomen brownish; the wings blackish; the golden-yellow of
thie base is sometimes continued to the veins, where it appears lighter, and
disappears by degrees about the middle. The halteres are yellowish-white;
Fig. 308.
the legs golden-yellow at the base of the thigh. The female has a black
streak on the abdomen. The larva is spindle-shaped, and whitish; the
posterior end suddenly diminished; the head bent inwards, and transparent
above. A short line is remarked within, which is the intestinal canal. It
is dirty white below; in younger specimens this coloring appears like nine
spots on each side, and has a row of still smaller spots in the middle. When
the larvae are fully grown, they unite in regular segments round the wheat;
they are then provided with very small hooks or notches towards the head.
Their length is three twentieths of an inch, and their breadth one twentieth.
The perfect insect appears in June, and perhaps later; the female lays from
one to eight eggs, in the autumn. The only practicable mode of destroying
this insect is to wait till the grain is reaped, and then burn the stubble in
which the pupae lie concealed. If it should be impossible to do this, sow the
fields next year with any other grain than wheat; better, perhaps, not to sow
lwheat anywhere near them, that the flies may not carry their eggs there.
;IUl7cat Iidge.- This is another small species of midge, injurious to
wheat. When the wheat is in blossom, it is sometimes attacked by a small
fly, of an orange-color, which lays its eggs in the middle of the blossom.
When the eggs are hatched, the larvae prevent the fructification of the grains,
probably by eating the pollen. The perfect insect slightly resembles the
conmmon midge, btut is smaller. The body is orange-yellow; the wings clear
and transparent, and hairy at the edges; the eyes are black; the antennae necklace-shaped(l, longer than the thorax, and the feet rather long. The smallness
of this insect, both in its larva and perfect state, with the circumstance of the
519
I
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
destruction of the wheat when it is in blossom, allows of but little that can
be effected by human aid. The safest and almost only certain means of
Fig. 309.
diminishing such an evil, for the next year, consists in not sowing wheat
again on the same field, nor in its neighborhood. The larvae quit the wheat
in August, and pass the winter in the ground.
III. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CULINARY VEGETABLES.
Spring Beetle or Stip-jack. -Gardeners remark, often to their great
annoyance, that many newly-transplanted lettuces begin sudd,enly to wither
and perish; this happens chiefly in spring and summer. If we seek for the
cause, we find in the roots of the withering plants a worm, which is the
larva of one of the Elateridae, which much resembles the meal-worm. It eats,
by degrees, the root of the lettuce as far as the collar from which the leaves
are developed. It is light yellow, from six to seven lines long, of the thickness of a pigeon's quill; its body is cylindrical, somewhat flatly compressed
at the head, rather pointed behind, with strong, black, and shining jaws.
The pupa or nymph is shorter than the larva, paler in color, and thicker.
The beetle, which is developed fromi the pupa in fourteen days, is from four
to five lines long, one and a half lines broad, and has the usual form of spring
beetles; it is slightly curved; head and thorax dark-brown; wing-cases
yellowish, striped, with dots; the feelers are slender, notclied, and yellowish-brown; the under side of the body also brownish. T'o get rid of this
pest, pull up every plant that begins to wither, and kill the enemy within,
or in the earth near the plant.
Asp)aragus Beetle. -There are two kinds. One is blackish-green, the
thorax red with two black dots, yellow wing-cases, the suture and three
spots united to it on both sides black; and the other, called the Twelvespotted Leaf-beetle, is red, the wing-cases lighter, each having six black
520
I
L
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
dots; the horns, eyes, breast, edge of the abdomen, tips of the thighs and
palpi, black. The first-named is called the asparagus beetle. The larva is
spindle-shaped, flat beneath, arched, fleshy, wrinkled, covered with single
hairs, bordered at the sides, of an olive-color; the head and legs black. The
only remedy is to pick off and kill both beetles and larva.
Farth-flea Beetles. -This name is applied to several species of very small
beetles, one of which is called the turnip-fly. They make great leaps, by
means of their thick hind-legs; color generally shining-green, with a l)rown
or yellowish hue. They attack cabbage, cauliflower, colewort, radish,
cresses, flax, tobacco, hops, sainfoin, and summer and winter turnip)s.
Shade, coolness, and rainy weather, are the surest protection of young plants
from its attacks. The remedies are various. Pour boiling water on a handful of fresh or dry wormwood, and let it stand from twelve to twenty-four
hours, to get cold; then put the plants that are to be planted out into the
decoction, with their leaves downwards as far as the stem, so that their roots
may not be wet, and then put into a cellar, or some cool place, and in six to
teni hours afterwards, they may be planted without risk of attack. Young
plants and seed-beds may also be sprinkled with this infusion. Plants may
also be rescued, by applying road-dust after dew has fillen. These two
modes of remedy are also applicable to field cultivation.
AIole Cric/et, Churr Worm, Jarr WVorm, Eve Churr, or Earth Crab.This insect is very destructive to culinary vegetables, meadows, and cornfields. 1,7hen full-grown the mole cricket measures nearly two inches in
length, and four lines in breadth. Its color is dark-brown; head oval, small
and longish; two bristle-shaped and strong feelers; thorax covered with fine
woolly hair; wings very broad and triangular, when expanded; aldomen
soft; the two fore feet proportionally short, but broad and strong, adapted to
dig in the earth. The surest and most efficacious remedy is to destroy the
brood in June or July. First pour water into their holes, and then a few
drops of any sort of oil; they leave their holes when they feel the water,
and when touched by the oil, die immediately. Also, pits may be dug, two
or three feet deep and a foot wide; after the frost, all the mole crickets will
collect in these for shelter, when they may be destroyed in heaps.
Pain/tel Fi,eld Bt,'. - A dangerous enemy to the cabbage tribe, particularly in dry sutmmers, since in its larva, as well as in its perfect state, it
pierces the leaves, till it makes them like a sieve. The p)erfect insect is
about one fourth of an inch long, and only a little less broad, and rather
flat. Its ground-color is red or white, its upper side spotted with dark-green
head dark-green, bordered at the sides with red or white before the eyes.
On the wing-covers, or upper wings, the dark color prevails; they are
bordered with red or white as far as the terminal third part; this border is
44*
521
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
wavy, and has a green spot. The under side is reddish or whitish the
turned-up edge of the abdomen is marked with dark-green spots, also, on
both sides. The larva has nearly the same markings, and only differs from
the perfect insect by its want of wings. The only way to destroy these
insects is to pick them off and kill them.
Flaet Lice (Aphis). - These are especial enemies to various sorts of
culinary vegetables. They, indeed. spare no plant; but they p)refer juicy
vegetables, - the different sorts of the cabbag(e tribe, peas, and beanls. Ley
and vapor of tobacco are recommended as the best means of killing the
aphides, but these remedies cannot well be applied to culinary vegetables.
Large Cabbage White Butterfly.- The wings are white; upper wings
with broad black tips, and the female has two black spots on the middle.
The under side of the under wings is light-yellow. Appears fronm May to
October. The caterpillar is bluish-green, thinly-haired, sl)rinkled with
black dots, having a yellow stripe on the back, and some onl the sides.
Found on all sorts of cabbages, horse-radish, radishes, mustard, and similar
plants, as well as on water-cresses. The pups are yellowisli-green, with
black dots, with a point on the head, and five on the back. The best way
to destroy them is picking off and killing the caterpillars, as wvell as the
pupae, excepting those which have a brown appearance, as these are full of
the larvae of ichlineumons, and other allied parasites, which are the great
scourge of these caterpillars.
Sinall I.Vhite Bttterfly. - This resembles the former insect, but is smaller,
and the black tint at the points of the upper wings is fainter, and not visible
on the outer e(ldge. The caterpillar is of a dull green, with very fine hairs,
yellow stripe on the back, and yellow spots on the sides, on a pale ground.
In some years, it is very injurious to the cabbage and turnip plants. The
pupa is yellowvish, or greenish-gray, with three yellow stripes. Destroyed
in the same manner as the foregoing insect.
Grcen-rcilze(l Tl7lite Butt(rf7y. - The wings are white, with the tips of
the upper ones black. The male has one black spot, the female two or
three. The veins on the outer edge of the female's under Nwiniis are black.
The under wirrns are yelloiw on the under side, with greenish-powdered
veins. It flies abotut in April and July, and is of the size of the preceding.
The caterpillar, which lives on the leaves of cabbages and turnips, is finelyhaired, of a fitint or brownish green, lighter at the sides, with reddishyellow spiracles, small white warts, and black puncturcs. The pupa is
yellowishl-green, with points on the head, and its back is rather lighter than
the foregoing species. Destroyed by the same means as the two preceding
species.
Gamma AIoth. -The caterpillar of this moth is so plentiful in some
522
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
years that it does great damage to vegetables, peas, and various sorts of
fodder-herbage. The ground-color of this moth is light, and dark-gray,
mixed with rust-color. The head and collar are of browni{sh-gray, edged
with light-gray lines, as well as the crested back and shoulders. The
abdomen is yellowish-gray, with elevated brown tufts of hair. The upper
wings are marbled, and have a metallic lustre; the inner edge is wavy, and
toothed near the fringes. The notched cross-lines are silvery; towards the
inner border is a shining mark, resembling the Greek letter gamma; the
under wings are yellowish-brown at the base above the fringes, with black
bands. The blackish-brown pupa is inclosed in a white cocoon. The caterpillar is green, beset with single hairs, has twelve feet, and a brownishgreen head. On the back are four very small yellowish or whitish lines;
the feet have a yellow stripe. The spiracles are blackishl-green. These
caterpillars are found from spring to autumn, in a variety of generations.
The only possible means of destroying them is by shaking them off and
hand-picking.
Cabbage 3loth. - The caterpillar of the cabbage moth is a great enemy
to different sorts of culinary vegetables. The moth is of middling size, one
inch and a half broad, when the wings are extended; its head, collar, and
-ig. 310.
back, are blackish-gray, intermixed with whitish and yellowish hairs. TI e
back has a thick double crest; the abdomen is dark ash-gray, the upper
half beset with black tufts in the middle. The upper wings are gray, with
a mixture of yellow and white; the under wings are light gray, with dark
veins, and central spots, - blackish towards the outer edge. The moth
appears in MIay and June, sits in the day-time, and flies only at night. The
523
L.
FARMIIER'S HAND-BOOK.
caterpillar is green, more or less covered with gray or black; it has a dark
stripe on the back, on which there is a pale, indistinct line. Above, it is
sometimes furnished with dark or pale spots, placed lengthwise. At the
sides is a dirty-yellow stripe, which becomes reddish above; close above
this spot are two white spiracles, surrounded with black, each in a smanll
black spot. When this caterpillar is numerous, it does considerable damage
to cabbages, lettuces, &c., by eating out the heart. It appears in July,
August and September. To look for them and kill them is a troublesome,
but the only sure way of getting rid of them.
IVhite Lize Browtn-eyed 3Ioth. -The caterpillar of this moth sometimes
does a great deal of damage to different sorts of culinary plants, in the same
manner as the moth last described. The moth is dark rusty brown; the
feelers have white scales; abdomen ash-gray, with brown tuffs; feet grayish-browvn, yellow-ringed below; the fore wings have no connected crosslines; the round middle spot is surrounded with white; the uinder wings
are ochre-yellow, or dirty-white, with darker shades towards the whitish
fringes. The reddish or yellowish brown caterpillar has on the back, and
onl each side, a dark stripe, and a whitish one nearly over the feet; the
under side and feet are light-brown; it is dotted with black between the
dark stripes. The pupa is shining reddish-brown, and remains in the earth
during winter. Destroyed only by hand-picking.
Cabbage-g:arden Pebble Mloth. - Of the family Pyralide, a small group of
moths, this species only deserves to be mentioned, as its caterpillar sometimes greatly injures several sorts of vegetables. The head, back, and upper
wings of the moth, are hazel-brown, and brownish-gold; the feelers li,ghtbrown; the abdomen and under wings whitish. The first brood flies in
May, and the second in August. The caterpillar is found in May and June,
and the second generation in the fall. It has a light-brown head, and a
yellowish-green body, with blackish stripes running lengthwise, and blackish dots, having fine white lines between. Its length is about two thirds of
an inch. Destroy by shaking them off and burying immediately, or killing.
Carrot Ioth. - The caterpillar of this small moth is a great enemy of
carrots. The moth has a head and back reddish-brown, with single black
atoms; abdomen and feet ash-gray, the former with white incisions; the
upper wings are of a reddish-brown color; there are also black streaks and
white atoms, and fringes which surround an indistinct row of dots; the
under wings are of ash-gray, lightest nearer the base, with yellowish
fringes; on the under side, the upper wings are dark, the under wings lightgray. The caterpillar lives on carrots, and eats the flower and seeds. It
is greenish-gray, inclining to yellow, strewed with black tubercles, emitting
hairs; the head and upper side of the thorax are brown. It attains the
524
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
length of half an inch. The means of its destruction are simply hand-picking.
Roesel's Tinea. -The little caterpillars of this moth sometimes do sensible injury to the choicest vegetables. The caterpillars are yellowish-green
lhead shining blackish-brown. Look for them, and kill them.
Onion Fly. - The larva or maggot of a small fly, damaging the various
sorts of onions. The perfect insect or fly is entirely of an ash-gray color in
the female, or with black stripes on the back of the male, the wings clear
like glass, with yellowish-brown veins. In the figure, a is the grub or
larva; b, magnified; c, pauparium, within which is the real pupa; d,
Fig. 311.
magnified; e, perfect insect magnified; the cross-lines showing the natural
size. The fly lays her eggs on the leaves of the onion, close to the earth;
the newly-hatched maggot bores through the first leaf, and then descends
between the leaves into the onion to its base, when it entirely destroys the
bulb, which soon becomes rotten. To destroy them, strew ashes and
pounded charcoal; also remove all the infested onions early out of the beds,
before the flies are developed; and these onions are easily known by their
outward leaves turning yellow.
Cabbage Fly.- This is another small fly, which attacks the cabbage. The
perfect insect is ash-gray; the thorax has three indistinct black streaks on
the back; the wings are clear, like glass; the abdomen is linear, with black
stripes on the back of the male, or entirely ash-gray on the female; the
length is three lines. The larva much resembles that of the onion fly, but
is thicker. The only way of diminishing this destructive fly is to pull up,
and carry away betimes, the plants attacked by the larvae, which may be
known by their dull lead-color, and the withering of their leaves in the sunshine.
Lettuce Fly. -This fly is rather smaller than the former; it is blackish
525
d
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
brown; the under part and sides of the segments of the abdomen varying
gray; length nearly one fourth of an inch. It flies in July. The larva
resembles the former, but is smaller and smoother, and its color varies more
into yellow. It destroys lettuce-seeds, and other salad plants. It is almost
impossible to get rid of these insects.
\Tegro Fly.- This insect, in its perfect state, is slightly haired, shining
black, rather of a metallic-green; head reddish-yellow; legs light-yellow
balancers white; wiings clear, like glass; one sixth of an inch long. The
larva lives in the carrot, particularly near the extremity of the main root.
The carrots die off by degrees, or at least lose their sweet taste, and become
rusty, by the passages of the maggots. The larva of the carrot fly is cylillndrical, pointed anteriorly, like parchment, shiiiing, smooth, bare, pale-yellow. The only way to diminish their number is to pull up the sickly
infested carrots, known by their yellow outer leaves and early withering,
and to destroy the insects contained in them, before they change into pupae.
IV. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, SHRUBS, AND
VINES.
BlacAk-veined TVhiteButterfly, or Hawthorn Pontia.- This is a four-winged
insect, which only flies by day, seeks its necessary food, and fulfils the work
of propagation. It is large, wholly white, excepting that the ribs or veins
Fig. 312.
of the wings, and a short oblique stripe from the second to the third vein of
the upper wings, are black, which distinguishes it from the cabbage butterfly. Eags shining, yellow, cylindrical; the newly-hatched caterpillars are
dirty-yellow, and covered with hair: the head is black, and there is a black
ting round the neck, and a brownish stripe on both sides. The first warm
526
5~
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
sunshine in spring, which causes the sap to flow, entices the caterpillars to
leave their nest; and as the blossom-buds begin to shoot, they are attacked
and consumed, as are also the leaf-buds. At the second change of their
skin, the caterpillars acquire two rows of yellow spots down the back, close
to and between which extends a black line; the back is covered with yellow and white hairs, and from the black stripes on the sides extend oblique
ash-gray stripes, parallel to each other, to the upper side of the body. There
is also a third change, when the caterpillars have a black stripe in the middle of the back, which extends to the posterior part of the body; the yellow
dots, to which the yellow hairs were attached, are not so perceptible, and
the white hairs become more thinly scattered. The pupa is whitishyellow, beset with black dots and stripes. At the beginning of June, the
butterfly appears and propagates its species. The best way of destroying
these caterpillars on low fruit-trees is by seeking out the eggs or young
caterpillars, on the branches, and killing them. The hawthorn butterfly
prefers the lower apple-tree, to lay her eggs on; and they may be seen on
the leaf, conspicuous from their shining yellow color, while the caterpillars
are betrayed by their web, and the adjacent gnawed leaves. When there
are no low trees, the high ones will be infested; and in this case, the mode
of destruction must be delayed till the leaves have fallen off, when the nests
of the caterpillars will become visible. Lastly, a person provided with a
buttterfly-net can take the insect on the blossoms of plants and shrubs, on
which it delights to sit in June, and suck the honey.
Yellowi-tail(d MAoth. -This is a destructive insect in the orchard, the larvae
of the moth often infesting fruit-trees to such a degree that not a leaf or fruit
remains uninjured. It flies about at night, and in the day-time sits quietly
on a leaf, or on a wall, and suiers itself to be caught in the hand. The
posterior part of the body is covered with a round mass of golden yellow
hair; its fore wiigs are dazzling whlite, as is also the greater part of its
lbody, only the lrin cipal vein of the fore wing of the male is brownii on its
under sid(e, and sometimnes has a few black dots on its wines. The male
has a smaller albdomen, a smaller tuft of hair on the tail, and strolgllyteethed feelers or horns. The mnoth appears in June, and pro)paoates, the
eggs being lain on the under side of the leaf, covered with hair. Thle caterpillars are usutally hatched in July; they are dirty-yellow, b)lack-headed,
with a blackl ring round the neck, thickly-haired, and four rows of blackiish
dots on the back. They feedi on the memibrane of the leaf. They cihaunge
their skins in AugIust cease ieeding in September, (and b(coItie )liniitiinl)ed
in November, passi;n the winter if their nest. l( foire the lbuds oin the trees
have begnit to burst in sspring, some. of the caterpillars conme out of their
nests, and eat the unfolded leav.s; at the end of April, they change their
527
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
skins for the second time, and again in May, when they become reddish brown, marlked on both sides with white spots, as far as the extremity of the
body, which is thickly set with hair along the back; they now disperse over
the different fruit-trees in the garden. To destroy them, the means are the destruction of the eggs, killing the caterpillars soon after their birth;
collect the pupe at a later period, pursue the moth in July and August, take
their nests from the trees in autumn and spring, and seek out and destroy the
half-grown caterpillars in their new webs in May.
Lacley, or Barred Tree Lackey Moth.- The caterpillar of this moth
attacks all kinds of trees. The perfect insect is rarely seen, as it only flies
at night, and conceals itself during the day. This moth is of the middle size;
thle male, which is usually smaller than the female, measures, with spread
wings, from tip to tip, from one to one and a fourth inches. The ground color of the whole insect is either light-yellow, or reddish-yellow ochre; the
upper wings have always a darker band in the middle, which is bordered by
two lighter cross-lines; the fringes are whitish, and brown-spotted; the
under wings are always of a uniform color, light-yellow or brownish; the
horns are strongly teethed in the male, which has also a thinner abdomen.
This moth usually appears in July. In spring, the caterpillars are devel oped about the first of May, and they live in society till the third molting.
They are usually met with early in the morning, or on rainy days, at the
forks of the twigs in a large nest, closely spun over with a silky substance
and, when disturbed, they let themselves down by threads to the ground, and
disperse. In the month of June, the caterpillar is fully grown; it is often
an inch in length, soft, thinly-haired, striped with blue, red, and yellow,
hence its fanciful name, - with a white line down the back; the head is
blutish-gray, marked with two black spots. To get rid of this insect, crush
the whole colony, in May, with a stick, or sweep them down into a pot and
destroy themn. From the middle of June, and during July, search should be
made for their cocoons, which will be found either fastened between two
leaves, on trees or shrubs, or lying in the roofs of houses, on the tops of
walls, or in hedges -tread on these cocoons. On low fruit-trees, the rings
of eggs may be discovered, after some practice, when the leaves have fallen
off; and, when found, they must be removed from the tree and burnt.
Gypsy Mloth. -Early in spring, before the leaves of the fruit-trees are
fully out, the little caterpillars are hatched, and spread over the bursting
buds; the head is large yellow spotted; six pair of red (lots on the hinder
part of the back; tufts of hair on each side of the body, and single hairs oii
the back. After changing their skin, a pair of blue tubercles appear on tlhe
fore part of the baclk,- that is, on each of the first four figments of the body,
by which they may be identified at once. Towards the end of June, the
529
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
caterpillars form their cocoons on the fruit-trees; the moth appears iii
August; the males are dark-brown, and their fore wings have three or four
undulating blackish stripes; the females are whitish-gray, their fore w-ings
traversed by, hrownish stripes. The moth lays her eggs in various places in
the fall. To get rid of these insects, first find out the egg masses, and crush
them. As they are large, and usually in open places, we cannot avoid see ing them, if we look carefully, which should be done in autumn, or early in
sprinc, )efore the caterpillars are hatched.
Goat 3Iioth. - The caterpillar of this moth lives on the wood, instead of
the foliage of the trees, thus materially injuring it. It is very large, smooth
and shining, with here and there single hairs. It is dark-red on the back,
also on the spiracles situated at both sides the sides and lower part of the
body are fleshl-colored; the head is black, the first segment also marked
with black above. It discharges a corrosive fluid at its persecutors, and
also diffuses an extremely offensive smell. After remaining more than two
years in the larva state, and casting its skin eight times, the caterpillar
becomes of a light ochre-yellow hue shortly before pupation, which usually
takes place in spring. The abdomen of the pupa is yellow, and the seg ments are deeply indented, and capable of much extension. The cocoon is
situated immediately within the opening of the tree, so that the pupa, when
matured, can press itself half out of the hole, when'the shell bursts, and the
moth comes forth usually in June or July. It is difficult to apply any rem edies. WVhen the existence of one of these creatures in a trunk is ascer tained, by the extruded excrement, relief comes too late for the tree, even
if the caterpillar may be killed; still, the caterpillar should be reached, if
possible, by enlarging the opening with a garden-knife, or endeavor to kill
it by thrusting a piece of pointed wire up the hole of the tree.
Wlood Leopard 3Ioth. - This insect injures the trunks of trees in the
same maunner as the foregoing, to which it perfectly assimilates in its habits,
and is destroyed by the same means. It is smaller, however; is hatched in
August, molts in September, and is full-grown the next June. From its
first existence till its transformation, it is yellow, with raised, shiny blackli
dots, on each of which there is a fine short hair; there are two black spots
Oil the head. The moth appears in August; its ground-color is white. with
scattered steel-blue dots; it measures, with spread wings, two inches and
a half.
Figure-of-S MAoth. - This insect feeds on the foliage of fruit-trees. In
June, when almost full-grown, this caterpillar measures nearly two inches
it is very juicy, of a yellowish-green color, with black tubercles; it has a
very small bluish head, with two black round spots on it. When young, it
is lighter, and is often nearly white on the back; but when old, becomes of
45 K2
5 -,
FARAIER S HAND-BOOK.
a bluish color. The pupa is small, cylindrical, reddishl-brown, dull, in
some degree powdered with blue; the moth appears in October, or in tile
tollowinug spring. The perfect insect or moth measures, with spreadi
.wings, from tip to tip, about one arid three fotrthls inches. The whitishyellow spot in the middle of the fore wings, which is divided by three
incisions at the sides, and is situatedI between! two blackishl, iundulated crossiines, has been sometimes compared to the figure 8. A white wavy line
t)rms a small white spot behind the second stripe at the anal angle; the
toothed external edge has ash-gray, shiniiig fringes, bounded with a line
the under wings, which are ash-gray, have a dull middlle spot, and an indistinct band, with a small, black, streaky spot at the anal angle the color of
the feelers, which are toothed in the male, and filiform in the female, is
rusty-brown; the thorax above is the same color as the fore wings, and the
abdomen, with the extremity of the body,- which in the male has a tuft of
hlair, and inr the female is cylindrical and downy, - is of the same color as
the hinder wings. To destroy or diminish these insects, hand-pick them
as soon as they appear. This is best done in rainy weather, when they take
refuge under the branches aud on dry places of the stem. Their presence
can be detected by their rather elevated oval form, and they may bo
destroyed by the garden-lnifet, or a piece of wood.
Lunar Spotted PFition Aroth. - The caterpillars of this moth are rather
thick and fleshy, light-greeni, with a whitish stripe along the back, and two
darker lines along the sides; on the segmnents are wlitisli-yellow warts,
fuirnished with fine, small hairs; over the feet iul along the first three
segments runs a yellow stripe, bordered with leliek. As soon as the fruittrees are in leaf, this insect is on hind. They are fully grown about the
first of June, and,,l one p)ips of a blue, trostei(l:lt ar;lee, on the trees
themselves. Il a I;\w weeks the moth comes out; thle iore-wiings are
brownishl-redl, iviti several undulating dark-brown triuslers lines, and also
have a whitish semi-circlar spot, nearly at the tip; ne tr to this, almost at
the outer edge, is a rather large black spot; the under wings are light-gray,
rather darker towarIs the fringes, which are yellow. To get rid of the
insect, throw them down, by shaking the branches. Thie moths also usially
fall fiom the tree, if the branches are struckl in June all July.
~Vi;ttlc iSoth. - The green-looped ceaterpillr iro(ltruced by this moth is
a ruinous insect to firuit-trees. It appiears late it the autumn, and iroce,ls
from a lighlt-brown pupa, wlich lies from Junie to the eril( of Oetol)ber, eitlecr
a few inches under the earth, or undler stories an( clods. The mal,n is
winged,- tlie female is almost wingless; tlhe male is of a yellowishli-gri-y,
with i)ale-gray wings, traversed with delicate, darkisli cross-linres; the
female has a much thicker body, of an ash-gray color. It is a nocturnal
530
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
insect; the eggs are laid singly, at the top of the tree, and are small and
greenish. The caterpillars are hatched in spring, are at first gray, and
Fig. 313.
"/ 'I''j'
then light-greenl; black head, without ventral feet. They devour the leaves,
buds, and fruit, and occasionally the trees do not' recover for some time.
The winter moths do not all appear in autumn, but many of them lay their
ecggs on the trees in the following spring. To prevent their attacks, it is
recommendedl to surround the base of the stem with a wooden frame, or box,
and daub it on the outside with tar; others recommend the placing of a
laver ofJ)ird-liime around the trunk of the tree, which is said to have equal
efTect, and does not require daily renewing.
Pale Brind7lel Beau?/ly Aloth.- It appears very early on the fruit-trees,
generally on the pear. The male is rather large; the fore-wings are
greenish-gray, (e-o.re(l with fine brownish (lots, and traversed by interrupted
gray cross-stripts, interspersed with whitish sp)ots b)twe(eii; the hind"wiiis are more or less white, and through the middle of them runs a
b)rownish wasvy cross-stripe; before the fringes is another gray, dark stripe;
the body of the male is also grayish-green, with long hairs; the female is
without wings, smnall, coffee-brown, with angular tufts of fine hair, and
li,)ng feet, annulate(l with white and brown. In March, the female deposji;
her eg.gs on a small side-twig, in rows downwards, covering them with
long gray hairs. As soon as the leaves begin to unfold on the twigs, the
young caterpillars are hatched.
531
I, z
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
Lime Looper, o0 M3ottled Umbre Moth.- Takes its name from the lime.
tree, on which it likes to feed, as also on fruit-trees. This caterpillar,
when full-grown, is of a reddish color, and has a yellow stripe on each
side. It goes into the earth ill Mlay or June, and is transformed into a
brownish-red pupa. The moth comes out of the earth in the beginning of
November, and lays her eggs on a fruit-tree. The male is as large again
as that of the winter moth; its broad fore wings are of a reddish-yellow,
covered with blackish dots; the under wings are dirty-white, dotted with
hrown, and in the middle of the wings is a black dot. The female has no
wings, is much larger than that of the winter moth; the head and body are
whitish, covered with black streaks and dots, and the feet annulated with
yellow and black. To guard against its ravages, the same contrivance as
for the winter moth is to be resorted to, or strike the branches of the tree
with a long pole in May, to throw down the caterpillars.
Smnall Ermine Moth.- This is a small, nocturnal, four-winged insect
the feet, feelers, abdomen, and fore wings, are white, - the latter covere(l
with about twenty black dots; the under wings are blackish. The female
lays her eggs, at the end of June or first of July, near a blossom-bud, or a
leaf-bud. The caterpillars are hatched the same autumn, and as soon the
iext spring as the leaves of the apple-trees begin to be formed, these caterI)illars take possession of them. The caterpillars mature about the middle
of June, when they are dirty-yellow, or lead-color, with a black head; and
on the side of each abdominal segment is a longish black spot, and near it
small dots, each furnished with a hair. In June the mothis are found on
the fruit-trees. They may be taken from the tree by the hand, and
destroyed.
Codln,g Mloth.- A small, reddish-white grub, met with in early apples
or pears. The fore wings have a light-gray ground, on which are scattered
many delicate streaks of a dark hue, intermixed with others that are broad
and cup-shaped. On the posterior border of the fore wings is a large reddish-brown spot, surrounded by a golden mark in the form of a horse-shoe.
The hind wings are of a sparkling brownish-red, inclining to yellow, and
are surrounded on the outer border by a broad, light fringe. The thorax
and abdomen are of yellow and brownish-gray. This moth is to be seen inII
the evening, in May, on the apple and pear trees, busily depositing its eggs,
either on the calyx, or in the hollow part of the fruit at the stalkl end. In
favorable weather, the little grubs are hatched in a few days, so that in
May apples and pears are infested by them. At first the grub is white,
with a black head and collar, and black, slanting double dots, which run in
four rows from the head to the abdomen; it afterwards becomes more of a
flesh-color, the head and collar turning brown, the dots gray and indistinct.
532
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
The little grub immediately becomes a pupa in the web, and in a few days
the moth comes out, which shortly pairs, and deposits eggs on the fruit.
To diminish this insect in some degree, collect the fallen apples every day,
and take them out of the garden; also remove all fruit from the tree which
has grubs in it, and clear the trees of all loose bark, before the middle of
April.
Red Grub of the Plum. - Injurious to the early plums. It produces a
moth; its fore wings are black, changing to a metallic hue in the sun; on
the outer edge of the fore wings, and reaching up, there is the appearance
of very fine silver dust; the black spot on the extreme point of the fore
wings is surrounded with a white border, and has the appearance of an eye.
This moth appears in June; the eggs are hatched when the weather
becomes warm; in July, the grub penetrates deeply into the plum, and the
outward wound, which it made in entering, soon heals up, and the plum
becomes filled with the excrement of the caterpillar. There are few
means in our power to destroy this insect. The tree must be shaken, and
every plum which falls must be removed. Also remove the loose or split
bark.
Red Bud Caterpillar. - The moth which proceeds from this is somewhat
larger than the one above described, has a white, broad, transverse band,
studded with gray spots, extending through the middle of the fore wings
from one edge to the other, and occupies more than a third part of their
whole surface; the other parts of the fore legs are gray. It is found on the
fruit-trees in May; lays its eggs in June, which hatch the next spring, and
attack the buds. A honey-drop is not unfrequently seen on the bud, which,
issuing from the wound made by the insect, is evidence that it will expand
no more; should no sap, however, issue from the wound, the bud will continue to grow, with the little caterpillar in it. The caterpillar attains its
full size in four or five weeks; it then spins itself a white cocoon, in which
it changes to a light-brown pupa, and appears again in May as a moth. To
diminish the number of this insect, we must search for the caterpillar on
the fresh flow-er-buds, taking it out with a penknife; if we search for all
the closely-adhering leaf and flower buds on the dwarf trees, during the
b)lossoming season, and separate them, no bud-eating caterpillars will escape
us.
Plum-tree Tortrix. - This larva, when fully grown, is about one fourth
of an inch long, of a dirty-green color, with a red head, and is the caterpillar of a very small moth. It has three pairs of feet, and five pairs of
fleshy prolegs. The body is sprinkled with a few small hairs. The larva
lurks, during nearly the whole year, under the bark of the trees; the perfect insect appears first in June, and again in harvest. The female lays hei
45*
533
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
eggs on the outer bark, from which the young caterpillars, by degrees, penetrate to the inner bark. To prevent the moth from laying, her eggs on the
tree, or to prevent the caterpillars from entering the inner bark, wash the
stem of the tree with a solution of lime, in June and September; also brush
the tree, and when there is seen the smallest heap of red dust, introduce a
needle, wire, or knife, into the opening, and destroy the larva. The moth,
which, on account of its size and color, is difficult to be caught, is about
half an inch long; fore wings dark-brown and yellow; silvery lines and
yellow spots on the front edge; a dark-brown stain on the upper part of the
wings, softened off at the edges, and surrounded by three red lines; the
under hind waings are brown. The pupa is brown, and lies under the
bark.
Copper-colored TF7eeil. - Among those insects which feed on fruits is the
copper-colored weevil, Curculio, or Rhynchites capreus. It is somewhat
larger than the apple weevil, and its horny wing-cases are fiurrowed and
metallic copper-colored. Its body and feet are of a somewhat deeper shade,
and its proboscis and feelers are black. It appears in spring, on different
fruit-trees; also called the plum-borer. When the plum is nearly the
size of a large almond, the female weevil selects one in which to lay her
eggs; and as soon as this is done, she cuts through the stalk with her proboscis, and by various cunning( means causes the plum to drop off. The
egg does not remain long dormant in the plum or the ground, for, if the
weather is favorable, the larva is hatched in a few days, and it then proceeds to eat the pulp of the plum, which it does in about six weeks; an(d,
being now fully grown, it buries itself in the earth, and awaits its transforimnation in the next spring, when it appears as a beetle, and again begins the
work of re,generation. It is very difficult to catch these beetles on the trees,
but much easier to destroy their young. Pick up the fallen plums, and
frequently shake the trees, from June to July. Ilowever strong the wind
may he, it seldom throws down healthy, half-grown plums.
Baccius, or Purple Apple lVeeril. - This beetle is of a purple and gold
color, with dark blue proboscis, feelers, and tarsi. Its size is various. It
is found early in spring on the apple-tree; begins the work of regeneration
in midsummer, by boring a hole in the apple, laying an egg at the entrance,
and pushing it inside with its proboscis, covering the hole in an ingrenious
mannier; it proceeds in this way, depositing three or four eggs in (difitrent
parts of one apple, and then leaves for another. The grub, whichl is Nxhitish, with a black head, is hatched in a few days, and at once be,gins to eat
the apple, and makes a passage to the surface, to throw out its excrement
or admit more air. The larva is fuill-grown in three or four weeks, and,
like the larva of all weevils, has no feet. It leaves the apple when ready
534
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
for transformation, conceals itself in the earth, and reaippears the next
spring as the weevil. To lessen their number, pick up and remove the
injured pierced apples; also shake the trees well in June and July, to throw
(down the beetles and kill them.
,'cit-boring 117ccil. - This is a small beetle, entirely of a blue-steel, or
a steel-green, shining, metallic color. As soon as the blossom and leaf
buds begin to unfold, the beetle appears on the trees. The female selects
a suitable part of the shoot, and bores to its middle; she then places herself
over the entrance, lays an egg, pushes it into the proper place, and then,
by piercing and cutting the shoot, causes it to fall; after this is done, she
rests and feeds, and then bores another hole, if there be room, near the first,
and lays another egg, and this operation is busily continued for some weeks.
The egg in the shoot is hatched in about eight days, and a white grub, witih
a black head, then appears, feeding' on the pith of the shoot; it is full-grown
in a month, and then buries itself in the earth till spring, when it again
appears as a steel-blue colored weevil; and when the tree begins to sprout,
it gets upon it, and propagates its species. To diminish the number of
these insects, look out for the full-grown insect, which is easily taken at
the time of pairing, and is clearly seen by the splendid steel-b)lue color.
Dexterity is necessary in capturing them. As we cannot, however, remove
all of them, the shoots that lie on the ground, or which still hang on the
tree, N-whiclt have been attacked, must be collected and destroyed. Many of
these kinds of beetles, about half the size of the one mentioned, lay their
eggs in the pith of the petiole instead of the shoot; the female puncturing it
to the right and left of the part where the egg is deposited, causing the leaf
to wither and fall off; the grub then takingr up its abode in the earth, and
changing to a beetle. These leaves, which may be known by their rumpling up and becoming withered, ought to be taken off and destroyed as soon
as possible.
App)le IT;ce,i/. -A small beetle; wing-cases dark-brown, with whitishgray stripes its rostrum, eyes, and utinder part of abdomen, black. It
apl)pears as soon as the sap is in motion in the trees in spring; and when the
blossom-buds are pretty full of sap, the eggs are deposited, and the grubs
are hatched, early or late in April, according to the weather. It bores a
hole with its proboscis into the best blossom-buds; the female then fixes
herself at the entrance, lays an egg, and pushes it into the hole; this operation is afterwards repeated on the same or on fresh buds; the grub or larva
often comes out on the fifth or sixth day-, and commences to devour the
innermost parts of the blossom; but the blossom-bud continues to swell, and
the petals to open, till it is almost expanded; but all at once its growth
ceases, because not merely the blossom, - that is, the stamens and pistils of
535
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
the flower, -but the receptacle itself on which they stand, is devourec.
The petals, therefore, which remain partially closed, forming a kind of cap
31.. 314.
wither by degrees, and at last appear scorched. To lessen the number of
the apple weevils, remove all loose stones, and the leaves which fall in
autumn; clear away the loose or broken bark; and on dwarf trees, take the
pierced blossoms from the trees when the flower-cap begins to be formed,
and before it appears burnt.
Pear Weevil.- While the apple weevil contents itself with only single
blossoms of the apple-trees, this one attacks blossoms, blossom-buds, and
F'it. 315.
leaf-buds, together. If a pear-tree is examined at thie time of blossoming,
many buds will be seen to be brown at the points, and on nearer inspection,
there will be found a dirty-white rugose maggot, with a dark.brown head,
which in time is changed to a small weevil. Early in spring the female
lays her eggs in the buds, causing them to become brown, and then to fall
off when the insect is perfect. Should their attacks become too numerous,
take off the pierced buds and burn them; also shake the trees early in
spring, spreading a white cloth under the trees, so that the fallen insects
may be seen; also bind strips of paper covered with tar around the stemns,
to prevent the beetles ascending.
Oblong iVcevil. - This is one of a class of small, destructive beetles.
It has a short rostrum; its head, thorax, and body, are black; its feelers
and feet reddish, and its elytra furrowed, and reddish-brown or blackish.
It appears early in spring, and selects the best leaves of fruit-trees. They
pair in spring; in June, the female lays her eggs in the earth, and the grub
536
L
6
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
that is produced feeds on the roots of plants, passes the winter in the earth,
and, in the spring, appears transformed into a beetle. They should be
watched in the spring, and, with caution, may then be caught by the hand.
Red-Jooted Beetle.- Another small insect, feeding on the leaves of fruittrees. It is shining black throughout, except its red feet; the tips of the
feelers are black, and the basal part reddish. It appears generally inl May,
and continues a long while. It may be caught by the hand.
Ga(rden Bectle. -The 3Ielolontha (or Anisoplia) horticola is anothler
leaf-eating beetle. It is larger than the oblong weevil; its wingi-cases are
red-browii, but somewhat shining, and not reaching to the extrenme poilt of
the body. Its body, thorax, and head, are dark-green; its feelers reddish,
with a dark-green, strongly-cleft terminal club. They appear somewhat
later than the one just mentioned. The female lays her eggs in the earth,
and the larvae, when hatched, feed on the roots of plants, are transformed to
beetles, and appear again as such in the spring. It feeds on the leaves of
fruit-trees, and is particularly injurious to the apples, because it feeds on
them when they are very small. When numerous, they often gnaw all the
leaves till they resemble a sieve, thus checking the growth of the tree, and
causing the fruit to fall. As these insects are tolerably large, they are
easily seen, and can be removed with comparatively little difficulty.
Apple-bark Beetle. - So called because it prefers the apple-tree in which
to deposit its eggs. It is small; head and thorax black; the extremity of
the palpi and feelers reddish; the longish wing-cases blackish, and somewhat hairy; the feet dilated, and of a reddish-yellow; the thighs black.
When the female finds a suitable place, she bores a completely round hole
in the tree, penetrating to the centre, the minute particles of wood thrown
out serving as a sign of the insect's presence. At the end of the entrance,
snow-white, longish eggs are laid, which are also the characteristics of the
larvia that are hatched in MAIay. The larvae grow very rapidly. This variety of insect belongs to a tribe of beetles whose economy is well known,
and in which the larvge of all the species whose habits have hitherto been
noticed burrow beneath the bark, devour the soft inner barkli, or wood
t)eneath the bark, and form distinct channels, diverging from the place where
the eg_,s were deposited. The only way to destroy them is to cut off the
branches intfested with their eggs; and should the trunk be also attacked,
the whole tree had better be cut down and conveyed away.
Sitl/ —bark Beetle. - This beetle is the Scolytus liaiemorrhois. It is
black, the ends of the wing-cases generally reddish; the feet lIrownish-red,
and the wing-cases furrowed lengthwise, and distinctly spotted. They
make small holes in the stem, penetrating deep into the bark. It is evident,
that when any tree is attacked by this insect in great numbers, it must
531
FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK.
perish, because no tree can continue to grow with an injured bark and
pierced sapwood. The insects cannot easily be eradicated, or, at least,
diminished in numbers, but by removing the trees attacked by them.
Colmiioit Ebio-dcstroying Scolytts- An insect allied to the apple-tree
scolytos, committing ravages on fruit and other trees. The perfe(t insect
or beetle is small, cylindrically formed, and tolerably firm to the touch. Tihe
head and thorax form the principal part of its body. They are l)lack and
shinting, finely and thickly dotted, the former covered with short yellowishlgray hairs thie feelers are light pitch-brown, ending in a knobl); the wingcases are, as it were, obliquely cut off behind, and at the l)as, near the
thorax somewhat hollowed, - are marked in lines which are dotted, as are also
the spaces between them, - their color is pitch-brown; the abdl(lomen, from the
base to the apex, is as if slantingly lopped off, and, like the thorax, of a dark
pitch-brown, thickly dotted; the legs are reddishl-brown, with the second
joint tolerably broad. The larva is yellowish-wNhite, with a large shining
head, a brown mouth, and a wvhitish-transparent swellinug between the head
and the first ring on the throat. They confine themselves to the inner bark,
destroying that part by degrees, and causing the tree, or some of its branches,
to perish. The only remedy is to fell and carry off the trees attacked, and
burn them, in the autumn, in winter, or in early spring, at the time when
the insect is still in the larva state.
Plumh Sct: —fty. -The green gage and round plums are sometimes
attacked, -whlen hardly the size of a pea, causing them to fitll off, by a sawfly, which makes use of the pulp as food for her offspring. It rescembles the
house-fly, but has four wings the head and body are black, and the feet
reddishl-yellow. As soon as the blossom-buds begin to cxpand, the insect
appears, pairs, and then begins to lay its eggs,- selecting the largest kinds
of plums, - in the upper part of the green envelope of the blossom, catting in
and piercing it through, and immediately introduces the egg into the deepest p)art. The e,g is small, and is hatched in a few days, appearing a
delicate whitish larva, with a d(lark-brown head, six pairs of middle fe.et,
three pairs of fore feet, and one pair of anal feet. It fixes itself in the centre
of the pltm-stone, which it eats; in six weekls it is fully grown, and the
plum then drops to the ground, the insect buries itself in the earth till the
next spring, when it appears again as a perfect saw-fly, ascends the plumtree, and continues its species. To diminish the number of this insect, take
the plums infested by the larva from the tree, and destroy them -these are
known by a small black opening in the plum; -also pick up and convey
away all the plums that fall.
Pear Saiv-fly. -This insect attacks the pear-tree to lodge her young
there. It measures, from the front of the head to the extreme point of the
53S
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
vody, ~ of an inch and one sixth in breadth. Its long feelers consist of
numerous: joints, the basal part of which is very thick and long, the second
much thinner and shorter, and the third the longest. The head is black,
with a yellowv triangnular spot between the feelers; the breast and the lp)Per
side of the thorax are quite black; the first abdominal segment likewise
black, but surrounded with yellow the other segments are oriange(-yellow
from the plates to the two edges, by which the upper part of tile abd(oillen is
united to the belly; these plates are of a light-yellow color; thle wilgs look
glossy, with a dark-brown mark round the edge, and an obscure kind of
stripe, which extends across the whole breadth; the three pairs of feet are
of an orang,e-color. It appears in May and June; the eggs are laid on the
under side of tile leaf; and the caterpillar, which is hatched in a few days,
is first whitish-yellow, but becomes darker every day. It has a black head,
and just under the throat are two black dots; the other parts of the body are
ochre-colored, and transparent, without hairs. In five weeks they are fullgrown; then leave the tree, bury themselves in the earth, and do not appear
again as saw-flies, till the next spring, to propagate their species. Their
webs must be removed from the trees.
Peach or7 Poplar Saw-fly.- To those insects which only attack the
leaves of fruit-trees, and use them as food, belongs the peach saw-fly.
It is a little longrer than the common house-fly, is black, and only on the
hinder part of the body, the back and the abdomen, are seen whitish square
incisions, extending on both sides towards the middle; the feelers are
simply jointed, the palpi and feet are yellow, the thighs black. They appear in April or May, laying their eggs firmly on a leaf, a white-greenish
grub being produced in a few days, which eats the leaves; they are fullgrown in five or six weeks, are about the size of the green lopper of the
winter moth, of a light-green color, with black heads, three pairs of fore and
one pair of hind feet; they now retire into the ground, remaining there till
spring, when they again appear as saw-flies to propagate their species.
The larvae is very destructive, the trees looking as though covered with
spiders' webs, instead of leaves. Examine the trees carefiully when the
leaves are expanded, and the pale-yellow eggs, which usually lie together
on the point or edge of the leaf, are easily seen. If these are destroyed as
soon as they are laid, the leaves will not be consumed. The green larvae
cannot escape notice, as they are always surrounded with a web, and rolled
utip in the leaves they have gnawed.
Pear Chicrmes. - These creatures beset the young shoots and bearing
wood of dwarf pear-trees. It is an insect nearly allied to the plant-lice
(aphidles). It has wlings, and is about the size of a large aphis. It has a
broad head, terminating in front in two cones; but there is no opening fox
539
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
the mouth in the head, it being situated in the middle of the breast. The
rostrum stands out perpendicularly, and ends in a point, from the latter
Fig. 316.
W_W~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1
issuing the very long delicate tongue with which it sucks its food. The
female is mostly crimson-colored; the male in some parts more shaded with
black; the wings of both are membranous and snow-white. As soon as the
buds appear, the winged chermes appears, and the eggs, which are longish
and yellow, are deposited on the young leaves and blossoms, or on the
newly-formed fruits and shoots. They are hatched in a few days, and
resemble the apterous plant-lice, have six feet, and are dark-yellow. After
a few days, they change their skins, and become darker; and when they have
molted for the last time, and have attained full size, the body swells gradually and becomes cylindrical. They then leave their associates, and, before
they lay aside their nymph-like covering, they fasten themselves firmly to
a leaf; after a few minutes the skin splits on the upper part of the covering,
and a winged insect proceeds from it, of a pleasant green color, red eyes,
and snow-white wings. After a few days, this chermes has assumed the
colors of the perfect insect; the head, collar, and thorax, are of an orangecolor, and only the abdomen retains its green hue. Late in the autumn it
selects a place for protection from the cold, and in spring appears in its
crimson black-shaded clothing, to begin the work of regeneration. To clear
the trees from them, brush the young off with a stiff brush, and tread upon
them; or, search out and take away the winged chermes from the dwarf
pear-trees, as soon as the blossoms appear and the shoots begin to grow.
Their red color and long wings discover them, and as they are not shly, they
are easily caught by the hand.
Apple Cl/ernes. -The eggs are laid in September, on different places of
the twigs of an apple-tree, usually, however, in the furrows of the knots.
In the formation of the body of the perfect insect, it exactly resembles the
pear chermes; it is, however, different from that species in color, the eyes,
instead of being red, are of a snowy-white, with a black pupil; the back of
540
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
the thorax is of alight-green, the abdomen is marked with yellow rings, and
the membranous wings with strongly-marked snow-white veins. The snout,
which contains the setiform tongue, is situated, like that of all the species
of chermes, in the middle of the breast. When very numerous, these insects cause considerable destruction; because, when all the single standing
blossoms are completely covered with blisters, broken filaments, and small
hairs, as is usually the case, and the flower-buds have been weakened by
the previous sucking of these insects, no fruit can be produced. To secure
the blossom and fruit of trees in pots, or dwarf trees, brush away the young
chermes with a fine brush, when they appear, or at latest wh n the first
changing of the skin takes place in April. It is also necessary to examiine
the small apple-trees in spring, when the blossoms begill to appear, to
ascertain if any aphides are upon them, and if so, to destroy them.
Plant-louse, or Aphis.- There are particularly three species of aphides
which are very destructive to fruit-trees, namely, the apple, plumr, and peach
aphides, Aphis pyrii mali, Aphis pruni, and Aphis persicoe. The apple aphis is
grass-green, the plum aphis light-green, and the peach aphis dark-green. The
old females are known by dark-brown spots on their bodies. They all
Fig. 317.
rlit
appear as soon as the fruit-trees leaf. The peach aphides appear the first,
and are seen upon the trees when the buds are very young; they proceed
from eggs which were laid on the shoots the previous autumn, and are only
females without wings. No sooner do they see the light than they disperse
over the leaves and shoots near them, and begin to suck out the sap. In
twelve days they are fully formed, and at once produce young. The offspring of the second generation is, if the weather be warm, again ready to
bring forth in ten days, at the latest. It often happens that sixteen generations in all are produced, - some of the progeny having wings, and others
46
541
FARMiER'S HAND-BOOK.
none; the latter never leaving the tree unless driven by force, and the formel
pairiing and producing their young wherever it may suit them. In Sep tember, males and females are produced from the last generation; the apple
aphis producing males which do not obtain wings, and the peach aphis
those that do. When these newly-born males and females are fuill-grown,
pairing takes place. The females then no longer produce living young
ones, but lay eggs, from which the imothers of the forthcoming generations
proceed. They lay their eggs on the twig or shoot itself, and either all
around it, like the apple aphis, or on or near the btuds, lilke the plum and
peach aphides; the females, having thus provided f)r their future spring
progeny, die off in the autumn; the eggs survive the winter. With
regard to the apple aphis, there is no method more effective than destroying
the eggs soon after they are laid. They may be seen late in the autumn,
or early in spring, on the dwarf apple and pear trees, especially the young
trees that have high steims, because the eggs lie exposed close together on
the shoots, like grains of gunpowder, and yield a green juice, if pressed.
We should not, however, press them, but the shoots should be washed over
with liquid loam, garden earth, or whitewash, which will kill the eggs.
With regard to the plum and peach aphides, we must wait till they are
hatched and sitting on the leaves or blossom-buds, when, beingi of a dark bIrown, they are easily seen. WVhen the peach-trees becin to put out their
l(ay-es, examine them thorotigl-ly on account of the aphid(les, becauese, at a
later period, when they are numerous, the trees cannot easilv be ficed from
them. Prune off the shoots infested by the aplhides, and brushl the tree,
carf'uilly examining every tree in June, July, and August, because the third
and followinl generations bring many into the world, that soon obtain wings
and disperse themselves.
.Snall aInd Ledigc Pear Iiddes. - This species of mi(lge is very small; the
feelers are cvlin(lrieal, finely-haired, and composed of sixtee jointsz with the
two )basal-joiits thicker than the others; the abdomen is slen(ler, s.cev'n-ringed
and finriely-haire(l; there is a kno)lbby two-jointed pair of fi)receps o.l he extreme
point of the body of the male, and the same part of the female is pointed;
the wiligs lie in a parallel direction; the feet are long, tlhin, and finelyhaire(d. According to some, it is a species belonging to the Lsclles,iara;
others call it Mlo/obrus. The small pear midge lays her eggs in the blossoms
when they are still closed. The large pear midge, fimale, is little more than
one twelfth of an inch long, and half as thick; the male is more sle(nder, and
shorter. The feelers are blackish, and not so long as the body; tli( head is
blackl an(l shininig, as is also the thorax; the proboscis as.h-gray; the aibdomnen
of the,!ale a deep black, - that of tli femnale browner, with 1,lek riles; and
the anal point is quite black; the feet are ash-gray, the tarsi and wings black.
542
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
The pears infested by these insects will, on being opened, be found with the
core eaten out and empty, or half rotten, causing the fruit to fall to the
ground, while some wvill be found but little decayed, thoug,h containing
several yellowish larva, one twelfth of an inch long, and a third as thick, with
ten segments without feet; and each having a pointed hea(, on which two
bl)ack spots stand close together.
Blacl; Gall -idge.- There are a number of species of this insect. The
thorax is black, varying to ash-gray backwards, with black lines on the back;
thle scutellum is grayish; the abdomen blackish, with yellow incisions; the
feet are of a pale-gray, and the feelers are blackish-brown. They are found
to lay their eggs in the blossom of the pear-tree, as soon as the buds are so
far developed that in the single blossoms a petal is seen between the seg ments of the calyx. It fixes itself almost perpendicularly in the middle of a
single blossom, and, piercing the petal through, the eggs are laid on the
anther of the still-closed blossom. The etgs are hatched in a few days, and
the small larva bore into the blossom, in or near the stem of the calyx.
When they have consumed the pulp of the small fruit, they are fill-grown,
and then they leave the tree, to bury themselves in the ground, or else remain
in the core till the pear falls to the ground. They issue from the earth in
sprina, to propagate their species.
Parado rica?l Pcer Platygaster.- This is a small insect, said to have the
male organs of generation on the under side of the thorax, and those of the
female at the extremity of the horn arising from the base of the abdomen,
and curved over the head. As it is generally thought to be simply parasitical upon other insects, we shall not describe it further.
R/l,oly/i/ecs ( Cerclio) Betilcti.- Rhlynchit.es Bacchus, Sch., has hitherto
been contsidecrel as the peculiar enemy of the vine; it is, however. never
found on'in,s. l,t only on other kinds of fruit-trees, and is essentially distiti)shedl fidomr the Reh. Bctuilcti by its shining copper-color. The latter
ilseet is -a stll w-eevil, of a metallic-green or steel-blue color. It is one
third ofr ich la iC.l in(cluding the rostrum, - the latter being nearly a third of
the whole lngth~ it is tolerably broad, and turned downwards. On the thorax
of thI-e m tle, toN:ids the front on both sides, are obscreed short spines; the
abdomeint is almcst quad(rangula r. The spines are wanting oni the thorax of
the f male, aid her rostrum is sho)rter. The b)eetle appe,ars in spring, as soon
as the trees are in full foliage, and begins its work of destruction in May. It
males use of the leaf of the vine partly for a dwelling, and partly for the food
of its yeotlng. When the female has selected a suitable leaf, she cuts the
petiole with her rostrim almost half through, so that it ha.ngs dow)n. She
then b!cgi',: to r(i'l the leaf toge(ther, generally alone, but sometimes assisted
by tile uel. While this operation is going forward, she also 1lay= iu]r eggs;
543
FARMIER S HAND-BOOK.
that is, she pierces the roll, lays an egg in the opening, and pushes it in with
her rostrum in such a manner that it remains on the inner surface of the
leaf. When she has thus introduced five or six eggs, between the different
folds, she rolls the remaining part of the leaf entirely together, so that it is
impossible to discover, from the outward appearance, in what manner the
eggs were deposited. This beetle also finds the leaves of the pear-tree suitable for its purpose, rolling up the leaves of the leaf-buds. In a few days the
eggs are hatched in the rolls, and a whitish small worm comes out of each
egg, with black oblique stripes over the back, and a reddish head. In four
or five weeks it is fully grown. In the mean time, the petiole and the roll
have become so dry that they are easily torn off by a moderately high wind,
and fall to the earth. If this does not take place till the wNorm is fillly grown,
it leaves the partly-consumed roll, buries itself in the earth, and appears
again in spring as a weevil. This beetle, therefore, is the real weevil of the
vine, defoliating it, and preventing the grapes fromn ripening As it is tolerably large, it may easily be perceived, and may consequently be destroyed,
particularly as it allows itself to be taken without flying away. When it is
numerous in orchards, it should be taken off, and the leaf-rolls pulled off, and
burnt or crushed.
Vine Scale Insect. -This insect forms a longish, marbled-brown scale.
In old age the scale becomes blackish-brown, hemispherical and wrinkled.
The ecgs, which are laid under the body of the female, are covered with long
white wool. They are found on vines, particularly in gardens. Their
destruction is best effected by dry-brushing in autumn or spring
Fly. 318.
544
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
Vine Beetle. - It issues from the earth in spring when the vine has begun
to shoot, creeps upon the branches, bites off the leaf and flower buds. The
largest male specimens are little more than two thirds of an inch long, and
half an inch broad, black and shining; head large; thorax broad; abdomen
short; legs rather strong. To protect the vine, the only way is to collect
and kill the beetle, which carries on its evil practices in open day, and is
discernible on account of its form and size.
Vine Saw-fly. -The saw-fly of the vine is of a jet-black color, except
the upper side of the thorax, which is red, and the fore legs and under side
of the other legs, which are pale-yellow or whitish. The wings are semi transparent, smoky-color, with dark-brown veins. The body of the female
is one fourth of an inch in length; that of the male is somewhat shorter.
These flies rise from the ground in the spring, and lay their eggs on the
lower side of the terminal leaves of the vine. In the month of July the
false caterpillars, hatched from these eggs, may be seen on the leaves, it
little swarms. Beginning at the edge, they eat the whole of the leaf to the
stalk, and thus proceed from leaf to leaf, till they have grown to their full
size. They then average five eighths of an inch in length; have twenty-two
legs; the head and the tip of the tail are black; the body, above, is light green, paler before and behind,- the lower side of the body is yellowish. As
a remedy, it is recommended to strew air-slacked lime upon them, and also
upon the ground under the vines.
Canter Tform. -This insect is most abundant on apple and elm trees: but
cherry, plum, and lime trees, as well as some others, and many shrubs, suffer
from them. The leaves first attacked will be found pierced with small holes;
these become larger and more irregular when the worms increase in size,
and, at last, the latter eat nearly all the pulpy parts of the leaves. There is
a great difference of color even among the same species, of the same age and
size. When very young, they have two minute warts on the top of the last
ring; and they are then generally of a blackish or dusky-brown color, with
a yellowish stripe on each side of the body; there are two whitish bands
across the head, and the belly is also whitish. When fully grown, they
become ash-colored on the back, and black on the sides, below which the
pale-yellowish line remains. Some are found of a dull greenish-yellow, and
others of a clay-color, with slender blackish lines on the sides, and small
black spots on the back. When not eating, they remain stretched out at
full length, and resting on their fore and hind legs, beneath the leaves.
They leave off eating when about four weeks old, and begin to quit the
trees. After reaching the ground, they immediately burrow in the earth, to
the depth of from two to six inches, and they are there transformed. To
prevent the ravages of this worm, one method is to bar the ascent of the
46* L2
w
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
wingless female up the stem of the tree. This is done by taking two pretty
wide pieces of board; plane them; make semi-circular notches in each,
fitting them to the stem or body of the tree, and fasten them together
securely at the ends. The crevices between the boards and the tree may be
easily stopped with rags or tow; then smear the under side of the boards
with tar. The tar, being defended from the direct rays of the sun, will hold
its tenacity longer, and therefore need not be frequently renewed. The
trees, in this way, will be less liable to be injured by the drippings of the
tar, by leaving a margin of two or three inches on those parts of the boards
which are next to the trees, to which no tar is applied. Another mode of
intercepting the insect's path is to enclose the trees with collars, or circular
slips of tin or zinc. And still another mode - though these are only three
out of nearly a hundred that are practised -is, to dig around the trees, and
lay the earth smooth; then take air-slacked lime, and strew an inch thick
around the trees, to the extent of two or three feet from the roots; then tar
the trees.
Apple-tree Borer. - They are the larvae of a beetle called Saperda
bivittala,- the two-striped or the brown and white striped Saperda. This
beetle varies in length from a little more than one half to three fourths of an
inch. It comes forth from the trunks of the trees, in its perfected state,
early in June, making its escape in the night, during which time only it uses
its ample wings in going from tree to tree in search of companions and food.
The trees and shrubs principally attacked by this borer are the apple-tree, the
quince, mountain-ash, hawthorn and other thorn-bushes. The larvt are fleshy
whitish grubs, nearly cylindrical; the head is smnall, horny, and brown; the
first ring is much larger than the others; the next two are very short, and,
with the first, are covered with puncetures and minute hairs; the following
rings, to the tenth i.iclusive, are each furnished, on the upper and under
side, with two fleshy warts, close together; the eleventh anal twelfth rings
are very short; no appearance of legs; the grubl) cuts a cylindrical passage
through the b)arkli, and pushes its castings backwards out of the hole, from
time to time, while it bores upwards into the wood. The larva state con tinues two or three years, during which the borer will be found to have
penetrated eight or ten inches upwards in the trunk of the tree, its burrow
at the end approaching to, and being covered only by, the bark. I-lere its
transformation takes place. The pupa does not differ much from other pupa
of beetles; but it has a transverse row of minute prickles on eachl of the rings
of the back, and several at the tip of the abdomen. The final change occurs
about the first of June, soon after which, the beetle gnaws through the bark
that covers the end of its burrow, and comes out of its place of confinement
546
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
in the night. Killing it by a wire thrust into the holes it las made, is one
oif the oldest, safest and most successful methods.
V'.'INS,ECTS INJURIOUS TO FLOWER-PI,ANTS.
Eerlig. - This well-known insect, considered, without cause, as very
dan ger-eus to mankinid, must find a place among those chiefly injurious to
fruit and floweers. Its size varies according to its age II(1 sex. iWhen fully
grown it measures almost an inch, incltdin, the force)-like appendage at
the end of the abdomen; its breadth is one sixth of al inih. T}e bodylv is lightlbrown, free from hair; it has very short w i-as.s under which the wings lie
concealed, folded both longitudinally and traisv(rs ly. It isusually under
the bark of trees, in the hollow stemis of trees, in rioled(-up leav(S. s ld under
stones. In orchards, it particularly injures the frtit )f trees hlie I are trained
as espaliers, such as peaches and apricots, wlliehl are often entirely pierced
through in warm weather. They also attack the other sorts of ifruits, particularly apples and pears. In flower-gardens tlih,y destroy carnations, pinks,
and dahlias, in particular. The only certain method of destroying earwigs
is by catching them, which is best effected by hlollow tubes, laid here and
there, in orehbarts and flower-gardens. The common reed is fit for this purpose, bat the holl.ow stem of the sunflower is even more so, as the insects
are eager in thue pursuit of the remains of the sweet pith. They are also
easily caught bcwe:.i the folds of paper, or in pieces of cloth and linen laid
on the groundl. They creep into these traps in the morning after their nocturnal rambles and indy easily be shaken out and killed at any time of the
day. Some place the loewer-stands in vessels of water, which prevents the
earw-igs from Cree C, but not from flying, upon the plants.
Orange -S le-t. -It appears like an elliptical nut-brown shield, and
is very plentiful o 7reen-hlouse plants, particularly on orange-trees, fastens
lig itself upon the branches and leaves, particularly when tlie trees are
kept rather warm. h I: is best destroyed by waslling the branches and leaves.
If this be do0( in t., it is a gr At advantage, as the old ones cannot
creep up arrair..
.caL1 B.. —cllis species is reddish, an!id strewed with whlite dust. At
tl,e sides of th telv-e sgmrnents of the body it is provided with small tubercles. The rile is slender and gnat-like, with two rather broad wilig,s, an(d
two long, bru-sh-shaped tail filaments. It attacks a number of species iof
pllaiIts, and can only be diminished in number by brushing them off earefilly
with soft broshes, and crushing them.
O/a,(r,caleca l Insect. - The female appears as a yellowish, round, fla
shield, almost destitute of limbs, which sucks plants with its rostrum. Thb
siield of the male larva is smaller than that of the female, and quite white
547
FARIIER'S HAND-BOOK.
The perfect male is brownish-yellow, dusted with white, and white wings.
l,engfth, one thirty-sixth of an inch. It lives in amazing numbers on different
Linds of plants, particularly on oleanders, acacias, aloes, palms, &c., and can
only be gotten rid of by careful brushings.
RoI.se Scale. The female is like that of the former. The male pupa is
linear, doubly furrowed on the back. The perfect male is pale-red, dusted
with white, and white wings. Length, one thirty-sixth of an inch. They
live on the stems and old tvwigs of rose-trees, which are sometimes entirely
covered with them, and look mouldy. The best way of getting rid of'
them is brushing them off with strong brushes before the rose-trees sprout.
Rose-trees are much injured by these insects.
Cactus Scale. - The female bears a great resemblance to the oleander
scale, only that the muscle-shaped shield is more oblong and darker. The
male is orange-yellowv, the pupa linear, doubly filrrowed, powdery-gray.
ILives principally on the different species of cactus.
Sweet Bay Scale. - The shield of the female is oval-shaped, brown, with
: reddish-yellow elevation before. The male is pale cherry-red; the body
flat; the horns or feelers rather shorter than the body. The shield of the
larva the same as the female, but narrower. It is difficult to remove, as it
i; so firmly seated that brushing is not always sufficient; a pointed stick
must therefore be had recourse to.
Rose Moth. -In early spring, as soon as the rose-tree begins to bud, a
very dangerous enemy to the growth of its leaves and blossomis arrives. It
is the more to be dreaded, as, from its smallness and peculiarity of form, it
is easily overlooked. If the new leaf-shoots are closely examined, a little
brownish scale is found here and there attached to them; and upon nearer
inspection, we shall be convinced that it is a little case, in which a worm,
the larva of a small moth, is concealed, which gnaws the tender shoots.
When it has devoured one shoot, it removes with its house, and attacks
another; and thus, in a short time, one of these larvae can strip a whole
branch of its shoots. The larva which lies in the little case is about half an
iinch long; yellow, with a black head, and black-spotted collar. It undergoes pupation in its case, which enlarges from time to time, as necessity
rc(uires. The moth appears at the end of May. The whole body is silvery
slining gray; the upper wings strewed with minute black dots, deeply
ltringed at the posterior edge the under wings are narrow, pointed, with
very long fringes. The only certain way of preserving rose-trees from this
,inemry is to look for the small cases in early spring, before the foliage is
,I(cevloped, when an experienced eye will easily discover them. They must
be crushed immediately.
Plant Mite, or Red Spider.- A small insect of the spider class. It is
5-19
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
scarcely visible to the naked eye; has eight legs; its color changes from
yellowish to brown and reddish, and on each side of the back is a blackish
spot. In the open air it usually attacks kidney-beans. Among trees, the
young limes mostly suffer, and the mites are found in thousands on the underside of the leaves. These leaves assume a dirty-yellow or brownish appearance, and in the middle of summer the trees acquire an autumnal hue.
Frequently sprinkling the plants with cold water has been found efficient as
a means of destroying these insects. Also repeatedly fumigating the hothouses with strong tobacco-smoke injures them in some degree.
VI. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO MEADOWS.
GENERAL REMARKS. - MAlost of the insects that choose the various sorts
of corn for their food do not reject the other sorts of grasses, in the meadows.
The herbage of the meadows suffers from the roots of the grass-plants being
injured, which is chiefly occasioned by the larva of various species of cockchaffers living in the earth. When bare spots ate seen on meadows, we
may be sure that the larvw of the cockehaffer are there carrying on their
work of destruction. But the large swarms of those smaller species of cockchaffers sometimes seen flying about, towards evening, in the meadows, in the
spring, and at the beginning of summer, and the round holes which we
frequently find in meadows, through which they had crept out of the earth,
clearly show that they had passed the first period of their life there, and at
the expense of the herbage.
Unspotted Lady-bird.- An insect injurious to many of the artificial
grasses. It has been observed on the common tare. sanfoin, and the different sorts of clover. This larva is only one sixth of an inch long, yellowishwhite, with single green spots, and the upper side of the body covered with
prickles. Its transformation takes place on the leaves. The pupa is lightyellow, covered with minute hairs of the same color. The perftct insect is
almost globular, yellowish-red on the upper side, with a brownish-red spot on
the thorax. The abdomen is brownish-black, and the legs reddish, or reddishbrown. A- good soil and moist weather, which will cause the herbage to
grow quickly and luxuriantly, and to be often mown, are the chief requisites for diminishing the insect. By often removing the cut fodder from the
field, the insect will be disturbed in its propagation.
llig,ratory Locust. - An insect destructive to all vegetation. Their
native country is in the plains of Asia, between the Black and Caspian
Seas, Syria, Palestine, the northern coast of Africa, Egypt, &c., where
they sometimes increase to an incredible multitude; and after eating up
everything in their native country, favored, by the wind, they perform great
journeys in prodigious swarms. Their swarms often measure several hun
549
FARMER'S HAND-BOOK.
dred fathoms in diameter, and are capable of darkening the sun, like thick
clouds. When they have alighted in a place, they spare nothing that their
"ig. 319.
sharp teeth can master. Grain of all sorts, meadows, vineyards, and the
foliage of trees, are to them equally welcome as food. They stay till they
have eaten up everything in the country, and transformed it into a desert,
and then they resigln themselves to the guidance of the wind, whlerever it
may take them. Besides the locusts laying waste large tracts of country by
their voracity, and causing famine, they become also a real scourge to mankind, fromn the stench which arises from their dead bodies when they are
very numerous, and which breeds dangerous diseases.
This insect is one of the larger species of the genus to which it belongs.
Its length, from the head to the points of the wings, is from two to two and
a half inches. Its head and neck are green, its body brownish, the upper
wings brown, melting into greenish, and with darker quadrangular spots;
the under wings are transparent, and greenish towards the body. The blue
upper jaws, which, on the inner surface, are furnished withl sharp teeth, are
very characteristic organs, which they apply effectually to devouring the
vegetation.
Rye-grass Yfoth.- A moth injurious to the different species of grass, and
other meadow herbage. The moth is of middling size; the male, wvitl
extended wings, is nearly an inch broad, and black, with yellow notches on
the abdomen; the wings are thin, black, and fringed with the same color.
The female has a thick, long abdomen, which is whitish-gray, and woolly
at its exterior; wings small, slender, brownish-gray, and not adlapted( for
flying. The caterpillar is found in April and May, living on rye-grass ail(nd
many other plants in meadows; its groutnd-color is velvety-l)lack, yellow iat
the incisions and sides, with a black head and small yellowish warts, having
ash-gray hairs on them. The destruction of this caterpillar is very difficult,
as it prefers living in long grass in the day-time, or in the ground. Break
550
NOXIOUS INSECTS.
ing up the meadows in autumn appears to be the best method of destroying
the pupse concealed there.
Antler or Grass Moth.- A moth injurious to meadows. It is of middling
size; its head and back are yellowish-brown, the collar lighter, almost yellow; the abdomen and legs are brownish-gray, the latter with darker joints;
the upper wings are usually brownish-gray, with a darker mixture in the
middle; the under wings are yellowishl-gray. The caterpillar is brown or
blackish, with five lighter stripes along the back; the first and last sections
are covered with a hard, smooth scale; the stripes meet at the edg'e of the
anus; the abdomen is blackish. The larvae are an inch long, and they
undergo their transformation about midsummer, within a light cocoon, under
mross, stones, &c., changing into a blackish-brown, shining pupa. The food
of the caterpillar consists of all the soft sorts of grasses. It lives at the
roots, and eats all the germs. Although it is in existence in autumn, lies
benumbed in the earth in winter, and begins to eat again in the spring, yet
the effects of its devastations appear chiefly in the beginning of June, when
it has changed its skin for the last time. The only means of extirpating or
diminishing this caterpillar consists in surrounding the attacked places, as
the ground permits, with shallow ditches, or by means of a plough with
deep furrows, as broad as possible, and turning pigs into these places to
devour the insects.
THE END.
551
I
I N D E X.
P.ag
Ascertaining the quality of milk,.. 245
Remarks on Devoii cattle,...........237
Diseases of cattle...................271
Sheep.
Rearing, &c.,.............. 245
Castrating, weaning. shearing........2-46
For the market, food3, sheep in mouin Ataivnims, sectio ns smearing,..........248
Siels of tood health................249
New Leicester, Disliley,.............249
Lincolnshire, Teeswvater, Devonshire
Notts, Romney Ilarsh, Coltswood,. 250
Clheviot, Southl-Down, Black-faced or
Heath,..........................251
Merino............................252
Diseases of sheep,..................271
Swii,e.
Breedling and rearing, treatment of dam
anred youn....................253
Castratiedg, weaning, treatment after
weaning, food, disposition of the car te i ecassn, 2...................... 254
Anatomy of,..............................256
China....................... 256
3erkshire.........................257
Suffoelk, Woburn, Siaese..,...........259
Diseases..................... i a a. 271
The Ho,se.
Rearing breeing weain,..............................260
Castrating, training ansd management
of colts,.............261
Food, anatomy..................... 262
Arabian,..........................263
Mexican, Canadian, MIorgan, Gifford,
Goss, European,............. 265
Norman, Clydesdale, Suffolk,....266
Diseases,.................271
The Ass.
Rearing, breeding, training, age, char acteristics,.................266
The lllule.
Rearing and breediling,............267
The Goat.
Description, &c.,................ 267
Varieties,.................. V t. 268
The Dog.
Rearing and breeding,................268
NewfoNndland................. N. 269
Shepherd's..................2. 270
Drover, Setter, Terrier. Pointer,... 271
INiseases of animals,........... — 271
rIMonthly Calendar of Operationls, 2....- 25
Insects injlrious to animals,...........512
Animated oats.................... 381
Anise,......................... 124
Annual flowers, culture of,.......370
Pa~e
Abscess in animals,........... 271
Acacia........................ 388S
Age of cattle.................... 232
Alderney cattle,................. 243
Almond...............................217
Alterative medicinies for animals,..... 272
Altering the proportion of the ingredients
in soils,..................... 4
Althea frutex.............Te..tr. 381
Amaranthus tricolor,........... 351
American horses, ilexican,Canadian,United
States,................ 265
Anatomy of the ox............ 231
" of the pi.............. 256
of tlhe horse,.......... 262
" of the bee,.......... 320
Angelica plant................ 384
ANIMIALS. I)O.l lSTIC.
Htor,ed or,.-eat.
Be rein ald rearin,................... 225
Gestation. time of impregnation,... 226
Castrating.,.............. 227
Fatteni i ng....,........... 229
A g,e....................232
Namye s at different ages,.......... 233
The Bu,ll.
How to judge of,.......... 230
Native,.............. 233
Devon,........................... 234
Ayrshire, New Leicester....... 242
Holder,ess. Gallowvay, Sussex, Alder ney, Suffolk, Kyloe,........ 243
The Ox.
How to judae of,.......... 230
An,atomny of,............. 231
Native,.............. 233
D)evo................ 23.5
Short-lhorned,............... 233
Hereford,............... 240
Avrshire................... 241
Newv Leicester............ 242
Holdern,ess Gallo way, Sussex, Alder ney. Suffolk, Kyloe........... 213
The C,owr.
How to judg-e of,.......... 232
Nat i,ve,..............233
Devon,............... 236
Herefrlin,.......................240
Avrshire, New Leicester.......242
Holtterness. Galloway, Sussex, Alder ney, Stffol k, Kyloe,.......... 243
Dairy qualities............ 243
Feed(ieg, keeping in good condition,
milking,............. 244
47
A.
INDEX.
Annular budding,......................454
Antler, or grass moth,...................551
Aphis................522, 541
Apiar-y.
Asp5ct of,.......................... 321
L,cati e r, sielter, trees,..........1. 322
Water, sru.3. sun, flowers........................323
Apoplexy inll aiimals,.............1. 271
" iuL fotels,.............. 316
APPLE.
Propzaatios. soil and situation,... 176
3I,I)|thly Calenidar of Operations,... 221
Graftiinz, budfding, pruninig, training,. 412
Diseases...............4..
I sects ilj:lOU to,......... 526
Suniner Sorts.
Varieties - American Summer Pear m-nain, Benoni, Co le,.........ne 16S
Early Harvest............... 165
Early Red Rl Iarraret, Early StrawRerry,
Ju,eating, fla,-omet SweetilA,... 169
Red Astrachaf,n.............. 165
Red (Qiuarreni(lech, Sapson, Spice Sweet,
Summi er Queen, S ummer Rose,
Tucker,.............. 169
W illia,,,s'. Favorite,............. 167
Fall Sorts.
Bars,................. 170
Belmot,.............. 172
Bread arnd Cheese, Early Joe, Fair balks................... 170
Fall Pilel,i,.............. 169
Fall \Viire,............. 170
Famieuise,............. 172
Gilpin,...............170
Goldent Ball............. 172
Golhlelt Sweet,........... 170
Gravens3tei,.............. 169
Herefimtshire Pearmain, Hurlbut,.. 172
Jersey S.eeting,.......... 17(}
Jewett's Red............. 172
Leland Pi)pini, Lowell, Lyman-'s Large
SLIunmimer.............. 170
Lysc,aoli,......... 172
1lexico, 3!oses Wrood, Pomimilie Royal,. 170
Porter,...............16.S
Rambo, Richardson, Roan,ite, Sassa fras or Has!ell Sveet, Seek-no-fir ther, Summer Bectllower, Superb
Sweet,.............. 170
Thompki s,............ 172
Wiuithropi, Yellow Pell flower,.... 170
Winter a d,pring,~ortS,
American Golden Russet,...... 175
Bahtwi, i................... 172
Blue Pearmaia,............... 175
Burlinto Greei......... 174
Dan vets Wt iter Sweeting-, Ietroit,.. 175
EsopuIs Spitze,,!erg......... 172
Fort 5liami. Gloria AIundi,....... 175
Goldeni Pippin,...........174
Golden, Rei,,ette, Hollow Crown Pear rmain................. 175
Hutbbardston Nonsuch,....... 172
Jersey....................... 174
Jonathan, Kin,............... 175
Lady,................. 174
Ladies' Sweetinz. Leicester Sweeting,
Little Pearmaini, Minister, Never fail,...................... 175
Newtown Pippin..........................173
Northern Spy, Norton's Alelon, Old
Noisuch,...............175
Pecker,....................172
Peck's Pleasant, Prio r's Red, Kaule's
Janette.................. 175
Rhlle Island Greeyin......... 174
RockriSe nnn0,.................175
Roxbury Russet,..........................173
Steele's Red Wier............................. 172
Swaar, Tewk7sbLu ry Wiinter BluIsh, Tol mand SweetCnhe. a Je Fgrnigere, Waxein,. 175
Westf1iee l Seek-no.-further............ 172
Wood's Greenling,.............. 175
Cider forts.
Carnfiel, Harrison, H ugh's Virginiia
Cral, Red Streak...................... 175
CrabI Apples.
Red Siberial l,................. 175
Yellow Siberian,................... 176
APRICOT.
Propagation. soil and sittiation,.... 176
Varieties-Breda, Black, Brussels,.. 178
Early, Large Early,..................177
Moorpark,............. 1.78
Peac h................177
Red Masculline, Romtian, Turkey, White
MIascline,............................ 178
I\lonithly Calendar of Operations,... 221
Graftirin, budding,-, 1pruningi, training,. 442
Diseases,............................. 477
Insects inmjurious to................................526
April,
Kitchen-!zardlen calendar for,...... 131
Fru it calendar............triig. 222
Live-s tock calendar,...................... 28
Floricultural calendar,........ 394
Arabian horses......................263
Arbors for gard( ens,............ 378
Architecture...................... 398
See Index of Rural Architecture.:...
Artichoke, J erusalem,................... 98
Ash-tree,................393
Ashes,.................32
Asparaguis.
Varieties and culture,......... 99
Forcin g,................ 100
Bee tle,........................520
Asphodel..........................1 z 3S6
Ass-rearing, breeding, trainiog, age, chiar acteristics,................ 266
Assorting hops,............... 112
Aster, China.............. 381
Asthlina ini fowls,............ 316
A ugust.
Kitchen-garden calendar for,..... 132
Fruit calendar,.......... 22.3
Live-stock calendar.......... 289
Floricultural calendar,.......... 395
Auricula,............... 381
Aujtiumn stock of bees,..........342
Autumnal flowers.............. 364
Aylesbury or English duck,......... 309
Ayrshire cattle,............. 241
Azalea,............. 381, 383
Bacon, making,...................... 255
Balmn,.................................124
554
B.
..........
uq~~~~~'....~
~~~........ =........ ~......?....~:. ~.,..
.......
.'-.........
...........
,.U~~~n —~..-,=.'..'....,.,...'. =......
................'"-~'
~~~~~~~~~~ ~. -.$.................
~~~~~~~~.... _o. =.....................:........
CC... 0....!..
.... -.:..............
....-. ~..
~~~~~~. = * r' C ~...O
0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ _-.. 0
., -='
=......................C CC- C O...............
-C-C~~ ~ ~..~~~~~~~~~A CC.......-C.C.-C -. —CC..~O ~ ~ ~-CCO
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ~ ~- -~'C
2".m 1..
t:i
t-I
INDEX.
Barn fowls,...................297
Ass...................266
:itlie, goat,................ 267
Dog................... 268
Breeds of animials, and fowls, see each kind
under its head.
'rier, sweet....................... 32
Brittleness of hoof,................ 274
Broccoli................ 103
Broken knees, broken wind,..27..... 274
Bronchitis in anrimals,............... 274
Brooin- co r,,.
Varieties, method of planting,..7.. 73
Culture, harvestin g, scraping,.... 74
Uses................75
Brown-water diease,...................... 272
Bruises ii a,imals,........... 279
" " fowls...................... 317
BUCKWHEAT.
Description, soils,....................67
Culture............... 6S
Har6vestinerga, r Ises.......... 69
Diseases............... 477
Insects injurious to,......... 515
BUDDING.
Uses................. 4. 0
Performing the operation............. 451
TransmIitting scions, wax for buddi ng,
shield bidl,ing,............. C. 452
Shield budding without a bud or eye,
circular shield biiddiig,............453
Flute buddilng, aitinular buddiisg, after care,................4. 454
Bucsar................ 45(
Btzs.................. 5()
Cacalia plant,..................... 388
Calendar of lonthly Oera tios.
Kitchen -gardee in,.dcr o o.........i. 130
Fruit,...............221
Li ve-stock...................Cpnii 29
Floricultural,............ 393
CALVES.
Rearin, N.............. 226
Fattenin,,..............2'..... 294
iseases,....................2 271
See Cattle.
Calycanithus plant,............. 393
Camr,onmile.................... 125
Canadian horses,............. 265
CANKER.
tln horses' feet,............. 274
Dogs' ears,................. 274
In vegetationi, description, origin,.. 478
liemIey,.............. 481
Canker-worr,.o.......... 545
CanIteleup melon.............1.2. i'(2
Can,terb)ury bell plant,............. 3'2
Cap)er-tree,............... 3S4
Caponiiziig.,.................... 299
Caraway,............... 124
Car(doo,.................lo,:10-,
Carnation plant,............ 3;2
Caroltia syring-a plant,............ 393
Carrot,................... 105
" moth,................. 524
Casting..................... 17
Cassia plant,..............3.2.......
Castratin,g.
Neat cattle,................ 227
Sheep,............... 246
Swine,................254
Horse3,.............. 261
Fowls,............... 299
Catalpa plant.............. 35 3
Catarrh in an imnals,........... 274
Catarrha l fever in a,nimals,........ 275
Caterpillars, destructive, see Insects.
CATTLE.
Ilotn1ed or Neat.
Breedinga, rearing................ 225
Gestatio.,, timle of impregn,,ation,... 226
Castrating,,............... 227
Fattering,............... 2'9
Ag,e,............... 2::3
Namres of, at different ages,.23....223
The Bull.
How to judg-e of,.......... 2.-0
Native,.................. 233
Devon,........................ 234
Ayrshire, New Leicester....... 242
Hololerness, Galloway, Sussex, Alder ney, Suffllk, Kyloe,.......... 243
The Cow.
How to judge of, &c.,......... 2:32
Native,.............. 33
Devon...............2:36
Hereford,...................... 2,10
Ayrshire, New Leicester....... 242
Holhlerness, Galloway, SuLssex, Alder ney, Suffolk, Kyloe,.......... 243
Dairy qualities,............ 243
Feeding, keeping in good condition,
nmilking................ 244
Ascertainin,g the quality of miilk,... 245S
Kemarks on Devoi breed,...... 2:37
Diseases of cattle........... 271
Btzs,..................50
Also see I,srects.
Buildings. farm aad rural,......... 39'
Bulbs, culture,..................... 368
BULL.
Breedin and rearin,........225
Castrati,t.............. 227
Fatteeing.............r 229
Ace,................d2t2
Names at di2feren t ages,....... 233
Varieties,.Native,.........233
Devos.......... r.....rn231
Short-horned............. 2:39
Ayrshire. Nev Leicester............ 212
Holderne,s. Galloway, Sussex, Alder ney, Sufflk, Kyloe......... 243
Disease................ 271
Mlointlily Calenidar of Operations....285
Insects injurious to,......... 512
Burnin-a aud paring soils......... 8
Bushes, see Sihrubs and Trees.
BUTTER.
Ger,eral remarks, cream,............139
Clotted-crean,..l............. 141
Whole-milk, churning........ 142
Washi14. salting............... 144
Butterflies, destructive, see Insects.
Butternut,............................218
Cabbag e.
Varieties and culture,......
To keep,...........
Diseases,...........
Bug,.............
Butterfly..........
Moth,.............
Fly,.............
556
C.
: -:'O"'l
.:. 477
... 521
... 522
.523, 524
... 525
INDEX.
Chines oe nse................. 3n.03
Chinese monthly rose,........... 388
Chittaono fow ls, &.............. 22
Chive,................. 1()6
Choke cherry,................. 18-2
Choking of animals............ 275
Chrysa,nthemum plant,.......... 383
Churning,.............H. 136,142
Chu rC ns.
Thermometer, 1................. 136
Kendall' cylindrical............9 Cl 137
GaBllt's, Tillinghast's,.................. 138
ChBrr wormo,................. 521
CIDER APPLES.
Hairrison. Camr.iel, HughI's Virginia
CCrab, Red Streak,........... 175
Clacss ificati.on of soils,.......... 2
Claye y 8oilssubso,.................. 3
draiCicip,.... g................ 37
Clearing landl s,...................,... 7
Cleavin,,................. 1,S
Cleft rafting,.................. 447
Clem,,atis, or virgin's bower,....... 3S J
Clethra rplat,................. 3C3
('lick beetle,................ 516
Close pr t ning,.................57
Clotte(l creatn,.................. C. 1'11
Clover................... 58
AKerieties a cultre, hs Er.......B ia.. 87
Diseases.......,........ 477
horlsects iojunrigrs to.........1. 59
Clydesdale horses.................. 266
CMchiy kChiea fowls,.............. C.. 296
CBck, varieties,1 &c, s ee Fon nol.
Cock( haffer, fielde,................pa. 516
Cock's sp,r,.............. 55
Co(lingte m noth, aia............... 532
Colnd-fiame,..................... 375
Colic in animals,......................275
Colors, arrangement of, in fiover-gardlens,. 367
Colton's hiver.n..............1. 333
COLTS.
Training and managing,....... 261
See Ilorse.
Columbine plant,.................V d t. 383
Common black currant,.......... 1S6
Conlnlloln goose,.................... 303
Common red barberry,............. 178
Composition of Soils.
Clayey, sandy, gravelly, peaty,.... 2
Loan,............... 3
Composts, forming,............ 29
Construction ofthe plough,,........ 12
Consumption in fowls........... 316
" in plants,......... 482
Contortion in plants,.......... 482
Contracted foot in animals,......... 275
Convolvulus plant,.38.......... 33
Copper-colored weevil,..........534
Coriander,................... 125
CORN.
Varieties of,...........59
Preparation of land for planting, season
for ploughing,.......... 60
Planting, mnaniuring,......... 61
Number of grains to the hill, depth of
ploughing, tillage,......... 62
Thinnin:g and suckering,......... 64
Harvesting,............ 65
Preserving,............... 66
Varieties and culture for the table,.. 10I
3Ionthly Calendar of Operations,... 235
She-s and houses,.............. 420
Barns. hlow to construct, models, &c.,.. 413
Insects injurious to,..........512
Cauliflower,.............. 105
Celery.................... 1(..16
Channels. water,................... 39
Cheap ad simple hive,..................331
CIIEESE.
Presses,...........I.N... 134, 145
Differen,t modes of preparing rennet,.. 145
Whtllole-mllilk, dlrying........... 149
ST er e-room, green-.hey,.......o 150
II,Ile of nakiug celebrated kinds, Cheshire,............ 151
Ghm(,,cester,.................. 15. —
Stilton,.................... 157
Dunlop,........................... 15,8
Creami. new,................... 161
Parre sa,n................... 162
Potato., green or sage,........ 163
See Dair y.
Chemistry, acqtuaintance with,..... 1Cei. 1
Chernses, apple and pear................. 540
CHERR~.
PropaEation, soil, situation,....... 179
Varieties.-An,erican Amiiber,..... 1,S1
Asell's Fine B lack....................179
Bellte de hoisy,...............1.2.. CO2
Biigarr ean,.....l.0
Black- Carooin,....... 179
Black Circassian. Black Eagle,.... 181
Black Hieart, Black Rossian,.... 1 4 C79
Black Tartarean....................... 181
Davenport's Early Black,...... 179
Doctor,.................... 182
Downer's Late,............6 13
DowC ton,............. 1.......... 12
Earl, Amber,.............1. 1
Early l),ike,............. 1S0
Earl, White Heart,......... 1 1.
Elliott's Favorite,.......... 1S2
Elton,...............6. 11
Florence, Holland Bigarreau, s i..... 1i2
Holnan's DuLke,..........1..
Hyde's Seedling,.......... 182
Junie Duke..............I10
Kentish, Knight's Early Black, I3Ian ning','s MIottled,...........1. 2
MTav Duke.............. 1S(
Morello, Napoleon Bigarreau,.... 1S2
New Honey............. 181
New Mlay Duke,............ 179
Ox-heart, Ronald's Black tieart,... 131
Spanlish Black Heart......... 179
White Bi~arreau, White Tartarean,
Yellowv Spanish,......... 180
Wild Cherry............. 1S2
Choke Cherry,.............. 182
I%Ionthly Calen,dar of Operations,... 221
Grafting, budding, pruLning, training,. 442
Diseases,..................... 477
In,sects injurious to,.........526
Chervil,................125
Cheshire cheese,............151
Chestnut........ 21S
Cheviot sheep..............251
Chickens. fattenin,...........299
See F,;,ls.
. 47*...
47*
55"i
21 ~ ~ ~ ~ C
.............. -.,.<,.
..................~~~~.. ~ --
C~~~~~~-~-' ~-~- ~ ~-~~'~
.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~* —-' C ~'
C... -..~~
..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -'-'.
~~~...'....~
.-~~~~~~~~~~.~~ _.. ~. ~~~ ~
-,-1~~~~~~~~...~.-. —... ~. _....:.._.= _.- l:;~.-o " o-.
.. a,.:.......
c~~~~ ~
* 1~~~~~~~~2
*.- ~' ~~ v* C —''' b-u,;'.:
C..........
~. ~!-'*...........
-...... -,,...,...~.. ~..... _..'-
~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~...-',... =..o......'',
~~~~~~~~~-.,....b.~ ~...
.....m............
c~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.
INDEX.
Leland Pippin, Lowell, Lyman's Large
Summer......................170
I. yscom, Magnolia,...............172
Mexico, Moses Wood, Pomme Royal,. 170
Porter...........................168
Rambo, Richardson, Romanite, Sassa fras or Haskell Sweet, Seek-no-fur ther, Summer Bellflower, Superb
Sweet,..........................170
Thompkins.................... 172
Winthrop, Yellov Bellflower,........170
Fallowing, uses, different kinds............20
" benefit of, rules for.............21
Fan training..........................472
Farcy in animals,......................276
Farm or domestic animals,..............225
See Animals and Cattle.
Fattening Animals.
Calves,.............229
Cattle,...............229
Devon cattle,............ 238
Barn fowls,.............299
Turkeys,........... - 302
Geese.............................307
Ducks, 3............... 313
Feathlers, loss of,........................317
February.
Kitchen-garden calendar for..........130
Fruit calendar,.....................222
Live-stock calendar.................287
Floricultural calendar..............393
FEEDINO.
Dairy cows,......................244
Swine,..........................254
Turkeys,...........................302
Geese,............................304
Ducks,............... 310
Bees,.............352,353
Feet inflammation in animals.............277
" various diseases of,.........277
Felling,............................463
Fences,...........................437
Fennel,...........................126
Fever in the horse,......................277
u" fowls,............................316
" catarrhal,.........................275
Fig,.............................218
Figure-of-8 moth,......................529
Filbert,...........................219
Fir-tree,............................ 393
Fistulous withers,......................277
Fits in animals............... 276
FLAX.
Varieties, soils............... 80
Culture, gathering, rippling,..........81
Watering, uses,................... 82
Diseases,..........................477
Fleas, destructive, -see Insects.
Flies, destructive,- see lIsects.
Flooding in animals.....................277
FLOwERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, &C.
Flowers.
General remarks, friability of soil,..359
En"riching, coverirg,s, &c............360
Plan of garden,..............361
Planting,......................... 363
Autumnal flowers............... 364
L aying out the garden,...........364
Various patterns,.................365
Arrangement of colors........ 367
Drasins in peat lands,........ 3...... 35
Hard soils, direction of drains,...B r. 36
Clay lan ds................ S m. 37
Varieties of drains,......... 33
Drainage of farmery,........... 1. 433
Dressing barley,................. 53
Drone-bee,................319
Dropsy in animals,........... 276
" "plants,............ 482
Drover's dot,..............271
Drying hops,.............. 111
" cheese,.............149
DucK.
Rouien or Rhone, English or Aylesbury
A Vhit e,..............309
TIuscovy,............. 310
The dnLck-pond, food.........310
Hatchinir and care of ducklings,.... 312
Fattening,............. 313
Pairin~ and laying, eggs, diseases,.. 314
Dunghill fowls,.............291
Dunlop cheese............. 153
Dunt in animals,.............284
Durham or short-horned cattle,........ 233
Dutch fowls,.............. 293
Dwarf or creeper fowls,......... 295
Dvwarf basil plant,........... 3S4
Dwellings and cottages, rural,...... 393
Dysentery in animiials,................ 276
" " bees,...........356
Fading beauty, or morning bride plant,.. 384
FALL APPLES.
Varieties, - Bars,..........170
Belmont,...........................172
Bread and Cheese, Early Joe, Fair banks,.................... 170
Fall Pil)pin,.............169
Fall Wine,..........................170
Fameuse,............. 172
Gilpin,...................... 170
Golden Ball.............. 17'2
Golden Sweet,...........170
Gravenstein,............. 169
Herefordshire Pearmain, Hurlbut,.. 172
Jersey Sweeting,..........170
Jewett's Red,............172
560
E
Earths, -see Soils.
Earwi.................. 547
E-, —plant
Ea,-s, see......... 109
Elm-tree........ 393
Endive........ 109
E,iii,h or Aylesbury duck, 309
En-richin,-,,-.rd,n soils,..'360
Epilepsy in animals........... 276
Er,-ot................ 55, 482
Espalier-trees.............. 46S
European horses, - Clydesdale, Suffolk,
Nor,i,an................ 266
Everia-stina pea............. 3,S7
E,ery-day or e,,er-layin,- fowls...... 293
Excrements, various kind, of....... 26
Extirpatin,- trees and shrubs....... 7
Eyes, iiitlanied and weak, in animals,... 276
F.
t> —~~~~~~~~~~~ A, - -
X " z J. z z w__ - u. a: t vO;,.. a ~ r-~ v.. X.. a....
,-":.-.... o....
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~......
..........
*._................
.....
,~'~~~~~~~....'. H......"~'~ ~ ~;.,, -. *.:. ~,. ~ -,
~o~~~~~.....~..,.,.'. ~-. ~o-,.-,.....m L.
~~~~~~..o....p =.'~. ~...~ F....m=
~~~~~~~...........- -~.e. ~.. -..'~ o
~ ~'......................
001 0
C* —. 1:.
....~~~~~ 0' 0'
~.=.~~..= =~~ - ~~''=....-E..
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ * z. ~'?0 o,u ~'
''... -o =.....=;~
- o ~ ~,~.~,.-,. ~ -~(.t....,...., —.
-.~' -:, _'~,r'~~~.......= ~.,,~. _~.
oo oo o o o o.,~~~~~ -.-~
"". I::: 0._"'
-'....... 00~<
........................ 0''~= = - 0'''=
.~~~~~ ~~~~~. =. 0,,
E~' ~'~:' ~:-'' ~'~'... ~~~.,E -- = - r,I= —-',
~ = ~ == ~ =~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.~-~- -?.... o. ~....~..~ _.~.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~.
.~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~- I
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N.?~~..p ~ ~.... ~........
..~ ~ ~ ~ ~........_ -..
~..........c
N ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~. — =~;. N~ ~- ~_~' N ~..._
NO -3
N~~~~~~ = *-.~ _ N
~~ I ci - ci ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~.~ = ~,- G NN-"- ~ -.-....N -N
~~ NX~~~~~~~NNN~~ NN =, —. N.. ='7..N N
21 ~
zr ~ a
~... -.....
...
~.........
~ C- C..?-. ~ ~ ~,- C.~. ~....',~...._-....... ~.. ~~. ~;~T2
-~~~.......-~
;:'. - ~.: * C- C c,-,:- ~C ~
*~~~~~~.. ~...u.;-. C..~c C.~
;:~'. ~ ~ ~ ~ - C;' ~ -- ~~..,.
- -- - -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~;:
~.... -.....
~.. —., —....~ =~.~'.....:
... ~'.:.....'~ _.-:.?....
. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~.'.........
...................
.........
..- C.~CI.C~-.......-
:....,~:.. ~. ~'.-..
-~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~- _C -. C -.
.'. z.:. ~.. ~.,. _..........
..-............... C.
~~.
CCI ~ ~ ~_...... ~.....'. ~. ~I
~C I.........C~ - C.....
INDEX.
Health of fowls.................. 299
Heart. itflammation of in animals,...278
IIEAVY OR FIELD Crops.
tVheat.
Classfcation,.................43
Best vari eti e for cultivation.......... 45
oils, time for sowing, seed, culture,. 46
QuD ntity of seed, after-culture, cutting
and hI arv esting, e..............tdc 48
D i sea se s and ee enemies,............. 49
Barley.
Classification,................... 50
Kind of soil................. 51
Preparin the land, sowing, culture,
harvestin,.................. 52
Threshnin ad dreing, uses, d iseases
and enemies,........... 53
Rye.
eVarieties, so il................. 53
Time for sowinig, culture, product,
uses,..................... 54
Dseases and enemies,........ 55
The Oat.
Varieties.............. 56
S oil, prepari ng the land, sowIinr, cul tur e,...................57
Reaping, dis eases and enemies.... 58
Indian Corn.
Varieties,.............59
Preparation of the land for planitirn,
season for plotuhing,....... 60
Planting, mnan,uring.......... 61
Number of grain s to the hill, depth of
planting, tillage,......... 62
Thin-ning- and suckering,...... 64
Harvesting,............ 65
Preserving, diseases and enemies,.. 66
Buckwrheat.
Description, soils.......... 67
Culture............... 6S
Harvesting, uses,..........69
T'he Potato.
Propagating, varieties, soils, culture
and tillage............ 70
Uses................72
Diseases and eniemies,........ 73
Broom Corn.
Varieties, method of planting,.... 73
Culture, hiarvestinig, scrapig,.. 74
Uses,...............75
AIillet.
Varieties, sl,............75
Culture,.............. 76
Hemp.
Soils, culture,........... 77
Gathering,............. 78
Ro!ttin-, breaking, dressing,.. 79
Flatx.
V,arieties, soils............ 80
CulGture, gathering, rippling,..... 81
Waterilla, uses,........... 82
I,,~ern.
Description,............ 82
Soil, culture, tillage........ 83
Uses,...............84
Sain foin..
Description and habits,........84
Cultrel e...............85
The'a re.
DIescriptioni, soil, preparin, the soil,
time of sowinto culture...... 86
The Clovers.
Variet ies, culture,.......... 87
Mowinfg....................... 88
Getting the seed, threshing,......... 89
The Grasses.
Varieties,........................ 89
Lands alternately in grass and tillage,. 93
Soiling, hayino,.................... 9-t
Lands permanently in grass, perennial
grass-lands fit lbr mowin1g, neadow
lands.............. 95
Pernmanent pa stures........... 9f6
Stocking pastures,......... 97
Dise ases...............4..77
Insects injuriotus to,.................515
Heifers, -see Cattle.
Hentlock-tree.............. 393
HEMP.
Soils, cult ure,............. 77
Gathering................................ 78
Rottibng, breakin, dressing................ 79
Hens, -see Fowils.
Herbaceous graftig,................................ 449
sro p.nig.......... 4..7
" traioti,t, d............... 46
He rbs,...........................124
See Kitchen-g6ade, also eac h k ind under
its head.
Herefoird cowl,.......................240
" ox,...... 2. 10
Hessian flv...............5..............
Hibiscus )lant,....................... 3S
Hickory nlt,........................... 221
Hide-I)orro, s.............2 7.......... 28
Higah blackberry....................... 19
Hives and box es,............ 323
Hoa. —see o t, 7e.HoCuetrness cattle,.............. 243
Hollyhock,.............................. 381
Hon,ey, - see Bees.
Haoney-dew................ 4S3
Honeysu ck l e................324
Hotngg Kob sg H ose,............ 303
Hoof. brittleness of,............. 274
Hoose disease,............. 274
Hoove disease,............. 2 9
HoP.
Culture............... 109
After-cnltgre,............... 110t
TDkin~ the crop, drying....... I I l
Assortingfr,............ 112
Diseases,.............. 477
Horehotin(.,..............126
Horned or neat cattle,.......... 225
See each kind, under its head.
HORSE.
IRea,ring, breeding, weaning,..... 260
Ca,strating!, trainiing and managing
c,lts................. 261
Feedi,g,, anatonmy.......... 262
Varieties, -Aratbian,....... 263
Anmerican. Mexican, Canadian, United
States, BlIorgani, Gifif(rd, Goss,... 265
EuLr,pean, Normiian, Clydesdale, Suf folk,.................... 266
Diseases,............... 271
]Monthly Calendar of Operations,... 2::5
Stalbles, site and construction,....41?
Stalls, racks, mangers,...... 41,8
Insects injurious to,.........512
Horse-chestntut tree,............. 393
7'64
ILNDEX.
HIorse-radish...........................112
tIORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS.
GUA, in a
Uses................ 442
Dileirent kinds, utensils and mnaterials, 443
Grafting by detached scions,.....444
Splice grafting,........... 445
Splice graftiing the peach, nectarine,
apricot, &c., cleft grafting-,, rind
rafting.................... 447
Cleft graftirng th e vine, saddle grafting,
s,le grafting,.......... 443
Wedge graftinga, root grafting, herba ceous grafting, grafting by approach,
or inarching,...........cai ru 449
Budding.
Usesp,rni..461 c iiijiirinua.............. 450
Performin the opera tion....... 451
Transmittinit scions, wax for buddi-,,
shield b cdclin,...................... 452
Shield budding without a bud or eye,
circular shield buddin,..... 453
Flute budding, annular budding, after'care................. 454
Pruning.
Uses, forest-trees, ornamental trees, or namental shrubs,......... 45
Fruit-trees and shrubs,.... 456
Herbaceous plants,......... 457
Close prunint................. 457
Shortening-in,fo re-shorteni ng, spurri ng in................. 45 L
Heading-in,............ 459
Lopping, cutting dowvn, stopping! anid
piniching out... 460
Rirn~ing, disbtutdding,........461
Disleafing, slitting and splitting, br,is inz and tearing, root pru,,fing.... 462
Girdling and felllug, seasons for prun ing................ 463
Training.
Uses, principles,..........461
MVantual operations,.........46
Traiulinga herbaceotus and shritblby plants
inl po~ts, trainaing hardyv flowveringa
shrubs in the openi grouind, training
fruit-trees,.............466
Different miiodes of trainingz bushes and
trees in the open garden, and fruit trees against -alls or espalliers,... 463
Training, dw,arfs inl the open garden,
spiral cylinders,.........469
Spurri-in,.............470
Conical standards,........... 471
Fan training............472
Horizonital training........ 474
Perpendicular tr,aining, comparative
view of the differeat modes of train j.,.............475
Hot-beds,...............373
Houses, how to construct the various
farm,............39.
How to judge of cattle, for various objects
and pulrposes,.......... 230
Huber's leaf hive,.......... 330
Huckleberry,..............22
Hyacinth,............... 3S5
tliydranagea plant,............ 3S5
Hvdrocephalus in animals,........279
Hyssop,............... 126
48
Ice plant,.................... 385
I.4 iplemnents, -see each kind under its
head.
Implernent-houses,...................... 420
If4 arcIting,......................449
plcIncreasing the productive powers of soils,. 4
INDIAN CORN.
Culture, varieties, &c...........59, 106
Diseases,........................477
Insects i,njurious to,................515
Indigestion in fowls,................ 316
Inflammation of bowels in animals,....273
b brain,.......... 273
n"eyes,........... 276
feet........... 277
heart,............ 278
" kidneys,........... 279
" liver,.......... 28S(
" " lung..s, 2..2
~ womb,...........285
Inflammatory evil in animals....... 272
Influenza,...................... 274
INSECTS, NoxIous.
Iasects which live constantly on or in
Domestic Animtials, and p?ropagate on
them.
Lice, horse bhot,................... 512
Feheidament bot, ox warble...........513
Rei bot, sheep bot............. 514
Hors e fly, forest fly, spider fly, sheep
tick, bird spider fly,...... 515
Insects iqj~rious to Grain.
GilLi)ous groundl beetle......,....... 515
Germn' i or field cockchal'er, lined click
beetle, wire-worm,......... 516
Winter or (Idart lmoth,.. 517
Wrhite line dart moth botys, corn moth,
corn weevil, Hessian fly,...... 518
Wheat midge,............... 519
Insects in,ju,rtous to Veg,etables.
Spriig beetle or skip- jack, asparagus
eeritle, twelve-spottei leaf-beetle,.. 520
Earth-flea beetle, turnip fly, mole
cricket, chgrr worm, jarr worm, eve
churr, earth crab, painted field-bug,
cabbae-bug,.............. 521
Plant lice, aphis, large cabbage wlhite
butterfly, small white butterfly,
green-veined white butterfly, gamma
moth,....................522
Cablbage moth................... 523
White-line brown-eyed moth, cabbage garden pebble moth, carrot moth,.. 524
Roesel's tiny caterpillar, onion fly, cab bage fly, lettuce fly........... 525
Negro fly.............. 526
Insects injurious to Fruit, Fruit-trees,
Shr3ubs a nd Vin,es.
Black-veined white butterfly, or haw thorn pontia,...........52(,;
Yellow-tailed moth,......... 5)27
Lackey moth, gypsy moth,..... 528
Goat moth, wood-leopard moth, figure of-8 moth,................ 529
Lunar-spotted pillion moth, winter
moth,.............. r
Pale-brindle beauty moth,...... 531
Limne-lo,oper or mottled urnbre moth,
small ermninie moth, codling moth,.. 532
I
565
....... -..
_..;.D..o..,. i...
_ & 3........................
*.... *....... 1
~z
.-*... --. * —-------- * * —- CC* tC
. ~.. ~.*..........................,.Cs_,C
.~~~~~~~...~..=.;..... o..'.. ='........ ~C I
W CA => ~:~C:b- = O.....b..W Db b- ID lt)w ~l C) C
crzc: c c., b= r:) b w (X.1 w - r c G c c,.,,, _
>; 4 CO 4^ CC M- C; _ C~,,.:,.C. CD JJ _,=W 4~"o ~Os C
V2.i*...:..r V2..,...
........... *. >s* _ R_ C?
. 3.........
~.............
.................
~.................
...~........... ~_.. ~....
................'. ~...
I0~
......... Ub)-bD _.W.
to ~,0,-, t.oC --... - Y.. c0 Cl.- W, $-I CD iE; C., 1, ~
0 0 -
- A - - 0 f -
0
0 0
0 0
00.. -.....
I....
- -
- - c(-L0 010'
0*......
~......,
.~.........
~~ ~, —'~~..~.....,~ 2.,.-.
-..........
~.,..........,q..... _. s. ~.~=
~~~~~~~~.....,.,.........~
0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..
- ~...~~~
~i ~'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t
C.) -. ~,~_
- ~,m- ~ ~.......o..
~~~~~~~~..,.~..... ~...............
- ~ - ~.~.........
......................
I * - - ~. ~ - ~., * ~
~.........
O)0 0 0
.,.........~...
-.~. C..c.......,
~ ~_ ~.?''. ~.~ -..- -:?... ~ ~ - -.'. ~.....
..........-~.
............... 2
...............
.........
........................
~~............ 0....2..c...............,.. ~.............
*~~~.... ~......:
CL ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~ ~,f- ~i C.- ~. ~ — - L0'LC
0; ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~..-... 0
0........o. o..
=. 0... —.........'..-...
0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. 0...............
0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~
~~F-. ~. — -. 0'
~g a,. ~: ~ ~'.~....
C*~1Ol;~ ~ UUO *00C~~000-~ C'~.....;OC0; CD~~U0~U
t=j
t-I
c'x
c:n
e,,
o _. ~,-~ c ~ ~ ~, ~ _,, — 0; ~':~-."
,., -~'- i - 3 --— _ I —
*..,......
;* * *0****** ~ r f f i *C. * f...........
*.,:....... *., -. =;.,.
~~~~~~~~C.
*. - -,Mq -
*.*-s**..........,.
..........
~l.z =.........t o ~ t. OtOt O Ot., >
~~~~~~~:._
. o**
CO - C C
....
..(. 0
UA J W.........
C~~.o J-r:.... ***-*......
o..
*~~~ ~ ~ * ~ =~** * o',''= x..'~,3' **-.*.........
q ~?-.,..._ ~
*~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- * O- *~-.... -~. (j'......-.... v.. * 0..
C..........&,.....
*0 b. Q s c: z s7 Ct.:.. 0A. _ O
~* C' C..
.C
-A A. AA ~'A -' A' AC A =?AO CC'''~..
CO~~~ ===. =O COAOC.O.. C. ~.O'....A.....OCCOCO
INDEX.
Scourine-rot,..........................276
Scrapini broom-corn,.......... 74
ea-kal e,.............................. (120
Securing good hives,...............342
Seed,-see each kind under its head.
Selecting hens,..........................298
Septemnber.
Kitchen-garden calendar for..........132
Fruit calendar,.....................223
Live-stock calendar,............... 289
Floricultural calendar,...............395
Setter dog,............................ 271
Shagbark,............................. 221
Shallot,.......................120
Shearing,..........................246
Sheds, - cart,............. 419
" cattle,.............. 420
SHEEP.
Rea ring,........................245
Castrating, weaning, shearing,.... 246
For market, food, mountain sheep,
smearing, signs of good health,... 248
Long-wooled,........................ 249
Short-wooled,.......................250
Cheviot, South-Down, Black-faced or
Heath,..............r kn. 251
Merino,........................ 252
Diseases................... 271
3 lonthly (C'alendar of Operations,... 285
Insects injurious to.................512
Shellbark,............................ 221
S hepherd do,..........................270
hield hudding,.........................452
shortening-in,.......................... 458
Short-horniedl cattle................ 238
Shlort-woole(d sheep,........... 250
SHRUBS AND TREES, ORNAMENTAL.
Extirpating,............... 7
Ornamental, culture and varieties,.. 393
Vlo,iithly Calendlar of Operations,...393
Grafti gc, buddiog, pruning, training,.442
Dises,..............477
Iiisects ijtlrious to,................. 526
Siamese swine,............................ 259
Siberian fowls..........................295
Sidle grafting,...................... 448
Silky fowls,...........................295
Sit-f.sts in animals.................... 283
Sittinng of hens,..............298
t" "t rkeys,.....................301
Skim-.milk. lheese.......................161
Skip-jack beetle,....................... 520
Sk i rr,t................ 120
Small ermine moth,.....................532
Smnearing,................ 249
Smut disease........................... 49
descrip)tion, causes and pheonieena,. 503
" preventives.......................508
Snow-hall bush....................... 393
Scnowberry...............r.......... 3
Soilicng, 9........................... 4
SOILS, THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT.
General remtarks, coimposition......1............
Classification, clayey, gravelly, sanldy,
peaty,............... 2
Loam,....................... 3
Qualities of determined by their com parative productiveiess, relation be tweeS l the soil a nd subsoil, clayey
subsoil,............. a
Separate sties,........... 425
Poultry-ho uses.
General principles and requisites, situ ationi, forin,........... 426
Roostiing,-perches and nests, to render
thle potlltry-house healthy,....... 427
Conveniences for hatching, appurte nances, air and space, accommoda tiFec s for keepio Dn poultry on a large
scale............... 423
Plan of construction and general man ageinent,............. 429
Arrangemzenit of the Farmecy.
Situation, 4.............430
Kind of buildings, disposition ofT he dif fere - n t buildirpt, o........... 431
Plan of buildings for a large farn,... 432
Plan of buildings for a small farm,.. 433
Stack-yard, drainage offarmnery,... 433
Green-houses.
liay be easily constructed, materials
and mode of building,....... 434
Arrangement of the lights,......435
Flues for heating,.......... 436
Fences and Gates.
Different kinds, building stone wall,.. 437
Mlaterials, implements, rules to be ob served,............. 43
Advantazes of ston,e wall.......439
Form aid meth()d of conlstruicting gates, 439
ttanging,i hlinges, latch, 2ate-posts,.. 440
Arbors,............... 378
Garlel seats............. 379
Bee-houllses, hives. all bxes,... 323, 324
Russian or Sib,eriani fowls,........ 29)5
Rust,................. 5(
Also see Diseases o f Pla,.ts.
RutPabag,t................. 122
RYE.
Varieties, sol,............ 53
Time for sowing', cultIre, product and
uses,............. 5-4
Diseases and enemties...... 55..77
Insects injurious to,............. 515
Iaddle-n alls in horses,............... w. 2 w3
Saddle graftig,...................... 44 i
Saffron,.................... 12''
Sa,e,................... 129
S cage ch eese,.............. 163
Sa i to il,n
Description and habits,............4o 84
Culture........................... 85
Diseases,................... 477
Sallend,Iers in horses,.............. 230
Salsify,................119
Saltinig butter,............44
Sandy soils,............. 2
Savory,................130
Sav-flV,.............. 533, 544
Scab in sheep,.2............ 8 23
Scale insect, see Irsects.
Scarlet cacalia plant, scarlet lychnis plant, 3SS
Scholytus,................. 53S
Scions for grafting,............ 444
" " transmiiitting,............... 452
Scorzonera,............... 120
Scour in lambs,.............283
571
S.
INDEX.
Porous subsoil, quality of subsoil, depth
of the soil, means of increasing pro ductiv e powers and rendering fit for
cH ltivatio n, alt ering the p ro portion
of ingr e dients,............. 4
Clearina.
Plan of operation s, forests............................. 6
Waste lands,............ t. 7
Parinsg and burn ing, leveling un even
surfaces,........................8
Rellovin stones,................... 10...
Ploughizg,.............. 10
Rules, for.,............. 11
How to hold the plough, construction
of ploug,Bc.a..... 12
Dep th of pl,oug hing, ridges, 1...............2 13
Gathering, casti1g,.................2 17
Cleavi ng9 cross-ploughing,........ 18
Subs oil, B.....................2 19
Fallow 20...............20
Harroi-,g, uses anid modes,........ 22
Rolling............................ 23
2Vanurszg.
Actio i of manure, n arl as, natural manures,. 25
Urine..................... P i. 26
Night-soil. management of manures,. 27
Forming composts, litter,...... 29
Applying liquid maniure, dead bodies,
bones, &c.,............ 30
Vegetable and mineral manures,... 31
Draining.
Causes of wetness it lands,..... 32
Boggy lands and the true line of the
spring,.......................:3'3
Drains and peat lands,......... 35
Hard soils, direction of drains,.... 36
Clay land,.................... 37
Varieties of drains,......... 38
Irrigating,............... 38
Channels............. 39
Kinid ~,f soils for the purpose, waters
best adapted, meadow watering,.. 40
Preparing the surface,.......... 41
Timile to operate,.......... 42
Soils for Grains, Grasses, Vegetables,
Fruits, &c., —see each kind under its
head.
Sore teats in cows,............ 2S4
South-Downi shleep.............. 251
Sowing, -see each plant under its head.
Spades and shovels,............ 5
Spanish fowls,................... 294
Spavin, boa and bone,.......... 273
Spice-bush,....................... 393
Spider fly........................ 515
Spiderwort,................338
Spinach,................120
Spire.,.................393
Splint in animals............. 284
Sprain of round-bone in animals,..... 253
Spring beetle,.............. 520
Sqpringl sto,c k of bees.......... 342
;PRING AND WINTER APPLES.
American Golden Russet,........ 175
Baldw,in,............... 172
Blue Pearmain........... 175
Burlin,gton,l Greening,........174
Danvers Winter Sweetingf, Detroit,. 175
Esopuls Spitze,iberg.........172
Fort IMIiami, Gloria I%Iundi,....... 175
Golden Pippin,.......... 174
Golden Reinette, Hollow Crown Pear mai n,......................175
Hubbardston Nonsuch........ 172
Jersey,...............174
Jonathan, King,....................175
Lady,.................... 174
Ladies' Sweeting, Leicester Sweeting,
Little Pearnain, Minister, Never fail,................ 175
Newtown Pippin,..................173
Northerln Spy, Nortoni's Melon, Old
Nonsuch,..................... 175
Pecker,.....................172
Peck's Pleasant, Prior's Red, Raule's
Janette..........................175
Rhode Island Greening..............174
Rockrimmon,......................175
Roxbury Russet....................173
Steele's Red Winter................172
Swaar, Tewksbury Winter-Blush,
Tolman Sweeting,, Vandevere,
Waxen,......................175
Westfield Seek-no-further,...........172
Woodl's Greening,...................175
Springs, ascertaining the line of, &c.,.. 33
Spruce-tree,......................... 393
Spurring-ii,.............. 458, 470
Squash,..................... 121
Stable.
Site, light and air,.................417
Stalls, racks, mangers,..............418
Stack-yard,.........................433
Staggers,.................... 272
Staling in horses,.....................2S4
Stalls,.................418
Steaming food( for animals................ 423
STEERS.
See Cattle.
Stem,-boring weevil,...........535
Sties for swine,........................ 425
Stifle lameness in horses,.............. 24
Stilton cheese,........................ 157
Stonteless barberry......................178
' medlar................... 191
Stones, removing,.............10
Strangles in animals,.......... 2S4
St raw,................. 48
STRAWBERRY.
Propagation, culture,....... 212
Soils, situation.....................213
Varieties,- Bishop's Orange,... 217
Black Imperial, Black Prince,...215
Boston Pine, British Queen,.........217
Cushing,..................... 216
Downton................. P. 217
Duke of Kent..............1l...214
Elton,..................1. 217
Hovey's Seedling,......... 215
Hudson's Bay............. 217
Large Early Scarle t,..............214
IIethven Scarlet, Mpyatt's Pine,... 217
Prolific Hautbois, Red Wood, Ross
Phoenix, Swainstone's Seedling,..215
White Alpinie, White Wood,.... 217
Monthly Calendar of Operations,.. 221
Strawberry-tree,................. 38S
Straw hive,..................... 328
Striped-fruited currant,......... 1S6
Sturdy in animals................. 2S5
572
INDEX.
Subsoil.
Relation between soil and, clayey,.. 3
Porou s, qualit y, depth,......... 2 C as d 4
Ploughing............19
Suckering corn................ 64
Stuff'olk A,imnals.
Cattle,................ 243
SwVine C.................259
Horses,....................... 266
Sugar-maple tree,........................ 393
SUMMER APPLES.
Amnericani Summer Pearmain, Benoni,
Cole................... 16S
Early Harvest,........... 165
Early Red iMIargaret, Early Straw berry, Juneating, Manomet Sweet ing................1........ 16,
Red Astrachan,.......... 165
Red Quarrenden, Sapson, Spice Sw'eet,
Summer Queen, Summer Rose,
Tucker.............. 168
Witliam-is's Favorite,........... 167
Surfeit in animals,.............. 2S94
Sussex cattle,............. 243
Swarmning of Bees.
Time, indications,........... 343
To prevent,............ 341
To secure a swarm that has settled,
effects of swarmin,.......345
To avoid, in the case of collateral
boxes,..............346
Swedish turnip,............ 122
Sweet-bay plant,.3........... 389
" pea,.3............. 357
marjoram,............ 127
" A B,iliiamn,................ 3S9
Swelled legs in animals,........ 284
SWINE.
Breeding, rearing, treatment of dam
and young,...........253
Castratinig, weaniing, treatment after
wearing, food, disposition of the
carcass,.............254
Anatomy,.............256
Varieties,- China,........256
Berkshire............. 257
S,ffb)lk, Woburn,. Siamese,..... 259
Diseases,............. 271
Insects injurious to,........ 512
Monthly Calendar of Operations,.. 285
Pig,geries, — site, plan of construc tion, &c.,............424
Svringla plant,............. 388
RTiger lily,............................3S6
TILLACE
See each plant under its head, also Soils.
Tillinghast's churn,..................139
Tomato,...............................121
Torsion in animals,...................223
Toulouse aoose,.............. 302
Trailing blackberry,.......... 179
TRAINING.
Uses, principles,.................ry.. 461
SlIanusal operations................465
Traianism herbaceous andi shrubby
plants in pots, traliingl hardy
flowering shrubs in the open ground,
training fruit-trees,....... 466
Differen t modes of trainieng bushes
and trees il the open rouid aind
fruit-trees against walls or esipzli ers, 4................. 1 468
Trai ning dwarfs in the open garideln,
spiral cylinders,.......... 469
SpurrinFa-in,.............1. 470
Conical standards,......... 471
Fan training....................472
Horizontal training,............ 474
Perpendicular training, coinp-.rative
view of the dillferent modes of train in,............... 475
Treafd in afnimals............. 277
TREES AND S;IIRUBS, ORNAMEN,AL.
beExtirpa,ti.............. 7
S h r1 Cu(lture and varieties... —-......... 393
Mon),thly Calendar of Oieratiims...393
Grafting, budiin,g, jpru,ig,- tti, i g,. 442
I)iseases,................ a. 477
Insects injurious to,............... 526
Tulip,..................... 389
Tu~ir:Ky.
Varieties,.................. 299
Keeping, qualities,...............300
Laying, sitting, hatching..........301
Treatment of the young, fattening,
feeding,.................302
Diseases..................... 314
Turnip.
Varieties and culture...............121
Swedish or ruta-baga,...............122
Enemies, uses,...................123
Fly..................... 521
Turnsick in sheep...............284
Twelve-spotted leaf beetle......... 520
Ulcers in animals,....................
" "fowls,............. 1
Uredo........
Urine f,r soils,...........
Utensils, farming, —see each kind
its head.
Tansy,................... 130
Tapping or driving hives,............. 349
Tare,-description, soil, time of sowing, S6
Teats. sore,.............2 i 2S4
Tender annual flowers,...............371
Terrier dog,...................271
Thermometer churn..................136
Thick-windl in animals,......... 9.234
Thinning corn..................64
Thorotuh-pin in horses,........2.4 u i
Threshing,.............. X e,, 53
Thrush in animals,...................277
Thyme,......................1 30
Ticks or lice,........... 2S4, 515
Vegetable manures,............ 31
Vegetables,............... 98
See Kitchen-garden,- also each kind
under its head.
Ventilation of bee-hives,......... 354
" " stables,................. 417
Vine,.................. 89
" diseases,:..........1477
573
U.
285
::: 317
... 4S7
... 26
under
T.
V.
INDEX.
Vine, insects injurious to....... 526. 544
Viol et,.................. 39
Blue Pearmain,........... 175
Buirlingtoni, Greening........... 174
Danvers Wi,ter Sweetiing, Detroit,.. 175
Esuo)us Spitze,berr.......... 172
Fort Miani Gloria l\undi.............175
Golen Pippin,...............4 Ltl Pa. 1 i
Golden Rein ette, Hollow Crown Pear i.ain,............... 175
Hubbardston Nonsuch,.....172
Jersey,.... 1.4
Jonathan, King,,....... 17
Lady,...............14
Ladies' Sweeting, Leicester Sweetiig,
Little Pearinain, M'inister, Never fail...............175
Newtown Pippin............ 173
Northern Spy, Norton's Melon, Old
Nonsuch,............ 175
Pecker,.............. 12
Peck's Pleasant, Prior's Red, Raule's
Janette,................ 175
Rhode Island Greening,........174
Rockrimmon,.......... 175
Roxbury Rulsset,.......... 173
Steele's Red Winter......... 172
Swaar, Tewksbury Winter-blush, Tol man Sweeting, Vandlevere, Waxen,. 175
Westfield Seek-no-further,........ 17'2
Wood's Greening,..........175
Wire-worm,............. 50, 516
Woburn swine,.............259
Womb inflammation in animals,.....285
Wool-sheari ng,.............246
Working bee,.............319
Working cattle,............237
Wood leopard-moth,.?..2 9
Worms and grubs,..... 50
" in animals,........... 285
See Insects.
Wounds of animals,...........28.5
Walls, stone......................... 437
Walnut,.........................221
Warbles in animals........ 283, 285, 513
Warts in animals,............ 2S5
Waslinls butter.............144
XWaste landls, clearing,........................ 7
Water cha,nels,............ 39
Waters best adapted for irrigating, water liW aieadows...................... 40
W1atering, 11ax,............. 82
Water-ini-the-head in sheep........ 279
Water-miielon,............. 1 91
Wax,-obtaining and preparing,..... 355
for budding,................... 452
Weanin 1g sheep.............246
"swi ne,................ a. 254
" horses,................. 260
Wed_,e graftinag,................. 449
'eek.s's bee-hive.................. 333
Wreevils, destructive, -see Insects.
Westphalia hams............ 256
\Wetness in lands,............aiee. 32
VaHEAT.
(,lassification,.............. 43
Best varieties for cultivation,..... 45
Soils, time for sowina, seed, culture,. 46
Qoantity of seed, after-culture, cutting
and harvesting,.......... 48
Diseases and enemies,...... 49, 477
Insects injurious to,......... 515
\ thely g.reen,..............l.... 15()
\v'hlite li ly,................ 386
W\rlk~le- silk butter,........... 142
cheese,......................149
\Vhortleb~erry,.................... 221
W ill cherry.............. 1S2
\\illonv-tree,.................... 393
l\i,d-brolken,..........................274
KVINTER AND qPRING APPLES.
Amiiericani Golden Russet,...... 175
Baht1win............... 172
Yellow rose..................... 388
Yellow-tailed moth,............... 527
Yellows in animals................. 279
574
iv_
Y.
DEFINITION OF W-ORDS,
SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND PECULIAR,
COMMONLY USED IN CONNECTION WITH AGRICULTURAL AND KINDRED SUBJECTO
Abdom7en. - Lower part or lower belly of an
animal.
Abrasion. -\ Wearing or rubbirng.
Acari. -Ticks; small articulated illsects.
Acetuate.- A netutral salt.
Achr-omatc. - Destitute of color.
Acrid. —Sharp, pu,ngent. bitter.
Aerate. —To comibine with carbonic acid or
fi xed air.
A.ftermathl. -A second crop of grass, in the
sallie sea,,,,.
Alburnu. —The softer part of wood, be tw'een the inner bark and tile wood; sap.
A lktlZie.- Hat-i, the properties of alkali.
AlterafIir-e. -A medicine which chanaes the
h,tbit. and restores healthy functions.
A liiatas.- Pert,aininig to alum or alumina.
Anm,Zoslia. — A volatile alliati, existing- in its
p1irest form in a state of gas.
Amphibio,s. —Capable of liviig in air and
wa~ter.
Animnal,cta. — All animal the fiuire of which
is discernible on,ly thiroug,h a magnili ag
glass.
Annular. -Hav -ing the fH,rm of a rilp.
A pztesnc.-T im hores oir feselers of insects,
projectin froml til head.
A,,ter-ior.-Before. in time or place; prior.
Antiseptic. -- Opposi[~g or counteracting pu trc fimtion.
Aper ie,t. -Opening; laxative.
Ape. -The tip, point or suu-mit, of any thlia,g.
4Ap/his. -A g en is of iCsects; vaie-fretter;
plant-louse.
Apteto,s.-A wingless insect.
Arable.-Fit for plouhlii, or tiae.
Ar7omatic. — F rag,rat; spicy; odk rifcr iaas.
Ar-senious, - Containi_o' a rseniic.
Artery.-A vessel or tube coive ying blood
from the heart to all parts of the body.
Astri- gent.- Binidiing strengtheliiiig; op posed to laxative.
Atlas. -The first joint of the neck.
Ariaioy. -Au enclosure for keeping birds
confilled.
Axil. -The space or angle formed by a branch
or a leaf with the stem.
Azotized.- Fromn azote, a gas fatal to animiyal
life.
Basal.-Pertainiin, to or constituting the
base
Bast. —Rope, or cord, made of the bark of
the lime-tree or liniden.
Battenz.-To fatten. A piece of board or
scan,tling, a few inches widle.
Bay. - An enclosed place, in a barn, for de
positing hay.
Bere. -The name of a species of Scotch
barley.
Bie,iaiil.- Once in two years; continuing
two years.
Bifurcation.- A forking, or division into
two brauches.
Bih o. -- A specie, of barley.
Bl,,nched. - WhIitenled.
Bot. -A t urn; a single part of an action
. carriet o n at successive intervals.
Brind/le. - Spotte dncss.
Biityiraceous. Reseiililing butter.
Carleots.- fPairtaiking of the nature of
]lime.
Colc.ct. -- Redoced to a powder, by the
act i on of heat.
Cal.r. — The o. ter coveriTi of a flower.
Ca,abuir,ei. —A, glutinou,s secretion, which, in
sprinig, separates the aluurn of a plant
fromn its ilbler bark.
Capsule. — The seed-vesscl of a plant.
Ca bor t. -- Pure crcl.
Ca pbo,,aceous. -- Pertainicn a to charcoal.
Cartila ge. — Gristle.
Caseo,,s. -Resembling cheesq.
Cau,stic. — Any subst ance whiich, applied to
livinl,g anim,,als, tcts like fire.
Cellublar.- Consisting of or containin, cells.
Chaa. --- The upper and lower part of the
jaw.
Cheoirbes. -- An insect.
Chicle. —The back-boone or spiine of an ani mal.
Chro,,ic. -- Coiitii-uing, a long time.
Chut,-w-ormn. — Ai, insect that turns about
nimbly.
Cplyle.-A whitish fluid separated from food
by means of dige stionI.
Cleat. —A piece of wood, used to fasten
ropes upon.
Coagulate. - To cutrdlle; to thicken; to
cliange from a fluidl to a solid ii.ass.
Cocoonl.-A ball or cocoon in wvhiclh the
worm irnvolves itself.
Collateral. -- Bein g by th e side; *ide by side;
on the side; side to side.
DEFINITION OF WORDS.
Colter. -The fore iron of a plough, with a Fetus.- The young, in the womb or egg,
sharp edge. that cuts the earth or sod. wlhen perfectly fornmed.
Concave.-H [llov; ar che d, like the inner Fib ru.-Composed l -r consisting of fibres.
surftce of a spherical body. FiWg ment.-A thing feigned or imag,ined.
Conical. — RouJsd, and decreasing to a point. Filam ent. -A fible; a fine threadl, of which
Conre.r.-Risin,~ or swelling on the interior flesh, n erves, skin, plants, roots, &c., are
surliface ito a spherical or round form. composed.
Cui~lmry. -- elatiii' uto the kitchen. Filiform. -Having the form of a thread or
Culim.-The stalks or stems of corn or filament.
g~~rasse~~s. i ~Filtiate. -To purify; to strain.
C,r,d.- The thlickeneil part of milk, which Flaccid. -Soft and weak; limber.
is firmled into cheese. Flank.- The fleshy part of a., animal's side,
Crvi er.-Having a curve line. between the ribs and the hip.
CUtneoZS. —Belongiing" to the skii. Flitch. -A ho's side sl ted and cured.
Cuticle.-The tht'in, exterior coat of the Flocculent. -Adlherilng in locks or flakes.
skirt. Floret.-A little fl{,wer.
Dentata. - Pertaining to the teeth. Fome,t. -To bath e vith warm liquors.
1)eir-&q.Tbe flesh that phang!s from the Fr uctification. Reuderim productive of
tlroat of oxen, which laps or licks the fruit.
dev. in grazii g. Fulcrurm.- A prop or support.
Diago,al.- Being in an angular direction. Fu,gs. —A mushroom; a spongy excres Diamete. - A righit line passing throu,gh the cence.
centre of an object, from one side to the Gastric. -Beloniging to the belly or stomach.
other. Getmnem.- The ovary or seed-bud of a plant.
Diuretic.- Tendinu to produce discharge of Gestation.- Carryiini young in the womb,
urine. fron conception to delivery.
Drench. -A draught; a portion of medicine Girt.-A bandagre or strap.
to ptorL.e a beast. Globular.-Pound; spherical.
Edible. - Fit to be eaten as food. Globule.-A small particle of matter, of a
Electricity.-A very thiu fluid diffused spherical form.
through m-ost bodies, rapid in its motion, Glume. -The outter covering of corn and
and perfl. grasses; the husk or chafe
Ellititical.-Oval. Gluten.-A tough, elastic, gray substance.
Elos"gttio. - Thie state of being extended. found in the lour f grain.
Elytra. -The sheaths of an insect; a case Gramineous.- Pertainiig to grass.
covering, the wings. Granulation. - The act of forming into
Embrocatio,z. -The liquid with which an grains.
afiected part is wvashed. Gypsum.- Plaster-stone.
Embryo. -A,ything in its first rudiments, Hackle.-Raw silk; any flimsy substance
or unlfilished state. unspun.
Epidermi.- A thin membrane, covering the IHaulm. - Straw; the stem or stalk of grain,
skin of asimsnals or the bark of trees. &c.
Erosion. - Eaten away; corrosion; canker. Headland. -A ridge or strip of unploughed
Easopha,-us.- Th e gu llet; the canal through land at the ends offurrows, or near a fence.
which ifood anl( drink pass to the stomach. Heathery. -A place overgrown with shrub Espalier.-A row of trees planted about a bery of any kind.
garden or in hedces. IHemispherical.- Containing half a sphere or
Extrat cas atcl.- Forced or let out of its prop- globe.
er vessel.. Ilexagonal.- Having six sides and six anEx,dee.-IDischarge of moisture, juice, or gles.
liq1uid, fromY bodies and plants. soar-frost. -White particles of ice formed
Falu l. — Plougsi and harrowing landI by the congelation of deiv or watery va without soing it. pIors.
Farinoa. —Fie dulst or powder contained in Hock. -Joint of an animal between the knee
th e anthers of plants. and the fetlock; a part oftlie thigh.
Farizaceous. — Iealy; pertaining to meal. Ioln. -- Low, flat, rich land, on the banks
Febrile. -Pertainin to fver. of a river.
Fecal.-Contai,in, or coni sisting of dregs, Hopper. -A wooden trough through which
sedimnenit or excreimenlt. - rain passes into a mill; a vessel ii
Fecula. -The,een - matter of plants; starch whiclh seed-corn is carried forsowing.
or farin. Horizontal.- Parallel to the horizon; on a
Feciudaliotso.- The act of making fruitful or level.
prolific; impregnation Ilybrid.-l3ongrel; an, animal or plait proFerr,zentatio,. -Int ernal mrrotionr of the par- duLced from the mixture of two species.
ticles of a ninal and vegetable substances, Ilydatid. -A little tralnsparent bladder filled
occasioned hy heat or nmoisture, and caus- with water, on any part of the body.
ing an extrication of as and heat. Hydraulic. t-Relating to the conveyance of
Ferruginois. — Partking of iron. water throLugh pipes.
Fetlock. -A tuft of tair growing behind the IHydrogen. -A gas coustituting one of the
pasteri joift of imay horses. elements of water.
576
DEFINITION OF WORDS.
I'nspervious.- Not penetrable by light, nor
permeable to fluids.
Incisive.-Having the quality of cutting or
separating; incisive teeth, in animals, are
the fore teeth.
Injection. -Throwing in; liquid medicine
thrown into the body by means of a
syringe or pipe.
Innoxious. -Free from mischievous quali ties.
Integumnent.- That which naturally invqsts
or covers another thing.
Internode. - The space between two joints
of a plant.
Interstice. -The space between things.
Iridescent.- Having colors like the rainbow.
Jugular. - Pertaining to the throat or the
neck.
Labial. -Pertaining to the lips.
Lachrymal. - Generating or secreting tears.
Larva. -An insect in the caterpillar state.
Larynx.- The upper part of the windpipe;
a cartilaginous cavity.
Latent. - Concealed.
Lateral. -Proceeding from the side.
Lea.- A meadow or plain.
Lever. - A bar of any substance turning on a
support called the fulcrum or prop.
Ligament.- Anything that ties or unites one
thing or part to another; a strong sub stance, serving to bind one bone with
another.
Ligneous. -Consisting of wood.
Line.-The twelfth part of an inch.
Linear. -Consisting of lines; slender; in a
straight direction.
Lithe.-That may be easily bent; pliable;
limber.
Lobby.-A small hall or waiting-room.
Longitudinal. -Running lengthwise.
Lotion.-A liquid preparation for washing
the body.
Lupulin.-The fine yellow powder of hops.
Mal-odorous. - Having an offensive odor.
Marl.- A species of limy earth.
Matrice.- The womb; the place where any thing is formed or produced.
Mattock.- A tool to grub up weeds.
Maw. -The stomach of beasts; the crop of
fowls.
Membrane. - A thin, white, flexible skin.
Metacarpal. - Part of the hand between the
wrist and the fingers.
livetamorphose. -To change into a different
form; to transform.
Miasmata.-Pertaining to putrefactive efflu via.
Midge.-A small insect; a gnat or flea.
Ilfilch. - Giving milk.
Molting. -Shedding a natural covering, as
hair, feathers, skin or horns.
Mtongrel. -Of a mixed breed.
MIucilage. - One of the elements of vegetable;
the liquor which moistens the joints of
animal bodies.
,Ifucous. -Slimy; glutinous.
M2ulch. -Half-rotten straw.
MAlslion. -A division in a window-frame; a
bar.
NasaJ.-Pertaining to the nose.
49
Navicular. - Shaped like a boat.
Nitrogen. -An element of air called azote,
fatal to animal life.
Nocturnal.- Pertaining to the night.
Normal. -Perpendicular; relating to rudi ments or first principles.
Noxious..-Hurtful; harmful.
Oblique. -Not direct; slanting.
Oblong. - Longer than broad.
Obovate. -Having the narrow end downward.
Obtuse. -Blunt; not pointed or acute.
Occipital.- Pertaining to the back part of
the head.
Offset. -A shoot; a sprout from the roots of
a plant.
Organic bodies. - Bodies with organs on the
action of which depend their grow th and
perfection.
Osier. - Wi llow twig.
Oval.- Of t he shape or figure of an egg.
Ovary.a-The part where eggs are formed, or
in wh ich t he f etu s is s uppos ed to be
formed.
Ovate. - Egg-shaped.
Ovule. -A body destined to be come a seed.
Ovum. - Egg-s hap ed.
Oxygen. -That part of air wh ich may be
breate i i thed vital air, or the basis of it.
Pad. —A road; an easy-paced horse; a soft
s addle; to beat a w ay smooth and level.
Paddock. - A small enclosure for animals.
Palmated. - Having the shape of a hand;
webbed.
Palpi. -Feelers.
Pnarnt.-Pertaining to bread.
Panice. -A species of flowering; unfolding
of blossoms.
Parallelogram. -A figure whose opposite
sides are equally distant throughout.
Parasitic.-Growing on the stem or branch
of another plant.
Parictal. - Bones forming the sides and upper
part of the skull.
Parterre. —Level ground laid out and fur nished with evergreens and flowers.
Pastern. -Part of a horse's leg between the
joint next the foot and the coronet of the
hoof.
Peccant. -Morbid; bad; not healthy.
Pedicel.- The final division of a common
stem or stalk.
Pellet. — A little ball.
Pellicle.-A thin skin or film.
Pelt. - A beast's skin, with hair on it; a raw
hide.
Pelvis. —The cavity of the body forming the
lower part of the abdomen.
Perch. - A pole; a roost for fowls.
Perennial. —Lasting through the year; a
plant which lives more than two years.
Perforate.-To bore through; to make a
hole or holes through anything.
Permeable. —That may be passed through
without displacement of its parts.
Perspective -View in the distance.
Pervious. - That may be penetrated by anoth er body or substance.
Petal. -A flower-leaf.
Petiole. -A leaf-stalk; the foot-stalk of a
leaf.
577
co'
~ _ -. Oq -.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~E
0 I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3
0
ti
t'i
li
Z5
DEFLNITION OF WORDS.
tendinig a sloping roof beyond the main
buil(]inig.
Vertebra. -A joint of the spine or back-bone
of an animal.
Vertical. -Placed or being in the zenith, or
perpendicularly over the head.
Vestibule. -The porch or entrance into a
house; an anite-roonll.
Iriscid. -Glutinous; st icky.
Wattle.-The fleshy bunch under the throat
of a cock or turkey.
Wear. -A dam in a river to stop and raise
the water.
Whey.-The watery part of milk separated
from the thick part, in making cheese.
Windlass. -A machine for raising great
weights; a hansdle by which anything is
turned.
Witheis. -The junction of thie shoulder-bones
of a horse, at the bottom of the neck.
Yolk. -The oily secretion from the skin of
sheep, which renders the pile soft and
pliable.
Zig-zag.- Having short turns.
Tonic. —A medicine that gives vigor and
action to the system.
Transpiration. - Passing off through the
pores of the skin.
Transcerse. - Lyin,g or being across, or in a
cross direction; to overturn.
T'rench. -To cut or dig a ditch or channel;
to fortify, by cutting a ditch and raising
a rampart; to furrow, by ploughing.
Trepan?ning. - Opening the sk. tll, to relieve
the brain.
Trocar. - An instrument for tapping in case
of driopsy.
Tubercle.-A small swelling, tumor, knob,
or rough point.
Tu berous.- Rotndish, fleshy vegetalble bod ies, connected into a bunch by interven ina threads.
Tunicateda. —Covered with a tunic or mem bra'es; coated. as a stem.
Uterus. -The woimib.
i'ell.- A skinl; a reninet-bag.
l'esttr(l. - Belonrging to the belly.
'eras.hah.- A., open portico. formed by ex
579
I