7 (r ~ 'y' 4',,i~j~<~ 4'~ ~; {'~' ( ) ( #1 ~ ~ j{ 'i'; ~~J lb is light, but strong, and is substantially a table on which to turn the cheese; go forcing screws, nor lifting heavy weights, but the cheese creates a con Fig. 92. stant and regular pressure, of twelve times its own weight, whether large or small; and, if a greater pressure is needed, one pound laid upon the 135 4 I I FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. cheese or table adds twelve pounds increased pressure, and so on. The cheese is not removed from the press until the pressing is completed. Churns.- The churns are closed vessels, into which the cream, or the whole milk, being put, a piston, or a wheel in the form of a fan, is quickly and regularly moved, either up and down, or by turning, according to its form, so as to separate the oily particles of which the butter is composed. They are generally made of the best oak, and of various sizes. Much improvement has been made, within a few years, in the construction of churns, figures of three of which we annex. The Thermometer churn (Fig. 93) is constructed so that the cream or milk is readily brought to the desired temperature without mixing wvater or other substances, and the temperature certainly and definitely determined, which proves invaluable in making butter. There is a double bottom, made in the form of a semi-circle, of two sheets of zinc, or other metal, placed one above the other, the cream to rest upon the uppermost; between the two sheets forming the bottom is a space or chamber, into which may be introduced cold or warm water, as may be required, to increase or diminish the temperature of the cream or milk. The water is easily applied by means of a common tin tunnel, through an aperture or hole in the side of the churn. Another improvement is a thermometer permanently placed in one end of the churn, secure from injury, marked at sixty-two degrees, and which is always visible, so that the operator may know when the cream or milk is brought to the proper temperature. If too warm, the mercury will rise 136 THE DAIRY. above the mark, and cold water should be applied in the chamber described; if too cold, the mercury will fall below the mark, when warm water must be used in the same manner. The cream or milk should be stirred or agitated, by turning the crank, while the water is being introduced, to give an Fi. 94. equal temperature throughout. When the thermometer indicates that the cream or milk is of the proper temperature, the water may be drawn out through the tube placed for the purpose, when the churning should be performed by giving the crank about forty revolutions to the minute. Kendall's Cylindrical Churn (Fig. 94) is simple in its construction, and F/g. 95. I L': _. - -XSSS combines all the advantages of other cylindrical churns, with this improve. ment, that the revolving dasher can be taken out in a moment, whenever 12* 137 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. it is required to be cleansed. There are five size%, from two to twenty gallons. The Gault Churn is an article much in use, and in some respects a superior machine. Fig. 95 represents the top lifted up to receive the cream or discharge the butter. Tillinghast's is also an almost incomparable churn. Cleanliness in Dairying. The form of these utensils is, however, a matter of secondary importance, compared with their being kept extremely clean, which is the chief requisite in all the operations of the dairy; and, therefore, those which can be most readily cleaned are the best to be employed, whatever may be their shape. Those who superintend dairy operations should be clean and careful, and the floor of the dairy should be kept perfectly dry; for water thrown down in hot weather will rise again in steam, and affect the milk with its humidity. MILK. Managemnent of Milk. - When the milk has been drawn from the cow, it should be carried as gently as possible to the dairy, and after being there strained through the sieve, it must then be deposited in shallow pans or coolers, not exceeding three or four inches in depth, where it is left to collect the cream, which rises to the surface within a few hours, according to the temperature of the air. Those who are particularly nice, either in the consumption of the raw cream, or for the making of butter, skim it, perhaps, within twelve hours; but it is more generally left full twenty-four, or even thirty-six hours, according to the state of the season, when intended for butter, and is then not unfrequently skimmed again. The chief component parts of milk are those which, when separated, are known as forming butter and cheese, the residue of which is called whey. These parts are known, however, to vary in percentage, according to the quality of the milk; and, to determine this point, what is called a lactometer is in use. It consists of glass tubes placed upright in a wood frame; these tubes are divided and subdivided, by marks, into equal spaces; they are filled to equal height, each with the milk of a particular cow, when, after remaining a proper time, the quantity of cream in each is readily seen through the glass, and the exact difference determined by the marks; this, however, does not show whether the caseous matter (of which cheese is formed) or the butyraceous matter (or oily substance producing cream) predominates. The following observations may be assumed as a summary of its management: First- Of the milk that is drawn from any cow at a time, that which c,rones off at the first is always thinner and of a poorer quality than that which comes afterwards, the richness continually increase 138 THE DAIRY. ing, to the last drop drawn at that time. Second-If milk be put in a dish and allowed to stand till it throws up cream, that portion of cream which rises first to the surface is richer in quality and greater in quantity than what rises in a second equal portion of time; the cream that rises in the second interval of time is greater in quantity and richer in quality than that which rises in a third equal space of time; and that of the third than the fourth, and so on; the cream that rises decreasing in quantity, and declining continually in quality, so long as any rises to the surface. Third -Thick milk always throws up a smaller proportion of the cream it actually contains to the surface than milk which is thinner; but that cream is of a richer quality. If water be added to that thick milk, it will also afford a considerably greater quantity of cream than it would have done if allowed to remain pure; but its quality is at the same time greatly debased. Fourth- Milk which is put into a bucket, or other proper vessel, and carried to any considerable distance, so as to be much agitated, and in part cold, before it is put into the milk-pans to settle for cream, never throws up so much nor so rich cream as if the same milk had been put into the pans directly after it was milked. Fifth- If it be intended to make butter of a very superior quality, it will be, in such case, advisable to separate the milk that is first drawn from that which comes last, and the quality will be improved in proportion to the smallness of the last-drawn milk that is obtained. The first-skimmed cream should also be used, as it is always richer than that which rises last. BUTTER. General Remarks.- This is formed either by cream alone, or with the whole milk, unskimmed; but although such different modes of manufacture might seem to warrant very different results, yet they have very little perceptible effect on the quantity or quality, though the profit on the produce of the dairy may be affected, in large towns, by the greater demand for skim-milk or butter-milk. There is also another kind, which is much inferior, and made from the cream of whey, after the cheese has been taken from the milk; but the process of making is nearly the same. Creamn Butter.- When butter is to be made from cream alone, the milk is, in winter, usually skimmed as often as four, and in summer two or three times, or until it will afford no more cream; and this should be first separated from the edges of the pan, to which it firmly adheres, by means of an ivory or silver-bladed knife, run closely around it. The cream should then be carefully drawn to one side and lifted off with a skimming-dish, which is generally pierced with small holes; an act which requires some dexterity, 139 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. both to avoid the leaving of any cream behind, and to pi.,... taiy pt r'-jn of the milk being mixed with it. Some persons, indeed, have leaden cool ers, with a plug in the bottom, which allows the milk to escape to a large vessel underneath, while it leaves the cream at top; but the former practice is most usual. The length of time which the milk should stand before it is skimmed must depend both upon the temperature of the air at the time, and the views of the dairy operator. In moderately warm weather, if very fine butter be intended, it should not be suffered to remain more than six or eight hours; for ordinary good butter, it may be safely allowed to stand full twelve hours, and during cold weather, much longer. The cream is then put into a deep vessel, in which it is frequently stirred, every day, with a wooden spoon, in order to prevent coagulation, until sufficient be collected to form a churning. No vessel can be better adapted for this purpose than one in the under part of which, close to the bottom, there is a faucet and peg for draining off, from time to time, any thin, serous part of the milk that may chance to be there generated; for should this be allowed to remain, it acts upon the cream in a powerful manner, and greatly diminishes the richness and quality of the butter. The inside of the vessel should be covered with a bit of close, fine silver-gauze, to keep back the cream, while the whey is allowed to pass. Many persons imagine that no butter can be of good quality except that which is made from fresh cream; the fact, however, being, that the formation of butter takes place only after the cream has attained a certain degree of acidity, and no butter of even tolerable quality can be obtained from cream that is not more than one day old. The length of time which the cream should be kept before it acquires that degree of acidity which is requisite for the best butter, depends so much upon the weather, that no fixed rule can be laid down. In fact, so little nicety is observed, in this respect, by practical farmers, even those who have a high reputation for making good butter, that few of them ever think of observing any precise rule with regard to the different portions of their cream, seeing they in general make into butter all they have collected since the former churning; the time which should intervene between one churning and another being usually determined by local or accidental circumstances. If the cream be very carefully kept, and no serous matter be allowed to lodge about it, a very great latitude may be safely admitted in this respect. It is, indeed, certain, that cream which has been kept three or four days in summer is in excellent condition for making into butter, and that from three days to seven may be found in general to be the best time for keeping cream before churning. The cream from every milking should, however, be kept apart until it is become sour, and not be mixed up with sweet cream,- at least, not until 140 TIHE DAIRY. the moment of churning, -for the mixture occasions fermentation, which, though partly prevented by the stirring, is liable to render the cream putrid. When, however, the herbage is coarse, or the cows are fed on roots, or artificial grasses, the sooner the cream is churned, the better will be the butter. Sometimes the milk is allowed to stand until the cream becomes clotted, or, as it is termed, "carved," to a proper degree of acidity, which generally takes place, in warm weather, within a day or two; and, in winter, it is placed near the fire, in order to forward that process. Clotted Cream. -The mode of procuring the genuine clotted or " clouted cream," which is said to produce one fourth more cream than by the common way, is as follows: The milk, while warm from the cow, is strained into either large, shallow brass pans, well tinned, or earthen ones, holding from two to five gallons, in which should be a small quantity of cold water, which prevents burning, and causes the cream to be more completely separated and thrown to the top. The mnorning meal of milk stands till about the middle of the day; the evening meal, until the next morning. The pans are now steadily carried to and placed over a clear, slow fire, which, if of charcoal, or over a stove, the cream is not so apt to get an earthy or smoky taste as when the milk is scalded over a turf or wood fire. The milk must not boil, as that would injure the cream. The test of its being sufficiently scalded is a very nice point; the earthen pan, having its bottom much smaller than the top, allows this point to be more easily ascertained, because, when the milk is sufficiently scalded, the pan throws up the form of its bottom on the surface of the cream. The brass pan, if almost as big at the bottom as at the top, gives no criterion to judge by, but the appearance and texture of the cream at the surface, the wrinkles upon which become smaller, and the texture somewhat leathery. In summer, it must be observed, the process of scalding ought to be quicker than in winter, as, in very hot weather, if the milk should be kept over too slow a fire, it would be apt.to run or curdle. This process being finished, the pans are carefully returned to the dairy, and, should it be the summer season, they are placed in the coolest situation; if on stone floors, the better; but should it be the winter season, the heat should rather be retained, by putting a slight covering over the pans, as cooling too suddenly causes the cream to be thin, and consequently yields less butter, the mode of making which is this: The cream should, in hot weather, be made into butter the next day; but in winter it is thought better to let the cream remain one day longer on the milk. The cream, being collected from the pans, is put into wooden bowls, which should be first rinsed with scalding, then with cold, water. It is now briskly stirred round one way, with a nicely-cleaned hand, which must also have been swashed in hot and then in cold water; for these alternate warm and cold 141 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. ablutions of bowl and hand are not only for the sake of cleanliness, but to prevent the butter from sticking to either. The cream, being thus agitated, quickly assumes the consistence of butter; the milky part now readily separates, and being poured off, the butter is washed and pressed in several cold waters; a little salt is added to season it, and then it is well beaten on a wooden trencher until the milky and watery parts are separated, when it is finally formed into prints for the market. In the common way of making butter from cream, the dairies churn the whole quantity at once; but in many dairies, celebrated for the quality of their butter, only the first skimmings are used in making the best kind, the mode pursued being as follows: The milk, after standing twenty-four hours in large shallow coolers, lined with lead, is skimmed; the skimmed milk is then drawn off from the leads into other vessels of increased depth, but unlined, in which it is left from twelve to twenty-four hours, during which time it is skimmed two or three times; this is called" doubling;" it is then "trebled," or put into tubs, or still deeper vessels, where it is occasionally skimmed, so long as any appearance of cream is found to form upon the surface; after which, it is given to the pigs. The butter which is made from the after-skimmings is paler and inferior to that made from the cream cast up within the first rising; it is therefore generally churned apart. Whole-Milk Buitter.- If butter be made from the whole milk, the process, in the best dairies, in which the consumption of butter-milk is considerable, is to place the milk, when drawn from the cow, in coolers on the floor of a clean, cool, well-aired milk-house, from twelve to twenty-four hours, till it has cooled to the temperature of the milk-house, and the cream has risen to the surface; these coolers are next emptied, while the milk is yet free from acidity, into a clean, well-scalded vat, of size to contain the whole milking, or two milkings, if both are sufficiently cooled, where it remains till churned. If another milking, or meal of milk, be ready before that which has begun to become sour, that second meal may be put into the same vat; but if the first has soured, or is approaching to acidity, before the second quantity has completely cooled, any further admixture would lead to fermentation, and injure the milk. It is necessary that the whole milk become sour before it is churned, but the whole of it must become so of its own accord, and by no means forced into acidity by any mixture of sour milk with that which is sweet. The utmost care should, however, be taken, not to allow the coagulum, or curd, of the milk in the stand-vat, to be broken till the milk is about to be churned. If it be not agitated, or the "lapper" (as it is termed in dairy language) broken, till it is turned into the churn, it may stand from a day to a week without injury. Churning. - The operation of churning, whether it be cream or whole 142 THE DAIRY. milk, is done in the same manner; but the latter, from being so much the larger quantity, is of course so much more laborious, that in large dairies churns moved by machinery are frequently used, and which, besides the advantage of performing the work with great regularity, also produce a larger quantity of butter. The whole milk, besides, requires more time than that of cream to complete the process - from two to three hours being considered necessary to effect it with due deliberation, while that of cream is generally finished within less than an hour and a half. The operation should, in warm weather, be very slow, for if it be done too hastily, the butter will be soft and white; the churn should, therefore, be cooled by being previously filled with cold water; but in winter it should, on the contrary, be performed quickly, and the churn should be warmed. The motion of the churn should be, in each case, regular, and whatever may be the degree of velocity, the stroke of the fan, or piston, ought always to be the same, until the butter is formed, or said "to come." The air which is generated in the churn should also be occasionally allowed to escape, or it will create froth, which impedes the process. The temperature of the milk-house should be kept, as nearly as possible, at about 55~, or at least between 50~ to 60~; and cream, when churned alone, should not be higher, for if kept at a high temperature in the process of churning, it will be found inferior in appearance, taste, and quality; but milk and cream, when churned together, it is generally thought, must be equalled to about 70~ to 75~, before the latter can be separated from the milk, which is consequently the common practice. This is done by one person pouring gradually a small quantity of warm water into it, while another is churning; for if the work be carried oil while too cold, the milk is said to rise in the churn, air-bubbles are thrown up with a rattling noise, and the milk becomes pale; whereas, if conducted at a proper heat, it does not swell, but is easily worked, and remains at the proper straw-color. A thermometer, it may therefore be imagined, should always be hung up in every dairy; yet, strange to say, it is an instrument seldom seen in any of them; the only scale which the dairy-maid knows is at her fingers' ends, and although she invariably trusts to her hand for trying the heat, it is yet surprising with what correctness she usually judges. Practice, it is said, makes perfect; and it is astonishing with what accuracy many operations, which are supposed by theorists to demand the aid of science, are performed, through experience, by the merest child in science. Notwithstanding, however, the accuracy which experience may produce, it is not to be compared with that denoted by scientific experiment, nor can it be acquired without great loss of time, which might otherwise be avoided. The whole milk, as well as the cream when churned separately, must 143 FARMER'S HAND-BOO1I. become sour before it is churned; but this must be effected merely by the state of the atmosphere, or by being kept exposed to the fire, in order to bring on fermentation. It is therefore kept in a large vat, or tub, until the milk is turned into curd, or lapper, and if that remains undisturbed, the churning may be deferred for some days longer; the warm water must not, therefore, be added until the curd is broken. In some dairies, the milk is put into a pan, or vat, and well stirred with a wooden spoon, or ladle, two or three times a day, to prevent the cream from separating from the milk; and this sort of stirring, or partial churning, is continued till the milk becomes so thick and clotted that the ladle stands erect in it, after which, it is put into the churn for an hour or so; cold water is also poured in, to help collect the butter and separate the milk from it. Washing Butter. - In most places, the butter, when taken from the churn, is washed in repeated waters, in order to extract the milk, until the water comes out pure. This, however, is a practice not generally com mended, for it has been found, by long experience, that butter retains its sweetness much longer when no water is used in making up. When it is taken out of the churn, it is well worked with the hand, which presses out most of the milk; it is then beaten with a cloth, or rather a cloth is repeatedly pressed down upon it, which absorbs all the remaining milk. The less it is beaten or worked, however, the better; for the more it is kleaded, the more tough and gluey will it become; and a slight quantity of salt may be added to flavor it. Salting. - If the butter be salted for market, after the whole of the milk has been carefully pressed out, it should be well mixed, by working it in by the hand, with finely-powdered salt; for if care be not taken in mixing it equally, the butter acquires different colors - yellow where the salt has fallen, and white where it has not- which kind is, of course, inferior. The operation should be performed immediately, for, if deferred, as it commonly is by country dealers, and farmers who do not churn enough to fill a firkin at once, the butter loses a portion of its firmness and flavor. Should, however, there not be enough to fill up a package, the butter should never be put into the firkin in layers, but the surface should be left every day rough and broken, so as to unite better with that of the succeeding churning. The quality may also be in a great measure preserved by giving it a partial salting, and covering it over with a clean linen cloth, dipped in pickle, and placed in a cool situation. The quality of salt should be strong marine, free from the brine of mineral salt. The quantity may be that of about ten ounces to fourteen pounds of butter, -rather more or less according to the length of time which the butter is intended to be preserved; but it is generally thought that the butter made 144 I'HE DAIRY. during the summer months is the fittest for salting, and that the sort which is made in the latter part of the season, not taking it so well, requires rather more. Some farmers use saltpetre, in the proportion of half an ounce of salt with one eighth of saltpetre to the pound of sixteen ounces; and, although this forms a valuable pickle, if the salt be really good, yet it unquestionably would be much improved if four ounces of raw sugar were to be added to each pound weight of salt. A compound of one part sugar, one part nitre, and two parts of the best Spanish salt, beat together into a fine powder, and mixed thoroughly with the butter, in the proportion of one ounce to the pound, has been found to keep the butter in every respect sweet and sound, during two years that it was in cask. It is also said to impart a rich marrowy flavor that no other butter ever acquires, and tastes but very little of the salt. When the butter is cured, it is then tramped firmly, with a round wooden stick, into the firkin, which is filled up to the head, and then covered over with a little of the purest salt. CHEESE. General Remarks.- As butter is made from the oily part of the milk which rises to the surface in the form of cream, so cheese is composed from the curd, or coagulated milk, and may be obtained from the caseous part alone, after the milk has been skimmed. If thus deprived of the cream, this "skim-milk" cheese is, however, of a poor quality; and if intended to be good, the whole milk should be used, without any loss of cream; for, if any portion of it be abstracted, the cheese will be proportionably less rich,- consequently, less palatable, and of inferior value. The mode of making, too, though in the main points apparently the same, yet is subject to more variety of minor details in the practice than that of anything formed of one material, and thus many different qualities are carried to market, each bearing some distinct character of its own. That many of those kinds which are by connoisseurs thought indifferent might, by other management, be more nearly assimilated to the superior sorts, there can be little doubt; these peculiarities, however, have, in some cases, attached a certain degree of value to their flavor, while in others it would seem to be imparted by the natural grasses grown upon the soil. This applies more especially to some places. It is well known that where brine-springs most abound the cheese is always esteemed to be of superior quality. Rennet.- Different Modes of Preparing and Treating. -Although cheese may be made from the curd which has been formed by the coagulation of the milk when it turns sour, yet, when thus obtained, it is hard and ill-flavored; means have, therefore, been found to curdle it with "rennet," which is made from the gastric juice of animals, but more especially from 13 K 145 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. that found in the maws or stomachs of sucking calves, that have been fed entirely upon milk. These maws, or "vells," as they are sometimes called, are occasionally preserved, along with the curd contained in them by salting; but the more usual mode is to employ the skins of the stomach bags alone, the method being to put a few handfuls of salt into and around the stomachs, which are then rolled up and hung near the chimney to dry, after which, they are put by for a long time before they are used. If the skin be good, a bit of it no larger than a half-dime, if put into a tea-cup, filled with water, with a little salt, during about twelve hours before it is wanted, will form a stock sufficient for eighteen or twenty gallons of milk; but their manner of preservation and use is extremely various, and, as the quality of the cheese depends more upon the application of the rennet than upon any other part of the manufacture, we shall here state some of the most approved modes of its preparation. Most dairy-maids are of the opinion that if the curd, or chyle, were not removed from the maw of the calf, it would communicate a harsh taste to the cheese; and some intelligent operators never use the vells until they are a year old, for, if newer, the rennet made from them causes the cheeses to heave, or swell, and to become full of eyes, or holes; and it is well known that, if too much be used, or if it be unusually strong, it will occasion the cheese to heave, probably by causing fermentation. It is, therefore, some times prepared by adding to every six vells two gallons of brine, and two lemons, the latter doing away with any unpleasant smell, and giving it an agreeable flavor. A large quantity should be made at a time, and it should never be used until it has stood at least two months. Another mode is, to take the maw of a newly-killed calf, and clean it of its contents; salt the bag, and put it into an earthen jar for three or four days, till it form a pickle; then take it from the jar and hang it up to dry, after which it is to be replaced in the jar, the covering of which should be pierced with a few small holes to admit of air, and let it remain there for about twelve months. When wanted for use, a handful each of the leaves of sweet-briar, dog-rose, and bramble, with three or four handfuls of salt, are to be boiled together in a gallon of water for a quarter of an hour, when the liquid is to be strained off and allowed to cool. The maw is then to be put into the liquid, together with a lemon stuck around with cloves; and the longer it remains in it, the stronger and better will be the rennet, half a pint, or less, of the liquor, is sufficient to turn fifty gallons of milk. Another mode practised is, when the rennet-bag is fit for the purpose, let two quarts of soft water be mixed with salt, wherein should be put almost every sort of spice and aromatic herb that can be procured; and must boil gently until the liquor is reduced to three pints, when it should be 146 THE DAIRY. strained clear from the spices, and poured, in a tepid state, upon the maw, and a lemon may be sliced into it. It may remain a day or two, after which it should be strained again, and put into a bottle, where, if well corked, it will keep good for twelve months or more, and give the cheese a pleasing flavor. Still another practice is this: when the maw comes from the butcher, it is always found to contain a chyly or curd-like matter, which is frequently salted for present use; but when this chyly matter is taken out, and the skin cleaned from slime, and every apparent impurity, by wiping or a gentle washing, the skin is then filled nearly full of salt, and placing a layer of salt upon the bottom of a mug, the skin is placed flat upon it. The mug is large enough to hold three skins in a course, each of which should be covered with salt; and when a sufficient number of skins are thus placed in the mug, it should be filled up with salt, and put, with a dish or plate over it, into a cool place, until the approach of cheese-making season in the following year. The skins are then all taken out, laid for the brine to drain from them, and, being spread upon a table, they are powdered on each side with fine salt, and are rolled smooth with a paste-roller, which presses in the salt. After that, a thin splint of wood is stuck across each of them, to keep them extended while they are hung up to dry. In making the rennet, a part of the dried maw-skin is, in the evening previously to its being used, put into half a pint of luke-warm water, to which is added a little salt. In the morning, this infusion- the skin being first taken out - is put into the tub of milk; but so great is the difference in the quality of these skins, that it is difficult to ascertain what quantity will be necessary for the intended purpose. A piece the size of half a crown, cut from the bottom of a good skin, will commonly be sufficient for a cheese of sixty pounds' weight, though ten square inches of skin are often found too little. It is customary, however, to cut two pieces from each skin, one from the lower, the other from the upper part; but the bottom end is the stronger. An improved mode is, to take all the maw-skins provided for the whole season, pickled and dried as before, put them into an open vessel, and for each skin pour in three pints of spring water; let them stand twenty-four hours, then take out the skins and put them into other vessels; add for each one pint of spring water, and let them stand twenty-four hours, as before. On taking the skins out the second time, gently stroke them down with the hand into the infusion, and they are then done with. Mix these two infusions together, pass the liquor through a fine linen sieve, and add to the whole a quantity of salt rather more than is sufficient to saturate the water, that is, until a portion of salt remains undissolved at the bottom of the vessel. The next day, and also the summer through, the scum, as it 147 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. rises, is to be cleaned off, and fresh salt should be added. Somewhat less than half a pint of this preparation will generally be sufficient for sixty pounds of cheese; but, when for use, the whole should be well stirred up. In some places, however, so far from washing away the chyle contained in the maw of the calf, pains are taken to increase it as much as possible, by giving to the animal as much milk as it can be made to swallow, a few hours before it is killed; for, the chyle being formed by the mixture of the gastric juice with the food, and that gastric juice being the coagulating power, both are therefore carefully preserved, and are considered as thus forming a stronger rennet than can be drawn from the bag alone. When the stomach or bag is taken from the calf's body, its contents are examined, and if any straw or other food be found among the curdled milk, such impurity is removed; but no part of the chyle is suffered to be lost. At least two handfuls of salt are put into the bag, and upon its outside, after which it is rolled up in salt, and hung near a fire, where it is always allowed to hang until it is well dried; and it is understood to be improved by hanging a year, or longer, before being infused. When rennet is wanted, the "yirning," as it is sometimes called, with its contents, is cut small, and put into a jar, with a handful or two of salt, and a quantity either of soft water that has been boiled, and cooled to about 65~, or of new whey taken off the curd, is put upon the bag in the jar. The quantity of water, or whey, to infuse the bag, is more or less, according to the quality of the yirning. If it is that of a new-dropped calf, that has not been fed, three pints will be enough; but if he has been fed for four or five weeks, a couple of quarts may, at least, be put on the bag to wash; it should, however, be observed that the yirning of a calf four weeks old yields more rennet than that of one twice that age. After the infusion has remained in the jar from one to three days, the liquid is drawn off, and a pint more water, or whey, put on the bag in the jar;. and that, after standing in mash one or two days, is also drawn off, and, with that of the first infusion, strained, if any impurities appear in the liquor; the whole being put up in bottles for use as rennet, and the bag being thrown away, without ever being put into the milk. Some put about a drachm of whiskey into each quart bottle of the rennet; and it may be either used immediately, or kept for as many months as may be convenient. A table-spoonful of rennet thus made will, it is said, coagulate thirty gallons of milk; but its great superiority over our common practice is, that it will curdle the milk in five or ten minutes. As to the chyle occasioning a harsh taste to tho cheese, the reverse is the fact. It must, however, be admitted, that, unless great care be employed in the immediate preparation of rennet thus made, 148 THE DAIRY. the curd is extremely apt to become rancid, and thus impart a certain degree of rankness to the cheese. Whole-milk Cheese.- The mode of making sweet-milk cheese - that is, cheese made of milk which has not been skimmed - is, to put the ladder across the cheese-tub, with a large canvas-cloth covering the whole, in order to prevent the falling of milk upon the floor, or any other matter into the tub, and above this is placed the sieve through which the milk is to be strained. It should be of the temperature of 90~ to 95~; and if below 85~, a portion of it should be placed in a deep brass pan, which is then immersed in the water, which is kept hot in the wash-house. By this means the whole is warmed equally, and it is of the utmost importance that attention be paid to it; for, if the milk be not warm enough when the rennet is put- to it, the curd will be tender, and the cheese will bulge out at the sides; and, if too hot, it will cause it to swell or heave, and become spongy, both of which defects are injurious to its appearance and quality. The rennet is then at once added to the milk, which is thus coagulated at its natural heat; but many farmers have not cows enough to form a cheese at every milking, and it must, therefore, be then allowed to cool. In doing this, it of course throws up cream, which is not unfrequently taken off for butter, while the second meal, of whole milk, is used along with that which has been already skimmed; but if the cheese be intended to be of fine quality, the cream must be also added. This, however, should be at the same time skimmed; for the milk, when cooled, must be afterwards heated to full 90~ in the summer, and to a higher temperature in cold weather; and, were the cream to be warmed to that degree, it would be melted, which would cause a considerable portion of the fatty or butyraceous matter to be lost in the whey. It is, therefore, generally thought the best practice to gradually bring it to a liquid state by the admixture of moderately warm milk, before it is poured into the cheese-tubs. The curd is then broken into small pieces, and the whey being thoroughly squeezed out, it is salted, wrapped in a cloth, and placed in a chessart, of such size as may be convenient, or is usually made in the neighborhood; it is then pressed with weights proportionate to its size, and turned occasionally, until it becomes sufficiently firm to be taken out of the mould, and placed either on a cheese-rack, or on the floor of the cheese-room, where it is occasionally turned, and dry-rubbed with salt, and remains until fit for the market. Drying.- New cheese requires to be hardened by gradual drying before it becomes fit for market; and the cheeses, when taken out of the mould, are, for this purpose, spread in a single layer on the floor of the cheese-loft, where they are daily turned by hand, in order to expose each surface alternately to the air. This, on a large dairy-farm, is a slow and laborious operation, which, as it devolves upon hired help, sometimes prevents themr 13* 149 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. from paying proper attention to that essential duty. A machine has, therefore, been invented to remedy this inconvenience, called a Swing Frame, which consists of a dozen strong shelves framed together, and having bars nailed from top to bottom of one side of the back of the shelves, in order to prevent the cheeses from falling out while in the act of turning. The frame is suspended on two strong pivots, one of which is let into the wall of the room, and the other is supported by a strong post. Two catches keep the frame upright, and prevent it from being turned more than half around. By first filling the shelf immediately below the axis of the frame, and then placing the cheeses alternately on the two nearest shelves above and below that which has been already filled, the preponderance of one side over the other can never be more than the weight of one cheese; the whole power, therefore, required to turn the machine, cannot, in any circumstances, be greater than this and the friction of the pivots. The cheeses, in the act of turning, drop upon those shelves, which, in the former position of the frame, were above them, and, having been exposed to a current of air for twenty four hours previously, have become perfectly dry. The benefits of the machine are, that, by means of it, fifty-five cheeses are turned in the same time which is required for turning two by hand; that a room thus furnished will hold treble as many cheeses as when they are laid on the floor; that the shade afforded by the shelves, together with the current of air which passes between them, has the effect, in hot weather, of preventing excessive sweating, and consequently loss both in weight and quality, as well as diminishing the necessity of rubbing the cheeses; and, lastly, the ripening of the cheeses is hastened, so that, on an average, they are ready for market five weeks earlier than usual. The Store-room. - The store-room should be kept temperately warm, and the shelves on the floor upon which the cheeses are laid should be strewed with dry moss, or fine hay, as the cheeses, when new, are otherwise apt to adhere to the boards, and thus acquire an unpleasant appearance. At a more advanced stage they may be laid upon straw; but, at first, it would sink into the surface and deface them. The dried leaves of the tutsan, or of the yellow star of Bethlehem, and the twigs of the common birch-tree, are also thought to assist in preventing the depredations of mites. Green WVhey.- The whey which runs from the curd without pressure is called "green whey," and is received from the cheese-tub into pans covered with a cloth, under which they are held, until it deposits a sedi ment, which is added to the curd, after which it is poured into the cistern; while that which is pressed by hand from the curd is termed "white whey," and contains a considerable portion of oily matter; so much so, that 150 THE DAIRY. ith is in some cases kept apart, and set for cream. Most generally, however, the green and white are both scalded together, until they throw up a substance in appearance between cream and curd, which is skimmed off so long as it rises, to be churned for whey-butter, the difference between which and milk-butter is something in favor of the latter. MODE OF MAKING THE CELEBRATED CHEESES. In all our dairies the same main points are admitted to be essential; but, although the means of attaining them are nearly alike in similar sections of country, yet in others they differ materially in the minutiae; and as upon these much of the art of cheese-making depends, we give the details of the modes employed on some of the most celebrated descriptions of cheese, believing that it will be of material value to every American farmer, to be acquainted with the modus operandi of producing the finest articles of dairy labor. Cheshire Cheese. -The Cheshire cheese is generally made with two meals of milk, even in dairies where two cheeses are made in a day; indeed, in the beginning and end of the season, three, four, and even five or six meals, are kept for the same cheese. The general custom is, to take about a pint of cream, when two-meal cheeses are made, from the night's milk of twenty cows. In order to make cheese of the best quality, and in the greatest abundance, it is, however, admitted that the cream should remain in the milk; for whether the cream that is once separated from it can by any means be again so intimately united with it as not to undergo a decomposition in the after process, admits of a doubt. The more common practice is, to set the evening's milk apart till the following morning, when the cream is skimmed off, and three or four gallons of the milk are poured into a brass pan, which is immediately placed in the furnace of hot water, and made scalding hot; then half of the milk thus heated is poured upon the night's milk, and the other half is mixed with the cream, which is thus liquefied, so as, when put into the cheese-tub, to form one uniform fluid. This is done by the dairy-woman while the others are milking the cows, and the morning's milk being then immediately added to that of the evening, the whole mass is at once set together again for cheese. The rennet and coloring being then put into the tub, the whole is well stirred together, a wooden cover is put over the tub, and over that is thrown a linen cloth. The usual time of "coming," or curdling, is one hour and a half, during which time it is frequently to be examined. If the cream rises to the surface before the coming takes place, as it often does, the whole must be stirred together so as to mix again the milk and the cream; and this as often as it rises, until the coagulation commences. If the dairy 151 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. woman supposes the milk to have been accidentally put together cooler than she intended, or that its coolness is the cause of its not coming, hot water, or hot milk, may be poured into it, or hot water in a brass pan may be par tially immerged in it. This must, however, be done before it is at all coagulated, for the forming of the curd must not be tampered with. If it has been set together too hot, the opposite means, under the same precautions, may be resorted to; but the more general practice is to suffer the process to proceed,' hot as it is, until the first quantity of whey is taken off, a part of which, being set to cool, is then returned into the tub to cool the curd. If too little appears to have been used, it renders the curd exceedingly bitter, and therefore an additional quantity may be put in; but this must be done before the coagulation takes place, for, if added afterwards, it will be of little effect, as it cannot be used without disturbing the curd, which can then only acquire a proper degree of toughness by having some heated whey poured over it. For coloring, Spanish'annatto is the drug usually employed, little more than the quarter of an ounce being sufficient for a cheese of sixty pounds. Other coloring matters are, however, used, such as marigolds boiled in milk, which gives a pleasant flavor, and carrots also boiled in milk and strained, which imparts a rich color, but a rather strong taste. The annatto is generally put in by rubbing a piece of it in a bowl with some warm milk, which is afterwards allowed to stand a little, in order to drain off the sediment, and is then mixed with the entire quantity. Within an hour and a half, as already mentioned, if all goes on well, the coagulation will be formed -a point which is determined by gently pressing the surface of the milk with the back of the hand; but in this test experience is the only guide, for the firmness of the curd, if the milk be set hot together, will be much greater than that from milk which has been set cold together. If the curd be firm, the usual practice is to take a common case-knife, and make incisions across it to the full length pf the blade, at the distance of about one inch, and again crosswise in the same manner, the incisions intersecting each other at right angles. The cheese-maker and two assistants then proceed to break the curd, by repeatedly putting their hands down into the tub, and breaking every part of it as small as possible, this part of the business being continued until the whole is uniformly broken small. It generally takes up about forty minutes, and the curd is'hen left, covered over with a cloth, for about half an hour, to subside. The bottom of the tub is now set rather a-tilt, the curd is collected to the upper side of it, and a board is introduced, of a semi-circular form, to fit loosely one half of the tub's bottom. This board is placed on the curd, and a sixty-pounds' weight upon it, to press out the whey, which, draining to the lower side of the tilted tub, is ladled out into brass pans. Such parts of the 152 THE DAIRY. curd as are pressed from under the board are cut off with a knife, placed under the weighted board, and again pressed; the operation being repeated again and again, until the whey is entirely drawn from the curd. The whole mass of curd is then turned upside down, and put on the other side of the tub, to be pressed as before. The board and weight being removed, the curd is afterwards cut into pieces of about eight or nine inches square, piled upon each other, and pressed both with the weight and hand; these several operations being repeatedly performed, as long as any whey appears to remain in it. The next thing is to cut the curd into three nearly equal portions, one of which is taken into a brass pan, and is there by two persons broken extremely fine, a large handful of salt being added, and well mixed with it. That portion of curd being sufficiently broken, is put into a cheese-vat, which is placed to receive it, on a cheese-ladder over the cheese-tub, the vat being furnished with a coarse cheese-cloth. The second and third portions of the curd are treated in the same manner, and emptied into the vat, except that into the middle portion eight, nine, or ten times the quantity of salt is usually put. By some, however, each portion is salted alike, and with no more than three large handfuls to each. The breaking takes up more or less time, as the cheese was set together hotter or colder; half an hour is, perhaps, the longest. The curd, when put into the cheese-vat in its broken state, is heaped above the vat in a conical form; to prevent it from crumbling down, the four corners of the cheese-cloth are turned up over it, and three persons, placing their hands against the conical part, gently, but forcibly, press it together, constantly shifting their hands when any portion of the curd is starting from the mass, and folding down the cloth upon it. So soon as the curd adheres together so as to admit of it, a small square board, with a corner of the cloth under it, is put on the top with a sixty-pounds'weight, or a lever, such as that which has been described, is pressed upon it. Several iron skewers are at the same time stuck in the cone, as wvell as through holes in the side of the vat, from which they are occasionally drawn out and fixed in other spots, until not a drop of whey is discharged. The weight and skewers are then removed, and the corners of the cloth are held up by hands, or by a wooden hoop, while the curd is broken as small as possible, half way to the bottom of the vat, and the same operation of pressing and skewering is repeated. The four corners of the cloth are then taken up, while the vat is drawn away, and rinsed in warm whey; a clean cloth is then put over the upper part of the curd, and it is returned inverted into the vat; it is then broken half way through in the same manner as before, which several operations occupy from three to four hours. 153 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. When no more whey can be extracted by these means from the cheese, it is again turned in the vat, and rinsed as before in warm whey. The cloth now made use of is finer and larger than the former, and is so laid that on one side it shall be level with the edge of the vat, and on the other wrap over the whole surface of the cheese the edges being put within the vat, thus perfectly enclosing the entire mass. In this stage of the business the cheese is still higher than the edge of the vat; and, to preserve it in due form, recourse is had to a binder, about three inches broad, either as a hoop or as a cheese-fillet, which is a strong, broad, coarse sort of tape, which is put around the cheese, on the outside of the cloth, and the lower edge of the binder pressed down within the vat, so low as that the upper edge of it may be level with the surface. The cheese is then carried to the press, and a strong, smooth board being placed over it, the press is gently let down upon it, the usual power of which is about fourteen or fifteen hundred weight. In most dairies there are two presses, and in many three or four, of different weights, the cheese being by some put first under the heaviest, and by others under the lightest. As soon as the cheese is put into the press, it is immediately well skewered, the skewers being of strong wire, eighteen or twenty inches long, sharp at the points and broad at the other end, the vat and binder having holes, seldom more than an inch asunder, to receive them. As the press always stands near the wall, only one side of the cheese can be skewered at the same time, and it must therefore be turned half way round, whenever that is necessary; but this occasions no inconvenience, as the skewers must be frequently shifted, and many more holes are made than skewers to fill them. In half an hour from the time when the cheese is first put into the press, it is taken out again, and turned, in the vat, into another clean cloth; after which it is returned to the vat, but is by some persons previously put naked into warm whey, where it stands an hour or more, for the purpose of hardening its coat. At six o'clock in the evening, the cheese is again turned in the vat into another clean cloth, and some dairy-women prick its upper surface all over an inch or two deep, with a view of preventing blisters. These, however, if they occur, can be remedied by opening them with a penknife and pouring hot water into the incision; then press down the outer rind, put on a little salt, and place a piece of slate with a halfpound weight upon it. At six o'clock in the next morning, it is again turned in the vat, with a clean cloth as before, and the skewers are laid aside; it is also turned two or three times more, both morning and evening, at the last of which finer cloths are used than those at first, in order that as little impression as possible may be made on its coat. After the cheese has remained about forty-eight hours under the press, it 154 THE DAIRY, is taken out, fine cloth being used merely as a lining to the vat, without covering the upper part of the cheese, which is then placed nearly mid-deep in a salting-tub, its upper surface being covered all over with salt. It stands there generally about three days, is turned daily, and at each turning well salted, the cloth being changed twice in the time. It is then taken out of the vat, in lieu of which a wooden girth, or hoop, is made use of, equal in breadth to the thickness nearly of the cheese, and in this it is placed on the salting-bench, where it stands about eight days, being well salted all over, and turned each day. The cheese is then washed in lukewarm water, and, after being wiped, is placed on the drying-bench, where it remains about a week; it is then again washed and dried as before, and after it has stood about two hours, it is smeared all over with about two ounces of sweet whey-butter, and then placed in the warmest part of the cheese-room. On the cheese coming into the salting-house, it is, in some dairies, taken out of the vat, and after its sides are well rubbed with salt, is returned into the vat with a clean fresh cloth under it; the top being covered with salt, it is placed on the salting-benches, turned and salted twice a day, and the cloth changed every second day. On the salting-benches it is continued seven or eight days, when it is taken out of the vat, and with a wooden hoop, or cheese-fillet, around it, is put into the salting-tub, and managed as before described. While it is remaining in the warmest part of the cheese-room, it is, during the first seven days, rubbed every day all over, and generally smeared with sweet butter; after which it should for some time be turned daily, and rubbed three times a week in summer, and twice in winter. The details of this process, however, apply only to cheeses of sixty pounds' weight, and the quantity of salt used to them is uncertain. The greatest is about three pounds each; but much of it is wasted, and whether the cheese acquires much saltness in the salting-house, dairymen themselves-are doubtful, though much salt is there expended. Respecting the heating of the milk, the practice must evidently vary according to the weather. The sponginess and heaving of the cheese, which are sometimes complained of, are faults which are to be attributed more to inattention on the part of the operators than to want of actual skill,- the remedy being careful breaking, good thrusting, frequent skewering, and powerful pressing; they not improbably arise partly from the use of cold and warm milk, which, if mixed together, will generate air. Those of pungency and rankness, which are commonly imputed to impurity in the rennet, and by some to the want of salt, may be also more properly ascribed to the fermentation occasioned by the imperfect discharge of the whey. Gloucester Cheese. When the curd is sufficiently firm for breaking, it 155 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. is gently and slowly cut crosswise, to the bottom of the tub, at about an inch apart, with a three-bladed knife of fourteen inches long. When it has stood five or ten minutes, to allow it to sink a little, and the whey to come out as clean as possible, some of the whey is dipped out of it with a bowl, and the curd is again cut. This must also be at first done slowly, and with strokes at a considerable distance from each other, for, if performed hurriedly, a great sediment of curd will be found in the whey-leads; it should, however, be gradually quickened, and the strokes taken nearer and nearer every time, one hand with the skimming-dish keeping the whole in motion, and turning up the lumps suspended in the whey, while the other cuts them as small as possible. This process may occupy a quarter of an hour. The curd is now allowed to settle during a quarter of an hour, when the whey is taken from it, and poured through a very fine sieve placed over the whey-leads, the curd being then cut into lumps, from which most of the remaining whey escapes. The curd is then pressed down with the hand into vats, which are covered with large cheese-cloths of fine canvas, and placed in the press for half an hour, after which they are taken out, and the curd put into a mill, which tears it into small crumbs, and saves the laborious part of squeezing and rubbing it with the hands, while it also retains that portion of the oily matter which would be otherwise lost to the cheese, and thus occasions a great improvement in the making. In this pulverized state it is customary to scald the curd with hot whey, though some consider the cheese richer when not scalded, for this washes out a part of the fat. The whey should, nevertheless, be completely extracted, and the curd fitted into the vat as compactly as possible, being rounded up in the middle, but only just so much as that it can be pressed down to a level. A cheese-cloth is then spread over the vat, and a little hot water is thrown over the cloth, as tending to harden the outside of the cheese, and prevent it from cracking. The curd is now turne(d out of the vat into the cloth, and the inside of the vat being washed in whey, the inverted curd, with the cloth around it, is again returned to it; the cloth is then folded over, and the vat put into the press, where it remains about two hours, after which it is taken out and dry cloths applied, which should be repeated in the course of the day; it is then replaced in. the press until the cheese is salted, which is generally done within twenty-four hours after it is made. The salting is performed by rubbing the entire cheese with finely-powdered salt; for if the curd be salted before being put into the vat, its particles do not intimately unite, and although it may become a good cheese, it is loose and crumbly, and never becomes a smooth, close, solid mass, like that which has been salted after it has been made; but this is never done 156 THE DAIRY. until the skin is closed, for if there be any crack in it at that time, it will not afterwards close. The cheese is after this returned to the vat and put under the press, in which more cheeses than one are placed together, care being always taken to put the newest lowest in the press, and the oldest uppermost. The salting is repeated three times, - the cloths being removed after the second, in order to efface their marks, - and twenty-four hours are allowed to intervene between each; thus the cheese is within five days taken from the press to the cheese-room, though in damp weather it should remain somewhat longer. There it is turned every day for a month, when it is ready for cleaning, which is done by scraping with a common knife, the operator sitting down to perform the operation. When it has been cleared from all scurf, it is rubbed all over with a woollen cloth dipped in paint made of Indian red, or Spanish brown, and small beer; and as soon as the state of the paint will permit, the edge of the cheese. and about an inch on each side, are rubbed hard with a cloth, every week. The quantity of salt is generally about three and a half pounds to the hundred weight, and one pound of annatto is enough for half a ton of cheese. The true characteristics of the double Gloucester cheese consist in its great richness, together with the mildness of its flavor, and that waxy texture which makes it cut, even in thin slices, without crumbling; while its oily matter is retained in toasting, by merely softening itself, without being burned. Stilton Cheese. - This article, so proverbial for its richness, is made by putting the night's cream, without any portion of the skimmed milk, to the milk of the following morning; but those who wish to make it very fine add a still greater quantity of cream, and of course the richness of the cheese depends upon the amount which is used. Butter is also said to be sometimes mixed with it. The rennet is then added, without any coloring; and, when the curd has come, it is taken out without being broken, and put whole into a sieve, or drainer, where it is pressed with weights until entirely cleared of whey. When dry it is put, with a clean cloth, into a hooped chessart, and placed under the press, the outer coat being first salted. When sufficiently firm to be removed from this mould, the cheese is placed upon a dry board, and tightly bound in a cloth, which is changed daily, in order to avoid all danger of cracks in the skin, until this is found to be tolerably well coated, after which it is no longer used, and the cheese requires no further care than being frequently turned upside down, and occasionally brushed. The cheeses of this kind, although not much larger than the crown of an ordinary sized hat - the form of which they much resemble - and not weighing more than about a dozen pounds, yet require nearly two years to bring 14 157 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. them to maturity; for they are not generally thought sufficiently mellowed for use until considerably decayed; and, in order to forward their ripeness, it is said that, besides their being placed in damp but warm cellars, they are sometimes wrapped in strong brown paper, and sunk in a hot-bed. It is also stated that the flavor of an old cheese may be communicated to a new one, of whatever species, by some portions being intermixed with it. This is done by extracting small pieces, with the sample-scoop, from each cheese, and interchanging them; by this means, the new one, if well covered up from the air, will in a few weeks become thoroughly impregnated with the mould, and with a flavor hardly to be distinguished from tbe old one. The cheeses selected for this operation should, however, be dry, and the blue mould should be free from any portion of a more decayed appearance. Dunlop Cheese.- The Dunlop has acquired a high reputation for its mild richness, and is made as follows: When so many cows are kept on one farm as that a cheese of any tolerable size may be made every time they are milked, the milk is passed, immediately as it comes from them, through a sieve into the vat, and, when the whole is collected, it is formed into a curd by the mixture of the rennet. Where, however, the cows are not so numerous as to yield milk sufficient to form a cheese at each meal, the milk of another meal is stored about six or eight inches deep in coolers, and placed in the milk-house. The cream is then skimmed from the milk in the coolers, and, without being heated, is put into the curd-vat, along with the milk just drawn from the cows, and the cold milk, from which the cream has been taken, is heated so as to raise the temperature to about blood-heat. This, indeed, is a matter of great importance; and though in summer 90~ may be sufficient, yet, upon the average of winter weather, 95~ will be generally found requisite. If coagulated much warmer, the curd becomes too adhesive, much of the butyraceous matter is lost in the whey, and the cheese will be found dry, tough, and tasteless; but if too cold, the curd, which is then soft, does not part readily with the serum, and the cheese is so wanting in firmness that it is difficult to be kept together; indeed, even when the utmost pains are taken to extract the whey, and give solidity to the cheese, holes- which, in dairy language, are termed " eyes," "whey-drops," and "springs "-frequently break out, rendering them either rancid or insipid. About a table-spoonful of the liquid rennet is generally thought sufficient for twenty-five gallons of milk, and the curd is usually formed by it within twelve or fifteen minutes, though in some dairies - of course, in consequence of the difference of strength in the rennet- it does not come from three quarters of an hour to an hour, though double the quantity of rennet is used. The curd is then broken with the skimming-dish, or with the hand, and the whey ought to be taken off as speedily as possible, though without pressing, 158 THIE DAIRY. as the least violence has been found to make it come off white, and thus weaken the quality of the cheese. The best method of separating the whey from the curd is, in the first instance, to lift the edge of the cheese-tub, and let the whey run off slowly from it into a vessel placed underneath. The tub is then let down to stand a little, after which it is turned one fourth round, and another collection emptied off; thus, by turning the tub a fourth time round every time, it is found to part from the curd more pure and quickly. When quite freed from the whey, and the curd has acquired a little consistence, it is then cut with the cheese-knife, gently at first, and more minutely as it hardens, after which it is put into the drainer (which is a square vessel, with small holes in the bottom, and a cover to fit inside), on which the lid is placed, with a cloth thrown over it; and a slight pressure - say from forty to fifty pounds, according to the quantity of curd- being laid on, it is allowed to stand from fifteen to twenty minutes, or half an hour. It is then cut into pieces of two inches square, the whey is again discharged, and the weight, being doubled, is replaced. The process of cutting it smaller every half hour, and increasing the weight until the pressure is upwards of a hundred pounds, is continued for three or four hours. It is then cut very small, and minutely salted, half an ounce being sufficient. A clean cheese-cloth, rinsed in warm water and wrung out, being then placed in the chessart, the cheese is turned upside down, and laid, with increased weight, under the press, during the whole night. Next morning, and during the three or four days which it must remain in the press, it is daily turned repeatedly, dry cloths being each time used, and the weight is gradually increased, until the pressure amounts to at least a ton. When ultimately taken from the press, the cheeses are generally kept during a week or tell days in the farmer's kitchen, where they tire turned three or four times every day, and rubbed with a dry cloth. They are then removed to the store-room, which should be in a cool exposure, between damp and dry, without the sun being allowed to shine upon them, or yet a great current of air admitted; this gradual mode of ripening being found essential to prevent the fermentation and heaving of the cheese, as well as the cracking of the rind; but attention must be paid to rub them with a dry cloth, and turn them daily for a month or two, and twice every week afterwards. Practical Suggestions.- Such, then, are the most usual modes of manufacturing the world-renowned cheeses to which we have alluded, in which the difference employed is in some cases very striking and important. T'hus, in the preparation of rennet, the bag itself is in some places used, 159 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. while elsewhere the liquid decoction extracted from it is so much stronger that it occasions the curd to coagulate, as we have just seen, within fifteen minutes; and in other places, it occupies an hour and a half, and not unfre quently more than two hours. Now, it is not only the delay which is thus disadvantageous; for it is well known that the degree of heat at which the curd is set is one of the nicest points in cheese-making, and we can hardly imagine how that can be properly regulated, if it be allowed to stand so long cooling in the cheese-tub. The temperature to which the last night's milk is heated when there is not sufficient to make a cheese that one meal, and the mode in which the cream is managed, differ also in various dairies; nor does there appear any objection to the practice of making the last night's milk into cheese, provided it be so gradually heated as that the cream does not run the risk of being converted into oil, as it does if too suddenly heated; yet we believe that, when once separated from the milk, the cream can never again be so completely blended with it as to be entirely retained in the curd when set; it consequently runs off with the whey, and leaves the cheese of inferior quality. The skewering of the curd, as practised in some dairies. is unknown in most other places; and the labor of several persons employed for three or four hours in thrusting or hand-pressing it into the vat is an operation which is generally managed in other dairies with a couple of maids, and in one quarter of the time. The heaving of the cheese is attributed to the imperfection of its fermentation, occasioned in a great measure by the store-rooms- though commonly placed over the cow-house- not being sufficiently heated, so as to occasion its sweating; yet, in the account of the Dunlop cheese, objection is made to heated stores, as causing an improper degree of fermentation. The rankness of flavor, which is mostly attributed to the impurity of the rennet, is by others ascribed to the nature of the pasture. In this, both suppositions may be right; for it must be evident that it may be readily occasioned by the use of a large quantity of badly-prepared rennet; and we learn from the management of one of the dairies, where every means were taken to avoid the fault, that the cheese still maintained an unpleasant taste of the same description, which could, therefore, have only arisen from the herbage. It was, however, at length uniformly overoome by throwing about half a tea-spoonful of saltpetre into the pail before the cows were milked. The cracks which frequently take place in cheese are also by many persons supposed to proceed from lime having been used as a manure upon land laid down to pasture, and afterwards fed by cows; but this is probably a mistake, for it rarely occurs in the Dunlop sort, though perhaps as much lime has been applied to the soil where that description is made as 160 I TITE DAIRY. to any other. It is more probably owing to the cheese being exposed, before it is dry, to too much draught of air. The mode of salting is also very differently conducted in several dairies; in some the practice being to cure the cheese after it has been removed from the vat, while in others the salt is minutely mixed into the curd previously to its being put into the vat. Both practices, nevertheless, appear to be attended with equally good effects, but the latter certainly occasions less trouble, without any waste of salt. Skim-milk Cheese. -This article, made of milk from which the entire of the cream has been taken, is, of course, more or less palatable in proportion to the time during which the milk is allowed to stand; for if that be so long as to deprive it entirely of the butyraceous or oily matter, it becomes indigestible, and so hard that, in some places, where large quantities of it are made, it is said that, instead of being cut with a knife, it is usually chopped with a hatchet. The milk should, if possible, not be allowed to become sour; and the moment it has been skimmed, it should be heated to no more than animal heat, or about 90~; for, if put together too hot, its toughness will be increased, and as the curd coagulates more readily than that of full-milk cheese, the same degree of heat is not necessary. This is the chief perceptible difference in management, except that the curd is more difficult to be broken, and that the cheese needs less of the press; but in all other respects the mode of making is the same. It will also be sooner ready for use than whole-milk cheese of the same weight. Cream Cheese.- This being, in general, only wanted for immediate use, is, in fact, little else than thick, sweet cream, dried by being put into a small cheese-vat of about an inch and a half in depth, perforated with small holes in the bottom, to allow any portion of the milk which may be mixed with it to escape. It is also covered with rushes, or the long grass of Indian corn, so disposed as to admit of its being turned without being handled, and it is never pressed except gently by the hand between cloths. It is thus kept in warm situations to sweat and ripen; for, if once penetrated by frost, or even chilled, much of its mellow richness is lost, and it becomes comparatively insipid. The extreme of heat should, however, be equally guarded against, or it becomes rank; and, therefore, some judgment is requisite in the time for using it in perfection. evew Cheese. - New cheese is only made in the early part of summer, when the cows have been turned out to grass, and is formed entirely of new milk, with about one third of warm water added before the rennet is put to it. The whey is then gently poured off, and the curd is carefully kept entire until put into a vat of considerable diameter, but only about an inch 14* L 161 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. in depth. It is very gently pressed for a few hours only, and when removed from the vat, it is covered with a cloth, which is frequently changed, and so soon as the skin is formed it is considered fit for use. Parmesan Cheese.- This is prepared as follows: The cows are kept in the house nearly the whole year round, and fed during the summer with cut grass, and in the winter upon hay. The weight of these cheeses varies from sixty to one hundred and eighty pounds; it consequently requires a great number of cows to produce one of even the smallest weight, and as the farms in that territory are not large, the dairymen club together. The mode of making is this: The summer cheese, which is the best, is made of the evening milk, after having been skimmed in the morning, and at noon, mixed with the morning milk, which is also skimmed at noon. Both kinds of milk are poured together into a large copper cauldron, of the shape of an inverted bell, which is suspended on the arm of a lever, so as to be moved on and off the fire at pleasure. In this vessel the milk is gradually heated to the temperature of about 120~, after which it is removed from the fire and kept quiet for a few minutes, until all internal motion has ceased. The rennet is then added, which is composed of the stomach of a calf, fermented together with wheaten meal and salt, the method of using it being to tie a piece, of the size of a hazelnut, in a rag, and steep it in the milk, while held in the hand, and squeezing it from time to time. A sufficient quantity of the rennet thus soon passes through the rag into the milk, which is now to be well stirred, and afterwards left at rest to coagulate. Within about an hour the coagulation is complete, and then the milk is again put over the fire, and raised to a temperature of 145~. During all the time it is heating, the mass is briskly stirred, till the curd separates in small lumps, when a part of the whey is taken out, and a few pinches of saffron are added to the remainder, in order to color it. When the curd is sufficiently broken, nearly the whole of the whey is taken out, and two pailfuls of cold water are poured in. The temperature is thus lowered, so as to enable the operator to collect the curd by passing a cloth beneath it, and gathering it up at the corners. It is now pressed into a frame of wood, placed on a solid platform, and covered by a round piece of wood fitting into the mould, with a heavy weight at top. In the course of the night it cools, parts with the whey, and assumes a firm consistence. The next day one side is rubbed with salt, and the succeeding day the cheese is turned, and the other side rubbed in like manner, this alternate salting being continued for about forty days. After this period, the outer crust of the cheese is pared off, the fresh surface is varnished with linseed oil, the convex side is colored red, and the cheese is fit for market. 162 THE DAIRY. Potato Cheese.- Cheese, which is said to be of very fine quality, is partly formed from potatoes, being made in the following manner: - The potatoes of a large, white kind, are those to be preferred, and after being boiled, they are peeled, when cool, and reduced to a pulp, of equal consistence, either by being grated or ground in a mortar. To five pounds of this pulp there is added one pound, or about a pint, of sour milk, with the usual quantity of salt to impart a flavor; the whole is then kneaded together, and, being covered up, is allowed to remain for three or four days, according to the season. At the expiration of this time, the pulp is again kneaded, and placed in one or more small wicker baskets, in order to get rid of the superfluous moisture; the pulp is then moulded into form by being placed in small pots, in which the cheeses are allowed to dry in the shade during about fifteen days, after which they are put in store. The older they are, the better they become; and, if kept dry, they will keep for a great number of years. Three kinds of this cheese are made: the first, or most common, according to the above proportions; the second, with four parts of potatoes and two parts of curdled milk; and the third, with two parts of potatoes and four of milk. Ewe-milk is as frequently employed as that of cows, and imparts a pungent taste, which to many palates is found agreeable. Green or Sage Cheese. - The method pursued in the making of this article is, to steep over night, in a proper quantity of milk, two parts of sage, one part of marigold-leaves, and a little parsley, after they have been bruised. On the following morning, the greened milk is strained off, and mixed with about one third of the whole quantity intended to be run or coagulated. The green and white milks are run separately, the two curds being kept apart, until ready for vatting; these may be mixed, either evenly and intimately, or irregularly and fancifully. The management is the same as for common cheese. 163 CHAPTER V. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, &c. STANDARD KINDS: - APPLE - APRICOT - BAR BERRY - BLACKBERRY - CHERRY - CRANBERRY - CURRANT - GOOSEBERRY - GRAPE - MEDLAR - MELON - MULBERRY - NECTARINE - PEACH - PEAR - PLUM - QUINCE - RASPBERRY - STRAWBERRY. MISCELLANEOUS KINDS: - ALOND-BLUEBERRY - BUT TERNUT - CHESTNUT - FIG - FILBERT - LEMON - LIME - OLIVE - ORANGE - POMEGRANATE - SHELLBARK -WALNIUT -WHORTLEBERRY; -WITH A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. THE APPLE. Propagation. - The apple may be propagated by seeds, cuttings of the branches or roots, by layers, suckers, in arching, grafting, or budding; but the last two modes are principally for continuing varieties, and seeds are used to obtain new varieties. Soil and Situation.- It will grow in any common soil, neither too sandy, gravelly, nor clayey, on a dry subsoil, and a free exposure. Mode of Bearing, -c.- The apple bears invariably on the old wood, often on that of the preceding year; and the blossoms continue being produced from terminal and lateral spurs, or short, robust shoots, many years. These spurs require to be thinned out when they become crowded, to be shortened when they become too long, and to be cut in when they become so old as to produce smaller fruit than is desirable. Pruning. - The object of this is to admit the light and air among the branches, to preserve the symmetry of the head by causing it to spread equally and in the same form and manner on every side, and to eradicate diseased branches. (See chapter onr GRAFTING, BUDDING, PRUNING, &C.) Fig. 96. I', Gathering and Keeping. - The common mode of keeping, by those wlho grow apples in large quantities for the market, is to lay them in heaps in FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. tool dry cellars, and cover them with abundance of straw. They may be kept in a cellar, packed in barrels, the interstices filled with dry sand, so as E/g. 97. to exclude the air. Table apples may be spread upon shelves, or packed in sand, fern, or straw, in jars. VARIETIES. Summer Apples. Early Harvest. - This is one of the earliest varieties worthy of cultiva tion; its form is flat, medium size, bright straw-colored skin, flesh tender Fig. 98. and sprightly. In the Middle and Western States it grows well, and is much esteemed. Ripens in July and August. Red Astrachan.- This is a fruit of extraordinary beauty. It bears abundantly, the fruit being rather above the middle size, and very smooth and fair, roundish, a little narrowed towards the eye. The prevailing color is deep crimson, with sometimes a little greenish yellow in the shade, and occasionally a little russet near the stalk, and covered with a pale white bloom. Stalk rather short, and deeply inserted. Flesh white, crisp, moderately juicy, of a rich, acid, agreeable flavor. Ripe in August, and does not keep a long time after gathering. Hardy, vigorous, and productive. Adapted to various soils and climates. Fig. 99. 165 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. i. 99. Fi'g. 100. 166 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Williams's Favorite. - This is a moderate grower and a good bearer, requiring a strong soil to perfect it. It is large and handsome, and ripens from the last of July to the first of September, Skin very smooth, nearly covered with a fine dark red. Flesh yellowish-white, of mild and agreeable favor. Fig. 100. .'g. 101. /i Fr. 102. 167 IFARMER'S HAND-BOOK. Juneating. -This is an old, favorite variety, of small size, flat form, long and thin stalk; color a pale green, turning to light yellow when ripe; the skin has an oily feel; the taste is pleasant. Bears abundantly in good ground, ripening from the last of June to the middle of July. Fig. 101. Summer Queen.- A popular apple, of the finest quality and appearance. Large size; color fine, rich, yellow ground, mixed with red striped; long stalk; large tree; great bearer; flesh rich, yellow, and agreeable flavor. Best on sandy soil. Fig. 102. .Mg. 103. Maiden's Blush.- An apple of large size and great beauty; has a yellow ground, bright red cheek; form flat; smooth skin; flesh white, tender, and sprightly; ripens in August, hardy, and great bearer. Fig. 103. REMARKS.- The above comprise some of the most universally esteemed Summer apples; to which may be added the following well-established sorts, out of hundreds contained in the nursery catalogues:- American Summer Pearmain, a staple sort in New Jersey; Benoni; Cole, large and handsome; Early Red Margaret, a capital fruit, ripe in July; Early Strawberry, much esteemed in New York; Large iYellow Bough, a fine dessert fruit; Summer Rose, dessert; Sapson; Tucker; Manomet Sweeting; Spice Sweet: Red Quarrenden. Fall Apples. Porter. - A large and popular variety, very productive; skin bright yellow, with a blush; flesh fine-grained and juicy; ripens last of Septem ber to October. 168 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Fall Pippin.- A fine kind, quite popular in the Middle States. Large size; round; skin smooth, oily, bright greenish-yellow, slightly speckled; flesh white, tender, juicy, of a superior flavor. Ripens from last of October to December. Gravenstein.- Vigorous tree, and very productive. Fruit large; color clear straw or yellow, with stripes of red; flesh pale yellow, crisp, delicious FZ. 104. Fig. 105. 15 169 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. flavor. A fine fruit for dessert, cooking, or cider; ripe in September and October. Fig. 104. Rambo. -Sometimes called Gilpin, Romanite, Bread and Cheese, and ,Sek-no-flrther. Popular in Middle States. Does well on a light sandy soil. Size not large; flat; skin smooth; color variegated flesh greenishwhite, tender, rich, slightly acid. Productive, ripening last of October to late in the season. Fig. 105. Yellow Bellfower.- A much-admired fruit, rather preferring a sandy soil. Fruit large, oblong; skin smooth; color pale yellow, with a blush; flesh juicy, tender, sub-acid. A good bearer, ripening in November. Fig. 106. REMARKS.- The five preceding varieties are among the choicest Fa/i apples. There are others of nearly equal value, such as the Golden Sweet; Richardson; Summer Bellftower, of New York; Bars, of Rhode Island; Lyman's Large Summer, of Connecticut; Winthrop Greening, of Maine; Early Joe, of New York; Mexico, of Connecticut; Superb Sweet, of Massachusetts; Fairbanks; Sassafras, or Haskell Sweet; Fall Wine; Lowell; Moses Wood; Jersey Sweeting; Leland Pippin; Pommne Royal, of Ohio; 170 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. FPgi1 07. Fig,. 108. 171 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. Lyscom; Magnolia; Thompkinsl; Jewett's Red, Fameuse; Golden Ball; Hurlut, Belmont; Herefordshire Pearmain. Winter and Spring Apples. Esopus Spitzenberg. - This apple possesses great beauty and exquisite flavor. Large size; skin fair and smooth; color bright red, with small spots; flesh yellow, rich, juicy, and sprightly; good bearer. Fig. 107. Baldwin. -Also called Pecker, and Steele's Red Winter. Ranks very high in the northern markets. Fruit large, roundish; color yellow and dull red, streaked and dotted; flesh pale-white, crisp, highly flavored. Good bearer, ripening from November to April. Fig. 108. Hubbardston Nonsuch. - A superior variety. The tree grows large, vigorous, and handsome; bears abundantly. Fruit large, globular, or coni Fig. 109. cal; color yellow, with stripes of pale red, flesh yellow, juicy, rich, sweet. relieved by a slight acid. Ripens in November and December. Westfield Seek-no-further.- Same as the Seek-no-further of Connecticut -wan old and valued fruit. Size large; round; color pale red and green, with slightly yellow dots; flesh white, tender, and rich. Fig. 110. 172 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Newtown Pippin. - The Green and the Yellow are two distinct varieties of this apple. It grows well in the Middle and Western States. Size medium; flesh fine, firm, crisp, juicy, very superior flavor. E.g. 110. Fig. 111. Roxbury Russet.- Very popular, and extensively grown. Medium size, 15* 173 FARMER'S HAND-BOOCK. roundish, somewhat flat; skin dull green or brownish-yellow; flesh greenish white, compact, slightly acid, but rich flavored. Ripe in Dec. Fig. 111. Rhode Island Greening.- Also called Jersey; and Burlington Greening. A very large fruit, flat at its base and summit; color yellowish-green, with dark spots; flesh yellow, tender; rich, juicy, acid flavor; ripens from September to March; bears abundantly. A universal favorite. Golden Pippin. -Beautiful dessert apple. Small, round, symmetrical; gold color, with dark dots; flesh yellowish; rich, sprightly flavor; great Fig. 112. bearer, flourishing best on a strong sandy loam. Ripens November to March. Lady Apple. - Superior for the table. Fruit small, but beautiful; rather flat; skin smooth; color yellow and red; flesh firm, white, well flavored. Fig. 113. REMARKS. -It would be easy to extend the foregoing list of Winter and Sring apples, had we the room requisite. We have described the most desirable standard sorts for cultivation in this country, and subjoin the 174 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. names of other varieties of note: Detroit; Northern Spy; Blue Pearmain; Peck's Pleasant; Swaar; WVaxen Apple; King; Gloria Mundi; Norton's. .Ielon; Golden Reinette; Hollow Crown Pearmain; Ladies' Sweeting; Danvers Winter Sweeting,; Fort Miami; Wood's Greening; Vandevere; Jonathan; Minister; Old Nonsuch; Prior's Red; Leicester Sweeting; Tolman Sweeting; American Golden Russet; Little Pearmain; Tewksbury Wint(r Blush; Raule's Janette; Rockrimmon; Never Fail. Cider Apples. The most valuable kinds for the manufacture of cider are the Harrison (Fig. 114) and Camfield, extensively raised in the Middle States, being rich Fig. 114. in flavor, and bearing very abundantly; HIugh's Virginia Crab, small size, but very productive; and the Red Streak. Crab Apples. Red Siberian.- A beautiful tree, and a great bearer. Fruit small, about the size of a cherry, growing in clusters; color bright red, when matured; 175 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. globular form, long and thin stem. Excellent for preserves. Ripe in Set tember. g. 115. Yellow Siberian. - The tree, its habits and appearance - excepting the color of the fruit -is similar to the preceding. The color of the fruit is a fine, clear yellow, or a rich golden hue. Ripe in September and October. THE APRICOT. Propagation. -The apricot-tree may be raised from the stone, like the peach, or by budding, either on its own or plum stocks. Soil and Situation.- The soil which suits the apricot best is a rich black mould, though some recommend a light loam. It thrives better in the Middle States than at the North, where, when propagated, it needs shelter. VARIETIES. Early Apricot.- This variety is round-shaped, little inclined to oblong, with a furrow running from the stem to the head; color bright yellow, with .g-. 116. a red cheek; flesh yellowish white, rich, juicy, finely flavored It ripens in the month of July, which is one of its chief merits. 176 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Large Early.- This is a fine fruit, which also ripens in July. The fruit is of medium size, somewhat oblong; color orange, rather pale; flesh strawcolor, rich, juicy, easily leaving the stone. An excellent sort i. 117. Peach. - This is the largest, and by many considered the finest, of all the varieties. The form is round, with compressed sides; color a yellowish Fig. 118. fawn on the shady side, slightly colored with red towards the sun; flesh vellow, sprightly, juicy, and highly flavored. Ripens in August. Fig. 117 177 FARMER'S HAND-BOOE. Brussels.- The most hardy tree, and, perhaps, the most certain, in our climate. It is a large, long fruit; color a pale yellow, with a portion of red, and some spots; flesh a pale yellow, firm, rich, tender, and juicy; clear at the stone; does not grow mealy; ripens in July. Fig. 118. REMARXS. - Of the other cultivated sorts, the Mloorpark and Red Masculine are the most valuable and popular; besides these, there are the Breda; Black; Roman- good for the North; White Masculine; Turkey. There are also some varieties exclusively ornamental. THE BARBERRY. Culture, -c.- But little need be said respecting this well-known shrub, which grows spontaneously in this country and in Europe, bearing a small acid berry, much used as a pickle and preserve. It is readily propagated by seeds and suckers, in a light, rich soil. Fig. 119. VARIETIES. Common Red.- This is the variety most known, and its appearance and habits are too familiar to require any description here. Its color, when fully ripe, is a deep scarlet, with a slightly dark tinge. toneless.- This variety is not common, and is produced mostly by cultivation. When free from seeds, it is, of course, the best kind for preserves. THE BLACKBERRY. Propagation.- The Blackberry grows spontaneously, and in great profusion, so that it is seldom cultivated. This, however, is sometimes done, by planting the seed in rich soil, and manuring pretty freely, or by setting out layers. IIE PRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Fg;. 120. VARIETIES. Trailing. - This variety is produced on a low shrub, with trailing branches. The fruit is large, roundish-oblong, and ripens in July. The best for all purposes. High. - This is an erect shrub, growing to the height of eight or ten feet. The fruit (Fig. 120) is generally somewhat smaller than the Trailing, and, though highly esteemed, is not so rich and highly flavored as the firstnamed. Sometimes raised in gardens. White.- Not much known - has white fruit. Double White Flowering, and Double Pink Flowering. -These are ornamental varieties, growing very luxuriantly, and making a splendid appearance when trained on walls and fences. Not so common in the Northern States as elsewhere. THE CHERRY. Propagation.'- The Cherry-tree is propagated by seeds and by suckers, when stems are wanted; by seeds alone, when new varieties are wanted; by scions, when working on old subjects; and by buds, when the trees are young. If intended for dwarfs, bud the plants at two, and if for standards, at four, years of age. The spring succeeding this operation is the time for transplanting. Soil and Situation. -This tree will grow and thrive in a diversity of soils, but prefers a deep loam, in a free exposure. A wet soil is not adapted for its healthy growth and bearing; neither should the soil be too rich, as it will then become thrifty in wood, without corresponding fruitfulness. VARIETIES. Black Heart - also known as Davenport's Early Black, New May Duke Ansell's Fine Black, Spanish Black Heart, Black Russian, and Black Caroon 179 FARMER'S'AND-BOOK. fi. 121. is an old and esteemed variety: fruit large, heart-shaped; color dark purple to deep black; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, well-flavored. Ripens last of June. May Duke- also known as Early Duke, Holman's Duke, and June Dukeis one of the choicest and most thrifty sorts, and very extensively cultivated. The fruit is roundish, growing in clusters; color red; flesh soft and juicy, rich, and of fine flavor. Ripens in June. Fg. 122. Bigarreau.- Yellow Spanish, White Bigarreau, White Tartarean, by some. Size large to very large, heart-shaped and flattened; color pale 180 i1t FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. yellow, or straw, slightly dotted; flesh yellowish tinge, firm, juicy, and sweet. Ripens towards the last of June, and is a superior sort. American Amber.- Early Amber, and New Honey, by some. Fruit medium size, growing in clusters of three or more; color dark pink, when ripe; flesh rich, sweet, amber color. Ripe in June. Fig. 122. Elton. - Size quite large, and heart-shaped; tree hardy, with dark red footstalks to the leaves; skin rather thin; color somewhat variegated, with pale straw and red in streaks; flesh firm, juicy, and sweet; ripens in June, and bears abundantly. Much esteemed. Black Eagle.- A foreign sort, very popular in some parts; size about medium; heart-shaped, somewhat globular; color purplish-black; flesh tender, juicy, and well-flavored. Ripens in July. Ox Heart. - A long, large, heart-shaped cherry, with a dark red skin; flesh rich, firm, with a fair flavor. Ripens early in July. Black Tartarean. -Also known as Black Russian, Ronald's Large Black Heart, and Black Circassian. A large and superior fruit; heart-shaped; color blackish-purple; flesh dark, firm, sweet, excellent flavor. Fine bearer, and is ripe about the first of July. Downer's Late. -Fruit large size, oval. Skin smooth, light red; flesh firm, juicy, sweet, and delicious; ripe in early part of July, lasting a considerable time. Certain and productive bearer. F/g. 123. Early White Heart. - A very early sort, ripening near the end of May. Size rather small, and oblong heart-shaped; skin waxy white, tinged with Fg. 124. a pale red; flesh firm, sweet, and finely flavored' not so productive as the May Duke, and some others I1 181 _' FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. REMARKS. - The other established and standard sorts are the Doctor, Belle de Choisy, Napoleon Bigarreau, White Tartarean, Morello, Knight's Early Black, Florence, Downton, Manning's Mottled, Holland Bigarreau, Elliott's Favorite, Hyde's Seedling, and Kentish. THE WILD CHERRY comprises several varieties, the best kind being the Black, which is ripe in September or October, and is used for various medicinal purposes. The Choke Cherry is another kind, bearing a red berry, which matures earlier than the first-named. THE CRANBERRY. General Culture, sc. -Comparatively speaking, the cultivation of the cranberry has not been reduced to any very certain and well-defined system. It is a native fruit, growing on a low trailing vine, found in bogs, meadows, swamps, and other wet lands. The berry is round, red, and quite acid, the finest variety being found in this country, where it commands a high price. Ai. 125. _i Some persons enumerate three kinds, only one of which, sometimes ~tlled the Bell, is adapted to a dry soil. It grows, in a wild state, on the border, of cranberry bogs, spreading its way to upland soils, and is much larger than the other kinds, in its wild state. Persons engaging in the cultivation of this fruit may begin with the Bell; by commencing with those which have been cultivated, or naturalized to a dry soil, they will much soon, rr 182 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. accomplish their object, and with much less trouble and expense, as the plants multiply and increase abundantly. From one or two thousand plants, enough may be obtained, in two or three years, to plant a very large surface of ground. Select a moist soil, not liable to bake; loamy soils, which are moderately dry, and contain a mixture of sand, are well adapted for the purpose. The soil should be prepared by ploughing, harrowing, and making it even, and should be marked out in drills eighteen or twenty inches apart, putting the plants in the drills about six inches apart; hoe them slightly, till the roots become clinched, when further cultivation is unnecessary. In two or three years the plants may be expected to run together and cover the whole soil. It will yield from one hundred and fifty to four hundred bushels per acre, the size being two or three times as large as the wild, and of a superior flavor, and keeps sound from the harvest of one year to that of the next. The fruit is generally gathered in September, with wire-tooth rakes made F. 126. for the purpose (Fig. 126). One man may gather from thirty to forty bushels per day, with the aid of a boy to pick up the scattered fruit. The roots may be planted either in spring or fall; the former from the time when the ground can be worked till the middle of May, and the latter in October and November. In some places, low and coarse meadows, of no value, have been drained and planted with the cranberry, and are thus made very profitable. After 183 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. draining the land well, and removing all brush and shrubs, the soil is ploughed, though it is usually sufficient to cover the surface with a heavy top-dressing of sandy soil, and then make holes four feet apart, into which the sods, or square bunches of the cranberry-roots, are planted. Some cranberry-growers think it expedient to flow such lands, the water being let on about the 20th of October, and remain till the 20th of May, or till the frosts have disappeared, in order that the blossoms may not be cut off in the spring, by appearing too early. To keep Cranberries.- When the fruit is to be exported, it is put, in a perfect state, into tight barrels, filled with water, and headed up, by which means they are kept sound and good. Fig. 127. 7' THE CURRANT. Propagation. -The best method of propagation is by cuttings, - the 184 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. shoots of the last summer's production, of straight, clean growth, shortening each from about ten to twelve or fifteen inches long, according to its strength. Plant in rows about two feet asunder, and about nine inches apart in the rows; let no limbs grow nearer than six inches to the ground; prune every year, giving free access to the sun. To cultivate on an extensive scale, set Fig. 128. 16* 1Is FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. the bushes in rows, six or eight feet between each bush, with intervals of proper width for passing across the rows. Soil and Situation.- A strong, rich, deep loam brings the fruit to its highest state of perfection, but it will thrive in a much poorer soil. VARIETIES. Red Dutch, - also known as Morgan's Red, and Red Grape, - is a largesized currant; color red; rather mild flavor; grows in long clusters. White Dutch. -White Leghorn, White Crystal, Morgan's White, Reeve's White, by some. Size large; skin slightly yellowish; flavor mild; quite hardy. A variety much esteemed for the dessert. Fig. 127. Black Naples. - This is considered the best of the black varieties, being larger and more prolific. It is not so well suited to a southern clime. Champagne.- A pale-red fruit, large, and quite acid. Not of superior quality. May's Victoria.- This is a newly-introduced sort, bearing a large berry, of a brilliant red color. The flavor is very superior, and the bush is very productive. By many persons it is esteemed the best of all the colored kinds. Fig. 128. REMARKs. -The other notable varieties are Knight's Early Red, Common Black, and Striped Fruited. The varieties described above are, however. the best. THE GOOSEBERRY. Propagation.- The mode by cuttings is usually adopted for continuing varieties, and that by seeds for procuring new ones. Plant the cuttings in autumn. Soil and Situation. - Any good garden-soil, on a dry bottom and well manured, will suit the gooseberry; that which is soft and moist producing the largest fruit. The situation should not be under the drip of trees overmuch shaded or confined, otherwise the fruit will be small, ill-flavored, and the plants apt to mildew. Keep well pruned. VARIETIES. Capper's Top Sawyer. - A large, round, hairy fruit; branches somewnat drooping; ripens somewhat late; considered very fine. Melling's Crown Bob. - Berry of large size, oblong, bright red, hairy, good flavor, rather late. It is highly recommended by growers, as an excellent sort, and profitable to cultivate in gardens or elsewhere. Fig. 129. lS6 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. ing. 129. Houghton's &edling. -This variety is said not to mildew under any circumstances. It grows very thrifty, and bears abundantly, though the F -g. 130. berry is not so large size as some others; flesh soft and sweet; skin delicate; color dark. A very superior sort, if not the very best. Fig. 130. Woodward's Whitesmith. - Large, white, roundish, erect branches, fine flavor; considered an excellent kind. Coleworth's White Lion. -White, roundish-oblong, downy; ripens late; excellent flavor, branches drooping, good bearer. Crompton's Sheba Queen. - Fruit good size, rather early; form roundish oblong; downy; good flavor. Early Green Hairy. - Fruit small, round, and hairy; deep green; flavor excellent; ripens quite early. Red Warrington. Fruit large and roundish; excellent flavor. REMARKS. -Farrow's Roaring Lion, Parkinson's Laurel, Keene's &eed. ling, Early Sulphur, Yellow Ball, Early White, White Honey, Pitmaston Green Gage, Old Rough Red, Hill's Golden Gourd, Prophet's Rockwood, Nixon's Green Myrtle, and Wellington's Glory, are also well-known sorts. 187 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. THE GRAPE. Propag,ation. - Vines are propagated in the open ground by layers and by cuttings. The former is the readier mode, if the shoots be laid down in pots, and planted out in summer. The latter mode is much the better. To provide cuttings to be planted at the proper season, select, at the autumnal pruning, a sufficient number of shoots of the preceding summer's growth, such as are well ripened, of a medium size, and moderately short-jointed. Cut them into convenient lengths of six or eight buds each, leaving at the ends not less than a couple of inches of the blank wood for the protection of the terminal buds. Stick these temporary cuttings about nine inches in the ground, in a warm and sheltered situation, where they will be protected from the severity of winter. The best time to plant them out is about the last of March, or fore part of April. Soil and Situation. -A light, porous, rich, sandy loam, not more than eighteen inches deep, on a dry bottom of gravel, stones or rocks, is the best. The warmer the aspect, the greater perfection does the grape usually attain. Warmth alone is not, however, sufficient; shelter from the withering influence of the wind is equally necessary. Culture, cfc.- Manure composed of bones, whole or crushed, the horns and hoofs of animals, as well as their carcasses, cuttings of leather, woollen rags, feathers, hair, urine, blood, - indeed, almost every variety of manure may be used to fertilize and enrich the soil occupied by the vine. If very rich manures are used, they should be mixed with turf and sand, otherwise so much benefit does not accrue. Pruning.- In pruning the vine, always cut upwards, and in a sloping direction; always leave an inch of blank wood between the terminal bud, and let the eye be cut on the opposite side of the bud; leave as few wounds as possible, and let the surface of every cut be perfectly smooth. In cutting out an old branch, prune it even with the parent limb, that the wound may heal quickly; prune so as to obtain the quantity of fruit desired on the smallest number of shoots possible; never prune in frosty weather, nor when frost is expected; never prune in the spring, as this causes bleeding, and therefore a wasteful and injurious flow of sap; prune as soon after the first of October as the gathering of the fruit will permit. Training,. - To train a vine on the surface of a wall is to regulate the position of its branches, the principal objects of which are, to protect them from the influence of the wind; to bring them into close contact with the wall, for the purpose of receiving the benefit of its warmth; to spread them at proper distances from each other, that the foliage and fruit may receive the full effects of the sun's rays; and to retard the motion of the sap, so as to 188 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. secure the formation of fruit-buds. The flow of sap, it must be remembered, is always strongest in a vertical direction, and weakest in a downward one; on this account, serpentine training is preferable, being calculated to check the too rapid ascent of the sap, and to make it flow more equally into the fruiting-shoots, and those intended for future bearers. VARIETIES. Black Hanmburgh. -A well-known variety, but more adapted to the vinery than for out-of-door culture. The bunches are quite large size; berries large, roundish, slightly oval; skin thick, deep purple or nearly black; flavor rich and sweet. A productive and valuable sort. Miller's Burgundy. - A very hardy and fruitful grape, very popular, and extensively grown. Its leaves are very thick, covered on both sides with a thick down. The bunches are small, but solid; skin thick, of a blue-black color; flesh tender, juicy, and pleasant. F/g. 132. Muscat of Alexandria. -There are the White and the Red Muscat, the former (a) being large in the berry, of oval size, and fruiting in long, large 189 Fig. 131. FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. bunches; the skin is thick; flesh firm, juicy, musky flavor, very agreeable eating; hangs a long time on the branches. The Red resembles the White, except in color (b). Ripens finely on walls. Fig. 132. Catawba.- This is a native sort, highly esteemed. It is hardy, vigorous, and productive; large bunches; color deep purple and palish-red; thick skin; pulp sweet, rich, finely flavored. Ripens first part of October. Superior for wine, or eating, and succeeds well in any tolerably fair situation. Isabella.- A hardy plant, very productive, and, in this country, almost universally grown. Bunches large, rather loose; berries fair size, oval; Fg. 134. skin thick, purplish black; flesh soft to firm, juicy, sweet, aromatic. A most valuable variety, rather late at the North, but seasonable in the Middle and Western States. Alexander.- Known also as the Schuylkill Muscadel. A certain and prolific bearer; large, bluish-black berry; oval; skin thick; flesh firm, sweet, musky flavor. Not so thrifty at the North as the two previous sorts. Scuppernong. - Distinguished by its diminutive leaves; grows wild in some parts of the United States, and is in considerable use as a wine fruit, for which purpose it is esteemed one of the best. The White and the Black are scarcely dissimilar in any particular, except their respective colors. The bunches are rather small; berries large, pretty round; thick skin; flesh sweet and juicy, with a musky taste and flavor. REMARKS. - There are numerous other varieties worthy of an extended 190 .~.. 133. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. notice, on account of their peculiar adaptedness to particular sections, and their distinctive uses, such as-the Royal Muscadine, Early Black July, Black Prince, Bland, Ohio, Lenoir, Diana, Winnie, Clinton, Cunningham, Warren's Madeira, Elsinburgh, Norton's Virginia, White Swveetwater, Black &Seetwater, Black, Grizzly, White Frontignan, and Missouri. THE MEDLAR. Propagation.- It is raised by grafting, by layers, also by seed, planted while fresh, and in the fall. The seed does not germinate for some time; the layers will root in autumn: the pear is the best stock upon which to graft. Tree low; fruit round, size of a plum; pulp thick, with five stones. Soil and Situation.- Any common soil will answer, but a well-drained, retentive loam, suits it best. Gather the fruit in November, and spread singly upon sand. VARIETIES. Blake's Large. - A variety not very frequent, though by some thought one of the best. German or Dutch. -The tree is very irregular, dwarfed; fruit large, and, all things considered, the best of all the sorts. Nottingham.- This is small-sized, and of a quick, pungent flavor. Stoneless. - Not so good quality, but may be preserved better than the other kinds. THE MELON. Propagation, sc.- Propagated by seeds, planted in shallow hills, five or six feet apart each way. From six to ten seeds in a hill will suffice, and the soil which covers them should be about half an inch deep. When up, thin the plants to two or three in a hill, and draw the earth up to them. Hoe, and keep free from weeds. Soil and Situation.- Melons require a warm, dry, rich soil, with a small quantity of manure in each hill. They are easily raised in almost every part of the country, though they flourish better in the Middle and Southern States than further north. VARIETIES. Water-melon.- The sub-varieties of this sort are the Imperial, Carolina, New Jersey and Spanish; also, the Citron. These are well-known kinds, and are extensively grown. By many they are considered as forming a dis 191 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. tinct species of fruit, of themselves. The first-named is a productive sort, nearly round; color palish-green, and white; flesh pink, rich, pleasant The Carolina (Fig. 135) is a very popular variety; large size; oblong; color green and white; flesh red; sweet, agreeable flavor. i/g. 135. Musk-melon.- A delicious fruit, a native of Persia. The varieties are numerous, easily propagated from seeds. The principal sorts are the Keising, an egg-shaped, light straw color, highly flavored variety; Green Hoosainee, a superior and prolific sort; Large Germek, round, sea-green colored, richly flavored, and productive; Early Canteleup, ripens early and bears well, rather small-sized, thin skin, orange-colored flesh, juicy, and of good flavor; Nutmeg, green-fleshed, large, roundish oval, tender, sweet, pleasant flavor. Besides these, the Green Citron, Palermo, Orange Canteleup, Black Rock, and Sweet Ispahan, are good kinds, worthy of cultivation. THE MULBERRY. Propagation. -It may be propagated by seed, sown in a warm border, but this mode is rarely pursued; by layers - lateral shoots obtained by heading down the tree near to the ground; by cuttings, having two thirds of their length old wood, and one third yearling; or by lopping off a straight branch, eight feet long, from a large tree,- the nearer the trunk the better. Make it clear of every little stem, then dig a hole four feet deep, plant the naked branch firmly in the ground, leaving around it a cavity to hold water, when the season is dry. In two years it will bear fruit. Soil and Situation.- It prefers a moist, deep, loamy soil, and a some what free exposure to the south. The soil should not be cold, or wet, and should be well drained. It may be trained against a wall, but this requires much space. 192 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. VARIETIES. Red. - This is a common variety, growing wild in the United States. The fruit is of a deep-red color, and of excellent flavor. Black. - This variety hails from Asia Minor, but thrives in a northern .rg. 136. climate. The-berry is large and long, black, and of a rich aromatic taste It is used in making wine, or cider, mixed with apples. REM,ARES.- The Johnson is a new variety, and it bids fair to sustain the high character given it by Professor Kirtland. Fruit large, oblong, of a mild and pleasant flavor. Of the White Mulberry there are several sorts; not, however, so valuable for their fruit as for silk. THE NECTARINE. REMARES.- The nectarine is not uncommonly classed with the peach, as a distinct variety, the peculiarities consisting in the fruit being smooth and naked, without fur or down, and the flesh being firmer. There is no doubt of their identity, as the seed of the peach sometimes produces the netarine, and vice versa. It is propagated and grown the same as the peach (which see). VARIETIES. Boston. - Also known as Lewis's and Perkins's Seedling. Originated in Boston, where it was raised from a peach-stone. The fruit is very handsome, of medium size, and heart-shaped; color bright yellow and red; flesh firm, sweet, pleasant. One of the best varieties for general cultivation. Red Ronman. - One of the most hardy. It is a large, handsome, red 17 N 193 17 N FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. cling-stone; color dark next the sun, the shaded side yellow; flesh juicy, sweet, and vinous. Ripe in August and September. A good bearer. Fig. 137. Jaune Lisse, or Roussanne.- A small, round fruit; skin yellow, a little spotted with red towards the sun; skin smooth; flesh yellow, firm, sweet, highly flavored. Ripens in September and October. Fig. 137. Fig. 138. Elruge.- A fine fruit, very popular. Medium size; roundish; palegreen, deep-red next the sun; flesh palish-white, tender, juicy; ripe in September. 194 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Early Violet. -Medium size; green, and purplish red; flesh pale yellow, and pinkish; soft, rich, sweet, agreeable flavor. Ripe last of August. Good bearer; very superior. Musk Violet. -This fruit is of large size; color a yellowish-white, a fine red violet towards the sun, with whitish spots; flesh yellowish-white, firm, vinous, sweet and musky. Ripe in September. Fig. 138. REMARKS.- Hunt's Tawney, Downton, New White, Broomfield, PitmastIn's Orange, and Duc du Tellier's, are recommended to growers. THE PEACH. Propagation. - It may be propagated by planting the stone in the fall, at a depth of two or three inches, and in one or two years they will be of sufficient size to transplant. A common way of increasing them is by budding on the plum stock or the bitter almond; usually inoculated on the peach stock. Plant from ten to twelve feet apart, and the land may be cultivated with manured crops of corn, potatoes, vines, or pulse. Soil and Situation.- A rich, sandy loam is the best,- a natural or artificial soil of this description. It is best not to manure much, except when the land is also occupied by other crops, like those just mentioned. Culture, -tc.- When transplanted, they should not be very large, generally not more than two years' growth. Good varieties are obtained by budding; grafting is thought, on the whole, to be hardly of much benefit. VARIETIES. Early York.- One of the earliest and most generally cultivated varieties. Size medium, roundish, slightly oval; skin thin, somewhat dotted; color red; flesh greenish-white, tender, rich, lively flavor. Ripens middle or last of August. Red Cheek Mdlocoton. - A large yellow clear-stone, with a red cheek; flesh rich and juicy; ripens in September, - sometimes earlier. Gross Alignonne.- A large, round peach, flattened at the ends, divided by a deep furrow into unequal parts; the stem small, a small point at the blossom end; skin covered with a thin fine down; color a clear green, approaching to yellow, deep brownish-red towards the sun; flesh fine, melting, juicy, delicate and white, tinged with red near the stone; the juice is sweet, vinous and sprightly. Ripens in August. Fig. 139. George the Fourth. - Medium size, globular form; color pale yellow and dark red; flesh melting, rich, superior flavor. Ripens in September. Coolidge's Favorite. -Fruit large and roundish; skin smooth, white, 195 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. with red towards the sun; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, finely flavored. Hardy, and a good bearer, ripening early in September. Much thought of. Alberge. - Size medium; yellow skin, with dark red cheek; flesh yel. low, tinged with red, melting, rich, sweet, and vinous flavor. It is deeply Fig. 140. indented by a seam running from the stem to the blossom end. Ripens last of August. 196 Fig. 139. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Bergen's Yellow.- Large size, round, slightly depressed; color red and orange, dotted; flesh yellow, tender, rich and luscious; good bearer, and ripens first of October. A valuable sort. Morris WMite.- Fruit large, round or oval; color white, greenish, slight purple tinge; flesh white, tender, rich, and sweet. Ripe middle of September. Oldmixon Freestone. -A beautiful, large, flat peach, with a white skin and red cheek; flesh rich, juicy, luscious. Ripe in August. Red Magdalen.- Medium size; round, flat next to the stem; color a fine red towards the sun; flesh white, reddish near the stone, sweet and sprightly. Ripens in September. Hardy and productive. Crawford's Late. - Fruit large, round, and handsome; yellow in the shade, deep red towards the sun; flesh yellow, reddish near the stone, juicy, tender, rich, finely flavored. Ripens about the last of September or first of October. Red Rareripe.- An excellent fruit, frequently called Morris's Red Rareripe; size quite large, round; color red and white; flesh tender, rich, melting, highly flavored. Ripens in August. Yellow Rareripe. - Size large, globular; color yellow, and purplish red; flesh yellow, red near the stone; tender, juicy, vinous flavor. Ripens in September. Noblesse.- A large and handsome clingstone; skin white, with a pale blush, and some dark brownish spots; flesh rich and highly flavored. Ripens in September. 17* 197 Fig. 141. FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. Lemon Freestone.- A pale yellow, whitish fruit; medium size; flesh juicy, tender, melting, and highly flavored. Ripens in September. Monstrous Cling.- A large, roundish-oval fruit; color palish-yellow. with deep red tinge; flesh solid, juicy, and sweet. Ripens in October. Late Heath. - Large, oblong, terminating in a point at the head; color rich cream-colored white, sometimes faintly blushed; flesh rich, tender, juicy, and melting. Hardy, and ripens in September, lasting into Nover. her. Early Tillotson. - A medium size, round fruit; color yellowish white, red, with dots; flesh white, red near the stone, juicy, melting, excellent flavor. REMARKs.- The varieties, besides those mentioned above, worthy to be recommended for general cultivation, are the Jaques, White Imperial, Pres. ident, Late Admirable, Ward's Late Free, Golden Ball, Hysl,op's Cling, Old Newington, Malta, Nutmeg, Belle de Vitry, Incomparable, Catharine, Chancellor, and Late Purple. 198 Fig. 142. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. THE PEAR. Propagation.- The pear may be propagated by layers or suckers, but not so readily by cuttings. These modes, however, are productive of very indifferent plants, and are usually rejected in favor of raising from seed, and grafting or budding; by seed, either for the purpose of obtaining new varieties, or to produce pear stocks. But, as the varieties of the pear do not reproduce themselves from the seed, and seedlings are slow in giving their fruit, the pear is principally grown by scions and buds. These are placed on pear or quince stalks, according as taste or interest may invite to early and small crops, of fine quality, or to later and more abundant ones, of inferior character. In the former case, the stem of the quince is advantageously employed, and in the latter, that of the common pear, and without any material difference in the operation, excepting that the feebler the stem, the nearer to the earth should be placed the scion or bud. The second year after budding or grafting, the plants may be removed to the places where it is intended they shall stand. Soil and Situation.- Though the pear-tree may be made to grow almost anywhere, still it succeeds poorly on the north sides of hills, or in stiff, dry soils, and still worse on those having a wet subsoil. Some of the later and finer varieties require a deep, substantial loam, occasionally refreshed with a dressing of well-rotted dung; and some of the best aspects the garden can furnish are also desirable. Culture, tc. - Cultivated as standards and pyramids, the young trees should be left, in a great degree, to regulate their own shape. To produce a well-balanced tree, shorten the wood of the deficient side, and leave the other to itself. Trees of other forms, and intended for walls and espaliers, require more labor and management, and a degree of both summer and winter pruning; the former of which consists in rubbing off all foreright, ill-placed, spongy shoots, before they become hard, while the latter consists in sparing all such well-placed and thrifty laterals as may be necessary for preserving the form given to the head of the tree, and cutting away all others close to the branch from which they grow. If the older wood be diseased or redundant, cut it away also, or shorten it down to some healthy and promising shoot. When an old tree becomes unproductive, either cut down within about two feet from the ground, and train up anew some selected shoots which may have pushed from the stump, or take off at its base every branch which does not want at least twenty degrees of being perpendicular, and all spurs from such other branches as by this rule will be left. Into these retained branches, at their subdivisions, and at different distances from their bases, 199 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. quite to their extremities, grafts must be carefully inserted, which, when about twelve inches long, must be trained downwards between the branches. VARIETIES Bartlett.- One of the most valued sorts, and grown in almost every part of the country. Fruit large, pyramidal; color yellowish at maturity, thin, .Fg. 143. D and smooth; flesh white, delicate, buttery, sweet, juicy, highly flavored. Hardy, productive, keeps well, ripens in October. It stands about number one among all the pear-tribe. Madeleine.- Medium size; pale yellow, sometimes with a blush towards te sun; form obovate, tapering to the stalk; flesh white, tender, juicy, refined flavor; one of the best and earliest pears; hardy, and a good bearer. Dearborn's Seedling. -A valuable early sort; small, symmetrical; color light yellow, with a few dots; flesh white, tender, sweet, and sprightly flavor. Is quite productive, early, ripening from the middle to last of August. Winter Nelis.-A fine winter variety; size rather above medium; roundish-obovate; color pale straw, slightly brown; flesh white, soft, sugary, rich, musky-flavored; ripe in December; not very productive, but excellent. Fig. 144. 200 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. I%. 144. iSg. 145. \\\,?\ 201 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. Seckel.- Size generally small; form regular, round at the blossom end, contracting gradually towards the stem; color sometimes yellow, with a bright red cheek, and at other times a,.omplete russet, without any blush flesh melting, juicy, exquisitely flavored. Ripe in Sept. and Oct. Fig. 145. Tyson. -A medium-sized fruit; color light straw, with brownish blotches flesh lightish-white, rich, sweet, fragrant; ripens in September. Beurre Bosc. - Fruit large and long; color light cinnamon russet; flesh F1 46. white, rich, tender, delicious. A moderately productive variety, ripening in October and November. Fig. 146. 202 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Bloodgood.- Large size; form oval; color dull yellow, with darkish spots; flesh soft, melting, agreeable flavor; early and prolific. Ripens in August. Flemish Beauty.- Fine large fruit; color dull yellow and brownish; flesh yellowish tinge, sweet, tender, juicy, sugary, musky flavor. Ripe in October. One of the best sorts, though not so much cultivated as it deserves. Golden Beurre of Bilboa.- Medium size, oblong, roundish at the crown, contracted towards the summit; color light yellow, with russet spots; flesh tender, melting, rich, excellent flavor. Ripens in October, and very fruitful. Summer Frank Real. - Medium size, obovate, thickest in the middle; color light yellow, with brownish-green dots; flesh melting, rich, finegrained, sweet, and of superior flavor. Ripens in September; hardy; fruitful. Muscadine. -Medium size, roundish, symmetrical; color yellowish-green, with dots of brown; flesh white, buttery, rich, musky flavor. Ripens in ;. 147. September, bearing abundantly, and is altogether a very valuable sort. 203 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. REMARKS. -There are many other varieties which might be strongly recommended, but we can only give the names, without attempting to give a full description. Among the Summer, or early sorts, worthy of being noticed, are the Summer Melting, Stevens's Genesee, Honey, Jargonelle, Beurre d'Amaulis, and the Rousselet de Rheims; of the Autumn sorts, among the best are the Belle Lucrative, Marie Louise, Swan's Egg, Cushing, Frederic of Wurterburg, Fulton, Saint Michael, Bleeker's Meadow, and Belle et Bonne; of the Winter sorts, the most desirable are the Colmar, Columbia, Vergouleuse, Pound, St. Germaine, Glout Morceau, Easter Beurre, Beurre Diel, and Passe Colmar. THE PLUM. Propagation. - The plum, like other stone-fruit, is mostly propagated by budding, the stocks being the free-growing plum, either raised from seed, or, more commonly, from layers or suckers. Soil and Situation.- The plum naturally does not grow in so light a soil as the cherry, nor in so clayey a soil as the apple; and in a state of culture, a medium soil, on a dry subsoil, is found to be the best. Only the finer kinds are planted against walls. Culture, fc.- All the varieties produce their blossoms on small spurs, which are protruded along the sides of the shoots of one, two, or three years' growth, - generally in the course of the second or third year. These spurs, if duly thinned, and, when necessary, cut in, will continue bearing for five or six years, or longer. Standard trees require very little pruning, beyond that of occasionally thinning out the branches, which should be done before midsummer, to prevent the gum from appearing on the wounds. Plum-trees against walls or espaliers are generally trained horizontally. Old trees may be renovated by heading in or cutting down. The plum is forced in the same manner as the peach. VARIETIES. Jefferson. -A superior dessert sort. Fruit large, oval, contracting towards the stalk; color bright, deep yellow, with a purplish-red cheek, and a whitish bloom; flesh orange, quite juicy, richly flavored. Ripens from the middle to the last of September; a good bearer. Fig. 148. Green Gage. -Of this plum there are several varieties. The size, in good soils, is large, the form round, and the skin green; the flesh is green, melting, juicy, and exquisitely flavored. Ripens in August and September. Fig. 149. Washington.- A well-known variety; originated in New York State; large, oval; color bright yellow, with red dots; flesh yellow, sugary, excellent eating. Hardy; shy bearer; ripens in September. 204 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. .i/g. 148. .g. 149. 205 18 FARMEPR'S HAND-BOOK. Coe's Golden Drop.- Thrifty growth; good bearer; fruit large and handsome, oblong; color greenish-yellow, with violet and crimson dots; flesh orange color, rich, juicy, finely flavored. Ripens in September. Purple Favorite. -Large size; roundish; color light brown, with a shading of purple, and bright yellow dots; flesh greenish, soft, sweet, and -fg. 150. excellent flavor. Ripens last of September, and bears well. Red Gage.- Known also as Long Scarlet, and Scarlet Gage. Medium size; oblong, tapering towards the stalk; color brilliant red toward the sun, and yellowish in the shade, covered with a light purplish bloom; flesh yelow, rich, and sweet. Ripens first of September. Morocco.- Medium size; round; deep purple; flesh slightly yellow, tender, sweet, richly flavored. Ripens about the last of August. Drap d' Or. -Cloth of Gold, by some. Small, round; color rich, brilliant yellow, reddish toward the sun; flesh yellow, sweet, not so juicy as some kinds. A clearstone; ripens in August; a pretty fai bearer. Yellow Egg.- Large size; oval, narrowing at both ends; color yellow, whitish dots, anid a thin white bloom; flesh somewhat coarse, yellow, slightly acid. Ripens in September. A better cooking than eating plum. Bleecker's Gage.- Medium size, nearly round, very regular; color dark yellow, with deep red spots; flesh yellow, sweet, finely flavored. Ripens in September. The tree is hardy, productive, and the fruit much esteemed in some parts. Fig. 151. 206 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. FSg. 151. A Dwne's Purple. -Large size; oval, or oblong, bulging on one side Fg. 152. 207 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. color reddish-purple toward the sun, palish-red in the shade, with a few yellow specks, and a lilac bloom; flesh light brown, juicy, lively, slightly acid. Ripens middle of August. Royal Hative.- Also called Early Royal. Medium size; round; color purple, with dark yellowish spots and streaks, blue bloom; flesh yellow, tender, richly flavored. Early, thrifty, productive; ripens early in September. M' Laughlin. - Large size, round; color brownish-yellow, with a red tinge; flesh melting, juicy, fine flavor, though not superior. Ripens in August. Frost Gage.- Fruit rather small; roundish; color dark purple, with brown dots; flesh greenish-yellow, juicy, saccharine, agreeable flavor. Fig. 153. Ripens in October; moderately productive: a good sort for cooking purposes. REMARKS.- We have enumerated the most valuable sorts, though there are others more adapted, perhaps, to certain localities, or preferred by amateurs; such as the Imperial Ottoman, Elfrey, nSmith's Orleans, Flushing Gage, Red Diaper, Lombard, Black Dawson, Huling's Superb, Blue Dwarf Gage, and Prince's Imperial Gage. THE QUINCE. Propagation, dfc. - The quince is, as all know, a low, much-branched, crowded, and irregular tree, blossoming in May or June, and ripening its fruit in October or November. It is generally propagated by layers, but cuttings root without difficulty. The best standards are produced by grafting, at the height of five or six feet, on the pear, the thorn, or the mountain ash. The quince is generally planted in the orchard, in some part where the 208 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. soil is good, and not very dry; it bears on two years' old wood, and requires little pruning, except thinning out irregular, crowding, or decaying branches. The fruit is kept by packing in sand or dry straw. It is said that the quince will grow on any soil that will give good corn or potato crops. The soil should be well prepared by ploughing and subsoil ploughing, and a clean furrow obtained, in the bottom of each furrow manure being thrown. After this, planting should commence,- spring or autumn answering equally as well. The holes should be dug twice as large as the roots of the tree, and a foot and a half deep, and to each tree a liberal supply of good compost manure should be given. The branches should be shortened in, one half of the last year's growth, before the trees are set, and the roots should be saturated with water before being covered over with the earth. Press the earth moderately about the roots, and leave the soil around the trunk concave, like a saucer, to catch the showers. This will secure life and thrift to the trees. In orchard planting, the trees should be put out in rows twelve feet apart, the trees ten feet asunder. This will be near enough, in good soil, prepared as above. In three years they will bear, and will continue to do so for thirty years. The open space between the trees may be profitably cropped with potatoes, and so forth. The pruning should be done in the autumn, just after the fall of the leaf. The operation consists in cutting out as little as possible, mainly old or decayed wood(l, or any quite superfluous branches. In November, fork in around the roots of each tree five or six shovelfuls of fresh stable manure; and when the spring opens, plough the ground between the rows, and lightly stir beneath the trees. Directly after this, give the whole a broadcast spread of salt, at the rate of ten bushels to the acre, or just a light coat, sufficient to half conceal the ground under each tree. The best salt for this purpose is the refuse salt of the packinghouses. VARIETIES. Apple-shaped. - This is also called Orange, a well-known, favorite variety. Fruit large, much resembling an apple in shape; color brilliant yellow; flesh solid, and of fine flavor. A very good bearer, and much esteemed as an excellent cooking variety, on account of the flesh becoming soft when stewed. Fig. 154. Pear-shaped. -Medium size, oblong, contracting towards the stem, and in general form very similar to a pear; color yellow; flesh firmer and yields less when cooked than the Apple-shaped. It is not so finely flavored as the Apple, and not generally so much esteemed. 18* o 209 FARMER'S HAND-BOO. Fig. 154. Portugal. -This variety is more juicy, less harsh, better colored and flavored, than the two preceding. Fruit large, oblong; color mild yellow; not very productive. A very superior variety, though not so much raised as it deserves. REMARKS.- There are two or three ornamental varieties, but they are not of sufficient importance to be described at length. THE RASPBERRY. Propagation, 4 c.- The only mode of propagation is by suckers, except by seeds, which is only resorted to for new varieties. The suckers are separated in autumn, either by taking up the whole plant and dividing it, or by slipping them off from the sides and roots of the main stock. They may be planted at once where they are permanently to remain, in rows from north to south, four feet apart every way. They will grow in any good garden soil, but it is most prolific in fruit, and the fruit is better flavored, in a dry, substantial soil, and an open situation. In making a plantation, three or more suckers are allowed to each stool, and planted it a triangle at six inches apart. The plants will produce fruit the first year; 210 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. but, if this fruit, or even a third part of it, can be dispensed with, the suckers for the succeeding year will be greatly strengthened by cutting the stems of the newly-set plants down to within six inches of the ground. The future treatment consists in going over the stools every year, early in May, and selecting six or seven of the strongest suckers from each stool for next year's bearing wood, and destroying all the rest, unless they are wanted for a new plantation. In autumn, as soon as the fruit is all gathered, the stems which have borne it should be cut down to the ground, to give light and air to the suckers; but as these are liable to be injured by the frost, they should not be pruned till the following March. They may then be shortened to two thirds or three fourths of their length, by cutting off the weak wood at the extremities of the shoots. VARIETIES. Fastolff. - This is a very superior variety, considered by many the best Fig. 155. 211 if I! FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. of all the reds. Fruit extra large size; roundish-conical; color brilliant red, purple tinge; flesh rich, melting, finely flavored. It is not so much grown now as it undoubtedly will be when it is better known; besides, the plants are scarce and high-priced. It is well adapted to the United States. Yellow Antwerp. -White Antwerp, and Double-Bearing Yellow, by some. A large, conical berry; color lightish-yellow; flesh sweet, very pleasant flavor. Worthy of cultivation. American Black.- A well-known popular variety; size rather small, in its native growth; color quite dark; flesh rich, juicy, acid flavor. Red Antwerp. -Also called New Red, True Red, and Howlan7d's Red. Large size; conical; color pale red; flesh sweet, juicy, excellent. It is early, productive, and ranks first-rate for eating and cooking. Franconia - Fruit large; obtuse-conical; color purplish-red; flesh firm, rich, tart, lively. Hardy, productive; not so early as others, but superior for preserving. Fig. 156. Fig. 156. REMARKs. - The White Antwerp is an excellent sort, as is also the Cushing, and the Ohio. These, with the varieties previously described, constitute the principal cultivated kinds, the others being generally inferior. THE STRAWBERRY. Propagation and Culture.- The usual time for transplanting strawberry plants is August. That time is chosen because they have then done bearing, and have made offsets, if the season has been favorable, of strong pla.its, set from their runners. Plantations made at this season will bear sonme fruit the next summer. But, if good, vigorous plants can be obtained in MIay of the preceding season, it should be planted then, as it saves nearly a year, the plants being ready to bear abundantly the next year. Gardeners have different habits and opinions as to trimming the plants, 212 FRUITS. FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. when they are put out. Some cut off all the old leaves, preserving only those in the centre of the plant. Others take off the dead or decayed leaves only, and plant with all the old healthy leaves on the plant. Many persons cut the roots in before they put them into the ground; -all dead substances should be cut off, but not the roots. When the plants are put.out, they should be kept free from weeds, and the ground should be kept loose about them. If the plants are strong, put but one to form the stools; if weak, put two. As regards the distance at which plants should be set, cultivators differ. The common red strawberry, which is found in all our gardens, may be put eight inches apart, in rows nine inches or a foot from each other, and allowed to form a matted bed of about two feet wide, with a foot-path of a foot wide between them. But the larger and finer sorts should be planted in stools, in beds four and a half feet wide, with a path of fifteen inches or more between the beds. In these beds the plants should be set, by a line, fifteen to eighteen inches apart, both ways, taking care that they do not run together. The objection generally made to this mode of cultivation is, that the fruit is exposed to injury by lying upon the ground, where it is bruised, and covered with dirt, every time it rains. This, however, may be prevented by a little care. Moss, or straw, or the leaves of trees, may be put around the stools, so as to prevent the fruit from lying on the ground, and to prevent the moisture around the plant from evaporating. The strawberry may also be propagated by seeds; and, if sown immediately after gathering, will produce plants which will come into bearing the following year. Soil and Situation.- The best soil is one that is light, warm, and gravelly; and the manure to be applied should be vegetable, rather than animal. The common practice is to manure the ground with rotten dung, with a view to increase the size and quantity of the fruit; but, in doing this, the flavor of the fruit is destroyed in proportion to the richness of the soil; besides, high manuring produces strong, luxuriant vines, and little fruit. Rotten leaves, decayed wood, ashes, in small quantity, mixed with other vegetable substances in a compost heap, will make better manure for strawberries than any animal substance whatever. As the vines which bear this fruit require great moisture to bring the fruit to its proper size, the soil and situation must not be too dry. Forcing. - Select for this purpose, in the middle of August, a sufficient number of the best runners, from approved kinds, to have choice from, and plant them six inches apart, in beds, upon a strong border, in a dry and sheltered situation. As soon as the leaves have withered, mulch them 213 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. lightly with manure; and if very severe weather occur, protect them for a time with straw. They must be kept, the following spring, free from weeds and runners, removing also any flowers as they appear. Towards the latter end of May, or beginning of June, whenever dull or rainy weather may occur, remove them carefully into forty-eight-sized pots, putting one, two or three plants into each pot, according as the object may be, whether quality or quantity. Place them, when potted, in a situation where they can be readily shaded for a time, and receive regular supplies of water, if necessary. About the latter end of July, or early in August, these pots wvill be filled with roots, when theplants must be re-potted into flat thirtytwo-sized pots, and at this time plunged in old tan or coal-ashes. The best mode of plunging them is to form beds wide enough to contain five rows of pots, when plunged, upon a hard or gravelly surface, to prevent them rooting through, the sides supported by slabs of the same width as the depth of the pots, and filling them up with old tan or ashes; the plants remain here until wanted to take in, and are easily protected from severe frosts. It will be found an excellent plan to preserve the latest forced plants, which are not much exhausted, for forcing the first, the next season. These, from their long period of rest, and well-ripened buds, are predisposed to break earlier and stronger than the others; some of them; if the autumn is moist, will be excited, and produce flowers, which must be immediately pinched out. They should have their balls carefully reduced, and be re-potted in larger pots, early in August, protecting them from the late autumnal rains, and from frost. VARIETIES. Duke of Kent. - Fruit rather small size; roundish-conical; color bright, deep red; flavor tart, and moderately good. It is, on the whole, considerably inferior to other sorts, but is an early ripener,- say the last of May, or first of June. Large Early Scarlet.- This also is an early fruit, and superior to the Fig. 157. 11 214 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Duke of Kent. Medium size; roundish-oblong; color brilliant red; rich, sprightly and excellent flavor. A certain and abundant bearer. Red Wood. - An old and favorite sort; size small; round; color scarlet; flesh sweet, finely flavored. Productive, ripening in midsummer. Black Prince.- Also known as Black Imperial. Fruit large, handsome; roundish; color darkish-red; flesh rich, finely flavored. Hardy and prolific. Hovey's Seedling. -One of the finest and largest, and well suited to a northern climate; form roundish-conical, regular; color dark red; texture and flavor very fine. A good bearer, ripening about the middle of June. The fruit, with commonly good culture, weighs about a quarter of an ounce, Fg. 158. and is an inch and a quarter in diameter. It produces better if grown near some variety having perfect stamens, sueh as the Early Scarlet, or Ross Phoenix. Swainstone's Seedling.-A comparatively recent sort, well thought of by those who have grown it. Large size; ovate-conical; color light, shiny scarlet; flesh compact, delicious flavor. Not over productive. Fig. 159. Ross Pheenix. - Large size to very large, with numerous seeds; form generally more or less coxcombed or flattened, and surface uneven; color dark crimson; flavor and texture very fine for a large variety. Productive; ripens in June, and is considered nearly equal to Hovey's Seedling. Fig. 160. Prolific Hautbois.- Large size; conical; color purplish-red; flesh rich, juicy, tender, highly flavored. It bears very well, ripens early, and has as good a reputation as any of the Hautbois variety. Fig. 161. 215 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. i'g. 160. Cushing.- Fruit very large; round, some of the berries with a short neck; color light scarlet; flesh juicy, tender, finely flavored; good bearer Fig. 162. 216 Fig. 159. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Fiog. 161. Fi. 162. REMARKS. -The Hudson's Bay, British Queen, Wood, Bishop's Orange, Downton, Elton, Methven and Myatt's Pine, are esteemed varieties. MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS, NUTS, &c. ALMOND.- There are two kinds, - the common or sweet, and the bitter. The varieties best deserving culture are the Tender-shelled, the fruit of 19 . I I 217 v Mite A lpine, Mitd &arlet, Boston Pine, FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. which is small; the Sweet, which is larger; and the Jordan, also large and sweet. These, and all the other kinds, are propagated by budding on the plum, and sometimes on seedling almonds for dry situations. BLUEBERRY.- A well-known dwarf bush, bearing a small berry, tender, juicy, blue color, ripening in July and August, and much used for tarts and puddings. Not much cultivated; grows wild in abundance. BUTTERNUT. - This is a species of walnut, growing in different parts of the United States, and sometimes called Oil NVut and White Walnut. Its wood is used for various mechanical purposes, and its bark possesses various medicinal qualities. The fruit is eaten, but is more valuable as a pickle. CHESTNUT. -The true, sweet chestnut-tree thrives in any but moist or marshy soils. It is long-lived, and grows to a great size. Its wood is hard and durable, and used for various purposes; the fruit is eaten raw, or boiled or roasted; the bark, for tanning, is superior to oak. It is raised from the seeds, planted in the fall; the second year they are transplanted, and fine varieties are extended by grafting. The Spanish or Portuguese chestnut succeeds well in this country, producing fruit, in about seven years, from the seed. Its growth is more rapid than the native kind. It may be budded on the common chestnut, but is apt to overgrow the stock. FIG. -The figs most suitable for a garden are the large white Genoa, the rig. 163 early white, the Murray, the small brown Ischia, and the black Ischia. Figs may be propagated by seeds, cuttings, layers, suckers, roots, and by ingraft 218 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. ing; the best mode being by layers or cuttings, which bear the first ox second year. A warm climate is required for out-door culture. FILBERT. -There are several varieties, -the Red, the Wh4ite, the Barcelona, or Large Cob, and the Frizzled. Filberts require a deep, light, but naturally fertile soil, without putrescent manures. They are propagated most easily from suckers, and should be well pruned. They bear in the fourth or fifth year. LEMON. -A small tree, with ovate-oblong leaves, pale-green, with a winged stalk. Flowers red externally; fruit pale yellow, with a juicy and F"g. 164. very acid pulp. Generally raised from seed in the Eastern countries. In this country it may be raised at the South in the open air. LIME. -The lime has obovate leaves on a wingless stalk, small white flowers, and roundish, pale-yellow fruit, with a nipple-like termination. The leaves and general habit of the plant resemble those of the lemon; but the acid of the pulp of the fruit, instead of being sharp and powerful, is flat and slightly bitter. The figure (166) represents the South American lime. OLIVE.- The olive grows on a branchy, low, evergreen tree, requiring a warm climate and dry soil. The fruit is much in use for pickles, and in Europe a rich oil is extracted from the pulp, the fruit being first broken in a mill, and reduced to a sort of paste. It is then subjected to the action of a press, and the oil swims on the top of the water in the vessel beneath. In pickling, the fruit is simply preserved in salts and water. Fig. 165. 219 /,~~~~~~~~ FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. F/g. 165. Fig. 166. ORANGE. - The orange thrives only in a warm climate, though it is quite generally raised in hot-houses in cold latitudes; more, however, for ornament and curiosity than for use. It rarely grows to any considerable height; has deep green leaves, and, when fruited, makes a fine appearance. May be raised by seed or by cuttings. The principal varieties are the Bcrg,amot, the Blood-Red, the Saint Michael's, Seville, China, Nice, Tangerine, Mandarin. Fig. 167. POMEGRANATE. -A small, low tree, in its form and habits not unlike the common hawthorn. It is propagated by layers and cuttings, and by grafting on the common sort; or, it may be trained in the fan manner. The chiet 220 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. io.. 167. sorts are the Sweet, the Acid, and the Subacid; besides which, there are some ornamental varieties. The fruit is about the size of a common apple, and is very handsome; skin hard; color yellowish-orange, with a deep-red cheek. Grows in the Middle and Southern States Besides a dessert fruit, it is also used medicinally. SHELLBARK. -Also called Shagbark, and Hickory Nut. A large and towering tree, with oval leaves; fruit roundish, sweet and relishing. The wood is much used for different mechanical purposes. WALNUT.- Also called Madeira Nut. A tree of stately proportions, bearing in great quantity a large-sized and superior nut. May be propagated by seeds, and by grafting on the hickory nut. Excellent dessert fruit, and makes a good pickle. The kernel is four-lobed. WHORTLEBERRY. - A small, dwarfshrub, comprising several varieties, and known generally by the name of Huckleberry, and Bilberry. It produces a round, sweet berry, much used in cooking, and also eaten raw. It grows wild, and is seldom cultivated in gardens. FRUIT CALENDAR. JANUARY.- Vinery: commence forcing for fruit in June; begin with a temperature of 50~, and gradually increase it, the first month, to 60~. Peach-house: commence forcing for fruit in May; begin with a temperature of 50~. Chlerry-house: commence forcing with a temperature of 45~, by night. Figs: plants in pots may now be placed in a vinery. Strawberries: take plants in pots into a forcing house or pit twice in the 19* 221 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. month. Prune the Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry, Gooseberry, Currant, and Raspberry, if the weather is not severe. Nail and tie wall and espalier trees. FEBRUARY. - Vinery: increase the heat above that for the preceding month. Peach-house: cease syringing when the trees are in flower. Cherry house: give air at every favorable opportunity. Fig-house: commence forcing where the trees are planted in the borders. Melons: sow seeds for early crop. Strawberries: take into the forcing-house for succession. MARCH. -Peach-house: remove all fore-right shoots from the trees, and, when the fruit is set, syringe them. Cherry-house: increase the heat, after the bloom is set and stoned. Fig-house: water freely, both at the root and over-head. Melons: plant out from last month's sowing. Strawberries: give air freely while in flower. Prune and nail Peaches and Nectarines, and afterwards protect them with nets, or other covering. Graft fruit-trees. APRIL.- Vinery: when the grapes are set, keep a very moist temperature, and commence thinning them immediately. Peach-house: partially thin the fruit before stoning; afterwards, thin to the quantity required to ripen off; -syringe the trees daily in fine weather, and smoke them occasionally, to keep down insects. Fig-house: when the shoots have made three or four joints, stop them, to cause them to produce fruit in the autumn. Melons: allow several of the main shoots to reach the sides of the frame before being stopped. Disbud Peaches and Nectarines. MAY. - Vinery: keep the laterals stopped to one joint; take away all useless shoots. Peach-house: when the fruit begins to ripen, withhold water both at the roots and overhead,- at the same time, admit air freely. Cherry-hotse: raise the temperature to 700 when the fruit is swelling off. Fig-hou?se: as the first crop approaches maturity, only sufficient water should be given to prevent the second crop of fruit falling off. Melons: regulate the vines at an early stage of their growth; after the fruit is set, put pieces of slate beneath it. Continue to disbud wall-trees; remove their coverings when danger from frost is over, and wash the trees with soap-suds when the fruit is set. Thin the fruit of the Apricot. JUNE.- Vinery: as the fruit approaches maturity, keep a dry atmosphere -a few leaves may be taken off, or tied on one side, where they shade the fruit. Peach-house: suspend nets or mats beneath the trees, and place in them some soft material, for catching the falling fruit. Cherry-house: when the fruit is gathered, give the trees several good washings, to destroy insects, - the house should also be smoked. Figs: those in pots must be duly supplied with water. Melons: ridge out late crops; give air freely to ripening fruit. Summer-prune Vines against walls. Finally, thin Apricots Set traps for wasps. Net Cherry-trees. 222 FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. JULY.- Vinery: carefully avoid raising a dust when the fruit is ripe; give air freely. Peach-house: when the fruit is all gathered, give the trees several good washings over-head, and give abundance of air till the leaves begin to decay, when the lights may be removed. Cherry-trees: if in pots, these should now be placed in a shady situation. Fig-house: when the first crop is gathered, water the trees liberally, to bring forward the second crop. Melons: pay proper attention to the plants in the open air. Finally, thin wall-fruit. Prune and -tie espalier trees. Bud fruit-trees. Pot Strawberry runners, for forcing. Mat Currants and Gooseberries, to preserve theni. Stop the shoots of vines against walls, two joints above the firuit. AUGUST. -Vinery: syringe the vines, and give them a root-watering after the fruit is cut, to prevent the leaves decaying prematurely. Peachhouse: the light may be taken off the early house, and used for the purpose of forwarding Grapes against walls. Fig-house: syringe the trees frequently, to keep down insects. Make new plantations of Strawberries. Cut down the old canes of Raspberries, when the fruit is gathered. Keep the shoots of wall-trees nailed in, -displace all laterals. Stop the laterals of vines to one joint. Continue to bud fruit-trees, as in last month. SEPTEMBER.- Vinery: the lights of the early forced-house should now be left open night and day; or they may be taken off, if repairs are required. Peach-house: if any vacancies are to be filled up, take out the old soil, and(t replace it with fresh, ready for planting next month. Protect out-door Grapes from wasps, by bagging the bunches. Gather fruit as it ripens. Expose wall-fruit to the sun and air, to give it flavor and color. Continue to make new Strawberry plantations, as in last month. OCTOBER. - Vinery: as soon as the leaves have fallen from the vines, prune them, take off the loose, rough bark, and wash them. Peach-house: fill vacancies with trees from the walls in the open garden; take up and plant carefully. Pot Cherry-trees for forcing. Withhold water from Fi,gtrees when the fruit is gathered. Melons: keep up the heat of the beds, to forward the ripening of the late fruit. Gather any remaining fruit. Plant fruit-trees of all sorts. Prune Currants and Gooseberries. NOvEMBER. -Vinery: protect the border where the vines of the early forcing-hiouse are growing outside. Peach-house: prune and dress the trees as soon as the leaves are fallen. Cherry-house: if the lights have been taken off, they should now be replaced, but left open night and day, unless the weather is severe; the trees should now be pruned. Pot Fig-trees for forcing. Continue to plant all sorts of fruit-trees, as in last month. Protect Fig-trees. Prune the Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry, Filbert, Gooseberry, and Currant, as in last month; also nail and tie those against walls, and espaliers. 223 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. Look over the fruit and the fruit-room. Mulch newly planted fruit-trees, to protect them from frost. DECEMBER. - Vinery: put on the lights, if they have been removed, so as to protect the vines from severe frost. Peach-house: after the trees are tied to the trellis, take away a little of the loose, dry-top soil; slightly dig the border, so as not to injure the roots, and add some fresh soil. Cherry house: fix the trees to the trellis, and make preparations for forcing next month. Fig-house: the frost should be kept out, and if the trees need any pruning, it should now be done. Continue to nail and prune in mild weather. Partially unnail the shoots of Peach and Nectarine trees. Protect Strawberries in pots, and all fruit-trees intended for forcing. Dig fruit quarters where pruning is completed. 224 CHAPTER VI. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. THE REARING, BREEDING, DISEASES, AND GENERAL CARE OF- THE BULL- THE OX - THE COW - SHEEP - SWINE - THE HIORSE-THE ASS -THE MULE - THE GOAT - THE DOG - IN ALL THEIR STANDARD VARIETIES;- WITH A MONTHLLY CAILENDAR OF OPERATIONS. I. HORNED OR NEAT CATTLE. Breeding and Rearing.- The objects to be kept in view, in breeding cattle, are a form either well adapted to fatten, for producing milk, or for labor. These three objects have each of them engaged the attention of Fig. 16S8. agriculturists; but experience has not altogether justified the expectation that has been entertained of combining all these desirable properties, in an eminent degree, in the same race. That form which indicates the property of yielding the most milk differs materially from that which we know, from experience, to be combined with early maturity and the most valuable carcass; and the breeds which are understood to give the greatest weight of meat for the food they consume, and to contain the least proportion of offal, are not those which possess, in the highest degree, the strength and activity required in beasts of labor. A disposition to fatten, and a tendency to yield a large quantity of milk, cannot be united. The form of the animal most remarkable for the first is very different from that of the other;-in place P I FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. of being flat in the sides, and big in the belly, as all great milkers are, it is high-sided and light-bellied, -in a word, the body of the animal well adapted to fatten is barrel-formed, while that of the milker is widest downwards. Procreating Age.- The age at which bulls should be employed, and the number of seasons they should be allowed to serve, as well as the age at which the females should begin to breed, are points regarding which practice is by no means uniform. Sometimes the bulls are pretty commonly allowed to leap while yearlings, and, if good stock-getters, are kept on as long as they can serve,- perhaps till they are ten or twelve years old; in some places they are employed only three seasons, for the first time at two years old. The females, in many instances, bring their first calf at the age of two years, but more commonly, perhaps, not till they are a year older. Period of Gestation.- The period of gestation with cows has been found to be about forty weeks. Cows seldom bring more than one calf at a time. When they produce twins, one of them a male and the other a female, the latter, which is called a free martin, is commonly considered incapable of procreation, though there are a few instances to the contrary. Time of Impregnation.- The most desirable period for putting cows to the bull is midsummer, in order that they may be dropped in the spring, and have the whole of the grass season before them. Where no regular system is followed, and cows are sent to the bull merely because they are in heat, calves will be dropped at all seasons; but excepting when the fatting of calves is an object of importance, it is probably the most advantageous time, as the calves, having all the grass season before them, become sufficiently strong for enduring the change to a less agreeable food in the ensuing winter. A calf newly weaned seldom thrives well during that period, unless it is pampered with better food than usually falls to the share of young animals. By midsummer the cows are readier to take the bull than at any other season, and will bring calves in proper time. If a cow goes till after May before she calves, the calf will be too weak the winter following, and the dam will not be so ready to take the bull again, but will often grow barren. Rearing. -The mode of rearing calves differs in different places. The best method, according to some, is this: The calves suck a week or a fortnight, according to their strength; new milk in the pail, a few meals; next new milk and skim-milk mixed, a few meals more; then, skim-milk alone; or porridge, made with milk, water, ground oats, &c., and sometimes oil-cake, until cheese-making commences, after which, whey porridge, or sweet whey, in the field; being careful to house them in the night, until warm weather sets in. This method of suckling is not, however, free from 226 DOMESTIC OR FARMI ANIMALS. objection; and, in the ordinary practice of rearing calves, it is held to be a preferable plan to begin at once to teach them to drink from a pail. The calf that is fed from the teat must depend upon the milk of its dam, however scanty or irregular it may be; whereas, when fed from a dish, the quantity can be regulated according to its age, and various substitutes may be resorted to, by which a great part of the milk is saved for other purposes, or a greater number of calves reared on the same quantity. When fed from the pail, two gallons a day, for about three months, is enough; but after it is three weeks old, it is best to give substitutes. When reared with skim-milk, it should be given about as warm as cow's milk when first drawn. If over-cold, the calves will purge, which, however, may be remedied by putting two or three spoonfuls of rennet into the milk. When dropped during the grass season, calves should be put into some small home-close of sweet, rich pasture, after they are eight or ten days old, not only for the sake of exercise, but also that they may the sooner take to eating grass. When they are dropped in the winter, or before the return of the grass season, a little short, soft hay or straw, or sliced turnips, should be laid in the trough or stall before them. The treatment of young cattle, from the time they are separated from their dams, or able to subsist on the common food of the other stock, must depend upon the farm on which they are reared. In summer, their pasture is often coarse, but abundant; and in winter, all good breeders give them an allowance of succulent food along with their dry fodder. The first winter they have hay and turnips; the following summer, coarse pasture; the second winter, straw in the fold-yard, and a few turnips once a day, in an adjoining field, just sufficient to prevent the straw from binding them too much; the next summer, tolerably good pasture, and the third winter, as many turnips as they can eat, and treated as fatting cattle. Castrating. -There used to be a strange difference of opinion among farmers as to the time when this operation should be performed. In some places it is delayed until the animal is two years old: but this is done to the manifest injury of his form, his size, his propensity to fatten, the quality of his meat, and his docility and general usefulness as a working ox. The period which is now pretty generally selected is between the first and third months. The nearer it is to the last of the first month, the less danger attends the operation. Mode.- Some persons prepare the animals by the administration of a dose of physic; but others proceed at once to the operation when it best suits their convenience, or that of the farmer. Care, however, should be taken that the young animal is in perfect health. The mode formerly practised was simple enough: - a piece of whip-cord was tied as tightly as 227 FAKRMER'S AND-BOOK. possible around the scrotum. The supply of blood being thus completely cut off, the bag and its contents soon became livid and dead, and were suffered to hang, by some careless operators, until they dropped off, or were cut off on the second or third day. It is now, however, the general practice to grasp the scrotum in the hand, between the testicles and the belly, and make an incision on one side of it, near the bottom, of sufficient depth to penetrate through the inner covering of the testicle, and long enough to admit of its escape. The testicle immediately bursts from its bag, and is seen hanging by its cord. The careless or brutal operator now firmly ties a piece of small string around the cord, and having thus stopped the circulation, cuts through the cord half an inch below the ligature, and removes the testicle. He, however, who has any feeling for the poor animal on which he is operating, considers that the only use of the ligature is to compress the blood-vessels and prevent after hemorrhage; and therefore saves a great deal of unnecessary torture, by including them alone in the ligature, and afterwards dividing the rest of the cord. The other testicle is proceeded with in the same way, and the operation is complete. The length of the cord should be so contrived that it shall immediately retract into the scrotum, but not higher, while the ends of the string hang out through the wounds. In the course of about a week, the strings will usually drop off, and the wounds will speedily heal. It will be rarely that any application to the scrotum will be necessary, except fomentation of it, if much swelling should ensue. A few- but their practice cannot be justified -seize the testicle as soon as it escapes from the bag, and, pulling violently, break the cord, and tear it out. It is certain that when a blood-vessel is thus ruptured, it forcibly contracts, and very little bleeding follows; but if the cord breaks high up, and retracts into the belly, considerable inflammation has sometimes ensued, and the beast has been lost. This tearing of the cord may be prawtised on smaller animals, as pigs, lambs, and rabbits, as their vessels are small, and there is but little substance to be torn asunder; but, even there, the knife, somewhat blunt, will be a more skilful and humane substitute. This laceration should never be permitted in the castration of the calf or the colt. The application of torsion, or the twisting of the arteries by means of a pair of forceps which will firmly grasp them, promises to supersede every other mode of castration, both in the larger and the smaller domesticated animals. The spermatic artery is exposed, and seized with the forceps, which are then closed by a very simple mechanical contrivance; the vessel is drawn a little out from its surrounding tissues, the forceps are turned round seven or eight times, and the vessel liberated. It will be found perfectly closed; a small knot will have formed on its extremity; it will retract 228 DOMIESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. into the surrounding substance, and not a drop more blood will flow from it; the cord may be then divided, and the bleeding from any little vessel arrested in the same way. Neither the application of the hot ironi or of the wooden claws, whether with or without caustic, can be necessary in the castration of the calf. Fattening. - The common method of fattening Calves is, to allow them to suck, as by this method the object is probably not only sooner, but more effectually, attained, than by any other means. The period necessary varies from five to nine weeks, - the time being much shorter where milk is very valuable. Another method is, to give them the milk to drink, morning an(d evening, warm from the cow; the quantity being increased accordiIg to their age and strength. In whatever way they are managed, they should be kept in pens in a close house, and well littered, kept clean, and enijoy a due quantity of flesh air. Meal, linseed boiled into a jelly, and such like articles, are also given to calves while fattening. ,:11!1''',l, I . "; 0 0; 1: A: - I IIi L 0 The food on which Cattle are fatted is grass in summer, commonly on pastures, but sometimes on herbage cut and consumed in feeding-houses or 20 229 I,4. 1 6t9. FARBIER'S HAND-BOOK. fold-yards; and in winter, on turnips, along with hlay or straw, oil-cake, carrots, potatoes, &c. The hlay or str aw is muclh more beneficial when cut by one of the niachinles now used for that purpose. The age at wN-hichl cattle are fattted depends on the circumstance of their being employed ill breeding, in labor, for the dairy, or solely for the butcher. In the latter case, the most improved breeds are fit for the shambles whlen about three years old, anid very few of any large breed are kept more than a year longer. As to cows and working oxen, ill most instances the latter are put up to feed after working three years, or ini the seventh or eighth year of their age. In general, it may )be said that the snmall ])reeds of cattle are fattened on pastures, though sometimes finished off on a few weeks' turnips; and large cattle, at least in somne parts, are chliefly fatted in stalls or fold-yards, by means of turnipis, and other likle sublstaiices. HIoW TO JUDGE OF CATTLE FORt VARI()OUS OBJECTrS AND PURPOSES. The Bull. - The head should be rather long, and the miuzzle fine; eyes lively anrid prominentt; ears long anid thin; horns ide(lc; ueck risinig with a gentle curve from the shoulders, and small and fine where it joins the head shoulders moderately broad at the top, joining filll to his chine or crops and chest b)ack-ard(s, and to the neck-vein forwaris; bIosonl op)en; breast broad, and projectiing well befobre his lecs; armus, or tirc-iii-hs, muscular, and tapering to ills kucee; legs clean, a.(d very fili-boiol (; eline arid chlest so fill as to leave no hollows behild tlle slhoulders; 1s lis strong, to keep his bellv from sinking below thle level of Itis brCeast; l,:,(k, or ](in, broad, straight, and flat; ribs rising one above another in such a marner that the last rib shall be rather the higrhest, leaving olnly a small space to thie hip)s or hookls, tihe x-hole formirig a roui-(nd or l)arrel-lilke carcass; 1ips slhoiurld be w-ide-placed, roulnd, and a little higher thlan the back; the qttarters, firom the hip to the rump, long, tapering gradually from the hips bacliwar(l, and the turls or pott-bones not protuberant; rumps close to the tail; t il lbroad, wellhaired, and in a horizontal line wvith his bacl. Bulls should be constantly well fed, arld kept in proper enclosures. Thle Ox. - The head ought to be rather long, and muzzle fine; countenance calm and placid; horns fine; neck light, particularly where it joins the head; breast w-ide, arid projectliug well befiore the legs; shoulders moderately broad at the top, and the joints well in, anrid, when the animal is in good condition, the chine so full as to leave noI hollow behind them; the fore flank well filled up, anrid the girth behind the shoulders deep; back straight, wide, and flat; ribl)s broad, and the space lbetween them and the hips small; flank fuill and heavy; belly well kept in, and not silnking low in the middle; hips round, wide across, and on a level w-ith the back 2 -oi 0 DO)IESTIC On FARSM ANISALS. itself; the hind quarters, that is, from the hips to the extretnity of thlt rumip, long and straight; the rump points fat, and comingr well up to thi tail; tie tw-ist wide, and thie sean in the middle of it so well filled, that the whole may very nearly form a plane, perpendicular to the line of the back; the loiver part of the thigh small; tail broad and fat towards the top, but the lower part thin; legs long and strong; feet and hoofs broad and hardy; and, when the animal is in fine condition, tile skin of a rich and silky ., )pearaftce. Pi-. 170. Skeleto7n of the Ox. m, The ligamnent of the neck, and its attachmeints. un, The atlas. a, The denitata. p, The orbit of the eve. q, Tie' vertebra, or bones of tie neck. r, The bones of the back. s, The bones of the loins. t, The sacrunm. Us, The bones of the tail. v 4' w, The haunch and pelvis. x, The eight true ribs. y, The false ribs, with cartilages. z, The sternum. 1, The scapula, or shoulder-blade. a, The upper jaw bone. t, The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. c, The lachrymal bone. d, The malar, or cheek bone. c, The frontal, or forehead bone. f, The horns, being processes or contin * uations of the fiontal. g, The temporal bone. h, The parietal bone, low in the tempo ral fossa. t, The occipital bone, deeply depressed below the crest or ridge of the head. j, The lower jaw. k. The grinders. 4 The nippers, found on the lower jaw alone. 2.31 I let, I I (, l I 21 11 I11 i i -fS-l 6 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. 10, The two smaller pasterns to eadn foot. 11, The two coffin bones to each foot. 12, The navicular bones. 13, The thigh bone. 14, The patella, or bone of the knee. 15, The tibia, or proper leg bone. 16, The point of the hock. 17, 17, The small bones of the hock. 18, 18, The metatarsals, or larger bones of the hind leg. 19, 19, The pasterns and feet. 2, The humerus, or lower bone of the shoulder. 3, The radius, or principal bone of the arm. 4, The ulna, its upper part, forming the elbow. 5, The small bones of the knee. 6, The large metacarpal or shank bone. 7, The smaller or splint bone. S, The sessamoid bones. 9, The bifurcation at the pasterns, and the two larger pasterns to each foot. The Cow. Wide horns; head and neck thin; dewlap large; full breast; broad back; large, deep belly; the udder capacious, but not too fleshy; the milk-veins prominent, and the bag tending far behind, teats large and long; buttocks broad and fleshy, tail long and pliable, legs in good proportion, and the joints short. To these may be added a gentle disposition, and free from vicious tricks. Age of Cattle.- This is determined by the teeth and horns. At the end of about ten years, they shed their first four teeth, which are replaced by others, larger, but not so white; before five years, all the incisive teeth are renewed. These teeth are at first equal, long, and pretty white; but, as the animals advance in years, they wear down, and become unequal and black. These animals likewise shed their horns at the end of three years, and are replaced by other horns, which, like the second teeth, continue. The manner of the growth of these horns is not uniform, nor the shooting of them equal. The first year,-that is, thie fourth year of the animal's age, -two small pointed horns make their appearance, neatly formed, smooth, and towards the head terminated by a kind of button. The following year this button moves from the head, being impelled by a horny cylinder, which, lengthening in the same manner, is also terminated by another button; and so on, for the horns continue growing as long as the animals live. These nuttons become annular joints or rings, which are easily distinguished in the horns, and by which the age of the creature may be easily known, counting three years for the point of the horn, and one for each of the joints or riigs. The cow is useful for twenty years,- much longer than the bull. Names of Cacttle at Different Ages.- A young castrated male, aftet tihe first year, is called a stot, stirk, or steer; at five years old, an ox. A female, after the first year, is called an heifer, or quey; at five years old, a cow; and afterwards a castrated female is called a spayed heifer or cow. Bullock is the general term for any full-grown cattle, male or female, fat or lean. 232 DOMIESTIC OR FARMl ANIMIALS. DIFFERENT BREEDS. XNATIVE. - Thle best of American native stock is, almost without exception, descended from some one or other of the imported sorts, but which, on account of the antiquity or uncertainty of its origin, or the remote resemblance which it bears to any of the standard breeds, occasioned by various crossings, cannot be distinctly referred to any particular and well-knowil pedigree, and is, therefore, called native, with such fancy designation as may please the raiser. The niumber or quantity of this kind of stock is therefore very large, and, of course, comprises about as many (lifferenlt qualities, -some very superior, however, as in Fig. 171, of the Katsalskill, a prize dairy cow, of Dutlchess County, New York. When kept simply onIL .ig. 171. grass, this cow gave thirty-eight and a half quarts of milk per day, yielding nearly twenty-three pounds of butter per week, which is good proof that the beautiful appearance of the animal was consistent with her good qualities. In some parts of our country, especially in the Eastern States, the prevailing stock is believed to be derived from the North Devons, many of the fine points and qualities of which they possess. Thle most valuable working oxen are usually of this breed, thus affording the excellent beef to be found in the Boston. New York, and Philadelphia markets. By means of this stock, and the improvement constantly being made in it by the importations made from the old country, the cattle of the Middle and Western States are 20* 233 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. b)eing vastly improved. In the West, the shlort-horned animals have been generally preferred, but the Durhams are now coming into vogue very extensively, on account of their superior adaptedniess to travel to the Eastern markets without sensibly deteriorating in weight and quality. The Einglisli lierefords are now beingi paid particular attention to, as they are supposed to i)e well calculated for the Western graziers; the WTest highland breed is also recommended. DEvoN..-The true Devon cattle are gentle, agile, and peculiarly adapted to active labor. Their shoulders have that obliquity which enab)les them to lift freely their fore extremities; and their quarters belhlid are relatively long, a characteristic connected with the power of active motion. Their bodies, too, are light, and their limbs long, muscular to the hock and knee, gtid below these joints sinew-y. They have the faculty of muscular exertion in a high degree, trot well in harness, and -will ke.p pace with a horse in the ordinary labors of the farm. Devon Bull. - The figure below represents a fine specimen of a genuine Fig. 172. Devon bull. The horn of the Devon bull oulght to be neither too low nor too higfh, tapering at the points, not too thick at the root, and of a yellow or waxy colo,r. The eye should be clear, brighbt, and prominent, showing much of th e uite. and it ought to have around it a circle of a variable color, but 234 DOMIESTIC OR FARMi ANI.IALS. usually a dark orange. The forehead should be flat, indented, and small, the purity of the breed being very much determined by the latter clharacteristic. The cheek should be small, the muzzle fine, the nose clear yeliow, the nostril high and open, the hair curled about the head, and the neck quite thick. Excepting in the head and neck, the form of the bull does not materially differ from that of the ox, but he is considerably smaller. There ire some exceptions, however, to this rule, as the two figures which follow indicate, these representing the oflsprinig of the bull exhibited in Fig. 1i72. Fig. 173. Devon Ox. - The head of the Devon ox is quite small, with a great breadth of forehead; clean and free from flesh about the jaws; prominent eye; vivacious countenance; long and thin neck; light in the withers; the shoulders a little oblique; breast deep; bosom open and wide; fore-legs wNide apart; the point of the shoulder rarely seen; no projection of bone, is in the horse, but a kind of level line running on to the neck; skin, notwitlistanding the curly hair. exceedingly mellow and elastic; color a blood rel, which is usually indicative of purity of breed, though there are many animals, of great excellence, of a chestnut hue, and even bay brown. Those of a yellowish hue are said to be subject to steal (diarrhlea). The prece(ldin, figure is an accurate likeness of an ox beginning to fatten, but his character 235 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. istic points not yet concealed. The cut below is that of a working Devon ox, embodying almost all the good points which have been enumerated. Ft,-. 174. A selection from the most perfect animals of the true breed, -the bone still small and the neck fine, but the brisket deep and wide, and down to the knees, and not an atom of flatness all over the side, - or one cross, and only one, with the Hereford, and that stealthily made, - these have improved the strength and bulk of the Devon ox, without impairing, in the slightest degree, his activity, beauty, or his propensity to fatten. x~' "''Jill Devon Cow. -There are few things more remarkable about the Devoiinshire cattle than the comparative smallness of the cow. The bull is a great deal less than the ox, and the cow almost as much smaller than the bull. This is somewhat of a disadvantage, on the whole, a roomy cow being very desirable for breeding. But, though small, the Devon possesses that roundness 236 1, FIig. 175. DO.NIESTIC OR FARMI ANIMALS. and projection of the last two or three ribs, which renders it more roomy than a careless examination would lead one to suppose. She is particularly distinguished for her full, round, clear eye, the gold-colored circle around the eye, and the same color prevailing on the inside skin of the ear; countenance cheerful, the muzzle orange or yellow, but the rest of the face having nothing of black, or even white, about it; jaws free from thickness, and the throat free from dewlap. The points of the back and the hind quarters differ from those of other breeds, having more roundness and beauty, and being free from most of those angles by which good milkers are sometimes distinguished. The following is a portrait of a Devoni cow, rising four years old. WVith - (. 176. regard to size, she is a faivorable specimen, and it will be seen at once how much more roomy and fit for breeding she is than even her somewhat superior bulk would at first indicate. She is, perhaps, in a little better condition than cows generally are, or should be, in order to yield their full quantity of milk. REMARKS. -The qualities of the Devon cattle may be referred to three points - their working, fattening, and milking. Where the ground is not too heavy, the Devonshire oxen are unrivaled at the plough. They are quick, active, docile, and capable. They are usually taken in to work when about two years old. If kept idle till five I Xffi 237 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. or six years of age, they will be stinted in growth. At six to six and a Ilf, they reach their full stature. At nine years, or older, they decline in valltie. With regard to their disposition to fatten, they have few rivals here. They do not, indeed, attain the great weight of some breeds, but, in a giveil iine, they acquire more flesh, and with less consumption of food; and their fitsli is beautifuil in its kind, pleasing to the eye, and to the taste. For milking, the Dev-ons are inferior to several other breeds. The milk is g-ood, yielding more than an average proportion of cream and buttter, but it is deficient in quantity. Some, however, deny that the latter is true. DUI IIAI, OR SHORT-IO RN.- -Thle short-hlorned, sometimes called the Dutch breed(l, is known by a variety of names, such as the Holderness, the Teesw-ater, the Yorkshire, Durham, Northumitberland, and others. Applying the points of judging live-stock to the shlort-horns, it is found, that for quantity and well-laid-on beef, the short-horned ox is quite full in every valuable Fi,. 177. part. In regard to quality of beef, the fat bears a due and even predominating proportion to the lean, the fibres of which are fine and well mixed. and even marbled with fat, and abundantly juicy. The fine, thin, clean bones of the legs and head, with the soft, mellow touch of the skin, and the benign aspect of the eve, indicate in a remarkable degree the disposition to fatten: while the ui.;.irm colors of the skin, red or white, or both combined in 238 DOMIESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. various degrees, mark distinctly the purity of the blood. They are at once distinguished from any of the other breeds by their additional size, and their more square and massy form. Their bones are exceedingly small, compared with the size of the animal; their skin possesses that peculiar touch so characteristic of a good feeder; they arrive early at maturity; and, fiirther, they combine the valuable qualities of milkiIng and fattening in an unsoirpassed degree. Fig. l177 exhibits one of the truest specimens of Short-horned bulls, al(d may be relied on for its faithful delineation. The Short-horned cow gives a large quantity of milk, and is, iln all respects, a superior animal. Having given some account of the excellent qualities distinguishing the breed generally, we close with presenlting a lifelikeness of one of the female species. Fig. 178. HEClF~ORDSIIIn. The Herefordshire w hite-faced breed may )e t!}i, distinguished: The countenance cheerful, pleasant, open; the forehead l)road eve full and lively; horns bright, taper, and spreading; head small; chatl l(ean; neck long and taperiing-; chest deep and full; bosom broad, andt( pr(ojrcting forward; shoulder-bone thin, flat, full, and mellow in flesh; loin 1,road; hips standing wvide, and level with the chine; quarters long, and wide at the neck; rump even with the level of the back, and not drooping, nor standing high and sharp above the quarters; tail slender and neatly haired; i)-irrel round and roomy; the carcass throughout deep and well-spread; ribs broad, standing flat and close on the outer surface, forming a smooth, even barrel,- the hindmost large and full of length; round bone small, Snug, and 239 FAR2IIER'S HAND-BOOK. not prominent; thigh clean, and regularly tapering; legs upright and short below the knee, and hock small; feet of middle size; flank large; flesh everywhere mellow, soft, and yielding pleasantly to the touch, especially on the chine, the shoulder, and the ribs; hide mellow, supple, of a middle thickness, and loose on the neck and huckle; coat neatly haired, bright ana silky; color a middle red, with a bald face, characteristic of the true breed. They fatten to a much greater weight than the Devons, and at an early age. They are far worse milkers, however, than the latter, but will thrive and grow fat where a Devon would scarcely live. A cross of the Devon and Hereford will often improve each other, the former acquiring bulk and hardihood, and the latter a finer form and activity. The Hereford cow (Fig. 179) is apparently a very inferior animal. Not only is she a poor milker, but her form is defective, -small, delicate, and ill-made. She is very light-fleshed when in common condition, and Fg. 179. beyond that, while she is breeding, she is not suffered to proceed; but when she is actually put up for fattening, she spreads out, and accumulates fat at a most extraordinary rate. The Hereford ox fattens speedily at a very early age, and it is therefore generally more advantageous that he should go to market at three years old than be kept longer to be employed as a beast of draught. 240 e _, -,, _ DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. AYRSHIRE.-Thisbreedhasbeen much improved. It is short in the leg, the neck a little thicker at the shoulder, but finely shaped towards the head; the horns are smaller than those of the Highland breed, but clear and smooth, pointing forwards, and turning upwards, tapering to a point. /Rg. 181. 21 241 q FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. They are deep in the carcass, but not round and ample, and especially not so in the loins and haunches. Fig 180 represents an improved Ayrshire bull. It is said that the Ayrshire farmers prefer their dairy bulls according to the feminine aspect of their heads and necks, and wish them not round behind, but broad at the hook-bones and hips, and full in the flanks. The Ayrshire cow is a valuable dairy cow, the quantity of milk yielded by her being very great, considering her size. Five gallons daily, for two or three months after calving, may be considered as not more than an average; three gallons daily will be given for the next three months, and one gallon and a half during the succeeding four months. Three gallons and a half of this milk will yield about a pound of butter; thus fully establishing the reputation of the Ayrshire cow, so far as the dairy is concerned. Fig. 181 represents one of these beautiful animals. NEW LEICESTER. - This breed mnay be substantially distinguished by the following characteristics: The fore end long, but light to a degree of ele Fig. S182. gance; neck thin; chap clean; the head fine, but long and tapering; eye large, bright, and prominent; the horns of the bulls comparatively short, of the oxen extremely long, as are, also, those of the cow, and most of them 242 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. hang downward by the side of the cheeks; shoulders fine and thin as to bone, but thick as to flesh, without any protuberance of bone; girth small, compared with the short-horns and middle-horns; chine quite full when fat; loin broad, hip quite wide and protuberant; quarters long and level, the nache of a middle width, and the tail set on variously; round bones small, but thighs fleshy, tapering; legs small, clean, somewhat long; feet neat, middling size; the carcass as nearly a cylinder as the natural form of the animal will allow; ribs standing out full from the spine; belly small; hide middling thick; color various, - the brindle, the finch-back, and the pye, are common. The fattening quality, when the breed is in a state of maturity, is indisputably good. As grazier's stock, they rank high. The principle of the utility of form has been strictly attended to. As dairy stock, their merit is less evident. As beasts of draught, many of them are sufficiently powerful, and are more active than some other breeds used for the plough, or on roads; but their horns form something of an objection to such use of them. Fig. 182 is that of a New Leicester cow. REMARKS.- Some of the other most noted breeds, which are coming into extensive favor in this country, are the Holderness, the Galloway, the Sussex, the Alderney, the Suffolk, and the Kyloe; these, however, we do not design to notice in detail, but shall close our notes on neat cattle with a few remarks on some of the characteristics and general management of DAIRY COWS. Qualities.- We have already expressed, in the preceding pages, the general opinions entertained as to the adaptedness of particular breeds for dairy purposes. Where butter is the main object, such cows should always be chosen as are known to afford the best and largest quantities of milk and cream, of whatever breed they may be. But the quantity of butter to be made from a given number of cows must always depend on the size and goodness of the beasts, the kind and quantity of food, and the distance of time from calving. The form of animals that are best fitted to arrive at early maturity and secrete fat, differs in some respects from that which indicates a disposition to secrete and yield milk. A dairy cow, like a feeding animal, should have a skin soft and mellow to the touch, -should have the.back straight, the loins broad, the extremities small and delicate; but she need not, as in the case of the feeding animal, have the chest broad and prominent before. She should rather have the fore-quarters light, and the hindquarters relatively broad, capacious, and deep; and she should have a large well-formed udder. There should be no breeding in-and-in, as in the case of a feeding stock. The purpose in rearing cows for the dairy is not to pro 243 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. duce animals that will arrive at premature age, but such as are hardy and of good constitution. By long attention to the characters that indicate a disposition to yield milk, the breed of Ayrshire has become greatly more esteemed for the dairy than other animals much superior to them in size and feeding qualities. Feeding.- WVith respect to the manner of feeding dairy cows, the most economical, perhaps, is feeding them entirely on green forage during the summer, and on roots in winter. But, as to the effect of food, notwithstanding all that may justly be said respecting the nutritive properties,of peculiar roots and artificial grasses, no food can excel that of good natural pastures, for milch cows; for not only do they yield a greater quantity of milk when fed on pastures, but the flavor of grass butter may always be distinguished, by its superior richness and delicacy, from that which has been made from milk produced from soiling in the house. This, however, should not deter the farmer from feeding his dairy stock in that manner, for the difference in the quality of the produce is not so great as to counterbalance the many advantages resulting from a due extent and proper kind of soiling. But in a country where cultivation has not been carried to its fuillest extent, and a considerable proportion of the land is necessarily devoted to the production of grass, the cows may be kept, with great advantage, on the pastures, during summer. Keeping in Good Condition. - Dairy cows should be kept constantly in good condition. When they are suffered to fall off in flesh, particularly in the winter season, it is impossible that they can be brought to yield a large quantity of milk, by getting them into better condition in the summer months. When cows are lean at the period of calving, no management afterwards is capable of bringing them to afford, for that season, anything near the proportion of milk they would have yielded if they had been supported in proper condition during the winter. Food of the most nourishing and succulent kinds should, therefore, be regularly given, in suitable proportions, in the cold, inclement months, and they should be kept tolerably warm, and well supplied with pure water. It will be equally conducive to the health of cows as to that of feeding cattle, to comb them regularly, and to make such other arrangements as are conducive to cleanliness. Milking. - In summer, the cows are milked in the field, or they are driven gently home to their stalls, and milked there. The cows, when in full milk, should be milked three times a day, and, at other times, twice in the day will suffice. On the physiological principle of the secretions of animals being increased in proportion as the secreted fluid is more frequently withdrawn, the propriety of frequent milkings is apparent, in order to increase or maintain the supply of milk produced by cows. There can be 244 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. little doubt but that, by accustoming the secretory organs to more frequent action, such a habit may be established in them as will afford a larger proportion of milk in a given time. But, in order to effect this in the most perfect manner, it will be necessary to have the cows highly fed, to observe the greatest regularity and exactness in the hours of milking, and to be careful that every drop of milk is drawn away each time. If any milk is allowed to remain in the udder after the operation of milking, it is well ascertained that the cow will yield a smaller quantity at the next milking. A milch cow is usually considered in her prime at five years old, and will generally continue in as good milking state until ten years old, or upwards, depending much on the constitution of the animal, - some cows, like other animals, exhibiting symptoms of old age sooner than others. Ascertaining the Quality of Milk.- The value of milk, and the proportion of either butter or cheese that it produces, depends much upon its quality. As the milk of some cows is so greatly superior to that of others, where regularity is observed, it is important that the milk of each should be placed by itself until its quality is ascertained. This is effected by churning it separately; but a more expeditious and convenient method is to ascertain its strength by means of the lactometer, an instrument which we have described in the chapter on the dairy, and a cut of which we annex. II. SHEEP. Rearing, 4fc. - The ewe may breed when fifteen or eighteen months old, and at the same age the ram may also be employed to the extent of forty or fifty ewes, and, when older, to seventy or eighty. The young lambs should be brought forth at a time when there will be a sufficient supply of food for the dam to enable her to yield a copious supply of milk; and also for the lambs, as they advance in growth. The usual 21* '245 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. period is from the middle of October to November, in which case the ewes will begin to lamb soon after the beginning of March. No preparation is necessary, except, for a few weeks before, to place the ewes on somewhat better pasture than usual. The period of lambing having commenced, the attendant should carefully observe every ewe that appears to be in labor. The attendant should not be in haste to render assistance, until the strength of the ewe appears to be declining. If she is to be driven to the fold, it must be done gently as possible. Before assistance is given, first see that the feetus is coming in a proper position, which is with the head crouched between the fore-legs; if wrong, it must be turned to the proper position. In the case of twin lambs, the one which is least advanced must be put back, and the extraction of the other assisted. If the fcetus be dead, it should be extracted immediately. The keep of sheep after lambing, when rich pastures, or other kinds of grass lands, cannot be reserved, should consist of turnips, or other kinds of green food. The ewes should also have a dry, quiet, and sheltered pasture, protected from the severity of the weather. High feeding should be allowed them, but not while pregnant. Castrating. - Castration of the male lambs should be performed when they are ten days or a fortnight old. They should be in perfect health, and the weather fine, but not warm. An incision is made into the scrotum on each side, through which the testicles are successively protruded, and they are taken away by severing the spermatic cord. Weaning.- The period of weaning differs according to the locality of the farm, and the quality of the pasture. In a mountainous situation, and where the land is inferior, weaning often takes place when the lambs are not more than three months old, for it requires all the intermediate time to the beginning of winter to bring the ewes either ready for the ram or fatted for the market. The time is generally from the first to the middle of July, and the lambs are simply separated from the ewes. It is necessary to take away a portion of the ewe's milk, at intervals, to prevent injurious distension of the udder. Dry them by degrees. After being weaned, the lambs are named according to their sex and age. The males are called hoggets, or hogs, the rams being termed tu-hogs, the castrated males wether-hogs, and the ewes ewe-hogs. It is important that the lambs be put into a good pasture in the summer, to make up for the loss of the milk of the dam. When the grass begins to fail, they are to be supplied with turnips plentifully, which, with hay, are to be their food during winter. Shearing.- This is an annual operation, usually taking place at the end of May or first of June, - the precise period depending on the state of the 246 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. animals, those in a high condition being ready sooner than those that are lean,- the wool coming off readily at that time, when plucked, this being the proper criterion. About a week previously to shearing, the animals are to be washed, to free the wool from all impurities. Everything being prepared, a sheep is handed to the first operator, who seizes it and pulls it into the water, and immediately turns it over on its back, holding the arm of the fore-leg with the left hand, and grasping a portion of the wool at the side of the head with his right hand, turning the sheep over from side to side, at the same time pulling it gently backwards and forwards from and to him, at every successive turning; the wool waves up and down in the direction of the length of the body, and swirls round the body, first in one direction and then in another; the sheep is then handed to another operator, who repeats the process and hands the animal to another person, and he who handles it last examines the fleece. After being washed, the sheep are put into a clean grass field; the fleece will soon dry, after which the sheep may be shorn; though it is better to wait about a week, in order that the oil may be brought again into the wool, without which the latter loses its peculiar lustre with the loss of the volk. When the sheep are to be shorn, they are put into some enclosed space; a winnow-cloth, or large sheet, of some kind, is spread on the floor, and fastened down at the corners. The shearer then sets the sheep on its rump, in which position it is kept by resting against his legs. In this position, the wool is removed from the head and neck, and the operator afterwards clips in a circular direction from the belly to the back; the animal is then laid on its side, and kept down by the leg of the shearer, who clips the fleece all around the back. All dirty portions of the wool about the tail and belly ought to be removed by the shears, and kept by themselves. The outside of the fleece is folded inwards, beginning with the side, and narrowing the whole fleece into a stripe of about two feet in breadth. This stripe is then rolled firmnly up, from the tail-end towards the neck, the wool of which is stretched out and twisted into a rope, and wound around the fleece, to give it a cylindrical shape. The clippings are steeped in water and washed by the hand, and afterwards dried in the sun. In using the shears, they should be held close to the sheep, with their points a little elevated; every stroke should be short and narrow, to make a clean clip. Keep the shears sharp by a whetstone. Different names are again applied to the sheep after being shorn. They are now shearlings, shearling-wethers, shearling-ewes, and shearling-tups or rams; the wethers are also called dinmonts, and the ewes gimmers. The ewes, or gimmers. are kept on the pastures during the second season 247 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. and such as are intended for breeders receive the ram at the proper season. The wethers, or dinmonts, are fit for the butcher soon after being shorn. But it is only in the case of the more improved breeds being reared, and the supply of food of the last description, that the dinmonts are thus disposed of at this early period. More frequently they are kept on the farm for another winter, when the management is the same as during the first year. The dinmonts, however, are frequently sold fat before they have completed the entire winter's feeding; and when not disposed of at this period, they are sold after being a second time shorn. The details of the rearing and treatment of sheep on arable farms have now been given at length. But frequently, instead of the animals being produced and fattened on the farm, the operations of the farmer may be either confined to breeding sheep and disposing of them before they become fat, to pass into other hands before they come to the butcher, or they may be confined to fattening sheep, always purchasing the stock from the breeder. In situations, however, where the breeding and feeding of sheep can be carried on with equal advantage, they may, with economy, be combined on the same farm. Animals for the Market. - But instead of rearing all the animals to the age of one or two years, the lambs are sometimes disposed of fat during the first summer. In this case, they are fattened merely on the milk of their dams. In certain cases, however, the ewes are made to produce the lambs at those seasons which are found to suit the adjacent markets best, and the lambs are fed in the house. Food.- Grass in summer, and turnips and hay in winter, form the chief food of sheep, and they are seldom difficult to procure in favorable situations. In the absence of turnips, the different roots cultivated on the farm may be substituted with advantage. Salt should always be supplied to sheep. Sheep in Mlountainous Sections.- The management of sheep in mountainous sections sometimes differs, in some respects, from that described. The food is here not so abundant, nor so good, and the sheep must be of hardy constitution. The period of putting the ram to the ewes is also somewhat later, in order that the lambs may not be brought forth until the season is advanced, and the herbage well sprung up. During the winter, when not too severe, the sheep are kept on the pasture, and in stormy weather they have an allowance of hay, and roots when they can be produced. The operations of lambing, castrating, weaning, and shearing, are the same in both cases. Smearing.- The operation of smearing may be regarded as peculiar to the mountain races of sheep. This is performed with a view to destroy the 248 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. vermin, and protecting the animals from the inclemency of the weather. It is, however, injurious to the wool, but doubtless destroys vermin, and prevents diseases of the skin. The usual substances employed are tar and butter, - a gallon of the former to six pounds of the latter,- which is sufficient for twenty sheep. Combinations of tar with other substances are also employed, such as oil, soda, and even potatoes boiled and pounded, the effect of which is to render the tar more easy of separation from the wool. Whatever composition is used, it should be rubbed in streaks on the skin, without daubing the wool. The usual time of doing it is in the first part of November. Signs of Good Health.- The appearances which show the sheep to be in good health are, a rather wild or lively briskness; a brilliant clearness in the eye; a florid, ruddy color on the inside of the eyelids, nostrils, and gums; a fastness in the teeth; a sweet breath; a dryness of the nose and eyes; easy and regular breathing; coolness in the feet; dung properly formed; fleece firmly attached to the skin, and unbroken; and the skin exhibiting a florid-red appearance. A discharge from the nose or eyes indicates having taken cold. VARIETIES. LONG-WOOLED. -The long-wooled sheep are of the largest size. The F/g. 184. New Leicester or Dishley breed stands deservedly at the head of the list; end, indeed, for symmetry of shape, early maturity, and attaining to a con 249 0 i /;' ) I.') ( i t;e ) ,/,I q,,, s k FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. siderable size, it stands unrivaled. The preceding figure is a very fail specimen. This breed owes its origin to the late Mr. Bakewell, a celebrated breeder, of Dishley, in Leicestershire, England. It is inferior, in size and quality of wool, to many of the larger varieties, but for early maturity and aptitude to fatten it has not been surpassed. It should have a tapering head, long, and hornless; eyes prominent, and a quiet expression; ears thin, long, directed backwards; neck full and broad at its base, gradually tapering towards the head, particularly bare at the junction with the head; the neck seeming to project straight from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible deviation, one continued horizontal line firom the rump to the pole; breast broad and full; shoulders broad and round,-no uneven or angular formation, no rising of the withers, no hollow behind the situation of these bones; arm fleshy throughout, even down to the knee; bones of the leg small, standing wide apart, -no looseness of skin about them, and rather bare of wool; chest and barrel deep and round; ribs forming a considerable arch from the spine; the barrel ribbed well home; carcass gradually diminishing in width towards the rump; quarters long and full; legs medium length; pelt moderately thin, soft, elastic, covered with a good quantity of fine, white wool. The principal races of this breed are the New Leicester, the Lincolnshire, Teeswater, Devonshire Notts, Romney Marsh, and the Coltswood. Fig 185 is a portrait of one of the latter. Fig. 185. SHORT-WOOLED. -The short-wooled varieties of sheep are very numerous, 250 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. and are also distinguished generally by smallness of size. They are hardier than the larger sheep, yet, with few exceptions, not so well calculated for the exposed and mountainous sections. The Cheviot and SouthDown are very generally diffused varieties of this class, both kinds being hornless. Fig. 186 is a South-Down ewe and lamb, of the most improved sort. F/g. 186. _-_ -_ The points in this valuable breed are principally as follows: -The head should be neither too long nor too short; the lip thin; the neck moderately long, thin next to the head, and tapering towards the shoulders; breast wide and deep, projecting forward before the fore-legs, which indicates a good constitution and disposition to feed; the shoulders not too wide between the plate-bones, but on a level with the chine; chine low and straight from the shoulders to the tail; the ribs should project horizontally from the chine, as the animal will then lay its meat on the prime parts; the sides high and parallel; rump long and broad; the tail set on high, and nearly on a level with the chine; hips wide; ribs circular, and barrelshaped; legs neither very long nor very short; the bones moderately fine. BLACK-FACED.-The Black-faced or Heath sheep are distinguished by black faces and legs, and large and spirally-twisted horns. The female is, however, frequently hornless. The fleece is long, coarse, and shaggy, extending over the forehead and lower jaw. This is an active and hardy race, capable of subsisting in the most exposed situations, producing mutton of excellent quality, though not generally fattened till four or five years old. 251 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. Their wool is not so valuable as that of the Cheviots. Fig. 187 represents one of the black-faced race. ,ig. 187. MERINO. -This celebrated and most useful breed are distinguished by the fineness and felting quality of their wool, and the weight yielded by each sheep,- the ease with which they adapt themselves to the climate, the readiness with which they take to the coarsest food, their gentleness and tractability. Their defects are their unprofitable and unthrifty form, voracity of appetite, a tendency to barrenness, neglect of their young, and Fig. 188. inferior flavor of the mutton. The wool, lying closer and thicker over the body than in most other breeds of sheep, and being abundant in yolk, is covered with a dirty crust, often full of cracks. The legs are long, yet 252 . ~ ~~ -7 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. small in the bone; the breast and back narrow, and the sides somewhat fiat; the fore-shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and too much of their weight is carried on the coarser parts. The horns of the male are comparatively large, curved, more or less spiral; head large, but forehead rather low. A few of the females are horned, but, generally speaking, are destitute. Both male and female have a peculiar coarse and unsightly growth of hair on the forehead and cheeks; the other part of the face has a pleasing and characteristic velvet appearance. Under the throat there is a singular looseness of skin, which gives them a remarkable appearance of throatiness, or hollowness in the pile; the pile, when pressed upon, is hard and unyielding, on account of the thickness with which it grows upon the pelt, and the abundance of the yolk detaining all the dirt and gravel which fall upon it, though, when examined, the fibre exceeds in fineness, and in the number of serrations and curves, that which any other sheep in the world produces. Fig. 188 is a representation of the Merino breed. III. SWINE. Breeding and Rearing. - These animals arrive early at maturity. The sow is fit to receive the male when little more than eight months old, and the latter is capable of propagating at the same early period; but neither of them should be allowed to be used for the purposes of breeding until they have completed their first year, and the male should be admitted only to a limited number of females for some time after. The period of gestation in the sow is about sixteen weeks; and the number of young produced at a birth varies from five to ten or twelve, sometimes even to eighteen or twenty, and two litters are produced in the year, or even five in two years. She is ready to receive the male soon after the birth of her young, but the period of impregnation should be regulated by that at which it is desirable the young should be produced. The winter is a bad season. The periods of impregnation should be about the beginning of October and April, as the young will then be produced in February and August, so that the last litter will have gained full strength before the approach of winter. The pregnant sow should be separated from the herd, but should not be entirely confined. The period of bringing forth will be generally known by the animal carrying straw in her mouth to make her bed some time previous; and she must then be well littered with short straw, for, when profusely littered with long straw, the young pigs are liable to be injured or killed by the mothers, while they are nestling unperceived under the straw. Treatment of Dam and Young. - The young animals, being extremely tender, are liable to be destroyed immediately after their birth by the mo 22 253 FARMER'S HAND-BOOB. tion of the dam; and, to guard against this, they should be watched, and the young ones removed from her as they are brought forth. During the first and second day after the birth of the young, or until they acquire strength, they should be removed from the dam, and only occasionally admitted to suck. While nursing, she should be well fed, and the pigs accustomed to feed from a trough on milk, whey, or any liquid food, mixed with a little meal or bran. Castrating.- The males may be castrated when about a month old; and a like operation, though not absolutely necessary, may be performed, at the same age, on such of the females as are not intended for breeding. Weaning.- The period of weaning is regulated by the manner in which the young pigs have been fed; and, when they have been liberally supplied with food, it need not be deferred longer than six or seven weeks; for, when delayed beyond this, the sow will be in low condition as the time of bringing forth her young again approaches. Treatment after Weaning. - When weaned, the young pigs should be fed three times a day on nutritious and chiefly farinaceous food, combined with milk or whey; and, in a few weeks, they will consume the ordinary roots cultivated upon the farm. In some instances, the young pigs are disposed of while they are sucking, especially when the number brought forth is greater than the dam can perfectly support; and, when intended for being killed, they are then termed porkers, or roasters. The young pigs, after being weaned, are sometimes allowed to go at large through the pastures, and have to depend on these chiefly for their food. In this case, they frequently do great injury to the fields. The best plan is to confine them in pens, allowing them occasionally to go through the feeding-yard, to pick up any refuse food scattered through it; and, in addition to this, supply them with a little green food, as clover during summer, and turnips or potatoes during winter. Food.- The food of swine may be of a more varied character than that of any other animal. Every kind of animal refuse, as that of the dairy and kitchen, is eagerly consumed by them; - roots, raw or boiled; different kinds of seeds; brewers' grains, and the wash of the distillery. It is important that they should be liberally and regularly supplied with food. They ought to be fed three times in the day; and the troughs should be emptied before a fresh supply is given, and washed out occasionally, so as to keep them clean. The hog delights to wallow in the mire, but prefers a clean bed at night. The food should be varied -liquid and solid. Disposition of the Carcass. - The flesh of the hog may be disposed of in two ways. The one is to yield pork, and the other to produce bacon. Ii 254 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. the former case, the age seldom exceeds six or eight months and in the latter, ten or twelve. When the substances employed in fattening have been juicy rather than nutritious, the flesh will be much improved by feeding with bran-meal, nixed with the other food, for some time previous to killing the animals. This is more essential in producing bacon, as it tends to harden the flesh, and render it of that mellow firmness which constitutes the essential property of fine hams and bacon. Some time previous to the period of killing the animal, therefore, the food may consist of about two thirds of steamed potatoes, or other roots, and one third of ground pease, barley, oats, or bran, enlarging the quantity of farinaceous food as the animal fattens. An important matter in the management of swine is the preservation of the flesh after the animals are killed. In the case of pickling pork, the carcass is cut in pieces, and packed. A solution of salt in water is prepared, strong enough to swim an egg, which is to be boiled, and, as soon as it has cooled again, it is poured on the pork, so as to cover it. The vessel is now closed up, and the pork ready for market. In the making of bacon, the hams or legs are separated from the flitches or sides, as close to the latter as possible without injuring their appearance. The body is then separated from the head, and cut longitudinally in the direction of the back-bone, and then transversely between the second and third ribs. The hams and flitches are then laid on boards, sprinkled with Fig. 189. Baltpetre, and covered with salt, - better if rubbed in by the hands. Put them in a cool place, and in this state let them remain about a week, after which 2,ib IT K I t A , i-I B I b —, k — -N O.. I& 7 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. they should be turned, and an additional quantity of salt sprinkled over them. In about two or three weeks from the period of the first salting, they may be hung up in the chimney of the kitchen, or in a smoke-house, to dry. In Westphalia, and some other places noted for the flavor of the hams produced, sugar is commonly used in curing, in the proportion of about one pound of sugar to three of salt, and two ounces of saltpetre. The sugar assists in preserving the meat, rendering its fibre mellow, and corrects the extreme pungency which is often occasioned by the too free use of salt. In every case, after the hams and flitches have remained hanging a sufficient time to dry them, they are taken down, and packed up in seeds from the mnill, or sawdust, in which they remain until required for use. The proper period for curing bacon is during the cold weather. In order that those who are unacquainted with the anatomy of the pig may possess the means of informing themselves in regard to that subject, we give the preceding skeleton, explained as follows: - b. Humerus - the round shoulder bone. c. Sternum —the breast bone. d. Ulna — the elbow. e. Radius- the bone of the fore-arm. f. Os inaviculare-the navicular bone. g. g. Phalanges, vel ossa pedis- the first and second bones o f the f oot. h. Phalanges, vel ossa pedis -the bones of the hoof. A. Maxilla inferior, vel posterior - lower jaw. B. Dentes - the teeth. C. Ossa nasi - the nasal bones. D. Maxilla superior, vel anterior — uppe jaw. E. Os frontis-the frontal bone. F. Orbiculus - the orbit or socket of the eye. G. Os occipitis- the occipital bone. i. i. Pelvis (ossa innominata)-the haunch bones. j. j. Os femoris- the thigh bone. k. k. Patella —the stifle bone. 1. 1. Tibia —the upper bone of the eg. m. m. Tarsus (one of which is the (N) os calcis) — the hock bones. n. n. Os naviculare - the navicular bone. Oo. o. Digiti, vel phalanges (ossa pedis) the first digits of the foot. p. p. Digiti, vel phalanges (ossa pedis) -the second digits of the foot. The, Trunk. H. Atlas - the first vertebra of the neck. I. Vertebrae colli, vel cervicales-the vertebrae of the neck. J. Vertebre dorsi, vel dorsales - the ver tebrae of the back. K. Vertebrae lumborum, vel lumbales the vertebrae of the loins. L. Ossa coccygis-the bones of the tail. VARIETIES. CHINA.- The Chinese breed was originally obtained from Asia. There are two distinct species, the white and the black; the former better shaped 256 7'he Head. Hind Extremities. Fore Extremity. a. Scapula-the shoulder-blade. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. than the latter, but less hardy and prolific. Both are small-limbed, ears and head fine, round in the carcass, thin-skinned, and the head so imbedded in the neck, that when quite fat, the end only of the snout can be seen. They seldom reach a very great weight; they are rather difficult to rear, and the sows are bad nurses. Their flesh is somewhat tender for bacon, has rather too large a proportion of fat, and their hind-quarters are so deficient in proportion to the size of the other parts, that they cut up to considerable disadvantage for hams. But their great aptitude to fatten, and the extreme delicacy of their meat, - which, when young, is unrivaled,- render them very valuable. Fg. 190 The black race are thrifty, and fatten on a comparatively small quantity of food; which valuable properties are so desirable that, notwithstanding their small size, they are crossed with other breeds to a very considerable advantage, producing several kinds possessing properties superior to those of the parent stock. They are also very prolific. There is also a mixed breed, patched with black and white, -some with thick, pointed ears, like the true species, which they otherwise resemble in form, while in others the ears are rounded, and hang down. BERKSHIRE. - The Berkshire hog is of a reddish-brown color, with black spots; the head well placed, with large ears, generally standing forwards though sometimes hanging over. He is short-legged, small-boned, and of a 22* R 257 258 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. rough, curly coat. Their bacon is very superior, and the animals attain to a great size. Fig. 191. F/g. 192. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. The crosses of this breed are so numerous, that any attempt to distin guish them, and particularize as to their merits, would be futile. Fig. 191. SUFFOLK. -The Suffolk breed has been long in repute as a hardy and prolific species, though generally of only moderate or rather small size; and when crossed with either the Berkshire or Dishley breed, produces animals which are in very general esteem. They fatten quickly, but their shape is not considered altogether valuable for making bacon. Fig. 192 is an example of an animal of this breed. WOBURN.-The Woburn breed is white, mixed with various colors, wellformed, round in the carcass, small limbed and headed, hardy, and very prolific, and so kindly disposed to fatten, that they are said to have attained to nearly twice the weight of some other hogs, within the same given period of time. SIAMESE.- The widely-diffused breed known by this term, on account of its origin, is worthy of notice in this place. The animals are small, and have a cylindrical body, with the back somewhat hollow, and the belly trailing near the ground, on account of the shortness of the limbs. The bristles are soft, the color is usually black, and the skin externally of a rich copper-color. The ears are short, small, and somewhat erect. The animals are not over-hardy or prolific, and the females do not yield the same 259 Fig. 193. FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. quantity of milk; but they arrive very soon at maturity, they fatten on a small quantity of food, and their flesh is white and delicate. IV. THE HORSE. Rearing and Breeding.- In the breeding of the horse, it is important that the parent, of either sex, be free from disease; for the diseases, as well as the good properties, of the animal, are transmitted to their offspring. In breeding, attention should be paid to the female as well as to the male parent, else disappointment may result with respect to the form and properties of the progeny. A mare is capable of receiving the male at an early age; but it is an error to commence breeding from any mare before strength has been acquired, and her form developed,- which will rarely be sooner than at three or four years of age. The mare comes into season in spring, and goes with young about eleven months, although with an irregularity, even to the extent of several weeks on either side of that period. The most convenient time for her receiving the male is in May, that she may foal in April, when the herbage begins to spring. From the time she receives the male till that of foaling, the farm mare may be kept at her usual work. She will give notice of the period of foaling, by the extension of the udder, and other symptoms, and she may then be released from work. In general, little difficulty or danger attends the parturition of the mare. She rarely requires assistance; but, should difficulty really arise, from the particular position of the fcetus, it is well to obtain the assistance of a practised hand, lest the mare be injured by unskilful and violent means. As soon as the mare has foaled, she should be placed with her young, either in a house, or, what is better, in a pasture-close, with a shed to which she may go at all times. It is necessary, at this period, to supply her with nourishing food. It is better that the mother be kept in a field, and permitted to suckle the young undisturbed. But yet she may be put, without danger or injury, to moderate work, within a short time after foaling. For a time, the foal should be shut up in a house during the hours of work, which then should not be too long; but, after the colt has acquired a little strength, it may be permitted to follow the mother even when at work in the field. Many, indeed, do not approve of this practice, on account of the chance of accidents to the foal. But accidents seldom occur, and the foal has an opportunity of taking milk more frequently, is the better for exercise, and becomes used to the objects around it. In nine days or more after foaling, the mare will be again in season, and may receive the male. Weaning. -In six months, the foal is to be weaned, which is done merely by separating it from the dam. It is then best put in a field. The mother 260 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. is then put to her ordinary work, and treated as usual. At the time of weaning, and during all the period of its growth, the foal should be liberally fed. Bruised oats, meal, or any farinaceous food, may be given to it. It is not necessary or proper that it be pampered, but it is important to its growth and vigor that it be supplied with sufficient food. Castrating. -The male foal intended for agricultural purposes must be castrated, and the best time for the operation is at one year old. Some do it before weaning, but it is better that it be delayed till the masculine form of the animal has been more developed. The details of this operation must be left to the experienced practitioner. Little improvement has been effected on the old mode, except the opening of the scrotum, and the division of the cord by the knife, instead of the heated iron. Training and Management of Colts. - If the colt be intended for the saddle, it is well that from this period it be accustomed to gentle handling by the person who feeds it, to render it docile and good-tempered. Anything like harshness is to be carefully avoided. The colts are kept in their pastures during the summer, and when these fail before winter, the animals may be put into a yard with sheds, and plentifully littered with straw. They may receive straw for half the winter, and hay towards spring, when the straw becomes dry and unpalatable; and turnips, or any green food, should be supplied freely in the winter. They should have a piece of ground on which they may run in winter, on account of their health and the state of their feet. As early in spring as the pastures will allow, they are to be turned out to graze in the fields, where they are to be kept during summer, and in the following winter treated in the same manner as before. They are also to be treated in a similar manner in the following summer and winter, after which, that is, when three years old, they will be in a condition to be broken in; and, if draught-horses, employed in the work of the farm, they may be taken up for training even in the third autumn of their age, though at this period the work should be very gentle. A farm-horse usually receives little training; but the colt should have a bridle with an easy bit put upon him for a few days, and allowed to champ it for an hour or two at a time, in a stall. The harness being then put upon him by degrees, he may be trained to the different labors required of him. In general, the farm-horse, working with his fellows, is easily made obedient. But when a farm-horse is four or five years old before he is put to work, or if he is a stallion, or if he shows any vice, he should have more training. And if a valuable horse, and fit also for the saddle and the carriage, the more training the better. In every case, gentleness and kind treatment are to be strictly observed in the management of the colt. Hle is first to be taught his duties, and corrected afterwards only 261 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. when necessary to secure submission, fear being the feeling which controls the animal. The farm-horse demands, neither in the training nor in the feeding, that nicety which is required in the case of the horse designed for rapid motion or irregular labor. He must be kept.in good order, never to be worked beyond his power, and never be allowed to fall, in condition, below the work which he is to perform. Food.- The food of the horse consists of herbage, or green forage; of dried forage, as hay and straw; of various farinaceous substances, as oats, 16 The Chest. 17 The Ell,ow. 18 The Arm. 19 The Plate-vein. . 20 The Chestinut. 21 The Knee. 22 The Slitik. 23 The Back Sinews, or 7 TMain Tenid)ns. 24 The Fetlock-joint. 25 The F etlock. 26 The Pastern. 27 The Coronet. 28 The Hoof. 29 The Quarters. 30 The Toe. 31 The Heel. Th le Body. 32 The Reins: 33 The Fillets. 34 The Ribs. 35 The Belly. 36 The Flanks. 1 The Forehead. 2 The Temples. 3 Cavity above the Eyes. 4 The Jaw. 5 The Lips. 6 The Nostrils. 7 The Tip of the Nose. 8 The Chill. 9 The Beard. 10 Th~e Neck. 11 The Mane. 12 The Fore-top. 13 The Throat. 14 The Withers. 15 The Shoulders. 262 .P-. 194. I 23 2 Tlte Hind-part. 37 The Rump. 39 The Tail. 39 The Buttocks. 40 The Haunches. 41 The Stifle. 42 The Thighs. 43 The Hoclc. 44 The Instep. 45 The Point of the Hock, DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. peas, and beans; and of the juicy roots, as the potato, the turnip, the carrot, the parsnip, and the beet. Of the grains given to the horse, the mnost general, and best adapted to his strength and spirit, is the oat. It is, for the most part, given to the horse without any preparation, though it is better masticated and digested when bruised. Two gallons per day, or nine pounds, are considered to be good feeding, when the horse is on dry food, and not on hard work; when on hard work, the quantity may be increased to three gallons, and when on light work and green food, it may be reduced to one gallon, and sometimes altogether withdrawn. But, on an average, ninety bushels in the year will be sufficient, in every case, for the working horse of a farm. Meal is a refreshing feed to a horse on a journey, and a safe one when the chill is just taken off the water. Beans, when bruised. are excellent food, tending to correct laxativeness. Fig. t94 is explanatory of the name and situation of the external parts of a horse. VARIETIES. ARABIAN. The celebrated Arabian breed of horses, of which the figure presented below is a fine portrait, are more compact than the horses of 13arbary, having a rounder body, shorter limbs, with more of sinew, or Fg. 195. what is termed bone. Yet they are of the smaller class of horses, very little exceeding, on a medium, fourteen hands, or fifty-six inches, in height. As compared with the horses of countries abounding in grasses, their aspect is lean, their form slender, and their chest narrow. But their slimness is not inconsistent with muscular force; and their movements are agile, their natural oace swift, and their spirit is unmatched. The power of their deli 263 FA,-FRMER'S HAND-BOOK. cate limbs is indicated by the well-marked muscles of the fore-arm, and the starting sinews of the leg. The shoulder is sufficiently oblique; the withers FM. 196. 264 W. 197. fg1,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. are elevated; the back is moderately short; the quarters are good; the head is well formed; the forehead broad; ears somewhat long, but alert; eyes full and clear; veins prominent. They are remarkably gentle and docile, patient, playful, obedient, and intelligent. They subsist on very scanty fare. AMERICAN. - The Mexican horses are derived from Spain, and seem in no other respect inferior to the European than a less careful management may account for. The horses of Canada, chiefly of French lineage, are coarse and small, but hardy, muscular, and useful. Those of our own country are of every variety, derived originally from England, but crossed by the modern racer, and by the horses of Syria and Arabia. On this account, we have a very mixed race of horses, many of which are excellent. Such has been the attention paid to the race breed in our country, that the best and fastest trotting horses (see Fig. 196) in the world are now to be found in the United States. Among the American roadsters, the Morgan family stand number one. They are exceedingly compact, deep-chested, strong-backed, fore-legs set wide apart; head small, high and graceful; eyes fine, and well set. The family comprises several varieties, among which the Goss and the Gifford rank very high. We give an engraving (Fig. 197) of one of these animals, which is a fair sample of the average quality. EUROPEAN. -Of the European breeds, the present Norman horse is the Fig. 198. 23 265 I'-"~ A _ _ ~~~ ~: —-- FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. most enduring and hard-pulling. The Clydesdale is a valuable breed of cart horses, bred chiefly in the valley of the Clyde; they are strong and hardy, have a small head, are longer necked than the Suffolk, with deeper legs, and lighter carcasses. The Suffolk Punch are valuable on farms composed of soils of a moderate degree of tenacity. The preceding figure is that of an improved Norman draught stallion. V. THE ASS. Rearing and Breeding. -In breeding from the ass, the same general rules apply as in the case of the horse. The male will procreate at the age of two and a half years, and the female still earlier. The stallion ass should be the largest and strongest, at least three, but not more than ten, years old; his legs should be long, his body plump, head long and light, eyes brisk, nostrils and chest large, neck long, loins fleshy, ribs broad, rump flat, tail short, hair shining, soft, deep gray. The best time of covering is the last of May, nor must the female be hard worked whilst with foal, for fear of casting; but the more the male is worked, in moderation, the better he will thrive. She brings forth her foal in about a twelve-month, but, to preserve a good breed, she should not produce more than one in two years. The best age to breed at is from three years old to ten. When the foal is cast, it is proper to let it run a year with the dam, and then wean it, by tying up and giving it grass, and sometimes milk; and, when it has forgotten the teat, it should be turned out into a pasture, but if it be in winter, it must be fed at times, till it is able to shift for itself. Training,. The ass may be broken and trained at the end of the second year, but should not be worked sooner than the third year. Breaking is easily effected when two or three years old, by laying small weights upon his back, and increasing them by degrees. Age, tc. - The age of the ass is known by his teeth, in the same mannel as the horse; viz., at two years and a half old, the first middle incisive teeth fall out, and the others on each side soon follow; they are renewed at the same time, and in the same order. The anatomy and physiology of the ass do not differ very materially from those of the horse. Characteristics.- The ass is naturally humble, patient, and quiet. He is extremely hardy, both as to the quantity and quality of his food, contenting himself with the most harsh and disagreeable herbs. In the choice of water, he is very nice, drinking only of that which is perfectly clear. He requires very little looking after, and sustains labor beyond most others. lie is seldom or never sick, and endures hunger and thirst most resolutely. The milk of the ass is the lightest of all milks, and is excellent for persons of delicate stomachs. 266 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. VI. THE MULE. Rearing, Breeding, f c. - In the breeding of mules, mares of a large breed and well made should be employed. They should be young, lively, largebarrelled, small-limbed, moderate-sized head, and a good forehand. It is well to have the foals, from the time of their being dropped, often handled, to make them gentle; it prevents their hurting themselves by skittishness and sudden frights, and they are much easier broken at the proper age, and become docile and harmless. They may be broken at three years old, but not hard worked till four. Give them food enough to prevent their losing flesh and to keep up their growth, without palling their appetites with delicacies, or making them over fat. They should also have sufficient stable room, and good litter to sleep on, besides being well rubbed down every day, particularly in cold, raw, wet weather. When three years old, mules are proper for use. Mules are now brought to an astonishing degree of perfection. They are usually strong, well-limbed, large, sure-footed, and capable of carrying great burdens, and travelling great distances. Some think it surprising that these animals are not more propagated, as they are so much hardier and stronger than horses, less subject to diseases, and capable of living and working to almost twice the age of a horse. Those that are bred in cold countries are more hardy and fit for labor than those bred in hot. The general complaint against them is that they kick and are stubborn, but this is owing to neglect in breeding. VII. THE GOAT. Description, /c.- The goat appears to be the connecting link between the sheep and antelope tribes. It is lively, and though the natural inhabitant of a mountainous region, is easily domesticated. But it is in wild, rocky countries, that the goat is chiefly reared. The female gives a great quantity of milk for so small a creature, and its quality is very superior. She is readily taught to suckle the young of other animals, and feeds in situations where the cow could not subsist, which latter is a valuable quality. It arrives early at maturity, and is very prolific, bearing two and sometimes three kids at a birth. It does not produce wool, but its hair may be shorn, and is of some value; and its skin, especially that of the kid, is very valuable. The flesh of the kid, though not much sought after, is equal to that of the finest lamb. The male will engender when one year old, and the female at eight months; but good stock must come by parents not so young. From two to five years the male is most vigorous, and the female bears her best kids from two to eight years. Goats bear well the motion and confinement of ship-board, and give the best of milk. 267 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. VA RIETIES. There are three principal species enumerated, viz., the wild goat, the ibex, and the Caucasian ibex; from the first-named the different varieties of the common domestic goat are believed to have originated. Perhaps the most celebrated and valuable of all the various breeds is the Thibet 1' 4 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 (Fig. 199), on account of the soft and delicate wool they produce, and which falls off in the warmer seasons. These goats are long-bodied, large hooked horns, stout limbs, and very long glossy hair. The color is frequently milkwhite, but more generally brown, with points of a golden hue. VIII. THE DOG. Rearing, Breeding, c. -In breeding, for first-rate animals, ascertain the pedigree for at least four generations. The male should be not less than two years old, and the female at least fifteen months. The male need not be rejected as unfit until his eighth year, if healthy and vigorous, nor the female, under similar circumstances, till her sixth year. The female goes 268 Fig. 199. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. with young sixty-three days, and has from four to thirteen young at a birth. The dam may be allowed to breed only three times in two years, and to rear not more than five puppies; the whelps should not be suckled longer than six weeks, and five, or even four, is long enough, if necessary to remove them. After weaning, feed them moderately with porridge, mashed potatoes, with skim milk, or new milk, to dilute the mess; let it be fresh and cool. They should also have a bed of clean straw, fresh water, and an open, airy place for exercise and sport. At about four months old, the first set of teeth begin to drop out, and are replaced by the permanent set. About the twelfth month, the tusks have acquired their full length. At two years old, a yellow circle appears around the base of the tusks, gradually developing itself more and more, till the third year, when the edges of the front or cutting teeth begin to be worn down, and the little nick, or the crown of the lateral incisors, to disappear. As the fourth year approaches, the tusks lose their points, and the teeth begin to decay. As soon as his eighth year has passed away, a few gray hairs show themselves around his eyes, and at the corners of the mouth. At the age of twelve to fourteen years, confirmed infirmity sets in, and the animal does not survive long after. The dewdlaws- the fifth toe upon the hind foot- should be removed, if removed at all, with a pair of large, sharp scissors; let the pup be held by one person, while another feels for the proper place to cut, which must be done with decision. Cropping, which is, equally with the previous operation, a very cruel one, must be done, if done at all, by drawing the ears over the head until the points meet; then, with a very sharp pair of scissors, cut both points off to the desired length; and, with a single cut to each, from below upwards, cut away the hinder portion of the flaps of the ears up to the point. In a week the ears will be well. In training dogs, gentleness does more than harshness and violence can effect. VARIETIES. NEWFOUNDLAND.- The true breed of Newfoundland is a dog of moderate stature, seldom exceeding twenty-six or twenty-seven inches in height; longoodied, broad-chested, shaggy coat; pointed, wolfish muzzle; ears small, and inclined to be semi-erect; color usually black, with a shade of brown through it, and occasionally some white. The large dogs of the Newfoundland breed, which have been improved by crossing with the mastiff, are more showy, but less valuable. The Newfoundland are remarkably docile and obedient, faithful, goodnatured, and ever friendly to man. They will defend their master and their master's property, and suffer no person to injure the one or the other; and, 23* 269 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. however imminent the danger, will not leave them for a minute. They seem only to want the faculty of speech, in order to make their good wishes and feelings understood, and they are capable of being trained for almost all the purposes for which every other variety of the canine species is used. They are a famous water-dog, and have saved many human beings from drowning. Fig. 200. SHEPHrERD. -The shepherd's dog of Scotland stands about twenty-one inches in height at the shoulder, is very gracefully shaped, muzzle pointed, Fig. 201. 270 a n t _~~~~~~~~~~~ - DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. ears half erect, coat long but fine and silky, tail and hams fringed with hair, and the color usually black and tan, or sandy yellow. The animal is remarkable for his sagacity, and his disposition to tend live stock appears to be inherent and hereditary. The English shepherd's dog is larger and stronger than the Scotch, and has much of the appearance of a cross with the great rough water-dog. It is coarser in the muzzle and in coat, and is destitute of tail. It is, however, equally sagacious. DROVER. -The drover's dog bears considerable resemblance to the sheepdog, and has usually the same prevailing black or brown color. He possesses all the docility of the sheep-dog, with more courage, and sometimes a degree of ferocity, arising from improper training and uses. SETTER.- The setter, or land spaniel, comprises several varieties. lie is by some sportsmen preferred to the pointer; and where water is to be got at occasionally, during a day's shooting, he is undoubtedly superior. In disposition the setter is more affectionate than the pointer, but requires more training, and that of a mild and gentle character. TERRIER.- The terrier is a dog of very great utility, and of very varied form and size. They all have one common characteristic, which makes them Fig. 202. extremely useful, which is, a determined hostility to those animals termed vermin, as foxes, otters, polecats, rats, mice, &c. DISEASES OF THE FOREGOING ANIMALS. Abscess.- As soon as the abscess is brought to a head, let the matter be evacuated, either naturally by a bran-poultice, or by opening with a broadshouldered lancet. Keep the part clean, trim the hair, and inject into the wound a little tincture of myrrh and aloes. If the cavity does not soon fill up, inject, once or twice a day, a wash of a half-ounce of bluestone, with half a pint of water. Apoplexy.- For Horses, bleed two gallons from a vein at once, remove the dung with the hand, and give the following mixture: Barbadoes aloes 271 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. 1 oz., Epsom salts 6 oz., water 2 pts. For apoplexy or staggers in Cattle, bleed from four to six quarts, till the beast is faint, and give, every six hours, a mixture of Epsom salts 1. lbs., linseed oil 1 pt., warm water 3 pts., with only half the quantity of salts and oil, till they are well purged; after which, give, twice a day, tartar emctic 2 scruples, powdered nitre A oz., gruel 3 pts., -mixed for use. For apoplexy in Sheep, bleed a quart, and give, for a purging drench, Epsom salts 2 oz., linseed oil 2 oz., warm water 4 oz.; repeated every six hours, if the bowels are not well opened, and give once or twice a day tartar emetic 10 grs., nitre 2 drs., gruel 2 oz.,- mix for use. For apoplexy or staggers in Pigs, bleed, and then open the bowels with Epsom salts and sulphur. (Alteratives.)- These are medicines which operate without producing very decided evacuations. For Sheep, mix together one ounce of Ethiop's mineral, 2 ounces of nitre, 4 ounces of sulphur; - give about two drachms daily, till the animal is cured. For the Cow, the dose is from a half to a whole ounce daily. For the Horse, one ounce to an ounce and a half, made into a ball with soft soap. If there is any tendency to grease, add to each ball one drachm of powdered resin. In cases of weakness, two drachms of gentian powdered, and one drachm of ginger powdered. For Dogs, flour of sulphur 12 oz., powd. nitre 2 oz., Ethiop's mineral 1 oz., treacle sufficient to make a mass; give a piece the size of a nut to a walnut, according to the size of the dog. Black Quarter.- Also known as Quarter Evil, Quarter Ill, Black Leg, Blood Striking, The Blood Joint Felon, or Inflammatory Evil. - Symptoms - extension of neck, red eyes, breath hot, muzzle dry, pulse quick, heaving, moaning, loss of appetite, lameness. Bleed copiously, then give a strong purgative dose, composed of 1 lbs. Epsom salts, 1 pint linseed oil, 3 pints water. The wearing a seton, occasional doses of physic, and frequent careful examinations by the owner, are better than all else to prevent this disease. In Sheep, bleed from the jugular vein till the sheep falls, and give Epsom salts 2 oz., linseed oil 2 oz., gruel 4 oz., till the bowels are well relieved; then give, twice a day, tartar emetic 10 grains, camphor 20 gr., nitre 2 dr., gruel a wineglass full. Black Water.- Also called Red Water, Brown Water, Black Water, Moor Ill, &c. -Symptoms-bloody urine, loss of appetite, languor, apathy, seclusion, constipation. Bleed copiously; then give Epsom salts 1 lb., in 2 qts. water, every six hours, in half-pound doses, till the bowels are relieved. Inflammation of the Kidneys, and Inflammation of the Mucous Membrane of the Bladder or Urethra, resemble this disease. The first-named is rare; the second may be treated by bleeding, with a dose of Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 6 to 8 dr., powdered gum Arabic 1 oz., in a pint of water. 272 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. Red Water in Sheep- bleed freely, and give for a drench, Epsom salts 2 oz., linseed oil 1 oz., warm water 4 oz.,- mix for a dose. Bog Spavin.- For this well-known disease in horses, a blister is the only means of cure. Bone Spavin.- Disease of the hock joint: remedied by rest, or cessation from hard work, or putting to moderate work on soft ground. The bony deposite, or inflammation, may be removed by repeated blisters. Use a hot iron only as a last resort. Botts are grubs, which, in the spring, trouble horses. To kill these, some use common salt in the animal's food, or as an injection. But when once the worm has attached itself to the animal's stomach, it is difficult to remove them. Bowels, Inflammation of.- In case of inflammation of the external and muscular coats of the bowels of Horses, bleed freely till fainting is produced, and give the following purge, - Barbadoes aloes 4 dr., powdered gum Ara bic 4 dr., hot water i pint; dissolve, and add a pint of linseed oil, and repeat the dose in eight hours. The belly should be stimulated with the following liniment,- mustard i lb., spirit of sal-ammoniac 2 oz., water enough to make it creamy. A fever-ball may be given twice a day, made of powdered foxglove ~ dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., nitre 3 dr., with linseed meal and treacle or soft soap sufficient. For inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bowels, produced from an over-dose of physic, give for a purge -prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered bark 2 dr., powdered opium 1 dr., powdered ginger 1 dr., gruel 3 pints,- mix. For inflammation of the bowels of Cattle, bleed freely, and give for a purge- Epsom salts 1 lb., hot water 1 qt.; dissolve, and add linseed oil 1 pt., to be repeated in six hours, till the bowels are well relieved, with injections of warm gruel. For the same disease in Dogs, bleed, put into a warm bath, and give castor-oil 2 oz., syrup of buckthorn 1 oz., - mix for a dose. Brain, Inflamrnation of.- Of the staggers in Horses there are two kinds, the Sleepy or Stomach, caused by over-feeding, which must be treated by removing the stomach's contents by the stomach-pump, then bleed, and give an opening ball. Mad staggers arise from inflamed brain; bleed from 4 to 6 qts., and repeat this in six or eight hours, and give the following ball,Barbadoes aloes 8 to 10 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., calomel 1 dr., and treacle, inject with warm water and linseed oil. For inflammation of the brain (frenzy or lough) in Cattle, bleed till the anima faints, and give for a purge -Epsom salts I lb., hot water 1 qt.; dissolve, and add linseed oil 1 pint, - mix for a dose, and repeat every 6 hours till the bowels are relieved. For Sheep, bleed freely from the jugular vein, and give for drink- Epsomru salts 2 oz., hot water 4 oz.; dissolve, and add linseed oil 2 oz., - mix for use s 273 FARMdER'S HAND-BOOK. Brittleness of Hoof. - Mix 3 oz. oil of tar with 6 oz. of common fish-oil, rub this well into the crust and the hoof. Broken Knees. - Bathe the wounds with warm water, and apply, for a tincture, (Egyptiacum i oz., friar's balsam 1 oz., tincture aloes and myrrh 1 oz, -mix for use. The knee of the horse should be bandaged. Broken Wind. - This is the rupture of some of the. air-cells of the lungs, and is prevented, rather than cured, by occasionally feeding the horse with nutritious food, and avoiding great exertion just after he has been fed, so as not to distend the belly and press upon the lungs. Bronchitis is catarrh, extending to the entrance of the lungs. Symptoms -hard and rapid breathing, and coughing up mucous matter. Bleed according to the violence of the disease, and blister the brisket and sides with blister ointment well rubbed in, and give for a ball- Barbadoes aloes 2 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., nitre 4 dr., sulphur 2 dr., with treacle; repeat till the bowels are acted on, assisted by warm and frequent injections, and give, twice a day, a ball made of- tartar emetic 1 dr., powdered foxglove dr., camphor 1 dr., nitre 3 dr., with sufficient treacle. (Calves, Diseases of.) - For Diarrhea, give two or three times a day 2 or 3 table-spoonfuls of- prepared chalk 4 oz., powdered canella bark 1 oz., laudanum 1 oz., water 1 pt. For Costiveness, dissolve 2 to 4 oz. - according to age - of Epsom salts in 2 qts. of water, and inject into the stomach by means of the stomach-pump, and, in need, repeat in half doses every 4 hours. For Canker in the Mouth, give a dose of Epsom salts, and wash with mel (Egyptiacum 1 oz., friar's balsam 1 oz. Canker in Horses' Feet.- Pare the hoof, destroy the fungus by means of the butyr of antimony, and apply tincture of friar's balsam 1 oz., and tincture of aloes and myrrh A oz., mixed together. Canker of Ears, in Dogs. - Apply an ointment of burnt alum in fine powder 1 dr., white vitriol in fine powder 1 dr., spermaceti ointment 4 oz. Capped Hock. - A Horse affection, produced by a bruise. Apply early and repeatedly a blister. Catarrh (common), or Hoose (common cold).- In slight cases, for Cattle, house, and give a dose of Epsom salts. If severe, bleed, and then give Epsom salts A lb., ginger 2 dr., powdered aniseed 2 oz., gruel 3 pts. For Influenza, bleed 3 to 6 qts., and give for a purge -Epsom salts 1 lb., powdered coriander seeds 1 oz.; dissolve in 3 pints warm gruel. In a Horse, give immediately additional warmth, some mashes, and a ball or two, each dose, made of- camphor 2 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., powdered nitre 4 dr., and sufficient linseed meal and soft soap to make a ball; if severe, bleed and, when better, give daily-powdered nitre 2 dr., do. aniseed 1 oz., do. caraway seeds 1 oz., do. gentian i oz., do. ginger 2 dr.;-boil ten min 2'74 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. ntes in a quart of ale, and give new milk warm. In Sheep, bleed, and give for a purge, Epsom salts 2 oz., powdered aniseed 2 dr., -mix, and give in a little warm gruel. Catarrhal Fever. - Symptoms, in Horses, shivering, hot mouth, hot skin, heaving of the flanks, cough, nose red, and discharging a watery,matter. If attended to early, bleed moderately, and repeat this if the pulse increases and legs get cold. Keep the bowels open by giving a mixture of Barbadoes aloes 2 dr., gum Arabic A oz., water 1 pt., for a dose; inject with warm gruel, and repeat the physic in 12 hours, if necessary. If the throat is sore, apply a blister of powdered cantharides 1 oz., resin ointment 4 oz., mix for use. Hot mashes are excellent, and a constant supply of gruel then, for cooling medicine, give camphor 2 dr., nitre 4 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., soft soap sufficient to make a ball. This disease must not be con founded with inflammation of the lungs. Choking. Use a flexible tube gently; if the choking matter can be felt externally, pour a pint of sweet oil down the throat, and rub outside with the hand. Colic. - Laudanum 1 oz., spirits of sweet nitre 2 oz., do. of turpentine 2 oz., linseed oil 1 pt.,- mix. Apply hot water, by means of flannels, to the belly, and give an injection of Epsom salts ~ lb., linseed oil 4 oz., water 4 qts., - mix. If these do not operate well, in half an hour, bleed. Contracted Foot.- Place the animal in wet clay during the day, or turn him into a moist pasture, properly paring away the sole and the toe, and lowering the heels. Cough.- Give, in a ball, gum ammoniacum 2 dr., powdered squills 1 dr., camphor 1 dr., soap 2 dr., made into a ball with syrup. If very bad, bleed moderately. Crib-Biting. - Indicates unsoundness, and tends to colic. Put a strap tight around his neck, or let him wear a muzzle of such a sort as vill not prevent him from eating, but will disenable him to seize hold of the manger. Cud, Loss of.- Give, for a drink, when no particular disorder is apparent, Epsom salts A lb., powdered gentian i oz., do. caraway seeds 1 oz., do. ginger 2 dr.,-mix, and give in warm gruel. Curb. - A bony excrescence in the inner side of a horse's hind leg. Give, for a cooling lotion, to reduce the inflammation,- afterwards applying a blister, - sal ammoniac 2 oz., powdered nitre 2 oz., vinegar 1 pt., water 1 qt., -mix for use. Diarrhea. - An excessive discharge of fcecal matter. First give an aperient, either one pint of linseed oil, or, in a quart of water, A lb. Epsom salts, 2 dr. powdered ginger, - mix for a dose; then give, for an astringent 275 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered catechu 3 dr., do. opium A dr., do. ginge! 2 dr.,- mix, and give in a quart of warm gruel. Distemper in Dogs. - Mix tartar emetic 20 gr., calomel 20 gr., opium 5 gr., and give, in a piece of butter, from 2 to 6 gr., according to size. Distention of the Rumen, or Grain Sick.- First use the probang, then give 1 pt. of linseed oil; also give injections of warm water. Dropsy.- In the Horse,- give a diuretic ball of powdered resin 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., sulphur 4 dr., powdered gentian 2 dr., oil of juniper A dr., treacle sufficient to make a ball, once or twice a day. When great debility exists, add a tonic made as follows -powdered gentian 2 dr., do. ginger 1 dr., do. resin 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., powdered nitre 3 dr., oil junipel dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball, -to be given once or twice a day. Dysentery, or &Scouring Rot.-Dangerous and generally fatal disease. Take a small quantity of blood, and 1 pt. linseed oil, or Epsom salts A lb., powdered caraway seeds 2 oz., to be given in 1 qt. of gruel; afterwards, night and morning, an astringent of prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered catechu 4 dr., do. canella bark 2 dr., do. opium 2 scruples, do. gentian 2 dr., do. ginger 1 dr.,-mix, and give in thick gruel. Epilepsy, or Fits.- Animals subject to fits should not be rode nor driven. If a Cow, either reduce her food or hasten her departure to the butcher. If a Sheep, the best treatment is to leave the action of the over-excited nervous energy to cease of itself. Eye, Inflammation of. -In Horses, if on account of cold, give in a ballemetic tartar 1l dr., nitre 3 dr., linseed meal and soft soap sufficient to form a ball; and frequently foment the eye with hot water. If it does not abate, use for a lotion - Goulard's extract 1 dr., spirit of wine 1 dr., soft water A pt., - mix, and bathe frequently with a small piece of sponge. If it does not arise from cold, bleed, and give a dose of physic first, and then give the balls and use the lotion as above. In Cattle, bleed, and then give, for a purge, Epsom salts 1 lb., caraway seeds 1 oz., water 3 pts.,-mix; the eye to be fomented with hot water frequently, and then use for a lotionGoulard's extract 2 dr., laudanum 2 dr., water 1 pt.,-mix, and bathe with a sponge; when the inflammation has abated, use the following -purified white vitriol 10 gr., soft water A pt., - mix for use. Eyes, Weak, in Dogs. - Apply, for a wash, white vitriol 8 gr., soft water pt., -mix together, and apply, with a piece of linen rag, several times a day. Farcy.- One of the stages of glanders. Symptoms, -buds or knots on the sides of the face, inner part of thigh, or on the neck; great swelling of the legs and muzzle, cracked heels, bad discharges from the nose, &c. Use a lotion made of-blue vitriol 1 oz., white do. 1 oz., water 1 pt.,-mix; 276 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. the ulcers to be bathed with this, night and morning, at the same time using balls made of- bluestone 1 dr., powdered gentian 2 dr., liquorice powder 3 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball, to be given twice a day. After giv ing the above for two or three weeks without relief, then give corrosive sub limate 10 gr., gentian powder 2 dr., liquorice do. 4 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball; give every morning, and if it produces purging or sickness, discontinue at once. If green food is not to be had, give carrots. Feet, Inflammation of. - Symptoms in a horse, - fidgetiness, fever, moaning, lying down. Bleed freely at the toes, and apply soft linseed meal poultices to the whole foot, removing the shoe and gently paring the hoof; give for a dose -camphor 2 dr., nitre 4 dr., emetic tartar 1 dr., soft soap sufficient to make a ball; if severe, bleed afresh, and the third day, if no relief comes, apply a blister. Fever in the Horse.- Symptoms,- dulness, cold extremities, bad appetite, constipation. Bleed, and give for a ball - Barbadoes aloes 6 to 8 dr., powdered ginger 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., treacle sufficient, &c.; give bran mashes and warm water, and perhaps an injection of warm water, i lb. Epsom salts, A pt. linseed oil. Afterwards give, night and morning, for a ball, tartar emetic 1 dr., camphor 1 dr., powd. nitre 2 dr., linseed meal and treacle enough to form a ball. Fistulous Withers.- Require to be treated like Poll Evil. Flooding.- A discharge of blood from the uterus of the cow, after calving. Apply very cold water to the loins. If it continues, raise the cow's hind parts, give 2 dr. opium every hour, keep the patient quiet, take her calf. Fly in Sheep.- Appear in May. If the head is sore after the maggots are killed, apply a plaster of bees' wax 2 oz., 1 lb. pitch, spread on warm linen. To destroy the maggots, rub together sal-ammoniac 2 oz., corrosive sublimate i oz., dissolved in 2 gals. hot water, and applythe same. - Feet, Diseases of. - Pumiced feet may be palliated by bar shoes. Tread, or overreach,- wash out the dirt carefully, and apply a little friar's balsam, and in bad cases a poultice. Pricked or Wounded Foot may often be cured by paring down the sole to the quick, and applying a little tow and friar's balsam to the place; if matter has formed, apply a poultice. Thrush, make a paste, of powdered blue vitriol 2 oz., do. white vitriol 1 oz., rubbed down with lard 2 lbs., tar 1 lb.; apply some of this, on a little tow, deeply into the cleft, over night, to be removed in the morning. Foot Rot, in Sheep,- applya liquid, of powdered verdigris 4 oz., blue vitriol i oz.,white do. h oz., soft water i pt., mixed together, and add nitric acid 1 oz., butyr of antimony I oz.; pare away the horn, and apply with a feather to the part affected. Foul Foot, -after cutting away the fungous flesh, and using 24 277 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. butyr of antimony, apply a tincture of friar's balsam 1 oz., butyr antimony 1 oz., - mix for use; also give a dose of salts. Garget.- Inflammation of the internal part of the udder. At first, allow the calf to suckle, and rub about her udder; if unsuccessful, bleed a little, and then give, for a drench, Epsom salts 1 lb., aniseed powdered 1 oz., warm water 3 pts.; bathe the udder, thrice a day, with hot water, and after each bathing rub with yellow basilicon 4 oz., camphor 1 oz., rubbed downii with a little spirits of wine, strong mercurial ointment 2 oz., soft soap 16 oz., mixed well together. Glanders. - Symptom, - peculiar thin, light, glutinous discharge from left nostril. Give, for a ball, bluestone 3 oz., dissolved in water, powdered myrrh 3 oz., do. nitre 8 oz., linseed meal and soft soap sufficient to make the mass into 24 balls; give one night and morning, and inject the ulcers night and morning with a weak solution of chloride of lime, by means of a syringe, at the same time giving the horse green food. Grease. -An inflammation of the horse's heel, stopping the greasy matter from exuding on its surface. Wash with soft soap and water; then apply, for an ointment, yellow wax 2 oz., sweet oil 8 oz.; melt together, and add sugar of lead in very fine powder 2 dr.; use a little after each bathing. Give bran mashes, a diuretic ball, every 3d or 4th day, at the same time having green food, if possible. If not attended to, the inflammation extends and the heel cracks; poultice it with carrots boiled soft, or with linseed meal; apply the following caustic,- bluestone 2 dr., alum 2 dr., water 1 pt. When the inflammation has subsided, leave off the poultice, and apply, for an ointment, yellow resin 4 oz., do. wax 4 oz., sweet oil 1 qt.; melt together, and add calamine in very fine powder h lb.,- stir till cold. Griping. -Mix senna-leaves 12 oz., guaiacum-wood 2 oz., elecampaneroot 2 oz., aniseed 2 oz., caraway do. 2 oz., coriander do. 2 oz., stickliquorice 2 oz., stoned raisins 8 oz., rectified spirits of wine 3 pts., soft water 3 pts. Let this mixture stand two weeks, occasionally shaking it; dose for a Calf, 2 or 3 table-spoonfuls,- for a Horse, i pt. Grogginess.- In Horses, a peculiar knuckling over of the fetlock-joint, and tottering of the fore-leg. No cure. Heart, Inflammation of. -Not common. The only remedy is copious bleeding. It is indicated by quick pulse, rapid action of the heart, heard even at a distance. Healing Dogs' Ears.- Melt together yellow resin 2 oz., do. wax 1 oz., sweet oil i pt., and when it begins to cool, stir in 4 oz. powdered calamine; apply it to the sores. Hide-bound.- Hardness of the skin of the Horse. If there be no other disease, give a mild physic-ball, of Barbadoes aloes 5 to 6 dr., powdered 278 D)OMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. ginger 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball. After this has operated, give every day, with bran mashes, green food, regular exercise, and good grooming, a ball made of powdered black antimony 2 oz., do. nitre 2 oz., do. yellow resin 1 oz., do. gentian 2 oz., flour of sulphur 2 oz., treacle sufficient to make eight balls. gloove.- Symptoms in Cattle,- the animal ceases to eat, is distressed, breath oppressed, moaning, belly blown up; brain is next affected, tongue protrudes. Introduce, as often as the belly swells, an elastic pipe down the throat into the stomach, which liberates the gas and relieves the animal; when relieved, give a dose of Epsom salts 1 lb., caraway seeds 2 oz., ginger oz., gruel 3 pts., and then, to give tone to the stomach, for three or four mornings, give a dose of Epsom salts 4 oz., powdered gentian 1 oz., do. ginger a oz., do. caraway 1 oz., gruel 3 pts. In Calves,- introduce the elastic pipe. In Sheep, use the elastic pipe, or probang, same as for cattle, and give a dose of Epsom salts 2 oz., powdered ginger 1 dr., caraway 2 dr., in pint of warm water. Hydrocephalus, or TVater in the Head, in Sheep. - Give moderate doses of Epsom salts combined with ginger and gentian; for a Sheep, the dose mnay be-Epsom salts 2 oz., gentian 1 dr., ginger A dr., in a i pt. warm water. Jaundice, or Yellows. - Symptoms in Cattle, - yellow eyes, urine, and skin. If there be fever, bleed lightly, and then give Epsom salts 1 lb., powdered ginger 4 dr., warm water 3 pts.; after the bowels are well opened, give every day, for a purge, madder 1 oz., flour of sulphur 2 oz., powdered caraway seeds 1 oz., Epsom salts 2 to 4 oz., warm water 3 pts. In Sheep, - give repeatedly, for a purge, Epsom salts 2 oz., powdered ginger a dr., do. aniseed 2 dr., warm water i pt.; if this be too weakening, give powdered gentian 2 dr., do. bark 1 dr., do. ginger ~ dr., warm water i pt. Joint Felon, or Rheumatism. - Give for a drench, to keep the bowels open, Epsom salts A lb., powdered caraway seeds 1 oz., flour of sulphui 4 oz., warm water 1 qt.; also give, once or twice a day, tartar emetic 1 dr., camphor ~ dr., nitre 2 dr., aniseed powder 1 oz., well rubbed together, and given in 1 qt. thick gruel; if the joints continue much swollen, use for a liniment - spirits of hartshorn 2 oz., opodeldoc 2 oz., camphor liniment 4 oz., laudanum 1 oz., - mix for use. Kicks, and other Bruises. - Foment the parts freely with hot water; if the skin is broken, apply a tincture of friar's balsam 2 oz., tinct. of aloes and myrrh 2 oz.,-mix for use. Kidneys, Itiammation of. - In Horses, - bleed freely, every 6 hours, it requisite; and give. for a ball, Barbadoes aloes 8 to 10 dr., powdered ginger 2 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball; the operation of the physic to be as 279 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. sisted by injections of warm water and 4 pt. linseed oil, frequently thrown up, the loins well fomented with hot water, and afterwards apply a mustard poultice, with bran mashes and linseed tea. Lameness of Shoulder.- Foment frequently with hot water, bleed a little from the plate vein, and give a dose of physic; and in obstinate cases apply a blister, or a liniment of opodeldoc 4 oz., laudanum I oz., sweet oil 4 oz., spirits of hartshorn 4 oz., -mix, and after each fomenting with hot water, rub well in. Lampas.- In Horses, - a swelling of some of the bars of the mouth. Give a few mashes, aided by a gentle alterative; in need, make a few moderate cuts across the bars. Lice in Cattle. - Result from poor keep. Use, for ointment, strong mercurial ointment 2 oz., lard i lb., - mix, and rub where the lice are found. Liver, Inflammation of.- Symptoms - fever, reclining on the right side, fulness on that side of the belly; urine yellow or brown, and sometimes bloody. If there is much fever, bleed a little, and give - calomel 1 dr., powdered opium 10 gr., do. ginger 2 dr.; rub together, and give in 1 qt. gruel, and repeat it twice a day; give, in 6 hours after first dose, a purge of Epsom salts 8 oz., water 1 qt.; dissolve and add linseed oil 1 pt.; repeat till the bowels are open. If purging takes place from the first, give the calomel, opium and ginger, and give the drench as in diarrhoea, at the same time blistering the right side; if great weakness ensue, give, for a tonic, powdered gentian e oz., do. caraway seeds 1 oz., do. aniseed 1 oz., Epsom salts 4 oz., - mix, and give in 1 pt. warm brandy. For Sheep, bleed moderately, and keep the bowels open by a drench made of Epsom salts 2 oz., powdered ginger 1 dr., warm water 4 oz. Locked Jaw.- In Horses,- bleed till the circulation is evidently affected, so as to administer a strong purging ball or drink, assisted by injections of one pt. linseed oil to one gal. warm water, at the same time applying a strolng blister from the poll to the rump, and even on the side; when the physic begins to act, give an anti-spasmrnodic of powdered opium 1 dr., do. aniseed 2 dr., camphor 1 dr.; rub the camphor down with a little spirit of wine, and mix with the opium and aniseed, and beat into a ball with treacle. In Cattke, -bleed till the beast threatens to fall, and give, for a drink, Epsom salts 1 lb., flour of sulphur i lb., warm water 2 qts.,- mix, and repeat in A lb. doses every 6 hours, assisted by injections every 4 hours, composed of Epsom salts h lb., linseed oil A pt., warm water 4 qts.; when well operated, give 1 dr. opium, dissolved in warm water, twice a day, and put a seton in the dewlap. For Sheep, -bleeding, and physic,- either Epsom salts or linseed oil. Mallenders and Sallenders.- A scurfy eruption in the legs of horses. 280 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. Give a diuretic ball every third night, and dress twice a day with ointment made of tar 4 oz., suet 4 oz., -melt together, and add sugar of lead 1 oz., -stir till cold. Maltge.- For a Horse, give a physic-ball of Barbadoes aloes 6 dr., calomel 1 dr., powdered ginger 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., oil of caraway 20 drops, treacle sufficient to form a ball. After the mange has set, give the following alterative balls: powdered black antimony 2 oz., do. nitre 2 oz., Castile soap 2 oz., flour of sulphur 8 oz., soft soap enough to make the mass into 8 balls; give one of these every night, and use an ointment of flour of sulphur 8 oz., strong mercurial ointment 2 oz., soft soap 4 oz., train oil 1 pt.; rub well together, and then rub it in, with the hand, over the parts affected, using it moderately; repeat, and, if needful, add 2 oz. of spirits of tar. In Cattle, use a drench, of Epsom salts i lb., flour of sulphur A lb.,- mix, and give in 3 pts. of thin gruel every third day, and use the same ointment as for horses. In Dogs,- mix for use, and rub in carefully, with the hand, upon the affected parts, an ointment of flour of sulphur 1 lb., soft soap 4 oz., oil of tar 1 oz., train oil h pt. Megrims in Horses. - Is the mildest form of determination of blood to the head. Give present relief by drawing a penknife deeply across the bars of the mouth, and set them bleeding; then wash well, and give a dose of physic, with green food. When the physic has operated, give every night an alterative ball, made of flour of sulphur 5 oz., powdered nitre 5 oz., do. resin 11 oz., do. black antimony 3 oz., liquorice and soft soap sufficient to make 12 balls. Miscarria,ge.- In Mares, often arises from over-exertion, or accidents, or stinting in food, or high feeding and idleness. When, therefore, the beast is near her time, separate her from the rest, and put her in some convenient quiet place. When there is danger of slipping the calf, the cow should be taken from the pasture or stable the over-night, and from 2 to 3 or 4 qts. of blood drawn; and give for a purging drink, repeated in about 8 or 10 days, Epsom salts 1 lb., nitre 2 oz., ginger and aniseed, in powder, 1 oz. each, treacle 4 oz.; pour 3 pts. hot water upon these, and give when new-milk warm; after it operates, give for one drink,- alum in powder 4 oz., nitre 1 oz., grains of paradise, and aniseeds, fresh powdered, 1 oz. each, solid opium cut small 3 dr., treaci- 4 table-spoonfils; put this into a pitcher, pour 1 qt. hot water upon it, cover it down till new-milk warm, and then give it to the beast. If the calf is slipped, separate the cow from the herd, and give, for a drink, spermaceti 2 oz., spirits of turpentine 1 oz., one egg-yelk; beat these together, then add grains of paradise, and caraway seeds, fresh powdered, 1 oz. each, treacle 4 oz.,- mix in 1 qt. warm gruel, add a wine-glass of gin, and give it, new-milk warm, every third day, for 3 times. In Sheep, must be prevented, 24* 281 FARMER'S HAND-lOOK. as in the two former cases, by careful attention to their habits, feed, and condition. If the ewe is afterwards attacked with fever, she may be treated as for fever; if very weak, give doses of ginger 2 dr., gentian 1 dr., Epsom salts 1 oz., in warm water. Nasal Gleet.- In Horses, give a ball, night and morning, made of blue vitriol 1 dr., dissolved in water; powdered gentian 2 dr., do. ginger 1 dr. treacle and meal enough to form a ball. Inject the nose with a solution of chloride of lime. Navel ill. - When the navel bleeds, tie a ligature a short distance from the belly; a pledget of lint, dipped in friar's balsam, over it, confined with a bandage, and changed night and morning; and keep the bowels open with linseed oil; then give a cordial drink, in a little gruel, once a day, made of powdered caraway 2 dr., do. gentian 1 dr., do. ginger A dr. Palsy.- In the Horse, if from violence or accident, give a dose of physic, foment the back or loins with hot water, and rub in, for an ointment, opodeldoc 4 oz., spirits of turpentine 4 oz., do. of hartshorn 4 oz., mixed together; if necessary, after three or four days, apply a mustard liniment. In Cattle, keep the bowels well open by a drench made of Epsom salts 1 lb., powdered caraway 1 oz., do. aniseed 1 oz., do. ginger 2 dr., -mix, and give in 1 qt. warm beer, and use same liniment as for horses. In Sheep, keep the bowels well open with a drink of Epsom salts 2 oz., warm water 3 oz.; dissolve, and add linseed oil 1 oz.,- mix together. (Pigs, Diseases of.) - For the common diseases of pigs, give flour of sulphur 1 lb., madder a lb., powdered nitre 41 lb., do. black antimony 2 oz., -mix, and give one or two table-spoonfuls in their food for a dose. Pneumonia, or Inflammation of the L?tngs.- In Horses, bleed freely till fainting begins; then give, for a fever-ba]l, tartar emetic 1 dr., powdered foxglove A dr., do. nitre 3 dr., linseed meal and soft soap enough to form a ball, to be given two or three times daily. After the force of the fever is reduced, it may be necessary to apply extensive blisters to the brisket, and to the sides under the elbows, the hair being shaved close, and the ointment made of powdered Spanish flies 1 part, lard 4 parts, resin 1 part; melt the lard and resin together, then add the Spanish flies, and rub the ointment well in with the hands for 1 of an hour. In Cattle, the treatment is similar; bleed freely, and, if needful, repeatedly; give a dose of salts, and then the following-tartar emetic 1 dr., camphor 1 dr., nitre 4 dr., in 1 qt. thick gruel. If the blister-ointment fails, hot water and a hot iron may be used. Poisons. -For Cattle, affected by the yew-tree, hemlock, dropwort, black henbane, and wild parsnip, give 1 lb. Epsom salts in 2 qts water; use the stomach-pump, injecting and copiously withdrawing water. Symptoins, 282 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. - sudden swelling, thirst, refusal of solid food, grinding of the teeth, pawing, and rolling as in pain. Poll Evil.- First bleed, administer a dose of physic, and apply cold lotions. If these fail, use poultices and warm fomentations, and then introduce a seton skilfully. Ring-bone.- In Horses, an enlargement of the postern joint; - apply a blister over the ring-bone, formed of powdered cantharides 1 oz., resin ointment 4 oz., -mix for use. Rheumatism. - In Dogs, use for an embrocation, camphorated oil 2 oz., spirits of hartshorn 1 oz., laudanum A oz., -mix for use. Roaring. In the early stages, a blister, bleeding, cooling medicine, may succeed in recovering; when confirmed, it is cureless. It is an unnatural contraction of the windpipe and larynx. Rot. - An affection of the lungs and liver, with a dropsical tendency. Symptoms,- if, in warm, sultry, and rainy weather, sheep that are grazing on low and moist lands feed rapidly, and some of them die suddenly, there is reason to fear that they have contracted the rot; this suspicion will be further increased, if, in a few weeks afterwards, the sheep begin to shrink, and become flaccid in their loins,- by pressure about the hips at this time a crackling is sometimes perceptible; now, or soon after, the countenance looks pale, the skin is pale red, and the wool easily separates from the felt, and, as the disorder advances, the skin becomes dappled with yellow or black spots; about this time, the eye loses its lustre, becoming white and pearly, and to this succeed debility and emaciation. For a cure, both turpentine and common salt have sometimes been used with success; the latter is good to prevent, as also are aromatic vegetable substances, - parsley, for instance, - also give them, when feeding on watery plants, some hay, corn, or oil-cake. Round-bone, Sprain of. -Foment well and often with hot water, then blister. Saddle-galls, Sit-fasts and Warbles.- Allow no pressure on the parts affected; then dress with common salt dissolved in water, and the brine mixed with one fourth its bulk of friar's balsam. Scab in Sheep.- This is owing to the presence of minute insects. Use for a lotion, corrosive sublimate 1 oz., sal-ammoniac 4 oz., spirits of turpentiiie 1 pt., hot water 2 gal. Dissolve the sublimate and sal-ammoniac in the water, and then add the turpentine; separate the wool, remove the scab, and apply the lotion. Scoui in Lambs.- Mix, and give one or two table-spoonfuls once or twice a day,- prepared chalk 2 oz., powdered canella bark 2 dr., tincture of eatechu A oz., laudanum A oz., water 1 pt. 283 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. Sore Teats in Cows. - Before milking, bathe the teats well with warm water; after milking, use for an ointment, wax 2 oz., lard 6 oz., -melt together, and add sugar of lead in very fine powder 2 dr.; stir till cold. Splint. -Caused by inflammation of the shank-bone: its growth is attended by heat, tenderness, and pain. If it produce lameness, cut the hair off close, and rub in, for three or four nights, a little strong mercurial ointment; then blister the part with blister ointment, and repeat it if necessary. When the inflammation from the blister has subsided, turn him out. Staling, Difficulty.- In the Horse, give bran mashes, green food, and plenty of gruel; if this fails, take a little blood, and give a mild dose of physic. Staling, Profuse; or, Diabetes. -In Horses, bleed, give a dose of physic, and then twice a day give an astringent ball, made of powdered bark oz., do. opium A dr., do. coriander 2 dr., treacle enough to form a ball; give green food, or a few carrots. Stifle Lameness.- Foment frequently with hot water; give a mild dose of physic, and let the animal rest. Strangles.- Symptoms, - a cough, discharge from the nostrils, and also one of a soapy nature from the mouth, swelling under the throat, loss of appetite, fever. Give mashes and green food, and apply to the throat, over the tumor, a blister of powdered cantharides I oz., yellow basilicon 4 oz., oil of thyme 2 dr., - mix for use. When the tumor has formed, open it with a lancet, and dress with a tincture of friar's balsam 2 oz., tincture of myrrh and aloes 2 oz., -mix. When the tumor begins to heal, give a mild dose of physic. It is not often necessary to give medicine, if much fever exists. At the commencement of the disease, give, for a ball, tartar emetic 4 dr., powdered nitre 16 dr., linseed meal and soft soap enough to make 4 balls. Surfeit.- A skin complaint in horses. Bleed a little, give mashes and green food, and a ball, made of- powdered black antimony.2 oz., do. nitre 2 oz., do. resin 1 oz., do. gentian root 2 oz., flour of sulphur 4 oz., soft soap enough to make 8 balls. Swelled Legs. - Give regular exercise, and assist by hand-rubbing, and by bandages wrapped rather tightly around the legs. Give no diuretic balls. Thick-wind.- Feed moderately, give green food occasionally, and gentle exercise. Thorough-pin.- In Horses, a swelling above the hock. Apply a blister. Ticks or Lice in Sheep.- Apply carefully, for a wash, powdered arsenic lb., soft soap 7 lbs., soft water 4 gals.; boil this till the arsenic is dissolved, and add as much soft water as will dip 50 to 70 sheep. Turnsick, or Goggles, or Giddy, or Dunt. -A complaint of the head, 2S4 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMIALS. proceeding from the presence of hydatids in the brain, lodged in a sac or bladder, which presses upon the brain. It is beyond the reach of medicine or mechanical operations. Sturdy is a name often given to this disease, as well as to Water in the Head, but they are distinct. Treat by examining the skull for a soft spot on the bone, where the water is collected. Perforate the skull with a trocar, accompanied by a tube, through which the water may escape; after which, apply a few drops of essence of myrrh to the aperture; shelter the animal and dress the wound. Ulcers.- Bathe 2 or 3 times a day, with a solution of chloride of lime, and use an ointment of yellow basilicon 4 oz., powdered verdigris i oz.; rub together for use. Warbles.- Foment with hot water, and when the tenderness has abated, apply a lotion, of strong vinegar 1 pt., rectified spirit of wine 2 oz., extract of Goulard 1 oz., spirits of turpentine 1 oz.,- mix together for use. Warts.- Cut them off close with a pair of scissors, and touch the roots with lunar caustic. Womnzb Inflammation.- It occurs in Cows, after calving or bulling. Symptoms, - great irritation anJ pain. Bleed, and give for a drench, Epsom salts 1 lb., powdered caraway seeds 2 oz., warm gruel 3 pints. Bathe the womb with Goulard water, or vinegar and water mixed equally. In Sheep, bleed and open the bowels with Epsom salts in 2 oz. doses. Worms.- In the Horse, unless they abound, let them remain. If they descend into the rectum, inject a quart of linseed oil, or salt and water. If a strong dose of physic is intended to be given to the patient, when it has set, give a ball every morning, fasting for a week, of tartar emetic 8 dr., flour of sulphur 6 oz., powdered ginger 8 dr., treacle sufficient to make 8 balls. In Dogs, give, for a drench, spirits turpentine 1 to 4 dr., castor-oil 2 to 8 dr.,- mix for a dose according to size. Wounds.- Foment frequently with hot water, and apply a tincture of friar's balsam 2 oz., compound tincture of myrrh and aloes 2 oz.; if unhealthy granulations arise, wash, previously to using the tincture, with bluestone 1 oz., soft water 1 pt. Wounds generally heal better without sewing, if it can be avoided. For Dogs, tincture of myrrh and aloes 2 oz., friar's balsam 1 oz., - mix these together, for use. LIVE STOCK CALENDAR. NOVEMBER.- The month of November may be said to be the commencement of the farmer's year. By this time the labors of his harvest have been concluded, and his produce has been secured; and he is now proceeding to prepare the ground for the crop of another season, if the weather be sufficiently open for him to do anything more before the next spring. 2 gr FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. The cattle may be supposed to consist of cows; of a certain number of calves; of a certain number of the steers and heifers of the preceding year, termed, therefore, one-year-olds, as having completed their first year, but now approaching to the end of their second year; of a certain number of steers and heifers which have completed their second year, and are therefore termed two-year-olds, though now approaching the end of their third year; and of a bull. The two-year-old steers and heifers are now arrived at matu rity; the heifers intended for breeding have received the male in the course of the season, and the older steers are ready for final breeding. As the month of October had advanced, the pasture had begun to fail; and before the termination of the month, the various cattle had been put in their respective houses, yards, and stalls. The cows which had borne calves in the early part of the year had been put in the cow-house and tied in their respective stalls, -straw, and a limited proportion of succulent food, as turnips, having been supplied to them. The calves which were born in the early part of the year had been put in one or more yards with sheds, had been well littered, and had received straw, and a full allowance of turnips. The steers and heifers of the preceding year, now turned their first year, and approaching the end of their second year, had also been put into yards with sheds. They had likewise been plentifully littered, receiving straw, with a full allowance of turnips. The older cattle -those that have completed their second year- had been treated thus: - Such of them as were heifers, to be retained for breeding, had been separated from the males in the preceding spring; had received the male as they came into season, in spring and the early part of summer; and, being with calf, had been put into yards with sheds, to be tied to their respective stalls, when within a few weeks of calving. The steers again, which are now to be finally fattened, had either been tied in stalls, or put in pairs into yards with sheds, in either case receiving a full supply of turnips, or other nourishing food. The bull had been put into a shed or yard by himself, receiving straw for provender, and a sufficient supply of turnips. Such may be supposed to be the arrangement of the cattle at the conmmencement of the month of November. The same treatment with respect to them is to be continued during the entire month; -the cows and heifers are to receive straw, with a modified allowance of turnips- the calves and steers straw, with a full supply of turnips. The sheep again, consisting, it may be assumed, of a regular breedingstock of ewes, may be supposed to have been arranged and treated thus:The ewes, consisting partly of sheep that had borne lambs, had, by the 10th of October, the rams admitted to them. At the beginning of November, the 28:6 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. rams and ewes are still pasturing together, receiving no other food but grass, and by the middle of the month the rams are withdrawn. The lambs born in the spring, now termed ewe and wether hogs, had, on the failure of the pastures in October, been penned on turnips. At the beginning of November, they continued penned on turnips, they being attended to as well as the sheep, and the pens being shifted when necessary. The horses, in the month of October, had been put upon their full allowance of hay and corn. At the beginning of November they are receiving full feeding; but before the middle of the month, when the hours of labor become short, the hay may be withdrawn, and the allowance of oats reduced one half. By the beginning of the month the colts had been put into their yards, or into a paddock with a shed, receiving straw as provender, with any succulent roots, as turnips and potatoes. The swine and poultry are receiving their usual food. The pigs are fattened at all times, and the poultry receive their regular supplies of food in their yard; and as the same method of management continues throughout the year, the feeding of this class of stock need not be again adverted to. DECEMBER.- The cows are in the cow-houses; the young cattle in their yards; the feeding cattle in their houses or yards, as before; and they are all kept and treated in the same manner throughout the month. The ewes are, as before, on grass; but in snows, or hard frosts, they receive an allowance of hay. The ewe and wether hogs are penned on turnips as before, and are kept so during the month. The hours of daylight, and consequently of labor, being short, the horses are still fed on straw, and receive their modified allowance of corn. The colts are in their yard or paddock, receiving straw, with an allowance of green food, and are kept so during the month. J ANUARY. - The cattle are still in their houses and yards, and are fed as during the last month; turnips being brought, and a store kept in reserve, as formerly. Some of the cows may calve during this month, or towards the end of it. They are to be well attended to at this time, and the calves separated from them at the birth, and fed on new milk three times in the day. The ewes are on grass-land, if the weather be not too severe, receiving hay when the weather renders it necessary. The ewe and wether hogs continue penned on turnips, as during the previous month. The horses are on straw, and are receiving their short allowance of corn. The colts are in their yard or paddock, and are fed as before. FEBRUARY. -The cattle are in their houses and yards, and are fed as during the last month. The cows will calve during this month. and must be carefully attended to. The ewes are on grass, if the weather is not too 287 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. rigorous; and after the middle of the month, they may have turnips carried to them, so as to prepare them for the lambing season by the middle of next month. The ewe and wether hogs are penned on turnips as before. By the middle of the month, if not sooner, the horses should be put upor hay, and receive their full allowance of corn, in preparation for their work in spring. In place of straw, the colts may now receive hay. MARCH. -The cattle are still in their yards, and feeding as before During the month all the cows may be supposed to have calved. The additional calves required are to be purchased, the best and earliest that can be obtained. The ewe and wether hogs are on turnips, as before. The ewes will now begin to lamb. They have been hitherto receiving turnips, but as they lamb they are transferred with their young to new grass. The male lambs are castrated in lots. The horses are on full work, and are receiving their full allowance of hay and corn. The colts are receiving hay. APRIL. - The cattle are in their yards, and fed as before; the calves are receiving milk, with such nourishing substances in addition as may enable the milk of each cow to bring up two calves. The ewes are now on new grass, with their lambs. At the commencement of the month, the ewe and wether hogs are still on turnips, but by the middle of the month they are removed from turnips and put on grass. The horses are at full work, and receive a full supply of hay and corn. The colts that have reached their third year may now be taken up and trained to work; or they may be allowed another summer's grass, and be taken up for training in autumn. Mares will foal this month. MAY. - At the commencement of this month, the cattle may yet be in their yards, and be fed as formerly. By the middle of the month, the former year's calves, now yearling steers, and the two-year-old steers, if the grass is sufficiently advanced, are turned out to pasture; the cows are turned out to pasture, and if there are any of the two-year-old cattle which are heifers from which it is wished to breed, they must be separated from the steers of the same age, and placed amongst the cows, and when they come into season, if they have not already done so, they must receive the male. During this month, the older cows should all have received the male, so that they may calve in the following February. With respect to the feeding oxen now turned their third year, and consequently three-year-olds, these may be fed during the month, as long as there are turnips sufficient for them. During this month, the mares should all have received the male, so that they may foal in the subsequent month of April. The colts are turned out for the season to grass. As the weather becomes warm, the sucking calves may be turned out to a small paddock. After being weaned in their fourth month, they are turned out to feed for the remainder of the season, along 2S9 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. with the cows and feeding stock. The sheep of all kinds, at the commencement of the month, were on grass, and they continue to be pastured in their respective fields during the month. By the end of it, the fat sheep, if ready, may be washed and shorn, or else these operations are deferred till later in the season. JUNE. -The cows and steers are pastured in the field during the month. All the calves will be weaned during this month, and turned out to graze for the remainder of the season. Such of the cows, heifers, and mares, as have not received the male, now receive him. At the beginning of the month the horses should receive green forage, and towards the middle of it they may be put at night in the pasture-field. At the beginning of the mnonth, the ewes with their lambs, and the ewe and wether hogs, are at grass in their respective enclosures; and at or before the beginning of the month, they are washed, and in eight days afterwards shorn. In ten days, or as soon as convenient after shearing, the wether-hogs, now dinmonts, an:d such of the ewe-hogs, now gimmers, as are not to be retained on the farm for breeding, may be sold. JULY.- The cows, oxen, and weaned calves, are at grass, and are kept so during the month. The horses continue to receive green forage during the day, and may be permitted to pasture in the fields at night; and this method of feeding may be continued during the month. But their work having become easy towards the middle of the month, their allowance of corn may be lessened. At the commencement of the month the ewes, with their lambs, are in their former fields of grass; by the middle of the month the lambs are weaned; and from this time forward, the lambs, now termed hogs, are kept separate from the breeding ewes. AUGUST. - The cows, steers, and calves, are at grass, and are kept so during the month. The ewes are at grass in their own fields, and the ewe and wether hogs in theirs. The old ewes that are to be sold may naw be selected from the rest of the flock, and marked for that purpose; and, at the same time, all the other sheep may have their distinguishing mark put upon them. The horses are receiving green forage, and, when the first crop of clover is consumed, other feed may be furnished. They may still l;e allowed to be in the fields at night. SEPTEMBER. -The cows, calves, and steers, are all at grass, and are kept so during the month. All the sheep are likewise at grass during the itonth; but before the end of it, the old ewes which had been marked for sile may be sold. The horses are kept on green forage. As the month advances, they are taken up from grass at night, and kept in the stable ai.d, at the end of the month, they are put again on hay and hard food. OCTOBER.- At the beginning of the month, the cows, calves, and steers, 25 T 2SS FARMIER'S HAND)-BOOK. are at grass; but as the month advances, the cows may be taken up at night, and receive green forage in the house. Before the 10th of the month, the rams are admitted to the ewes and gimrniers. At the commencement of the month, the ewe and wether hogs are at grass, hut towards the end of it, when the pastures fail, they are penned on turnips. Towards the end of the month, too, as the pastures fail, the cows, calves, and steers, are put finally into their respective winter houses and yards. CHAPTER VII. POULTRY, OR TIIE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. THIE RAISING, BREEDT)ING, DISEASES ANT) TREAT.IENT, OF THE COMMON BARN FOWLS; ALSO-THIE TURKEY-TIIE GOOSE-TIIE 1)UCK-IN ALL TIIEIR IM PORTANT VARIETIES. I. COMMON BARN FOVIWLS. VARIETIES. Fig. 203 A. i, I1 J:?Ii 290 POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. SHANGHAI (Fir. 203 A). -The preceding excellent representations are actual portraits, drawn from life. They were imported by William C. Rudman, of Philadelphia, and are now (1854) in the possession of W. J. McGowan. The cock, 15 months old, weighed 12 pounds, and the hen, 11 months old, weighed 9 pounds. BANKIVA.- This fowl is a native of Java, has a red indented comb, red wattles, and ash-gray legs and feet. The cock has a thin indented or sca]loped comb, and wattles under the mouth; the tail a little elevated above the level of the rump, and the feathers disposed somewhat in the form of titles. Neck-feathers long, hanging, rounded at the tips, and of the finest gold color; head and neck fawn color; wing-coverts are dusky-brownish and black; tail and belly black. The hen is of a dusky ash-gray and yellowish color, comb and beard much smaller than the cock, with no feathers on the neck besides the long hackles. The annexed cut represents a cock of this variety. ~r. 203. DUNGHILL. - This is the commonest form of the domestic fowl. The cock 291 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. has a large thin comb and wattles, and the brilliant plumage of the wild species; but the best hens are generally of dingy colors, though there is almost infinite variety in their shades; the white ones are better for the table than for laying. The legs of the common fowls should be short, white, and shining, and their bodies round and plump. GAIE.- This kind of fowl is rather slender in the body, neck, bill anl legs, and the colors, particularly of the cock, very bright and showy. The flesh is white, tender, and delicate, and the eggs small, but, like the flesh, much esteemed for superior delicacy; and therefore, for more reasons than one, it would be better to raise them for domestic use than for the cock-pit. DORKINO.- This valuable variety has acquired a great popularity, and is easily distinguished. Their flesh is exceedingly juicy, white, and delicate, and they have the advantage of feeding rapidly, and growing to a very large size, when properly managed. Capons and poulardes are fre Fig. 204. quently made of these fowls, growing to an enormous size when castrated. The feathers are almost always white, and their legs short and remarkably smooth. MALAY, OR CHITTAGONG. -These fowls have remarkably long legs and large bones; their flesh is, however, finely flavored, when they have been properly fattened, and their eggs are so large and rich that two of them are equal to three of those of ordinary fowls. The color of the feathers is black, or very dark brown, streaked with yellow, and the legs are large and coarse. 292 POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. The fowls are tall, strong-beaked, and powerful; the cock has a loud and harsh crow. It is said that a cross breed between the Malay and the common fowl produces a breed very superior to either of its progenitors. PADUAN, OR JAGO. -There are numerous hybrids and varieties of the Jago fowl, one of the most interesting being the Spanish fowl, represented in the following figure. The body and tail feathers are of a rich black, F/g. 205. with occasionally a little white on the breast. The cock is a most majestic bird; its deportment grave and stately; and it is encircled with a ring of brown feathers, from which rises a black tuft which covers the ears. There are similar feathers behind the comb, and beneath the wattles. The legs and feet are of lead-color, except the sole of the foot, which is yellowish. The every-day or ever-laying fowls are the same as the Hamburgh, or Dutch. They are, however, evidently only a variety, or hybrid, of the Jago fowl, with the nourishment that was required in that species, and in some of its varieties, to form a tuft of feathers, expended in an enormous comb and wattles. These fowls are very large, their feathers blackish, with an iridescent green. The wattles and combs, even of the hens, are unusually large, and the caps under the ears are very large, and of a bluish white. CRESTED.- This variety is known by a densely-tufted crest and a small comb; it is also variegated with fine colors, but it agrees in other respets with the common dunghill fowl. The different varieties of this fowl are the white fowl with a black crest, the black fowl with a white crest, and the white fowl with a large beard. Of these, the Poland or Polish fowl, repre 25* 293 FARMER'S HND-BOOK. sented below, is the best known, and it appears probable that it is a hybrid between the Crested and the Spanish fowls. These fowls are very hand Fig. 206. some, and excellent for the table; the hens are good layers, producing large and finely-flavored eggs, but they are bad sitters. BANTAM. - This is a small variety, with short legs, most frequently feathered to the toes, so as sometimes to obstruct walking. The full-bred Fig. 207. Bantam cock should have a rose comb, a well-feathered tail, full hackles, a proud, lively carriage, and ought not to weigh more than one pound; the 294 POULT.'Y, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWVLS. uankin-colored and the black are the greatest favorites. If of the latter color, the bird should have no feathers of any sort in his plumage. The iiankin bird should have his feathers edged with black, his wings barred with purple, his tail-feathers black, his hackles slightly studded with purple, and his breast black, with white edges to the feathers. The hens should be small, clean-legged, and match in plumage with the cock. DWARF, OR CREEPER. -This variety, which is not larger than a pigeon, differs from the bantam chiefly in size and in the shortness of its legs. The Acaho is very small, with a circle of feathers about the legs, a thick tail, which it carries straight, and the ends of the wings black. In addition to this, there are some who are obliged to leap, from their legs being so short; they are the size of a dunghill fowl, and kept as being very fruitful; the hens will hatch thirty eggs at a time. RUn EKIN.- This is now considered a distinct species. It is distinguished by the want of a tail, by the comb not being, in the wild birds, indented, and by the wattles being blood-colored rather than scarlet; the feathers are all of a dusky orange in the wild birds, but finely variegated in the tame ones. FRIZZLED.- A native of Java and Japan. Distinguished by having all the feathers turned and frizzled, being smaller than our common species, more wild, and less suitable for domestic purposes. Flesh firm and delicate. SILKY. - This is also a distinct species, according to modern writers. It has the whole body covered with feathers, the webs of which are so disunited as to appear like hairs or glossy silk; the general color is white, and the legs covered wholly on the outside, quite to the toes. As in other varieties, individuals of this sort differ in respect to color. RUSSIAN, OR SIBERIAN. This breed seems to differ chiefly from others in having considerable tufts of brown or dark loose feathers springing from each jaw, and others, longer or fuller, from the lower jaw. In the hen there is an upright tuft, spreading from the back of the head, of the same silky texture. Independently of these, the cock has the usual comb and wattles, and the hen a small comb also. This sort varies in color, one variety being white, with the ends of the feathers glossy blue or black, giving it a spotted appearance, and the legs being covered with fibrous or downy feathers; another has the plumage of the game fowl, a fine tawny orange, spotted with black. BARBARY. -This African variety is generally of a pale or dun color, spotted about the neck sparingly with black, and the feathers at that part very full; on the crown is a large, full tuft of feathers, the same in color with the body. JAVA. Resembling the Malay in shape, but somewhat colored like the 295 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. Dorking. It is probably a cross between the two. In qualities it resembles the Malay, but is not so valuable as a cross with other breeds. OSTRICH, OR COCHIN CHINA. - This variety of fowls completely surpasses, Fig. 208. in size and power, the general run of poultry. Their general color is rich, glossy brown, deep bay; on the breast is a marking of a blackish color 296 OM POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. and of the shape of a horse-shoe; the comb is of a medium size, serrated, but not deeply so, and the wattles are double. Besides their gigantic size, however, these fowls possess other distinctive characteristics, the most striking of which is, that the wing is jointed so that the posterior half can, at pleasure, be doubled up, and brought forward between the anterior half and the body. The eggs are large, chocolate-colored, and of a very delicate flavor. GENERAL TREATMENT. Raising, Breeding,,c. - Hens, if left to their own impulses, would produce one brood early in spring, the other in autumn. They begin to lay in February, sooner or later, partly according to the time of molting, which means the shedding of the feathers, at which time they lose their high tone of health, and cease to lay. The season of molting is late in the autumn, and in consequence of the change in their constitution, while the juices of the body are promoting the growth of new feathers, no egg secretions are formed. The molting period, after the third year of the hen's life, becomes gradually later and more tedious; young poultry molt in spring; no fowl are fit for the table at such time. The hens lay abundantly in February and MAarch, which are usually quite as cold as November and December, while in the latter, unless they have molted very early in autumn, they rarely yield an egg. Reaumur warmed his fowl-houses by artificial heat, but got no eggs. Yet a stock of poultry, by judicious treatment, may be rendered prolific during the entire year, by having very early and successive summer broods, as the pullets (which do not molt in the first year) will lay towards the close of the year. The first brood may be obtained in January, by careful management. Hot food- boiled potatoes are as good or better than any other - should always be given, in the winter months, to the hens which are on the laying list, and which should be kept as dry and warm as possible. i-urnber of Hens for a Cock. - Every experienced fowl-keeper knows that those eggs only are prolific which are produced by hliens which have had constant intercourse with the male, though, for the purposes of the table, they are better without this intervention, as they are more easily preserved in a state of freshness. Some writers recommend twelve to twenty females for each cock, while others consider half that number more desirable. The fact is, much depends on climate, and the season of the year, a dry and genial temperature favoring a greater number of the hens to the male. Qualities of a Good Cock. -In selecting a cock, he is considered to have every requisite quality, when he is of a good middling size; when he carries his head high, has a quick, animated look, a strong and shrill voice, short bill, a fine red comb, shining as if varnished, large wattles, and of the 297 .1, -,, 11 : 11 ". FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. same color as the comb, the breast broad, the wings strong, the plumage black, or obscure red, the thighs very muscular, the legs thick, and furnished with strong spurs, the claws rather bent, and sharply pointed. He ought also to be free in his motions, to crow frequently, and to scratch the ground frequently for worms, not so much for himself as for his hens. He ought, withal, to be brisk, spirited, ardent, and ready in caressing the hens, quick in defending them, attentive in soliciting them to eat, in keeping them together, and in assembling them at night. Selecting Hens. -It is only requisite to have them of middling size, dark colored, bright eyes, short legs, blue feet, and neither disposed to crow nor be passionate. Hens that are long-legged, - and of course ill-formed for sitting, - with small body, and very limited compass of wings, should be kept, if kept at all, exclusively for laying. The best age is from two to four years. Sitting. - The hen testifies her desire to hatch by making a clucking noise, searching for eggs to sit upon, and by general restlessness and feverish agitation. When this tendency is not naturally excited, some humane breeders endeavor to promote the disposition by stimulating applicationsnettles, for instance- to the belly. Hens that have molted very early will often sit before November, and this is a point gained when chickens are wanted about Christmas. The eggs for hatching should be fresh, and free from all offensive smell, and preserved in bran, with their larger endwhich contains the air-bag - uppermost, and under a warm temperature, for three weeks before they are set. Examine the eggs, by holding them between the eye and a candle, and if the vacancy caused by the air-bag at the blunt of the egg appears to be a little on one side, it will produce a hen; if this vacancy be exactly in the centre, it will produce a cock. From nine to fifteen is the number usually placed under the hen, according to her size. Her nest should be of clean, soft, and short straw, if possible on the floor, and facing the south, and corn and water should be placed within her reach; but the food should be removed as soon as she satisfies herself. Many hens feed but once a day, and some would starve themselves sooner than leave their eggs in search of food. Hatching. - The hen sits for three weeks. About the twenty-first day the chicks chip the shell with the upper bill, which is fuirnished with a horny scale at the end, and gradually extricate themselves from confinement; frequently they do not disengage themselves from it in less than twenty-four hours, or even more; but it is generally much better not to assist them in breaking the shell, for if this be done before they have taken in the necessary supply of sustenance, by the yelk passing into their bodies through the navel, they will certainly die. It may, however, sometimes be necessary to afford them aid, for it sometimes happens that their bodies adhere, from 299 0 POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. bad hatching, to the shell, and that their naturally revolving movements do not tend to disengage them. They must, in this case, be very tenderly relieved by the hand. On the day after they have been hatched, the chicks may be removed from the nest to a basket, or some similar receptacle, lined with wool, or such soft, warm substance, though it is perhaps better not to remove them from the original nest. For a fortnight they are fed with crumbs of bread soaked in milk, and thenceforth every day, for some time, with yelks of eggs, curd, grits, &c., and after a few days they may be allowed to peck about in warm spots with their mother, but must be guarded from wet. They will soonI feed greedily on meal, crumbs, &c., mixed with a small portion of potatoes, beet-leaves, parsley, or cabbage. Fattening.- Fowls in a natural state, picking up what they can get at the barn-door, are, perhaps, the best-flavored and most wholesome for the table; but as it is common, and almost necessary, to practise fattening, we will treat of that matter. The most approved coops are those which are divided into solitary chambers, so narrow as to prevent the fowl from turning around, and with an opening in the rear part for the discharge of the excrement, perfect cleanliness being indispensable, with meal and milk in a trough, and a little gravel or brick-dust, to promote digestion, at front. Another practice is, to cram them with a paste made of flour, or meal, milk, and hog's lard, or kitchen-grease, introduced by means of a tube, or by the fingers. In the course of a fortnight chickens may be rendered sufficiently fat, and of great weight. Caponizing,. - The number of capons fattened in some countries is enormous. The season for emasculating the cocks hatched in the previous spring is the autumn, and the operation is performed as follows: -A trans verse incision, about an inch and a quarter long, being made in the lower part of the belly, the fore-fingers are introduced to take out the parts, with the aid of a pair of sharp scissors to cut the cord, and so carefully as not to injure the entrails; the orifice is then rubbed with oil or butter and stitched up, and in three or four days the bird is well. They are fattened in a month or six weeks. Health of Fowls.- The indications of good health are, a florid color of the comb, and bright eyes free from moisture, dry nostrils, and bright, glossy plumage. II. THE TURKEY. VARIETIES. The diversity of color is about all that constitutes the difference of varieties of this bird; - the black, the white, tle copper-color, the brown, 299 FARMER'S IAND-BOOK. the bronze. the dusky-gray, &c. As to the relative value of the ordinary varieties, there is some doubt. The bronze and copper-colored varieties F'g. 209. are generally small, and difficult to rear; but their flesh is very delicate. The brown and ashy-gray are not particularly remarkable, but the black are decidedly superior as regards hardiness, rearing, acquiring flesh, and the quality of the flesh; they are also very prolific. GENERAL MANAGEMENT. Ceeping, -c. - W ith respect to the best mode of keeping turkeys, it is necessary to let them have a large, roomy shed, protected from the weather and from moisture. The perches should be high, and a ladder should be supplied, as the birds, when fat, are otherwise apt to injure themselves in their descent from a lofty perch. During warm weather they may be permeitted to select their own roosting-places on the trees about a farm, but should be well watched, lest they stray away, and, in cold weather, get their ender toes frost-bitten. The turkey provides itself with food from the roads and hedge-rows: snails, slugs, and wormns, are among the number of its dainties, and the nearest pool serves to slake its thirst. It should, however, be kept away from the grain-fields. Qualities. - In selecting a turkey-cock, see that he is large, stout, proud, 30O POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. and majestic. Both cock and hen should have short legs, full shapes, and general vivacity and energy in all their movements, and be healthy. A turkey-cock is in his prime in his third year; the hen is in her prime younger, say in her second year. Laying.- One fecundation, it is said by some, will render all the eggs of that laying fertile, while others allow one cock to every dozen or fourteen hens. The approach of the laying season is known by the increased liveliness and proud strut of the hen, and a peculiar self-satisfied cry. This usually takes place in March. When these symptoms are noticed, a nest should be provided, and a true or false egg put into it, to induce the hen to commence laying there, for she prefers a secret place. The time when she lays is usually the morning; some lay daily, others only every second day. When the turkeys are to be let out in the morning, examine the hens, and keep in such as are about to lay, in order to secure the eggs. While the hlien is laying, the cock should be kept from her, as he would ill-treat her and break the eggs. The eggs must be taken away as soon as laid, and they will keep till the hens cease laying, if put in a basket and kept dry. The hen-turkey will hatch other eggs than her own. Sitting. -The same barbarous stimulus, of flogging with a sprig of nettle, prescribed for hen-fowls not readily disposed to sit, has been tried for turkeyhens; and also a dose of brandy and water to make them drunk when they are placed on the eggs, to insure their sitting on their becoming sober. The dark-colored turkeys are preferable. Any number of hens may be placed under the same shed, at short dis tances from each other, taking care that they are kept quiet and dark, as well as warm. The nest may be formed of a circular pad or roll, stuffed with matted straw, and about fifteen inches in diameter; the inside being filled with soft bruised straw, on which the eggs are laid, which, being secured by the border, will not roll about when the hen makes a motion to' get in and out of her nest, or turn her eggs. Ilatching. -When several hens hatch at the same time, commencing together, it is obvious that if any accident should happen to one of them, the eggs may be at once transferred to some of the other nests, the evening being the proper time for this, so that on the morrow the new-comer may appear to be of her own family. On the thirty-first or thirty-second day, the chicks, as in the case of fowls, will chip and break their shells, and get out, unless prevented by the adhesion of the body to the pellicle of the shell. When (and this direction equally applies to all poultry) a small hole is perceived in the shell, through which the bill can be seen, and the chicken appears unable to break through the shell completely, the shell should be slightly and gently broken on the 26 301 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. outside, and lifted up with the point of a pin, but with care not to touch the chick. Treatment of the Youtng. - A few drops of wine are frequently given to reanimate drooping chicks, and some recommend bread soaked in wine for them at first; but the natural warmth of the mother's body is the best physician, and this they should as quickly as possible enjoy, as the external atmosphere is so cold compared with that in which they previously existed. The early feeding of young turkeys is very similar to that which we have recommended for fowls. Egg is a favorite food for them. They may very soon have nettles and parsley made into balls, with groats or meal boiled to the consistence of stirabout, which they learn to peck from the hand. As the mother is very stupid, and does not teach her little ones to search for food, a keeper is necessary for young turkeys, in order to feed them frequently, to take them out airing after the dew is off the ground, and place them in shelter, either from the hot sun or rain, for six weeks, when they become pretty hardy, and can eat boiled potatoes mixed with their meal. The membranes of the neck and head now shoot the red, as it is termed, and at this critical period poults require very high feeding. After harvest, turkey poults - which name they receive after two months - are driven in large flocks to pasture and stubble fields, where they learn to pick up insects and grains of corn; and then they are quite independent of the maternal wing, and flock with the older turkeys, and roost with and accompany them. But care should be taken to have shade or shelter always at hand for them during the sultry hours of the day, and when rain is falling. Fattening. - After six months, turkeys may be crammed like fowls, with the same kind of food, but need not be so closely confined, though a dark place is recommended for them. It requires six weeks to render turkeys perfectly fat, and it would be barbarous to confine them in pens so long; they may be left in close farm-yards. To have very large turkeys, cocks should be kept over for fattening until they are nearly two years old; but a young hen-turkey in spring is much better in flavor. Feeding. - In their ordinary run about the farmer's yards and fields, turkeys nearly feed themselves sufficiently; if not, they will do so by scattering among them, in the morning, oats or corn. Boiled potatoes or Swedish turnips greatly assist in the support of a flock of turkeys. III. THE GOOSE. VARIETIES. TOULOUSE. -The varieties of the common domestic goose are very few. Amongst these varieties is that of the Toulouse, chiefly remarkable for its vast size. Its color is a slaty blue, marked with brown bars, and 302 POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. occasionally relieved with black - the head, neck as far as the beginning of the breast, and the back of the neck as far as the shoulders, of a dark brown; the breast is slaty blue; the belly is white, as also the under Fig. 210. surface of the tail; the bill is orange-red, and the feet are flesh-color. The Toulouse is of a mild and easy disposition, which conduces to the chance of his early fattening, and that also at little cost. The flesh is said to be tender and well-flavored. CHINESE. -The Chinese goose is a well-known variety, including several sub sorts, among which is the Hong Kong, considered the same as is called by the name of Poland, having a large, horny knob on the bill and forehead, the prevailing color gray, with a longitudinal stripe of deep brown running above the back of the neck,- the legs red. There are also the Black-legged Chinese, also knobbed, and usually with a white edg,e around the knob, somewhat similar to that of the wild breed called the White Fronted, - and the White Chinese, a very handsome bird, knobbed as the rest, of a snowwhite color, and with legs of a bright orange-red. These geese are inferior in size to the Toulouse, but, nevertheless, very fine birds, and worthy the attention of the breeder. The white variety, especially, with red legs, is very beautiful; the flesh is also good. They feed well, fatten easily, and are very prolific. COMMON.- Of our ordinary and well-known domestic geese there exist but two sorts, whose only distinction seems to rest in their relative size, they being divided into the large and small; and by some, accordirg to their color, into the white and the -ray. These divisions are, to a certain extent, 303 Aft I - FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. arbitrary; as out of the one clutch may be generally found the several varieties, both as to size and color, that are sought for. The best sorts are Fi. 211. those which vary least in color. Gray is the best; mixed colors will not prove so prolific, and the young will be more difficult to feed up to the required standard. GENERAL MANAGEMENT. In France, geese are put up in thirties in the same lodge, with roofs and partitions to separate them, never allowing more than eight under one roof. All damp must be avoided, for geese at all times are fond of a clean, dry place to sleep in, however much they may like to swim in'water. It is not a good plan, on the whole, to keep geese with other poultry; for, when confined in the poultry-yard, they become very pugnacious, and will very much harass the hens and turkeys. It is recommended to pasture geese in marshy or moist ground, and to sow for them vetches or tares, meliot, clover, chicory, and lettuce, of which they are very fond. Grass they should also have, and they are satisfied with the poorest. In allowing geese to range at large, it must be remembered that they are very destructive to all garden and farm crops, as well as to young fruit-trees. To prevent their getting through the gaps in fences, hang a stick across their breasts. Food.- Did geese require to be always fed in the poultry-yard, it would cost more than they are worth to keep them, for they are voracious feeders. All sorts of vegetables, food, and grain, agree with them, but they do not 304 POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. thrive well without grass. The refuse of the cabbage of a market-gardeni would maintain a great many geese at a very small cost, but it is very doubtful whether they would keep long in good health, when fed either on cabbage, mangel-wurzel leaves, chicory, endive, lettuce, or other green food. This, indeed, is apt to render their bowels too open, and even to bring on scouring, unless alternated with boiled or steamed potatoes, given warm, or with the meal of oats, peas, beans, or maize, beaten up with boiled potatoes, carrots, or turnips. The stubble-fields of any sort of grain are excellent pasture for geese, for there they not only find grass and other herbage, but the grain which may have been scattered, and which would otherwise be lost; while their dung, though at first acrid and apt to injure, will, when it has been mellowed, much enrich the ground. Pairing.- It has been ascertained by M. St. Genis that geese will pair like pigeons and partridges; and, in the course of his experiments, he re marked that, if the number of the ganders exceed that of the geese by two, and even by three, including the common father, no disturbance nor disputes occur, the pairing taking place without any noise, and no doubt by mutual choice. It is usual, in books, as well as in practice, to assign six geese to one gander. In some places, the small farmers who keep two or three geese keep no gander at all, but turn their geese, at the breeding season, for a short period, among the ganders of some larger establishment near them. This, however, must render the eggs of doubtful fertility, though, no doubt, it would not be practised, if it were found to be an unprofitable plan. The gander to be selected should be of a large size, of a fine white, with a lively eye, and an active gait; while the breeding goose ought to be brown, ashgray, or parti-colored, and to have a broad foot. The gray geese are supposed to produce the finest goslings, while the parti-colored ones produce better feathers, and are not so apt to stray from home. Laying.- When well kept, geese will lay thrice a year, from five to twelve eggs each time; and some more, when they are left to their own way: but if the eggs be carefully removed as soon as laid, a goose may be made, by proper feeding, to lay from twenty to fifty eggs without intermitting. They begin to lay early in spring, usually in March; and it may be known when an individual is about to lay, by her carrying straws about to foirm her nest with; but, sometimes, she will only throw them about. When this is observed, the geese should be watched, lest they lay in some by-place, and the eggs be lost. It is an essential precaution, as soon as it is perceived that geese want to lay, to coop them up under their roof, where nests made of straw have been previously prepared. If they can once be 26* U 305 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. induced to lay in this nest, they will continue to do so till their number of eggs is completed. In order to have early goslings, geese should be brought to lay early by keeping them in a warm, clean place, and feeding them on stimulating food. Hatching. - When a goose, at the laying of each egg, is observed to keep in her nest longer than usual, it is a pretty sure indication that she is desirous of hatching. It is a popular but incorrect opinion, that a goose always knows her own eggs, and will not hatch any others. The nest for hatching should be made of straw, lined with hay, and from fifteen to twenty eggs will be as many as a large goose can conveniently cover. The goose sits for two months, and requires to have food and water placed near her, that she may not be so long absent as to allow the eggs to cool, which might cause her to abandon her task. Some put vinegar in their water, and others lift them off their nests to make them drink; but this is not necessary. It is an economical way of getting a great number of goslings, to employ turkey-hens to hatch. The common fowl has been equally praised for filling this important function; but the eggs of the goose being very large, and their shell very hard, a hen is not bulky enough to hatch more than eight or nine. The turkey-hen, therefore, deserves to be preferred, because she can hatch fourteen or fifteen. This function of the goose being thus filled by another, she is not kept from laying, and yields eggs in abundance. Goslings. -Like turkey-chickens, goslings are a month in hatching, and must be taken from under the mother, lest if, feeling the young ones under her, she might perhaps leave the rest of the tardy brood unhatched. After having separated them from her, they must be kept in flat wicker pens, or baskets, covered with a cloth, and lined with wool; and when the whole brood is come forth, the first hatched may be returned to the mother. In some places, when the eggs of the goose are on the point of being hatched, it is customary to break the shell a little, to give air to the gosling, and to help its coming out. Perhaps this practice, though dangerous to turkey-chickens, is less so to the goose's egg, whose shell is commonly very hard. On the first day after the goslings are hatched, they may be let out, if the weather be warm, care being taken not to let them be exposed to the unshaded heat of the sun, which might kill them. The food given them is,prepared with bran, raspings of bread, &c., which, if soaked and boiled in milk, or curdled milk, and lettuce-leaves, are still better. Afterwards, advantage must be taken of a fine warm sun to turn them out for a few hours; but cold and rain being very hurtful to them, they must in bad weather be cooped up, and prevented from mixing with the larger one 306 POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. unless they have strength enough to defend themselves against any hostile attack, to which new-comers are usually exposed. To such goslings as are a little strong, bran may be given twice a day, morning and evening, continu ing to give them this food until the wings begin to cross on the back; and after this, green food, which they are particularly fond of, may be mixed with it, such as lettuce, beet-leaves, and the like. Fattening.- Like other fowls, geese may be brought, by proper manage ment, to a great degree of fatness; but the period at which they are the fat test must be chosen to kill them, otherwise they will rapidly become lean again, and many of them would die. Geese may be fattened at two different periods of their life, -in the young state, when they are termed.green geese, and after they have attained their full growth. The methods at each period are very nearly the same. For fattening geese, - boiled oats, given thrice a day, with plenty of milk, will, it is said, fatten them well in a month. For stubble geese, besides oats, give split beans, with meal and water, cooping up in a quiet, dark place, as is done with fowls. The London feeders, when they receive goslings in March, begin feeding them on meal, from the best barley and oats, made into a liquid paste. They are afterwards fed on dry corn, to render their fat firmer. Full-grown geese are kept particularly clean, have regular exercise, and are fed with proportional quantities of dry, soft, and green food. Cabbage and lettuce alone will fatten young geese, bought in the end of June. Some persons recommend steamed potatoes, witha gallon of buckwheat or ground oats to the bushel, mashed up with the potatoes, and given warm. This, it is said, will render geese, cooped in a dark, quiet, cool place, fat enough in three weeks. The French mode of fattening consists in plucking the feathers from under the belly, giving them abundance of food and drink, and cooping them up more closely than is practised with common fowls, cleanliness and quiet being above all indispensable. Tlfe best time is in the month of November, or when the cold weather begins to set in; if it is longer delayed, the pairing season approaches, and prevents their becoming fat. When there are not many geese to fatten, they are put into a cask having holes bored in it, through which they may thrust their heads to feed; and being naturally voracious, the love of food is greater than the love of liberty, and they fatten readily. The food consists of a paste, made of barley-meal, ground maize, and buckwheat, with milk and boiled potatoes. In Poland, a similar method is practised, the goose being put in an earthen pot without a bottom, and of a size not to allow the bird to move. The same food as that just mentioned is given in abundance, and the pot is s8 placed that the dung may not remain in it. The process is completed in a fort 307 PARMER'S HAND-BOOK. night, and the geese are sometimes so increased in size that the pot has to be broken to get them out. When the great number of geese to be fattened renders the preceding plan inconvenient and too expensive, they are taken from the stubbles or pasture, and cooped up, twelve together, in narrow pens, so low that they can neither stand upright nor move in any direction. They are kept scrupulously clean, by often renewing the litter of the pens. A few feathers are previously plucked out from the rump, and from under the wings. The portion of maize required for once feeding is boiled and put into a feedingtrough, with clean water, in a separate vessel, and they are permitted to eat whenever they feel inclined. At the commencement they eat a great deal constantly, but in about three weeks their appetite falls off. As soon as this is perceived, they are crammed, at first twice a day, and, towards the end of the process, thrice a day. For this purpose a tin funnel is used, with a pipe five inches and a half in length, and less than an inch in diameter, with the end sloped off like the mouth-piece of a flageolet, and rounded at the edge, to prevent its scratching the throat when it is introduced. A small, round bag is adjusted to the pipe, through which grain is introduced into the crop. The operator sits squat upon the ground, holds the goose with one hand, introduces the pipe of the funnel into the mouth of the goose with the other, and presses in the food till the crop is filled. Water is at the same time given to the geese to drink, and must always be left near them, as the cramming renders them very thirsty. A woman who is dexterous will cram ten geese in an hour. In less than a month, a goose may in this way be fattened to an enormous bulk. Sometimes a lean goose is confined in a small coop made of fir, narrow enough to prevent it from turning, while there is a place behind for passing the dung, and another in front to let out the head. Water is supplied in a trough in front, having some bits of charcoal in it to sweeten it. A bushel of maize is considered enough of food for a month. It is soaked in water the day before it is used; and the goose is crammed morning and evening, while it is allowed, during the day, to eat and drink as much as it chooses. About the twenty-second day, a quantity of poppy-oil is mixed with the maize. In a month, it is seized with difficulty of breathing, and a lump of fat under each wing indicates that it is time to kill it, lest it should be choked with fat, and die. By this process, the liver of the goose is increased so much that it will weigh from one to two pounds, and will, besides, yield about three pounds of fat, much employed, in French cookery, for dressing vegetables. 308 POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. IV. THE DUCK. VARIETIES. ROUEN, OR RHONE. - There are numerous species and varieties of the duck, Df great diversity of size and color, though it is not usual to domesticate, except for curiosity, more than two or three of these. The tame variety most in request is the dark-colored Rouen or Rhone duck, originally from France, but now sufficiently common. These ought to be of the largest size, for, if they are small, it is probable they are not far removed from the original wild breed, and in that case will not only be very apt to stray away, but will be less prolific in eggs, though both the eggs and the flesh will be higher flavored. ENGLISH, OR AYLESBURY WHITE. -This variety, though handsome and strong, is inferior in flavor, the flesh being too light-colored, and chickeny, as it is termed. Great numbers of this variety are, however, raised and fattened, attaining to a large size. Fig. 213. 309 Rig. 212. FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. MuscovY. - This duck is a distinct species, and not a mere variety, much larger than the common duck, and distinguished by a sort of red membrane, covering the cheeks, and extending behind the eyes, as well as by the musky odor exhaled by the rump gland. In a wild state, the drake is of a brownish-black color, with a broad white patch on the wings, the female being smaller and more obscurely colored. In the domestic state it exhibits every variety of color, like the common duck. The Muscovy duck is easily fattened, and a prolific breeder; and hence, though it is also a voracious feeder, Fig. 214. it may be rendered profitable to rear. The male is very ready to pair with the common duck, producing, by the cross, a hybrid or mongrel breed. GENERAL MANAGEMENT. The Duck Pond. - In order to keep ducks properly, a pond should be provided for them, if there be no water convenient; and it is important, if the pond will admit of it, to have a small island in it, planted with rushes, osiers, and other aquatic plants and shrubs, though some recommend to have no plants in the way. Food. - Ducks may be left to provide for themselves a considerable part of the year. They live chiefly on grain strewed about the poultry-yard, the siftings and sweepings of barns, all sorts of mealy substances, the residue of breweries and boiling-houses, herbage, vegetable roots, fruits, - everything, indeed, suits them, provided it be rather moist. They are particularly fond of boiled potatoes, and these have been substituted, with profit, for maize and barley. They are partial to being in meadows and pasture 310 POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. grounds. Every sort of flesh or offal is much to their liking, and forwards their growth admirably. Ducks are so very greedy that they often endeavor to swallow a whole fish, or a frog, which heats them extremely, if they do not immediately throw it up. Particularly fond of meat, they eat it with avidity, even when it is tainted. Slugs, spiders, toads, garbage, insects, all suit their ravenous appetite. Among all the fowls of the poultry-yard, ducks are of most service in gardens, by destroying a quantity of vermin, which usually do irreparable damage; but their voracity brings with it inconven iences which balance this advantage, except in the case of ducklings, which are not so apt to eat young plants. Pairing and Laying.- One drake is said to be sufficient for eight to ten ducks, while others limit the number to from four to six. In a wild state there is only one duck to a drake, and, therefore, we should say, the fewer the better, -the chief difference of the tame duck from the wild arising from more abundant and regular food. Ducks begin to lay towards the end of February, and sometimes earlier; but so far from laying the limited number of about sixteen eggs, some will lay as many as fifty, and even nearly double that number. They do not, however, usually continue to lay later than the month of May, unless they be very well fed, -the great secret of rendering them prolific, provided they do not become too fat. At the laying season, ducks require to be looked after, inasmuch as they are not so easily brought to lay in the nests prepared for them as common fowls, but will stray away to hedges and other by-places to lay, and will even sometimes drop their eggs in the water. When they succeed in laying out their number of eggs without their nest being discovered, they will hatch them, and not make their appearance till they bring their young family home to the yard, except in cold, raw weather. As ducks usually lay either at night or very early in the morning, it is a good way to secure their eggs, to confine them during the period when they must lay, - a circumstance easily ascertained by feeling the vent. It will accordingly be requisite, at the approach of the laying season, in spring, to give them food in a particular place, three or four times a day, to prevent them from wandering; and when once they can be got to lay in a nest prepared for them, they will probably continue to do so, without laying away. Duck Eggs.- The eggs of the duck are readily known from those of the common fowl by their bluish color and larger size, the shell being smoother, not so thick, and with much fewer pores. When boiled, the white is never curdy, like that of a new-laid hen's egg, but transparent and glassy, while the yelk is much darker in color. The flavor is by no means so delicate. For onmelets, however, as well as for puddings and pastry, duck eggs are much 311 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. better than hen's eggs, giving a finer color and flavor, and requiring less butter. Hatching and Care of Ducklings.- The domestic duck is not naturally disposed to hatch; but in order to induce it- to do so, towards the end of laying, two or three other eggs may be left in each nest, taking care every morning to take away the oldest laid, that they may not be spoiled. From eight eggs to ten may be given, according to the size of the duck and her ability to cover them, taking particular care not to sprinkle them with cold water, as some authors wrongly advise. The duck requires some care when she sits; for, as she cannot go to her food, attention must be paid to place it before her-and she will be content with it, whatever be its quality. It has even been remarked, that when ducks are too well fed, they will not sit well. The first broods of the season are usually the best, because the heat of summer helps much to strengthen the ducklings,- the cold always preventing the later broods from getting strong. The duck is apt to let her eggs get cold, when she hatches. The ducklings are no sooner excluded than the mother takes them to the water, where they dabble and eat at the very first, and many of them perish, if the weather is cold. All these reasons often induce poultry-keepers to have duck's eggs hatched by hens or turkey-hens; and, being more assiduous than ducks, these borrowed mothers take an affection for the young, to watch over which requires great attention, because, as these are unable to accompany them on the water, -for which they show the greatest propensity as soon as they are excluded,- they follow the mother hen on dry land, and get a little hardy, before they are allowed to take to the water without any guide. It is likely that, if a considerable quantity of eggs could be collected together, to make one large brood, the art of hatching chickens in an artificial manner, applied to ducks, would be attended with greater success than with chickens, as they are less difficult to rear. It would be sufficient to keep them shut up for twelve days in a duck-house made on purpose, and where it would be proper to leave a few buckets of water for them to dabble in, -or a tank might be provided for them, the water of which might be kept slightly warm by the pipes used to heat the buildings of the poultry-yard. At the expiration of this time they might be set at liberty, and they would get on surprisingly, provided they had a pond or a little ditch in the enclosure, where they might be turned in, or a small rivulet running through it. Ducklings can do without a mother as soon as they are excluded. Their food, for the first days, may be crumbled bread sopped in milk, and a little ale or cider. Some days after, a paste may be made for them with a bunch 312 4 POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. of nettle-leaves, boiled tender, chopped up very small, and of a third of the flour of maize, buckwheat, or barley. As soon as they have a little strength, a good deal of pot-herbs may be given them, raw and chopped up, mixed with a little bran soaked in water, barley, mashed acorns, boiled potatoes, beaten up with a little fish, when it can be had. All these equally agree with ducklings, which devour the different substances they meet with, and show, from their most tender age, a voracity which they always retain. To strengthen the young ones before they take to the water, they must be secured under coops during eight or ten days, and taking care to put a little water under the coops. When ducklings have been hatched uider a common hen, or a turkeyhen, they are not allowed to go to the water till they become a little hardy by remaining on land; but the moment they see water, they naturally plunge into it, to the great alarm of their foster-mother, who cannot follow them. It is necessary, to prevent accidents, to take care that such ducklings come regularly home every evening; but precautions must be taken before the ducklings are permitted to mingle with the old ducks, lest the latter ill-treat and kill them, though ducks are by no means so pugnacious and jealous of new-comers as common fowls uniformly are. Fattenin,g.- Butchers' offal is excellent for fattening ducks, as it does not give the flesh the rank, disagreeable flavor, which it imparts to pork. Acorns, on the contrary, while they are good for fattening, injure the flavor of the flesh, and barley renders it insipid, or woolly. As the duck is both a voracious feeder and fond of liberty, it will fatten very well when allowed to roam about, provided it has abundance of food; but it expedites the process of fattening to have recourse to coops, quiet, and darkness. Ground malt, mixed with water, is said to be an excellent food for fattening, though it is expensive. In Lower Normandy, where great numbers of ducks are reared and fattened, the poulterer prepares a paste with the flour of buckwheat, made into gobbets, with which they are crammed thrice a day, for eight or ten days, when, though not full fat, they are sufficiently so for use. In some places, when ducks have been rendered tolerably fat by being at large, they are cooped up by eights or tens, in a dark place, whence they are taken out morning and evening to be crammed. This is done by a girl, who crosses their wings on her knees, opens their bill with her left hand, while with her right she stuffs them with boiled maize. Many ducks are suffocated by the operation, and killed outright; but their flesh is not the worse for the table, provided that they be immediately bled. It requires a fortnight to complete the process, which incmreases the size of their liver enormously, and oppresses their breathing in 27 313 9 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. a distressing manner. The sign of their being sufficiently fat is, when the tail opens like a fan, from the fat pressing on the roots of the feathers. DISEASES OF THE FOREGOING FOWLS. The most common diseases to which fowl are liable are, Molting, Pip, Roup, Asthma, Diarrhea, Indigestion, Apoplexy, Fever, Consumption, Gout, Corns, Bloody-flux, Costiveness. They are also liable to accidents, producing Fractures, Bruises, Ulcers, Loss of Feathers, &c. All these we will treat of in the above order. Molting. -While, as being a natural process, of annual occurrence, it can scarcely be called a disease, yet it must be treated of as if it really were one, from consideration of the effects which it produces. It is most dangerous to young chickens. With adult birds, warmth and shelter are usually all that are required, united with diet of a somewhat extra stimulating and nutritious character. In a state of nature, molting occurs to wild birds precisely when their food is most plenty; hence, nature herself points out that the fowl should, during that period, be furnished with an extra quantity of food. After the third year, the period of molting becomes later and later, until it will sometimes happen in January or February. Of course, when this occurs, every care as to warmth should be bestowed. The use of Cayenne pepper alone will generally suffice; and if this simple treatment does not help them through, they can seldom be saved. The feathers will at times drop off the fowls, when not molting, to a very considerable extent, rendering them often nearly naked. This is a disorder similar to the mange in many other animals; and the same sort of treatment, viz., alteratives, such as sulphur and nitre, - in the proportions of one quarter each, mixed with fresh butter, - a change of diet, cleanliness, and fresh air, will generally be found sufficient to effect a cure. Be careful not to confound this affection with molting. The distinction is, that in the latter case the feathers are replaced by new ones as fast as they are cast; in the former this is not so, and the animal becomes bald. Pip.- A disease to which young fowls are peculiarly liable, and that, too, chiefly in hot weather. The symptoms are, a thickening of the membrane of the tongue, especially towards the tip. This speedily becomes an obstruction of sufficient magnitude to impede the breathing; this produces gasping for breath, and at this stage the beak will often be held open. The plumage becomes ruffled and neglected, especially about the head and neck. The appetite gradually goes, and the poor bird shows its distress by pining, moping, and seeking solitude and darkness. The cause of this disease is want of clean water, and feeding upon hot 314 POULTRY, OR TH VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. food. To cure it, most writers recommend the immediate removal of the thickened membrane. It is better, however, to anoint the part with fresh butter or cream. Prick the scab with a needle, if you like, and give internally a pill, about the size of a marble, composed of equal parts of scraped garlic and horse-radish, with as much Cayenne pepper as will outweigh a grain of wheat. Mix with fresh butter, and give it every morning, keeping the fowl warm. Keep the bird supplied with plenty of fresh water; preserve it from molestation by keeping it by itself, and it will generally get well, if the disease is attended to in time. Do not cramn the mouth with snuff; when, however, the disease depends on the presence of a worm, forcing tobacco-smoke down the bird's throat is beneficial. Roup. - The disease to which this term is improperly applied is an inflammation of the tail gland. The true Roup is much analogous to influenza in man, and even more so to the well-known distemper among dogs. The symptoms are, a difficulty of breathing, constant gaping, dimness of sight, lividity of the eyelids, a discharge from the nostrils that gradually becomes purulent and fetid, loss of appetite, and extreme thirst. Sometimes this disease appears to occur independently of any obvious cause; but dirt, too hot feeding, and want of exercise, are amongst the most usual. As to treatment, we will record a case related by an intelligent farmer. A cock, of about four or five months old, apparently turned out by somebody to die, came astray, and was in the last stage of roup. The discharge from his mouth and nostrils was very considerable, and extremely pungent and fetid, while his eyes appeared to be affected with an inflammation similar to Egyptian ophthalmia. The cock was placed at the fireside, his mouth and nostrils washed with soap and warm water, his eyes washed with warm milk and water, and the head gently rubbed with a dry cloth. Internally he was given long pellets, formed of barley meal and flour equal parts, mustard and grated ginger equal parts, and half the first-named. He was also given to drink lukewarm water, sweetened with treacle. In three days this bird began to see, and in a week his sight was almost wholly restored. A little mustard was still given him in his water, and then some flour of sulphur. He had also a pinch of calomel in some dough. He was gradually brought out, so as to inure him to the cold, and in a month was as well as ever. Having molted late, the same bird caught cold at the first frost, and suffered a relapse, from which, however, he was recovered by warmth alone. Other poultry-keepers recommend a modification of the above, - warmth and cleanliness, as matters of course; - but, for pellets, - powdered gentian 1 part, do. ginger 1 part, Epsom salts 14 part, flour of sulphur i part, -made up with butter, and given every morning. 315 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. If the discharge should become fetid, the mouth, nostrils, and eyes, may be bathed with a weak solution, composed of equal parts of chloride of lime and acetate of lead. Fomentation with an infusion of camomile flowers is highly beneficial. The other affection, that improperly passes under this name, viz., swelling of the tail-gland, may be treated as a boil. If it become inconveniently hard and ripe, let the pus or matter out with a penknife, and it will soon get well. Asthma.- This is characterized by gaping, panting, and difficulty of breathing. We need not go far to seek for a cause. Our poultry are originally natives of tropical climates; and, however well climatized they may appear, they nevertheless require a more equable temperature than our climate, unaided by artificial means, can afford. Hence, coughs, colds, catarrh, asthma, pulmonary consumption. To remedy it, give warmth, with small repeated doses of hippo-powder and sulphur, mixed with butter, and add Cayenne pepper. Diarrhoea is occasioned by damp, and sometimes by improper food. Remove the bird into dry quarters; change the food; if it become very severe, give chalk; add a little starch, mixed with Cayenne, to porridge, and give it warm. Indigestion. -, Caused by over-feeding, and want of exercise. Remedy by lessening the quantity of food; turn the fowl into an open walk, and give some powdered gentian and Cayenne in the food. Apoplexy.- Symptoms - staggering, shaking of the head, and a sort of tipsy aspect. Some persons have, from ignorance of the true cause of this affection, treated it as proceeding from intestinal irritation, and prescribed castor-oil, with syrup of ginger, &c. Scanty food, and that of light quality, and the application of leeches to the back of the neck, constitute an effectual remedy,- the knife, however, is the truest one. Fever. - Fowls are frequently subject to febrile affections. The mode of treatment is simple-light food and little of it, change of air, and, if necessary, aperient medicines, such as castor-oil, with a little burnt butter. - Consumption. - If not incurable, change of air and warmth is about the only means of doing any good. Gout.- Its effects are obvious. Pellets of colocynth may be used; but, if the fowl had been killed before becoming so old, it would have been better. Sulphur may be found useful. Corns. -These may generally be extracted with the point of a pen-knife If ulcerated, as will often occur when neglected, touch with lunar-caustic wd you may thus succeed in establishing healthy granulations. 316 POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. Bloody-flux generally proceeds from an aggravated diarrhoea. Rice boiled in milk, or starch, usually effects a cure. Costiveness.- This affection will, in general, yield to castor-oil and burned butter. The diet should be sparing. Thin porridge will be found useful. Fractures and Bruises.- In the case of fractures, the best way, in most cases, is to put the fowl to death, without loss of time. The same may be said of bruises. Ulcers.- These may be kept clean, dressed with a little lard, or washed with a weak solution of sugar of lead, as their aspect may seem to indicate. If they appear sluggish, they may be touched with bluestone. Loss of Feathers. - The accidental stripping of the feathers must not be confounded with the mangy affection already treated of. The difference will be seen by examining the state of the skin where it is exposed. 27* 317 CHAPTER VIII. BEES. DIF CL ASSES OF BEES- POSITION OF THE APIARY-HIVES AND BOXW OBTAINING STOCK - SWARMING - THE HONEY HARVEST - MANAGEMET DURING WINTER AND EARLY SPRING- HOW TO TREAT THE PRODUCE OF THE HONW HARVEST - THE DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES. I. DIFFERENT CLASSES OF BEES. The Queen.- The number of bees contained in a hive will, of course, vary with their condition, and the accommodations they possess; whatever, however, be their numbers, their occupations are alike, and are similarly distributed amongst the three classes composing the inmates of the hive. These classes are, first, the Queen-bee, the sovereign of the community, and literally the prolific parent of her subjects. The queen-bee reigns alone; but one of her sex is permitted to exist in a hive at the one time, and to her protection and comfort are the energies of the other bees to be directed. The queen-bee may be recognized by her greater length of body, which is .i. 215. of a blackish color above, and of a yellowish tint beneath. She is usually, but not by any means invariably, of a larger size than either of the other classes; her abdomen contains two ovaries, or receptacles for eggs; and her sting is of a curved form. The queen-bee commences depositing her eggs when five days old; during the heat of the season she lays from one hundred and fifty to two hundred eggs per day, and lays with little or no intermissioi from early spring to the middle of autumn BEES. Tae Drone.- The second class of bees are the drones. These are larger in the body than either the queen or the working-bee. Their head is rounder, proboscis shorter, eyes fuller, and no sting. They also make more noise in flying than the other bees. The drones are the males of the hive; by Fig. 216. them the queen is impregnated and her eggs fertilized, though this latter may be said to be a point not yet definitely settled by those who have invest tigated the subject. During the summer the drones remain dispersed through different parts of the hive, in a state of idleness; but towards its close they assemble together in companies, as if preparing for their impending fate, which they await in patience, or rather, perhaps, in motionless lethargy. At the end of summer, in August or the end of July, they are ignominiously expelled from the hive, and even slain, by the workers, as if they, being no longer of any utility to the community, should not be fed from the store during winter. The Working-bee.- The third class is the working-bee, the most interesting of all. It is considerably less than either the quen-bee or the drone; it is about half an inch in length, of a blackish-brown color, covered with closely-set hairs all over the body, which aid it in carrying the farina it gathers from the flowers; and on the fore-arm, as it were, of the hind legs, Flg. 217. is a cavity, of cup-like form, for the reception of the little kneaded ball of pollen. It is the working-bee which collects honey and pollen, and which forms the cells, cleans out the hive, protects the queen, looks after the condition of the young brood, destroys or expels the drones, when those are no tonger necessary to the well-being of the community; who, in short, performs 319 I . q FARAIER'S HAND-BOOK. all offices connected with the hive and its contents, save only those which have reference to the reproduction of the species. The working-bees are of no sex, and are furnished with a horny and hollow sting, through which poison is ejected into the wound it makes. This poison is of an acrid character, and of great power in its effects, proving fatal to insects, and instances are on record of its proving so to horses and cattle, and even to human beings. When human beings, however, are stung, they can instantaneously obtain relief by pressing upon the point stung with the tube of a key; this will extract the sting, and relieve the pain, and spirits of harts horn will at once remove it. Structure of the Bee. - It is composed, like insects generally, of three parts - the head, thorax or chest, and abdomen. The shape of the head varies somewhat, as also does its size, in the three classes; it is attached to the thorax by a thin ligament, and the thorax is attached in a similar manner to the abdomen. In front of the head are two eyes, which are protected by hairs from any substances that might otherwise injure them, and on the top of the head are three smaller eyes. This visual apparatus renders the bee's power of sight a very extended one. Two feelers spring from between the front eyes, and curve outwards on each side; these are endowed with a very acute sense of touch, and doubtless perform many of the offices of eyes in the dark recesses of the hive. It is probably by the assistance of these delicate and highly sensitive organs that these insects form their combs, fill their cells, and feed the young. The mouth of the bee is composed of a pair of jaws, which open vertically, and act -opening and shutting -to the right and left. These are ftlirnished with teeth atetheir extremities. The mouth is also furnished with a very minute tongue, and with a long, slender instrument, called a proboscis, or trunk, resembling in form and use that of the elephant; it is composed of numerous cartilaginous rings, fringed with minute hairs. This instrument does not, however, act as a tube, but by rolling about and attaching to the hairs which fringe it whatever substances the insect wishes to convey to the mouth. From about the base of the proboscis also arise the labial feelers, as they are called, which are also furnished with a hairy fringe. The bee has three pairs of legs, of which the posterior are the longest, and the anterior the shortest. These are formed and articulated much like the same limbs in man, and are attached to the thorax; at their extremities we find two little hooks, which appear like sickles, or reaping-hooks, and have their points opposed to each other. By means of these the insect suspends itself to the top of the hive, or in any other position it may desire. To the superior portion of the thorax are attached four wings, consisting of two pair, of unequal size. These wings are hooked together, in order 320 BEES. that they may act simultaneously, and not only serve to convey the insects from place to place, through the air, but, by the humming, buzzing noise their motion produces, to give notice of their departure from, and return to, the hive, as well as possibly to animate their fellows in their mutual labors. Interiorly the thorax contains the cesophagus, or gullet, which traverse, i ts exten-t on its wa y into the abdomen, where it dilates into, first, the honeybag, Mhich is furnished with two pouches posteriorly, and a muscular apparatus, by whic h it is enabled to give forth its saccharine contents; and, secondly, into the true stomach, in which digestion goes on, for the nourishment of the insect, and the secretion of wax. Next to the stomach is situated the sting; this consists of two darts in a sheath. The whole appa Fig. 218. ratus enters the wound, and the two small darts then enter still further; these are barbed, and, on the insect withdrawing them, aid in widening the puncture, and thus afford greater room for the introduction of the poison. At the base of the sting the bag containing the poison is placed. The bee respires by means of spiracles, or breathing-holes, situated in the thorax, beneath and behind the wings. Through these air is admitted into the thorax, for the purpose of oxygenating the circulating system, - a fact which proves the necessity for duly ventilating the hives or bee-boxes. II. POSITION OF THE APIARY. The details of the domestic operations of the bee in the cells, - a figure of which is seen in Fig. 219,- we do not intend to present in this place, but proceed to speak of those matters more particularly pertaining to the plan of management pursued by the bee-keeper or farmer. Aspect. -The most favorable aspect for the hives or boxes is southwesterly, which, however, may advantageously be modified or varied recording to the season. In spring, for instance, the aspect would be more improved by inclining more to the west; in autumn, the reverse. The reason for this is, that the morning sun is prejudicial to the interests of the hive,- the bees receiving the light and going forth too early, - a thing, f,ljectiocTable on two accounts; first, that, especially in early spring, the lawn is too cold, and will occasion the death of numbers, if they are induced w 321 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. to venture forth; and, secondly, because the bees, if they commence opera tions so early, become wearied before they have performed a good day's work. and the afternoon is a more advantageous period for their labors. F-Pg. 219. Location.- The place for fixing the stand should be a dry soil,- and a sandy one is better. It should slope towards the front, in order to carry off the surface water produced by occasional rains, and should not, on any account, be exposed to the droppings from the eaves of houses, or even hedges. Shelter is essential, especially behind and on the east of the hives, -a house or high wall is the best; it is also recommcnded that tlihe stand be placed in a sort of small, open shed, well painted on the outside, to protect it from the weather; a few shrubs about the stand are also good as additional shelter. Some recommend high trees for the purpose of keeping the air calm, lest the bees should be blown down, when returniing home. High trees are not advisable. Bees are seldom blown to the ground by mere wind, but even when they are, they can, in a great majority of cases, recover themselves; whereas, if blown amongst trees, they will be sure to be whipped so violently by the branches, that they are absolutely hurled to the ground with such force as to render their recovery hopeless. The bees also fly lowz, on their return, when they arrive at the immediate neighborh,io(l of their stand, and, consequently, high trees would be not only useless, ])ti inconvenient. Whatever trees, therefore, are planted in the immediilf, vicinity of the hive. should he of low size, with btishy heads, in order l-,.t the swarms which settle on them may be more easily hived. Avoid a site near mills or other noisy places, or the neilghborhood of offensive odor, as factories and the like; and if, as occasionally may happen., 322 BEES. the stand be placed against the garden wall, behind which is the farm yard, let not a dung-hill be built againist the opposite side, as it may cause a desertion of the boxes. Do not place the sta(nd where there are rat or mouse holes. W1ater is essential to the well-being of bees; it must, however, be pre sented to them judiciously, or it will prove a greater evil than a good. If there is a shallow, ripplingi brook through the garden, so much the better; if' not, place near the stand small, shallow pans of water, adll( put solie pcebbles in them. This water should be changed( daily. It is obj(etiolaible to have a pond or canal in tihe neighborhood; tlhouisiilS l e(s o w cs ill }ee lo,t every season throughli such a means, as they will be c(,iostanltly blown into them lwhen returnintig hleavily laden to the hive, especially in the eveniig, when wearied, after the toil of an itidustriously-s)penlt day. The pebbles in the trooughs are for the bees to rest on while drinking. It is wN-ell if the garden is abundantly planted with suchl shrubs a!id fltowers as afford honey, in order to prevent, as much as possible, thle neee sity of the bees constantly traveling to an inconvenient distance in search of food. It is well also to so contrive as to have a succession of such foo(t, adapted to the season,-a matter comparatively easily mnanaged, and of some consequence to the well-being of the bees. Among these plants may be enumiierated broom, furz or gorse, thyme, especially lemon-thlyme, clover, crocus, heltilis, fruit-trees, mustard, nignonette, sage, single roses, ra(li.-,lies, -:ross, parsley, peas, parsnips, marigolds, violets, lilies, lauru,tall (1.,-dils, celery, caildiflow'ers, asparagus, sunflowers, wNall-flowers, i)()ra, e, i,tr etches, bucl,kwh-leat. Iliv-es she,: 1on Ino account be so placed as to be exposedl to the noonday Seal' this v ill injIre the honey and melt it, and will raise the temperature of the hive so as to produce unwiished-flr swvarming, besides otherwise i. Iii)tyi,iir and il]jnrin7f the bees. A few shrulibs, therefore, should be so I,lI;teced as to c.st tiheir sladow across the stand d(oring the hteat of d(lay. LIet the shr ubs be of stclh a description as the b,ces are fond of, and they may also be diepoe~d so as to give the apittry a pleasing atid picturesque a l~)(aralee. B.:-/ho'lscs are only fit for keeping the bee-boxes in during winter one, two, or thrc. s'ts of collateral lboxes, are as many as any mnoderate heekI.eper ill desire, or be able conveniently to attend, and these can be kept (eIch in a little shed by itself. Bee-hives shol(il never be placed close to each other, as they must necessarily be in the bee-houses recommended by some, tar bees are naturally very irritalile and plgoiacious insects, and if twNo colonies be kept too near each other, battles will ensue, and the wecaket hive be injured or destroyed. 323 FARKMER'S HAND-BOOK. III. HIVES AND BOXES. Requisites. -The old straw, conical-shaped hive, is too well known to need description, and, perhaps, too unprofitable to be worthy of it. The chief objects to be effected by the use of a suitable receptacle for bees are, first, the power of depriving them of their honey at pleasure, and w,ithlout injury to them; secondly, the obtaining of it in its pure and uncontaminated form; thirdly, the means of enlarging their accommodation when necessary, and the consequent prevention of swarming. Different Kinds of Hires and Boxes. - Among other hives of considerable merit, that called the Nutt hive is worthy of being noticed and explained, and the opinions of Mr. Nutt, the inventor, are of sufficient value to be presented in this place. According to Mr. Nutt, bee-boxes should be from eleven to twelve inches square inside, and nine or tell inches deep in the clear. The best wood for them is by some said to be red cedar, - the chief grounds of preference of which wood are, its keeping away moths, and its being a bad conductor of heat. But of whatever kind of wood beeboxes are made, it should be well seasoned, perfectly sound, and free from what carpenters term shakes. Good, sound red deal answers the purpose very well. The sides of the boxes, particularly the front, should be, at the least, an inch and a half thick; for the ends, top, and back part, good deal, one inch thick, is sufficiently substantial; the ends that form the interior divisions and openings must be of half-inch stuff, well-dressed off, so that when the boxes and the dividing tins are closed,- that is, when they are all placed together, -the two adjoining ends should not exceed five eighths of an inch in thickness. These communication ends - the bars of which should be exactly parallel with each other - form a communication or division, as the case may require, which is very important to the bee, and by which the said boxes can be immediately divided, without injuring any part of the combs, or deluging the bees with the liquid honey, which so frequently annoys them, in extracting their sweets from the piled or storified boxes. The receptacles or frame-work for the ventilators, which appear upon each side of the end boxes,- the one with the cover off, the other with it on, -must be four inches square, with a perforated flat tin, of nearly the same size; and in the middle of that tin must be a ro,,nd hole, to correspond with the hole through the top of the box, in the centre of the frame-work just mentioned, an inch in diameter, to admit the perforated cylinder tin ventilator, nine inches long. This flat tin must have a smooth piece of wood, well made, to fit it closely, and to cover tlhe frame-work, so as to carry off the wet; then placing this cover over the square perforated tin, the box will be secure from the action of wind and 324 BEES. rain. The perforated cylinder serves both for a ventilator and also for a secure and convenient receptacle for a thermometer, at any time when it is necessary to ascertain the temperature of the box into which the cylinder is inserted. Within this frame-work, - and so that the perforated flat tin, already described, may completely cover them, - at each corner, make a hole with a three-eighths'centre-bit, through the top of the box. These four small holes materially assist the ventilation, and are, in fact, an essential part of it. We next come to the long floor, on which the three square bee-boxes which constitute a set stand collaterally. This floor is the strong top of a long, shallow box, made for the express purpose of supporting the three bee-)oxes, and must, of course, be superficially of such dimensions as those boxes, when placed collaterally, require; or, if the bee-boxes project the eighth part of an inch over the ends and back of this floor-box, so much the better; because, in that case, the rain or wet that may at any time fall upon them will drain off completely. For ornament, as much as for use, this floor is made to project about two inches in front; but this projection must be sloped, or made an inclined plane, so as to carry off the wet from the firont of the boxes. To the centre of this projecting front, and on a plane with the edge of the part cut away for the entrance of the bees into the pavilion, is attached the tlighting board, which consists of a piece of planed board, six inches by three, having the two outward corners rounded off a little. The passage from this alighting board into the pavilion (not seen in the plate, it being in the centre of the side not shown) is cut, not out of the edge of the box, but out of the floor-board, and should be not less than four inches in length and about half an inch in depth, or so as to make a clear half-inch way under the edge of the box for the bee passage. This is preferable to a cut in the edge of the box, because, being upon an inclined plane, if at any time the wet should be driven into the pavilion by a stormy wind, it would soorr drain out, and the floor become dry; whereas, if the entrance-passage be cut out of the box, the rain, that may and at times will be drifted in, will be klept in, tand the floor be wet for days, and perhaps for weeks, and be very detrimental to the bees. In depth, the floor-box, measured from outside to outside, should be four inches, so that if made of three-fourths'-inch deal, there may be left for the depth of the box part two inches and a half. Internally it is divided into three equal compartments, being one for each bee-box. Admission to these compartments, or under-boxes, is by the drawer, or drawerfronts, or blocks, which will be described presently. The bottom, oropen edge, of each of the boxes, should be well planed, and made so even and square that they will sit closely and firmly upon the aforesaid floor, and be as air-tight as a good workman can make them. In the 2Z8 325 FARMIER S HAND-BOOK. floor-board ate made three openings, one near the back of each box. These openings are of semilunar shape (though any other shape would do as well), the straight side of which should not exceed three inches in length, and will be most convenient if made parallel with the back edge of the box, and about an inch from it. They are covered by perforated or by close tin slides, as the circumstances of the apiary may require. The drawer, the front of which appears under the middle box, is of great importance, because it affords one of the greatest accommodations to the bees in the boxes. In this drawer is placed, if necessity require it, a tin made to fit it; and in that till another thin tframe, covered with book-muslint, or other fine strainer, which floats on the liquid deposited for the sustenance of the bees. Hiere, then, is a feeder, contailling the prepared sweet, in the immediate vicinity of the mother hive, and without admitting the cold or the robbers to annoy the bees. W,\hen the drawer thus prel)ared with bee-food is closed, the tin placed over the semilunar aperture must be drawn, which will open to the bees a way to their food in the drawer beneath. The heat of the hive follows the b)ees into the feeding departiment, which soon becomes the temperature of their native domicile. The box-fronts on each side of the feeding-drawer are foined of a bit of talc suspended over a hole on the outside, tlltus permitting egress, but precluding ingress. By means of this contrivance, thile number of bees may be increased without altrminig or annoying thenm, and they canll likewise escape when being deprived of one or other of the collateral boxes. This contrivance further precludes the intrusion of insect enemies. Tie centre is perforated on the top, and over the hole a bell-gl;,iss is placel, \ hich, when the hive is filled, the bees fill with honey which is of the purest description. Wooden fittings or covers are provided for the protection of these glasses. The bees, being placed in the centre box, or pavilion, soon commence operations, and speedily fill it with honey. When full, which may be ascertained by looking through a window. fixed in the back of the box, the till slide which separates it from the bell-glass must be drawn; this is best (tonlo on a warm dlay, and the comb should previously be cut throoli withl a tlhin w-ire. Before taking off the glass, the operator should pause for a fei,w minutes, to observe whether there be any unusual stir among the imprisoned bees; for if they do not appear alarmed, the queen is alllong them, and inl that case the slide must be withdrawn, and the operation postpol.ed(l to another day. In taking away the glass, envelop it in a silk handkerchief, and remove it about ten yards from the boxes; then place it a little on one side, so as to permit the imprisoned bees to escape, which they will do in a few minutes. \Vhen occasion requires, the bees are to be similarly admitted into the side 326 BEES. boxes, by drawing the slides; but in removing one of these boxes some pre cautions require to be used. For instance, open the ventilator the night previous; this will, by lowering the temperature of the hive, and admitting .I current of air, induce the bees to leave the box thus treated, and to congreg,ate in the pavilion. Then put down the slide D, and let the bees remain for ten minutes or so in darkness. If the queen be not in the box to be taken, any bees that may remain in it will be restless anid in confusion. If she should be there, the commotion will be in the centre box. If the queen should be in the box intended to be taken, draw up the slide again, and she will soon leave it. Having emptied the full box, return it to its place. According to this system, fumigation is unnecessary, -a child, even, may manage the boxes with ease and safety. The centre box, called, on account of its being the breeding place, the pavilion of nature, is never to be meddled with. Any person of common ingenuity can form for himself a set of collateral boxes, by taking as a stand a piece of strong wood - deal, obtained from an old door, or other waste timber; let it be about four feet long and about two feet wide, as thick as can be procured; place it on four legs, and let the edge project over the legs, in order to prevent the incursion of insects; plane the upper surface smooth. Mlake three boxes, each about ten inches square, with, of course, no bottom, and have the edges of the bottomless portion planed smooth, so as to lie as close as possible to the board. Cut away a portion of the bottom of one side of each box, and in that designed for the centre box do so on two opposite sides; these are for communication. Get two sheets of tin, or thin wood,- a piece of a broken tea-chest will do admirably, - and place one between each of the collateral boxes and the centre one, so as to cut off communication between them, until it is desired to open it, w-hen, of course, one of them is withdrawn, and, at the same time, the side box, thus opened, will be pushed close to the central one. Let the stand-board be on an inclined plane, sloping towards the front, so as to throw off w-et, and let the said board project a couple of inches, to serve the bees as a place on whichl to alight. Make a sniall hole, about half an inch, or rather less, inI diameter, in front of this centre box, partly in the box and partly in the board, for the ingress and egress of its inhabitants. Paint the boxes externally, but do so a considerable time before they are required for use, anld encompl)ass them with the best sort of rough shed that can be convenriently put up; bore a hole, with a centre-bit, in the top of each box, and place a glass vessel over it. When it is necessary to fieed the bees, it can be (lone by attaching a feeder to the entrance door, and the holes for the bellglasses will afford ample means of ventilating. In case they should not, however, have a hole at the back of each box, stopped with a cork, which can be with(ra-wn for the admission of air when necessary. Take care that 321 FARMIER S HAND-BOOK. the cork be not pushed entirely through the wood of the box, or it will be so cemented by propolis that it cannot, perhaps, be drawn out without injury or disturbance to the combs. Another mode of forming bee-boxes is as follows: Let them be of as good quality as possible, so as to effectually preserve their contents from either extreme heat or cold, dampness, or any sudden changes of temp)erature. The size of the centre box should be about tell and one half inches cube, inside measure; and it would be of advantage to have six bars fixed across the top of it, from front to back, which should be one and one-eighth inches in width, half an inch in thickness, and half an inch apart-the ends of each of which should be neatly rabbl)eted into the front and back of the box. Over the bars should be laid a piece of thin gauze, and upon it the top or covering-board of the box, which may have a circular hole in the middle of it, securely stopped by a good cork-buiing, to be removed for the purpose of placing a small bell-glass over the hole, as occasions require. The side boxes may be made and used of different sizes, if desired, and to contain froin 350 to 1100 cubic inches each. If the smaller sizes are adopted, the entrance to them must be along the hollow part of the b)ottoii-board; but it would be considered more complete to have the side boxes of the same width and depth as the centre one, and to have them well fitted and secured together during the honey-gathering season. The entrance from the centre to the side boxes may then extend along the under edges of each of them from front to back, and about three-eighths to one-half an inch in depth; there should also be a perpendicular one, three inches long and( half an inch wide, up the centre of the end of each of the boxes, the upper part of which should reach to within three incheg'of the top of the box inside. The use of bars to the top of boxes is frequently of much service to the apiarian, as he can thereby occasionally remove a few of the old combs from the box, and can, at any time, have an opportunity of examining the state of the interior of the boxes. Before using a new box with bars, as above, a piece of pure and clean brood-comb should be neatly fixed to each, on every alternate bar, which may be readily accomplished by the assistance of a long and smooth piece of heated iron- the comb, being rubbed for a few seconds.on the iron, should immediately be applied to the bar, and will then, in a short time, firmly adhere to it. The use of hites of straw is by many persons still continued and approved and there is no doubt that, when properly made and judiciously manage(, the returns from them will often equal, or surpass, those fromn some of the more fancy-shaped and costly wooden boxes. The size of the straw hive should be from sixteen to seventeen inches iin diameter, and twelve to thirteen inches in height; and they should have a 328 BEES. narrow, flat, and thick top of wood, with a circular hole and cork-buug in the centre of it, similar to that for wooden boxes. The outer box, in which the stock-hive and side boxes are enclosed, having been made wider than the interior hives or boxes, should have a partition from front to back, on each side of the stock-hive, and the interstices round the centre hive filled up with dry sawdust, powdered charcoal, or other suitable materials, which will be of service in preserving the temperature of the hive in a congenial and uniform state. The communication from the straw stock-hive to the side boxes should be along the hollow centre of the bottom-board; three or more circular holes should also be made in the bottom-board on each side, in such manner that each of them may be covered with a bell-glass, or that one of the larger side hives or boxes may be placed over them, as may suit the wishes or convenience of the apiarian. When glasses arc used, they should be well covered with some soft woollen materials, and a hive or box should then be placed over them, to effectually exclude the light, and preserve them from accidents of any kind, and sudden changes of temperature. It is advisable to have the outer box well made, with a neat and substantial roof to carry off the wet, &c., and it should be made of such breadth as to leave a space of one half inch on each side of the stock-hive. A well-informed writer observes, that, if the bees are kept in a straw hive, it should be of a large size, and well made, and should be stocked with a strong swarm at the usual period of the year. It should be then p)laced on the centre of a stout bottom-board, made long enough to hold a small hive or box on each side of it, and having hollow communications from the centre hive to the side ones, which can be opened or closed at pleasure. When the bees require room in the spring or summer months, the entrance from the centre to one of the side hives must be opened, and after they have fairly taken possession of it, it must be properly ventilated by a hole previously formed on the top, and covered with a piece of perforated zinc, keeping the temperature between 65~ and 75~. The three hives should have a well-made wooden covering over them, with a span-shaped roof to carry off the wet, &c., and an opening at the back for the purpose of examining the progress of the bees; the outer box should be well painted, and water-proof, and will greatly assist in regulating the temperature of the hives, and in protecting them from extreme cold, dampness, or sunshine. It matters not much of what wood the boxes are made, provided it is sound, thoroughly seasoned, and well put together. Different opinions are entertained as to the size of bee-boxes; but much depends on the number of bees they are to contain, and on the honey locality; there must also be a reference to the proposed mode, of working them, for, where no swarming 28* 329 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. is permitted, a larger hive may be advantageously used. A good size is twelve inches square, and nine inches deep within, the thickness throughout being not less than an inch. The top of the box ought to project on all sides nearly three quarters of anll inch, for better protection and appearance, and as allfording convenience for lifting. On the top a two-inch hole should be cut in the centre, for pl-acig a bell-glass, and for the purpose of feed(ling; and another hole, to receive a ventilator, may be made near the back window, that position beiiing better for inspection, and -less in the way of the bees, than the centre of the hlive, which is, or ought to be, the seat of breediing, and should not be disturbed. A window may be placed at the back and front, five inches highl and six or seven inches wide. The best and neatest way of securing the windows is by a sliding shutter of zinc. This passes into a rabbet to receive it, cut, on the remiainiljig three sides, at the back of the lower edge of the moulding. To prevent any wet from lodging at the bottom moulding, an opening or two may be easily cut through, onl the under side, to allow its escape. Place the hive under some cover or shed, as a protection from wet and heat. The "Lcaj' lircc," invented by IIiber, consists of eight frames, each eighteen inches high and ten inches wide inside, hlaving the uprights and top cross-pieces one and a half inches broad, and one thick, so that the eight frames, when placed close togelier, constitute a lhive ei(gliteen inches high, twelve inches between end and end, and ten inches between back and front, all inside measure. The friames are held together by a flat sliding-bar on each side, secured by w-edges and pills. To the first and eighthl of these frames is attached a frame with glass, and covered with a slhutter. The body of the hive is protected by a sloping roof, and the entrance is made through the thicikness of the floor-l)oard. Some dislike the sliding-bars, with their pins and wedges, because, in drawing them out, all the frames are liable to open, and the observer is exposed to some hazard of annoyance from the bees issuing out at every joint; as a substitute for them, place hinges on one side, and a hook-anid-eye oni each frame on the other, and thus any particular leaf m-ay be opened without meddling with the rest. In taking honey from this hiv-e, the bee-master has the whole interior completely under his eye, and at his disposal; and can choose what comibs best suit his ptrpose, both as to quantity and quality, taking care, however, to do so only tt such periods as will leave the bees time to replenish the vacancy beilore the termination of the honey season. It is also well adapted for artificial swarming. By separaLtilig the hive into halves, thle honey, brood-combs, and bees, will, geierailly speakingf, be equally divided; and by supplyilig each half with fotur empty frames, there will be two hives, rne half eimpty, equal in number of bees, of brood, and even of stores. One 330 BEES. of the new hives will possess the queen, and, if the operation has been performed at the proper timre,- that is to say, a week or ten d(Iys b(fore the period of natural swarming, - the probability is, there will be a roval brood comingi forward in the other; at all events, there will be i)lcnty of eggs and larvae of the proper age for forming an artificial queen. WVith regard to the use of sticks or cross-pieces, some obje(t to them, as only an annoyance to the bees; and there is little fear of the combs falling, except in very deep hives,- at any rate, it may be preventedl )y contracting the lower part a little. The best way of doing this is by w-orking a wooden hoop inside the bottom band of the hive; it should be perforated through its whole course, and the perforations made in an oblique direction, so distant from each other as to cause all the stitches of the hive to range in an uniform manner. The hoop gives greater stability to the hive, preserves the lower edge from decay, and affords facility in moving it. A circular piece of wood (turned with a groove at the edge, to retain it in its place) should be worked into the crown, having through it an inch-and-ahalf hole. With a little ingenuity, the bees may be fed through this opening,- a better method than the ordinary one, at the bottom of a hive. A piece of wood or tin will commonly cover the hole; but at times, especially in winter, it may be used for the purpose of ventilation, and allowing the impure air of the hive to escape. In this case, a bit of perforated zinc or tin should be placed over it, which, when stopped up by the bees, can be replaced by a clean one. An earthen pan is a common cover to a straw hive; and this may be slightly raised by wedges on the four sides, to permit a small space underneath. Of whatever material the outer covering consists, it must project so far on all sides as to protect the hive from the least moisture. This cannot be too much guarded against; and whether of wood or straw, all hives ought to be well painted at the beginning, and kept so. To have a sinmple and chcap hive, get a common straw hive, of somewhat larger dimensions than commoni, and cut it across (about one third of its length) from the upper or conical end; fit to this end a round piece of wood about an inch in thickness, having in its centre a hole about an inch and a nalf in diameter, fitted with a corkl or bung. Take another hive of ordinary dimensions, and place it over this. This is called catping. Wihen, during the proper season, the bees have filled the lower part of the hive, and show symptoms of requiring more room, you have only to draw out the cork, and place the cap over the board. This acts as a bell-glass, and the honey which will be collected in it will not be inferior to that procured from the most costly set of bee-boxes. A coating of Roman cement on the exterior surface of these hives will render them almost everlasting. 331 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. Glass hives are not to be recommended. Bees love darkness, and hate light or observation. In a state of nature they seek some hollow, vacant spot beneath a bank or rock, the cleft of a tree, or some similarly dark and secluded place. Huish is of the opinion that straw is the best material for making hives, because it is clean, wholesome, dry, impervious to the efliets of the weather; and being a warm advocate for the deprivation of a hive, in preference to the massacre of the bees, the particular shape of the hive became a matter of the first consideration, and secondly, so to construct it that the use of the sticks could be entirely abolished. In some parts of Greece, the hives resemble exactly a large flower-pot, and he considered that that shape offered to him every advantage which hlie was desirous of obtaining. The combs, being begun at the top, would necessarily be larger tlhanl at the bottom, and thus, acting on the principles of the wedge, they would be prevented from falling down, and the extraction of them from the top would, in comparison from the bottom, be a matter of great facility. In order, however, to effect the extraction of the combs from the top, it was evident that that advantage could not be gained were the top of the hive to be of one piece, for as such it could not be lifted without moving the whole mass of the combs, which, in the first place, would be next to an impossibility, and, in the second, would tend to the utter ruin of the hive. Having, therefore, constructed a hive of the shape of a flower-pot, making the diameter of the base not much smaller than that of the top, he placed a projecting band at the top, on which he placed seven bars, according to the annexed figure. These bars are fastened to the band of straw by small wooden pegs, which are easily drawn out when a honey-comb is to be extracted. -Pi,. 220. With the knowledge that bees will not construct their combs on an insecure foundation, he placed a piece of network over the bars, of which the meshes are of a middling size, by which, in a degree, the bees were forced to attach their combs to the bars, and thereby rendering their extraction more easy. Over the network he placed a board of five divisions, attached to each other 332 BEES. by hinges; so that any part of the interior of the hive could be exanmined without exposing the whole. The network was evidently an annoyance to tile bees, for in almost every instance the greater portion of it was nibbled away. In the lapping-board nine holes were made, over which plates of perforated tin were put, in order that the perspiration might escape, which prevents the combs assuming that black appearance which is in general so great an eyesore. According to this construction, the deprivation of the hive is very easily effected, and may be accomplished by the most timid person. The hive being covered with a top, according to the annexed cut, it is taken off, and one of the side flaps being lifted up, the position of the Fig. 221. comb immediately exhibits itself. If it has not been constructed exactly parallel with the bar, the opposite side may be examined, and that comb selected for extraction which presents the greatest facility. It is, however, necessary that the operator should have in readiness a pair of bellows, to the orifice of which is attached a small tin box, with the lid and bottom well perforated, into which some old rags or dried leaves, in an ignited state, must be placed; and thus, being provided with the object most dreaded by the bees, - namely, smoke, - as soon as the flap is opened, and the bees present themselves, they can be driven away; and should they show any disposition to return, the repetition of the smoke will curb in them all'future inclination to annoy the operator. The makle of Mr. Huish's hive was originally round. It was. however, soon discovered that that shape carried with it the disadvantage of having the side combs very small; and, therefore, after much trouble, hlie succeeded in bringing it nearly to the square, by which the side combs are nearly as large as those in the middle. Fig. 222 represents the hive. Of late years, many new plans for bee-hives have been presented to the public, some of which are great improvements on the old modes of construction and management. Among these may be named Beard's, Colton's, Cutting's, Weeks', and Miner's; a still more valuable invention is that recently patented by Arza Gilmore, Esq., which is commended by many of our most intelligent and skilful apiarists, as one combining, in an emi 333 5 — F-: —-: —-- - .i i- - FAR,MER'S HAND-BOOK. nent dec'ree, all the requisites of a perfect hive, and its introduction is becoming mnore general than that of any other article now in the market. Rig. 222. The followiPg is a perspective view of a bee-house, or apiary, on Mr. Gil. more's plan. Fig. 223. The above shows the front, with the openings for the bees - a door at the end, leading into the apartment back of the hives, where you can go, and examine the boxes, and inspect operations, unmolested. These houses niay 334 ,,. I amEaa On the tops of all of them are slats or gratings made of wood, aboutt an inch in widthl, aidl about a quarter of an inuch apart. They sl)ohl!t be,part far eniouli to hct the bees pass through easily, but not so far apart as to allow hem to lilid coimb that vould project through the cgratii, and connect with comb blo(w. The o)bject is to be able to remove parts of the comb in the I I iI I FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. hive when it gets old, and by sliding in a new section of hive, give them a chance to renew it. In this way, all the comnb may be renewed in each hive, from time to time. There is much advantage in this, for the bees are not only more healthy and active with new, freshly-made comb, but, in process of time, the cells, where the larvae are raised, become narrow and filled up with bread, and the exuvia of the growing young; hence, bees bred in such places are not so large and strong. This arrangement of hives enables the bee-breeder to remove the old, and give the bees a chance to manufacture new. These sections of the hive are held together by bits or small cleats of wood, represented by c c c, which are fitted into slots cut in the edge of each section, and held in their places by small wood screws. On the top of the hive, as at e, is an orifice or hole, which may be closed by a slide, and also a similar one on the sides, at d. These are for the purpose of allowing the bees to pass from hive to hive, as they are placed in contact with each other, and should be four or five inches square. They can thus pass through the opening e, in the top, into the hive above, or into the hives on either side, through the opening d, in the sides. I%-. 225. These sections, when put together, represent the front of the hive. It will be perceived that holes, or notches, are cut on each side of the cleats c c c, to allow the bees to pass and repass into and out of the hives, as is usual in common hives. Any number of hives are placed in contact with each other, side by side, and on the top of each other; and there is a communication throughout the whole, as above named, through the openings c and d. 336 ol CL CL BEES. The next cut represents the back-side of the hive, where are seen the cleats c c c, and the openings e and d. In addition to these are holes f f, eight in number, bored with an inch or an inch-and-a-half bit. They are i:iade to allow the bees to pass from the main hives into the boxes, which Fig. 226. e 0 ; 3 ~~~~~~( ,re placed in contact with them, having an opening of the same size, to match. These boxes are made of thin, light wood, having a pane of glass inl front, through which it may be seen whether they are filled with honey or not, before taking them away. They are seven and a half inches long, and four and three-fourths' inches high. The cut g represents the glass Fig. 227. front; f f showing the opening on the back-side, corresponding with the hole f, in the main hive. These boxes are kept in their places by means 29 x 331 FARHIER'S HAND-BOOK. of a rack, similar to the rack or case in which small drawers are placed. This is shown in the succeeding cut, and is extensive enough to cover the whole of broadside of the hives- s s s s representing slides of wood, tin, or zinc, by which the communication between the hives may be cut off when desired. These are the movable parts of the apiary. We will now proceed to arrange them in the house or room in which they are to stand. In order to E. 228. ~s illustrate this arrangement, the interior of the house is seen with the badand ends removed, thus exposing the fixtures within. A A A A is the floor of the house; B B B B is the front side. In order to let the bees pass out and in, small openings or doors are made, either in the form of a long opelning, as in the shaded part represented by c in the upper part, or in the square shaded parts, e e e c, below. Long openings are preferable. All these openings are furnishcd with sbutters or slides, by which they may be f 338 ,;,i, l BEES. completely closed, at will. The best arrangement for this is to have a long opening with a groove at the top and bottom of it, so as to return the slides Fig. 229. I I .I .I 339 0 ., I. , I I. I,Q t ' CP -\ O' q Ql FARDiER'S HAND-BOOK. when put in. By these, any part of the opening can be shut, and openings left just where you wish, which is often essential in directing the bees to Fig. 230. _. i[ p i J, - _' [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~. 7 -r;l. I 340 a~~~~~~Q R WW\9Xt~r I \ m BEES. ilch part of the hives as you wish. Two wide shelves, c c c c, are then placed in the house, the fronts resting against the side of the house, and the ends attached to posts or scantlings, which hold them firmly in their place. Below the lower shelf, at D, is a closet sufficiently large to hold a common bee-hive. This has a door, to shut tight and keep it dark, and a small opening in the front. The use will be explained below. The dotted lines on the shelves represent the spaces covered by the hives, when in place; o o o represent slots or openings through the shelf, corresponding with the openings in the top of the lower tier of hives, allowing the bees to pass through into the upper tier. We will now place the hives, and the rack or case to hold the boxes, in their places, which will be represented in the last architectural figure, where A A A A show the floor of the house, B B B B the front side, h h h the tops of the upper tier of hives, o o o the ends of the slide regulating the passage from hive to hive. After they are all placed, the boxes are darkened by being covered with a curtain or shutter. These tiers of hives are represented as not extending the whole lengthl of the house, but stopping two or three feet short of the right-hand end. At this end, the hives are perforated with holes, and a rack or case put up, which contains glass tumblers, lying on their sides, with their mouths applied to the holes in the hives. The bees enter these, and fill them with honey; a partition is put up at the end of the shelves to keep the bees from entering the other part of the house, and windows, w w, placed there, so that a spectator can stand and look into the gallery in front of the hive, and see the bees pass and repass into and out of the house. The hives are placed back a foot, or a foot and a half, from the side of the house, which leaves free space for the bees, and enables them to attack moths, or other intruders. We will suppose that you have the hives and fixtures all arranged, and one swarm of bees at work in them; Fig. 231. you may then add as many swarms as you can procure, in the following manner: You place the hive containing the swarm that you wish to add to 29* 341 FARMIIER S HAND-BOOK. the swarms in the apiary, into the closet D, at the bottom of the house - shutting the door, making all dark except the small opening in front. In a short time, the bees will leave the imprisoned hive, and unite with the swarm in the house, and work quietly and peaceably with them. When booxes are taken from the cases, they will contain a few bees. Place thcm in the dark closet D, and they will soon leave, and unite with the other bees in their work. The preceding cut represents a portion of the comb, or hexagonal cells of the bee, and also a cell for the production of the queen-bee, cut open, to show the difference of its form and size. IV. OBTAINING STOCK. Spring Stock.- A stock of bees may be procured either in the spring or autumn. The former period is, perhaps, to be preferred, because it is the fitting time for the removal of stocks from the old-fashioncd, awkward hives, to the more improved modern rcceptacles; but it is more difficult to ascertain the exact condition of the stock which may be purchased ill spring than in autumn. If, during the months of May or June, a purchase is to be made. the garden, or other locality, in which the hive intended to be purchased stands, should be visited about mid-day; stand opposite to it, and observe attentively the actions of its inhabitants. If they crowd busily in and out of the hive, giving evidence of their industry by the laden appei'ance of their legs, and altogether showing a busy earnestness in their toils, the hivNe may safely be bought, and if obtained before swarming has taken place, so much the better. Autumn Stock. -If the object be to obtain an autumnal hive, it is well to ascertain, by observing the stand and the ground around the hive, that the massacre of the drones has taken place. Observe the actions of the bees -see that they are lively and industrious; and if, on your too near aI)I)roach, one or two bees dash at the face, it may be regarded as a sign of Xvigor. Some writers speak of the necessity of purchasing only such stocks as are in nice new hives. This is necessary to be attended to, but is not si important if the interior of the hive be filled only with honey-colnb, and with no old, w-orn-out comb, the accumulation of years. If there is reason for doubt on the subject, fumigate the hive in the evening; then, turning upl) the hive, the character of its contents may readily be ascertained. If the comb l)e black, have nothing to do with the stock; the genuine color of the comb is white, and, consequently, the lighter it is, the better the stock. To Secture Good Hives.- Unless the party can be depended on, it is best never to send the hive to receive a swarm; otherwise a second swarm may be 342 BEES. furnished instead of a first swarm - a comparatively valueless stock for just the very thing desired. The first swarm begins the formation of the combs at the middle of the apex of the hive; the second does so at the side. The person who intends to erect an apiary should purchase a proper number of hives at the latter end of the year, when they are cheapest. The hives should be full of combs, and well stored with bees. The purchaser should examine the combs, in order to know the age of the hives. The combs of that season are white; those of a former year are of a darkish-yellow; and when the combs are black, the hives should be rejected, because old hives are most liable to vermin and other accidents. If the number of hives wanted have not been purchased in the autumn, it will be necessary to remedy this neglect after the severity of the cold is past in the spring. At this season, bees which are in good condition will get into the fields early in the morning, return loaded, enter boldly, and do not come out of the hive in bad weather, for when they do, this indicates that they are in great want of provisions. They are on the alert on the least disturbance, and by the loudness of their humming we judge of their strength. They preserve their hives free from all filth, and are ready to defend them to the utmost. The summer is an improper time for buying bees, because the heat of the weather softens the wax, rendering the comb liable to break if they are not very well secured. The honey, too, being then thinner than at any other time, is more apt to run out at the cells, which is attended with a double disadvantage, viz., the loss of the honey, and the daubing of the bees, whereby many of them may be destroyed. A first and strong swarm may, indeed, be purchased, but unless it is permitted to stand in the same garden until the autumn, it should be carried away in the nig,ht, after it has been l ived. V. SWARMIING. Time of Swarming. -Bees multiply, during the breeding season, with tstonishing rapidity; it is, therefore, not to be wondered at that the young brood should speedily produce croiwding in the hive, thus becoming not only inconvenienced for room, but more than agreeably warm; it is also supposed that the queen becomes alarmed at the number and progress to maturity of the royal larvae, which, indeed, she would fiin kill, were not she prevented from doing so by the workers. While swarmilig is by no meaLns o be forced, yet, if symptoms of a swarm present themselves early, say in April or Mlay, it may be permitted to take place, provided the parent stock be still sufficiently strong in numbers; otherwvise, it is, of course, highly disadvantageous to the wsell-being of the hive, as w%ell as to the emigranilts. li'ccl,i);..S o'f Sieraming. - The most certain indications of swarming are, 343 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. the hive appearing full of bees -clusters of them gathering on the outside, and sometimes hanging from the alighting-board; they also neglect their Fig. 232. daily toil, and refrain from going abroad in search of sweets, even though the weather be very fine. Just before they take flight, the hive is hushed, the bees are silent, and carefully loading themselves with provender for their journey. For two or three nights prior to swarming, a peculiar humming noise may be heard within the hive; the second swarm is announced by a different sort of buzzing, being, according to some writers, the result of a contest as to which of the two queens shall lead off from the hive. The old queen leads off the first swarm. To Prevent Swarming. - If a swarm be about to quit the hive, the slightest change of weather will prevent their doing so, but nothing so effectually as a shower of rain; hence, an excellent mode of preventing it, when the bees cluster on the outside of the hive, is by syringing them with water from a common metallic syringe. WVhen a swarm leaves the hive, if it do not 344 BEES. settle on some tree or bush, but remain in the air, and there is fear of its going off to too great a distance, it may be brought down by throwing up sand or dust, which the bees mistake for rain, or by firing a gun, which they mistake for thunder; hence the old fashion of following a swarm with the noise of fire-shovels and frying-pans. It is necessary to be diligent in at once securing the swarm, fior the bees send out scouts previous to swarming, whose duty it is to select a proper habitation for the colony. On this account, it is a good plan, when a swarm is anticipated, to leave an empty hive, previously smeared on the interior with honey, in soime couvenicnt place, but not too near the old one. To Sccurei a Sitc-ai- that hlas Setiled.- When the swarm settles. the bees collect themselves in a heap around the queen, handing to each other by means of their feet. Wheni thus suspended from a tree (Fig.'232) they may be secured by holding an empty hive under them, and tapping the branch from which they are suspended. They should, in this case, be sprinkled with honey and ale, and confined for about twelve hours. When a swarmn divides into two or more bands, and settles separately, it is probable that there are two queens. In this case one of them must be secured. If, through inattentioni, a second swarm comes off, as soon as it is hived, secure the queen, and return the swarm to the hive; indeed, when deprived of its queen, it will usually immediately return of its own accord. MAany persons suppose that the greater the number of swarms, the richer will be the hives in August The very reverse of this, however, is the case; for when a hive is weak in numbers, a sufficient number of bees cannot be spared to go forth for honey, and hence they will be scarcely able to collect enough foir their actual support, far less to collect any surplus for their master's benefit. Effccts of Scarming. Brigs, a distinguished apiarist, remarks that the swarming of bees is a subject on which much misconception prevails. Most persons who keep their bees on the old straw-hive plan, and suffocating system, appear to anticipate their swarming with much anxiety, and thirnkl that the greater number of swarms, -firsts, seconds, thirds, &c., - that they obtain from their old hives during the summer, the more remunerative will they prove to the owner at the end of the season; whereas the reverse of the above practice is much nearer of being the best system to flllow. It is proved that June is the principal month for swarming, in ordinary seasons; and it is in June and July that the greatest quantity of honey is stored up by the bees, when managed judiciously. When the swarmning is assisted and encouraged during June and July, the old stocks are considerably weakened, and the swarms are employed in buiilding combs in their new hives, collecting pollen, and attending to the yonlig brood, until the best part of the honey-storing season is over; so that, at the honey 345 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. harvest in autumn, it will frequently require the contents of five or six old stocks, or late swarms, to produce as much honey as might have been obtained from one colony on the system of management which is recommended. To Avoid Sicarinig,, in the Case of Collateral Boxes. - In collateral boxes, and in capped hives, swarming may be prevented by affordiing the bees additional accommodations, and reducing the temperature; and for this end, it is recommended, by most apiarists, that the hive or box should be furnished with a thermometer, as well as a ventilator. Those, however, who do not possess these accommodations, may manage well enough, by proper observation and attention to the symptoms which have been detailed. When these appear in a collateral box-hive, open one of the partitions, and admit the bees into a new apartment; if all be full, take off a box, empty and restore it. In the case of a capped hive, remove the bung, and admit the bees to the cap; if full, remove, empty, and restore it. The most favorable degrees of heat for the prosperity of the brood are from 75~ to 90~ in the stolck-hiv-e, and from 65< to 75, in the side boxes. Thie hleat, in a prosperotis hive, is sometimes upwards of 70~ it December, and vwij], in hot summer weather, sometimes rise to near 120~, at which time the combs are in great danger of being damaged, and of falling to the floor of the hItive; this may, however, be prevented, by giviing extra room when required, and by shading the hives from extreme heat, as previously directed. And again, it should always be borne in mind that all operations with bees should be performed as carefully and speedily as circumstances will permit, so that the bees will scarcely know that their habitation has been meddled with. After hiring a new swarm, if unfavorable weather follow their departure, feed them, otherwise they will be starved; indeed, it would be well if each new swarm were always fed for a few days, as this will assist them in gaining strength in numbers and in store, before the principal part of the honey season goes over. The weight of a good swarm should be from five to seven pounds, taid all uinder five pounds in weighlt should be united to otlhers. In hivipg a s-warmn, it is w-ell to be protected with a proper bee-dress. Some persons are particularly ulnhatp)y in possessing those qualities which render them disagreealle to bees.'The main objections are, excessive timidity, and likewise, with some, an unpleasant odor, in some instances the result of personal itegliFence, but frequently of peculiarity of constitution. The remedies are, a bIee-dress for the former, and the use of some strong perfitm(, which the bees like, and which will effectually conceal whatever is offensive to them. Some writers on bee management have suggested other modes to prevent objectionable swarming, besides the collateral boxes and the capped hive. 346 BEES. Among these plans may be mentioned storifying or piling, and eking. The latter is speedily disposed of; it consists of adding ekes, or additional bands of straw, to the bottom of the common hive, according as additional room is required. The objection is, that, although it may thus answer the purpose during one season, the next involves as much perplexity as ever. Acdoaltedozess of the Different Hives. -The objections urged against the storified hive are, first, that it occasions the bees greater trouble and labor, rendering their labor less productive; second, the absence of provision for dividinlg the ordinary cells from the more peculiar and mysterious operations of the queen, and of course a consequent deterioration of the honey in respect to purity, besides much inconvenience and waste of time to the poor bees, -for a laden bee cannot mount up from one box to another, and through a labyrinth of comb, with anything like comfort and ease; thirdly, in taking a box of honey, the proprietor cannot be certain of not taking away a quantity of brood-comb, &c., -though this objection may be classed with that which rests on the impurity of the honey, with this additional one -that this also refers to loss of life which the bees, both brood and adult, must thus sustain; and fourthly, in consequence of these objectionable circumstances, which are the inevitable consequences of the piling system, the profit accruing from such management will be far inferior to that obtainable by the system already recommended. It is said that in piled boxes bees are subjected to unnecessary labor, w-hichl is so far a waste of time. From piled boxes not nearly the quantity of honey and wax is procured that may be procured from collateral boxes; nor is that deficient quantity of a quality at all comparable with the other. In managing piled boxes many bees are destroyed. VI. - THE HONEY HARVEST. Tinme and locle.- Those who possess collateral boxes may begin taking a box or a bell-glass very early in the season, - indeed, even so early as May or June; this must be, of course, dependent on the state of affairs, and on their own discretion. Those who keep their bees in the capped hive may also get a cap full of honey in or about the middle of June. The real honey harvest, however. is that which should take place in the beginning or middle of Aunust. WTith reference to the collateral hives, no instructions need be added to those given when describing Mr. Nutt's boxes. Tihe old mode of obtaining honey was, as is well known, by sulffocating the inmates of the hive. "Futnig,ation" is a word employed by bee-keepers to express the process in which, by the aid of certain intoxicating snoklie, the insects become temporarily stupefied; in which state they are perfectly harmless, aitd may be deprived of their honey without any risk or trouble. 347 FARMIER'S IIAND-BOOK. They subsequently recover from their stupefaction, and are nothing the worse for it. The dried fuzz-ball, and the frog-cheese, are mtuch used for the purpose; but, in their absence, rags steeped in a solution of saltpetre, or a fewv tobacco-leaves wrapped in brown paper, will do nearly as well. If tobacco be used, care is necessary, lest the fumigation be carried to too great an extent, so as to cause the death of. some or all of the stockl. Persons not accustomed to deal with bees should wear an over-all of thin gauze over the head and breast, and gloves on their hands. With this, and a little bottle of aqua ammoniae, or aqua potassa, to be used in case of accident, they can g(o to work with coolness and deliberation. There should be provided, for the purpose of filmigation, a small tin box, with a tube ex!ending, from each of two opposite ends; one end of this tube being so fashioned that it can readily be inserted into the hive, and the other so Fig. 233. formed that it can readily be attached to the tube of an ordinary bellows. The box shotuld be so formed that it can be opened at pleasure. In this box the matter to be employed in fumigation is first placed, having, of course, been previously ignited; and the proper end of the tube having been inserted into the hive at the lower part, ply the bellows gently. The bees begin at once to feel the effects of the smoke. At first an unusual humming and commotion will be heard, but in less than ten minutes all will be still. The bees will fall upon the board under the hive, and lie quite still, as if dead. The hive may then be removed, and a fresh hive-the interiot well smeared with honey- may be placed over them, or they may be united to another stock, which should also be previously ftlmigated, one queen being removed. Some persons may conceive it to be a difficult matter to come at the queen. WVhen fumigation is resorted to, she is, of course, easily discovered; but even when it is dispensed with, and the practice adopted which will presently be described, she is not so very difficult to come at; for, on a hive being turned up and tappec, the queen is among the first, if not, indeed, the very first, who makes her appearance. The queen usually lodges near the crown of the hive, and is, when fumigation is resorted to, one of the last to fall; she will, therefore, in this case, be found amongst the uppermost bees. In practising fumigation, two persons should act in concert, each taking a hive and operating upon it, in order that both stocks should 348 BEES. be simultaneously in a similar condition as to intoxication. The hive must also be well covered with a cloth, to prevent the escape of the smoke. When the two stocks have been united in the manner described, it is advisable to confine the insects to their hive for that night and the following day. Do not, however, wholly deprive them of air in doing so, or they may be smothered. On the evening of the following day, about dusk, uncover the hive, and open the entrance. The bees will probably at first tumultuously issue forth, but, finding the lateness of the hour, will as hastily return. It is necessary to be cautious at this time. The most suitable period of the year for uniting weak with strong stocks is from the middle of August to the latter part of September. This, however, is not a proper time to remove stocks from straw hives to boxes, for the season is too far advanced. When taken from their warm hive, and removed into a cold box, bees rarely recover from the effects of the fumigation sufficiently to resume business. May or June is the best time for this removal, or perhaps still earlier, - say the beginning of April, - before the eggs of the queen-bees have attained the stage of larvae. If the operation be performed in cold weather, it is recommended that it be done in a room where the temperature is about 600. Twelve hours, or thereabouts, suffice for the recovery of the bees, and they may then be removed with safety to their ordinary stand. To prepare the fuzz-balls, put the ball into a piece of stout paper, and compress it as tightly as you can; tie it up closely in this condition, and put it in a moderately-cool oven, - about as cool as that from which bread has just been withdrawn; - let it remain there until it will serve as tinder. The quantity of the prepared fungus necessary for the fimigation of a hive is a piece about the size of a hen's egg,-less may, in some instances, answer, but it is better to have too much than too little. Prior to union, -even where fumigation has been employed, -the sprinkling with ale and liquid honey should not, on any account, be omitted. The system which dispenses altogether with filmigation, called tapping or drivig,, is spoken of favorably by some writers. It is as fi)llows: - When daylight has died away, and twilight appears, the bees will all be quietly reposing, unsuspectingly, in the hive; - let whoever is in the habit of tending the bees be the agent in the process; -no assistance is necessary; - let him or her take an old chair from which the bottom is out, - a worn one is best, as it best fits the reversed hive, - turn up the hive on the chair, and place over it an empty one, which has been smeared interiorly with honey, or sugar dissolved in beer; wrap a cloth around the point of junction, for the first few minutes, and with a stick tap the reversed hive round the sides, beginning near the bottom, and gradually ascending in your strokes, 30 349 FAr3IER'S HIAND-BOOK. towards the top; let the strokes be not too rough, lest the combs be loosened. Ere this operation has proceeded very far, a humming noise will be heard, and presently the disturbed bees, more than half asleep, will mount into the upper hive. If the ascent of the bees appears checked, before all have left the lower hive, remove the cloth, -which, by the way, is no longer necessary, when once the ascent has commenced, - and raise the upper half an inch or so above the lower. This will be found to facilitate the emigration, and will be unattended with danger. The lower hive being fully deserted, place that containing the bees on the stand. Some like to close the aperture for a time, but this is useless. First Harvest. - The most secure mode of procedure, and the most approved, is to unite the exiled bees with those of another hive. Remem)er always to leave the bees a sufficient store of honey as food. This is usually done by setting apart what is called a stock-hive, - a hive well filled with honey, and capable of containing and supporting more bees. Turn up this stock-hive, and sprinkle its drowsy inmates, or rather drench them, with sugar or honey, dissolved in beer. Do the same with the exiles; and once again invert the abode of the latter over the mouth of the inverted stock-hive. Proceed in other respects as before; and, by tapping, d(rive them down. The two families rapidly recover from their surprise, and the agreeable employment afforded to all their individual members, of licking the results of the sprinkling from each other's bodies, will soon produce friendliness, and meanwhile the liquid with which you have saturated them will prevent their distinguishing betwixt stranger and comrade. Of course, precaution was taken previously to remove the queen of the swarm to be united to the stock-hive. This is the first harvest. Second Harvest. - By adopting the following approved system of management, a second harvest may be obtained, before placing the bees in their winter quarters. This latter operation is termed shi,ing. From the middle of August to the end of September is the usual time when we perceive the food of bees beginning to fail them. This is the period for removing them to the "heather," which is then in bloom. Before moving, ascertain the condition of the hives; for those which are well stocked with honey should be deprived by the process already detailed, and this should be done some days prior to removal, for the combs containing the young may have been loosened in the operation, and the bees should be allowed time to fasten them once again securely in their places. Water carriage, when procurable, is the best, as it shakes the hives 350 351 least; but when land carriage must be resorted to, the hives should be car ried on poles, slung on men's shoulders. The journey should be pursured at night only, and the bees suffered to go forth and feed during the day. Such is their instinct, that they will readily find their way back; but they should not be suffered to go forth until at the distance of upwards of ten or twelve miles from their original home, otherwise they will be lost in endeavoring to regain it,- a moderate distance induces them to abandon the idea, and to become reconciled to their new quarters. If traveling by canal, the hives should be removed from the boat, and placed on stands, at some distance from the bank, ere the insects are let out, otherwise they will be lost in thousands by falling into the water on their return. E,ramining and l'eighing.- About the middle of September, examine your hives; at all events, do not, whatever be the aspect of the season, neclect this necessary operation until October; but if the season appear likely to turn out to be a severe one, set about it even earlier than the time named. Understand, however, that the bees cannot be deprived of any honey so late as this. In glass or observatory hives, and such as are formed on the collateralbox or piled-box principle, there are usually such contrivances as will admit of inspection of the hive and its contents without handling it. In the ordinary hive, however, we cannot avoid manually ascertaining the weight and condition of the stock. In order to do so, a previous acquaintance with the weight of the hive, and of the probable number of bees which it contains, is necessary; and it would be as well to have the stands so contrived as to admit of their being raised with the hive for the purpose of weighing, as, if the latter be forcibly separated from the former, the cement of propolis gets broken, - the substance which unites the hive to its position on the stand, - and annoys and troubles the bees. A hive should contain twenty pounds of honey for its support' during winter; but it is a mistake to suppose that an increase of numrber in the hive, produced by union, will require an increase of food. In fact, precisely the contrary is the case; and the more abundant the stock of the bees in autumn, the richer and the better able to workl will they be in spring, - the more forward, therefore, will they be in summer, and the greater will be the profit. The weight of honey, above named, is, of course, exclusive of both hive and bees. In one pound-sixteen ouncesthere are about five thousand bees; from fifteen to twenty thousand bees constitute a strong hive,- that is, from four to five pounds in wei-ht. If, after making these calculations and deductions, the stocks are f(ound under w'eight, either supply them with food, or unite two or more together. A.e will cause hives to weiglh heavier than their-legitimatt. contents 13F,ES. FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. would call for. This is occasioned by an accumulation of bee-bread, and the cast sloughs which had formerly served as envelopes to the young. In the ease of old hives, therefore, allow from two to five pounds, according to age, for these matters. The substances referred to should be occasionally removed from the hive, as otherwise they will accumulate to such an exent as to render the hive too small for breeding, and the stock will thus soor become extinct. Spring is the proper season for removing these substances; the process is very simple, consisting merely in fumigating the hives, and thus rendering the bees for the time insensible; then, while they are in this state, turning up the hive and cutting out a portion of the old comb, - only cut away half at a time. The following spring, perform the same operation; -the gap made by the knife the previous year will be found completely restored, and the remaining portion of old comb may now be removed. By this system of constantly inducing a renovation of the combs, the stock may be preserved in a state of perpetual youth. Duration of Hires. - The hive, even if made of straw, will last for an indefinite length of time, if protected externally by a thick coat of whitewash, or, which is better, Roman cement. Some object entirely to paint being used for this purpose. The cutting of the combs may also be resorted to in cases where the hives are infested withI moths; under such circumstances, all the combs that contain the larvae of those insects may be cut away. Food for Bees. - With regard to food for bees, honey, when it is on hand and can be spared, is, of course, the best; but, if you cannot give honey, substitute for it ale and sugar, boiled gently together in a clean, well-tinned vessel, over a clear fire, for about five minutes. One pound and a half of sugar may be added to each quart of ale, and the mixture is to be skimmed, according as the scum rises to the surface, during boiling; when the syrup is taken from the fire, add to it about a tea-spoonful of common table-salt for each quart of syrup. It is bad to be compelled to feed the bees in winter, as, by descending to the bottom of the hive in order to get at the food, they expose themselves to cold, and many perish; by early examination in autumn, and uniting weak hives, together with judicious feeding at that season, if necessary, the winter management will be simplified. Some persons defer feeding until the bees are absolutely in want. This is wrong; the assistance should be rendered several weeks before the hive is in a state of positive destitution, otherwise, when the food is given them, the bees will be too weak to partake of it. The best mode of feeding is, to put the honey, or syrup, as the case may be, into a shallow box; lay over the sweet liquid a sheet of strong paper, perforated with holes, through which the bees can suck the 352 BI,ES. svrip witlout filling into the mess. or )(ecoming clogged by it. Attach thle [)ox to the mouth of the hive; the bees will soon niake it out, ellter, arnd tretove the store to their cells. It is bad to lift up the hive fori the p)lr)ose ,f feeding, as, by so doing, the temecrature of the interior is loNwere(l, and tl stock often destroyed. When the feeder is attached to the entrance of tlhe hiv-e, all this is obviated. VII. MANAGEMIENT DURING WINTER AND EARLY SPRING. Atiti:iino aid Ill'i7tr Care. -One of the most important particulars con ni(ctedl with bee mianagemetit is takinlg care that they are abundantly supplied %v ith food in autumn, and also takiig- care at that season to ascertain whether or not they are sufficiently stroag in 7tlutbes, an(l, if not, uiile thle tveak stocks, so as to form strong oncs. It is b)y such treatment as this that )ees are pre s(rv-e(1 in health and streng(th during the winter, and in a condition to attend p)roperly to their brood in the erly sl)rlinl. Fc'edizg-. In a large straw hive, there should be left, at the atitumnal honey harvest, from twenty to tveity-five, or even, according to the size of the hiv-e, thliirty pound(ls weight of honey, exclusive of the weight of hive, sttand, anid bees. If, from any accident, the hive should be fotiundl deficient i) xveil(ht, you must make tip the deficiency by artificial fee(linrg, either with hou(t,v or w ith tlhe mixture of l)eer and sugar, as has already be(,n descril)ed. It is not, hlj)e-cxer. very stron a evidellce of the apia-rian skill of anry otte wrlo is Co)tii)ll)tlIe(I to fieled his b('es ifi the auttlmni; and, indeed, fw should be o!ilitol to lo so, but those who use too s/l-1l a hive, and whose swarmns are rolls (tu(1litlv too v;wek, too feelt)le in point of number, to acquire sltifficient xwealth d(uringr the proper seasoti for so doing, or from whomi there has been injudicioutsly taken too much store, at a period too late in the seasoit to admit of the )ees replenishing the hive. Va'-orecit-I/, the Entrance, and Corering. - Ithaving ascertained that the sto(cks a re sili)plie(d with sufficient quantity of food for their support durinrg the wittwr. or that they are already possessed of enough, the next tlhing is to tt(orrot, the entrance of the hive so that it will scarcely admit of the pass:iqe of IImorei than one bee at a time; and towards the middle of Novemit)er the etitrance should be closed nearly altogrether. The hives should( be coveredl up witlih matting, fern, or other similar substance, in order to preserve tliem trom rain, frtost, or, the most dangerous of all, the sun's rays of a fine witter's (ta'. These deceptive rays would afford a temptation to lIt, 1)les to sally forthl, and the result would be that they would become chilletl by) the c,tltl. Few w,%outld survive the flight so as to return to the hive' its te,l~:,,'at'iie wold1 fll, aod thte wilole stock would lbe lost. Tht lI;;e( s st dld rehain titus carefullv covered and closed( until the begiioitig of };c:h 30* ~ 353 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. A coating of Roman cement, as previously mentioned, will protect the hives from cold in winter, heat in summer, from moths, and from wvet. When there is snow on the ground, the entrances of the hives should be entirely closed. Dampness, and Ventilation.- To preserve from internal dampness, during winter, carefully ventilate, placing a bell-glass, well covered with flannel, over the aperture on the top of the hive or box, removing it from time to time, and carefully wiping away from its interior the damp formed by condensed vapor. Materials for Covering. - The materials with which hives are covered and surrounded should consist of dry leaves pressed closely together, or dry and powdered charcoal or cinders, and may be several feet in thickness, to preserve the bees in a cool and torpid state, and at a regular temperature, in which state they should be kept as dry, dark, and quiet, as circumstances will permit. Spring Care. -As the spring approaches, the winter covering should be gradually removed, and those hives which have been buried placed in their summer situations. Small quantities of food should then be supplied, as occasion requires, until the gooseberry and currant-bushes are in bloom, at which time it may, in general, be considered that their winter is past. Warm weather, accompanied with moderate showers, is most agreeable to them at this period; and it is considered that flowers yield the greatest amount of mellifluous juices when the weather is calm and suitable as above, and with the wind blowing from any point of the compass from south to west inclusive. Some pursue a mode of preserving bees by interment during winter. It consists of laying some very dry powdered earth upon the bottom of an old cask, to the depth of about half a foot, pressed down very hard, and setting upon this the stool with the hive; then preserving a communication with the air, by cutting a hole in the cask, opposite to the mouth of the hive, and placing a piece of reed from the mouth of the hive to the hole in the cask then covering the hive up with a quantity of dry earth similar to that on which it stands. In spring it is only necessary to remove the winter coverings gradually and with caution; to examine also the state of the bees' provisions, and, if necessary, feed them. Be cautious in at once giving them liberty, or in doing so too early, or in unsettled weather. Many bees lose their lives from neglect of these precautions, simple as they are, and obvious as their necessity must appear to every reflective bee-keeper. It is well, for these reasons, that the mouth of the hive should face due west, until all these dangers have passed away; of course, when the working season has arrived, all restraint 354 BEE; must be removed, the aspect of the hive moved southward, and the insect left entirely to themselves. When spring feeding is necessary, it is usually in April, for then the demands of the young brood call for a greater consumption of honey than ordinary; and from want of attention to this circumstance, hives have been lost so late in the season as the month of May. Spring, also, say about the beginning of March, is the proper time for transferring stocks from hives to boxes, remembering that the latter should be previously wvell cleaned out, their interior smeared, and supplied with a portion of honey, in a proper feeder. As the warm weather approaches, shade the hives from the sun. If the bees be induced by the heat to attempt injudicious or ill-timed swarming, and hang in clusters about the entrance of the hives, if advisable, it can be checked by sprinkling them with some water. They will mistake this for rain, and retire within the hives to resume their work. VIII. HOW TO TREAT THE PRODUCE OF THE HONEY HARVEST. Removing. -In the first place, remove the store to some room without a fireplace, for the bees have been known to make use of even that mode of access in order to come at the honey, which they are able to scent from a considerable distance. Close all the doors and windows, previously having in the room whatever implements are wanted- viz., some large glazed earthen vessels, clean, new, horse-hair sieves, a strainer, some clean linen cloths, and abundance of water to wash in. Some recommend burning cowdung, or rotten hay, at the doors and windows of the room in which the work is being done, in order to keep away the bees. The Combs.- The first care should be to examine the combs, and free them from all dirt, grubs, young bees, or other foreign matters, remembering, ot course, to have previously well and thoroughly washed hands. Then cut the combs horizontally into pieces of an inch wide, and lay them on the sieve over the glazed earthen vessels; when they have dropped all the honey that they will yield without squeezing, put them in the cloth already mentioned, and wring it over another vessel; this will furnish the secondclass honey - that spontaneously yielded is called virgin honey, and is equal in purity to that obtained from the bell-glass. When all is obtained that can be by squeezing through the cloth or bag, carefully cover up the two sorts, put the comb, also well covered, into a vessel by itself, and remove all the other cloths, vessels, and other utensils, to the apiary, that the bees may lick them clean. Obtaining and Preparing the Wax. - The next object is to obtain the wax. For this purpose, put the combs into a clean vessel, aind add n,s much soft water as they will foat in - distilled water would be best, but rain 35D FARMIER S HAND-BOOK. will answer nearly as well. Place the vessel on a clear and not too hot fire, and watch it, stirring occasionally, until the comybs be cotml)letely li(utefie(ld. 'Then strain this throutlh a fine canvas bag, into a tub of cold water. The water first flows throLith, an(l then the bag requires presss,re to niake it yield the wax. A simple press recommendled is, to have ready a piece of smooth board of such a lengthl that, when one end of it is placed iu the tub of cold water, the other end may be convenienitly rested against, iiiid securely stayed, by your breast. Up)on this inclined plane lay the drilfilig, reeking strainer, and keep it fromn slipping into the cold water by bringing its uliper part over the top of the board, so as to be held firmly b)etwceii it and your breast. If the strainer be made with a broad lieni roundl its top, a piece of strong tape or cord passed throtugh such hemn will draw it close, and should be long enough to forirm a stirrup fir the foot, by which an add(litiolnal power wVill be gained of ke(t)iing the scalding hot strainer in its proper plae on the board; then, by compressing the bag, or rather its contelnts, with ally convenient roller, the -wax will ooze throiugh, and run down tile board into the cold water, on the sutrftce of which it w-ill set in thin flakes. Wlhen this part of the operation is finished, collect the w-ax, pit it into a clean saucepan, in which is a little water, to keep the wax fiom being( burned to the bottom; melt it carefully, for should it be neglected, and suffered( to boil our, serious mischief might ensue, liquidl wax beiing of a very inflaminnmable nature; let it be melted over a slow fire, and skim off the dross as it rises to the top; then pour it into such moulds or shapes as may bc dlesired, having first well rinsed them, in order that you may be able to get the wax, w\hen cold and solid, out of them, without breaking either the Iiottu(ls or the wax; place them, covered over with cloths, or with pieces of board(l, whe(re the wax will cool slowly, because the more slowly it cools, the more solid will it lie, anid free from flaws and cracks. The wax may be bleached by re-melting it, and running it several times into very thin cakes, sutlffered to cool, and exposed to the influence of thie air and sun. This will render it white. Thie honey may also be clarifiedl I)by placing tihe vessel containing it in hot water, and continuing to skim as long as any scum arises. In order to preserve it, it should be stored in jars, well bladdered and otherwise secured, and kept dry. IX. THE DISEASES AND ENEMIIES OF BEES. Diseases. - When properly attended to, and managed on the improved system, bees are neither very subject to disease nor very liable to suffer from the attacks of enemies. The diseases to which they are subject are ditirrhcea and d(yseniery. Thie latter is probably only produced by neg(lect of the former; at all events, we may regard the two atIlctions as springing from the one cause. 356 BEES. Columella speaks of diarlirhea as a purging which seizes bees annually, in the spriing; and conceives it to be occasioned by the bees strfeiting themsclves on the young flowers in their first repast, and recommends giving them rosemary and honey diluted with water. According to others, this looseness is occasioned by the bees feedinig on what is called "candied hoiiey," which is thought to be formed by being too long in the hive, too stale, and hence sour and unfit for use. To prevent this, examine periodically the hives or boxes, and remove, on each occasion, a portion of the old( or miouldy combs. The presence of candied honey in a hive is so obnoxious to bees that it frequently induces themt to desert it. The candied honey proves fatal to bees in another way beside their being poisoned by it. When the bees find candied honey in the combs, they, knowing its prejudicial qualities, if they have other and wholesome store, throw it out of the combs, and it, of course. fLlls on the bottom-board of the hive. They can then neither enter nor leave the hive without bedaubing themselves, and their endeavors to free themselves and their companions fronm the incumbrance only make matters worse. WVhen bees are found in this state, it is difficult to relieve theni; but if anything will do so, it is immersion in tepid water; for this purpose they can be swept into a tub with the wing of a fo-wl, leave them in the water until insensible, and unite them, wheni they revive a little, to the bees of another hive, taking care to serve these latter similairly. Somtie attribute purginig and dysentery to the bees feeding on too pure honey, which is said not to be sufficiently substantial for them by itself; and the cure recommended is to give them, from another hive, conmbs well supplied with bee-bread or crude wax. ~,?l('lics. The citezlics of bees are far more numerous than their diseases, includingi, as they do, poultry, mice, lizards, toads, frogs, snails, slugs, caterpillars, mothls, millipedes, wood-lice, ants, lice, spiders, wasps, hornets. Foicls should not be permitted in any apiary. They will kill and eat the bees; and such as they do not destroy, they will annoy and disturb. Afice do not dare attack the hive w-hile the bees are vigorous; but as the cold approaches, and the bees become less active, the mouse enters, and, comnmencing with the lower combs, ascends by decrees as the bees become torpid, until he either clearis all awy or, biv the smnell of the honey he has wasted on the board, induces other bees to come and plunder. As soon as the warm weathler returns, the stlirviviig bees will also leave the hive in disgust. The recmedv is easy. 13y liaLviuig the straw hives,- if' such are used, - coated exteriorly withl Romin cement, the mice will be pirevented fronm nestling in the strawv, w-hence otherwise they would speedily eat their wayv into the interior; andl, by narrowingv the entrance of the hive in the mannier already described, the little intruders will be effectually kept out. If the stands be placed on a single foot, or if the feet are so placed under 357 FIARMER'S HAND-BOOK. the foot-board as to leave a wide, projecting ledge, no mice can arrive at the hive. Toads will kill bees occasionally, but not in great numbers; and the same remarks are applicable to Frogs. Snails and Slurs are not absolutely enemies of bees, as they have no design upon them or their honey in entering the hive, but merely do so from accident. The mischief done by them consists in the alarm and confusion they occasion. The bees first attack the unfortunate intruder, and kill him with their stings; after which, thley carefully encase him in propolis, effectually preventing putrefaction or the production of maggots. Caterpillars - especially the wax-ntoths, so called from the ravages they make amongst the combs as soon as they obtain entrance - are very injurious. By having the legs of the stand placed as has been described, no caterpillar can climb up to the hive; but this will not prevent the moth herself entering and depositing eggs in the hive; and so prolific are these moths, that a single brood would suffice to destroy a whole stock. Periodical fumigation, and cutting away such combs as contain the grubs, are the remedies to be adopted. MIoths are only nocturnal enemies; during the day there is nothing to fear from their attacks. Let the entrance to the hive, therefore, be nearly closed in the evening, and the bees will be protected from their ravages. Some recommend, as a trap for moths, a bottle, or other vessel, with a long and narrow neck increasing gradually to a wide mouth, and having a light in the neck, to be placed under the hive in the evening. This will destroy numbers. Another particular to be attended to is to have the stocks sufficiently strong, and for this purpose, if the hive attacked be weak, unite to it the bees of another hive, in the manner already described. The bees are themselves, if sufficiently strong in numbers, both willing and able to destroy the intruders. If weak, they will necessarily fall victims. Millipedes, or Woodlice, are often produced by the stand being made of decayed wood, or the hive being placed too near an old hedge. Let the stand be of new wood, and strew soot on the ground under and about the hive. This will also serve in part as a protection against the attacks of Ants. All such ants' nests as are found in the neighborhood of a hive should be destroyed. Lice are small parasitical insects, of a red color, which adhere to the body of the bee, and derive their nourishment from her juices. They are about the size of a grain of mustard-seed, or rather smaller; Morocco tobacco will kill the lice, without injuring the bees. Spiders may be gotten rid of by brushing away their webs wherever met with near the stand. Wasps and( Hornets are most noxious to bees. Dig up and destroy their nests wherever they may be met with. Among the Birds most inimical to bees, may he mentioned sparrows and swallows. Set traps near the hives, baited withl) dead bees, and hang up a few of such birds as you kill on trees near the stand. 358 CHAPTER IX. FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, &c. rHE CULTURE OF FLOWERS - PLANS FOR FLOWER-GARDENS - DESCRIPTION O0 STANDARD VARIETIES OF FLOWERS - ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS - ORNAMENTS TREES; - MONTHLY FLORICULTURAL CALENDAR. I. FLOWERS. General Remarks. - The pre-requisites of flower-beds and composts are, depth, friability, and necessary richness. The practice of trenching the sites of flower-beds to the depth of three feet is found to be of great service; not that any of the fibrous roots can reach so low, but because the bed should be quickly drained after much rain, and that in dry weather the roots may be invited to run as deep as they have a tendency to go. There is another reason for deep trenching, which is, no doubt, as beneficial to flowers as it is to all other plants, viz., they receive a greater share of that genial moist warmth which is at all times rising from the interior of the earth to its surface. This is a circumstance not enough attended to, and by many practitioners is quite unheeded; it is, nevertheless, a great assistant to vegetation. According as we descend, the temperature increases. In the winter and spring months it is by several degrees warmer at the depth of a tfew feet than at or near the surface. The ground being opened to that depth, therefore, permits the ascent of this warm steam in cold weather, and allows it to rise like a refreshing vapor, when the weather is hot and dry, in both seasons of much advantage to the roots. Friability.- That flowers may have every encouragement from the constitutional texture of the compost they are placed on, it is prepared by being compounded, aerated, and screened, till it is free fromn stones, clods, &c., Fig. 234. and all of a uniform consistence. It should not be liable to knead in working, nor run together under heavy rain. By the addition of sand, rotten FARSIER S HAND-BOOK. dungc, or leaf-mould, it must be sufficiently porous to receive, and as readily discharge, any excess of water, as well as allow the penetration of every quality fromn the air whichl is beneficial to plants. A gard(len syriige, like the followingi, will be fobund very convenient in appl)lying water to flowerplants. Fi. 235. 235. Enriching. - The high fertility of the soil intel-ded for flowers is one of the principal provisions to be me(l( for tiheir I)riosi)(rity. In thc compost every ingredient should be present tllat exl)cril(lce liss discovered to be useful, and every quality adidedl whichl suteccessfill lpractice sanctions, or what rational ingenuity llay sutigtest.'I'lhe liuxniiaiutce of the pllanlts depends on the suitableiess and teinl)eraitiict of thle coiiimpost; and the richness of the tints depends on the qualities contained in it. Coverings, fc. - For the deletnic of fine bed-flowers from inclement weather, and to preserve them in beamty ais long as possil)lc, thile florist who wishes to excel in the art, ald derive the utitiost satisfitetion from the pursuit, should provide hiuiself with every necessary a,ippendage for the putrp)ose. The means of temiipor-iry l)rtection agailinst rain, hail, or sltow, and awniligs for the preservatioli of the fill-bl,l)wil flowers, arc b)oth necessary. Stages, as well ts l)eds, r(telirc these al))purteinancces. IFCw lovers of flowers, who take deli,2'lit in tlheir cultivation, can grt(l(re the expense of proper means for both shade atil( shelter. Commercial florists 1aive arraiinemenits for these purp)oses on 0 in extensive scdle, emiil)ra(ci i, all the adlvantages of convenience and utility thle aialtleur, or fl,we(r-fnici(e r adol)pts as many of these conveulieni(es as are sufficient for his imore limited designis. For all bed-flowers, )particulalrly hiy-tcinthlis and tutlips, the beds slhould be surrounded by boardinig tfrom one to three feet 1ii1, to ive, foir ease of examinationi, the necessary elevation to the flowers. Staple)l(s driven in at the corners and along the sides of this )boardiing serve to admit wooden or iron hoops, whiclh, connected along the centre and at the elves with slight laths, form a sufficiently firnm atld etective fi-aire to bear aity ceverilig of mats or canvas. Carnation stares are either single or douible,-tlhat is, hl-iviu one or both sides composed of rraduated silitlves. In tlhe ol(e calse, ta w-ilk in fri'lt is sufficient; in the other, the walk is carried (ill aLround. Those for auriculas are sinmilar, both being raised onl fitct, Lelch of whichl stands i1 panllS of water. to prevent the visits of creepin,g illse( ts. When the foliage of the l)latits has advanced so fair;is to lbe iIn jeopardy from frost, &c., the hoop)s are placed, and the coverings got reaidy to bh 360 FLOWVERS, ORNASIENTAL TREES, ETC. employed as the weather directs. Tulips are, much more than others, liable to be injured, especially (tduring the monthls of February, Mai.rche, and April. They are then miost easily damaged by the ol)eraLtitlIs of the wethlier, or by water resting near, and afterwards freezing aroundl tlhe bud and, thoughl every care should be bestowed to protect tlc plants from such casualties, yet they msntt not be dcprived of thc flill air too lon( a time, as this -would injure by entichl'ng themn. So much is over-covering to be guarde d atgainst, tlhat some intelligent cultivators use onily stitlll-lmeslied nets as a defence, w-hich are considere(l sLifficietit. \Ahtien the flow-ers h)erili to show color, preparations must be made to erect the awninz. This is intended to shade them finom a severe SUll, atnd shelter themn from tempest w inds. The flamne shouldl be as li,glht in its coiIstruction as is consistent ith its stlt)ility a(.linst witi(ly wea(tlier. It is either a permanent crection otf slender columns, eaves-,plate, raft(ers, and ridge-board, or a temporary framiltg of similar scniitlinrs, screw-bolted together for the purpose. The latter are preferred by private growers. No directions need be given for a pern)anient structure, that any coimmon carpenter can slpply and execute. But for those lwho only need a telmporary thing of the kind, the followiii, description of a vervy suitablec and convenient one may be usefil: The bed is surrounded 1)y a fine gravel or sand wailk, two and a half feet widle on the outside of the walk, oaken trutinks, sixteen inches long, hiavin2 central openings two inches sq(luare, are sutik and firmly rammed in the Lrroirclnd, their tops level thlierewith. l'liese trunks have each a capped sto)pp)r, to be put in w-heti the fritne is ttaken away~v they remnainilng always iI their places, and serve as sockl(ts to receive light coltumns six feet high, tilrne(l out of three-inchl-sq(luare stultf, havitig a two-inch-square teinon to fit into the trunk, and also a smaller tecnon at top, to pass thlrot(gh tlhe eavesplate, and( also receive the foot of the rafter which rests upon it. The r:tfters meet on a ridge-board, to which they are fastened by a screw-bolt and tnut. 3Besides the cornier columns, intermediate ones are added, according -is the leiictlh of the bed requlires. The cativas for the roof is in one piece, fixed Iv its middle to the ridle-board, the two sides being movable on rollers or otherwise, and rolled tip or let down at pleasure. The ends and sides are closed bv cuirtains, and hltitig on headed studs driven into the enld-rafters and eaves-plate, by eyelet-holes worked in the upper leech of the curtains at the bottom thley are fastened down by tender-hlooks or ties. Sutich a framie and awning, if care be taken to lay it up dry in a spare room, will list for many years, and, when in use, may be made, by ornaments fixed at the ends of the ridge and at the tops of the columns, not at all an uinsightly object, even in the flower-garden. Plan of a Flotver-gardcn. Suipposiing the soil to have been in all 31~~~~~~~~~~1 31 361 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. respects duly prepared, dug over and leveled, the next thing is to determine upon the plan for the garden. It should certainly be a regular geometric figure, and planted in masses, each bed containing flowers of one kind, so as to produce something of the fine effect of a Turkey carpet when looked down upon. We will suppose the plan (Fig. 236) to consist of twelve flower-beds on grass, with a gravel-walk aroiund, which may be bordered on one side by .2:3. A2Iz4$yD;\_~ wds of flowers, with little gravel openings, or be plain gravel, as may be Fig. 237. * 362 FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. preferred. The walks should be smoothed and hardened by means of a garden roller. There may be a conservatory into which the parlor-room windows facing the south may open, and on the other side there should be a shrubbery to unite it with the lawn. In the centre of the flower-garden there may be a fountain. As the flower-garden is to be seen principally from the dwelling-house windows, the nearest beds should be planted with dwarfflowers, so that those in the back beds may be seen; the shrubbery behind to consist of laurustinus and arbutus, so as to afford a handsome green background to the flowers in summer, and yet afford a few flowers themselves in winter and spring, when flowers are scarce in the beds. When the walks are bordered with grass, an implement like the following, fitted to a straight handle, is used for paring the edges. Fig. 238. Planting.- Get a few pots of Californian and other annuals usually raised in pots, and plant them, putting three potfuls in each bed. In No. 1, Fig. 239. put Phlox Drummondi, the flowers of which are crimson of various shades, and let the stems be pegged down, so as to spread over the bed. No. 2 may be Lasthenia Californica, the flowers of which are yellow, and the stems generally procumbent; but they may be pegged down to keep them in their proper places, that is, to spread completely and regularly over the bed. No. 3 should be Nem6phila insignis, the flowers of which are of a beautiful blue, and which will not require pegging down. No. 4 may be Erysimumn Petrowskianum, the flowers of which are of a brighit orange; but the stems must be pegged down, or they will grow tall and straggling. No. 5 may be Nolana atriplicifolia, the flowers of which are blue, and 363 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. resembl)le those of a convolvulus; this is a procinml)elIt Il;llnt, an(l will not need pegging. No. 6 may be Nel6ph)lila atolnuria, whi(h has white flowers, and is a dwarf plantt. No. 7 imity be Ti,c)tosiilliin (ltensitlc')ris. a dwarf plant, with pale purple flowers. No. 8 my 1)e (;iIia liiIeolo-, a dwarf plant, with nearly white flowers. No. 9 ilay 1)(, iia tricolor, a dwarf plant, the flowers of whichl atre whtite ani(l very (lark llrlle. No. ll imay be LeptosiphonI andros(ceus, a dwavtrf plilant, withl lle lilfc flhwcers. And No. 12, Schizopetalo NVallkeri, the ilox-ers (f xvlli,'ll )l. vliite, and the steiis must be pegged down. These III all al!tlials. " }i{'li if )rol))erly treated by pegaieg down, and not l):lat(cl too (-lose, wnill )l'i)/tl(' ii: lass of flowers it each bed only just above the stnlict(-e of' th(' grl'(, l. fiial w\-ill lhave a chrliarnng effect from the windox-ws. \Iost of tb li ke aL t;{oor, clayey soil best, and they will only require turning out of the I)ots, w-itllolt )r(liiiiithig the ball, into the places prepared for thewn. If it is tloti(rIlt there are too many white beds, substitute Sanvitolia proeunil)bens, the flowers of which are yellow, for No. 8, - but the sceleds mtst have been sowii the previous atotmni to bring it forward, as otherwise it will not flower till late in the stiinuter; and B3artonia aurea, the flowers of vwhich are of a gol(dilii y'llow, may be p)lanted instead of No. 12. Cladanithos arabicus, formnerly called Aiitlieiiiis ara)ica, which has yellow flowers, may be planted in No. 8, if Sanvitolia cannot be obtained. Florists, however, can geoerally fturish these sorts. Aitumlnal Flot(,ers. -As most of the annuals will heiin to look slal)1)y in Jully or the early part of ttgust, we give the fiollowxin list of half-hardy plants for atutti: No. 1, Vrl)erina MIeliiidres, bIright scarlet; No. 2, E,inotlhera Drumtmoidi, yellow; No. 3, I,ol)elia bicolor, blue; No.4, ('aleolalr'ia rl?o.osa, peged down; No. 5, Verbena Tweed(iiia, crimson; No. 6, conimoin IVlite Petunia; No. 7, Verh)ena Arraniana, or IHenderson's l)iurple; No. 8, (Caleeolaria integrifolia, yellow; No. 9, Purple Petoiiia; No. 10, Verbena teoerioides, white; No. 11, Froygmore Pelargonium, l)right scarlet; No. 12, i\isk p)lant, yellow. In October the followingl bull)s and other plants may be put in for flowNerilng in early spring. No. 1, -Van'hon tulips; No. 2, (Cloth of gold, or commonol yellow crocuses; No. 3, Blue hepl)atica; No. 4, Yellow crocuses, or \Vhite Alnemone; No. 5, Scilla verna and sil)irica, b)lue; No. 6, Arabis albid(la, white; No. 7, Doublle pink help'tica; No. 8, Winter aconrite; No. 9, Ptrploe crocuses; No. 10, Snowdrops; No. 11, Primiroses; No. 12, WVlite lIeptica, or Arabis alpina. La!/ino oot the Flocer-,%,'rden. -If the above plan for a garden does not mneet the fiiny, one can be drawn of any figore desired(l. Ii the first pltee, the ground mtst be (lii, over, raked, and male perfectlv smnooth. Trlhe pattern, if a coimpllic(ated one, should then be drawn on paper, covered with .364 FLOWERS, ORNAMIENTAL TREES, ETC. regular squares, and tie ground to be laid out mIIust be covered with similar squares, but larger, the usual proportion being that a square inch on the piaper represents a square foot on the ground. Tihe squares ol1 the grotin(l alte usuatlly formied by sticking in woolden pegs at regulalr distances, and Ifsteniiig strings from peg to peg, till the whole ground is covered with a kind of lattice-work of string. Each striing is then chalkled, and made to thlrill by pulling it up shlarply and letting it go agai, whiclh transfers the chalk fromn the striing to the ground. WThen tlre gron(d is thus nitarkeld with Nwhite squares, it is easy to trace tupon it, wvithl a shlirp-)-oiiited stick, aniy pattern wlhich miay have been drawn on the paper; the portionr ill erecl square o!l the ground beilng copied( ol a larg(er scale from that onl the p11)acr. Simple patterns, like that of the following figure, consistiing of stralight lines, need only to be measured, aind pieces of string stretched fromi pegs put I'ig. 240. ~ ~Thffl ~ in at the proper distances, so as to form straight lines, oblongs, squares, triangles, or diamonds. If a circle is to be traced, it is done by getting a piece of string half the length of the diameter of the circle, with a piece of stick tied to each end. One stick is then driven into the grotund( in the centre of the circle, and a line is traced with the stick at the other extremity of the string, which is drawn out quite tight. An oval is made by tracing two circles, the circumscribing line of one of which just totuch-es tlre centre of the other; short lines are afterwards mad(le at tlre top and bottom, and the central lines are obliterated. A square only requires a peg at each corner, vwitn a chalkled string drawn from peg to peg; and an oblong, or parallelograrrm, is made by joining two common squares, and taking off the corners, if required. A heart-shaped pattern is made by drawing a straight line from 31* 365 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. a to b (Fig. 240), and then fixing a peg with a string tied to it half the iength of the straight line, and another peg at the end, exactly in the middle EW~. 241. c Mct aC -,, AN of the line, and drawing half a circle with it; then taking a peg with a string half the length of the other, and another peg to the end, and tracing with it the smaller half circles, c and d. With the same strings and pegs you may easily trace, or have traced, the following figures. Even the latter, which Fig. 242. appears at first sight a very difficult figure to form on the ground, will be just as easily traced as the others. It will be observed that in all these figures the straight line is only to serve as a guide to show the proper places for fixing the pegs; and that it is only to be formed by a piece of string stretched by pegs from one end of the figure to the other,'which is to be removed as soon as the figure is sketched, and which is not to be traced on the ground at all. With the aid of these figures, and the pegs and strings, several very complicated gardens may be formed; for instance, that shown in the following outline. This garden is composed of a bed in the centre for a tree rose, with a circle of dwarf-roses; a gravel-walk surrounds these; and there are five heart-shaped beds, which may be planted with scarlet pelargoniams, yellow calceolarias, petunias white and purple, and tall yellow mimulus; and the crescent-shapea bt)eds wnich are on grass may all be planted with different kinds of verbenas. This plan is also a good design for a roscry, -the roses to be planted in the beds, and in the 366 ~g. 243. FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. half-crescents, which must be on grass, with gravel-walks between the grass-plots. All the beds intended for bulbs and half-hardy plants should be particularly well drained; and the best way of doing this is to dig out the soil to the depth of two feet or more, and then put in a layer of brick-bats and other rubbish, to the depth of nine inches or a foot. On this may be placed a Fig. 244. I eH layer of rich, marly soil, in which the bulbs are to be planted. Dahlias, hollyhocks, and other tall-growing, showy-flowered plants, should have similar beds prepared for them; but the soil should be made very rich by the addition of the remains of an old hot-bed, or some other kind of halfrotten animal manure. Arrangernent of Colors.- In the directions which have now been given for planning and planting the beds, it has been intended merely to say what may be done, and not what is absolutely necessary. Indeed, it will be better for each cultivator to vary the flowers as much as possible, according to taste, provided care is taken that the plants are, as nearly as possible, of the same height, or that they rise gradually, and that the colors contrast well. The rule in the latter case is, always to put one of the primitive colors- red, blue, and yellow - next another of these colors, or soltme color compounded of the other two, using white wherever you cannot find any handsome plants of a color that will suit the bed for which they are wanted. Thus, for example, 361 FARiIER'S HAND-BOOK. if one bed be planted with red, the next may he pla,ted w itli blue, yellow, green, hair-browvn, or white, but iiever with allyv sllhadec of pul)llrl)le, as red enters inito the composition of tihat color; nor with any slithle of r(ed(lisl' brown; purple, indeed, must always be next to yellow, litair-brow-i or white, but never next blue, re(l-brown-, or red. Orainge will not look well near vellow or re(c, and lilac must not pl)l)roachli blue or pifli. A little practice w'ill generally do more than ally lengthenied d(ettails. Cellierally spetaking, you may take the same taste to guile the arri(,geitielit of th' colors of the flowers in the parterre that is usedl in cioosiigr tihe colors of feima~le (Iress. ]'r(o (olrt /oiv'i-rs. - l When it is settleld whaIt to pIlant ini the beds of the garden,- supposing the plan of Fiig. 236 to be cilosen, - tile next thing to be thouliht of is tilhe beds around it. These should, onil the whole, remain unplanted, unless they are sown with toignotiette, or soimiethiiug of that kind. The shrubl)eries should consist chiefly of tlhe fin(er kinds of hliardy evergreens, - at ltt, that which is opposite the wiiid(low-s of the house - the other shrulbbery may be plaLtited with rhododend(ronis, acacias, and kalmiais, -the rhododlendrons being fltrthest from the wilkh. and carried a little out into the a(joiningll( grounids, so as to imake a )roken line, projecting iin some places and receding in others, and here and thiere tixeld with bushes of phillyrea. alater-lus, hlolly of various kinds, and cralegtis. With regard( to the beds near the house, let there be a lonicera flexutiosa trainied ovcr each wini(low, on account of its delightfil fragrance in summer. l,'or a similiar reason, have chimonanthlis firagrans agtainist the walls betweenl tle windews. and mignonettes and violets in the beds. Tile fliiwirs of the evergreen nmagnolia, and those of the orange, have a sliohlitly ol))ressive f'raranice, as have those of the heliotrope and thle tuberose; buit thos. of the mignonette, the lemon-scented verbena, the rose, the violet, and lonicer:t flexuosa, are refreshing,. at the same time yielding delicious pierfeie. C'oli'atioig Bulbs.- In giving some hints on t,e cultivation of flowers, we,begin with the bull)s, ars thiey flowver first in the spring. The crocuses anl sitow-drops should be t-lante(l, five or six together, as close as possible, so as to form little tufts andil thies, when once ilatlited, should never bF removed, tinless they siioltlt -,row out of b)ounids, so as to spoil tlhe shape oft the be(l. Thle tulips, oil the contrary, should be ttlei ill s) iS sooln s tieir leaves begin to decay, a ]if kept in a dry plae till tle proiper timle fir i,lanting theim inext year. There are three kilnds of pltiits which are said to have l)iulliotts roots, tltose whichi are solid. and whicl should be properly c(all(,l ('('ris, - sn('hi as the crocus, the corni-flag, and maniy of the halfi hard(ly plants with similar 369 FLOWERS, ORNAMIENTAL TREES, ETC. half-tubular flowers; the tunicated bulbs, which may be peeled off in scales, such as the onion, the hyacinth, and the tulip; and the scaly bulbs, such as the lily. Now, the real roots of all these plants are the long fibres sent down by the lower part of the bulb, which may be seen plainly in hyacinths grown in glasses, and in any of the kinds, if taken up while in a growing state; and what is called the bulb is, in all the corms, only a contracted stem; but, in the tunicated and scaly bulbs, the bulbous part is formed of a contracted stem and metamorphosed leaves. On examining a hyacinth, there w-ill be found at the base of the bulb a flat, fleshy substance, called the root-plate, and this is, in fact, the contracted stem of the plant; while the tunics or scales are metamorphosed leaves. It will be useful to remem ber these distinctions in cultivating the garden, as all plants having corms never flower well till they have been allowed to form a mass, which they will not do till they have been in the ground three or four years. Manv persons fancy that the Cape bulbs require to be taken up every year, bhL this is a mistake; all the kinds of gladiolus, ixia, tritonia, and other similar plants, will live in the open ground, and flower well, if suffered to grow in masses. and be warmly covered in winter. Some persons practise successfully the plan of manuring the beds of tulips and hyacinths every year, so that they may be grown together in the same beds without taking up, for several years in succession. Rescirc Garden Spot.- It is well, in order to keep the flower-garden in a proper state, to have what may be called a reserved plot of ground, in which the plants are to be brought forward, till they are in a proper state for transplanting into the proper flower-garden. This reserve garden is generally placed near the stable, both to have it out of sight and for the convenience of manure, as it must contain hot-beds and frames, for rearing tender annuals, striking cuttings, and, in short, for performing all those gardening operations which require to be carried on out of sight. In this spot the Californian annuals are to be brought forward. Choose a piece of hard ground,- a walk will do,- or any place that has been much trodden on, and cover it about an inch thick with light, rich soil. In this the seeds of the annuals should be sown in September, and s u f f e r ed to remain till the bulbs have faded, and the annuals are wanted to cover the beds, which will probably be about April. The annuals must t h e n be taken up with the spade, in patches, and being removed to the flower-garden, they must be laid carefully on the beds, so as to cover them ex a ctly; the spaces between the patches being filled with soil, and pr e s s e d gently down, so that the surface of the beds may be as even as poss ible. These annuals will come into blossom in lay, but they are killed by hlie dry heat of summer; and, though they would sow themselves if per z 369 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. tmitted to seed, it is better to remove them as soon as they have done flower ihg. The worst of permitting plants to sow themselves is, that early in autumn the flower-beds will have a very untidy appearance, as the ground not only becomes rough, but it is covered with dead stalks and leaves, which have always a most desolate appearance; and these cannot be removed till the seed has fallen, while the beds must not be forked over and raked, for fear of destroying the seedlings. It is, therefore, much better, as soon as the annuals have done flowering, to take them up and throw them away,a supply of seed being preserved by having left some plants in the reserveground for that purpose. A second or spring sowing of the Californian annuals may be made in the reserve-ground, for use, if needed, in the autumn. Culture of Annuals.- Annuals are plants that live only one year, or, rather, only a few months, for they are generally sown early in spring, and die as soon as they have ripened their seeds, at the latter end of summer, or the beginning of autumn. These plants are of three kinds,- hardy, halfhardy, and tender. The hardy annuals are sown in March, April, or May, but the second month is to be preferred, if the weather is tolerably open. The ground in which they arc to be sown is then forked over and raked, and a little round, firm place is made by pressing the bottom of the saucer of a flower-pot on the ground, and then scattering a few seeds on the firm place, taking great care that the seeds do not lie one upon another. The seeds are then firmed, as the gardeners call it, by pressing the saucer again on them, and some earth is strewed lightly over to finish the operation. Instead of the saucer of a flower-pot, regular gardeners perform that part of the process with their spades. The idea is, to securely fix every seed in the ground before it begins to germinate, in order to produce a strong and healthy plant. After the seeds are sown, it is customary to put a piece of stick into the ground, with the name of the seeds written upon it, to mark the place; or, if preferred, write the name on a card, or a bit of pasteboard, and stick it in a notch or cleft made in the stick. When the seeds have come up, - which, in the spring, is generally from a fortnight to six weeks after sowing, according to their natures, - the seedlings may be thinned out, and the supernumerary plants either transplanted or thrown away. If the seedlings are to be transplanted, care should be taken not to break or injure the roots, and a little hole should be made with a stick for each seedling in the place to which it is to be removed; the earth being pressed close to the root at the bottom of the hole Defore the rest of the hole is filled in, as, if ally hollow place is left around the root, it will decay, instead of growing. Seedling hardy annuals are, 370 FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. nowever, very seldom worth the trouble of transplanting. Many persons turn a flower-pot over every patch of seeds, from the idea that it will make them come up sooner, and protect them from birds. It is, however, a bad plan, as air and light are particularly necessary to seedling plants, and. when they are even partially deprived of these important agents, they become drawn up, with weak, slender stems, and thin, discolored leaves. Some annuals, such as the mignonette and the larkspur, are much longer before they vegetate than others, and they are better sown in autumn. Others, such as the Erysimum Perowskianum, the eschscholtzia, and the coreopsis, will often last two or three years, especially if they happen to be late in flowering the first season. These also do best sown in autumn; but they must be protected, if the winter should be severe, by laying a mat over the bed. Haf-hardy Annuals.- The half-hardy annuals, such as the French and African marigolds, the Chinese and German asters, the zinnias, the purple jacobaea, the sweet sultan, the purple and yellow everlastings, and other similar plants, may be sown in pots, and plunged into a slight hot-bed in February or March. As soon as they come up, and have got their second pair of leaves, the earth should be turned out of the pots, and the seedlings, being carefully picked out, should be transplanted into other pots, three or five in each, according to the size they are expected to attain when full grown, and the pots again plunged into the hot-bed. Sometimes they are transplanted a second time; but they are generally left till May, when they are removed to the open border, to the places where they are intended to flower. When they are planted iii the border, they may be transplanted in the ordinary way, or the ball of earth may be turned entire from the pot into a hole made to receive it. -This is generally considered the best plan, as it prevents the plants from receiving any check by their removal. Bromp ton, ten-week, and German stocks, though quite hardy, make better plants when treated like half-hardy annuals, as they flower earlier and more vigorously. Tender Annuals.- The tender annuals, such as balsams, cock's combs, globe amaranths, &c., must be sown in February or March, in pots of light, rich earth, and plunged in a hot-bed. As soon as the plants come up, they should be transplanted into pots of the very smallest size, one in each pot; and these small pots should be set in the hot-bed again, as near the glass as possible, and slightly shaded during sunshine. In a week or two, as soon as the roots have made their appearance on the outside of the ball of earth within the pot, -which is known by turning the ball of earth, with the plant in it, carefully out of the pot, without breaking it, - the plants are shifted into pots a size larger than what they were in before, and the space filled up 371 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. with light, rich soil. In another week or two the piants must be shifted again into pots a little larger, always using light, rich mould to fill uip the pots, and taking care that the pots are well drained, by putting pieces of broken pot at the bottom. As soon as the plants are shifted, the pots must be replunged in the hot-bed, and shaded for the remainder of the day. The shifting and replunging must be continued till the plants begin to show flower-buds, after which they must neither be shifted nor plunged in the hot-bed any more, but gradually hardened, by the frame in which they are placed being left open all day, and, at last, only partially closed, even at night, till the plants will bear setting out entirely in the open air, unless they should be intended to flower in a green-house, in which case they may be removed to the green-house very soon after they have shown flower-buds. Perennials. - Perennials are those permanent plants which are not woody, and yet remain in the ground as long as most kinds of shrubs, producing flowers and seeds every year. Perennials are of two kinds, - those that die down to the ground every autumn, and send up fresh stems from the root the following spring, -and those which remain green all the year, as, for example, those that have tuberous roots, such as the dahlia. Bulbs are also perennials; but of these we have already spoken. Most kinds of perennials are propagated by dividing the roots; but, in the case of the dahlia, ranunculuLs, and anemone, care must be taken to choose only those portions of the tubers that have buds or eyes, as they are called, as otherwise the tuber, though it will send out fibrous roots, will not produce a stem; and, in dividing fibrous-rooted plants, care must be taken that the divided part is furnished with buds. Almost all kinds of perennials may also be propagated by cuttings; and those of pinks and carnations are called pipings, because, instead of being cut, they are pulled asunder at a joint, and this gives the separated parts a hollow appearance, like small pipes. Tubers are frequently taken up every autumn, and those of the ranunculus and anemone are replanted in November or January, the former season being rather preferable. The tubers of the dahlia are generally taken up in November, and replanted in May or June. Mlost perennials are improved by taking up occasionally, and replanting them in another place. This used to be accounted for by supposing that plants threw out exerementitious matter, which, after a few years, poisoned the soil in which they grew; but it is now supposed that, as every plant requires peculiar earths for its nourishment, they must be removed wheni ,hey have exhausted all the particular kind of earth they want which grows within their reach. It is rather difficult to explain this without entering into long details; but it will be sufficient for our present purpose merely to state the fact that plants do require their roots to have a constant supply of 372 FLOWVERS, ORNAIAMENTAL TREES, ETC. fresh earth, and, to meet this want, nature has provided that the roots of trees, and of all plants that are intended to remain several years in the soil, elongate themselves every year, so as to be continually able to obtain a fresh supply of nourishment. In gardens, however, the constant digging that is going on for the culture of annual plants is unfavorable to the elongation of the roots of the perennials, and consequently it is absolutely necessary that those plants should occasionally be taken up and replanted. The season for taking up and replanting perennial plants is either in autumn, after they have done growing, or in spring, before they begin to shoot; and, if the soil about the roots looks black and wet, or, as the gardeners express it, sour, the roots should be washed quite clean before transplanting. When the roots of plants are divided, it is either done with a sharp spade or a knife, care being taken, in both cases, to make a clean cut, and not leave any part bruised or jagged. Biennials.- These are plants raised from seeds, which do not flower till the second year, but which generally die as soon as they have ripened their seeds. Biennials are usually sown in a bed of light, rich earth, in the open year in the reserve ground, and then transplanted, in September, to the place where they are to flower the ensuinig year. The finer kinds, such as the Brompton stocks and hollyhocks, should have a bed or pit prepared for them, of rich, loamy soil, in which they are planted, with a small quantity of manure. Wall-flowers, snap-dragons, and Canterbury bells, do not require any further care than transplanting to the border; and, though they are called biennials, they will frequently live and flower for a succession of years. The Hot-bed.- A hot-bed may be made of any material that will ferment, so as to produce heat. Stable manure and dead leaves are, however, generally preferred to all other materials, and stable manure is unquestionably the best. A cart-load of this manure will make a hot-bed sufficiently large for rearing tender annuals; and when it is taken out of the stable, it consists partly of the dung of the horse, and partly of what is called long litter, that is, straw moistened and discolored, but not decayed. When in this state, if it is thrown together so as to form a heap, a most violent heat is produced by the fermentation of the straw while decomposing, and, as this heat would be too powerful for any plant exposed to it, it is necessary to let the heap remain for a fortnight or so, turning it over two or three times, during that period, with a fork, till the straw is sufficiently decomposed to be easily torn to pieces with the dung-fork. When the manure is in this state, it is fit to be used. The hot-bed should be formed in an open situation, on a surface raised about six inches from the surrounding ground, with a gutter or shallow ditch cut around it, to allow the water to drain off. The bed 32 373 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. is then made, and, if only intended for raising annuals and striking cuttings, it may be five feet long by four feet wide. The manure should be regularly spread over the lower part of the bed, and in successive layers, made as smooth and level as possible, till the whole of the cart-load of manure has been used. As soon as the bed is finished the frame should be set on it. The frame consists of a box without a bottom, and with a movable top, formed of a glazed sash or sashes. A frame for such a bed as has been mentioned will only require one sash or light; and it should be three feet wide and four feet long, so that the bed may be half a foot larger than the frame on every side. The back of the box may be two feet high, and the front one foot, so that the glass may slope from the back to the front. About two days after the bed is made, the fermentation will recommence, and a steam will be observable on the glass. The surface of the bed should now be covered, two or three inches thick, with light garden mould, and any common seeds may be sown in this. It is more general, however, to sow the seeds in pots, and then either to set them on the surface of the bed, or to plunge them into it up to the rim. No bed for raising annuals should ever be hotter than 60~; and when it exceeds this heat, the glasses should be left open so as to cool it. The thermometer for ascertaining the heat should be put on the surface of the bed, with the glass shut above it; and it should be examined in this situation, as it will fall a degree or two immediately on being taken into the open air, if the weather should be very cold. A hot-bed of two or three lights will require two or three cart-loads of manure, and will, of course, produce a great deal of heat, from the immense mass of fermenting materials it contains; and, unless properly regulated, the plants will turn black, and the leaves be shriveled up, or, as the gardeners term it, burnt, from the too great heat of the bed. There is also danger of a hot-bed getting too cold, instead of being too hot; and, when this is the case, the heat should be renewed by the application of dung-linings, that is, a quantity of fresh stable manure around the outside of the bedl. Linings are sometimes made of dead leaves piled up around the outside of the bed; but, if the hot-beds are to be used only for raising seeds, they will not want any linings, as it will be advantageous for the young seedlings if the beds are allowed gradually to become cool as the plants increase in size, so that they may acquire strength and hardiness before they are turned into the open ground. Green-house Plcants. -A few words on the green-house plants that will be wanted for planting in the open ground in the flower-garden may not be amiss. Petunias may be all raised from seeds with the other half-hardy annuals, as seedling plants both grow and flower much more vigorously 374 FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. when planted out into the open ground, than plants that have been raised from layers or cuttings. Celsia or Alonsoa urticifolia may also be raised from seeds, as may Thunbergia alata, and its white variety. Phlox Drum inondi is almost always raised in this manner, as are the beautiful climbing plants, Lophospermum scandens and its varieties, Maurandya Barclayana, Cobea scandens, Eccremocarpus or Calampelis scabra, Rhodochiton volubile, the beautiful canary-bird flower (Troptolum peregrinum), the most splendid of the ipomacas, and several other well-known plants. Geraniums, or pelargoniums, as they are called, being half-shrubby plants, require to be raised by cuttings. These are generally taken off the points of the shoots in autumn, and, a good many being put into one pot, they are plunged into the hot-bed till they have struck root, and then gradually hard ened and placed on the back shelf of a green-house, or in a cold frame, till the spring, when they are removed to separate pots till they are wanted for planting out. Some gardeners do not put themselves to the trouble of pot ting them, but keep them in the same pots in which the cuttings were struck till they are wanted for planting out; but this is an indifferent mode of culture, as, when the plants are kept so long in one pot, they become drawn up, and do not have the compact, bushy appearance that they have when properly transplanted early in spring. Verbenas may be either preserved by cuttings or layers, or raised afresh from seed. The usual way of propagating them, however, is by layers, as they strike root readily at the joints, if the joints are covered with a little earth. All the other green-house plants which are wanted to grow for planting out may be treated in the same manner as those which have been mentioned. Coldt Frame.- This is a bottomless box of the kind described for a hotbed, but fcrmned of brick or stone, instead of wood. These frames have a glass sash at the top, bht contain no manure; and they are generally sunk in the soil, that the warmth of the soil around may aid in protecting the plants thev contain from the frost. These frames, if they have only one light, are generally five feet in width, that is, from the back to the front; but, if they have two or three lights, the width is generally seven feet, as these are the dimensions of the fiames used for hot-beds in kitchen-gardens. The green-house plants that are to be preserved in the cold frame are merely set in their pots close together, and, the glass sashes being then closed, mats and other coverings are laid on to keep out the frost. Sometimes green-house plants which are left in the open ground are preserved from the frost by coverings of wicker-work, like bee-hives, being put over them, or tin hoops over which mats have been stretched; or, where the plants are small, a flower-pot may be turned over them, or a hand-glass used for thl)e same purpose. It is seldom, however, worth while to take 375 IFARMIEIZ'S HAND-BOOK. much pains to preserve green-house plants that have flowered in the open air. The ordinary way is to make abundance of cuttings in autumn; to strike them in a hot-bed, and then, after hardening them by degrees, to preserve them in a small green-house, or in a cold pit, till the time for planting out next year. Winter Management.- Many persons inj are green-house plants by keep ing them too warm and giving them too little air during winter, and then are surprised that their plants become sickly and remain without flowering, notwithstanding all the care and expense that have been bestowed upon them. No green-house ought to be kcept at a greater heat, during night, than from 350 to 400; and in the day-time it should not be allowed to rise above 500, or at most 52~. When there happens to be sunshine, the fire ought to be lessened; and whenever the air is not frosty, the windows ought to be open from twelve till two every day. If a green-house is kept too warm, it will induce premature vegetation, and the plant will waste its strength in an attempt to produce flowers and fruit at a season when nature requires it to be kept in a state of complete repose. Green-house plants should be watered generally every morning; but in frosty weather water need not be given every day, and some plants will not require watoring oftener than once a week. This, however, must depend in a great measure on circumstances; and, as a general rule, it may be observed that water may always be given in small quantities when the surface of the earth contained in the pot looks dry. Tha pots should not be allowed to stand in saucers, as stagnant water is peculiarly injurious in winter. Whenever the earth in the pot looks black and sodden, the plant should be turned out of the pot; and, after the black earth has been carefully shaken from the roots, it should be repotted in fresh soil, an inch or more in the bottom of the pot being filled in with small pieces of broken china and earthen ware. In February or.March the plants should be looked over, and rupotted where necessary; those that are too tall should be cut in, and cuttings made of their shoots. The young plants, raised from cuttings made ill autumn, should be repotted in larger pots for flowering; and where the plants (lo not require fresh potting, but have the surface of their mould become green and mossy, the moss should be taken off, and the ground slightly stirred with a fiat stick, taking care, however, not to go so deep as to injure the roots. When trouble is not an object, all green-house plants are the better for repotting every year, either in spring or autumn; and when the ball is taken out of the pot for this purpose, it should be careflilly examined, and all the decayed parts of the roots should be cut off. Sometimes, when the ball of earth is turned out, nearly half of it will fall off alnost without touching it; and when this is the case, it will generally be found that there is a 376 FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. worm in the pot. Worms do a great deal of mischief to greenhouse plants in cutting through the roots, as their instinct teaches them to make their way through the earth straight across the pot and back again, and they cannot do this without tearing the roots asunder every time they pass. Another point to be attended to in the management of a grceen-house is, keeping the plants as near as possible to the glass, as, unless this be done, the plants will become what gardeners call " drawn up," and unnaturally tall and slender, from the efforts they make to reach the light. Repoting. -As this process has been frequently mentioned, we here give the best mode of performing the operation. The pot to which the plant is to be removed should always have been previously washed quite clean, and be perfectly dry. Some bits of broken earthen pots should then be put at the bottom of the pot, the quantity varying from three to four pieces, so as just to cover the hole, to a mass an inch in depth, depending upon the nature of the plant. If the plant has not been in a pot before, the roots are then placed just above the broken bits just mentioned, and the earth is filled in, the plant being occasionally shaken, so as to allow the earth to get amongst its roots. The soil in the pots is next consolidated, by shaking it, and then lifting it up and setting it down again with a jerk; the soil being rendered firm and neat around the rim of the pot by means of a broad, smooth piece of stick, shaped somewhat like a table-knife, and called a potting-stick. When a plant has been in a pot before, and is repotted, or shifted, as it is called, into a pot a size larger, the plant is turned out of its old pot by putting the hand upon the earth and turning the pot upside down or, if the ball of earth does not come out readily, striking the rim of the pot against the edge of the potting-table or shelf. The ball containing the plant will thus drop out into the left hand; and the bits of earthen ware that adhere to the bottom of the ball having been picked off, and any part of the root that appears decayed having been removed, a little mould is put onl the drainage in the newv pot; and the ball of earth containing the plant having been placed in the centre, the space between it and the pot is filled in with light, rich mould, and made firm with the potting-stick. The operation is concluded by shaking the pot, and then taking hold of the rim with both hands, and striking the bottom of the pot two or three times, with a jerk, against the potting-bench. The plant is then watered, and set in the shade for the remainder of the day. Hecaths are very difficult plants to manage, but a great improvement has taken place in their culture within the last few years. They are grown in a sort of mould, formed by a mixture of peat and sand; and when this earth is put into the pot, it is mixed with good-sized pebbles, some of which are suffered to protrude through the surface of the soil. The roots of heath are 32* 377 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. extremely fine and hair-like, and the shelter afforded by the pebbles is so congenial to them, that, if one of the stones be taken out, a cluster of fine, white, vigorous roots will be found below it. The plants are always potted high, so as to let the base of the stem be above the level of the rim of the pot, as the plants are very apt to damp off, if the collar of the plant be buried in the ground. Heaths should never be suffered to become too dry, and never kept too wet. They require very little heat; and many experienced cultivators never apply fire-heat to their heatheries at all, but merely keep out the frost by having wooden shutters to the sashes, and covering them with mats. When growing rapidly, they should be repotted whenever the roots shall fill the pot; but they should not be shifted too often, and, when they have attained their full growth, they may be suffered to remain in the same pots, for a succession of years, without injury. Garden Decorations.- The decorations usual in flower-gardens are introduced either with a view to utility, to convenience, or simply by way of pleasing ornaments; which, if managed with taste and skill, may be brought into according harmony or pleasing contrast with the natural beauties of the flowers, or with the artificial arrangement of their forms and colors. We will specify a few of these different ornamental designs, in order to add to the interest of our remarks in this department. First come arbors, which may be either purely natural, partly natural and partly artificial, or entirely Fig. 245. the result of art. Of the first are those formed by the banyan-fig, in tropieal climes, whose lateral and widely extended branches send down numer 378 FLOWERS, ORNAMIENTAL TREES, ETC. ous shoots, which fix themselves in the ground. Such are those formed by our various weeping varieties of forest trees, - the weeping-ash, birch, beech, elm, willow, and the like. These trees, with their lithe and tenuous branches, waving with elery breeze, are the most natural, and perhaps the most delightful, of arbors. To the second kind belong all those which are formed by the hand of man, aided by some natural suitability of circumstances, or accidental advantages. Thus an aged forest tree may have some appropriate climbing plant placed at its roots, so as to run through its branches and foliage, and ultimately descend gracefully from the extremities, until it nearly touches the ground. The construction of the third kind of arbor depends much on the chances of situation; and many designs, or minute instructions, would be, therefore, superfluous, as they must be familiar, ill their various forms, to almost every reader. The following figure represents a pretty design for an arbor of permanent construction. Fig. 246. Garden Seats add much to the beauty and attractiveness of a flower-garden These may be placed either in arbors or under some embowering shade, ol Fig. 247. 1 379 FARMER'S HIAND-BOOK. in the open garden; and may be composed of hazel-rods, or straight, small branches of any other tough wood. Five or more young trees, of the mountain-ash, the oak, or spruce fir, bound together, form good rustic columns, around which climbing roses may be trained, and the whole covered in with a light roof, with rampant ivy, clematis, or jasmiine, as in Fig. 217. For occasional convenience, the various forms of the Turkish tent may be adopted; and when pitched on a lawn, amongst clumps of flowers in the modern style, .Fg. 248. has a very agreeable effect. Besides arbors and garden-seats, vases may be introduced with good effect; also, fountains, flower-stands, aviaries, and sun-dials, in all the different styles of workmanship. The latter, when set in an unshaded part of the garden, and mounted on a column, around which 380 - _- -. FORBES FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. some flowering plant has been trained to climb, will form a very pleasing object. WVe give a cut of one of these. Fig. 249. DESCRIPTION OF STANDARD VARIETIES OF FLOWERS. Althea Frutex.- This is a beautiful shrub, requiring a warm and sheltered situation in the Northern States. Sow the seeds in spring, and protect the young plants during the winter. Almnond (Double Flowering). -A shrubby plant, bearing beautiful roselike flowers in the spring. It is propagated by suckers. Amaranthus Tricolor. - An annual plant, with a beautifully variegated foliage of red, green, and yellow. The seed is found in little tufts about the stalk, and may be sown in April or May. Animated Oats.- An annual plant, and resembles the common oats while growing. The seeds are clothed with a stiff down, and have appendages like the legs of some insect, with apparent joints. They are affected by the changes of the weather, and, of course, are continually moving. If they be wet, they will turn over several times, and twist about. If wet, and held to a lighted lamp, they exhibit such motions of apparent agorry as an insect would, placed in a like situation. Aster, China.- An annual, producing many splendid flowers. There are several varieties, as red, white, purple, yellow, striped, quilled, &c. The seed should be sown early in the spring. It flowers late, but is destroyed by severe frost. Auricula.- There are several species. It may be raised from seed, but lik;e does not produce like, in all cases. They are best raised by dividing the roots, which send out several young plants annually. They are tender, and, if planted in open ground, they must be well covered, and be kept from severe frost and rain during the winter. They are well adapted for pots, to flower in the house. Azalea Aludifora. -- It is commonly known as the American Honeysuckle, 381 FARMTER'S HAND-BOOK. and includes several species. It bears abundantly, the flowers having a fino perfume and making a very handsome show. Box. - A low, delicate shrub, which may be pruned to any shape to please the fancy. It is an evergreen, hardy, and suitable for borders. It is grown by cuttings, or by dividing the roots. If a plant be placed deep in the earth, and the soil be brought in close contact with the small branches (being spread as much as possible), they will send out roots, and furnish a large number of small plants. In trimming this shrub, let the operation be done well, using the proper utensils. Brier, Sweet. - A well-known rose-bush, hardy, adapting itself to a poor soil. The foliage and flowers are bright, and delightfully fragrant. Canterbury Bell. - A biennial plant, bearing large blue flowers, which are much admired, and make a fine appearance. Carnation. - A biennial and perennial, comprising several superb varieties. May be grown by layers. While it is in flower, it sends out several side shoots near the root; these are pinned down in August, a little under the earth, leaving the extreme part erect; in a little time they take root, and the new plant must be severed from the old, and transplanted. The old plant does not always stand another winter; therefore its branches are used to continue the species. Carnations are rather tender as to frost, and must be covered, in the Northern States, to live through the winter. It is best to put them into large pots, and keep them in a green-house or parlor, or in some place where they can have air and light during winter. Cassia Marylandica. - This is a perennial plant, producing many small yellow flowers, suitable only to stand in a border. It is hardy, and is propagated by seed. 382 e=-CD~~R FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. Catalpa. -A beautiful tree, raised by seed. Much admired for its foliage and showy flowers, which are very ornamental in the garden. Cherry, Double-flowvering.-This is one of the most beautiful trees in the flower-garden or shrubbery; cultivated the same as the common cherrytree. Chrysanthemum Indicum. - A fine perennial plant, hardy, flowering brilliantly late in the autumn, and comprising several varieties. The plants may remain in the open ground until late in the fall, and then be taken up and placed in pots. When the frosts appear, keep them in a warm room until after flowering, and then put the roots in the cellar or open ground. They will flower in the garden, if carefully attended to. Raise by dividing the roots. Clematis, Austrian.- A perennial plant, producing very pretty flowers. It is best propagated by dividing the roots. Clethra. - A well-known plant, bearing clusters of fragrant flowers in the fall. Columline. - A very common perennial, including different species; very neat. Convolvulus. - Many species - annual. Convolvulus major is commonly called Morning Glory. It is a vine, and a great runner -many colors. Convolvulus minor, called Beauty of the Night, because it blossoms at evening- many colors. Sow the seed early in the spring. Corchorus Japonicus. -A shrub frequently cultivated in green-houses, but may be grown in the garden. It bears wreaths of golden-yellow flowers. Crocus. -A bulbous-rooted plant, hardy, early; colors, blue, yellow, white, purple, &c. It is grown by the bulbs. A pretty pot-flower. Citpid's Car, or Monk's Hood. - A fine, vigorous annual, bearing a profusion of pretty blue flowers, during the summer and fall. Propagated by a division of the roots. A very neat plant for the flower-garden. Dahlia.- A beautiful Mexican flower, embracing many varieties of color and shade. A somewhat sandy or gravelly soil is thought best, in order to prevent their growing too luxuriant, and to obtain more flowers. They may be raised by seed, or by a division of the roots. Sow the seed in March, in pots, and place in a hot-bed or green-house. About the middle of May, or when there is no danger from frost, plant them out inll the borders, or wherever they are to stand; and as they increase in height, let them be well supported by stakes, to prevent the wind breaking them down. The roots are tuberous, resembling a sweet potato, and should be taken up in October or November, and preserved through the winter in a box filled 383 FARMIE R'S IIAND-BOOK. with dry sand, placed out of reach of the frost. Plant only those which have a bud, and divide the roots carefully. Daisy.- A small, delicate, perennial plant, producing small but attractive flowers. It is hardy, and will bear flowers through the winter, if kep in pots or boxes, in the house. Raised by offsets. Dvaorf Basil.- A very fragrant annual, raised from the seeds. Eupatorium (Blue). - Perennial; bearing a profusion of beautiful flowers, and propagated most readily by dividing the roots. Euphorbia Lathyris. - This is a biennial plant, commonly known as the Caper-tree. It is singular in its foliage. Rather tender. Propagated by seed. Fading Beauty, or Morning Bride. An annual plant, producing handsome flowers, which last but a few hours, or less. Plant the seed in spring. Foxglove. - A handsome flowering biennial and perennial plant, comprising several varieties. Sow the seed in spring, covering lightly with earth. Fringe Tree. - A handsome shrub, covered with white flowers. Hardy, and will grow in any soil, but flourishes best in moist ground. Geranium. - There are many varieties of this much-admired plant. Some give flowers, with little or no leaf; others possess beauty of leaf, as well as of flowers: some give no perfume; others are delightfully fragrant. It is easily propagated by cuttings from any part of the plant, old wood or young, and placed in pots. In a green-house, or parlor, they will bloom in winter. Garden Angelica. - Perennial; bold and showy when in flower. Raised from the seed, and well adapted for some situations in the garden. Glycine. - A perennial vine, bearing variegated flowers. It will grow on the side of a house or wall to a great extent, making a fine appearance. It is propagated both from seed and layers. Golden Coreopsis. - This is an annual, bearing a profusion of rich, brilliant yellow flowers, having a purple centre. It is easily raised from the seed. Golden Everlasting.- A somewhat peculiar plant, bearing a late, bright yellow flower, which, if taken off before the seed ripens, will retain its brightness for many years. Plant the seed early in the spring. Hollyhock.- A hardy, perennial plant- showy for a shrubbery. There are several varieties, -the single, double, white, red, yellow, dark, &c. Honeysuckle. -This plant is very beautiful in its place: it climbs ul) houses, and over hedges; it forms arbors and bowers; it blooms in clusters. There are several varieties. The Italian produces an abundance of changeable flowers early in the season, diffusing a rich fragrance all around. The 384 FLOWVERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. Vari,egated blooms monthly, and is very fragrant. The Scarlet Trumpet also blooms monthly,- scarlet flowers, making a handsome appearance. It may be grown by seeds and cuttings, but best by layers. Hyacinth. - A bulbous-rooted plant, and, lie all other plants of this class, is perennial. It is an early, beautiful, and fragrant flower. It will bloom in glasses filled with water, in a room, but better in pots of earth. It is best propagated by offsets. While the parent root is blowing, it sends out several young ones. They should be planted at a depth of four inches. There are many varieties of this admired flower, both single and double; the former have the brightest colors, but the latter are generally preferred. Hydrangea. - This is a small shrub, producing large and changeable flowers, being at first green, then becoming gradually rose-colored, and after wards green, occupying about six months. It is a house-plant -will bear some frost, but should be kept, during the winter, in a green-house, parlor, or a cellar where there is some light. Propagate by cuttings. Ice Plant. - A well-known annual, having a peculiar icy appearance. Plant the seeds in pots, in the spring. Irapatiens Balsamina.- Commonly known as Balsamine. A very fine annual plant, bearing a profusion of gaudy flowers. There are several varieties,- single and double, rose-colored, red, white, crimson, purple, find variegated. It commences flowering in July, and continues till cold weather. Sow the seed in May. Iris, or Flower-de-lis. - A hardy, perennial plant, comprising many varieties, both large and small; a favorite plant, raised by dividing the roots. La:(ntrenia Indica.- A flowering shrub, which endures the winter of the Mliddle and Southern States, but requires attention further North. Labrurntm.- A tall and handsome shrub, loaded, when in bloom, with yellow flowers. Sometimes called Golden Chain. It is raised from seed, and requires a warm and sheltered situation. Larkspur.- An annual plant, of no fragrance, but of great variety of colors. It makes a pretty appearance, and is raised from the seed. Laurel (Broad-leaved).- This is an evergreen shrub, bearing flowers of great delicacy and beauty, being white, tinged with red. Lilac. - A large, shrubby tree, hardy, and handsome when in bloom, having large bunches of fragrant flowers. The white and the purple may be easily grafted or inoculated into each other, and when the shrub, with a handsome head, is thus managed, some branches producing purple and others white flowers, the show is very fine. It is raised from suckers, of which it sends out a great many, but from which it should be freed as much 33 A2 38-5 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. as possible. The Persian lilac is a neater shrub, bearing delicate white flowers. It is propagated by suckers. Lily. - There are many varieties of this plant. The White grows three or four feet high, and bears large, white, sweet-smelling flowers. The Tiger grows one or two feet higher, producing gaudy spotted flowers. The Martag,on is similar to the latter, but more delicate: all these are bulbousrooted, and are best propagated from offsets. The Asphodel grows to the height of two feet, and bears handsome yellow flowers; it is propagated by seed or offsets. The Lily of the Valley is a small dwarf plant, that thrives best in the shade, producing small, delicate flowers, of a sweet odor. Raised by offsets. Lime Plant.- A singular plant, the stem, foliage, flower, and fruit, being formed in the earth, and, after the plant has come up, there is nothing more than the extension of parts. The stems, when from eight to twelve inches high, branch out in two arms, at the extremity of each of which is a large palmated leaf. In the fork proceeds the fruit-stem. The first that is seen in the spring is a delicate membraneous cap, which is soon burst open by the flower-bud, which is large, round, and white. Next appear the shoulders and arms, lying close to the stem or trunk; and as the plant rises, the fruit-stem elongates and the arms elevate themselves. The fruit is about the size of a large lime,- green while growing, and yellow when ripe. A moist soil, in a shady situation, is best. Propagate by seed, or by dividing the roots, which are creeping and jointed. Lychnadia. - A perennial plant, comprising several varieties, - purple, white, striped, &c. The plant is hardy, bears an abundance of delicate flowers, and continues long in bloom. It is best propagated by dividing the roots. AMezereon. - This is a small and beautiful shrub, blooming in the month of March, with a profusion of fragrant flowers. Hardy; yaised by seed. Musk Geranium. - An annual plant, having a strong musky odor. It will stand the winter in a common hot-bed. Plant the seed early. Myrtle (Evergreen). - An evergreen vine, including several species, bearing a pretty blue flower. A favorite plant for ornamental purposes. Narcissus. - A bulbous-rooted plant, managed like the hyacinth. It bears an early, beautiful, and fragrant flower. It is hardy, and well alapted to bloom in a pot in the green-house or parlor. Raised( by bull)ous offsets, which increase every year. Polyanthus Narcissus and Jon(uils, both elegant flowering plants, are propagated and cultivated in the same manner. Nasturtium. - An annual plant, with showy flowers. The seeds are 386 I FLOWERS, ORNABIENTAL TREES, ETC. enveloped in fleshy pods, and should be sown very early in spring. The plants should be supported from the ground by bushy sticks. Passion Flower. - This is a beautiful and celebrated flower, growing on a perennial vine; the name originating from the large cross in the middle of the flowier, surrounded by appendages resembling a glory. The plant has a succession of flowers for a long time. It is tender, suitable for the green-house, but will not endure a northern winter in open ground. It is best raised from cuttings. Peony. - A perennial plant, bearing a gorgeous but short-lived( flower. There are several species. Propagate from offsets. Pea (Sweet). -There are many species of this annual, varying in color and scent. The Everlasting Pea is perennial, and produces many clusters of showy flowers, which remain in bloom a long time. Plant the seed early in spring. Peach (Double Flowering).- A very showy tree, bearing flowers of the size of a small rose. It is hardy, and managed like other peach-trees. Pin,. - A well-known perennial plant, fragrant, and embracing many varieties as respects size and color. A fine flower, and easily grown by seeds, layers, &c. Perennial Sun-flower (Double).- A common, but large, fine plant, easily raised by seed, or by dividing the roots. Polyanthus. - A hardy, perennial plant, bearing handsome flowers. There are many varieties, and the plant blooms best in a shady situation; best propagated by dividing the roots. Polyanthus Nlarcissus is a very pretty perennial, bulbous-rooted, and easily grown by offsets. Pyiethrum Parthenzim. - Commonly called Double Fererfew. - A hardy perennial, producing large quantities of white flowers, and continuing in bloom a long time. It is easily propagated by the seed. Poppy. - An annual plant, admired for its great variety in size and in flower. The double are very showy, but of short duration. E'asily grown by seed. Purple Hi/acinth Bean. - An annual runner, bearing large clusters of purple flowers, much admired. Plant the seeds early, and preserve from frost. R,)sc. - Of this deservedly popular flower there are many varieties, as to size, foliage, beauty, and fragrance. They may be propagated from seed or by suckers, - the latter being the most certain and easy mode. The st,ckers should be those which come out near the old stems, during the sumnimer, and, when planted, should be cut down to four or five inches of the ground. Plant in October, November, or April. Keep the ground good and dig it every autumn. They should, except when trained against 3 397 FARMBIER'S HIIAND-BOOK. -, all, be cut down to a certain height, according to their natural size; for when the stems and limbs are long, they produce fewer flowers. All the weak, dead or dying wood should be pruned out close, without leaving any ugly stubs. The Yellow Rose requires an airy situation and a gravelly soil, and every autumn one half of the old wood should be cut down within four inches of the ground; by this means a succession of thrifty, blooming shoots will be kept up. The Chinese Monthly Rose is grown by cuttings, taken in the spring and properly placed in moist earth. It is a tender.plant, and should be taken into a green-house or parlor during the winter. Some of them, however, are hardy, and withstand the frost. When gathering roses Fig. 251. and other flowers having thorny stems, a pair of scissors, combining tweezers or pincers (Fig. 251), are very useful. Rose Acacia.- This is a singular shrub, producing many clusters of flowers, much admired. Propagated by shoots from the roots. Rose-colored Hibiscus. - A perennial plant, producing very showy flowers, and making a good appearance in a border. Raised by seed. Rudbeckia.- A perennial plant, producing many flowers, which are very durable, and much admired. Propagated best by dividing the roots. Scarlet Cacalia.- A small annual plant, producing numerous scarlet flowers. very showy. Easily raised from the seed. Scarlet Lychnis.- A perennial plant of two kinds, the single and the double, the latter being very handsome. The former is propagated from seed, and the latter by dividing the roots. Snowberry.- A small shrub, producing clusters of beautiful white, waxlike berries, in autumn. Propagated best by suckers. Spiderwort. -A singular perennial plant, in bloom for a long time. The blue is more admired than the white. It requires a light covering during the severity of winter weather. Propagated by dividing the roots. Spir,ea.- A small shrub, loaded with delicate flowers in the season of its blooming. Propagated by suckers. Syringa, or Mock Orange.- A shrub, bearing flowers quite similar to those of the orange, and making a very pleasing appearance when growing with other shrubbery. Propagated by suckers. Strawberry Tree. - This is a handsome shrub, bearing, in autumn, an 3SS FLOWERS, ORNAMIENTAL TREES, ETC. abundance of fruit, somewhat resembling the strawberry. The European is preferred to the American. Grown by seed and by suckers. Swcet Bay. - This is a very pretty evergreen shrub, well calculated to stand, in a large pot, in the parlor, during winter. It is propagated very easily, by suckers. Sweet William. - An imperfect perennial, producing very beautiful flowers of small size. It is grown by seed, the plants of which do inot produce flowers like those of the parent plant, except by chance. It may be propagated by dividing the roots. Tulip. -In no family of plants has nature so multiplied her beautiful tints as in this,- there being several hundred varieties. It may be raised from seed, but the plants do not produce flowers like those of the parent plant, except by chance. They are raised best by bulbs. After flowering, the foliage and roots decay, and a bulb or bulbs are formed of the juices of the old plant. A bulb contains all the parts of the future plant, and soon becomes as much disengaged from the decayed plant as the ripe acorn is disengaged from its parent tree. At this time they may be carried, like many other bulbs, any length of distance, in dry moss or dry sand. They should be planted out, about three inches below the surface, in a rich soil, in August or September; after which, they throw out roots, and prepare for an early appearance in the ensuing spring. If the bulbs be kept through the winter and planted in the spring, they will not thrive so well that season. The nicer varieties should be taken up after the decay of the old plants, every year, air-dried, and kept until September or October, and then planted. Violet. - This little plant is perennial; the flowers blue, double, and fragrant, blooming early and long. Propagate by dividing the roots. II. SHRUBS. Soil.- With respect to soil, hardy shrubs may be conveniently considered as constituting two great divisions; one requiring any common garden soil, and the other requiring a large portion of peat or leaf-mould. With regard to the first division, a rich, light, hazel loam is suitable to the greater number of the plants, though some will thrive in the poorest soils; but in this there is great diversity. After having taken out the original soil of the border, about a foot and a half or two feet deep, though three feet will do no harm,- fill in the vacancy thus formed with peat or compost raised above the garden level, to allow for subsequent sinking. Seasons and Modes of Planting.- With respect to shrubs that shed their leaves on the approach of winter, they may be removed with safety as soon 33* 389 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. as the leaves have begun to fall in October. With respect to shrubs which do not shed their leaves and are evergreen, they may, if carefully taken up, be planted at any season of the year, provided advantage is taken of dull or dripping weather. But, notwithstanding, there are particular seasons when they will thrive better and grow more freely than at others. If the situation be dry, and the soil light and sandy, evergreens, with the exception of hollies, should be planted as late in November as the weather will permit. But in the case of a bad situation, with a soil retentive of moisture, May is the preferable season. Hollies should always be removed in June. When the plants are large or rather old, good balls should, if possible, be taken up with them, and all the fibres of the roots that can be got up without bruising or injury. Whatever may be the state of the weather, it is important to keep the roots as short time exposed to the air as possible. If only a few minutes, so much the better. In all seasons, situations, and soils, the plants should be well soaked with water as soon as the earth is put about the roots. As soon as a plant has been put into its place, the earth should be filled in, leaving a sufficient hollow around the stem, and as far as the roots extend, to hold water, which should then be poured in, in sufficient quar..,iy to soak the ground down to the lowest parts of the root. By this practice, which is particularly necessary in spring and autunii planting, the earth is carried down by the water, and every crevice among the roots is filled. Care must always be taken to have as much earth about the roots of the plants as will prevent them from being exposed when thl-e Fig. 252. water has subsided. After the first watering has dried up, the earth should be leveled around the stem of the plant, and as far out as the water lits been put on, but not trodden. If the plants are large, a second watering is sometimes necessary, but in ordinary-sized plants one watering is quite siuft 390 FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. ficient; and after remaining twenty-four hours, more or less, according to the nature of the soil, the earth about the stem and over the roots should be trodden as firm as possible, and after treading should be dressed with a rakle. The garden engine is now much used, in watering gardens, nurseries, &c. Fig. 252. After-management. - If the season be very dry, it will be important to lay round the roots a quantity of moss, or cut grass. Whilst the plants are small, care must be taken not to let them be stifled or choked with rankgrowing weeds, nor by the increasing growth of contiguous shrubs, and to clear away all rubbish that might retard their shooting; also stir the surface of the ground frequently with a hoe, to prevent the surface becoming hard and caked in dry weather. The branches must be trimmed off, too, which may be done by means of the implement below, -called a briar or s)ill hook,- as they grow too large or luxuriant, or overhang and smother each other. Fig. 253. Situation and Arrangement. - Some shrubs thrive best in a dry and elevated situation, and will not grow when crowded amongst others, or in low, damp ground, where other sorts grow the most luxuriantly. These and other circumstances must be attended to, in the disposal of the several roots. The beauty of the plants cannot be displayed, indeed, when they are too much crowded, as they are then certain to be drawn into unnatural shapes. The more frequently, therefore, that open spaces can be omitted, the more Fig. 254. will the shrubs exhibit themselves to advantage. Keep them well trimmed, using the pruniing-shlears (Fig. 254) freely, whenever necessary. 391 eNj FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. One of the most important things, in planting shrubs, is to attend partic ularly to the shades of green, especially where the view from the house of lawn catches the trees. Flowers, which Pliny elegantly calls the joy of trees, continue but for a short period in comparison with the duration of the leaves, and, therefore, the more permanent picture should be executed by judiciously contrasting the greens. Even the effect of perspective may be considerably increased by the proper arrangement of hues. Shrubs, whose leaves are of a gray or bluish tint, when seen over or between shrubs of a yellowish or bright green, will seem thrown into the distance. Those, again, with small or tremulous leaves should wave over or before those with large, broad-fixed foliage. The light and elegant acacia, for example, has a more beautiful effect when its branches float over the firm and dark holly, or sweet bay. When the situation will permit, three or five lilacs may be grouped together in one place, and as many laburnums in another, so as to give effect in various parts by a mass of color. The guelder rose should appear as if escaping from the bosom of evergreens, and not a plant should be set in the ground without adding to the harmony of the whole. A shrubbery should be planted as a court or stage dress is ornamentedfor general effect, and not for particular and partial inspection. Boldness of design, which seems to be more the offspring of nature and chance than of art and study, should be attempted; but all harshness or too great abruptness must be avoided, by a judicious mixture of plants whose colors will blend easily into one another. The most beautiful shrubs should, of course, be planted in the most conspicuous and prominent places; a projecting part of the shrubbery, for instance, should be reserved for the rhododendron, the azalea, and other similar sorts, with which may be planted the hardier heaths. With respect to evergreens considerable judgment is required, in order to relieve their uniform appearance during winter. This may be done by skilfully arranging different kinds, and those with variegated leaves, such as aucuba, japonica, and green holly, or those which retain their brilliant berries during the cold months, such as pyracantha. A well-planted shrubbery depends not so much for its beauty on the expense or rarity of the plants it contains, as on the selection of the sorts which succeed each other in blossoming throughout the year, or whose various-colored fruits grace them for the longest duration of time. It is not, accordingly, so much the shrubs, exclusively the ornament of the summer months, which alone require attention, but such also as will contribute to the gayety of the morning and evening of the year; so that the gloom may be banished at all times, as much as possible, from the grove, and nature's repose shortened between the plaintive good-night of autumn and the cheerful good-morrow of spring. For this purpose, plant the hazel and 392 FLOWERS, ORNAMIENTAL TREES, ETC. filbert, as among the trees which blossom first; and even the fturz-bush is a great enlivener of the shrubbery at this dull season, particularly when its golden blossoms are expanded at the foot of some dark-foliaged evergreen. Varieties. - Among the numerous kinds of ornamental shrubs may be mentioned, for a select assortment, - Rose Acacia, dwarf white-flowering Horse Chestnut, scarlet-flowering Chestnut, Strawberry tree, double-flowering Almond, Snow-ball, Japan Sophora, Spice-bush, Rose of Sharon, Lilac, Carolina Syringa, Spirea, Mountain Rose, Mountain Laurel, Azalea, Calycanthus, Honeysuckle, Hawthorn, Prim, Juniper. III. ORNAMIENTAL TREES. Varieties.- The most common, hardy, and esteemed ornamental trees are as follows: Ailanthus, Ash, Horse Chestnut, Rock Maple, Sugar Maple, Cypress, Elm, Larch, Pine, Locust, Willow, Linden, Abele, Basswood, Hemlock, Tulip-tree, Fir, and Spruce. MONTHLY FLORICULTURAL CALENDAR. JANUARY.- The chief business of this month is increasing the stock of potted flowering-plants, some of which will require the assistance of a slight hot-bed to bring them forward. This is to be understood as a means of preventing them going back, rather than forcing them prematurely forward, it will also be a means of advancing seedlings fit for pricking out into other hot-beds, next month. A very moderate degree of artificial heat is sufficient. FEBRUARY. The business of this month depends much on the kind of weather which prevails. If cold, wet, and inclement, very little can be done in the open garden, except protecting the bed-plants; but if the weather be remarkably open and dry, something may be done in the way of preparing the ground for the hardier annuals. A slight hot-bed will be required to raise seedlings of various sorts of annual flowers, and to receive seedlings of former sowings; thus, by keeping up a stock of desirable tilings, in different stages of growth, the garden may be replenished as soon as the cold season is fairly past. AIARcH. - This being the first month of spring, renders the garden a busy scene, especially if the weather be open; and everything recommended for last month should be continued during the present, with the addition of many other things of equal importance. The bed-flower plants, particularly tulips, must be carefully guarded against sharp frosts following snow oT rain; if the state of the ground permit, all the plots and borders may now be smoothed by the rake, preparatory to sowing the first general crop of 393 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. hardy annuals. Dalilia-seed may perhaps be sown in pans, and the old tubers placed in dry leaf-moLld, on a mild hot-bed, or on a bark bed in a stove, to raise shoots of which young plants are made for flowering. All green-house plants, which flower so readily and so beautifully in the open air in summer, should now, if not done in the autumn, be propagated abulndantly by cuttings, on hot-bed heat, so as to be ready for the borders in June. All the different sorts of what are called tender annuals may now be sown in hot-beds, to raise plants ready for potting as soon as they are large enough to handle; all potted flowers, as the auricula, carnation, pinks, stocks, wall-flowers, &c., should inow receive their spring top-dressing of fresh compost, to assist them to flower strongly. APRIL.- The flowers of some of the bulbs have nowv appeared those on the auricula stage and on the different beds are coming forward, and require constant care. Tulips and hyacinths will need to be sheltered from wind, rain, or other injurious weather. Many seedlings which have been kept in frames will be fit for transplanting. Another sowing of both hardy and tender annuals may, towards the end of the month, be made to succeed those sown previously. Seedling dahlias, and all the tender annuals, require attention to get them forward. Cuttings of dahlias, and the slips or cuttings of Chinese chrysanthemums, also, must be got forward, by potting singly and keeping them on a little heat, till fairly rooted, and ready to go into other pots, or to their places in the open air. MAIv. - Sow another succession of hardy annuals and biennials, and thin and transplant some of those previously sown. Tender annuals, dahlias, chrysanthemnums, &c., lately potted and in frames, must be guarded by mats against the cold of nights, and shaded, till they are well-rooted, from the sun by day; such as are intended to be put out in the open air should be gradually hardened by leaving off the shading, propping, and defending from insects. Carnation-seed may be sown. A small bed of ranunculus may be planted to flower in Atugust, and new beds of violets made. Rosetrees may now be pruned back, to obtain a late bloom; and all other shrubs which produce their flowers on the shoots of the present year may, by cutting back at this time, be made to flower again in autumn. Ju-NE. - All serious fears of the effects of night frosts are now over, and therefore all the more teol(ier kinds of flowering plants may be planted abroad with impunity. Dahlias must now, if not done before, be placed in their blooming stations, with stout stakes for their support. The situation should be sheltered, but not shady, and is better if treated with a fresh compost of rich loam and road-sand. well mixed, to grow in. Pot off seedlings, if not already done. Auriculais may nowv be shifted ~and tulip, hyacinth, and raniunculus beds miay still require attention, to preserve the beauty of the 94 FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. late flowers, by shading or other care. Carnations now need attention to insure vigorous growth and perfect blossoms. Continue to plant out tender annuals, as well as any green-house plants which can be spared, to add to the gayety of the garden; transplant annuals previously sown and standing too thick; sow biennials, and propagate by cuttings every plant of which a supply may be wanted. JULv. — Whatever was omitted to be done in June should now be executed without delay. Take up bulbs and tubers when the leaves have withered; sow and transplant annuals to bloom late; propagate pinks, rockets, carnations, &c. Divide auriculas and repot them, keeping them shaded; also, all other plants in pots, as Chinese primroses; propagate pansies by division; sow biennials; prop Chinese chrysanthemums, and lay down some of the long shoots to make bushy plants of the tops. Regulate the patches of previously-sown annuals, and shift those of the green-house or stove. In short, sowing, transplanting, shifting into larger pots, propagating by layers and cuttings, propping, shading, and watering when necessary, form the constant employment of the flower-gardener during this month. AUGUST. - If any bulbs which have done flowering yet remain in the ground, they should now be taken up, dried, and stored in a safe place. Cuttings of azaleas, ericas, and such similar plants, may yet be put in those of less woody character, as dahlias, chrysanthemums, geraniums carnations, pinks, and other herbaceous perennials, may still be rooted. Roses may be budded. Calceolarias intended to flower late should be cut in, and at the same time receive a top-dressing of rich compost. Another bed or two of pansies should be made to bloom before severe frosts set in. Miginonette should be sown in pots and window-boxes, to stand the winter in frames. Cyclamen persicum may now be turned out of the pots in which they flowered, and placed in a dry border to gain strength duriiag their torpid state. Chrysanthemums, dahlias, and all other tall or climbing plants, should have supports. Carnations, whether on stage, bed, or border, neatly tied up and shaded, and layering for next year's stock finished. Seedlings may be bedded out. Shorten the first shoots of the rose-acacia, to cause a second birth of late flowers. Ranunculuses already planted for blooming in October must be kept rather moist, and the soil about them pretty firm. Violets increased by dividing, and place some in a frame for early flowers. Biennials may still be sown, and bulbs intended to flower in autumn planted. SEPTEM.BER. - In this month there is usually much irregularity of growth, decayed flowers, stems and leaves, required to be cleared away, in order that the flower-pots may not present the appearance of wildness or neglect. 395 FARSIER'S HAND-BOOK. Seedlings of biennials and perennials should be thinned, and some of them placed il pots, or transplanted to beds or places where they are intended to remain; all cuttings, pipings, or layers, which are sufficiently rooted, should also be removed to their final or temporary stations. Auriculas should be freed from dead leaves, the earth on the surface of the pots freshened up, a little compost added, and, if any require to be shifted, it may nowv be done. The seeds of ranunculus and anemone may be sown in pans or boxes, if not already done. Dahlias are now in fitll beauty; and the Chinese chrysanthemums, whether in pots or in the open air, require freqilent watering, not only at the root, but over the leaves, to prevent their flagging under the sun's heat. Seeds of fine annuals, now ripe, should be gathered and saved; and valuable green-house plants which have flowered in the borders should now be repotted. It is now, also, the proper time to prepare the beds intended for tulips, hyacinths, and ranunculuses, in order that they may be properly settled by planting-time; and, indeed, much of the beauty and neatness of a flower-garden the next season depends on the preparation and disposition made at or soon after this time, whether it be in improving the quality of the soil or in altering the forms of the beds; and also many annuals may be sown in pots about this time. to be nursed under glass in the winter, ready to be turned out early in spring. This is a practice which the florist should repeat frequently during the winter months. OCTOBER. -Dahlias are still in beauty, and only require firm staking against the wind. If any new seedlings have not yet flowered, and are expected or promise to prove excellent, they should be guarded by some temporary covering against being nipped by an unexpected night-frost. Chinese chrysanthemums standing in the open borders are in the same predicament; their flower-buds may be destroyed before they are open, if not protected by some slight covering; those in pots can be removed to a place of safety. Pinks may still be bedded out, and carnation layers potted. These last, together with all other flowers in pots, must be duly supplied with water. About the end of the month, prepare a heap of light and fresh sandy loam, and a sufficient number of proper-sized pots, for the reception of as many bulbs and tubers, such as polyanthus-narcissus, tulips, hyacinths, irises, crocus, &c., as may be required for early and late forcing; prepare also the beds for tulips, hyacinths, anemones, and ranunculuses, to be planted about the beginning of next month. Dig the plots or clumps intended for the hardier sorts of bulbs and tubers, which now require to be put in, namely, narcissus of all sorts, snowdrops, scillas, aconite, &c. Pot roses, Persian lilac, and the different sorts of American shrubs, and other plants proper for forcing. Sow some more pots and boxes of mignonette and other flowers, to go into frames. Perennials may be taken up, parted, and replanted; 396 FLOWERS, ORNAMIENTAL TREES, ETC. some of the more showy sorts may be potted to go into frames, to advance their flowering in spring. Roseries may be pruned and regulated, laying dowsn the long shoots and straggling branches, keeping the whole pretty close to the ground. Standard roses require to be close-pruned and well staked. NOVEMBER. -The previously planted beds for tulips, hyacinths, polyanthus-narcissus, ranunculus and anemones, should all be planted early. Where these flowers are cultivated in the best style, the collections are named, and require much precision in placing them in the beds; but when executed according to the approved rule, the success is never doubtful. The other business of the season is taking up the tubers of dahlias, marvel of Peru, or others which would be in jeopardy from frost; pruning shrubs, as well to keep them in form as to encourage flowering. All dead or decaying stems or leaves should be cleared off, the ground dug, the patches of perennial flowers reduced, vacancies filled up, edgings repaired, and the whole garden receive a general brush over, laying all as neatly for winter as possible. DECEMBER. -There is little or nothing to be done in the flower-garden this month. The young seedlings of mignonette, and other flowers in frames, must not be forgotten; indeed, everything liable to be hurt by frost must have sufficient protection. A few more pots of bulbs and tubers, and also another succession of annual flowers, may be sown in pots to go into frames, and be forwarded for planting abroad in the spring. 34 397 CHAPTER X. RURAL ARCHITECTURE. CONSTRUCTION OF FARM-DWELLINGS AND COTTAGES-DAIRIES -BARNSSTABLES - CART-SHEDS AND IMPLEMENT-HIIOUSES -GRANARIES -CATTLE-SHEDS -PIGGERIES - POULTRY-HOUSES -ARRANGEMENT OF TIIE FARMEY-GREENHOUSES- FENCES AND GATES. I. - FARI-DWELLINGS AND COTTAGES. THE edifices of this class which are necessary upon the farm are those intended as residences for the farmer himself, and also for one or more of the persons engaged in the cultivation of it. The character and extent of these are regulated altogether by the extent of the farm, and the taste of its occupier; but even when of the smallest size and simplest construction, the farmer's house should not be deficient in anything essentially requisite for the health, comfort and convenience, of even the most luxurious of mankind. General Principles to be Observed. -The chief condition to be observed, in the construction of these, is utility; for, in fact, there can be nothing really ornamental, especially about the class of buildings which is now under consideration, that is not founded on this basis; and the size, style, and character of the building, are to be modified according to the pecuniary means available for its construction. As general rules in the erection of farmhouses, it may be observed, that it is always desirable that they should be placed upon a platform or terrace, with a view of keeping the ground floor of the several apartments dry, and consequently rendering them warmer and healthier; that the chimneys should be placed in the interior walls rather than in the exterior ones, this arrangement being better calculated to retain the greatest portion of the heat coming from the fires within the house, and, by the additional heat contained within the central mass of masonry, to make the flues draw better; and that the ground plan should approach as near as possible to a square, as being that form which is calculated to affor(d the greatest accommodation with a given amount of cost. Plans for Buildings.- Keeping these principles in view, and accommodating them to the particular situation in which the structure is to be erected. every intelligent farmer will easily make out such a form and arrangement as may suit his peculiar circumstances. RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Model of a AModerate-sized Farm-house. - As a model for the construction of a farm-house containing suitable accommodation for a farmer moderately well off, the annexed plan may be referred to. From the entrance and stair case, A, there is a kitchen, B, with back kitchen or store-room, c, and pantry, Fig. 255. C, S-X~~~~~ I,, Hi D. There are two good parlors, E and F; a store-room and cellar, G, which may be connected with the kitchen, or entered from the outside, as may be thought necessary. The three small apartments, H, I, K, may be used as store-rooms for some of the smaller implements. It will perhaps be convenient that one of them should be a water-closet, and another may be fitted ip as a carpenter's work-shop, in which such jobbing may be done as the lpersons employed on the farm can do, and thus save the time occupied in carrying the articles to the workman. On the second floor there are three good bed-rooms, one above the kitchen, and the others above the front rooms, with a dressing-closet over the entrance. The apartments on each side of the kitchen have lean-to roofs, and are not carried to the height of the other parts of the building. AIodel of a One-story House.- The ground plan of a house consisting of one story only, and calculated for the accommodation of a farmer of quite moderate means, is represented in the following figure. From the vestibule, A, a door leads to the kitchen, B, from which is partitioned off a small bedroom, c. The bed-room, D, has a dark closet, E, and a light one, F. The small apartment, G, may be used as a store-room, in the ceiling of which 399 FARMIER'S IIAND-BOOK. there may be a trap-door, with a suitable ladder reaching to the roof, in which may be two sleeping apartments. Model of a Medium-sized House.- The following design is for a farmhouse of medium size, inr which a portion of the front, and the whole of the kitchen part, are of two stories, and the remainder of one story. Fig. 257 is the front elevation of this house. Fig. 257. The ground-plan of this structure is seen in the following cut, which may be explained thus: A, outer lobby; B, inner lobby; c, dining-room; c, closet; D, parlor; d, press; E, passage under the stairs; e, press; F, back 400 of/. 256. F ~~~B F -. LI,o -' I -~Z -1 ~~~~ r ~~~~~~~I; ,, j~ ~ ~ 71,! ~ B2 ~ L 34* B FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. ig. 260. ~j~~~~\~~<~i~ ~~$ ~ ~ N 0 l~ Miig. 261. ji 0 10. 402 'i~;i.. t' ir/ J 0 zo 20 s0. 50 j~~~~~~xJ ~ ~ ~ ~ r ~~~~~ PM _ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~;j~~~~~~~~~~~jjj~~~~~~~~~ ~ IL] I I - -- i 4 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. passage; G, kitchen; H, back-kitchen or store-room: s, sink; t, oven, u, boiler; I, coal-house, or wood-house; K, a sleeping apartment; L, storecloset, or pantry; HI, milk-house; m, mn, stone shelves; N, closet under the stairs, which may be a water-closet. Fig. 259 represents a side elevation of the same house The upper floor, as seen in Fig. 260, may be cxplaincd as follows: - N, stair-landing; o, P, Q, R, bed-rooms; q, press; s, T, closets. 3(l'ol of a Large Farm-hottse, 4-c. - The design which is sccn in Fig. 261 is for a farm-house of the larger class, in which all the main parts of the building are raised to the height of two stories. First is the front elevation. A side elevation gives the view as seen in Fig. 262. The ground plan is represented by Fig. 263, and the bed-chamber floor by Fig. 264, explained in the manner follow ing. In the ground plan, A is tlhe outer lobby; B, inner lobby; c, parlor; D, dining-room; E, businessroom; F, store-room; a, principal stairs; iI, passage to domestics' rooms Fig. 264. w I s - \ B~;i ~~~11 404 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. {. h, back passage; g, stair to domestics' rooms; I, kitchen x, back kitchlen; L, wood-house;.i, milk-house; N, larder; o, pantry; P, press R, water-closet; v, kitchen-yard; T, ash-pit; s, water-closet. In the bedlI-hamber floor (Fig. 264), B is the stair-landing; A, E, F, K, bed-rooms; ( irincipal stairs; H, passage; c, dressing-room, or room for various purposes; (l, domestics' stairs; n, closet; L, domestics' room; I, press; h, landing of' back stairs. TIe Tudor Style. -Of late years, the fashion of architecture so prevalent Fig. 265. in the time of the TUDORS, and called by that name, has been revived, even in cottage building, to a great extent, with very pleasing effect. It is, how Fig. 266. A .. I ZZI m m 405 FARM'ER'S HAND-BOOK. ever. to he borne in mind that this ornamental style is expensive, and therefore not desirable or practicable with those whose object is to provide plain and substantial habitations, at the least possible expense. Fig. 265. Afodel of Double Cottage Structure.- Fig. 266 exhibits two cottages in juxtaposition,- a front elevation of the whole structure. The ground plan, seen in Fig. 267, is constructed as follows: - A, the lobby; B, kitchen; a, recess for bed; c, store-room; c, oven; D, pantry; E, Fig. 267. A: stairs to upper floor; e, closet or cellar under the stairs. The bed-chamber floor is represented in Fig. 268: - F, the stair-landing; G, bed-room; g, recess for bed; Ii, bed-room; I, closet. Fig. 263. A' Fig. 206 exhibits the cottag,e as havin, a single fatmily-room or kithenli, on the lox er floor, and sleeping apartments -above. Ilowever limited tli.s accommodation mav seem, it is fully equal, if not superior, to that enjoye( tillllllltttlr= = tlI.IIllill- ~ I I ~ ll.. ltlldill[ l lllllUlll 406 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. by thousands of cultivators of the soil in this country, and incomparably superior to what is enjoyed by multitudes in the old countries. If we shall make use of the kitchen for containingr a bed, it gives three distinct rooms for sleeping, with a small closet wlticli may be used for the saimec purpose. But the cottage, in place of coutainin, one room below, may contain two, in which case it will become more comninodious. 3llodi(icatioals of Plans. - With regard to the architectural d(lesign of the cottage, it has not been deemed necessary here to do more than show such an elevation as arises from the plan itself. But the architectural designi may be modified in any wavy. By iving a porch, by making mullions to the windows, by causing, the eaves to project, and by enlarging the chimneystalkls, a more graceful exterior may be produced. A just taste will lead the desi,iner of the cottage, as of every other building, to make even its architectural decorations in harmony with its known uses. A solid and Fig. 269. warm dwelling, suited to the wants and conveniences of rural life, is what we should desire the cottage to be; and the taste will l)e best gratified when the architectiir,l chliracters of the building are seen to be in accord(lance with thlese eii(s..''e aItrts oft the cottage on which the art of the designer 407 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. might be appropriately shown are those just referred to. Fig. 269 repro sents a very neat skietch of a cottage of moderate size and cost. II. DAIRIES. General Remarks. - On proper attention to the construction of the dairyhouse materially depends the perfect manufacture of cheese and butter, and uothing should be spared in rendering it as complete in accommodation for the different operations as the nature and size of the farm will admit. We allude not to the elegance of many gentlemen's dairies, nor to some few of those fitted up at great expense for a large business, but to those upon a moderate scale, and in every instance where the object is not confined to the mere consumption of the family. It is, indeed, the more necessary to remark upon their deficiencies, and give some hints towards remedying them, as many of them consist of nothing better than an out-shed attached to the kitchen, and very few are erected with a proper degree of judgment. Different Apartnicets of the Dairy-house. - The apartments which are peculiarly appropriate to the dairy-husbandry are, oite for milk; another for butter in churning, or for scalding, pressing, and salting cheese; and a third for implements, over which, in cheese-dairies, a store-room may be placed under the roof. Site. - The building, though placed conveniently to the house, yet should be apart from any immediate contact with the odor of the farm-yard, or other impurity, as well as from any pond of stagnant water, as nothing more Fig. 270. ____ _ _ __ _;j 0 A i,, 1 ~ ;- A\t\\\7k. I'\ readily acquires an unpleasant taste or smell than milk and cream. An uniform temperature being also of extreme importance, the site of the structure should be such as to be as little as possible affected by the I i! "I 40S 13 I RURAL ARCHITECTURE. extremes of either heat or cold. The most experienced dairy operators dis agree respecting the degree of temperature most suitable to the production of cream and the making of butter; but they all admit that the house cannot be ren(lered too cool during the summer, and in winter it is easy to keep upli a suflimieit w-armthl. It is recommended by some of the most skilful that the mtin aspect be open to the north and east; and the building should, if possille. be shaded, either by other walls or by high trees, from the southI and sht. The roof should be of a high conical form, or what builders call a " spen roof," rising from the centre, and projecting downwards broadly over the sides, to shade the body of the house, which should consist of a narrow range of rooms, upon the plan of Fig. 270. To secure a Pro]per Temiperature.- Of the apartments represented in Fig. 270, the middle - that in which the miilk is preserved - is the most important; and, therefore, in order to secure as equal a temperature as possible at all seasons of the year, by excluding all direct communication with the external air, the outer walls - as marked black in the plan - should b( madle of sod and earth rammed firm to the breadth of full four feet in thickness. wlile the other walls of the building need only be constructed of a sin(cfl t,.ick, or even with lath and plaster, boarded on the outside; nor is it necessary that they should be more than seven or eight feet high at the sides. -t funnel should also be run through the centre of the roof to a couple (,f feet above it, to act as a ventilator, - a valve being fitted to it. wlhicli. -y meanis of a pulley, can be shut or opened at pleasure; or it inay be venetilated in a more purely scientific, and perhaps much better mannier, by means of the recently invented and approved apparatus now so much in ise. A7rrngr,emen! of thle Apartments.- The arrangement of these rooms will therefore be thus: - A, the milk-house, with broad shelves all around, for holding the vessels which contain the milk and cream; and in the middle is a table for preparing the butter for market. The windows are closed with lattices covered with gauze wire, to prevent the entry of flies, and double shutters of wood, to guard against cold in winter; or common wilndowN-s withi single shutters will do. B, the churning-house, with a boiler in one corner, and on the sides frames for cheese presses and vats, with large vessels of lead, slate, wood, tin, or earthen ware, for holding the whey. a}nd pipes for conveying it to a cistern outside, for the use of the pigs. c, the ws-sh-house for the cleansing and care of the utensils; it therefore contains a fuirnace with a cauldron for scalding the vessels, and a pumlI communicating with a well. The outer door or entrance is here, an(l gtljoiuingr it are placed stands under the verandah formed by the projection fI the roof, for exposing all the wooden implements which may have bee. washed to be dried and sweetened by the sun and air. 35 40(i FAR3IER'S HAND-BOOK. Store-loft or Upper Rooms. -In cheese-dairies, the store-loft may be placed immniediately below the rise of the conical roof,- a comimunication being made by a stair-case in a corner of the wasll-hoLuse,-btt many i:armers prefer having the loft over the cow-hlouse, with the intention of forwardinig the maturity of the cheese by its warmth. Some large dairies, however, have roofs in the common form, with lofts and sleeping-rooms over them; and others, of a moderate size, have the milk-house sunk about three feet below the ground, with very thick brick and rubble walls, standing ten feet high, thus admitting of a cheese-loft above. The buildings in the latter case are also constructed differently fromn that already dlescribed,- the milk-house having three fronts encircled by a verandah, - thus affording a strong draught of air through the windows, with only one dloor, while the other rooms are of timbers rising up to the roof, and the wash-house forms the only mniode of commuinication between both. The pi)lan, on the whole, has the advantage of having the milk-house entirely separate from the churning and scalding room, as well as of its being somewhat cooler in summer; but what it gains in the latter respect it .oses in the constant equality of temperature, and its construction is more costly. Model of a Complete Dairy.- In Figs. 271, 272, a design is given of a complete dairy, which may either form a part of the farmer's house, or be distinct from it. The front elevation is as above. The plan of the ground floor, as seen in Fig. 72, is as fillows: - \ is .he scullery; a, steami boiler; o, sink in the wiud(low recess, iln li} til} water can be hea t I5v a st..-ai-ip,c) fiomn tlihe boiler; s, smrill s eoi.Iu 410 Fig. 2 7 1. RURAL ARCHITECTURE. nicating with the pigs' troughs, in which the whey and other refuse are thrown; r, r, stone benches, on which the milk-pails are placed before they Fi. 272. Fang ;_ *bfi~~ffl~;;A ~;j~~~ ~~>,~ /~/f\-..\ \~~\~I- j - ~,, _~ —,J_____I____ _', ... ~ X1 I ES G are put into the milk-room; E, wood and coal cella,r, with hatch, e, by which the fuel is thrown in; c, churning-room; c, stone bench for milk-vessels; Fi-. 273. p,. cheese-makling room; b, b, b, stone bench, for utensils; D, milk-room; d, d, stone bench round the room, for milk-vessels; f, table for prep,)r 411 I PFARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. ing butter, with basin and fountain; G, G, shed along the front of the building, for drying dishes; F, F, horse-course for moving the churn; H, )assage from scullery to milk-room; m, stairs down to milk-room; 1, stairs lp to loft. Fig. 273 gives a side elevation view of the building. The plan of the upper floor or lofts, represented in Fig. 274, is thus explained:- A, the Fig. 274. t#;~Y;~Th i~# ~;. ~ I] -;;; ~;; 5l1 f~\r~j4\;f 2i:2L:1s7{YjLi A II L~~T \:!i~~\ !-i i, iL . i1 \' I .~,,. I store-room over scullery; B, store-room over milk-room; landing of stairs; D, upper landing; E, cistern; e, closet. III. BARNS. Plan of Apartments. - On tillage farms, where grain is produced in large quantity, the barn is an important part of the buildings of the farm; but on fairmns where pasturage is almost exclusively practised, the barn becomes less necessary. In the construction of barns a great change has taken place sinee the introduction of the threshing-machine. They were formerly constructed of dimensions capable of holding the greater part of the produce )f the farm. When the flail is used in the operation of threshing, the barn usually consists of a plain oblong building, without any internal divisions, and of a size proportionate to that of the farm. It is made to hold one stack ti _= i 1 412 I "., ,in IE I b, b, shelves; c, RURAL ARCHITECTURE. of corn at a time, and besides the space occupied by the corn, room must be left for the threshing-floor, on which the grain is placed for the action of the flail. An essential circumstance in the arrangement of the barn, in this case, is the formation of the threshing-floor of suitable materials, and in a convenient situation. It is, for the most part, placed in the centre of the building, but it may be laid down in any other part that may appear more convenient. In the construction of these floors, wood, when properly laid and put together, is probably the best, and the most secure from damp, and may be arranged so as to be moved at pleasure. The dimensions may be from twelve to fourteen by eighteen or twenty feet. The materials should be well seasoned previously to their being put together, in order to guard against shrinking afterwards; and it is to be observed that the platformi thus made is to be slightly raised above the other parts of the floor. When the threshing-machine is emiployed, the barn is conveniently divided into a number of apartments, to fiLcilitate the work in the operation of threshing, and to enable the unthreshlied corn to be kept separately from the grain and straw. The barn for threshing consists of two apartments, ontie above the other. In the upper apartment is placed the unthreshed corn. as it is brought from the stack; and in the event of the farmery being placed in an inclined situation, advantage may be taken of this circumstance, by placing the entrance to this apartment in the same plane with thie surface of The ground outside, which secures ready ingress and egress with the corn. The threshing-machine is placed at one end of this apartment, and it extends to that below. In this apartment also is placed the table on which the sheaves are spread out, and the feeding-board at which the person stands who suplies the corn to the machine. The lower apartment is called the dressingbarn, as the grain is received in it from the threshing-machine, and is there winnowed and prepared for use. The remaining apartment connected with the barn is that in which the straw is received as it falls frbm the machine, and when it is stored up for use. It should be of sufficient size to contain the produce of one stack, at least; and it is desirable that it should l)e even larger, so that straw may be preserved dry, after beiiing threshed ill severe weather. Li,'/ht and Air. -In the construction of the barn it is important that arrangements be made for ventilation and the admission of light. These oljects are effected by glazed windows, consisting of two sashes, so that they may be moved up and down, or by means of what are termed luffer-board windows, or such as are formed of small slips of wood, instead of glass. To) prevent the Depredations of Verrnin. - The floors should be formed or arranged so as to prevent the depredations of vermin. These frequently make passages into the space below the boards along the edges of the floor. 35* 413 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. ing between it and the walls; but this may be prevented by skirtings of thil sheet-iron placed around the apartments, and so formed as to overlap the floor an inch or more. The joining of the skirting with the wall is to be well filled up with mortar, and the lower part is to fit accurately to the floor. Model of the l/ashing,ton Barn.- The following is a sketch of tile barn structure sketched by Arthur Young for General Washington, explained thus: - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, the barn; 1, 2, 7, 8, the porch of do., with a small Fig. 275. 16', 17 la 2 S13 12 l13 S 1e 23 .,9 f~ 23~~~..'.;, 5 f'o If',; rc door at 9; 10, 11, the great door at which the carts enter; 12, the threshingfloor, which extends the space of 1, 2, 10, 11; 13, 13, bays, in which the corn is stowed; 14, 14, 14, 14, sheds for cattle and horses; 15, 15, 15, 15, mangers, out of which the cattle get their roots, straw, and chaff; 16, 16, 16, 16, passages, between two and three feet wide, for carrying food to the cattle; 17, 17, 17, 17, doors into the passage; 18, 18, 18; 18, principal posts on which the sheds rest; 19, 19, 19, 19, gutters of bricks sloped for coinveying the urine of the cattle to 20, 20, 20, 20, cisterns, from which it is every day regularly thrown on the dunghills, or made use of otherwise; 21, 21, 21, 21, sheds for various uses; 22, 22, two yards, with each a shed for shelter, to be applied to any purpose wanted- one for sheep, surrounded with low racks -another divided for a horse or two, loose, or the other half for yearling calves; 23, 23, enclosure of pales; 1,2, 8, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, the main body of the barn, which rises from fourteen to twenty feet to the caves, all the rest of the shed being placed against it. The quantity of cattle room may be enlarged by a slight extension of the sheds at each end; and all these points may be made to vary according to the views, circumstances and wants, of each farmer. 414 RURAL ARCHITEC'TURE. Bucl's Barn. -The figure below is the ground-plan of a barn according to Buel's views; a is the barn-floor, fourteen feet wide; b, b, bays for hay Fig. 276. I I, I f .q 9 c c e e I _ I -q: -.9 9 t- d1 I e ~ C SI t r. q and grain, eighteen feet wide and ninety-two feet long; c, c, stables for cattle and horses, thirteen feet wide in the clear; d, d, passages to stables, four feet waide; C, e, manigers for feeding, two anid one half feet wide; f,f, great doors, fourteen feet wide; g, stable-doors, five feet wide, double. Length of barn, one hundred feet; width, fifty feet; posts, eighteen feet; pitch of roof, twelve and one half feet; height of lean-to posts, seven feet; pitch of stablle-roof, eight feet; length of side lean-tos, one hundred feet; length of end lean-tos, thirty-eight feet. The end view (A) and the side view (B) are seen in Fig. 277. The barn is framed as if to stand alone, omitting the lowIer girt at the ends on each side of the large doors. TI'he leantos are then framed on to the barn in the simplest mananer, the passage beings irOln( the main body of the barn, excepting at the ends, where the passage is ait the main barn, and the lean-tos there only sixteen feet wide I I i 415 L Cb d .q FARMIER S HAND-BOOK. and the manger is fitted up to the main barn. Only one passage is made to go into the short stables at the ends. Stalls are made seven and one half FIg. 277. A mm I ____ ~[77 I' im 1 l li;.' [.. I,,,,..l, feet wide, and boarded between and cIch ox or cow is tied next to the partition side of the stall, which prevents their getting together, and saves much room. The doors are sufficiently wide to drive in a pair of oxen yoked, and large spikes are driven in the plates all round the stables, to hang harness, yokes, and chains upon. The bottoms of the mangers are raised 416 /:g'. 273. I_ 4w RURAL ARCHITECTURE. ten inches from the floor and laid double: the sides of the stable are also !,attened with thin boards inside, which makes them perfectly tight and warm; windows, with sliding shutters, are made in the sides, to throw out i}e manure. Girts run parallel with the main floor in the posts, across w-liche are laid poles, nine feet above the floor, on which hay or grain can be piled up to the peak. This barn will hold two hundred tons of hay. an(l f.rty-six yoke of oxen, or one hundred cows or horses. If only ordinary stolk is kept, the long lean-tos need be onily eighteen feet wide, and the sito:t ou:es fourteen feet. Granaries can he partitioned off fromn the bays or st::)lcs, as may be convenient. If a threshing-miachine is used, a part of the st;)le can accommodate it. On this model barns of any size may be built.. Tlhe improved harn-door roller, of which we give samples, ought to be used L,y every barn-builder. (Fig. 278.) IV. STABLES. ite. Stablles should be placed in such a position that ready access may Al had to them, without the necessity of passing through courts or yards where any animals are kept. They may have a court in front for containing lie dullg and soiled litter; but it is better that they be contiguous to the vards where the cattle are kept, so that the dung may be mixed with that of li}e other animals. If circumstances allow, there should be an adjoining X';stern for holding water. It is better, for the regularity of superintendence, tl,.t all the farm-hottses be under one roof, and, if more than one stable is iecessary, that all the stables be together. Li',!t and Air. -The essential point, in the construction of the stable, is to afibrd sufficient cubical space for air and ventilation, and sufficient area for the animals and the workmen who attend them. The most suitable breadtlh tbr farm-stables is eighteen feet within walls, though sixteen will do, and se(venteen may be regarded as a convenient medium. There is no great ()bjcction to the extension of the breadth of stables and other buildings, except the expense of roofing, which, from the greater size of the timbers necessary, increases in a great proportion with the extension in breadth. FThie whole space should be left free to the roof, no lofts of any kind being .suffered to be erected above the horses, so that the benefits of sufficient space :,nd ventilation may be secured in the fullest degree. No point is mnore j,ceessary to be attended to than this, in the farm-stable occupied by a great number of animals. The proper manner of ventilating stables, as of all apartments where .:imals are klept, is by openings at the ridge of the roof, by which nlmeans the heated vapor of the stable is suffered to escape. If these ventilators are of tlie proper number and size, there is no need of apertures in the walls, as c2 417 F FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. some recommend, and seem to think necessary. AVWe may )be certain, that if we allow the heated air to escape above, the colder w-ill descend to occupy its place. The air within the stable will, indeed, he kept above the medilnln temperature without, but in no such degree as to injure the health of the animals. It will suffice, when the horses are out of the stables at work, to open the windows and doors, so as to remove the efllu-via which have been evolved from the dung and litter; and, in warm weather, the window-s may be opened when the horses are feeding. The ventilators may be formed by frames with lotvre-boards, inclining so as to prevent the entrance of rain. But they may be simply and conveniently formed by making openings on each side of the ridge, defenled fromn the weather by the roof-b)oarding and the ridge-lead. The windows of the stable may be formed wvith a glazed upper part, and sliding frames, below, as in the catse of those of the granary. Stalls. -Each hlorse should have his own stall, whichl should be six feet vwide. Horses are always reluctant to lie down Nwhen they have not sufficient space, and many will scarcely lie down in the stab)le at all. The partitions of the stalls should be eight feet long, five or six feet high behind, and seven in front. They are almost always formed of boards mortised into posts, one near the wall, and one at the other end of the partition. The hinder post may be sunk deep in the floor, and be of the heilght of the partition, or it may be carried up to a beam extendingl along all the stalls; this last method( of constructioln is both substantial and adapted to the long line of stalls in the stable, and in this case, also, the hiinder posts are not sunkl into the ground, but let into stone soclkets. Rack;s (and J~rc:Tn~rs. Tlie h,)rse r,ceives hic f "i-o?'1re0i racks and mangers. rThe racl mav'1.}1r I), (le abvted a}oyve tlhe Ii.,o, if' the horse. or rest upo, the grond. Irt: b ierT p.r clsi, {: ltors,i l'iiile,'.:Ixvl h'3s fio,l i liolitliftlls, in(d thi;s i llss isonv:i\ e, eel0I tlhan. fi1 /lic aIwvwird positioni of the rl ks:!ot 1li: ilitrrer. It this way, t,,, it i. lly lieve that there is 1 v:te o liav than w-henii the rBck is o 1 tlh!',:ou1ld. But, 'however this'~,1)q }I, tlis species of rack is filtlii siiiTieieiitly slitable il co(mmon pratice' I-t c(losists of two horizontal rails, ilto vhiiieli are fixed 'prig,ilt [Dins, slihlly ineliniing outw.ards from the lower rail. Thej pins may te two in(lieis in di'ao te1 add three inchles apairt,:tiil tlio lower rail Iiav 1)b( f)our Gcet six inches from the floor. This rackl should extend the whole widthli of the stalls, ard the slighter the inclination given to the upright piIls, the better. It is common to rmakLe smaller rackls of iron, projecting from the wall.'lhe uil)per rack, for hay, does not stupersede the propriety of having a lower one, fi)r straw and greeti forage, which are best supplied from a low ralck. It has been often )roposed that reacks shall lbe altogether (lone awaly with, an(] the horses fed ent,irely oil cut straw and hay, mix-.ed with farinaccous food. 418 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. There is an apparent economy in this practice, but experience shows, that, in the case of the farm-horse, it is better that there be a system of rackls, i:l which food is placed before the animals at all times. Thile manger is an oblong box, open at top, and placed at one side of the stall. Its dimensions may be fifteen inches -wide at top), tvwelve inches at bottom, and nine inches deep. In this box the corn of the ihorse is p)laced a;t stated times, and in a given quantity; and whenl boiled or prel)pared( food is -iven, it is lilkewise placed in it. The system of partiallvy i'liin lorses with' prepared food, as potatoes or turnips boiled, mixe(l witih riniaceous ifood, is an excellent one. To suit this method(:( of treatmnent. the inin,ger shouild be of sufficient capacity, as of the dilnensiots albove stated, and two and one half feet long. Whlat is not occupied l)y the mane(-r is oceipiedl y the lower rack. The outer edg(le of both the mniller aiid rack should be iorimed of a continuous bar of stoutt wood, three inliches thick, and four inches deep. Into this bar is to be fixed a ri(ng, thlrotilih whilch is to pass the end of the halter which attaches the horse, wNithl a little iron xweight at its extremity, to keep it tight. Often, however, thlougi not so properly, the end of the halter is merely tied to the rilln. V. CAR'T-SItED AND I\IPI,E3IENT-HOUSES. Site, 4 c. - The injurious effects of the exposure to the w(eather on strlictures of wood are well known, and they have stuggested the utility of placing the carts and other implements of the farm in situations -where thley would be free from exposutre. The carts and larger im-nplemenits are usually placed in sheds openi in fi-.ront, but defended on all other sides. The circrumstances to I:' attended to in tl,t,ir construction are to place the open side in that direetion whichl is mIost shelterel, and to preserve the implements in it from railn. It is not, l hoevecr, necssary that the whole of the apartment should be devoted to that purlpose, an(l it has accordinly beeit found an economical arrang(eme?nt t(,) e ih* ~ r,ranarv, or some other store-room, al)ove the cartsied. Coo,n, i' l:;ti?'i,t-sheIl ther litay e omet apartitienit for holdin, the smaiil v,: t, l'}tt);h is o 1t l seenred l}y; dooIr:1t(1 lock. One p;)rt of it Ii,) li' (I:-)'ed to the carlienters' touols. Vl. GRANAIRIES. sSite, r'c. - moong the buildings used as repositories, the granary iiiay 1)e menitionc d(l lt, excep)t on the larger class of ftrins, a separate buildiil..l will Inot be nocrssary for hlolding graini. The most couveiient situatioat lioweer,i for tl g(raliary, is above the cart-shed. In barns withl threshilrilachinies, it is somnetimes formed immediately above the floor on which tliI achinaie w-orlks, vhich admits of the corn being immediately raised t) 419 FARKIER'S HAND-BOOK. fi'om the ground-floor, either by the threshing-machine itself, or by a windlass, easily worked by one man. In this case, as well as in every other in which the granary is placed over another building, it is always convenient to) have a windlass to it, either immediately over a trap-door in the floor, or over a door in the outside wall. VII. CATTLE-SHEDS. Uses and Requisites. - Cattle-sheds are used either for lodging milell c,)ws or young cattle, or for stall-feeding for the butcher. The principal requisites, in buildings of this description, are to be capable of being properly ventilated, to be constructed so as to require the least possible l:tbor in feeding the cattle and cleaning away the dung, and to have the stalls so formed as to keep the animals dry and clean, with sufficient drains to) carry away, and reservoirs to collect, the urine and dung. Arrangement of Cattle-sheds. -The common method of arrangement ill these houses is to place a long beam of wood, about five feet high and two feet from the wall, at the heads of the animals; and to this beam the posts :tre fastened to which the cattle are attached. The usual distance of these posts is about four feet. A movable ring is placed round each post, from which a chain is extended round the neck of the cattle, and they feed from a low manger or trough, formed merely of a raised edge of stone or wood, between which and the wall the food is placed. A more perfect arrangement is now adopted. This consists in placing Fig. 279. the heads of the animals at such a distance from the wall as to leave a narrow pathway in front, by which the food can be more easily placed before if 420 x II I 3) 3 B B .N A. A c 0 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. the cattle, and placing each animal in a separate stall, the stalls being divided by low partitions, just of sufficient size to prevent them from inter fering with each other. A movable ring and chain are also here used for attaching the animals, the ring being, in this case, moving on a vertical rod, instead of the wooden post. This arrangement is represented in Fig. 279. A, A, A, are the partitions between the animals; B, B, B, the upright iron rods, to which are fixed the rings and chains by means of which the cattle are tied; C, C, C, represent the raised edges, or curb-stone, of tlhc manger in front; D, D, D, the partition separating the manger from the path way by which the food is conveyed to the stalls; E, the pathway in front; and F, that behind the animals. In the internal arrangement of cattle-sheds for cows or oxen, the animals may be made to stand either across or along the building. When ranged lengthwise, the width of the house should be, at least, sixteen feet, and the space allowed for each of the animals of the larger kind should be six feet. The distance from the manger to the wall, being the passage for carrying along the food, may be four feet, to admit the attendant to supply the animals with their food with facility. A distinguishing feature in the arrangement of houses in which cattle are tied up is the open gutter behind, which is rendered necessary on account of the comparatively fluid nature of the animals' dung. The space between the manger and gutter is regulated by the size of the animals which are to occupy the stalls. The gutter is generally made a foot broad, and three or four inches deep, and it is usually made perpendicular in the sides. The organization of cattle being less delicate than that of the horse, they are not so liable to sufler from vicissitudes of temperature as that animal, and the same precautions for maintaining an uniform temperature in their houses are not necessary. Complete ventilation is, however, essential; and, to secure this object, milch cows, as well as young cattle, aye frequently placed in open sheds, care being taken that the open side of the shed is sheltered from the elements. The most convenient arrangement, especially in the case of the largersized animals, is probably that in which they stand lengthwise in the house there being a space in front of the mangers for carrying along the food; a passage behind them in which the attendant stands in cleaning them out, and from which he supplies them with litter; a gutter communicating with a reservoir, from which the dung and urine are conveyed, as occasion may require. This arrangement is simple and efficient. The animals are supplied with food, and cleaned out with facility; but this is not the only plan of arrangement by which these objects may be effected. A cow-house, or cattle-shed, in which the animals stand across the building, will afford the 36 4'-) 1 FARIME t'S HAND-BOOK. same accommodation as that in which they stand with their heads against the side wall, at less expense of walling and roofilng, for the passatces before and behind serve for the accommodation of two sets of cattle. Cal-lhouses. - The calf-houses are to be placed convenient to the cowhouses, to lessen the labor of carrying the milk to them; )but they should not be so near as to permit the cow to see or even hear her calf, if' possible. In the construction of these apartments, the chief requisites are to secure cleanliness and a proper degree of heat, and to guard( agaliinst daill)ness which would be injurious to the young animals. To effect the l]ltcr pIur pose, the floor may be raised some distance from the ground, and fornied of laths or bricks, placed in such a manner as to allow any li(llidl matter to pass through; and this artificial floor is to be raised so high above the surrounding surface as to admit of the intervelning space beiig cleaned out occasionally, otherwise it would become a receptacle of filth, producing the most offensive exhalattions. The litter is thus kept dry under the calves; but it must not be allowed to accumulate for a length of time, for the mass thus formed would prevent the moisture from getting through. The interior arrangements of calf-houses are sometimes similar to those described, and they are, in fact, cow-houses in miniature. A more simple and equally convenient arrangement consists in placing the calves in separate divisions, each lihaving a manger or crib for holding a small quantity of hay, or younIg grass, according to the season. The partitions between the calves should be so high as to prevent their reaching over to one another for otherwise they suck each other's ears, and often suffer from lumps of matted hair being thus conveyed to the stomach. The feeding-cattle may have houses of the same construction as those described; but they may also be fed in yards with sheds attached to them, to which they can retire during the night, or ill sternly weather. Apartmeeit fj)r Boilii, l~ oodl, A.)I)aratus Necessary, aiia tile Alode of Proceeding. Connected with the cattle-shleds and feeding-vards, there may be an apartment for boiling or steamingi food, in which a steanlilig ap)pa.ratus is placed. Any kind of wooden box or barrel will answer for this pulrpose, so formed as to be readily filled and emiptied. The steami is to be conveye(d in a pipe to the lower part of the vessel, which ought to have a sliding hoard at the bottom, to allow the contents to be discharged when ready. The vessel may be filled witlh water, thoLugh this is not necessary in the case of succulent roots, as the potato and turilp, because thile steiam is quickly condensed. But when corn is to be boiled, it should be (over((i with wNater, to effect the condensation of the steam. An apparatus of this construction is represented in Fig. 280. It consists of a ftirmac and c(astiron boiler, A, furnished with a safety-valve, to render it secure from danger, 422 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. even in the hands of the most inexperienced person. This boiler may be inade to supply warm water for other purposes in the farmery, the water being drawn off by a cock in the lower part of it. It is supplied with water Fg. 280. / I I ~ t2~i~i4\\ I i- fromt a cistern, B, placed at the height of five or six feet above it. When filled, the cistern requires no further attention, as the boiler regulates its suLplly of water by means of a float inside, attached to the valve in the cisterii. T-o caskls, c and D, are intended to hold the potatoes, turnips, or other matters to be steamed. The steam is conducted to these from the boiler Al a pipe branching off to each by stopcocks. As many casks as may t)e necessary for the supply of food may be attached in the same way. TlL ese, it las been said, are furnished with slidiiing, hatches in the bottom br tal ing out the food when ready, and are raised as far from the ground a,' will admit a barrow or trough to be introduced under them, to receive 'the contents when they are ready to be withldrawn. For boiling grain, the cask fior hlolding it differs from those used in steaming roots only by not itigi a lhatch in the bottom, as the hatch could not be easily made tigllt, i-li(hll is necessary in this ease, as wNater must be mixed with the grain in the same qulalntity, or nearly, as if it were to lbe boiled in a boiler inl the conllmon way. It may be added, that the hatch not b)eing tight in boilinii p)otatoes is an advantage, and even necessary for allowing the condens,,-( steain to run out, and also all the earthy matters froii the skins of the potitto,s. Inll the figure, one of the casks is represented with the lid pressed(l down by means of the vertical bar, which is employed for this pur I 423 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. pose during the operation of boiling or steaming. In the other cask, the lid is represented as opened, with the vertical bar removed to one side. There is a steaming apparatus of an improved construction in use, consisting, like that already described, of a metal boiler with safety-valve and ocks, from which proceeds the pipe which supplies the buckets with steam I)y stopcocks branching off to each. The buckets, in this case, are composed entirely of cast metal, made to hold a determinatc quantity, as a bushel or two bushels, and slide with facility off their stand NwhenI ready to be emptied and refilled. Barrels, or other capacious vessels, may likewise be attached, to which additional pipes convey the steam; warm water may constantly be had from the boiler, and the superfluous steam may be usefully applied for hleating, and other purposes of domestic economy. VIII. PIGGERIES. Site, tc.- The piggery is usually raised as a mere shed attached to the wall of some farm building, and as near as possible to the kitchen and dairy, - which are too often connected together, - the sole reason of which position being the convenience of supplying it readily with wash. A certain degree of nearness is indeed advisable, for tile saving of trouble; and in some farmhouses there is a door or window in the back kitchen communicating with the hog-sty, through which the refuse vegetabl)les and wash can be thrown to the animals without encroaching on time; but the air of a dairy should be ever preserved quite uncontaminated from any foulness of scent. Those on a large scale should, therefore, be so constructed as to divide the range of sties from the dairy-yard by a wvall sufficiently high to preclude all communication of unpleasant odor; yet having a cistern, with a irough, or pipes, passed through the wall, so as only to have to cross the court and place the fluid in the reservoir. Plan of Construction. - Upon whatever scale the piggery is to be erected, it should be raised upon a little declination, so as to allow of the drainage of the urine, to keep the animals dry, and divided into sties of between six and seven feet in width, and fourteen or fifteen feet long; the back part of which should be covered with a low roof, and sufficiently large to allow a Ifatting hog to lie down conveniently. These sties are soimetimes left open in front; but although ventilation should be attended to, yet, in cold weather, they should be boarded nearly to the top, allowing only of a door to enter, and a couple of inches open space at the bottom to carry off the uiine. Tihe boards, if placed in a groove of tihe frame-work, can be removed at pleasure, either to clean the sty or to render it cool. The uncovered part, whlich is used as a court for the animal to feed in, should be boarded in front by a ow paling, so as to admit the sun and air, and the trough for the victuals 424 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. placed in one corner; but, as he is very apt to put his feet into the trough, thus soiling and wasting his food, hinged shutters, which give way to the pig's snout and close on his withdrawing his head, are by some persons fixed before the troughs, in order to prevent him. Bars are also occasionally nailed at stated distances across the top of the trough, so as to confine each pig separately to his food, without being able to drive away his fellows. A better mode, however, is to place the trough outside the front paling of the pen, with a hole in it only just large enough to a(idmit of his head; by which means waste will be avoided, and the trough caii be filled and cleaned without entering the court. The sties for breedilng-sovs, and those used for store-pigs, may be somewhat wider, and the trotugh should, of course, have a sufficient number of apertures for the little pigs' heads, together with a separate trough, having a larger opening, for the sow, as well as high enough to prevent the sucking pigs from getting into it. Where water can be conveniently obtained, it is a good plan to have a small spout directed through the sties, not only for their more easy cleansing, but to afford the opportunity of always allowing the animials to drink. The building, when not circular, may thus be extended to any length; and if connected at one end with a boiling-house, and at the other with a cesspool, into which the drains are emptied, the elevation of the whole will wear the appearance indicated in the following cut. Fig. 2S8. t_~ ~. __..v./....=. Pigs in Separete Sties, for Fa//ning,. —If many pigs be reared, it is alw ays advisal)le to keep thlose of ditfeiret ages from each other, -and even those of the same brood are not of the same strength; they should, theret;)re, be placed in separate sties, not containing more than tltrce or four in each, antl those of as neaily as possible equal disposition. In the flittti,g of hogs, however, many breeders feed them siingly in stie(s whllich only allow thlim to lie down, without being admitted to the court; and some breeders do not allow them room even to turn. Some of these sties are built in the form of a cage of planks, one side of which is made to move 36* 425 lFARIER'S HAND-BOOK. with pegs, so as to fit them exactly, and to be enlarged with their growthl they arc either placed upon w heels for tlhe convenience of tnoviniig tihem, oI upon feet a few inciles from the grounld, withl a gently slopitig floor to carry. off the filth fromn the back door, andl laving holes at thle bottoni for thle water to drain from, while they feed thronghl a hole in front. Thle more (genera.l plan, lhowever, is to build the sties in divisions, each to contaiutn.1 )ig, and to fit him as near as may be; on one side is a rattge of smt:ll trotiirlis, and on the other a row of sliders, which shut in the pigs. No litter of allly kitld is permitted, as the stalls are placed upon an intelited platte and swvept out every day, and the chewing( of their litter is tlhoughlt to be injurious to their thriving. They are fobund to fatteni more s)eedily, and colise(qteiitly upon less food, in those sties, than ii the common ones, in which they cani turn about. This is attributed to tlheir quietude; and it is siuid tlhat hogs half fat, - weighin~ seventy pound(s, - wh-len put into one of these cages, may be brought to double their weilght withiti four weekls. IX. POUtITRY-HOUSES. Generl71 PCi0ci?pls end, isit:s. -It is well kltown that too much cold renders fcowls torpid, retardls atid( dimiitslics their layini; that too much hieat enfee}les tlcm nthat the watit of good water brilngs on m1any disorders; that too imuch mnoistire itndices rietumatic swellitigs; and that an infected atmosphere reutders themn sickly atid less prolific, ilnjures their flesh, ailnd makes the-i dilteicult to rter. ]lroint these circuiim istantces may l)e deduced the principles upuit wvhich all p,u)ltry-yard(s should be rogulitod. The minor details, however, differ considerably in diffirent coutritries; and )particularly the French and Einglish breeders are quite opposed to each other o)l several points. In presenting, thlerfioro, the different views and miodes of two people so skilful in reariiin the variotius fow,ls as thle }'reiclt atfid English, we shall elicit all the most valuable inforimation, with regard tp the subject, which will be instructive to tlie A'.~trican fitrter. Accordiinr to to ] it oir ier to inite all thle ad(vantages desirable in a poultry -N-yi,I it sldticl(l 1c it!.er too( ctltd during winter nior too hot during suctl erii i tad, if 1)ossitle it siltli(l )be rendered so attractive to the hens as to )reN-eIlt tilir liyillg in -llny )y-I)Ilie away friom it.''lThe extent of the place should l )(p)i:,irtiill:ll to tlle inimher of flitls kleitt buit it will be better too snia'll tlhan too'o, particulirly in wintiter, fior tlle mutittal imparting of allima.l ]lici.?1'lioro is nt foir of eng elllerillg itnfctious diseases Iby too mtch clrowlili-;t al(l it is fittiii, il ft(-,t, tllhat lwhen foiwls are crowded into a slmilall s,-c'. their desire for luiyiig coltinues, eveni in winter. Situaeion, Form,'c. - The best situation tfr a poullry-hlouse is facing 426 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. the east, - neither too far from, nor too near to, the farm-houlse. Thile form may be a parallelogram, of twelve feet long by ten lbroad, and as many in height. The floor must be raised about a foot above the level of the ground, the walls thick, very rough cast, whitewashed without and within, having no ellinks, crevices, or cavities, to harbor polecats, wveasels, foxes, rats, mice, or even insects; and the roof ought to project considerably, in order to ward ofF rain, moisture being a most destructive enemy to potiltry. The door ought to be small, with an o)eniing at top for the tiowls to get in and out, descendiing therefromr by a ladder, to and from the ritosting-place, which should be on a level with it, having one circular windowv towards the east, and another opposite the west, both of wire-work, with a storm shutter. These w-indows are chiefly for ventilation, and must be kept always open in summer, and as carefully shut in winter, except on fine days, during sunshine. Roostiiz,g-pcrches and'ests. - In the interior angles must be placed, upon ledges or other supports, at ten or twelve inches distance, roosting-perches, of a square form, for fowls cannot bend their toes so as to grasp firmly a smooth, round peeli. The intermediate spaces are appropriated for layingnests, each covered with two boards, meeting together like a roof, to protect the laying hens from the dung of those on the perches, and to prevent them from being disturbed. These nests are osier baskets, firmly fixed iagainst the walls, well furnished withI cut rye straw, often renewed, and disposed so that the fowls mnay not break the eggs on going in or coin g o ut. A w-atering place is indispensable, and the water ought to be fresh. To Reezder the Poultry-house Hcallliy. -In order to render the poultryhouse healthy, it will not be requisite to fumigate it by b1)urning aromatic plants, incense, or benzoin; fire, air and water, alone are quite sufficient for ventilation and cleanliness. It will be sufficient, therefore, after the fowls have left their roosts, to open the door and the windows of the poultryhouse, and, from time to timne, to burn a small bundle of straw, for the purpose of causing a circulation of fresh air, and to destroy insects. It will also be necessary to scrub and washl with cold, or rather hot water, and a little vinegar, the nest-basket, roosting-perches, and fee(diig,-trotiulghs. The surfaice of the yard ought to be frequently swept, washed, and it may be covered with a bed of gravel, or with straw cut small. The same house ought to be kept exclusively for the common fi)wls, other roosting-places being provided for the other sorts; for though tihese wvil not be very dissociable with others through the day, they do Inot like to sleep under the same roof with species different from themselves. In particular, they will not suffer capons, even of their own family, to occupy the same 427 FARMIER S HAND-BOOK. roosting-perch waith themselves. The hens not only show them inidiflerence. but decided aversion. Coteicilicnces for Ilatching. -It is important to have in poultry-houses several small, warm hatching and nursing wards, for hatching the eggs, and sheltering the newly-hatched chickens. In the ward appropriate(l to the latter, there ought to be separate cages or coops, where each mother remiains eight days with her family, after which she is removed into an encliosure to finish the rearing of them, till they can without danger be trusted by themselves. Api)?rtetances. - The accessories of the French poultry-house are - a small trench filled with dry sand and ashes, in which the fowls may roll, to free themselves from vermin; another small trench, containing horse-dung, to be frequently renewed, and in which they amuse themselves, particularly in winter, by scratching for corn and worms; two squares of turf, on which they may pasture and divert themselves; a thick, bushy hedge, or, what are better, trees, to furnish shelter from the heat of the sunI, - the best sorts of trees being the mulberry and the cherry, as they are very fond of the fruit a shed or coping, under which they may take shelter from rain; stone or wooden cisterns or troughs, or vessels of some sort, with pure water, in order to prevent them seeking by chance what is bad or corrupted. Air and Space essential. -It has been stated that the French poultrybreeders think it advisable to keep their fowls confined in as small a space as practicable, in order that the warmnth may induce them to lay; in England, on the contrary, a free circulation of air, and abundant space to take exercise in, are reckoned absolutely essential for poultry. 3otli modes are, to a certain extent, rilght; for warnth,an a close, warm roostingplace, will certainly produce most eggs, while air and exercise are necessary to rear fowls of a superior description for the table. Accoimoiodationsfor i'eeping Poul/ry on a Large Scale. Where poultry are kept on a large scale, an enclosure, varying from half an acre to an acre in extent, is set apart for their use, enclosed either by a wall or by a fence of paling, but not by a hedge, as the fowls will get through the latter kind of fence, and will, besides, be very troublesome in laying their eggs in the hedge. The enclosure should be well drained; and if it has a strelamn of water running throtugh it, or a pond in the middle, or at one end, it will be best. If it has not these conveniences, it should have a pump, with trogilis for the fowls to drink from, and these troughs should be cleaned every day. Part of the yard should be flagged, for feeding the fowls on; part covered with sand or fine gravel, for them to wallow in; part laid with turf, that the fowls may find insects and earthworms, and eat grass when they feel inclined; and part covered with bricklayer's dust, rubbish, dry mortar, and 428 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. broken oyster-shells, or other similar materials, rammed down, so that the fo-wls may amuse themselves with pecking and scratching the ground, with out being able to take very much of the limy matters from it at once. Where convenient, the feeding and wallowing places should be roofed over; but the rest of the ground should be exposed to the open air. It must be observed, that, when fowls are kept in small, confined places, they should always be supplied with some kind of limy matter; as, unless they are, the henis will first lay eggs without shells, and after a time will cease to produce any eggs at all. In towns, it is, therefore, customary, with the keepers of poultry for profit, to mix broken egg-shells with their food, and to give them brick partly covered with mortar, from some old building, to peck at. Plan of Construction, and General Management. - The poultry-house may be built of either brick or lath and plaster, or, as in some places, the walls may be of plain boards, - but these generally make the houses too cold. An economical poultry-house may be made of wooden posts and rails, with the spaces between stuffed with fagots; but brick walls are generally pre terred to all others, where the expense is not an object. The roof should always be close and secure; and the floor may be of wood, or laid with bricks or flag-stones, or it may be covered with a mixture of lime and clay, rammed hard. Whatever the material be, the floor of a Ipoultry-house should always be a little higher than the level of the yard, to afford facilities fur keeping it clean. The floor should be swept every day, and washed once a week, and the walls of the house should be whitewashed inside every spring, and every crevice carefully stopped. The doors are made of wood, and should be strong, and be furnished with a lock, to prevent any danger of the poultry being stolen at night; and there is generally a square hole cut in tl)e door, either at the top or bottom, for the poultry to go to roost. A hole at the top of the door is preferable, as it is inaccessible to vermin; and there should be a ladder on the outside, for the fowls to ascend. Thtis ladder is composed only of a slanting board, with strips of wood nailed across; and, when the hole in the door is at the bottom, a similar ladder is placed inside the house. All fowls like to roost high, and they should, therefore, have some rails fixed for them near the roof, so arranged that the fowls on the lower rails may not be exposed to the droppings from those above. The rails are frequently only branches, or the trunks of young trees; but if made of tinmbers, they should be nearly square, with only the corners rounded off; and there may be boxes or baskets against the walls for the fowls to lay in. The best kind of nests are said to be those made of wood, baskets being calculated to let in the cold air. It is well known that fowls, when left to choose a nest for themselves, 429 FARHIER'S HAND-BOOK. generally fix ip)on a hedge, -where the hen buries herself from observation tunder the branches of the hedge-plants, and among the grass. This pecoliarity is taken advantage of by some poulterers, and the laying nests are composed of heath or heather, and branches of hawthorn are trained over and around them. The follovwing figure represents one of these pleasant and comfortable nests, with the hen sitting. 2F. 2S2. X.-ARRANGEMENT OF THE FARMTERY. Sit(OCio~. - The several buildings of the farm have now been noticed, and we io\ cone to consider the manner in which they are to be arranged it the fm;:n,:y. As a whole, it may be considered with reference to its .itottotiol oil tlih farm; its extent and character rel'ttively to the size of the frtn., aiiil to thle ind( of culture pursued or crops raisi(l; and its position relati'vct to t:.t of the frm-house. F, r'he vc to ny of lab)or, the lbuildings of the tirlm sl}otil(l e) sititated,as ieair;Is p:-ib! to the centire of the cultivated groundls; for miost of the prolcc bhtit~(T, int the first )plalce, conveyed to the fitim bttilliings, and.(l the mlature cerriol fLt'om tlhen to the fields, it is important that tile parts of the f 0, shotld niot be so distant from the fitrmery, tthat time hall be wastted b'v the inii t and workilig cattle in traveling. A central sitlattion redttces the lahbor of carting home produce and carting out matintrc to tlhe smallest priacticable.). But altlhough a central situation of the fiarm buildings is as mich is i possible to be aimed at, it is often necessary or expedient to sacrifice this eonvenicice, in order to secure others. A primary object, for iistane, is tihe obtainting of a sufficient con mmand of water for domestic purposes, and the use of the live stck; but this cannot be ol)tained in every situation, atd 130 always require a greater comparative extent of accommodation than Itlrge. On fiarms chiefly appropriated to tie rearing of stock, cou)mparatively few beildinis are required; and these being chiefly sheds for shelter to the young cattle, and low shieds with yards for penning sheep whelin required. Oil a farm situated near a large town, the buildings must always be suited to this peculiarity of situation. Ihere the rearing and leediug of live stock may not be carried on at all, and only the raising( of vegetale produce for sale be attended to. The buildings required on such a iarnm need be few and simple. No feecdiig and shelter sheds are required, and there is no need for that extension of the range of butildings which is necessary on a rearing and .breediugif farm. Disn osiieo, of toe Difreriit BDiil7oiq,s. The most convenient disp)osition of the ott-llous!s of a farm, suited to a mixed system of tillage aIud ttle rearing and f iW.li,,~ of live stock, is in the formn of a long rectangle, or a square, as the cl a ni: Iv, o -pin t one sidl',-generally at the south. - so as to ad.,:~itI lbe:iiri!;,!}u: C;1a1' in thle yards, anId allow sfivt suic;ieii llc to tlhem i nt lsIace i to lroiated to the several ii.illings;ii(i vaSsx ~c 11':'!':~' i'.;'t:t'.v sur' e yar+d1s more, ocui)ietl l,y tIhi liuil( il~,;('.;,r~,i' ~iii::::l l:c w itf the* iniconvetnicnce g iCIh results tl'ilil il+1: } l,loc,,l too ('lose y totother. T ihe I -::i -. A its: -~lf +o.' t[:. ios fin)rs part of the rectlanI]. fiiii{IIi liy te ir.rti'f IJV'''+ }.;:'1 Ii tetcr il ni;o:t ci Ces, tllhat it sIhold I)1' (setlelil,d. It siioiild l)e plcae l in,'i~,th or o)p.-i I of thle fre-yard, aud soi,i(, of tli wirndowNs in tl!c r:.r of the lione slticld be so arranged that a futll Yiew of the piroceeedii+r. ini the yard may lie (btained from them. II givir dri's of thie arrTemenst of the ofle several pirts of the firiecry, little:otire cI. nIe done than to present usefil examples. Altliotgli 1 cirtain simihlrity mu eOxist in tlhel form and arrangement in the parts of all such buildings, yei t t},Cs, it has been seen, must be modificedl accordling to the ,ilrcumstanles of ilie farm itself, the nature of the soil, the situation with FARIER'S HAND-BOOK. regard to markets, and many other particulars. No rule that can be given is of general application; and the judgment of the architect or builder must be exercised in adapting the size, form, and arrangement of the buildings, to the nature of the farm and the wants of the occupier. In the designs which follow, uniformity has been studied wherever seemed to be practical, without interfering with convenience of arrangement; but when these qualities could not be combined, the preference has been riven to the latter; and nothing has been proposed but what has been found, from experience, to be useful and practicable. It may be remarked, however, that it is quite impossible, especially in the larger class of farm buildings, to get the different apartments arranged so conveniently as could be wished, consistent with any degree of regularity. The number of designs might be multiplied to any extent, but this is not at all necessary. Plan of Buildings for a Farm of One Hundred and Fifty? Acres.- The following is a ground-plan design of a farmery for a farm of one hundred and fifty acres arable land. It contains a potato-house, A; house for storing a Fig. 283. t3 13 .i", D!, 0, I! ID 0 20 40 60 c o IOn supply of turnips or grass, B; two cow-houses, c, c; calf-house, D; house for mare and foal, E; straw-barn, F; dressing-barn, G; and machinery, H; gangway, or inclined plane to the corn-loft, I; horse-course for the threshing 432 . I, T, r c RURAL ARCHITECTURE. machine, K; cart-shed, L; hay-house, M; stables, N, N; spare-house, o; poultry-house, P; piggery, Q; and shelter-sheds, R, R, R; with yards, r, r, r. This plan will afford all the accommodation that could be wished for on a farm of the size for which it is intended. Plan of Buildings for a Small Farm.- The ground plan of the design ot a farmery for a small farm is shown in the annexed figure. In it are seep a court for calves, A; poultry-house, B, open to the cow-house to partakc Fig. 284. l, it[!'T... I' [i'I J' T',,[]ii c ll " 1' ItIIII I I Ii T Ir 8 11 ~~~~l -x '\ i L t il it - 7., la a o 20 30 of its heat; calf-house, c; cow-house, D; calf-crib, E; cart-shed, F; stable. G; barn, H, part of which, I, is to be lofted over; potato-house, K; piggery, L L, and dung-pit, M. T/e Stack;-yard.- A situation for the stack-yard should be chosen adjoining the barn, and on the most elevated and exposed side of the farmery. Its size is regulated by that of the arable part of the farm, and also by the size of the barn; as the stacks are not to be made larger than what could be contained at one time by the corn-bay, or end for unthreshed corn; and, consequently, a small barn will require a larger stack-yard than a large one. The farm, in this case, as in almost every other yard or building of the farmnery, ought to be rectangular, and as near as may be convenient to that of a square. The stacks are to be placed in parallel rows, with a sufficient space between them for a cart to pass along, either to unload when building the stack, or load when taking the corn to the barn. The stacks are to be Ilaced on stands, to keep dry and free from vermin. Drainage of a Farmery.- The system of drainage in a farmery is a inatter of importance, and it ought to be determined on before any part of the I)uildings is commenced. There are three distinct systems of drainage which must necessarily exist in every well-arranged farmery. First, it seli(!m happens that the site for a farmery is so entirely dry as not to require 37 D 2 433 FARMIER'S HIAND-BOOK. some underground drains around and through it, for carrying off the water, that either sinks into the soil from the surface and is retained there, or is found latent in the subsoil, or from some other cause. Second, the water from the roofs of the buildings should be all collected by gutters at the caves, and, if not wanted for a well or tank, it should be conducted directly to the underground drains, through air-traps. Third, a liquid manure tank is essential for retaining those parts of the manure which would otherwise flow out of the yards and be lost; and with this the drains from the stables, cattle-sheds, and yards, are to communicate. These drains must be neither large nor deep; and they may, in general, be formed of brick or stone, with a trap near the opening of each, to prevent the possibility of a current of air passing through them, and the offensive effluvia thereby occasioned. The manure tank may be of very simple construction, the walls being built of stone or brick, - or a large cask may be used. It should be covered at the top, and in the covering there is to be a hole through which the end of a pump may be inserted. XI. GREEN-HOUSES. Away be Easily Construicted.- Very handsome structures may be formed by adopting the old mode of building. A house with the simple sloping roof of wood-work may be made both light and airy, if not graceful, provided the moldings of the sashes are made very thin, and the slope of the sashes laid at an angle of not less than 35~. Such a slope is, indeed, almost indispensable, as, if the angle be less, the laps of the glasses are apt to retain water, and cause a drip during rain. Materials anad Aod o} Bloj din'.- It is:tstotiishiug at how trifling a comparative expense a grcen-hlos. e or 1goo1 gzlad(l pit may (bc constructed, provided there be a ta.I(t for w ork (,f rnasotllry ar,ld (arpentry on tlhe part of the farmer, or gardener, or florist, whlo wishes s,ch a structlure. A greenhouse, whatever may be its materials and struct tre, - whethir it he curvilinear, and of metal or of wood, with a lean-to roof; or glazed on three of its sides, so as to command a north, south, and eastern exposure,- ought to be at least fifteen feet long, ten or twelve feet high at the back or in the centre, and its breadth not less. It shoulldl have La brick;wall around it, of nine inches in thickness, the height of which can only be determined by the situation and form of the house; but it is reconlmended that the cellular mode of laying the bricks be adopted, for a great saving, of materials iS thereby not only insured, but a plate of air is initerpos(ed between two brick surfaces, which tends to preserve lunifollrlity of temp eratlure, and some degree of warmth, within the house. The brickls are laidlI on edge, two and two fior,ing the front an(l back of the will, with a third ote, also on edge, 434 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. crossing the end of each pair. One course being thus finished, the course above it is made to break joint with the one below, by laying each pair of bricks so as their centres may rest upon the centres of the cross brick on edge of the course below it. Bond is thus secured, and a space formed between the pairs equal to the difference of the sum of the two bricks on edge and the length of the one that crosses the ends of the two. Supposing, the length of a brick to be nine inches, and its thickness three inches, there will be three inches of space left between the bricks. The alternate ranges of the brick-work thus constructed will render the wall cellular, and strength and lightness will be secured. Fig. 285 is a sketch of a portion of two courses of a cellular wall, by which, if the one be supposed to rest upon the other, it will be apparent that each joint alternates with the one below it, and that the cells range throughout in a sidelong oblique direction. Fig. 2S5. c l &i# Ic ~~~~~~a e In the upper part of the sketch (A), a, a, are two bricks set on edge, forming the back and front of the wall c, c; b, b, are the two bricks also on edge, set across the wall at the ends of a, a; d is the space between the bricks, three inches in width. The part represented by B is of exactly the same construction as A; and if it were placed on c, c, so as the cross-edge brick, e, were placed in the middle between the two cross-edge bricks, b, b, then the interior of the wall would be of a cellular structure, all the spaces ,)f which would be connected together in a regularly zigzag oblique direction to one another. Arran geen6nt of the Liglhts.- The upright lights above the front walls ought to swing on their centres, and not be made to slide holrizontally, by which much rain may be kept out, and the great inconvenietiice arising from the swelling of the wood in the sash-grooves entirely obviated. A stage, (ir set of shelves, is generally required, ranging obliquely upwards, fromi about eighteen inches above the floor towards the back wall, in a direction nearly parallel to the slope of the glass roof. Another shelf, eightecei inches wide, made of bars or strips of wood, may be placed immediately under the swing-lights, against the front wall, for bulbous-rooted plants, heaths, &c., the grating formed by the bars securing the roots from Lthe 435 a 2 IMM MMi FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. bad consequences attending an excess of moisture; since whatever quality of water may run through the pots will fall through the spaces between the bars, and escape. The walk, in this construction, will pass between this front-sparred shelf and the lower shelf of the stage; it may also proceed along the back wall, in which case the platform of shelves should be curtailed in breadth, and a shelf or two fixed upon the back wall itself, for succulent plants. In houses with double glass roofs, the stage ought to be in the centre, ranging in two slopes, corresponding to those of the lights. Flutes for Heating. - The flues, or hot-water pipes, must be so situated as to distribute the heat equally. The circulation of hot water is most likely to afford this equal distribution, because the temperature of a stream of water flowing from a boiler, and returning to it, in regular but slow progression, must be subject to comparatively little variation. Hot water also produces a sweet and innoxious heat. Whenever, then, circumstances authorize this mode of creating an artificial climate, it ought unquestionably to be adopted; but it requires some one who is somewhat acquainted with this species of work, and with the power which radiating surfaces possess of regulating the temperature of a given number of cubic feet of air. A brick flue, when placed above the floor, being rather an unsightly object, it may be advantageously placed under, or rather on a level with; the floor. A flue, to command a pretty regular temperature, ought to enter at one end of the house, not many inches within the front wall, proceed along its whole extent, then take a turn and be brought back about the centre of the floor, and finally be carried into a chimney above the back wall at the same end of the house, though at an opposite corner, in which the fire is situated. The flues are to be so built that air may circulate around them; hence they must be placed in a channel dug in the ground, and wholly free from contact with the ground. Exits for the heated air must be provided for, either by gratings or by spaces left in the floor. The temperature of the air in the greenhouse will thus be regulated from the surface of the floor itself to the roof, without the inconveniences of an incommodious mass of projecting brickwork. A good flue has been calculated to heat between four and five thousand cubic feet of air to a temperature sufficient for the safety of green-house plants. Now, supposing the internal dimensions of a house to be as follows: height at the back, 12 feet, sloping to 6 feet at the front, the medium being 9 feet; breadth 12 feet, and length 24 feet; 24 X 12 X 9 will produce the sum of 2592 feet, the volume of air to be warmed. If, then, the calculation of 5000 feet be correct, there can be no difficulty in supportiing at sufficient degree of heat in a house of little more than half those dimensiois, by a flue of moderate capacity. This may be attained by building 436 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. the outside and inside of the first course along the front wall, with four bricks aid fiat-z2/ise above each other upon the foundation or base course. These four bricks will form the depth and the side of the flue, which, with the mortar-joinits, will be twelve inches in the clear; and by setting the other side of the flue seven inches apart fromi the first, there will be a channel of eighty-four square inches in the clear, which will be found amply sufficient for a flue. The return flue ought to be built of bricks on edge, but not wider than the first, and both should be covered with flat stones. To secure the full effect of the flue, the fireplace should be sunk one foot, or more, below the entrance or mouth of the flue, so as to admit of a rise from the fire to the flue. This rise should form the neck of the flue, and be brought to assume somewhat the figure of a hopper. Thus, if the fireplace be eighteen inches long, twelve inches wide, and as many deep, the neck ought to be so contracted as that, at its entrance into the flue, it is not above half the breadth of the fireplace, nor more than eight inches in depth. The flame of the fuel ought to deliver itself clearly into the flue; and to do this, the neck should not be much more than a foot in length, - the chief causes of a bad draught and a smoky chimney arising from the ill-calculated dimensions or shape of the neck. If the neck be short, and regularly contracted, till it be about half the size of the flue into which it enters, rarefication of the air will be secured; and if, with these precautions, a moderate rise be provided, the rush of air will be great, which will render the draught secure in almost every possible state of the atmosphere. The flue being built, its joints rendered air-tight, a space, as was before observed, must be left on each side of it, with openings in the pavement, for the free egress of the heated air. The base of the flue ought not to rest on the ground, but upon bricks laid apart, so as to form openings through which the air warmed by the bottom of the flue may pass into the channels left on both sides. A flue thus constructed, and carefully built, will be so efficient that very little fuel need be consumed; every particle of it will have its effect, and the house will be pleasantly heated, without trouble, loss of time, or vexatious expenditure. XII. FENCES AND GATES. FENCES. Different Kinds.- The fences of the farm may consist either of stone wall, or of line fence, or of a combination of the line fence and stone wall, or of an open ditch, a mound, or a rail. Building Stone Wall. - The stone wall may either be formed of stones, built without cement, or it may be built with mortar, like common masonry; but the last of these methods is rarely practised with the common fences of a 37* 437 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. farm. The cementing of the stones with mortar adds, indeed, to tlhe durability of the wall, but then the expense is too great in common cases. I'The wall, therefore, for the ordinary purposes of the farm, may generally be built of stones alone, though sometimes with a little mortar merely for cementing the capping, and occasionally for pinning or closing the interstices of the outside. MIaterials. - The materials for building the dry stone wall, as this kind of wall is termed, may be of any stones of sufficient durability. Loose stones taken from the surface, termed land-stones, answer completely, if they be of proper size, and not too much rounded; but in the latter case they present too smooth a surface, and cannot be kept in their places without mortar. Imnpleiments.- The implements to be used in building stone wall are, a mason's hammer, a spade or shovel for clearing the ground for a foundation, a pick or mattock, and a frame of two upright posts fixed together, so as to correspond with a vertical section of a portion of the wall. The line of the intended fence being fixed upon and marked on the ground, the stones for building should be brought forward, and laid down on both sides, if possible, of the line of fence, but, if not, on one side. Pins being fixed in the centre of the space to be occupied by the wall, the workman proceeds thus: - He carries his wooden frame to some distance along the line to be built upon; he sets it perpendicular, which he is enabled to do by means of a plumb-line attached to it, and he fixes it in this position in a simple manner, as seen in the figure below. lie then fixes another similar frame at the place where the wall is to commence; he stretches two cords between these two frames, on the outside, and as these cords correspond with the outside of the wall at a given height, he has a guide for building it of the required dimensions. After having built one portion, he uses only one frame,- the wall itself serving afterwards the part o;f a franme,- for Fig. 286. IASTa the cords being fixed to both sides of the wall, and then attached to the frame which is placed in advance, the workman has, as before, a guide by which he proceeds in building. Rules to be observed.- The foundation of the wall should be laid on firm ground; and wherever there is not this to build upon, a solid foundation 438 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. should be made by the spade. In building, the largest and flattest stones should be used for the foundation; and it is very desirable, if the materials used will allow, to place stones at intervals, of sufficient size to lie across the breadth of the wall, so as to bind the wall together, and render it more secure. Advantages of the Stone IWall. The advantages of the stone wall, as compared with the line fence, or hedge, are, that it becomes useful as soon as made; that it can be formed in any situations, irrespective of soil and climate; that it requires no nursing, cleaning, and pruning; that it is not injured or destroyed by the trespasses of animals, and that it occupies little room GATES. Form and Method of Construction.- A necessary part of any kind of fence is the gate. The properties of a good gate are that it shall combine lightness with necessary strength, so that an equal quantity of materials shall produce the strongest gate. The kind of gate which best combines these conditions is one which consists of horizontal bars, placed at such a distance from one another as to prevent the passage of animals, and so connected as to be firmly bound together. The number of horizontal rails should be five, although four may suffice, in low gates. They are mortised into turo upright bars, which form the ends of the gate. A diagonal bar proceeds from the hinder and lower corner of the gate to the upper bar. It abuts upon the hinder upright, and on the upper horizontal bar, and is nailed to the intervening ones. It may form an angle of about forty-five degrees Fig. 287. with the hinder upright and lower bar, so that it may abut upon the upper bar, at some distance from the fore-part of the gate. It forms, in this position, a strut. - in the language of carpentry, - which is b)etter than when it forms a tie, according to the common practice;-that is, wIhell it extends I lI I i I 439 .iI SI Iii Il I ... s As,~~~~~~~~~? ~~~~~~~3 I — FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. from the upper hinder corner to the lower bar of the gate. These parts form the framing of the gate. It is usual, however, to nail two upright braces to the gate. These are unnecessary for strength, and add to the quantity of materials, and the number of joinings. The length of the gate may be nine feet, the height of the upper bar three feet nine inches, and the lower bar may be six inches from the ground. Fig. 287 describes a gate constructed on these principles: - A and B are the upright bars; 1,2, 3, 4, 5, the horizontal bars, mortised into the former; D, the diagonal strut, abutting on the upright bar, B, and on the upper horizontal bar, 1, and nailed to the other bars, 2, 3, 4, 5. Hanging.- The gate may be hung upon two hinges, or on one hinge, -the hilt resting on a stone socket, placed in the ground, as shown in Fig. 87. This latter construction is somewhat the best for the ordinary gates of the farm; for one of the most common defects of gates is the tendency to sink down at the fore-part, and trail on the ground. Now, a gate, when we consider its tendency to sink at the fore-part, may be regarded as a bended lever, of which the fulcrum is the lower hinge, the power which prevents its sinking the upper hinge, and the weight the centre of gravity of the gate. By increasing the distance between the fulcrum and the upper hinge, we increase the power of the latter to support the gate; and this condition is fulfilled by placing the heel of the gate on the level of the ground. This tendency to trail is also lessened by making the gate lighter before, which is effected by giving the several bars a taper from the hinder to the anterior part. The Hinges. The hinge of the gate is best formed by causing the upper part -which is fixed to the upright bar of the gate -to work in a socket, which is fixed to the gate-post. The advantage of making the upper hinge work in a socket is, that while space is given to it to turn, it is firmly supported in its place, and that the means are afforded of causing it to move smoothly, by pouring a little oil into the socket. The Latch.- The latch of the gate may be of various forms. The simplest is a little chain, fixed to the front upright bar, which is fastened to a hook in the gate-post. Gate-posts. - The gate-posts for the common gates of a farm are better formed of wood than a pillar of masonry, -the latter being subject to be loosened by carriages striking against it. The posts, if of wood, should be well sunk in the ground; and, as they are apt to decay at the surface of the ground, the sunk portion, and a little above it, should be charred. The bands of the hinges and latches should pass entirely through the posts, and be fixed on the opposite side by screw-nuts. The most durable kind of gate 440 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. post, however, is one of solid stone, which may be advantageously adopted where the material can be easily obtained. Sef-shutting Gate. - It is, in many cases, deemed convenient to have a gate which shall shut of itself, when opened. This may be efiected by simple means. The upper hinge may be of the kind before described, but the gate below must, in place of the hinge, have two points of support, so that it shall only be in equilibrio when it rests upon these two points. 441 CHAPTER XI. IIORTICULTURAL SCIENTIHIC OPERATIONS. TME IMPROVED MODES OF GRAFTING - BUDDING - PRUNING - TRAINING. I. GRAFTING. Uses of Graftitng. - The uses of grafting, in addition to those of all the other modes of increasing plants by extension, are, 1. The propagation of varieties or species which are not increased freely by any other mode, such as pears and other fruit-trees, &e. 2. The acceleration of the fructification of plants, more especially of trees and shrubs, which are naturally a number of years before they come into flower. For example, a seedling apple, if grafted the second year on the extremities of the branches of a full-grown apple-tree, or even on a stock or young tree of five or six years' growth, will show flowers the third or fourth year; whereas, had it remained on its own roots, it would probably not have come into flower for several years longer. 3. To increase the vigor or the hardiness of delicate species or varieties, by grafting them on robust stocks. 4. To dwarf or diminish the bulk of robust species, - such as grafting the pear on the quince or medlar, the apple on the doucin or paradise stock, the cherry on the perfumed cherry, &c. 5. To increase the fruitfulness or precocity of trees; the effects produced on the growth and produce of a tree by grafting are similar to those which occur when the descent of the sup is impeded by a ligature, or by the destruction of a circle of bark. The disposition in young trees to produce and nourish blossom buds and fruit is increased by this apparent obstruction of the descending sap; and the firuit of such young trees ripens somewhat earlier than upon other young trees of the same age, which grow upon stocks of their own species; but the growth and vigor of the tree, and its power to nourish a successioni of heavy crops, are diminished, apparently, by the stagnation in the branches and stock of a portion of that sap which, in a tree growing upon its own stem, or upIon a stock of its own species, would descend to nourish and promote the extension of tile roots. 6. To preserve varieties from degenerating, which are found to do so when propagated by culttings or layers. 7. By choosing a stock suitable to the soil, to produce trees in situations where they coul(l not be growii if oni their own HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. roots. 8. To introduce several kinds on one kind. Thus, one apple or pear tree may be made to produce many different kinds. 9. To renew the heads of trees. Thus, if a fruit-tree is cut down to the ground, or headed in to the height of ten or twelve feet, and left to itself, it will develop a great number of latent buds, each of which will be contending for the mastery; and the strength of the tree, and the most favorable part of the season for growth, will be in some degree wasted, before a shoot is singled out to take the lead; but, if a graft is inserted either in the collar or stool, or ill the amputated head, it will give an immediate direction to the sap, the latent buds will not be excited, and the whole concentrated vigor of the tree will be exerted in the production of one grand shoot. Different Kinds of Grafting. -The different kinds of grafting may be classed as, grafting by detached scions or cuttings, which is the most common mode; grafting by attached scions, or, as it is commonly termed, by approach or inarching, in which the scion, when put on the stock, is not at all, or is only partially, separated from the parent plant; and grafting by buds, in which the scion consists of a plate of bark, containing one or more buds. The stock on which the scion is placed is, in every case, a rooted plant, generally standing in its place in the garden or nursery, but sometimes, in the case of grafting by detached scions, taken up and kept under cover, while the operation is being performed. The two first modes of grafting are performed when the sap is rising, in spriing; and budding chiefly when it is descending, in July and August. iUnder particular circumstances, however, and with care, grafting in every form may be performed at any reasonable period of the year. Utensils and lMaterials used in Grafting. These are, the common knife, for he ading down stocks; t he chisel; the grafting-knife and budding-knife; ligatu r e s of different kinds for tying on the scions, and grafting-clay or grafting-wax f or covering them. The following cut represents one of the best grafting Fig. 288. chisels now in use. The ligatures in common use are strands of bast matting, or of other flexible bark; but sometimes coarse worsted thread is used, or occasionally shreds of coarse paper, or cotton cloth, covered with grafting-wax. When bast mat is used, it may be rendered water-proof by passing it first through a solution of white soap, and next through one of alum; by which 443 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. a neutral compound is formed, insoluble in water. These prepared shreds, before being put on, are softened, by holding them over a small vessel of burningr charcoal, which the grafter carries with him; and when grafting wax is employed, instead of grafting-clay, it is kept in an earthen pot, also placed over live charcoal, and the composition taken out and laid on with the brush. There are compositions, however, which become soft by the heat of the hand, or by breathing on them. Grftlt,ng-clay is prepared by mixing clay of any kind, or clayey loam, fresh horse or cow dung, free from litter, in the proportion of three parts in bulk of clay to one of dung, and adding a small portion of hay, not, how ever, cut into too short lengths, its use being analogous to that of hair in plaster. The whole is thoroughly mixed together, and beaten up with water, so as to be of a suitable consistency and ductility for putting on with the hands, and for remaining on, in wet weather and dry weather, without cracking. The beating is performed with a beetle or rammer, on a smooth, hard floor, under cover, turning over the mass, and adding water, and then beating afresh, till it becomes sufficiently softened and ductile. The process of beating must be repeated two or three times a day, for several days; and it should be completed from three weeks to a month before the clay is wanted, care being taken to preserve it in a moist state, by covering it with mniats or straw. The grafting-clay used by the French gardeners is composed of equal parts of cow-dung, free from litter, and fresh loam, thoroughly beaten up and incorporated. Graftin,g-zcax is used by many instead of grafting-clay. There are various recipes for composing it, but they may all be reduced to two kinds. 1. Those which, being melted, are laid on the graft, in a fluid and hot state, with a brush. 2. Those which are previously spread on pieces of coarse cotton, or brown paper, and afterwards wrapped round the grafter in the same manner as strands of matting. The common composition for the first kind is one pound of cow-dung, half a pound of pitch, and half a pound of yellow;w%ax, boiled up together, and heated, when wanted, in a small earthen pot. For the second kind, equal parts of turpentine, bees-wax, and resin, are melted together. Grafting by Detached &ions. -This is the most common mode, and it is that most generally used for kernel-fruits, and the hardier forest-trees. The time for grafting hardy trees and shrubs by detached scions in England is generally in spring, when the sap is rising; but the vine, if grafted before it is in leaf, suffers from bleeding. In this country, grafting is frequently performed in the winter time on roots or stocks which have been preserved in sheds or cellars; and the scion being put on and tied and ciayed over, the grafted stock is kept till the spring, and then taken out and planted. Plants 444 HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. under glass may be grafted at almost any period; and herbaceous grafting, when and wherever performed, can, of course, only succeed when the shoots of the scion and stock are in a succulent or herbaceous state. In all the different modes of grafting by detached scions, success is rendered more certain when the sap of the stock is in a more advanced and vigorous state than that of the scion; for which purpose the scions are generally taken off in autumn, and their vegetation retarded by keeping them in a shady place till spring; and the stock is cut over a little above the part where the scion is to be put on, a week or two before grafting takes place. Tile manual precautions necessary to success are- to fit the scion to the stock in such a manner that the union of their inner barks, and consequently of their alburnums (sap),,may be as close as possible; to cut the scion in such a manner as that there shall be a bud or joint at its lower extremity, and the stock so that there shall be a bud or joint at its upper extremity; to maintain the scion and the stock in the proper position for growth, and in close contact, by a bandage of narrow shreds of matting or cloth; to exclude the air by a covering of clay or grafting-wax, and, in addition, when the graft is close to the surface of the ground, by earthing it up with soil, and when the scion is making its shoot, to tie it to a prop, if necessary; to remove the clay or grafting-wax, when the scion has made several leaves; to remove the bandage by degrees, when it appears to be no longer necessary; and to cut off the heel on the upper part of the stock at the proper time, so as that it may, if possible, be healed over the same season. The modes of grafting detached scions adapted for general use are- splice or whip grafting, cleft grafting, rind grafting, saddle grafting, side grafting, root grafting and herbaceous grafting. Splice Grafting. -Splice, tongue, or whip grafting, is the mode most commonly adopted in all gardens where the stocks are not much larger in diameter than the scion; and it has the advantage of being more expeditiously performed than any of the other modes described. The stock is first cut over at the height at which the scion is to be put on, a (Fig. 289), and a thin slice of the bark and wood is then cut off with a very sharp knife, so as to leave a perfectly smooth, even surface, b; the scion, which should at least have three buds, and need never have more than five (the top one for a leading shoot, the next two for side shoots, in the case of fruit-trees, and the lower two to aid in uniting the scion to the stock), is next cut, so as to fit the prepared part of the stock as accurately as possible, at least on one side; then a slit or tongue, as it is technically termed, is made on the scion, and a corresponding one in the stock, c. All being prepared, the scion is applied to the stock, inserting the tongue of the one into the slit of the other, c; then the scion is tied on with matting, d; and lastly it is clayed over, e; and 38 445 FAR1IER S HAND-BOOK. sometimes, in addition, it is earthed up, or covered with moss, to serve as a nonconductor of heat and moisture. In earthing up the graft, the loose Fl. 289. 'II I jj);{i4 I surface soil should be used at the grafting season, as being drier and warmer than that which is less under the immediate influence of the sun. When the scion is placed on the stock with the right hand, the ribbon of bast, by which it is tied, is brought round the graft from right to left; but when the scion is put on by the left hand, the bast is brought round from left to right; the object in both cases being to make sure of the exact coincidence of the inner bark of one side of the scion with the inner bark of one side of the stock. The 1)-ll of clay which envelops the graft should be about an inch thick on every side, and should extend for nearly an inch below the bottom of the zraft, to more than an inch over the top of the stock, compressing and finislili,, the whole into a kind of oval or egg-shape form, closing it in every part, so as completely to exclude air, light, wet or cold. The ball of clay will anot be so apt to drop off, if the matting over which it is placed is renderel a fitting nucleus for solid clay, by previously smearing it over in a comparatively liquid state. This envelope of clay, with the earthing up, pres roes the graft in a uniform temperature, and prevents the rising of the sap fron being checked by cold days or nights; and, therefore, earthing up oughlt always to be adopted, in the case of grafts in the open garden, which are (lfeicult to succeed. When the scion and the stock are both of the same thic'kness, or when they are of kinds which do not unite freely, the tongue is sonmetimes omitted; but in that case more care is required in tying. In this and also in other cases, the stock is not shortened down to the graft, but an inch or two, with a bud at its upper extremity, is left to insure the risirng of the sap to the scion; and after the latter is firmly established, the part of tlhe stock left is cut off close above the scion. When the stock is not 446 HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. headed down till the scion is about to be put on, it is essentially necessary to leave it longer than usual, in order to give vent to the rising sap, which might otherwise exude about the scion, and occasion its decay. Splice Grafting, the Peach, Nectarine, Apricot, Sac.- In splice grafting the shoots of peaches, nectarines, and apricots, and other tender shoots with large pith, it i3 found of advantage to have a quarter of an inch of two-years old wood at the lower extremity of the scion, and to have the stock cut with a dove-tail notch. In the case of the fruit-trees mentioned, the buds of the scion on the back and front are removed, leaving two on each side, and a leader; and when these have grown six or eight inches, their extremities are pinched off with the finger and thumb, by which means each shoot will throw out two others, and thus produce in autumn a finely-shaped( tree, with ten branches. Such trees will bear two or three fruits the second year from the graft. Cleft Grafting. -This requires less care than splice grafting, and is chiefly adopted when the scion is a good deal larger than the stock, and more especially when grafting stocks of considerable height, or heading down old trees. The head of the stock being cut over horizontally with a saw, a cleft is made in it, from two to three inches in length, with a stout knife or chisel, or with the splitting-knife. The cleft being kept open by the knife or chisel, or the pick end of the splitting-knife, one or two scions are inserted, according to the diameter of the stock; the scions being cut into long wedge-shapes, in a double sense, and inserted into the slit prepared for them, when the knife or chisel being withdrawn, the stock closes firmly upon the scions, anrid holds them fast. The graft is then tied and clayed in the usual manner, and the whole is frequently covered with moss, or some similar substance. When the stock is an inch or more in diameter, three or more scions are frequently put on at equal distances from each other round the circumference, and this is called crowvn grafting. Cleft'grafting with one scion is in general not a good mode, because, if the split has been made right through the stock, it is in danger of being injured by the weather before it is covered with wood by the scion. If the cleft is made only on one side of the stock, the evil is mitigated; but there still remains the tendency of the scion in its growth to protrude the wood all on one side. In crown grafting headed-down old trees, the scion is generally chosen of twoyears-old wood, and it is sometimes inserted between the inner bark and the alburnum, as in what is called Rind Grafting. -In this, great care must be taken to open the bark of the stck, without bruising it, which is done by the spatula end of the grafting-knife. TIhe scion is prepared without a tongue, and iriser.ted so that its wood may l)e in contact with the sap of the stock. As in this case both 447 FARMER'S HIAND-BOOK. edges of the alburnum of the scion come in close contact with the alburnum of the stock, the chances of success, other circumstances being alike, are increased. In cases of this kind, also, a longitudinal notch is sometimes cut out, instead of a slit, and the scion cut to correspond. Sometimes, also, the scion is prepared with a shoulder, more especially when it consists of twoyears-old wood; and this mode is termed shoulder grafting. Cleft Grafting the Vine. -This operation is shown in the annexed cut, in which a is a bud on the scion, and b one on the stock, both in the most Fisg. 290. favorable positions for success. The graft is tied and clayed in the usual manner, excepting that only a small hole is left in the clay opposite the eye of the scion, for its development. In grafting the vine in this manner, when the bud b on the stock is developed, it is allowed to grow for ten or fourteen days, after which it is cut off, leaving only one bud and one leaf near its base to draw up sap to the scion till it be fairly united to the stock. The time of grafting is when the stock is about to break into leaf, or when they have made shoots with four or five leaves. By this time the sap has begun to flow freely, so that there is no danger of the stock suffering from bleeding; though, if vines are in good health, and their wood thoroughly ripened, all the bleeding that usually takes place does little injury. Saddle Grafting. -This is only applicable to stocks of moderate size, but it is well adapted for standard fruit-trees. The top of the stock is cut into a wedge-shape, and the scion is split up the middle, and placed astride on it, the inner barks being made to join on one side of the stock, as in cleft grafting. The tying, claying, &c., are of course performed in the usual manner. Side Grafting. - This is nothing more than splice grafting performed on the side of a stock, the head of which is not cut off. It is sometimes practised on fruit-trees to supply a branch in a vacancy, or for the sake of having 448 Ib HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. different kinds of fruits on the same tree; but it is better for the latter purpose to graft on the side-branches, because, in consequence of the flow of the sap nriot being interrupted by being headed down, the success of this kind of grafting is more uncertain than almost any other mode. In grafting the lateral branches of fruit-trees, it is always desirable, in order to insure success., to have corresponding buds in the scion and the stock. 117td,e Grafting.- This is simply a modification of side grafting. Wtoot Grafting. - Root grafting is merely the union of a scion to a root, instead of to a stem. It is sometimes practised in nurseries, by grafting the apple and the pear on the roots of thorns, tree paeonies on herbaceous poeonies, &c. Hcrbaccozis Grafting. — This is applicable either to the solid parts of herbaceous plants, or to the branches of ligntieous or woody plants, when they are in an herbaceous state. By this method the melon has been grafted on the cucumber, the tomato on the common potato, the cauliflower on the broccoli and the borecole, &c. To do this, choose a vigorous part of a shoot having a well-developed leaf. In the axil of this leaf an oblique cut is made. of half its thickness. The point of a melon shoot, so far developed as to hav-e its fruit quite formed, is then cut off, and pointed at its end, two inches below the fruit. It is inserted in the cleft made in the stock, always taking care to spare the leaf until the scion has taken. The remaining part of tihe operationi is performed with ligatures and grafting-wax. Grafiing bj Approach, or Inarchlin,. - This differs from grafting by detached scions, in the scion or shoot not being separated from the plant to which it belongs, and by which it is nourished, till a union takes place. For this purpose it is necessary that the two plants which are to formn the scion and stock be planted, or, if in pots, placed adjoining each other, so that a branch of the one may be easily brought into close contact with the stem, or with a branch, of the other. A disk of bark and alburnum is then removed from each at the intended point of union, and the parts being properly fitted to each other. so as the inner barks of the respective subjects may coincide, as in the case of grafting by detached scions, they are bandaged and covered with clay or grafting-wax. This being done, in a short time, in conseqtuence of the development of the secretion called cambium, the alburnum of the scion and that of the stock become united, and the scion may be cut (off below the point where it is united with the stock, leaving the former to be ironrished only by the latter. The princ ipal use of grafting by approach is to propagate plants of rarity :.'(I value which it is found difficult to increase by any other means, and of which it is not desirable to risk the loss of any part, by attempting an icrease by means of detached scions or cuttings. 38* E 2 449 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. II. BUDDING. Uses of Budding.-Budding, or grafting by detached buds, consists in transferring a portion of bark containing one or more buds, and forming the scion, to the wood of another plant, forming the stock, a portion of the bark of the stock being raised up or taken off to receive the scion. The buds of trees are originated in the young shoots in the axils of the leaves, and when the bud begins to grow, its connection with the marrow sheath ceases; or, at all events, the bud, if detached and properly placed on the alburnum of another plant, will become vitally united to it. On these facts the art of l)udding is founded. This mode of grafting is chiefly applicable to woody vegetation, and the scion may, in general, be secured to the stock, and sutifficiently protected there, by bandages of bast mat, or thread, without the use of grafting-clay or wax. The union between the scion and the stock takes place, in the first instance, in consequence of the exudation of organizable matter from the soft wood of the stock; and it is rendered permanent by the returning sap from the leaves of the stock, or from those of the shoot made by the bud. All the different modes of budding may be reduced to two; - shield budding, in which the scion is a piece of barkl, commonly in the shape of a shield. containing a single bud, -and fJlute buddling, in which the scion consists of a ring or tube of bark, containing several buds. In both modes, the bark of one year is chosen in preference; and the operation is more certain of siccess when the bud of the scion is placed exactly over the satuation of a bud on the stockl. The shield may, however, be placed on tile initernodes, or a piece of bark without buds may be put on as a st-ion, and(l yet at vital union may take place between the parts, because the inarrow ri;ys exist everywhere in the wood, anid it is by them, during the pI)roce,s of organization, that the layer of wood of onle year, in a growing state, is joined to) that of the year before. WVhen the bud is placed on the stock, its point is almost always made to turn upwards, as being its natural position; but, in budding trees which are liable to gum, the bud is made to point downwards. There are two seasons at which budding is practised, namely, when the sap rises in spring when the bud inserted is developed immedi:tely, in the same manner as in detached ligneous scions; and in the end of summer, when the sap is descending, the operation being then performed with a budl fornmed during the preceding summer, which does not develop itself till the folloiwing spring. In budding, the stockli is not generally cut over in the first instance, as in grafting by detached ligneous scions, but a tight ligatture is fr(equently placed above the graft, with the intention of forcing a part of the ascendilng sap to nourish the graft. 450 HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. The uses of butdding, in addition to those of the other modes of grafting, are, also, to propagate some kinds with which the other modes of grafting ire not so successful; to perform the operation of grafting with greater rapidity than with detached scions, or inarching, as in the case of most fruit trees, to unite early vegetating trees with late vegetating ones, - as the .ipricot with the plum, they being both in the same degree of vegetation iuringf the budding season; to graft without the risk of injuring the sto(k in case of want of success, as in side budding,, and in flute bud(ding, without }ieading down; to introduce a number of species or varieties on the samne stem. which could not be done by any other mode of grafting without disfilguring the stock, in the event of the want of success; to prove the blIossoiIs or fruits of anv tree in which case blossom-buds are chosen instead of leatfbuds; and fiinally, as the easiest mode of distributing a great many kindls on the branches of a tree, as in the case of roses, camellias, and fruit-trees. Pcrformnin,g the Operation.- In performing the operation, mild, cloudy weather should be chosen, because, during hot, dry, windy weather, the viscous surfaces exposed to the air are speedily dried by evaporation, by which the healing operation is retarded; besides, the bark never rises so well as it does in weather which is still, warm, and cloudy, but without rain. The first step is to ascertain that the bark of the scion and that of the stock will separate freely from the wood beneath them; then procure the cutting from which the shields or tubes of bark are to be taken. If the li)dding is to be performed in spring, the cuttings from which the buds are to be taken slhould be cut- always using the proper kind of knife - from the tree the preccdiugr autumn, and kept through the winter, by burying their lower ends in the grotund, in a cool, shady situation, as in the case of graftiig by) detached scions.'When these cuttintigs are to be used, their lower ends should lie placed in water, to keep them fresh while the opera tion of cuittir shiellds or rlies from them is going on. If, on the other hand, the bud(ling is to be performed in summer, then the cutting from hichli the t),is are to 1)e toikcn is not to be cut off the I)arenrt tree till just ibetret t le l:'ti) i t e trfrle The utit iotild be a shoot of the culrrenlt.ar s w():)l, whiclh ha}e die roir, or i,carly so, and its l!iaves sh(iild };e cut olt to prevent the waste of sip )y e —ap)orattion, as soon Us it is takeii fri,n the tree the end of tii he cutting should thet be put in water to keep it ifresh, and the buds talkent orff as waianted. When the leaven are cut (,ft; care should be talken to leave part of the petiole of achel, to handle tihe shield or ring by when putting it on the stock. A slit is next made in tile stock, or a riting of bark taken off; and the shield or ring from the ctntilrg, containing a bud or buds whlich are ripe or nearly so, is introduced in the manniier; Ifichi will presently be described. Tyinig the bud (o: 451 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. the stock generally completes the operation, though sometimes grafting-wax is employed to cover the junction of the shield or ring. Transmitting Scions. - Scions for budding may be sent a considerable distance by letter, if the leaves are cut off and the scion closely wrapped up in oiled paper, or coated over with mastic. They may also be left for several weeks, by immersing them in honey. When bulk is not an objection, they may be packed up in long grass, or in moist moss, or in several folds of moistened brown paper, and covered with drawn wheat-straw, to serve as a non-conductor of heat and moisture. IVax for Budding. - Prepared wax for budding may be composed of turpentine, bees-wax, resin, and a little tallow, melted together. It may be put on in the same manner as grafting-clay, but should not be more than a quarter of an inch in thickness; or it may be very thinly spread on cotton cloth, and used in shreds, like sticking-plaster. In this last state, it serves both as a ligature for retaining the scion in its place, and as a covering for excluding the air. In very delicate budding or grafting, fine moss or cotton wool is frequently used as a substitute for grafting-clay or grafting-wax, the moss or cotton being tied firmly on with coarse thread or fine strands of b)ast matting. Plastic wax, or grafting-wax, which the heat of the hand, or breathing on, will render sufficiently soft for use, is thus prepared:take common sealing-wax, - of any color, except green,- one part; muttoin fat, one part; white wax, one part; and honey, one eighth of a part. The white wax and the fat are to be first melted, and then the sealing-wax is to be added gradually, in small pieces,- the mixture being kept constantly stirred; - and lastly, the honey must be put in just before taking it off the fire. It should be poured hot into paper or tin moulds, and kept slightly agitated till it begins to congeal. Shield Budding.- This is about the only mode in use in British nurseries, where it is generally performed in July or August. A cross cutt and slit are made in the stock, in the form of the letter T, and if possible through a bud. (Fig. 291, a.) From a shoot of the present year deprived of its leaves, a slice of bark and wood, containing a bud, b, is then cut out, and the wood is removed from the slice by the point of the knife. This is done by holding the shield by the remains of the leaf, with one hand, and enteriIIg the poitnt of the knife at the under extremity of the shield, and between it and the thumb; and then raising and drawing out the wood by a double motion outwards frotn the bark, and downwards from the upper to the lower extremity of the shield. The bud being now prepared, as at c, the bark on each side of the slit in the stockl is raised up by the spatula end of tihe bludding-knife, and the shield inserted beneath it; its upper part being cut straight across, as at d, so as to admit of its joining accurately withl the 452 HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. inner bark of the stock, as at e, so as to receive its descending sap. A bandage of soft matting is now applied, so as to exclude the air from the wounded parts, and to show only the bud and the petiole, as at f, and the Fig. 291. o i,t h 0 Q,~~~c operation is complete. At f, the bud is shown developing its leaves, and at g it has produced a shoot of some length, which is tied for a short time to the upper part of the stock; but that part of the latter which is shown by dotted lines is cut off in July. The portion of wood left attached to the base of the bud should generally be about a third of the length of the shield; the latter being from an inch to an inch and a half in length, and the eye should be situated about a third from the top. Spines, prickles, and leaves should be carefully cut off, or shortened. Sometimes, in taking out the splinter of wood from the scion, which is done with a quick, jerking motion, the base of the bud, which is woody, is torn out also, leaving a small cavity, instead of an even surface; the surface, when the bud is in a proper state, being either quite even, or only gently raised above the surrounding bark, in consequence of the woody base of the bud being left in. WVhen this latter has been torn out, so as to leave a cavity, it is safest not to use the bud, but to prepare another though, when the cavity left is not very deep, and a small portion of wood is seen in it, the bud will sometimes grow. Only those buds must be tal(eii firom the scionI that are nearly mature, whlich is readily known both by the size of the bud and by the full expansion and firm texture of the disk of the leaf, in the axil of which it grows. Shield Buddiing without a Bud or Eye.- This is used simply to cover a wound or blemish in one tree by a portion of the live bark of another. Circular Shield Budding.- Budding with a circular shield, with a portion of wood attached, is employed to equalize the flower-buds over a tree, by 453 9 Io FARBIER S HAND-BOOK. removing some from places where there are too many to other places i,l which there are too few. With the point of a peniiknife, in spring, cut a small cone of bark and wood containing a bud, and insert it in an orifice made in the same manner, securing the edges with graftirng-w-ax. Budldiig with a shield stamped out biy a punch is considered excellent for budding old trees, the thick and rtugged bark of which is not suitable for being taken off with the budding-knife. With a mallet the punch is driven through the bark of the scion, and then through that of the stock, and the piece Which comes out of the former is inserted in the cavity formed by the piece taken out of the latter. S/lielcd budding with a terminal bud is supposed to produce a more vigorous shoot than when a lateral eye is used, and it is, therefore, recommended for supplying a leader to a shoot that has lost one. Flute Budding,. -There are several modifications of this mode of budding, which is a good deal used, in some countries, for trees that are difficult to take, - such as the wvalnut and the chestnut, - and for several oaks, as well as for the wvhite mulberry. Annular Biddi, g. - This is performed either at the principal movement of the sap in spring, or at the end of its principal movement in August. In either case, the top of the stock is kept on; and if the ring of bark contail)ing a bud or buds taken from the scion is larger than the space prepared fior it on the stock, a piece must be taken firom it longitudinally, so as to make it fit exactly. After-caire. The after-care of grafts by budding consists, in all cases, in remnoviug the baudages or plasters as soon as it is ascertained that the bui(s or scions have adhered to the stock. This may generally be knowni in two or three weeks, by the healthy appearance of the bark and its bud or buds, and by the dropping off of the petiole, which, in the case of the bud, withers and adheres. The next operation is to head down the stolck to within an inch or two of the bud, - the stump being left for a week or two as a prop, to which the shoot produced by the bud of the scion may be tied, till it acquires vigor enough to support itself. The stump is then cut off in a sloping direction, close above the bud. In general, any buds which develop themselves on this stump should be rubbed off; but in the case of very welak scioIns, one or more buds may be left on the stump, to draw up the sap till the graft has taken. WVhen buddiug is performed in spring, the stock should have been headed down before the ascent of the sap; but in autumni budding, as no shoot is produced till the spring, following, heading down is deferred till that season, and takes place just before the sap is in motion. Where a number of grafts by buds are introduced on one stem or on one branch, heading down can, of course, only take place above the uppermost 454 HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. bud; and in terminal flute budding, it is performed as a necessary part of the operation. III. PRUNING. Uscs of Pruning,.- Pruning consists in depriving a plant of a portion of its branches, buds, leaves, bark, or roots, in order to produce particular effects on the part of the plant which remains. The different kinds of p)runing may be included under knife-pruning, which is applied to small branches; lopping, which is applied to large branches; clipping, which is applied to small shoots in masses; and disbudding, disleafing, and disbarking, awhich are applied to buds, leaves and bark. Girdling and felling may also be incluided. The instruments necessary for these operations are chiefly the pruning-knife, the bill, the saw, the cutting-shears, and the clip ping-shears; but there are some other instrumnients, such as the pruningchisel, the girdling-machine, &c., which are occasionally used for peculiar purposes. The approved pattern of pruning chlisels is seen in the followLig cut. Pi. 292a. Prunrting Forest-trees.- In forest-trees pruning is of the greatest use in modifying the quantity of timber produced. Thus, by commencing when the tree is quite young, and shortening the side-brainches and encouraging the leading shoot, the whole of the timber produced is thrown into the mail stern. On the other hand, should crooked timber be desired, pruning by destroying the leading shoot, and encoutraging those that have a suitable direction, teid to attain the end iii view; and, bly the aid of training, this end can be co)mpletely efected. Trees which are stunted in their growth, froiy bleitgo hide-lhound (a disease whichi is broulght on by the sudden exposure of the trees to the w-eatlier after they have been drawn up by shelter, and, in the case t)f young trees, by beiiig planted of too large a size in proportion to their roots), may iln general be made to shoot vigoroutsly by being cut ow-n or lheaded in. Again, trees which are in particular situations, where it is feared they will grow too large, may be arrested in their growth, or stunlted. by amputating the larger roots. Prulninti Oroiamental Trees. - This is chiefly employed to remove diseased branches, because much of the effect of these trees depends on the develol)ment of their natural form and character. PrecrinTg Oirna?cntal Shr?is.- Those which are grown for their flowers produce them of much stronger and brighter colors when the shoots are 455 I I FARIMER'S HAND-BOOK. thinned out, or shortened, or both; and it is useful when the plants are prevented from exhausting themselves by the removal of decaying blossoms, lo as to prevent them from maturing their seeds. A pair of pruning-scissors are useful in case of rose-bushes, &c. Fig. 293. CJLTh))z~L< Pruning Fruit-trees and Shrubs. -These, above all other plnts, are benefited by pruning, which is indeed by fir the most important part of their culture. The most general object of pruning is to create an abundant supply of sap during summer, by the production of leaf-shoots, by which the general strength of the tree is augmented, and to limit the distribution of this sap when it ascends from the roots in the following spring, by diminishing the number of buds. The effect of this is to increase the vigor of Fig,. 294. the shoots or fruits produced by these buds; and if this be done in such a manner as to obtain also the greatest advantages from light and air, the pruning will have answered its purpose. If a fruit-tree weure not deprived every year of a part of the wood or the )buds which it pro(duces, its shoots and fruits would gradually diminish in size, and though the fruit would be 456 a: ~~~mm,_ E,.I -- -1 :7 :D ~~~~~~~~~~ HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. more numerous, it would be deficient in succulence and flavor, as is found to be the case in old neglected orchard-trees. The application of pruning to fruit-trees differs so much, according to the species of tree, that the subject can only be properly treated by taking each class separately. Thus kernel-fruits, which are produced on wood of two or more years' growth, require to be pruned in a different manner from such fruits as the peach, which is produced from the shoots of the current year. The production of blossoms, or the enlargement of fruits and the acceleration of their maturity by ringing, is a species of pruning peculiarly applicable to fruit-trees. In pruning high branches, an instrument called an avarrancator- pole pruningshears -is found to be very convenient. See Fig. 295. -Pil-. 295. Pruning Herbaceous Plants. -To herbaceous plants pruning is applicable, not only when they are being transplanted, when both roots and top are frequently cut in, but also to fruit-b)earing kinds, suchl as tile melon tribe, the tomato, &c. It is even useful to the cabbage tril)e, when it is wished that, after the head is cut off, the stem should throw out sprouts, which is found to be accelerated by splitting it down an inch or two. The topping of beans, and the picking off of potato-blossoms, are operations belonging to pruning, as are the cutting off of withered flowers for the sake of neatness, &c. DIFFERENT KINDS OF PRUNING. These mav be included under close pruning, shortening-in, fore-shortening, spurring-in, heading-in, lopping, snag-lopping, lopping-in, stopping, pinching-out, disbarking, disbudding, disleafing, slitting, bruising or tearing, root-pruning, girdling, and felling. Close Prurdng. -This consists in cutting off shoots close to the branch or stem from whence they spring, leaving as small a section as possible, in order that it may be speedily healed over. In performingr the operation, care should be taken to make the wounded section no larder than the base of the shoot, in order that it may be healed over as quickly as )ossil)le; and at the same timne to make it no smaller, because this would lecvc latent buds, which would be liable to be developed, and thus occasion the operationi 39 457 F FARIIER'S HAND-BOOK. to be performed a second time. This mode of pruning is only adopted where the object is to produce stems or trunks clear of brancles, or of any kind of protuberance, as in the case of standard trees in gardenls, especially fruit-trees, and in the case of forest-trees grown for their timber. If the branch cut off is under an inch in diameter, the wound will generally heal over in two seasons, and inll this case the timber sustains no )prtctical injury but if it is larger, it will probably begin to decay in the centre, and thus occasion a blemish in the timber. Sliortening-iZ. - This term is applied when side-shloots are shortened at the distance of from two to four or five feet from the stein, the cult being always made to a bud. Exceeding that distance, it is called Jorc-shorticiing, and is chiefly applicable to timber-trees in hedge-rows; and under that distance it is called sp?trrioz-io. In the culture of fruit-trees, it is applied in connection wih spulrring-in, to produce trees of coinical forms, wvith branches which, never b)eiig allow,ed to attain a timber size, are prolific in fruit-bearing spurs. \1lienever the branches exceed two inches in diameter, they are cut off withinl an inch of the stemin, and one of the young shoots which are produced there is trained to takle its place. Forc-shorltcnig,.- -Vhen the lateral branches of a standard tree extend further than is desirable, a portion of their extremities is cut off; the cut being al-wa-s made close above a branch of sufficient thickness to form a leader of suflicieiet strength to keep the branch alive and healthy, but not so strong as to cause it to produce much timber, or in any way to come into competition with the trunk of the tree. The ol)ject is to prevent the lateral branches of the trees from injuriously shading the plants under them; and hence it is chiefly used in the case of trees in hedge-rows. Spurring-in. - The apple, the pear, the cherry, the plum, and other fruit-trees, or fruit-slirubs, produce what are called spurs, or very short shoots or knobl)s, covered with blossom-btuds, naturally; and the object of spurring-in prtiiiti is to pro(duce these knobs artificially. This can only be done with la.eral slioots, to vwhich(It the sap is not impelled with the same vigor as to the (trowi poinit, because the great object in producing spurs is to obtaini l( rn,t-bnds, and these are never produced on the most vigorous shoots. X ltera l sioot of the prescent year being prodtceud, nmay be shortened to two or three visitle buds, either in the beginning of summner, after that shoot has growNII at few inches in length, or in the following winter; but the ilriner is in general the better season, because it is not desirable to encoturage the piod(Iiction of wood, andl, consequenutly, of sap, but rather to lessen their production, so as to produce stunted branches, wtvhich are, in fiet, tie sj)urs. The second and third years the shoots produced are shortened in the same. manner as they were the first, and it will 45S HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. generally be found that the leaf-buds left on the lower ends of the shoots, when cut down, will the year after become blossom-buds. As by thle process of continually shortening the shoots the spurs in a few years become inconveniently large, they are, from time to time, cut out, and new spurs formed by the same process as before; and finally, after a certain time, the entire branch bearing the spurs is cut out close to the main stemi of the tree, and renewed, as spurs are, by a young shoot produced from its base. It must be confessed, however, that pruning has but little to do with the production of spurs that are prolific in blossoms; that depends fiar more on adjusting the nourishment supplied by the root to the demands of the fruitbearing branches, to the mode of training, the kind of tree, and other particulars, which, when attended to, spurs are produced naturally. Iheading-in. - This is cutting off all the branches which form the head of a tree close to the top of the stem, leaving, however, their base to produce buds. This is done with what are called polled or pollard trees periodicall.y, for the sake of the branches produced as fagot or fence wood, and with fruit-trees when they are to be regrafted. It is also done with stunted forest-trees, for the sake of concentrating the sap into a few main shoots, instead of distributing it over a great many; and it is done in transplanting trees of considerable size, intended to form avenues, or single trees in parks. The branches, if under two inches in diameter, are cut off clean with a bill 459 Fig. 2 9 6. 0 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. at one stroke; or, if they are larger, they are first sawn off, and afterwards the section is made smooth with the bill-axe or the knife, but generally with what is called the bill-knife. Lopp?ing. - This term is very generally applied to heading-in, but it is also as generally used to signify the cutting off large branches from the sides of stems, and in this sense we shall here treat of it. Lopping is per formed in three manners, two of which are highly injurious to the timber of the trunk of the tree, and the other not so. The close and snag, lopping are the modes which are injurious; the only mode of lopping large branches from the sides of the trunks of trees, without injuring the timber in these trunks, is to shorten them to a branch of sufficient size to heal the wounid at its base, or, at all events, to maintain the growth of the whole of the part of tihe branch left, and prevent decay from reaching the trunk. This mode is called loppingz-in. Fig. 296 represents one of the lopping or branch shears, also the sliding pruning-shears. Cutting Dowtn. - Cutting down the stem or trunk of a tree to the ground is an important operation, because, in some cases, such as that of resinous or needle-leaved trees, it kills the tree, while ill others, or what are called trees that stole, which is a property of most broad-leaved trees, it affords the means of renewilng the tree. Fruit-trees cannot generally be so treated, because the graft is for the most part only a few inches above the surface of the soil; but even with fruit-trees, when they are stunted, there is no better mode of restoring them to vigor than by cutting them down to the graft. Stopping and Pinching-oit. - When the point of a shoot is cut off, or pinched out, while that shoot is in a growing state, it is said to be stopped that is, the shoot is prevented from extending its length, and the sap, which was before impelled to its growing point, is now expended in adding to the largeness or succulence of the leaves or fruits which may be oil the shoot, or in swelling or developing the buds, or in some cases changing them from leaf-buds into flower-bulds. The principal uses of stopping, however, are to promote the setting and the swelling of the fruit, either on the shoot of the current year, as in the case of the vine and melon, or at its base, as in the case of the peach. tMuch of the winter pruning of trees might be prevented oy stopping the shoots early in summer, provided the state of the tree did not require that the shoots should be allowed to grow their full lengthl, in order to send down nutriment to the increase of the roots, in consequence of which greater vigor is in turn imparted to the stem and branches. In this case of pruning, as in every other, the state of the tree, and a variety Df circumstances connected with it, require to be taken into consideration. Disbar;lng. - This includes two distinct operations,- the removal of 460 HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. coarse, loose, outside bark, to admit of the swelling of the inner bark and the alburnum by the returning sap, and the removal of a ring of both inner and outer bark, with a view to the interruption of the returning sap. The removal of old bark is an operation chiefly performed with old fruit-trees in orchards, for the sake partly of getting rid of lichens and mosses, and partlvyto remove crevices which might harbor insects. It is also practised on the stems of old vines for the latter purpose; one effect of removing the loose outer bark of any stem being to increase its susceptibility of suffering from changes of temperature and moisture, it may therefore often be more injuri ous than useful. Disbarking for the tanniier consists in removing the whole of the bark, and is best performed in spring, when, in consequence of the abundance of ascending sap, the bark separates easily from the wood. ,croaping trees, to keep them clean, is also considerably practised. Ringing. - This operation consists in taking off a narrow ring of bark from a stem or branch, or even from a root, the object of which is to check the returning sap, and force it to expand itself among the leaves, flowers, or fruit, which are situated above the incision. The rinig of bark taken off varies in width from a sixteenth to half an inch or an inch, and its depth is always equal to that of both outer and inner bark. In general, the width of the ring talken otff should not be greater than the tree has the power of re-covering with bark, during the same or the following year. The operation maybe performed at any season, but its effects will only be rendered obvious when the plant is in leaf, because at other seasons there is little or no sap elaborated to be returned. Compressing the bark by a ligature of wire or cord, or by a mass of Roman cement, put on like the clay of a graft, produces the same effect as ringing. In the case of fruit-trees, it is frequently executed on the branches to produce blossom-buds, and by the saime means seedling plants are sooner thrown into blossom than they otherwise would be. It has little effect on stone fruits; and while it succeeds on the gooseberry, it is said not to do so on the currant. Judiciously applied, it may often serve as a substitute for root pruning and top pruning. Disb(udding. - This is the removal of buds early in spring, just when they are beginning to develop their leaves; and is commonly performed with the finger and thumb, the object being to lessen the number of shoots or of blossom-buds to be produced. By lessening the number of blossom-bi(ds, it will add to the strength and probability of setting of those whli chli remain and the same increase of strength will take place in respect to the shoots, whilst, at the same time, the number of these is reduced to an approximation of that which can ultimately be retained for training. By applying this mode of pruning judiciously on such trees as the peach, apricot, and plum, especially when trained against walls, the use of the knife may be in a great 39* 461 FRFARMER'S HAND-B13OOK. measure dispensed with, excepting for cutting out diseased or decaying shoots. In removing the buds, care should be taken not to injure the bark of the shoot. The buds ought not to be all disbudded at thile same time; the fore-right ones should be first removed, and the others successively, at intervals of several days, in order not to check the circulation of sap by a too great privation of foliage at once. Disleafizg. By talking the leaves off a growing shoot as fast as they are unfolded, no buds are matured in their axils; and thus, while the superfluous vigor of the tree is expended, no sap is returned to the root. i)isleafing in this manner the summer's shoots of a tree, as they proceed in growth, has been found the simplest mode of reducing the strength of an over-luxuriant tree. When a tree fills the space allotted to it against a wall, and shows a disposition to still fuirther growth, by throwing up strong vertical shoots above the wall, and luxurious breast-wood on the main boughs, instead of checking this disposition by any of the ordinary modes of pruning, some gardeners assist the tree to throw off the superabundant sap, by disleafing the breast-wood and vertical shoots, and in the winter pruning all the buds on such shoots as are displaced, even those on the points, after which they die off by degrees, and are cut out. Disleafing is frequently practised with fruitI)earing plants, both woody and herbaceous, with a view to admit the sun and air to the fruit, and sometimes also to assist in ripening wood by stopIting growth. ,~/it/in%a oz(l Splittin e. -These may be classed under modes of pruning, the first being< occasionally employed to relieve hide-bound trees, - a practice ,,f (ldolbtful utility,- and the second to stimulate the stems to the production (f roots or shouJ)ts. Ihide-botlnd trees are relieved by slitting the l),ark longitudlinallv fromt the collar as hitt ip the stem and along the Ibrtanclics as may bee co)si(lered ne(cessary. The lower extremities of cuttillngs are sometimes slit up), au(l shoots are split or fractured to excite buds. B,'ui;i;, at el 7T'hiig. - Bruising and teariing off the steis of plants from their roots are itl some cases fiound to be more eff(ctive than cutting them of' wittlh a smooth section. A very full crop of pears has been obtained from trees which beifore had not borne at all, by twistinig and bIreakinig down the youfit sho()ts late in tlihe autumn, -whlen the wood had become tolrugh, and after the >ap had retreated. This practice has been found successful with branches on which ringilji,, had been tried without success, and tlie 1eildecnt branches continued perfectly healthy. Cli ppiiig..-This is confitedi chliiefly to common hedges and box edgings. R.,,,! Pruiru g. - As ilit nourishment of a plant is absorbed fri,,on the soil by tIte r,oots, it is evidct!t that the stl)ply will be diminished by partially cuttilng oIl its source. The efcr.,ct of cuttilng through the stronger roots of trees 462 HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. is analogous in its first effects to that of ringing; with this difference, that the returning sap is stagnated throughout the whole tree, instead only in the parts above the ring. The immediate effect is to check thle luxuriancy of wood-shoots, and induce the formation of fruit-buds. The operation, however, should not be carried so far as to reduce too much the vigor of the tree, and prevent the second result,- that of pushing a number of fibrous roots from those amputated; for, in defect of these, the health of the tree must decline under the load of, in that case, imperfectly nourished fruit. With a view to the production of a greater number of fibrous roots, old trees may be subjected to a cautious root pruning; but it must not be performed on subjects unable to bear the shockl, or on those in which the power of throwing out fresh roots is very weak. If, however, it is found that fresh roots have been emitted from one amputation, others may be performed, as the roots resultiing from each preceding operation come into action. Root pruning is generally performed with a sharp spade, and generally only on the main roots, at the distance of several feet from the stem, according to the magnitude of the tree. Though this mode is chiefly empl)oyed to check the luxuriance of young fruit-trees and throw them into blossom, yet it may be employed for these purposes with all trees and shrubs whatever. Gird(ling and Fellin,. -This is very common in this country, not for the sake of improving the timber, but to destroy life and facilitate the destruction of the tree. It is strongly recommended to disbark trees in the spring, before they are to be felled, and the effect of this, in hardening the timbler, is very great; but, in a hot summer, the exposed alburnum is apt to split more or less. A better mode has been found to be that of merely cutting out clean a rim, about four inches in width, of the bark, close to the groiiid. TBy girdling, the wllde of what would otherwise be mere albur..mnl becomes 'imilar to the lheart-w\ood, and this may be one reason why tie boards mdfle firom such trees are found liot to warp. Larches are particularly ssceptil)le to this process. &.asost.s j/,r Priiini:,. - The seasons fi)r pruning vary:ccording to the object in view. N\7lc re woo(l is to be cut out or buds re-oved(l, so as to throw sthenlth into the remaining parts of the tree, the sooner the operation is performel, after the fall of the ]leaf, the better; becauso. as the sapil is more or less in mo(tion, and conseqiuently imle)clled( to all the b)ds, thr(llhllout the whole of tlhe winter, that which would have been employed on tlie shiootl and buds ci,t off is saved, and those which remain are invi,r:te( by it. Next to a,ltit mul, - according to the opinions of some of the n)most experienced gri)vwirs,- winter is to be preferred, for the saime reason; I)llt in this seaCson O ilrl wealther is always to bh chosen, becatuse l,C fa)sts if severe, will seiz., ('! tlie moisture of newly-niade wounds, and rupture tlit,r surface. 463 4 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. The worst season in which any description of wood pruning can be performed is the spring, j'ust before the expansion of the leaves, when the sap is rising with the greatest vigor. The slightest wound made in many plants, both woody and herbaceous, at this season, especially young, vigorous ones, where the sap-vessels are large, occasions a great loss of sap, which must necessarily weaken the plant, unless speedily checked by the only effectual mode in which this can be done, the expansion of the leaves. For disbudding and ringing, spring is the most suitable season,- at least, for the latter practice, for nothing is gained by ringing before the leaves begin to expand. Buds which are to be removed should remain as short a time as possible after they are formed by the leaves; but as the labor is much greater in taking them off in autumn and winter, when they are small, than in spring, when all their parts are more or less expanded, the operation is generally deferred till the latter season. For disleafing, it is necessary to commence as soon as the leaves begin to expand, and continue it as long as they are produced. The advantages of pruningi just before midsummer are, that the wounids may be partially healed over the same season, and that the sap which would have been employed in maturing the shoots cut off is thrown into those which remain. The disadvantages are, that the sap which would have been elaborated by the leaves cut off, and which would have added to the strength of the tree and its roots, is lost. In the case of trees already sufficiently strong, this is no disadvantage; but in the case of those which are too weak, it is a positive loss. The summer season is found better than any other for pruning trees which gum, such as the cherry and the plum, provided too much foliage is not thereby taken away; and it is also considered favorable for resinouis trees. The autumn, on the other hand, is considered the best for trees that are apt to suffer from bleeding, such as the vine, the birch, and some species of maple. IV. TRAINING. Uses of Training.- To train a plant is to support or conduct its stem and branches in some form or position, either natural or artificial, for purposes of use or ornament. It is effected partly by pruning and thinning, but chiefly by pegging down to the ground, tying and fastening to rods, stakes, or trellises, or nailing to walls. The articles more immediately required are hooked pegs, ties, nails, and lists, with props of various kinds, and ladders. Princip les of Training,. The principles upon which training is founded vary according to the object in view, but they all depend more or less on these facts: — that the sap of a plant is generally impelled with the greatest force to its highest point, and that, in general, whatever promotes this tendency encourages the production of leaves and shoots, and whatever represses 464 HIORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. it promotes the formation of blossom-buds. When a plant is to be trained over thie surface of the ground, it must be borne in mind, that, as the tendency of the sap is always to the highest bud, the shoots pegged down should be .lli-owed to turn up at the points, in order to promote their extension. WVhen the object is to produce blossoms or fruitfulness, a contrary practice shoul(i I)c follow-ed, and the points of the shoots kept down, or, in the case of upright ,rowN-n plants, trained horizontally, or even in a downward direction. This should also be done when the oblject is to restrain over-luxuriance, and a contrary practice when a weak or sickly plant or free is to be invigorated. AWhenu the object is to economize space, the plants are trained against a trellis, as occupying length, but very little breadth; and whep it is to increase temperature, they are trained or spread out against a wall, which prevents the conducting of heat and moisture from the branches, by acting as a screen againist winds, and increases heat, by reflecting the rays of thie sun duringi the day, and giving out heat during the night, and whenever the atmosphert is at a lower temperature than the wall. Iaotzual Opcrations of Training. - The tie or the list, by which the shoots aire fistened to the wall or trellis, should be placed in the internode, and aIlways immediately behind a bud or joint; because, when tying or nailing takles place in the summer season, and near the points of the growing shoots, lthe latter sometimes elongate after being fastened, and if this elongation is )rei-ented from taking place in a straight line, by the fastening being made immediately before a bud or leaf, instead of immediately behind it, the shoot will be forced inii a curved direction, and the bud and its leaf injured. The )ast tics are gently twisted before being tied into a knot, in order that it naay l)e the firmer, and not liable to be torn during the operation of tying. ()sier ties, which are frequently used for espalier-trees, are fastened by twisting together the two ends, and turning them down in a manner sooner and easier done than described. In fastening shoots with nails and shreds, when inv restraint is required to retain the shoot in its position, the pressure must ;-lways be against the shred, and never against the nail, as the latter would gall the shoot, and in stone-fruits generate gum. The shred ought not to be [,alced in the hollow of a bend in the branch to be attached; for there it is worse than useless. On the contrary, the shreds should be put on so ias ti, !ull the external bends inwards towards the direct line in which it is desirar)le the branch should be trained. Nails an inch in length are sufficienlt foi ,r-dirary branches, but twice that length is necessary for very large ones; tiey should, in general, be driven into the joints, and not into the backls, I},,cautse the joints are easily repaired. Shreds of woollen are preferred to those of any other cloth, or to leather, as being softer, and less influenced( by Ilie weather. Their length should be such as to contain a shoot double the F2 46;5 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. size of that for which they are intended, in order that they may never com. press the shoots so much as to impede the returning sap, and their breadth may be from half to three quarters of an inch to a whole inch. They should be folded up a little at each end, so that in driving the nail through the shred it will pierce four times its thickness, and be in no danger of tearing. Training Herbaceous a7t(l,irubby Plants it Pots. -These, being in a highly artificial state, whlen they require training should have straight rods, or symmetrical frames of laths or of wire-work. A common mode for tho grape is seen in the annexed cut; formed of rods and rings of stout wire the whole being painted according to the taste of the grower. Fig. 297. I _ Training Hardy Flowering Shirubs in the Open Ground. -Trailing and creeping shrubs seldom require any assistane from art, excepting when they are made to grow upright on posts, trellises, or wa lls. The cut which follows represents a climhing rose, trained ow-in from a ring- which forms the top to an iron ro l. This is called the balloon maiu,r of training, and was first applied to apple-trees. When the ro(l is fix(ed in the ground, the ring at the top shouild sta(nd an inch or two higher tlhan tt.e graft at the top of the stock, or than the head formed on the stem of tihe plant, if it should not have been grafted. Six or eight of the strongest shioots are then to be selected, and tied to the ring with tarred t;wiite and if', fromn their length. they are liable to blow about, their ends are attached to twine, continued from the wire to pegs stuck in the grotund, as shown in the figure. Training Fruit-trees.- By far the most imnportant application of training is to fruit-trees, whether for the purpose of rendering them more prolific, improving the quality of the fruit, growing fruit in the oper] air which could not otherwise be grown, except under glass, or coatiniiog the trees within a limited space. Fruit-trees are trained eithllr as protubfranot )ushes or trees in the open garden, or spread out on flat surfice:s against walls or espaliers. 466 '1/ ffi'~~\ \ \\Y I j I 7 I FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. the weaker must be elevated and the stronger depressed. 3. The shoots oil tie upper side of an inclined branch wvill always be more luxuriant than those on the lower side therefore preserve, at the period of pruning or dis t)udding, only the strongest shoots below, and only the weakest above. 4. The lower branches of every tree and shrub decay naturally before the upper branches; therefore bestow the principal care on them, whether in dwarf bushes in the open garden, or with trees trained on espaliers or walls. \When they are weak, cut them out, and bring down others to supply their place; or turn up their extreme points, which will attract a larger portion of' sap to every part of the branch. Differenzt Mlodes of Training Bushes and Trees in the Op)en Garden.These are chiefly the conical form for tall trees or standards, and some mnodification of the globe or cylinder for dwarfs; but it may be remarked that unless these and all other artificial forms are constantly watched, to cheelc the tendency to return to nature, they are much better dispensed with. By careful attention, some of these artificial forms will bring trees sooner iato a bearing state, and a greater quantity of fruit will also be produced in a limited space; but if the continued care requisite for these objects is with(Irawn for two or three years, the growtht of the tree, while returning to its natural character, will produce a degree of confusion in the branches that wvill not be remedied till all the constrained branches have been cut away. Wherever, therefore, fruit is to be grown on a large scale, and in the most economical manner, in orchards or in the open garden, it is found best to let every tree take its natural shape. and confine the pruner and trainer to such operations as do not greatly interfere with it. These are chiefly keeping the tree erect with a straight stem, keeping the head well balanced, and thinning out the branches where they are crowded or cross each other, or become weak or diseased. There are, however, many persons who have small gardens, and who have leisure or means to attend to all the minutiae of culttre; and to these some of the modes of training protuberant dwarfs and standards may be of considerable importance, by bringing the trees into a bearing state sooner than would be the case if they were left to nature, and by producing much fruit in little space. Different iModes of Training Fruit-trees against Walls or Espalicrs. These may all be reduced to three forms or systems -the fan or palmate torm, which is the most natural mode, and that most generally applicable; the horizontal system, which is adapted to trees with strong stems, and of long duration; and the perpendicular system, which is chiefly adapted to climbers, such as the vine. Trees trained by any of the preceding modes, against a wall or espalier, are much more under the control of art than caal ever be the case with trees or bushes in the open garden; because, in the 469 HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. latter case, the whole tree, as well as its branches, is at all times more or less liable to be put in motion by the wind, whereas against a wall they are fixed, and have not the aid of motion to increase their thickness. For these reasons, and also because flat training is applied to trees which, as protuberint bushes in the open garden, would scarcely produce fruit at all, flat trainilg cannot be dispensed with. In making choice of a mode of flat training. tl.e nature of the tree, the climate, soil, and the object in view, must be jointitly taken into consideration. Trees of temporary duration, which naturally produce numerous divergent branches, such as the peach and the apricot, are best adapted for fan training, where the climate is favorable; but in a cold climate an approach to the horizontal manner may be preferable, by lessening the quantity of wood produced, and thus facilitating its ripening. The horizontal system of training produces the greatest constraint on nature, and is therefore adapted for fruit-trees of the most vigorous growth, and of large size, such as the pear and apple, which are almost always trained in this manner, whether on walls or espaliers. For plants producing shoots having little or no tendency to ramnify, and which are of comparatively short duration, the perpendicular manner is the most natural and the easiest; nevertheless, by disbudding and training, plants of this kind can be made to assume the fan form, and thus be rendered more productive in blossoms and fruit than if trained in a manner which is more natural to them; and in the case of the vine, even the horizontal system may be adopted, because its shoots are of great duration. Training Dwvarfs in the Open Garden.- These are trained in the form of hollow bushes, concave, or shaped like cups, urns, goblets, or barrels, the form being, in every case, produced by training the shoots to a framework of rods and hoops. Dwarfs are also trained in the form of globes, balloons, cylinders, low cones, pyramids, triangles, and sometimes with the branches in regular stages, like a girandole. All dwarfs, whether t(5 be left to nature or trained artificially, are grafted on stocks naturally of humble growth, such as the quince or the mountain-ash for the pear, &c., &c. Spiral Cylinders. - Prune and manage the tree so that it shall form from three to six branches, of as nearly equal size as possible, within about six or eight inches of the ground; and as soon as the branches are grown from three to five feet long, fix six rods, or stakes, into the earth, for sul)portiIng them, in a circle about the root. Each branch is then to be brought down, and being fixed to the rod near its base, the branch is to be carried round in a spiral manner, on such an elevation as will form an inclination of about fifteen degrees, and each branch is to be fixed in the same manner, one aftet another; thus all will move in the same direction, one above the other, like so many cork-screws following in the same course, as shown in the annexeci 40 469 FARDIE R'S HAND-BOOK. figure. As, from this position of the branches, the point bud of each leader will present the most vertical channel for the sap, the strongest shoot will fbrm there, and thus afford the means of continuing the leaders to a great lhight, and for a great length of time, without crossing or obstructing each Fig. 299. other, or throwing out useless collaterals; at the same time, by the depressed position of the leading branches, enough sap will be pushed out on their sides to formn and maintain vigorous fruiting spurs. As trees trained in this mannier need never exceed the bounds allotted them on a border or bed,;t greater number of trees may be planted, and a greater quantity of fruit pro)duced, in a given space, than can be the case when they are trained in ainv other rialanner. But as pear and apple trees on free stocks may be found to grow too rude and large, after a few years, those best answer which are grafted on dwarf-growing stocks. hIowever, to keep dwarf trees from growing too luxuriant and rude, it is a good practice to take themn up and replant them every three or four years if this be (lone with due care, as soon as the leaves are off the trees in the ftidl of the year, it will not injure them, nor prevent them bearing a full crop of fruit the following year. Splurring-in. -Choose a tree that has a leading shoot in an upright direction; having planted it, shorten the side shoot, leaving only two or three buds, and shorten also the leading shoot, according to its strength, so that no more buds may be left on it than will produce shoots. The first summer there will be a produce of shoots, and if before mid-summer the leading shoot be shortened, it will probably throw out side shoots the same season. At the winter pruning, all the side shoots may be shortened to two or three buds, and the leading shoot to such a numbl)er as it is believed will be developed. These are to be shortened, and the process of shortening is to be repeated every year, till the tree has the appearance of isig. 300; or until it has attained the height required, or which the kind of tree is calculated to attain. 4'-i 0 HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS Fig. 300, Conical Standards. - Conical standards, or, as they are erroneously called, pyramidal standards, may be produced from trees partially spurred-in, but . 301. the most greral mode is, to cut in the side branches; after passing through 471 A I FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. several successive stages, the tree is brought to its regular shape, and the same tree, with the branches of the current year, tied down in the quenouille manner, is represented in Fig. 301. From the experience of French gardeners, it would appear that trees trained in the conical manner and tn quenonille do not last longer than ten or twelve years. Copper wire is ised for tying down the branches, and the lower ends of the wires are attached to the stouter branches, to the main stemn, to hookled pegs stuck in the ground, or to a wooden frame fixed a few inches above its surface. Fan Training. -The maiden plant is to be headed down to four eyes, pla ced in such a manner as to throw out two shoots on each side, as shown mn the following figure. The following season, the two uppermost shloots Fig. 302. are to be headed down to three eyes, placed in such a manner as to throw out one leading shoot, and one shoot on each side; the two lowermost shoots are to be headed down to two eyes, so as to throw out one leading shoot, and one shoot on the uppermost side. We have now five leading shoots on each side, well placed, to form our future tree. Each of these shoots must be placed in the exact position in which it is to remain; and as it is these shoots which are to form the leading character of the future tree, none of them are to be shortened. The tree should by no means be suffeired to bear any fruit this year. Each shoot must now be suffered to produce, besides the leading shoot at the extremity, two other shoots on the uppermost side, one near to the bottom, and one about midway up the stem; there must also be one shoot on the undermost side, placed about midway between the other two. All the other shoots must be pinched off inii their infant state. From the third year it may be allowed to bear what crop of fruit the gardener thinks it able to carry; in determining which, he ought never to overrate the vigor of the tree. All of these shoots, except the leading ones, must be shortened at the proper season, but to what length must be left entirely to the judgment of the gardener, it, of course, depending upon the vigor of the tree. In shortening the shoot, care should be talken to cut back to a bud that will produce a shoot for the following year. Cut closq to the bud, so that the wound may heal the following season. The following season, each shoot at the extremities of the leading branches should produce, besides the leading shoot, one on the upper and two on the under 472 HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. part, more or less, according to the vigor of the tree; whilst each of the secondary branches should produce, besides the leading shoot, one other, placed near to the bottom: for the grand art of pruning, in all systems to which this class of trees are subjected, consists in preserving a sufficient quantity of young wood at the bottom of tihe tree; and on no account must the gardener cut clean away any shoots so placed, without well considering if they will be wanted, not only for the present but for tilhe future good appearance of the tree. The quantity of younig wood annually laid in mus' depend upon the vigor of the tree. But if any of the leading shoots malifest a disposition to outstrip the others, a larger portion of younIg wood must be laid in, and a greater quantity of fruit than usual suffered to ripen on the over-vigorous branch; at the same time, a smaller quantity of fruit than usual must be left to ripen on the weaker branch. This will tend to restore the equilibrium better than any other method. The following figure is that Fig. 303. \ J I,!/! I of a tree in a more advanced state, well balanced, and well calculated for an equal distribution of sap all over its surface. Whenever any of the lower shoots have advanced so far as to incommode the others, they should be cut back to a yearling shoot; this will give them room, and keep the lower part of the tree in order. In nailing, care must be taken not to bruise any part of the shoot the wNouids made by the knife heal quicklly, but a l)rtise often proves incurable. In nailing in the young shoots, dispose them as straight and as regular as possible. Whatever system of training is pursued, the leading branches should be laid in in the exact position they are to remain; for -whlerever a large branch is brought down to fill the lower part of the wall, the free ascent of the sap is obstructed by the extension of the upper and contraction of the lower parts of the branch. It is thus robbed of part 40* 473 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. of its former vigor, whilst it seldom fails to throw out immediately behind the part most bent one or more vigorous shoots. Ilorizoiital Training. -This is practised either with one or two stems, and either withl the upright stem straight or in a zigzag direction, to stimulate the lateral buds to develop themselves. From this upright stem, the branches proceed at right angles, - generally at nine inches apart for apples, cherries, and plums, and from ten inches to a foot, or eighteen inches, for pears. A maiden plant with three shoots having been procured, the two side ones are laid in horizontally, and the centre one upright, as in Fig. 304, which shows the first stage of horizontal training. All the buds being i;g. 304. rubbed off the latter but three, viz., one next the top for a vertical leader, and one on each side, as near the top as possible, for horizontal branches. In the course of the first summer after planting, the shoots may be allowed to grow without being stopped. In the autumn of the first year, the two laterals produced are naile(l in, and also the shoots produced from the extremities of the lower laterals, tl-he centre shoot being headed down as before. But in the second summer, when the main shoot has attained the length of Fig. 305. ten inches, or twelve inches, it may be stopped; which, if the plant is in proper vigor, will cause it to throw out two horizontal branches, in addition 474 HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. to those which were thrown out from the wood of the preceding year. The tree will be now in its second summer, and will have four horizontal branches on each side of the upright sten; and, by persevering in this system, four lhorizontal branches will be produced in each year, till the tree reaches the top of the wall, when the upright stem must terminate in two horizontal branches. In the following autumn the tree will have the appearance of Fig. 305, supposing an apple-tree be the plant to be trained, anid that it consists of a single shoot from a bud. Let it be planted early in autumn, and next spring head it down to seven buds. Every bud pushling two or three shoots, the third and fourth, counting upwards, must be rubbed off when they are three inches in length; the uppt rmnost shoot must be trained straight up the wall, for a leading stem, and the remaining four horizontally along the wall. The leading shoot having attained about fifteen inches ill length, cut it down to eleven inches. From the shoots that will thus be produced, select three, one to be trained as a leader, and two as side branches. Proceeding in this way for seven years, the tree will have reached the top of a wall twelve feet high. With weak trees, or trees in very cold, late situations, this practice will not be advisable, as the wood produced from the summer shoots would be too weak, or would not ripen; but in all ordinary situations the plan will succeed. Pcrpcitdicit/ar Trainillg. - This is comparatively little used, excepting for climbing shrubs, sueCI as roses, the vine, and the gooseberry and currant, when trained against a wall or espalier rail. The principle is to have two horizontal main stems on the lowest part of the wall or trellis, and to train from these upright shoots at regular distances. Sometimes four horizontal main stems are used, - two at the bottom, and the other two half way up the wall or espalier; but this mode is chiefly pursued with the vinie. Colparative Vicit of the Diffcricit Ilaodes oj' Trinigtl,. - Of the various modes of training explained in the foregoing pages, any modification may be adopted when circumstances may require, provided the general princi ples are kept in view. Ornamental shrubs are easily managed, because they have not a tendency to rear themselves by forming a strong stem but with regard to fruit-trees thle case is otherwise. These, it is well known, if left to nature, form one strong stem, supporting a top which reaches the heigllt of twenty, thirty, or forty feet, or more. In order to attain this, the sap rushes, whilst the tree is young and vigorous, towards the leading shoot; and if lateral branches occasionally are produced, the flow of sap is not strongly directed towards them, compared to that whicel is impelled towards the more upright part. At length, however, a ramifica tion does take place, in comparison with which the leading shoot becomes less and less predominant, till it becomes ultimately lost among its conl 4-i5 FARIMIER'S HAND-BOOK. peers. A tolerably equal distribution of sap then results, and a conical oi spherical top is formed, bearing fruit, not generally in the concavity, where it would be greatly excluded from light, but at the external surface, where the fruit itself, and the leaves immediately connected with the buds producing it, can be fully exposed to light, air, and dews. Lateral branclhes are occasionally produced on the stem, in the progress of its ascent. When the top is formed, these are placed at great disadvantage, owing to their being overshaded; and they are then apt to decay, the tree assuming the character of a large, elevated top, supported on a strong, naked stem. Tlhis is the natural disposition of trees, and to this it is necessary to attend, in order that it may be counteracted where the natural form of the tree cannot be admitted. It should be borne in mind that the disposition to form an elevated naked stein is still strongly evinced in dwarf trees; although subdivided, yet each branch possesses its share of the original disposition, and its lower and horizontal shoots are left to become weakl, in comparison with the upper, and those that are vertical. 476 CHAPTER XII. THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. BLIGHT OR BLA.ST - CANKER OR CARIES - CONSUMPTION - CONTORTION - DROPSY - ERGOT - HONEY-DEW - CURL - MILDEW - POTATO ROT - SMUT. BLIGHT, OR BLAST. Description.-Blight is any disease which seriously damages or prevents the fructification of a crop. Some of the most familiar and devastating kinds of it have been fully investigated, and are known to be caused by insects, by fungi, or by well-defined chemical or meteorological agencies; and have been described with an accuracy and minuteness which enable us readily to distinguish them from one another, to designate tlhei by distinctive names, - such as Mildew, Smut, Rust, &c.,- and to point out their origin, their indications, and their prevention, alleviation, or cure. There are however, one or two kinds of blight still mentioned by writers under the name of blight, and which are either principally or wholly ascribable to meteorological influence; and these may here be noticed. Dijt'rent Kinds of Blight.- One kind of blight is occasioned by prematurely mild weather, followed by sharp frosts and easterly winds, in spring, which are liable to arrest the flow of sap from the roots, occasion the young leaves and shoots to shrivel and die, and cause the arrested juices to swell and burst the tender vessels, and to become the prey of innumerable aphides. The general result is either the death of the plant, the destruction of its growth for the season, or at least the infliction upon it of a great degree of temporary feebleness. The aphides which feed upon the extravasated juices, though but a consequence of the blight, are sometimes mistakingly regarded as the cause of it, and supposed to be wafted by the cast wind. Unskilful gardeners sometimes aggravate the blight by closely matting up the trees, or keeping them protected during the day, thus rendering them so exceedingly tender that even a slight subsequent frost does them material damage. The sudden evaporation of hoar-frost from the opening leaflets of a young hedge, by a powerful sun, in a calm vernal atmosphere, sometimes so utterly destroys the incipient shoots, and kills all the young foliage, as to produce, in a few days, the appearance of a severe scorching by fire. A FACMIER S HIAND-BOOI. hedge thus blighted occasionally remains leafless throughout the summer, or only shows some feeble symptoms of exfoliation toward the beginning of autumn; and it ought, in every case, to be left untouched till, by its own vitality, or without any artificial appliance, it has recovercd strerngthl and viror. Another kind of blight sometimes occurs in summer, when farm crops have attained their full growth, and is usually ascribed to sultry and p(estilential vapor, - the plants being shrunken and shriveled up to less thin half their former size, with a withered and blasted appearance.'l'lioigh such instances as this are ascribed -wholly to atmosplhericall ce-uses, a careful inspection of the straw might possilbly detect the presence of mintite parasitic ftingi. A third kind of blight, called by many the white b)light, is occasioned by dleficiency or fuilure of proper nourishment. It occasionally attacks all Iipids of plants, both wild and cultivated; is most common ill thin, gravelly, irrcteuti-ve soils, in very dry seasons; and it usually consists in throwing the plants pre-naturely into blossom, and ripening the ear or pod before the body, or more than the mere embryo of the seed, is formed. The only klnown palliatives or preventives of these three kinds of blight are, proper condition and thorough treatment of the soil. CANKER, OR CARTES. Dcs(-rition..-This is a disease in frutit-trees, elms, larches and other trees. It chicfly corrupts the juices, corrodes the substance, and destroys the vitality *,f tlih youn shoots and branches of fruit-trees, and it has long been known andl deplored -,s a most formidable enemy of orchards. Its symptoms vary consilder~bly in trees of the same species, and very widely in trees of diffcrent nr a. Ii soime instanrces of its attack, a blackl sl)pckcl appears on the (p)ide:~nis of a tree, assuimes the chartetcr of an erosion, and gr:itlually eats awe the org.anii,til till thle braicih )becomes utterly eufeel)le(, aind readily breakls; in other ii ties, a seroftLlonis-lookingi rinr surrounils tlih branch, and cCtts its \' y iilward till it reaches the pith; and in others, a black and threal like line of dlisease originates in tle pith itself, and exerts, in the directiona of thi exterior, a kiilliiig power upon all the branch's flinclions. t'Fh i; t of tlese, sehowever, is the most c(-)mrnnon commniencing syliplorm of the (ilis'lSse, ad11( this is usually accompaniedl withI an en)largenmenit of the ve.ss'.s of the bark, but in some ilnstances is dry, and in others watery. FI}'e swcllin~ or enlargement of the vessels of the bark, which copstitultes Eo c),,.sl)i(eu'Os a symptom of some of the ordlinary kiind(s of cnker, inva-ria1lly a',l i iro-ninently attends it in) the apple-tree, invariably butt less promi. nenti y atteuds it in thle pear-tree, fre(quently but not always attends it in the 418 i THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. elm and the oak, and very seldom, if ever, attends it in the peach. The swelling is soon communicated to the wood, which, if laid open to viewv, on its first appearance, by the removal of the bark, exhibits no marlks of disease beyond the mere unnatural enlargement. In the course of a few years, less in number, in proportion to the advanced age of the tree, and the unfavorable circumstances under which it is vegetating, - the swelling is greatly increased in size, and the alburnum has become cxtensively dead; the superincumbent bark cracks, rises in discolored scales, and decays even more rapidly than the wood beneath. If the canker is upon a moderately-sized branch, the decay soon completely encircles it', exteniding through the whole alburnum and bark. The circulation of the sap being thus entirely prevented, all the parts above the disease of necessity perish. The first appearance of the disease in the peach is so very slight, that an unexperienced observer of it would suppose it to be of no conisequence. Small brown circular spots constitute the whole of this appearance, and may easily be cut out with the knife, so as to let the subsequent vegetation be as vigorous as if they had never existed. But let the spots b)e forgotten for a few days, and when the observer returns to examine them, they will be found to have spread far and corroded deeply. Origin. - The causes assigned for canker have been very various and conflicting, and the subject of much controversy. Some writers think that it is occasioned by coldness and churlishness of climate; others regard it as a tropical disease in the parts immediately affected, brought on by some bruise or other injury, and exasperated by an unhealthy sap, consequent upon unfavorablehess of situation, soil and culture; others view it as an effect of the lodgment of minorte, parasitic fingi, growing from spores, eitlher taken up from the soil thbo,lgh the spongioles, or received from diffluioi tlhrough the atmosphere into craels or wo,ntls in the bark; and others tlh-k that it is a disease in the constitution or whole organic system of trees, t},at it springs from a v-itiate(l and pca,nt state of all the juies, and that i ill:..gain and again b)reakl out. i,tlepe.tnlftTly of any external injury or,2cnzcy so long as the juices rcoatinue to be iunaltere(l. Opinions as to ftin i bcitl thle cause of canker are execcci:?ly various and conflictiung. Minullte plarasitic ftlngi unqtuesticlialily attened most instances of eaiker, and sometitnos exist in such myriads as to impart a peculiar tirade to the whole stem of ea.nkered trees; ltt vry ditb:ru tt fungi attack ditlIrent trees, several kinds sometimes attack the a,wnpe d:pe is, and possibly SOt,e are either causes or aggravations of tanulpo-, wvile inost are merely ititiolltous effects. The strcataaloresetia. rtp/tiacrs so ccpni',rtly and greatly tbo-unds on cankered pear-trees, particularly on t'ta ijrgot l!c, the Windsor, tihe swan's egg, the summer bergamot and the aituniti bIergsmot 479 FAR.IER'S HAND-BOOK. varieties, and seeming to make their young shoots, and even their older branches, die away toward the extremity, that it has been regarded by some close observers as the sole cause of their canker;- a kind of fungus totally different from this accompanies, and has been thought by some persons to rouse, precisely similar symptoms of canker in apple-trees. The opinion that canker is occasioned by the weakness of a tree's consti tution, by a distemper in all its juices, or by a deficiency in its functional energies, and by a consequent inability to imbibe and elaborate sufficient nourishment for existing organs, and sufficient matter for the formation of new parts, - this opinion makes very ample allowance for the malign influ ence of bad climate, bad soil, bad cultivation, bad variety of tree, and all sorts of accidents and unfavorable circumstances; and, as maintained by some writers, it even seems to speak of constitutional distemper as a convenient general expression for the operation of all kinds of conceivable causes. Johnson maintains that all facts unite in confirming the opinion that canker arises from the tree's weakness. It matters not whether its energy is broken down by an unnatural rapidity of growth, by a disproportioned excess of branches over the mass of roots, by old age, or by the disorganization of the roots in an ungenial soil; they render the tree incapable of extracting sufficient nourishment from the soil,- consequently incapable of developing a sufficient foliage, and therefore unable to digest and elaborate even the, scanty sap that is supplied to them. Both soil and subsoil, in spite of the assertion of a few writers to the contrary, appear to exert a very considerable influence. A wet, retentive subsoil does not permit sufficient aeration, cannot perform sufficient digestion, and will not allow a sufficiency of perfectly fresh elements of healthy sap; and therefore must act malignily, not alone as a reservoir of cankering t-apors, but as an originator of impoverishing and poisonous juices. A deep) and very rich soil gives trees a plethoric and dropsical habit, aud, in consequence, occasions so powerful a predisposition to canker, that a cure for this disease in an orchard has sometimes been found in the simple process of wheeling away one stratum of the soil, and diluting the remaining stratum. If a subsoil either be ill-drained or consist of ferruginous gravel, or if a soil be clayey and not kept well drained and porous, all trees which grow upon it, but especially fruit-trees, are exceedingly liable to becoiicankered. A soil exhausted by long cropping, or charged with the sporidi l of accumulated growths of minute emphytie fungi, is peculiarly unfavoralble; and hence an old worn-out orchard, if replanted with fruit-trees, is almost certain to communicate cankler to even the most vigorous young plants which can be selected. A cold situation, frequency of raw fois, and the prevalence of piercing and moist east winds, in the spring, seem to be the principal cankering elements in climate. Injudicious pruning, bruises, 480 THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. dIamage to the bark, and all similar accidents, if they do not originate canker, seldom fail to aggravate it. Trees of every age are liable to canker; but, as a general rule, all become incereasingly so as they tadv-ance ini age. an.d particutlarly such as hasve had a vigorous growth in their youth. All graftin7 varieties of fruit-trees, also, become more and more cankeriable as tlhe n mililti)ly in reproduction, till they eventually acquire such ai :iecuminilation of peccanlt humor as to be continually diseased, and no lon!,er propa1:~ tle. The scions of an old variety of friiit-trees merely multily ami a(,d i1(i1idnal and though they acquire temporary vigor from thle youIng :did stimulatiiing sap of the stocks on whlcli they are grafted, they l)ecome, iII a fewv years, as calnkerable and decrep)it as the parent tree. Tlhe golden l)ippin one of the oldest varieties of the apple-tree at present cultivated, is irecuentlv and severely attacked by the caiiker,- more so, accordillg to some writers. than any other kind. RPci?(jl. - The prevention and cure of canker are necessarily various, and iust, in any one instance, be directed against the special forms which the dis c:ise assumes, or the particular cause by which it is excited. If collness of climate lbe the only cause which can fairly be assigned for it in any par ticular orchiard, covering with glass is the chief preventative; and this, of course, cal be applied to only a few select wall-trees. If fingli call, iin any instance. be ra (t'rded as a chief exciting cause, a proper remedy might Iroi)al)ly Ihe the free use of the knife, and a subse(ltient copious waslhing \ith ca.ustic lirne-water. If plethoric or dropsical halits seem to be firmiioz, or have lieadlvy formed, one of the main roots of the tree may be removed. and an admixture of poor loam, sandy mould, or even of ldrift sanl, or any other (liluting matter, may be worked into the soil. If mere weikhe.s of constitution, or defect of functional energy, appears to lbe the cause, while no one kind of exciting influence can be detected or inferred, a very efficient remedy is, to cut away all the infected parts, and makle a judicious pruning among the remaining branches; and even if such excitiing circuinstances as unflivorabl)e climate, ungenial soil, or previous bad culture, can }>e detected. an excellent effect may be produced by the gradiual sawiing and e,Ittin(r awy-. of exuberant branches and shoots. If canker in a fruit-tree is At consequeice of old age, it is probably a premature senility, indluced by i!judl(licious management. Unless in the last stage of decay, a tree imay be recovered by giving it more air and light, by carefully licading-iii, )rutnillg, inlmrovi.r the soil, and cleansing the bark. If the soil, by its iiugenial (laracter. induces the disease, the obvious and only remedy is its ainelior:. ion anuil if the subsoil is the cause of the mischief, the roots mniust be lirevecnted strikiing into it. In all cases, it is the best practice to remove the t:'.-root. 5oine persons recommend, and many successfuilly practise, the 41 481 G 2 FARt,IER'S HAND-BOOK. removal of all decavyed or exuviate(d bark, an(l the applicatiou of vario u., liquid wasles. sucl as a solntioi of cinnon salt, or a liluted l(qid iil n)poond of coNwvo-doit a, sol)-su(ls, and urine. W hIen tny bruise or other ierl", is inflicted, of a kind likely to illce or develop c(;tiker,:t )iCc( of livi bark firom another tree mirht be (ext (tly fitted into thle ii.isin), i e, the saime mnariner as in tie operation of lI)udding. The grand preyvetativec of ca(lkcr in larchl-trees, -hicll are frequtently and(l severely the sutbje(ts of this dise ase, is to selcct, for plantations, slu( lt stitations in(d soils as shlall iiot subject the trees to combined coldness and inoistur{. CONSUMIPTION. This is the gradual enfeelblement and eventual wasting away and death If a plant. This must be viewved less as any one disease than as the common or aggregate character of a number of diseases. It oriiniiates varioosly, in too frequent and profuse flowering, in bad plantig, in imechanical dam age to the roots, in poverty of soil, in excessive droulght, in severe and sudden vicissitudes of weather, in unusually tempestuous winds, and probably in some other causes equally distinct; anld it may be supposed to have a variety in its modes of actioni, or in its distinctive characters, corresponding to the variety of these causes. The preventative of most kinds of it is manifestly good culture. CONTORTION. This is the effrct of the injury inflicted on the leaves of plants by the puncture of insects, particularly of thef aiphils. TIe leaves of the peach, the apricot, the nectarine, anil the apple-re,,;re very liable to contortion The only sure preventative of the evil is t(o di-str.y tl,c litile crc.vtures whicli cause it. D)ROPSY. Dropsy is a watery and diseased swelling ii so rne p.arts of I)lants. It occurs chiefly in plants of a stuceolent nature, aiid l)rinei:ally in bulbs, tubers, and fruits. It appears to arise from the ablsorpti (I0 of more moisture by the spongioles than can be secreted in the plant or thlrown off by the leaves; and it is known to be caused by excessive inanliriiig, excessive rtificial watering, and an unusual at)bundance of riin. B3ulbs and roots affected with it are watery and swelled; fruits are watery ard insipid, and fall before being ripe; and leaves, thouigh continuing green and a)arectly sound, suddenly and prematurely fall. ERGOT. This is a disease in the growing graii or seed of some of the grasses, particularly ef rye. It is tCie.ost mystcrious of all the diseases with which 4S2 THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. the cereal grasses are affected; and, after multitudinous and most learned investigations, continues to be the subject of conflicting opinions as to its nature, its origin, and its mode of development. IThle substance called the ergot either issues from between the glumes. and occupies the place of the grain, or it is the grain itself, in both a monstrous form and a chemically .*ltered condition. It lengthens to more than double the natural size of the grain; protrudes beyond the chaff; is angled, groove(l, and furrowed; hlas a (leecp, purplish-brown color, and often assumes a curved firm, somewhat resemnbling that of a cock's spur. Its surfatce, who-l see tllnon-h a microscope, is profusely marked with white, shining, transpa,ent, aingitlar dots; and its interior, when laid open with a sharp instrument, ad seen in water under a microscope, appears to consist of vwhite floccul ut threads, with spherical sporules. It has a spongy texture, a heavy, dis,creeal)le odor, and a nauseous, acrid, burning taste; and when put in contact with the flame of a candle, it catches fire like an oily substance, and burns like an almond. It is supposed by some naturalists to 1)e an excrescnei similar to the oak-apple and the nut-gall, and to be occasioned by the punc(ture of some insect; by others, to be a monstrous development or morl)id swelling of the seed, occasioned by some disturbance in the organs of circulation or secretion; and by others, to be a foreign or super-imposed vegetable growth, occasioned by a parasitic fungus. The last of these opinions is probably the best supported. Whatever be its origin and its physical nature. ergot exerts a dreadfully noxious power upon the system of any men or brutes who receive even very small portions of it in their food. It has been ascertained, by experiment upon many of the lower animals, to produce the most horrible gangrenes, rotting of the extremities, internal tortures, and agonizing death; it h,s been known to slough and kill not a few human beings who have eaten g(rain or flour infected with it. HONEY-DEW. Honey-dew. so called, is a clear, colorless, viscid. sweet liquid, foulnd often on the leaves of plants, and sometimes oni the g.rotiiiil )eoeath them. It tastes somewhat like honey; it is perfectly tlid inl i irm wetiler, but is somewhat consolidated or candied in cold woiCtlier; nend, xll eval)orated from paper, it leaves a gummy mark, not unlikle t.t lIft i)y solution of gum-Arabic. It appears sometimes in blotches upon leav(es; sometimes iii suffusionI over the whole surface of the lower leaves; sonmetiues inl glololair drops, of various sizes; but, in all ordinary instances, it apII)ears merely upon leaves, and only in such quantity as to seem like exudations on theit surface. All ants and wasps and bees are extremely fond of it. 4S3 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. The opinions of different writers are very conflicting as to the origin, and so forth, of honeydew. The most intelligent supposition respectiing it is, that it is entirely the deposit of minute insects,- small flies, perhaps a species of the genus thrips, - which emit a sweet clammy liquor on the leaves of the tree it lives on. This opinion is fortified by the fict of there hlaving frequeutly been noticed a great concourse of thripses, as well as aphlides, o!i trees infested with honey-dew. The aphides, however, arc by many persons considered the chief or sole producers of it, and it accompauies their flights and colonizations. They differ very widely, in some principal parts of their economy, from all other animals; and cannot be regarded with greater wonder as ejectors of a viscid saccharine liquid, than as propagators of their species through a series of progenies as the efi ct of a single impregnation. They live wholly on liquid food, and discharge no solid exerements, and are provided not only with an anal vent, but with twvo long, horn-like rump tubes, for ejecting such refuse or portion of their food as is unnecessary for their nourishment. If they were regarded as forming the saccharine matter of the honey-dew in their interior organism, they would no doubt be a nota ble exception to the otherwise uniform origin of all saccharine substances; but, when their peculiar economy of feeding and structure is considered, they may easily be supposed to act as simple living ducts of the saccharine matter from the vegetable vesicles in which they find it to the surface of the leaves on which they deposit it; or, in other words, they receive the saccharine matter ready made in their liquid food, and simp)ly part with undecomposed portions of it in their ejections. The particular species which deposit most honey-dew are Aphis brassicr, ApIhis raope, Aphis utbui, lriosom7a populi, and Eriosama mai. Honey-dew possesses an incidental value as an occasional and sometimes a principal food for bees. But, on the whole, honey-dew is a serious evil, partly by disfiguring the foliage of fruit-trees, and stickily attracting dust to plums and cherries, but chiefly by arising, through the medium of the aphides, from an enormous abstraction of the healthy juices out of plants. The only effectual preventive or cure of it, of course, is to ward off or destroy the aphides; and some of the chief means of dealing with the species are noticed in our chapter on INSECTS. But a weak solution of common salt, applied to the soil around infected trees, has been found to lbe effectual. CURL. This is a disease in potato plants. It is developed before the plants rise to the surfice of the groun(ld, and it affects them through all the future stages of their existence. The stem of the infected plants is puny and stinted; the 484 THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. leaves are meagre, sickly and crumpled; and the tubers are small, and, if used for sets, are certain to propagate the disease. Of the various causes of this disease assigned by different writers, the true one appears to be the diminution of the vital energy of the tubers, either by over-ripeiling, by bad keeping, by sprouting, or by too deep planting. The want of strength to develop a full, healthy plant, is the disease itself in embryo; and this is occasioned by any circumstance which diminishes the store of nourishment contained in the tubers for the support of the young plants. The means of preventing curl are distinctly suggested by the nature of its cause; and some of these means will, at the same time, prevent other diseases of the potato, and promote the general health and vigor of the plants. Tubers intended for sets ought to lie simply matured and not over-ripene(ld; they ought to be kept, throughout the winter and till the time when they are wanted, in a condition of dryness, coolness, and exclusion from light and air; and if, through mismanagement or accident, they be allowed to shoot, or even to exhibit decided symptoms of begun vegetation, they ought to be rejected from the uses of planting. The sets ought to be immediately planted after they are cut, and ought to be kept from exposure, during even the briefest time, to the play of sunshine, to a very high temperature, or to the current of a drying wind. The manure ought to be regularly spread and mixed with the soil, and not laid along a trench, or put in immediate contact with the sets. Potatoes ought not to be planted, for a succession of years, on the same field or plot; and the tubers used for planting ought, every year, or as frequently as possible, to be obtained from another kind of soil, particularly from a poorer one than that in which they are to )be planted. When the seed-stock is carefully pitted, and not exposed to the air, in the spring, the crop has seldom any curl; but where the seed-stock is put into barns, and other similar places, for months togethler, such crop seldom escapes turning out in some measure curled; and if but few curl the first year, if they are planted again, it is more than probable the half of them will curl the next season. MIILDEW. Thle Uce of the TWord or Term. - This is the appropriate name of a specific, devastating, and dismally common disease in wheat and other grasses, and is now the only thing meant by the word mil(lew, in the writiiigs of the most intelligent and scientific agricultural writers. Its attre. - WNVith respect to its nature, all botanists now believe that mildew, in its normal form, as a spotting and blotching on the stallks of wheat, is the regular parasitic growth of minute fungi,- Peccinia t rac,inis; and several of the most eminent writers think that the diseases calledl 41* 4S5 FARMIE R'S HAND-BOOK. rust, red-bag, red-robin, and red-gum, which infest the leaves and chaffscales of wheat, and produce a discoloration similar to that of iron-rust or of bturning, are simply modifications of varieties of the normal mildew, or Pto?ci/la i grei lzis. G,'ot,:th eud( P/cnzo0nc,ca of MUildcv. - Though one of the minutest objects ii the vegetable world, mildew is so prodigiously prolific and immensely ,tlltitulldinlous as to be one of the mightiest physical scourges, as well as one of the oldest; and yet, eveln at this adva.iced period, it hardly begins to be properly understood. The name Puccinia is formed from a Greek word, which signifies " closely," or" thickly," and alludes to the crowded manner in which the minute fungi are packed in the tufts and patches in which they grow. A stalk of -wheat, when beg,innii-gi to be mildewed, exhibits a number of dark-colored spots beneath the epidermis, some of an orange hue andl others of a dark-b)rown tinge; and, in a short time, it suffers ruptures ,and openings of the outer cuticle, and displays, in protrusion through these, dark, musty clusters of spores, amassed in dense, diffuse tufts, and often coiifluent into one another, so as to constitute long parallel lines, and commonly possessing at first a brownsish-yelfowv color, and changing afterwards to black. Any intellizgent person, w-ith the aid of a proper mticroscope, and of a good brilliant light, lmay easily show to the farmer the forms and appearances of mildew. First strip otff a little bit of the affected straw, and let it be viewed -i an opaque object. The thick clustering of the spores might be easily pointed out, as well as the way in vwhichl they rupture the cuticle, -a haltinch achromatic olbject-glass, with a low eye-piece, will sutffiee for this; with a hilgher power, and bits of cuticle and straw cut so thin that the light may easily be shown through theni from the Irirror, the stomata would be seen, and the vegetation of the spores on the mycetium in the cavities beneath them. Lastly, a small piece of one of the darkl patches might be taken off with the point of a pin, or of a small pelnknllite, and laid on a strlip of glass. MAoisteni this with a little drop of water, and cover it x itli a small fragment of the very thin glass sold by opticians for stlch purposes. PlaIe t on the stage of the microscope, show the light through it, and looik at it with a quarter of an inchli achromatic. The structure of the spores, the. division of the chambers, the stalks, and every part of themn, will beconme distinctly seen. The P,ecci7ia iagrminis affects, not wheat only, but other cereal grasses, and even several species of reeds; and it is commoniii to almost all couintries in the world. A growth of it, when seen unmagnified upon the leaves of other plants, presents nearly the same appearance as on wheat, and may instantly be detected by an observer of it upon the latter. It may often be detected in the lower part of the stalk of wheat, - generally on the shoot-blade, 4S6 THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLA.NTS. ia3 early as the second week of June; but it never makes any very serious ppearance, nor even affords decided indication of being about to make any (nsid(erable devastation, till some time in July. If the wAeathler in July be not and dry, even though the fungus may have recently devastated the dis trit. it will seldom make an extensive or very hurtful development; but if the w-eathler in July be close, moist, and cloudy, even tllhough,lll the fiingus inay have been recently scarce in the district, it will possibly maLke a great aud somewhat sudden, and very menacing appearance. The farmer, in the latter case, ought diligently to examainef his whealt crop, especially such az seems to be strongest and most luxuriantit and if hlie detects any considerable number of tufts of the fungus upon the stalkls, hle ought promptly to bring ilto play such methods of treitmentiet as lhave been foutd mrost effectual for subduing mildew. \hlien the sporules of pucciia have entered the stomata of wheat, alnd( effected a lodgment beneath the epidermtis, and begun to vegetate within the stalk, they both prey upon the tissues tiid intercept a portioni of the sap which ascends from the spongioles of the roots for the forming and nourish ig of the grain. But the exterior portion or sheath of the grailn is generally formed before any considerable mildewitig o(cuIrs; and the period of thle formationi and growth of tihe inner portion, or farinaceous substance, or flour, is precisely the period of the most general and vigorous development of the sporules into spores and fuill-grown fiungi; so that, usually in the proportion of the number of the ftlini which infest a stalk, the grain become shriveled while growing, and contains comp)rnaratively much bran and little flour when reaped and threshed. The sanmple of a seriously nmildewed crolp of wheat, hrn every instance. looks pour to tihe eye, is deficient in flour, and contains a superabundance of bran. The Urcdo lizcacis and lUrcdo ruoi,o, tlhough believed to be mere varieties of Paccinia gria/tis, and thouL}l soinmetintes assumi!i,g appearances closely akin to thlose which are popu,.larly called mildewN, generally have different habits, and follow somewilhat dititreint laws, and take from the popular vocabulariv of farmers the names of rust, red-rLust, red-robin, red-rag, and redgum. The U. li.a:s takes its its,ne -frim tile oblong form of its spores at(d the U. r?,iigo takes its name friom its reddish-rusty color, and ihas nearly spherical spores. Both vary in color f'om,i an orange tint to a brownish hue, and make the parts of plants itifested wvithi thenl to appear as if dusted with an orange or a brownish llirustiness. They occurt on the old or young leaves of the plants, on the chaff-scales, and( on the stalks; and they infest the plants at all stages of their growth, and may be regaqrdedI as occurring principally on the yonng blades in spring, principally ot thle stalks wlh:t. developed i5a!out the same time as the P2ucci?ziao gramiiais, or in mixture with 4Si FARIER'S HAND-BOOK. it, and principally on the old leaves and on tle glurnes and palea, in autuimn. 'Their presence iii the chaff-scales is indicated by rows and clusters of some what ovular milnute spots; and the matter eomit)ositig themn exudles from the inner surface like a reddish gummy sublstance. A very destructive fungLus attacks the common cabbage, and appeus l)upon it:s a limildcew. It appears upon cabbage-leaves, in clusters re,sembling( sniall white ltelh(s, or speeks, or frosty incrustations. All the spt)ores are fille(l with sporuil(s, adl burst when they are ripe, seattering tlhem in every diirectio; auid whenever these find their way to the leaves of cabhlg).es, they take root upon) them, and propagate. Provocativcs, Preccntites, ao,l ())'rCC/ic'S. -The extermination of Pucania gramimis, L;'elo lioc(oris, and l,citlo ro,(ig'o, fromi any district or colntry, seems to be impossible. J13tt the mildew calln manil)ifestlybe very greatly controlled, and, in an aggregite of years upon Iany farm. may be exceedingly diminished. The conditions of soil, of crop, of culture, and even of climate, lwhich predispose to it, by either rendering it prolific, or giving high vivacity to its sp)orules, or pro(tluci an a ap)titude in the stoimata of plants to imbibl)e them, or displ)osiig tile tissues aid juices of the plant to foster and develop them, may be very powerfully miodified by the skill aled the arts of enlightened hutsbandry. A. generally lhelthly state of the plant, without any o-ei-lutxurianee of vegetation, is most likely to secure a crop against the altticlks of the rust and mildew fungi; but whatever tends to render the plant sickly, whethler it be excess of heat or cold, drouIrrht or wet, sudden chliLnCes of temperature, poverty of soil, over-manuring, shlade, &c., &c.,- nmust be considered as a predisp)osing cause to these diseases. Wlherever the farimiii( is of the best kind, and whvlere drailnage is good, the mildew fuLiros will not be found in any alaritingi degCree. The mildewv fungi multiply and flourish most in a moist atmosphere, in a subdue(d lilght, and in a gentle warmth; and are therefore most abundant and destructive in climates and situations whichl are subject to what farmers expressively call " muggy weather." This may appear, at first sight, to be a cause of mildew entirely beyond the control of farmers. Yet something may be done to escape it, by practising such methods of culture, and adopting such times of sowing, and using such varieties of seed-stock, is are best fitted to frinr the crop into a state of the utmiost possili)le maturity anid vigor ait th, particular season when the moistles;s or mugginess is, onI the averaie of yea;rs;, most prevalent. Foggy weather, iIl some cirumstaniees,,seeIIs to )be even a stronger provocative to mildew than ordinary moist weather; and, when preceded by a time of great droughlt, occasions an unusually great mildewing of wheat crops. All soils are very seriously subject to mildew, yet some yield more readily 4199 THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. and abundantly to it than others. Tenacious clays seem to offer it the greatest resistance, Ind light moorish or light limy soils seem to offer it but slihlitlv. The soils most liable to have their crops injured, particularly that of wh-let, are the following, and in the order stated: - 1I)eit or moor, limy, liuiy loiams, saud, sandy loams, and another kind not ftlilid in any great b)red(lti. but in patches, chiefly, but not exclusively, in cliyey soils, the practical Ilriner calls it gray earth. hliateve(r has a tc(l(deii-y to checkl a quick and (reat loss of heat in the substances w-hich siirrouidiiil vegetables, particularly their roots, will be best calculated to save themi filom the iljury iniicted l)y sudden vicissitudes of temperature; coIInse(itueiitl, tlios( eairtlis w-hich are the worst conductors of hieat, or, in other words, arec the longest in heatingcr or cooling, will be the most fivorable iii resistin,r iany sudden alteration, and the vegetable growing on them will be thi( least injured when so assailed. The improvement of light soils by aLl)uudaiit intermnixtures of clay, therefore,- in addition to the great advantages of better texture and richer supply of inorganic food, - involves the benlcfit of appreciably and permlanently diminishing liability to miildewv. All varieties of wN-heat are seriously liable to mildew, lint some are rather more liablle than others. The white is generally the cearliest alffected, and the bearded or rivet is generally the latest. Any variety of wheat which has a comparatively soft epidermis is probably more sul)ject to mildew than one w'ith a comparatively hard epidermis. The time of sowing, regarded correlatively to the time of its maturing and to the principal time of mildewing,ll is important. Early-sown wheat-plants are more likely than late-sown ones to pass the time of liloominlg before heinr extensively attacked; and when they can begin to form their seeds )before thle mil(dev sets in, they suffer far less damagi e from it, or are fitr less eml)arrassed and impoverished during the process of see(liiig, tlhan if they vcie aittackled in an earlier stage of their growth. Late-sown plaits, too, t.re 4rC(,e and sappy at the very season when the chlills and foigs and courses of mioist w-eatlier, which specially induce mildew, are most abl)undalnt; and they are therefore, liable to be both vigorously andl very extensively ,ttiacked. Yet, in some cases, early-sown crops, almost or quite as much is late-sown ones, are preyed upon by mildew. Rank or excessive manuring, or any combination of cirillms,tliiees which occasions excessive luxuriance in a corn crop, both invites mildew, and (greatly invigorates and spreads it. The application of firimi-yird iiiaiiure immediately before sowing may both make such an evolution of gases as to attract the sporules floating in the atmosphere, and promote such a temporary plethoric growth in the crop as is eminently suited to the lodgment of the sporules and the development of the fungi.: Excessive early luxuriance, 4s9 FARIER l'S HAND-BOOK. whether from immediate manuring, from over-richness of the soil, or from unusual forwardness and warmthl in the weather, ought to be checked by feeding down with sheep during a few hours in the day-time, or by any other method which experience and local peculiarities may suggest. A clean or a foul state of the ground, during the early stages of the growth of a crop, has, in all cases, a great influence upon eventual millewing weeds serve as nests of the miildew fungi, and nurse, and fee(l, and multiply them, preparatory to extensive and severe attacks upon the corn; and, in all the early stages of tile growth of drilled wheat, they oughht to b)e completely kept down, and all the surfitace stratum of the soil, at the same time, kept in a perfectly sweet and well aerated condition, by the free use of the hoe. Mildew will seldom prevail to any extent where this precaution is taken; hut wherever there are niany weeds on the land, the straw will be generally found more or less affected by it. Many methods have been recommended to prevent or destroy mildew; tbut almost all of them are impracticable or worthless. A solution of commnon salt, however, whlen applied, not to the soil, but to the crop itself, in the manner of either a vapor or a sprinkle bathi, seems to kill the mildew fulngus, and to operate, if not as a preventive against an attack of mildew, at least as a cure of actual mildew disease. The wheat on the seaside is little damaged )by the mildew; yet, within a very few miles inland, the crops are as much affected as those still further from the sea. The safest quantity of salt per gallon is eight ounces, and then the application may be rendered more effectual by frequent repetition, without any danger of injury to the plants. If the application is not made during a clouded day, it is best to defer it till the evening. As to the idea that the barberry has a considerable influence in the commutnication of the mildew to whleat, the conclusion arrived at by those who have investigated the matter, and whose judgment is entitled to respect, is, thlat no such iniifluence is exerted or produced by that plant. POTATO ROT. Descriplto. - Tihe murrain, or rot, or mildew, orwhatever else the modern potato disease may be calld(1, exhtil)its a great diversity of phenomena, and probably comprises many and wide stt)-varieties of character. Its greatfeatures are coiiimenicement iafter the fobrmation, or even towards the ripening, of the tubers, and total, irretrievable, putrefactive-lookling decay of the whole plant. It is said by somte persons to begin in the leaf, - Iby others, in the stem, - and by others, in the tubers; it somnetimes slowly works the plant to decay through a period of five or six weeks, an(l sometimes scathingly and scorchingly overwhelmns it in the course of twenty-four hours, or in a 490 THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. single night; and, in not a few instances in which it seemed to have kept aloof from plants till they were harvested, it has burst out among the tlubers :nd rotted them in the pit. No descriptions of it, for the present race of cultivators, are needed; and the very best descriptions of it whllich have ieen penned are tinged with theory, and controlled by its own diversities, and are therefore very conflicting yet two brief notices of it, by two- of th( mnost distinguished observers, may Ie here recorded. That emimen-t ]ulropean agriculturist, Mr. GCeorge Phillips, gives it as his opinionl that the stem is the part where it commences. He also says: -The first external appearance of disease was marked by a deepeniing of color, ac(omipaiiied by an enlargement of the affected part, and succee(led by a weepinl or exudation. As the disease advanced, the part of the stem affected(l became soft and pulpy, and the color changed to a yellowish-brown. Thie stein was generally, if not universally, first affected at a joint, or the part from whence a lateral branch springs, and the leaves above the diseased part bliekened, drooped, and died. Seven plants (says Mr. Phillips) were forwarded to me by a gentleman of great practical knowledge, and better specimens for the purpose could not be desired. The stems were all connected with the parent sets, so that the foliage, stems, young tublers, roots, and sets, were complete. The upper part of the stems and leaves of the diseased plants had the dull and heavy appearance so characteristic of the disease; and nearly the whole of the stems were more or less affected at one or the other joints whence the lateral branches sprang from. In some of the plants the stem was most affected at a particular joint; in others, the smallest branches and leaves were the most injured. No trace of fiuncgi or insects was discoverable in some of the affected stems beyond the immediate localities of the diseased joints. The disease in these cases had not extended itself, and was confined to a space not exceeding one inch of the leiingth of the foot-stalk. In other cases, the disease had spread both ways for a considerable distance from the wound, confining itself chiefly to the medulla. FuLngi of the boleti and stellate kind were observable in all the diseased stems; and at the parts where putrescence existed, the eel-like animalcula abounded. According to another learned observer, the disease usually commences in a semi-transparent blotch on the underground parts, which is formed by brown, shiny, extravasated fluid between the epidermis and inner bark, sometimes only on one side of the stem or roots; and, if the soil becomes dry and the weather fair, it penetrates through the bark rather slowly, but progresses rapidly inI a damp soil, with a close, humid atmosphere. Several of these blotches, in their transparent state, were marked, as soon as found, with bits of thread, and it was seen that, sooner or later, according to the circumstances above mentioned, they assumed a scurvy, opaque appearance outside; but, by cut 491 FARIMERP'S HAND-BOOK. ting througlh this, the shiny fluid might generally be seen within. The blotches in the tubelrs chlange ill a similar maiiiier, and ttie progress of the gai grelie in them is accelerated or retarded by the like circtlniiistiieces. Similar blotches appear about the same time, or sool after, oi the roots and cords. Sometimes, how-ever, the leaves are bllotelied first of all. Ma'ny v-erv lar e plants have been found withl nearly evervy leaf aln the staLlt-s likewise blotched, the leaves being covered withl biotr\tis, xvil, the roots and lower parts of the stems remained quite clear but (saiys the same writer), I have never seen, until the tlith of Octolber, diseased( roots or cainkered stems supporting healthy foliage. Iteiiee it np))eaus tlhat the disease does not uniformly originate in the uiidergrotund parts, but tihat the plant is stricken throughout its system by an iung'eiLl, or, rather, by a pernicious state of the atmosphere, - the effects of wllich, as ailnoiigst Iiiiiiials, breakl out sometimes in one part and sometimes in another. As to the diseased tubers, at whatever time they were first affected, whletlher in the field or in the pit, many of them soon became rotten to the core; others rotted in patches, and acquired an appearance similar to that of an apple bruised by a fall; and a few, after beiing dried and carefutlly stored, ceased to be further injured. The diseased parts, in an advalnced stage, commonly formed irregular ulcers, and emitted an offensive odor; the parts around the eves, in many instances, became mouldy; and the part next the stem, in general, was the soonest and most severely afileted. The tainted tubers were largely employed for the feeding of cattle and hogs, anid are not reported to have done any injury to their health; and, wvhen boiled, their tainted portion, in its earliest stage, was sweet-tasted, and had a disagreeable smell. A report, in the IJighlaniid Society's Transactions, of special communications from intelligenit farmers in most of the affected districts of Scotland, in 1S45, affords the following observations:-The disease appeared chiefly in the latter part of:ugust, and in September and October, yet broke out in some places in July, and did not break out in others till the tubers were lifted and stored; the weather was prevailingly cold and ungenial, but no precise state of it could be identified with the breaking out of the disease early varieties, which were matured soon in the season, either escaped the disease, or were much less affected by it than the later varieties; all varieties whatever, except the earliest ones, were more or less attacked, but in differelt degrees, and the varieties which escaped best were the Second Early, the Irish Cup, the American Early, and the Common Cup; potatoes raised recently from seeds, in the great majority of eases, were as subject to the disease as those which had long been propagated from the tubers, and, in malny cases, were even more subject to it, thotlgh this fact militates noth 492 TUE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. ilg against the desirableness or necessity of raising new varieties from seed, bult only shows that they must be raised with skill and caution, and under all the conditions which are essential to real reinvigoration; the extent and pro'ress of the disease were but little influenced by either the previous culture, tlhe inature of the soil, or the kind of manure; the disease did not appear, at :ll events, to propagate itself by contagion, or to extend from diseased to) sound tubers after they were taken from the ground; the most effective stoIre-heaps were found to be smajl or mod(lerately-sized ones, not too heavily load(led withl earth; and mixtures of limne, or of other sbIll)stances, withl the l)otatoes in the heaps, were not found to be more beneficial than the old prac tice of storing the potatoes alone, dry, ald in good condition. (Causes. - Miany predisposing causes of the disease, both old( and nevw, near Ind remote, have been assigned by theorists. Among the old ones are allthe most remarkable which were ever at any time assigned for tlillt and curl, )particularly degeneracy, over ripeness, bad storing, bad conditions of plant ilIg, high manuring, atmospheric influence, and epidelllic liniaslilata; and somrne of these have also been regarded as special causes, or as inimmediately producing the virus, and defining the character of the disease. The chief of the newly-alleged predisposing causes were the wetnless of the summer of 181-, the severe frost of Mtarch 1845, the great hieat of the fore part of the summer of 1845, the uncommon luxuriance of the crop, the luse of some special manures, and a fancied novelty in the condition of the earth, or sulbterrane heat of the soil and sub-strata. But while some of the alleged predisposing causes were real enough, perhaps, and ought to suggest to all cultivators the necessity of care and wisdom in all time to come, others are either doubtful, vague, or wildly fantastical, and no two or more of them can at all account for the origination of the disease, or point to ally specific or very promising remedy. The special causes assigned by variots thlieorists, including many of the most distinguished agriculturists, and pllhytologists, and organic chemists, in the world, are as numerous, as conflicting, and, iwe might add, as aggregately uninstructive, as the alleged predisposing causes. WVe will, however, give a brief statement of those whichll are most remarkable for either their plausibleness, their learning, or the degree of public attention whichl they have excited. The abnormal chemical condition of the potato-plant, or the too early arrival of it to chemical maturity, is modestly and suggestingly stated by Mfr. Fromberg as the most probable special cause. According to his views, every species of plant appears to require a certain definite proportion of substances in its organism, to make it operate regularly for its healthy growthl. Too great a deviation, exceeding a certain maximum or minimum, will have an injurious influence ipoli the growth, by either accelerating or 42 493 FFARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. retardin it in too'reat a degree. As soon as, in a plant, both the parts that live in the air and those placed in the soil have obtained their proper quantity of constituents, the growth is completed. After that, it will take up nothing, or little more; aInd being continually placed in the midst of substances that are always in a state of decomposition, - which was before a requisitioni for the growth of the plant, - this state will, after the growth is cormpleted, communicate itself to the plant and its constituents. This will be the case, even although the plapt be perfectly sound (and we do well, therefore, to remove a product from the plant vwhen ripe and fullgrown) but much miore rapidly when it is in a state of ill health. Both the want of activity of the cells and their contents when the growth is too languid, and their too great activity when the growthl is too quickl and strong, will predispose the plant to this chemical cl-hange. The altered enercrgy of the action of the matter of which it is composed will continue after the Rrowthlll has ceased, but now it will proceed in another direction all the p)eculiar properties and combinations of matter which present themselves duri-ng lifetime, and on whose existence the vital actions depend, l)eiing now obtained and produced, another series of properties exhibit them:elves, and a number of other combinations is formed. If the growth has b)een too languid, these combinations, necessary for the performance of the vital finctions, will not be produced in sufficient quantity, and the altered ctiv it of matter will commence before the growth is completed. In case 1,t o %oth w ere too rapid and strong, the same increased activity of matter will C(,mbiue after the plant has reached its maximum of growthl, but will io, of ntiecessity, take another course; the plant absorbing nothing more, :iid, coue(t,quently, vital action resting, decomposition sets in, and the degree of its aetion is entirely dependent upon the activity of matter, which again is det(i uued by the quantity of substances fit for undergoing decomposition in a certain space, and upon the cooperation of temperature, air, and humiditv. It iilight be of some importance to view, in connection with this, the early api)earaiiece of the disease in 1846, although it seems uncertain wltether the tile of ripening or full growth had also arrived sooner. It is a fact that (dieassed potatoes sprout with remarkable rapidity, whilst the experinents of sonie chemists show that perfectly sound potatoes remain in the soil witlout any signs of sprouting being perceptible. This fact does not contradict the above-mentioned idea, and will actually tend to corroborate it, if it may be proved, by experience, that diseased tubers, although producing plants that remain healthy for a time, will, however, malke them inherit, as it were, their own unnatural rapidity and luxuriance of growth, and the consequences attending these. Ti e oxidation of the debilitated tissues, the change of azotized matter in 494 THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLAN\TS. I the stems, and the liability of the incrusting matter to undergo decomposition, have been suggested by Dr. Playfair, the well known I)utchl chemist, MIulder, and by others, as the most probable special cianscs. B3ut the notion of oxidation by the agency of the air acting more freely upoI the organic natter of the weakened cell-walls, does not certainly show a very great amouit of plihysiological knowledge, which requires that the progress of the lllenomena should be followed step by step, and which does not permit that the mentioning of final results, even if they were correct, shouldI serve as an explanation. The theory of changes of azotized matter either has reference to absolute decomposition or putrefaction,-and then it is closely allied to the oxidation theory, and partakes fully of its o)jectioniailehess, or it refers to the transmutation of one nitroogenous proximate principle into another, and, in that case, it is contradicted by the doctrine(s of the protein compounds. And as to the liability of the incrusting matter to undergo decomposition, this, if at all probable, does not afford muchl explanation, and could scarcely serve to suggest means for recovery; for the nature of the incrusting matter, and its relation to inorganic bases, are at present far too little known to found a theory on their pretended action. Putrescenee, resulting remotely from atmospheric action, and proximately from internal chemical derangement, is supposed by MIr. Phillips to have been the cause. This theory somewhat combines the precedling ones with the theory of a series of predisposing causes, and addresses itself very plausibly to the understanding; but it is by no means definite enough,li and can scarcely, if at all, apply to the cases of sudden and overwhelming outbreak of the disease, and does not perceptibly lead to any very obvious practica] conclusion. Mr. P. states, in illutstration of his theory, that the season was unusually cold, nd ws marked by a continual absence of sunshine, -that the disease was nmore fatal on heavy wet lands than on li,ght dry lands, and( 'ernerally more so on w-et soils than on dry soils,- that exhallation and evaporation were at a low point during the months of July and Allugust, - that the plants eenerllvy throve till after the cold and wet weather set in, and did not indicate prevailing unhlealthiness till after it had continued ablout two months,- and that, at the time when the most unfavorable weathler- aplpeared, the late plants were in fuill work, and were forming their tubers: and he adds, that a plant cannot elaborate its products without the direct action of the sunII's rays; and when the vital principle ceases its action, eveli temporarily, a chemical one commences by an oxidation of the carbon and a liberation of carbonic acid, and if this action continue, ammonia is formn(ed. What is the effect of this? If ammonia be formed in a plant like the potato, which in its normal state is acid, we have not only a subversion of.he ciilition of the juices, but we have also an agent equal to effect all that we have seen in 495 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. the disease. But the cliange is a work of time in the plant, and necessarily involv-es many phlases. A species of botrytis, hici I.i had not beelnl lIetfore olbserved, and( which has )been v-arioutsly called B. i /e, B. /'alac and B. dccB slotrir, was supposedl, )y Professor 5[orren, of L,iege, anld by ianiiy others, to he the special cause. Some supposed the fiunius to develop itself' fromn the illterior or cellular tissue, and to extend its ramifica-tiors throlgh the pores or stomata in such ;t way as to close them completely up, andl to nimale the l )lanlt d(lie fi-om want of perspiration a,nd absorption; others supp)osed it to makle a lodgnuict by its sporules from w-itlhout, to feed iupon the plant in the nianner of' aii external parasite and to ro) it to exhaustion of its nourishing sapi; and others, without troublingn themselves to exl)lain either its habits, its nature, or the chemistry of its action, supposed it to do its deadly workl simply as a poisoner of the )plant's juices. AN,hen first observed, the fuingus vwas sa.id to thlrive only on the living leaves of the potatto-p)lant, sparing even the stems but afterwvards it was seen to attack )both the stems and the tubers; anii(l soon, and far and wide, it could not ble traced at all in some diseased plants, and was not traceable in others till after the disease was olbviously established. The theory of the fingus was by far the most popular onle in 18 15, and made the learned part of the agricultural world ring with talk abolitt B(o)irlis i?i/'lstans, hut it was speedily discovered to be fillacious, and is now universally aban(loned. Yet, though the botrytis was not the cause of the disease, it was generally a very close attendant on it; and, under peculiar conditions of the atmosphere, it undoubtedly acts as a very powerful ag(ent in accelerating the lecay and havoc which the disease begins. A number of insects - particularly Euptcrir solani, E pctcriar icta, Tlrips 10irnl.tissiO, Ccra)hron carpenteri, a molobrus, an attica, a siiynlthurus, antl several a])idi(cs- were supposed, by various close observers, to be either i:riminators of some forms or accompaniments of the disease, or powerful accelerators of its general progress. Swarms of some of themn seem undoutbtedly to have infested the potato crop, - probally to a degree fir greater than ever before occurred; and, though not at all lilkely, in even on;' instance, to have originated the disease, thev must have seriously agtravatesl it, and perhaps sometimes complicated it, by punctutring the plant's organis. albstracting its juices, and laying it widely opeh to chemical disarrang(minm,., tfungal lodgment, and atmospheric action. A paLrticular theory, however. selected the Aphis rape or Aphis aesator, as the grand depredator, and eve ni cried it up as the certain and sole parent of tlie whole. This theory was the most popular one in En(gland in 1816; insomuch that, for months together, multitudes talked incessantly of the aphis, and scenied to lave eulie into an ap)his-maiiia, and would not listen to another theory. Yet, thiouthi both facts 496 THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. ,and philosophy now pour derision on this theory, they fully admit every abounding aphis to be very mischievous, and loudly warn all cultivators i,i adol)t every preventive or remedial means against it in their power. Common ca.iiker, or vegetable.aiinrene, exactly similar to the cankller of flitt-trees, andti to the " damping " or" shanking off" of badly-wintered cauli flowers, and of cucumbers and melon-pl)lants, is believed, by the eminclt MIr. G rh m,. to have been the true cause. According to him, the potato-plaiut, havin l been rendered partially inert by the repellent action of cold, wvet, and( gloo,,my v-eathlier, uncongenial to its natuLre as an exotic from a wariii cliinatte at that critical period of its growthl when in the course of ord(inary seasons it -would have been about to acquire a strentgtl and hardness, but durinig which time it was incapable of perfectly evaporating its redundant juices, for want of sunshiie, - they accumulated in conisequence, and b)ecanie vitiated by stagnation in that crude state; and when-e fine hot weather ensued afterwards, the sudden rush of sap was too great for its debilitated tissues, and the dis eased fluid showed itself at the surface in various places, on the leaves ai(;' stalks, sometimes it spots not larger than a p)in's head, at others in blotches, w-',ich rapidly iincreased if the stimulus of heat was kept up; and the virus of these spots, beiiing of an ulcerous nature, eventually descended into the potatoes. The only effectual remedy, if it may be so called, is to pull up the hailm entirely, as soon as the disease has seized on the stalks; cultting off the hanlm will not be so effectual, in many instances, as the lower paris of tIhe stalk are often as bad as the upper parts. After all, lhowever, Mlr. Gcraham himself admits that the disease sometimes b)egins in the tu)ers, aud even states that it usually commences in the underground parts. A peculiar atmospheric action, similar to what produces influenza in man, is sl supposed by Liebig anid Klotzsch to be the special cause. Liebig, il i'e w-orkl on the Motions of the Fluids in the Animal Body, after explaining the great importance of the cutaneous and pulmonary transpiration to the life an(l health of animals, goes on to contend that in plants the transpiratiol' from the leav-es is the chief cause, aided by the pressure of the atmosphere. of th he motion of the sap. lie then refers to the old but valuable researches c,'f Jiles, lwho demonstrated the importance, as well as the extraordi.Lary power. of the transpiration of plants, and explained the freLquent blight il (los and other plants, by the action of an atmosphere saturated with mii.st -re anl therefore unfit to support transpiration, in suppressing the tralislir:.tio erom the leaves, and thus arresting the motion of the sap, wAhichl tlhen I,',tre'es asid leads to the death of the plant. The putrid sap becomes a fert:'e s(il'or t}he seeds of microscopic plants, fuingi, &c., and these are flirtli' [lrobtafted. by seed, so that the soil may become infested by them. I,iebi,, '.n proceeds to contend that the potato-plaut is one of those which, like tho 412* iI 2 491 11 FAR3IER'S HAND-BOOK. hop, suffers greatly from suppressed or impeded transpiration; and that the potato rot has long been known, and was even very accurately described by Parmentier, who introduced the potato into France; bhlt that the peculiar atmospheric condition to which he ascribes the disease had never till of late years occurred over whole countries, but only locally. tie considers the real cause of the disease to be an atmosphere loaded with moisture and cold, these being the conditions most unfavorab)le to evaporation; and he shows that in 185-, and 1816, when the disease overran Europe, damp, cold, and rainy weather followed heat and d(roughlt, just at the period of the most luxuriant growth of the potatoes. This state of the atmosphere he considers to be the same as that which causes influenza in the human subject, by suppressing the cutaneous transpiration. Hie further shows that the very life of a plant depends on the resistance it offers to the destructive influences of the atmosphere; and that the life and health of plants depend on the equilibrium of external causes, only oie of which,- the state of the soil,-is much in the power of the agriculturist. One (lay, or a few degrees of cold, mnay be decisive as to the life or death of a plant; so that it is of the utmost importance to strengthen the plant, so as to enable it to resist the external influences tending to destroy it. Now, Dr. IKlotzsch has come to similar conclusions, - and shows that, as the potato is cultivated for its tubers, there is a great loss of hutrient matter if it be allowed to form flowers and fruit; and he concludes that if this be prevented, the nutrient matter will be sent in the direction of the tubers and roots, and thus the plant will be strengthened, and enabled to resist disease. tie proposes, therefore, whenl tihe plants are from six to nine inches above ground, to pinchl off the ends of the stems and branches for half all inch only downwards firom thl)e point, and to repeat this four weekls later. Ini some experiments made by hi'i, in whi(lh tle alternate rows were tre:tel in this way, the result was, that the rows not so treated were straggling and sickly, and had scabby tubers, lial)le to ret; while the rows so treated were bushy, luxuriant, d(lark-green, with very numerous tubers, clean, and free from all disease whatev-er. But whatever may be thought of the remedy, or however fair or deserving a subject of experiment it may be as to the general strengthening of the potato-plant, the alleged cause seems a great deal more than doubtful. To say nothing of grave physiological objections to it, the very facts on whlich it rests are contesteld. -A diminution of temperature to the extent of six or eight degrees is exce(edingly trivial, and must often have occurred in fi)rmer years, when this disease' did not occur. Nor is the potato-plant of so delicate a texture as to be unal,l to stand much greater diminution and irretgularities of temperature than wh,t occurred in 1iS15. The fact that it grows equially well in the Slietland Isles. with an a,lerage temperature of 46 3, or even in hot-holises, with a temperaturo 19S THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. Df thirty or forty degrees higher, must satisfy any one that the temperature of 1845, thoughi undoubtedly lower than usual, and irregular in its proglessionr, cannot account for the failure. The heat of 1846, too, when the disease wi,; mnore virulent and extensive than in 1845, instead of being below the averagfe, was actually a little above it; and the fall of rain, as ascertained at a great nmany places, though unusually fitful, anid sometimes exceedingly heavy, w;.'V inot aggregately much above the average, and did not anywhere produce ii excess of cloudiness, or any material excess of moisture. An atmospheric influence of some less specific or mnore dir?esive kind th;itll that contended for by Liebig and Klotzsch has b)een rear(led by many d(istingtished British agriculturists as the cause. B3ut tlhe views entertairi(ed respecting it are at once various, conflicting, and vagule. Some say that It was merely a decrease in the temperature about the time of ripenilig of the tuber, by which this disease was caused. Now,, in 18S46, it returned at a much earlier period than in 1845. Was the time of rip)enilfu h:stened? anid if so, by what cause? And is there any evidence that such a decrease in terperature took place in 1846? or that it existed everywhere in 184-15 Othler defenders of the same theory assume that it w-as the sudden change of wet and cold to hot weather by which this calamity was occasioned; and others state in addition, that the unripe condition of the seed from the firmer year, and the protracted cold of the ensuing winter, preventing the due preparation of the land, were either the aggravating or the chief cause>. of the disease. Did these circumstances occur in 184,6, and were they general wherever the disease prevailed? If we further come to the marner in which this atmospheric influence is said to have acted, then -,e t,cet again several vaolue expressions, and find that unproved things:r-I:ken fl;)r granted. Some speak of the organism of the potato havin! beLcoTme r,,pleted wnith moisture, and, therefore, the pores being checked by some of the above circumstances, exceedingly liable to undergo putrefaction. (others are of opinion, that one constituent of the orgaiism of the potato hab)een producedl to tthe disladvantagfe, at the expense of, or at lea'st in greater liop)ortions tiat the others; and t.hat this, no matter in -lhat way, lhas been tile cause of a weakitened organism, and(l coI.s::quentlyof time lisease. Other, ;i,-ain, explain the action of the atmosphere as merely sa,rv-I, us a vehicle to miyriads of minute seeds of fungi, which, wlhei the air is in a coitip)arative rest, should be enabled to enter into the minute pores or stomata, whlilih exist chiefly on the surface of the leaves. This is merely a mod(ificatice. (of the fin,gal theory. Some miasmatic substance, or deleterious gas, or other subtle alid uniusual body in the atmosphere, is supposed, by Count Gasparin, Milne and others, to have been the cause. The principal, real, or alleged tacts, 4-99 FARMIER'S tIAND-BOOK. appealed to in support of this theory, are that the disease was averted from some localities by screens, shelter, and other means of protection firom the external air,- that, in the successive years of its ravages, it moved off from )in-me districts and countries, and made invasion upon others, - that, during ilie summer and autumn of 1846, it broke out, in a progress from south to iiorth, on the continent and in Great Britain, as if it proceeded inll a somewliat regular marlch, - and that it did not attack portions of fields which were exposed to the smokle of steam-engines anid of copper-workls. It is inferred from the last of these facts that the noxious sutbstance was some ,.crid gas or vapor capable of being neutralized or altered in its nature by chlorine, common smoke, and the fumes of arsenious and sulphurous acids and, in support of this view, an experiment of Professor Christison is cited shlowing that sulphurous-acid gas, when mixed with atmospheric air in the minute proportion of one part to nine thousand, injures the leaves of a 1mignonette, of a laburnum, and of a larch-tree, placed in it for forty hours. But, though the gaseous or miasmatic theory accords well with some of the pheinomena arnd circumstances, it seems violently incompatible with others. A peculiar state of the electricity of the atmosphere is supp)osed by some persons to have been the cause. Electricity is niiow known to act a powerful part in all normal vegetation; ordinary electricity acts co;istaitly, in seening concurrence with all the chemical processes of decomposition and recombination, both upon plints and within them; extraordinary electricity, or great and sudden disturbances of the normal ,lectric conditions of the atmosphere, or of the normal relations between the electricity of the air and the electricity of the earth, seem to produce effects ~ nalogous to those of either invigorating or overwhlelmiiig excitement; and the electric phenomena of a large portion of the period of both 1S-15 anl 1846, throughout which the potato disease broke out and spread, were not a little remarkable for at once singularity, unsettledness, violence, and aggregate duration. The results of an experiment in electro-culture, reported to ,lie Royal Dublin Society, were also most arresting; -the rods had been put up, accordingf to Dr. Forster's method, in a remote part of a potato-field, in order to test their effect upon the invigoration of the crop, and they were afterwards neglected or forgotten, in consequence of the apparent seizure ,)f the whole field with the potato disease;-but whenl the spot which they protected came eventullly to be examined, all the potatoes in it were found to l)e sound and excellent, while those of the rest of the field had died and rotted. Other remarkable facts, directly ascribable to electric influence, or apparently resulting from it, or controlled by it, were observed; and several theories corresponding to them, but widely differiing as to both the inodus operandia of the electric influence and the most suitable or ellective means 500 THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. Df averting deleterious effects, were formed and advocated, and have been received more or less extensively as plausible. The present state of scien tific knowledge, however, is far too obscure to enable any manl to follow outt a speculation on the supposed connection of peculiar electric-conlditions with the originating of disease in plants; and the utmost which the speculation about electricity and the potato can do, is to suggest a hope, that in some more advanced stage of thle rapidly-careering progress of scientific discovery, a subject which is now so mysterious and bewildering may come to be per fectly explained. Renmedies. - WAVe have now gone over all the chief and most plausible theories; and, since the result is unmixed uncertainty or uitter confusion, we might seem to have had all our labor for worse than nothling. But, when it is seen how entirely the most distinguished savans have been baffled, and how completely all science and experience and observation have been stultified, by the potato disease, all persons must readily assent to the suggestion that the potato can no longer be depended on as an extensive and staple article of sustenance for the human fiamily, and that its loss must be made up by the substitution of another and more reliable vegetable prodtuction. Whatever others may say or think, it is certain that, until the cause of this disease is known, no efficacious remedy can reasonably be expected to be found. It is the department of science to proceed from fixed points, firom causes into effects; and every other way is hardly deserving of any other name than that of empiricism. We would go further still, and say, that even although the cause were duly known, however indispensable this may be, we could not, hlowever, from the defective state of our knowledge of the physiology and pathology of plants, undertake the cure with the same confidence of success with which the physician places himself before his patient, to attack and overcome an illness. Beut still, without being acquainted with the catuse of the disease, a variety of remedies will be tried in vain, and, what is worse, remedies which may easily injure a plant which has freq(tiently been unnaturally cultivated. The steeping in dilutite sutlphurie acid, dusting with lime and gypsum, the application of sulphate of copper, arsenic, &c., mnay prove beneficial for the moment; but how all this will affect or alter the nature of the potato, it is only for future experience to make out. Such kinrds of treatment will be resorted to, if we proceed upon the belief that a fuiingus acts as the cause of the disease. - The purpose is to kill the enemy; but does one always sufficiently consider that the injury intended for it may not also affect its victim? But if we adhere to the opinion that the unfavorable state of the weather has been the direct cause of the disease, by - no matter in what way - altering the functions of the plant, then there is certainly something true in Morren's remark, that this theory, in point of 501 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. cu,ring the disease, is dangerous in its effects upon the mass of farmers evho, being piowerless against such an enemy, may easily fall into that state of indifference which in former times was too characteristic of their class. The remedy wvhicl results from the application of the epidemic theory seems certainly to l)e entirely in the power of the farmer, without )eig ittended with the injurious effects that may follow firom the attempt If (iestroyiing the parasite directly, we mean the enclosure of the potatofields, to prevent the supposed introduction of the imagined( seeds of the parasites by curreits of air. Yet, if this remedy, as is likely, might prove ineffectual, the opportunity of preserving the crop is gone, and the evil will rage on undisturbed. But there is something more reasonable in the idea. to turn the whole attention to the diseased plant itself, -to allow those plants to be lost that are hopelessly attacked, to be cautious in attemptiing to employ the less diseased for seed, and to be satisfied withl employing what has hitherto escaped, either of fine or of coarse varieties. If this be accompanied with judicious cultivation, - if sound seed, chiefly from varieties that have sulffered least, be Iplanted in soils similar to those where the disease has least prevailedl, - and if the methods be imitated of those who have had small or moderate, but comparatively sound crops, - as well inl regard to treatmient, kind and quantity of manure, and period of application, as to depth of planting, distance between the plants, and time and mode of cutting - then something is put into the power of the farmer, which, being( faithfully copied from the prescriptions of nature, may justify the perseveriing main in expecting a slow but gradual and continual remedy, and recovery of what has been lost. X method w as discovered, about the year 1S10, by M. Zauder, of evadillg the attacks of all potato diseases, by raising fill-grown tul)bers from seed inone season; and tbis method was reported by Mr. IIogan to the meetiig of the British Association at Oxford, and was ascertained, from his persona]l observation of it in two widely separated localities in Germany, to have proved perfectly efficient as respected its yearly or current success, yet was declared to need confirmation and improvement, by many experiments, ini various places, and under various circumstances, befiore it could be relied on for renderiing seedlings healthy or disease-proof, in years subsequent to their being produced. The statement of M. Zauder himself, in his owni laInguage, is as follows: -I firs. raised potatoes from seed seven years ago. I sowed bn eighth of an ounce, and obtained nearly seven sacks of fill grown, perfectly sound potatoes, although in the same year almost all the potatoes in the same nei,hborhood were affected by pock-mark and dry-rot. I have regularly raised potatoes from seed ever since, and they have remained sound during the whole time and in the year 18S45, when the disease had 502 THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. spread over all Europe, and attained the greatest virulence in this neighbori,ood, those potatoes which I had previously raised from seed, as well as those of the preceding year, continued perfectly exempt from disease. I ;:.ve given potatoes raised from seed to others, and those have also remained )erifeietly free from the universally prevailing disease. From an ounce of seed may be raised upwards of fifty ordinary-sized sacks of potatoes. The seed is saved in the following manner: the berries should be gathered in autumni, before the frost sets in, and be preserved in a dry place, where frost cannot reach them, until the end of January, when the berries should be broken by the hand, and placed in a tub or other vessel, for six or eight days, to ferment; water should then be tlhrownvi on theml and well stirred, in order to separate the pulp and husks from the seed, which should then be dried and cleanied, and kept in a warm, dry place, until the middle of March. At the latter time, or in the beginning of April, the seed should be thinly sown in a hot-bed, and by the middle of May there will be fine healthy plants, which may be put out into the field; care should be taken to put them out before they form tubers, and the seed-bed should be kept moderately moist -while they remain in it. They should be planted out after rain, and be put at about the same distance from one another as potatoes generally stand in the field. SMUT. Dcscrilption. - This is a disease of the ears of growing grain, filling the grain with a fine, sooty-lookling powder, in the room of farina. It arises ettirely from two minute colliol-mycetouls fungi,-lthe [redo segetum and the Urccdof,ictda; but it attacks all sorts of cornt grain, and presents a great diversity of appearance, and bears a nuiljer of popular nanes, and has been erroneously ascribed, bv all classes of cultivators, to a great diversity of causes. Some farmers, seeing only a very few\v ears of a crop) perceptibly affected with sinut. regard the evil as of small Consequelln,ce, and are totally unfiaware that when no more than one smutted ear can be founld in a sheaf, the straw of the apparently sound plants may want so muchl as one third of its average weight, and the grain so much as three seventhls; and other firmers, who mnay have a correct opinion enough of the mischievousness of smut, are so misled by false notions of its cause, as either to reject all suLitable preventives and remedies of it, or to adopt them empirically, anid withlout sufficient confidence and vigor. Caos(s and Phetiomie7a. - Some of the miany erroneous causes which have beein asigned for smut have no connection with it whlatever; and others are mere continigencies, whiclh either aggravate its symrptomis cor accelerate its progress. One alleged cause is, deficienit fecundity, ill consequence either of the!,b]}n beiig walshed a-way with raiiis, or of its uldergoil)g sonice 50,9 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. .hemical chlange of a putrefactive nature; but smut is found to affect tlle t)rgans of fructification, and either to iimpair or to destroy them, lollg before the pollien can be formed. A;nothe(r alle,ged cliuse, sanctioned, lonig ago, by the distinruishlld Jetlro Tull, is iihumidity of the atmnosphlere, or the I)revtlence of tigs, or tlhe l)urstingir out of intense stinshine wlile the crol) is in a 0oist cond(lition; but this notion has be~~i dispro-ved( by some carefully c,)I,lucted appeals to experiment, tand is disproved also by the general fact that smut is sometimes 1l)z'-rv'4)le in an early stage of the plant's vegeltationi, loni before it has escaped fi'om, the leafy envelopes. iA third alleged cause is, excessive moistness of the soil, - and certainly this, thoughl not a cause, is a very powerful provocative, iniisomnucli that well-drained and thoroughly aerated soils are incomparably freer from attackls of smut than wet ones; but the disease occurs on even the driest land, and may often be olbserved as rife in the dry parts of a field as in the wet parts. A fourtlh alleged cause, sanetioned by such names as Somerville, Walker, and Linnaus, is the hlatching and feeding of miinute insects; but this opinion has been refuted l)y express and searching observation, iand may be exploded also by the( general fact that acari and aphidles, and othler m-inute iinsects, feed mo,re or less oni all sorts of plants, whether affected by smut or not, and almnost always al)bound on decaying vegetal)le maltter, or on plants which are in a diseased or enfeebled condition. A iiftli alleged ceatse is, the abrasion of the seed-corn in the process of threshiing; but seeds threshed in exactly the same way run to smut in some seasons, and do not run to it in others; and numerous grains of wheat of different sizes have been experimentally bruised withl a hlammer, previous to sow in, anld have not been found to produce smuttedi plants. A sixth cause alleged is, monstrosity of embryo; but niale flow-ers, or miale parts of flow-ers, as well as femnale ones, are liable to smut, and they have no embryo. A seventh alleged cause is, deficiency of nourishment, occasioned by poverty of soil, or by crowdedness of crop; but diseases closely akin to smut attack the fructification of some perennial plants, whose roots and stems, from year to year, are so vigorous as to indicate the presence of ample nutrition. An eighth alleged cause is, fermentation within tie ears of corn, occasioned by natural humidity, or by excessive slowness of development and deficiency of evaporation; but, if this were a true cause, t Nwould account for the appearance of smut only after the seeds l)begil to be formed, and might be expected always to produce the disease in fir gre~itr extent than it is generally found to exist. Mlost other alleged causes a.re akin to some of those already named, or are exceedingly fancifll, or COi-. tfound smut with some other and widely different diseases. The two species of fungi wvhich produce smut, or whose spores constitate the fine, powdery, sooty-looking substance of the disease, possess a some 504 THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. what close resemblance to each other, and are usually described under one general name; yet, not only have they separate specific charlacters, but they make specifically different developments ill grain plants, and pro(duce esselntially ditfferent economical effects on crops; and they therefore require to be separately studied, and distinctively understood. The Urc(lo s%,gctum is much more minute than most other coniomycetous fungi -lwhich ttck gramineous plants; and, in particular, is not half the size of Uic(lofwe/i(a. Its spores are so extremely small that not fewer than seven millions eight hundred and forty thousand would be required to cover one square inch. It first so injures the interior portions of the flowers of the plants whicl it attacks as to render them abortive; it next makes the pedicels or little stalks of the florets swell and become very fleshy; it next consumes the whole of this fleshy mass; and it finally comes through the epidermis, and aippears between the chaff-scales in the form of a black, soot-like powder, and looks as if adhering, by means of some gummy substance, to the yotug ear. It operates alike on vwheat and barley and oats, and is essentially the same in them all; but it differs widely in aggregate coherence upon wheat and barley,- and differs also in the microscopic apl)earanlce of its spores, -but probably owes the differences entirely to the difltrent action of the matrices in which it grows. It commonly attains maturity some weekls before the crop which it infests is ready for the sickle; and it then is a light, loose powder, resembling very fine lampblack, and is swept away and scattered by the winds, so that, even when it has made great havoc upon a crop, it is seldom seen to any considerable extent at the time of harvest. It has somelimes been found to attack the leaves and the culms of corni-plants; but, in general, it attacks only the ear, and this it completely destroys. It is coIIparatively rare in -wheat, and does not seem to occur at all in rye; but is very common in barley, and still more so in oats. It has also been observed in several of the forage grasses. Some farmers absurdly think that a little of it in the barley crop is a good sign; and most regard it as far less mischie-vots than r(do) f.elida. But, in so far as it exists, it is always and entirely a desolating evil; and it both escapes the observation of superficial observers, and eludes some of the comnmon methods of pI)reventing or extirI)ating it, )by the early maturation and profuse dispersion of its spores; and though really a less evil, comparatively, than Uredo fceti(ra, it is a much greater one absolutely than most farmers suppose. Grain containing some mixture of smut has not been ol)bse(rvedl to injure fowls who eat it; and yet, the straw of smutted plants is asserte(l to be d(listastefutl to cattle. The effect of the fungus upon the wholesomeness of crops, in fact, is little understood, and does not seem to have been tested by any good published experiments; yet it may be pretty closely estimated by 43 505 FARMER'S IIAND-BOOK. reference to the known chemical composition of smutted grain. Chemical analysis has demonstrated that the Uredo se,etumn effects an entire decom position of thl vegetable constituents of the grain it infects, the saline con stituents of the grain remaining nearly unaltered. Parmrnentier, Cornet, Girod Chautrans, Fourcroy, and Vauguelin, have successively examined it; and the result of their researches is, that smutted grains of wheat are com posed, first, of about one third their own weight of a green, butyraceous, fetid, and acrid oil; second, nearly one fourth of a vegeto —inimal sub stance, perfectly similar to that which comes from putrid gluten; third, a black coal, one fifth of their weight, similar to that which is found in all remnants of putrefied organic compounds; fourth, free phosphoric acid, amounting scarcely to more than.004 of the smut,- and fifth, phosphates of ammonia, magnesia, and limne, in the proportions of a few thousandths. It is stated tiat, i.n one examination of putrefied gluten, characters were found very simril:r to thiose of the smut of wheat; and that the products of the one are so like those of the other, as to render it difficult, in certain cases, not to confound then togethier. It requires a man to be well practised in chemical experiments, to discern the slight differences that exist between these two putrefied imatters, because the differences are only delicate shades, not easily diseerni)le. The contagion attacks especially the gluten, and precedes, - indeed, prevents, - the formation of the starch; since we know positively that this fecula, no traces of which are found in the smut of wheat, suffers no alteration from that septic process, which so powerfully attacks the glutinous substance. The U,t-rcdofctida occurs only in the grain of wheat, and is a well-known and much dreaded disease. It may be detected in the young seed, even in the very earliest states of the flower-b)ud; and when fully ripe, it most frequently occLllies the whole interior of the grain. The earliest period at which -A. Biuer discovered it wvithin the cavity of the ovule of a young plant of wheat w-as sixtein days before the ear emerged from the base, and about twenty days tre the sotiund etrs, springing from the same root, were in !)loom. At tlii-tt early stae, tihe inner cavity of the ovum is very small, and, after feetindtiiol, is filled with the albumen or farinaceous substance of the seed, anid alro:dy occupied by many yotung fuingi, which, from their jellylike root or stpawn, adliere to the membrane which lines tIe cavity, and from which they cart be easily detached, in small flakes, witlt that spawn. In that state, their very small pedicels may be distinctly seen. At first, the fungi are of a pure \hite color, anId whlen the ear ettrerges front its base, the ovum is much erlar(ged, but still retains its original shape; and, the fungi rapidly multiplyirg, mary of them have then nearly come to maturity assumed a dark color, and, having separated from the sp)awn, lie loose in 506 THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. the cavity of the ovum. The infected grains continue growing, and the fungi continue to multiply, till the sound grains have attained their maturity and full size, when the infected grains are easily distinguished from tihe sound ones, by their being generally larger and of a darker green color and, if opened, they appear to be filled to excess with these dark-colored tfngi. But the grains infected with the U'cdofxtida very rarely )burst, and these fungi are seldom found on the outside of the graill; buit if a grain be bruised, they readily emit their offensive smell, which is worse than that from putrid fish. Vhlien the sound grains are perfectly ripe and( dry, and assume their light-brown color, the infected grains also clhange, but to a somewhat darker brown, retaining, however, the same shape which the ovum had at its formation, the rudiments of the stigma also remaining unaltered. The spores which fill the grain constitute a fine, black, disgusting, fetid powder, and amount to about four millions in a single grain, and may be easily distinguished and examined through a microscope, and have then the appearance of articulated globules growing in a bundled manner upon threads; hut the sporules which they contain, and which prop)agate the smut in the same general way in which seeds propagate phenogamous plants, are so surpassingly minute as to be scarcely distinguishable under very high powers of the microscope, appearing then only like a faint cloud or vapor in a pufy escape from the spores. The LUc(7o f(li(la not only destroys all the grains or plants which it directly attackls, but greatly deteriorates the value of the sound part of the general crop. The disgusting odor which it emits may be perceived on passingf through a field where it prevails; and becomes cohesive to the fingers, and intolerable to the sense, when an infected ear or two are broken in the hand; and diffuses itself sufficiently throulgh the sound grains, by the contacts of growing and harvesting, to render the flour made firom them perceptibly malodorous, and comparatively unfit for bread. Ready piurchasers, however, are found among the manufacturers of gingerbread, &c., in some countries, who have discovered that the treacle, and whatever else they mix up with it, effectually disguise the odor of the ftingus; and w-hile such a mode of employing the tainted flour would be perfectly utnobl)jectionable if the odor were innloxious, it becomes censurable and wicked( when good reason exists for suspecting the odor to be seriously unwholesome. The sporules of both Uredo segetumn and Uredo fetida were long believed and have been proved to find their way into corn-plants, by entering their spongioles with the moisture, and ascending their interior wvithl the sap. There is little doubt, according to Johnson, but that the mode in which smut is imparted to the plant is by its roots imbibing the extremely minute seeds of the fungus along with the moisture of the soil; and this opinion is 507 FAR,IER S HAND-BOOK. confirmed by the observation that the disease is most prevalent when the winter has been mild, and the spring wet, - for in such seasons the al)undant moisture passing throtugh the soil is most likely to convey the seeds to the mouthls of the plant's radical fibres. The distinguished Mir. Sidney remarks, that, thlough the surmise of most observers has been that the sporules enter by the roots and circulate in the plant, still, no one has yet seen them grow; nor would this be the normal mod(le of growth. The spores themselves are undoubtedly too large to enter either by the stotnata of the leaves or the spongioles of the roots. Some ingenious experiments have been made, that appear to establish the theory that these contents of the spores do enter the plant in the way suspected, and growv. The mode of proceeding was to immerse some seeds of wheat in water containing, bunt. One of the first appearances was a curious mould, with peculiar spores, that sprung upon the spores of bunt. The plants which came up fromi these seeds were evidently affected; but no communication whatever could be traced between the cells of these plants and the shioots thrown out by the spores. No intrusion whatever of the mycelium developed by the bttntspores into the wheat could be discovered. This looks, therefore, as if the fine contents of the spores do certainly propagate the fougus. Professor Henslam states, that, althoutgh the bunt-flingus confines its attacks to the young seed, it seems to be a condition essential to its propagation that it should be introduced into the plant during the early stag,es of its growth, and that its sporules are most readily absorbed by the root during the germination of the seed from which the plant has sprung. It has been clearly proved that wheat-plants may be easily infected, and the disease thus propagated, by simnply rubbing the seeds, before they are sown, with the black Dowder, or spores, of the fungus. It is also as clearly ascertained that, if seeds thus tainted be thoroughly cleansed, the plants raised from them will not be infected; an(l this fact is now so well established, that the practice of washing or steeping seed-wheat in certain solutions almost universally prevails. Prevertives. - The chief preventive of smut in wheat is the steeping of the seed-corn in some suitable solution. The spores which, at the time of threshing, are dispersed'from smutted ears in the form of a fine powder, and which attach themselves to the sound grains, adhere with considerablo obstinacy by means of an oily or greasy matter in their own substance, and cannot be thoroughly cleaned away except by means either of an alkali which shall combine with the oily matter and convert it into soap, or of some powerful substance, which shall be adverse enough to vegetable life to kill the spores, and yet not so adverse as to kill or injure the grains. The substances most commonly ec.nmployed in alkaline steeps are lime, and salts of soda, potash, and 509 THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. ammonia; and those of a killing kind most commonly employed arc arsenic, sulphate of copper, nitric acid, muriatic acid, and sulphuric aci(l. The luse of poisons, however,- particularly violent ones, is altogethler unnecessary, and very dangerous, and not a little culpable; and the use even of excessively pungent substances, which are not strictly poisonous, is never so politic, and perhaps never so efficient, as that of the alkalies, or of common salt, or of some mixture of saline substances. The experiments of MIr. Bevan indicate that lime-water is the most effective of these preparations; and if this be adopted, it may 1)be preparedl by mixing one pound of fresh lime with three gallons of l)oilin wateir, allowing these to stand for two hours, and the clear liquor tihen to lbe pollred off, and immediately used. In this liquid the wheat shoull be soallked for twelve hours. stirred twice or thrice during the time, and then mixed, upon a floor, with the powder made by pouring three gallonis of l}oiling water upon five pounds of lime. Ile remarks flirther, that hlie h:s id no exp)erience of the effects of lime-water as a preventive of tlh( Si, tt; butt, with stale urine and a solution of common salt, numerous ai (1\t)(I SiVC experimnents were made, the results being, without exception, fitivcli.rtl)]. a.l nearly similar; and this beiing the case, a preference is to le iven to( common salt, as being decidedly the best in all material points. ol'!ic ll(,d ol)served to be the most effective is to wash the seed with pure w;t(lr, l)('Trirg this off with all the floating grains, and then allowing the seed 1o s(ito fi)r twelve hours in a solution of common salt, having a strength, oir specific gravity, sufficient to float a common hen's egg. A solution of sutlpllate of sod(la, in cooperation with an application of lime, was found b)y M. de Dombasle, after many experiments, to be the most efficient steep. The solution requires about 17X lbs. of the sulphate in 22 gallons of water; td as this salt does not very readily dissolve, the solution ought to be cotinmenced a day or so before it is wanted, and frequently stirred, till all the salt is dissolved. The grain is to be formed in heaps on the floor, which are to be completely moistened with the above wash, by means of a watering vessel. During the time the wash is being poured over the heaps of grain, they must be kept constantly stirred about, by means of wooden shovels, till the whole be perfectly moist, whichl is known by the wash running from the heaps after they are sufficiently saturated. After the grain is well moistened, lime, in powder, is to be immediately thrown over the heaps, in the proportion of nearly 4,1 lbs. to the 22 gallons of grain; this is done gradtially, while the grain is to be turned over in every direction, so that the whole may be intimately combined. When this is done, the grain may be either sown immediately, or kept for some days, in which case it may be turned over every three or four days. 43* 509 FARaIER'S HAND-BOOK. The use of any kind of steep, however, is a preventive of smut only as propaga ted by the adhesion of spores to the grains of the seed-corn, and carn have no efficienvcy whatever against the germination of spores which lie lodged in the soil independently of the seed-corn. MAr. Johnson remarks, in add(lition, that, although it is very apparent that the smut is generally imparted to a wheat crop by the agency of the seed sown, yet he is by no means of the opinion that this is the only source of infection. IHe had kept ears of whleat, that were covered and destroyed by the Urcdo, during more than twelve months, in a situation where they experienced the vicissitudes of temperature during all the seasons, unprotected by more than the paper envelope in which they were suspended in an oit-buildiug. Yet, when the hr'e(lo that had been thus exposed was mixed with healthy, well-washled seed-w-heat, this produced diseased plants in a triplicate proportion more numerous than that not so mixed. This experiment demonstrates that frost and drought acting in concert with a damp atmosphere, do not destroy the vegetatiting power of the LTrc(do's seed. Such being the fact, why may not this seed rcnmain in the soil, ready to impart the plague? W~e know that, ow ingr to its lightness, this seed floats buoyantly in the air, and may be carried hb win-ds to distant soils, which, in the autumn of the same year, before :,nv extremitv of cold has been endured, will have to bear the wheat crop for the fillowing harvest. The opinion that the soil is one source of infection is sust,i'ied by the fact that fields in the vicinity of the sea are rarely iniLr,d. and never extensively, by the ravages of the smut. Such soils are impre arnteal more than any other with common salt, and the effect of this saline co'llp,)ii!d upon the Uredo has been noticed already. The spores of L'(c(/lo s,cii./,' too, are so generally shed and dispersed before the harvestin7,.t the crop, that they may be supposed to lie lodged in immense numl)eris in every part of the field, or farm, or district, where they were prod-eed; aid eeven in so far as they adhere to the grains of barley and oats in the s e manner in which those of Uredo faeti(/a adhere to the grains of wh('q tlthe. halve such a peculiarly strong hold in connection with the int',_,mei's oof tliese grains, that they cannot very readily be reduced or killed l)y means of stecps. As regards some smutted wheat-lands, therefore.,and especially as regards all smutted barley-lands, and all smutted oatlands, other preventives and remedies must be brought into requisition, and should be such as to secure the utmost possible cleanness of both the seed-corn and the land, and will, after all, be found incompetent to effect an entire cure. The obtaining of seed-corn for any farm from other and distant soils is recommended by Tull, Donat, Lignerolle, and others; but, however beneficial this may be for securing other desirable effects, it can be 510 -il THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. useful in regard to smut only when the seed-corn is brought from a district remarkably free from that disease. All the preventives and remedies which address themselves to the state of the land, or consist in special processes or methods of culture are the same in the case of smut as in the cave of mildew. 511 CHAPTER XIII. NOXIOUS INSECTS. INSECTS WIIICII LIVE CONSTANTLY ON OR IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS, AND PROP AGATE ON TIIE5I - INSECTS WHIIICII INJURE GRAIN - INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CULINARY VEGETABLES - INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS, FRTUIT-TREES, SHRUBS, AND VINES - INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FLOWER-PLANTS - INSECTS INJURIOUS TO MEADOWS. I. INSECTS VWHICI LIVE CONSTANTLY ON OR IN DO3IESTIC ANIMALS, AND PROPAGATE ON THEM. Lice. - Among insects which continually live on domestic animals, propagate on them, and, when their numbers are too great, cause serious injury to them, the various species of lice hold the first place. These animals are much to be dreaded wheli they have increased so as to produce the disease called P/ltiiriasis, and when this settles into a confirmed chronic evil. In horned-cattle lice have no particular favorite place. They run up and down over the body of sheep, causing a separation of the wool from the skin. They swarm in every part of swine, and even grow into the skin, muscles, &c. They may be occasioned by dirt, insufficient food, or want of bodily exercise, or by previous disease. The remedy prescribed is, to take a common pair of bellows, and a bellows-pipe fixed to its side, which is to be filled with inferior tobacco, and set fire to; one man holds the sheep between his legTs, another parts the fleece in various places, and a third blows the tobl)acco-smn.kle on the skin, fumigating by degrees the whole body. The sheep rmust be kept some time in the open air after this. Ox-lice are to be expelled by w-ashing with an infusion of Staphysa] gria powder and crushed pepper in stroll vinegar. Uor lice in swine, use internally the black sulphuret of mercury, mixed with salt, and wash the parts most infested with arsenic acid. Ilorse Bot. - The horse bot is the larva of a fly resembling a humble-bee, with two wings. The female lays her eggs on the shoulders, manes, and knees of horses, whilch they lick off and swvallow. They lhatch in the stomach, feed in the larva state all the winter on the mucilage, and in spring are found in the horse's stomach, sometimes in great numnbers. They resemble in size and form a date-stone, having two hooks at the fore end, with which they adhere to the inner coat of the stomach, often pein NOXIOUS INSECTS. etrating from i to 4 an inch deep into the white insensible tissue, and become as if distorted by it. If numerous, they cause violent pain; and, as they irritate the stomach, and extract a great deal of nourishment from the Pig. 306. animal, they necessarily injure digestion. The American arbor vita, administered inwardly, and the expressed juice of the common elder, either alone or mixed with tar, will be found effectual in protecting cattle front hots and intestinal worms. The leaves and young shoots of the arbor vit aLre to be beaten in a mortar with a little water, and the juice expressed. The horse is to take a quart, as a preventive remedy, every quarter of a y,ear, on an empty stomach; and if the animal is very ill, this quantity is to )e given thrice a week. An effectual mode of preventing the introduction of the bots into the stomach is also said to be, the washing off the eggs from the knees, mane, and sides of the horses, or removing them with a pair ,f scissors. Fun,edament Bot. - The female of this hot lays her eggs on the lips of the horse, whence they are licked off and swallowed, and thus get into the stomach. The hot-fly itself is half an inch long, brown, unspotted wings, dark abdomen, with white base and reddish-yellow extremity. The larva resembles the preceding, and is also found with it in spring in the stomach of horses. Their color is not so red, their body has two rings less, and their hooks are longer and sharper. Their presence is known by the horse voiding them with excrement, or by their being found on the closing muscle of the anal opening. When thus convinced of their presence, injections of animal oil are applied, which kill the larvw, and they are voided. Ox TlIMrble. -This insect is larger than the house-fly, and resembles the h.umble-bee. It has brown, unspotted wings, and on the abdomen, which is crvered at the end with reddish-yellow hair, a black band. The eggs are laid on the skin of the back of oxen, one at a time. The eggs are hatchedl l)v the animal heat, and the larvae cause swellings, generally about the si7e of a pigeon's eg,v and are called warbles - worm-holes. The larva is with,out feet is dotted on the upper surface with very small grains, which I 2 513 f. ll l 4 I. I -VI"' FARMIER'S IIAND-BOOK. appear under the magnifier like short, triangular, yellow priclies, which create an irritation in the skin of the cattle, and also transport the larva to another place, when it has left its first station. It lives in the tumor from August till the next June, then pushes itself through and falls to the ground. Usually only from four to five tumors are found in one beast. Young, healthy, and fat cattle are most liable to be selected. The tumors may in many cases contribute to the health of the cattle, but when very numerous, the cattle grow lean, and the cows give less milk. To rid cattle of this torment, enlarge the opening of the tumor with a knife, and press the sides of the swelling, when the larva protrudes itself. The wound must be kept clean, and heals without further remedy. Red Bot. - About the size of the honey-bee; thorax rose-colored; wings inspotted; abdomen black at the base, whitish-gray, set with yellow hairs at the further end. The female lays her eggs in the animal's nostrils, and the larvae cause an itching in these tender parts, - frequently get into the cavities of the gullet, and cause much pain. They feed upon the mucus which they find in these parts, and when large enough tickle by their crawling, and are then thrown out by the sneezing of the animal. Sheep die when these insects are numerous in them. Sheep Bot. - The thorax in the winged insect is brownish-black and dotted with white; the abdomen white, spotted with gray and black; the forehead ash-gray, covered with many small, deep punctures; the wings shining and dotted at the base. Lives in sheltered places, where it is numerous in warm days. The females lay their eggs in the nostrils; more than three or four are seldom found in one sheep, but they produce the staggers, and torment the animnal greatly. The symptoms of their presence( are nausea, weakness sieezilig, slow pace, turning the head, holding it down, and pushing itself against the nearest object; a slillingii, pus-like matter flows firom the nostrils, often adhering so firmly to'the apertures as to close them lip, and cause difficulty of breathing. Besides these, dulness and iudirt'ereice, swelling of gums and nmoutlh, ulceration and convulsions, are produced by it. It also makes the sheep turn round frequently, exactly as if they were infestedl with the hydatids, which occasion the disease called the gid. The hydatid worm appears in lambs, much sel(lorrer in yearlings, and still more rarely in full-grownii sheep; it causes no dlefluxion from the nose, no symptoms of a disease, no sneezing, staggering, &e.; bltt the sick animal is lost without remedy. But in the disease caused by the sheep bot, the sheep in many cases cure themselves; the lanil)s are only attacked when out at pasture; and the diseased state of the pit:itous tunic of the iose is a clear siren that it is the sheep bot, and no(t the hyilaitid worm, that aiects them. To remedy sheep thus aiTcted, they are eithei 514 NOXIOUS INSECTS. laken out alive, by trepanning the skull, as for the hydatids, or an attempt is made, by injections into the nostril of animal oil diluted with water, to kill them. Do not put sheep in pastures infested with the flies of sheep bot. Horse Fly, or Forest Fly. - The fore-part of the body is depressed; head triangular; abdomen large and roundish, somewhat resembling that of a spider,-hence it has also obtained the name of spider-fly. The thorax is speckled with buff; the other parts are brownI; the blunt, membraneous wings lie crosswise over each other. It prefers the abdomen of the animals, and attaches itself firmly to it. These flies are produced, or increase very rapidly, on animals that are unclean, or are in bad condition and as they torment the animals very much, the followiuig remedy must be applied, by which they can be got rid of in a day. Of mineral earth, take S oz., and of lard 1 lb., and make into a salve; rub it on here and there upon the hair, working it in with a wisp of straw. After twenty-four hours, wash off the salve with warm water in which brown soap has been dissolved. Keep the horse from getting cold. Sheep Tick. - This animal has no wings. The fore part of the body is very small; abdomen thick-roundish, and proportionally very large. It sits somnetimes on the skin of the sheep, under the wool, and sucks itself fulll of l)lood. Its color is pale red, the abdomen lighter, with an irregular white line on each side, and a red spot on the back. It lays only one egg, fastened to the wool; it is first white, then brown, and finally the perfect insect escapes from it. As a remedy for this insect, wash the infested sheep with a decoction of the crushed or bruised leaves of the common maple. Birld S)ider Fly. - Scarcely half as large as the forest fly, apple-green flat above, and has small, transparent, black-veined wings. It is found both on large and small fowls, clings firmly to the skin under the feathers, iand annoys by its greediness for blood. It is difficult to rid the birds of this insect, for it runs backwards and forwards so fast that it can scarcely be caiught. It fiinds out the bird, even when covered with the hand, and creeps unperceived again under the feathers. Many, that are thoughlt to be killed N-hen taken from the bird, fly back immediately. They leave the bird as soon as it is dead, as the head-louse leaves a human corpse. Cleanliness is the only remedy for this insect, and frequently sweeping and whitening the lihen-hlouse. II. INSECTS WIIICH INJURE GRAIN. Gib&ous Ground Beetle. - This is a beetle whicn injures wheat, rve, and barley. The egg,s are laid together, and not singly, ny the mother; and the larve are, apparently, three years before tihev undergo their transformation. 515 FARMER'S HIIAND-BOOK. The length of the full-grown larva is rathter more than an inch; it is flat, narrow, and nearly of equal width throughriout, the head is very flatly pressed, armed with strong forceps, like jaws.'lo diminish their number, it is recommended to catch them by the hand, which may be done by children. The common net - a linen bag, stretched on a hoop of strong wire -may also be stretched at night on the corn, and the insects feeding on the ears be caught in it. In the day-time they must be looked for under stones and clods. In the autumn, when the first slight frosts set in, the farmer should plough those fields which have had crops of wheat, barley, and rye, as deeply as possible. Many larvae which have by this time retired to their winter quarters will thus be turned up in a benumbed state, and will either be killed by the next frost or devoured by the crows and other birds in search of food. But this ploughing should be performed for many years successively, and by all the neighboring farmers simultaneously, or it will not be efficacious. Those fields which have been sown in autumn should be strewn with peat-ashes- when peat is to be had, and is used as fuel-in spring, when the supervening rains will disengage the sulphuric acid, which will kill the insects. German or Field Cockchaffer. - An insect injurious to the ears of wheat and rye. It has a square abdomen, rather flat; its whole length is half an inch, and its breadth one fourth of an inch; the color of the wing-cases is mostly brown, but sometimes a small square spot is seen at their base, and another larger saddle-like spot of the same color in their middle; the head and thorax of a dark-green; the under side of the body and legs are black. These insects are found singly, or three or four together, sitting on the ears, and gnawing the still soft grains of rye, or of wheat. Crows, moles, and field-mice, are its greatest enemies. The perfect insect can only be diminished and destroyed by picking it off the plant. Children may be employed for this purpose, and must collect the insects in bags. The insects must be crushed or destroyed by putting hot water on them, and then given to the poultry, which will become very fat by feeding on them. The hand-pickilng must be early in the morning, while the dew is on the plants, as then the beetle hangs lazy and benumbed on the ears of corn. Lined Click Beetle,- Larva, the Wire-worm. - A beetle particularly injllrious to oats. The larva of this beetle -known under the name of the wire-worm- appears sometimes in great numbers, devastating corn by attacking the roots. This larva is slender and linear, flat, shining, smooth, s.lightly hairy, and brown. It resembles the meal-worm. The beetle is blackish, with gray hairs; the feelers and legs are brownish-yellow, and the wing-covers striped with gray. The best means of destroying them is to mow the oats, and plough up the ground frequently, when crows and 516 NOXIOUS INSECTS. other birds will pick up the larvae. In Fig. 307, a is the larva of Elater segetis; b, under side of the terminal segment of the body; c, the head seen from beneath; d, perfect insect, natural size; e, magnified; f, larva of the Fig. 307. true wire-worm; g, the larva of ditto, as described by some writers, being another species. Winter or Dart Moth. -A moth that injures winter grain. The cater pillar or larva of a moth, which, from its food in the larva state, is called the winter corn-moth, is one of the most troublesome of the insect tribe. This caterpillar attacks both the leaves and the roots of the corn; also the roots of lettuce, turnips, and spinach. It appears generally in August, sitting quietly on the ground in the day-time, and flying about and pairing at night. When at rest, its wings are folided together flat over the body, and it is then nearly an inch long, and half an inch wide. Its colors are dirty-gray, and darkbrown, or earth-color, except on the under wings, which are covered as it sits, anrid which are sometimes whitish-gray, sometimes cream-color. On tlhe upper wings a faint, blackish, ringlike mark is seen, and a cone-shaped spot on a wavy line, a kidney-shaped stain almost in the middle, and towards the lower edge two other wavy or notched transverse lines. The most simple and certain mode of extirpating the noxious seed-eating caterpillar from the soil is, to repair to the fields, and collect the caterpillars as soon as they appear. The only question is, how the hand-picking is to be set about, without spending time unnecessarily. A person unacquainted with the habits of the creature would seek for it in vain in his fields. They lie in the day-time under stones, clods, or buried in the earth; these must therefore be carefully turned up, in search of the enemy. When they are changing their skins, they come out of their lurking-places, even in the day-time, and can easily be gathered. Immediately after sunset they come out in great numbers, and 44 c 517 'b I v I d FAR,-AIER'S HAND-BOOK. feed greedily on the young corn. At this time, therefore, the workl must be carried on vigorously, and even till late at night, with artificial light. TVhite-line Dart 3loth. - A moth injurious to buckwheat and autuLmn-sown grain. The caterpillar is upwards of an inch long, and of the thickness of a slender writing-quill. On the back it is dirty olive-green, with a mixture of yellow. The head is brown; the abdomen and feet are dirty-yellow. It lives in the day-time in the earth, coming out only at night. The remedies proposed are - hand-picking, applying a strong dressing of lime to the land in the spring, strewing the ground with ashes, rolling the fields with heavy rollers, and lastly, driving flocks of sheep over the field. Botys. - -A moth, the caterpillar of which is injurious to millet. It is destroyed as follows: -As soon as the millet is reaped and carried away, let the stubble be pulled up, and burnt in a heap, with the caterpillars in it. Cor l Moth. -A moth injurious to grain laid up in magazines. The perfect insect or moth measures, from the head to the tips of the wings, from six to seven lines. The body is brown, with a little white on the back; the head has a thick tuft of whitish hairs; eyes black; upper wings more or less white, with brownish and dusky dots, v-arying in form and size. The most decided and certain mark is a spot of the same color at the base, followed by an almost square spot on the outer border; behind this, in a slanting direction, runs a band-shaped spot almost through the whole breadth of the wings. Behind this are two dots on the anterior border, and just above the tips of the wings a larger brown spot. The posterior border is furnished with long brown and white mottled fringes. The under wings are smaller and shorter, brownish, with long fringes at the posterior edge. This insect appears as a moth in May, June, and July, in buildings where grain is stored; it rests in the day-time, and only flies about at night, attacking rye, oats, barley, and wheat. The remedies proposed are - to fill up the cracks and holes, sprinkle the floor with a mixture of strong white-wirne vinegar and salt before laying up the corn, sweeping the floor and walls thoroughly before stowage, and, if the moth has laid her e,gs on the grain, common salt may be mixed with the grain. Other remedies are recommended, such as garlic, tobacco, wormwood, hemp, hops, elder-flowers, turpentine, and brimstone. Corn -l Yeil.-A small insect, linear-shape, narrow rostrum, tlc elytra marked by impressed lines of dots. The female deposits her e,ggs upon corn in granaries, and the young larva at once burrows into the grain, of which it eats the interior. Various plans have been suggested for its destruction perfect ventilation and a constant shifting of the grain are great preservatives. H;ssian Fiy. - A- small midge, injurious to wheat. Its body is covered with short black hairs; the thorax is much arched, smooth, and shiling; 518 NOXIOUS INSECTS. the scutellum projecting, rounded posteriorly; the breast sometimes golden, yellow; the abdomen brownish; the wings blackish; the golden-yellow of thie base is sometimes continued to the veins, where it appears lighter, and disappears by degrees about the middle. The halteres are yellowish-white; Fig. 308. the legs golden-yellow at the base of the thigh. The female has a black streak on the abdomen. The larva is spindle-shaped, and whitish; the posterior end suddenly diminished; the head bent inwards, and transparent above. A short line is remarked within, which is the intestinal canal. It is dirty white below; in younger specimens this coloring appears like nine spots on each side, and has a row of still smaller spots in the middle. When the larvae are fully grown, they unite in regular segments round the wheat; they are then provided with very small hooks or notches towards the head. Their length is three twentieths of an inch, and their breadth one twentieth. The perfect insect appears in June, and perhaps later; the female lays from one to eight eggs, in the autumn. The only practicable mode of destroying this insect is to wait till the grain is reaped, and then burn the stubble in which the pupae lie concealed. If it should be impossible to do this, sow the fields next year with any other grain than wheat; better, perhaps, not to sow lwheat anywhere near them, that the flies may not carry their eggs there. ;IUl7cat Iidge.- This is another small species of midge, injurious to wheat. When the wheat is in blossom, it is sometimes attacked by a small fly, of an orange-color, which lays its eggs in the middle of the blossom. When the eggs are hatched, the larvae prevent the fructification of the grains, probably by eating the pollen. The perfect insect slightly resembles the conmmon midge, btut is smaller. The body is orange-yellow; the wings clear and transparent, and hairy at the edges; the eyes are black; the antennae necklace-shaped(l, longer than the thorax, and the feet rather long. The smallness of this insect, both in its larva and perfect state, with the circumstance of the 519 I FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. destruction of the wheat when it is in blossom, allows of but little that can be effected by human aid. The safest and almost only certain means of Fig. 309. diminishing such an evil, for the next year, consists in not sowing wheat again on the same field, nor in its neighborhood. The larvae quit the wheat in August, and pass the winter in the ground. III. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CULINARY VEGETABLES. Spring Beetle or Stip-jack. -Gardeners remark, often to their great annoyance, that many newly-transplanted lettuces begin sudd,enly to wither and perish; this happens chiefly in spring and summer. If we seek for the cause, we find in the roots of the withering plants a worm, which is the larva of one of the Elateridae, which much resembles the meal-worm. It eats, by degrees, the root of the lettuce as far as the collar from which the leaves are developed. It is light yellow, from six to seven lines long, of the thickness of a pigeon's quill; its body is cylindrical, somewhat flatly compressed at the head, rather pointed behind, with strong, black, and shining jaws. The pupa or nymph is shorter than the larva, paler in color, and thicker. The beetle, which is developed fromi the pupa in fourteen days, is from four to five lines long, one and a half lines broad, and has the usual form of spring beetles; it is slightly curved; head and thorax dark-brown; wing-cases yellowish, striped, with dots; the feelers are slender, notclied, and yellowish-brown; the under side of the body also brownish. T'o get rid of this pest, pull up every plant that begins to wither, and kill the enemy within, or in the earth near the plant. Asp)aragus Beetle. -There are two kinds. One is blackish-green, the thorax red with two black dots, yellow wing-cases, the suture and three spots united to it on both sides black; and the other, called the Twelvespotted Leaf-beetle, is red, the wing-cases lighter, each having six black 520 I L NOXIOUS INSECTS. dots; the horns, eyes, breast, edge of the abdomen, tips of the thighs and palpi, black. The first-named is called the asparagus beetle. The larva is spindle-shaped, flat beneath, arched, fleshy, wrinkled, covered with single hairs, bordered at the sides, of an olive-color; the head and legs black. The only remedy is to pick off and kill both beetles and larva. Farth-flea Beetles. -This name is applied to several species of very small beetles, one of which is called the turnip-fly. They make great leaps, by means of their thick hind-legs; color generally shining-green, with a l)rown or yellowish hue. They attack cabbage, cauliflower, colewort, radish, cresses, flax, tobacco, hops, sainfoin, and summer and winter turnip)s. Shade, coolness, and rainy weather, are the surest protection of young plants from its attacks. The remedies are various. Pour boiling water on a handful of fresh or dry wormwood, and let it stand from twelve to twenty-four hours, to get cold; then put the plants that are to be planted out into the decoction, with their leaves downwards as far as the stem, so that their roots may not be wet, and then put into a cellar, or some cool place, and in six to teni hours afterwards, they may be planted without risk of attack. Young plants and seed-beds may also be sprinkled with this infusion. Plants may also be rescued, by applying road-dust after dew has fillen. These two modes of remedy are also applicable to field cultivation. AIole Cric/et, Churr Worm, Jarr WVorm, Eve Churr, or Earth Crab.This insect is very destructive to culinary vegetables, meadows, and cornfields. 1,7hen full-grown the mole cricket measures nearly two inches in length, and four lines in breadth. Its color is dark-brown; head oval, small and longish; two bristle-shaped and strong feelers; thorax covered with fine woolly hair; wings very broad and triangular, when expanded; aldomen soft; the two fore feet proportionally short, but broad and strong, adapted to dig in the earth. The surest and most efficacious remedy is to destroy the brood in June or July. First pour water into their holes, and then a few drops of any sort of oil; they leave their holes when they feel the water, and when touched by the oil, die immediately. Also, pits may be dug, two or three feet deep and a foot wide; after the frost, all the mole crickets will collect in these for shelter, when they may be destroyed in heaps. Pain/tel Fi,eld Bt,'. - A dangerous enemy to the cabbage tribe, particularly in dry sutmmers, since in its larva, as well as in its perfect state, it pierces the leaves, till it makes them like a sieve. The p)erfect insect is about one fourth of an inch long, and only a little less broad, and rather flat. Its ground-color is red or white, its upper side spotted with dark-green head dark-green, bordered at the sides with red or white before the eyes. On the wing-covers, or upper wings, the dark color prevails; they are bordered with red or white as far as the terminal third part; this border is 44* 521 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. wavy, and has a green spot. The under side is reddish or whitish the turned-up edge of the abdomen is marked with dark-green spots, also, on both sides. The larva has nearly the same markings, and only differs from the perfect insect by its want of wings. The only way to destroy these insects is to pick them off and kill them. Flaet Lice (Aphis). - These are especial enemies to various sorts of culinary vegetables. They, indeed. spare no plant; but they p)refer juicy vegetables, - the different sorts of the cabbag(e tribe, peas, and beanls. Ley and vapor of tobacco are recommended as the best means of killing the aphides, but these remedies cannot well be applied to culinary vegetables. Large Cabbage White Butterfly.- The wings are white; upper wings with broad black tips, and the female has two black spots on the middle. The under side of the under wings is light-yellow. Appears fronm May to October. The caterpillar is bluish-green, thinly-haired, sl)rinkled with black dots, having a yellow stripe on the back, and some onl the sides. Found on all sorts of cabbages, horse-radish, radishes, mustard, and similar plants, as well as on water-cresses. The pups are yellowisli-green, with black dots, with a point on the head, and five on the back. The best way to destroy them is picking off and killing the caterpillars, as wvell as the pupae, excepting those which have a brown appearance, as these are full of the larvae of ichlineumons, and other allied parasites, which are the great scourge of these caterpillars. Sinall I.Vhite Bttterfly. - This resembles the former insect, but is smaller, and the black tint at the points of the upper wings is fainter, and not visible on the outer e(ldge. The caterpillar is of a dull green, with very fine hairs, yellow stripe on the back, and yellow spots on the sides, on a pale ground. In some years, it is very injurious to the cabbage and turnip plants. The pupa is yellowvish, or greenish-gray, with three yellow stripes. Destroyed in the same manner as the foregoing insect. Grcen-rcilze(l Tl7lite Butt(rf7y. - The wings are white, with the tips of the upper ones black. The male has one black spot, the female two or three. The veins on the outer edge of the female's under Nwiniis are black. The under wirrns are yelloiw on the under side, with greenish-powdered veins. It flies abotut in April and July, and is of the size of the preceding. The caterpillar, which lives on the leaves of cabbages and turnips, is finelyhaired, of a fitint or brownish green, lighter at the sides, with reddishyellow spiracles, small white warts, and black puncturcs. The pupa is yellowishl-green, with points on the head, and its back is rather lighter than the foregoing species. Destroyed by the same means as the two preceding species. Gamma AIoth. -The caterpillar of this moth is so plentiful in some 522 NOXIOUS INSECTS. years that it does great damage to vegetables, peas, and various sorts of fodder-herbage. The ground-color of this moth is light, and dark-gray, mixed with rust-color. The head and collar are of browni{sh-gray, edged with light-gray lines, as well as the crested back and shoulders. The abdomen is yellowish-gray, with elevated brown tufts of hair. The upper wings are marbled, and have a metallic lustre; the inner edge is wavy, and toothed near the fringes. The notched cross-lines are silvery; towards the inner border is a shining mark, resembling the Greek letter gamma; the under wings are yellowish-brown at the base above the fringes, with black bands. The blackish-brown pupa is inclosed in a white cocoon. The caterpillar is green, beset with single hairs, has twelve feet, and a brownishgreen head. On the back are four very small yellowish or whitish lines; the feet have a yellow stripe. The spiracles are blackishl-green. These caterpillars are found from spring to autumn, in a variety of generations. The only possible means of destroying them is by shaking them off and hand-picking. Cabbage 3loth. - The caterpillar of the cabbage moth is a great enemy to different sorts of culinary vegetables. The moth is of middling size, one inch and a half broad, when the wings are extended; its head, collar, and -ig. 310. back, are blackish-gray, intermixed with whitish and yellowish hairs. TI e back has a thick double crest; the abdomen is dark ash-gray, the upper half beset with black tufts in the middle. The upper wings are gray, with a mixture of yellow and white; the under wings are light gray, with dark veins, and central spots, - blackish towards the outer edge. The moth appears in MIay and June, sits in the day-time, and flies only at night. The 523 L. FARMIIER'S HAND-BOOK. caterpillar is green, more or less covered with gray or black; it has a dark stripe on the back, on which there is a pale, indistinct line. Above, it is sometimes furnished with dark or pale spots, placed lengthwise. At the sides is a dirty-yellow stripe, which becomes reddish above; close above this spot are two white spiracles, surrounded with black, each in a smanll black spot. When this caterpillar is numerous, it does considerable damage to cabbages, lettuces, &c., by eating out the heart. It appears in July, August and September. To look for them and kill them is a troublesome, but the only sure way of getting rid of them. IVhite Lize Browtn-eyed 3Ioth. -The caterpillar of this moth sometimes does a great deal of damage to different sorts of culinary plants, in the same manner as the moth last described. The moth is dark rusty brown; the feelers have white scales; abdomen ash-gray, with brown tuffs; feet grayish-browvn, yellow-ringed below; the fore wings have no connected crosslines; the round middle spot is surrounded with white; the uinder wings are ochre-yellow, or dirty-white, with darker shades towards the whitish fringes. The reddish or yellowish brown caterpillar has on the back, and onl each side, a dark stripe, and a whitish one nearly over the feet; the under side and feet are light-brown; it is dotted with black between the dark stripes. The pupa is shining reddish-brown, and remains in the earth during winter. Destroyed only by hand-picking. Cabbage-g:arden Pebble Mloth. - Of the family Pyralide, a small group of moths, this species only deserves to be mentioned, as its caterpillar sometimes greatly injures several sorts of vegetables. The head, back, and upper wings of the moth, are hazel-brown, and brownish-gold; the feelers li,ghtbrown; the abdomen and under wings whitish. The first brood flies in May, and the second in August. The caterpillar is found in May and June, and the second generation in the fall. It has a light-brown head, and a yellowish-green body, with blackish stripes running lengthwise, and blackish dots, having fine white lines between. Its length is about two thirds of an inch. Destroy by shaking them off and burying immediately, or killing. Carrot Ioth. - The caterpillar of this small moth is a great enemy of carrots. The moth has a head and back reddish-brown, with single black atoms; abdomen and feet ash-gray, the former with white incisions; the upper wings are of a reddish-brown color; there are also black streaks and white atoms, and fringes which surround an indistinct row of dots; the under wings are of ash-gray, lightest nearer the base, with yellowish fringes; on the under side, the upper wings are dark, the under wings lightgray. The caterpillar lives on carrots, and eats the flower and seeds. It is greenish-gray, inclining to yellow, strewed with black tubercles, emitting hairs; the head and upper side of the thorax are brown. It attains the 524 NOXIOUS INSECTS. length of half an inch. The means of its destruction are simply hand-picking. Roesel's Tinea. -The little caterpillars of this moth sometimes do sensible injury to the choicest vegetables. The caterpillars are yellowish-green lhead shining blackish-brown. Look for them, and kill them. Onion Fly. - The larva or maggot of a small fly, damaging the various sorts of onions. The perfect insect or fly is entirely of an ash-gray color in the female, or with black stripes on the back of the male, the wings clear like glass, with yellowish-brown veins. In the figure, a is the grub or larva; b, magnified; c, pauparium, within which is the real pupa; d, Fig. 311. magnified; e, perfect insect magnified; the cross-lines showing the natural size. The fly lays her eggs on the leaves of the onion, close to the earth; the newly-hatched maggot bores through the first leaf, and then descends between the leaves into the onion to its base, when it entirely destroys the bulb, which soon becomes rotten. To destroy them, strew ashes and pounded charcoal; also remove all the infested onions early out of the beds, before the flies are developed; and these onions are easily known by their outward leaves turning yellow. Cabbage Fly.- This is another small fly, which attacks the cabbage. The perfect insect is ash-gray; the thorax has three indistinct black streaks on the back; the wings are clear, like glass; the abdomen is linear, with black stripes on the back of the male, or entirely ash-gray on the female; the length is three lines. The larva much resembles that of the onion fly, but is thicker. The only way of diminishing this destructive fly is to pull up, and carry away betimes, the plants attacked by the larvae, which may be known by their dull lead-color, and the withering of their leaves in the sunshine. Lettuce Fly. -This fly is rather smaller than the former; it is blackish 525 d FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. brown; the under part and sides of the segments of the abdomen varying gray; length nearly one fourth of an inch. It flies in July. The larva resembles the former, but is smaller and smoother, and its color varies more into yellow. It destroys lettuce-seeds, and other salad plants. It is almost impossible to get rid of these insects. \Tegro Fly.- This insect, in its perfect state, is slightly haired, shining black, rather of a metallic-green; head reddish-yellow; legs light-yellow balancers white; wiings clear, like glass; one sixth of an inch long. The larva lives in the carrot, particularly near the extremity of the main root. The carrots die off by degrees, or at least lose their sweet taste, and become rusty, by the passages of the maggots. The larva of the carrot fly is cylillndrical, pointed anteriorly, like parchment, shiiiing, smooth, bare, pale-yellow. The only way to diminish their number is to pull up the sickly infested carrots, known by their yellow outer leaves and early withering, and to destroy the insects contained in them, before they change into pupae. IV. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, SHRUBS, AND VINES. BlacAk-veined TVhiteButterfly, or Hawthorn Pontia.- This is a four-winged insect, which only flies by day, seeks its necessary food, and fulfils the work of propagation. It is large, wholly white, excepting that the ribs or veins Fig. 312. of the wings, and a short oblique stripe from the second to the third vein of the upper wings, are black, which distinguishes it from the cabbage butterfly. Eags shining, yellow, cylindrical; the newly-hatched caterpillars are dirty-yellow, and covered with hair: the head is black, and there is a black ting round the neck, and a brownish stripe on both sides. The first warm 526 5~ NOXIOUS INSECTS. sunshine in spring, which causes the sap to flow, entices the caterpillars to leave their nest; and as the blossom-buds begin to shoot, they are attacked and consumed, as are also the leaf-buds. At the second change of their skin, the caterpillars acquire two rows of yellow spots down the back, close to and between which extends a black line; the back is covered with yellow and white hairs, and from the black stripes on the sides extend oblique ash-gray stripes, parallel to each other, to the upper side of the body. There is also a third change, when the caterpillars have a black stripe in the middle of the back, which extends to the posterior part of the body; the yellow dots, to which the yellow hairs were attached, are not so perceptible, and the white hairs become more thinly scattered. The pupa is whitishyellow, beset with black dots and stripes. At the beginning of June, the butterfly appears and propagates its species. The best way of destroying these caterpillars on low fruit-trees is by seeking out the eggs or young caterpillars, on the branches, and killing them. The hawthorn butterfly prefers the lower apple-tree, to lay her eggs on; and they may be seen on the leaf, conspicuous from their shining yellow color, while the caterpillars are betrayed by their web, and the adjacent gnawed leaves. When there are no low trees, the high ones will be infested; and in this case, the mode of destruction must be delayed till the leaves have fallen off, when the nests of the caterpillars will become visible. Lastly, a person provided with a buttterfly-net can take the insect on the blossoms of plants and shrubs, on which it delights to sit in June, and suck the honey. Yellowi-tail(d MAoth. -This is a destructive insect in the orchard, the larvae of the moth often infesting fruit-trees to such a degree that not a leaf or fruit remains uninjured. It flies about at night, and in the day-time sits quietly on a leaf, or on a wall, and suiers itself to be caught in the hand. The posterior part of the body is covered with a round mass of golden yellow hair; its fore wiigs are dazzling whlite, as is also the greater part of its lbody, only the lrin cipal vein of the fore wing of the male is brownii on its under sid(e, and sometimnes has a few black dots on its wines. The male has a smaller albdomen, a smaller tuft of hair on the tail, and strolgllyteethed feelers or horns. The mnoth appears in June, and pro)paoates, the eggs being lain on the under side of the leaf, covered with hair. Thle caterpillars are usutally hatched in July; they are dirty-yellow, b)lack-headed, with a blackl ring round the neck, thickly-haired, and four rows of blackiish dots on the back. They feedi on the memibrane of the leaf. They cihaunge their skins in AugIust cease ieeding in September, (and b(coItie )liniitiinl)ed in November, passi;n the winter if their nest. l( foire the lbuds oin the trees have begnit to burst in sspring, some. of the caterpillars conme out of their nests, and eat the unfolded leav.s; at the end of April, they change their 527 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. skins for the second time, and again in May, when they become reddish brown, marlked on both sides with white spots, as far as the extremity of the body, which is thickly set with hair along the back; they now disperse over the different fruit-trees in the garden. To destroy them, the means are the destruction of the eggs, killing the caterpillars soon after their birth; collect the pupe at a later period, pursue the moth in July and August, take their nests from the trees in autumn and spring, and seek out and destroy the half-grown caterpillars in their new webs in May. Lacley, or Barred Tree Lackey Moth.- The caterpillar of this moth attacks all kinds of trees. The perfect insect is rarely seen, as it only flies at night, and conceals itself during the day. This moth is of the middle size; thle male, which is usually smaller than the female, measures, with spread wings, from tip to tip, from one to one and a fourth inches. The ground color of the whole insect is either light-yellow, or reddish-yellow ochre; the upper wings have always a darker band in the middle, which is bordered by two lighter cross-lines; the fringes are whitish, and brown-spotted; the under wings are always of a uniform color, light-yellow or brownish; the horns are strongly teethed in the male, which has also a thinner abdomen. This moth usually appears in July. In spring, the caterpillars are devel oped about the first of May, and they live in society till the third molting. They are usually met with early in the morning, or on rainy days, at the forks of the twigs in a large nest, closely spun over with a silky substance and, when disturbed, they let themselves down by threads to the ground, and disperse. In the month of June, the caterpillar is fully grown; it is often an inch in length, soft, thinly-haired, striped with blue, red, and yellow, hence its fanciful name, - with a white line down the back; the head is blutish-gray, marked with two black spots. To get rid of this insect, crush the whole colony, in May, with a stick, or sweep them down into a pot and destroy themn. From the middle of June, and during July, search should be made for their cocoons, which will be found either fastened between two leaves, on trees or shrubs, or lying in the roofs of houses, on the tops of walls, or in hedges -tread on these cocoons. On low fruit-trees, the rings of eggs may be discovered, after some practice, when the leaves have fallen off; and, when found, they must be removed from the tree and burnt. Gypsy Mloth. -Early in spring, before the leaves of the fruit-trees are fully out, the little caterpillars are hatched, and spread over the bursting buds; the head is large yellow spotted; six pair of red (lots on the hinder part of the back; tufts of hair on each side of the body, and single hairs oii the back. After changing their skin, a pair of blue tubercles appear on tlhe fore part of the baclk,- that is, on each of the first four figments of the body, by which they may be identified at once. Towards the end of June, the 529 NOXIOUS INSECTS. caterpillars form their cocoons on the fruit-trees; the moth appears iii August; the males are dark-brown, and their fore wings have three or four undulating blackish stripes; the females are whitish-gray, their fore w-ings traversed by, hrownish stripes. The moth lays her eggs in various places in the fall. To get rid of these insects, first find out the egg masses, and crush them. As they are large, and usually in open places, we cannot avoid see ing them, if we look carefully, which should be done in autumn, or early in sprinc, )efore the caterpillars are hatched. Goat 3Iioth. - The caterpillar of this moth lives on the wood, instead of the foliage of the trees, thus materially injuring it. It is very large, smooth and shining, with here and there single hairs. It is dark-red on the back, also on the spiracles situated at both sides the sides and lower part of the body are fleshl-colored; the head is black, the first segment also marked with black above. It discharges a corrosive fluid at its persecutors, and also diffuses an extremely offensive smell. After remaining more than two years in the larva state, and casting its skin eight times, the caterpillar becomes of a light ochre-yellow hue shortly before pupation, which usually takes place in spring. The abdomen of the pupa is yellow, and the seg ments are deeply indented, and capable of much extension. The cocoon is situated immediately within the opening of the tree, so that the pupa, when matured, can press itself half out of the hole, when'the shell bursts, and the moth comes forth usually in June or July. It is difficult to apply any rem edies. WVhen the existence of one of these creatures in a trunk is ascer tained, by the extruded excrement, relief comes too late for the tree, even if the caterpillar may be killed; still, the caterpillar should be reached, if possible, by enlarging the opening with a garden-knife, or endeavor to kill it by thrusting a piece of pointed wire up the hole of the tree. Wlood Leopard 3Ioth. - This insect injures the trunks of trees in the same maunner as the foregoing, to which it perfectly assimilates in its habits, and is destroyed by the same means. It is smaller, however; is hatched in August, molts in September, and is full-grown the next June. From its first existence till its transformation, it is yellow, with raised, shiny blackli dots, on each of which there is a fine short hair; there are two black spots Oil the head. The moth appears in August; its ground-color is white. with scattered steel-blue dots; it measures, with spread wings, two inches and a half. Figure-of-S MAoth. - This insect feeds on the foliage of fruit-trees. In June, when almost full-grown, this caterpillar measures nearly two inches it is very juicy, of a yellowish-green color, with black tubercles; it has a very small bluish head, with two black round spots on it. When young, it is lighter, and is often nearly white on the back; but when old, becomes of 45 K2 5 -, FARAIER S HAND-BOOK. a bluish color. The pupa is small, cylindrical, reddishl-brown, dull, in some degree powdered with blue; the moth appears in October, or in tile tollowinug spring. The perfect insect or moth measures, with spreadi .wings, from tip to tip, about one arid three fotrthls inches. The whitishyellow spot in the middle of the fore wings, which is divided by three incisions at the sides, and is situatedI between! two blackishl, iundulated crossiines, has been sometimes compared to the figure 8. A white wavy line t)rms a small white spot behind the second stripe at the anal angle; the toothed external edge has ash-gray, shiniiig fringes, bounded with a line the under wings, which are ash-gray, have a dull middlle spot, and an indistinct band, with a small, black, streaky spot at the anal angle the color of the feelers, which are toothed in the male, and filiform in the female, is rusty-brown; the thorax above is the same color as the fore wings, and the abdomen, with the extremity of the body,- which in the male has a tuft of hlair, and inr the female is cylindrical and downy, - is of the same color as the hinder wings. To destroy or diminish these insects, hand-pick them as soon as they appear. This is best done in rainy weather, when they take refuge under the branches aud on dry places of the stem. Their presence can be detected by their rather elevated oval form, and they may bo destroyed by the garden-lnifet, or a piece of wood. Lunar Spotted PFition Aroth. - The caterpillars of this moth are rather thick and fleshy, light-greeni, with a whitish stripe along the back, and two darker lines along the sides; on the segmnents are wlitisli-yellow warts, fuirnished with fine, small hairs; over the feet iul along the first three segments runs a yellow stripe, bordered with leliek. As soon as the fruittrees are in leaf, this insect is on hind. They are fully grown about the first of June, and,,l one p)ips of a blue, trostei(l:lt ar;lee, on the trees themselves. Il a I;\w weeks the moth comes out; thle iore-wiings are brownishl-redl, iviti several undulating dark-brown triuslers lines, and also have a whitish semi-circlar spot, nearly at the tip; ne tr to this, almost at the outer edge, is a rather large black spot; the under wings are light-gray, rather darker towarIs the fringes, which are yellow. To get rid of the insect, throw them down, by shaking the branches. Thie moths also usially fall fiom the tree, if the branches are struckl in June all July. ~Vi;ttlc iSoth. - The green-looped ceaterpillr iro(ltruced by this moth is a ruinous insect to firuit-trees. It appiears late it the autumn, and iroce,ls from a lighlt-brown pupa, wlich lies from Junie to the eril( of Oetol)ber, eitlecr a few inches under the earth, or undler stories an( clods. The mal,n is winged,- tlie female is almost wingless; tlhe male is of a yellowishli-gri-y, with i)ale-gray wings, traversed with delicate, darkisli cross-linres; the female has a much thicker body, of an ash-gray color. It is a nocturnal 530 NOXIOUS INSECTS. insect; the eggs are laid singly, at the top of the tree, and are small and greenish. The caterpillars are hatched in spring, are at first gray, and Fig. 313. "/ 'I''j' then light-greenl; black head, without ventral feet. They devour the leaves, buds, and fruit, and occasionally the trees do not' recover for some time. The winter moths do not all appear in autumn, but many of them lay their ecggs on the trees in the following spring. To prevent their attacks, it is recommendedl to surround the base of the stem with a wooden frame, or box, and daub it on the outside with tar; others recommend the placing of a laver ofJ)ird-liime around the trunk of the tree, which is said to have equal efTect, and does not require daily renewing. Pale Brind7lel Beau?/ly Aloth.- It appears very early on the fruit-trees, generally on the pear. The male is rather large; the fore-wings are greenish-gray, (e-o.re(l with fine brownish (lots, and traversed by interrupted gray cross-stripts, interspersed with whitish sp)ots b)twe(eii; the hind"wiiis are more or less white, and through the middle of them runs a b)rownish wasvy cross-stripe; before the fringes is another gray, dark stripe; the body of the male is also grayish-green, with long hairs; the female is without wings, smnall, coffee-brown, with angular tufts of fine hair, and li,)ng feet, annulate(l with white and brown. In March, the female deposji; her eg.gs on a small side-twig, in rows downwards, covering them with long gray hairs. As soon as the leaves begin to unfold on the twigs, the young caterpillars are hatched. 531 I, z FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. Lime Looper, o0 M3ottled Umbre Moth.- Takes its name from the lime. tree, on which it likes to feed, as also on fruit-trees. This caterpillar, when full-grown, is of a reddish color, and has a yellow stripe on each side. It goes into the earth ill Mlay or June, and is transformed into a brownish-red pupa. The moth comes out of the earth in the beginning of November, and lays her eggs on a fruit-tree. The male is as large again as that of the winter moth; its broad fore wings are of a reddish-yellow, covered with blackish dots; the under wings are dirty-white, dotted with hrown, and in the middle of the wings is a black dot. The female has no wings, is much larger than that of the winter moth; the head and body are whitish, covered with black streaks and dots, and the feet annulated with yellow and black. To guard against its ravages, the same contrivance as for the winter moth is to be resorted to, or strike the branches of the tree with a long pole in May, to throw down the caterpillars. Smnall Ermine Moth.- This is a small, nocturnal, four-winged insect the feet, feelers, abdomen, and fore wings, are white, - the latter covere(l with about twenty black dots; the under wings are blackish. The female lays her eggs, at the end of June or first of July, near a blossom-bud, or a leaf-bud. The caterpillars are hatched the same autumn, and as soon the iext spring as the leaves of the apple-trees begin to be formed, these caterI)illars take possession of them. The caterpillars mature about the middle of June, when they are dirty-yellow, or lead-color, with a black head; and on the side of each abdominal segment is a longish black spot, and near it small dots, each furnished with a hair. In June the mothis are found on the fruit-trees. They may be taken from the tree by the hand, and destroyed. Codln,g Mloth.- A small, reddish-white grub, met with in early apples or pears. The fore wings have a light-gray ground, on which are scattered many delicate streaks of a dark hue, intermixed with others that are broad and cup-shaped. On the posterior border of the fore wings is a large reddish-brown spot, surrounded by a golden mark in the form of a horse-shoe. The hind wings are of a sparkling brownish-red, inclining to yellow, and are surrounded on the outer border by a broad, light fringe. The thorax and abdomen are of yellow and brownish-gray. This moth is to be seen inII the evening, in May, on the apple and pear trees, busily depositing its eggs, either on the calyx, or in the hollow part of the fruit at the stalkl end. In favorable weather, the little grubs are hatched in a few days, so that in May apples and pears are infested by them. At first the grub is white, with a black head and collar, and black, slanting double dots, which run in four rows from the head to the abdomen; it afterwards becomes more of a flesh-color, the head and collar turning brown, the dots gray and indistinct. 532 NOXIOUS INSECTS. The little grub immediately becomes a pupa in the web, and in a few days the moth comes out, which shortly pairs, and deposits eggs on the fruit. To diminish this insect in some degree, collect the fallen apples every day, and take them out of the garden; also remove all fruit from the tree which has grubs in it, and clear the trees of all loose bark, before the middle of April. Red Grub of the Plum. - Injurious to the early plums. It produces a moth; its fore wings are black, changing to a metallic hue in the sun; on the outer edge of the fore wings, and reaching up, there is the appearance of very fine silver dust; the black spot on the extreme point of the fore wings is surrounded with a white border, and has the appearance of an eye. This moth appears in June; the eggs are hatched when the weather becomes warm; in July, the grub penetrates deeply into the plum, and the outward wound, which it made in entering, soon heals up, and the plum becomes filled with the excrement of the caterpillar. There are few means in our power to destroy this insect. The tree must be shaken, and every plum which falls must be removed. Also remove the loose or split bark. Red Bud Caterpillar. - The moth which proceeds from this is somewhat larger than the one above described, has a white, broad, transverse band, studded with gray spots, extending through the middle of the fore wings from one edge to the other, and occupies more than a third part of their whole surface; the other parts of the fore legs are gray. It is found on the fruit-trees in May; lays its eggs in June, which hatch the next spring, and attack the buds. A honey-drop is not unfrequently seen on the bud, which, issuing from the wound made by the insect, is evidence that it will expand no more; should no sap, however, issue from the wound, the bud will continue to grow, with the little caterpillar in it. The caterpillar attains its full size in four or five weeks; it then spins itself a white cocoon, in which it changes to a light-brown pupa, and appears again in May as a moth. To diminish the number of this insect, we must search for the caterpillar on the fresh flow-er-buds, taking it out with a penknife; if we search for all the closely-adhering leaf and flower buds on the dwarf trees, during the b)lossoming season, and separate them, no bud-eating caterpillars will escape us. Plum-tree Tortrix. - This larva, when fully grown, is about one fourth of an inch long, of a dirty-green color, with a red head, and is the caterpillar of a very small moth. It has three pairs of feet, and five pairs of fleshy prolegs. The body is sprinkled with a few small hairs. The larva lurks, during nearly the whole year, under the bark of the trees; the perfect insect appears first in June, and again in harvest. The female lays hei 45* 533 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. eggs on the outer bark, from which the young caterpillars, by degrees, penetrate to the inner bark. To prevent the moth from laying, her eggs on the tree, or to prevent the caterpillars from entering the inner bark, wash the stem of the tree with a solution of lime, in June and September; also brush the tree, and when there is seen the smallest heap of red dust, introduce a needle, wire, or knife, into the opening, and destroy the larva. The moth, which, on account of its size and color, is difficult to be caught, is about half an inch long; fore wings dark-brown and yellow; silvery lines and yellow spots on the front edge; a dark-brown stain on the upper part of the wings, softened off at the edges, and surrounded by three red lines; the under hind waings are brown. The pupa is brown, and lies under the bark. Copper-colored TF7eeil. - Among those insects which feed on fruits is the copper-colored weevil, Curculio, or Rhynchites capreus. It is somewhat larger than the apple weevil, and its horny wing-cases are fiurrowed and metallic copper-colored. Its body and feet are of a somewhat deeper shade, and its proboscis and feelers are black. It appears in spring, on different fruit-trees; also called the plum-borer. When the plum is nearly the size of a large almond, the female weevil selects one in which to lay her eggs; and as soon as this is done, she cuts through the stalk with her proboscis, and by various cunning( means causes the plum to drop off. The egg does not remain long dormant in the plum or the ground, for, if the weather is favorable, the larva is hatched in a few days, and it then proceeds to eat the pulp of the plum, which it does in about six weeks; an(d, being now fully grown, it buries itself in the earth, and awaits its transforimnation in the next spring, when it appears as a beetle, and again begins the work of re,generation. It is very difficult to catch these beetles on the trees, but much easier to destroy their young. Pick up the fallen plums, and frequently shake the trees, from June to July. Ilowever strong the wind may he, it seldom throws down healthy, half-grown plums. Baccius, or Purple Apple lVeeril. - This beetle is of a purple and gold color, with dark blue proboscis, feelers, and tarsi. Its size is various. It is found early in spring on the apple-tree; begins the work of regeneration in midsummer, by boring a hole in the apple, laying an egg at the entrance, and pushing it inside with its proboscis, covering the hole in an ingrenious mannier; it proceeds in this way, depositing three or four eggs in (difitrent parts of one apple, and then leaves for another. The grub, whichl is Nxhitish, with a black head, is hatched in a few days, and at once be,gins to eat the apple, and makes a passage to the surface, to throw out its excrement or admit more air. The larva is fuill-grown in three or four weeks, and, like the larva of all weevils, has no feet. It leaves the apple when ready 534 NOXIOUS INSECTS. for transformation, conceals itself in the earth, and reaippears the next spring as the weevil. To lessen their number, pick up and remove the injured pierced apples; also shake the trees well in June and July, to throw (down the beetles and kill them. ,'cit-boring 117ccil. - This is a small beetle, entirely of a blue-steel, or a steel-green, shining, metallic color. As soon as the blossom and leaf buds begin to unfold, the beetle appears on the trees. The female selects a suitable part of the shoot, and bores to its middle; she then places herself over the entrance, lays an egg, pushes it into the proper place, and then, by piercing and cutting the shoot, causes it to fall; after this is done, she rests and feeds, and then bores another hole, if there be room, near the first, and lays another egg, and this operation is busily continued for some weeks. The egg in the shoot is hatched in about eight days, and a white grub, witih a black head, then appears, feeding' on the pith of the shoot; it is full-grown in a month, and then buries itself in the earth till spring, when it again appears as a steel-blue colored weevil; and when the tree begins to sprout, it gets upon it, and propagates its species. To diminish the number of these insects, look out for the full-grown insect, which is easily taken at the time of pairing, and is clearly seen by the splendid steel-b)lue color. Dexterity is necessary in capturing them. As we cannot, however, remove all of them, the shoots that lie on the ground, or which still hang on the tree, N-whiclt have been attacked, must be collected and destroyed. Many of these kinds of beetles, about half the size of the one mentioned, lay their eggs in the pith of the petiole instead of the shoot; the female puncturing it to the right and left of the part where the egg is deposited, causing the leaf to wither and fall off; the grub then takingr up its abode in the earth, and changing to a beetle. These leaves, which may be known by their rumpling up and becoming withered, ought to be taken off and destroyed as soon as possible. App)le IT;ce,i/. -A small beetle; wing-cases dark-brown, with whitishgray stripes its rostrum, eyes, and utinder part of abdomen, black. It apl)pears as soon as the sap is in motion in the trees in spring; and when the blossom-buds are pretty full of sap, the eggs are deposited, and the grubs are hatched, early or late in April, according to the weather. It bores a hole with its proboscis into the best blossom-buds; the female then fixes herself at the entrance, lays an egg, and pushes it into the hole; this operation is afterwards repeated on the same or on fresh buds; the grub or larva often comes out on the fifth or sixth day-, and commences to devour the innermost parts of the blossom; but the blossom-bud continues to swell, and the petals to open, till it is almost expanded; but all at once its growth ceases, because not merely the blossom, - that is, the stamens and pistils of 535 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. the flower, -but the receptacle itself on which they stand, is devourec. The petals, therefore, which remain partially closed, forming a kind of cap 31.. 314. wither by degrees, and at last appear scorched. To lessen the number of the apple weevils, remove all loose stones, and the leaves which fall in autumn; clear away the loose or broken bark; and on dwarf trees, take the pierced blossoms from the trees when the flower-cap begins to be formed, and before it appears burnt. Pear Weevil.- While the apple weevil contents itself with only single blossoms of the apple-trees, this one attacks blossoms, blossom-buds, and F'it. 315. leaf-buds, together. If a pear-tree is examined at thie time of blossoming, many buds will be seen to be brown at the points, and on nearer inspection, there will be found a dirty-white rugose maggot, with a dark.brown head, which in time is changed to a small weevil. Early in spring the female lays her eggs in the buds, causing them to become brown, and then to fall off when the insect is perfect. Should their attacks become too numerous, take off the pierced buds and burn them; also shake the trees early in spring, spreading a white cloth under the trees, so that the fallen insects may be seen; also bind strips of paper covered with tar around the stemns, to prevent the beetles ascending. Oblong iVcevil. - This is one of a class of small, destructive beetles. It has a short rostrum; its head, thorax, and body, are black; its feelers and feet reddish, and its elytra furrowed, and reddish-brown or blackish. It appears early in spring, and selects the best leaves of fruit-trees. They pair in spring; in June, the female lays her eggs in the earth, and the grub 536 L 6 NOXIOUS INSECTS. that is produced feeds on the roots of plants, passes the winter in the earth, and, in the spring, appears transformed into a beetle. They should be watched in the spring, and, with caution, may then be caught by the hand. Red-Jooted Beetle.- Another small insect, feeding on the leaves of fruittrees. It is shining black throughout, except its red feet; the tips of the feelers are black, and the basal part reddish. It appears generally inl May, and continues a long while. It may be caught by the hand. Ga(rden Bectle. -The 3Ielolontha (or Anisoplia) horticola is anothler leaf-eating beetle. It is larger than the oblong weevil; its wingi-cases are red-browii, but somewhat shining, and not reaching to the extrenme poilt of the body. Its body, thorax, and head, are dark-green; its feelers reddish, with a dark-green, strongly-cleft terminal club. They appear somewhat later than the one just mentioned. The female lays her eggs in the earth, and the larvae, when hatched, feed on the roots of plants, are transformed to beetles, and appear again as such in the spring. It feeds on the leaves of fruit-trees, and is particularly injurious to the apples, because it feeds on them when they are very small. When numerous, they often gnaw all the leaves till they resemble a sieve, thus checking the growth of the tree, and causing the fruit to fall. As these insects are tolerably large, they are easily seen, and can be removed with comparatively little difficulty. Apple-bark Beetle. - So called because it prefers the apple-tree in which to deposit its eggs. It is small; head and thorax black; the extremity of the palpi and feelers reddish; the longish wing-cases blackish, and somewhat hairy; the feet dilated, and of a reddish-yellow; the thighs black. When the female finds a suitable place, she bores a completely round hole in the tree, penetrating to the centre, the minute particles of wood thrown out serving as a sign of the insect's presence. At the end of the entrance, snow-white, longish eggs are laid, which are also the characteristics of the larvia that are hatched in MAIay. The larvae grow very rapidly. This variety of insect belongs to a tribe of beetles whose economy is well known, and in which the larvge of all the species whose habits have hitherto been noticed burrow beneath the bark, devour the soft inner barkli, or wood t)eneath the bark, and form distinct channels, diverging from the place where the eg_,s were deposited. The only way to destroy them is to cut off the branches intfested with their eggs; and should the trunk be also attacked, the whole tree had better be cut down and conveyed away. Sitl/ —bark Beetle. - This beetle is the Scolytus liaiemorrhois. It is black, the ends of the wing-cases generally reddish; the feet lIrownish-red, and the wing-cases furrowed lengthwise, and distinctly spotted. They make small holes in the stem, penetrating deep into the bark. It is evident, that when any tree is attacked by this insect in great numbers, it must 531 FARMIER'S HAND-BOOK. perish, because no tree can continue to grow with an injured bark and pierced sapwood. The insects cannot easily be eradicated, or, at least, diminished in numbers, but by removing the trees attacked by them. Colmiioit Ebio-dcstroying Scolytts- An insect allied to the apple-tree scolytos, committing ravages on fruit and other trees. The perfe(t insect or beetle is small, cylindrically formed, and tolerably firm to the touch. Tihe head and thorax form the principal part of its body. They are l)lack and shinting, finely and thickly dotted, the former covered with short yellowishlgray hairs thie feelers are light pitch-brown, ending in a knobl); the wingcases are, as it were, obliquely cut off behind, and at the l)as, near the thorax somewhat hollowed, - are marked in lines which are dotted, as are also the spaces between them, - their color is pitch-brown; the abdl(lomen, from the base to the apex, is as if slantingly lopped off, and, like the thorax, of a dark pitch-brown, thickly dotted; the legs are reddishl-brown, with the second joint tolerably broad. The larva is yellowish-wNhite, with a large shining head, a brown mouth, and a wvhitish-transparent swellinug between the head and the first ring on the throat. They confine themselves to the inner bark, destroying that part by degrees, and causing the tree, or some of its branches, to perish. The only remedy is to fell and carry off the trees attacked, and burn them, in the autumn, in winter, or in early spring, at the time when the insect is still in the larva state. Plumh Sct: —fty. -The green gage and round plums are sometimes attacked, -whlen hardly the size of a pea, causing them to fitll off, by a sawfly, which makes use of the pulp as food for her offspring. It rescembles the house-fly, but has four wings the head and body are black, and the feet reddishl-yellow. As soon as the blossom-buds begin to cxpand, the insect appears, pairs, and then begins to lay its eggs,- selecting the largest kinds of plums, - in the upper part of the green envelope of the blossom, catting in and piercing it through, and immediately introduces the egg into the deepest p)art. The e,g is small, and is hatched in a few days, appearing a delicate whitish larva, with a d(lark-brown head, six pairs of middle fe.et, three pairs of fore feet, and one pair of anal feet. It fixes itself in the centre of the pltm-stone, which it eats; in six weekls it is fully grown, and the plum then drops to the ground, the insect buries itself in the earth till the next spring, when it appears again as a perfect saw-fly, ascends the plumtree, and continues its species. To diminish the number of this insect, take the plums infested by the larva from the tree, and destroy them -these are known by a small black opening in the plum; -also pick up and convey away all the plums that fall. Pear Saiv-fly. -This insect attacks the pear-tree to lodge her young there. It measures, from the front of the head to the extreme point of the 53S NOXIOUS INSECTS. vody, ~ of an inch and one sixth in breadth. Its long feelers consist of numerous: joints, the basal part of which is very thick and long, the second much thinner and shorter, and the third the longest. The head is black, with a yellowv triangnular spot between the feelers; the breast and the lp)Per side of the thorax are quite black; the first abdominal segment likewise black, but surrounded with yellow the other segments are oriange(-yellow from the plates to the two edges, by which the upper part of tile abd(oillen is united to the belly; these plates are of a light-yellow color; thle wilgs look glossy, with a dark-brown mark round the edge, and an obscure kind of stripe, which extends across the whole breadth; the three pairs of feet are of an orang,e-color. It appears in May and June; the eggs are laid on the under side of tile leaf; and the caterpillar, which is hatched in a few days, is first whitish-yellow, but becomes darker every day. It has a black head, and just under the throat are two black dots; the other parts of the body are ochre-colored, and transparent, without hairs. In five weeks they are fullgrown; then leave the tree, bury themselves in the earth, and do not appear again as saw-flies, till the next spring, to propagate their species. Their webs must be removed from the trees. Peach or7 Poplar Saw-fly.- To those insects which only attack the leaves of fruit-trees, and use them as food, belongs the peach saw-fly. It is a little longrer than the common house-fly, is black, and only on the hinder part of the body, the back and the abdomen, are seen whitish square incisions, extending on both sides towards the middle; the feelers are simply jointed, the palpi and feet are yellow, the thighs black. They appear in April or May, laying their eggs firmly on a leaf, a white-greenish grub being produced in a few days, which eats the leaves; they are fullgrown in five or six weeks, are about the size of the green lopper of the winter moth, of a light-green color, with black heads, three pairs of fore and one pair of hind feet; they now retire into the ground, remaining there till spring, when they again appear as saw-flies to propagate their species. The larvae is very destructive, the trees looking as though covered with spiders' webs, instead of leaves. Examine the trees carefiully when the leaves are expanded, and the pale-yellow eggs, which usually lie together on the point or edge of the leaf, are easily seen. If these are destroyed as soon as they are laid, the leaves will not be consumed. The green larvae cannot escape notice, as they are always surrounded with a web, and rolled utip in the leaves they have gnawed. Pear Chicrmes. - These creatures beset the young shoots and bearing wood of dwarf pear-trees. It is an insect nearly allied to the plant-lice (aphidles). It has wlings, and is about the size of a large aphis. It has a broad head, terminating in front in two cones; but there is no opening fox 539 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. the mouth in the head, it being situated in the middle of the breast. The rostrum stands out perpendicularly, and ends in a point, from the latter Fig. 316. W_W~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 issuing the very long delicate tongue with which it sucks its food. The female is mostly crimson-colored; the male in some parts more shaded with black; the wings of both are membranous and snow-white. As soon as the buds appear, the winged chermes appears, and the eggs, which are longish and yellow, are deposited on the young leaves and blossoms, or on the newly-formed fruits and shoots. They are hatched in a few days, and resemble the apterous plant-lice, have six feet, and are dark-yellow. After a few days, they change their skins, and become darker; and when they have molted for the last time, and have attained full size, the body swells gradually and becomes cylindrical. They then leave their associates, and, before they lay aside their nymph-like covering, they fasten themselves firmly to a leaf; after a few minutes the skin splits on the upper part of the covering, and a winged insect proceeds from it, of a pleasant green color, red eyes, and snow-white wings. After a few days, this chermes has assumed the colors of the perfect insect; the head, collar, and thorax, are of an orangecolor, and only the abdomen retains its green hue. Late in the autumn it selects a place for protection from the cold, and in spring appears in its crimson black-shaded clothing, to begin the work of regeneration. To clear the trees from them, brush the young off with a stiff brush, and tread upon them; or, search out and take away the winged chermes from the dwarf pear-trees, as soon as the blossoms appear and the shoots begin to grow. Their red color and long wings discover them, and as they are not shly, they are easily caught by the hand. Apple Cl/ernes. -The eggs are laid in September, on different places of the twigs of an apple-tree, usually, however, in the furrows of the knots. In the formation of the body of the perfect insect, it exactly resembles the pear chermes; it is, however, different from that species in color, the eyes, instead of being red, are of a snowy-white, with a black pupil; the back of 540 NOXIOUS INSECTS. the thorax is of alight-green, the abdomen is marked with yellow rings, and the membranous wings with strongly-marked snow-white veins. The snout, which contains the setiform tongue, is situated, like that of all the species of chermes, in the middle of the breast. When very numerous, these insects cause considerable destruction; because, when all the single standing blossoms are completely covered with blisters, broken filaments, and small hairs, as is usually the case, and the flower-buds have been weakened by the previous sucking of these insects, no fruit can be produced. To secure the blossom and fruit of trees in pots, or dwarf trees, brush away the young chermes with a fine brush, when they appear, or at latest wh n the first changing of the skin takes place in April. It is also necessary to examiine the small apple-trees in spring, when the blossoms begill to appear, to ascertain if any aphides are upon them, and if so, to destroy them. Plant-louse, or Aphis.- There are particularly three species of aphides which are very destructive to fruit-trees, namely, the apple, plumr, and peach aphides, Aphis pyrii mali, Aphis pruni, and Aphis persicoe. The apple aphis is grass-green, the plum aphis light-green, and the peach aphis dark-green. The old females are known by dark-brown spots on their bodies. They all Fig. 317. rlit appear as soon as the fruit-trees leaf. The peach aphides appear the first, and are seen upon the trees when the buds are very young; they proceed from eggs which were laid on the shoots the previous autumn, and are only females without wings. No sooner do they see the light than they disperse over the leaves and shoots near them, and begin to suck out the sap. In twelve days they are fully formed, and at once produce young. The offspring of the second generation is, if the weather be warm, again ready to bring forth in ten days, at the latest. It often happens that sixteen generations in all are produced, - some of the progeny having wings, and others 46 541 FARMiER'S HAND-BOOK. none; the latter never leaving the tree unless driven by force, and the formel pairiing and producing their young wherever it may suit them. In Sep tember, males and females are produced from the last generation; the apple aphis producing males which do not obtain wings, and the peach aphis those that do. When these newly-born males and females are fuill-grown, pairing takes place. The females then no longer produce living young ones, but lay eggs, from which the imothers of the forthcoming generations proceed. They lay their eggs on the twig or shoot itself, and either all around it, like the apple aphis, or on or near the btuds, lilke the plum and peach aphides; the females, having thus provided f)r their future spring progeny, die off in the autumn; the eggs survive the winter. With regard to the apple aphis, there is no method more effective than destroying the eggs soon after they are laid. They may be seen late in the autumn, or early in spring, on the dwarf apple and pear trees, especially the young trees that have high steims, because the eggs lie exposed close together on the shoots, like grains of gunpowder, and yield a green juice, if pressed. We should not, however, press them, but the shoots should be washed over with liquid loam, garden earth, or whitewash, which will kill the eggs. With regard to the plum and peach aphides, we must wait till they are hatched and sitting on the leaves or blossom-buds, when, beingi of a dark bIrown, they are easily seen. WVhen the peach-trees becin to put out their l(ay-es, examine them thorotigl-ly on account of the aphid(les, becauese, at a later period, when they are numerous, the trees cannot easilv be ficed from them. Prune off the shoots infested by the aplhides, and brushl the tree, carf'uilly examining every tree in June, July, and August, because the third and followinl generations bring many into the world, that soon obtain wings and disperse themselves. .Snall aInd Ledigc Pear Iiddes. - This species of mi(lge is very small; the feelers are cvlin(lrieal, finely-haired, and composed of sixtee jointsz with the two )basal-joiits thicker than the others; the abdomen is slen(ler, s.cev'n-ringed and finriely-haire(l; there is a kno)lbby two-jointed pair of fi)receps o.l he extreme point of the body of the male, and the same part of the female is pointed; the wiligs lie in a parallel direction; the feet are long, tlhin, and finelyhaire(d. According to some, it is a species belonging to the Lsclles,iara; others call it Mlo/obrus. The small pear midge lays her eggs in the blossoms when they are still closed. The large pear midge, fimale, is little more than one twelfth of an inch long, and half as thick; the male is more sle(nder, and shorter. The feelers are blackish, and not so long as the body; tli( head is blackl an(l shininig, as is also the thorax; the proboscis as.h-gray; the aibdomnen of the,!ale a deep black, - that of tli femnale browner, with 1,lek riles; and the anal point is quite black; the feet are ash-gray, the tarsi and wings black. 542 NOXIOUS INSECTS. The pears infested by these insects will, on being opened, be found with the core eaten out and empty, or half rotten, causing the fruit to fall to the ground, while some wvill be found but little decayed, thoug,h containing several yellowish larva, one twelfth of an inch long, and a third as thick, with ten segments without feet; and each having a pointed hea(, on which two bl)ack spots stand close together. Blacl; Gall -idge.- There are a number of species of this insect. The thorax is black, varying to ash-gray backwards, with black lines on the back; thle scutellum is grayish; the abdomen blackish, with yellow incisions; the feet are of a pale-gray, and the feelers are blackish-brown. They are found to lay their eggs in the blossom of the pear-tree, as soon as the buds are so far developed that in the single blossoms a petal is seen between the seg ments of the calyx. It fixes itself almost perpendicularly in the middle of a single blossom, and, piercing the petal through, the eggs are laid on the anther of the still-closed blossom. The etgs are hatched in a few days, and the small larva bore into the blossom, in or near the stem of the calyx. When they have consumed the pulp of the small fruit, they are fill-grown, and then they leave the tree, to bury themselves in the ground, or else remain in the core till the pear falls to the ground. They issue from the earth in sprina, to propagate their species. Parado rica?l Pcer Platygaster.- This is a small insect, said to have the male organs of generation on the under side of the thorax, and those of the female at the extremity of the horn arising from the base of the abdomen, and curved over the head. As it is generally thought to be simply parasitical upon other insects, we shall not describe it further. R/l,oly/i/ecs ( Cerclio) Betilcti.- Rhlynchit.es Bacchus, Sch., has hitherto been contsidecrel as the peculiar enemy of the vine; it is, however. never found on'in,s. l,t only on other kinds of fruit-trees, and is essentially distiti)shedl fidomr the Reh. Bctuilcti by its shining copper-color. The latter ilseet is -a stll w-eevil, of a metallic-green or steel-blue color. It is one third ofr ich la iC.l in(cluding the rostrum, - the latter being nearly a third of the whole lngth~ it is tolerably broad, and turned downwards. On the thorax of thI-e m tle, toN:ids the front on both sides, are obscreed short spines; the abdomeint is almcst quad(rangula r. The spines are wanting oni the thorax of the f male, aid her rostrum is sho)rter. The b)eetle appe,ars in spring, as soon as the trees are in full foliage, and begins its work of destruction in May. It males use of the leaf of the vine partly for a dwelling, and partly for the food of its yeotlng. When the female has selected a suitable leaf, she cuts the petiole with her rostrim almost half through, so that it ha.ngs dow)n. She then b!cgi',: to r(i'l the leaf toge(ther, generally alone, but sometimes assisted by tile uel. While this operation is going forward, she also 1lay= iu]r eggs; 543 FARMIER S HAND-BOOK. that is, she pierces the roll, lays an egg in the opening, and pushes it in with her rostrum in such a manner that it remains on the inner surface of the leaf. When she has thus introduced five or six eggs, between the different folds, she rolls the remaining part of the leaf entirely together, so that it is impossible to discover, from the outward appearance, in what manner the eggs were deposited. This beetle also finds the leaves of the pear-tree suitable for its purpose, rolling up the leaves of the leaf-buds. In a few days the eggs are hatched in the rolls, and a whitish small worm comes out of each egg, with black oblique stripes over the back, and a reddish head. In four or five weeks it is fully grown. In the mean time, the petiole and the roll have become so dry that they are easily torn off by a moderately high wind, and fall to the earth. If this does not take place till the wNorm is fillly grown, it leaves the partly-consumed roll, buries itself in the earth, and appears again in spring as a weevil. This beetle, therefore, is the real weevil of the vine, defoliating it, and preventing the grapes fromn ripening As it is tolerably large, it may easily be perceived, and may consequently be destroyed, particularly as it allows itself to be taken without flying away. When it is numerous in orchards, it should be taken off, and the leaf-rolls pulled off, and burnt or crushed. Vine Scale Insect. -This insect forms a longish, marbled-brown scale. In old age the scale becomes blackish-brown, hemispherical and wrinkled. The ecgs, which are laid under the body of the female, are covered with long white wool. They are found on vines, particularly in gardens. Their destruction is best effected by dry-brushing in autumn or spring Fly. 318. 544 NOXIOUS INSECTS. Vine Beetle. - It issues from the earth in spring when the vine has begun to shoot, creeps upon the branches, bites off the leaf and flower buds. The largest male specimens are little more than two thirds of an inch long, and half an inch broad, black and shining; head large; thorax broad; abdomen short; legs rather strong. To protect the vine, the only way is to collect and kill the beetle, which carries on its evil practices in open day, and is discernible on account of its form and size. Vine Saw-fly. -The saw-fly of the vine is of a jet-black color, except the upper side of the thorax, which is red, and the fore legs and under side of the other legs, which are pale-yellow or whitish. The wings are semi transparent, smoky-color, with dark-brown veins. The body of the female is one fourth of an inch in length; that of the male is somewhat shorter. These flies rise from the ground in the spring, and lay their eggs on the lower side of the terminal leaves of the vine. In the month of July the false caterpillars, hatched from these eggs, may be seen on the leaves, it little swarms. Beginning at the edge, they eat the whole of the leaf to the stalk, and thus proceed from leaf to leaf, till they have grown to their full size. They then average five eighths of an inch in length; have twenty-two legs; the head and the tip of the tail are black; the body, above, is light green, paler before and behind,- the lower side of the body is yellowish. As a remedy, it is recommended to strew air-slacked lime upon them, and also upon the ground under the vines. Canter Tform. -This insect is most abundant on apple and elm trees: but cherry, plum, and lime trees, as well as some others, and many shrubs, suffer from them. The leaves first attacked will be found pierced with small holes; these become larger and more irregular when the worms increase in size, and, at last, the latter eat nearly all the pulpy parts of the leaves. There is a great difference of color even among the same species, of the same age and size. When very young, they have two minute warts on the top of the last ring; and they are then generally of a blackish or dusky-brown color, with a yellowish stripe on each side of the body; there are two whitish bands across the head, and the belly is also whitish. When fully grown, they become ash-colored on the back, and black on the sides, below which the pale-yellowish line remains. Some are found of a dull greenish-yellow, and others of a clay-color, with slender blackish lines on the sides, and small black spots on the back. When not eating, they remain stretched out at full length, and resting on their fore and hind legs, beneath the leaves. They leave off eating when about four weeks old, and begin to quit the trees. After reaching the ground, they immediately burrow in the earth, to the depth of from two to six inches, and they are there transformed. To prevent the ravages of this worm, one method is to bar the ascent of the 46* L2 w FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. wingless female up the stem of the tree. This is done by taking two pretty wide pieces of board; plane them; make semi-circular notches in each, fitting them to the stem or body of the tree, and fasten them together securely at the ends. The crevices between the boards and the tree may be easily stopped with rags or tow; then smear the under side of the boards with tar. The tar, being defended from the direct rays of the sun, will hold its tenacity longer, and therefore need not be frequently renewed. The trees, in this way, will be less liable to be injured by the drippings of the tar, by leaving a margin of two or three inches on those parts of the boards which are next to the trees, to which no tar is applied. Another mode of intercepting the insect's path is to enclose the trees with collars, or circular slips of tin or zinc. And still another mode - though these are only three out of nearly a hundred that are practised -is, to dig around the trees, and lay the earth smooth; then take air-slacked lime, and strew an inch thick around the trees, to the extent of two or three feet from the roots; then tar the trees. Apple-tree Borer. - They are the larvae of a beetle called Saperda bivittala,- the two-striped or the brown and white striped Saperda. This beetle varies in length from a little more than one half to three fourths of an inch. It comes forth from the trunks of the trees, in its perfected state, early in June, making its escape in the night, during which time only it uses its ample wings in going from tree to tree in search of companions and food. The trees and shrubs principally attacked by this borer are the apple-tree, the quince, mountain-ash, hawthorn and other thorn-bushes. The larvt are fleshy whitish grubs, nearly cylindrical; the head is smnall, horny, and brown; the first ring is much larger than the others; the next two are very short, and, with the first, are covered with puncetures and minute hairs; the following rings, to the tenth i.iclusive, are each furnished, on the upper and under side, with two fleshy warts, close together; the eleventh anal twelfth rings are very short; no appearance of legs; the grubl) cuts a cylindrical passage through the b)arkli, and pushes its castings backwards out of the hole, from time to time, while it bores upwards into the wood. The larva state con tinues two or three years, during which the borer will be found to have penetrated eight or ten inches upwards in the trunk of the tree, its burrow at the end approaching to, and being covered only by, the bark. I-lere its transformation takes place. The pupa does not differ much from other pupa of beetles; but it has a transverse row of minute prickles on eachl of the rings of the back, and several at the tip of the abdomen. The final change occurs about the first of June, soon after which, the beetle gnaws through the bark that covers the end of its burrow, and comes out of its place of confinement 546 NOXIOUS INSECTS. in the night. Killing it by a wire thrust into the holes it las made, is one oif the oldest, safest and most successful methods. V'.'INS,ECTS INJURIOUS TO FLOWER-PI,ANTS. Eerlig. - This well-known insect, considered, without cause, as very dan ger-eus to mankinid, must find a place among those chiefly injurious to fruit and floweers. Its size varies according to its age II(1 sex. iWhen fully grown it measures almost an inch, incltdin, the force)-like appendage at the end of the abdomen; its breadth is one sixth of al inih. T}e bodylv is lightlbrown, free from hair; it has very short w i-as.s under which the wings lie concealed, folded both longitudinally and traisv(rs ly. It isusually under the bark of trees, in the hollow stemis of trees, in rioled(-up leav(S. s ld under stones. In orchards, it particularly injures the frtit )f trees hlie I are trained as espaliers, such as peaches and apricots, wlliehl are often entirely pierced through in warm weather. They also attack the other sorts of ifruits, particularly apples and pears. In flower-gardens tlih,y destroy carnations, pinks, and dahlias, in particular. The only certain method of destroying earwigs is by catching them, which is best effected by hlollow tubes, laid here and there, in orehbarts and flower-gardens. The common reed is fit for this purpose, bat the holl.ow stem of the sunflower is even more so, as the insects are eager in thue pursuit of the remains of the sweet pith. They are also easily caught bcwe:.i the folds of paper, or in pieces of cloth and linen laid on the groundl. They creep into these traps in the morning after their nocturnal rambles and indy easily be shaken out and killed at any time of the day. Some place the loewer-stands in vessels of water, which prevents the earw-igs from Cree C, but not from flying, upon the plants. Orange -S le-t. -It appears like an elliptical nut-brown shield, and is very plentiful o 7reen-hlouse plants, particularly on orange-trees, fastens lig itself upon the branches and leaves, particularly when tlie trees are kept rather warm. h I: is best destroyed by waslling the branches and leaves. If this be do0( in t., it is a gr At advantage, as the old ones cannot creep up arrair.. .caL1 B.. —cllis species is reddish, an!id strewed with whlite dust. At tl,e sides of th telv-e sgmrnents of the body it is provided with small tubercles. The rile is slender and gnat-like, with two rather broad wilig,s, an(d two long, bru-sh-shaped tail filaments. It attacks a number of species iof pllaiIts, and can only be diminished in number by brushing them off earefilly with soft broshes, and crushing them. O/a,(r,caleca l Insect. - The female appears as a yellowish, round, fla shield, almost destitute of limbs, which sucks plants with its rostrum. Thb siield of the male larva is smaller than that of the female, and quite white 547 FARIIER'S HAND-BOOK. The perfect male is brownish-yellow, dusted with white, and white wings. l,engfth, one thirty-sixth of an inch. It lives in amazing numbers on different Linds of plants, particularly on oleanders, acacias, aloes, palms, &c., and can only be gotten rid of by careful brushings. RoI.se Scale. The female is like that of the former. The male pupa is linear, doubly furrowed on the back. The perfect male is pale-red, dusted with white, and white wings. Length, one thirty-sixth of an inch. They live on the stems and old tvwigs of rose-trees, which are sometimes entirely covered with them, and look mouldy. The best way of getting rid of' them is brushing them off with strong brushes before the rose-trees sprout. Rose-trees are much injured by these insects. Cactus Scale. - The female bears a great resemblance to the oleander scale, only that the muscle-shaped shield is more oblong and darker. The male is orange-yellowv, the pupa linear, doubly filrrowed, powdery-gray. ILives principally on the different species of cactus. Sweet Bay Scale. - The shield of the female is oval-shaped, brown, with : reddish-yellow elevation before. The male is pale cherry-red; the body flat; the horns or feelers rather shorter than the body. The shield of the larva the same as the female, but narrower. It is difficult to remove, as it i; so firmly seated that brushing is not always sufficient; a pointed stick must therefore be had recourse to. Rose Moth. -In early spring, as soon as the rose-tree begins to bud, a very dangerous enemy to the growth of its leaves and blossomis arrives. It is the more to be dreaded, as, from its smallness and peculiarity of form, it is easily overlooked. If the new leaf-shoots are closely examined, a little brownish scale is found here and there attached to them; and upon nearer inspection, we shall be convinced that it is a little case, in which a worm, the larva of a small moth, is concealed, which gnaws the tender shoots. When it has devoured one shoot, it removes with its house, and attacks another; and thus, in a short time, one of these larvae can strip a whole branch of its shoots. The larva which lies in the little case is about half an iinch long; yellow, with a black head, and black-spotted collar. It undergoes pupation in its case, which enlarges from time to time, as necessity rc(uires. The moth appears at the end of May. The whole body is silvery slining gray; the upper wings strewed with minute black dots, deeply ltringed at the posterior edge the under wings are narrow, pointed, with very long fringes. The only certain way of preserving rose-trees from this ,inemry is to look for the small cases in early spring, before the foliage is ,I(cevloped, when an experienced eye will easily discover them. They must be crushed immediately. Plant Mite, or Red Spider.- A small insect of the spider class. It is 5-19 NOXIOUS INSECTS. scarcely visible to the naked eye; has eight legs; its color changes from yellowish to brown and reddish, and on each side of the back is a blackish spot. In the open air it usually attacks kidney-beans. Among trees, the young limes mostly suffer, and the mites are found in thousands on the underside of the leaves. These leaves assume a dirty-yellow or brownish appearance, and in the middle of summer the trees acquire an autumnal hue. Frequently sprinkling the plants with cold water has been found efficient as a means of destroying these insects. Also repeatedly fumigating the hothouses with strong tobacco-smoke injures them in some degree. VI. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO MEADOWS. GENERAL REMARKS. - MAlost of the insects that choose the various sorts of corn for their food do not reject the other sorts of grasses, in the meadows. The herbage of the meadows suffers from the roots of the grass-plants being injured, which is chiefly occasioned by the larva of various species of cockchaffers living in the earth. When bare spots ate seen on meadows, we may be sure that the larvw of the cockehaffer are there carrying on their work of destruction. But the large swarms of those smaller species of cockchaffers sometimes seen flying about, towards evening, in the meadows, in the spring, and at the beginning of summer, and the round holes which we frequently find in meadows, through which they had crept out of the earth, clearly show that they had passed the first period of their life there, and at the expense of the herbage. Unspotted Lady-bird.- An insect injurious to many of the artificial grasses. It has been observed on the common tare. sanfoin, and the different sorts of clover. This larva is only one sixth of an inch long, yellowishwhite, with single green spots, and the upper side of the body covered with prickles. Its transformation takes place on the leaves. The pupa is lightyellow, covered with minute hairs of the same color. The perftct insect is almost globular, yellowish-red on the upper side, with a brownish-red spot on the thorax. The abdomen is brownish-black, and the legs reddish, or reddishbrown. A- good soil and moist weather, which will cause the herbage to grow quickly and luxuriantly, and to be often mown, are the chief requisites for diminishing the insect. By often removing the cut fodder from the field, the insect will be disturbed in its propagation. llig,ratory Locust. - An insect destructive to all vegetation. Their native country is in the plains of Asia, between the Black and Caspian Seas, Syria, Palestine, the northern coast of Africa, Egypt, &c., where they sometimes increase to an incredible multitude; and after eating up everything in their native country, favored, by the wind, they perform great journeys in prodigious swarms. Their swarms often measure several hun 549 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. dred fathoms in diameter, and are capable of darkening the sun, like thick clouds. When they have alighted in a place, they spare nothing that their "ig. 319. sharp teeth can master. Grain of all sorts, meadows, vineyards, and the foliage of trees, are to them equally welcome as food. They stay till they have eaten up everything in the country, and transformed it into a desert, and then they resigln themselves to the guidance of the wind, whlerever it may take them. Besides the locusts laying waste large tracts of country by their voracity, and causing famine, they become also a real scourge to mankind, fromn the stench which arises from their dead bodies when they are very numerous, and which breeds dangerous diseases. This insect is one of the larger species of the genus to which it belongs. Its length, from the head to the points of the wings, is from two to two and a half inches. Its head and neck are green, its body brownish, the upper wings brown, melting into greenish, and with darker quadrangular spots; the under wings are transparent, and greenish towards the body. The blue upper jaws, which, on the inner surface, are furnished withl sharp teeth, are very characteristic organs, which they apply effectually to devouring the vegetation. Rye-grass Yfoth.- A moth injurious to the different species of grass, and other meadow herbage. The moth is of middling size; the male, wvitl extended wings, is nearly an inch broad, and black, with yellow notches on the abdomen; the wings are thin, black, and fringed with the same color. The female has a thick, long abdomen, which is whitish-gray, and woolly at its exterior; wings small, slender, brownish-gray, and not adlapted( for flying. The caterpillar is found in April and May, living on rye-grass ail(nd many other plants in meadows; its groutnd-color is velvety-l)lack, yellow iat the incisions and sides, with a black head and small yellowish warts, having ash-gray hairs on them. The destruction of this caterpillar is very difficult, as it prefers living in long grass in the day-time, or in the ground. Break 550 NOXIOUS INSECTS. ing up the meadows in autumn appears to be the best method of destroying the pupse concealed there. Antler or Grass Moth.- A moth injurious to meadows. It is of middling size; its head and back are yellowish-brown, the collar lighter, almost yellow; the abdomen and legs are brownish-gray, the latter with darker joints; the upper wings are usually brownish-gray, with a darker mixture in the middle; the under wings are yellowishl-gray. The caterpillar is brown or blackish, with five lighter stripes along the back; the first and last sections are covered with a hard, smooth scale; the stripes meet at the edg'e of the anus; the abdomen is blackish. The larvae are an inch long, and they undergo their transformation about midsummer, within a light cocoon, under mross, stones, &c., changing into a blackish-brown, shining pupa. The food of the caterpillar consists of all the soft sorts of grasses. It lives at the roots, and eats all the germs. Although it is in existence in autumn, lies benumbed in the earth in winter, and begins to eat again in the spring, yet the effects of its devastations appear chiefly in the beginning of June, when it has changed its skin for the last time. The only means of extirpating or diminishing this caterpillar consists in surrounding the attacked places, as the ground permits, with shallow ditches, or by means of a plough with deep furrows, as broad as possible, and turning pigs into these places to devour the insects. THE END. 551 I I N D E X. P.ag Ascertaining the quality of milk,.. 245 Remarks on Devoii cattle,...........237 Diseases of cattle...................271 Sheep. Rearing, &c.,.............. 245 Castrating, weaning. shearing........2-46 For the market, food3, sheep in mouin Ataivnims, sectio ns smearing,..........248 Siels of tood health................249 New Leicester, Disliley,.............249 Lincolnshire, Teeswvater, Devonshire Notts, Romney Ilarsh, Coltswood,. 250 Clheviot, Southl-Down, Black-faced or Heath,..........................251 Merino............................252 Diseases of sheep,..................271 Swii,e. Breedling and rearing, treatment of dam anred youn....................253 Castratiedg, weaning, treatment after weaning, food, disposition of the car te i ecassn, 2...................... 254 Anatomy of,..............................256 China....................... 256 3erkshire.........................257 Suffoelk, Woburn, Siaese..,...........259 Diseases..................... i a a. 271 The Ho,se. Rearing breeing weain,..............................260 Castrating, training ansd management of colts,.............261 Food, anatomy..................... 262 Arabian,..........................263 Mexican, Canadian, MIorgan, Gifford, Goss, European,............. 265 Norman, Clydesdale, Suffolk,....266 Diseases,.................271 The Ass. Rearing, breeding, training, age, char acteristics,.................266 The lllule. Rearing and breediling,............267 The Goat. Description, &c.,................ 267 Varieties,.................. V t. 268 The Dog. Rearing and breeding,................268 NewfoNndland................. N. 269 Shepherd's..................2. 270 Drover, Setter, Terrier. Pointer,... 271 INiseases of animals,........... — 271 rIMonthly Calendar of Operationls, 2....- 25 Insects injlrious to animals,...........512 Animated oats.................... 381 Anise,......................... 124 Annual flowers, culture of,.......370 Pa~e Abscess in animals,........... 271 Acacia........................ 388S Age of cattle.................... 232 Alderney cattle,................. 243 Almond...............................217 Alterative medicinies for animals,..... 272 Altering the proportion of the ingredients in soils,..................... 4 Althea frutex.............Te..tr. 381 Amaranthus tricolor,........... 351 American horses, ilexican,Canadian,United States,................ 265 Anatomy of the ox............ 231 " of the pi.............. 256 of tlhe horse,.......... 262 " of the bee,.......... 320 Angelica plant................ 384 ANIMIALS. I)O.l lSTIC. Htor,ed or,.-eat. Be rein ald rearin,................... 225 Gestation. time of impregnation,... 226 Castrating.,.............. 227 Fatteni i ng....,........... 229 A g,e....................232 Namye s at different ages,.......... 233 The Bu,ll. How to judge of,.......... 230 Native,.............. 233 Devon,........................... 234 Ayrshire, New Leicester....... 242 Holder,ess. Gallowvay, Sussex, Alder ney, Suffolk, Kyloe,........ 243 The Ox. How to judae of,.......... 230 An,atomny of,............. 231 Native,.............. 233 D)evo................ 23.5 Short-lhorned,............... 233 Hereford,............... 240 Avrshire................... 241 Newv Leicester............ 242 Holdern,ess Gallo way, Sussex, Alder ney. Suffolk, Kyloe........... 213 The C,owr. How to judg-e of,.......... 232 Nat i,ve,..............233 Devon,............... 236 Herefrlin,.......................240 Avrshire, New Leicester.......242 Holtterness. Galloway, Sussex, Alder ney, Stffol k, Kyloe,.......... 243 Dairy qualities............ 243 Feed(ieg, keeping in good condition, milking,............. 244 47 A. INDEX. Annular budding,......................454 Antler, or grass moth,...................551 Aphis................522, 541 Apiar-y. Asp5ct of,.......................... 321 L,cati e r, sielter, trees,..........1. 322 Water, sru.3. sun, flowers........................323 Apoplexy inll aiimals,.............1. 271 " iuL fotels,.............. 316 APPLE. Propzaatios. soil and situation,... 176 3I,I)|thly Calenidar of Operations,... 221 Graftiinz, budfding, pruninig, training,. 412 Diseases...............4.. I sects ilj:lOU to,......... 526 Suniner Sorts. Varieties - American Summer Pear m-nain, Benoni, Co le,.........ne 16S Early Harvest............... 165 Early Red Rl Iarraret, Early StrawRerry, Ju,eating, fla,-omet SweetilA,... 169 Red Astrachaf,n.............. 165 Red (Qiuarreni(lech, Sapson, Spice Sweet, Summi er Queen, S ummer Rose, Tucker,.............. 169 W illia,,,s'. Favorite,............. 167 Fall Sorts. Bars,................. 170 Belmot,.............. 172 Bread arnd Cheese, Early Joe, Fair balks................... 170 Fall Pilel,i,.............. 169 Fall \Viire,............. 170 Famieuise,............. 172 Gilpin,...............170 Goldent Ball............. 172 Golhlelt Sweet,........... 170 Gravens3tei,.............. 169 Herefimtshire Pearmain, Hurlbut,.. 172 Jersey S.eeting,.......... 17(} Jewett's Red............. 172 Leland Pi)pini, Lowell, Lyman-'s Large SLIunmimer.............. 170 Lysc,aoli,......... 172 1lexico, 3!oses Wrood, Pomimilie Royal,. 170 Porter,...............16.S Rambo, Richardson, Roan,ite, Sassa fras or Has!ell Sveet, Seek-no-fir ther, Summer Bectllower, Superb Sweet,.............. 170 Thompki s,............ 172 Wiuithropi, Yellow Pell flower,.... 170 Winter a d,pring,~ortS, American Golden Russet,...... 175 Bahtwi, i................... 172 Blue Pearmaia,............... 175 Burlinto Greei......... 174 Dan vets Wt iter Sweeting-, Ietroit,.. 175 EsopuIs Spitze,,!erg......... 172 Fort 5liami. Gloria AIundi,....... 175 Goldeni Pippin,...........174 Golden, Rei,,ette, Hollow Crown Pear rmain................. 175 Hutbbardston Nonsuch,....... 172 Jersey....................... 174 Jonathan, Kin,............... 175 Lady,................. 174 Ladies' Sweetinz. Leicester Sweeting, Little Pearmaini, Minister, Never fail,...................... 175 Newtown Pippin..........................173 Northern Spy, Norton's Alelon, Old Noisuch,...............175 Pecker,....................172 Peck's Pleasant, Prio r's Red, Kaule's Janette.................. 175 Rhlle Island Greeyin......... 174 RockriSe nnn0,.................175 Roxbury Russet,..........................173 Steele's Red Wier............................. 172 Swaar, Tewk7sbLu ry Wiinter BluIsh, Tol mand SweetCnhe. a Je Fgrnigere, Waxein,. 175 Westf1iee l Seek-no.-further............ 172 Wood's Greenling,.............. 175 Cider forts. Carnfiel, Harrison, H ugh's Virginiia Cral, Red Streak...................... 175 CrabI Apples. Red Siberial l,................. 175 Yellow Siberian,................... 176 APRICOT. Propagation. soil and sittiation,.... 176 Varieties-Breda, Black, Brussels,.. 178 Early, Large Early,..................177 Moorpark,............. 1.78 Peac h................177 Red Masculline, Romtian, Turkey, White MIascline,............................ 178 I\lonithly Calendar of Operations,... 221 Graftirin, budding,-, 1pruningi, training,. 442 Diseases,............................. 477 Insects inmjurious to................................526 April, Kitchen-!zardlen calendar for,...... 131 Fru it calendar............triig. 222 Live-s tock calendar,...................... 28 Floricultural calendar,........ 394 Arabian horses......................263 Arbors for gard( ens,............ 378 Architecture...................... 398 See Index of Rural Architecture.:... Artichoke, J erusalem,................... 98 Ash-tree,................393 Ashes,.................32 Asparaguis. Varieties and culture,......... 99 Forcin g,................ 100 Bee tle,........................520 Asphodel..........................1 z 3S6 Ass-rearing, breeding, trainiog, age, chiar acteristics,................ 266 Assorting hops,............... 112 Aster, China.............. 381 Asthlina ini fowls,............ 316 A ugust. Kitchen-garden calendar for,..... 132 Fruit calendar,.......... 22.3 Live-stock calendar.......... 289 Floricultural calendar,.......... 395 Auricula,............... 381 Aujtiumn stock of bees,..........342 Autumnal flowers.............. 364 Aylesbury or English duck,......... 309 Ayrshire cattle,............. 241 Azalea,............. 381, 383 Bacon, making,...................... 255 Balmn,.................................124 554 B. .......... uq~~~~~'....~ ~~~........ =........ ~......?....~:. ~.,.. ....... .'-......... ........... ,.U~~~n —~..-,=.'..'....,.,...'. =...... ................'"-~' ~~~~~~~~~~ ~. -.$................. ~~~~~~~~.... _o. =.....................:........ CC... 0....!.. .... -.:.............. ....-. ~.. ~~~~~~. = * r' C ~...O 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ _-.. 0 ., -=' =......................C CC- C O............... -C-C~~ ~ ~..~~~~~~~~~A CC.......-C.C.-C -. —CC..~O ~ ~ ~-CCO ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ~ ~- -~'C 2".m 1.. t:i t-I INDEX. Barn fowls,...................297 Ass...................266 :itlie, goat,................ 267 Dog................... 268 Breeds of animials, and fowls, see each kind under its head. 'rier, sweet....................... 32 Brittleness of hoof,................ 274 Broccoli................ 103 Broken knees, broken wind,..27..... 274 Bronchitis in anrimals,............... 274 Brooin- co r,,. Varieties, method of planting,..7.. 73 Culture, harvestin g, scraping,.... 74 Uses................75 Brown-water diease,...................... 272 Bruises ii a,imals,........... 279 " " fowls...................... 317 BUCKWHEAT. Description, soils,....................67 Culture............... 6S Har6vestinerga, r Ises.......... 69 Diseases............... 477 Insects injurious to,......... 515 BUDDING. Uses................. 4. 0 Performing the operation............. 451 TransmIitting scions, wax for buddi ng, shield bidl,ing,............. C. 452 Shield budding without a bud or eye, circular shield biiddiig,............453 Flute buddilng, aitinular buddiisg, after care,................4. 454 Bucsar................ 45( Btzs.................. 5() Cacalia plant,..................... 388 Calendar of lonthly Oera tios. Kitchen -gardee in,.dcr o o.........i. 130 Fruit,...............221 Li ve-stock...................Cpnii 29 Floricultural,............ 393 CALVES. Rearin, N.............. 226 Fattenin,,..............2'..... 294 iseases,....................2 271 See Cattle. Calycanithus plant,............. 393 Camr,onmile.................... 125 Canadian horses,............. 265 CANKER. tln horses' feet,............. 274 Dogs' ears,................. 274 In vegetationi, description, origin,.. 478 liemIey,.............. 481 Canker-worr,.o.......... 545 CanIteleup melon.............1.2. i'(2 Can,terb)ury bell plant,............. 3'2 Cap)er-tree,............... 3S4 Caponiiziig.,.................... 299 Caraway,............... 124 Car(doo,.................lo,:10-, Carnation plant,............ 3;2 Caroltia syring-a plant,............ 393 Carrot,................... 105 " moth,................. 524 Casting..................... 17 Cassia plant,..............3.2....... Castratin,g. Neat cattle,................ 227 Sheep,............... 246 Swine,................254 Horse3,.............. 261 Fowls,............... 299 Catalpa plant.............. 35 3 Catarrh in an imnals,........... 274 Catarrha l fever in a,nimals,........ 275 Caterpillars, destructive, see Insects. CATTLE. Ilotn1ed or Neat. Breedinga, rearing................ 225 Gestatio.,, timle of impregn,,ation,... 226 Castrating,,............... 227 Fattering,............... 2'9 Ag,e,............... 2::3 Namres of, at different ages,.23....223 The Bull. How to judg-e of,.......... 2.-0 Native,.................. 233 Devon,........................ 234 Ayrshire, New Leicester....... 242 Hololerness, Galloway, Sussex, Alder ney, Suffllk, Kyloe,.......... 243 The Cow. How to judge of, &c.,......... 2:32 Native,.............. 33 Devon...............2:36 Hereford,...................... 2,10 Ayrshire, New Leicester....... 242 Holhlerness, Galloway, SuLssex, Alder ney, Suffolk, Kyloe,.......... 243 Dairy qualities,............ 243 Feeding, keeping in good condition, nmilking................ 244 Ascertainin,g the quality of miilk,... 245S Kemarks on Devoi breed,...... 2:37 Diseases of cattle........... 271 Btzs,..................50 Also see I,srects. Buildings. farm aad rural,......... 39' Bulbs, culture,..................... 368 BULL. Breedin and rearin,........225 Castrati,t.............. 227 Fatteeing.............r 229 Ace,................d2t2 Names at di2feren t ages,....... 233 Varieties,.Native,.........233 Devos.......... r.....rn231 Short-horned............. 2:39 Ayrshire. Nev Leicester............ 212 Holderne,s. Galloway, Sussex, Alder ney, Sufflk, Kyloe......... 243 Disease................ 271 Mlointlily Calenidar of Operations....285 Insects injurious to,......... 512 Burnin-a aud paring soils......... 8 Bushes, see Sihrubs and Trees. BUTTER. Ger,eral remarks, cream,............139 Clotted-crean,..l............. 141 Whole-milk, churning........ 142 Washi14. salting............... 144 Butterflies, destructive, see Insects. Butternut,............................218 Cabbag e. Varieties and culture,...... To keep,........... Diseases,........... Bug,............. Butterfly.......... Moth,............. Fly,............. 556 C. : -:'O"'l .:. 477 ... 521 ... 522 .523, 524 ... 525 INDEX. Chines oe nse................. 3n.03 Chinese monthly rose,........... 388 Chittaono fow ls, &.............. 22 Chive,................. 1()6 Choke cherry,................. 18-2 Choking of animals............ 275 Chrysa,nthemum plant,.......... 383 Churning,.............H. 136,142 Chu rC ns. Thermometer, 1................. 136 Kendall' cylindrical............9 Cl 137 GaBllt's, Tillinghast's,.................. 138 ChBrr wormo,................. 521 CIDER APPLES. Hairrison. Camr.iel, HughI's Virginia CCrab, Red Streak,........... 175 Clacss ificati.on of soils,.......... 2 Claye y 8oilssubso,.................. 3 draiCicip,.... g................ 37 Clearing landl s,...................,... 7 Cleavin,,................. 1,S Cleft rafting,.................. 447 Clem,,atis, or virgin's bower,....... 3S J Clethra rplat,................. 3C3 ('lick beetle,................ 516 Close pr t ning,.................57 Clotte(l creatn,.................. C. 1'11 Clover................... 58 AKerieties a cultre, hs Er.......B ia.. 87 Diseases.......,........ 477 horlsects iojunrigrs to.........1. 59 Clydesdale horses.................. 266 CMchiy kChiea fowls,.............. C.. 296 CBck, varieties,1 &c, s ee Fon nol. Cock( haffer, fielde,................pa. 516 Cock's sp,r,.............. 55 Co(lingte m noth, aia............... 532 Colnd-fiame,..................... 375 Colic in animals,......................275 Colors, arrangement of, in fiover-gardlens,. 367 Colton's hiver.n..............1. 333 COLTS. Training and managing,....... 261 See Ilorse. Columbine plant,.................V d t. 383 Common black currant,.......... 1S6 Conlnlloln goose,.................... 303 Common red barberry,............. 178 Composition of Soils. Clayey, sandy, gravelly, peaty,.... 2 Loan,............... 3 Composts, forming,............ 29 Construction ofthe plough,,........ 12 Consumption in fowls........... 316 " in plants,......... 482 Contortion in plants,.......... 482 Contracted foot in animals,......... 275 Convolvulus plant,.38.......... 33 Copper-colored weevil,..........534 Coriander,................... 125 CORN. Varieties of,...........59 Preparation of land for planting, season for ploughing,.......... 60 Planting, mnaniuring,......... 61 Number of grains to the hill, depth of ploughing, tillage,......... 62 Thinnin:g and suckering,......... 64 Harvesting,............ 65 Preserving,............... 66 Varieties and culture for the table,.. 10I 3Ionthly Calendar of Operations,... 235 She-s and houses,.............. 420 Barns. hlow to construct, models, &c.,.. 413 Insects injurious to,..........512 Cauliflower,.............. 105 Celery.................... 1(..16 Channels. water,................... 39 Cheap ad simple hive,..................331 CIIEESE. Presses,...........I.N... 134, 145 Differen,t modes of preparing rennet,.. 145 Whtllole-mllilk, dlrying........... 149 ST er e-room, green-.hey,.......o 150 II,Ile of nakiug celebrated kinds, Cheshire,............ 151 Ghm(,,cester,.................. 15. — Stilton,.................... 157 Dunlop,........................... 15,8 Creami. new,................... 161 Parre sa,n................... 162 Potato., green or sage,........ 163 See Dair y. Chemistry, acqtuaintance with,..... 1Cei. 1 Chernses, apple and pear................. 540 CHERR~. PropaEation, soil, situation,....... 179 Varieties.-An,erican Amiiber,..... 1,S1 Asell's Fine B lack....................179 Bellte de hoisy,...............1.2.. CO2 Biigarr ean,.....l.0 Black- Carooin,....... 179 Black Circassian. Black Eagle,.... 181 Black Hieart, Black Rossian,.... 1 4 C79 Black Tartarean....................... 181 Davenport's Early Black,...... 179 Doctor,.................... 182 Downer's Late,............6 13 DowC ton,............. 1.......... 12 Earl, Amber,.............1. 1 Early l),ike,............. 1S0 Earl, White Heart,......... 1 1. Elliott's Favorite,.......... 1S2 Elton,...............6. 11 Florence, Holland Bigarreau, s i..... 1i2 Holnan's DuLke,..........1.. Hyde's Seedling,.......... 182 Junie Duke..............I10 Kentish, Knight's Early Black, I3Ian ning','s MIottled,...........1. 2 MTav Duke.............. 1S( Morello, Napoleon Bigarreau,.... 1S2 New Honey............. 181 New Mlay Duke,............ 179 Ox-heart, Ronald's Black tieart,... 131 Spanlish Black Heart......... 179 White Bi~arreau, White Tartarean, Yellowv Spanish,......... 180 Wild Cherry............. 1S2 Choke Cherry,.............. 182 I%Ionthly Calen,dar of Operations,... 221 Grafting, budding, pruLning, training,. 442 Diseases,..................... 477 In,sects injurious to,.........526 Chervil,................125 Cheshire cheese,............151 Chestnut........ 21S Cheviot sheep..............251 Chickens. fattenin,...........299 See F,;,ls. . 47*... 47* 55"i 21 ~ ~ ~ ~ C .............. -.,.<,. ..................~~~~.. ~ -- C~~~~~~-~-' ~-~- ~ ~-~~'~ .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~* —-' C ~' C... -..~~ ..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -'-'. ~~~...'....~ .-~~~~~~~~~~.~~ _.. ~. ~~~ ~ -,-1~~~~~~~~...~.-. —... ~. _....:.._.= _.- l:;~.-o " o-. .. a,.:....... c~~~~ ~ * 1~~~~~~~~2 *.- ~' ~~ v* C —''' b-u,;'.: C.......... ~. ~!-'*........... -...... -,,...,...~.. ~..... _..'- ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~...-',... =..o......'', ~~~~~~~~~-.,....b.~ ~... .....m............ c~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. INDEX. Leland Pippin, Lowell, Lyman's Large Summer......................170 I. yscom, Magnolia,...............172 Mexico, Moses Wood, Pomme Royal,. 170 Porter...........................168 Rambo, Richardson, Romanite, Sassa fras or Haskell Sweet, Seek-no-fur ther, Summer Bellflower, Superb Sweet,..........................170 Thompkins.................... 172 Winthrop, Yellov Bellflower,........170 Fallowing, uses, different kinds............20 " benefit of, rules for.............21 Fan training..........................472 Farcy in animals,......................276 Farm or domestic animals,..............225 See Animals and Cattle. Fattening Animals. Calves,.............229 Cattle,...............229 Devon cattle,............ 238 Barn fowls,.............299 Turkeys,........... - 302 Geese.............................307 Ducks, 3............... 313 Feathlers, loss of,........................317 February. Kitchen-garden calendar for..........130 Fruit calendar,.....................222 Live-stock calendar.................287 Floricultural calendar..............393 FEEDINO. Dairy cows,......................244 Swine,..........................254 Turkeys,...........................302 Geese,............................304 Ducks,............... 310 Bees,.............352,353 Feet inflammation in animals.............277 " various diseases of,.........277 Felling,............................463 Fences,...........................437 Fennel,...........................126 Fever in the horse,......................277 u" fowls,............................316 " catarrhal,.........................275 Fig,.............................218 Figure-of-8 moth,......................529 Filbert,...........................219 Fir-tree,............................ 393 Fistulous withers,......................277 Fits in animals............... 276 FLAX. Varieties, soils............... 80 Culture, gathering, rippling,..........81 Watering, uses,................... 82 Diseases,..........................477 Fleas, destructive, -see Insects. Flies, destructive,- see lIsects. Flooding in animals.....................277 FLOwERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, &C. Flowers. General remarks, friability of soil,..359 En"riching, coverirg,s, &c............360 Plan of garden,..............361 Planting,......................... 363 Autumnal flowers............... 364 L aying out the garden,...........364 Various patterns,.................365 Arrangement of colors........ 367 Drasins in peat lands,........ 3...... 35 Hard soils, direction of drains,...B r. 36 Clay lan ds................ S m. 37 Varieties of drains,......... 33 Drainage of farmery,........... 1. 433 Dressing barley,................. 53 Drone-bee,................319 Dropsy in animals,........... 276 " "plants,............ 482 Drover's dot,..............271 Drying hops,.............. 111 " cheese,.............149 DucK. Rouien or Rhone, English or Aylesbury A Vhit e,..............309 TIuscovy,............. 310 The dnLck-pond, food.........310 Hatchinir and care of ducklings,.... 312 Fattening,............. 313 Pairin~ and laying, eggs, diseases,.. 314 Dunghill fowls,.............291 Dunlop cheese............. 153 Dunt in animals,.............284 Durham or short-horned cattle,........ 233 Dutch fowls,.............. 293 Dwarf or creeper fowls,......... 295 Dvwarf basil plant,........... 3S4 Dwellings and cottages, rural,...... 393 Dysentery in animiials,................ 276 " " bees,...........356 Fading beauty, or morning bride plant,.. 384 FALL APPLES. Varieties, - Bars,..........170 Belmont,...........................172 Bread and Cheese, Early Joe, Fair banks,.................... 170 Fall Pil)pin,.............169 Fall Wine,..........................170 Fameuse,............. 172 Gilpin,...................... 170 Golden Ball.............. 17'2 Golden Sweet,...........170 Gravenstein,............. 169 Herefordshire Pearmain, Hurlbut,.. 172 Jersey Sweeting,..........170 Jewett's Red,............172 560 E Earths, -see Soils. Earwi.................. 547 E-, —plant Ea,-s, see......... 109 Elm-tree........ 393 Endive........ 109 E,iii,h or Aylesbury duck, 309 En-richin,-,,-.rd,n soils,..'360 Epilepsy in animals........... 276 Er,-ot................ 55, 482 Espalier-trees.............. 46S European horses, - Clydesdale, Suffolk, Nor,i,an................ 266 Everia-stina pea............. 3,S7 E,ery-day or e,,er-layin,- fowls...... 293 Excrements, various kind, of....... 26 Extirpatin,- trees and shrubs....... 7 Eyes, iiitlanied and weak, in animals,... 276 F. t> —~~~~~~~~~~~ A, - - X " z J. z z w__ - u. a: t vO;,.. a ~ r-~ v.. X.. a.... ,-":.-.... o.... ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... .......... *._................ ..... ,~'~~~~~~~....'. H......"~'~ ~ ~;.,, -. *.:. ~,. ~ -, ~o~~~~~.....~..,.,.'. ~-. ~o-,.-,.....m L. ~~~~~~..o....p =.'~. ~...~ F....m= ~~~~~~~...........- -~.e. ~.. -..'~ o ~ ~'...................... 001 0 C* —. 1:. ....~~~~~ 0' 0' ~.=.~~..= =~~ - ~~''=....-E.. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ * z. ~'?0 o,u ~' ''... -o =.....=;~ - o ~ ~,~.~,.-,. ~ -~(.t....,...., —. -.~' -:, _'~,r'~~~.......= ~.,,~. _~. oo oo o o o o.,~~~~~ -.-~ "". I::: 0._"' -'....... 00~< ........................ 0''~= = - 0'''= .~~~~~ ~~~~~. =. 0,, E~' ~'~:' ~:-'' ~'~'... ~~~.,E -- = - r,I= —-', ~ = ~ == ~ =~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.~-~- -?.... o. ~....~..~ _.~. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~. .~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~- I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N.?~~..p ~ ~.... ~........ ..~ ~ ~ ~ ~........_ -.. ~..........c N ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~. — =~;. N~ ~- ~_~' N ~..._ NO -3 N~~~~~~ = *-.~ _ N ~~ I ci - ci ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~.~ = ~,- G NN-"- ~ -.-....N -N ~~ NX~~~~~~~NNN~~ NN =, —. N.. ='7..N N 21 ~ zr ~ a ~... -..... ... ~......... ~ C- C..?-. ~ ~ ~,- C.~. ~....',~...._-....... ~.. ~~. ~;~T2 -~~~.......-~ ;:'. - ~.: * C- C c,-,:- ~C ~ *~~~~~~.. ~...u.;-. C..~c C.~ ;:~'. ~ ~ ~ ~ - C;' ~ -- ~~..,. - -- - -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~;: ~.... -..... ~.. —., —....~ =~.~'.....: ... ~'.:.....'~ _.-:.?.... . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~.'......... ................... ......... ..- C.~CI.C~-.......- :....,~:.. ~. ~'.-.. -~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~- _C -. C -. .'. z.:. ~.. ~.,. _.......... ..-............... C. ~~. CCI ~ ~ ~_...... ~.....'. ~. ~I ~C I.........C~ - C..... INDEX. Health of fowls.................. 299 Heart. itflammation of in animals,...278 IIEAVY OR FIELD Crops. tVheat. Classfcation,.................43 Best vari eti e for cultivation.......... 45 oils, time for sowing, seed, culture,. 46 QuD ntity of seed, after-culture, cutting and hI arv esting, e..............tdc 48 D i sea se s and ee enemies,............. 49 Barley. Classification,................... 50 Kind of soil................. 51 Preparin the land, sowing, culture, harvestin,.................. 52 Threshnin ad dreing, uses, d iseases and enemies,........... 53 Rye. eVarieties, so il................. 53 Time for sowinig, culture, product, uses,..................... 54 Dseases and enemies,........ 55 The Oat. Varieties.............. 56 S oil, prepari ng the land, sowIinr, cul tur e,...................57 Reaping, dis eases and enemies.... 58 Indian Corn. Varieties,.............59 Preparation of the land for planitirn, season for plotuhing,....... 60 Planting, mnan,uring.......... 61 Number of grain s to the hill, depth of planting, tillage,......... 62 Thin-ning- and suckering,...... 64 Harvesting,............ 65 Preserving, diseases and enemies,.. 66 Buckwrheat. Description, soils.......... 67 Culture............... 6S Harvesting, uses,..........69 T'he Potato. Propagating, varieties, soils, culture and tillage............ 70 Uses................72 Diseases and eniemies,........ 73 Broom Corn. Varieties, method of planting,.... 73 Culture, hiarvestinig, scrapig,.. 74 Uses,...............75 AIillet. Varieties, sl,............75 Culture,.............. 76 Hemp. Soils, culture,........... 77 Gathering,............. 78 Ro!ttin-, breaking, dressing,.. 79 Flatx. V,arieties, soils............ 80 CulGture, gathering, rippling,..... 81 Waterilla, uses,........... 82 I,,~ern. Description,............ 82 Soil, culture, tillage........ 83 Uses,...............84 Sain foin.. Description and habits,........84 Cultrel e...............85 The'a re. DIescriptioni, soil, preparin, the soil, time of sowinto culture...... 86 The Clovers. Variet ies, culture,.......... 87 Mowinfg....................... 88 Getting the seed, threshing,......... 89 The Grasses. Varieties,........................ 89 Lands alternately in grass and tillage,. 93 Soiling, hayino,.................... 9-t Lands permanently in grass, perennial grass-lands fit lbr mowin1g, neadow lands.............. 95 Pernmanent pa stures........... 9f6 Stocking pastures,......... 97 Dise ases...............4..77 Insects injuriotus to,.................515 Heifers, -see Cattle. Hentlock-tree.............. 393 HEMP. Soils, cult ure,............. 77 Gathering................................ 78 Rottibng, breakin, dressing................ 79 Hens, -see Fowils. Herbaceous graftig,................................ 449 sro p.nig.......... 4..7 " traioti,t, d............... 46 He rbs,...........................124 See Kitchen-g6ade, also eac h k ind under its head. Herefoird cowl,.......................240 " ox,...... 2. 10 Hessian flv...............5.............. Hibiscus )lant,....................... 3S Hickory nlt,........................... 221 Hide-I)orro, s.............2 7.......... 28 Higah blackberry....................... 19 Hives and box es,............ 323 Hoa. —see o t, 7e.HoCuetrness cattle,.............. 243 Hollyhock,.............................. 381 Hon,ey, - see Bees. Haoney-dew................ 4S3 Honeysu ck l e................324 Hotngg Kob sg H ose,............ 303 Hoof. brittleness of,............. 274 Hoose disease,............. 274 Hoove disease,............. 2 9 HoP. Culture............... 109 After-cnltgre,............... 110t TDkin~ the crop, drying....... I I l Assortingfr,............ 112 Diseases,.............. 477 Horehotin(.,..............126 Horned or neat cattle,.......... 225 See each kind, under its head. HORSE. IRea,ring, breeding, weaning,..... 260 Ca,strating!, trainiing and managing c,lts................. 261 Feedi,g,, anatonmy.......... 262 Varieties, -Aratbian,....... 263 Anmerican. Mexican, Canadian, United States, BlIorgani, Gifif(rd, Goss,... 265 EuLr,pean, Normiian, Clydesdale, Suf folk,.................... 266 Diseases,............... 271 ]Monthly Calendar of Operations,... 2::5 Stalbles, site and construction,....41? Stalls, racks, mangers,...... 41,8 Insects injurious to,.........512 Horse-chestntut tree,............. 393 7'64 ILNDEX. HIorse-radish...........................112 tIORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. GUA, in a Uses................ 442 Dileirent kinds, utensils and mnaterials, 443 Grafting by detached scions,.....444 Splice grafting,........... 445 Splice graftiing the peach, nectarine, apricot, &c., cleft grafting-,, rind rafting.................... 447 Cleft graftirng th e vine, saddle grafting, s,le grafting,.......... 443 Wedge graftinga, root grafting, herba ceous grafting, grafting by approach, or inarching,...........cai ru 449 Budding. Usesp,rni..461 c iiijiirinua.............. 450 Performin the opera tion....... 451 Transmittinit scions, wax for buddi-,, shield b cdclin,...................... 452 Shield budding without a bud or eye, circular shield buddin,..... 453 Flute budding, annular budding, after'care................. 454 Pruning. Uses, forest-trees, ornamental trees, or namental shrubs,......... 45 Fruit-trees and shrubs,.... 456 Herbaceous plants,......... 457 Close prunint................. 457 Shortening-in,fo re-shorteni ng, spurri ng in................. 45 L Heading-in,............ 459 Lopping, cutting dowvn, stopping! anid piniching out... 460 Rirn~ing, disbtutdding,........461 Disleafing, slitting and splitting, br,is inz and tearing, root pru,,fing.... 462 Girdling and felllug, seasons for prun ing................ 463 Training. Uses, principles,..........461 MVantual operations,.........46 Traiulinga herbaceotus and shritblby plants inl po~ts, trainaing hardyv flowveringa shrubs in the openi grouind, training fruit-trees,.............466 Different miiodes of trainingz bushes and trees in the open garden, and fruit trees against -alls or espalliers,... 463 Training, dw,arfs inl the open garden, spiral cylinders,.........469 Spurri-in,.............470 Conical standards,........... 471 Fan training............472 Horizonital training........ 474 Perpendicular tr,aining, comparative view of the differeat modes of train j.,.............475 Hot-beds,...............373 Houses, how to construct the various farm,............39. How to judge of cattle, for various objects and pulrposes,.......... 230 Huber's leaf hive,.......... 330 Huckleberry,..............22 Hyacinth,............... 3S5 tliydranagea plant,............ 3S5 Hvdrocephalus in animals,........279 Hyssop,............... 126 48 Ice plant,.................... 385 I.4 iplemnents, -see each kind under its head. Implernent-houses,...................... 420 If4 arcIting,......................449 plcIncreasing the productive powers of soils,. 4 INDIAN CORN. Culture, varieties, &c...........59, 106 Diseases,........................477 Insects i,njurious to,................515 Indigestion in fowls,................ 316 Inflammation of bowels in animals,....273 b brain,.......... 273 n"eyes,........... 276 feet........... 277 heart,............ 278 " kidneys,........... 279 " liver,.......... 28S( " " lung..s, 2..2 ~ womb,...........285 Inflammatory evil in animals....... 272 Influenza,...................... 274 INSECTS, NoxIous. Iasects which live constantly on or in Domestic Animtials, and p?ropagate on them. Lice, horse bhot,................... 512 Feheidament bot, ox warble...........513 Rei bot, sheep bot............. 514 Hors e fly, forest fly, spider fly, sheep tick, bird spider fly,...... 515 Insects iqj~rious to Grain. GilLi)ous groundl beetle......,....... 515 Germn' i or field cockchal'er, lined click beetle, wire-worm,......... 516 Winter or (Idart lmoth,.. 517 Wrhite line dart moth botys, corn moth, corn weevil, Hessian fly,...... 518 Wheat midge,............... 519 Insects in,ju,rtous to Veg,etables. Spriig beetle or skip- jack, asparagus eeritle, twelve-spottei leaf-beetle,.. 520 Earth-flea beetle, turnip fly, mole cricket, chgrr worm, jarr worm, eve churr, earth crab, painted field-bug, cabbae-bug,.............. 521 Plant lice, aphis, large cabbage wlhite butterfly, small white butterfly, green-veined white butterfly, gamma moth,....................522 Cablbage moth................... 523 White-line brown-eyed moth, cabbage garden pebble moth, carrot moth,.. 524 Roesel's tiny caterpillar, onion fly, cab bage fly, lettuce fly........... 525 Negro fly.............. 526 Insects injurious to Fruit, Fruit-trees, Shr3ubs a nd Vin,es. Black-veined white butterfly, or haw thorn pontia,...........52(,; Yellow-tailed moth,......... 5)27 Lackey moth, gypsy moth,..... 528 Goat moth, wood-leopard moth, figure of-8 moth,................ 529 Lunar-spotted pillion moth, winter moth,.............. r Pale-brindle beauty moth,...... 531 Limne-lo,oper or mottled urnbre moth, small ermninie moth, codling moth,.. 532 I 565 ....... -.. _..;.D..o..,. i... _ & 3........................ *.... *....... 1 ~z .-*... --. * —-------- * * —- CC* tC . ~.. ~.*..........................,.Cs_,C .~~~~~~~...~..=.;..... o..'.. ='........ ~C I W CA => ~:~C:b- = O.....b..W Db b- ID lt)w ~l C) C crzc: c c., b= r:) b w (X.1 w - r c G c c,.,,, _ >; 4 CO 4^ CC M- C; _ C~,,.:,.C. CD JJ _,=W 4~"o ~Os C V2.i*...:..r V2..,... ........... *. >s* _ R_ C? . 3......... ~............. ................. ~................. ...~........... ~_.. ~.... ................'. ~... I0~ ......... Ub)-bD _.W. to ~,0,-, t.oC --... - Y.. c0 Cl.- W, $-I CD iE; C., 1, ~ 0 0 - - A - - 0 f - 0 0 0 0 0 00.. -..... I.... - - - - c(-L0 010' 0*...... ~......, .~......... ~~ ~, —'~~..~.....,~ 2.,.-. -.......... ~.,..........,q..... _. s. ~.~= ~~~~~~~~.....,.,.........~ 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. - ~...~~~ ~i ~'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t C.) -. ~,~_ - ~,m- ~ ~.......o.. ~~~~~~~~..,.~..... ~............... - ~ - ~.~......... ...................... I * - - ~. ~ - ~., * ~ ~......... O)0 0 0 .,.........~... -.~. C..c......., ~ ~_ ~.?''. ~.~ -..- -:?... ~ ~ - -.'. ~..... ..........-~. ............... 2 ............... ......... ........................ ~~............ 0....2..c...............,.. ~............. *~~~.... ~......: CL ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~ ~,f- ~i C.- ~. ~ — - L0'LC 0; ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~..-... 0 0........o. o.. =. 0... —.........'..-... 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. 0............... 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~F-. ~. — -. 0' ~g a,. ~: ~ ~'.~.... C*~1Ol;~ ~ UUO *00C~~000-~ C'~.....;OC0; CD~~U0~U t=j t-I c'x c:n e,, o _. ~,-~ c ~ ~ ~, ~ _,, — 0; ~':~-." ,., -~'- i - 3 --— _ I — *..,...... ;* * *0****** ~ r f f i *C. * f........... *.,:....... *., -. =;.,. ~~~~~~~~C. *. - -,Mq - *.*-s**..........,. .......... ~l.z =.........t o ~ t. OtOt O Ot., > ~~~~~~~:._ . o** CO - C C .... ..(. 0 UA J W......... C~~.o J-r:.... ***-*...... o.. *~~~ ~ ~ * ~ =~** * o',''= x..'~,3' **-.*......... q ~?-.,..._ ~ *~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- * O- *~-.... -~. (j'......-.... v.. * 0.. C..........&,..... *0 b. Q s c: z s7 Ct.:.. 0A. _ O ~* C' C.. .C -A A. AA ~'A -' A' AC A =?AO CC'''~.. CO~~~ ===. =O COAOC.O.. C. ~.O'....A.....OCCOCO INDEX. Scourine-rot,..........................276 Scrapini broom-corn,.......... 74 ea-kal e,.............................. (120 Securing good hives,...............342 Seed,-see each kind under its head. Selecting hens,..........................298 Septemnber. Kitchen-garden calendar for..........132 Fruit calendar,.....................223 Live-stock calendar,............... 289 Floricultural calendar,...............395 Setter dog,............................ 271 Shagbark,............................. 221 Shallot,.......................120 Shearing,..........................246 Sheds, - cart,............. 419 " cattle,.............. 420 SHEEP. Rea ring,........................245 Castrating, weaning, shearing,.... 246 For market, food, mountain sheep, smearing, signs of good health,... 248 Long-wooled,........................ 249 Short-wooled,.......................250 Cheviot, South-Down, Black-faced or Heath,..............r kn. 251 Merino,........................ 252 Diseases................... 271 3 lonthly (C'alendar of Operations,... 285 Insects injurious to.................512 Shellbark,............................ 221 S hepherd do,..........................270 hield hudding,.........................452 shortening-in,.......................... 458 Short-horniedl cattle................ 238 Shlort-woole(d sheep,........... 250 SHRUBS AND TREES, ORNAMENTAL. Extirpating,............... 7 Ornamental, culture and varieties,.. 393 Vlo,iithly Calendlar of Operations,...393 Grafti gc, buddiog, pruning, training,.442 Dises,..............477 Iiisects ijtlrious to,................. 526 Siamese swine,............................ 259 Siberian fowls..........................295 Sidle grafting,...................... 448 Silky fowls,...........................295 Sit-f.sts in animals.................... 283 Sittinng of hens,..............298 t" "t rkeys,.....................301 Skim-.milk. lheese.......................161 Skip-jack beetle,....................... 520 Sk i rr,t................ 120 Small ermine moth,.....................532 Smnearing,................ 249 Smut disease........................... 49 descrip)tion, causes and pheonieena,. 503 " preventives.......................508 Snow-hall bush....................... 393 Scnowberry...............r.......... 3 Soilicng, 9........................... 4 SOILS, THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. General remtarks, coimposition......1............ Classification, clayey, gravelly, sanldy, peaty,............... 2 Loam,....................... 3 Qualities of determined by their com parative productiveiess, relation be tweeS l the soil a nd subsoil, clayey subsoil,............. a Separate sties,........... 425 Poultry-ho uses. General principles and requisites, situ ationi, forin,........... 426 Roostiing,-perches and nests, to render thle potlltry-house healthy,....... 427 Conveniences for hatching, appurte nances, air and space, accommoda tiFec s for keepio Dn poultry on a large scale............... 423 Plan of construction and general man ageinent,............. 429 Arrangemzenit of the Farmecy. Situation, 4.............430 Kind of buildings, disposition ofT he dif fere - n t buildirpt, o........... 431 Plan of buildings for a large farn,... 432 Plan of buildings for a small farm,.. 433 Stack-yard, drainage offarmnery,... 433 Green-houses. liay be easily constructed, materials and mode of building,....... 434 Arrangement of the lights,......435 Flues for heating,.......... 436 Fences and Gates. Different kinds, building stone wall,.. 437 Mlaterials, implements, rules to be ob served,............. 43 Advantazes of ston,e wall.......439 Form aid meth()d of conlstruicting gates, 439 ttanging,i hlinges, latch, 2ate-posts,.. 440 Arbors,............... 378 Garlel seats............. 379 Bee-houllses, hives. all bxes,... 323, 324 Russian or Sib,eriani fowls,........ 29)5 Rust,................. 5( Also see Diseases o f Pla,.ts. RutPabag,t................. 122 RYE. Varieties, sol,............ 53 Time for sowing', cultIre, product and uses,............. 5-4 Diseases and enemties...... 55..77 Insects injurious to,............. 515 Iaddle-n alls in horses,............... w. 2 w3 Saddle graftig,...................... 44 i Saffron,.................... 12'' Sa,e,................... 129 S cage ch eese,.............. 163 Sa i to il,n Description and habits,............4o 84 Culture........................... 85 Diseases,................... 477 Sallend,Iers in horses,.............. 230 Salsify,................119 Saltinig butter,............44 Sandy soils,............. 2 Savory,................130 Sav-flV,.............. 533, 544 Scab in sheep,.2............ 8 23 Scale insect, see Irsects. Scarlet cacalia plant, scarlet lychnis plant, 3SS Scholytus,................. 53S Scions for grafting,............ 444 " " transmiiitting,............... 452 Scorzonera,............... 120 Scour in lambs,.............283 571 S. INDEX. Porous subsoil, quality of subsoil, depth of the soil, means of increasing pro ductiv e powers and rendering fit for cH ltivatio n, alt ering the p ro portion of ingr e dients,............. 4 Clearina. Plan of operation s, forests............................. 6 Waste lands,............ t. 7 Parinsg and burn ing, leveling un even surfaces,........................8 Rellovin stones,................... 10... Ploughizg,.............. 10 Rules, for.,............. 11 How to hold the plough, construction of ploug,Bc.a..... 12 Dep th of pl,oug hing, ridges, 1...............2 13 Gathering, casti1g,.................2 17 Cleavi ng9 cross-ploughing,........ 18 Subs oil, B.....................2 19 Fallow 20...............20 Harroi-,g, uses anid modes,........ 22 Rolling............................ 23 2Vanurszg. Actio i of manure, n arl as, natural manures,. 25 Urine..................... P i. 26 Night-soil. management of manures,. 27 Forming composts, litter,...... 29 Applying liquid maniure, dead bodies, bones, &c.,............ 30 Vegetable and mineral manures,... 31 Draining. Causes of wetness it lands,..... 32 Boggy lands and the true line of the spring,.......................:3'3 Drains and peat lands,......... 35 Hard soils, direction of drains,.... 36 Clay land,.................... 37 Varieties of drains,......... 38 Irrigating,............... 38 Channels............. 39 Kinid ~,f soils for the purpose, waters best adapted, meadow watering,.. 40 Preparing the surface,.......... 41 Timile to operate,.......... 42 Soils for Grains, Grasses, Vegetables, Fruits, &c., —see each kind under its head. Sore teats in cows,............ 2S4 South-Downi shleep.............. 251 Sowing, -see each plant under its head. Spades and shovels,............ 5 Spanish fowls,................... 294 Spavin, boa and bone,.......... 273 Spice-bush,....................... 393 Spider fly........................ 515 Spiderwort,................338 Spinach,................120 Spire.,.................393 Splint in animals............. 284 Sprain of round-bone in animals,..... 253 Spring beetle,.............. 520 Sqpringl sto,c k of bees.......... 342 ;PRING AND WINTER APPLES. American Golden Russet,........ 175 Baldw,in,............... 172 Blue Pearmain........... 175 Burlin,gton,l Greening,........174 Danvers Winter Sweetingf, Detroit,. 175 Esopuls Spitze,iberg.........172 Fort IMIiami, Gloria I%Iundi,....... 175 Golden Pippin,.......... 174 Golden Reinette, Hollow Crown Pear mai n,......................175 Hubbardston Nonsuch........ 172 Jersey,...............174 Jonathan, King,....................175 Lady,.................... 174 Ladies' Sweeting, Leicester Sweeting, Little Pearnain, Minister, Never fail,................ 175 Newtown Pippin,..................173 Northerln Spy, Nortoni's Melon, Old Nonsuch,..................... 175 Pecker,.....................172 Peck's Pleasant, Prior's Red, Raule's Janette..........................175 Rhode Island Greening..............174 Rockrimmon,......................175 Roxbury Russet....................173 Steele's Red Winter................172 Swaar, Tewksbury Winter-Blush, Tolman Sweeting,, Vandevere, Waxen,......................175 Westfield Seek-no-further,...........172 Woodl's Greening,...................175 Springs, ascertaining the line of, &c.,.. 33 Spruce-tree,......................... 393 Spurring-ii,.............. 458, 470 Squash,..................... 121 Stable. Site, light and air,.................417 Stalls, racks, mangers,..............418 Stack-yard,.........................433 Staggers,.................... 272 Staling in horses,.....................2S4 Stalls,.................418 Steaming food( for animals................ 423 STEERS. See Cattle. Stem,-boring weevil,...........535 Sties for swine,........................ 425 Stifle lameness in horses,.............. 24 Stilton cheese,........................ 157 Stonteless barberry......................178 ' medlar................... 191 Stones, removing,.............10 Strangles in animals,.......... 2S4 St raw,................. 48 STRAWBERRY. Propagation, culture,....... 212 Soils, situation.....................213 Varieties,- Bishop's Orange,... 217 Black Imperial, Black Prince,...215 Boston Pine, British Queen,.........217 Cushing,..................... 216 Downton................. P. 217 Duke of Kent..............1l...214 Elton,..................1. 217 Hovey's Seedling,......... 215 Hudson's Bay............. 217 Large Early Scarle t,..............214 IIethven Scarlet, Mpyatt's Pine,... 217 Prolific Hautbois, Red Wood, Ross Phoenix, Swainstone's Seedling,..215 White Alpinie, White Wood,.... 217 Monthly Calendar of Operations,.. 221 Strawberry-tree,................. 38S Straw hive,..................... 328 Striped-fruited currant,......... 1S6 Sturdy in animals................. 2S5 572 INDEX. Subsoil. Relation between soil and, clayey,.. 3 Porou s, qualit y, depth,......... 2 C as d 4 Ploughing............19 Suckering corn................ 64 Stuff'olk A,imnals. Cattle,................ 243 SwVine C.................259 Horses,....................... 266 Sugar-maple tree,........................ 393 SUMMER APPLES. Amnericani Summer Pearmain, Benoni, Cole................... 16S Early Harvest,........... 165 Early Red iMIargaret, Early Straw berry, Juneating, Manomet Sweet ing................1........ 16, Red Astrachan,.......... 165 Red Quarrenden, Sapson, Spice Sw'eet, Summer Queen, Summer Rose, Tucker.............. 168 Witliam-is's Favorite,........... 167 Surfeit in animals,.............. 2S94 Sussex cattle,............. 243 Swarmning of Bees. Time, indications,........... 343 To prevent,............ 341 To secure a swarm that has settled, effects of swarmin,.......345 To avoid, in the case of collateral boxes,..............346 Swedish turnip,............ 122 Sweet-bay plant,.3........... 389 " pea,.3............. 357 marjoram,............ 127 " A B,iliiamn,................ 3S9 Swelled legs in animals,........ 284 SWINE. Breeding, rearing, treatment of dam and young,...........253 Castratinig, weaniing, treatment after wearing, food, disposition of the carcass,.............254 Anatomy,.............256 Varieties,- China,........256 Berkshire............. 257 S,ffb)lk, Woburn,. Siamese,..... 259 Diseases,............. 271 Insects injurious to,........ 512 Monthly Calendar of Operations,.. 285 Pig,geries, — site, plan of construc tion, &c.,............424 Svringla plant,............. 388 RTiger lily,............................3S6 TILLACE See each plant under its head, also Soils. Tillinghast's churn,..................139 Tomato,...............................121 Torsion in animals,...................223 Toulouse aoose,.............. 302 Trailing blackberry,.......... 179 TRAINING. Uses, principles,.................ry.. 461 SlIanusal operations................465 Traianism herbaceous andi shrubby plants in pots, traliingl hardy flowering shrubs in the open ground, training fruit-trees,....... 466 Differen t modes of trainieng bushes and trees il the open rouid aind fruit-trees against walls or esipzli ers, 4................. 1 468 Trai ning dwarfs in the open garideln, spiral cylinders,.......... 469 SpurrinFa-in,.............1. 470 Conical standards,......... 471 Fan training....................472 Horizontal training,............ 474 Perpendicular training, coinp-.rative view of the dillferent modes of train in,............... 475 Treafd in afnimals............. 277 TREES AND S;IIRUBS, ORNAMEN,AL. beExtirpa,ti.............. 7 S h r1 Cu(lture and varieties... —-......... 393 Mon),thly Calendar of Oieratiims...393 Grafting, budiin,g, jpru,ig,- tti, i g,. 442 I)iseases,................ a. 477 Insects injurious to,............... 526 Tulip,..................... 389 Tu~ir:Ky. Varieties,.................. 299 Keeping, qualities,...............300 Laying, sitting, hatching..........301 Treatment of the young, fattening, feeding,.................302 Diseases..................... 314 Turnip. Varieties and culture...............121 Swedish or ruta-baga,...............122 Enemies, uses,...................123 Fly..................... 521 Turnsick in sheep...............284 Twelve-spotted leaf beetle......... 520 Ulcers in animals,.................... " "fowls,............. 1 Uredo........ Urine f,r soils,........... Utensils, farming, —see each kind its head. Tansy,................... 130 Tapping or driving hives,............. 349 Tare,-description, soil, time of sowing, S6 Teats. sore,.............2 i 2S4 Tender annual flowers,...............371 Terrier dog,...................271 Thermometer churn..................136 Thick-windl in animals,......... 9.234 Thinning corn..................64 Thorotuh-pin in horses,........2.4 u i Threshing,.............. X e,, 53 Thrush in animals,...................277 Thyme,......................1 30 Ticks or lice,........... 2S4, 515 Vegetable manures,............ 31 Vegetables,............... 98 See Kitchen-garden,- also each kind under its head. Ventilation of bee-hives,......... 354 " " stables,................. 417 Vine,.................. 89 " diseases,:..........1477 573 U. 285 ::: 317 ... 4S7 ... 26 under T. V. INDEX. Vine, insects injurious to....... 526. 544 Viol et,.................. 39 Blue Pearmain,........... 175 Buirlingtoni, Greening........... 174 Danvers Wi,ter Sweetiing, Detroit,.. 175 Esuo)us Spitze,berr.......... 172 Fort Miani Gloria l\undi.............175 Golen Pippin,...............4 Ltl Pa. 1 i Golden Rein ette, Hollow Crown Pear i.ain,............... 175 Hubbardston Nonsuch,.....172 Jersey,.... 1.4 Jonathan, King,,....... 17 Lady,...............14 Ladies' Sweeting, Leicester Sweetiig, Little Pearinain, M'inister, Never fail...............175 Newtown Pippin............ 173 Northern Spy, Norton's Melon, Old Nonsuch,............ 175 Pecker,.............. 12 Peck's Pleasant, Prior's Red, Raule's Janette,................ 175 Rhode Island Greening,........174 Rockrimmon,.......... 175 Roxbury Rulsset,.......... 173 Steele's Red Winter......... 172 Swaar, Tewksbury Winter-blush, Tol man Sweeting, Vandlevere, Waxen,. 175 Westfield Seek-no-further,........ 17'2 Wood's Greening,..........175 Wire-worm,............. 50, 516 Woburn swine,.............259 Womb inflammation in animals,.....285 Wool-sheari ng,.............246 Working bee,.............319 Working cattle,............237 Wood leopard-moth,.?..2 9 Worms and grubs,..... 50 " in animals,........... 285 See Insects. Wounds of animals,...........28.5 Walls, stone......................... 437 Walnut,.........................221 Warbles in animals........ 283, 285, 513 Warts in animals,............ 2S5 Waslinls butter.............144 XWaste landls, clearing,........................ 7 Water cha,nels,............ 39 Waters best adapted for irrigating, water liW aieadows...................... 40 W1atering, 11ax,............. 82 Water-ini-the-head in sheep........ 279 Water-miielon,............. 1 91 Wax,-obtaining and preparing,..... 355 for budding,................... 452 Weanin 1g sheep.............246 "swi ne,................ a. 254 " horses,................. 260 Wed_,e graftinag,................. 449 'eek.s's bee-hive.................. 333 Wreevils, destructive, -see Insects. Westphalia hams............ 256 \Wetness in lands,............aiee. 32 VaHEAT. (,lassification,.............. 43 Best varieties for cultivation,..... 45 Soils, time for sowina, seed, culture,. 46 Qoantity of seed, after-culture, cutting and harvesting,.......... 48 Diseases and enemies,...... 49, 477 Insects injurious to,......... 515 \ thely g.reen,..............l.... 15() \v'hlite li ly,................ 386 W\rlk~le- silk butter,........... 142 cheese,......................149 \Vhortleb~erry,.................... 221 W ill cherry.............. 1S2 \\illonv-tree,.................... 393 l\i,d-brolken,..........................274 KVINTER AND qPRING APPLES. Amiiericani Golden Russet,...... 175 Baht1win............... 172 Yellow rose..................... 388 Yellow-tailed moth,............... 527 Yellows in animals................. 279 574 iv_ Y. DEFINITION OF W-ORDS, SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND PECULIAR, COMMONLY USED IN CONNECTION WITH AGRICULTURAL AND KINDRED SUBJECTO Abdom7en. - Lower part or lower belly of an animal. Abrasion. -\ Wearing or rubbirng. Acari. -Ticks; small articulated illsects. Acetuate.- A netutral salt. Achr-omatc. - Destitute of color. Acrid. —Sharp, pu,ngent. bitter. Aerate. —To comibine with carbonic acid or fi xed air. A.ftermathl. -A second crop of grass, in the sallie sea,,,,. Alburnu. —The softer part of wood, be tw'een the inner bark and tile wood; sap. A lktlZie.- Hat-i, the properties of alkali. AlterafIir-e. -A medicine which chanaes the h,tbit. and restores healthy functions. A liiatas.- Pert,aininig to alum or alumina. Anm,Zoslia. — A volatile alliati, existing- in its p1irest form in a state of gas. Amphibio,s. —Capable of liviig in air and wa~ter. Animnal,cta. — All animal the fiuire of which is discernible on,ly thiroug,h a magnili ag glass. Annular. -Hav -ing the fH,rm of a rilp. A pztesnc.-T im hores oir feselers of insects, projectin froml til head. A,,ter-ior.-Before. in time or place; prior. Antiseptic. -- Opposi[~g or counteracting pu trc fimtion. Aper ie,t. -Opening; laxative. Ape. -The tip, point or suu-mit, of any thlia,g. 4Ap/his. -A g en is of iCsects; vaie-fretter; plant-louse. Apteto,s.-A wingless insect. Arable.-Fit for plouhlii, or tiae. Ar7omatic. — F rag,rat; spicy; odk rifcr iaas. Ar-senious, - Containi_o' a rseniic. Artery.-A vessel or tube coive ying blood from the heart to all parts of the body. Astri- gent.- Binidiing strengtheliiiig; op posed to laxative. Atlas. -The first joint of the neck. Ariaioy. -Au enclosure for keeping birds confilled. Axil. -The space or angle formed by a branch or a leaf with the stem. Azotized.- Fromn azote, a gas fatal to animiyal life. Basal.-Pertainiin, to or constituting the base Bast. —Rope, or cord, made of the bark of the lime-tree or liniden. Battenz.-To fatten. A piece of board or scan,tling, a few inches widle. Bay. - An enclosed place, in a barn, for de positing hay. Bere. -The name of a species of Scotch barley. Bie,iaiil.- Once in two years; continuing two years. Bifurcation.- A forking, or division into two brauches. Bih o. -- A specie, of barley. Bl,,nched. - WhIitenled. Bot. -A t urn; a single part of an action . carriet o n at successive intervals. Brind/le. - Spotte dncss. Biityiraceous. Reseiililing butter. Carleots.- fPairtaiking of the nature of ]lime. Colc.ct. -- Redoced to a powder, by the act i on of heat. Cal.r. — The o. ter coveriTi of a flower. Ca,abuir,ei. —A, glutinou,s secretion, which, in sprinig, separates the aluurn of a plant fromn its ilbler bark. Capsule. — The seed-vesscl of a plant. Ca bor t. -- Pure crcl. Ca pbo,,aceous. -- Pertainicn a to charcoal. Cartila ge. — Gristle. Caseo,,s. -Resembling cheesq. Cau,stic. — Any subst ance whiich, applied to livinl,g anim,,als, tcts like fire. Cellublar.- Consisting of or containin, cells. Chaa. --- The upper and lower part of the jaw. Cheoirbes. -- An insect. Chicle. —The back-boone or spiine of an ani mal. Chro,,ic. -- Coiitii-uing, a long time. Chut,-w-ormn. — Ai, insect that turns about nimbly. Cplyle.-A whitish fluid separated from food by means of dige stionI. Cleat. —A piece of wood, used to fasten ropes upon. Coagulate. - To cutrdlle; to thicken; to cliange from a fluidl to a solid ii.ass. Cocoonl.-A ball or cocoon in wvhiclh the worm irnvolves itself. Collateral. -- Bein g by th e side; *ide by side; on the side; side to side. DEFINITION OF WORDS. Colter. -The fore iron of a plough, with a Fetus.- The young, in the womb or egg, sharp edge. that cuts the earth or sod. wlhen perfectly fornmed. Concave.-H [llov; ar che d, like the inner Fib ru.-Composed l -r consisting of fibres. surftce of a spherical body. FiWg ment.-A thing feigned or imag,ined. Conical. — RouJsd, and decreasing to a point. Filam ent. -A fible; a fine threadl, of which Conre.r.-Risin,~ or swelling on the interior flesh, n erves, skin, plants, roots, &c., are surliface ito a spherical or round form. composed. Cui~lmry. -- elatiii' uto the kitchen. Filiform. -Having the form of a thread or Culim.-The stalks or stems of corn or filament. g~~rasse~~s. i ~Filtiate. -To purify; to strain. C,r,d.- The thlickeneil part of milk, which Flaccid. -Soft and weak; limber. is firmled into cheese. Flank.- The fleshy part of a., animal's side, Crvi er.-Having a curve line. between the ribs and the hip. CUtneoZS. —Belongiing" to the skii. Flitch. -A ho's side sl ted and cured. Cuticle.-The tht'in, exterior coat of the Flocculent. -Adlherilng in locks or flakes. skirt. Floret.-A little fl{,wer. Dentata. - Pertaining to the teeth. Fome,t. -To bath e vith warm liquors. 1)eir-&q.Tbe flesh that phang!s from the Fr uctification. Reuderim productive of tlroat of oxen, which laps or licks the fruit. dev. in grazii g. Fulcrurm.- A prop or support. Diago,al.- Being in an angular direction. Fu,gs. —A mushroom; a spongy excres Diamete. - A righit line passing throu,gh the cence. centre of an object, from one side to the Gastric. -Beloniging to the belly or stomach. other. Getmnem.- The ovary or seed-bud of a plant. Diuretic.- Tendinu to produce discharge of Gestation.- Carryiini young in the womb, urine. fron conception to delivery. Drench. -A draught; a portion of medicine Girt.-A bandagre or strap. to ptorL.e a beast. Globular.-Pound; spherical. Edible. - Fit to be eaten as food. Globule.-A small particle of matter, of a Electricity.-A very thiu fluid diffused spherical form. through m-ost bodies, rapid in its motion, Glume. -The outter covering of corn and and perfl. grasses; the husk or chafe Ellititical.-Oval. Gluten.-A tough, elastic, gray substance. Elos"gttio. - Thie state of being extended. found in the lour f grain. Elytra. -The sheaths of an insect; a case Gramineous.- Pertainiig to grass. covering, the wings. Granulation. - The act of forming into Embrocatio,z. -The liquid with which an grains. afiected part is wvashed. Gypsum.- Plaster-stone. Embryo. -A,ything in its first rudiments, Hackle.-Raw silk; any flimsy substance or unlfilished state. unspun. Epidermi.- A thin membrane, covering the IHaulm. - Straw; the stem or stalk of grain, skin of asimsnals or the bark of trees. &c. Erosion. - Eaten away; corrosion; canker. Headland. -A ridge or strip of unploughed Easopha,-us.- Th e gu llet; the canal through land at the ends offurrows, or near a fence. which ifood anl( drink pass to the stomach. Heathery. -A place overgrown with shrub Espalier.-A row of trees planted about a bery of any kind. garden or in hedces. IHemispherical.- Containing half a sphere or Extrat cas atcl.- Forced or let out of its prop- globe. er vessel.. Ilexagonal.- Having six sides and six anEx,dee.-IDischarge of moisture, juice, or gles. liq1uid, fromY bodies and plants. soar-frost. -White particles of ice formed Falu l. — Plougsi and harrowing landI by the congelation of deiv or watery va without soing it. pIors. Farinoa. —Fie dulst or powder contained in Hock. -Joint of an animal between the knee th e anthers of plants. and the fetlock; a part oftlie thigh. Farizaceous. — Iealy; pertaining to meal. Ioln. -- Low, flat, rich land, on the banks Febrile. -Pertainin to fver. of a river. Fecal.-Contai,in, or coni sisting of dregs, Hopper. -A wooden trough through which sedimnenit or excreimenlt. - rain passes into a mill; a vessel ii Fecula. -The,een - matter of plants; starch whiclh seed-corn is carried forsowing. or farin. Horizontal.- Parallel to the horizon; on a Feciudaliotso.- The act of making fruitful or level. prolific; impregnation Ilybrid.-l3ongrel; an, animal or plait proFerr,zentatio,. -Int ernal mrrotionr of the par- duLced from the mixture of two species. ticles of a ninal and vegetable substances, Ilydatid. -A little tralnsparent bladder filled occasioned hy heat or nmoisture, and caus- with water, on any part of the body. ing an extrication of as and heat. Hydraulic. t-Relating to the conveyance of Ferruginois. — Partking of iron. water throLugh pipes. Fetlock. -A tuft of tair growing behind the IHydrogen. -A gas coustituting one of the pasteri joift of imay horses. elements of water. 576 DEFINITION OF WORDS. I'nspervious.- Not penetrable by light, nor permeable to fluids. Incisive.-Having the quality of cutting or separating; incisive teeth, in animals, are the fore teeth. Injection. -Throwing in; liquid medicine thrown into the body by means of a syringe or pipe. Innoxious. -Free from mischievous quali ties. Integumnent.- That which naturally invqsts or covers another thing. Internode. - The space between two joints of a plant. Interstice. -The space between things. Iridescent.- Having colors like the rainbow. Jugular. - Pertaining to the throat or the neck. Labial. -Pertaining to the lips. Lachrymal. - Generating or secreting tears. Larva. -An insect in the caterpillar state. Larynx.- The upper part of the windpipe; a cartilaginous cavity. Latent. - Concealed. Lateral. -Proceeding from the side. Lea.- A meadow or plain. Lever. - A bar of any substance turning on a support called the fulcrum or prop. Ligament.- Anything that ties or unites one thing or part to another; a strong sub stance, serving to bind one bone with another. Ligneous. -Consisting of wood. Line.-The twelfth part of an inch. Linear. -Consisting of lines; slender; in a straight direction. Lithe.-That may be easily bent; pliable; limber. Lobby.-A small hall or waiting-room. Longitudinal. -Running lengthwise. Lotion.-A liquid preparation for washing the body. Lupulin.-The fine yellow powder of hops. Mal-odorous. - Having an offensive odor. Marl.- A species of limy earth. Matrice.- The womb; the place where any thing is formed or produced. Mattock.- A tool to grub up weeds. Maw. -The stomach of beasts; the crop of fowls. Membrane. - A thin, white, flexible skin. Metacarpal. - Part of the hand between the wrist and the fingers. livetamorphose. -To change into a different form; to transform. Miasmata.-Pertaining to putrefactive efflu via. Midge.-A small insect; a gnat or flea. Ilfilch. - Giving milk. Molting. -Shedding a natural covering, as hair, feathers, skin or horns. Mtongrel. -Of a mixed breed. MIucilage. - One of the elements of vegetable; the liquor which moistens the joints of animal bodies. ,Ifucous. -Slimy; glutinous. M2ulch. -Half-rotten straw. MAlslion. -A division in a window-frame; a bar. NasaJ.-Pertaining to the nose. 49 Navicular. - Shaped like a boat. Nitrogen. -An element of air called azote, fatal to animal life. Nocturnal.- Pertaining to the night. Normal. -Perpendicular; relating to rudi ments or first principles. Noxious..-Hurtful; harmful. Oblique. -Not direct; slanting. Oblong. - Longer than broad. Obovate. -Having the narrow end downward. Obtuse. -Blunt; not pointed or acute. Occipital.- Pertaining to the back part of the head. Offset. -A shoot; a sprout from the roots of a plant. Organic bodies. - Bodies with organs on the action of which depend their grow th and perfection. Osier. - Wi llow twig. Oval.- Of t he shape or figure of an egg. Ovary.a-The part where eggs are formed, or in wh ich t he f etu s is s uppos ed to be formed. Ovate. - Egg-shaped. Ovule. -A body destined to be come a seed. Ovum. - Egg-s hap ed. Oxygen. -That part of air wh ich may be breate i i thed vital air, or the basis of it. Pad. —A road; an easy-paced horse; a soft s addle; to beat a w ay smooth and level. Paddock. - A small enclosure for animals. Palmated. - Having the shape of a hand; webbed. Palpi. -Feelers. Pnarnt.-Pertaining to bread. Panice. -A species of flowering; unfolding of blossoms. Parallelogram. -A figure whose opposite sides are equally distant throughout. Parasitic.-Growing on the stem or branch of another plant. Parictal. - Bones forming the sides and upper part of the skull. Parterre. —Level ground laid out and fur nished with evergreens and flowers. Pastern. -Part of a horse's leg between the joint next the foot and the coronet of the hoof. Peccant. -Morbid; bad; not healthy. Pedicel.- The final division of a common stem or stalk. Pellet. — A little ball. Pellicle.-A thin skin or film. Pelt. - A beast's skin, with hair on it; a raw hide. Pelvis. —The cavity of the body forming the lower part of the abdomen. Perch. - A pole; a roost for fowls. Perennial. —Lasting through the year; a plant which lives more than two years. Perforate.-To bore through; to make a hole or holes through anything. Permeable. —That may be passed through without displacement of its parts. Perspective -View in the distance. Pervious. - That may be penetrated by anoth er body or substance. Petal. -A flower-leaf. Petiole. -A leaf-stalk; the foot-stalk of a leaf. 577 co' ~ _ -. Oq -.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~E 0 I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3 0 ti t'i li Z5 DEFLNITION OF WORDS. tendinig a sloping roof beyond the main buil(]inig. Vertebra. -A joint of the spine or back-bone of an animal. Vertical. -Placed or being in the zenith, or perpendicularly over the head. Vestibule. -The porch or entrance into a house; an anite-roonll. Iriscid. -Glutinous; st icky. Wattle.-The fleshy bunch under the throat of a cock or turkey. Wear. -A dam in a river to stop and raise the water. Whey.-The watery part of milk separated from the thick part, in making cheese. Windlass. -A machine for raising great weights; a hansdle by which anything is turned. Witheis. -The junction of thie shoulder-bones of a horse, at the bottom of the neck. Yolk. -The oily secretion from the skin of sheep, which renders the pile soft and pliable. Zig-zag.- Having short turns. Tonic. —A medicine that gives vigor and action to the system. Transpiration. - Passing off through the pores of the skin. Transcerse. - Lyin,g or being across, or in a cross direction; to overturn. T'rench. -To cut or dig a ditch or channel; to fortify, by cutting a ditch and raising a rampart; to furrow, by ploughing. Trepan?ning. - Opening the sk. tll, to relieve the brain. Trocar. - An instrument for tapping in case of driopsy. Tubercle.-A small swelling, tumor, knob, or rough point. Tu berous.- Rotndish, fleshy vegetalble bod ies, connected into a bunch by interven ina threads. Tunicateda. —Covered with a tunic or mem bra'es; coated. as a stem. Uterus. -The woimib. i'ell.- A skinl; a reninet-bag. l'esttr(l. - Belonrging to the belly. 'eras.hah.- A., open portico. formed by ex 579 I